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Theoretical Analysis of the Relationship between Required Reserved Ratio and Inflation: Differential Equations Approach Asma Beitollahi¹, Nourollah Salehi Asfijii², Mehdi Nejati² Masters’ Student, Faculty of Management and Economics, Shahid Bahonar University of Kerman, Kerman, Iran, ²Assistant Professor, Faculty of Management and Economics, Shahid Bahonar University of Kerman, Kerman, IranFaculty OF Management and Economics, Shahid Bahonar University of Kerman, Kerman, Iran Abstract The present research analyzes the inflation-unemployment equations as well as the effects of required reserve ratio on money growth and inflation. Such that, initially the relationship between each of the variables is determined and then according to a new equation, the effect of the equation on inflation-unemployment equations is applied by solving differential equation. The results show that there is a negative relation between the required reserve ratio for banks with inflation rate and money growth and the type of inflation and its path is seen by replacing these relations in the equations of inflation-unemployment and the last result of this issue is that the banking based on the principle of the fractional reserve leads to severe fluctuations in inflation, which may be irreparable. Key words: Required reserve ratio, Inflation rate, Differential equations INTRODUCTION The history of civilization is the history of money. What can be seen in human history, is that money has had a unique role in economic developments process and caused many problems, too (Alexander Dumas). Money is a social event that influences the economic activities of people. Today, dominant monetary system has major flows and its immoral in many ways. Today, science within the theories framework even capitalism system has confessed to the inessiciency and instability of the monetary system and in different ways, many miserable events such as inflation, unemployment, unequal distribution of income and wealth, environmental degradation and etc. Have been made by the ruling monetary system. In a word, enormous scientific achievements in this regard should be presented and it should be indicated that the most common human misery is due to ignorance towards economic activities which today, the main cause is a common conception about money and common banking. Development of a so-called valid organization and being borrowed the community and paying usury in the form of beautiful words such as interest, profit, lending rate and all have made irreparable damages. In this paper, each of new mathematical relations is presented and analyzed by using the relations between required reserve ratio, discount rate, saving rate and primary deposit and national income and etc. and by having some information from inflation-unemployment equations or Philips curve based on phillips-freidman issue. Research Literature When the crisis occurred in 1930s, many economists believed that crisis causes in monetary-credit system were weak and unreliable and it was because of banking system performance based on fractional reserve principle. To exit crisis, they recommended that the financial system should be reformed and community should be financially safe. The founders of this domain were Frank Night(1927 and 1933), Henry Simmons(1948), Jakob Winer(1936), and Lioi Mintz(1945). Then these people were known as founders of Chicago school and their plan was called “Chicago plan” to reform financial system in the United States. James Toobin (1989 and 1987), Litan (1987), Spang (1989) and Berenham defended “limit banking” to improve the security of payment system and remove the costs related to current system of central deposit reserve. Allais amendment (1984) requires that bank deposit should be 100%, according to the basic money deposits and it also should be prohibited for lending. Lending institutions based on some principles are managed which the borrowing and lending period of banks are like each other. Today, while banks borrow for short-time and give loan for long-time and, Allias requires that banks should borrow for long-term and lend for short-term. Toobin (1985) and Ele (1984) presented that the fractional reserve banking development is largely a historical event which for creating an intermediate in the proper circulation has been out of public will. In fact, profit motivation for bankers and government need to finance have led to appearance of current banks. Soodi (1933) represents this idea in his book that a bank generates poverty and spread it out. He puts banking against technology production and concludes that the technology makes happiness and welfare, but banking structure prevents their expansion. In his theory, there is a difference between real wealth made by raw material and virtual wealth made by bank’s promises on real wealth. To solve this financial problem, he recommended that the required reserve ratio should be 100 percent. Night emphasizes that soodi’s words in terms of economic theory is absolutely right. When money is increased by a public institution and with no charge, money is increased by commercial bank system and it is terrifying through interest payment. Night is fully agree with soodi concerning this issue that the fractional reserve banking system increases the level of prices and creates a potentially unstable situation. Problem Statement Inflation is a continuous as well as epidemic rise process in the price if it is related to the majority of goods when it is not dramatic and temporary but continuing. According to law, the banks are responsible for keeping a small percent of the people’s deposit as the required reserve in the central bank and they do their banking affairs and expand the volume of money with the rest of the deposits. The higher required reserve rate, the less expanding the volume of money hence the less rate leads to the more money creation by the banks. Therefore, the central bank is able to change the required reserve by changing the increasing monetary ratio hence the volume of money. In general, the standard banking system works based on the principle offractional reserve. In this system, in each money creation process, a percent of the given deposit to the bank is used to make the next loan. According to the economy theory, the higher proportion of this leads to the more limited possibility of money supply. If the bank is authorized to create money, the optimum amount of money will be undetermined. Since the optimum money amount is occurred when the existing liquidity ratio in the society can be collected as necessary. Therefore, the required reserve ratio should be one hundred percent meaning the bank should not give a loan. In a situation that a bank is existed, adjusting money supply cannot be done and hence the monetary police content losses its validity very much. In a case of a bank existence, the aforementioned money will be returned to the loaner (bank) before it is effective and provides services or goods and it is the base of another loan. In economy, the higher number of exchanges, the higher fund transference among the accounts so the bank is more authorized to create more money hence inflation will potentially be higher. The effect of using this tools is immediately shown in the all country banks. It should be noted that its effect is valid when the banks have no extra savings since if the value rate rises, the banks compensate the increased required reserve through their extra savings. In its falling, there was no significant expansion in the volume of money although the extra savings exist. What can be stated is that on the first step of the money given to a bank branch as a deposit, some loan and the new deposits are created. Then, the other deposits are not increased but the loan repay rate is rose. The required reserve proportion to the loan is getting decreased by increasing the loan rate and remaining the deposits constant (or at least, a sharper increase in giving loan proportional to creating deposits) but the required reserve proportion to the deposit rates is not changed. When a new price is introduced to a bank as a deposit (producing paper currency), this reproduced paper currency leads to create more deposits hence more loans till the deposit creation processes stop while making loan processes continue. According to this case, new deposits are not created any more but the new loans are paid; so it results in the following problems: - Making loan through repaying the previous loans. - Making loan through financial provision of the exchanges. The bank loan makes the demands increase significantly and causes the exchange rate increase hence rises the unreal national income level. This issue is not necessarily meant the real national income increase in providing goods and services. The main reason for the unreal income increase lies in increasing number of exchanges based on time unit because of demand increase (for the financial provision through loan). Banking system based on the main minimum saving mechanism influences the increasing national income ratio. First of all, the factors used this model are introduced: r: Required reserve rate s: Saving rate D: Primary deposit Y: National income C: National consumption If a primary deposit, D is kept in the bank, the bank at first deducts rD from then it gives loan from the rest, (1-r)D. In economy, this loan increases the expenses proportionally. As this rate, the national income is increased too. The people after s(1-r)D deduction from, as a saving, spend the rest (1-s)(1-r)D. To simplify the problem, (1-r)D is shown by A. The deposited price sA creates a new deposit accordingly so that the bank can give loan from the rest, (1-r)sA after deducting r percent from this loan increases the expenses proportionally. This point should be considered that the expense increases, on the second step, result from two factors: • The first factor: increasing income because of spending the first loan (1-s)A. • The second factor: increasing income because of spending the second loan (resulted from saving) (1-r)sA. Therefore, the all changed expenses because of giving loan from the savings are as follows: 1) \[(1-s)\Lambda+(1-r)s=\Lambda(1-s-s\cdot rs)=\Lambda(1-rs)\] If this process is continued, the third increase in expenses is occurred, as follows: 2) $=(1-s)s(1-r)s\Lambda+(1-r)s(1-s)\Lambda+(1-s)(1-r)s\Lambda+(1-s)(1-s)\Lambda$ 3) $=s^2+(1-s)(1-r)s+(1-s)(1-r)s(1-s^2=((1-r)s)^2)\Lambda$ 4) $=((1-r)^2s^2+2(1-s)(1-r)s+(1-s)^2)\Lambda$ 5) $=((s^2-2rs^2+r^2s^2)+2s(1-r-s+rs)+(1-2s+s^2))\Lambda$ 6) $=(s^2-2rs^2+r^2s^2+2s-2rs-2s^2+2rs^2+1-2s+s^2)\Lambda$ 7) $=(1-2rs+r^2s^2)\Lambda$ 8) $=(1-rs)^2\Lambda$ Hence, we can express the increasing sequences of spending to the third one in this way: The first sequence: $\Lambda$ The second sequence: $(1-rs)\Lambda$ The third sequence: $(1-rs)^2\Lambda$ The forth sequence: $(1-rs)^3\Lambda$ The nth sequence: $(1-rs)^{n-1}\Lambda$ If n tends to $\infty$, $(1-rs)$ fraction tends to zero. Our aim is obtaining the whole national income change because of the primary deposit. So, we should sum up all the above sequences: 9) $Y=\Lambda+\Lambda(1-rs)+\Lambda(1-rs)^2+\Lambda(1-rs)^3+$. 10) $Y=\Lambda[1+(1-rs)+(1-rs)^2+(1-rs)^3+.\] The expression inside the bracket is an indefinite series which sum can be expressed by the geometric progression, as follows: 11) \(Y=\Lambda[1/rs]$ Since rs is smaller than 1 (rs<1), the inverse value will be greater than 1 (>1). This ratio is the balanced increasing ratio of the national income. Necessity of Doing this Research Since inflation is a long-term economic sickness and causes unupitimum designation of resources, declining the purchase power, economic inefficiency and production decrease also it brings about political, cultural and social conditions, many politicians and the economical agents pay attention to this issue. By emerging some intense inflation pressures, the price control is considered as the main aim of the economical policies by the economists. Illuminating some influence factors making these policies more efficient can pave the way to achieve the economical goals such as inflation control, monetary policy increase by the central bank, etc. The Basic Objectives of Research In this study, we examine how the required reserve ratio influences money growth in a new approach and its effect on unemployment-inflation trend in a space of mathematical economics and by using certain differential equations that is very important in the real business cycle of school. Data Analysis Data analysis is based on solving differential equations or it is differential. Research Methodology The method of this research is a theoretical analysis. Therefore, a standard solution has been studied by some mathematicians such as chiang, pemberton, Rao and Todorava. The main relation of Philips shows that there are a negative relation between inflation rate and unemployment level and a positive relation with the expected inflation rate, so that: 12) $ \dot{P} = \alpha - \beta U + h \lambda $ \[ \alpha, \beta > 0, \quad 0 < h < 1 \] $ \dot{P} = \frac{\dot{P}}{p} $ is the growth rate of the price level or the inflation rate, $ u $ is unemployment rate and $ \pi $ is the expected inflation rate. When people and companies expect greater inflation, this expectation stimulates the inflation. Actually, when people expect the prices increase, they decide to buy more, right now, as people expect reduction (as an appropriate government policy), in fact, this brings a real inflation. This version from phillips relation is called a completed expectation accounted the inflation rate. Adaptive expectations hypothesis displays how inflation expectations are formed. The following equation: 13) $ d\pi/dt = j(\dot{P} - \pi) $ \[ 0 < j < 1 \] Represents when the real inflation rate is greater than expectation, this raises people’s expectations $ d\pi/dt > 0 $, conversely, while the real inflation is less than (smaller) expectation, people believe that the inflation rate comes down and therefore, it reduces. If anticipation and real inflation are equal, people don’t make any change in the expected inflation level. There is also a reverse effect from inflation to unemployment. When inflation increases for a long time, people might not want to save money, therefore, capital accumulation is reduced and unemployment is increased. We can write: 14) $ dU/dt = -k(\dot{m} - \dot{P}) $ \[ k > 0 \] Or wherever $ \dot{m} $ is the rate of nominal money growth, unemployment rises according to real money. $ (\dot{m} - \dot{P}) $ term, shows the rate of real money growth or it presents the difference between the rate of nominal money growth and the inflation rate. 15) $ \dot{m} = \dot{P} - kU $ 16) $ \dot{m} - \dot{P} = m' / m - p' / p = r $ Which the real money is a nominal money divided by the average level of prices in economy. We know that the required reverse rate increases in banks, the number of transactions decrease and the circulation of money is less. Therefore, national income and inflation are reduced, too and there is a clear inverse relation between the required reverse ratio with money growth and inflation. Therefore the equation is: 17) $ dR_d/dt = -L(\dot{m} + \dot{P}) $ \[ 0 < L < 1 \] 18) $ \dot{m} = \dot{P} + \Theta R_d $ According to aforementioned relations, unemployment-inflation relation is changed by the following equation: 19) $ \dot{P} = \alpha - \beta U + h \pi - \Theta R_d $ Now, by replacing (19) in (20) we have: 20) $ d\pi/dt = j(\alpha - \beta U - \Theta R_d) + j(h-1) $ According to time(t) with dedifferentiation, we have: 21) $ d^2\pi/dt^2 = -j\beta \ du/dt - j\Theta \ dR_d/dt + j(h-1)d\pi/dt $ 22) $ d^2\pi/dt^2 = j\beta k(\dot{m} - \dot{P}) + j\Theta L(\dot{m} + \dot{P}) + j(h-1)d\pi/dt $ Which based on equation (13), we have: 23) $ \dot{P} = 1/j \ d\pi/dt + \pi $ And by replacing (23) in (22), we get a quadratic equation for $ \pi $: 24) $ d^2\pi/dt^2 - [-\beta k + \Theta L + j(h-1)]d\pi/dt - [j\Theta L - j\beta k] \pi = j\beta km + j\Theta Lm $ Which according to formulas, the following equation is computed: 25) $ Y'' - \alpha_1 Y' - \alpha_2 Y = \beta $ 26) $ \lambda^2 - \alpha_1 \lambda - \alpha_2 = 0 $ 27) $ \lambda_1, \lambda_2 = \frac{\alpha_1 \pm \sqrt{\alpha_1^2 - 4\alpha_2}}{2} $ We calculate the amount of radical that is shortly: 28) $ x_1^2 + 4x_2 = \beta^2k^2 + \Theta^2L^2 + j^2h^2 + j^2 + 2\beta k(-\Theta L - jh - j) + 2j(-jh + \Theta L h + \Theta L) $ Model analysis: Now, by representing assumptions, each of the statements are described: The first statement: \[ \begin{cases} l = j = 1 \\ k = 0 \end{cases} \] 29) $ \alpha_1^2 + 4\alpha_2 = (\Theta + h)^2 + 1 - 2h + 2\Theta > 0 $ Therefore, the equation has real and distinct roots: 30) $ \lambda_1, \lambda_2 = \frac{(\theta + b - 1) \pm \sqrt{(\theta + b - 1)^2 + 4\theta}}{2} $ If $ x = (\Theta + h - 1) $, the general answer is: 31) $ c_1 e^{\frac{x+\sqrt{x^2+4\theta}}{2}} t + c_2 e^{\frac{x-\sqrt{x^2+4\theta}}{2}} t $ And the specific answer is: 32) $ \alpha_{2 \neq 0}, Y_p = k, Y'_p = Y''_p = 0 $ \[ Y_p = \frac{-\beta}{\alpha_2} = \frac{-\theta \dot{m}}{\theta} = -\dot{m} \] According to aforementioned equations, we conclude that when $ p = 1/1 + r $ is 1, it means that the interest rate should be very low and therefore, money creation is zero and inflation is reduced and finally according to money growth, the prices level is decreased. This statement is adaptable with the intended assumptions. The second statement: \[ \begin{cases} k = l = 1 \\ j = 0 \end{cases} \] 33) $ \alpha_1^2 + 4\alpha_2 = (\beta - \Theta) > 0 $ Therefore, the equation has real and distinct roots. $ \lambda_1, \lambda_2 = 0, \Theta - \beta $ the specific answers are: 34) $ Y = c_1 e^{(r)} + c_2 e^{(0-\beta)t} $ Which the first part of the relation is a constant number and it means that the inflation path is constant and the second part depends on this issue that if $ \Theta - \beta $ is greater than zero, inflation is strictly increasing and if it is less than zero, inflation is strictly decreasing. And the specific answers are: 35) $ \alpha_{2 \neq 0}, Y_p = k, Y'_p = Y''_p = 0 $ \[ Y'_p = \frac{-\beta}{\alpha_2} = 0 \] Since we assumed the inflation rate coefficient is zero, the results gained from solving equations are adaptable and the inflation path is constant. The third statement: 36) $ \begin{cases} j = k = 1 \\ l = 0 \end{cases} $ $ \alpha_1^2 + 4\alpha_2 = (\beta + h - 1)^2 + 4\beta h > 0 $ Therefore, the equation has real and distinct roots. 37) $ \lambda_1, \lambda_2 = \frac{(-\beta + b - 1) \pm \sqrt{(-\beta + b - 1)^2 - 4\theta}}{2} $ The general answers are as follows: 38) $ Y = c_1 e^{\frac{x+\sqrt{x^2+4\beta}}{2}} t + c_2 e^{\frac{x-\sqrt{x^2+4\beta}}{2}} t $ And the specific answers will be: 39) $ \alpha_{2 \neq 0}, Y_p = k, Y'_p = Y''_p = 0 $ \[ Y_p = \frac{-\beta}{\alpha_2} = \frac{-\beta \dot{m}}{-\beta} = +\dot{m} \] The present statement is completely against the first statement. It means that the discount rate is zero, when $ p = 1/1 + r $ and it means that the interest rate should be very high and therefore, very high interest rate leads to very high inflation in economy. It means that, in economy according to our equations, the inflation increases exactly equal to the money growth rate and whatever the volume of money is raised, the prices level is increased, too. In fact, this kind of inflation is because of being high the bank profits. This statement is adaptable with assumed assumptions. The forth statement: 40) $ \begin{cases} j = l = 1 \\ k = 1 \end{cases} $ Therefore, the equation has the real and distinct roots. \[ \lambda_1, \lambda_2 = 0, -\beta \] the general answers will be: 41) $ Y = c_1 e^{u} + c_2 e^{\beta} $ Which the first part of it is a constant number and it means that the inflation path is constant and the second part shows that the exponential function is strictly decreasing. The specific answer is: 42) $ \alpha_{2 \neq 0}, Y_p = k, Y'_p = Y''_p = 0 $ Since we assumed the inflation rate coefficient is zero, the results gained from solving equations are adaptable and the inflation path is constant. The fifth statement: 43) $ \begin{cases} k = j = 0 \\ l = 1 \end{cases} $ \[ \alpha_1^2 + 4\alpha_2 = \Theta^2 > 0 \] Therefore, the equation has the real and distinct roots. \[ \lambda_1, \lambda_2 = 0, \Theta \] the general answers will be as following: 44) $ Y = c_1 e^{u} + c_2 e^{\theta t} $ Which the first part of the relation is a constant number and it means that the inflation path is constant and the second part is an exponential function which is strictly increasing. And the specific answer is the following relation: 45) $ \alpha_{2 \neq 0}, Y_p = k, Y'_p = Y''_p = 0 $ \[ Y_p = \frac{-\beta}{\alpha_2} = \frac{0}{0} = 0 \] Since we assumed the inflation rate coefficient is zero, the results gained from solving equations are adaptable with assumptions and the inflation path is constant. The sixth statement: 46) $ \begin{cases} l = k = 0 \\ j = 1 \end{cases} $ \[ \alpha_1^2 + 4\alpha_2 = (h-1)^2 > 0 \] Therefore, the equation has the real and distinct roots. \[ \lambda_1, \lambda_2 = 0, (h-1) \] the general answers will be as following: 47) $ Y = c_1 e^{u} + c_2 e^{(h-1)t} $ Which the first part of the relation is a constant number and it means that the inflation path is constant and the second part is an exponential function which is strictly increasing which its scope and range start from +1. The specific answers will be as following: 48) $ \alpha_{2 \neq 0}, Y_p = k, Y'_p = Y''_p = 0 $ \[ Y_p = \frac{-\beta}{\alpha_2} = \frac{0}{0} = 0 \] Since we assumed the growth rate coefficient of money volume is zero, the results gained from solving equations are adaptable with the assumptions and the inflation path is constant. CONCLUSION In this research, firstly in a mathematical economy space and according to differential equations, the role of banking system based on the required reserve ratio in credit creation was discussed. In general, inflation assumed in this model originates from two regions: Inflation caused by interest rate and inflation caused by money creation. According to each of the statements, the specific statements were assumed. So that, if inflation caused by money creation wiped out, we would have inflation caused by interest rate. Therefore, this kind of banking system based on the fractional reserve principle has made a basic inconstancy and also made the contraction and expansion of the national money. So that, the bank system through money creation can easily take a significant part of national creation. How to cite this article: Beitollahi A, Asfijii NS. Theoretical Analysis of the Relationship between Required Reserved Ratio and Inflation: Differential Equations Approach. Int J Sci Stud 2017;5(3):320-325. Source of Support: Nil, Conflict of Interest: None declared.
Singlet molecular oxygen quantum yield measurements of some porphyrins and metalloporphyrins R VENKATESAN\textsuperscript{1}, N PERIASAMY\textsuperscript{2} and T S SRIVASTAVA\textsuperscript{1} \textsuperscript{1}Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology, Powai, Bombay 400 076, India \textsuperscript{2}Chemical Physics Group, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Bombay 400 005, India Abstract. Hematoporphyrin IX dimethyl ester (HPDME), tetraphenylporphyrin (TPP), tetra(4-methoxyphenyl)porphyrin (TMP), tetra(3,4-dimethoxyphenyl)porphyrin (TDMPP), tetra(3,4,5-trimethoxyphenyl)porphyrin (TTMPP), tetraanthrylporphyrin (TAP) and tetraacridylporphyrin (TACP), and their Zn\textsuperscript{2+}, SnX\textsubscript{2}\textsuperscript{2+}, Pd\textsuperscript{2+} and Pt\textsuperscript{2+} complexes have been prepared and characterized. The singlet molecular oxygen quantum yield ($\phi_\Delta$) values of the above porphyrins and their metal derivatives in N,N-dimethyl formamide (DMF) have been measured in the presence of 1,3-diphenyliosbenzofuran (DPBF) as $^1$O$_2$ acceptor using steady state technique after correcting for the intensity of light absorbed by the photosensitizers. The $\phi_\Delta$ values for the free base porphyrins are usually around 0-60. Hematoporphyrin IX dimethyl ester and its metal derivatives follow the order: HPDME ($\phi_\Delta = 0.60$) > Zn HPDME (0.40) > PdHPDME (0.34) > Sn(OH)$_2$HPDME (0.28) ≥ PtHPDME (0.24). Zinc(II) complexes of tetraarylporphyrins show about 65% efficiency in $\phi_\Delta$ values are compared to the $\phi_\Delta$ values of their corresponding free base porphyrins. These results can be explained on the basis of catalyzed intersystem crossing to the ground state. The $\phi_A$ values of the above free base porphyrins and their metal complexes in DMF in presence of DPBF using single-pulsed laser excitation technique follow similar trends. Keywords. Porphyrin; metal porphyrin; photosensitizer; singlet molecular oxygen; photooxidation; quantum yield. 1. Introduction Porphyrins and metalloporphyrins act as photosensitizers in various processes such as natural and artificial photosynthesis (Fong 1982; Norris and Meiser 1989), detection of human cancer and its treatment in presence of molecular oxygen and light-photodynamic therapy (Van de Bergh 1986; Dougherty 1987). They are also useful as photosensitizers in selective photooxidation in fine chemical industry (Cotton and Wilkinson 1988). In this article we will discuss the quantum yields of singlet molecular oxygen (O$_2$) production, photosensitized by some porphyrins and metalloporphyrins. 2. Experimental Tetraarylporphyrins were prepared by refluxing pyrrole with an appropriate benzaldehyde derivative in propionic acid for half an hour (Adler \textit{et al} 1967). They * For correspondence were purified on a silica gel column using a 1:1 mixture of benzene and petroleum ether or chloroform as an eluant. Hematoporphyrin IX was purchased from Sigma, USA, and it was esterified by diazomethane method (Fuhrhop and Smith 1975). This compound was purified on an alumina (grade III) column using 0-15% ethanol in chloroform as an eluant. Zinc, tin, palladium and platinum hematoporphyrin dimethyl ester were prepared by refluxing an appropriate metal salt with hematoporphyrin IX dimethyl ester (HPDME) in N,N-dimethylformamide or glacial acetic acid in presence of sodium acetate (Buchler 1975). These complexes were purified on an alumina (grade III) column using chloroform as eluant. SnTPP(X$_2$) (where TPP is free base tetraphenylporphyrin and X is OH, Cl, Br, I, N$_3$, NCS or OC$_6$H$_5$) were prepared by refluxing SnCl$_2$·2H$_2$O and TPP in glacial acetic acid in presence of sodium acetate and of excess of HO$^-$, Cl$^-$, Br$^-$, I$^-$, N$_3^-$, NCS$^-$ or OC$_6$H$_5^-$ for 6 h (Gouterman et al 1973). The absorption and emission spectra of the above compounds were measured on a Shimadzu UV-265 recording spectrophotometer and Spex spectrofluorimeter, respectively. The triplet state lifetime and decay kinetics were performed by exciting the sample at 532 nm using 15–30 ns pulsed laser of Nd: YAG laser and using probe light from 200 W xenon arc lamp. The experimental details of this technique are given elsewhere (Periasamy 1984; Srivatsavoy 1990). The quantum yield measurements for photooxidation of 1,3-diphenyisobenzofuran (DPBF) using free base porphyrins and their metal derivatives were carried out using steady state and single-pulsed laser techniques (Bellus 1978; Foote 1979; Periasamy 1984; Srivatsavoy and Periasamy 1991). In the steady state method, DMF solutions of photosensitizer (1 or 2 × 10$^{-6}$ M) and DPBF (0.5 or 1 × 10$^{-4}$ M), in 10 mm path-length quartz cuvettes in presence of molecular oxygen, were irradiated between 500 and 550 nm by a 150 W xenon lamp using a monochromator with 10 or 15 nm band-pass (Applied Photophysics) at different irradiation times. The depletion of DPBF was monitored at 410 or 415 nm using difference absorption spectroscopy. Absorption intensity was measured by a chemical actinometer of Reinecke’s salt (Wegner and Adamson 1966). In the single-pulsed laser method, DMF solutions of photosensitizer (2 μM) and DPBF (2 to 5 × 10$^{-4}$ M), in 2 mm path-length quartz cuvettes, were irradiated at 532 nm by a pulsed laser of 15–30 ns from a Nd:YAG laser (Moleatron MY 35), in the presence of continuously bubbled molecular oxygen. The depletion of DPBF was monitored at 420 or 425 nm by a probe light from a 200 W xenon arc lamp as described elsewhere (Periasamy 1984; Srivatsavoy 1990). The transmitted probe light after passing through a monochromator, was detected by a photomultiplier tube (IP 28). The output was captured by a transient digitizer (Biomation 8100). The results were displayed on an oscilloscope and then plotted on an X–Y recorder. The total depletion of DPBF was monitored as its absorbance change at infinite time (> 350 μs) after exciting the sample by a single pulsed laser beam. 3. Results and discussion 3.1 Syntheses, characterization and structures of porphyrins and metalloporphyrins Zinc, tin, palladium and platinum complexes of hematoporphyrin IX dimethyl ester and free base hematoporphyrin IX dimethyl ester were prepared and characterized by electronic absorption and emission spectroscopy (Gouterman 1978). In addition, infrared spectroscopy was used to characterize ester groups. Six tetraarylporphyrins such as tetraphenyl-porphyrin (TPP), tetra(4-methoxyphenyl)porphyrin (TMPP), tetra(3,4-dimethoxyphenyl)porphyrin (TDMPP), tetra(3,4,5-trimethoxyphenyl)porphyrin (TTMPP), tetraanthrylporphyrin (TAP) and tetraacridylporphyrin (TACP) and their zinc complexes were prepared and characterized by electronic absorption and emission spectroscopy. In addition, SnTPP(X$_2$) (where X = OH, Cl, Br, I, N$_3$, NCS or OC$_6$H$_5$) was prepared and characterized (Gouterman 1978). The structures of HPDME and its metal complexes are given in figure 1 and the electronic spectrum of HPDME in DMF is shown in figure 2. The structures of tetraarylporphyrins and their zinc and tin complexes are given in figure 3. ![Figure 1](image1.png) Figure 1. Structure of HPDME and its metal complexes. ![Figure 2](image2.png) Figure 2. Electronic absorption spectrum of HPDME in DMF. 3.2 Photochemical generation of singlet molecular oxygen by irradiation in presence of photosensitizer and molecular oxygen The lowest energy electronic configuration of $^1\text{O}_2$ contains two electrons in $\pi^$ orbitals. This gives rise to three states $^3\Sigma_g^-$ (ground state, 0 kJ/mol energy), $^1\Delta_g$ (first excited state, 92 kJ/mol), and $^1\Sigma_g^+$ (second excited state, 155 kJ/mol). The $^1\Delta_g$ state (singlet molecular oxygen, $^1\text{O}_2$) has a much longer lifetime than the $^1\Sigma_g^+$ state. The most important methods of generation of singlet molecular oxygen are: (1) the chemical method, and (2) the photochemical method on irradiation of photosensitizer in presence of molecular oxygen. We discuss here $^1\text{O}_2$ generation photosensitized by some porphyrins and metalloporphyrins. 3.3 Photooxidation of 1,3-diphenylisobenzofuran (DPBF) photosensitized by porphyrins and metalloporphyrins by steady state excitation and $^1\text{O}_2$ quantum yield measurements A mixture of free base porphyrin/metalloporphyrin ($1-2 \times 10^{-6}$ M) and BPBF ($5-10 \times 10^{-5}$ M) in molecular oxygen saturated DMF solution was irradiated with light of 550 nm (band-pass: 10 nm) for different periods of time. The depletion of DPBF was monitored using a spectrophotometer at 410/415 nm. The depletion of DPBF [$-\ln(A_t/A_0)$] was plotted against different irradiation times in the presence of HPDME as photosensitizer. The slope of this first-order plot seems to represent the rate of $^1\text{O}_2$ production. Similar plots were obtained for other free base porphyrins and metalloporphyrins. The mechanism of the above photooxidation of DPBF photosensitized by porphyrin/metalloporphyrin based on singlet molecular oxygen as an intermediate is given in scheme 1. \[ ^1S_0 \xrightarrow{\frac{h\nu}{I_{\text{abs}}}} ^1S^ \\ ^1S^* \xrightarrow{k_{\text{isc}}} ^3S^* \\ ^3S^* + ^3O_2 \xrightarrow{k_q} ^1S_0 + ^1O_2 \\ ^1O_2 \xrightarrow{k_d} ^3O_2 \\ ^1O_2 + \text{DPBF} \xrightarrow{k_r} \text{DPBF}\cdot O_2 \] Scheme 1. where $ I_{\text{abs}} $ is the intensity of light absorption, $ k_{\text{isc}} $, $ k_\Delta $, $ k_d $ and $ k_r $ the rate constants for intersystem crossing, energy transfer, quenching of $ ^1O_2 $ by DMF molecules and photooxidation of DPBF to DPBF$\cdot$O$_2$ by $ ^1O_2 $, and $ S_0 $, $ ^1S^* $ and $ ^3S^* $ are ground singlet, first excited singlet and first excited triplet states of the photosensitizer. Using steady state approximation and $ k_d \gg (k_r + k_q) \times [\text{DPBF}] $, the following equation can be written \[ -\frac{d[\text{DPBF}]}{Dt} = \frac{I_{\text{abs}} \phi_\Delta k_r [\text{DPBF}]}{k_d + k_r [\text{DPBF}]}. \] (1) On integration of (1), after assuming $ k_d \gg k_r [\text{DPBF}] $ at low concentrations of DPBF, \[ -\ln \left[ \frac{[\text{DPBF}]_t}{[\text{DPBF}]_0} \right] = \frac{I_{\text{abs}} \phi_\Delta k_r t}{k_d}. \] (2) If $-\ln [\text{DPBF}]_t/[\text{DPBF}]_0$ is plotted versus $ t $, a straight line is obtained as shown in figure 4 (as a representative example) with slope $ I_{\text{abs}} \phi_\Delta k_r/k_d $. $ \phi_\Delta $ can be obtained from this slope if the values of $ I_{\text{abs}} $, $ k_d $ and $ k_r $ are known. The value of $ I_{\text{abs}} $ was obtained by chemical actinometer of Reinecke’s salt (Wegner and Adamson 1966). The value of $ k_d $ in DMF was used as reported in the literature (Bellus 1978). However, the value of $ k_r $ can be calculated from the following relationship. From (1) we can obtain on integration the relationship given below. \[ -\frac{[^1O_2]}{[\text{DPBF}_\text{ox}]} = -k_d \ln \left[ 1 - \frac{[\text{DPBF}_\text{ox}]_t}{[\text{DPBF}]_0} \right] + k_r [\text{DPBF}_\text{ox}] = I_{\text{abs}} \phi_\Delta k_r t, \] \[ \frac{1}{[\text{DPBF}_\text{ox}]} = \frac{1}{\alpha} \left\{ \frac{k_d}{k_r [\text{DPBF}]} + 1 \right\}, \quad \text{if } \frac{[\text{DPBF}_\text{ox}]_t}{[\text{DPBF}]_0} \ll 1 \] (3) where $ [\text{DPBF}_\text{ox}] $ is the concentration of oxidized DPBF after a given irradiation time and $ \alpha = I_{\text{abs}} \phi_\Delta t $. If we plot $ [\text{DPBF}_\text{ox}]^{-1} $ against $ [\text{DPBF}]^{-1} $, we get a straight line with a slope of $ k_d/k_r[^1O_2] $, and an intercept of $[^1O_2]^{-1} $. From the ratio of slope and intercept, $ k_r $ is calculated as $ 1 \cdot 1 \times 10^9 \text{ M}^{-1} \text{s}^{-1} $ taking $ k_d $ is equal to $ 1 \cdot 0 \times 10^5 \text{ s}^{-1} $ from the literature (Bellus 1978). Thus using the $ k_r $ value of $ 1 \cdot 1 \times 10^9 \text{ M}^{-1} \text{s}^{-1} $, $ \phi_\Delta $ values of free base porphyrins and metalloporphyrins can be calculated. These values vary from 0·11 to 0·67. The order of $\phi_\Delta$ for free base porphyrins relative to HPDME is TAP $\simeq$ TACP > THPP > HPDME > TPP > TDMPP > TMPP > TDMPP $\simeq$ TDHPP [where THPP is tetra(4-hydroxyphenyl)porphyrin and TDHPP is tetra(3,4-dihydroxyphenyl) porphyrin]. The order of $\phi_\Delta$ values for metallohematoporphyrin IX dimethyl ester is HPDME > ZnHPDME > PdHPDME > SnHPDME (Cl$_2$) > PtHPDME. The order of $\phi_\Delta$ values for zinc tetraarylporphyrins is ZnTTMPP $\simeq$ ZnTACP > ZnTPP $\simeq$ ZnTDMPP, and that of $\phi_\Delta$ values for SnTPP(X$_2$) is SnTPP(Cl$_2$) > SnTPP(OH)$_2$ > SnTPP(NCS)$_2$ $\simeq$ SnTPP(N$_3$)$_2$. The $\phi_\Delta$ values of HPDME at various concentrations (1 $\mu$M to 120 $\mu$M) are nearly constant. The quenching of the photooxidation of DPBF photosensitized by TTMPP in the presence of different concentrations of bis(dibutyl-dithiacarbamato)nickel(II) as a physical quencher was also studied and the quenching rate constant, $k_Q$, obtained. The value of $k_Q$ obtained is $2 \times 10^9$ M$^{-1}$ s$^{-1}$. The reported value of $k_Q$ in toluene is $4 \times 10^9$ M$^{-1}$ s$^{-1}$. The triplet state lifetime and decay kinetics were performed at 532 nm using 15–30 ns pulsed Nd:YAG laser. The deaerated solution of the photosensitizer in benzene ($\sim 1 \times 10^{-5}$ M) on irradiation shows decreasing single-exponential decay back to the ground state. The decay rate constant obtained is $8 \times 10^3$ s$^{-1}$. The triplet state of TTMPP is efficiently quenched by dissolved molecular oxygen and this quenching rate constant, $k_q$, of TTMPP is $1 \times 10^9$ M$^{-1}$ s$^{-1}$ which is around the diffusion rate constant (Bellus 1978). This suggests that the triplet state of the photosensitizer is completely quenched by molecular oxygen. 3.4 Photooxidation of 1,3-diphenylisobenzofuran photosensitized by porphyrins and metalloporphyrins by single-pulsed laser excitation and $^1O_2$ quantum yield measurements A mixture of porphyrin/metalloporphyrin (1–2 $\mu$M) and DPBF (0·5 – 1 $\times 10^{-4}$ M) in molecular oxygen saturated DMF solution was excited at 532 nm by a single-pulsed laser. A representative example of decay of DPBF in presence of HPDME as a photosensitizer, versus function of time after laser excitation is given in figure 5. The depletion of DPBF monitored at 420/425 nm as a decrease in absorbance $(-\Delta A)$ of DPBF is due to its oxidation with $^1\text{O}_2$. The mechanism of $^1\text{O}_2$ generation and its subsequent reaction can be represented in scheme 2. \[ ^1S_0 \xrightarrow{532\text{nm}} ^1S^* \xrightarrow{k_{\text{isc}}} ^3S^* \xrightarrow{^1\text{O}_2} ^1\text{O}_2 \xrightarrow{k_r} \text{DPBF} \cdot \text{O}_2 \] Scheme 2. In this reaction, $^1\text{O}_2$ behaves as an intermediate and the depletion of DPBF can be expressed as \[ -\Delta[\text{DBBF}] = \frac{k_r k_\Delta [\text{O}_2] [^3S]_{t=0} [\text{DPBF}]_0}{k_r [\text{DPBF}]_0 - k_\Delta [\text{O}_2]} \\ \times \left\{ \frac{1}{k_\Delta [\text{O}_2]} (1 - \exp\{-k_\Delta [\text{O}_2] t\}) - \frac{1}{k_r [\text{DPBF}]_0} \right. \\ \times \left( 1 - \exp\{-k_r [\text{DPBF}]_0 t\} \right) \} \] where $k_r$ is the rate constant of chemical reaction of $^1\text{O}_2$ with DPBF, $k_\Delta$ is the rate constant of decay of the triplet state of the photosensitizer in the presence of molecular oxygen, $[^3S]_{t=0}$ is the concentration of triplet state of the photosensitizer at zero time after laser excitation, and $t$ is the time. From (4), $-\Delta[\text{DPBF}] \propto [^3S]_{t=0}$ or $[^3S]_{t=0} = k_{\text{isc}}$. Thus the photosensitizer with higher quantum triplet state yield ($\phi_T$) is expected to deplete more of DPBF for a ![Figure 5](image) Figure 5. Decrease in absorbance of DPBF (500 $\mu$M) in DMF versus time in $\mu$s after 532 nm single pulsed laser excitation in presence of HPDME (2 $\mu$M) and molecular oxygen. given single-pulsed laser energy ($\sim 1$ mJ). If all the triplet molecules are quenched by $O_2$ to produce $^1O_2$, $-\Delta[DPBF]_\infty$ will be proportional to $\phi_\Delta$ and $\phi_\Delta \propto (-\Delta A)_\infty$ [where $(-\Delta A)_\infty$ is change in absorbance of DPBF on reacting with $^1O_2$ at infinite time]. If the depletion of DPBF by an unknown photosensitizer is compared with a photosensitizer of known $\phi_\Delta^\text{ref}$ (HPDME: $\phi_\Delta^\text{ref} = 0.60$, Reddi et al 1983, the same value was also obtained by the steady state technique), the following relationship can be obtained as $$\phi_\Delta^x / \phi_\Delta^\text{ref} \propto (-\Delta A)_\infty^x / (-\Delta A)_\infty^\text{ref},$$ (5) (where $\phi_\Delta^x$ and $\phi_\Delta^\text{ref}$ are quantum yields of unknown and reference photosensitizers respectively, and $(-\Delta A)_\infty^x$ and $(-\Delta A)_\infty^\text{ref}$ are the decreases in absorbance of DPBF at infinite time ($> 350 \mu s$) in the presence of unknown and reference photosensitizers respectively). In (4) the reference HPDME photosensitizer and the unknown porphyrin or metalloporphyrin photosensitizer have the same values of $k_r$, $k_\Delta$, $t$, $[O_2]$ and $[DPBF]_0$, therefore, $$\frac{\phi_\Delta^x}{\phi_\Delta^\text{ref}} = \frac{I_{532}^\text{ref}}{I_{532}^x} \times \frac{\text{OD}_{532}^\text{ref}}{\text{OD}_{532}^x} \times \frac{(-\Delta A)_\infty^x}{(-\Delta A)_\infty^\text{ref}},$$ (6) (where $I_{532}$ and $\text{OD}_{532}$ refer to intensity of 532 nm pulsed laser ($\sim 1$ mJ) and optical density of the photosensitizer at 532 nm ($\sim 0.1$) respectively for the reference and unknown photosensitizers. Knowing the values of the other parameters in (6), $\phi_\Delta^x$ can be calculated. The values of $\phi_\Delta^x$ for free base porphyrins and metalloporphyrins can be calculated and they vary from 0.14 to 0.97. The values of $\phi_\Delta$ for free base porphyrins relative to HPDME follow the order: TAP > TACP > TPP > HPDME > TTMPP > TMPP > TDMPP. The $\phi_\Delta$ values of HPDME and its metal complexes follow the order: HPDME > ZnHPDME > PdHPDME $\simeq$ SnHPDME(Cl$_2$) > PtPDME. Zinc tetraarylporphyrin $\phi_\Delta$ values follow the order: ZnTPP > ZnTAP > ZnTACP > ZnTTMPP, and the $\phi_\Delta$ values of SnTPP(X$_2$) follow the order: SnTPP(OH)$_2$ > SnTPP(Cl$_2$) > SnTPP(N$_3$)$_2$ > SnTPP(NCS)$_2$. These orders, obtained from the single-pulsed laser excitation technique, are similar to those obtained from the steady state technique with few exceptions. These exceptions are not unexpected because the bases of both the methods are different. Comparison of the above results obtained from the steady state and the single-pulsed laser techniques, suggests that the trend in $\phi_\Delta$ values for free base porphyrins and metalloporphyrins are nearly the same, and the $\phi_\Delta$ values for metalloporphyrins are usually lower than those of the corresponding free base porphyrins with the exception of SnTPP(OH)$_2$. These observations can be explained by adding one additional step (Schermann et al 1990) in the mechanism of photooxidation of 1,3-diphenylisobenzofuran photosensitized by porphyrins and metalloporphyrins (see scheme 1). This additional step, with the energy transfer step given in parentheses, is as below. $$^3S^* + ^3O_2 \xrightarrow{k_t} ^1S_0 + ^3O_2$$ $$(^3S^* + ^3O_2 \xrightarrow{k_t} ^1S_0 + ^1O_2).$$ If $S_\Delta$ is the efficiency of $^1\text{O}_2$ formation accompanying the quenching of the first triplet state of photosensitizer by $\text{O}_2$, and $\phi_T$ denotes the photosensitizer's quantum yield of the first excited singlet state to first excited triplet state intersystem crossing in the presence of $\text{O}_2$, $\phi_\Delta$ can be expressed as $$\phi_\Delta = S_\Delta \cdot \phi_T, \quad \left( \text{where } S_\Delta = \frac{k_\Delta}{k_\Delta + k_b} \right). \tag{7}$$ On using (7) to explain the order as given above, the values of $S_\Delta$ should be smaller for metalloporphyrins than for the corresponding free base porphyrins. The reported value of $\phi_T$ for TPP in benzene is 0·88 (Merkel and Kearns 1972). There is a ten percent increase in $\phi_T$ value for ZnTPP than for TPP. If we assume the same values in DMF for TPP and ZnTPP, it is possible to calculate, from (7), the $S_\Delta$ value of 0·68 for TPP taking $\phi_\Delta = 0·56$ from the steady state technique, and similarly, the $S_\Delta$ value for ZnTPP, taking $\phi_\Delta = 0·53$. Thus, there is 23% decrease in $S_\Delta$ value for ZnTPP than in the $S_\Delta$ value of TPP. Verlhac et al (1984) have observed a lower $\phi_\Delta$ value for tetra(N-methylpyridyl)porphyrinatopalladium(II) than for the corresponding free base porphyrin. However, they have observed a higher value for tetra(N-methylpyridyl)porphyrinatozinc(II) than for the corresponding free base. 4. Conclusions Increase in the atomic weight of the metal in metalloporphyrins usually lowers the $^1\text{O}_2$ quantum yield due to the heavy atom effect. The $^1\text{O}_2$ quantum yield of SnTPP(X$_2$) depends on the nature of the axial ligands. The $^1\text{O}_2$ quantum yield photosensitized by methoxy derivatives in tetraphenylporphyrin depends on the number of methoxy groups present in the phenyl groups of TPP. However, the bulky substituents in the meso positions of the porphyrins such as TAP and TACP do not change the $^1\text{O}_2$ quantum yield. Acknowledgement We are grateful to the Department of Science and Technology, New Delhi, for financial support. References Adler A D, Longo F R, Finarelli J D, Goldmachov J, Assour J and Korsukoff L 1967 J. Org. Chem. 32 476 Bellus D 1978 in Singlet oxygen reactions with organic compounds (eds) B Ranby and J R Rabek (New York: Wiley) pp. 61–110 Buchler J W 1975 in Porphyrins and metalloporphyrins (ed.) K M Smith (Amsterdam: Elsevier) pp. 157–231 Cotton F A and Wilkinson G 1988 Advanced inorganic chemistry 5th edn (New York: Wiley) pp. 451–452 Dougherty T J 1987 Photochem. Photobiol. 45 879 Fong F K (ed.) 1982 Light reaction path of photosynthesis (Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag) Foote C S 1979 In Singlet oxygen (eds) H H Wasserman and R W Murray (New York: Academic Press) pp. 139–171 Fuhrhop J H and Smith K M 1975 Laboratory methods in porphyrins and metalloporphyrins (Amsterdam: Elsevier) p. 16 Gouterman M 1978 in The porphyrins (ed.) D Dolphin (New York: Academic Press) vol. 3, pp. 157–231 Gouterman M, Schwarz F P, Smith P D and Dolphin D 1973 J. Chem. Phys. 59 676 Merkel P P and Kearns D R 1972 J. Am. Chem. Soc. 94 7241 Norris Jr J R and Meiser D (eds) 1989 Photochemical energy conversion (New York: Elsevier) Periasamy N 1984 Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. (Chem. Sci) 93 1361 Reddi E, Jori G, Rogers M A J and Spikes J D 1983 Photochem. Photobiol. 38 639 Schermann G, Schmitt R, Volcher A, Braur H D, Mertes H and Franck B 1990 Photochem. Photobiol. 52 741 Srivatsavoy V J P 1990 Ph D thesis, University of Bombay, Bombay Srivatsavoy V J P and Periasamy N 1991 J. Photochem. Photobiol. A 58 215 Van de Bergh H 1986 Chem. Br. 22 430 Verlhac J B, Gandemer A and Kraljic I 1984 Nouv. J. Chim. 8 401 Wegner E E and Adamson A W 1966 J. Am. Chem. Soc. 88 394
MAN THE GUNS! Push Ahead to Big-Set Sales with RCA Victor OVERSEAS DIAL! Miles ahead of any other dial on the market! That's the new RCA Victor Overseas Dial—an exclusive RCA Victor feature. Makes tuning for short wave stations as easy as for domestic stations. Short-wave bands are spread 50 times wider than on ordinary dials. Separate tuning scales are used for 49, 31, 25 and 19 meter bands. Only the scale in use is lighted. Names of short wave stations are printed right on the dial. SENSATIONAL Short-Wave Tuner the feature of the month!! RCA Victor focuses public attention on it with seven outstanding advertising and promotional blasts—all of which will help you make big-set sales, big-time profits! October is RCA Victor Overseas Dial month! Just look at the seven big selling guns RCA Victor is going to touch off this month and you will see it will pay you—and plenty—to feature the sensational Overseas Dial Models 813K and 816K in your store! RCA Victor RCA MANUFACTURING CO., Inc., Camden, New Jersey A Service of the Radio Corporation of America 300 MILLION RCA RADIO TUBES HAVE BEEN BOUGHT BY RADIO USERS...IN TUBES, AS IN RADIO SETS, IT PAYS TO GO RCA ALL THE WAY! www.americanradiohistory.com Don't risk the turn of the knob that turns away customers. Use... YAXLEY REPLACEMENT VOLUME CONTROLS From a service sales viewpoint, volume controls differ from other radio parts in that the minute your customer turns the knob, he knows the quality of the part that has been installed in his radio. Don't take chances on inferior controls. Use only quality controls—SILENT controls—and that means Yaxley. Yaxley Controls alone offer the following exclusive features: 1. "The Roller That Does Not Roll"—the most perfect form of contactor as recognized by leading metallurgical engineers. In addition, the contactor automatically cleans the element of noise-producing dust. 2. 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Cochrane 29 SOUND EQUIPMENT MAKERS .............................................. 30 OCTOBER NEWS ......................................................... 33 PREVIEW OF NEW PRODUCTS ............................................. 41 CIRCUITS FOR SERVICERS .................................................. 55 AMATEUR NOTES .......................................................... 57 SOUND SYSTEM CIRCUITS .................................................. 59 SHOP SHORTCUTS .......................................................... 61 TRICKS OF THE TRADE ...................................................... 65 LETTERS ................................................................. 76 SALES STATIC . . . "WILL YOU PLEASE EXPLAIN WHAT YOU DO AS YOU GO ALONG" Suggested by subscriber Harold Gekler Here is a Chassis that's built RIGHT! Stromberg-Carlson First with TOTAL SHIELDING Now First with FORTIFIED CHASSIS The only notable advance in chassis design and construction since Total Shielding was first introduced" is what service engineers everywhere are saying about the new Stromberg-Carlson FORTIFIED CHASSIS. When you first see and examine this new type of chassis you will realize all it can mean to you in reducing service annoyance and in creating satisfied customers. There is nothing finer than a Stromberg-Carlson Stromberg-Carlson Telephone Mfg. Co., Rochester, N. Y. RADIO RETAILING, OCTOBER, 1937 The world's largest Exclusive Radio Tube Manufacturers! ALL the resources of the vast Raytheon organization are concentrated in the development and production of radio tubes! Raytheon is an organization of specialists. All the brains, time and effort are expended toward one end—that you may have better quality, longer-lasting radio tubes. This is the reason for Raytheon's remarkable growth and success. This unusual policy is responsible for some of the greatest developments in tube design: The universally used auto-set filamentless gaseous rectifier—the OZ4—is one of the fruits of Raytheon concentration. The Beam-Power output tube is another important Raytheon contribution. There have been many others since the famous Raytheon "BH" and "BA" tubes years ago which began the era of all-electric receivers. Raytheon service is comparable to Raytheon quality. There is an outstanding Raytheon jobber in every community to supply you promptly. He stocks the most complete line of tubes made today. Order Raytheon for greater permanent tube profits! RAYTHEON 445 Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, Ill. 420 Lexington Ave., New York, N.Y. 585 Howard St., San Francisco, Cal. 55 Chapel Street, Newton, Mass. 413 Peachtree St., N.E., Atlanta, Ga. FOR BETTER RECEPTION RADIO RETAILING, OCTOBER, 1937 GET IN ON RCA'S SPECTACULAR FALL CHECK-UP Now In Full Swing 38 FREE SALES AIDS BRING DEALERS AND SERVICE MEN NEW PROFITS THROUGH RADIO SALES AND APPLIANCE SALES This year RCA helps you cash in on its famous Check-Up by providing 38 exceptional sales aids—every one of which will help you make more money—and every one of which is free. Some of these profit pullers are listed below. Consider the many new customers they will create for you—and then arrange with your RCA tube distributor for those you wish to get. Or, better still, send the replica of the card with tube order to your distributor, telling him what you want. WITH EACH 25-TUBE PURCHASE—you get 100 unimprinted postcards (Form No. 1337) or 100 Check-Up tags (Form No. 2244)—free. WITH EACH 40-TUBE PURCHASE—100 prospect cards (Form No. 732)—free. WITH EACH 60-TUBE PURCHASE—200 leaflets (Form No. 700 or 701) or 500 "Not-at-home" cards (Form No. 317)—free. 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Huron Street, Chicago, Illinois Name ______________________________________________________ Address _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ Grunow THERMENE REFRIGERATION the revolutionary new development in food preservation . . . soon to be displayed by your Grunow Distributor . . . will be Competitive with ELECTRIC REFRIGERATION IN Initial Price IN Ice Production IN Operating Costs IN Sales Features CHILLED BY THE FREEZING FLAME GENERAL HOUSEHOLD UTILITIES CO. CHICAGO, ILLINOIS A TOUCHDOWN! Sentinel wins with RAD-O-FONE! SMASHING THROUGH TO NEW HIGH SCORES IN SALES AND PROFITS! It's new — more spectacular than a 50-yard forward pass — with sales punch that has more power than a 250-pound full back crashing the line! RAD-O-FONE takes Sentinel clear out of the "entertainment only" class — it adds new utility to radio — and eliminates price competition. 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Name __________________________________________ Address _________________________________________ The BIG 1938 Radio Feature IT'S the season's sensation—the feature dealers are cheering for—and it's smashing sales records because nothing competition offers can match all its advantages! - It's faster! . . . goes direct to the station in a split second! - It's more flexible! . . . takes any 15 stations, in any order! - It's easier to set up or re-set! - It adjusts from the front without tools! - It's foolproof! . . . no band switching, nothing to forget! - And it's so accurate it could be used without A. F. C.! ... AND that's only part of the story! - Exclusive Stewart-Warner-C.I.T. Sales Finance Plans open doors that competitors can't get into. - Coast-to-Coast broadcasts by Horace Heidt's famous Alemite Brigadiers are selling for you now. - Complete advertising and merchandising plans are really clicking the country over. - A range of models that satisfies every demand in style, and that blankets every price level. STEWART-WARNER MAGIC KEYBOARD Show Opening its doors just as we go to press, a few days too late in the month to permit a complete report in this issue, is the much-heralded New York Radio Parts Show staged by Radio Parts Manufacturers National Trade Show, Inc. With exhibits moving into the mammoth Port Authority Building indicating the expenditure of much thought, time and money by cooperating manufacturers, the Victoria Hotel already beginning to feel the pressure of out-of-town registrations, the success of the Show seems assured. We're hard at work setting up our own booth, oiling the candid-camera for a new foray among the bigshots of the business. Trade-In Turmoil A little dealer sues a big department store for allowing a customer $81 on a radio set purchased for $7.98 one year before. A retail radio association official attacks a legislator recommending "reasonable allowances" to be left to the discretion of individual dealers, insists instead upon "fixed maximums" to be exceeded by none. (Radio Retailing contributed a Blue Book prepared along these lines in June.) A nationally respected watchdog of advertising ethics conducts a country-wide survey, finds manufacturer and dealer opinion split between reasonable allowances and fixed maximums. All this turmoil arises out of the industry's growing consciousness that Fair Trade Laws designed primarily to stop price-cutting are developing teeth, and that price maintenance without trade-in allowance control is very much of a farce. No high bench has handed down a completely clarifying decision to date, and interpretation from state to state may vary widely. So the trade will have to struggle along with the weapons in hand yet awhile. City Special Suggested several years ago by a member of our staff who built an experimental model was a radio receiver tuned by the mere pressing of buttons. This dream has now become reality. And yet it seems that some manufacturer willing to gamble with an admittedly radical idea might with profit go even farther. Why not one model equipped with push-buttons only and no dial at all? The type of dial commonly seen today to some extent counteracts the sales appeal of push-button simplicity. Advertised as a "city special," such a set might, furthermore, incorporate reproduction quality not readily obtainable in models which must not only pick up distant stations but also have sufficient selectivity to separate them. Omission of shortwaves might conceivably reduce the price of such a set to a very attractive level. Phonograph combinations, particularly, seem especially susceptible to such treatment, assuming that many people who buy such machines want quality rather than dx, simplicity of appearance and control rather than flexibility. That's Cooperation From Oklahoma City, Okla., comes the report that eight wholesalers in the hardware, electrical, drug and food fields have joined forces, for the purpose of promoting the interests of the wholesalers as such and that of certain products in each line. They have contracted for a series of broadcasts over WKY, and the programs are to be designed so that each contributor will get an even break. The plan deserves the consideration of radio wholesalers and dealers, particularly of those who are located in remote areas. What is more obvious than to use the radio for building consumer sales of radios. Education Through passage of the Interior Department's appropriation bill the sum of $1,298,000 becomes available for training of youths and others in merchandising and all of the various phases of retailing. Under the George-Deen Act, which authorizes this project, the funds supplied by the government must be supplemented by state or local contributions. Participating states must have a state Board of Vocational Education. Evening and part-time day classes may be provided. Courses will be given in accounting, advertising, management, personnel, commodities and other subjects that will enlarge the knowledge, understanding and judgment of the workers in distributing occupations. If carried through as planned and continued in future, independent retailers will profit greatly through this effort. Eventually they will be able to hire more useful and better trained assistants, competition should become more intelligent, price-cutting and profit-less selling should decrease. EDITOR What's in a NAME? IN THE NAME SYLVANIA THERE'S PERFORMANCE PRESTIGE AND PROFIT FOR YOU! It is performance—nothing else—that has placed Sylvania in the high position it occupies today. Not merely technical performance, but sales performance as well. The public knows that the Sylvania name on a tube means thousands of hours of fine, dependable service. The radio trade has taken this sort of performance as a matter of course. For you, the name Sylvania means reputation and profit, all along the line, right down through the trade channels to the retailer's cash-register. What's in a name? Wherever the name is Sylvania—profit is your answer. Hygrade Sylvania Corporation, Emporium, Pa. SYLVANIA THE SET-TESTED RADIO TUBE RADIO RETAILING, OCTOBER, 1937 A Sensation Another HOWARD First that points the way to Profits America now demands automatic tuning. There are console models galore of this type and competition is keen. In the table model field, however, it's a different story. Wide awake dealers and distributors can have this rich, untouched market practically to themselves by acting quickly. HOWARD has a new model that is a natural for your table model trade. Eliminates dialing completely — Tunes any eight stations on the broadcast and police bands by merely pushing a button — Station selection quickly and easily changed by anyone without removing chassis from cabinet — Six tubes with tuning eye — AVC — Dynamic Speaker — Tone Control — Copper Plated Chassis — Beautiful two-position cabinet that looks equally attractive as top-tuner or horizontal. Howard quality throughout. Since everyone appreciates the convenience of automatic tuning and 95% of them never listen to more than eight stations anyway, this radio at its price will go over with a bang! Remember though, the quicker you get going with it the greater your reward will be, so do something about it right away. If you haven't time to write, wire! WIRE OR WRITE FOR DETAILS ON THIS AND 18 OTHER OUTSTANDING NEW HOWARD MODELS Dealers' and Distributors' interests fully protected — Ask for either proposition HOWARD RADIO CO. 1731-5 BELMONT AVENUE · CHICAGO HERE'S AUTOMATIC TUNING AT LESS THAN 40 $$$$$ RETAIL RADIO RETAILING, OCTOBER, 1937 Farmers Everywhere Enthusiastic Over the New Start-Charger Washer-Motor No farm equipment in years has caused so much favorable attention. Farmers and their wives are flocking to stores where they can see demonstrations of gasoline driven farm washers equipped with the new Briggs & Stratton Start-Charger Washer Motor. . . . Are you getting your share of all this new business? Think what this new motor does! It’s self starting like a motor car. And it charges radio and other storage batteries—while doing the washing. No wonder farmers are even discarding their old washers and buying the new Start-Charger Models. Share in the extra profits that the Start-Charger Motor is bringing so many dealers—get in touch with your washer manufacturer immediately. BRIGGS & STRATTON CORP. Milwaukee, Wis. U. S. A. Most of your rural customers will not have Hi-Line Service for many years. Why pass up this business when you can make plenty of sales now on Start-Charger gasoline washers. Each month, in state or national farm papers, Briggs & Stratton are telling farmers to see you for a demonstration. Mystery In Missouri ST. LOUIS—Crowds congregated on the sidewalk before Aeolian's store, intrigued by the novelty of electric tuning and a mysterious mechanism which enabled it to be operated through a plate-glass window from the street when Bob Ferree of Interstate Supply . . . egged on by RCA factoryman Fred Pitzer . . . designed, built and installed a clever capacity-relay controlled display. (Complete circuit details on page 61). To the inner surface of the window, head-high, four 4 by 6-inch cards bearing the call letters of local stations and the words "Place Hand Here to Tune" were glued. Fastened to the back of the cards (and concealed even from inside the store by cardboard backing making a "sandwich" of the metal) were 3$\frac{1}{2}$ by 5-inch strips of tinfoil, from which 40-gauge enameled wire, virtually invisible against the black background, ran to the relay unit hidden behind the set. People (5,000 in 3 days) placed their hands on the cards, watched the lighted "overseas" dial four feet from their eyes move mysteriously across to the station selected, heard the program over a sound system piping it to the street. Demonstrating this newest of radio features to themselves, many later entered the store, either to ask about the receiver itself or to solve the mystery of how it was controlled through a plate-glass window. Materials cost $50 . . . cheap, when the timeliness and effectiveness of the stunt is considered. Expert Talks Records MILWAUKEE—To Adele Holtz, 25 years in the record business, the last 23 with Taylor Electric, the origination of promotional ideas that sell discs is second-nature. Here are a few she considers her best: Organized a record club, meeting monthly at her own home. Invited music critics, music lovers of all kinds, and gave affair social aspect by serving refreshments. Analyzed recordings of the month, then played key numbers while guests concentrated as they would in a theatre. Hired women to go from house-to-house, leaving packages of six records of universal appeal on approval overnight where they found reproducing machines, calling back next day to pick up or sell. Advertised "Hidden Treasures", featuring recordings of little known numbers that appeared to have broad sales possibilities. In one instance built up a waltz in this manner from almost complete stagnation to a "first". Originated the idea of demonstrating a new radio-phono combination to every radio prospect entering the store, developed many new record enthusiasts as a direct result. Sent a weekly letter listing "Lucky Strike" Hit Parade leaders of the past week, with their position and recording numbers, to all record buyers. Delivered 25 lectures before Wisconsin clubs during the recent tour of the Philadelphia Symphony Orchestra. Advantages of a record business, says Miss Holtz, are these: 1. A perfect demonstration, regardless of store location or weather conditions. 2. Elimination of most competition. 3. Development of much higher unit sales. 4. Repeat record business from people sold combinations. RETOUCHING TO RADIO—Harvey B. Sutcliffe of Cleveland can prove that radio speeds up production in his photographic studio, has used four Crosley's in his business for 8 years. The sets may be turned off from switches at all telephones. Windows That Work 1. SELLS ANTENNAS — For the brothers Zaenglein of Rochester's Hicksons this display moves Stromberg-Carlson antennas with 50 per cent of all sets sold, when they are sold. And an additional 25 per cent buy later. 2. STIMULATES REPLACEMENT — R. F. Adair, of Long Beach, California's Stricklin's, focussed attention on obsolete radios by offering prizes for the oldest Grebes, putting winners in his window along with new models. 3. SMALL SPACE CONCENTRATION — Detroit's Peoples Outfitting with little display room for splurging, concentrated on one fast-selling Kadette model, introduced a snow man to add seasonal interest. 4. LARGE SPACE DIVERSIFICATION — New York's Wurlitzer, with room to burn, showed nearly the whole Emerson line, played up phonograph records and recording, as well, to swell already good store traffic. BALL GAME A LA 1937 — To home-field games played by the Cleveland "Indians" with dyed-in-the-wool fan Rev. Percy M. Kendall goes a Crosley portable radio. He sees each play, listens to expert comment pumped into the air by the broadcasters' leading sports announcers, keeps tabs on scores of distant clubs too. Rent, Not Time BELOIT, WIS.—L. B. Yagla has worked out a contract under which a purchaser signs a rental rather than a time payment agreement, paying so much a month until the entire amount is received. Much like purchase agreements used by office equipment firms, this contract, according to Yagla, is an effective sales inducement for a dealer handling his own paper. The contract (paragraphing omitted to save space here) reads as follows: Beloit, Wis................193...... I hereby acknowledge delivery to me of the following: ____________ For the use of said appliance I hereby agree to pay as rental to said L. B. Yagla, his successors or assigns, the sum of $________ Dollars ($______) as follows: $_______ Dollars ($______) in hand, and $_______ Dollars ($______) on the _______ day of each month until the entire rental has been paid. It is understood that whenever the entire rental above provided for, and $_______ per month carrying charge has been paid, the said appliance shall become my property. I further agree as follows: That the said appliance is to remain your property with full title, ownership and right of possession remaining in you until the rental above specified has been paid. In the event of non-payment of any of such rental, or of any other specified, or of the sale or encumbrance of said appliance, or the removal thereof from, ___________(City) ___________(State) without your written consent, you shall have the right to immediately take possession of the same with or without legal process, wherever the same may be found, and to retain the rental payments theretofore made by me hereunder. To keep the said appliance in good condition and repair, and to be responsible for any loss or destruction thereof by fire, theft or other casualty. It is further understood that no other agreements, verbal or written, express or implied, shall limit or qualify the terms of this contract. This contract shall not be binding on you until approved by an officer of your company. Witness ______ Signed ______(Seal) Approved ______ 193____ Per ______. Service Sales Campaign CHICAGO—From J. P. Kennedy, sales manager for Triumph Manufacturing, comes the following service sales campaign suggestion: Map out a thousand homes within a suitable radius of your shop and test out a consistent plan of advertising. Over 90 per cent of them have some kind of radio. Start the campaign with a letter, telling about the fine quality of the present programs available from distant cities, which in all probability very few of them are getting, and wind up with a description of your service facilities and the offer of a free log book if they'll send back a return postcard enclosed with the letter. The card should contain a request for the inspection of their radio, which they can check. Follow it within thirty days with a blotter, listing a dozen or so regular programs from other cities, giving the time and dial setting and a brief note about the need of your service if they can't get these programs. A month later, follow up again with a letter giving standard rates for specific services to their radio and a return postcard on which they may check the service desired. SOUND GOES TO SEA — At Atlantic City, RCA engineers demonstrate a new speaker capable of throwing its voice more than a mile out over the water to bathers, boats. For control of large beach areas sound is a "natural" GLASSLESS WINDOW—Shoppers can see, hear and touch the radios and appliances in the F. K. Cox store out in Pomona, California. For Cox has deliberately removed the glass, says people who step into the "window" can be approached by a salesman just as if they had entered the store. SECOND-SET SOLICITATION—Salesman Cliff Barrett of Detroit's J. L. Hudson's, shows how the labeling of all table models "Personal Radios," grouping in a corner display playing up this idea, moves merchandise RETAIL SALES UP Daily average sales of general merchandise in small towns and rural areas for August were 3 per cent higher in dollar volume than for August 1936. Sales increased 8 per cent over July, somewhat less than the usual seasonal amount, however, according to the Department of Commerce. Total sales of general merchandise for the first 8 months of 1937 were $11½ per cent above a similar period of 1936, says this same data source, making a preliminary estimate. RADIO IS TOPS Listening to the radio tops the list as women's most popular evening-leisure-hour diversion. This welcome fact was uncovered by a survey sponsored by True Story Magazine, whose publishers wanted an answer to the question, "What do people do with their evenings?" Results as reported by Tide showed that among women the biggest vote for any single evening diversion was for the radio, with 45 per cent giving it preference. Next came reading, conversing, taking a walk, going to the movies—in that order. Among the men reading was tops (42%) with radio a close second (35%) and conversation, studying, home work, the movies and taking a walk following in that order. That's pretty good news for the radio dealers. FACTORY FIGURES Belmont reports that in the eight months ending August 31 sales totalled $3,698,124, the best for any similar period in the history of the company. It compared with $2,381,204 in the first eight months of 1936 and represents a gain of 55.2 per cent. August sales amounted to $740,901 against $600,000 in August 1936, an increase of 23.4 per cent. FEET THAT GO UP CHAIRSIDE RADIO, already exerting an important influence on listener-hours, also goes hand-in-hand with new "conversational group" interior decoration idea By Tom F. Blackburn OUTSIDE of cartoonists kidding people who have to stand up all the way home on street cars, there hasn't been a great deal of attention paid dogs and the way one has to humor them. "Foot troubles?" you say. "What have they got to do with a respectable family magazine like Radio Retailing?" Well, Mister, when you have a pen poised in hand about to order a lot of stock, or when you are planning a bunch of promotion, it is a mighty important time to take a quick stop-look-see at the foot question. For feet play a tremendous part in the growing popularity of armchair radio. A year ago only one manufacturer had an armchair model. Today they all have them, from two to twenty-nine models. That's growth. You ask: "Is this a fad or a solid trend?" Trend, Not Fad Armchair radio, like Caesar's Gaul, is divided into three parts—appeal to human habits, appeal to interior decoration ideas, and its influence on listening. First of all we thought we would start at the bottom of the matter and work up. So we set out to discover why the human animal tended to bog down in a big chair, making it necessary that the radio be brought to his side. Say what you will, there's something darn funny when a man or woman won't walk five feet to connect with the world's finest entertainment. We talked to a man who has made a pile of money catering to foot troubles. "Don't quote me—I'm a physician," he said, "And there's no actuarial data to back me up, but judging by our sales over twenty years, you will find the 128,000,000 inhabitants of our United States are affected this way— 64,000,000 have corns 12,800,000 have callouses 19,200,000 have bunions 38,400,000 have fallen arches 96,000,000 have athlete's foot. "The corns and the fallen arches are the trouble-makers," said our anonymous friend. "When a man or woman with these pets has been on his feet all day, he topples over as easily as a beer bottle. Once he gets a chance to sit down, he wouldn't give a nickel to witness the second arrival of Kingdom Come." As Bob Burns' Uncle Poo puts it, "An inch is a lot of room when your beak is under water." That eight feet of floor space between the big chair and the radio dial is too much room—even for a fellow with a boarding house reach. Fits As Furniture Probably some of the rapid bloom in popularity of the armchair set can be traced indirectly to the fall in size of the American family. With an average of 3.4 persons per family today, the average poppas and mommas do not need so much room. Indeed, the newlyweds generally start out with two or three rooms, and if no blessed events arrive, they frequently carry on in these sized apartments. Twenty-five years ago it was hard to find a flat with less than six rooms. Today that's the exception and the small one is the rule. Go into anything designed in the last ten years, and you will discover, the moment you enter the door that you are all over the place. Arches, open corridors, doors have cut down the amount of wall space tremendously. Now a console in the middle of the room, its back open, looks as funny as an old maid with her slip showing. With less wall space, and with interior decorators and magazines like House and Garden and House Beautiful booing the idea of stringing things NEEDN'T COME DOWN 1. Convenience in tuning 2. Women want a change in radio design 3. Armchair radios do double duty 4. They lend themselves better to groupings 5. They fit into present day apartments with so many doors better. Increase Radio Use Now comes the time to consider the third angle of our study—what change will armchair radio make in our enjoyment of radio. After all, in the long run, it is enjoyment that causes the public to kick in for these little bagatelles. First of all the utilities will be glad to know that armchair models are likely to be on more time and use more juice—simply by being handy to switch on. According to the Columbia Broadcasting System, listening time per family has increased from 4.1 hours a day in 1932 to 5.1 in 1936. With the trend upward, ease of tuning will undoubtedly cause the family to enjoy their set more frequently. If you have seen the metered audience survey, made by Robert F. Elder machines in Boston, it is obvious there is a good deal of dial-twisting going on. Audiences range on one station from 5.8% to 22.6%, from 17.5% to 37% on another. The obvious answer is, the closer the hand is to the dial, the more frequently stations will be changed. The job of pleasing all sexes and ages is an endless one. Columbia shows we have a group of listeners today like this: \| \| Morning \| Afternoon \| Evening \| \|----------------\|---------\|-----------\|---------\| \| Men, over 18 \| 25% \| 24% \| 34.3% \| \| Men, under 18 \| 12.5% \| 12% \| 12.5% \| \| Women, over 18 \| 50% \| 48% \| 43.7% \| \| Women under 18 \| 12.5% \| 16% \| 9.4% \| So, it is obvious that the radio with the specialized appeal is coming in. There's a model for the kitchen, one for the automobile, one for the kid's room. The armchair model is built for the old man, who limps home each night tired and footsore. The fact that it happens to appeal to the interior decorator's new scheme of things and fits into modern apartments is just so much lagniappe. TUNING Yesterday and TODAY 1927 ONE KNOB—Simplicity was later improved by substituting kilocycles for arbitrary dial numbers, including visual indicators. 1921 CRYSTAL—Adjusting the "catswhisker", setting the sliders was a critical, complicated business requiring both skill and patience. 1923 REGENERATIVE—Manipulating the "tickler" to give maximum volume and sharpness, without squealing, was a ticklish and tortuous job. 1925 THREE DIAL—Synchronizing controls was no cinch, even when these "tracked" fairly close together on major broadcast stations. 1938 Automatic—Easy as pointing, easier than dialing a telephone number, as fast as you can think what program you want there it is! A Single, Simple Motion Brings In Your Favorite Station On a Modern Radio RADIO RETAILING From Canada to the Gulf—from the Atlantic to the Pacific—the country's largest retailers acknowledge Kadette as radio's fastest selling line. In every major city these sensational Kadettes are bringing the public into dealers' stores. The amazing value of Kadette's 10 tube model for only $19.95 is bringing dealers the greatest floor traffic of any radio ever produced. From every corner of the country evidence continues to pour in that these 1938 Kadettes are the "hottest" line of the year. And there's a good reason—they're backed with as wide-awake and complete promotional plans as you have ever seen! Are you profiting by one of radio's biggest opportunities? Get in touch with your jobber NOW. A FEW CONSISTENT ADVERTISERS OF KADETTE RADIOS DAVEGA-CITY RADIO CO. New York City R. H. WHITE CO. Boston, Mass. DENHOLM & McKAY Worcester, Mass. HOMER PITT'S CO. Boston, Mass. AGEL-CORMAN FURN. CO. Burlington, Vt. WHITNEY'S Albany, N. Y. LUCKEY-PLATT CO. Poughkeepsie, N. Y. STERN & CO. Philadelphia, Pa. GEORGE'S RADIO CO. Washington, D. C. RALEIGH FURN. CO. Raleigh, N. C. RABB-SMITH CO. Greensboro, N. C. J. B. IVEY & CO. Charlotte, N. C. BOCOCK-STROUD CO. Winston-Salem, N. C. PHOENIX FURN. CO. Columbia, S. C. BURDINES Miami, Fla. DAVISON-PAXON CO. Atlanta, Ga. KILGORE FURN. CO. Birmingham, Ala. LOWENSTEIN'S Memphis, Tenn. DALTON'S Baton Rouge, La. LAWRENCE FURN. CO. New Orleans, La. THEY GOETTINGER Tampa, Fla. STAR FURN. CO. Houston, Texas LITTLE PAL Houston, Texas McCURDY'S Rochester, N. Y. DENTON, COTTER & DANIELS Buffalo, N. Y. C. E. CHAPPELL & SONS Syracuse, N. Y. THE HIGGEE CO. Cleveland, Ohio NEWMAN STEIN CO. Chicago, Ill. RIKE-KUMLER CO. Dayton, Ohio LEED'S, INC. Cincinnati, Ohio ELDER & JOHNSTON CO. Dayton, Ohio BING CO. Cleveland, Ohio BEAR FURN. CO. Akron, Ohio HADLEY FURN. CO. Fort Wayne, Ind. WILLIAM H. BLOCK CO. Indianapolis, Ind. PEARSON CO. Detroit, Mich. J. L. HUDSON CO. Detroit, Mich. PEOPLE'S OUTFITTING CO. Chicago, Ill. WEBOLD STORES Chicago, Ill. CHARLES T. WILT CO. Chicago, Ill. MARSHALL FIELD CO. Chicago, Ill. ED SCHUSTER & CO. Milwaukee, Wis. JOHNSON & HILL CO. Wisconsin Rapids, Wis. DAVIDSON-BOUTELL CO. Minneapolis, Minn. DAYTON CO. Minneapolis, Minn. R. N. CARDOZO & BROS. St. Paul, Minn. FAMOUS-BARR CO. St. Louis, Mo. HARTMAN'S Dubuque, Iowa DAVIDSON'S Des Moines, Iowa DENVER DRY GOODS CO. Denver, Colo. COAST RADIO CO. Seattle, Wash. HOPPER-KELLY CO. Seattle, Wash. THE HUB Marshfield, Oregon SCHWABACHER-FREY CO. Los Angeles, Calif. JENKINS MUSIC CO. Kansas City, Mo. GIMBEL'S Pittsburgh, Pa. INTERNATIONAL RADIO CORPORATION 554 WILLIAMS STREET, ANN ARBOR, MICHIGAN KADETTE THE WORLD'S BEST VALUE IRKSOME to servicemen, and to manufacturers who sell $11,000,000 worth of radio parts yearly is the fact that nearly all owners wait until disaster takes place before they spend a nickel for repairs. Important, because 15 per cent of the country's radios are buzzing, whistling, humming, hoarse-voiced, unsatisfactory, and approaching that stage where they go blotto. This, right at a time when the big money programs of the air are coming on—the million dollar entertainment and sports that make one want to glue his ear to the old loud speaker. The season approaches when comics like Jack Benny and Fred Allen cavort and the symphonies are lushest. "What's to be done?", the large parts makers ask. "The average fellow is like the fellow who locks the stable after his horse is stolen." Take a tip from the automobile business if you think nothing can be done. Look over other fields of endeavor if you believe that the average man has to get a kick in the pants before he will take action. Listen to what Wallace Meyer, a streamline copy writer for Weed chain advertising, did. Meyer saw that it was too late to consider as a customer a guy whose car had started to slip on the ice—he was more of a candidate for a hospital. He observed that most people had to blunder into trouble before they would buy chains. He knew that any man who has had the daylights scared out of him didn't want it to happen again. Whereupon, Wallace Meyer hit upon the expedient of running this simple newspaper advertisement: Weather prediction: Icy tomorrow Get your Weed chains now This copy was released to newspapers whenever weather predictions were right. It had the tremendous power of being timely and sold barrels and boxes of chains to people who didn't desire trouble. The Stewart-Warner Corporation cashed in last spring on a similar warning. The Alemite division knew that no motorist wants an overheated car. Therefore they sounded Job crying for cooperative effort by servicemen and parts makers is education of public to avoid set failures as big programs start by checkup in early fall a warning as spring was coming on, to change to summer lubricants. The suggestion was enough. As this is written, the leaves are beginning to swirl down. Right now in the hands of the billboard firms are posters that say, "Warning—Put in your anti-freeze solutions now." The makers of Prestone have built up a tremendous gallonage out of a mixture that was totally unknown to the public a few years ago. Thanks to billboards, advertisements in the papers, and radio announcements, very few cylinder blocks are frozen these days. Car owners have been successfully taught to get their automobiles ready for changes of season. They have their spark plugs cleaned, their brakes tested, their oil changed, all before something actually happens. Radios are possessed by the same mass market that owns automobiles. The organizations that sell the public on the idea of getting service in advance of disaster are not the automobile makers, but rather the group that compares to the servicemen and parts manufacturers in the radio field. They are the ones who profit by seeing that the cars give satisfactory service. They discovered it is a smart idea to tell the public to get going before something happens. The fall and winter nights, with the world's top entertainment on the air are approaching. The radio parts manufacturers have the advantage of the automobile people in that they know when these big events are going to occur. In the automobile field they have to wait for the freaks of the weather man. But they have found that the channels that get out newspaper, magazine, radio and poster advertising are unusually smooth functioning. Able to blazon a warning to act before a storm breaks. The same facilities can serve radio equally well. Warning advertising benefits everybody in the automobile business. When an owner is tipped off to change oil, to change lubrication, to buy chains, his prompt action tinkles the cash registers of everybody in the field. The poster put up in a dealers window helps sell every brand in that particular shop. Remember this: Anywhere from 15 to 20 per cent of the radios in this country are buzzing, humming, hoarse-voiced and verging on incoherence. A lot of owners are tolerating them when they need only a prod to take action and get them fixed up. That action will be based on the desire to have things ship-shape when some big program comes along. If servicemen and parts manufacturers really want to hit when the iron is hot, that is the angle that will turn the trick. BIG TIME BROADCASTS Fall Programs Have What It Takes EMERGENCY—When infantile paralysis broke out in Chicago not owning a good radio was equivalent to playing “hookey.” For school opening was postponed two weeks, teachers took the air, taught pupils listening in at home. NOVELTY—Tickling the fancy of the younger generation is an innovation introduced by Stewart-Warner’s Horace Heidt. The King Sisters produce an unusual rhythm effect with cocktail shakers full of BB shot. NAMES—From Hollywood come stellar performances by screen stars such as these. Programs originating in the West Coast movie Mecca continue to intrigue the nation. Fueled with a dummy . . . W. C. FIELDS Blonde bombshell . . . ALICE FAYE Doubly lucky . . . CHARLES BUTTERWORTH RADIO RETAILING, OCTOBER, 1937 Smart Style Additions TO THE 1938 LINE OF ARVIN RADIOS With these smart new additions to the line, Arvin now offers more than 30 models, featuring styling that appeals and better radio reception with the Phantom Filter Circuit—two fundamental qualities that sell radios. Of course, Arvin has automatic tuning and all the other features you've heard so much about—but Arvin offers, in addition, better-looking and better-performing radios at most attractive prices. NOBLITT-SPARKS INDUSTRIES, INC. • COLUMBUS, INDIANA Phantom Princess Model 838 AT—8 tubes with automatic stop-light tuning. Phantom Fawn Model 638—6-tube console at a modest cost. Phantom Vogue Model 848 CS—8-tube chairside combination radio-phonograph. Phantom President Model 828 AT—8 tubes with automatic stop-light station tuning. Also Phantom Beauty Model 828A without automatic tuning. Phantom Deb Model 838 CS—8-tube chairside set. Fold-over top hides controls. Phantom Grad Model 638 CS—a lovely 6-tube chairside radio with built-in shelves for books and magazines. An exceptional value. Phantom Mate Model 528 CS—5-tube chairside radio at a low price. Phantom Ace Model 568 DW—5 tubes—two-tone ivory and mahogany. Phantom Pal Model 518 DW—5 tubes—two-tone ivory and mahogany. UNLIKE department stores and retail chains, many independent dealers with administrative attention focused on sales totals are prone to give little or no attention to the element of time in its relation to the movement of merchandise. In the delusion of wide profit margins and normal sales volume it is natural to assume that all sales made above cost result in a profit. If the independent dealer could go behind the scenes with his large competitors he would see the fallacy of this belief—reflected in the emphasis placed on stock turnover. With an investment frequently too small, the independent must use his capital with higher efficiency than does his large competitors. The way to increase turnover for more profit is not to reduce price but to concentrate investment on fast moving goods and eliminate stock whose sales do not measure up to a profitable standard. It follows then that a standard should be set, all units within the inventory to be measured in the light of this standard. To illustrate a business just within the satisfactory class has been typified. The proprietor has an investment of $5,000, new merchandise sales amount to $40,000 annually. The proprietor takes the regular commission on sales that he makes and in addition must have an annual income in the form of net profit from the sales end of the business of $2,400 to justify its existence. For the sake of simplicity in this example sales of service, together with costs and expenses chargeable to this operation, have been eliminated. The average inventory for the year is found to be as follows: \| Inventories \| At Cost \| At Retail \| \|-------------\|---------\|-----------\| \| January 1 \| $1,900 \| $3,065 \| \| March 31 \| 2,900 \| 4,677 \| \| June 30 \| 2,600 \| 4,193 \| \| September 30\| 3,100 \| 5,000 \| \| December 31 \| 2,000 \| 3,226 \| \| Average \| 2,500 \| 4,032 \| In the Statement of Profit and Loss below under "Actual" is the sales operating history for the year. ### STATEMENT OF PROFIT AND LOSS \| \| Actual \| Per cent Sales \| Minimum Standard \| \|----------------------\|--------\|----------------\|------------------\| \| Sales \| $40,000\| 100 \| $29,565 \| \| Less: Cost of goods sold \| 24,800 \| 62 \| 18,330 \| \| Gross profit \| $15,200\| 38 \| $11,235 \| \| Deduct direct selling expenses: \| \| \| \| \| Overallowances on trade-ins \| $2,000 \| 5 \| $1,478 \| \| Commissions \| 3,600 \| 9 \| 2,661 \| \| Reserve for servicing\| 400 \| 1 \| 296 \| \| Total \| 6,000 \| 15 \| 4,435 \| \| Selling profit \| $9,200 \| 23 \| $6,800 \| \| Operating expenses \| 6,800 \| 17 \| 6,800 \| \| Net profit \| $2,400 \| 6 \| $0 \| Under direct selling "expenses 'Overallowances on trade-ins'" represents price concessions made in the form of allowances on trade-ins in excess of their actual value—resale value less cost of repairs and replacements needed to put them in shape for resale. Service reserve is a provision out of sales to cover subsequent costs of possible service work that may have to be done without charge in accordance with service policies and sales guarantees. Determining Overhead Per Day To arrive at the stock turnover divide the sales amounting to $40,000 by the average inventory at retail—$4,032 = 9.92 turns per year, or once in about 37 days. (The same result may be had by dividing cost of sales—$24,800 by average inventory at cost—$2,500). This means that to cover operating overhead chargeable against merchandise sales and show a net profit from sales of $2,400 an average inventory at cost of $2,500 must average a complete turn every 37 days with cost of goods sold and direct selling expenses remaining at the same percentage of sales. So far the inventory has been taken as a whole and we have been dealing with averages. Within the inventory certain articles have turned 15 or 18 times, others only 5 or 6 times. However, it would seem that an item selling on a gross margin of 38 per cent about once in 37 days has been satisfactory from the standpoint of profits. The Unit Sales Analysis below (left hand column—37 days) shows what actually happens when an article priced at $100, costing $62 with direct selling expenses of 15 per cent of sales is sold on the 37th day after receipt. Annual overhead of $6,800 amounts to $18.63 per day. Therefore, the overhead absorbed by this item is the portion of average inventory at cost that it represents multiplied by the daily cost of overhead and again, by the number of days in inventory or \[ \frac{62}{2500} \times \$18.63 \times 37 = \$17 \] \| 37 Days \| 50 Days \| \|---------\|---------\| \| Sale \| $100 \| \| Cost of goods sold \| $62 \| \| Gross profit \| $38 \| \| Less direct selling expenses \| $15 \| \| Selling profit \| $23 \| \| Less: Operating expenses \| $17 \| \| Net profit \| $6 \| Setting a Minimum Standard However, this stock turn of 9.92 times is a standard average that must be maintained or exceeded. Somewhere below it is a minimum that must be found and applied as a test for each item of inventory. Presume this minimum to be the number of turns per year that will show no loss after applying overhead to each sale—in other words the number of sales necessary to break even on the item. Alongside the Statement of Profit and Loss—Actual, figures reflecting a Minimum Standard have been arrived at in this way: Eliminating a net profit, the selling profit of $6,800 is required to cover overhead which will fluctuate very little with sales volume. Direct selling expenses and cost of goods sold will be the same percentages of sales. Therefore sales amounting to $29,565, resulting in gross profit of $11,235 are needed to cover all expenses without anything left over. In reaching the sales total of $29,565 with an average inventory of $2,500 at cost, stock must turn 7.33 times per year at a gross profit of 38 per cent or once in about 50 days. Any article not up to this standard is absorbing too much overhead and in consequence is being handled at a merchandising loss. In the Unit Sales Analysis (right hand column—50 days) may be seen the application of overhead on this basis. \[ \frac{62}{2500} \times \$18.63 \times 50 = \$23 \] Effect of Special Discounts So far the principle has applied only to goods selling on a gross profit margin of 38 per cent, the ratio of sales as a whole. However the inventory contains items that produce a greater or less margin than the average due to varying discounts and to selling prices set at variance with list prices. A $100 sale costing $50—a gross profit of $50—less selling costs of $15 would be \[ \frac{50}{2500} \times \$18.63 = \$3.726 \text{ per day, selling profit } - \$35. \div \$3.726 = 94 \text{ days or, more simply:} \] \[ \frac{35}{\left( \frac{50}{2500} \times 18.63 \right)} = 94 \] representing a turnover of 3.88 times annually as a minimum. Inversely, a (Please turn to page 53) Green Pastures this winter FOR YOU MILLIONS OF LIVE PROSPECTS TODAY A nation-wide survey by Radio Retailing reveals this startling fact— "If the government's ambitious 8-year rural electrification plan is carried out, 1945 will still find more than 4,000,000 farms without this service." This map (see legend at right) shows the enormous potential in farm radio business open to you—regardless of what progress has been made in "high-line" development. Crash this fertile market at a real profit with the new Willard Radio Batteries Are you ready for what promises to be the biggest year for battery-receiver sales in radio history? If you're in a position to "cash in" with a good line of farm radios, remember this—the quality of the reception in a 2 or 6 volt set can be no better than the INSIDE quality of its batteries. Don't gamble your reputation on inferior batteries! Don't risk losing good customers. Your customers will be better satisfied and you'll make a better profit selling Willards. Designed and built especially for radio use, these Willard Radio Batteries last longer, perform better and cost less to own. In them you'll find the same dependability that make Willard Automotive Batteries first choice among the millions of American car owners. And Willard has a special "Radio Dealer Proposition" that makes it easy and profitable to add these popular-priced batteries to your radio lines—plus a "cracker-jack" merchandising plan that really moves 'em. For your reputation's sake, for profit's sake, tear out and mail the coupon today. FREE Information—Make More Profits WILLARD STORAGE BATTERY CO., CLEVELAND, OHIO If it means more profit to me, I want the details of your SPECIAL proposition on radio batteries. Name ____________________________________________ Address __________________________________________ City ______________________________________________ State _____________________________________________ Willard Radio Batteries Cost less to own ...BECAUSE THEY LAST LONGER AND PERFORM BETTER PAGE 28 RADIO RETAILING, OCTOBER, 1937 A WINDOW THAT WON'T WEAR OUT By I. L. Cochrane 1 . . . . . THE FINISHED DISPLAY 2 . . . CENTER SECTION DETAILS The display described costs no more than $30 to build. In articles to follow the author will tell how it may be varied and adapted to other types of merchandise, at slight additional cost, providing a novel and effective motion window throughout an entire season. NOW we have automatic tuning. This new lazy man's aid has something fascinating about it which can be readily dramatized in a radio store window. One might say that automatic tuning was made to be sold in this manner. To any display man, and to most dealers, the pulling power of the setup described in the following paragraphs will be obvious. Shown finished in illustration 1, it will be seen the display consists of four separate units, three show sections and a base. Flash! The disc marked WEAF lights up. Two seconds on and then out again. Then WOR, and so on until the whole series of stations has been covered. Finally, the translucent panel in the base lights up. Then the station series is repeated all over again. The two end show pieces are decorated cardboard cutouts. Manufacturers' lithographs may, of course, be substituted for these. If a poster of a young lady pressing tuning buttons, for example, is available, colored ribbons might be run from each of the painted buttons under her fingers to the lighted circles of the display. (Please turn to page 52) \| MANUFACTURER'S NAME AND ADDRESS \| P. A. System \| Int. Comm. \| Mikes \| Pickups \| Spkrns. \| Recording Mach. \| \|---------------------------------\|-------------\|-----------\|-------\|---------\|--------\|----------------\| \| Acme Sound Co., 2758 Broadway, New York, N. Y. \| Portable \| Wireless \| Crystal \| Horns — Hailles \| P. M. Dyn \| Magnetic \| \| Allied Recording Products Co., 126 W. 48th St., New York, N. Y. \| Fixed \| Cable-Connected \| Dynamic \| Recording Blank \| Dynamic \| Magnetic \| \| American Automatic Mfg. Co., 300 S. Dearborn St., Chicago \| Mobile \| Carbon \| Condenser \| P. A. Amplifiers \| Magnetic \| \| \| American Carrier Call Co., 39 W. 60th St., New York, N. Y. \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| American Microphones Co., 915 S. Western Ave., Los Angeles \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| American Radio Corp., 1776 Broadway, New York, N. Y. \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| American Transformer Co., 178 Emmet St., Newark, N. J. \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Ampex Corp., 561 Broadway, New York, N. Y. \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Amplifier Co. of America, 375 Broadway, New York, N. Y. \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Amplion Products Corp., 38 W. 21st St., New York, N. Y. \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Amplitone Products Co., 152 W. Washington St., New York, N. Y. \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Amplitude Corp., 201 W. 23rd St., New York \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Ariston Mfg. Corp., 4045 Diversey Ave., Chicago, Ill. \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Atlas Mfg. Co., 1254 N. Peoria St., Chicago, Ill. \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Atlas Microphone Labs., 830 Market St., Youngstown, Ohio. \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Atlas Sound Corp., 1451 30th St., Brooklyn, N. Y. \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Audio Co., 306 Fifth Ave., New York, N. Y. \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Audio Development Co., 4341 France Ave., S. Minn., Minn. \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Autorecording Co., 3855 N. Hamilton Ave., Chicago \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Automatic Microphone Co., 1000 E. Grand River, S. E., Grand Rapids, Mich. \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Baltimore Radio Corp., 721 Broadway, New York, N. Y. \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Bandmaster Co., 111 Dartmouth St., Boston, Mass. \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Bell & Howell Co., 611 E. Goodrich, Columbus, O. \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Bendix Radio Mfg. Co., Wood Lake, Minn. \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Bant Electric Co., 1000 Grove St., Irvington, N. J. \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| David Haag Co., 1000 W. 14th St., New York, N. Y. \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Boudette & Co., Chelsea, Mass. \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Brown & Sharpe Mfg. Co., 1924 Wash. Blvd., St. Louis, Mo. \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Bruno Labs., 30 W. 15th St., New York, N. Y. \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Brunswick Record Corp., 1775 Broadway, New York, N. Y. \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Brunswick Victor Mfg. Co., 1000 Euclid Ave., Cleveland, Ohio. \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Bud Radio, Inc., Cleveland, Ohio \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| C. F. Carlson Speakers, Inc., 100 W. 42nd St., New York, N. Y. \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Carver Corp., Ft. Wayne, Ind. \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Central Communication Devices, Inc., 140-144 W. 22nd St., New York, N. Y. \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Cincinnati Radio Corp., St. Clair, Conn. \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Collins Radio Co., Cedar Rapids, Iowa \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Colortone, Inc., P. O. Box 366, South Bend, Ind. \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Columbia Phonco, Inc., 1776 Broadway, New York, N. Y. \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Columbia Records, 1776 Broadway, New York, N. Y. \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Commonwealth Radio Mfg. Co., 4448 Lincoln Ave., Chicago, Ill. \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Commonwealth Speaker Co., Inc., 1000 W. 14th St., New York, N. Y. \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Communication Eng. Corp., 110 E. 42nd St., New York, N. Y. \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Connecticut Tel. & Elec. Corp., Meriden, Conn. \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Consolidated Communications Corp., 121 Fidelity Bldg., Baltimore, Md. \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Consolidated Radio Products Co., 361 W. Superior St., Chicago, Ill. \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Continental Motors Corp., 1380 E. 106th St., Detroit, Mich. \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Continental Mfg. Co., 630 N. Oaklawn Ave., Chicago, Ill. \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Conversophone Co., 17 W. 66th St., New York, N. Y. \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Crayola Radio Corp., Cincinnati, Ohio \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Delavan Sound Corp., 123 Summit Ave., Montclair, N. J. \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Demosee, Inc., 29 W. 57th St., New York, N. Y. \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Hermann Deutelbaum, 1000 W. 14th St., New York, N. Y. \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Dictaphon Products Co., Inc., 680 Fifth Ave., New York City \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Eastern Radio & Television Co., 130 Liberty St., New York, N. Y. \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Electro-Acoustic Mfg. Co., 141 E. 25th St., New York, N. Y. \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Electrical Labs Co., 141 E. 25th St., New York, N. Y. \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Electronic Research Labs., 2222 W. Jersey Blvd., Chicago, Ill. \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Electro-Acoustic Pdls. Co., 731 Birmingham, Pa., Wayne, Ind. \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Electronic Devices, Inc., Warren, Pa. \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Electronic Industries, Inc., 1616 Melrose Ave., Hollywood, Cal. \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Electronic Devices Corp., 164 N. Main St., Chicago, Ill. \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Electro Voice Mfg. Co., 324 E. Colfax Ave., South Bend, Ind. \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Electra Tone Corp., 1000 W. 14th St., New York, N. Y. \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Epiphon, Inc., 142 W. 14th St., New York, N. Y. \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Esper Mfg. Co., Inc., 124 E. 25th St., New York, N. Y. \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Fairchild Camera & Instrument Corp., 121 Fidelity Bldg., New York, N. Y. \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Fox Sound Equip. Corp., 3120 Monroe St., Toledo, Ohio \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Gates Radio & Supply Co., Inc., 4th St., Quincy, Ill. \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| General Elec. Co., Bridgeport, Conn. \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| General Illuminating Corp., 16 Lander St., Providence, R. I. \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| General Pictures Co., 3214 Taylor St., Elyria, Ohio. \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Thomas B. Gillies & Co., Ltd., Chicago, Ill. \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Harday Inc., 524 W. Broadway, New York City \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Holloway Co., 72 Spring St., New York, N. Y. \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Halter-Cabot Elec. Co., 125 Amory St., Boston, Mass. \| \| \| \| \| \| \| ## AND THEIR PRODUCTS ### MANUFACTURER'S NAME AND ADDRESS \| P. A. System \| Int. Comm. \| Mikes \| Pick-ups \| Spkrs. \| Recording Mach. \| \|--------------\|------------\|-------\|----------\|--------\|-----------------\| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Company Name \| Address Details \| \|--------------\|-----------------\| \| InterCall Systems, Inc., Fifth & Norwood, P. O. Box 615, Dayton, Ohio. \| \| International Telephone Machine Corp., 270 Broadway, New York, N. Y. \| \| Jenkins Elec. Co., Hellman, Ill. \| \| Jenkins & Adair, 3333 Helmont Ave., Chicago, Ill. \| \| J. R. Mason Elec. Mfg. Co., 606 S. Dearborn Ave., Chicago, Ill. \| \| Krueger Communications, Inc., 250 W. 51st St., New York, N. Y. \| \| Lansing Mfg. Co., Los Angeles, Calif. \| \| La Salle Radio Corp., 140 Washington St., New York City. \| \| Lafayette Radio Corp., 637 Broadway, New York, N. Y. \| \| Lifetime Corp., 1012 Madison Ave., Toledo, Ohio. \| \| Limrite Elec. Co., 115 Van Brunt St., Pittsburgh, Pa. \| \| Fred M. Link, 255 W. 48th St., New York, N. Y. \| \| Maranavox Co., 2131 Bueller Road, Fort Wayne, Ind. \| \| Marconiophone, Inc., 679 Madison Ave., New York, N. Y. \| \| National Radio Corp., 111 West 42nd St., New York, N. Y. \| \| Miles Reproducer Co., 812 Broadway, New York, N. Y. \| \| Major Record Co., 58 W. 25th St., New York, N. Y. \| \| Morton Radio Mfg. Co., Inc., 60 W. 42nd St., New York, N. Y. \| \| Operadio Mfg. Co., St. Charles, Ill. \| \| Ottawa Radio Corp., 308 E. Ayer St., Ottawa, Ill. \| \| Oriental Tartak Radio Corp., 915 W. 18th St., Chicago, Ill. \| \| Pierre Airo, Inc., 510 Sixth Ave., New York City. \| \| Papeen Elec. Corp., 79 Madison Ave., New York, N. Y. \| \| Pearlard Elec. Mfg. Co., Ind. \| \| Philco Radio & Tel. Corp., Philadelphia, Pa. \| \| Pritzelong, Inc., 100 W. 42nd St., Kansas City, Mo. \| \| Pureelecronic Labs., 612 Rockwell Ave., New Dorp, N. Y. \| \| Pilgrim Elec. Corp., 44 W. 18th St., New York City. \| \| Portola Radio Corp., 1013 Madison Ave., New York, N. Y. \| \| Presto Record Corp., 100 W. 10th St., New York, N. Y. \| \| Proctor & Co., 17 W. 50th St., New York, N. Y. \| \| Public Radio, Inc., 201 E. 65th St., Cleveland, Ohio. \| \| Quack-Nielsen Co., Cottage Grove Ave. & 33rd Place, Chicago, Ill. \| \| Racon Elec. Co., 52 E. 15th St., New York, N. Y. \| \| Radio Accessories, Inc., 100 W. 42nd St., Kansas City, Mo. \| \| Radio Receptor Co., 251 W. 19th St., New York, N. Y. \| \| Radio Speaker, Inc., 1330 S. Michigan Ave., Chicago, Ill. \| \| Radiola Mfg. Corp., 336 W. 42nd St., New York, N. Y. \| \| Radiotone Recording Co., 6103 Melrose Ave., Hollywood, Calif. \| \| Rauland Corp., 3341 Belmont Ave., Chicago, Ill. \| \| RCA Victor, 1200 W. 42nd St., New York, N. Y. \| \| Recording Equipment Mfg. Co., 6611 Sunset Blvd., Hollywood, Calif. \| \| Regal Amplifier & Corp., 14 W. 14th St., New York, N. Y. \| \| Rextron Corp., Ltd., 2101 Bryant St., San Francisco, Calif. \| \| Roia Co., 2870 E. Superior Ave., Cleveland, Ohio. \| \| Seeburg Corp., Inc., Gardena, Calif. \| \| Sethra-Carman Co., Inc., 2233 University St., St. Paul, Minn. \| \| Shure Bros. Co., Inc., 225 W. Huron St., Chicago, Ill. \| \| Simplex Elec. Co., 100 Fifth Ave., New York, N. Y. \| \| Selsyn Corp., 1700 Peachtree St., N. E., Atlanta, Ga. \| \| Sound Products, 704 N. Curson Ave., Hollywood, Calif. \| \| Sound Systems, Inc., 1000 Superior Ave., Cleveland, Ohio. \| \| Speakeasy Mfg. Co., 1834 S. 52nd Ave., Chicago, Ill. \| \| Stromberg Carlson Tel. Mfr. Co., Rochester, N. Y. \| \| Studio King, Inc., 4220 South Ave., Chicago, Ill. \| \| Tech Laboratories, 703 Newark Ave., Jersey City, N. J. \| \| Tenna Corp., 926 Howard St., San Francisco, Calif. \| \| I. H. T. Corp., 100 W. 42nd St., Kansas City, Mo. \| \| Toledo Sound Equip. Labs., 1215 Jackson Ave., Toledo, Ohio. \| \| Transducer Corp., 10 Rockefeller Plaza, New York, N. Y. \| \| Transonic Corp., 14 W. 14th St., New York, N. Y. \| \| Transformer Corp. of America, 69 Wooster St., New York City. \| \| Turn Co., Cedar Rapids, Iowa. \| \| Unit Reproducers Mfg. Co., 209 E. Main St., Rochester, N. Y. \| \| United Reproducers, Springfield, Ohio. \| \| United Scientific Labs., Inc., 518 8th Ave., New York, N. Y. \| \| United Sound Equip. Co., 100 W. 42nd St., St. Paul, Minn. \| \| United Sound Products, 819 W. North Ave., Chicago, Ill. \| \| Universal Phonophone Co., Inglewood, Calif. \| \| Upton Elec. Labs., 29 W. 57th St., New York, N. Y. \| \| Utah Elec. Products Co., 100 W. 42nd St., Kansas City, Mo. \| \| Victory Speakers, Inc., 131 E. 14th St., Oakland, Calif. \| \| Webster, Chicago, 5622 Bloomingdale St., Chicago, Ill. \| \| Western Elec. Co., Inc., 195 Broadway, New York, N. Y. \| \| Western DeCoster, Inc., 2233 University Ave., St. Paul, Minn. \| A Best Seller Among Radio Dealers! The new—pocket size "RADIO TRADE-IN ALLOWANCE BLUE BOOK" to —end the bickering and trouble over a fair trade-in price and to —help radio dealers make a decent net profit on set sales! Do "trade-ins" make your store a battle ground? Every radio dealer has to face the problem of appraising "trade-in" sets on which too generous an allowance wipes out the net profit from the sale of a new receiver and too small an allowance drives the customer to a competitor's store. To help dealer's arrive at a just "trade-in" allowance figure, Radio Retailing has published the first authentic, comprehensive directory of "trade-in" maximum allowances ever compiled for radio receivers made in this country from 1931 to 1935. This un-paralleled data appeared in Radio Retailing's June issue but the immediate demand for it was so wide spread that the entire directory was reprinted in a handy, pocket-size book and is now offered to the trade at a nominal price. Every radio dealer should have this book on his counter and in the hands of his salesmen. It can be used to drive home to the customer a semi-official "trade-in" figure which is fair to the dealer and will insure a legitimate profit on the sale of any receiver. An investment of 50c in the TRADE-IN ALLOWANCE BLUE BOOK may save you hundreds of dollars in the course of the year and eliminate most of the headaches arising from lengthy arguments with your customers. Order a copy of the "Radio Trade-in Allowance Blue Book" for your store today and you'll be surprised at its value as a year around selling aid. Simply attach the coupon to your letterhead and mail it with the fee. SINGLE COPIES 50c Each Quantity Rates as Follows: 25-99 Copies—40c each 100-499 Copies—35c each More than 500 Copies—25c each All Orders for Less than 10 Copies Must Be Accompanied by Full Remittance in Currency, Check or Money Order USE THIS HANDY COUPON TO ORDER YOUR COPIES TODAY Gentlemen: Attached is $...........for which you are to send me ..........copies of the handy, pocket-size "RADIO TRADE-IN ALLOWANCE BLUE BOOK" by return mail, postage pre-paid. Remittance Must Accompany This Order Name ................................................................ Firm .................................................................. Street .................................................................. City ....................................................... State .............. RR10-37 Servicers Spike Consumer Sales Use purchase orders making jobbers liable for any losses due to extension of discounts outside trade MINNEAPOLIS—The Radio Service Dealers Association of this city has adopted a standard purchase order form on which members order sets, parts and other equipment from jobbers. On the bottom of each form is the following, under the heading: "Terms of Purchase." The acceptance of this order constitutes approval of the following terms of purchase by the dealer: 1. That the jobber agrees to comply with the Minnesota Unfair Trade Practices Act, Laws 1937, Chapter 116 and the Minnesota Fair Trade Act, Laws 1937, Chapter 117. 2. That the jobber specifically agrees to sell the above items at less than the manufacturer's list prices only to bona fide retailers of this kind of merchandise. 3. That the jobber will use every means at his command to impartially protect all his dealers against the violation of the manufacturer's list prices. 4. That the jobber hereby agrees to honor industrial purchases made in lieu of employment purchases as strictly consumer buying entitled to the manufacturer's list prices only. 5. If the above terms of purchase are not acceptable to the jobber, this order must be canceled and the dealer notified thereof. 6. That the dealer placing this order is entitled to collect damages equivalent to the dealer discount plus costs of prosecution if injured by violation of these terms. This new plan went into effect June 15 and to date no jobber has refused to accept orders so filed. Before printing up the forms copies were submitted to the Minnesota State Attorney General's office by a committee and a verbal opinion rendered that there was no objection to the plan and no reason why the Association should not advocate it. The Association is, however, in no way involved as each purchase order becomes a separate legal contract between the dealer and the jobber. M. R. Iverson is president of the Association, and H. H. Cory secretary. Fada-New Jersey Formed ELIZABETH, N. J.—Fada Radio of New Jersey is a new distributing organization formed here by interests backed by Anthony and Frank Larco. Located at 1115 Elizabeth Avenue, this new organization will serve dealers throughout the state, with the exception of those in the lapover territory adjoining Pennsylvania, handled by the Rumsey Electric Company of Philadelphia. While the new organization, which will take over servicing as well as merchandising activities, represents no capital affiliate of the Fada Radio and Electric Company of Long Island City, N. Y., its nearness to the factory, according to officers, will permit service tantamount to what would be available were the factory itself to organize a new distributing company. Fair Trade For Univex NEW YORK—F. G. Klock, sales manager for the Universal Camera Corporation, maker of the Univex movie outfits, advises this company is now operating under Fair Trade Laws in 42 states where such legislation has been enacted, maintaining prices rigidly in these states. Bendix Washer Shown Unveiled to trade at company's first convention Sept. 23. SOUTH BEND—Priced at a figure which will allow for a trade-in and a substantial commission to specialty men, the Bendix washer made its bow at the first convention of Bendix Home Appliances, Inc., here September 23. Seventy-five distributors and their men, assembled from coast-to-coast, saw at first hand a machine which many of them had bought sight unseen. Realizing that he was presenting the unusual, sales manager Judd S. Sayre of Bendix marshalled his story as carefully as a lawyer before the bar. F. K. Hanlin of Underwriters' Laboratories vouched for Bendix washer construction. Carl Smelzer of Lever Brothers, soap makers, testified to its efficiency and economical soap consumption. Katharine Fisher of Good Housekeeping magazine declared that the machine came through with flying colors on their tests, and awarded the star of approval. President D. O. Scott stated that the patent situation was satisfactory, and that the firm did not intend to license other makers. W. H. Leininger, advertising manager, new from the automobile field, presented probably the most elaborate promotion program in the washer field. Emerson EHFA Approved WASHINGTON—The Electric Home and Farm Authority has just approved an arrangement with the Emerson Radio & Phonograph Corporation of New York whereby the Authority will cooperate with public utilities in financing the sale of Emerson receivers to consumers located on their lines. Radiotron Plant Expansion HARRISON, N. J.—RCA Radiotron is shortly to start construction of a new factory building here, at an estimated cost of between $750,000 and $1,000,000, according to Mayor Frederick J. Gassert. Much of this additional space, it is understood, will eventually be devoted to the manufacture and storage of television tubes. Consolidated’s Sharp CHICAGO—Sam Sharp, well-known to the middle-west for his activities in the capacitor business, is now with Consolidated Wire & Associated Corporations, handling manufacturers’ sales of Red Head condensers. New Service Group Formed Seeks affiliation of local organizations now functioning without central coordination unit CHICAGO—Radio Service Men of America, Inc., is the name chosen by a new association with national ambitions, just formed here. Joe Marty of Room 1533, Monadnock Block, is busy contacting local organizations in its behalf, has already covered much ground in the East and Middle West, with the active assistance of the Sales Managers Club and a number of manufacturers. The new national organization will, according to Marty, be run entirely by service men, functioning as a central source for the gathering and dissemination of information concerning developments in the radio field. It will, in this way, serve as liaison between manufacturers and individual local service organizations. Improving and promoting the welfare of servicemen will be another major objective. Three Lucky Winners NEW YORK—More than 2,000 participated in a competition staged by Transformer Corporation of America in behalf of Clarion amplifiers at the June Parts Show in Chicago. Winners, just announced, include Charles C. Tyler, chief electrician of the Chicago Grand Opera House, Arthur G. Mohaupt, service manager for Chicago’s Devon Laboratories and W. M. Emery, radio service engineer from Coon Rapids, Iowa, prizes being awarded in this order. Detrola Hires Two DETROIT—Otto Heilmann and Earl F. Bryant, formerly with American Bosch, have joined Detrola, Heilmann as district manager in the St. Louis, Missouri territory and Bryant as district manager in the Denver, Colorado territory. Both are already well known to the trade in the territories they will manage. LONDON—Birdseye of this season's very successful radio show held at Olympia CHAIRSIDE — H.M.V. introduced this novel set, serving also as a bookcase, glass-topped table. The entire cabinet may be revolved Zim Joins Norge DETROIT—Paul Zimmerman, for 25 years with General Electric, a director of both G. E. Supply and G. E. Contracts, has joined Norge as general sales manager. John H. Knapp steps up to the position of assistant to president Howard E. Blood. Four To Majestic CHICAGO—Majestic Radio and Television has appointed F. S. Dahl to its sales staff, covering upper New York State under divisional sales manager Edward Fairchild. Fred Toole will cover Alabama and Georgia and the lower half of South Carolina under the supervision of divisional sales manager Herzog. Russell Fryburg has been appointed district supervisor of northwestern states embracing Oregon, Washington and parts of Utah and Montana, with headquarters at Portland. Parker Randall has been appointed to the territory comprising the eastern half of Iowa, under Frank Hawley, divisional sales manager. Stromberg In Fall Drive Features Labyrinth in 11-day effort. Makes C.I.T. limited recourse finance plan available ROCHESTER—In the eleven days between October 12 and 23 Stromberg-Carlson, with the help of its dealers, drives to make more people conscious of the tone quality permitted by its "Labyrinth" feature. Advertising and store display material inviting the consumer to inspect modern models incorporating such design is going forward to the trade, is to be backed up by company advertising in consumer papers and national magazines. One of the most novel display pieces now going forward is a giant telegram in which Stromberg itself invites radio-minded consumers to see the sets in the store of a franchised dealer. This is to be used as the central piece of a window trim. Still another novelty is a Labyrinth puzzle-piece. Parts of the puzzle will be given to people entering stores and requesting them. Simultaneously with the Labyrinth drive Edwin C. Roworth, treasurer of the firm, announces that Stromberg-Carlson has signed with C.I.T. to further extend the credit services already available to dealers. Under the new agreement dealers can now use the C.I.T. limited recourse plan as well as the wholesale and full recourse plans. For Specialty Salesmanagers NEW YORK—Fresh from the pen of James Maratta is a new, 93 page book (Council For The Improvement of Specialty Selling, Inc., 185 Madison Ave., $2.50) entitled "How to Find and Train and Supervise Specialty Salesmen." Written in the simple and forceful manner of an experienced sales manager who knows the language of his potential readers, the book contains the following interesting chapters: How to find specialty salesmen... How sales tools increase volume and profits... Teaching salesmen selling-sense... How to conduct group interviews... Will men work better for salaries or commissions?... The value of contests and prizes... Seven rules for supervising a local organization... Successful ways to find business... How to use sales literature. Gooding Unveils Sparton WILMINGTON—F. R. Gooding Company, local distributor for Sparton, held a meeting for Del-Mar-Va Peninsula dealers September 23, introduced E. T. H. Hutchinson and Peter J. Lynch from the factory to the trade. At a Monte Carlo party which followed Claud N. Cahall of Harrington, Delaware, won a Sparton set; Harry Peach of Wilmington collected a Hammond clock; J. Croft earned a set of Voss rinse tubs; Geo. McMahon, Jr. got a Sparton horn and L. Downward won a Birnbach aerial kit. Two New Wilcox-Gay Execs CHARLOTTE, MICH.—C. M. Wilcox, president of the Wilcox-Gay Corporation, announces two appointments to the executive personnel of the company: Baynon Skinner as manager of the export division and Carl Clum in charge of advertising and sales promotion. The latter has been identified with national advertising agencies for the past fourteen years. FAMOUS FLORIDA FACES—Snapped at a Daytona Beach sales conference, left to right in front row: Thurow Radio's L. H. Harrell, F. F. Frick, Jimmy Stanford, Bill Jaudon, T. M. Bates. Middle row: Thurow's V. W. Thomas, Sylvania's R. P. Almy, Thurow's Herbert Brown, Andrew Magnuson. Back row: Sylvania's J. T. Fulweiler, Thurow's W. L. Oenchenh, C. E. Morgan, H. M. Carpenter, C. C. Campbell. 115 FROM JERSEY—Krich-Radisco, Newark distributor, bus-rode these dealers to Camden to see new RCA merchandise go through the mill. In lower photo, front row, left to right: Don Damont, Krich-Radisco Trenton district manager; H. S. Marquis, in charge of RCA's record advertising; Lou Roth, factory's New York rep; Glad Henderson; Tom Joyce, RCA's ad manager and Earl Pullen, the distributor's sales manager. RCA Service Meeting Schedule Stages demonstrations in 73 cities during November CAMDEN—From service manager E. C. Cahill of RCA Manufacturing Company comes the following schedule of service meetings to be held in cooperation with wholesale distributors during the month of November. Featured will be discussions of latest development in sound, alignment of modern receivers with band-spread shortwave tuning, volume regulation, compression and inverse feedback: \| City \| Date \| City \| Date \| \|---------------\|------\|---------------\|------\| \| Albany, N. Y. \| 11/8 \| Louisville, Ky.\| 11/4 \| \| Atlanta, Ga. \| 11/9 \| Memphis, Tenn. \| 11/2 \| \| Baltimore, Md.\| 11/18\| Memphis, Tenn. \| 11/12\| \| Birmingham, Ala\| 11/9 \| Miami, Fla. \| 11/23\| \| Boston, Mass. \| 11/10\| Minneapolis, Minn.\| 11/4 \| \| Bridgeport, Conn\| 11/2 \| Minneapolis, Minn.\| 11/9 \| \| Buffalo, N. Y.\| 11/22\| Nashville, Tenn.\| 11/4 \| \| Burlington, Vt.\| 11/4 \| New Orleans, La.\| 11/28\| \| Cedar Rapids, Ia.\| 11/12\| Oakland, Cal. \| 11/16\| \| Charlotte, N. C.\| 11/5 \| Oklahoma City, Okla.\| 11/12\| \| Chicago, Ill. \| 11/6 \| Omaha, Neb. \| 11/18\| \| Cincinnati, Ohio\| 11/9 \| Peoria, Ill. \| 11/16\| \| Cleveland, Ohio\| 11/7 \| Pittsburgh, Pa. \| 11/8 \| \| Columbus, Ohio\| 11/9 \| Portland, Ore. \| 11/16\| \| Dallas, Texas \| 11/30\| Providence, R. I.\| 11/16\| \| Davenport, Ia. \| 11/15\| Richmond, Va. \| 11/9 \| \| Denver, Colo. \| 11/10\| St. Louis, Mo. \| 11/5 \| \| Des Moines, Ia.\| 11/16\| Saginaw, Mich. \| 11/4 \| \| Detroit, Mich. \| 11/7 \| Salt Lake City, Utah.\| 11/30\| \| Elmira, N. Y. \| 11/18\| Salt Lake City, Utah.\| 11/23\| \| Erie, Pa. \| 11/2 \| San Antonio, Tex.\| 11/23\| \| Evanston, Mich.\| 11/2 \| San Diego, Calif.\| 11/16\| \| Evansville, Ind.\| 11/2 \| San Francisco, Calif.\| 11/18\| \| Fargo, N. D. \| 11/16\| Seattle, Wash. \| 11/23\| \| Grand Rapids, Mich.\| 11/16\| Shreveport, La. \| 11/16\| \| Hartford, Conn.\| 11/4 \| Sioux Falls, S. D.\| 11/10\| \| Houston, Tex. \| 11/19\| Spokane, Wash. \| 11/19\| \| Huntington, W. Va.\| 11/10\| Springfield, Mo. \| 11/2 \| \| Indianapolis, Ind.\| 11/12\| Syracuse, N. Y. \| 11/16\| \| Jackson, Miss. \| 11/16\| Tampa, Fla. \| 11/30\| \| Jacksonville, Fla.\| 11/16\| Toledo, Ohio. \| 11/12\| \| Kansas City, Mo.\| 11/23\| Tulsa, Okla. \| 11/9 \| \| Knoxville, Tenn.\| 11/2 \| Washington, D. C.\| 11/16\| \| Long Beach, Cal.\| 11/19\| Wichita, Kan. \| 11/2 \| \| Little Rock, Ark.\| 11/9 \| Wheeling, W. Va.\| 11/12\| \| Long Beach, Cal.\| 11/23\| Wichita, Kan. \| 11/4 \| \| Los Angeles, Cal.\| 11/18\| Fairchild Moves NEW YORK—From R. H. Lasche, manager of the Fairchild Aerial Camera Corporation's sound equipment division, comes last minute news that the entire Fairchild plant will be moved from Woodside, Long Island to 8806 Van Wyck Boulevard, Jamaica, Long Island, on October 9. The new factory, modern in every detail, contains thousands of square feet more floor space, will provide greatly increased manufacturing facilities. RCA Ups Five CAMDEN—L. W. Teegarden, formerly eastern division manager for RCA Manufacturing Company, has been placed in charge of radio tube sales to wholesale distributors. M. F. Blakeslee, formerly manager of the Chicago district, has been appointed manager of the eastern division with headquarters at the factory. Richard A. Graver, former manager of the Cleveland district, has been made manager of the Chicago district. A. G. Kemp, former package goods sales rep in Cleveland, has been made manager of the Cleveland district. F. J. Rising, formerly manager of the San Francisco district, has been appointed manager of the Los Angeles district, replacing E. W. Eisenhower, resigned. ONE GOOD SALE . . . DESERVES ANOTHER NORGE AUTOBUILT WASHERS . . . with their extra-value convenience features, refrigerator-porcelain tubs with steam-sealed covers, clothes-saving pressure-indicator wringers, sealed-in-oil Autobuilt transmissions—bring in prospects that are anxious to be sold. But when a demonstration closes the sale, it’s really just the beginning . . . AND ANOTHER... NORGE ROLLATOR REFRIGERATION Three lines—each one the outstanding leader in its price class. Each a genuine Rollator refrigerator. Most Low-Temp and Deluxe models have 12 different flexible interior arrangements—instantly changed, exclusively Norge. INVESTIGATE the Norge proposition today. Get in touch with your nearest distributor or write direct. Liberal finance plans make it easy to be a Norge dealer. A smashing sales promotion and advertising campaign is helping dealers break all-time sales records. Don’t miss this opportunity to make money with Norge. NORGE DIVISION Borg-Warner Corporation 606-670 E. Woodbridge St., Detroit, Mich. NORGE DUOTROL IRONERS . . . are the natural companions to the Norge washers. A satisfied washer owner is the finest prospect you can find for a Norge Duotrol Ironer. Talk about the double thermostatic heat controls on the scratch-proof, chromium-plated shoe, the movable knee-control, heat trap dome, porcelain table-top covers . . . and you’ll make another sale. AND ANOTHER... NORGE CONCENTRATOR RANGES Both gas and electric models lead in exclusive features, beauty, performance. The natural sales appeal of these ranges plus the desire of Norge owners to make their homes completely Norge give dealers an unequalled opportunity for range sales. NORGE Plus Value Home Appliances ROLLATOR REFRIGERATION (Domestic and Commercial) • GAS AND ELECTRIC RANGES WASHERS AND IRONERS • WHIRLATOR OIL BURNERS • GAS BURNERS • FINE-AIR FURNACES • COAL STOKERS • AIR CONDITIONING • CIRCULATOR ROOM HEATERS RADIO RETAILING, OCTOBER, 1937 Predicts Good Southern Season Says record cotton crop, fair prices will boost console sales CHICAGO—Good business, particularly in console receivers and especially those automatically tuned, is predicted by J. H. Clippinger, vice-president in charge of sales for Continental Radio & Television Corporation, returning from the South. Visited in Clippinger's travels were Dallas Radio of Dallas, Texas; Straus Bodenheimer of Houston; and McLendon Electric of Waco. About the latter he comments: "After hearing about Jess McLendon's expert marksmanship in connection with doves on a telephone wire I expect Jess to 'bag' some real business this season." GE's Clinic, November 8-9 CLEVELAND—The sixth annual merchandising clinic on electric home appliances, including radio, sponsored by General Electric Company, will be held here at Nela Park, November 8 and 9. More than 200 top executives of furniture and department stores are expected to attend. Details of the two-day program are being arranged by A. M. Sweeney, refrigeration sales manager; A. L. Pierce of the merchandising division and Carl J. Ballus, in charge of department and furniture store activities for the company's specially appliance sales division. Export Expert Shifts WOODSIDE, N. Y.—Frank A. D. Andrea, president of Andrea Radio Corporation, has appointed John J. Whyte as export manager. Whyte was formerly manager of the electrical division of American Steel Export, active New York firm. NEW REPS AND DISTRIBUTORS MOTOROLA—United Electric Supply of Salt Lake now has both home and car lines in Utah, southern Idaho, eastern Nevada, western Wyoming and southwestern Oregon. Electro-Pliance Company of Milwaukee has home and car sets for all of Wisconsin. HOWARD—J. H. Weymouth, a native Texan well known for his activity in behalf of a number parts manufacturers and for his association with several well known appliances houses, has been appointed district sales manager for Texas and western Louisiana. EMERSON—Dakota Harness & Hardware of Fargo, N. D. has the entire state and counties in western Minnesota. GREBE—Contacting distributors for this line are: Ben Levenson of 370 WILCOX-GAY—New distributors are: W-W Electric, Springfield, Ohio; Radio Accessories, Orlando, Fla.; Radio & Sound Service, Inc., Knoxville; Norwest Radio Labs., Shelby, Mont.; Thompson Radio, Zanesville, Ohio; Radio Electric Service, Harvey, N. Dakota. GATES—Norman B. Neely of Hollywood, California has this line exclusive for the state. MAJOR APPLIANCES—W. D. Rowlands, now president at resignation of H. E. Markland, former executive vice-president and sales manager. George Gray, Jacksonville, former district sales manager for Leonard, distributor for Kelvinator in middle west, now appointed general sales manager. Herb Brennen, former vice-president of Gross-Britten, New York, in full charge of radio division. TRIAD—Merton Dobbs of Portland appointed factory representative covering northwest territory; James C. Pope, Jr., Minneapolis, to cover Minnesota, North and South Dakota and western Wisconsin. MISSION BELL—Les Logan Co., San Francisco appointed representative of northern California. CLIMAX MACHINERY — New agents: Federal Distributing Co., 2004 Grand Ave., Kansas City, Mo.; Old Faithful Heater Co., 1220 S. Michigan Ave., Chicago, Ill.; Gambell Distributing Co, Nashville, Knoxville and Chattanooga, Tenn.; Machine Tool and Supply Co., 215 E. Second St., Tulsa, Okla.; Orient Air Conditioning and Commercial Refrigerating Co., 223 Orient Ave., Jersey City, N. J.; A. A. Uhalt, 1705 Orange St., Dallas, Texas. NEW STANCORMAN—C. L. Pugh, Standard Transformer's new sales promotion manager, has been in radio since 1923, was radio parts manager for Hughes-Peters of Columbus, later sold tubes and parts for RCA in midwest and managed Detroit's Radio Distributing parts department McKee Place, Pittsburgh; Carl Main of 199 N. Washington St. Delaware, Ohio; Ken Waite of 99 Bowdoin St., Newton Highlands, Mass.; B. W. Glassman, 235 Ward Parkway, Kansas City, Mo.; R. H. Cupples, 324 First Ave., Minneapolis; C. H. Mansfield, 810 West 6th St., Los Angeles and H. J. Lenichek, 2868 Birch St., Denver. KADETTE—Cloud Brothers of South Bend, Ind. is the latest distributor appointment by International Radio Corporation. STROMBERG-CARLSON — For northwest Iowa and northern and eastern Nebraska, Warren Electric of Sioux City, Iowa. ADMIRAL—Shepard Electric of Baltimore and Romar Radio Philadelphia have both taken on this radio line made by Continental Radio and Television. HARD WORK NETS RESULTS—Bob Wuerfel, chief engineer for Kadette, and Jack Scanlan of Muter, pack into the "Soo" district with the help of a guide . . . come out with some samples LATEST DEALER HELPS SLIDES, SHOWPIECE, CATALOG—Stromberg-Carlson has just released an illuminated, action showpiece boosting the Labyrinth. Clear notes are shown moving from the front of the speaker while distorted notes pass into the device and disappear. "Fidelity New to Radio" is the name of a new slide-film synchronized with sound. Lasts 15 minutes, is suitable for use by dealers and distributors in training salesmen. Comes for commercial or domestic turntables. Booklet giving highlights of film also available. A complete, new catalog of parts, tools and accessories lists all standard replacements for Stromberg radios including 1938 models. RECORDS, TUNING—RCA Victor announces a giant record made of cardboard and plugging popular dance-band recordings. First of a monthly series just out. A doorway display just brought out provides a mounting for the electric tuning remote unit made by this company. Built-in speaker permits the control box to be used in connection with an actual set inside the store or in the window. SCREWS, WASHERS—Shakeproof Lock Washer Company is now putting out a sheet called "Shakeproof Engineer." First issue contains dope on new thread-cutting screw, detailed information on entire lock-washer line. HAMANUAL—Standard Transformer Corporation October 1 released its new "Hamanual," a combination amateur catalog and construction manual. Contains 16 new transmitter circuits ranging from 5 watts to 1 kw. input, specifications on entire Stancor transformer line. DEMONSTRATOR—Galvin Manufacturing Corporation is now supplying distributor's salesmen with a complete Motorola electric push-button network tuning unit in a neat carrying case. It can be set up on a counter, works just like the unit in a complete set. TRANSFORMERS—Kenyon Transformer Company announces replacement line catalog R-2. Features new, double-shelled transformers and replacement types. BLANC DISCS—Mirror Record Corporation announces a new price schedule on blank discs for recording purposes, prints new prices in a catalog just off the presses. TROUBLE-SHOOTER—Radio & Technical Publishing Company has a special combination counter and wall display stand made to hold six Home-Radio "Gadgets" and six Auto-Radio "Gadgets," service aids printed in quick reference form. CONDENSERS—The Cornell-Dubilier Electric Corp., releases just as we go to press new catalog 151A, containing a complete listing of all capacitor types made, together with their characteristics and list prices. Given particular attention are condenser types in heavy demand at the present time. INSTRUMENTS—Supreme Instruments Corp., has a new two-color broadside showing the newest available radio service test instruments. Described in detail in this concern's set testers, analyzers, signal generators, multimeters, frequency-modulators and both 2-inch and 3-inch oscilloscopes. SPEAKER-MIKES—Wright-DeCoster offers a new booklet describing its entire line of devices designed to serve in intercommunicating systems as combination speakers and microphones. These range all the way from heavy-duty units designed for high power systems down to small units used in home-type systems. Circuit diagrams for their use are included. BALLASTS—The Muter Company announces a new catalog describing its complete line of ballast tubes, including a cross-referenced list of typical sets in which these are used. CONTROLS—International Resistance Co. releases the most comprehensive volume control replacement guide it has ever published. Containing more than 200 pages of reference material, the booklet lists virtually every receiver made up to the present date, contains in addition much technical information of value to servicemen, including handy calculation charts and graphs. ANTENNAS—Technical Appliance Corp. gives complete details relative to the theory, installation and operation of a new master antenna system, in a pamphlet just published. Particularly interesting are suggestions regarding the surveying of premises for such installations and estimating hints. TRANSFORMERS—Thordarson Electric Mfg. Co. is doing some justified bragging about its new replacement transformer encyclopedia. Included is complete data about power transformers, input transformers, output transformers and chokes. Information published, according to the company, covers 98.9 per cent of Rider's seven volumes. INTER-COMMUNICATORS—Operadio Manufacturing Co. describes its entire line of inter-communicator devices in a new catalog sheet, gives all details including prices. SOUND—RCA Manufacturing Company's commercial sound section has a new 36-page catalog listing more than 100 commercial sound products. It includes Sell the battery that broadcasting stations depend on DON'T let your customers down. They have confidence in your merchandise...that's why they deal with you. From the earliest days of radio, Exide Batteries have been used in every branch of the industry. And today, many of the leading broadcasting stations depend on Exides to help keep their programs on the air. Make certain your customers get the good reception they hope for...sell an Exide with each battery-operated set. Exides are especially designed radio batteries, built for long life and full power. They not only build customer satisfaction, but profit, for they are priced competitively, and subject to the regular radio trade discount. The Exide line is outstanding. Puts you in a favorable position on battery quality, completeness of line and price. There are 2-volt and 6-volt Exides in various capacities, as well as 6-volt batteries for wind-driven chargers and generators. Mail the coupon today for complete details. --- EXIDE RADIO BATTERIES \| R.M.A. \| Type Rate \| Approximate Hours \| Price Each \| \|--------\|-----------\|-------------------\|------------\| \| 100-hr.\| 2R-105 \| 210 at .5 Amp. Drain \| $4.95 \| \| \| 2R-160 \| 320 at .5 Amp. Drain \| 6.95 \| \| \| 2R-230 \| 460 at .5 Amp. Drain \| 8.95 \| \| \| 6R-100 \| 50 at 2 Amp. Drain \| 11.10 \| \| \| 6R-150 \| 75 at 2 Amp. Drain \| 19.95 \| Other types and sizes described in folder. --- THE ELECTRIC STORAGE BATTERY CO., Philadelphia The World's Largest Manufacturers of Storage Batteries for Every Purpose Exide Batteries of Canada, Limited, Toronto --- THE ELECTRIC STORAGE BATTERY CO. 1906 W. Allegheny Ave., Philadelphia Please send me new free Exide Radio Folder, giving complete details on the Exide Radio Battery Proposition, Dealer Price Sheet, and name of Exide Wholesaler near me. NAME__________________________________________ NAME OF FIRM_________________________________ ADDRESS_______________________________________ --- RURAL ELECTRIFICATION ADMINISTRATION High Line Construction Contracts Awarded by the REA since the last issue of RADIO RETAILING ALABAMA—Baldwin County Elec. Membership Corp., Bay Minette, 211 miles; Cherokee County Elec. Memb. Corp., Center, 160 miles. ARKANSAS—Arkansas Power & Light Co., Conway, Pope and Yell, 117 miles; Independent, Izard, Sharp, White and Jackson, 116 miles; Boone, Marion, Newton and Searcy, 127 miles; Grant, Hot Spring, Garland, Clark, Saline, 142 miles. GEORGIA—Travis County Rural Elec. Assn., Delilla, 200 customers; South Rural Elec. Memb. Corp., Alma, 460 miles. IDAHO—Northern Idaho Rural Elec. Rehahill Assn., Sandpoint, 103 miles. ILLINOIS—Eastern Ill. Power Coop., Watseka, 250 customers. INDIANA—Jay County Rural Elec. Memb. Corp., Posey, 120 miles; Rush County Rural Elec. Memb. Corp., Rushville, 250 miles; Jackson County Rural Elec. Memb. Corp., Seymour, 245 miles. KENTUCKY—Kingman Power Co., Kingman, 75 customers. MICHIGAN—Ontonagon, 113 miles; Charlevoix, 455 miles. MINNESOTA—P.I.C.K. Coop. Elec. Assn., Brainerd, 40 customers; Dakota County Elec. Coop., Farmington, 205 miles; Scott County Elec. Assn., 163 miles; Crow Wing Coop. L & P Assn., 210 miles; Douglas County Coop. L & P Assn., Alexandria, 212 miles; Moka County Coop. L & P Assn., Anoka, 100 customers; Lake Region Coop. Elec. Assn., Fergus Falls, 100 customers; Goodhue County, 100 miles; Icicle Assn., Zumbrota, 390 miles; Central Min. Coop. Power Assn., Redwood Falls, 70 miles. MISSISSIPPI—Southwest Miss. Elec. Power Assn., Lorman, 208 miles; Conohma Elec. Power Assn., Clarkesdale, 81 miles. MISSOURI—Howard County Elec. Coop., Ashland, Fayette, 177 miles; Mo. Rural Elec. Coop. Assn., Palmyra, 320 miles. NEBRASKA—Howard County Rural Public Power Dist., 100 customers; Lincoln County Rural Public Power District, 50 customers. NEVADA—Clark County, 94 miles. NORTH DAKOTA—Baker Elec. Coop., Baker, 12 miles. OHIO—South Central Rural Elec. Coop., Lancaster, 105 miles; Union Rural Elec. Coop., Marysville, 100 miles. OKLAHOMA—Caddo County Elec. Coop., Albert, 70 customers; Oklahoma Inter-County Elec. Coop., Norman, 150 customers; Oklahoma Valley Rural Elec. Co., Thackerville, 300 customers. OREGON—Umatilla Elec. Coop., Hermiston, 150 customers. PENNSYLVANIA—Tyrone County Rural Elec. Coop., Aspin, Mansfield Borough, 200 customers; S. W. Central Rural Elec. Coop. Assn., Indiana, 250 customers; Claverack Coop. Assn., Towanda, 163 miles. SOUTH CAROLINA—York County, 100 miles; S. C. State Rural Elec'n. Authority, 300 miles. SOUTH DAKOTA—Union County Rural Power Co., Elk Point, 197 miles; Lincoln-Union Elec. Co., Alester, 100 customers. TEXAS—Midgley, Willacy and Cameron Counties, 805 miles. VIRGINIA—Nelson, Rockbridge, Amherst, Appomattox, Albemarle Counties, 129 miles; Northern Virginia Elect. Coop., War saw, 140 miles; Southside Elec. Coop., 100 customers. WEST VIRGINIA—Hardon Rural Elec'n. Assn., Clarksburg, 196 miles. WISCONSIN—Pierce-Pepin Elec. Coop., Ellsworth, 319 miles; Columbus Rural Elec. Coop., Columbus, 365 miles. WYOMING—Lower Valley Power & Light, Inc., Freedom, 20 customers. PREVIEW of NEW PRODUCTS AMERICAN COMMUN'S American Communications Corp. 1650 Broadway, New York, N. Y. CODE READER—All-wave listeners and DX'ers now have a new field of exploration opened up for them with the Code Reader; transforms code signals into a visual record on a specially treated tape which anyone can decode; may also be used by beginners to acquire speed and accuracy; easily installed; $20, less tubes. GENERAL ELECTRIC General Electric Co. Bridgeport, Conn. MODEL F-96—Features touch tuning; because the action is instantaneous the set is silent while touch tuning between stations; automatic frequency; tone monitor circuit; 12 in. speaker; modern wrap-around type cabinet; 4 other consoles also announced. MODEL F-51—Housed in a plastic cabinet of striking modern design; 6½ in. dynamic speaker; tone monitor circuit; 5 tubes; lists around $30; Model F-40, 4 tubes, plastic cabinet, is about $20; three other table sets, both ac and ac-dc. ARVIN Noblitt Sparks Industries, Inc. Columbus, Ind. ARVIN PHANTOM KING MODEL 1427—Walnut console with automatic touch tuning; choice of 10 stations by simply pushing a button; double Phantom Filter circuit; 14 tubes; two speaker units—one 12 in. bass and one 6 in. treble; electric eye station focus. ARVIN GRAD MODEL 638CS—One of several new models that combine chairside convenience and smart cabinet-craft; Phantom Filter circuit in a 6 tube chassis; electric eye station focus. ANDREA Andrea Radio Corp. 48-02 48th Ave., Woodside, N. Y. MODEL 2-D-5—Selected American walnut cabinet; 5 tubes; 535-1720 and 2050-7000 kc.; 8 tuned circuits; dual avc; full vision illuminated dial; scale calibrated in meters and kc; extra easy logging scale; electro dynamic speaker; dimensions 8¾ x14½x6½ in.; $19.95. MODEL 2-D-8—Inclined panel for easier tuning; 8 tubes; 13 tuned circuits; tunable rf stage on all bands; phono and remote speaker connections; triple anti-fading control; beam power Class A output; 16.4-52.6 and 187.5-585 meters; "Mystic Ray" tuning; Gyroscopic station finder; $72.95. AUTOMATIC TIMER FOR PUBLIC SPEAKERS—Device automatically flashes a warning to speaker two minutes before he is to finish his address; when this period has elapsed the word "Finis" is flashed as a reminder and a low chime notifies him his speaking time has ended; also adaptable to radio station use. TRAV-LER Trav-Ler Radio & Tel. Corp. 1028 W. Van Buren St., Chicago, Ill. MODEL 527 — Travel-Matic automatic tuning with split second action; five tubes; 540–2620 kc; tone control and full eve; 6 in. electro-dynamic speaker; ac; walnut cabinet highly polished and hand rubbed; $29.95. GREBE Grebe Mfg. Co., Inc. 119 Fourth Ave., New York, N. Y. MODEL 309-L — Nine tubes; three bands; 10-button automatic tuning; 8 in. speaker; ac; 3 bands—16-55.5, 83.3-214 and 193-560 meters; $83.50; also available without automatic tuning. CROSLEY Crosley Radio Corp. Cincinnati, Ohio PRESTOTUNE 12 — The massive cabinet with sloping panel, designed by Walter Dorwin Teague, is a brilliant adaptation of the modern vogue; Prestotune motor tuning with push buttons; remote control also available; 12 tubes; two other Prestotune models also ready. ADMIRAL Continental Radio & Tel. Corp. 325 W. Huron St., Chicago, Ill. ADMIRAL CONSOLE — Full sized 41 in. console with eight-station push button automatic tuning; vertical dial. TELETALK Webster Electric Co. Racine, Wis. MODEL 105 INTERCOMMUNICATOR — Loudspeaker system for office, factory or home where intercommunication between one point and one to five remote points is desired either as a group or individually; master station is selective; cabinet of solid walnut; master station, $39.50; speakers, $9.50. FERGUSON Ferguson Radio & Television Co., Inc. 745 Broadway, New York, N. Y. MODEL 214 — Sloping panel for easier tuning; American and foreign stations; electric eye tuning; inlaid cabinet of bent walnut; 14 tubes; ac-dc; $39.95. CENTRAL-CALL Central Communication Devices, Inc. 140 W. 22nd St., New York, N. Y. INTER OFFICE SYSTEM—No delays or interruptions as talk-listen switch has been eliminated; simultaneous conversation can be carried on privately between master and any one of the substations; so completely selective no interference or cross talk from other substations. MASTER AND SUB-STATION—Illustrated above is the master station and to the right is the substation; both may be plugged in anywhere without special wiring; metal-glass tubes and 6 in. speaker; 5-ply walnut cabinets with piano finish. --- EMERSON Emerson Radio and Phonograph Corp. 111 Eighth Ave., New York, N. Y. AB-182 CONSOLE—14 tubes; high fidelity; 16 to 555 meters; 15 in. dynamic speaker; 15 watts output; full range volume expansion with Symphonizer; phonograph pick up terminal; hand rubbed figured walnut cabinet, $89.95. --- FREED EISEMANN Freed Mfg. Co., Inc. 44 W. 18th St., New York, N. Y. MODEL 27 D—12 tubes; ac-dc; 3 bands; electric eye tuning; full avc; automatic telegraph code interference eliminator; hand polished walnut veneer cabinet; $49.95; also available with 7 tubes for ac operation; $49.95. --- LAFAYETTE Wholesale Radio Service Co., Inc. 100 Smith Ave., New York, N. Y. TOUCH TUNING MODEL B-44—Electric touch tuning; 8 buttons; 13 tubes; 13.7-570 meters; "beam power" push-pull output tubes; r.f. pre-selection; high fidelity switch control; automatic audio compensation; 12 in. speaker; modern console. --- RCA VICTOR RCA Mfg. Co. Camden, N. J. RCA VICTOR-PHONES—Two intercommunicating call systems—one wired and the other wireless; larger includes a master unit feeding into 5 remotely operated units; complete privacy between stations calling; master unit, $39.95; remote units, $12.50 each; the wireless system costs $76.50 per pair of units. --- VOCAGRAPH Electronic Design Corp. 164 N. May St., Chicago, Ill. SERIES 30 AMPLIFIERS—"Hushed Power" features in a new low price line; three basic chassis, 30 watts, $66.50; 18 watts, $49.50; 10 watts, $32.90; complete systems and fully portable units are also offered. OPERADIO Operadio Mfg. Co. St. Charles, Ill. INTERCOMMUNICATING SYSTEM—A paging and intercommunicating system all in one; any one or all outlying stations may be called; use of one, two or three master stations possible; number of outlying stations unlimited; outlying stations may call master; three models; volume control on master station; 8-15 watts output ELECTRO-ACOUSTIC Electro-Acoustic Products Co. Fort Wayne, Ind. AP-1832 B SOUND SYSTEM—18 watt system; complete with carrying case, 2 Magnavox 10 in. electro dynamic speakers, crystal microphone with adjustable studio floor stand; amplifier has inputs for two crystal or velocity microphones and high impedance phonograph; outputs for two electro-dynamic speakers and 2 to 12 p.m. dynamics SHURE Shure Brothers 225 W. Huron St., Chicago, Ill. 85A MICROPHONE—Crystal sound-cell mike; non-directional; sound cell is designed so that mechanical resonances are well above the operating frequency range; output level is approximately 18 db below that of typical diaphragm types, statement reads; high fidelity BOGEN David Bogen Co., Inc. 663 Broadway, New York, N.Y. C12-15 AMPLIFIER—For either 110 ac or 6 v. storage battery operation; mike and phono input channels; duo-stage electron mixing between both channels; universal output for various speakers; 12 watts output on 6 v.; 15 watts on 110 ac; phonograph motor has special winding which operates on 6 v. dc and 12 v. ac PARRIS-DUNN HY-TOWER Becomes No. 1 Charger Over Night 1.—Over Night—the Hy-Tower Charger is being custom-built for 40 of the leading radio manufacturers and merchandisers. 2.—Over Night—the Hy-Tower has been given over $200,000.00 worth of national and international advertising by us and our associates in leading farm and trade papers, pamphlets and folders, radio broadcasts and at fairs throughout the country. 3.—Over Night—the Hy-Tower program has placed vast quantities of cooperative advertising material in the hands of leading radio distributors, offering a substantial profit to their dealers, as well as a $12 saving to the farmer. 4.—Over Night—the Hy-Tower’s two outstanding features have won for it universal acclaim: The “slip the wind” governing principle eliminates propeller breakage and generator burn-outs and relieves the tower of 640 lbs. of strain in high winds, while the extra high tower assures up to 25% greater efficiency. 5.—Over Night—the Hy-Tower, having met the rigid tests of leading radio engineers, distributors and dealers, as well as the farmer himself, has become the undisputed leader in its field. Backed by Parris-Dunn with over 20 years manufacturing experience and recognized as true pioneers in the wind electric field, the Hy-Tower charger is a proven machine, matchless in quality, performance and service—Truly the World’s No. 1 Charger. Take advantage of these facts. Boost and sell the Charger recommended by your leading manufacturer. Tie up with their advertising and get the full benefit of the Cooperative Set-Up. Write your jobber for details of our plan. Or write direct to the factory. PARRIS-DUNN CORPORATION WORLD’S LARGEST EXCLUSIVE MANUFACTURERS OF 6-VOLT WIND-DRIVEN BATTERY CHARGERS Clarinda Iowa, U.S.A. RADIO RETAILING, OCTOBER, 1937 SPECIAL REPLACEMENT CONTROLS — By the elimination of sliding, metal-to-metal contact in volume controls one of the most common causes of noise is eliminated; known as the Silent Spiral Connector; supplied on all new special replacement controls listing at $1.50 and upward (not on the standard types) ADJUSTABLE AUTO AERIAL — Extends above car roof just the required distance for best reception in city or country; disappears when not in use; adjustable from driver's seat, even with car in motion; consists of single flexible rod of hard spring brass; resilient so it will not be injured by striking obstacles AUTO RADIO VOLUME CONTROLS — Universal auto-radio replacement control made especially for this purpose; available with or without switch in resistance values of 1/4, 1/2, 1 and 2 megohms; all are tapped for tone compensation (the tap can be omitted if desired) CAPACITORS—Handy high voltage, compact, oil-filled capacitors in round cans, arranged for inverted mounting in limited space; the section of selected linen paper and foil, bathed in oil, is hermetically sealed in the aluminum can; 600, 1000 and 1500 volts dc working; capacities, 0.5 to 4 mfd. Something Really New the WILCOX-GAY Wal-Radio for WALL or CHAIRSIDE WITH NEW WOODEN CASES OF WALNUT OR MAPLE Hang on the wall as simply as a picture—this thin, streamlined, rich toned radio is the perfect model for compact homes. Also for offices, dens, bedrooms, etc. New in application and principle, it opens fresh merchandising opportunities. Be the first in your community to feature these remarkably convenient and practical receivers. Gain added sales and customer interest. Ask your distributor or write us today WILCOX-GAY CORP. Charlotte, Mich. U. S. A. With this chairside stand, the Wal-Radio is converted into an armchair model with room for favorite books and ash tray. One set, two uses. Complete $29.95 RCA RCA Mfg. Co. Camden, N. J. RECORD DISPLAY—Provides compact unit which conserves space yet provides an effective display; titles and wrappers plainly in view; storage shelves behind the display for about 600 records; additional space, too, for needles, catalogues, accessories and supplements --- TRIUMPH Triumph Mfg. Co. 4017 W. Lake St., Chicago, Ill. 350 MULTIRANGE METER—Five times greater sensitivity than ordinary meters is claimed for this new model; the small drain of the meter—often less than 50 microamperes—permits accurate determination of voltage; two styles, one with 3 in. square meter, $19.95, the other with 4½ in. rectangular meter, $24.95 --- WRIGHT-DE COSTER Wright-DeCoster, Inc. 2233 University Ave., St. Paul, Minn. NOKOIL MULTI-TEST SPEAKER—Tests all ac and dc radios; requires no field excitation and allows easy checking of auto and battery sets; all leads are brought out to the selector switches so that any desired setting may be had instantly; steel carrying case with suede finish; $38 --- TACO Technical Appliance Corp. 17 E. 16th St., New York, N. Y. ANTENNA SYSTEMS IN KIT FORM—Antenna systems for every purse and purpose in handy kit form; Model 400, $3.75; 510, $4.50; 210 for localities notoriously poor; master system for apartment houses, hotels and store demonstration purposes --- For the First Time! Complete RCA ANTENNA FOR ONLY $3.95 Here’s a performance ace—at a price everyone can afford! Tell your customers about it! HERE’S the new RCA 395 Antenna System! Comes completely assembled and soldered. Kit contains 2 20-ft. antenna wire coils, 2 strain insulators, 145-ft. transmission line, 1 junction box, 1 receiver coupling unit, 2 coupling unit links, 2 nail-on knob insulators, 1 ground clamp and 1 instruction sheet. Stock No. 395. List price only $3.95. CHECK THESE FEATURES! Factory-assembled—no soldering Easily installed—40-ft. span Wide frequency range—140 to 23,000 kilocycles Doublet type—efficient pickup For use with all receivers --- ALWAYS—INSIST ON WARD AERIALS FOR MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY, STREAMLINED BEAUTY TROLLEY MODEL E.S.—$3.75 FRONTENAC (Inset) MODEL F.R.—$3.50 CORONATION MODEL C.O.—$2.45 MAINLINER MODEL M.L.—$2.95 PROMPT DELIVERIES GUARANTEED WRITE FOR CATALOG TODAY The WARD PRODUCTS Corp. WARD BUILDING CLEVELAND, OHIO --- “RED HEADS” - SERVICE MEN PREFER “RED HEAD” CONDENSERS - THEY’RE DEPENDABLE YES! —and economical too. Use them on all your replacements. They are depended upon for quality and service—and their lower price makes your dollars go farther. CONSOLIDATED MFG. AND CORPORATIONS 512 So. Peoria Street Chicago :: :: Illinois --- PAGE 46 HAND-I-MIKE — In spite of its small size it has a flat response from 60 to 7500 cps and an output only 3 db below the standard size velocity; complete with output transformer of either the high or low impedance type; may also be used as a desk mike or on a floor stand; head is 2¼"x1x1½ in.; weight 5½ oz.; moulded rubber case; $22 UTAH Utah Radio Products Co. 812 Orleans St., Chicago, Ill. 25 WATT CW TRANSMITTER KIT — Comes in a professionally styled ventilated cabinet in black crystalline finish, 11¼"x12x7 in.; crystal control; latest type 6L6 harmonic oscillator; all band performance on only two crystals; self-contained power supply; one coil change per band; $15.95 MAGNET-O-SIGNS Magnet-O-Signs Corp. 180 N. Wacker Drive, Chicago, Ill. MAGNET-O-TYPE — For making professional looking window and show cards easily and quickly; letters are molded of plastic materials with small permanent magnets imbedded in their undersurfaces so they adhere firmly; as no slats, pins or adhesive are needed letters may be arranged in any form; silver, black or red lacquer ROTO RANGER Simpson Electric Co. 5216 W. Kinzie St., Chicago, Ill. SET TESTER — Incorporates the "Roto Ranger" which consists of a rotating drum (containing 12 independent scales) geared to a 12-position range selector switch so that the proper scale automatically comes into view to correspond with the position assumed by the switch; resistance of 10,000 ohms per volt d. c. WRITE TODAY FOR COMPLETE INFORMATION ON THE MOST VALUABLE FRANCHISE IN RADIO! Majestic MIGHTY MONARCH OF THE AIR! for 1938 —THE LINE OF AUTOMATIC RADIOS— PROVIDES LIVE-WIRE RADIO DEALERS WITH... ... A complete line—consoles, chair-side and table models! ... A price range to fit every merchandising plan! ... Powerful merchandising advantages! ... Advanced features that satisfy every consumer demand! Act Promptly! MAJESTIC RADIO & TELEVISION CORP. 2600 West 50th Street Chicago Cable Address: "Majestica—Chicago" TOBE Tobe Deutschmann Corp. Canton, Mass. CONDENSER BRIDGE AND ANALYZER—Laboratory type; provides quick and accurate means of testing condensers and resistors; a.c. bridge circuit utilizes electronic eye as balance indicator; preamplifier stage ahead of electronic eye and use of a gain control in preamplifier stage. --- MUTER Muter Co. 1255 So. Michigan Ave., Chicago, Ill. BALLAST TUBE—Used as standard equipment by many leading set manufacturers and now available to servicemen for replacement; in addition there are units to replace other types; kit containing tubes which occur with the greatest frequency also available; all tubes list at 80¢. --- UNIVERSAL Universal Microphone Co. Inglewood, Calif. MICROPHONES — A new line of crystal microphones, manufactured under patent of the Brush Development Company, is announced; illustrated is the crystal stand model. --- VAC-O-GRIP Vac-O-Grip Co. 2023 Detroit Ave., Toledo, Ohio P. A. CARRIERS—Designed to hold p.a. equipment on car tops; held by vacuum supplied through connection to the vacuum system of the auto; can be used on coupes, coaches or sedans; sizes to accommodate one, two or four speakers; $12.80, $14.40, $17 and $24. --- Kleenette BY HORTON The New Personal Washer $10.00 For midweek washings; for laundering fine fabrics; for dyeing and tinting; for sterilizing and bleaching; for dry cleaning (in non inflammable fluid) here is the modern wonder of washing machine development. Every woman wants Kleenette the instant she sees what amazing help it gives her. No more "dunking" filmy garments in the basin—no more "wash bowl hands." Right now, Mr. Dealer, get the whole story of the big sales possibilities in this new Horton development. Write or wire at once. HORTON MFG. CO., 9001 Osage St., FORT WAYNE, IND. HORTON WASHERS-IRONERS SINCE 1871 --- Ken-Rad Radio Tubes Dependable performance always Write for our complete dealer sales plan KEN-RAD TUBE & LAMP CORPORATION, INC., OWENSBORO, KY. Also mfrs. of Ken-Rad Incandescent Electric Lamps --- Janette Rotary Converters The original D.C. to A.C. converters with all wave filters developed exclusively for radio and sound apparatus. CAPACITIES: 35 to 3250 watts. 6, 12, 32, 115 and 230 volts D.C. to 110 or 220 volts, 1 phase, 60 cycle A.C. Insist on a Janette Ask For Bulletin No. 13-25 Janette Manufacturing Company 556-558 West Monroe Street Chicago, Ill. U.S.A. BOSTON - NEW YORK - PHILADELPHIA - MILWAUKEE - LOS ANGELES DETROIT - SEATTLE PORTABLE POWER PLANTS Within the Reach of EVERYONE New "CUB" Type "LB" Plants - 6 Volts, 100 Watts - Rope-Pull Starter - Battery Ignition $39.95 F. O. B. Chicago - 6 or 12 Volts, 200 Watts - Push-Button Starter - Battery Ignition $44.95 F. O. B. Chicago PIONEER now furnishes these remarkable plants at an amazingly low list price. The engine is the same as those used on the popular plants shown on the reverse side, with the exception that the small current for the ignition is taken from the storage battery. For installations where engines of this type are satisfactory, the type LB plants have no equal. \| Type \| Output \| Weight \| Price \| Code \| \|------------\|----------\|--------\|--------\|------\| \| LB6C \| 100 watts\| 44 lbs.\| $39.95 \| Fegg \| \| LB6X \| 200 watts\| 49 lbs.\| $44.95 \| Feign\| \| LB12X \| 200 watts\| 49 lbs.\| $44.95 \| Felon\| Furnished with carrying handle. Wooden base $1.00 additional to list price. Standard Model with High Tension Magneto - Low First Cost - Economical to Operate - 6, 12, 32 and 110 Volt - 5/8 H.P., 4 Cycle, 1 Cyl. Engine - Push Button Starting - Sturdy Construction The standard "Baby Jumbo" illustrated on the reverse side is furnished with magneto ignition, assuring easy starting and perfect performance under any circumstances. Note the unusual compactness of design; it will fit into a tiny nook measuring only 11" high, 10" wide, and 15¼" long. The complete unit, with base attached, weighs only 49 pounds. A convenient carrying handle makes it easily portable, adding to its many useful advantages. Thousands of these plants now giving satisfactory service is your assurance that they are properly designed and constructed. List Price—L6 \| TYPE \| OUTPUT \| WEIGHT \| PRICE \| CODE \| \|----------\|----------\|--------\|--------\|------\| \| L6 \| 150 watts\| 46 lbs.\| $49.95 \| Fable\| \| L6M \| 150 watts\| 49 lbs.\| $55.00 \| Fanny\| \| L6X \| 200 watts\| 49 lbs.\| $55.00 \| False\| \| L6XM \| 200 watts\| 52 lbs.\| $59.95 \| Fatal\| \| L12 \| 150 watts\| 46 lbs.\| $55.00 \| Facer\| \| L12X \| 250 watts\| 49 lbs.\| $59.95 \| Famed\| \| L12XM \| 250 watts\| 52 lbs.\| $64.45 \| Favor\| \| L32 \| 250 watts\| 49 lbs.\| $59.95 \| Faint\| \| L32R \| 250 watts\| 49 lbs.\| $59.95 \| Fairy\| \| L110 \| 250 watts\| 49 lbs.\| $59.95 \| Faker\| Wooden base and carrying handle furnished on Marine Type units. If wanted on other types add $2.00 to list price. Marine Type ESPECIALLY designed for marine duty. Use it to supply power for lights and radio while docked or at anchor. Avoid unnecessary and expensive operation of main engines to keep batteries charged. Furnished with pulley for the operation of pumps and other equipment. Complete with carrying handle and wooden mounting base. Prices start at $55.00 GUARANTEE The Pioneer Gas-Electric plants are guaranteed against defective workmanship and material for a period of ninety days after delivery. Unsatisfactory units will be repaired or replaced without charge if returned to the factory prepaid. Prices slightly higher in West and South. PIONEER GEN-E-MOTOR CORPORATION 466 W. SUPERIOR STREET . . . CHICAGO, U. S. A. Pioneer BABY JUMBO Gas-Electric Power Plants with Push Button Starting LIST $49.95 F.O.B. Chicago Type L6 with Magneto Ignition For the first time, any one can enjoy the convenience and comfort of electricity—and he doesn't have to be a master mechanic to do it. This energetic little "plant" is extremely simple in design. It's sturdily built for long life under heavy-duty service. The complete unit is easily moved about—it weighs only 46 lbs. It will furnish current for a lighting system, charge batteries, run electrically-driven tools, and operate the washing machine, cream separator, water pumps, and other belt-driven machines. SPECIFICATIONS ENGINE: "L" head, vertical, air cooled, 3/8 h.p., 4 cycle, single cylinder. Develops rated output at 2400 R.P.M. Crank shaft runs on ball bearings. Three piston rings. One quart fuel tank. Equipped with fly-ball type governor. Suction feed carburetor. Splash lubrication. FUEL CONSUMPTION: Fifteen hours on one gallon at 150 watts. Oil consumption, 2 ounces in 10 hours. GENERATOR: Self-excited, two pole for highest efficiency. Armature mounted directly on crankshaft, outer end supported in oil-less self aligning bearing. Surplus oil for 1000 hours operation. Easily removable cover provides ready inspection of commutator, brushes, and bearings. STARTING: A touch of the push button automatically starts the motor, with current provided by the storage battery. An emergency rope-pull starter is also provided. ACCESSORIES: All plants for use with storage batteries are furnished complete with ammeter, cutout relay, leads, and battery clips. Simply fill with gas and oil, connect with battery, press the starter button, and it goes to work. FEATUREING - Extreme versatility—plenty of electric current for lights, motors and tools—charging of batteries—plenty of power for V-belt drive of pumps and other equipment. - Light-weight—only 49 lbs.—easily carried about with permanently attached handle. - Especially designed for this application—not a converted unit. Quality workmanship; best of materials; simple—rugged design. The most compact unit on the market. Overall dimensions only 11" wide x 10" high x 13½" long. An added advantage where space is at a premium. - Surprisingly low prices. See Table on Reverse Side for Complete Ratings Other Pioneer Products — Dynamotors — Gen-E-Motors — Rotary Converters For Amplifying and P. A. Systems PIONEER Model H Gen-E-Motor A Reliable, low-priced Power Supply Unit with filter for Amplifiers, P. A. Systems, Portable Transmitters and Sound Trucks Unusually efficient, compact, and completely enclosed in a sturdy metal case, this inexpensive PIONEER Model H Gen-E-Motor is enthusiastically endorsed by many of the leading operators and manufacturers of amplifiers and sound equipment. The Standard Model H is a 6-volt DC unit, and can be obtained for 12 and 32-volt operation (by adding 10% to the prices listed below). For 110-volt input add 15% to list prices. Sizes: 5¾" x 5⅞" x 3⅝"; weight 9 lbs. \| Code \| No. \| Volts \| Output M.A. \| Battery Drain \| List Price \| \|--------\|--------\|-------\|-------------\|---------------\|------------\| \| Basic \| 7565 \| 265 \| 75 \| 7.75 \| $34.00 \| \| Baste \| 7300 \| 300 \| 100 \| 9.5 \| 37.50 \| A special filter for high gain sensitive amplifiers, recently developed by PIONEER Engineers, is available—add $3.00 to list price. MODEL H PIONEER HW Gen-E-Motor Without Filter A compact unit for Manufacturers Where space is at a premium, use this PIONEER Model HW (without Filter)! Finer performance, higher quality, and superior service without constant attention and adjustment make this unit ideal for use by manufacturers or amateurs. Dimensions: 5⅞" x 4⅜" x 3". \| Code \| No. \| Volts \| Output M.A. \| Battery Drain \| List Price \| \|--------\|--------\|-------\|-------------\|---------------\|------------\| \| Baker \| HW 265 \| 265 \| 75 \| 7.75 \| $27.50 \| \| Badge \| HW 300 \| 300 \| 100 \| 9.5 \| 30.00 \| MODEL HW PIONEER "B" Eliminators for Battery Radios Operates from any 32 volt farm lighting system. Plugs into regular 32-volt light socket—connects directly to old battery leads of battery operated receiver without rewiring. These PIONEER Gen-E-Motor "B" Eliminators are equipped with built-in filter units. They will operate from any 32-volt farm lighting system—and have a maximum output of 180 volts. Taps are provided for intermediate voltages. 32 VOLTS \| Code \| No. \| Volts \| Intermediate Tap \| Retail Price \| \|--------\|--------\|-------------\|------------------\|--------------\| \| Cabin \| 3280-AT\| 180 \| 22½, 45, 67½, 90, 135 \| $27.50 \| \| Cadet \| 3280-A \| 180 \| 90 Volts \| 25.00 \| \| Camel \| 3235-A \| 135 \| 67½ Volts \| 25.00 \| \| Canal \| 7320 \| 300 \| (100 Mils output) \| 44.00 \| FOR 6 VOLT FOR FARM USE \| Code \| No. \| Volts \| Intermediate Tap \| Retail Price \| \|--------\|--------\|-------------\|------------------\|--------------\| \| Candy \| 6280-AT\| 180 \| 22½, 45, 67½, 90, 135 \| $27.50 \| \| Canoe \| 6280-A \| 180 \| 90 Volts \| 25.00 \| \| Cargo \| 6235-A \| 135 \| 67½ Volts \| 25.00 \| All of the above units are equipped with 8 foot cord, plug and switch ready for use. Shipping weight 9 lbs. PRICES SLIGHTLY HIGHER IN WEST AND SOUTH PIONEER GEN-E-MOTOR CORPORATION 466 W. SUPERIOR STREET - - - CHICAGO, U. S. A. High Voltage "Red Top" B Power Supply With Filter For long life, dependability, and trouble-free service use this Pioneer Gen-E-Motor! It's recognized as the best form of power unit available for obtaining the high voltage needed for radio tube plates, where storage batteries or other sources of DC current are used to supply input current. Complete with built-in filter—this compact, efficient Pioneer Gen-E-Motor needs no attention or adjustment! The two ball bearings, sealed in grease, will keep the dynamically balanced armature running smoothly without re-lubrication during the entire life of the unit. The Pioneer Gen-E-Motor—floating on rubber mountings—is ABSOLUTELY FREE from vibration! It's quickly and easily installed. The sturdy dust-proof metal case protects the unit from damage. SIZE WITH STANDARD FILTER, 2$\frac{7}{8}$'' x 5$\frac{1}{4}$'' x 5$\frac{3}{8}$''; price $19.50. See table opposite for complete listing of models. With special short wave filter, for use with 5-meter transceivers, etc.—$27.50 complete—size 5$\frac{3}{8}$'' x 7$\frac{3}{8}$'' x 2$\frac{7}{8}$''. Any of these units can be furnished for operation on 12 volts by adding 10% to list price. Every PIONEER Gen-E-Motor is unconditionally guaranteed. Model JW-Gen-E-Motor . . . Without Filter The PIONEER Model JW Power Supply unit—identical with the GEN-E-MOTOR shown above without the filter—is ideal as an integral part of original equipment where the filter is included in the apparatus. Many manufacturers are using this PIONEER JW Gen-E-Motor because it is a compact, reliable unit that will stand up under rough usage without requiring constant attention and adjustment. It is also being used with remarkable success to replace vibrators in auto radio receivers—as it can be easily installed usually within the set itself. It is excellent for this service because it is extremely compact (4$\frac{1}{8}$'' x 5$\frac{1}{2}$'' x 2$\frac{7}{8}$'') and can be used without circuit alterations—complete instructions included. The PIONEER Model JW supplies a uniform voltage output, eliminating noisy or weak reception. Use this sturdy, dependable PIONEER Power Supply unit to replace vibrators—and GUARANTEE trouble-free service to your customers. We guarantee all PIONEER Gen-E-Motors in accordance with R.M.A. standards to operate absolutely noiselessly without adjustment, oiling, or servicing. AUDIO DEVELOPMENT PRE-AMPLIFIER — Has facilities for mixing four low-level microphones with a separate gain control for each; standard fidelity model for p.a. work and high fidelity model for radio station use; ac operated; other models as well as amplifiers for 110 and 6 v. dc operation also made. --- EDDY Eddy System 143-26 183rd St., Springfield Gardens, N.Y. RADIO SERVICE FORMS — Padded repair and estimate forms; blue or black ink; carbon sheets; may be obtained with or without imprint; pads of 100, 1000, 2500; repair orders, $1 for 100, no imprint; estimate forms, 75¢ for 100; larger quantities proportionately lower. --- AMPLITONE Amplitone Products Co. 152 Washington St., New York, N.Y. AMPLIFIER — Convertible electronengineering amplifier; 26 watts output; built-in 6 v. generator and 110 v. ac power supplies; overall gain 115 db; no ac hum or generator ripple with gain control wide open, it is claimed; output matches any voice coils or line; $36.50, less tubes. --- NEW ANTENNA BATTING 1000% No Slump This Season! Completely assembled ready to use in New top quality housing, No. 6066. List Price $3.25. Sold Through Distributors Only. Send for complete information. RIVARD WIRE AND CABLE CORP. 1014 Madison Avenue Toledo, Ohio --- THE 1938 CHALLENGER LINE of GREBE RADIO The Greatest Line in Grebe's 25 Year History! In its long history of radio manufacturing, Grebe has given the trade many outstanding lines, but, nothing like the present one! Pictures and words cannot do it justice. Modern to the minute in styling and features, the new line gives you everything that a winning line should have. No experiments or tricky innovations; no disappointed customers. Every Grebe owner is a Grebe salesman. Every Grebe set will uphold your name and ours. Get the Grebe Line NOW, Before it is too late! Distributors and dealers are urged to wire or write for full details of the line. Learn all about Grebe's liberal dealer policy, liberal discounts and the exclusive franchise that protects every dealer, giving him the full benefit of his effort. Find out about the Grebe cooperative plan of local advertising. MODEL 2016-4 AUTOMATIC 16 tubes A.C. superheterodyne with automatic tuning, covering 17 to 53 meters, 60-130 meters and 173-555 meters. Tuna American, forward amateur aviation and ships 81 to 100. Handmade walnut case. Size: 45 inches x 28 inches x 16½ inches. --- THE LINE IS COMPLETE Over 50 models, from 5-tube compacts to 16-tube automatic combinations, AC — AC-DC Battery sets, Radio-phonograph combinations, 1 to 5 band short-waves, and broadcast sets, some including European long-wave. --- GREBE MANUFACTURING COMPANY, INC. 119 FOURTH AVENUE, NEW YORK, U.S.A. MAIL COUPON TODAY GREBE MANUFACTURING COMPANY, INC. 119 Fourth Avenue, New York, U.S.A. Send full details of 1938 Challenger Line. Name ............................................... Street .............................................. City .................................................. State ....................... I am ........................................ Dealer ........ Distributor GRAND VALUE • GOOD PROFIT • UNIQUE DISPLAY READY for you in Deal #82—truly a GRAND VALUE. Here are 6 heavily chrome-plated, thick gauge seamless brass cases. Cases equipped with candle-lite feature, 3-position safety lock switch and bulb shock absorber—in fact, every practical improvement usually found in $1.25 flashlights. Your retail price 85¢ each, complete with batteries. Deal includes 48 Bond Super-Service Mono-cells and FREE Si-Me display. Total Retail Value $8.70 . . . Your Cost $5.66 . . . Your Profit 35%. SI-ME twin display packages sell more flashlights in half the counter space. These twin packages are hinged in the middle. They open wide to display 6 lights to the front, or they swing back-to-back to display 3 lights front and 3 lights rear. Displays are delivered completely set up, as shown above. Closed, open or at any angle, Si-Me twin displays get attention and show off these chrome spotlites, full length, superbly for getting sales. Ask your Jobber's Salesman for full details. BOND ELECTRIC CORPORATION NEW HAVEN, CONN. CHICAGO, ILL. SAN FRANCISCO, CAL. RADIO GIMBAL CHASSIS CRADLE — Holds radio chassis in any position for speedy servicing; specially designed brakes hold chassis securely whether with straight sides or sides that may be rolled over; also holds power supplies or amplifiers; $7.50; a cradle of more simplified design but similar in construction is $4.35 McELROY T. R. McElroy 175 Congress St., Boston, Mass. MAC KEY — A key, identical to that used by Ted McElroy, champion telegrapher, is now available to all code operators; two models, deluxe, $9.50 net and standard, $7.50 net; incorporates McElroy's ideas on weight, balance, size of contacts, spring tension, bearing pins, etc. RCA RCA Mfg. Co. Camden, N. J. 50 WATT AMPLIFIER — Class "A" amplifier with built-in expander and suppressor circuits to enhance musical reproduction and prevent blasting and overloading in large-scale p.a. and sound reinforcement installations; consists of two units—a voltage amplifier of the high-gain type and power amplifier; $260 TURNER Turner Co. Cedar Rapids, Iowa DB-50 CRYSTAL MIKE — Ideal for p.a. systems, stage work and dance band setups; the "Equal Level" interior is coil suspended thus allowing the microphone to be handled while in use without creating noise; semi-directional when mounted upright and non-directional when tilted back in its saddle; $34.75 NOT in years has there been such a heavy demand for wire in connection with the Serviceman's business. You have noticed it—we have noticed it. With Public Address going like a prairie blaze and Radio a seething hotbed of activity which promises to be sustained, you will be needing GOOD WIRE. CORWICO Wires are scientifically produced to do their job 100%. Antenna Systems, P-A Cables, Hook-up Wires—"made by engineers for engineers." Use CORWICO on your next contract. Eliminates "Man-Made" Static on Broadcast as well as Short Waves ICENSED by Amy, Aceves & King, engineered with traditional CORWICO care, this masterly aerial system fits every set and every location. Filters out nuisance noises caused by electrical devices. Improves reception generally—widely endorsed by Service men. No. 14 (illustrated above) $6.75 list FOR broadcast and shortwave frequencies; designed to eliminate "man-made" static and afford better reception. Two to 8 sets can be operated at the same time with one additional lower transformer, for each added unit. Other "Noise-Master" units available. WRITE FOR INFORMATION. CORWICO Wire Catalog available to Service men. Distribution is exclusively through Jobbers. CORNISH WIRE CO., Inc. 30 Church Street — CORWICO — New York, N. Y. electric fan might be concealed, blowing the ribbons and adding additional motion. Perhaps in this case it might be found desirable to dispense with the left cutout entirely. The side panels, if both are used, stand in the positions shown, and are secured to the center panel and base by means of glued and tacked "L" cardboard strips. The cut-outs require no particular explanation. A blow-up of a descriptive ad (with a touch of surrounding color) from the manufacturers' advertising department might be mounted where copy is specified, for example. Likewise, it is often desirable to cut out the principal section of a litho and mount it on the left-hand circular piece. Thus the manufacturer provides nearly all the copy. Of course, the center section is the really important one—from it we get our greatest amount of interest and advertising value. Each of the seven translucent openings flash on, haphazardly, one at a time. Following each of these lighted openings are the names of several radio stars who are heard on that particular station. In that way not only is automatic tuning featured, but we are also bringing to mind what many people really buy in a radio—their favorite stars. Illustration 2 gives construction details regarding the center section, and requires very little amplification. However, be sure to use Dupont Tontine shade cloth which may be purchased in department stores or through art supply shops. Tontine shade cloth yields the best effect both day and night. Further, it may be decorated with any kind of paint or lacquer; and later, the paint or lacquer may be removed with whatever kind of solvent is suitable. Then we have blank space for another display. The wooden frame shown in Illustration 2 is very simple and requires no particular skill to build. The box is constructed from three-quarter inch boards. The reflectors may be made of tin, painted white on the inside. The interior of each lamp shelf should also be painted white. The seven double wire cable leads to the flasher box. After this frame has been made and lamps and sockets set in, cover the front with a sheet of process board in which holes have been cut for the light to shine through. When the process board has been nailed on the front of the frame, then stretch and tack around the edges the Tontine shade cloth. Now, the front is ready to be decorated with a dark background, and light contrasting design and lettering. Of course, the space over the holes in the process board is blank with the exception of the letters of the six leading radio stations which are most usually received in your city. Paint the station letters black. The two end cut-outs cover the side edges of the center box. A cut-out arc of cardboard is attached to the top, covering the top raw edge. On this arc is lettered the radio maker's favorite slogan, or an other important phrase or sentence. Since we have finished describing the three major display pieces, it will be seen by referring to Illustration 3 that the base section is a job --- Another PROFIT ITEM for Radio Retailers... THE SKY PILOT WORLD-TIME CLOCK Revolutionary! Years Ahead! THREE CLOCKS IN ONE Center Dial revolves with hour hand. Modernistic design of brushed brass. Actual size: 5¼" high, 4¾" wide. Convex crystal. Indicates minutes—quarter hours. ELECTRIC MODEL for 110-120 Volt, 60 cycle, A.C. current. LIST PRICE $3.85. Spring wound model with same features, same case—LIST PRICE $4.95. A regular time piece with A.M. and P.M. divided dial. A world time piece instantly indicating time in all 24 zones. International clock with A.M. and P.M. 24 hour dial. Can be Set at ANY of the World's 24 Time Zones. Available in 12" models with illuminating reflectors for commercial use and advertising displays. Distributors and dealers write for literature THE SKY PILOT ORGANIZATION PEARL RIVER, NEW YORK, U.S.A. --- Noise-Free Store Demonstrations Make Sales Easier ALL radio sets will perform at their best from a single antenna when connected to a BRACH PURATONE MULTIPLEX ANTENNA SYSTEM (Which Includes Low-Loss Giant Killer Cable) Permanently Mount, Permanently Effective in Homes Where More Than One Radio Is Heard Up to 100% Single Antenna LICENSED UNDER PATENT OF AMY, ACME & BING L. S. BRACH Mfg. Corp. Newark, N.J. --- EVERY HOME and EVERY OFFICE is a PROSPECT for the Continental Clean Air A Year Round MONEY MAKER for Appliance Dealers and Distributors Here is an electric appliance your salesmen can SELL in every area under heaven without having to compete with it—and the field is practically unlimited. Clean Air washes, purifies, circulates and deodorizes indoor air. Removes dust, smoke, odors and pollen. Can be carried from room to room or from one office to another. Send coupon today for details about the Clean Air Franchise. CONTINENTAL MOTORS CORP. 1218 W. Grand Blvd., Detroit, Michigan. Send details about Clean Air Franchise. Name ............................................................... Address ............................................................... City and State .......................................................... ONLY $18.95 RADIO RETAILING, OCTOBER, 1937 of simple carpentry. Part "C" is framed of lumber strips, fastened together with corrugated nails, and has a strip of Tontine shade cloth stretched over it and tacked around the edges or brought around to the back and tacked there. This translucent panel is placed behind the opening in the front section of the base. It should be made a little larger than the opening and, when lettered, a nail or screw at each end will hold it in position. Behind it a socket and lamp is placed, connected with the flasher box. See that no light leaks around the edges of "C". As all the stations are flashed on one after another this panel lights up, emphasizing whatever important message has been lettered on it. "B" fits over "A" and need not be nailed to it. No mention has been made of color scheme. That will depend upon the taste of the showcard writer or displayman who does the sign job. The base should be thoroughly smooth, as lacquer over bumps and hollows yields a sad appearance. Some will prefer to build "B" (Illustration 3) in the form of a frame, cover sides and end with smooth masonite, and moulding corners to hide nail heads. Naturally, the base section will be used many times again. With drapes of cloth, paper and other decorative schemes, this base can be made to emphasize radio sets standing on it, as well as other arrangements. Also, store the center flashing section; you will probably find use for that again in the near future. The compact, enclosed eight-point flasher box shown in Illustration 4 is attached to the bottom of the center section, as shown in Illustration 2. Lead wires to positions behind the station "windows," suspend cord and socket and insert lamps for the seven "windows." The eighth lead illuminates the front base panel. If used on D.C., especially near the power house or converting station, put a lamp in series with the power line. Made by Betts & Betts, 551 West 52nd Street, New York City. List price, $7.50. --- TURNOVER (Continued from page 27) $100 sale costing $75—a gross profit of $25 less selling costs of $15 would be \[ \frac{75}{2500} \times \$18.63 = \$0.5589 \text{ per day selling} \] profit — $10. + \$0.5589 = 18 \text{ days or } \left( \frac{75}{2500} \times 18.63 \right)^{-18} representing a minimum turnover of 20 times annually. Therefore it appears that a conservative setting for turnover minimum would be 7.33 in the case of items grossing 38 per cent, with variations in accordance with other ratios as described above. Having determined the base, the inventory record can be marked with the established standard in each case and the selection of merchandise for stock and purchasing be guided by this yardstick. Some few articles of no great value can be stocked safely although below standard but the tying up of any significant sum of capital in this way should be guarded against. There is little justification for purchasing any large units or wide lines of small merchandise that do not sell up to the minimum frequency once the base has been set. BET ON A Sure THING FOR A CHANGE! Here's the surest sure thing that ever put profits in a radio dealer's bank account...the Tung-Sol Consignment Plan. You don't pay a nickel for Tung-Sol Tubes until they're sold—and the profits are safely in your hands. No money tied up in shelf-stock. No headaches from slow-moving numbers. Fast selling, nationally advertised Tung-Sol Tubes, placed in your custody with no cash investment. All that is necessary is to meet Tung-Sol's qualifications as a responsible dealer. And mind you—the price is NO HIGHER than you pay for any recognized brand. Our ability to finance consignment costs you nothing. More than 8,000 Tung-Sol dealers are salting away substantial profits without risking a penny. How's that for a sure thing? Write today to learn whether you can qualify for a Tung-Sol Consignment franchise in your neighborhood. TUNG-SOL Tone-flow Radio Tubes TUNG-SOL LAMP WORKS, INC. Radio Tube Division General Office: Newark, N. J. SALES OFFICES: Atlanta, Boston, Chicago, Charlotte, Dallas, Detroit, Kansas City, Los Angeles, New York, General Office, Newark, N. J. Novel Phase Inverter Since the screen of a pentode is part of the tubes plate circuit it possesses a phase difference of 180 degrees with respect to the input circuit. Philco has taken advantage of this fact by feeding signal energy from the screen of one tube to the grid of the other in a push pull output stage to obtain phase inversion. As shown in the diagram, audio is fed into the upper tube from the first audio stage. Amplification takes place in the usual manner in this tube. However, a 3500 ohm resistor is connected in series with the screen. A fraction of the output signal develops across this resistor, is coupled back to the lower grid through a .01 mfd. condenser. Voltage developed in the screen circuit is in phase with the plate of the same tube. This supplies the correct phase relation for the grid of the second tube, which is directly out of phase with its respective plate. The value of the screen resistor was chosen so as to supply just the correct amount of signal voltage to the second tube. Single Channel I.F. A highly selective i.f. transformer has been developed by Aladdin for use in modern fidelity receivers. A broad flat-top curve permits uniform signal output over 9 kc. while the adjacent channel rejection is only 30 kc., 20 times down. The curve shows the characteristics of the unit. It approaches the ideal transformer; one with a wide flat-top curve and perpendicular sides. The transformer is triple-tuned, all trimmer condensers are adjusted from the top of the shield. Such a transformer will allow high fidelity reception with a minimum of interference from a nearby channel. The schematic shows one method of circuit connection. Other features of the unit are high gain and ease of circuit adjustment since no o-silloscope is necessary for aligning. Tubes for Television Two new tubes intended for television reception have just been announced by RCA. Known as Kinescopes, they are of the electromagnetic deflection type, employing screen of a yellowish hue. 1800—Kinescope with 9 in. medium persistence screen - Heater Voltage: 2.5 volts - Heater Current: 0.7 amps - Voltage Anode #2: 7,000 volts - Voltage Anode #1: 2,000 volts - Voltage Grid #2: 250 volts - Voltage Grid #3: Never Positive - Voltage Grid #1 for Cutoff: -75 volts - Fluorescent Screen input power/sq. cm.: 10 milliwatts 1801—Similar to the 1800, 5 in. medium persistence screen - Heater Voltage: 2.5 volts - Heater Current: 2.1 amps - Voltage Anode #2: 3,000 volts - Voltage Anode #1: 1,000 volts - Voltage Grid #2: Never Positive - Voltage Grid #1 for Cutoff: -38 volts - Fluorescent Screen input power/sq. cm.: 10 milliwatts New Tubes 6Z7G. A dual triode Class B output tube designed primarily for use in battery operated receivers using low heater current tubes. Not recommended for operation in series with other .3 amp. tubes direct from the power line because of danger of heater burn-out. Similar to the 79 and 6V7G but not directly interchangeable with either type. CLASS B CHARACTERISTICS - Heater Voltage: 6.3 - Heater Current: 0.3 - Plate Voltage: 150 - Grid Voltage: 0 - Zero Signal Plate Current per plate: 3 - Load Resistance (plate to plate): 15,000 - Power Output: 1.5 - Load Resistance (plate to plate): 9,000 - Power Output: 2.5 SPECIAL REPLACEMENT CONTROLS with the New SILENT SPIRAL CONNECTOR plus 5-Finger "KNEE ACTION" ELEMENT CONTACT Out goes noise at the two most critical points in any control! Sliding, metal-to-metal contact — the most common cause of control noise — is definitely eliminated by the latest IRC engineering triumph, the Silent Spiral Connector. Because it provides positive, continuous electrical connection between the center terminal and volume adjustment arm, there is no chance for noise to originate. With element noise also eliminated by the famous IRC 5-Finger "Knee Action" Silent Element Contact, you have double assurance of the smoothest, most reliable controls you've ever used — controls that are quiet and stay quiet! Silent Spiral Connector available only on IRC Special Replacement Controls ... designated in Guide with prefix "J". 5-Finger "Knee Action" Element Contact supplied on all IRC Controls. FREE GUIDE The most complete guide ever offered. Contains more than 100 pages listing IRC Standard and Special Replacement Controls for practically every receiver. INTERNATIONAL RESISTANCE COMPANY 401 NORTH BROAD STREET, PHILADELPHIA, PA. Factories or Licensees in Canada, England, France, Germany, Italy, Denmark and Australia MAKERS OF RESISTANCE UNITS OF MORE TYPES, IN MORE SHAPES, FOR MORE APPLICATIONS THAN ANY OTHER MANUFACTURER IN THE WORLD 923 a vacuum type phototube by RCA similar to the 921. Light-response characteristics for this tube are practically linear for light inputs up to 1 lumen, provided the anode voltage is relatively high and the load resistance relatively low. Maximum ratings and characteristics are: - Anode-Supply Voltage (D. C. or Peak A. C.) ................. 250 Volts - Anode Current .................. 30 Milliamperes - Ambient Temperature ............ 100 Degrees C. - Sensitivity ..................... .20 Microamp./lumen - Load Resistance: For 250 volt anode-supply voltage 1 min. Megohm 923 gaseous type phototube, standard bulb, similar mechanically and electrically to the 918, but has shorter overall length. Characteristics are: - Anode-Supply Voltage (D. C. or Peak A. C.) ................. 90 Volts - Anode Current .................. 20 Milliamperes - Ambient Temperature ............ 100 Degrees C. - Sensitivity: At 0 cycles ........... 100 Microamp./lumen - Gia Amplification Factor ........ Not over 10 - Load Resistance: With anode-supply voltage of 90 volts For currents greater than 3 microamp. 4 min. megohms For currents less than 3 microamp. 0.5 min. megohm With anode-supply voltage of 75 volts For currents less than 3.5 microamp. 0 megohm High Gain Phase Inverter From RCA comes the following circuit. A 6F5 as a phase inverter following a 6H6 detector supplies sufficient gain to drive a pair of 6F6 or 6L6 tubes in pushpull. The novel part of the circuit is that part of the rectified signal from the detector flows through cathode resistor of the 6F5. The voltage developed by the procedure drives one grid of the output tubes. Coupling to this stage is made through a 0.1 mfd condenser. Phase Rotated Antenna The desirable features of directional antennas are known to every one. For amateur work, a simple yet effective antenna, whose directivity can be changed, has been developed by Taco. By rotating a switch in the shack, changing the phase relation of the antenna net work, signals can be increased in the desired direction by approximately two R points. The principles involved are shown in the following sketch. Two V doublet antennas are arranged at right angles to each other. Since a half-wave antenna receives or radiates at right angles to the plane of the antenna, the field strength pattern resembles the illustration. The low impedance feeders (four wires in all) are connected to a switching system at the receiver end whereby any combination of the antennas may be chosen. By choosing the feeders connected to the antenna running north and south, directivity is obtained in the E-W position. There are many combinations made possible by this switch. Thus, a full range of directivity results. I. F. Transfilter Similar to a quartz crystal filter for increasing the selectivity of an i.f. stage, the transfilter by Brush is particularly useful for phone reception. Full selectivity of a quartz crystal handicaps phone reception by destroying the high frequency side bands. The transfilter on the other hand, provides a maximum amount of selectivity for intelligibility of modulated signals. The outward appearance of the unit resembles a metal tube, and the octal base makes it convenient to use an octal socket as a receptical. The actual transfilter element consists of a steel bar whose length determines the frequency at which the filter will operate. On this bar are mounted 4 small Rochelle Salt Crystal plates. They are connected in pairs and constitute the input and output circuits. The steel bar is common to both circuits. The name "transfilter" is derived from the design and principle of operation. That is, the intermediate frequency voltage impressed upon the input crystal plates excite the steel bar into longitudinal vibrations. These vibrations in turn excite the output plates, and the signal voltage is applied to the following stage. It is a known fact that with a quartz filter at least two stages of i.f. are necessary. With the new filter, a single conventional i.f., followed by a low gain triode, is sufficient. Connections for this are shown in the diagram. The triode and transfilter are connected between the secondary of the first i.f. transformer and first i.f. tube. The switch SW is connected directly across the input and output of the filter. With the switch open, the filter is in operation. Closing the switch shorts out the filter. New Tubes 833—A high power transmitting triode by RCA of new design. Features are: minimum amount of insulation within the tube, low internal lead inductances and high plate efficiency at moderate voltages. A bulb of unusual shape provides desirable mechanical and electrical characteristics. Class C Telephony Characteristics are: - Filament Voltage (a.c. or d.c.) ....... 10 volts - Filament Current .................. 1.5 amps. - Plate Voltage ..................... 2,500 volts - Plate Current ..................... .335 ma. - Grid Voltage ....................... .300 volts - Grid Current ....................... .75 ma. - Irving Power ....................... 30 watts - Power Output ...................... .655 watts - Amplification Factor ............... .35 - Grid-Plate Capacity ................ 6.3 unf IMPROVED UP-TO-THE-MINUTE 1937-38 TUBE TESTER Only $18.00 for this TUBE TESTER - Has Line Voltage Adjustment - Has Leakage and Short Test - Uses Triplett Direct Reading Instrument (GOOD-BAD Scale) Model 430 Positively Checks All Type Radio Tubes According to Latest Recommendation of tube Engineers. Five flush type sockets provide for all tubes. The tester operation is very simple and indicates condition of the tube for dealer and customer on Direct Reading (GOOD-BAD) colored scale of Triplett instrument. Will also test for inter-element shorts and leakages. Complete in attractive, sturdy, quartered-oak case. Sloping etched panel of silver and black. Suitable for portable or counter use. DEALER PRICE $19.80 Model 431 same as 430 except has Readrite (GOOD-BAD) Meter. DEALER PRICE $15.90 A MODIFIED EMISSION TYPE TESTER APPROVED CIRCUIT Readrite Ranger Meters READRITE METER WORKS 1620 College St., Butler, Ohio Please send me more information on Model 430: Model 431: Model 557: Model 740: Model 640-740: I am also interested in: Name Address City State Model 557 Direct Reading Signal Generator Model 557 Direct Reading Signal Generator uses plug-in type coils. Five frequency bands are covered from 110 to 20,000 K.C., all fundamentals. Completely shielded for static and magnetic fields. Attractive, portability and outstanding features. Strong signals both modulated and unmodulated are furnished. Volt-Ohm-Milliammeter Model 1740 Volt-Ohm-Milliammeter has 3" Square Triplett Precision Instrument. Scale readings: 10-50-250-500-1000 A.C. and D.C. Volts at 1000 Ohms per Volt (D.C. Accuracy 2%; A.C. 5%); 1-10-50-250 D.C., M.A.; 0-3000 low ohms; High Ohms to 250,000 at 1½ Volts. Model 740 $19.50 Combination Volt-Ohm-Milliammeter and Free Point Tester Precision built throughout, Readrite-Ranger Radio Testers need no apology from the highest class service groups. In fact, you will find them using these rugged testers on calls because they have been particularly designed to withstand rough field work. Ask your jobber to show you today's values in precision radio testers. Model 640-740 $28.35 Remote Volume—Mixer Control A new idea in sound amplifiers allows the operator of a sound system to control gain and mixing at a distance. Built into a new RCA amplifier it permits these adjustments to be made up to 2,000 feet from the amplifier. Chance of hum pickup or feedback are prevented due to the special circuit design. Referring to the schematic, a dual input stage is used in the amplifier, one of which is illustrated. The 1612 tube in this stage is a low microphonic preamplifier type. The volume control is in the cathode circuit, regulating the bias on this tube. Since the control is not in the signal circuits, remote control may be accomplished at any distance from the amplifier. The changeover to remote control is done simply by plugging the remote control cable into an 8 contact socket on the front panel and turning the standard volume control all the way "off". This causes a switch to remove the standard control from the circuit. Since the control of both pre-amplifiers is adjusted at the remote box by separate potentiometers, signals may be mixed also; providing of course, that the separate signals are connected to the individual preamplifiers. Improved Phase Inverter With the advent of high power output stages using small tubes in push-pull circuits, phase inverters have become increasingly popular. The simplest phase inverter is a centertapped audio transformer or choke. However, tests by Sylvania have shown such a circuit to be inferior in power output, gain distortion and fidelity to the circuit shown herewith. Experiments have carried further to prove that usual methods of phase inversion, either by cathode and plate connection to the driver tube, or feedback from the opposite tube in a pushpull output stage still leave much to be desired. The circuit shown employs a 6C8G as first amplifier stage and a 6J5G to obtain phase inversion. The individual grids of the 6C8G are paralleled, the plates are arranged at opposite ends of the plate load resistor. In this way the upper plate is permitted to feed a signal to the upper 6F6G grid through a .01 mfd. condenser. The lower plate of the 6C8G has a tapped plate load resistor in its circuit. From this tap the 6J5G inverter tube obtains signal voltage. Since the signal present in the plate circuit of a tube is always 180 degrees out of phase with the grid signal, the output voltage of this tube is in correct phase relation to drive the lower 6F6G. The coupling between these tubes is a .01 mfd. condenser. Frequency response of this circuit is essentially flat. Excellent high frequency response is obtained. The output voltage falls slowly at the very low frequencies. Class B Automatic Bias System Since heavy grid current and large plate current fluctuations are customary in Class B amplifiers the usual methods of automatic bias are unsuitable. The voltage across a resistor in the cathode circuit would vary considerably with these changes. Hence, bias is usually obtained from batteries or special power supplies. In a novel amplifier by Jefferson, all these disadvantages are overcome. Bias voltage is obtained from a cathode resistor, across which is connected a regulator vacuum tube network. As illustrated, the circuit is conventional except for the 6A6 regulator tubes and the special input transformer. If a signal was applied to the grids of the Class B stage without the regulator tubes in the circuit, plate current changes would likewise cause a change in the voltage drop across $R_B$. This would result in serious distortion and low output from the amplifier. With the regulator tubes in place, and a signal applied, signal voltage is present on the 6A6 grids as well as the Class B stage. The 6A6 grids, driven positive, lower the plate resistance of these tubes. Since these are in parallel with the cathode bias resistor, the effect is to lower the effective cathode resistance. YOU PROFIT TWO WAYS WITH THE NEW ARCTURUS EQUIPMENT DEAL! HIGHEST GRADE STANDARD EQUIPMENT... Quick Delivery... Amazingly Low Down Payment... THE WORLD'S BEST ENGINEERED TUBES... At Standard List Prices "An equipment deal that stands head and shoulders above any other!" "The fairest deal I have ever seen." Thus run trade comments as every mail brings enthusiastic letters from radio men who know a good thing when they see it—who recognize in the new Arcturus Equipment Deal an unexcelled opportunity to get needed shop equipment under the most favorable terms—and, at the same time, feature radio's finest, best engineered tubes in all their work. TRY IT—YOU CAN'T LOSE! The ARCTURUS offer includes a long list of high quality, standard shop equipment. Small monthly tube requirements make it unnecessary for you to "oversell" yourself on tubes. Furthermore, ARCTURUS actually helps you sell with the finest line of dealer helps on the market today. ARCTURUS tube quality, plus the exceptionally easy terms, make this deal a sure winner! The only way you can possibly lose is by not taking full advantage of it! ARCTURUS INDEPENDENT TUBES FOR DEALERS WHO DO THEIR OWN INDEPENDENT THINKING MAIL THIS COUPON for DETAILS Arcturus Radio Tube Co., Newark, New Jersey. Gentlemen: Send complete details of your new Equipment Deal. ☐ I am a Dealer ☐ I am a Serviceman Name ____________________________ Address __________________________ City ____________________________ State ________________ My Jobber is ______________________ RADIO RETAILING, OCTOBER, 1937 Mystery In Missouri By Robert Feree The circuit solution of the window display on page 13 is as follows: The radio is situated a few feet from the window, and four cards, giving the call letters of four St. Louis stations are attached to the inside of the window. These station call cards are 4 x 6 in. On the back of each card is glued a piece of tinfoil 3$\frac{1}{2}$ x 5$\frac{1}{2}$ in. A small enameled #40 wire is attached to the tinfoil. A dummy 4 x 6-in. card is then glued to the back of the station card to conceal the tinfoil from the rear. The wires from the station cards are well separated and lead to the set over the dark background material at the rear where the capacity operated relay is located. The relay is constructed on a 10 x 17-in. "amplifier foundation kit." As shown in the diagram it consists of nine tubes and eight relays; such a set up controlling four stations. Each station requires two tubes and two relays. A 6Q7 is used as a capacity controlled oscillator and voltage rectifier, while a 6F6 is used to control the current to one relay. The ninth tube is a rectifier tube, type 5T4. The oscillator circuit is conventional with the exception of the variable grid condenser of 100 mmf maximum capacity. The operation of the system is as follows: The 100 mmf grid condenser is adjusted so that the 6Q7 oscillates. The voltage developed by the oscillator is rectified by the diode plates and impressed on the control grid of the 6F6 as cutoff bias. In this state no current flows through the plate circuit relay. When someone places their hand over the station call, capacity is added to the oscillator circuit from grid to ground causing the 6Q7 to stop oscillating. The cutoff bias collapses on the 6F6, allowing its plate current to flow. This current operates the plate circuit relay. The amount of current flowing in the 6F6 plate circuits is limited by a common fixed bias voltage obtained from the voltage divider of the power supply. The plate circuit relays are connected as a remote control of the set. However, it was necessary to use an additional relay in series with the motor circuit to prevent the tuning mechanism from stopping if the hand is removed from the window. The second relay is a small keying relay" which will operate on from 6 to 16 volts a.c. Its contacts are in parallel with the contacts of the plate circuit relays, while the relay coil is in series with motor circuit. In this manner the contact remains closed until the selector opens the circuit. The pressure of the second relay coil in the motor circuit creates sufficient voltage drop to prevent the motor from operating. Consequently a small tube testing transformer is used to increase the voltage in the motor circuit. If more than one station is operated at one time, the last one operated will be tuned in. The capacity operated relay should be grounded to a convenient water pipe or other ground connection. Audio Instability in Battery Sets By R. S. Henderson The modern tendency in battery-operated receiver design is to use as much gain as possible in the audio frequency amplifier circuits; this applies to both the 2-volt and the 6-volt types. The result is that when replacing an audio transformer or some other part, unless the particular part is an exact duplicate of the original, audio oscillation or instability is quite likely to occur. In most instances, the trouble is readily overcome by simply inserting a small (½ watt) carbon resistor in series with the grid or input lead to the first audio amplifier tube. The exact value of the resistor is not at all critical but should not be larger than 50,000 ohms or the tone is likely to be affected. In fact, the smallest value consistent with stability should be used. Tentative values of from 15,000 to 40,000 ohms are suggested. In some receivers using transformer-coupled pentodes as output, especially the type 1E7G, the instability, although indeed unusual, may be encountered in the output stage. As these tubes are practically always operated as a class A amplifier in which there is no grid current, the insertion of a stabilizing resistor as shown between the transformer center-tap and the "C" bias terminal will cause no changes in the circuit characteristics. Like the grid-line resistor, the value must be kept as low as possible although resistances up to 250,000 ohms may be required in some extreme cases. Usually, however, values from 10,000 to 50,000 ohms are quite satisfactory. The resistor should not be by-passed. Curing Wheel Static By H. A. Searcy A very severe case of wheel static was present in a 1936 Oldsmobile. Static collectors on all wheels and grounding the knee action had no effect. A section of flexible shielding was soldered to each one of the valve stem caps and grounded under the hub cap to one of the hub bolts. The static was completely eliminated. 25,000 OHMS PER VOLT Model 1200-E Volt-Ohm Milliammeter - Resistance Readings to 40 Megohms - Separate A.C. and D.C. Instruments in Tilting Twin Case; Accuracy of Each Within 2% - For All Radio Measurements Not Requiring a No Current Draw Vacuum Tube Voltmeter TRIPLETT MASTER VOLT-OHM-MILLIAMMETER, EASILY IDENTIFIED BY THE EXCLUSIVE TILTING TWIN INSTRUMENT, IS BY ALL ODDS THE OVERWHELMING FAVORITE . . . BECAUSE IT IS THE MOST PRACTICAL . . . (It Offers the Most for the Money). Model 1200-E offers a new order of precision testing with 25,000 Ohms per Volt. Modern radio sets that require delicate balancing can be easily and quickly adjusted. READINGS: D.C. Volts 10-50-250-500-1000 at 25,000 Ohms per Volt. A.C. Volts 10-50-250-500-1000. 50 D.C. Microamperes, 1-10-50-250 Milliamperes; Resistance 3/4-1000 Low Ohms, Backup Circuit; 0-40,000 Ohms; 4 and 40 Megohms. New LABORATORY TEST BENCH PANEL As Shown Contains: - 1210-A Tube Tester - 1232 Signal Generator - 1209-A A.C. Voltmeter - 1209-D Volt-Ohm-Milliammeter OTHER LABORATORY MODELS Model 1402 with compartments for any two DeLuxe Testers; Model 1403 with accommodations for any two Master Units and one DeLuxe Tester. MODEL 1200-E DEALER PRICE $31.17 A TRIPLET MASTER UNIT A TRIPLET MASTER UNIT . . . one of a series of co-related single unit testers made in standard sizes, the most economical method yet devised for completely equipping the all-around radio service shop with high quality instruments. Catalog gives complete information regarding other Triplett Volt-Ohm-Milliammeters. THE TRIPLETT ELECTRICAL INSTRUMENT CO. 2010 Harmon Ave., Bluffton, Ohio Please send me more information on Triplett Model 1200-E: _______ Model 1404. Name ____________________________________________ Address _________________________________________ City ____________________________________________ State ___________________________________________ For More Information SEE YOUR JOBBER OR MAIL COUPON TODAY Distortion in Small Speakers By S. C. Ross A number of auto sets have come into the shop with speaker distortion for which there was no way of adjusting the voice coil; either because the spider is inaccessible or a piece of material is glued from the cone to the center magnet. To loosen this center, adjust and re-glue, is not practical. The best method is to tap lightly with a small hammer on the back flange, to which the pole unit is attached, until no further distortion is audible. This should be done with the radio in operation and the speaker attached to its baffle. Otherwise, the adjustment will not be satisfactory when replaced, for it will have a tendency to throw the voice coil out of line when bolted, due to the exceptionally small tolerance allowed. For best results, while tapping, use a weak signal and listen closely to the high frequencies. --- Output Meter from Tube Tester By James A. Nash The copper oxide rectifier in an outmoded tube tester can be put to many uses. A half-wave affair was extracted from a Jewell checker pattern 538. It lends itself admirably as an output indicator when connected across a voice coil. A sensitive voltmeter is used in conjunction with the rectifier. In a few minutes it can be built into any voltmeter. Simply connect it in series with a 1 milliamper movement. It provides good sensitivity even on weak signals. If the meter dial is calibrated it may be used to measure a.c. voltages. --- Oscillation Troubles With the 1D7G By H. D. Hooton Although the characteristics of the new 1D7G "octal" type converter tube, as given in the manufacturer's tube manuals, correspond to those of the older 1A6, there has been a great deal of trouble with the 1D7Gs which was never encountered with the older tubes. Perhaps the most common difficulty is total or partial lack of oscillation over the tuning range when this type of tube is replaced. In some extreme cases it has been found that out of twelve or fifteen tubes only two or three could be made to oscillate without revamping the oscillator circuit of the receiver. In most instances where the 1D7G does not operate satisfactorily, the 1C7G may be substituted without difficulty. If this is not practical or desirable, the oscillator circuit usually must be revamped. Remove the usual 50,000 ohm grid leak and substitute various higher resistance values, checking for smooth oscillation at both ends of the tuning scale. Be careful not to make the grid leak of too high value; if the leak is higher than 100,000 ohms the set may be very noisy, or howl due to oscillator self-modulation may be encountered when operating the dial over the high-frequency portion of the scale. However, if the leak must be high in order to produce oscillations at the low-frequency end of the scale, the value of the oscillator grid condenser will have to be changed or adjusted to a point where the modulation no longer takes place. Perhaps the most convenient method of making this critical adjustment is to substitute a standard padding condenser of about 70-220 mmfd. rating for the usual mica fixed condenser. Incidentally, the insertion of a small (4 watt) non-inductive resistor of about 1,000 ohms value in the oscillator grid circuit as shown in Fig. 1, will sometimes improve both the stability and oscillation of the 1D7G when the receiver is designed to cover the broadcast band only. --- Eliminating R.F. Oscillation By R. S. Henderson Many of the low-cost radio receivers, especially those of the tuned-radio-frequency type have no shielding whatever in the R.F. circuits and are, therefore, very likely to oscillate after making changes in the set or replacing the tubes. A simple method of getting rid of oscillation in sets of this type is to place one or two short-circuited turns of insulated wire around the offending coil and move it up or down until the difficulty is eliminated. The short-circuited coil should not be grounded. --- SERVICING SOUND—And other equipment is the topic of a new series of “Technaural” lecture-meetings to be given during November by E. C. Cahill (left), RCA Service Manager, and W. L. Rothenberger, Manager RCA Commercial Sound Section. A TREASURE TROVE Of Free Equipment For Radio Service Men Who Buy NATIONAL UNION TUBES ASK YOUR JOBBER TO SHOW YOU THIS GREAT 1938 FREE EQUIPMENT CATALOG! 80 Big Pages! More Than 100 Pieces of—FREE EQUIPMENT! Through National Union's help radio service dealers everywhere have been able to set up better equipped shops to do better work; also to obtain sales helps that produce more customers. National Union has constantly put the latest advances in scientific equipment as well as modern selling aids within reach of the service dealer. The National Union Deal calls for a dealer deposit which is rebated when the specified number of tubes have been purchased. Over 70,000 completed deals. Every service dealer should investigate. NATIONAL UNION RADIO TUBE QUALITY HAS BEEN PROVED IN THE FIELD THE ROAD TO BETTER BUSINESS 1. Full guarantee on highest quality radio tubes 2. Cut price business not solicited 3. Price Protection 4. N.U. jobber stocks are complete...No hunting for odd types 5. Timely business building aids. NATIONAL UNION RADIO CORPORATION 570 Lexington Ave., New York, N. Y. I am interested in the following equipment: Name ............................................... Address ............................................... City .................. State .......................... CONTINENTAL CARBON bakelite insulated resistors are impervious to moisture, conveniently small and noiseless. In high gain circuits they are recommended for use in compact amplifiers and radios. M3, 2" x 13/16", 3 Watt, $3.30 M1, 1" x 9/32", 1 Watt, .20 M½, ¾" x 7/32", ½ Watt, .17 CONTINENTAL CARBON ceramic insulated resistors have withstood the tests of the most active devices. Where space permits, ceramic insulated resistors are recommended for the utmost in stability and long life. In close tolerance applications, these resistors are the choice of leading Instrument manufacturers of precision equipment and meters. H5, 3" x 9/16", 5 Watt, $5.00 D2, 1 1/2" x 3/4", 3 Watt, .30 D2, 1 1/2" x 3/4", 1 Watt, .20 G4, 1 1/2" x 1/2", ½ Watt, .17 Send for Bulletins 104B, 105, 103A, and 101A CONTINENTAL CARBON INC. 13902 Lorain Ave., Cleveland, Ohio Also Toronto, Canada RADIO RETAILING, OCTOBER, 1937 AC-DC MIDGETS Oscillation . . . Most oscillation troubles in this type set can be reduced by slightly increasing the bypass from detector plate to chassis. The tone is usually improved by this change. AC-DC SETS Considerable increase in sensitivity results when the antenna coil is moved up closer to the secondary winding. Of course this means readjusting the balancing condenser on the first section of the tuning gang. AIRLINE 62-72 Dead, no voltage on screens . . . Open field coil, screen voltage supplied through field. As this set has two speakers it may be made to operate by bridging field (red and yellow wires) with 10 watt 10,000 ohm resistor. AIRLINE 62-89 Insensitive . . . Last i.f. transformer defective. Replace with part #P5127; other transformers unsatisfactory. AIRLINE 62-103 Weak, low volume . . . shorted or open screen bypass or open screen resistor. Inoperative . . . open 415 ohm flexible wire-wound resistor, shorted screen bypass on 6D6 r.f. and det. stages. AIRLINE 62-307 Intermittent, noisy . . . replace 1 meg volume control part #101-46. Oscillator dead . . . replace mica condenser from grid of 6C5 oscillator to coil terminal. APEX 46 Distortion at low volume . . . This trouble can be overcome by replacing the old control and connecting in a slightly different fashion. The old control is simply a series resistor in the cathode circuits of the 24 tubes. For proper replacement connect one end of a 10,000 ohm tapered control to the antenna lead, the other end to the cathodes of the 24s through a 250 ohm resistor. The center arm should be connected to ground. The open circuit in the wire wound resistor where the old control was connected should be bridged with a jumper. ATWATER KENT 944 Weak, sensitivity control has no effect . . . look for open 1 megohm resistor connected from the 4 mfd. filter to the grid of 57 tube. ARVIN 18 Distortion, low volume when jarred . . . replace .05 mfd. 160 volt condenser mounted through chassis near power pack, connected between volume control and resistor on end of i.f. transformer. This is part C-60 in the schematic. ARVIN 62 Noisy when tuning dial is rotated. . . . Solder bottom arm on planetary drive system to bracket at front end of condenser gang. AUTO RADIOS It is common practice to jam the remote control tuning cable as tight as possible into the set fitting. This can result in microphonics, oscillation and erratic operation as the tuning condenser is then mechanically connected to ground. Set the cable just far enough into the sleeve to properly mesh with the tuning condenser. This procedure will allow the condenser to float, as originally intended. CROSLEY 170 Oscillation, reception only when finger is placed on grid of first 58 tube . . . look for opening in r.f. oscillator coil located in back of band switch. GE 105 Weak, no colorama tuning . . . Replace 5Z4 rectifier. GRUNOW 4B Distortion which shows up after 5 to 10 minutes of operation . . . replace .02 mfd. coupling condenser part #29567. GRUNOW 500 Although not shown in the factory diagrams some of these sets have a hum bucking coil in the speaker. When a set has no plate voltage check the speaker windings as sometimes a flash occurs between the field and this winding, destroying the leads to the field coil. KOLSTER 70 Some of these sets have a 1 mfd. 400 volt condenser across the filter choke. If set does not have this condenser the tone and volume can be improved by adding one. STEPPING UP FAST—Starting with little capital just a short time ago, Pompton Lakes (N.J.) Radio Service is now proud owner of over $250 worth of test equipment, averages $100 a month for replacement parts and $150 for tubes. IT'S IN HERE, O. M.! The STANCOR HAMANUAL New...complete...practical! 16 complete circuits from microphone to antenna post...transformers for all tubes....Don't build or re-build until you have seen the Stancor Hamanual....It has all the latest dope! Ask Your Jobber for Your Copy! STANDARD TRANSFORMER CORPORATION 850 BLACKHAWK STREET CHICAGO THIRD EDITION HAMANUAL AMATEURS' TRANSMITTER CATALOG RADIO RETAILING, OCTOBER, 1937 TRICKS MAJESTIC 66 Fading, vibrator refuses to function, pilot light still lights... Examine fuse holder for corrosion. PHILCO 18 The tone control condenser shorting is frequently the cause of a dead set. PHILCO 47 Intermittent reception, frequent burnout of tubes and pilot lights... short between chassis and pilot light bracket behind shadow tuning meter. PHILCO 610 Oscillator whenever volume control is touched... check 41 output plate condenser for open. This condenser is connected in series with tone control condenser, is located in tone control housing. PHILCO 630 High pitched whistle with the volume control about $\frac{1}{2}$ on, disappears when control is turned in either direction... Look for open condenser (part #30-4042 connected from plate of 42 to B minus. RCA M109 Dead from 550 to 900 k.c., weak on remaining portion of dial... Open 100 ohm resistor in antenna filter. This resistor along with a choke and condenser are contained in a small metal can located at a point where the antenna enters the chassis. Remove can and replace resistor. RADIOLA 17, 50 Unstable... screw loose on terminal board making poor contact. Tighten all screws. MILLIONS IN USE MEANS GOOD WORK SELL MORE COMBINATIONS INSTALL General Industries Flyer Motors. When your sets are switched from radio to phonograph, the superior performance of famous Flyers will do a real selling job. High-fidelity reproduction, from uniform speed regardless of variations in record drag. Superior basic design. Precision built. Dependable for long trouble-free service. The GENERAL INDUSTRIES CO. 3737 Taylor St., Elyria, Ohio Flyer Motors are priced so low that customers are surprised to find combinations in such a convenient price range. Order test samples now. Be sure to specify whether AC or DC and give exact voltage and frequency of current you use. FLASHING SIGNALS EAR PHONE NOISE TEST! FLASHES a brilliant red signal for a bad tube—amber signal for a weak tube—and green signal for a good tube. Signals are translucent only until you press the button. The customer listens to the noise test through a permanently attached earphone. Shorted or leaky tubes cause intense glow, spreading lengthwise in long glass cylinder. Makes best of grid control. Fast and simple to operate. Crystalline Metal Case Lustrous Chrome Panel—Steel Slide for Chart. NET PRICE TO DEALERS $54.00 ON DEMONSTRATION AT YOUR JOBBER'S THE RADIOTECHNIC LABORATORY 1334 SHERMAN AVE., EVANSTON, ILL. SEE YOUR JOBBER A Complete Line of Tube Test Equipment RADIOTECHNIC Sealed In Glass! • Now you can cure chronic condenser trouble forever! Keep your customers happy—use GLASSMIKE, the glass-walled condenser, and eliminate profit-eating call-backs! It's new, different, absolutely impervious to moisture, guaranteed for a year, and costs no more than an ordinary condenser. Ask your jobber for Glassmike, and write today for illustrated descriptive circular. ASK YOUR JOBBER FOR "GLASSMIKE" CONDENSER PRODUCTS CO. 1369 NORTH BRANCH STREET CHICAGO • ILLINOIS NEW HEIGHTS! FOR ten years radio testing equipment had just gone along... then it was suddenly revolutionized by the Simpson line. New designs... new standards of workmanship... new heights of accuracy, of stamina, of practical, on-the-job useability—that is what hundreds of servicemen have discovered in Simpson Instruments. See them at your jobber's—and your next servicing equipment will be Simpson. SIMPSON ELECTRIC CO. 5216 Kinzie Street, Chicago, Ill. The New "Anal-O-Scope" Ingenious time-saver for use with any set tester or Volt-Ohm-Milliammeter. Just select card corresponding to tube under test, place it on Anal-O-Scope and you have complete picture of elements and connection while tests are being made. Combines cord and plug analysis with "Free Point" method. Ask for interesting facts. Model 210 All-Wave Signal Generator The last word in signal generators. Ask for description and prices. Model 220 Roto-Ranger Tube and Set Tester The fastest selling instrument in its price class. Roto-Ranger feature places twelve separate scales at your fingertips. Latest tube testing circuit: filament return voltage; separate resistance scale of 0-100-100,000 ohms, and 100 megohms. Three D.C. scales 8-300-1000 volts (2500 ohms per volt). Net price ............... $62.75 Time price ............ $12.50 down and six $9.60 payments. Model 201-202 Roto-Ranger Volt-Ohm Milliammeter Conveniently portable with following ranges. Model 201 (D.C.) Ohms: 0-20-200-2,000-20,000-200,000-2,000,000; Micros: 0-10-100-1,000-10,000-100,000; Volts: 0-4-300-1,000; Amps: 0-1-150; Model 202 (A.C. and D.C.) A. C. Volts: 0-20-200-2,000-20,000-300-1,000; D. C. Milliamps: 0-1-8-130; Ohms: 0-10-50-500-2 megohms. Net prices: Model 201 .......... $32.50 Model 202 .................. $35.75 (Sold on deferred payments) Model 215 A.C.-D.C. Volt-Ohm Milliammeter 5000 Ohms Per Volt The small instrument with the big, easy-to-read dial. 0-2-20-200-2,000-20,000-200,000 volts. A.C. or D. C. Ohms: 0-500-5,000-50,000-500-250 Micro-ohms. 0-4,000-400,000 ohms. 0-4 megohms. Five decibel ranges 12 to 55. Net price ............... $25.75 Model 205 Volt-Ohm Milliammeter 5000 Ohms Per Volt Pocket size but high quality. Highest resistance ranges ever offered in an instrument of this size. Ohms: 0-200,000-2 megohms; Volts 0-10-50-250-1,000 (D. C. only); Milliamps, 0-10-500. Net price ............... $13.25 SIMPSON Instruments that STAY ACCURATE ASK YOUR JOBBER MAIL THIS COUPON TODAY Simpson Electric Co., 5216 Kinzie St., Chicago Send facts covering items checked ☐ Model 220 ☐ Model 201-202 ☐ Model 215 ☐ Model 205 ☐ Model 210 ☐ Anal-O-Scope Name ____________________________________________ Address __________________________________________ City __________________ State _________________ NOT "JUST ANOTHER" VOLUME A GREAT STEP toward the Perfect Manual VOLUME VIII Rider MANUAL OUT NOVEMBER 10TH OVER 1600 PAGES PLUS THE NEW SUPPLEMENT $10.00 ORDER TODAY FROM YOUR JOBBER YOU NEED ALL 8 Rider MANUALS JOHN F. RIDER, Publisher, 1440 BROADWAY, NEW YORK CITY Geared! SEND for your copy of new manual, backed by complete line of CLAROSTAT exact-duplicate replacements stocked by your jobber. CLAROSTAT Manufacturing Co. Inc. 285-287 NORTH SIXTH STREET BROOKLYN, NEW YORK, U.S.A. OFFICES IN PRINCIPAL CITIES TRICKS SILVERTONE 1390, 1400, 1402, 1404, 1406 Dead, weak, distorted signals on powerful locals... Check bypass block mounted in can next to 27 tube. Detector plate bypass section (.1 mfd) is usually at fault. Replace with higher voltage unit. Check 1000 ohm resistor in plate circuit of some tube for overload caused by short. SILVERTONE 1640 Motorboating... check .2 mfd screen bypass for open. TRUETONE 6K Crackling, vibrator and ignition quiet... Antenna transformer shield can ungrounded. This condition may be remedied by removing chassis and inserting a phosphor bronze spring between the coil can and chassis bracket with a long-nose pliers. Most stores handling this set have these springs on hand. SPARTON 870 Noisy... terminal board on side of power unit for connection of external choke breaking down. Replace with new terminal. STEWART-WARNER, 3040-3049 Oscillation when tuned to weak stations or between stations can be removed by connecting a ground to the receiver. If a ground is not available oscillation can be prevented by connecting a .01 mfd. buffer condenser from one side of the power line to chassis. In connecting the condenser, first solder one side to the chassis. Touch the other lead to one terminal of the line cord and note whether the hum increases. If the hum increases touch the condenser to the other line cord terminal. This will usually be the line cord terminal which connects to the off-on switch. Solder the condenser in this position. TWO VOLT FARM SETS WITH WIND CHARGERS Burned out tubes... It is imperative that a good connection is made at the battery with the filament leads. Ordinary battery clips often make poor contact to battery. If wind charged is connected to same clips, voltage from the wind charger is sufficiently high to burn out tubes when battery is disconnected. Replace clips with auto battery clamps and solder all connections securely. Reproduction of WEBSTER-CHICAGO Ad In Leading Entertainment Papers FOR A BIGGER HAND USE BETTER SOUND ALL PURPOSE SOUND SYSTEM For Both 6 Volt D.C. and 110 Volt A.C. Operation Being battery or AC operated, Model MF-530 has the advantage of being usable anywhere; indoor or outdoor, auto, trailer or boat. It is built rugged and compact of the very best materials and carries the recommended R.M.A. guarantee. All necessary parts are included, the phonograph turntable being an integral part of amplifier cabinet. If your show sounds thin and tinny, try a new Webster-Chicago system... Models for all purposes and all purses. 30 WATTS OUTPUT Will handle audiences to 10,000 people WEBSTER-CHICAGO Model 530 Includes: - Plug-in Power Pack for either 6 Volt DC or 110 Volt AC operation. - Hand Type Crystal Microphone and High Fidelity Pickup Built into Amplifier. - Two Heavy Duty P.M. Speakers. - Mixes Microphone and Phonograph: Tone Control also Incorporated. - Economically Priced. WEBSTER-CHICAGO SOUND EQUIPMENT MAKES MORE MONEY FOR DEALERS. Direct Advertising creates direct leads and excellent sales promotion material makes it easy for dealer to solicit. WEBSTER-CHICAGO... The Complete Line of Public Address Systems, Sound Equipment and Accessories... Popular Priced Leaders in the Sound Field for Over 12 Years! For Complete Catalog or Other Information Address Section 0-8 WEBSTER-CHICAGO 5622 Bloomingdale Ave. CHICAGO, ILL. Now! RAZOR-EDGE SHADOW TUNING—In an amazing new SUPREME SIGNAL GENERATOR! Supreme's newest contribution to radio science—the new 581 Signal Generator! Full of the outstanding precision features found only in laboratory types selling as high as $600! Over 8 feet of actual scale length! New razor-edge shadow tuning eliminates all possibility of Parallax error! Includes an all-wave R. F. oscillator—125 K. C. to 60 MC; a 400 cycle modulating oscillator, a beat frequency audio frequency oscillator, an electronic frequency modulator or "wobbulator", and dozens of other exclusive, outstanding Supreme features. Complete with four tubes, shielded dummy antenna, calibrated screen for 3" C. R. tube and accessories. Dimensions: 14" x 10½" x 6¾". SOLD ON SUPREME S. I. C. TERMS—THE WORLD'S EASIEST INSTALLMENT TERMS. WRITE FOR LITERATURE DESCRIBING COMPLETE SUPREME LINE. SUPREME INSTRUMENTS CORP. GREENWOOD, MISSISSIPPI, U. S. A. EXPORT DEPT., ASSOCIATED EXPORTERS CO., 145 W. 45TH STREET, NEW YORK CITY, CABLE ADDRESS: LOPREH, NEW YORK "PINCO" THE ONLY COMPLETE GAS-O-LECTRIC POWER PLANT LINE Cash in on this Market Here is an exclusive dealer-jobber line of portable electric light, power and battery charging plants priced for quick sale and big profit. "PINCO" combination AC-DC and DC RED TOP and GOLD CROWN power plants are a necessity for millions of farms, homes, industrials etc. where "clean" electricity is not available. Provide instant power for lights, radios, electrical equipment and appliances. Now is the time to cash in on this waiting market. Write for literature and discounts. One Line for Every Requirement "PINCO"—the only complete power plant line! Full price range; 100 to 2000 watts; alternating or direct current; air or water cooled; remote control; filter and ignition shielding; push button starting. GOLD CROWN HEAVY DUTY POWER PLANT New 15th Anniversary Edition 32-page catalog just issued. Lists largest variety of condensers yet offered. Also essential resistors. Improved listing facilitates selecting condenser by type, voltage, capacity. Many new items added to line. Also 8 pages of exact-duplicate replacement condenser listings. Ask local jobber for a copy. Or write us direct. AEROVOX CORPORATION 70 Washington St. Brooklyn, N.Y. TRICKS UNITED MOTORS 4037 Weak or inoperative . . . this trouble can often be traced to shorted turns on the primary of the vibrator transformer. Primary winding consists of 4 layers of heavy wire, can easily be rewound. Check secondary for short also before attempting any repair. Also check buffer condenser and r.f. filter condensers for shorts or leaks. ZENITH 1937 MODELS On the 8, 10 and 12 tube model 1937 Zenith sets, difficulty is sometimes encountered getting optimum tracking over all bands. Generally the B band is the one giving the most trouble, and as this is the key band around which all the fundamental calibrations of the other bands are obtained, its importance in the alignment procedure is obvious. The fault lies in the shifting of the inductance in the tapped first detector coil. The consequent mismatching of the inductive-capacitive design results in the shifting of the peak resonant condition for optimum alignment of the circuit. In other words, due to the poor matching of inductances as a result of this shift, a resonance peak could not be obtained in the R.F. tuned circuits. However, the remedy for this is rather easily obtained. It has been found that shifting the small fixed mica condenser marked C1 in the diagram, ordinarily connected in the grid circuit of the antenna coil secondary, over to the first detector coil circuit in the identical position, the matching of the coils becomes closer and a consequent improvement in sensitivity is obtained. The capacity of this condenser is 5 mmfds. Distribute some literature on this new instrument. You will be surprised at the interest in home recording among your own customers. A supply of 3½" by 6½" folders will be sent you free upon request. PRESTO RECORDING CORPORATION 137 West 19th Street, New York, N.Y. Don't sell NEW parts for OLD Speakers! MORE CREDIT TO YOU — MORE PROFIT, TOO WHEN YOU RECOMMEND A NEW Don't risk customer good-will by selling new parts for old speakers! Even at the factory, parts must be carefully matched for each individual speaker. It's a delicate job—and requires special equipment. A new UTAH speaker brings a new thrill to set owners—more credit to you, and more profit too! And you can always get the correctly engineered replacement speaker for the job from UTAH. Write for speaker catalog. Address Dept. RR-10. UTAH VIBRATORS ✔ LAST LONGER ✔ WORK BETTER ✔ COST NO MORE The 1937 UTAH Vibrator is the finest and toughest ever made—gruelling tests PROVE IT! Exclusive UTAH design and construction mean "no comebacks" for you. And remember, over a million sets are factory equipped with UTAH Vibrators. Here is the vibrator that has earned customer preference—the vibrator easiest and most profitable for you to sell. Order yours today! UTAH RADIO PRODUCTS CO. CHICAGO, U.S.A. TORONTO ONTARIO, CANADA BUENOS AIRES (UCOA RADIO PRODUCTS CO.) "16 YEARS OF LEADERSHIP" Look for the Name MUELLER WHEN YOU BUY YOUR CLIPS Made to Last Longer THE ONLY COMPLETE LINE 8 Different Sizes—Copper—Steel—Insulated and Uninsulated Send for FREE SAMPLES and Catalog 780 Mueller Electric Co. Clip Makers for 29 Years 1583 E. 31st St., Cleveland, Ohio FUNCTIONAL DESIGN "V" Series Velocity Microphones The smooth trim lines and screen housing are more than just style. They contribute to the top performance that typifies the "V" Series. No side-wall reflection. No resonance. Priced from $25 to $75 list. Write for catalog. See your jobber. ELECTRO-VOICE MFG. CO. 328 E. Colfax Avenue, South Bend, Ind. Export Office: 100 Varick Street, New York City SHORT WAVE CONVERTERS FOR CAR RADIOS Can be attached to any car radio. Has no effect on tuning. Does not affect the reception on the standard broadcast band. MODEL 600 covers 40, 31, 25, 20, 10 and 16 meter bands. Designed for reception of AM and short wave broadcast. Especially adapted to use in receiving stations located in remote parts of the world. Distance range is exceptional. Very attractive unit. Last Price $24.95 MODEL 300—covers 5000 to 20000 kilocycles. Has variable condenser with illuminated dial. Last $10.95 For Use of Police and Other Law Enforcement Officers MODEL 100—police converter with fixed condenser. Covers 5000 to 20000 kilocycles. Last Price $11.95 MODEL 500—police converter with two metal tubes, variable condenser and illuminated dial. Very sensitive. Exceptional distance range. Last Price $21.95 Jobbers and dealers wanted ABC RADIO LABORATORIES 3334 N. New Jersey Avenue Indianapolis, Indiana, U.S.A. Solar announces a complete line of TRANSMITTING CAPACITORS OIL - PAPER and MICA TYPES Write for Complete Catalog SOLAR MANUFACTURING CORP. 599-601 Broadway, New York, N.Y. TRICKS SPARTON MODELS Dial does not track... remove chassis from cabinet, set dial pointer to correct setting. Pointer is merely pressed on shaft and works loose from vibration. ZENITH 420 Rapid motorboating, no reception.... open 500 mmf. condenser across plate and cathode of the 56 second detector. ZENITH 1937 MODELS Electric tuning service adjustments: Make sure that nothing is obstructing the free action of either the belt, the pulley, or the drive shaft, such as wires or component parts. Check the band change shaft for clearance on the 9-12-15 tube models. The die cast bracket through which the brass drive shaft for the motor travels can be centered properly by loosening the two Parker-Kalon screws which hold the bracket to the front of the dial assembly. After centering the above mentioned die cast bracket retighten the two Parker-Kalon screws. Check the $\frac{3}{8}$ nut at the rear of chassis in this manner; loosen the nut, permit the motor to run and retighten the $\frac{3}{8}$ nut while in operation. This will allow the front and rear bearings to align themselves properly. Check for ample clearance between the dial gang drive pulley and the mounting nut for the bearing through the front of the chassis approximately $\frac{3}{8}$" clearance. Brass drive shaft should also have ample clearance at rear of chassis between collar mounted on motor switch. The large drive pulley mounted on the rear of the brass shaft should be in line with the small pulley which will be found mounted on the motor armature. Alignment can be accomplished by loosening the two set screws and sliding the large pulley either backward or forward on the brass shaft. GE F-107 For intermittent operation of this set check the pilot light socket and bracket assembly for shorts. GE F-107 Unsatisfactory operation of the automatic tuner unit on some of the earlier models is caused by a slipping drive belt. A small hole drilled through the back corner of the motor base plate and a tapped hole into the chassis will enable a small screw and spring to be used as a belt tightening unit to secure the proper tension. HUDSON TERRAPLANE SETS When installing auto sets in this car an annoying intermittent buzz is often present while the motor is running. Motor noises are carried and radiated by the gas line. A condenser from the gas line to chassis would not remove the trouble. A satisfactory solution is to ground the gas tank as a fabric insulates it from the hanger. An easy way to do this is to wrap a piece of copper braid around the insulating fabric and clamp the tank back in position. MOTOROLA 78 Poor tone... check the voice coil and field to see if these connections have been reversed. This causes the voice coil to become charred. If such is the case replace cone and voice coil. PHILCO 14 No control of tone... test 37 first audio in tube tester and by substitution. In many cases this tube is at fault and not the tone control. SPARTON 600 Motorboating.... Check the bias resistor on the 183 output tubes. The resistance should be 1,250 ohms but changes to 700 ohms often a few minutes operation. Replace with a wire wound unit. GO STRONG ON AUTOMATICS WITH LOW-COST CHANGER UNITS Stronger every day, the trend to combination radio-phonographs shows up in great shape—with good profits—wherever General Industries record changer units are in the picture. They bring automatic playing down to where average people can afford it. Yet they perform up with the high-priced changers. Sell more radio-phonographs equipped for automatic playing. Install General Industries changer units. Dependable for fine service and plenty of it. Easily installed at low cost. The General Industries Co., 3737 Taylor St., Elyria, Ohio ## INDEX TO ADVERTISERS October, 1937 \| Company \| Page \| \|----------------------------------------------\|------\| \| ABC RADIO LABORATORIES, INC. \| 72 \| \| (Short-Wave Converters) \| \| \| AEROVOX CORP. \| 68 \| \| (Condensers) \| \| \| ARCTURUS RADIO TUBE CO. \| 60 \| \| (Tubes) \| \| \| BOND ELECTRIC CORPORATION \| 50 \| \| (Batteries) \| \| \| BRACH MFG. CO., L. S. \| 52 \| \| (Antenna Systems) \| \| \| BRIGGS & STRATTON CORP. \| 12 \| \| (Gas Engines & Generators) \| \| \| CINAUDAGRAPH CORP. \| 71 \| \| (Sound Equipment) \| \| \| CLAROSTAT MFG. CO. \| 68 \| \| (Volume Controls) \| \| \| CONDENSER PRODUCTS CO. \| 63 \| \| (Replacement Condensers) \| \| \| CONSOLIDATED WIRE & ASSOC. CORPS. \| 46 \| \| (Condensers) \| \| \| CONTINENTAL CARBON CO. \| 64 \| \| (Resistors) \| \| \| CONTINENTAL MOTORS CORP. \| 52, 53\| \| (Electric Heaters, Battery Chargers) \| \| \| CONTINENTAL RADIO & TELEVISION CORP. \| 5 \| \| (Radio Sets) \| \| \| CORNELL-DUBILIER CORP. \| 71 \| \| (Condensers) \| \| \| CORNISH WIRE CO. \| 51 \| \| (Antennas) \| \| \| CROSLERY RADIO CORP. \| \| \| (Radio Sets) \| \| \| ELECTRIC STORAGE BATTERY CO. \| 40 \| \| (Storage Batteries) \| \| \| ELECTRO-VOICE MFG. CO. \| 72 \| \| (Microphones) \| \| \| GENERAL ELECTRIC CO. \| \| \| (Radio Sets) \| \| \| GENERAL HOUSEHOLD UTILITIES CO. \| 50 \| \| (Radio Sets & Refrigerators) \| \| \| GENERAL INDUSTRIES CO. \| 67, 73\| \| (Phono. Motors, Record Changers) \| \| \| GREBE MFG. CO., INC. \| 49 \| \| (Radio Sets) \| \| \| HORTON MFG. CO. \| 48 \| \| (Electric Washers) \| \| \| HOWARD RADIO CO. \| 11 \| \| (Radio Sets) \| \| \| HYGRADE-SYLVANIA CORP. \| 10 \| \| (Tubes) \| \| \| INTERNATIONAL RADIO CORP. \| 21 \| \| (Radio Sets) \| \| \| INTERNATIONAL RESISTANCE CO. \| 56 \| \| (Resistors) \| \| \| JANETTE MANUFACTURING CO. \| 48 \| \| (Rotary Converters) \| \| \| KEN-RAD CORP. \| 48 \| \| (Tubes) \| \| \| MAJESTIC RADIO & TELEVISION CORP. \| 47 \| \| (Radio Sets) \| \| \| MALLORY & CO., INC., P. R. \| \| \| (Replacement Parts & Power Packs) \| \| \| MUELLER ELECTRIC CO. \| 72 \| \| (Wire Clips) \| \| \| NATIONAL UNION RADIO CORP. \| 64 \| \| (Radio Tubes) \| \| \| NOBLITT-SPARKS INDUSTRIES, INC. \| 25 \| \| (Radio Sets) \| \| \| NORGE DIVISION, BORG-WARNER CORP. \| 37 \| \| (Refrigerators) \| \| \| PARRIS-DUNN CORP. \| 44 \| \| (Wind-Electric Chargers) \| \| \| PIONEER GEN-E-MOTOR CORP. \| 68 \| \| (Electric Plants) \| \| \| PRESTO RECORDING CORP. \| 71 \| \| (Recorders and Discs) \| \| \| RADIART CORPORATION \| 64 \| \| (Vibrators) \| \| \| RADIO RETAILING \| 32 \| \| (Trade-In Allowance Blue Book) \| \| \| RADIO-TECHNIC LABORATORIES \| 63 \| \| (Testing Instruments) \| \| \| RAYTHEON PRODUCTION CORP. \| 3 \| \| (Tubes) \| \| \| RCA MANUFACTURING CO., RADIOTRON DIV. \| 4 \| \| (Tubes) \| \| \| RCA MANUFACTURING CO., SET DIVISION \| \| \| (Radio Sets) \| \| \| READRITE METER WORKS \| 58 \| \| (Test Equipment) \| \| \| REMLER CO., LTD. \| 54 \| \| (Inter-Communicating Systems) \| \| \| RIDER, JOHN F. \| 68 \| \| (Service Manuals) \| \| \| SENTINEL RADIO CORP. \| 7 \| \| (Farm Radio Sets) \| \| \| SIMPSON ELECTRIC CO. \| 70 \| \| (Service Instruments) \| \| \| SKY PILOT ORGANIZATION \| 52 \| \| (Radio Clocks) \| \| \| SOLAR MANUFACTURING CO. \| 72 \| \| (Condensers) \| \| \| STANDARD TRANSFORMERS CO. \| 66 \| \| (Transformers) \| \| \| STEWART-WARNER \| 8 \| \| (Radio Sets) \| \| \| STROMBERG CARLSON TELE. MFG. CO. \| 2 \| \| (Radio Sets) \| \| \| SUPREME INSTRUMENT CORP. \| 70 \| \| (Test Equipment) \| \| \| TRIAD MANUFACTURING CO. \| 53 \| \| (Tubes) \| \| \| TRIPPLETT ELECTRICAL INSTRUMENT CO. \| 62 \| \| (Test Equipment) \| \| \| TRIUMPH MFG. CO. \| 89 \| \| (Test Equipment) \| \| \| TUNGSOIL RADIO TUBES, INC. \| 54 \| \| (Tubes) \| \| \| UTAH RADIO PRODUCTS CO. \| 72 \| \| (Vibrators) \| \| \| WARD PRODUCTS CO. \| 46 \| \| (Auto-Radio Antennas) \| \| \| WEBSTER-CHICAGO \| 69 \| \| (Sound Equipment) \| \| \| WILCOX-GAY CORPORATION \| 45 \| \| (Radio Sets) \| \| \| WILLARD STORAGE BATTERY CO. \| 28 \| \| (Storage Batteries) \| \| ### SEARCHLIGHT SECTION Classified Advertising \| Classification \| Page \| \|---------------------------------------\|------\| \| CATALOGS \| 75 \| \| RADIO STOCKS \| 75 \| \| Allied Radio Co. \| 75 \| \| G & G Majestic Refrig. & Radio Parts Service \| 75 \| \| Midwest Appliance Parts Co. \| 75 \| \| Miles Reproducer Co. \| 75 \| \| Radolek Co. \| 75 \| \| S. R. Co. \| 75 \| Although Radio Retailing takes every precaution to insure accuracy, we cannot assume responsibility for an occasional change or omission in the above index. FACTORY CLOSEOUT OF RADIO TUBES R. C. A. licensed new unbranded, fully tested and guaranteed. Quantities Limited—Order Now \| TYPES \| 1A6 \| 6B7 \| 35 \| 87 \| \|-------\|-----\|-----\|----\|----\| \| \| 6C4 \| 41 \| 55 \| \| \| \| 6F2 \| 42 \| 75 \| \| \| \| 6F7 \| 43 \| 77 \| \| \| \| 16 \| 46 \| 76 \| \| \| \| 12Z3\| 49 \| 82 \| \| \| \| 24 \| 50 \| 85 \| \| \| \| 32 \| 55 \| 89 \| \| \| \| 6A7 \| 34 \| 56 \| 99V\| While they last 20c each S. R. Co. 66 Lexington Ave., Passaic, N. J. OVER 10,000 PARTS FOR VACUUM CLEANERS AND WASHING MACHINES 24-HOUR SERVICE Attach this "Coupon" to Your Inquiry and Receive Complete Catalog Manufacturers and Famous Representatives MIDWEST APPLIANCE PARTS CO. 2725 W. Division St. CHICAGO, ILL. RADIO IN IT'S ENTIRETY! "B-A" serves the trade with every need in radio—complete 160-page catalog of nationally known radio receivers, amplifiers, accessories, parts and equipment. Order today for prompt delivery. COMPLETE CATALOG AVAILABLE BURSTEIN-APPLEBEE CO. 1812-1814 BROADWAY KANSAS CITY, MO. "SEARCHLIGHT" ADVERTISING RATES UNDISPLAYED RATE: 15 cents a word, minimum charge $3.00. Positions Wanted (full or part-time salaried employment only), ½ the above rates, payable in advance. Proposals, 50 cents a line an insertion. DISPLAYED—RATE PER INCH: 1 inch ........................................... $8.00 2 to 3 inches .................................... 7.50 an inch 4 to 5 inches .................................... 7.00 an inch Rates for space, or yearly rates on request. An advertising inch is measured vertically on one column, 3 columns—30 inches—to a page. COPY FOR ALL ADS MUST BE RECEIVED BY NOV. 1st FOR THE NOVEMBER ISSUE SELLING OPPORTUNITIES OFFERED—WANTED Selling Agencies—Sales Executives Salesmen—Additional Lines OPPORTUNITY OFFERED NATIONALLY known radio manufacturer offers exceptional opportunity to sales representatives or agencies of proven ability with good selling ability. Write fully stating present connection and past experience. 9th floor, 430 N. Michigan Avenue, Chicago, Ill. DISTRIBUTORS! Nationally known radio manufacturer has territories open for established distributors. Write fully. 9th floor, 430 N. Michigan Ave. Chicago, Ill. STOP SEARCHING! HERE IS YOUR "GUIDE" SEND FOR YOUR COPY NOW! The New 1938 Radolek Radio Profit Guide contains complete showings of Radio Repair Parts, Radio Receivers, Public Address Amplifiers, Speakers, Microphones, Service Test Instruments, Radio Technical Books, Special Radio Tools. Leading Standard Brands! Everything you will ever need in the Radio Business all at Lowest Prices. You save money at Radolek! Every item you get from Radolek is guaranteed. It must be right or we make it right. Standard merchandise produced by leading Manufacturers with Radolek's guarantee added! Everything in Radio promptly when you want it—and exactly what you want. Radolek's efficient organization backed by a huge stock of standard guaranteed quality merchandise insures you the fastest service in the Radio business. Twenty-five Thousand Servicemen customers depend on Radolek service and benefit by Radolek's LOWEST PRICES. Send Now for your copy of the Radolek Radio Profit Guide. It will help you make money. Rely on Radolek for "Everything in Radio" AUTO RADIO HEADQUARTERS EVERYTHING IN AUTO RADIO—at the right Prices Universal control heads . . . Dash mounting adapters . . . Every type auto aerial . . . Cables and fittings . . . Complete wiring kits . . . Everything you need . . . Ready for prompt shipment. RADOLEK 601 W. Randolph St., Dept. A-12, CHICAGO Send me the 1938 Radolek Radio Profit Guide Free. Name ................................................... Address ................................................. Serviceman? ☐ Dealer? ☐ Experimenter? ☐ Same Old Grief I have just cut an ad out of "Successful Farming," a western farm publication. I don't know what this radio game is coming to for in this ad a well-known wholesale mail order distributor advertises sets bearing its own brand and, in addition, offers to send consumers complete catalogs. I wish you would call to their attention the fact that all radio servicemen will have to cut them out as a source of parts supply if they mail their catalogs to everyone. High Falls, N. Y. Victor G. Purcell Checks With Jacoby I heartily agree with W. A. Jacoby of Detroit in his letter published in the September issue relative to the fact that the broadcasters of the Hollywood and West Coast programs are "letting us down." Chain programs over local high power stations are notorious in spurious noises that I believe can be blamed on the wire transmission system, or point of origin, when the program originates on the West Coast. Chain programs originating in New York do not have all these "plops" and scratches. It looks like to me that the broadcasters have let a very weak chain link get into their end of the high fidelity chain. I wonder how long it will take them to get it out? Gaffney, S. C. Alfred J. Blanton Sound-Radio Service Co. For Permanent Plates There is one way in which the radio manufacturers could help the serviceman very much and that is by placing on the chassis of every receiver they make so that it cannot be removed a plate bearing the company name, address, watts consumed and voltage requirements. This is done by just a few companies now. The majority just put the name on the dial plate, or the cabinet, where it is easily removed. This makes it difficult to identify the set for replacing parts and checking the circuit if alterations have been made in it. Knightstown, Ind. Marion L. Rhodes Brickbat I have just received my copy of September Radio Retailing and I think you spoiled one of your best pages with one sentence. I refer to page 28, "Why Good Servicemen Charge for Inspection". Your point is well taken in regards to his time and gasoline but why spoil it by stating that "The inspection fee is cancelled if a charge is made for repairs." The time and money for gasoline is spent just the same, so why not make the repair charges extra? Chicago Stephen D. Muffitt Mobile Radio Service Far be it from us to take a single nickel out of the average serviceman's pocket. These pages of "Sales Ammunition" are published, in fact, to help the trade make more money. We, however, believe that some concessions are necessary in order to sell either merchandise or service and that this one will do more good than harm if intelligently applied. Anyway, you will note that it is at the bottom of the page, which is complete without it. And you have a pair of scissors. And Bouquets Your magazine is commendable for its efforts to close the gap between big, successful enterprises and small, struggling men in the radio industry. By lending a hand to the weak without impeding the progress of the strong, you are performing a service of inestimable value to all concerned. This is evident by your recognition of the importance of such articles as that on radio service cost accounting by Russell B. Rich, in your August issue. Springfield Gardens, N. Y. Radio Technician Then you'll like the new story by Rich entitled: "Turnover," in this number. I hope you will continue providing a postcard in each issue so that subscribers can obtain literature on new products without too much work. It's easy to take the attitude that if a person wants information badly enough he will write an individual letter to each manufacturer. But somehow it doesn't work out that way. Glendale, Calif. Ross W. K. Smith Warner Brothers We do describe dealer helps regularly and you will find a column about them in the News section this month. Postcard pages seem preferable, too, to listing the reasons when new items are being introduced. We intend to continue them periodically but cannot promise this service every month. Wants More Dope I have read with interest your article in the September issue of Radio Retailing entitled, "Today's Trade-In Market". You, no doubt, have information on this problem as it applies specifically to automobile radio. In talking with many dealers, it seems apparent that trade-ins have become more general during the past season on automobile radios than formerly. If you do not have this information at the present time, I might suggest a subsequent article along that line. Chicago R. F. Weinig Zenith Radio Corp. Sorry, but the information we have from the survey your question does not segregate auto-radio, it's far, far, merely a radio survey, however, and we'll follow your suggestion, conducting a follow-up survey sometime in the near future. Working On It Do you know, or could you find out and publish some information in the near future showing the number of radios and also the number of service organizations per state? Can do? Norfolk, Va. Ernest L. Emery Each January we publish all the data we can develop relative to set sales, and at the same a time generally we try to publish complete specifications of lines. Your suggestion relative to service organizations is a good one. We'll tackle this problem but it will take time to compile such a list complete. Meanwhile, names and addresses of service organizations will be welcomed. Secretaries please note. Competition My sales next season will be modest indeed because of the competition here. In our town of three thousand there are thirteen concerns selling radios. Two are branches from out of town, one competing with me on a particular line we both handle. Then there are three large chains, two people selling sets from their homes, three auto-garages, a restaurant, a liquor store, several furniture shops, appliance outlets. Also, catalogs flood this area. Edgerton, Wis. Frank Brown TEST YOUR BUSINESS KNOWLEDGE Can a push-button tuned radio be operated by window shoppers through plate glass? Yes □ No □ Is the sale of electric refrigerators steadily going down? Yes □ No □ Can the sale of a radio in 23 days spell profit and sale of the same set in 50 days spell loss? Yes □ No □ Has the automotive industry ever been able to sell accessories and repairs before these were needed? Yes □ No □ Can "self-bias" be used in a class-B audio amplifier? Yes □ No □ Answers Appear Elsewhere In This Issue THE STANDOUT VALUES IN RADIO FOR 1938 the new CROSLEY all-star super radios Electric tuning... exclusive, modern cabinet styling in console, chairside, compact and upright table models... 3-Dimensional, illuminated Crosley Mirro-Dial... and a score of other advanced features, plus the sensationally low Crosley prices, have made the 1938 Crosley Radios the outstanding values of the year. A few of the newest models in this remarkable new 1938 Crosley All-Star Radio line are shown here. See and hear them today. Your Crosley Distributor will gladly explain how you can place them on your sales floor to make sales and profits for you. MODEL 1117—11 tubes; 3 bands, 525-22,000 Ke continuous. American and Foreign reception; octal base tubes; Push-pull pentode output; bright automatic volume control; conical type variable tuning control; IRIS tuning; vibrator power supply noise filter; 10 electro-dynamic speaker with plug-in cable; 3-dimensional Mirro-Dial; 8 watts output. Handsome striped walnut cabinet. Dimensions: 40" high, 24½" wide, 13" deep. MODEL 1127—11 tubes; 3 bands, 525-22,000 Ke, continuous; Dynamic Electric Tuning; 10" electro-dynamic speaker; 3-dimensional Mirro-Dial; IRIS tuning; 6 watts output; hand rubbed walnut cabinet (D); maroon cloth top, high. 24¾" wide, 12½" deep. MODEL 567-M—5 tubes; illuminated Mirro-Dial; automatic volume control; American and Foreign reception. Black wrinkle finish; chippendale type cabinet with Chinese Red bakelite top and red feet. Available also in brown wrinkle finish—Model 567-N, and walnut grained finish—Model 567-P. MODEL 617—6 tubes; 2 bands, 535-1725 Ke. and 5800-18,300 Ke.; Dynamic Electric Tuning; 8" electro-dynamic speaker; receives American and Foreign broadcasts; 3-dimensional Mirro-Dial; handsome chippendale type cabinet. Dimensions: 20" high, 19¾" wide, 10½" deep. MODEL 637-A—6 tubes; 2 bands, 535-1725 Ke. and 5800-18,300 Ke.; 6" electro-dynamic speaker; 3-dimensional Mirro-Dial, 4 watts output. Dimensions: 8½" high, 14½" wide, 10" deep. MODEL C637-A operates on both AC and DC with no ballast tubes; same cabinet as Model 637-A. MODEL 817—3 octal base tubes; 3 bands, 525-22,000 Ke. continuous; 6" electro-dynamic speaker; 3-dimensional Mirro-Dial; 5 watts output. Walnut veneer cabinet with gold-finished escutcheons and grille bar. Dimensions: 19" high, 16½" wide, 7½" deep. CROSLEY FIVER ROAMIO—3-tube Sensitivity-type automobile receiver; octal base tubes; full automatic volume control; exceptional volume; illuminated Mirro-Dial; OPERATES ON INSTALLATION BATTERY; battery drain; plug-in connections for both battery and antenna. THE CROSLEY RADIO CORPORATION, Cincinnati POWEL CROSLEY, Jr., President Home of "the Nation's Station"—WLW—500,000 watts—70 on your dial (Prices slightly higher in South and West) General Electric Scores with Radio's Biggest Hit TOUCH TUNING at a sensational low price Press a button ... that's all MODEL T-96 GENERAL ELECTRIC scores another great radio scoop G-E Touch Tuning, the most important radio improvement of the year, is now offered at a price within reach of every home. Your customers can purchase a G-E Touch Tuning Radio for no more than they would pay for a good conventional hand-dialled Radio. No more dialing! No dials to twist, twirl, or swish. The new G-E puts an end to fumbling with knobs. You press a button—that's all! And instantly, silently, and automatically, the program comes in tuned to hairline precision. The biggest radio dollar value of the year TOUCH-TUNING—Press a button that's all—plus these outstanding features: New Multi-vision Louver Dial with Visual Volume and Tone Indicators... The amazing new G-E Tone Monitor... Silent Tuning... Automatic Frequency Control... Automatic Volume Control... Custom-craft Cabinet. G-E RADIO IS EASY TO SELL BECAUSE THE PUBLIC IS SOLD ON Get the good news from your local G-E Radio Distributor on the sensational price announcement.
Ms. Carrol M. Ching, Esquire Fishwick & Associates, PLC 30 Franklin Road SE, Suite 700 Roanoke, Virginia 24011 Mr. Todd Leeson, Esquire Gentry Locke 10 Franklin Road SE, Suite 900 Roanoke, Virginia 24011 RE: John Abraham Naff v. Ferrum College Case # CL20-3549 Dear Counsel: This matter came before the Court on March 4, 2021 for argument on Defendant’s Demurrer and Plea in Bar. At the conclusion of the hearing, the Court took the matter under advisement. The questions are (1) whether Plaintiff has pled actionable claims for defamation, Intentional Infliction of Emotional Distress, and Negligent Infliction of Emotional Distress, and (2) whether Plaintiff is barred from recovering on his defamation claim under the applicable statute of limitations. BACKGROUND John Abraham Naff (hereinafter referred to as “Plaintiff”) filed his complaint against Ferrum College (hereinafter referred to as “Defendant”) on May 29, 2020, bringing claims for Defamation, Intentional Infliction of Emotional Distress, Negligent Infliction of Emotional Distress, and Breach of Contract. On October 27, 2020, this Court sustained the Defendants demurrer as to Defamation, Intentional Infliction of Emotional Distress and Negligent Infliction of Emotional Distress claims and granted leave to the Plaintiff to amend his complaint. Plaintiff filed his Amended Complaint on November 10, 2020, expanding on the Defamation, the Intentional Infliction of Emotional Distress, and Negligent Infliction of Emotional Distress claims, omitting the Breach of Contract claim. The Defendant filed a Demurrer and a Plea in Bar on December 1, 2020, and a Motion Craving Oyer on January 13, 2021. Thereafter, a hearing was held on March 4, 2021. The parties agreed the exhibits attached to the Motion Craving Oyer may be considered excluding Exhibit A, the severance letter. FACTS Plaintiff was employed by Defendant where he served as athletic director until June 12, 2019, when Defendant advised Plaintiff that he was on paid administrative leave for twenty-one (21) days while he considered certain terms of his severance. (AC ¶ 1,16). Defendant was terminated by Plaintiff officially on June 28, 2019. (AC¶ 1,24). After the June 12th, meeting Plaintiff on June 17, 2019, sent an e-mail to the Ferrum College Athletic Department informing them that the Plaintiff “was taking some personal leave” (AC ¶22, 36, Ex. B). On June 27, 2019, the Franklin News Post carried an article entitled: “Ferrum Athletic Director Abe Naff is taking time away from his post”. This article contained the following statements: Officials aren’t saying whether Naff has stepped down, been replaced, still under contract or when and if he plans to return to post. “Abe is taking some time off like many of our faculty and staff do during the summer months,” said Wilson Paine, the college’s new vice president of institutional advancement. “That’s all I can say and all I’m willing to say,” Paine said during an interview that lasted more than four minutes. Paine repeated his statement when he was asked additional questions by a reporter from the Franklin News-Post. Efforts to reach him Wednesday for further comment were unsuccessful. “If there is more to comment on. I will let you know,” said Paine adding that he would be the only college official to make further statements to the media on the matter and that no information would come from Ferrum’s Athletic Department. “This is all I can say now,” Paine said. “I’m not going to comment on whether (Abe) is still the Director of Athletics or any (other) speculation other than to say that he’s taking some time off.” *** (AC ¶23, 38 Ex. F) On July 18, 2019, the Franklin News Post ran an article entitled: “Naff, Ferrum sever professional ties,” which included the following statements: No reasons were given as to why Ferrum and Naff have severed a professional relationship that’s lasted almost 35 years. Paine said the college would have no comment regarding Naff’s departure. “Abe Naff has requested that Ferrum not make any comments about him to the press. So, we are going to honor his request,” Paine said. “We will be conducting a search later this summer for a permanent athletic director,” Paine said. Plaintiff had directed the Defendant on July 15, 2019, to cease all communications with the press regarding the Plaintiff. (AC ¶ 27). On July 19, 2019, the Roanoke Times ran an article entitled, “Ferrum College will be looking for new athletic director.” The article stated: Abe Naff, who has served as Ferrum’s athletic director for the past 15 years, has been on a leave of absence since last month. Ferrum officials had declined to say in interviews last month if Naff would ever be returning to his job. But an email the college sent to faculty and staff members Thursday cleared up that point. The email thanked Naff for his service and announced that the college would be opening up a search for a new athletic director later this summer, two Ferrum sources who asked to remain anonymous said Friday. Holden was asked Friday if he wanted to say something about Naff’s impact at Ferrum. “Apparently we’ve been asked to honor Abe’s wishes to not discuss it, and I’m going to honor that,” Holden said. Paine had said Thursday that Naff had asked the college not to comment further to the media. Plaintiff issued a press release announcing that he had filed a Complaint with the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission regarding the unjust termination of his employment. In response on October 2, 2019 defendant told the Franklin News Post, Defendant stated as follows: “Neither Abe nor his representatives has contacted us so we can’t comment. Once we’ve been contacted, we’ll comment.” On October 3, 2019, defendant told reporters for Roanoke Times: “However, I can assure you that Ferrum College has been more than fair to Mr. Naff, and we have acted in the best interest of the College and its athletics department.” Plaintiff asserts that he suffered physical injury in the form of worsened prostate problems and weigh loss followed by unusual weight gain, severe emotional distress, depression, insomnia, crying spells, anger, fear, stress, lack of pleasure and enjoyment in activities, interference with family relations, loss of income and benefits, loss of employment, loss of self-esteem and self-confidence, humiliation, anxiety, financial hardship, and other damages. (AC ¶ 33) Standard for Statute of Limitations Plea The defendant has the burden of proof necessary to prevail on a statute of limitations plea. Locke v. Johns-Manville Corp., 221 Va. 951 (1981). The Court reviews solely the pleadings in resolving the issue. The facts as stated in the pleadings by the Plaintiff are taken as true for the purpose of resolving the special plea. Niese v. City of Alexandria, 264 Va. 230 (2002). ANAYLSIS: whether Plaintiff is barred from recovering on his defamation claim under the applicable statute of limitations Statute of Limitations Plea Defendant asserts that the plaintiff is barred from moving forward with the defamation claim based upon the statements in the articles listed above because he failed to assert said articles within the applicable one year statute of limitations, pursuant to Va. Code §8.01-247.1, asserting they do not relate back. The Court finds that all the articles, including the June 27, 2019, are properly before the Court, finding they relate back to the original filing. Also, the statute of limitations was extended by one hundred twenty-six days (126) days because of the Declaration of Judicial Emergency for all but a portion of the June 27 statement. The Plea in Bar is overruled. Standard for Demurrer A demurrer is a pleading which raises an issue of law. Va. Code §8.01-273, Va. Sup. Ct. R. 3:8. The Court must determine whether the complaint states a cause of action upon which the relief requested can be granted. RECP ID WG Land Investors LLC v. Capital One Bank USA, N.A. 295 Va. 268 (2018). In deciding a demurrer, the Court accepts as truth the facts alleged by the Plaintiff. Defetti v. Chester, 290 Va. 50 (2015). “In deciding whether to sustain a demurrer, the sole question before the trial court is whether the facts pleaded, implied, and fairly and justly inferred are legally sufficient to state a cause of action against a defendant.” Pendleton v. Newsome, 290 Va. 162, 171 (2015). ANAYLSIS: Has plaintiff pled actionable claims for defamation, Intentional Infliction of Emotional Distress, and Negligent Infliction of Emotional Distress? Defamation To state a defamation claim under Virginia law, the plaintiff must plead facts sufficient to establish (1) the publication of, (2) an actionable statement with (3) requisite intent. Schaecher v. Bouffault, 290 Va. 83, 91 (2015) Whether a statement is an expression of opinion is a question of law. Id. “An actionable” statement must be both false and defamatory. Because statements of opinion cannot be “false” they are never actionable. Sroufe v. Waldron, 297 Va. 396 (2019). The Supreme Court of Virginia has pronounced what is necessary to be considered a defamatory statement: Defamatory words are those tend[ing] so to harm the reputation of another as to lower him in the estimation of the community or to deter third persons from associating or dealing with him. A false statement must have requisite defamatory “sting” to one’s reputation. Characterizing the level of harm to one’s reputation required for defamatory “sting,” we have stated that defamatory language ‘tends to injure one’s reputation in the common estimation of mankind, to throw contumely, shame, or disgrace upon him, or which tends to hold him up to scorn, ridicule, or contempt, or which is calculated to render him infamous, odious, or ridiculous. Schaecher at 91-92. Virginia recognizes that “a defamatory charge may be made by inference, implication or insinuation, “Carwile v. Richmond Newspaper, Inc., 196, Va. 1, (1954), and that a statement expressing a defamatory meaning may not be “apparent on its face.” But such inference cannot rise above the statements themselves. Id. [I]t is a general rule that allegedly defamatory words are to be taken in their plain and natural meaning…” Id. at. 93. Plaintiff alleges that the statements referred to herein are defamatory by implying that he (i) was terminated due to performance reasons, (ii) lacked integrity and credibility to perform his job duties, (iii) was unfit to perform his job duties, (iv) was prejudice in profession and trade, and (v) struggled with addiction therefore unfit for his job. (AC ¶ 25, 30, 34-49). The Court finds that these statements are not actionable as a matter of law as they are not false, are not defamatory, and do not reasonably imply a defamatory meaning. None of the statements are false, namely: taking time off, on leave, no comment, ask not to comment and have not been contacted to make a comment. All the statements are true. Furthermore, none of these statements contain the requisite “sting.” There is nothing in these statements that are unpleasant or offensive, much less imply that the Plaintiff was terminated for performances reasons, unfit for his job or struggled with addiction. The statements made in the news article are neutral and do not imply any actionable defamatory statements. The plaintiff is attempting to extend the meaning of the words used by the defendant which is explicitly prohibited in defamation by implication claims. Schaecher at 96. Lastly, the statement made to the Roanoke Times on October 3, 2019, the Court finds is an opinion of the defendant. The defendant’s statement “… I can assure you that Ferrum College has been more than fair to Mr. Naff, and we have acted in the best interest of the College and it’s athletics department,” is relative in nature and depends largely on a speaker’s viewpoint, hence the statement is an expression of opinion. Sroufe at 398. Therefore, there is not an actionable claim for defamation as a matter of law. Additionally, the statements are not defamatory per se as they do not directly or indirectly, suggest that plaintiff was unfit, incompetent, or unqualified to perform his job. Tronfeld v. Nationwide Mut. Ins. Co. 272 Va. 709 (2006). In short, the statements are true, benign and lack requisite sting. Therefore, the Court sustains the Demurrer to Count I of the Amended Complaint for defamation. The plaintiff has failed to set forth sufficient facts to support a cause of action for Defamation, Defamation by Implication or Defamation per se. Intentional Infliction of Emotional Distress Plaintiff asserts a claim for intentional infliction of emotional distress. In order to maintain a cause of action plaintiff must prove four elements: (1) the wrongdoer’s conduct was intentional or reckless; (2) the conduct was outrageous or intolerable; (3) there was a causal connection between the wrongdoer’s conduct and emotional distress; and (4) the emotional distress was severe. Harris v. Kreutzer, 271 Va. 188, 203-04 (2006). The Virginia Supreme Court has defined “outrageousness” as: It is insufficient for a defendant to have acted with an intent which is tortious or even criminal. Rather, liability has been found only where the conduct has been so outrageous in character and so extreme in degree, as to go beyond all reasonable bounds of decency, and be regarded atrocious, and utterly intolerable in a civilized community. Id. at 204-205. The liability for intentional infliction of emotional distress “arises only when the emotional distress is extreme, and only where the distress inflicted is so severe that no reasonable person could be expected to endure it.” Russo v. White, 241 Va. 23, 27 (1991). The Court finds that the plaintiff has failed to state facts sufficient to establish that the defendant’s conduct was outrageous or intolerable and failed to establish a causal connection between defendant’s conduct and the emotional distress. Therefore, the Court sustains the demurrer to Count II of the Amended Complaint. Negligent Infliction of Emotional Distress The plaintiff asserts a claim for negligent infliction of emotional distress against the defendant. The plaintiff must plead sufficient facts to establish that the plaintiff suffered a “physical injury” caused by the defendant’s negligence. Myseros v. Sissler, 239 Va. 8, 11 (1990). Plaintiff allegations are insufficient to demonstrate a physical injury which is required for a negligent intentional emotional distress claim. Evidence of symptoms or magnification of physical injury not merrily of an underlying emotional disturbance is required. For example the Supreme Court of Virginia has found that stress, anxiety, dizziness, nausea, difficulty sleeping and breathing, constriction of coronary vessels, two episodes of chest pain, hypertension, weight loss, a change in heart function which disabled the plaintiff from all work, were manifestations of a underlying disturbance, rather than a physical injury. Id. at 11. Here plaintiff alleges that he experienced physical injury due to worsening of his prostrate problems, sudden weight loss followed by unusual weight gain, need to seek medical treatment for depression, anxiety, and insomnia, as well as thoughts of self-harm. (AC ¶¶60, 64-65). These claims are very close to the claims made by plaintiff in Myseros. The plaintiff has set forth in his amended complaint typical symptoms of an emotional disturbance, not physical injury, therefore the plaintiff has failed to set forth sufficient facts for a cause of action of negligent infliction of emotional distress. Therefore, the Court sustains the Demurrer to Count III of the Amended Complaint. Conclusion For the foregoing reasons, Defendant’s Demurrer to Count I, Defamation, Count II, Intentional Infliction of Emotional Distress, Count III, Negligent Infliction of Emotional Distress of the Amended Complaint are sustained, and the Amended Complaint is dismissed with prejudice. The Court overrules the Plea of the Statute of Limitations. I ask that Mr. Leeson prepare an order reflecting the Court’s ruling and circulate for endorsement so that it may be to the Court no later than April 16, 2021. Very truly yours, [Signature] Stacey W. Moreau, Judge
Manual National Council of the United States, Society of St. Vincent de Paul, Inc. Frédéric Ozanam encouraged the compilation of the first edition of the Manual of the Society of St. Vincent de Paul in September 1845. This tradition has lived on, and now the Manual for the United States is offered to the members for their formation in the spirit and charism of St. Vincent de Paul and Blessed Frédéric. It is recommended for personal prayer as well as for reflection and sharing at Society meetings. This Manual is a companion document to the Rule and Bylaws, and serves as the basis for the Ozanam Orientation. Manual of the Society of St. Vincent de Paul in the United States National Council of the United States, Society of St. Vincent de Paul, Inc. # Table of Contents ## CHAPTER 1 VINCENTIAN HISTORY 1.1 The Vincentian Family ........................................... 1 Origins Growth in 19th and 20th Century Vincentian Family Today 1.2 Society of St. Vincent de Paul ................................. 3 Rapid Growth of the Society The Society in the United States Council of the United States 1.3 Rule ......................................................... 10 Adherence to the Rule Revised and Approved in 1973 Revised and Approved in 2003 Bylaws ## CHAPTER 2 VINCENTIAN ORGANIZATION 2.1 Conference ..................................................... 15 Introduction Ministry of the Conference Procedure for Admitting Members Formation of Members Conference Meetings Home Visits Confidentiality Handling Confidential Information Services Offered by Conferences Funds of the Conference Conference Policies in Giving Material Relief Aggregation of Conferences Recruitment Termination of Membership Guidelines for Effective Conferences Legal and Financial Realities Tax Laws and Financial Records Reporting Procedures and Forms Record Retention Retention Schedule Conflict of Interest Policy Speaking for the Society Special Masses 2.2 Councils .................................................. 30 Introduction Council Functions Council Responsibilities Council Leadership Council Relationships Council Special Works Council Meetings General or Special Meetings Council/Board Meetings Council Funds and Accountability Acknowledging Charitable Contributions Society Employees Legal and Financial Realities Institution of District or (Arch)Diocesan Council Incorporation of Councils Tax Laws and Financial Records Record Retention Retention Schedule Conflict of Interest Policy Speaking for the Society 2.3 National Council of the United States ............... 39 Introduction Regional Structure National Council Strategic Plan National Council Services National Council Committee Structure National Database Conflict of Interest Policy Speaking for the Society Suspension, Annulment & Removal 2.4 International Council ........................................ 43 Introduction International Council and Twinning The Spirituality of Twinning The International Logo 2.5 Spiritual Advisors ........................................... 45 Introduction Functions of a Spiritual Advisor Appointment of a Conference Spiritual Advisor Appointment of a Council Spiritual Advisor The National Episcopal Spiritual Advisor CHAPTER 3 VINCENTIAN SPIRITUALITY 3.1 Fundamental Principles ..................................... 47 Essential Elements Mission Identity Statement Vision Cultural Beliefs Virtues Call to Holiness Vincentian Ministry Vincentian Vocation Loyalty to the Church Primitive Spirit of the Society 3.2 Vincentian Spirituality ..................................... 53 Mystery of the Incarnation Jesus, Evangelizer and Servant Lay Spirituality 3.3 Sacred Scripture ............................................ 56 Preferential Option for the Poor The Good Samaritan Solidarity Charity and Justice You Will Not Be Judged Prayer Trust in Providence Sacrament of Marriage 3.4 Devotion to Mary ........................................ 64 St. Catherine Labouré Miraculous Medal Alphonse Ratisbonne 3.5 Vincentian Prayers ...................................... 68 Canonization Prayer Prayer for the Seriously Ill Act of Consecration to the Sacred Heart Opening Prayer Closing Prayer CHAPTER 4 VINCENTIAN SAINTS AND BLESSEDS 4.1 St. Vincent de Paul ....................................... 71 4.2 St. Louise de Marillac ................................... 75 4.3 Blessed Frédéric Ozanam ............................... 79 4.4 Blessed Rosalie Rendu .................................. 83 4.5 Vincentian Saints, Blesseds,Venerables ............. 86 St. Gianna B. Molla St. Richard Pampuri Bl. Francis Faa di Bruno Bl. Giusseppe Toniolo Bl. Pier G. Frassati Bl. Ceferino G. Malla Ven. Alberto C. Zuazo Ven. Jean-Leon Le Prevost Vincentian Martyrs in Spain Others 1.1 THE VINCENTIAN FAMILY The Vincentian Family is a worldwide, living reality. Countless persons live and breathe the spirit, tradition, and spirituality of “the Apostle of Charity and Father of the Poor,” Saint Vincent de Paul. The Society of St. Vincent de Paul is one branch of a colossal Vincentian Family Tree. The Vincentian Family consists of men and women, young and old, rich and poor, educated and unlettered, Eastern and Western. Family members speak common languages and obscure dialects; they live in large cities and on small islands; they are married and single, priests, deacons, and religious; they are CEOs and manual laborers. Who they are does not matter; what they have in common does: their call to follow in the footsteps of St. Vincent de Paul, their love for him, and their desire to keep his Mission alive. Origins St. Vincent founded three organizations, the first in 1617: the Confraternities of Charity, known in the United States as the Ladies of Charity. Under its current title as the International Association of Charities (AIC), it continues its mission of serving the poor. In 1625 St. Vincent founded the Congregation of the Mission, usually referred to as the CMs or Vincentian priests, a community of priests and brothers whose special purpose was to evangelize the poor in rural areas and help in the formation and education of priests. St. Louise de Marillac and St. Vincent de Paul co-founded the third organization, the Daughters of Charity, in 1633. Its primary purpose was to honor Christ by serving him corporally and spiritually in the persons of the poor, the sick, the imprisoned, the young, and others in need. These three groups have weathered periods of growth, decline, persecution, and renewal, but all three have survived and are very much alive! Growth in the 19th and 20th Century After St. Vincent, the Vincentian Family continued to grow, the Daughters of Charity becoming the largest community of religious women in the Church. In 1830, in the Chapel of the Motherhouse of the Daughters of Charity in Paris, the Blessed Virgin Mary appeared to Sister Catherine Labouré, a novice in the Community. From this apparition, the Miraculous Medal was struck and devotion to this sacramental quickly spread throughout the world. The Vincentian Family branch known today as the Miraculous Medal Association owes its origin to St. Catherine’s vision. In 1833, less than three years later, in walking distance of the Chapel of the Daughters of Charity, Frédéric Ozanam established the Society of St. Vincent de Paul. It also spread quickly. Blessed Frédéric saw the Society established in many countries, including the United States, Canada and Mexico. Members of the Society, Vincentians, went two by two to the homes of the poor to respond to their needs. Fourteen years later, another request made by the Blessed Mother in her apparition to St. Catherine Labouré was fulfilled. “The Most Holy Virgin wants you to found an association of Children of Mary,” Catherine told her spiritual director. This association came into existence in 1847 and rapidly spread. Following the French Revolution, 103 different religious communities were founded in the spirit of St. Vincent de Paul, among them the Religious of St. Vincent de Paul, started by former members of the Society of St. Vincent de Paul in the Chapel of St. Vincent in Paris. Elizabeth Ann Seton founded the Sisters of Charity in 1809 at Emmitsburg, Maryland, patterning her Rule after that of the Daughters of Charity of St. Vincent de Paul in Paris. From Emmitsburg, several other communities of Sisters of Charity sprang up in North America and eventually formed a Federation. In 1983, the Vincentian Service Corps began in New York City. This is a program designed for young adults to volunteer a year of service to the poor and marginalized, to learn and live Vincentian spirituality, and to live in community. The Daughters of Charity sponsor the VSC in St. Louis and in California. The Vincentian priests sponsor the Colorado Vincentian Volunteers in Denver and the Gateway Vincentian Volunteers in St. Louis. MISEVI, a Vincentian Lay Missionaries program established in 1999, assists young lay women and men who want to spend several years of their lives in a foreign mission, offering them a pastoral and community setting, a financial stipend, and spiritual support. The amazing growth of the Vincentian Family is due to the attractiveness of the charisms of St. Vincent de Paul, St. Louise de Marillac, Bl. Frédéric Ozanam, and Bl. Rosalie Rendu, whose spirit and spirituality appeal to the human heart. - The International Association of Charities (AIC) or Ladies of Charity consists of 260,000 members in 49 countries. - The Congregation of the Mission has 4,000 members in 80 countries. - The Daughters of Charity have 24,000 members in 87 countries. - Vincentian Marian Youth groups number 240,000 members in 45 countries. - The Society of St. Vincent de Paul has more than 800,000 members in 152 countries. - The Sisters of Charity Federation counts 7,000 members. - The Association of the Miraculous Medal boasts 5-10 million members in 15 countries. Recognizing that there is strength in unity and numbers, the international leaders have challenged the Vincentian Family to collaborate more effectively to meet the escalating needs of the world’s poor (Rule: Part I, Article 4.3). St. Vincent de Paul was a master of collaboration and organization. His vision of service entailed connections, relationships, and teamwork. “We should assist the poor in every way, and do it by ourselves and by enlisting the help of others,” Vincent advised. “To do this is to preach the gospel by words and by works.” Through collaboration, the Vincentian Family can, more quickly and more efficiently, fulfill Blessed Frédéric Ozanam’s dream of embracing the world in a network of charity. The international leadership urge the various branches of the Vincentian Family to use the excellent resources available to them to do spiritual formation in common. Each branch of the Family has much to offer the others in the field of spirituality, and each can benefit from the sharing of the collective wisdom and grace of the others. Eager to strengthen its relationship with the worldwide Vincentian Family, the Society of St. Vincent de Paul in the United States recommends the following websites to its members as excellent resources for formation and education: www.famvin.org, www.ozanet.org, and www.ssvpusa.org. 1.2 THE SOCIETY OF ST. VINCENT DE PAUL Our little Society of St. Vincent de Paul has grown large enough to be considered a providential fact. . . . — Blessed Frédéric Ozanam On November 1, 1830, Antoine Frédéric Ozanam left his home in Lyon to enroll at the Sorbonne, the University of Paris, to pursue a law degree. Not long after his arrival in Paris, Ozanam became acquainted with Emmanuel Bailly, publisher of La Tribune Catholique newspaper. Bailly had founded a student organization called The Conference of History; Ozanam joined the group. They met on Saturdays to discuss a wide range of subjects except politics. The conference attracted a variety of individuals with differing opinions and beliefs. One Saturday, during a heated verbal exchange, Jean Broët, a student and follower of the doctrine of socialism as espoused by the French thinker, Henri de Saint-Simon, challenged Ozanam and his friends: “We agree that at one time your Church was a great Church and was a great source of good. But what is your Church doing now? What is she doing for the poor? Show us your works and we will believe you.” Ozanam accepted the challenge. He and several of his friends agreed to meet and discuss what they might do. On April 23, 1833, Frédéric Ozanam’s twentieth birthday, the six students (Auguste Le Taillandier, Paul Lamache, François Lallier, Jules Deveaux, Felix Clavé, and Frédéric) gathered in Bailly’s newspaper office (Rule: Part I, Article 1.1). Ozanam’s words moved all present: “We must do what is agreeable to God. Therefore, we must do what our Lord Jesus Christ did when preaching the gospel. Let us go to the poor!” And so, in the Providence of God, the Society of St. Vincent de Paul was born. The charter Vincentians then sought out Sr. Rosalie Rendu, a Daughter of Charity of St. Vincent de Paul, for her assistance and suggestions in ministering to God’s poor. Sr. Rosalie guided and mentored the founding members in the spirit and charism of St. Vincent, teaching them how to minister to the suffering poor with gentleness and kindness and to respect their God-given dignity. The students selected Emmanuel Bailly as President, a position he would hold for eleven years. At first, they referred to themselves as The Conference of Charity of St. Vincent de Paul to parallel their Conference of History; the latter was their social and study group, the former their service group. In a short time, they changed their name to The Society of St. Vincent de Paul. They retained the term Conference to refer to the individual unit which was usually parish-based. In a Conference, members of the Society gather together as brothers and sisters in the name of Jesus and in the spirit of St. Vincent de Paul, their patron. Ozanam and the others chose St. Vincent de Paul as their patron because his name was almost synonymous with charity. The Church has called him “The Apostle of Charity” and “Father of the Poor.” People outside and within the Society commonly refer to members of the Society as Vincentians, after its patron. In God’s Providence, the birth of the Society came at the right time in a country ravaged by revolution and civil disorder. The Society’s purposes harmonized with the ideals of a large number of Catholic youth and older persons. Consequently, the Conference developed rapidly. By the end of the first year the Conference in Paris had grown to the point where it needed to divide into two groups. The continuing growth of the Society in and outside of Paris necessitated a Rule. This was formulated in 1835. The General Principles were authored by President Emmanuel Bailly; the Articles of the Rule were prepared by François Lallier, one of Ozanam’s closest friends and Secretary of the Conference from 1837-1839. According to the original Rule and the Society’s tradition, Vincentians celebrate “Festival Meetings,” where Conferences and Councils gather for Mass and a meeting. Today, the National Council has designated six days for such meetings: Ozanam Sunday (the last Sunday of April, in honor of the April 23rd birthday of Ozanam), the Feast of Blessed Frédéric (September 9th), the Feast of St. Vincent de Paul (September 27th), the Feast of the Immaculate Conception (December 8th), a Conference Mass at least once a year for all Members and their families, and another Feast Day of local custom (Rule: Part III, Statute 9). In addition, many Conferences commemorate the Feast of St. Louise de Marillac (May 9th) and the Feast Day of Bl. Rosalie Rendu (February 7th). The Earliest Works of the Society As the young men in the first Conferences began visiting the poor, forming long-term relationships with the families they had “adopted,” they came to realize that they could offer much greater assistance than simply delivering food or firewood. In Paris, for example, the Conferences created a printing apprenticeship, housing, feeding, and training young men for a trade. In Lyon, the young Conference established a library and school for young soldiers, better preparing them for work both during and after their military service. The works varied according to the circumstances of the local Conferences, who were always encouraged to act both for charity and justice, seeking to transform not only the lives of the poor, but the society in which they lived. The Society continues this foundational tradition today through its many Special Works and Systemic Change programs. Rapid Growth of the Society Between 1833 and 1860 the Society mushroomed. Catholics of every age and class were eager to join the Society. After spreading throughout France, the Society reached Rome in 1842; England in 1844; Belgium, Scotland and the United States in 1845; Germany, Holland, Greece, Turkey and Mexico in 1846; Canada and Switzerland in 1847; and Austria and Spain in 1850. Pope Gregory XVI approved the Society in 1845; both he and Blessed Pius IX enriched the Society with Indulgences. According to the Doctrine of Indulgences, issued by Pope Saint Paul VI on January 1, 1967, “An indulgence is the remission before God of the temporal punishment due to sins already forgiven as far as their guilt is concerned.” Members may gain a plenary indulgence on the day of their admission to the Society, and when participating in a Festival Meeting, provided they make their Confession, receive Communion, pray for the intentions of the Pope, and promise to observe faithfully the Rule of the Society. Conference presidents inform new members of the plenary indulgences they can obtain, and they fix the “formal” date of admission with this in mind. Twenty-seven years after its foundation, the Society throughout the world was comprised of about 2,500 Conferences with a membership of 50,000. The Annual Report showed almost four million francs given out to the poor. The period from 1860 to 1870 was a critical one for the Society, especially in France. On the one hand, the parallel progress of luxury and materialism caused a hardening of the heart in many individuals. On the other, the public authorities—in particular the French Empire, and later the Spanish Republic—took measures against the Society, whose members they wrongly accused as dissenters. With the dissolution by force of law of the Council General in Paris, many French Conferences disappeared. Nevertheless, growth continued elsewhere, chiefly in North and South America. After 1870, the Council General resumed its activity and devoted itself to repairing the losses in France and to renewing the links with other countries. The fiftieth anniversary of the founding of the Society was solemnly celebrated in 1883. In spite of the breaking off of diplomatic relations between France and the Vatican, and on the brink of World War I, Pope St. Pius X arranged to be represented in Paris by a Papal Legate, Cardinal Vincent Vannutelli, on the occasion of the centenary of Frédéric Ozanam’s birth. In the Annual Report of that year, 1913, the statistics showed 8,000 Conferences, 133,000 members, and fifteen million francs distributed to the poor. Members of the Society displayed care and concern both to civilian casualties and to prisoners during World War I (1914-1918). By war’s end, the principal areas of military operations had suffered great destruction. In its efforts to restore things, the Society in Europe strove to adapt its program and methods to the new social conditions and to penetrate into places where it was previously unknown: China, Japan, Malaysia, Indochina, Burma, India, Sri Lanka, Madagascar, and East Africa saw Conferences established or multiplied. Thirty-three nations were represented at the centenary celebrations of the Society in 1933. Cardinal Jean Verdier, the Archbishop of Paris designated as the Papal Legate for Pope Pius XI, was greeted on this occasion by civil authorities. In 1950, there were about 20,000 Conferences with an active membership of 250,000 worldwide. In September 1953, the Society solemnly commemorated the hundredth anniversary of the death of its founder, Frédéric Ozanam. Cardinal Maurice Feltin, Archbishop of Paris and Papal Legate for Pope Pius XII, and Vincentian delegates from around the world attended the ceremonies. Festive occasions such as these have strengthened the bonds of friendship and commonality between members of the Society from the various countries of the world. The Society moves ever closer in fulfilling the vision of its founder, Frédéric Ozanam: “To embrace the world in a network of charity.” In fulfilling a resolution of the International Meeting of National Presidents of the Society in Paris in 1960, the Council General embarked on an extension and development program throughout the world. The idea of adopting Conferences (Twinning) between nations was initiated. This later led to self-help projects, assistance in times of national disaster, and, finally, Council-to-Council adoptions. International Congresses were convened in Europe, South America and Southeast Asia in order to develop a closer liaison and knowledge of the Society between members in many countries. The International Meeting of 1960 was followed by similar meetings in Paris (1963 and 1967), Dublin (1973), Paris (1979), Montreal (1986), Paris (1992) and Fatima (1999). The Society of St. Vincent de Paul continues to expand throughout the world and, as of 2021, was established on five continents, in 152 countries, with approximately 800,000 members in 44,600 Conferences. The Society in the United States While historians differ on how the Society of St. Vincent de Paul was introduced into the United States, all agree that it was established at the “Old Cathedral” (the Basilica of Saint Louis, King of France), St. Louis, Missouri, in 1845. Both laity and clergy played important roles in its foundation. Father John Timon, Provincial Superior of the Congregation of the Mission in the United States and later Bishop of Buffalo, New York, brought the Society’s Rule in English from Ireland; he, in turn, gave a copy to Bishop Peter Richard Kenrick. Bishop Kenrick asked Father Ambrose Heim, one of his diocesan priests stationed at the Old Cathedral, to establish a Conference of the Society of St. Vincent de Paul. Father Heim was known by the people of St. Louis for his extraordinary zeal and ministry with the poor. Both Fathers Timon and Heim have often been credited with the actual foundation of the Society in the United States. Rather than referring to either of them as “principal founder,” it would be more appropriate, and accurate, to refer to Father Timon as the person who advocated for the Society, inspiring the idea of founding the first conference, and to Father Heim as the spiritual advisor and the essential “Spiritual Animator” of the first Conference. The Society of St. Vincent de Paul is first and foremost a lay organization. The conference would never have opened without the consent of dedicated lay people willing to serve in this new role. The most significant founders, therefore, of the first conference were the St. Louis laymen who willingly accepted the initial invitation offered them to become members and who rose to the challenge of living out the Rule. Among those early members, two can be singled out as the key leaders or principal founders: Moses Linton, the first elected President, and Bryan Mullanphy, the conference’s first Vice President. Dr. Moses Linton (1808-1872), a medical professor at St. Louis University, started the famous St. Louis medical journal in 1843. A convert to Catholicism, Linton had arrived in St. Louis from Kentucky in the fall of 1842. Moses Linton was present on that night in November of 1845 when some of the best and brightest of St. Louis gathered together for a historic moment in the Society’s history. It was at that first meeting that his name was suggested for the position of President. He was duly elected by those present. He would serve in this capacity until 1847 and would serve again as President beginning in 1849 (there were as yet no specific terms or term limits for leadership). Bryan Mullanphy (1809-1851), however, should be singled out for special recognition. It was his organizational skills, his influential connections, and his philanthropic generosity that were vital to both the establishment and the initial growth of the fledgling conference. Bryan Mullanphy was an essential participant in the first meeting on November 20. It was Mullanphy who chaired that first meeting and who conducted the process of electing officers. Because of his connections and influence, in all likelihood, he was instrumental in bringing together the men who formed that first conference. Mullanphy had already been actively engaged in other philanthropic projects. When Dr. Linton stepped down from the presidency in 1847, Mullanphy was duly elected to succeed him. It was Mullanphy who was charged with writing the Society in Paris to obtain official aggregation, because of his facility with the French language. And there is little doubt that his great generosity with his own wealth provided the young conference with the required wherewithal to do much good in relieving the needs of the less fortunate in St. Louis. The first official meeting of the Society in the United States was held on November 20, 1845. Application for affiliation with the Society in Paris followed quickly, and the American Conference was aggregated by the Council General on February 2, 1846. St. Louis did not remain the only conference for long. Just as the Society had spread throughout France with such rapidity, so did it spread throughout the United States. The chief promoters of the Society were the American bishops, many of whom personally established the Society in their dioceses. Early foundations included New York City and Buffalo, 1847; Milwaukee, 1849; Philadelphia, 1851; Pittsburgh, 1852; Louisville, 1853; Brooklyn, 1855; St. Paul, 1856; Chicago and Washington DC, 1857; New Orleans, 1858; Dubuque, 1859; San Francisco, 1860; Boston, 1861; Baltimore, 1864; Cleveland, 1865; Cincinnati and Portland, Oregon, 1869; San Antonio, 1871; and Detroit, 1884. New York City organized the first District Council in the United States in March 1857. Council of the United States After 1860, several major Society centers developed and reported directly to the international headquarters in Paris. From time to time, General Assemblies of the Society were convened. The first took place in New York in 1864. However, it was not until 1915 that a unifying national council was approved and established. In that year, the seven major independent jurisdictions – New York, St. Louis, New Orleans, Chicago, Boston, Philadelphia, and Brooklyn – agreed to form a single national body. The Superior Council of the United States was officially instituted by Paris on June 7, 1915. Formal inauguration ceremonies took place at the Catholic University of America in Washington, D.C., on November 21, 1915. Thomas Mulry, referred to by some as “the American Ozanam,” served as the Council’s first President. He was a logical choice because he was president of the Council of New York and was an active Catholic layman. Unfortunately, he died unexpectedly of pneumonia in the following year and was succeeded by George Gillespie, who held the position for almost thirty-six years. Under Gillespie’s administrative hand, the Society experienced notable growth. Each of the succeeding National Presidents of the Council of the United States has been associated with a particular phase of Vincentian organization or activity, as well as its expansion. The story of the Society in the United States constitutes a significant chapter in Catholic social action and the Catholic Charities movement. In the beginning, Vincentian efforts were largely parish-based. Following the example of the earliest Conferences in France, members were inspired through their home visits to address the broader needs and problems of immigrants and others that they served. Solicitude for immigrants impelled Vincentians to investi-gate and try to change conditions in public life that were prejudicial to the faith of Catholics. The Society founded or helped to establish such institutions as the Catholic Protectory in New York, the Industrial School for Boys in Chicago, and St. Vincent’s Home for Boys in New Orleans. The Society founded boys’ clubs, libraries, and home-finding bureaus; they worked with juvenile officers to provide rehabilitation rather than punitive care for errant youngsters. Just as the Society was first to challenge public child-care policies hostile to the rights of Catholic children, so also was the Society among the first to recognize the many genuine contributions of non-Catholics and secular organizations and to establish sound and cordial working relationships with such groups. The late Msgr. John O’Grady, a significant leader of Catholic Charities in the United States, credits the Society with being a prime originator and sustaining force in developing among Catholics a consciousness of national socio-religious problems and the need for a national response. The Society is continuing this commitment to social justice through its national committee, Voice of the Poor. Vincentians became, in fact, the backbone of the National Conference of Catholic Charities when it was first established in 1910. The two organizations have maintained strong ties throughout their separate but closely associated histories. 1.3 THE RULE The founding members of the Society of St. Vincent de Paul immediately realized that the growth of the Society from a single Conference into an organization of many Conferences necessitated regulations that would help preserve the objectives and spirit of the original foundation. In 1835, two years after founding, the Society formulated its Rule, a series of Articles based upon the practical experiences of the first Vincentians. They emulated their patron, St. Vincent de Paul, who also had waited before he wrote the Rule for his priests and brothers and the Rule of the Daughters of Charity, thereby basing the Rule upon their lived-out experiences. The Rule of the Society has continued as the guide and blueprint for the Society for more than 185 years. This, alone, is a tribute to its efficacy and to the Holy Spirit who inspired it. All groups require rules for effective operation. Our Rule is internationally approved and drawn from the lives and experience of all Vincentians throughout the world. It describes the elements that are needed to maintain the unity of the Society. In truth, the Rule has kept us bound together in solidarity with Vincentians locally, nationally, and internationally. Adherence to the Rule The Rule applies to every member of the Society. The International Council General’s position on compliance with the Rule is as follows: Our Society is a free and fraternal association. No one can be compelled to remain in it against one’s will. Therefore, a member, Council, or Conference choosing to belong to the Society must be in accord with the Rule in every respect, in particular to: - Give evidence of spiritual and moral adhesion to the mission, vision, and values of our Vincentian vocation. - Attend the meetings of the Society. - Produce regular reports on the various activities. - Contribute, in a spirit of solidarity, to the expenses of the next higher Council which, in turn, will fulfill its duties. The Rule is not restrictive but liberating and life-giving. It expresses who we are, what we are, where we have been, and who we want to be. The Rule should neither be ignored nor worshipped, but rather held up as an expression of oneness with Vincentians worldwide. It should be the rallying point for our celebrations and thanksgiving. The Rule is stable but not static. Additions were made in 1839. When the Society’s growth made clear the need for national structure, a section on Superior Councils was added to the Rule in 1850. Articles with respect to Central or (Arch)Diocesan Councils were formulated in 1856. When Vincentian experience revealed the need for clarification or reinterpretation, Commentaries to the individual Articles of the original Rule were introduced. On several occasions – in 1935, for example, and again in 1953 – a thorough reworking of Rule and Commentaries was undertaken by the Council General in Paris. Substance was not affected. One can readily discern the Rule of the 1870s in the Society’s Rule and Commentaries of the 1950s, the 1970s, and now, in the new millennium, in the Rule approved in 2003. The Rule – Revised and Approved in 1973 New influences surfaced in the 1960s. The President General of the Society, Pierre Chouard (1955-69), put before the Society a challenging program of “renewal” based on considerations of spirituality, universality, extension, youth, training, adaptation, and cooperation. The Society throughout the world responded enthusiastically to the challenge of the renewal program. The directives of the Second Vatican Council (1963-65) brought about a further intensification of effort. This renewal was eventually translated into a rethinking of the Society’s Rule. Following worldwide Vincentian study, the Council General in 1968 adopted a five-year experimental Rule. This revision formalized certain changes that had been taking place in Vincentian thinking and practice. For example, provision was made for the admission of women and for fixed periods of presidential office. The notion of the Vincentian Family – the Congregation of the Mission, the Daughters of Charity, and the Society of St. Vincent de Paul – embracing those serving and those served was promulgated. In 1973, at the International Assembly in Dublin, Ireland, the findings of the International Commission on the Rule were reviewed and debated. The move from experimentation to articulation of a modern Rule was then approved. At its National Meeting in Cincinnati, September 1975, the Council of the United States adopted the General Council’s working model for Conferences and Councils and decided to create Commentaries to accompany it. A committee chaired by former National President T. Raber Taylor presented the proposed Commentaries at the National Meeting in Atlanta in September 1978. Revised and then adopted in Chicago at the Midyear Meeting in April 1979, this version of the Rule and Commentaries guided the Society until 2003. The Rule – Revised and Approved in 2003 At the beginning of the new millennium, an International Committee once again was assigned to study and renew the Rule. Since the Society of St. Vincent de Paul is called to carry on a ministry in the Church, it is held accountable for the grace that has been handed down since 1833. The wisdom of the Church mandates the establishment of the mission, spirituality, accountability, and governance of all Church organizations. The Rule and Statutes define the policies and procedures by which the mission and ethos of the Society are translated into everyday operations, providing a framework for every Vincentian in the world. The Rule, approved in 2003, consists of three parts: - Part I: The Rule of the International Confederation of the Society of St. Vincent de Paul - Part II: Statutes of the International Confederation of the Society of St. Vincent de Paul. - Part III: Statutes of the National Council of the United States, Society of St. Vincent de Paul, Inc. The Rule has been designed and written in such a way as to ensure that the basic spirituality and principles contained in Part I of the document remain the same, but the Statutes in Part II and III can be updated when needed. Part I and Part II can be changed only by the International Council; Part III can be changed by the National Council of the United States with approval from the International Council. Part III was mostly revised in 2018. The entire Rule and Statutes in their three Parts must be treated as a single legal document; however, the first part, entitled “Rule of the International Confederation of the Society of St. Vincent de Paul,” takes precedence over the other two. Bylaws Bylaws are significant written rules by which an organization is governed. Bylaws determine how the Society of St. Vincent de Paul is structured and, along with state law, determine the rights of participants in the structure. At the National Meeting in Chicago, September 2005, the Board of Trustees approved model Bylaws for Conferences, District and (Arch)Diocesan Councils, and the National Council. These Bylaws are revised from time to times in order to comply with changes in the Rule, as well as applicable legal and regulatory requirements. Membership in the National Council of the United States, Society of St. Vincent de Paul, Inc. requires that every organizational unit (Conference and Council) have Bylaws. The Rule is the paramount authority of the Society of St. Vincent de Paul. Should any bylaw, rule, or regulation adopted by a Conference or Council conflict with the Rule and statutes of the Society of St. Vincent de Paul as now promulgated or hereafter adopted by the International Council General or the National Council of the United States, such bylaw, rule, or regulation shall be void and of no effect. To remain in good standing, Conferences and Councils must maintain their Bylaws (including any and all amended articles) in updated and amended form. The Conference or Council must keep a copy of their Bylaws together with the document of the Rule. CHAPTER 2 Vincentian Organization INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL PARIS, FRANCE 152 Countries—5 Continents—44,600 Conferences and 800,000 Members NATIONAL COUNCIL OF THE UNITED STATES ST. LOUIS, MO 66,770 Active, 30,799 Associate A total of nearly 100,000 members in 8 Regions throughout the US. (ARCH)DIOCESAN COUNCILS 54 (Arch)Diocesan Councils uniting and supporting the District Councils DISTRICT COUNCILS 500 District Councils uniting and supporting the Conferences CONFERENCES 4,428 Conferences, the basic unit of organization December 2021 2.1 CONFERENCE Conferences are governed by the policies, Bylaws, Rule, and traditions of the Society of St. Vincent de Paul. Introduction The Conference is the basic unit of the Society of St. Vincent de Paul, and the center of our friendship, spirituality, and service. In the United States, the Society of St. Vincent de Paul has two types of membership: Active and Associate (Rule: Part III, Statute 3). The mission of the Conference is the mission of the Society: to join together in a bond of friendship, and to grow spiritually by offering person-to-person service to those who are needy and suffering, in the tradition of our founder, Blessed Frédéric Ozanam, and patron, St. Vincent de Paul. For a specific period of time, the Conference chooses qualified members for the various leadership positions (Rule: Part I, Article 3.11 and Part III, Statutes 11 & 12). The person-to-person work of most Vincentians is associated with a Conference operating within a Catholic parish, but the Society’s Rule allows for great diversity in the formation of Conferences. They may be established at elementary schools, high schools, and universities, or around particular ministries: to prisoners, residents of nursing homes, and shelters, etc. The unifying factor may even be a common professional background or cultural interest. In the Church today, many people recognize the call of the Gospel of Jesus and the need to serve others. The Society strives to be creative and discover opportunities for meaningful charitable work. It seeks to enlarge the scope of its concern by reaching the hidden and new poor, and to match the skills and interests of all its members with the needs of people (Rule: Part I, Article 3.5). The Conference provides willing Christian helpers with opportunities to minister to those in need on a person-to-person basis through homes visits, and to serve in its special projects or those of the District and (Arch)Diocesan Councils. No work of charity is foreign to the Society (Rule: Part I, Article 1.3). The Conference must create awareness for itself in the parish community, finding ways to keep parishioners informed about its charitable works and inviting them to become part of this special ministry. Its President is responsible for maintaining communication with the parish staff, parish council, and other parish social ministry programs. Ministry is the bridge that connects the Gospel to the needs of God’s people. Through ministry, we share with others a glimpse of Jesus. The ministry of a Conference of the Society of St. Vincent de Paul is to bring concrete aid and the comfort of the Gospel to those who are poor and suffering. This loving service, in turn, brings each member closer to God. This ministry witnesses to the world that Christ and his Gospel message are alive today and being preached through action at the local level. Works on behalf of our brothers and sisters who are poor are the most vivid expression of Christ’s presence in the world. Such works Jesus willed to be signs of his messianic mission in the world: John in prison heard about the works Christ performed, and sent a message through his disciples to ask him, ‘Are you ‘He who is to come’ or do we look for another?’ In reply, Jesus said to them: “Go back and report to John what you hear and see: the blind recover their sight, cripples walk, lepers are cured, the deaf hear, dead men are raised to life, and the poor have the good news preached to them. Blest is the one who finds no stumbling block in me.” (Mt. 11: 4-5) Vincentians engage in many types of ministry. The specific ministry of the Conference belongs not only to the Society, but to all Christian people. As a catalyst and conscience of the local Christian community, the Society cooperates with parish organizations, neighboring Conferences, and social service agencies. It avoids competition and duplication and welcomes assistance from anyone who is sincere and prepared to help, even in a small way. The Society plays a leading role in cooperating with others; it cannot do it alone. If the Conference is parish-based, everyone living in the parish neighborhood should be served, whether they are parishioners or not, since all are joined together through the realities of creation and redemption. The Conference recognizes its responsibility toward all its neighbors as brothers and sisters in Christ. Vincentians find inspiration in Christ’s life of service to others. St. Vincent de Paul and Blessed Frédéric Ozanam captured this spirit and made it part of their lives and works. This is the heritage transmitted to all Vincentians. The Society’s special ministry of aid to the needy should be seen in the broader context of the Church’s saving mission and understood as part of it. The Church, like the Lord Jesus, exists to announce the coming of God’s Kingdom, to be a sign of its presence in time, and to usher in the Kingdom of God through various good works. The Church’s mission is to bring the Gospel and holiness to all and to transform and renew all creation by making present Christ’s redemption. The Church offers many opportunities for experiencing the redemption or healing presence of Christ: in the liturgy and the sacraments, in scripture and prayer, and in the personal relationships that Vincentians establish among themselves and with those they serve. It is in this last category, person-to-person relationships, that the ministry of the local Conference of the Society is predominantly found. (Rule: Part I, Article 2.6) Procedures for Admitting Members The President of the Conference is usually the member initially involved when someone asks to become an Active Member of the Society at the local parish, or when an Active Member proposes a possible candidate. The President contacts potential members and privately discusses their interests, qualifications, and background with them, along with the responsibilities of membership. These initial meetings and the explanation of membership responsibilities may result in a decision to withdraw or defer the petition for membership. If the decision is to proceed, the President will inform the Conference at a regular meeting about the recommended person. If approved by the Conference, the candidate will be admitted and welcomed, with formal acceptance contingent upon training and discernment. Commissioning of new members should take place at an appropriate time and occasion, after they have gained experience in the Society, and all members should annually renew their promise of service to the members and to the poor, thereby deepening the spiritual dimension of their vocation (Rule: Part III, Statute 4). The usual occasions for commissioning and renewal are Conference and Council liturgies, festival meeting celebrations for St. Vincent and/or Blessed Frédéric in September, and Ozanam Sundays in April. The publication Vincentian Celebrations, available from the National Council, is an important resource of prayer services for these occasions. Formation of Members The Rule unites all Vincentians throughout the world. It mandates the formation of its members and officers, in order to increase their knowledge of the Society, deepen their spirituality, and help them improve their service to the poor (Rule: Part I, Article 3.12). In 2002, the National Council of the United States approved the foundational document Vincentian Formation for the Society of St. Vincent de Paul in the United States. Section I of this document clarifies the vision, process, and key assumptions of formation; develops the human, spiritual, intellectual, and ministerial areas of formation; and identifies the core values and virtues for Vincentians. Section II gives the objectives and roles for leadership and service. The National Council currently offers many formation programs, with the commitment to continue developing programs in the future. Indeed, membership in the Society involves lifelong formation. Effective membership requires a kind and loving heart, formed in the Vincentian spirit. Initial formation for new members is provided informally by the local Conference. The Vincentian Reflections and Vincentian Contemplations, available from the National Council, allow members to continually deepen their knowledge and understanding of Vincentian spirituality, personally and as a community of friends. Our Vincentian charism challenges us to find the Christ hidden in each other and in those we serve. The spiritual formation program Serving in Hope, created by the National Council of the United States, is an essential tool for Conferences and Councils. Because they are called to bring the love of God to the poor and suffering, all Vincentians must become rooted in the spirituality that is the heart and soul of the Society. The Serving in Hope program deepens the understanding of how a Vincentian lives and acts in the spirit of St. Vincent de Paul and Blessed Frédéric Ozanam. Serving in Hope consists of the following modules: - Module I: Our Vincentian Vocation - Module II: Our Vincentian Spirituality - Module III: Our Vincentian Heritage - Module IV: Our Vincentian Mission - Module V: Our Vincentian Rule - Module VI: Our Vincentian Conference Life - Module VII: Our Vincentian Home Visit District and (Arch)Diocesan Councils provide the national Ozanam Orientation program for new and veteran members, so they can better understand the nature and purpose of the Society and develop the attitudes and knowledge necessary to serve and empower the needy. Conference members recognize the importance and value of attending the Society meetings at the local, diocesan, regional, and national levels which offer formation and training sessions. Such encounters foster the spirit of friendship that Frédéric Ozanam considered a primary goal of the Society. Attending these Society meetings is a basic Vincentian commitment, ensuring the growth of Vincentian spirituality and molding members into true successors of Frédéric Ozanam. Members who habitually miss Society meetings risk spiritual stagnation, forgetting what their Vincentian charism means and who they are called to be. ### Conference Meetings Conference meetings are privileged occasions during which members manifest Christ’s love to one another and experience his healing presence. Conferences meet regularly and frequently, at least twice a month, in celebration of mutual friendship and out of a passion to serve the Lord (Rule: Part I, Article 3.3, 3.3.1 and 3.4; Part III, Statute 5). Unlike other organizations within and outside the Church, the Conference meets less to conduct business than to celebrate and deepen its unity for essentially spiritual reasons. Opening and Closing Prayers, together with spiritual reflections, heighten our awareness of the Holy Spirit’s presence (Rule: Part 1, Article 2.3). Every Conference meeting includes a spiritual component that promotes active participation and discussion. The presence and participation of the Conference’s Spiritual Advisor are especially important. The Vincentian Reflections, provided by the National Office, are a vital resource for all Conferences. St. Vincent drew his teaching from the Gospel and from Life. He wanted his followers to integrate the Gospel into the whole of their lives. Vincent’s legacy has the simplicity of everyday life and the penetrating strength of God’s word. The Vincentian Reflections are based on the Sunday Gospel of the Liturgical Calendar and the scripture readings of the Vincentian feast days. Each reflection offers time for prayer, silence, and discussion so that the Word of God can penetrate our Vincentian hearts. Vincentians grow in spirituality as they actively participate in these discussions, relating the words of scripture to their service of the poor. The typical agenda for Conference meetings can be found in the Rule: Part III, Statute 7. Praying and reflecting together, Vincentians use these occasions to review their contacts with the needy in a simple format. They exchange communications, take stock of their funds, organize their activities, and take up a secret collection to support their works in the tradition of the secret collections of the first Conference. The regularity of these meetings is the key to developing an effective team effort and achieving the goals of the Society. The Rule requires Conferences to meet weekly or at least twice a month. All conferences should prayerfully consider how best to meet this requirement, not only to comply with the Rule, but because meeting less frequently can adversely affect the poor and impede the ongoing spiritual growth of the members. It is primarily in our Conference meetings that members “journey together towards holiness (Rule: Part I, Article 2.2).” Conference meetings should not be lengthy. Officers and members can ensure brevity by spending a few minutes before each meeting making sure necessary materials are readily available. Outside matters should be left for discussion after the meeting is over. The Conference meeting must maintain a welcoming environment, so that men and women of all ages and backgrounds can work together and share their Christian values. Members should keep Conference meetings interesting, focused, productive, and convenient for everyone who might want to join. Members can improve their helping skills by visiting the needy, primarily in their homes, and then reviewing the details of the visit with other members at the Conference meeting. Members should try to learn from their experiences, seeking the insights and advice of other Conference members to become more skillful in the art of helping people. Everyone learns, and solutions come more easily, when all members collectively analyze a problem. Indeed, it is in the Conference meetings that members can experience Christ’s presence in each other and the workings of the Holy Spirit. In a sense, these gatherings become a living, vivid witness of God’s healing presence among all. These unity-building occasions foster personal renewal and rededication to service. Conference gatherings provide a dynamic environment for learning about life, human problems, and Christian solutions. They also develop a Vincentian spirituality which emphasizes the love and service of the needy and suffering. The friendship among members encourages spiritual growth and leads all members to a greater identity with the person of Christ (Rule: Part III, Statute 16; Part 1, Articles 2.2, 3.3). Home Visits From the Society’s beginning, the central and most basic activity of Conferences has been visiting the needy in their homes. This is the clearest symbol of our Vincentian charism, which dictates the highest respect for the dignity of the poor. It symbolizes our Vincentian commitment truly to serve those in need, rather than requiring them to come to us. In their own home, people feel most free to confide their stories of struggle. In that family setting, Vincentians are asked to listen, offer humble advice, and render assistance. Vincentians visit not merely to drop off groceries or pay a bill, but to form relationships based on trust and friendship (Rule: Part I, Articles 1.2 and 1.7-1.12; Part III, Statute 8). In the modern world, there are certain situations when a home visit is not possible or advisable – for example, those involving homelessness, battering, or safety. Nevertheless, Vincentians should never excuse themselves lightly or regularly from the tradition of home visitation. Even when assistance is given in an emergency from the parish or other service site, Vincentians should follow up with a home visit. Vincentians always visit in pairs. This practice emphasizes the Conference’s status as a community, not a collection of individuals who “do their own thing.” The visiting team is ideally composed of Vincentians of both genders, various age groups, and different life experiences, so that a better perspective of the needy person’s situation can be gained, and various courses of action explored. From the beginning, Vincentian visitation to the needy was done in pairs for the protection both of the needy person and the members. The precedent was set by Christ Himself, when He sent out the Apostles two by two (Mk 6:7). The Society wisely continues this tradition in the interest of safety, liability, and propriety. Confidentiality Confidentiality, based on the individual’s right to privacy, has both legal and ethical implications. Disclosures made to a Vincentian member and Conference by an individual or family may be revealed to others only under specified conditions, and solely for the purpose of providing help. Only in rare circumstances may information be released without the informed consent of the individual or family, such as when persons pose a genuine threat to themselves or others. If time allows, the member should check with the local Council before acting. Local Councils should have an attorney they can contact in such an emergency. Confidentiality does not prevent a Conference from publicizing its work in general terms. Confidentiality has always been an important value for the Society. Trusting relationships develop between Conference members and the persons they serve. Confidentiality is a prerequisite for membership in the Society; a breach of confidentiality may be grounds for requesting a member’s resignation. Maintaining confidentiality can be a challenge. With fewer resources and more people in need, Conferences may find it prudent to collaborate with other groups, but collaboration may entail sharing information about persons served. Computers facilitate this sharing, but ever-changing privacy laws must be obeyed and lawsuits avoided. Utility companies and other agencies with national databanks may require Conferences to provide written permission from those they serve. Handling Confidential Information Vincentian members and Conferences rely on factual, often very personal information to determine a person’s actual need and offer real help. The only appropriate place to share such information is at the Conference meeting. Members should not divulge details to their family or friends, or publicize even general information that might identify the persons helped. The necessary accounting to supporters should consist of statistics, financial reports, the types of cases handled, etc. Stories provided to local media must protect confidentiality or include the written permission of the person helped. Verbal permission should suffice from persons needing help with basics such as food, utilities, rent, etc. Written permission is advisable for people who have more personal complications, such as medical or legal problems. A sample release form is available from the National Council. Because people tend to share personal information more freely with their Vincentian visitors in the relaxed atmosphere of their own homes, Society members should be careful to record only what is essential to serve them. Before sharing any of that information with other agencies, they should know and understand their privacy policies. Members may also want to discuss the issue of confidentiality with the persons being helped. The National Office of the Council of the United States can offer helpful advice in this sensitive area. Services Offered by Conferences The work of Conferences is as varied as the Conferences and the communities in which they serve. As Bl. Frédéric once advised, “in such a work it is necessary to give yourself up to the inspirations of the heart rather than the calculations of the mind. Providence gives its own counsel through the circumstances around you, and the ideas it bestows on you. I believe you would do well to follow them freely and not tie yourselves down with rules and formulas (1838 letter a new Conference).” Below are some examples of works undertaken by Conferences: A. Poverty Services - Material or financial assistance for short-term or continuing needs. - Emergency aid, combined with referral to an appropriate public agency when eligible for continuing assistance. - “Filling the gaps” in services provided by the local community, such as help with finding employment or housing. - Self-help programs such as food and repair co-ops, credit unions, home services for the aged and infirm, housing rehabilitation, legal services, and adult education. These can alleviate the need for recurrent handouts, which can undermine human dignity. - Development of inexpensive recreational programs for the economically disadvantaged, such as arranging for the use of local facilities, for a nominal fee, by low-income families, senior citizens, and other special groups. - Development of low-cost professional and household services for needy families. Volunteers are recruited from such professions as plumbing, carpentry, nursing, law, medicine, etc. - Domestic twinning: sharing of the membership and material resources of a more fortunate Conference with a needier one locally. B. Information and Referral Services - Providing information about services related to poverty, medical-emotional needs, family and personal problems, youth counseling and youth activity programs, senior citizens programs and facilities, etc. - Advocacy on behalf of persons being denied services to which they appear to be entitled. - Conducting or sponsoring educational programs to acquaint parishioners with community welfare and counseling programs. C. Services for Emergencies and Special Needs - Temporary homemaker service. All families face a crisis occasionally — through illness, hospitalization, death, etc. — and can use help with child care, meal preparation, and basic housekeeping until the crisis subsides. If the need exceeds parish capabilities, referral should be made to appropriate community homemaker agencies. - Transportation. Because the elderly are often dependent upon others for shopping, attending church, and visiting doctors’ offices and clinics, escort services and transportation are necessary components of any reasonably adequate program of home care. - Person-to-person sharing of expertise — in budgeting, nutrition, housekeeping, application for employment, child care, home maintenance, etc. Such service may also be offered as special parish educational programs or group classes. - Youth services. Addressing the cultural, social, spiritual, and recreational interests of young people, these services rely heavily upon youth initiative and decision-making but also offer opportunity, counsel, and support. D. Services to the Lonely and Alienated - Conference members visit lonely or alienated individuals in institutional and medical facilities. Sickness, drug addiction, and mental illness may underlie their problems and special needs. As lay volunteers, Conference members become involved only after consulting with the appropriate facility staff. - Conference members visit crime victims, and men and women who are incarcerated or on probation or parole. Continuing contact with the families of inmates may be helpful. Intelligent involvement requires consultation and collaboration with criminal justice officials. - Regular visits to patients in hospitals, nursing homes, and homes for the aged help keep them alert and engaged. - Regular visits to the homebound sick or aged reassure them that someone cares and is nearby in time of need. - Home care services, which enable persons to keep living at home, may include the following: 1. Preparation and delivery of meals 2. Providing opportunities for leisure by “relieving” family members caring for an aged relative 3. Home maintenance (e.g., chores and minor repairs) 4. Tele-care (checking in by phone to converse and make sure needs are met) 5. Transportation to stores, doctors’ offices, church, etc. 6. Recreational services (activity and companionship in the home, or at a center to which the older person is transported) 7. Special personal services provided by volunteers (barbers, beauticians, etc.) • Recruitment of seniors to help provide social services to various agencies. Many retired persons have abilities and experience ideal for helping our brothers and sisters in need. Volunteering can give them a renewed sense of personal well-being and worth. E. Long-Term Relationships Based on Trust and Friendship Mentoring those who wish to move permanently out of poverty; encouraging them to dream big, to set and achieve goals, and helping to connect them with others in the community who can help along the way. Following the tradition of the very first conferences by establishing programs to help people transform their lives, such as Getting Ahead and Neighborhoods of Hope. The National Council provides assistance in creating these programs and other Systemic Change programs. F. Services to Promote Social Justice • Every Vincentian needs to understand the Society’s priorities and motivation in advocating for the poor (Rule: Part I, Articles 7.1-7.9; Part III, Statute 29). The Voice of the Poor, a national committee of the Society, upholds Catholic Social teaching by researching, validating, documenting, advocating, and promulgating issues related to the condition of the poor and disenfranchised. • At the parish level, social justice can be promoted by publicizing the problems of the poor, providing a forum to discuss poverty issues and society’s proper response to them, and seeking to inform and influence public opinion. • At the local, state, and federal levels, promotion of social justice requires advocacy, and the establishment and operation of programs, benefits, and services that address the root causes of want and encourage respect for human life and dignity. Funds of the Conference The Society has held from the beginning that the funds donated to the Conference belong to the poor (Rule I: Article 3.14). In the role of administrator, the Conference strives to meet the most urgent needs that come to its attention. Conference members should never adopt the attitude that the money is theirs, or that the recipients have to prove that they deserve it. Although common sense in distribution is expected by those who support the Conference, members need to remember that, by and large, they are dealing with individuals and families who may be desperate, who often have dysfunctional histories, and who are at a point in their lives when a multitude of problems weigh them down. These are precisely the people whom the Society is called on to serve by bringing them support and hope. Erring on the side of compassion is always advisable. Although Conference work often involves financial assistance, a Conference’s success cannot be judged solely by the amount of money it receives or distributes. Conferences with limited resources can also have a big impact. A member’s time and concern may be the best gift a Conference can give to the poor. Society funds are to be maintained by the Conference, not by the parish. The Conference must have a separate checking account. Priests and Deacons are not to be signors. Society funds must not be commingled with parish or individual accounts. How funds are used should be reported to parish and pastor frequently. Donations to Conferences — whether they come from church collections, from the members themselves, from benefactors, or from fundraising efforts — are meant to address today’s needs (Rule: Part III, Statute 25). It is wrong for a Conference to seek financial security by building up a large balance for the needs of the future. Conference balances generally should not exceed what they expect to spend during an average quarter. Surplus funds should be shared generously with more needy Conferences or the special works of the District Council (Rule: Part III, Statute 24). Funds donated to the Conference must be used only for works that involve the personal service of members of the Society. As generous as the Conference should be to needy individuals, it cannot provide funds to causes outside of the Society, except, occasionally, for other branches of the Vincentian Family. (Rule: Part III, Statute 26) The Society does not raise money for activities in which its members are not personally and substantially involved. Above all, the intention of the donor, who chose to give to the Society, must prevail. Conference Policies in Giving Material Relief One of the greatest strengths of the Conference is its flexibility. Members who personally encounter the needy individual or family are assumed to have a special insight into the best way to give help. Neither race, creed, church attendance, life style, nor income should automatically qualify or disqualify anyone for assistance. Whenever it can, a Conference should address a crisis quickly. Lack of food is one of the most urgent needs that come to the Conference’s attention. However the Conference chooses to deal with such emergencies — with food given in kind, a voucher or gift certificate to a supermarket — the dignity and confidentiality of the needy person should be protected. Some persons may seek greater financial assistance from the Conference, such as payment of rent or utility bills. Conferences should always have personal contact with such applicants, even when Conference funds cannot cover the full amount. Conferences can partner with other Conferences, other organizations, or the needy persons themselves to provide a portion of what is needed. It is important not to create dependencies in the people we help. Vincentians need to consider each situation they encounter on its own merits, carefully crafting with the persons in need a resolution to their most pressing problems. Members of the Society understand that people can change self-defeating patterns in their lives when they are encouraged to believe in themselves. Vincentian support frequently takes the form of encouragement and realistic planning, building upon the strengths we find in the struggling individual or family. Aggregation of Conferences Just as individual members of the Society are formally incorporated into the Conference, so too must the Conference be joined, or aggregated, with the International Council of the Society of St. Vincent de Paul (Rule: Part I, Article 3.8 and Part III, Statute 6). Aggregation provides official recognition of the Conference’s status as part of the Society and links it and its members with the Society’s visible symbol of unity: the International Council General. The function of the International Council is to preserve among all Conferences the unity of membership and practices that characterizes the organization begun by Blessed Frédéric Ozanam in the spirit of St. Vincent de Paul. Recruitment The Conference as a whole, and members individually, should encourage recruitment of new Active and Associate members. Participation in special parish days to acquaint parishioners with parish organizations can be effective, with literature and photographs used to showcase the work of the Society and the Conference’s various projects. One-on-one personal recruitment works best. Conferences and Councils should take advantage of the effective recruitment model Invitation to Serve, available from the National Council of the United States. The local Conference must maintain a welcoming environment, so that men and women of all ages, cultures, backgrounds, and abilities can work together and share their Christian values. Conference members listen with sensitivity to generations and cultures poorly represented in its ranks to find out why they are not attracted to our ministry. Are members a joyful people whose demeanor in service would attract others? The future of the Society lies with each and every Vincentian. Actively inviting others to join is as important as the service rendered to the needy. M. Pierre Chouard, International President of the Society from 1955-1967, posed this sobering question: “If Frédéric Ozanam, a twenty-year-old college student and founder of the Society of St. Vincent de Paul in 1833, were a college student today with the same soul, the same spirit, the same attraction to sanctity, the same tenderness to the distressed, the same understanding of the world today, would he become a member of one or another St. Vincent de Paul Conference? To tell the truth, who would dare to reply always in the affirmative?” (Rule: Part I, Article 3.7) Termination of Membership A member is considered to be separated from the Society under the following conditions: - Voluntary resignation or cessation of effective membership (e.g., protracted unexcused absence from Conference meetings). - Enforced resignation. Implemented only for grave reasons and for the common good of the Society. Approval for such action must first be obtained from the National President. (Rule: Part III, Statute 17) In becoming members, Vincentians enter into a familial relationship. As a “family,” the Society is attentive to manifestations of slackening interest. Officers and members reach out to absent “brothers” and “sisters,” affirming their friendship and assuring them of continuing welcome. If a member’s disaffection has been caused by some slight or oversight, the Conference or Council attempts to repair the breach and restore the fullest relationship. Members should pray over the passage in Mt. 18:15-20 concerning fraternal correction and try everything possible to revitalize the relationship. Guidelines for Effective Conferences - Effective Conferences are reachable. Parish-based Conferences must provide a clear means for being contacted. Some use the parish office address and phone number and check in regularly to retrieve messages and correspondence. - Effective Conferences meet regularly. The Rule requires weekly or biweekly meetings. At these meetings, all members offer their thoughts and support for providing Christian care to the needy. - Effective Conferences are committed to grow in spirituality. Members become friends, care for one another and earnestly follow the Society’s religious practices. Like Christ, they identify with the poor, whom they visit promptly, regularly, and attentively. - Effective Conferences show initiative. Routine, tradition, and habit do not dictate current thought and action. Can the Conference do more? Alert officers and members continually and deliberately ask, answer, and act on such questions. - Effective Conferences have members committed to formation. They read, study, attend lectures and courses, and participate in training sessions organized by their District Council in order to learn more about helping people and solving problems. - Effective Conferences recruit continuously. One reason Conferences give for not tackling new problems is lack of personnel. But dramatic vistas are unveiled when members invite new Vincentians to join in the service of the poor. - Effective Conferences have competent leaders. The officers of the Conference handle their specific duties with whatever competence they have naturally or can cultivate. They work hard, but share with members the responsibility for decision-making and action. - Effective Conferences maintain ties to the community. Helping people today often requires knowledge of and referrals to other public and private agencies. The Conference deliberately makes itself known to these groups and cultivates relationships of mutual respect to facilitate referrals to and from such agencies. - Effective Conferences participate in their Council activities. The president or his proxy represents the Conference at District Council meetings. Conference members take part in general meetings and religious observances, and provide support and personnel for the special works of the District Council. - Effective Conferences understand the national and international dimensions of the Society. Members show practical concern for the work of the Society in less developed or disaster-stricken areas by generously sharing their resources. If possible, they “twin” with needy Conferences domestically or internationally. • Effective Conferences are both wealthy and poor. Their members generously support the work of the Conference and elicit similar generosity from friends of the Society. But the Conferences always seem poor, because they share, thoughtfully and intelligently, whatever they have. They do not save for a rainy day, knowing that many are in need here and now. ### Legal and Financial Realities The Society of St. Vincent de Paul must meet the legal, reporting, and financial obligations required of all nonprofit, tax-exempt organizations. Since these obligations are subject to change and may vary widely from the federal to the state level, from state to state, and even from state to locality, Conferences should consult the National Office for the latest federal requirements and a local attorney for the state and local requirements. ### Tax Laws and Financial Records To protect the Society in the civil arena, Conferences must know the federal and state tax laws that apply to them, have capable local counsel to determine what their obligations are, and assiduously meet these obligations. Under certain conditions, charitable agencies and organizations are required to file IRS Form 990. Many U.S. Councils do so. Penalties for noncompliance are cumulative and can be severe. The American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA) has prepared statements of accounting principles and reporting practices for nonprofit organizations. Failure to adopt recommended methods could jeopardize community support, foundation grants, and eligibility for publicly-funded programs. For the Society to maintain good standing before the law and in the eyes of the Church, our donors, and the general public, Conferences must keep adequate records and reports. Proper recordkeeping begins at the Conference level with the Conference treasurer, who must maintain accurate records of all financial transactions. A Conference checking account separate from the individual’s own account, and from any parish or other organization’s account, is essential. There can be no commingling of funds. Officers or leaders of voluntary organizations must conform to all procedural requirements of state corporate law, as well as their own charters and bylaws. Strict adherence to all regulations governing recordkeeping and corporate procedures (including regular audits) helps protect the public, the Society, and Vincentian members against deceit and misuse of funds. ### Reporting Procedures and Forms We live today in a time of increasing scrutiny. With our Councils and Conferences serving millions throughout the United States, it is imperative that we demonstrate good stewardship by providing accurate, timely information to our Church, our donors, and the general public. Good recordkeeping is an essential part of Vincentian activity, beginning at the Conference level. While the actual recording of information is the responsibility of the Conference Secretary, all members should keep written records of their Vincentian activities. A catalogue of recordkeeping materials and other operational resources is available from the National Office. One such resource is the Conference Minute Book, which all Conferences should use. Standardized recording of Conference proceedings ensures uniform data nationwide and facilitates the collection and analysis of annual statistics in the Annual Conference and Council Reports. Only essential identifying information about persons served should be entered in the Minutes; code numbers and initials are preferred to actual names to help safeguard confidentiality. In addition to the Minutes, Conference visitors should maintain case records for persons served, updating their entries prior to each Conference meeting. These records, like other Conference records, are entrusted to the Secretary for safekeeping. Normally, when a case has been inactive for a three-year period, the case records should be destroyed. The Conference Treasurer’s Handbook & Journal is an aid to the Conference Treasurer, who keeps the actual financial records and is responsible, with the President, for dispensing Conference funds. The Conference relies upon the Treasurer for verifying any bills presented to the Conference for payment. The fiscal year of the Society of St. Vincent de Paul begins October 1st and concludes September 30th. Conferences report their activity for the year to their affiliated Council. Councils compile all Conference reports and forward these compilations to the next higher Council, along with their own reports. The National Council, in turn, collects all the compilations and publishes a Consolidated Annual Report that is distributed to all U.S. bishops, all U.S. Congressmen, and all U.S. members of the Society. Donors frequently request this document, as do foundations and federal agencies processing grant applications. The Consolidated Annual Report derives its value from the timely, accurate reports of the Conferences and Councils (Rule: Part III, Statutes 22 & 23). Record Retention In the course of operation, Conferences generate case records, bank statements, invoices, etc. Confidentiality demands that all records on individuals and families served be kept in a secure, private place. Special care should be taken to secure electronic databases and prevent unauthorized access. Confidential material should not be transferred via email or web unless its security is assured. Because federal, state, and local statutes of limitations vary, Conferences operating special works should check with their auditor or legal counsel and develop their own record retention policy. Conferences that operate no special works, have no payroll, pay no employment taxes, etc., can adopt the record retention schedule below, but should check first with their Council to make sure that no special circumstances apply to them. A Conference Record Retention Policy should dictate the manner in which records are kept secure and confidential, the length of their retention, and the means of disposal (e.g., shredding paper files, destroying computer disks). Records with historical value should be kept permanently. Retention Schedule: - Annual Conference Report* .................................................. Permanent - Letters of Aggregation .......................................................... Permanent - Bank Deposits ........................................................................ 3 Years - Bank Reconciliations ............................................................. 3 Years - Bank Statements .................................................................... 7 Years - Cancelled Checks ................................................................... 7 Years - Invoices Received ................................................................... 7 Years - Case Records & Cards ........................................................... 3 Years - General Correspondence ....................................................... 3 Years - Meeting Minutes .................................................................... 7 Years - Minute Books ......................................................................... 7 Years - Treasurer Statements ............................................................. 7 Years including statistics, membership list, and items with historical significance Conflict of Interest Policy Along with their families, anyone serving the Society in any capacity – member, employee, board member, etc. – should be careful to avoid real, apparent, and potential conflicts of interest. If a conflict is suspected or anticipated, the Conference President should be consulted immediately. The Society’s official Conflict of Interest policy is intended to supplement applicable state and federal laws. A copy of this policy is available in the members section of the national website or from the National Office. Any questions concerning this policy should be addressed to the appropriate Conference officer. Speaking for the Society In recent years, the Society has become more active in social justice work, helping the poor and disadvantaged speak for themselves and, when necessary, providing a “voice for the voiceless.” Only the National President may speak for the Society on national issues. Presidents of (Arch) Diocesan Councils, District Councils, and Conferences may speak for the Society at their own levels. Individual members are welcome to engage in advocacy on their own, but should not present themselves as spokesmen for the Society. Special Masses Conferences are encouraged to have a Mass offered on five occasions each year for the following persons and groups: - The Four Intentions of the Society - The Church, the Sovereign Pontiff, the United States of America, the Society - The Deceased Members of the Conference - The Deceased Poor - The Sick and Troubled Who Seek Divine Help and Cure through Ozanam’s Intercession - The Canonization of Frédéric Ozanam 2.2 COUNCILS Councils are governed by the policies, Bylaws, Rule, and traditions of the Society of St. Vincent de Paul. Introduction The Society has a simple and effective structure to support its work at all levels. The Councils provide opportunities for developing community, sharing expertise, and keeping Conferences and members in touch with the Society as a whole. They also help maintain the original spirit of spirituality and friendship (Rule: Part III, Statute 10). - The National Council* coordinates and facilitates the general activity of all the Conferences in the United States, which are divided into eight administrative regions. - An (Arch)Diocesan Council unites the District Councils, providing liaison and communication links between them and the National Council. - A District Council may embrace all the Conferences in an entire town, city, or county; it may conform to the deanery or vicariate boundaries of the Catholic diocese; or it may represent neighborhoods or sections of a large metropolitan area. District Councils evolved as a means to keep individual Conferences in communication with each other and united in spirit. - Isolated Conferences are represented at the (Arch)Diocesan level by the closest District Council in the diocese. In any diocese, there may exist one or more Conferences that are not within the geographic area of a functioning District Council. The Isolated Conference relies on that District Council to convey its views to (Arch)Diocesan leaders or to receive information. The Isolated Conference can obtain the name and address of the (Arch) Diocesan Council President from the National Office. In dioceses where no Council has been organized, all functioning Conferences relate directly to the National Council or to its designated intermediary. The geographical coverage of a Council depends upon such factors as the population of a community, the number of Catholic parishes, and the number of Conferences in the areas served. These elements, as well as future plans and prospects for the Society’s expansion, usually influence decisions about the geographical control to be exercised by any newly created Council grouping. District Council size varies by practice and geography. District Councils represent a minimum of three and ideally a maximum of twelve Conferences. Uniting Conferences within a more extended circumscription than that of a District Council requires an (Arch)Diocesan Council. Normally, three or more District Councils are to be found in every (Arch)Diocesan Council structure. For fewer than three such groupings in a given diocese, informal contacts usually suffice. Council Functions Councils are at the service of all Conferences under their jurisdiction (Rule: Part I, Article 3.6). In the United States, District and (Arch)Diocesan Councils have similar responsibilities. Substantial differences between the two are usually limited to geographical coverage and membership constituency. To illustrate: District and (Arch)Diocesan Councils are both involved in extending the Society. The District Council will have as its first task the job of extension within its immediate jurisdiction. The (Arch)Diocesan Council, on the other hand, will want to push for organization in non-organized areas of the diocese; it will be only indirectly involved, by encouragement and evaluation, with the extension work for which its District Councils have immediate responsibility. The distinction between (Arch)Diocesan and District Council responsibilities may not always be obvious, or precise. In keeping with the principle of subsidiarity, the Society’s work should be organized and conducted at the least complex and most proximate level of organization (Rule: Part I, Article 3.9-3.10). The Conference, for example, is closest to the people served and serving in a parish. It would be inappropriate, therefore, to transfer the Conference work of home visits to the Society’s central administration. The same principle applies to the roles of (Arch)Diocesan and District Councils. If a District Council can perform a needed neighborhood or community task, the District Council, being closer to its constituent Conferences than is the (Arch)Diocesan Council, shall be the priority instrument for that particular work (Rule: Part III, Statute 6). Council Responsibilities Councils provide for the spiritual and Vincentian formation of the members, the celebration of festival meetings, and the promotion of friendship among members. Attentive to the needs of those who are poor, they strive to intensify and diversify the services offered. Councils help in the following areas, as needed: internal and external communication; formation and education; spirituality; reports; collaboration; outreach; advocacy; management of special works; and compliance with the Rule and good governance practices. Councils help Conferences in their ministry to the needy. For instance, when an individual Conference faces heavy demands for person-to-person financial aid, the Council offers what support it can from the common fund. Helping is a word that defines the Vincentian spirit, describing not only the day-to-day services of the Society but also the relationship among members, between Conferences and their District Council, between District Councils and their (Arch)Diocesan Council, and between (Arch)Diocesan Councils and their Regional Chairs and National Council. Attending Society meetings at all levels promotes the key Vincentian values of mutuality and friendship. To their District Council, Conferences give their ideas, the benefit of their experiences, and the willingness to share responsibility for special works and to assist other Conferences in need. From their District Council, Conferences receive the knowledge and inspiration of fellow members, expanding their Vincentian horizons and developing a sense of worldwide responsibility. Council Leadership The founders of the Society, Blessed Frédéric Ozanam and his companions, were first and foremost friends. Following Christ’s example in the spirit of Vincent and Frédéric, today’s Council leaders are called to be servant leaders (Rule: Part I, Article 3.11 and Part III, Statutes 11 & 12). They base meaningful decisions on the consensus of their members, who respect and care for each other as well as the needy. The President is first their friend, and only then the implementer of the Council’s responsibilities. In the Society, moreover, the office seeks the person, not vice versa. Presidents must understand “the big picture” and take the initiative, coaching and encouraging members to understand, shape, and embrace their Council’s objectives. They must be committed to the values and goals of the Society overall, and enthusiastic about them. They must study the Rule and Bylaws to understand the essential structure, operations, and functions of all levels of the Society. Most important, they must cultivate a solid familiarity with the lives and spiritual legacies of the Society’s patron, St. Vincent de Paul, and its founder, Blessed Frédéric Ozanam. Presidents must then help all members develop this same understanding of our ministry. Effective Presidents engender friendships among members of the Council and Conferences and take a team approach to decision-making. Rather than give answers, they ask the right questions. They harmonize discord, heal injuries, protect rights, foster talents, and delegate wisely. They are open to new ideas and collaborate with others to accomplish the goals of the local, national, and international Councils, maintaining communication with all levels. A District Council President visits Conferences both to teach and to learn, going as a friend rather than a superior, observing the agenda, waiting for an invitation to speak, and offering suggestions prudently. Council Relationships The President ensures that the Council has strong working relationships with the local Church and its agencies (e.g., Catholic Charities and Social Concerns), the wider Vincentian Family, and local agencies serving the poor. Though a Catholic lay organization with its own identity, mission, and voice, the Society is very much a part of the Church and its mission. From the beginning of the Society, Vincentians were called to be public witnesses of and for the Church. Blessed Frédéric Ozanam loved the Church and worked closely with the clergy and bishops in Vincentian efforts to serve and evangelize the poor. Likewise, Blessed Frédéric and his companions worked with the Daughters of Charity of St. Vincent de Paul and Vincentian priests and brothers (Congregation of the Mission). Today, the wider Vincentian Family includes other followers of the charism of St. Vincent de Paul. Escalating needs and limited resources call for greater collaboration among them all. Council Special Works Councils undertake charitable works and special projects that exceed the jurisdiction or capacity of an individual Conference (Rule: Part III, Statute 20). The particular nature of a Council’s special works is influenced by the community’s socio-economic needs, the Council’s resources, and the zeal, enterprise, talents, and influence of local Vincentians. Special works include thrift stores, dining rooms, food pantries, meals on wheels, free pharmacies, homeless shelters, transitional housing, summer camps for kids, indigent burial, budget and tax counseling, employment services, job training, assistance for the disabled, crime victim support, jail/prison ministry and post-release services, medical and dental clinics, eldercare, and family resource centers. Council Meetings To enliven and enrich those who attend, meetings must have meaningful content and spirituality. They should be interesting, informative, and decisive. Especially important is the cultivation of friendship. The President sets the tone, showing the same solicitude for the members that they do for the poor they visit. Rather than conduct business by mail, phone, or web, Vincentians hold meetings to take advantage of the creative interaction and synergy that can occur in a group. Meetings harness the collective knowledge, experience, and wisdom of the members to create solutions that might elude the individual. When members have taken ownership of them, Council decisions can be implemented more effectively. Meetings are the Society’s most effective form of communication. Careful attention to detail and thorough preparation assure their success. The typical agenda for Council meetings can be found in the Rule: Part III, Statute 7. Well-planned meetings have these four components: Formation. Time for prayer, faith-sharing, and spiritual formation in Vincentian ministry and service. Planning. Development and review of a local plan based on the National Strategic Plan. Work. The chance for everyone to be heard on discussion and decision items within a guided, timed, focused setting. Standard reports are usually mailed to members ahead of time. Follow-up. A summation of the meeting and what was accomplished, and the preparation of an agenda for the next one. Minutes should be brief, listing the discussion/decision items with their main points, the outcomes, and next steps. General or Special Meetings Councils should gather their general Conference membership together several times a year on traditional Vincentian occasions. Attendance at these meetings is an essential part of our Vincentian life, and an ideal time for the following: - providing programs on Vincentian Spiritual Formation - renewing the motivation of members - announcing special news from the Conferences and Councils - communicating developments within the Society at various levels - consulting with members and sharing ideas - providing information pertinent to Conference work (a speaker from outside the Society may be featured) - showing members the experience and breadth of the Vincentian family Council/Board Membership The Bylaws of the Society state that a District Council is composed of a duly elected President and the Presidents of affiliated Conferences; (Arch)Diocesan Council membership is composed of the Presidents of affiliated District Councils. Qualifications for membership on either Council’s Board of Directors are spelled out in their bylaws. Incorporated Councils have a board of directors, whose members should understand their responsibilities and obligations, keeping the Society on a sound legal and financial basis. Information on Council bylaws and governance is available from the National Office and on the website: www.ssvpusa.org. Council Funds and Accountability To protect their members, the Society, and the public, Councils should have annual audits conducted according to accepted accounting practices (Rule: Part III, Statute 27). They should also prepare annual budgets and present them to their board of directors for approval (Rule: Part III, Statutes 22 & 23). Sources of Council funds may include contributions from Conferences, donations, bequests, special works, and grants. Like Conferences, Councils act as custodians of funds given to the Society, understanding that they belong, ultimately, to the poor. While some Councils prefer not to accumulate funds, others make a point of setting something aside for exigencies. Operating an active Council with a reasonable bank balance is good business practice, not hoarding. A bank balance equal to the operational cost of the Council for six months may be reasonable. A balance of less than three months’ operational cost may be unhealthy. Councils with inadequate balances should review the budget for ways to increase their income or reduce their expenditures. Councils with overly large balances should find ways to expend their excess funds on behalf of the poor, such as subsidizing active Conferences in poorer areas or planning needed special works. Fundraising is conducted within the Conference or Council, and at the National Council level. If a Council or other entity wishes to participate in a fund development project on an interCouncil basis, it should present its proposal in a business plan format to the National Finance and Governance Committee. The Council of the United States has a national development plan to augment funding for its services and to assist Councils in their own fundraising efforts. The National Development Director is available to help Councils enhance their fundraising effectiveness. Councils may receive funding requests from charitable organizations outside the Society. Funds donated to the Society, however, must be used only for works that involve the personal service of Society members. The Society does not raise or contribute money for activities, no matter how praiseworthy, in which its members are not personally and substantially involved. We must honor the intentions of our donors, who have chosen to give to the Society, rather than other organizations, with the expectation that their gifts will be used for Vincentian work and no other purpose. Acknowledging Charitable Contributions Federal income tax deductions for every contribution of $250 or more require a written receipt from the designated charity. Responsibility for obtaining receipts rests with contributors, but charities must inform them if their contributions may not be fully deductible because of goods or services received in connection with a fundraising event. Though no particular form is required, a receipt must: - Show the date of the contribution. - Accurately describe the cash or property donated. - State whether or not the contributor received any goods or services of value in return for the contribution and offer a good-faith estimate of their value. - Confirm, if appropriate, that the contributor received only “intangible religious benefits” in return for the contribution. Society Employees In the beginning, the Society relied solely on volunteers to help the poor, but its rapid growth revealed a need for assistance administering and coordinating that volunteer ministry with clerical work, mailings, recordkeeping, etc. (Rule: Part III, Article 14) Later, to serve the poor better, members, in the larger Councils especially, established Special Works that required paid staff. Volunteer members and Society employees work together as partners in their ministry to the poor. Paid staff do not supplant the volunteer members; they help those members provide more effective services to people in need. Employees are welcome to participate in Vincentian works and become members of a Conference, but they cannot hold elected office at any level of the Society. One of the most important responsibilities of larger Councils is the selection of an Executive Director, whose knowledge, skill, and leadership will, to a significant extent, determine a Council’s effectiveness in carrying out its mission. Executive Directors help Council Presidents fulfill their responsibilities. They cultivate the talents of Presidents, board members, and Conference members. And they strive to keep the Councils faithful to the Society’s mission and its predominantly volunteer character. With Council Presidents being term-limited, Executive Directors also provide continuity and stability. Councils must establish expectations for the position of Executive Director (qualifications, salary, benefits, etc.) and spell them out in a position description. Sample position descriptions are available from the National Office. A special committee should be formed, composed of officers and chairpersons of other significant committees, to screen, interview, and recommend candidates to the board. Councils must comply with all state and federal regulations for paid staff and should maintain employment practices consistent with the guidance of the Catholic Bishops and Catholic social teaching. Legal and Financial Realities The Society of St. Vincent de Paul must meet the legal, reporting, and financial obligations required of all nonprofit, tax-exempt organizations. Since these obligations are subject to change and may vary widely from the federal to the state level, from state to state, and even from state to locality, Councils should consult the National Office for the latest federal requirements and a local attorney for the state and local requirements. Institution of a District or (Arch)Diocesan Council Official recognition of a Council as a member of the Society of St. Vincent de Paul requires the affirmative action of the Council General, the international governing body of the Society. Application forms for the institution of Councils may be obtained from the National Office of the Council of the United States. (Rule: Part I, Article 3.8) Completed applications are transmitted through all ascending levels of the Society. Councils must be in operation for at least one year before applying. A District Council applying for “institution” (official status) sends its application to the (Arch)Diocesan Council to which it is attached. The (Arch)Diocesan Council, having approved, transmits the petition to the National Council, which conveys it to the Council General for final action. Word of the Council General’s action is conveyed to the applicant via the descending chain of communication. If no (Arch)Diocesan Council exists, a new District Council should seek the approval of a priorexisting, instituted District Council. Until an (Arch)Diocesan Council is formed, the first instituted District Council represents the diocese to the National Council and qualifies as a National Council Member. Three or more District Councils should form an (Arch)Diocesan Council to better serve all the Conference members of the diocese. Incorporation of Councils Generally speaking, charitable groups may act as unincorporated associations, formally organized corporations, or charitable trusts. The corporate form is preferred for its convenience, familiarity of structure, and liability limitations. Councils should incorporate and comply with the laws of their state. The National Office can offer advice on how to proceed. An incorporated Council should check periodically to confirm that its Articles of Incorporation and Bylaws are properly recorded and available to succeeding Council leaders (“Statements of Continued Existence” may also be required in some states). Failure to properly maintain the necessary records can jeopardize the tax deductibility of donor gifts and result in revocation of the Society’s 501(c)(3) tax-exempt status. Insurance guidelines for Conferences, Stores, and Councils are posted in the members section of the national website. As these guidelines recommend, Councils should contact qualified professionals for advice on coverage for all aspects of a not-for-profit organization and reevaluate their policies yearly. Tax Laws and Financial Records To protect the Society in the civil arena, Councils must know the federal and state tax laws that apply to them, have capable local counsel to determine what their obligations are, and assiduously meet these obligations. Under certain conditions, charitable agencies and organizations are required to file IRS Form 990. Many U.S. Councils do so. Penalties for noncompliance are cumulative and can be severe. The American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA) has prepared statements of accounting principles and reporting practices for nonprofit organizations. Failure to adopt recommended methods could jeopardize community support, foundation grants, and eligibility for publicly-funded programs. For the Society to maintain good standing before the law and in the eyes of the Church, our donors, and the general public, Councils must keep adequate records and reports. Officers or leaders of voluntary organizations must conform to all procedural requirements of state corporate law, as well as their own charters and bylaws. Strict adherence to all regulations governing recordkeeping and corporate procedures (including regular audits) helps protect the public, the Society, and Vincentian members against deceit and misuse of funds. Record Retention Confidentiality demands that all records on individuals and families served be kept in a secure, private place. Special care should be taken to secure electronic databases and prevent unauthorized access. Confidential material should not be transferred via email or web unless its security is assured. Because federal, state, and local statutes of limitations vary, Councils operating special works should check with their auditor or legal counsel and develop their own record retention policy. Records with historical value should be kept permanently. Retention Schedule: - Bank Deposits ................................................................. 3 Years - Bank Reconciliations ....................................................... 3 Years - Bank Statements ............................................................. 7 Years - Cancelled Checks .......................................................... 7 Years - Invoices Received ........................................................... 7 Years - Case Records & Cards .................................................... 3 Years - General Correspondence .............................................. 3 Years - Meeting Minutes ............................................................ 7 Years - Minute Books ................................................................. 7 Years - Treasurer Statements ..................................................... 7 Years Conflict of Interest Policy Along with their families, anyone serving the Society in any capacity – member, employee, board member, etc. – should be careful to avoid real, apparent, and potential conflicts of interest. If a conflict is suspected or anticipated, the Council President should be consulted immediately. The Society’s official Conflict of Interest policy is intended to supplement applicable state and federal laws. A copy of this policy is available in the members section of the national website or from the National Office. Any questions concerning this policy should be addressed to the appropriate Council officer. Speaking for the Society Only the National President may speak for the Society on national issues. Presidents of (Arch) Diocesan Councils, District Councils, and Conferences may speak for the Society at their own levels. Individual members are welcome to engage in advocacy on their own, but should not present themselves as spokesmen for the Society. 2.3 NATIONAL COUNCIL OF THE UNITED STATES The Mission and Governance of the Society of St. Vincent de Paul are found in the Rule, Council and Conference Bylaws, and appropriate policies. Introduction Instituted by the International Council General, and legally incorporated under the laws of the State of Delaware in 1946, the National Council of the United States represents the Society in this country, animating and coordinating its various activities and assisting the Councils attached to it. The official logo of the Society in the United States is a key building block of our identity, the primary visual element that tells who we are. Guidelines for use of the logo by Councils and Conferences are available from the National Office. The National Council keeps members of the Society, the Council General, and religious and civil authorities informed of its activities through regular reports. It also keeps U.S. Councils and Conferences informed of the life of the Society throughout the world and ensures that the basic principles of the Society are respected. The Society in the United States is divided into eight regions, with nominees for the National Vice President for the region approved by the National President and elected by each region (Rule: Part III, Statute 13 and Resolution 184). ## The Regional Structure \| Region \| States \| \|--------------\|---------------------------------------------\| \| Eastern \| Delaware, Maryland, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Virginia, Washington DC, West Virginia \| \| Northeast \| Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New York, Rhode Island, Vermont \| \| North Central\| Illinois, MI (Marquette), Minnesota, North Dakota, South Dakota, Wisconsin \| \| Midwest \| Colorado, IL (Belleville and Springfield), Iowa, Kansas, Missouri, Nebraska, Wyoming \| \| Southeast \| Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, North Carolina, Puerto Rico, South Carolina, Tennessee, Virgin Islands \| \| Mideast \| Indiana, Kentucky, Michigan, Ohio \| \| South Central\| Arkansas, New Mexico, Oklahoma, Texas \| 1. excluding Marquette Diocese 2. excluding Belleville and Springfield Diocese National Council Strategic Plan In 2000, under the leadership of its President, Eugene Smith, the National Council of the United States adopted its first formal strategic plan. The Strategic Plan provides a framework for Servant Leaders at every level to make plans unified around the Society’s central vision and goals. The Strategic Plan is periodically reviewed and revised as previous goals are achieved, and circumstances change. The current plan at the time of this publication is based upon five Focus Areas, with goals to advance each of them. I: Expand and strengthen our network of friends II: Encourage and support Vincentians on their spiritual journey III: Advocate for and work towards a more just world IV: Promote deeper and meaningful relationships with those we serve V: Develop, improve, and expand services Updated in 2021, the Strategic Plan continues to enable the Society to grow and become more effective in serving Christ’s poor. The Strategic Plan is the plan for the entire Society in the United States. It belongs to each and every Vincentian. National Council Services Management - National Office Administration - Meetings - International, National, Regional Meeting - Planning and Support - Professional and Staff Support for National Committees - Maintenance/strengthening of relationships with Vincentian Family and government - Implementation of Strategic Plan - Episcopal Advisor relationships - Management and disbursement of Disaster Funds - National President’s liaison to Council General and National Councils - Conflict resolution team for Councils and Conferences Accountability practices - Adherence to the Rule - Bylaws of the Society - Policies, procedures, laws - Performance objectives Evaluation Finance, Personnel, Etc. - Accounting - Payroll - Accounts Receivable/Payable - Personnel - Resources - Records - Benefits - Twinning - International - Domestic - Building/Equipment Membership & Technology - National Council Communication - Annual Reports - Frédéric’s eGazette - Email/Web Alerts - Publications - Composition - Printing - Distribution Technology - Computerization - Database - Website - International/National Vincentian News - VincenPaul - Circular Letter - Regional/Council Best Practices - Aggregation/Institution Recruitment - Invitation to Serve Recognition - Archives - Rule Development Strategic Planning - Development on Webpage - MBNA - Volunteer Resources - Public Relations Formation - Programs - Serving in Hope - Forming the Formators - Weekly Reflections - Invitation for Renewal - Ozanam Orientation - Vincentian Contemplations - Home Visit Workshops - Workshops - Leadership development - Board Members - Executive Directors - Spiritual Advisors - Spiritual Formation Presentations Retreats - Vincentian Family Development - Annual giving - Programmatic solicitations - Online Giving - Planned and Major Gifts - Grants - Endowment Fund - Corporate Sponsorships - Donor Tracking System - Consultation and collaboration with other SVdP Fundraisers National Committee Structure The National Council analyzes emerging or persistent human needs and explores how the Society can respond to them. When a problem has been identified, the National President may establish a committee or a work group to address that problem. At every level, Councils activate committees corresponding to the National Strategic Plan, thus assuring national direction within the Society without affecting the autonomy of individual Society units. National Database Every organization depends upon effective communication to achieve its goals (Rule: Part I, Article 3.15). To help facilitate better communications, a national member database is available to all Conferences at svdpmembers.com. The National Office staff strive to make sure that the National database has accurate and complete information on all members, so that they can keep everyone informed about important matters affecting the Society. Members have a right to know what is going on and to receive information in a timely fashion. We also have an obligation to keep our contact information current. The vision of the Society of St. Vincent de Paul is to “embrace the world in a network of charity.” Our membership database is the nucleus of that network. By keeping every portion of it accurate and up-to-date, we ensure that Vincentians across America stay connected and can embrace the world together. Conflict of Interest Policy Along with their families, anyone serving the Society in any capacity – member, employee, board member, etc. – should be careful to avoid real, apparent, and potential conflicts of interest. If a conflict is suspected or anticipated, the Council President should be consulted immediately. The Society’s official Conflict of Interest policy is intended to supplement applicable state and federal laws. A copy of this policy is available in the members section of the national website or from the National Office. Any questions concerning this policy should be addressed to the appropriate Council officer. Speaking for the Society Only the National President may speak for the Society on national issues. Suspension, Annulment, and Removal The President General has delegated to the National President the authority to suspend Members, Conferences, and Councils; to annul the election of a Conference or Council President, for serious reasons; and, when necessary, to remove a President (Rule: Part III, Statute 16, 17-19). A National Conciliation Committee exists (Rule: Part III, Statute 21). 2.4 THE INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL The Mission and Governance of the Society of St. Vincent de Paul are found in the Rule, Council and Conference Bylaws, and appropriate policies. Introduction The Society of St. Vincent de Paul is united in its spirituality and management through an International Confederation of the Society, which is presided over by the President General. The Confederation’s head office is based in Paris, France. (Rule: Part II, Articles 1.1-1.12) The Council General was established in 1840 to aid the International President in animating and directing the Society. The structure of the Council General has changed over the years as the Society has evolved and expanded. (Rule: Part II, Articles 2.1-2.5 and 5.1-5.6) The Council General fulfills several essential purposes, the foremost being to assure the Society’s unity in its spirituality and in its emphasis on person-to-person charity. Vincentian unity in these essentials does not mean the imposition of an all-encompassing uniformity and rigidity. While maintaining and promoting what is essential to the original spirit of the Society, the Council General recognizes and respects the cultural and circumstantial differences among countries. (Rule: Part II, Articles 3.1-2.28 and 4.1-4.8) As the very heart of the Society, the Council General stimulates growth and development by encouraging and assisting in the organization of new Conferences and Councils. Only the Council General can authorize the admission of new Conferences and Councils anywhere in the world, thus linking them to the first original Conference and to all Vincentians everywhere. (Rule: Part II, Articles 6.1-6.11) The Council General promotes bonds among Society units and members worldwide, particularly between wealthy and needy countries, the resulting linkage being known as Twinning. It serves to centralize Vincentian resources on behalf of the victims of catastrophes such as floods, earthquakes, droughts, and historical upheavals. It also establishes liaison and cooperation with other international charitable works and programs and with the various international aid organizations. (Rule: Part I, Article 4.2) International Council and Twinning In many parts of the world, the Society’s Councils and Conferences lack sufficient resources to carry out their mission to alleviate suffering. (Rule: Part I, Article 4.1) Councils and Conferences in more affluent countries reach out to help their sister and brother Vincentians with their work. Assistance may take various forms, but is most often financial. Any Council participating in a Twinning program, whether giving or receiving, should be duly “instituted” and in regular contact with the Council General’s office. Any twinning Conference should be properly “aggregated.” Questions about the status of a twinning partner should be referred to the office of the International Council General. To ensure success, Councils or Conferences desiring to establish a “twinning” relationship should coordinate their donations through the Council General International and the National Councils of the country giving and receiving assistance. “Assistance” may include financial assistance and spiritual assistance. It may consist of various types of projects. Many situations may require prayer and advice as to how the assistance may best be delivered. The International Council General’s office stands ready to help with recommendations on how to attain the desired goal of assisting brother or sister Vincentians in need. The Spirituality of Twinning We must create a culture of international solidarity and cooperation, where all – particularly the wealthy nations and the private sector – accept responsibility for an economic model that serves everyone, where the poor Lazarus can sit beside the rich man, sharing the same banquet and not feeding on scraps that fall from the table (Lk 16:19-31). (Rule: Part I, Articles 4.1.1 and 4.12) “Extreme poverty is a source of violence, bitterness, and scandal. To eradicate it is to do the work of justice and, therefore, the work of peace (Incarnationis mysterium, 12).” The Society is a Christian family whose members share their resources. Twinning links brother and sister Vincentians in a special way; it cuts through language and cultural barriers. Through Twinning, Councils and Conferences implement the theological virtue of charity, heighten awareness of the catholicity of the Church, transcend provincialism, and fulfill the Church’s preferential option for the poor. (Rule: Part I, Article 4.1) An example for Vincentians, individually and corporately, is the story of the widow’s mite (Mk 12:44-44). Jesus tells his disciples to observe the poor widow: “They gave from their surplus wealth; she gave from her want.” In Twinning, Vincentians strive to give selflessly, not just from their surplus funds but from their want. Current Twinning Guidelines are available from the National Office. The International Logo The international logo of the Society of Saint Vincent de Paul is a fish on a solid blue circle. The Greek word for fish, ICHTHYS, was used by the first Christians as an acronym for Jesus Christ, Son of God, Savior. The blue circle graphically symbolizes the world, Blessed Frédéric Ozanam’s dream of embracing it in a network of charity, and the global status of our International Society. The red eye of the fish is the vigilant eye of God, seeking out the poor and underprivileged in our midst; its red color symbolizes charity, the love of God and neighbor, and the motive for our service. Serviens in spe The shape of the fish, a loop, symbolizes the solidarity among members and our union with the poor. The Society’s motto, “Serviens in spe” (Serving in Hope), signifies the attitude Vincentians bring to those they serve. 2.5 SPIRITUAL ADVISORS Introduction Because the primary purpose of the Society of St. Vincent de Paul is to increase the holiness of its members, the role of Spiritual Advisor is essential to its life and mission (Rule: Part I, Article 3.13 and Part III, Statute 15). The Spiritual Advisor assumes responsibility for the spiritual growth, development, and life of either a Council or a Conference with full knowledge of and dedication to the mission and ministry of the Society. Council or Conference leadership must select a person who is both willing and able to devote the necessary time and energy to the role of Spiritual Advisor. Spiritual Advisors are indeed full Council/Conference members, but they do not serve as officers; if ordained, they do not vote. Often a Catholic lay member of the Society of St. Vincent de Paul will be chosen, though an ordained priest or deacon, vowed religious, or parish pastoral staff may fill this role. Within the first Conference of Charity, the Catholic layman Emmanuel Bailly assumed responsibility for the spiritual health of the Conference and its young members and serves as a model for today’s Spiritual Advisor. Functions of the Spiritual Advisor The Spiritual Advisor’s task is that of spiritual animator. The Spiritual Advisor enables members to better understand the meaning of charity and its practical application toward those in need, and assists with the development of their Vincentian spiritual life. Spiritual Advisors play an important role in promoting the work of the Society. In keeping with changing times and needs, they provide inspiration and challenge for the adoption of new works. The Spiritual Advisor attends the meetings, participates in the discussions, and provides guidance to the Council or Conference membership on spiritual matters. As circumstances permit, Spiritual Advisors actively participate with other members in direct service to the needy. Appointment of a Conference Spiritual Advisor The president of the Conference, in consultation with the pastor, appoints the Conference Spiritual Advisor. That person should be dedicated to his or her spiritual life and should understand, or be willing to learn, the meaning and essential features of Vincentian Spirituality. The Conference president may appoint an Associate Spiritual Advisor as necessary. Appointment of a Council Spiritual Advisor The selection of a Spiritual Advisor for the District Council should be determined by the prayerful deliberation of the Council members. An incoming District President may reappoint a Spiritual Advisor. In the case of an (Arch)Diocesan Council, the approval of the local Bishop should be sought. It is wise to have at least two names for his consideration. The Bishop himself may wish to be designated Spiritual Advisor, in which case an Associate Spiritual Advisor should be named who can assume the full functions of the role when the Bishop is unable to participate as actively as necessary. An incoming (Arch)Diocesan President may reappoint a Spiritual Advisor. In other situations, the highest Council in a Diocese approaches the Bishop as described above. The National Episcopal Spiritual Advisor Following protocol, the President of the National Council arranges for a member of the hierarchy to serve as the Society’s National Episcopal Spiritual Advisor. The Episcopal Advisor attends meetings, participates in discussions, and provides the necessary guidance to the Council and its members on spiritual matters. For the Annual Meetings, he addresses the Society membership on matters of spiritual formation. He also addresses the meeting of Council and Conference Spiritual Advisors, encouraging and animating them in their ministry of spiritual formation of the Society’s membership. 3.1 FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES The Society of St. Vincent De Paul has, from the beginning, been rooted in the following fundamental principles: • Essential Elements The Essential Elements of the Society of Saint Vincent de Paul (Rule: Part III, Statute 1) were established by Emmanuel Bailly together with the founding members: Spirituality: To bear witness to Christ and to his Church by showing that the faith of Christians inspires them to work for the good of humanity; Friendship: To bring together people of good will and to assist them by mutual example and true friendship in drawing nearer to the Divine Model by fulfilling his essential precept, namely, the love of God in the person of others; Service: To establish a personal contact between its members and those who suffer and to bring to the latter the most efficacious and charitable aid possible. • Mission A Mission Statement answers the who and what of an organization. It states in precise and concise language the composition and chief purposes of a group: A network of friends, inspired by Gospel Values, growing in holiness and building a more just world through personal relationships with and service to people in need. • Identity Statement While the Mission primarily states what we do, the identity statement offers a detailed explanation of who we are: Inspired by Gospel values, the Society of St. Vincent de Paul, a Catholic lay organization, leads women and men to join together to grow spiritually by offering person-to-person service to those who are needy and suffering in the tradition of its founder, Blessed Frédéric Ozanam, and patron, St. Vincent de Paul. As a reflection of the whole family of God, Members, who are known as Vincentians, are drawn from every ethnic and cultural background, age group, and economic level. Vincentians are united in an international society of charity by their spirit of poverty, humility and sharing, which is nourished by prayer and reflection, mutually supportive gatherings and adherence to a basic Rule. Organized locally, Vincentians witness God’s love by embracing all works of charity and justice. The Society collaborates with other people of good will in relieving need and addressing its causes, making no distinction in those served because, in them, Vincentians see the face of Christ. • Vision The vision of Blessed Frédéric Ozanam was: “To establish a network of charity and social justice to encircle the world.” • Cultural Beliefs What we believe, our culture, determines how we act in the Society and in the world: Spiritual Growth: Grow in holiness through prayer, service, friendship and formation. One Society: Contribute to the success of our Vincentian work when we support One Society. Servant Leaders: Develop ourselves and others to become Servant Leaders. Today’s Society: Strengthen the Society by embracing new and diverse ideas and people. Embrace Accountability: Build a strong Society by holding each other accountable to our Mission, to the Essential Elements of the Society and to good Governance. Inclusive Planning: Foster ownership by involving all members in planning and decision making. Advocate for Justice: Advocate along with the poor, for just policies and practices at the local, state, and national levels. • Virtues Vincentians seek to imitate St. Vincent in the five virtues essential for promoting love and respect for the poor (Rule, Part I, Article 2.5.1): - Simplicity - Humility - Gentleness - Selflessness - Zeal • The Call to Holiness The Church calls all men and women to holiness because Jesus does. He says: “Be perfect, just as your heavenly Father is perfect.” (Mt 5:48) St. Paul says it very clearly: “This is the will of God, your holiness.” (I Thess 4:3) The Society of St. Vincent de Paul calls its members to holiness; such was the intent of its founders in 1833 and such is its intent today (Rule: Part I, Article 2.2). The Church teaches that “all the faithful of Christ of whatever rank or status are called to the fullness of the Christian life and to the perfection of charity. In order that the faithful may reach this perfection, they must use their strength according as they have received it, as a gift from Christ. In this way they can follow in his footsteps and mold themselves in his image, seeking the will of the Father in all things, devoting themselves with all their being to the glory of God and the service of their neighbor.” (Dogmatic Constitution on the Church, 40) Several months before his death in 1853, Blessed Frédéric told members of the Society in Livorno, Italy: The Society “has only one purpose: to sanctify its members in the exercise of charity and to help the poor in their corporal and spiritual needs.” Blessed Frédéric says: “Ordinary Catholics are plentiful enough, everywhere; but we need saints. How to make saints without being ourselves holy? How to preach to unhappy people about virtues, in which they are richer than we? We must indeed admit with St. Vincent de Paul that, in that, they are our superiors. ‘The poor of Jesus Christ are our lords and masters,’ said the saint, ‘and we are unworthy to render them our poor service.’” (Report of the Works of the Society in Lyon, April 27, 1838) In the mind of St. Vincent, the person who deals with holy things has to be holy. As Vincentians deal with holy things, the poor, we are called to be holy. Pope Saint John Paul II said that the call to holiness is the essential vocation of all Christians. St. Vincent de Paul teaches us that holiness is “the retrenchment from earthly things and distancing ourselves from them, and is, at the same time, an attachment to God and union with the Divine Will. I think holiness consists in that.” (XII, 244) St. Vincent also said: “Perfection does not lie in ecstasies, but in doing well the will of God…. Who, of all men, is the most perfect? He whose will is most in accord with the will of God, since perfection lies in so complete a uniting of our will with God’s that his will and ours are really simply the same will; and the more man excels on this point, the more perfect will he be.” (XI, 317) Frédéric repeated this prayer unceasingly: “O God, I will what you will, when you will, in whatever way you will, because you will.” • Vincentian Ministry Vincentians are called to holiness by striving to conform ourselves to Jesus, doing God’s will, and devoting ourselves to the service of God’s suffering and poor. The Society of St. Vincent de Paul is composed of women and men who seek personal holiness by works of charity. In this essential way, the Society differs from charitable associations or agencies whose principal objective is not the spiritual advancement of their members but the doing of good for others. President-General Adolphe Baudon, in his Circular Letter of January 1, 1877, wrote: “It is laid down in our Rule, and it has been always understood among us, that in uniting to serve our masters the poor, as St. Vincent de Paul expresses it, our object is not only to relieve material misery, a very laudable purpose in itself, but to aspire, especially, through the practice of that most sublime of virtues – charity – to render ourselves better and more fervent Christians, and to make our poor enter on the same path, if we have the happiness of succeeding.” In his Circular Letter of December 12, 1915, President-General Vicomte D’Hendecourt wrote: “The Society has two aims: to do a great deal of spiritual good to its members through the exercise of charity, and to do a little spiritual and temporal good to a few poor families in the name of Jesus Christ. If it did not continually seek to combine these two aims, it would lose its reason for being. If it were to seek only the holiness of its members through pious exercises, there is no lack of Confraternities and Third Orders to meet that need. If, on the other hand, it were to seek only the relief of the temporal miseries of the poor, it would only add one more to the list of public and private institutions founded for that purpose.” Our Vincentian ministry is a means for achieving holiness. Serving those who are poor increases our holiness, because, when we attend to them in the spirit of St. Vincent, we minister to Jesus Christ himself. On the occasion of the 250th anniversary of the canonization of St. Vincent de Paul, Pope Saint John Paul II quoted the remarks of the famous historian of Christian spirituality, Henri Bremond, regarding Vincent: “It was not love for men that led Vincent to sanctity; rather, it was sanctity that made him truly and effectively charitable; it was not the poor that gave him to God, but, on the contrary, God who gave him to the poor.” God acts in the same way in the lives of all Vincentians. Holiness makes us truly and effectively charitable. It is God who gives us to the poor. Blessed Frédéric Ozanam, in discussing the newly founded Society of St. Vincent de Paul, said: “The humanity of our day seems comparable to the traveler of whom the Gospel speaks…. In our turn, weak Samaritans, worldly and people of little faith that we are, let us dare nonetheless to approach this great sick one. Perhaps it will not be frightened of us. Let us try to probe its wounds and pour in oil, soothing its ear with words of consolation and peace…. That is what is proposed to us, the sublime vocation God has given us. Would that we were a little bit worthy of it and bent easily to its burden.” (Letter #90) It’s not for everyone, nor for just anyone, but being a member of the Society of St. Vincent de Paul – being a Vincentian – is for some. It is a special calling by God. St. Vincent de Paul said over and over again, “Put on the Lord Jesus Christ.” It was his way of saying, “Imitate Jesus.” Vincent echoed the thought of St. Paul: “Your attitude must be that of Christ” (Phil 2:5). A Vincentian attempts to put on the attitude of Jesus, who “did not come to be served but to serve.” (Mk 10:45) As members of the Society of St. Vincent de Paul, we put our faith into action. The Vincentian vocation is the intimate desire to participate personally and directly in helping the needy by person-to-person contact and by the gift of one’s heart and friendship, doing so within the communal spirit of a Conference of lay persons each inspired by the same vocation. Briefly, the Vincentian vocation is the call of personal service to those in need (Rule: Part I, Article 1.2-1.6). This vocation may be expressed in many ways and with different shades of meaning. Practical translation of faith into action, meditating upon it and adapting it to our changing world, is the very life of every Vincentian, the very life of the Society. As members of the Society, we seek to bring personally, in a truly brotherly or sisterly and selfless spirit, some moral and material help to all in affliction, whether from destitution, sickness, unemployment, or imprisonment. No difference of religion, nationality, race, or political opinion matters when one is in need. For Vincentians, every person in need is a brother or sister, and an image of the suffering Jesus. “Lord, when did we see you hungry or thirsty or a stranger or naked or ill or in prison?...’ He will answer them, ‘Amen, I say to you, what you did not do for one of these least ones, you did not do for me.’” (Mt 25: 44-45) In an audience with Vincentians, Pope Saint Paul VI praised our ministry as “a great testimony of living Catholicism. You give witness to Christ in the Church of the Poor. The critic from outside is impressed. If he wants to understand you, he must look for that mysterious religious vitality which animates your silent work of love. And those others, too, see you living the Gospel, those to whom you direct your steps, and whom you do not call by the name of the poor, but by that of friend and brother.” St. Vincent de Paul tells us: “It is our vocation … to set people’s hearts ablaze, to do what the Son of God did, who came to light a fire on the earth in order to set it aflame with his love. It is not enough for me to love God if my neighbor does not love him. I must love my neighbor as the image of God and the object of his love … I must act in such a way that people love their Creator and each other in mutual charity for the love of God who loved them so much that he delivered up his own Son to death for them.” • Loyalty to the Church The Church was founded to spread the kingdom of Christ throughout the world and to make all people partakers in the redemption and salvation. All activities of the Society aim at extending the Reign of God, whether these activities relate to the spiritual growth and formation of the individual Vincentian, or to the corporate body of the Society as such, or to the acts of mercy and justice performed in the name of Jesus Christ (Rule: Part I, Articles 5.1-5.3). Members of the Society are distinguished by loyalty to their Christian faith and to the discipline of Catholic life. Vincentians are faithful to the Church and to its leadership. This fidelity manifests itself in the readiness and willingness of the Society to apply itself to any work recommended by members of church leadership which alleviates the needs of those who are poor and suffering. Vincentians always give witness to their faith and to Christ. Pope Saint John Paul II reminded Vincentians that “your association is a constant reminder to the Church of her vocation to show Christ’s preferential love for the poor.” By tradition, the President-General pays his respects to the Holy Father and reaffirms the Society’s loyalty by letter at the beginning of each New Year. When the poor are in need, the Society responds in loyalty to them. And the Society remains a Christian brotherhood and sisterhood, a family loyal to its members, reaching out to other families. • The Primitive Spirit of the Society “Ozanam is no longer with us to remind us of our primitive spirit,” remarked President-General Adolphe Baudon after Frédéric’s death in 1853. Indeed, from the Society’s earliest days, Frédéric urged fellow members not to establish restrictive or bureaucratic structures, nor to praise ourselves for our accomplishments, which might make us, as he explained to Amélie in an 1841 letter, “more eager to talk than to act… to forget the humble simplicity which has presided over our coming together from the beginning…” (Letter 310) He urged his friends to imitate the life of our Patron Saint, “as he himself imitated the model of Jesus Christ.” (Letter 175) It is in imitating Christ that we capture the primitive spirit, the spirit that animated the early church. As Frédéric explained, “the faith, the charity of the first centuries … is not too much for our century.” (Letter 90) Vincentians seek this primitive spirit by living our Vincentian Virtues, and especially the first three, simplicity, humility, and gentleness, which, St. Vincent explained, come directly from the Gospel teachings, and the life of Christ. “The first,” he said, “concerns God; the second, ourselves; and the third, our neighbor.” (XII:249) Vincent often said that simplicity was his favorite virtue. In simplicity, we are dedicated to the truth, because God Himself is truth. In serving the truth, then, we serve both God and the neighbor. In serving the neighbor, Vincent emphasized, “how careful we must be not to appear wily, clever, crafty, and, above all, never to say a word that has a double meaning!” (XII:246) Our humility reminds us that “all that God gives us is for others and that we can achieve nothing of eternal value without His grace.” (Rule: Part I, Article 2.5.1) We act as God’s instruments in serving the neighbor, unconcerned with receiving any credit or reward, because all the glory goes to God. Finally, we act with gentleness; with a tender love for all of our neighbors, as well as our fellow Vincentians. Gentleness, in our hearts and in our acts, means being kind, being patient, taking no offense when others may return our patience with impatience, our courtesy with rudeness. This simple, humble, gentleness embodies the primitive spirit of the church and of our Vincentian vocation, as it was in the beginning. “For God is especially pleased,” Frédéric wrote, “to bless what is little and imperceptible: the tree in its seedling, man in his cradle, good works in the shyness of their beginnings.” (Letter 310) ### 3.2 VINCENTIAN SPIRITUALITY “As he who called you is holy, be holy yourselves in all your conduct; for it is written, ‘You shall be holy, for I am holy.’” (I Peter 1:15-16) Pope Saint John Paul II told us that “spirituality means a mode or form of life in keeping with Christian demands. Spirituality is ‘life in Christ’ and ‘in the Spirit,’ which is accepted in faith, expressed in love, and inspired by hope…. By spirituality … we mean not a part of life, but the whole of life guided by the Holy Spirit.” (The Church in America, 29) The Holy Father also said: “Life according to the Spirit, whose fruit is holiness (cf. Rom 6:22; Gal 5:22), stirs up every baptized person and requires each to follow and imitate Jesus Christ, in embracing the Beatitudes, in listening and meditating on the Word of God, in conscious and active participation in the liturgical and sacramental life of the Church, in personal prayer, in family or in community, in the hunger and thirst for justice, in the practice of the commandment of love in all circumstances of life and service to the brethren, especially the least, the poor, and the suffering.” (Christifideles laici, 16) A specific spirituality underpins our Vincentian vocation: Vincentian spirituality, so named for our patron, St. Vincent de Paul. It is his legacy to the Church and to all who pursue his spirit. This spirituality gives life, color, and meaning to who we are and what we do. Vincentian spirituality is the foundation of our vocation, endowing it with credibility, veracity, and integrity. God’s grace strengthens, supports, and energizes the practice of this specific spirituality (Rule: Part I, Article 2.1). The Mystery of the Incarnation Central to an understanding of Vincentian spirituality is the Mystery of the Incarnation, the mystery and grace that God became human. Every Sunday, we profess our faith in the words of the Nicene creed: “…for our salvation he came down from heaven: by the power of the Holy Spirit he was born of the Virgin Mary, and became man.” In God’s unfathomable love for humankind, the Word of God becomes flesh: divinity and humanity meet in a wondrous reality. St. Vincent de Paul promoted the Mystery of the Incarnation among his followers. He said: “Honor the Incarnation, a mystery beyond words.” Vincent taught: “Since Christ willed to be born poor … he made himself the servant of the poor and shared their poverty. He went so far as to say that he would consider every deed which either helps or harms the poor as done for or against himself.” While St. Vincent de Paul sees the historical Jesus in the persons of the poor and suffering, Blessed Frédéric Ozanam sees the risen, scarred Jesus in them. He based his incarnational spirituality on the 20th Chapter of St. John’s Gospel: Now a week later his disciples were again inside and Thomas was with them. Jesus came, although the doors were locked, and stood in their midst and said, “Peace be with you.” Then he said to Thomas, “Put your finger here and see my hands, and bring your hand and put it into my side, and do not be unbelieving, but believe.” Thomas answered and said to him, “My Lord and my God!” Jesus said to him, “Have you come to believe because you have seen me? Blessed are those who have not seen and have believed.” (John 20:26-29) Frédéric wrote: “Both men and the poor we see with eyes of the flesh; they are there and we can put finger and hand in their wounds, and scars of the crown of thorns are visible on their foreheads; and at this point incredulity no longer has place and we should fall at their feet and say with the Apostle, ‘Tu est Dominus et Deus meus.’ You are our masters, and we will be your servants.” (Letter #137, November 13, 1836). The Mystery of the Incarnation, so loved by St. Vincent de Paul and Blessed Frédéric Ozanam, is a doctrine not just to be believed but to be put into practice by the corporal and spiritual acts of mercy. Vincentians who minister to the least of their brothers and sisters find in them the person of Jesus, the Incarnated Jesus. And this encounter with Jesus, this interaction, transforms us. Vincentians grow spiritually through their person-to-person service. We do what we do for the person of Jesus, who is, in truth, the flesh-and-blood poor person before us. Every human being is a word of God become flesh. Vincentians expect God in the unexpected: in unexpected people, times, ways, and places. God wears a human face. When we see Jesus in others and try to be Jesus for others, the Mystery of the Incarnation comes alive for us. Jesus, Evangelizer and Servant of the Poor Vincentian spirituality can be defined as “a conscious effort to become and act more like the Jesus of Vincent and Frédéric – Jesus seen by them as the Evangelizer and Servant of the Poor.” This entails a constant, daily conversion of our vision and our treatment of others, so that we become more like Jesus every day in everything we think, do, and say. Jesus was the driving force in St. Vincent’s life, the center of his life and activity. Vincent found what he considered the distinctive image of Jesus in the gospel of Luke, where Christ is sent by the Father to preach the Good News to the poor: Jesus came to Nazareth, where he had grown up, and went according to his custom into the synagogue on the Sabbath day. He stood up to read and was handed a scroll of the prophet Isaiah. He unrolled the scroll and found the passage where it was written: “The Spirit of the Lord is upon me to bring the good news to the poor. He has sent me to proclaim liberty to captives and recovery of sight to the blind, to let the oppressed go free…” (Luke 4:16-21) Vincent’s life revolved around this relationship with Jesus as “the Evangelizer and Servant of the Poor.” In his writings, Vincent urged his followers to concentrate on this same image of Jesus, because “Jesus described himself as the Evangelizer of the poor: ‘To preach the good news to the poor he has sent me.’” Vincent often invoked St. Paul’s concept: “put on the Lord Jesus Christ.” (Romans 13:14) Vincentians are not the center of things, but the ones who center things on the Lord Jesus Christ. For followers of St. Vincent de Paul, spirituality involves a growing relationship with Jesus. Vincent says: “Let us walk with assurance on the royal road on which Jesus Christ will be our guide and leader.” Vincentians strive to grow in intimacy with their Lord and Savior, coming to know what He knows and love as He loves. In the course of his life and ministry, Vincent came to see that his charism – the gift given him by the Holy Spirit to use for building up the Church – was to preach the good news to the poor and to make the love of God a reality in the lives of the poor. The love Vincent experienced in his relationship with Jesus moved him to do all the great and small things he did during his sixty years as a priest. For Vincent, ministry was a response to God’s grace. Vincentian spirituality is rooted in the words of Jesus and exemplified in the lives and ministry of St. Vincent de Paul, St. Louise de Marillac, Blessed Frédéric Ozanam, and Blessed Rosalie Rendu. Vincentian spirituality was created in the friendship and mutuality of these holy men and holy women who combined their masculine and feminine gifts. Vincentian spirituality is gentle and strong, nurturing and guiding, loving and creative, compassionate and merciful. Vincentian spirituality is indeed rooted in charity and justice. Vincentian spirituality is validated in the lives and ministry of the countless men and women who have pursued the spirit and spirituality of Vincent and Frédéric as members of the Society of St. Vincent de Paul. Vincentian spirituality works; it helps make us holy. Men and women who were once active members of the Society and are now canonized and beatified by the Church confirm this, as do the inspiring lives of so many committed members of the Society living today. Lay Spirituality Pope Saint John Paul II taught that spirituality concerns the whole of life, or, as he often put it, “the unity of life.” He said to the laity: “There cannot be two parallel lives in your existence as lay men and women: on the one hand, the so-called ‘spiritual’ life, with its values and demands; and on the other, the so-called ‘secular’ life, that is, life in a family, at work, social relationships, in the responsibilities of public life and in culture. The branch, engrafted to the vine which is Christ, bears its fruit in every sphere of existence and activity. Every activity, every situation, every precise responsibility … is the occasion ordained by Providence for a ‘continuous exercise of faith, hope, and charity.’” (idem, #59) By constitution, composition, and administration, the Society of St. Vincent de Paul is primarily a lay association. The spirituality proper to it is a lay spirituality, and the Church reminds the laity: “This lay spirituality should take its particular character from the circumstances of one’s state in life (married and family life, celibacy, widowhood), from one’s state of health, and from one’s professional and social activity. All should not cease to develop earnestly the qualities and talents bestowed on them in accord with these conditions of life and should make use of the gifts which they have received from the Holy Spirit.” (Decree on Apostolate of the Laity, # 4) Although Vincentians look to their patron, St. Vincent de Paul, for his teaching and mentoring, for a role model Vincentians look primarily to their founder, Blessed Frédéric Ozanam: layperson, husband, and father. He is one of us. Frédéric was like us in all things. We can admire and imitate his person, spirit, and spirituality (Rule: Part I, Article 2.4). Vincentian spirituality applies to lay persons of varying vocations and professions, social and economic status, and talents and skills. The genius of Vincentian spirituality is that it transcends age, gender, language, culture, color, and generations. ### 3.3 SACRED SCRIPTURE Among the various passages from Sacred Scripture that could be considered foundational for Vincentian spirituality, some are exemplary. Vincentian spirituality is grounded in them. St. Vincent quoted scripture in his talks and letters, as did Blessed Frédéric. These passages incarnate the spirit and spirituality of our patron and founder, providing the lay members of the Society clear guidelines and effective means for obtaining our goal: holiness of life. The Preferential Option for the Poor “Amen, I say to you, whatever you did for one of these least brothers or sisters of mine, you did for me.” (Matt. 25:31-46) If Jesus stands at the center of Vincentian spirituality, the poor stand next to him. Jesus’ words, “You will always have the poor with you,” are the reason for Vincentian existence. Vincentian spirituality is horizontal, incarnational, rooted in the enfleshed humanity of Jesus. St. Vincent grounded this teaching in the Gospel according to St. Matthew: “Amen, I say to you, whatever you did for one of these least brothers or sisters of mine, you did it for me”. Vincent echoed Jesus when he said, “in serving the poor, we serve Jesus Christ.” And again: “We serve Jesus Christ in the person of the poor. And that is as true as our being here.” Vincent added that the poor “have been given to us as our lords and masters.” Without neglecting the needs of others, the Church maintains a preferential option for the poor. Pope Saint John Paul II said: “Taking up the Lord’s mission as her own, the Church proclaims the Gospel to every man and woman, committing herself to their integral salvation. But with special attention, in a true ‘preferential option,’ she turns to those who are in situations of greater weakness, and therefore in greater need. ‘The poor,’ in varied states of affliction, are the oppressed, those on the margin of society, the elderly, the sick, the young, any and all who are considered and treated as the ‘least.’” (The Consecrated Life, # 82) The Holy Father also asked this question: “If we recall that Jesus came to ‘preach the good news to the poor’ (Mt 11:5; Lk 7:22), how can we fail to lay greater emphasis on the church’s preferential option for the poor and the outcast?” (John Paul II, Tertio Millennio Adveniente, #51) Jesus tells us that “the poor you will always have with you,” and this is what he taught and practiced during his public ministry. Indeed, the poor were always with Jesus; his ministry was to heal the sick, comfort the sorrowful, welcome strangers, care for the needy, forgive the sinner, and bring hope to the hopeless. Blessed Frédéric said: “Sons of Saint Vincent de Paul, let us learn of him to forget ourselves, to devote ourselves to the service of God and the good of all. Let us learn of him that holy preference which shows most love to those who suffer most.” Indeed like the Church, Vincentians are concerned about all of God’s people because all are created in His image and likeness, but Vincentians too have a preferential option for the poor. In this, we imitate our founder and patron. • The Good Samaritan “Which of these three, in your opinion, was neighbor to the robbers’ victim?” He answered, “The one who treated him with mercy.” Jesus said to him, “Go and do likewise.” (Luke 10:29-37) Vincentians are weak Samaritans, wounded ourselves, struggling to serve a wounded humanity in the persons of our brothers and sisters – in reality, Christ in disguise. Indeed, Frédéric saw Vincentians not as “good Samaritans,” but as “weak Samaritans.” He wrote: “As weak Samaritans … let us dare … to approach this great sick one. Perhaps he will not be frightened of us.” Frédéric thought that wounded humanity would be more receptive, initially, to lay Vincentians than to the clergy. He continued: “Let us try to probe its wounds and pour in oil, soothing its ear with words of consolation and peace; then, when its eyes are opened, we will place it in the hands of those whom God has constituted as the guardians and doctors of souls, who are also, in a way, our innkeepers on our pilgrimage here below....” (Letter, # 90) Pope Saint John Paul II instructed us: “We are not allowed to ‘pass by on the other side’ indifferently; we must ‘stop’ beside him. Everyone who stops beside the suffering of another person, whatever form it may take, is a Good Samaritan. This stopping does not mean curiosity but availability. It is like availability. It is like the opening of a certain interior disposition of the heart…. The name ‘Good Samaritan’ fits every individual who is sensitive to the sufferings of others, who ‘is moved’ by the misfortune of another…. This kind of voluntary ‘Good Samaritan’ can be called an apostolate, when it is undertaken for clearly evangelical motives, especially if this is in connection with the Church....” (On the Christian Meaning of Human Suffering, #28 and #29) Frédéric understood the mutuality of ministry. Frédéric discovered that ministry was a two way street: when he ministered to the poor, the poor ministered to him. There was a mutuality of ministry. Frédéric wrote in an article: “Help becomes honorable, because it may become mutual, because every man who gives a kind word, a good advice, a consolation today, may tomorrow stand himself in need of a kind word, an advice, or a consolation; because the hand that you clasp clasps yours in return; because the indigent family whom you love loves you in return, and will have largely acquitted themselves toward you when the old man, the mother, the little children shall have prayed for you.” (October 21, 1848) Blessed Frédéric Ozanam told the Society of St. Vincent de Paul in Florence, Italy shortly before his death in 1853: “How often has it not happened that being weighed down by some interior trouble, uneasy as to my poor state of health, I entered the home of the poor confided to my care; there, face to face with so many miserable poor, who had so much more to complain of, I felt reproached for my depression, I felt better able to bear sorrow, and I gave thanks to that unhappy one, the contemplation of whose sufferings had consoled and fortified me! How could I avoid henceforward loving him the more!” “You shall love the Lord, your God, with all your heart, with all your being, with all your strength, and with all your mind, and your neighbor as yourself.” (Luke 10:25-28) Blessed Frédéric Ozanam established the Conference of Charity of Saint Vincent de Paul to empower its members not simply to work for the poor, but to work with the poor. Vincentians minister to the poor not merely from a sense of compassion, but from a sense of affinity, of solidarity, with them. For Vincent and Frédéric, there is only one love. The love of God and the love of neighbor are one and the same. This is the teaching of Jesus: the two loves are ultimately one. The two commandments are inseparable. There is no single commandment greater than these two. Our love is a response to God’s love for us. Since our loving God cannot be seen but must be experienced through loving people, anyone who sees others without loving cannot love or even know God. For Vincent and Frédéric, as for Jesus, love is neither sentiment nor affection nor theory, but a practical willing of another’s best interests and a consequent striving to advance those interests. Vincent and Frédéric related charity to zeal and fire, echoing Jesus: “I came to bring fire to the earth, and how I wish it were already kindled!” (Lk 12:49) Frédéric said: “The world has grown cold; it is for us Catholics to rekindle the vital fire which has been extinguished. It is Frédéric wrote that charity “is a fire that dies without being fed, and good works are the food of charity.” (Letter, #82) Vincent said: “If the love of God is a fire, then zeal is its flame; if that love is a sun, zeal is its ray. Zeal is that which makes our love of God purer.” (Conf. #211) As Pope Saint John Paul II observed, “Solidarity is undoubtedly a Christian virtue … it has been possible to identify many points of contact between solidarity and charity, which is the distinguishing mark of Christ’s disciples (cf., Jn 13:35). One’s neighbor is … the living image of God the Father, redeemed by the blood of Jesus Christ and placed under the permanent action of the Holy Spirit. One’s neighbor must therefore be loved, even if an enemy, with the same love with which the Lord loves him or her; and for that person’s sake one must be ready for sacrifice, even the ultimate one: to lay down one’s life for the brethren (cf., 1 Jn 3:16).” (On Social Concern, #40) Pope Saint John Paul II also stated: “Now is the time for a new ‘creativity’ in charity, not only by ensuring that help is effective but also by ‘getting close’ to those who suffer, so that the hand that helps is seen not as a humiliating handout but as a sharing between brothers and sisters.” (Novo Millennio Ineunte, # 50) Vincentians strive to practice solidarity by “getting close” to those they serve in their person-to-person, hands-on acts of charity, especially through home visits. This has been the Vincentian tradition since the foundation of the Society. Charity and Justice “I give you a new commandment: love one another. As I have loved you, so you also should love one another.” (John 13:34-35) Every work of Vincent and Frédéric promoted recognition of and respect for the dignity of the poor (Rule: Part I, Articles 7.1-7.9). Vincent and Frédéric cherished the virtues of charity and justice in their ministry, because they knew that the poor are sacraments of Christ, outward signs of his presence. Vincent said: “There is no charity that is not accompanied by justice, nor does it permit us to do more than we reasonably can.” Blessed Frédéric said: “The order of society is based on two virtues: justice and charity. However, justice presupposes a lot of love already, for one needs to love a person a great deal in order to respect his rights that infringe on our rights, and his freedom that infringes on our freedom. Justice has its limits, whereas charity knows none.” At Frédéric’s beatification ceremony on August 22, 1997, Pope Saint John Paul II told the world: “Blessed Frédéric observed the real situation of the poor and sought to be more and more effective in helping them in their human development. He understood that charity must lead to efforts to remedy injustice. Charity and justice go together. He had the clear-sighted courage to seek a front-line social and political commitment in a troubled time in the life of his country, for no society can accept indigence as if it were simply a fatality without damaging its honor. So it is that we can see him a precursor of the social doctrine of the Church which Pope Leo XIII would develop some years later in the encyclical Rerum Novarum.” Like Frédéric, Vincentians know that the love of Christ impels us to the poor, whose rights demand our response. The poor have the right to daily bread: Vincentians organize dining facilities. We collect food and distribute necessary provisions for the needy and their families. The poor have the right to health: Vincentians organize pharmacies and transport the sick poor to hospitals, clinics, and other medical facilities. The poor have the right to dignity and hope: Vincentians practice solidarity through domestic and international Twinning. We help the victims of disasters and provide reverential burial when needed. The poor in prison have the right to respect: Vincentians visit the incarcerated to bring them hope, solace, and support; we help the families of inmates as well. The poor have the right to shelter: Vincentians welcome strangers and the homeless, and provide temporary shelter. We build and administer housing, providing furnishings and household items. The poor have the right to care in their old age: Vincentians pay special attention to the elderly, particularly the lonely and shut-ins. We visit and help persons confined to nursing homes, as well as those who live on their own. The poor have the right to work: Vincentians help the unemployed find jobs and offer job training in fields such as computer programming. We tutor them in how to interview and apply for positions, and provide them appropriate clothing. The poor have the right to education: Vincentians provide adults and children with tuition and supplemental funding. We provide students with necessary textbooks, school materials, and uniforms. • You Will Not Be Judged “Be merciful, just as also your Father is merciful. Stop judging and you will not be judged. Stop condemning and you will not be condemned. Forgive and you will be forgiven.” (Luke 6:32-37) St. Vincent advised: “Deal with neighbors in a gentle, humble, and loving manner, even with the most hardened of sinners, and never employ a vehement accusation or reproaches or harsh language toward anyone whomsoever.” In August 1851, Jean-Jacques Ampère, Blessed Frederic’s closest friend, persuaded him and his wife, Amélie, to take a vacation. They were to see the Great Exhibition at the famous Crystal Palace in Hyde Park, London. But Frédéric was not as impressed with the exhibits as he was visibly shocked by the poverty of the poor Irish immigrants who lived in dilapidated tenement houses surrounding the great hall. Frédéric had seen terrible poverty in his lifetime but this wrenched his heart. Instead of spending all of his time visiting the Great Exhibition and taking in the sights, Frédéric visited the poor Irish with the assistance of the English Vincentians. Frédéric was inspired by these Vincentians. As he recounted in a letter to his brother Charles the English Vincentians needed a lot of virtue and courage to personally help, or even to shake the hands of the shockingly poor, because, in aristocratic England, contact with the poor was thought to “dirty” and compromise a person. Yet our members of the Society of St. Vincent de Paul conquered their prejudices. They did much good, and Frédéric considered it a joy to have spent the night in the midst of them. Vincentians transcend racial and national prejudices. We judge women and men strictly on their need, not on their color, nationality, education, or morality. We treat each person with the dignity that belongs to a human being. That dignity demands, at the very least, that we never judge another person to be useless, unnecessary, or totally bad. To judge and act that way is unjust. Vincentians are nonjudgmental. A nonjudgmental attitude excludes assigning guilt or responsibility for a person’s needs or problems. Vincentians must and do make assessments of the facts, not to determine moral worth but to discern strengths and weaknesses. The people we serve will not reveal their true selves or deeper needs to someone prone to criticize them. When uncertain about the truthfulness of a story, Vincentians give the person telling it the benefit of the doubt. We do not reward deception, but try, by getting to know the person better, to get to the real problems beneath the surface. • Prayer “This is how you are to pray: Our Father in heaven, hallowed be your name, your kingdom come, your will be done…” (Matt. 6:9-13) Blessed Frédéric Ozanam was a man of prayer. He understood it as the lifeline and foundation for who he was and what he did. Prayer nourished his life and ministry. After Frederic’s death, his wife, Amélie, said of him: “I never saw him wake up or fall asleep without making the sign of the cross and praying. In the morning he read the Bible, in Greek, on which he meditated about half an hour. In the last years of his life, he went to Mass every day for his support and consolation. He never did anything serious without praying. Before leaving for his classes, he always got on his knees to ask God for the grace of saying nothing which would attract public praise to himself, but of only speaking for the glory of God and the service of the truth.” St. Vincent said: “Give me a man of prayer, and he will be able to do all things; he can say with the Apostle, ‘I can do all things in him who strengthens me.’” For Vincent, prayer flows from and leads to action. Separated from ministry, prayer can turn escapist and create illusions of holiness. Separated from prayer, ministry can become superficial and compulsive. The Eucharist plays a major role in Vincentian spirituality. This is seen in the lives of St. Vincent de Paul and Blessed Frédéric Ozanam. St. Vincent spent one hour each morning before the Blessed Sacrament before celebrating Mass. Vincent visited the Blessed Sacrament before and after his meals, and he would frequently make short visits to the chapel before leaving and upon returning from his responsibilities. Blessed Frédéric received his First Communion on May 11, 1826 in the Church of Saint-Pierre, Lyon, France; he was thirteen years old. For the rest of his life, Frédéric considered that day a milestone in his spiritual development. From his teens, Frédéric attended Mass daily whenever possible and received Holy Communion frequently – an unusual practice for that time. Not a day went by when Frédéric would not make a short visit to the Blessed Sacrament in one of the churches in Paris as he made his way to an appointment. Both Vincent and Frédéric discovered what the Church teaches today: the Eucharist is the source and summit of the Christian life. It augmented their union with Jesus, strengthened their charity, and committed them to the poor. - Trust in Providence “So do not worry about tomorrow; tomorrow will take care of itself.” (Matthew 6:25-34) One of the primary characteristics of Vincentian spirituality is belief in and reliance on Divine Providence. For Vincent, nothing — absolutely nothing — in life happened by chance. He found the providence of God in all events and in the people who touched his life. Frédéric saw God’s plan operative everywhere. He trusted that God was providing for him, always acting in his life and in the lives of others. To Amélie, he wrote: “Providence led you into my path, and I offered you the sharing of a life poor, for long and perhaps ever obscure, but sanctified, ennobled by the cultivation of all that is beautiful; I offered you solitude far from all belonging to you, but with the tenderness of a heart which had never belonged to anyone but you.” (Letter, #515) Blessed Frédéric advised a friend: “Let us walk simply in the path where a merciful Providence leads us, content to see the stone wherever we are to place our foot, without desiring to see the length or the windings of the way.” (Baunard, p. 131) - The Sacrament of Marriage “For where two or three are gathered together in my name, there am I in the midst of them.” (Matthew 18:19-20) The sacrament of marriage was a powerful means of holiness for Frédéric and Amélie Ozanam, as it is and has been for countless Vincentians. Years before his own wedding, Frédéric displayed his in-depth understanding of the sacrament in a letter to a friend about to be married: “When two or three are gathered together in my name,” says the Savior, “there am I in the midst of them.” It is in that divine name that you will prepare to unite yourself to a wise and pious wife: the promise will be accomplished in you both…. Love possesses something of the divine nature, which gives itself without diminishing, which shares itself without division, which multiplies itself, which is present in many places at once, and whose intensity is increased in the measure that it gains in extension. In your wife you will first love God, whose admirable and precious work she is, and then humanity…. You will draw comfort from her tenderness on bad days, you will find courage in her example in perilous times, you will be her guardian angel, she will be yours…. You will never be alone again, your virtue will be shared in legitimate hope, the alliance you are about to contract will be an immortal alliance: what God joins together, what he has insisted no man separate, he will not himself separate, and in heaven he will invest with the same glory those who here below were companions in the same exile. (Letter, # 107) 3.4 DEVOTION TO MARY “O Mary, conceived without sin, pray for us who have recourse to you.” For Vincentians, authentic Marian spirituality must be nourished from a personal and genuine encounter with Mary in the Gospel, in the spirit of St. Vincent and Blessed Frédéric. From the establishment of the first Confraternity of Charity at Chatillon-les-Dombes in 1617, Vincent de Paul proposed Mary as the patroness and protector of the work. Vincent suggested Mary as “model”: being obedient to the will of God, modest, discreet, without sin, humble, perfect, full of grace, poor, persevering, and servant of the Lord. Vincent focused his attention on three events, three mysteries in Mary’s life: • The Immaculate Conception Vincent taught that we must welcome God, be filled with God, clothe ourselves with Christ, and be self-emptying, as Mary the Immaculate one. • The Annunciation Vincent knew that humility prepared and sustained Mary’s offering to God. Mary recognized God as the only Lord and she knew her smallness before God. Like Mary we must give ourselves to God to serve our neighbor, in order to accomplish God’s work. • The Visitation Vincent offered Mary’s generosity and compassion in her visit to her cousin Elizabeth as our model of service to the poor. Frédéric Ozanam had a strong devotion to the Blessed Virgin Mary, from his youth to his death. He had visited some of the popular Marian shrines in France, Italy, and Spain. He wrote of his spiritual experiences at the shrines of Burgos, Spain and Buglose, France. One of Frédéric's strongest Marian devotions was to Notre Dame de Fourviere in Lyon, France, where he dedicated his youth to God. By Divine Providence, the special day at Fourviere is September 8th, the feast of the Birthday of Mary. Civic leaders and citizens gather annually at the shrine to thank Mary for her intercession in sparing their city from cholera in the 19th century. As the Lyonnais were celebrating Mary’s birthday on September 8, 1853, God took Frédéric to heaven in the city of Marseille. Notre Dame de Fourvière welcomed Frédéric home on her special feast and his special day! Frédéric insisted that the Society take Our Lady of the Immaculate Conception as its patroness. The first members of the Society chose December 8th as their special Marian feast – twenty years before the formal proclamation of the dogma in 1854 by Pope Blessed Pius IX, and a year after Frédéric’s death. To this day, Vincentians implore Our Lady of the Immaculate Conception, their patroness, to intercede for their Councils and Conferences, and their lives and ministry. Frédéric's devotion to Mary was especially influenced by the appearance of Mary to Sister Catherine Labouré, a Daughter of Charity in Paris, in 1830, and the events surrounding the "Miraculous Medal." In January 1830, Catherine entered the Daughters of Charity in Paris. As a novice, she received the grace of the vision of Our Lady of the Miraculous Medal in the Chapel of the Motherhouse: The First Apparition The story begins on the night of July 18, 1830: A child (her guardian angel) awakened Sister Catherine Labouré, a novice in the community of the Daughters of Charity in Paris, and summoned her to the chapel. There she met with the Virgin Mary and spoke with her for several hours. During the conversation, Mary said to her, “My child, I am going to give you a mission.” The Second Apparition On November 27, 1830, during the evening meditation in the Chapel, Mary once again appeared to Sister Catherine and gave her this mission. First, she saw Mary standing on half a globe, holding a golden globe in her hands as an offering to heaven. On the globe in her hand was the word “France.” Our Lady explained that the globe represented the whole world, but especially France. Times were difficult in France then, particularly for the poor and unemployed, who were often refugees from war. France was first to experience many of the troubles that ultimately reached the rest of the world and remain even today. The Third Apparition The vision then changed to show our Lady with arms outstretched with dazzling rays of light still streaming from gems on the rings on Mary’s fingers. Mary explained that the rays symbolize the graces she obtains for those who request them. Some of the gems on the rings were dark, however. Rays and graces did not emanate from these stones, Mary explained, because no one had asked for them. Framing the figure was this inscription: O Mary, conceived without sin, pray for us who have recourse to thee. The Meaning of the Front Side of the Medal: Mary is standing on a globe, crushing the head of a serpent beneath her foot. She stands upon the globe as the Queen of heaven and earth. Her feet crush the serpent to proclaim Satan and all his followers are helpless before her (Gn. 3:15). The year of 1830 is the year the Blessed Mother gave the design of the medal to St. Catherine Labouré. The prayer to Mary “conceived without sin” supports the dogma of the Immaculate Conception and affirms Mary’s sinlessness, “full of grace” and “blessed among women” (Luke 1:28). The dogma was proclaimed 24 years later in 1854. The Meaning of the Back Side of the Medal: The vision turned and showed the design of the reverse side of the medal. Twelve stars encircle a large “M,” from which a cross rises. Below are two hearts with flames arising from them: one encircled in thorns, the other pierced by a sword. The twelve stars can refer to the Apostles, who represent the entire Church as it surrounds Mary. They also recall the vision of St. John, writer of the Book of Revelation(12:1), in which “a great sign appeared in heaven, a woman clothed with the sun, and the moon under her feet, and on her head a crown of 12 stars.” The cross symbolizes Christ and our redemption, with the bar under the cross a sign of the earth. The “M” stands for Mary, and the weaving of her initial with the cross shows Mary’s close involvement with Jesus and our world. In this we see Mary’s part in our salvation and her role as mother of the Church. The two hearts represent the love of Jesus and Mary for us (Lk 2:35). Then Mary spoke to Catherine: “Have a medal struck upon this model. Those who wear it will receive great graces, especially if they wear it around the neck.” Catherine explained the entire series of apparitions to her confessor, and worked through him to carry out Mary’s instructions. In 1831, Sr. Catherine was sent to serve the elderly at the Enghien Hospice in the desolate suburb northeast of Paris. She spent the next 46 years there in dedicated and compassionate care of the elderly sick and poor. Sr. Catherine did not reveal that she was the one who had received the vision of the Medal until soon before her death 47 years later. Because of this humility, she is often called the “Saint of Silence.” In 1933, when her body was exhumed for beatification 57 years after her death, it was found “as fresh as the day it was buried.” Her incorrupt body can still be seen today at the Mother House of the Daughters of Charity in Paris, in the very chapel where the Blessed Mother appeared to her. Sr. Catherine Labouré was canonized by Pope Pius XII on July 27, 1947. The Miraculous Medal With approval of the Church, the first Medals were cast in 1832 and distributed in Paris. The medal was first known as the medal of Our Lady of the Immaculate Conception. Almost immediately the blessings that Mary had promised began to shower down on those who wore her Medal. The devotion spread like wildfire. By 1835 over 2 million medals had been distributed, with miracles of grace, health, and peace given to those who prayed in faith and trust. And so, the medal soon became known as the “Miraculous” Medal. In 1836, a Canonical inquiry untaken at Paris declared the apparitions to be genuine, and over 15 million medals were dispersed throughout the world in that year alone. Indeed, there is no superstition, nothing magical, connected with the Miraculous Medal. The Miraculous Medal is not a “good-luck charm.” Rather, it is a great testimony to faith and the power of trusting prayer. God uses a Medal, not as a sacrament, but as an instrument, in bringing to pass certain marvelous results. The founding members of the Society were among the first recipients of the medal, and Frédéric carried the Miraculous Medal with him during his whole life. Because of his roots in Italy, Frédéric took a special interest in publicizing the amazing conversion of Alphonse Ratisbonne, through the intercession of Mary and the Miraculous Medal. The publication of the story helped spread devotion to the medal. The Conversion of Alphonse Ratisbonne Alphonse Ratisbonne was a Jewish man known for his disdain of Christianity, but he had a good Catholic friend with whom he would discuss issues relating to Catholicism. One day Alphonse and his friend agreed to an “experiment.” Alphonse would wear the Miraculous Medal and pray the Memorare to Our Lady for one week. Believing that nothing would happen, Alphonse accepted the challenge. On January 20, 1842, Alphonse went inside the church of Sant’ Andrea delle Fratte in Rome to wait for his friend, who was attending a funeral there. Alphonse himself described what happened: When I traversed the Church, I arrived at the spot where they were getting ready for the funeral. Suddenly I felt interiorly disturbed, and saw in front of me something like a veil. It seemed to me that the entire church had been swallowed up in shadow, except in the chapel. It was as though all the light was concentrated in that single place. I looked over towards this chapel whence so much light shone, and above the altar was a living figure, tall, majestic, beautiful, and full of mercy. It was the most holy Virgin Mary, resembling her figure on the Miraculous Medal. At this sight I fell on my knees right where I stood. Unable to look up because of the blinding light, I fixed my glance on her hands, and in them I could read the expression of mercy and pardon. In the presence of the Most Blessed Virgin, even though she did not speak a word to me, I understood the frightful situation I was in, my sins and the beauty of the Catholic faith. Alphonse Ratisbonne was baptized in 1842, and ordained a priest in 1847. The Feast of Our Lady of the Miraculous Medal is celebrated on November 27th, and the Feast of St. Catherine Labouré on November 28th. 3.5 VINCENTIAN PRAYERS Canonization Prayer for Blessed Frédéric O God, Who put the love of the poor into the hearts of Frédéric Ozanam and his companions, and inspired them to found a Society for the relief of the spiritual and corporal miseries of those in want, bless this work of charity and zeal, and should it be in accordance with Your designs that Your pious servant Blessed Frédéric Ozanam should be glorified by the Church, we beseech You to manifest by heavenly favors the power he enjoys in Your sight. Through Jesus Christ, Our Lord. Amen. Prayer for the Seriously Ill and the Cause of Ozanam O God, our Father, You alone have the power to bestow those precious gifts of Yours which we rightly call miracles. If it be Your Will, be pleased to grant such a gift in behalf of those persons for whom the prayers of the Society have been requested and for: ____________________________ (Enter name of seriously ill person for whom you seek divine help.) We humbly ask that You grant this favor to glorify the Blessed Frédéric Ozanam that it may serve to have him canonized by Our Holy Mother the Church. We make this prayer through Our Lord Jesus Christ, Your Son. Amen. Act of Consecration to the Sacred Heart Lord Jesus, Who, seeing the cold indifference of the world and in order to revive charity amongst all people, has unveiled before them Your Sacred Heart and revealed the infinite riches of Your Divine Love, behold us prostrate before You, we who form only one Family, by the bond of fraternal charity, scattered, it is true, throughout the world, but united under the standard of St. Vincent de Paul, and forming only one body and one soul in the common spirit of the apostolate of charity; we dedicate and consecrate to Your Divine Person and to Your Sacred Heart this our Council (or Conference), and all the members who compose it, the poor whom we visit in Your name, the youth and children to whom we respond in order to maintain them in Your service; in a word, all those of whom we have the care, and all the works we have undertaken in various places for Your Glory. Quite unworthy though we are, we beseech You to receive this offering in the odor of sweetness; inflame us with that fire which from the depths of Your Heart You desire to see burning more and more each day, in order that, filled with the tenderness of Your Heart, we may learn to despise things here below, to love and help our neighbor, by word and example, and that, among the vicissitudes of this world, we may fix our hearts on the riches and happiness that shall never end. Amen. (This act of consecration is to be renewed annually by all units of the Society.) Opening Prayer for Society Meetings: L: In the Name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit. All: Amen. L: Come, Holy Spirit, live within our lives. All: And strengthen us by Your Love. L: Send forth your spirit and new life will be created. All: And the whole face of the earth will be renewed. All: Our Father, Who art in heaven... Hail Mary, full of grace... L: Let us reflect on the words of Our Lord Jesus Christ, recalling His unity and presence among us: “Where two or three are gathered together in my Name, there am I in the midst of them.” (Silence) All: Lord Jesus, deepen our Vincentian spirit of friendship during this meeting and make us responsive to the Christian calling to seek and find the forgotten, the suffering, or the deprived so that we may bring them your love. Help us to be generous with our time, our possessions, and ourselves in this mission of charity. Perfect in us your love and teach us to share more fully in the Eucharistic Sacrifice offered for all. L: Most Sacred Heart of Jesus, All: Have mercy on us. L: Immaculate Heart of Mary, All: Pray for us. L: St. Vincent de Paul, All: Pray for us. L: St. Louise de Marillac, All: Pray for us. L: Blessed Frédéric Ozanam, All: Pray for us. L: Blessed Rosalie Rendu, All: Pray for us. Closing Prayer for Society meetings: All: Father, grant that we who are nourished by the Body and Blood of Christ in the Holy Eucharist may realize the depth of our needs, respond more spontaneously to the suffering of others, and come to love You more deeply by service to our neighbor. Grant us also the wisdom and strength to persevere when disappointed or distressed. May we never claim that the fruitfulness of our apostolate springs from ourselves alone. United in prayer and action, may we become a visible sign of Christ and may we give witness to His boundless love, which reaches out to all and draws them to love one another in Him. We thank You, Lord, for the many blessings which we receive from those whom we visit. Help us to love and respect them, to understand their deeper needs, and to share their burdens and joys as true friends in Christ. L: That the Cause for the Canonization of Frédéric Ozanam, who excelled in the virtue of Christian love, be advanced. All: Lord, hear us. L: That our departed friends and relatives, our Vincentian Brothers and Sisters, and those whom we have served, be welcomed into your Kingdom and joined in love. All: Lord, hear us. L: In the Name of the Father, and the Son, and of the Holy Spirit. All: Amen. 4.1 SAINT VINCENT DE PAUL (1581-1660) Vincent de Paul is the patron of the Society that bears his name. In 1885, Pope Leo XIII named Vincent patron of all works of charity, and therefore he is also known as the “Apostle of Charity” and the “Father of the Poor.” Beginnings Vincent de Paul was born April 24, 1581 in Pouy, a village of southwest France near the historic city of Dax, in the Landes district of Gascony, not far from the Pyrenees and the northern border of Spain. His birthplace is now known as the village of “Saint Vincent de Paul.” Vincent was the third child of Jean de Paul and Bertrande de Moras, a peasant couple with six children: four boys and two girls. The de Pauls owned their own farm, but lived simply without many comforts. As a youngster, Vincent worked the fields and shepherded the animals. Shepherds in that area used stilts to move about the marshy land. Vincent never lost his love for the simplicity of country life. His mother’s character and femininity influenced Vincent greatly. As a child, he saw in her face the sacredness of love. From her, he received inspiration to ground his future work in a radical and passionate love for the poor. Priesthood Recognizing his son’s intellectual talents and pleasing personality, and the limited opportunity in their village, Jean de Paul in 1595 enrolled Vincent in a Franciscan boarding school at nearby Dax with the expectation that Vincent would become a priest. To rural people without much hope of advancement, the priesthood was a plausible path to prosperity. In Dax, a lawyer named Comet took an interest in Vincent and hired him to tutor his children, and thus the education of youth became an important part of Vincent’s mission. Vincent registered at the University of Toulouse. To provide his son’s tuition, Mr. de Paul sold a pair of oxen. In 1596, Vincent took the first steps to priesthood: Tonsure and Minor Orders. He was ordained on September 23, 1600, by the old bishop of Perigueux, France. Vincent was scarcely 19 years old, and still a student at Toulouse. As an ordained priest, Vincent was now in a position to seek a benefice, an ecclesiastical post to which property or a fixed income was attached. He continued his studies, accepting boarding students at his residence to make enough money for his expenses. While tutoring, Vincent pursued a degree in theology, which he received on October 12, 1604. About this time, he inherited a good sum of money. Things were going well. Settling in Paris, Vincent secured lodging at the royal court with the chaplains of Queen Marguerite, a connection that failed to benefit him financially. Still looking for a golden benefice, he wrote his mother that he remained hopeful of providing for her and the family with a fixed income. Vincent then suffered a dark night of the soul. After a time, he promised that if God would take away this darkness he would dedicate his life to the service of the poor. Instantly, the anguish left him. It never returned, and Vincent faithfully fulfilled his vow to the poor till the day he died! Vincent the Parish Priest Father Pierre de Berulle, famous founder of the French School of Spirituality, became Vincent’s spiritual director. De Berulle got Vincent a pastorate at Clichy, outside of Paris. For the first time in the twelve years since ordination, he was able to function as a priest. He took over the parish on May 12, 1612 and was never happier. Again, Vincent took in some boarders, aspirants to the priesthood, one of whom would become his right-hand man when he started his own community of priests and brothers. Vincent was now 32 years old and in the prime of life, but he was still searching for something. Vincent left the parish of Clichy to assume responsibility for the education and formation of the son of one of the most prestigious families in Europe, the de Gondis. Count Philippe-Emmanuel de Gondi was the general of the royal galleys. His wife, Madame Francoise-Marguerite, was a woman of nobility in her own right. She chose Vincent for her spiritual director. Madame de Gondi invited Vincent to accompany her on trips around her vast properties in order to minister to the poor on their lands. During one such journey to the village of Folleville in 1617, Vincent’s vow of service to the poor was reinforced when he heard the confession of a dying man. The man told Madame de Gondi that he would have been damned if it had not been for Vincent. At Madame de Gondi’s insistence, Vincent drew up a program for the sacrament of reconciliation with a particular focus on the general confession of one’s life. On January 25, 1617, he spoke on the subject to the people of Folleville. Assisted by several priests, he conducted the parish mission and, in the process, discovered his own mission. His spiritual director, Pierre de Berulle, supported Vincent’s wish to leave the de Gondis and suggested that he take over a parish near Lyon, Châtillon-les-Dombes, where he was installed on August 1, 1617. Here Vincent founded the Confraternity of Charity, later called “The Ladies of Charity,” gathering the women of the parish into a group to serve the sick and the poor. Vincent himself wrote their first Rule, which was approved by the Vicar General of Lyon on November 24, 1617. The Confraternity of Charity was formally established on December 8th, the Feast of the Immaculate Conception. Vincent’s vision and vocation were now transformed and he had surrendered his life to God in service to the poor. Man with a Mission In faith Vincent followed Divine Providence “step by step.” But the de Gondis wanted Vincent back, and his spiritual director requested that he return to Paris. Ever obedient, Vincent complied. Vincent secured a new spiritual director, André Duval, a professor at the Sorbonne in Paris. He was becoming more engaged in the service of the poor and felt the need to establish institutions to achieve his mission, which he now saw as the continuation of Jesus’ own! Vincent met Francis de Sales and a solid friendship developed. De Sales asked Vincent to become the spiritual father of his Visitation Nuns. Vincent also became spiritual director of the future saint Jane Frances de Chantal, the co-founder of the Visitation. After Francis de Sales’ death in 1622, Vincent continued these roles for many years. Philippe-Emmanuel de Gondi entrusted the prison inmates and galley slaves to Vincent. Louis XIII appointed him the general chaplain of the galleys on February 8, 1619. Vincent quickly went to work conducting visits and missions. Vincent’s mind was clear: the poor were his lords and masters. The de Gondis endowed Vincent’s work on April 17, 1625 with a large sum of money. The Archbishop of Paris approved Vincent’s community of priests and brothers, the Congregation of the Mission (CM), also known as Vincentians, on April 24, 1626. Soon after, Vincent took the first steps for Vatican approval. The purposes of his community were to preach the Gospel to the poor country people and to educate and form good priests. Rome approved the community in 1633. Expansion of the Vincentian Ministry In 1625, in the Providence of God, Vincent was sent to serve as spiritual advisor to Louise de Marillac, a widow with a 13-year-old son. As wife, mother, and widow, Louise welcomed the grace of God into her life, allowing her fretful heart to be transformed into a courageous, generous, and compassionate one. She loved intensely, welcoming poor, hopeless, alienated, and abandoned people. In 1629, Vincent sent her to organize, direct, and animate the Confraternities of Charity and the Ladies of Charity. Louise was able to do this because she loved and hoped in God. On November 29, 1633, following the steps of Providence and under the guidance of St. Vincent de Paul, Louise de Marillac took a small group of women into her own home to form a community of total dedication: “Given to God for the Service of the Poor.” Thus were the Daughters of Charity founded. Louise trained these Sisters to read, to write, and to serve the poor in health care, social ministry, and education. Above all, she rooted the Daughters of Charity in the Vincentian spirituality of finding Jesus in the poor and the poor in Jesus, teaching them to be contemplatives in action. She taught the Sisters to serve the poor “with respect, mildness, cordiality, and compassion.” As a priest, Vincent was able to motivate many 17th century women to give their talents and skills in service to the Church, especially for the poor and abandoned. “For the last 800 years or so,” he observed to the Ladies of Charity, “women have had no public employment in the Church … your sex was deprived of all such employment … now observe how … Providence turns to some of you today to supply all that the sick poor … stand in need of.” Each year more than 300 children were left on the streets of Paris, many of them sold for a pittance to beggars and deformed by them to further their schemes. In 1638, Vincent built houses to care for these abused and neglected street children, and Louise formed the Daughters of Charity to serve and love these poor orphans. All these charitable works brought Vincent into the limelight. People of power paid attention to him; politicians sought him out for advice. Bishops and priests came to him for education and formation. Vincent capitalized on his encounters with the powerful to plead for the poor. Louis XIII asked Vincent for a list of those priests that he judged to be the best candidates for the episcopacy. When the Council of Conscience was formed in June 1643, the 62-year-old Vincent was included, at the insistence of Queen Anne of Austria. Vincent’s ministry kept growing, as did his organizations. His followers buried the dead, cared for refugees and orphans, took care of the sick in their homes and in the hospital, and opened schools for poor children. The number of beggars increased to more than 100,000 in the city of Paris. In two districts alone, nearly 24,000 families lived in squalor. A hundred persons died daily at Hotel Dieu hospital in Paris. More than 10,000 deaths per month were reported citywide. Vincent, now 72 years old, met the escalating needs as best he could, always refining his charitable methods and keeping everyone informed by issuing reports on his activities. Vincent organized collections, using wagons to gather donations from merchants. Each week, his followers distributed clothing and thousands of pounds of food in numerous neighborhoods, using rectories as warehouses and distribution centers. Sickness confined Vincent to his room in July 1660. Nevertheless, he struggled on with his work. His dream, his prayer, was to die not in bed but in battle, fighting for the poor. Early on the morning of September 27, 1660, just days after celebrating 60 years as a priest, Vincent died in his chair. He went home, joining the Eternal Priest, Jesus Christ. The process of Vincent’s beatification officially began in 1705; the ceremonies were conducted in Rome on August 21, 1729. Vincent de Paul was canonized by Pope Clement XII on June 16, 1737. St. Vincent’s Feast Day is celebrated on September 27th. ### 4.2 SAINT LOUISE DE MARILLAC (1591-1660) Vincentian spirituality and charism are rooted in the collaboration, mutuality, and friendship of Vincent de Paul and Louise de Marillac. Louise de Marillac was a wife, mother, widow, teacher, nurse, social worker, and founder. She was an organizer, a radical thinker who lived her life intensely and enthusiastically. Louise was a woman with a deep faith in divine providence and her quest in life was to do the will of God. She knew suffering, but she also knew love. Through this suffering and love, she became a mystic in action. #### The Beginning Louise was born on August 12, 1591, when her father, Louis de Marillac, was a thirty-five-year-old widower. The true identity of her mother remains unknown; most likely, Louise was born out of wedlock and was, in the eyes of the law, illegitimate. Her mother was probably a servant in the de Marillac household, prohibited by social custom from marrying. As an infant, Louise was placed in a Dominican convent-school at Poissy and was never to know the love and security of belonging to a family. But her father genuinely loved Louise and would often visit her. At Poissy, Louise received a solid education in philosophy, theology, Latin, Greek, and literature. She was also immersed in Dominican and mystical spirituality and prayer. When Louise was twelve years old, her father died and she lost the one person who loved her and to whom she belonged. At this time, she was removed from the convent school at Poissy and placed in a boarding school in Paris, where she received a practical education that included cooking, housekeeping, and sewing. Life was completely different for Louise now. The religious renewal then occurring in France awakened in Louise a desire to consecrate herself to God. At the age of twenty, she asked permission to enter the cloistered community of the Daughters of the Passion. Afraid that Louise’s precarious health would not allow her to endure the austerity of the rule, the superior of the Capuchins refused her request with these prophetic words: “God has other designs on you.” Marriage On February 5, 1613, Louise married Antoine LeGras, a secretary to the queen, Marie de Medici. Because Louise was illegitimate, the de Marillac family refused to arrange her marriage to someone in the nobility. As Antoine was of the middle class, Louise became Mademoiselle LeGras, instead of Madame. Louise was twenty-two, Antoine thirty-two. Although their marriage had been arranged, as was the custom of the day, true love grew between them. With Antoine, Louise found the joy and warmth of a family home, which was brightened by the birth of a son, Michel Antoine. Louise loved Michel, through whose infancy she came to know the profound joys of motherhood. Born prematurely, Michel had difficulty developing, and learned slowly. Louise worried about him constantly. Seven years after their marriage, Antoine’s health began to deteriorate, probably due to tuberculosis. He became despondent and angry. Louise loved and cared for her husband, but feared that she was to blame for all of his distress. At a time when divine justice was a major spiritual theme, Louise turned to anxious introspection, became obsessed with her distress, and entered a dark night of the soul. On Pentecost Sunday, May 5, 1623 she received a “Light” of the Holy Spirit that brought her great peace: “My mind was instantly freed of all doubt. I was advised that a time would come when I would be in a position to make vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience and that I would be in a small community where others would do the same. I then understood that I would be in a place where I could help my neighbor, but I did not understand how this would be possible, since there was to be much coming and going.” Because all communities of religious women lived in cloisters at this time, Louise did not understand how women with vows could be serving the poor “coming and going” in the streets of Paris. For more than two years after her “Light of Pentecost,” Louise remained constantly at the side of her dying husband. With a heavy heart, she buried him on December 21, 1625. Grief, loneliness, and feelings of abandonment nearly overwhelmed Louise. She faced her future in fear, deeply worried about how she was to raise Michel, her twelve-year-old son, alone. At this time, in the Providence of God, Vincent de Paul was sent to Louise to become her spiritual director. In the beginning, Vincent and Louise had scant appreciation for each other, but both strove to be obedient to God’s apparent will. In time, Vincent indeed became the guide and mentor of Louise. Ten years her senior, he had made the journey of faith, been tried by many fires, and had his heart burned clean. Vincent listened to Louise and understood her suffering. As he grew to know her, he discovered how much the rejections of her early life and the death of her husband had scarred her. He also discovered in her a great desire to know and to accomplish the will of God. As they became friends, Vincent taught Louise how to trust in God and in herself. Their friendship would revolutionize the religious life of the Catholic Church and its ministry to the poor. Vincent described to Louise his work among poor people, telling her about the Confraternities of Charity that he had begun in 1617. One principle guided the work of these charities: The poor are Jesus Christ. Vincent insisted that the personal service given to them be compassionate, gentle, respectful, devoted, and heartfelt. These Confraternities of Charity were composed of women in country parishes easing the misery of the sick poor in their homes. Vincent had also organized the Ladies of Charity, a group of wealthy women in Paris, to serve the poor. These women of the nobility contributed generously of their time and money, but would often send their servants to perform the menial tasks. Louise gradually immersed herself in the work of the Confraternities and the Ladies of Charity. She guided, organized, and animated the Confraternities and rooted the members in the spirituality of their service. Vincent relied heavily on her spirituality, judgment, and organizational ability. Little by little, Louise gained confidence in God and in herself. Her mystic journey continued, and love for God burned quietly in her soul. Deep down, a healing process began to mend her shattered heart, restore her faith, and unlock the creative potential hidden within her. As God led Louise to the poor, charity burned in her heart so that she found and treasured Christ in the broken hearts, spirits, and bodies of the destitute people she served. The Daughters of Charity In 1630, while Vincent was preaching a mission, a woman named Marguerite Naseau came to him and asked to help serve the poor. Marguerite was a peasant woman, thirty-two years old, who had taught herself how to read and then gone about the countryside teaching young girls. Sent by Vincent to Louise, she began to work with the Ladies of Charity in Paris. Her example was contagious; soon other young women came to work with Louise, wanting to serve the poor. Louise knew that these young women required a strong formation, rooted in prayer, to persevere in their service. She also believed that they would find God in the poor and the poor in God by faith alone. And she recognized that they would need mutual support and encouragement, a community to belong to, so that they could dedicate themselves to the service of poor, abandoned, orphaned, sick, and illiterate people. On November 29, 1633, after years of praying and discerning with Vincent, Louise welcomed into her home several young women who expressed their love of God and a desire to live in community to serve the poor. In the providence of God, the Company of the Daughters of Charity was born. Louise began to see her “Light of Pentecost” become a reality as Vincent explained the vocation of the Daughter of Charity: “You will have for a convent the houses of the sick; for a cell a hired room; for a chapel your parish church; for cloister the streets of the city; for enclosure, obedience … for a grille, the fear of God; for veil, holy modesty; making no other form of profession to assure your vocation than the continual confidence you have in divine providence and the offering you make to God of all that you are and your service in the person of the poor.” The mission of her Daughters of Charity was to the sick poor in their homes, to foundlings (orphans), to the sick in hospitals, to young children in schools, to prisoners, to the mentally ill, and to the elderly. As their collaboration increased, Louise and Vincent discovered and developed their complementarity, combining daring initiative with prudent planning and constancy. Vincent provided the original vision of service to the poor, a vision shaped by the love of Jesus Christ. Louise helped transform that vision into reality. Finally, in 1650, Louise found peace with her son, Michel, when he married and settled down. She then enjoyed the happiness of grandmotherhood when Louise-Renee was born. Louise died on March 15, 1660. Her final words to her Daughters echoes down through the centuries: “Take good care of the poor.” Her motto for them still resonates: “The Charity of Christ crucified urges us.” Louise knew it was the love of Christ that urged her, and her Daughters, to go to the poor, the sick, the oppressed, the downtrodden, the imprisoned, the uneducated, and the underprivileged. The Daughters of Charity continue her legacy of charity, by serving wherever poor people need their help. Louise de Marillac was beatified by Pope Benedict XV on May 9, 1920 and canonized by Pope Pius XI on March 11, 1934. Pope John XXIII named Louise the Patron of all Christian Social Workers on February. 10, 1960. St. Louise’s Feast Day is celebrated on May 9th. Recognized as the prime founder of the Society of St. Vincent de Paul, Blessed Frédéric was that rare individual who exhibits both intellectual genius and extraordinary holiness. Husband and father, professor and researcher, journalist and author, apologist and defender of the faith, he was, above all, a Good Samaritan. Beginnings Antoine Frédéric Ozanam was born on April 23, 1813 in Milan, Italy, to which his father and mother had temporarily relocated. From the region of Lyon, France, Jean Antoine François Ozanam and Marie Nantas were devout Catholics who handed on to Frédéric from his childhood a deep love of God and the poor. They taught him to seek Christ in those who bore the burden of human suffering and social injustice. Frédéric enjoyed a happy childhood. Not surprisingly, however, his first contact with philosophy challenged his sharp intelligence and filled him with uncertainty. At the height of this crisis of faith, Frédéric promised that if God took away the darkness he would give his life to the service of truth. Instantly, his doubts against faith ended. Frédéric fulfilled his vow faithfully until the day he died. His mentor, Fr. Joseph Mathias Noirot, later helped Frédéric in the explication of philosophy, strengthening him in the faith he so loved. City of Paris When Frédéric graduated from secondary school at the Royal College of Lyon, he moved to Paris to study law, as his father wished. There, he was confronted with a society in deep turmoil. The French Revolution had left its ugly, lasting mark. At first, Paris displeased Frédéric. He wrote on December 18, 1831 that there was no life, no faith, no love to be found in the city. Frédéric perceived Paris as a dead body to which he, a youth full of energy, was tied. Its coldness chilled him, and its corruption was killing him! In God’s Providence, Frédéric met the famous Andre-Marie Ampère, who would become a second father to him. Ampère opened his heart and hearth to Frédéric, helping him to overcome loneliness and homesickness. He began to see Paris in a different light, coming to an unshakable certitude: Christianity is the only remedy to heal the evils of today’s society; its scientific and historical truth must be demonstrated. While in Lyon, before he had reached his 18th birthday, Frédéric had begun work on a vast tome entitled: Demonstration of Truth and of the Catholic Religion by the Antiquity of Historical, Religious, and Moral Beliefs. The title would undergo various changes, but the student and, later, the professor would eventually fulfill his youthful dream! In Paris, Frédéric often worked fifteen hours a day, learning foreign languages and studying religions other than Catholicism. He gathered around him students of like mind and faith and confronted the faculty members of the Sorbonne who attacked their beliefs. Frédéric and several friends approached the Archbishop of Paris, Hyacinthe Louis de Quelen, imploring him to let Father Henri Lacordaire deliver a series of conferences in Notre Dame Cathedral. The purpose was to nourish and deepen the faith of the countless students who were hearing more falsehood than truth. Frédéric persisted until the archbishop consented. Success was overwhelming, and the “Conferences of Notre Dame” were launched! Gifted with intuition, sensitivity, and tact, Frédéric, from his childhood, was affected by the harsh, unfair conditions of the lower social classes. Nineteen years before the abolition of slavery in the French colonies and overseas territories, promulgated on April 27, 1848, the barely sixteen-year-old Frédéric vigorously denounced the inhumanity of servitude! Later, still twelve years before Karl Marx’s 1848 manifesto, Frédéric deplored the widening gulf between the powerful and the weak, prophesying against the coming clash between them. Frédéric wrote that what divides people are not political structures but social issues. These ideas were promoted in the Tribune Catholique, a newspaper founded in January 1832 by Emmanuel Bailly. To the newspaper was linked a literary circle, “The Society of Good Studies,” whose aim was to develop, among Catholics, a taste for historical, philosophical, and religious research. This society, later known as “The Conference of History,” fulfilled Frédéric’s dream of “a gathering of friends working together for the advance of learning” in the light of Christian thought. He and his companions became active members and developed it into a forum of great discussion and research. One Saturday morning, Frédéric and his friends were confronted by a fellow student advocating the ideas of the “Saint-Simonians” and found it difficult to answer his challenge: “What is your Church doing today to meet the needs of society?” Frédéric and his companions knew that they must concretize their faith in action, that they must evangelize like the apostles: not only by words, but by the constant practice of charity. Frédéric rallied them with this exhortation: “The blessing of the poor is that of God … let us go to the poor.” Birth of the Society On April 23, 1833, his twentieth birthday, Frédéric and five other students met with their mentor, Emmanuel Bailly, in the office of The Catholic Tribune. There they established the “Conference of Charity of St. Vincent de Paul,” soon to be called “The Society of St. Vincent de Paul,” and elected Bailly as their first president. Resolved to respond to Christ’s call by dedicating themselves to the poor after the example of St. Vincent de Paul, they asked Sister Rosalie Rendu, a Daughter of Charity of St. Vincent de Paul, for the names and addresses of several families in need. Sr. Rosalie, known as “The Mother of the Poor” in the Mouffetard Quarter of Paris, taught Frédéric much about the poor and how to minister to them with love and respect. The first members of the Society were determined to bring not only bread but friendship to the poor. Frédéric was beginning to make a name for himself professionally. Acquiring a doctorate in law in 1836, he assumed a barrister’s career, and then became professor of commercial law in Lyon. In 1839, he received his doctorate in literature. He came in first in the competitive examination of the Faculty of Arts and Literature at the Sorbonne. Frédéric became Assistant to Professor Claude Fauriel in 1841 and succeeded him in 1844 as Professor of Foreign Literature. The Love of His Life Frédéric met Amélie Soulacroix and the two fell in love and were married, at Saint Nizier Church in Lyon on June 23, 1841. Frederic’s brother Alphonse, the priest, witnessed the sacrament; brother Charles, the medical doctor, served. The Ozanams’ daughter, Marie, was born on July 24, 1845 and she was the apple of her father’s eye. Frédéric spent hours teaching her. His life was now devoted to family, teaching, research, writing, and various civic, social, and religious commitments. Frédéric had a passion for scholarship and published several outstanding works reflecting his reserved emotion and apostolic fire: “Thesison Dante,” “Franciscan Poets,” and “Germanic Studies.” He was also a remarkable teacher, imbued with a deep sense of duty. Rooted in faith and trust in God, this frail man, loving father, attentive husband, prodigious writer, and teacher was able to fulfill his many heavy responsibilities while being fully devoted to the Society he founded. His best friend, Jean-Jacques Ampère, painted a vibrant picture of Frédéric as a professor whose dedication to his students knew no limits. “It is rather unusual,” he emphasized, “to find at the same level the two strengths a professor should have: form and substance, knowledge and eloquence.” Hersart de Villemarque embellished Ampère’s tribute: “God alone knows the immense good that Ozanam brought through his lectures, which costs him so much wear and tear. He knew how to inspire this youthful audience, which listened to him, with determination in work, resoluteness, useful tasks, fine vocations! He was cheered passionately; he was loved even more. When he would leave the faculty, everyone rushed to have a word with him, to hear him again; they escorted him along the paths in the Luxembourg Gardens which he crossed on his way home. He was exhausted but often brought home with him the joys he prized above the most enthusiastic applause.” Although he was tough toward the intolerant, those who considered themselves the exclusive champions of truth, and did not hesitate to put such people down, Frédéric had tremendous respect for the opinions of others, even those contrary to his own. “Let us learn to stand up for our convictions without hating our opponents,” he urged, “to love those who think differently from ourselves.” Persuasion was his method for winning people over. “If anything consoles me on leaving this earth before having done what I would have liked,” he observed near the end of his life, “it is that I have never worked for men’s praise, but in the service of truth.” The Society and Social Justice Frédéric’s influence continued to expand beyond the Sorbonne. Through the Society of St. Vincent de Paul, he came into contact with the world of workers and the real sufferings of the working classes. Frédéric studied the problem with typical precision and conscientiousness. This excerpt from his correspondence of November 1836 to February 1848 reveals his mind: “I request that we take care of the people who have too many needs and not enough rights, who rightly claim a greater share in public affairs, guarantees for work and against poverty.” Frédéric was one of the first Catholics of the 19th century to formulate the idea of a “natural salary” that would provide compensation against unemployment and accidents and guarantee pensions to workers. A number of Frédéric’s ideas can be discerned in Pope Leo XIII’s 1891 encyclical Rerum Novarum. Although an intellectual, Frédéric was also a man of action. He wanted to set up a true Christian democracy in harmony with the principles of justice and charity. For this, he relied on the Society of St. Vincent de Paul. Frédéric was convinced that personal contact with and direct service to the needy were the Society’s main responsibilities, and that its ultimate objective was the spiritual, moral, and human development of each individual. The End The progression of his chronic kidney disease took its toll, forcing Frédéric to rest. In 1852, he and Amélie went to Italy, but his condition continued to deteriorate. Although he felt the attraction of eternity, the thought of leaving his loved ones cast a pall over him. In Pisa, on his fortieth birthday, April 23, 1853, four and a half months before his death, he abandoned himself to the will of God. Close to death, Frédéric insisted on returning to France. Leaving Italy, he cried out: “My God, I thank you for the sufferings and the afflictions you have sent me in this house.” On August 31, 1853, they boarded the steamship “Industrie” at the port of Livorno, landing September 2nd at Marseille, where Amelie’s relatives and members of the Society greeted them. Although terribly weak, he was happy to be back in his own country. Frédéric was too weak to go on to Paris, so Amélie and the family rented a residence. On September 8, 1853, the feast of the Birthday of the Blessed Mother, to whom he had such a great devotion, Frédéric breathed his last. His parting words were: “Oh Lord, Oh Lord, have mercy on me.” He is buried in the crypt of the Church of St. Joseph-des-Carmes at the Catholic Institute of Paris, surrounded by the young students of the university to whom he had given so much of himself. The Beatification The cause for the beatification of Frédéric Ozanam was begun on March 15, 1925, the Feast of St. Louise de Marillac, in the Archdiocese of Paris, and in Rome on January 12, 1954. By his decree of July 6, 1993, Pope Saint John Paul II proclaimed Frédéric “Venerable” on the heroicity of his virtues. Three years later, June 25, 1996, the Holy Father signed a decree recognizing the miracle obtained through the intercession of Frédéric in favor of an eighteen-month-old Brazilian boy suffering from diphtheria. The miraculously healed Fernando Luiz Benedicto Ottoni is the grandson of a Vincentian who gathered fellow Vincentians to pray for him. Pope Saint John Paul II beatified Antoine Frédéric Ozanam in Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris on Friday morning, August 22, 1997, during World Youth Day. Blessed Frédéric Ozanam’s Feast Day is celebrated on September 9th. 4.4 BLESSED ROSALIE RENDU (1786-1856) Sister Rosalie Rendu, a Daughter of Charity of St. Vincent de Paul, is recognized as a co-founder of the Society of St. Vincent de Paul. She mentored the founding members of the Society in the spirit and heritage of St. Vincent and St. Louise. Beginnings Jeanne-Marie Rendu was born in 1786 in the village of Comfort in Gex, France. She was the oldest of four girls. Her simple, faith-filled parents were small property owners who enjoyed a certain affluence and true respect throughout the area. Jeanne-Marie was three years old when France suffered first from Revolution and then from the Napoleonic Wars, which caused much oppression and upheaval in the country. From 1790 it was compulsory for the clergy to take a civil oath of support for the government. Numerous priests, faithful to the Church, refused to take this oath. Some were put to death; others hid to escape capture. With deep faith and trust in God, the Rendu family faced grave danger by becoming a refuge for these priests. Thus, the Bishop of Annecy took refuge in the Rendu household and became “Peter, the Gardener,” Jeanne-Marie’s friend. In this atmosphere of solid faith, Jeanne Marie was formed, making her first Communion one night by candlelight in the basement of her home. From childhood, Jeanne-Marie learned concern for others from her parent’s example. A Daughter of Charity Jeanne-Marie attended boarding school under the Ursulines and worked in the hospital of Gex. There in the hospital, she saw a portrait of St. Vincent de Paul and, although not quite 16, felt called to become a Daughter of Charity. On May 25, 1802, Jeanne-Marie Rendu began her life as a Daughter of Charity in Paris. After a period of formation, Jeanne Marie received the name of Sister Rosalie and was sent to the house of the Daughters of Charity in the Mouffetard district to begin her service to the poor. This area was the most impoverished district of Paris, with poverty in all its forms: psychological, emotional, physical, and spiritual. Disease, unhealthy slums, and destitution were the daily lot of the people trying to survive there. Sr. Rosalie would remain here for 45 years. The Mouffetard district was indeed one of the poorest of Paris: it had the most beggars in the streets, the most workers out of work, and the poorest lodgings; two-thirds of the population lacked firewood in the winter. Sister Rosalie untiringly cared for, fed, visited, consoled, and comforted the poor and destitute. She would often say, “There is something that is choking me and takes away my appetite … the thought that so many families lack bread,” and her feminine intuition would then suggest a solution. For the service of the poor, she dared to undertake everything with intelligence and boldness. Nothing would stop her. Every day, in all kinds of weather, Sister Rosalie crisscrossed the streets and alleyways of the Mouffetard district, her rosary in her hand and a heavy basket of bread on her arm, walking with her God. She would speak to God of the families she was going to visit, praying for the relief of their sufferings. “Never,” she observed, “have I prayed so well as in the streets.” Daily she lived the words that St. Vincent de Paul spoke to the first Daughters of Charity: “You will go and visit the poor ten times a day, and ten times a day you will find God there!” One of her Sisters affirmed the intensity of Rosalie’s prayer life, noting that “she continually lived in the presence of God. She had a difficult mission to fulfill and we were always assured of seeing her go to the chapel or finding her on her knees in her office.” Society of St. Vincent de Paul Emmanuel Bailly, the eventual president of the Society of St. Vincent de Paul, sent Frédéric Ozanam and Auguste Le Taillandier to Sr. Rosalie for guidance in their work of charity. She taught them to see Christ in his poor and to approach each with humility as Christ’s servants. To Frédéric and the founding members of the Society, Sister Rosalie said: “God has already given you spiritual wisdom, or you would not be sacrificing your precious free day to his poor. Because you see Christ in his poor, I know you will approach each one you visit with humility, as his servant. Always remember, messieurs, that if we had lived through the hardships they have had to meet — if our childhood had been one of constant want — perhaps we, too, would have given way to envy and hatred as, I must admit, have many of the poor in this quarter. Be kind, and love, for love is your first gift you give to the poor. They will appreciate your kindness and your love more than all else you can bring them.” Sr. Rosalie referred to the office where she received the poor as her “parlor.” Here she received the first members of the Society, advising them with these words: “If you wish to be loved, you must love, and if you have nothing to give, give yourself.” It was not far from the Mouffetard district to the Latin Quarter, and so young people from all the schools, aspiring to all sorts of careers, could be seen in her office — students of law, medicine, education, and engineering, coming to serve the poor. Tenderly and respectfully, Sister Rosalie would accompany them, show concern for them, support them, and create a link between them and the families they visited, asking of each one what they could give to the service of the poor: to one, their pen; to another, their service; to another, their words; and to each, a few moments of their time. Sr. Rosalie always recommended patience, mercy, and courtesy. “Love the poor, do not blame them too much … remember that the poor are even more sensitive to your behavior than to help.” She taught Frédéric and the first members of the Society how to make home visits and how to see Jesus in the poor. She gave them families to visit and advice on the Vincentian way to go to them: with respect and compassion. It can be said of Sr. Rosalie that she had the “gift of humanness.” She was close to the poor, understood them, and loved them with her heart and with her faith; therein lay her secret. Moreover, to fight against injustice and poverty, she awakened the consciences of the powerful and the affluent. She was, indeed, a friend of the poor and the rich. “There are many ways of providing charity,” she would comment; “the assistance of money or assistance in kind that we give to the poor will not last long. We must aspire to a more complete and longer lasting benefit: study their abilities, their level of education, and try to get them jobs to help them out of their difficulties.” During the Revolution of 1830, particularly the last days of July, Sr. Rosalie focused her attention on those who had suffered most from the revolt, collecting the wounded from both sides and nursing them back to health. Without any fear, she risked her life in these confrontations. Her courage commanded admiration. During the Revolution of 1848, when Archbishop Denis Auguste Affre was mortally wounded on the barricade on July 25th, Sr. Rosalie made her way through the crowds, mounted the barricade, looked into the sea of faces racked with hatred, and cried out: “Stop this shooting! Haven’t I enough widows and orphans to care for now?” Her words had the desired effect, and peace was restored. In 1852, the French government presented the Cross of the Legion of Honor to “the Mother of the Poor,” Sr. Rosalie. The destinies of Sr. Rosalie Rendu and Frédéric Ozanam mingled in the love of the poor, forging lasting bonds between the Society of St. Vincent de Paul and the Daughters of Charity. In his book Frédéric Ozanam, M.A. Hess affirms this intertwining: “It is scarcely imaginable to retrace the life and work of Frédéric Ozanam without evoking the memory of Sister Rosalie, insomuch as their collaboration was close in the service of the poor…. The providential convergence of these two destinies has marked the history of charity in the nineteenth century.” Despite fragile health, Sister Rosalie never rested, always managing to overcome fatigue and fevers. But age, empathy, and overwork eventually undermined her strong resistance and weakened her health. During her last two years of life, she suffered from increasing blindness. Sr. Rosalie died on February 7, 1856. A huge crowd of approximately 50,000 people, from every rank of society, flocked to her funeral. They came to show respect for her works and love for their “mother.” Both the well-off and the needy requested that she be buried in the cemetery of Montparnasse in Paris. The inscription on her tombstone reads: “To our good mother Rosalie, from her grateful friends, the poor and the rich.” To this day, flowers and prayers are brought to her gravesite, in an ongoing homage to this humble Daughter of St. Vincent de Paul and St. Louise de Marillac. Beatification On April 24, 2001, the Vatican recognized Sr. Rosalie’s heroic practice of virtue. The “Apostle of the Mouffetard Quarter” of Paris was given the title of Venerable. A theologian summed her up as “an outstanding woman; she was sensitive, dynamic, strong, warmhearted, tender, discreet, of good character and had a good sense of humor.” Sr. Rosalie Rendu was beatified in Rome on November 9, 2003 by Pope Saint John Paul II. All Vincentians celebrate this beautiful model of love for the poor and co-founder of the Society of St. Vincent de Paul. * Blessed Rosalie Rendu’s Feast Day is celebrated on February 7th. ### 4.5 VINCENTIAN SAINTS, BLESSEDS AND VENERABLES Vincentian spirituality works. It accomplishes its purpose: personal holiness. Vincentian spirituality depends, first and foremost, on God’s grace and, second, on cooperation with that grace. It is a practical, hands-on, person-to-person spirituality patterned after the Society’s founder, Blessed Frédéric Ozanam, and its patron, St. Vincent de Paul. Vincentian spirituality exemplifies the Good Samaritan. Since the foundation of the Society in 1833, thousands upon thousands of men and women throughout the world have become holy through the practice of Vincentian spirituality. Some of these persons have been recognized by the Church and raised to the altar. More will be so honored in the future. The Vincentian Family of St. Vincent de Paul includes a large number of saints, blesseds, and venerables, but our focus here is on those men and women who were active members in the Society of St. Vincent de Paul. Gianna Beretta was born in Magenta (Milan), Italy, on October 4, 1922, the tenth of thirteen children. She was raised in a devout family, with parents who demonstrated deep faith and a generous spirit of charity. Third Order Franciscans, her father and mother consecrated their family to the Sacred Heart of Jesus. Gianna inherited her parents’ attraction to prayer and compassion for the poor. Gianna began primary school in 1928 and secondary school in 1933. She had little interest in academics, preferring art, music, and painting. With a love for the outdoors and a lively family life, she was a happy, smiling girl, though quiet. Gianna visited the Blessed Sacrament daily and always carried a rosary with her. In 1937, the Beretta family moved so that the older children could attend the University of Genoa. Gianna became an active member of Catholic Action in her parish. In 1942, both parents died. That same year, Gianna was admitted to the School of Medicine at the University of Milan. In her fourth year, she transferred to the University of Pavia, where she obtained her degree in medicine and surgery in March 1950. During medical school, Gianna became an active member of the Society of St. Vincent de Paul. Thinking that she might have a vocation to the religious life, she made a pilgrimage to Lourdes, seeking discernment. Upon her return, she met and fell in love with Pietro Molla. Taking this as an answer to her prayers, she married Pietro on September 24, 1955; her brother Giuseppe, a priest, witnessed the marriage. Gianna successfully blended her profession, ministry, and family life. With her brother Ferdinando, also a physician, she opened a clinic in a small town of two thousand people several miles from the family home. She was especially generous to the poor, providing medicine and money for those in need. Gianna and Pietro had three children. Each pregnancy was a risk because of her fragile health. Their son, Pierluigi, was born in 1956, Maria Zita in 1957, and Laura Enrica Maria in 1959. After a number of miscarriages, Gianna again became pregnant. Toward the end of the second month of this pregnancy, she began to experience pain. Her doctor diagnosed a fibrous tumor in the ovary. Gianna knew the risk she was running, but kept the suffering to herself. On the way to the hospital on April 20, 1962, Gianna told her husband, Pietro: “If they should ask which of the two lives they should save, do not hesitate – first, the life of the child.” On April 21st, Gianna Emanuela was delivered by Caesarean section. Septic peritonitis set in and Gianna suffered greatly, but she refused powerful drugs and insisted on dying at home. On April 29th, she passed away. For three days, an endless procession of admirers passed her coffin. People spoke of her sacrifices and great compassion. The Archbishop of Milan opened the cause for her beatification in 1972 and Pope Saint John Paul II beatified her on April 24, 1994 in the presence of her husband and four children. At the ceremony, her son, Pierluigi, said: “My mother knew how to live her earthly, daily existence with simplicity, balance, and constant service, all in a beautiful harmony, first as a young student and professional person, as a woman, then as wife and mother. Her generous commitment to and involvement in Catholic Action and the Society of St. Vincent de Paul, along with her joie de vivre, was crowned with her love of piano, painting, tennis, mountain climbing, skiing, the symphony, theatre, and traveling.” St. Gianna was canonized by Pope Saint John Paul II on May 16, 2004. Called a “mother-martyr for the love of God and in obedience to his commandment,” Gianna has much to teach Vincentians. St. Richard Pampuri (1897-1930) Feast: May 1st Richard Pampuri stands as a symbol of generosity of heart. He was born Erminio Filippo Pampuri in Trivolizi, Italy on August 2, 1897, the tenth child of a well-to-do and pious family. His mother died when he was three, and Richard was sent to Torino to live with his grandfather and an aunt. His uncle, Carlo, a lover of the medical profession, instilled in him a deep love of serving the sick. In 1907, Richard’s father was killed in an accident. Richard survived the tragedy through the love and kindness of his family. Having seriously considered the foreign missions, he decided on medical school instead. His sister entered the convent, and he became a Franciscan tertiary. Richard took part in Catholic associations when anticlericalism was rampant in Italy. Drafted into the military, he served in the medical corps in World War I and was decorated for bravery. In 1918, Richard returned to his studies, graduating in medicine and surgery on July 6, 1921. He completed his internship the next year and in 1923 registered at Pavia University as a general practitioner and surgeon. As a student, Richard became very active in the Society of St. Vincent de Paul and other service organizations. He wrote to his sister, the religious: “Pray that pride, selfishness, and any other evil passion will not prevent me from always seeing the suffering of Christ in my patients, treating him and comforting him.” This is certainly the core of Vincentian spirituality! Richard moved to Milan and founded the “Band of Pius X,” a group dedicated to medical care for the poor. He also raised funds to provide food and clothing for the needy. Discerning a vocation to the religious life, he joined the Hospitaller Order of St. John of God. On October 28, 1928, Richard took vows in the community and was assigned to a clinic in Brescia, where he continued to serve the poor. The severe lung disease he suffered from worsened. Moved to his community’s hospital in Milan, he developed pneumonia and prophesied when he would die: on May 1, 1930 at the age of 33. Many healings took place at his tomb and his cause for canonization proceeded quickly. Richard was beatified in 1981, and Pope Saint John Paul II canonized him on November 1, 1989, observing of Richard that he was “close to our times, but even closer to our problems and our sensibilities.” In Richard, Vincentians have another saint to act as intercessor, another young person of great example in witnessing love for the poor. Blessed Francis Faa di Bruno (1825 – 1888) Feast: March 27th Francis was born in Alessandria, Italy on March 29, 1825, the youngest of twelve children. At the age of sixteen, he enlisted in the military of Piedmont and reached the rank of captain. Assigned to Paris in 1849, Francis earned a doctorate in mathematics and astronomy at the Sorbonne. There he joined the Society of St. Vincent de Paul and became an active member. Since Blessed Frédéric Ozanam taught at the Sorbonne through April 1852, Francis may actually have known him. Resigning his military commission to pursue his academic interests, Francis became one of the leading mathematicians and astronomers of his time. He moved to Italy to assume a professorship at the University of Turin. Francis wrote more than forty articles for American and European publications. His writings are included in the Catalogue of Scientific Papers of the Royal Society in London. Francis also wrote ascetical studies and sacred melodies and invented scientific apparatuses. In Turin, Francis, a dedicated lay person, focused on charitable works and showed special concern for the well-being and safety of women and young girls, establishing schools, retirement homes, and other charitable institutions. In 1868, he founded the Sisters of Our Lady of Suffrage and the Society of Saint Zita to help in his ministry. The Society of Saint Zita especially addressed the needs of domestic workers. Francis studied for the priesthood in Turin and was ordained in 1876 at the age of fifty-one. He died in Turin on March 27, 1888. Pope Saint John Paul II beatified Francis on September 25, 1988, calling him “a prophet in the midst of the people of God” and “a giant of faith and charity,” and praising him for knowing how “to find positive responses to the needs of his time.” Blessed Francis gives Vincentians much to think about in their ministry. Blessed Giuseppe Toniolo (1845-1918) Feast: October 7th Blessed Giuseppe Toniolo is the first economist beatified in the Catholic Church. As an advisor to Pope Leo XIII in the writing of Rerum Novarum, he helped to directly link the writings of Frédéric Ozanam to the social teachings of the Catholic Church. Born in the Italian city of Treviso on March 7, 1845, Toniolo grew up the oldest of four children in a middle-class family in the region surrounding Venice. Like Blessed Frédéric, Toniolo completed a law degree before becoming a university professor in another discipline, was a married layperson and father, and was an active member of the Society of St. Vincent de Paul. After earning degrees in civil and canon law, Bl. Giuseppe remained at the University of Padua, studying political economy, and serving there as a professor of economics for two years. After teaching briefly at the University of Modena and the University of Venice, he became a professor of economics, and later the department chair, at the University of Pisa from 1883 until his death in 1918. On September 4, 1878, he married Maria Schiratti. They had seven children, four of whom lived to adulthood, and he is credited as a founder of the Catholic University of the Sacred Heart in Milan. Coming of age in the late nineteenth century, Toniolo witnessed the great expansion of urban poverty and the exploitation of workers resulting from a laissez-faire approach to the Industrial Revolution. Like Frédéric before him, he advocated labor unions while rejecting the Marxist and Socialist vision of class warfare, preferring a Catholic vision, in which capital and labor alike fulfill their responsibilities of justice towards one another. In Toniolo’s view, both the egoism of laissez-faire and the state idolatry of socialism were ultimately materialist visions which stood in the way of the Church’s moral teachings. He urged instead “a civil order in which all social, legal, and economic forces, within the fullness of hierarchical development, cooperate proportionally to the common good, on the basis of liberty, fraternity, and justice, with the intention of promoting the social role of everyone, and in the last instance benefiting especially the poor.” Representing neither the left nor the right in politics or economics, Toniolo’s vision depended on keeping decisions as local as possible – to communities, businesses, unions and other associations, and families. This principle, called “corporatism” in Toniolo’s time, is embodied in the Church’s teachings as “subsidiarity.” He argued strongly against socialism in his Program of Milan in 1894, instead championing a form of Christian Democracy. In 1889 he founded the Catholic Union for Social Studies and was a leader in the Catholic social action movement in the early twentieth century. It was the responsibility, he believed of Christians to be involved in the economy; that in fact “The economy is an integral part of the operative design of God, to the extent that, understood properly, participation in it ought to be considered a religious obligation of justice and charity to one’s neighbor and to one’s self.” In this, he elevated the concept of solidarity, of our obligation to the common good as a guiding principle in economic affairs. As Pope Benedict XVI said of him, “Bl. Toniolo points out the way of the primacy of the human person and of solidarity.” Giuseppe Toniolo died October 7, 1918, at the age of 73. The cause for his canonization was opened in 1951, and he was beatified in Rome on April 29, 2012. Blessed Pier Giorgio Frassati (1901-1925) Feast: July 4th Pier Giorgio was born in Turin, Italy on April 6, 1901. His father, Alfredo, founded the famous Piedmont newspaper, La Stampa, and played a role in Italian politics, serving in the senate and as ambassador to Berlin in 1920. His many commitments prevented him from taking an active part in his children’s upbringing. This fell to their mother, Adela, who made quite a name for herself as an artist. Adela taught Pier Giorgio and his sister Luciana (born one year after her brother) verses from the Gospels. Pier Giorgio was deeply moved by them. Although his father was not a believer and his mother was not overly religious, Pier Giorgio developed an exceptional relationship with God. It was clearly a case of God’s grace at work in response to Pier Giorgio’s faith. From the time he was twelve until his death at 24, Pier Giorgio received Holy Communion daily. At 17, he joined the Society of St. Vincent de Paul and committed himself to serving the poor, proclaiming: “Jesus visits me every morning in Holy Communion. I repay him with my poor means, visiting the poor.” When asked how he could stand the bad odors and unclean conditions of their homes, he answered: “Don’t forget that even if the house you visit is very dirty, there you may find Jesus.” Here again is an example of the core of Vincentian spirituality. Pier Giorgio did not love the poor in general; he loved the poor individual. He was not afraid to voice his opinion about the Society. “I would suppress some Conferences of the Society,” he once observed. “Sometimes there are people who are rich in Christian zeal but who give up in the face of difficulties, then it’s better for them not to be in the Society. I don’t think those people act in bad faith, but it’s better for these groups not to exist.” Pier Giorgio never hesitated to help anyone, regardless of the cost to himself, and he thought every Vincentian should do the same. In home visits, he displayed great virtue, believing that he was “poor as any poor man.” People sensed this in his demeanor and conversation. With respect, tact, and patience in listening to them, and care and simplicity in addressing their needs, he communicated his sense of equality with the poor. In 1919, he joined the Catholic Student Federation and the Popular Party, a political organization which promoted the Catholic Church’s teachings. He even entertained the idea of merging the Catholic Student Federation with the Catholic Workers’ Organization. “Charity is not enough: we need social reform,” he used to say, as he worked for both. He also gave his time to help establish a Catholic daily newspaper, Momento, which was based on the principles of Pope St. Leo XIII’s encyclical on social and economic matters, Rerum Novarum. He wrote: “In this trying time that our country is going through we Catholics and especially we students have a serious duty to fulfill: our self-formation. We, who by the grace of God are Catholics … must steel ourselves for the battle we shall certainly have to fight to fulfill our program and give our country, in the not too distant future, happier days and a morally healthy society, but to achieve this we need constant prayer to obtain from God that grace without which all our prayers are useless; organization and discipline to be ready for action at the right time; and finally, the sacrifice of our passion and of ourselves, because without that we cannot achieve our aim.” Pier Giorgio also felt a strong, mysterious urge to be near the Blessed Sacrament. During nocturnal adoration, he would spend all night on his knees in profound prayer. He influenced other students to make the annual university retreat given by the Jesuits. He loved the rosary, a family practice, and prayed it three times daily after becoming a Dominican tertiary. Pier Giorgio valued friendships. Frequently he asked friends for their prayers and he humbly accepted help, advice, and encouragement from them. He was especially close to his sister, Luciana. While Pier Giorgio focused on the poor, she concentrated on her father’s world of diplomacy. The difference drew them closer as young adults. Only Luciana truly understood her brother’s heart. Other family members might disapprove of his activities, but not Luciana. He often sought her advice. She knew her brother’s best friends: young women and men who stood by each other and were full of fun and faith. Two of the young men became priests. With one of the girls, Laura, Pier Giorgio fell in love. The last months of his life were filled with suffering. His parents’ relationship was strained. Pier Giorgio and Luciana struggled to keep them together. Fearing that his growing love for Laura, who was not of the same social standing as the Frassatis, might exacerbate conflict in the family, he decided to give her up. Pier Giorgio contacted poliomyelitis and became paralyzed. His family, preoccupied with caring for a dying grandmother, at first did not recognize the seriousness of his illness. Pier Giorgio asked for nothing and did not complain. On Friday, the day he usually visited the poor, he did not forget, but with his paralytic hand wrote them a message. Pier Giorgio died peacefully on July 4, 1925 at the age of 24. When his death became known in Turin, hundreds came to view his body, out of love for this good and generous young man who’d offered everyone a kind word and a smile. Most of the mourners knew neither his name nor his social position. The Frassati family was stunned by their number and status. Luciana published several books containing the memories and words of her brother, and her reflections on him. Pope Saint John Paul II beatified Pier Giorgio on May 20, 1990. He is an outstanding example for all Vincentians, but especially for young people who are looking for a role model. They will find someone to identify with in this vibrant young outdoorsman who combined a deep love for Christ, a desire to serve the needy, and a mission to imbue society and politics with Christian ideals. Blessed Ceferino Gimenez Malla (1861-1936) Feast: August 2nd For centuries Gypsies have kept their own customs and traditions. Their Catholic faith is little known or understood, but now one of their own has been raised to the altar of the Church: Blessed Ceferino Gimenez Malla, called “El Pele” and widely respected by the Spanish. Ceferino was born in Fraga, Huesca, Spain, probably on August 26, 1861. He married a Gypsy woman from Lerida, Teresa Gimenez Castro, in a Gypsy-style ceremony and settled in Barbastro, Aragon. In 1912, Ceferino and Teresa had their marriage convalidated in the Church, and Ceferino’s life changed dramatically; he had a deep conversion experience. Having no children, they adopted a niece, Pepita, and raised her as a devout Catholic. Though illiterate, Ceferino was a respected horse dealer. The poor, the uneducated, and even the politically powerful came to him for advice and counsel. A daily communicant, he was revered for his Catholic piety, and for his honesty in business and charity to the poor. He became an active member of the Society of St. Vincent de Paul and was ever ready to give generously to those poorer than he. Ceferino used his gift as a great storyteller to teach children prayers and hymns, as well as stories from the Bible. He took part in “Eucharistic Thursdays,” and night adoration before the Blessed Sacrament. In July 1936, during the Spanish Civil War, Ceferino was imprisoned for protesting the arrest of a priest by Spanish revolutionary militia. While in prison, he recited the rosary, which angered his guards. Offered his freedom if he would give up his beads, he refused. Ceferino considered devotion to the Blessed Virgin Mary a matter of great honor and would not deny the Mother of God. On August 2, 1936, three weeks before his 75th birthday, Ceferino was executed by firing squad, clutching his rosary and shouting, “Long live Christ the King!” Pope Saint John Paul II beatified him on Sunday, May 4, 1997, observing that a “death for the faith” is always rooted deeply in a “life of faith.” Exemplifying charity for the poor and devotion to Mary, Blessed Ceferino is a wonderful example for all Vincentians. Venerable Alberto Capellan Zuazo (1888-1965) On March 6, 1998, Pope Saint John Paul II issued a decree proclaiming the heroicity of the virtues of the layman Alberto Capellan. Alberto was born August 7, 1888, at Santo Domingo de la Calzada, Spain. After his death on February 24, 1965, his remains were taken to the city of his birth. Alberto was a member of the Society of St. Vincent de Paul and president of his Conference. He manifested a gentle charity, especially to the homeless for whom he obtained shelter. Venerable Jean-Léon Le Prévost (1803-1874) On December 21, 1998, Pope Saint John Paul II promulgated the decree regarding the heroic virtue of the Servant of God, Jean-Léon Le Prévost. Jean-Léon was an original member of the first Conference of the Society and a close friend of Blessed Frédéric Ozanam. Frédéric mentions Jean-Léon many times in his letters. Jean-Léon became a priest and founder of the Institute of Religious of St. Vincent de Paul, a small community of priests and brothers ministering to the needy in France, Canada, Brazil, and elsewhere. Vincentian Martyrs of Spain Listed on the wall of the Church of St. Robert Bellarmine in Madrid, the Spanish National Sanctuary of the Society of St. Vincent de Paul, are the names of 586 Vincentians martyred during the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939). Vincentian Family Saints, Blesseds, and Martyrs Further information is available on the Vincentian Family website: www.FamVin.org. \| A \| C \| \|---\|---\| \| Accountability \| Catholic Charities \| \| Admission: \| Catholic Social Action \| \| For Membership \| Charitable Contributions \| \| Of Women \| Charity and Justice \| \| Aggregation \| Chicago \| \| Ampère, Andre-Marie \| Children of Mary \| \| Annunciation \| Christian (Christianity) \| \| Annual Commitment \| Church, Loyalty \| \| Annual Report \| Cincinnati \| \| Approval of Society \| Clavé, Felix \| \| Bailly, J. Emmanuel \| Cleveland \| \| Baltimore \| Collaboration \| \| Beatification: \| Commissioning \| \| Vincent de Paul \| Conference \| \| Louise de Marillac \| Admitting Members \| \| Frédéric Ozanam \| Annual Reports \| \| Rosalie Rendu \| Commissioning \| \| Blessed(s), Vincentian: \| Confidentiality \| \| Francis F. di Bruno \| Conflict of Interest \| \| Pier G. Frassati \| Donations \| \| Ceferino Malla \| Financial Records \| \| Frédéric Ozanam \| Formation \| \| Rosalie Rendu \| Funds \| \| Giusseppe Toniolo \| Guidelines \| \| Blessed Sacrament \| Legal \| \| Boston \| Membership \| \| Brooklyn \| Meetings \| \| Buffalo \| Minute Book \| \| Bylaws \| Ministry of \| \| \| Of History \| \| \| Parish Based \| \| \| Policies \| \| \| Record Retention \| \| Topic \| Page(s) \| \|--------------------------------------------\|------------------\| \| Recruitment \| 25 \| \| Reporting Procedures \| 27-28 \| \| Services \| 21-23 \| \| Speaking for Soc \| 29 \| \| Spiritual Advisor \| 45-46 \| \| Tax laws \| 27 \| \| Terminating members \| 26 \| \| Treasurer’s Handbook \| 31 \| \| Confidentiality \| 21-22 \| \| Confraternities of Charity \| 1 \| \| Congregation of the Mission \| 1, 3, 73 \| \| Cooperation \| 11, 43, 44 \| \| Council(s): \| \| \| Board \| 34 \| \| Conflict of Interest \| 38 \| \| District \| 14, 30-38 \| \| Diocesan (Arch) \| 14, 30-38 \| \| Employees \| 35 \| \| Functions \| 31 \| \| Funds \| 34 \| \| Incorporation \| 37 \| \| Institution of \| 36 \| \| Meetings \| 33-34 \| \| Leadership \| 32 \| \| Legal and Financial Realities \| 36 \| \| Record Retention \| 37 \| \| Relationships \| 32 \| \| Responsibilities \| 31 \| \| Size \| 30 \| \| Speaking for Soc \| 38 \| \| Special works of \| 33 \| \| Spiritual Advisor \| 45-46 \| \| Tax laws \| 37 \| \| Council, International \| 14, 43-44 \| \| International Logo \| 44 \| \| Council, United States \| 14, 39-42 \| \| Authority \| 42 \| \| Committees \| 42 \| \| Conflict of Interest \| 42 \| \| Cultural Beliefs \| 48 \| \| Database \| 42 \| \| Services \| 41 \| \| Strategic Plan \| 41 \| \| Daughters of Charity \| 1, 3, 77-78 \| \| De Paul, Vincent \| 1, 71-75, 77 \| \| Detroit \| 9 \| \| Deveaux, Jules \| 4 \| \| di Bruno, Francis \| 89 \| \| Diocesan Council \| 30-38 \| \| District Council \| 30-38 \| \| Divine Providence \| 66 \| \| Emergencies/Sp. Needs \| 22 \| \| Employees \| 35 \| \| Essential Elements, Society \| 47 \| \| Eucharist \| 62 \| \| Executive Directors \| 36 \| \| Feast Days: \| \| \| Vincent de Paul \| 75 \| \| Louise de Marillac \| 78 \| \| Frédéric Ozanam \| 83 \| \| Rosalie Rendu \| 86 \| \| Festival Meetings \| 5 \| \| Founder \| 3-4, 56 \| \| Founding Members \| 4 \| \| Frassati, Pier Giorgio \| 91 \| \| Friend(s) Friendship \| 47 \| \| Fundamental Principles \| 47 \| \| G \| M \| \|---\|---\| \| Good Samaritan \| Malla, Ceferino \| \| Growth of the Society \| Marian Youth \| \| Holiness \| Marian Youth \| \| Home Visit(s) \| Marillac, St. Louise de \| \| Humility \| Marriage \| \| Identity Statement \| Martyrs, Vincentian \| \| Immaculate Conception \| Mary \| \| Incarnation \| Mass, special \| \| Indulgences \| Member(s): \| \| Information/Referral Services \| Admitting \| \| Invitation to Serve \| Commissioning \| \| Isolated Conferences \| Formation \| \| Jesus, Evangelizer \| Termination of \| \| Judging \| Types of Membership \| \| Justice and Charity \| Miraculous Medal \| \| Kenrick, Bishop \| Miraculous Medal Association \| \| Labouré, Catherine \| MISEVI (Lay missionaries) \| \| Ladies of Charity (AIC) \| Mission, of Society \| \| Lallier, François \| Molla, Gianna \| \| Lamache, Paul \| Mouffetard District \| \| Lay Spirituality \| National Council Committees \| \| LeGras, Mademoiselle \| National Council \| \| Le Taillandier, Auguste \| New Orleans \| \| Linton, Dr. Moses \| New York City \| \| Lonely/Alienated \| Network of Charity \| \| Long-term Relationships \| Notre Dame de Fourviere \| \| Louisville \| Old Cathedral, St. Louis \| \| \| Ozanam, Frédéric \| \| \| Ozanam, Amélie (Soulacroix) \| \| \| Ozanam Orientation \| Pampuri, Richard .......................... 88-89 Patron, St. Vincent de Paul ........... 4, 52-56 Patroness ........................................ 64 Person-to-Person ............................. 15 Philadelphia .................................... 9 Pittsburgh ......................................... 9 Portland ............................................ 9 Pope Gregory XVI ............................. 5 Pope Saint John Paul II .................... 50, 53 Pope Leo XIII .................................... 82 Pope St. Pius IX ............................... 5 Pope St. Pius X ................................. 6 Pope St. Pius XI ............................... 6 Pope St. Pius XII .............................. 7 Poverty Services ............................... 21 Prayer ............................................. 62-63 Prayers of the Society: Canonization ................................. 68 Cause, Ozanam ............................... 68 Closing Prayer ............................... 70 Opening Prayer ............................... 69 Preferential Option .......................... 57 Prevost, Jean-Léon ........................... 94 Primitive Spirit ................................. 52-53 Providence, Divine ........................... 63 Ratisbonne, Alphonse ...................... 67 Regional: Vice President(s) ........................... 39 Structure ..................................... 40 Rendu, Sister Rosalie ....................... 4, 80, 83-86 Rerum Novarum ................................. 82, 90 Rule: Adherence ..................................... 11 Beginnings .................................... 10-12 Revising the Rule ............................ 11-12 Sacred Heart, Consecration ................ 68 Saint(s), Vincentian : Gianna Molla .................................. 87-88 Louise de Marillac ........................... 75-78 Richard Pampuri .............................. 88-89 Vincent de Paul ............................... 71-79 Saint Joseph-des-Carmes ..................... 82 Sacred Scripture: 1 Peter 1:15-16 ................................ 53 John 13:34-35 .................................. 60 Luke 6:32-37 .................................... 61 Luke 10:25-28 .................................. 58 Luke 10:29-37 .................................. 57 Matthew 6:9-13 .................................. 62 Matthew 18:19-20 ................................ 63 Matthew 25:31-46 ................................ 57 San Antonio ..................................... 9 San Francisco ................................... 9 Service(s) ....................................... 21-23 Serving in Hope ............................... 18 Seton, Elizabeth Ann .......................... 2 Simplicity ........................................ 49, 52-53 Sisters of Charity ............................. 2, 3 Social Justice .................................... 23, 82 Society of SVdP: History ......................................... 3-10 Cultural Beliefs ............................... 48 Mission ......................................... 47 Spirit of the .................................... 52-53 United States ................................... 8-10 Virtues .......................................... 49 Vision ........................................... 48 Solidarity ......................................... 59 Soulacroix, Amélie ............................ 63, 81 Special works ................................... 33 Spiritual Advisor ............................... 45-46 Spirituality: Lay ................................................ 56 Marian ........................................... 64 Twinning ........................................ 44 Vincentian ...................................... 53-56 St. Louis ......................................... 9 St. Paul, MN ..................................... 9 Superior Council, US ........................... 9 Systemic Change ............................... 5, 23 \| Topic \| Page(s) \| \|-----------------------------\|---------\| \| Tax Laws \| 27, 37 \| \| Timon C.M., Father John \| 8 \| \| Truth \| 80 \| \| Twinning \| 43 \| \| United States, Society \| 8 \| \| Venerable, Vincentian: \| \| \| Alberto Zuazo \| 94 \| \| Jean-Léon Le Prevost \| 94 \| \| Vincentian: \| \| \| Celebrations \| 17 \| \| Martyrs \| 94 \| \| Family \| 1-3 \| \| Marian Youth \| 3 \| \| Reflections \| 17-18 \| \| Spirituality \| 53-56 \| \| Service Corps \| 2 \| \| Martyrs of Spain \| 94 \| \| Vocation \| 51-52 \| \| Vision \| 48 \| \| Visitation \| 64 \| \| Voice of the Poor \| 10, 23 \| \| Washington, DC \| 9 \| \| Web Sites \| 3 \| \| Women, in Society \| 11 \| \| You Did It For Me \| 57 \| \| You Will Not Be Judged \| 61 \| \| Youth \| 22 \| \| Zuazo, Alberto \| 94 \| Vincentian Call to Action In imitation of their founder, Frédéric Ozanam, Vincentian men and women are ready to take their place in the third millennium. They are comforted, inspired, and animated – by their spirituality and by their vocation – to be agents of mercy. They are ready to collaborate, for greater effectiveness in their service to the poor, with the broader Vincentian Family throughout the world. They look confidently to the future. “Let us go to the poor…” National Council of the United States Society of St. Vincent de Paul, Inc. 66 Progress Parkway St. Louis, Missouri 63043-3706 314-576-3993 © Copyright April 2007, Revised December 2021, National Council of the United States, Society of St. Vincent de Palu, Inc. This manual has been developed exclusively for use by The Society of St. Vincent de Paul and cannot be reproduced in any form.
Quasi-Newton Methods for Deep Learning: Forget the Past, Just Sample Albert S. Berahas Lehigh University Bethlehem, PA email@example.com Majid Jahani Lehigh University Bethlehem, PA firstname.lastname@example.org Martin Takáč Lehigh University Bethlehem, PA email@example.com Abstract We present two sampled quasi-Newton methods: sampled LBFGS and sampled LSR1. Contrary to the classical variants of these methods that sequentially build (inverse) Hessian approximations as the optimization progresses, our proposed methods sample points randomly around the current iterate to produce these approximations. As a result, the approximations constructed make use of more reliable (recent and local) information, and do not depend on past information that could be significantly stale. Our proposed algorithms are efficient in terms of accessed data points (epochs) and have enough concurrency to take advantage of distributed computing environments. We provide convergence guarantees for our proposed methods. Numerical tests on a toy classification problem and on popular benchmarking neural network training tasks reveal that the methods outperform their classical variants and are competitive with first-order methods such as ADAM. 1 Introduction In supervised machine learning, one seeks to minimize the empirical risk, $$\min_{w \in \mathbb{R}^d} F(w) := \frac{1}{n} \sum_{i=1}^{n} f(w; x^i, y^i) = \frac{1}{n} \sum_{i=1}^{n} f_i(w)$$ \hspace{1cm} (1.1) where $f : \mathbb{R}^d \rightarrow \mathbb{R}$ is the composition of a prediction function (parametrized by $w$) and a loss function, and $(x^i, y^i)$, for $i = 1, \ldots, n$, denote the training examples (samples). Difficulties arise in minimizing the function $F$ for three main reasons: (1) the number of samples $n$ is large; (2) the number of variables $d$ is large; and, (3) the objective function is nonconvex. In the last decades, much effort has been devoted to the development of stochastic first-order methods that have a low per-iteration cost, enjoy optimal complexity, are easy to implement, and that have proven to be effective for many machine learning applications. At present, the preferred method for large-scale applications is the stochastic gradient (SG) method [5, 48], and its variance-reduced [18, 26, 43, 50] and adaptive variants [19, 30]. However, these methods have several issues: (1) they are highly sensitive to the choice of hyper-parameters (e.g., steplength and batch size) and tuning can be cumbersome; (2) they suffer from ill-conditioning; and, (3) they often offer limited opportunities for parallelism; see [1, 6, 32, 49, 54]. In order to alleviate these issues, stochastic Newton [4, 9, 39, 49, 55] and stochastic quasi-Newton [2, 10, 15, 23, 27, 42, 51] methods have been proposed. These methods attempt to combine the speed of Newton’s method and the scalability of first-order methods by incorporating curvature information in a judicious manner, and have proven to work well for several machine learning tasks [1, 54]. With the advances in distributed and GPU computing, it is now possible to go beyond stochastic Newton and quasi-Newton methods and use large batches to compute function, gradient and Hessian vector products in order to train machine learning models. In the large batch regime, one can take advantage of parallel and distributed computing and fully utilize the capabilities of GPUs. However, researchers have observed that well-tuned first-order methods (e.g., ADAM) are more effective than full batch methods (e.g., LBFGS) for large-scale applications [24, 28]. Nevertheless, in this paper we focus on (full) batch methods that incorporate local second-order (curvature) information of the objective function. These methods mitigate the effects of ill-conditioning, avoid or diminish the need for hyper-parameter tuning, have enough concurrency to take advantage of parallel computing, and, due to requiring fewer iterations enjoy low communication costs. Specifically, we focus on quasi-Newton methods [45]: methods that construct curvature information using first-order (gradient) information. We propose two variants of classical quasi-Newton methods that sample a small number of random points at every iteration to build (inverse) Hessian approximations. We are motivated by the results presented in Figure 1 that illustrate the performance (for 10 different starting points) of several stochastic and deterministic, first- and second-order methods on a toy neural network classification task, given budget; see Section 6 for details. As is clear from the results, first-order methods converge very slowly, and sometimes even fail to achieve 100% accuracy. Similarly, classical quasi-Newton methods are slow or stagnant. On the other hand, methods that use the true Hessian are able to converge in very few iterations from all starting points. This seems to suggest that for some neural network training tasks second-order information is important, and that the curvature information captured by classical quasi-Newton methods may not be adequate or useful. The key idea of our proposed methods is to leverage the fact that quasi-Newton methods can incorporate second-order information using only gradient information at a reasonable cost, but at the same time to enhance the (inverse) Hessian approximations by using more reliable (recent and local) information. The fundamental component of our methods, and what differentiates them from the classical variants, is the manner in which the curvature pairs are constructed. To this end, we propose to forget past curvature information and sample new curvature pairs at every iteration. Contributions Our contributions can be summarized as follows: • We propose two novel quasi-Newton methods that use sampling to construct Hessian approximations. We analyze the convergence properties of both methods, and show that their theoretical guarantees match those of their classical limited memory counterparts. • We discuss the implementation costs of the sampled quasi-Newton methods and compare them to the classical variants, and illustrate the scaling properties of the methods compared to the SG method on distributed computing platforms on real large-scale network architectures. • We illustrate the practical performance of the methods on a toy classification problem and on standard benchmarking neural network training tasks, and show their advantages over the classical variants. We posit that this is the case since the (inverse) Hessian approximations constructed by our proposed methods capture better (more informative) curvature information. Moreover, the proposed methods are easily parallelizable and efficient in terms of iteration, epochs and communication. The paper is organized as follows. We conclude this section with a literature review of quasi-Newton methods. We describe the classical (L)BFGS and (L)SR1 methods in Section 2, and in Section 3 we detail our proposed sampled variants. In Section 4, we discuss the computational cost of the proposed methods and show their scaling properties. We show the theoretical properties of our proposed methods in Section 5. Numerical results on neural network training tasks are reported in Section 6. Finally, in Section 7 we provide some final remarks and discuss several avenues for future work. Brief Literature Review Quasi-Newton methods, such as BFGS [7, 20, 22, 52] and SR1 [11, 13, 29] and their limited-memory variants LBFGS [36, 44] and LSR1 [8, 38], respectively, have been studied extensively in the deterministic nonlinear optimization literature. These methods incorporate curvature (second-order) information using only gradient (first-order) information, have good theoretical guarantees, and have proven to be effective in practice. In the context of deep neural networks, both full batch and stochastic quasi-Newton methods seem to perform worse than (stochastic) first-order methods. Nevertheless, several stochastic quasi-Newton methods have been proposed; see e.g., [5, 10, 51]. What distinguishes these methods from one another is the way in which curvature pairs are constructed. Our methods borrow some of the ideas proposed in [10, 23, 37]. Specifically, we use Hessian vector products in lieu of gradient displacements. Possibly the closest works to ours are Block BFGS [21] and its stochastic variant [23]. These methods construct multiple curvature pairs to update the quasi-Newton matrices. However, there are several key features that are different from our approach; in these works (1) the Hessian approximation is not updated at every iteration, and (2) they enforce that multiple secant equations hold simultaneously. 2 Quasi-Newton Methods In this section, we review two classical quasi-Newton methods and their limited memory variants. This will set the stage for our proposed sampled quasi-Newton methods. BFGS and LBFGS Let us begin by considering the BFGS method and then consider its limited memory version. At the $k$th iteration, the BFGS method computes a new iterate by the formula $$w_{k+1} = w_k - \alpha_k H_k \nabla F(w_k), \quad (2.1)$$ where $\alpha_k$ is the step length, $\nabla F(w_k)$ is the gradient of (1.1) and $H_k$ is the inverse BFGS Hessian approximation that is updated at every iteration by means of the formula $$H_{k+1} = V_k^T H_k V_k + \rho_k s_k s_k^T,$$ where $\rho_k = \frac{1}{y_k^T s_k}$, $V_k = I - \rho_k y_k s_k^T$ and the curvature pairs $(s_k, y_k)$ are defined as $$s_k = w_k - w_{k-1}, \quad y_k = \nabla F(w_k) - \nabla F(w_{k-1}). \quad (2.2)$$ As is clear, the curvature pairs (2.2) are constructed sequentially (at every iteration), and as such the inverse Hessian approximation at the $k$th iteration $H_k$ depends on past iterate (and gradient) information. The inverse BFGS Hessian approximations are constructed to satisfy two conditions: the secant ($H_{k+1} y_k = s_k$) and curvature ($s_k^T y_k > 0$) conditions, as well as symmetry. Consequently, as long as the initial inverse Hessian approximation is positive definite, then all subsequent inverse BFGS Hessian approximations are also positive definite. Note, the new inverse Hessian approximation $H_{k+1}$ differs from the old approximation $H_k$ by a rank-2 matrix. In the limited memory version, the matrix $H_k$ is defined at each iteration as the result of applying $m$ BFGS updates to a multiple of the identity matrix using the set of $m$ most recent curvature pairs $\{s_i, y_i\}$ kept in storage. As a result, one need not construct and store the dense inverse Hessian approximation, rather one can store two $m \times d$ matrices and compute the matrix-vector product in (2.1) via the two-loop recursion [45]. SR1 and LSR1 Contrary to the BFGS updating formula, and as suggested by the name, the symmetric-rank-1 (SR1) updating formula allows one to satisfy the secant equation and maintain symmetry with a simpler rank-1 update. However, unlike BFGS, the SR1 update does not guarantee that the updated matrix maintains positive definiteness. As such, the SR1 method is usually implemented with a trust region; we introduce it in this way below. At the $k$th iteration, the SR1 method computes a new iterate by the formula $$w_{k+1} = w_k + p_k, \quad (2.3)$$ where $p_k$ is the minimizer of the following subproblem $$\min_{\|\|p\|\| \leq \Delta_k} m_k(p) = F(w_k) + \nabla F(w_k)^T p + \frac{1}{2} p^T B_k p, \quad (2.4)$$ $\Delta_k$ is the trust region radius and $B_k$ is the SR1 Hessian approximation computed as $$B_{k+1} = B_k + \frac{(y_k - B_k s_k)(y_k - B_k s_k)^T}{(y_k - B_k s_k)^T s_k}. \quad (2.5)$$ Similar to LBFGS, in the limited memory version of SR1 the matrix $B_k$ is defined as the result of applying $m$ SR1 updates to a multiple of the identity matrix, using a set of $m$ correction pairs $\{s_i, y_i\}$ kept in storage. 3 Sampled Quasi-Newton Methods In this section, we describe our two proposed sampled quasi-Newton methods; S-LBFGS and S-LSR1. The main idea of these methods, and what differentiates them from the classical variants, is the way in which curvature pairs are constructed. At every iteration, a small number ($m$) of points are sampled around the current iterate and used to construct a new set of curvature pairs. In other words, contrary to the sequential nature of classical quasi-Newton methods, our proposed methods forget all past curvature pairs and construct new curvature pairs from scratch via sampling. ![Figure 2: Comparison of the eigenvalues of (LSR1 and S-LSR1 (@ A, B, C) for a toy classification problem.](image) Our motivation stems from the following observation: by constructing Hessian approximations via sampling, one is able to better capture curvature information of the objective function. In Figure 2, we show the spectrum of the true Hessian, and compare it to the spectra of different SR1 Hessian approximations at several points. As is clear from the results, the eigenvalues of the S-LSR1 Hessian approximations better match the eigenvalues of the true Hessian compared to the eigenvalues of the SR1 and LSR1 Hessian approximations. This is not surprising since S-LSR1 uses newly sampled local information, and unlike the classical variants does not rely on past information that could be significantly stale. Similar results were obtained for other problems; see Appendix B.2 for details. This, of course, does not come for free. The classical variants construct curvature pairs as the optimization progresses at no additional cost, whereas the sampled quasi-Newton methods require the construction of $m$ new curvature pairs at every iteration. We discuss implementation issues and the computational cost of the sampled quasi-Newton methods in Sections 3.1 and 4. 3.1 Sampling Curvature Pairs As mentioned above, the key component of our proposed algorithms is the way in which curvature pairs are constructed. A pseudo-code of our proposed sampling strategy is given in Algorithm 1. Let $S, Y \in \mathbb{R}^{d \times m}$ denote the matrices of all curvature pairs constructed during the $k$th iteration. Algorithm 1 Compute new $(S, Y)$ curvature pairs Input: $w$ (iterate), $m$ (memory), $r$ (sampling radius), $S = []$, $Y = []$ (curvature pair containers). 1: Compute $\nabla F(w)$ 2: for $i = 1, 2, ..., m$ do 3: Sample a random direction $\sigma_i$ 4: Construct $\bar{w} = w + r\sigma_i$ 5: Set $s = w - \bar{w}$ and $$y = \begin{cases} \nabla^2 F(w) - \nabla F(\bar{w}), & \text{Option I} \\ \nabla^2 F(w)s, & \text{Option II} \end{cases}$$ 6: Set $S = [S \ s]$ and $Y = [Y \ y]$ 7: end for Output: $S, Y, \nabla^2 F(w)$ At every iteration, given the current iterate and gradient, $m$ curvature pairs are constructed. The subroutine first samples points around the current iterate along random directions $\sigma_i$ and sets the iterate displacement curvature pair ($s$), and then creates the gradient difference curvature pair ($y$) via gradient differences (Option I) or Hessian vector products (Option II). Our theory holds for both options; however, in our numerical experiments we present results with Option II only for the following reasons. Option I requires $m$ gradient evaluations ($m$ epochs), and thus requires accessing the data $m$ times. On the other hand, Option II only requires a single Hessian matrix product which can be computed very efficiently on a GPU, as the $y$ curvature pairs can be constructed simultaneously, i.e., $Y = \nabla^2 F(w)S$, and thus only requires accessing the data once. Moreover, Option I requires choosing the sampling radius $r$, whereas Option II does not since it is scale invariant. 3.2 Sampled LBFGS (S-LBFGS) At the $k$th iteration, the S-LBFGS method (Algorithm 2) computes a new iterate via (2.1), where the inverse Hessian approximation is constructed using the curvature pairs sampled by Algorithm 1. Algorithm 2 Sampled LBFGS (S-LBFGS) Input: $w_0$ (initial iterate), $m$ (memory), $r$ (sampling radius). 1: for $k = 0, 1, 2, \ldots$ do 2: Compute new $(S_k, Y_k)$ pairs via Algorithm 1 3: Compute the search direction $p_k = -H_k \nabla F(w_k)$ 4: Choose the steplength $\alpha_k > 0$ 5: Set $w_{k+1} = w_k + \alpha_k p_k$ 6: end for better capture local curvature information of the objective function. Moreover, notice that the first set of curvature pairs is constructed before a single step is taken by the method (Line 2). This allows the method to take quasi-Newton-type (well-scaled) steps from the first iteration, which is not the case for classical BFGS methods that usually take a gradient-type step in the first iteration and in which imposing the correct scale is always an issue. This, possibly, is a more important feature of the method, as the first step taken by quasi-Newton methods can be of paramount importance. 3.3 Sampled LSR1 Algorithm 3 Sampled LSR1 (S-LSR1) Input: $w_0$ (initial iterate), $\Delta_0$ (initial trust region radius), $m$ (memory), $r$ (sampling radius). 1: for $k = 0, 1, 2, \ldots$ do 2: Compute new $(S_k, Y_k)$ pairs via Algorithm 1 3: Compute $p_k$ by solving the subproblem (2.4) 4: Compute $\rho_k = \frac{F(w_k) - F(w_k + p_k)}{m_k(0) - m_k(p_k)}$ 5: if $\rho_k \geq \eta_l$ then 6: Set $w_{k+1} = w_k + p_k$ 7: else 8: Set $w_{k+1} = w_k$ 9: end if 10: $\Delta_{k+1} = \text{adjustTR}(\Delta_k, \rho_k)$ [see Appendix B.3] 11: end for At the $k$th iteration, the S-LSR1 method computes a new iterate via (2.3), where the Hessian approximation in (2.4) is constructed using the curvature pairs sampled by Algorithm 1. The S-LBFGS method is outlined in Algorithm 3. The S-LSR1 method has the same key features as S-LBFGS that differentiates it from the classical SR1 methods. The subroutine adjustTR (Step 12, Algorithm 3) adjusts the trust-region based on the progress made by the method. For brevity we omit the details of this subroutine, and refer the reader to Appendix B.3 for the details. 4 Distributed Computing and Computational Cost In this section, we show the scalability and computation cost of the sampled quasi-Newton methods. Distributed Computing In Figure 3 (left), we show how the batch size affects the number of data points processed per second to compute the function, gradient and Hessian vector products on a NVIDIA Tesla P100 GPU for various deep neural networks; see Appendix C.2. Using small batch sizes one is not able to fully utilize the power of GPUs; however, using larger batches in conjunction with SG-type algorithms does not necessarily reduce training time [17, 53]. Moreover, we observe that for these networks the cost of computing function values, gradients and Hessian vector products is comparable\footnote{We assume that the cost of computing function values, gradients and Hessian vector products is $O(nrd)$.}. In Figure 3 (bar graphs), we compare the time to perform 1 epoch of SG (assuming we have 1M images) with the time to perform 1 iteration of S-LSR1. For SG, we show results for different batch sizes on each GPU\footnote{Each GPU has 1 MPI process that is used for communicating updates. Note, we are running 4 MPI processes for each physical node, i.e., each node has 4 P100 GPUs}: (1) batch size 16 (SGD 16); and, (2) batch size 32, 64 and 128 for vgg a, LeNet and alexnet v2, respectively, (SGD Default). The reason there is no significant benefit when using more GPUs for SG is that the cost is dominated by the communication. This is not the case for S-LSR1; significant performance gains can be achieved by scaling up the number of MPI processes since much less communication is involved. See Section C.1 for more details. Cost, Storage and Parallelization The cost per iteration of quasi-Newton methods can be decomposed as follows: (1) cost of computing the gradient, and (2) cost of forming the search direction and taking the step. The gradient computation is common amongst the quasi-Newton methods, whereas Figure 3: Performance (Images/second) as a function of batch size for different DNN models and operations on a single NVIDIA Tesla P100 GPU (left). Time (sec) to complete 1 epoch of SG and to perform 1 iteration of S-LSR1 on a dataset with 1M images using varying number of MPI processes (bar charts). the search directions are computed differently. Specifically, for BFGS methods we employ a line search and for SR1 methods we use a trust region and solve the subproblem (2.4) using CG; see [45]. The sampled quasi-Newton methods do not have a significantly higher cost per iteration than the classical limited memory variants. In the regime where $m \ll n, d$, the computational cost is $\mathcal{O}(nd)$. Moreover, several computations that are extra in our proposed methods (e.g., the construction of the gradient displacement pairs $y$) are easily parallelizeable. The computational cost and storage for the different quasi-Newton methods are summarized in Table 4; see Section C.3 for more details. 5 Convergence Analysis In this section, we present convergence analyses for the sampled quasi-Newton methods. For brevity, we omit the proofs from the paper; see Appendix A for the proofs. 5.1 Sampled LBFGS Strongly Convex Functions We make the following standard assumptions. Assumption 5.1. $F$ is twice continuously differentiable. Assumption 5.2. There exist constants $0 < \mu \leq L$ such that $\mu I \preceq \nabla^2 F(w) \preceq LI$, for all $w \in \mathbb{R}^d$. First, we show that the inverse Hessian approximations generated by the S-LBFGS method have eigenvalues that are uniformly bounded above and away from zero. The proof technique is an adaptation of that in [2, 10]; however, modifications are necessary since the inverse Hessian approximations are constructed using information only from the current iterate, and not constructed sequentially. Lemma 5.3. If Assumptions 5.1 and 5.2 hold, there exist constants $0 < \mu_1 \leq \mu_2$ such that the inverse Hessian approximations $\{H_k\}$ generated by Algorithm 2 satisfy, $\mu_1 I \preceq H_k \preceq \mu_2 I$. We show that the sampled LBFGS method with a constant step length converges to the optimal solution at a linear rate (Theorem 5.4). This result is similar in nature to the result for LBFGS [36]. Theorem 5.4. Suppose that Assumptions 5.1 and 5.2 hold, and let $F^* = F(w^)$, where $w^$ is the minimizer of $F$. Let $\{w_k\}$ be the iterates generated by Algorithm 2, where $0 < \alpha_k = \alpha \leq \frac{\mu_1}{n^2L}$, and $w_0$ is the starting point. Then, for all $k \geq 0$, $F(w_k) - F^* \leq (1 - \alpha \mu \mu_1)^k [F(w_0) - F^]$. Nonconvex Functions For nonconvex functions, it is known that the (L)-BFGS method can fail [16, 40]. To establish convergence in the nonconvex setting several techniques have been proposed [34, 35, 47]. Here we employ a cautious strategy that is well suited to our particular algorithm; we update the inverse Hessian approximation using only the set of curvature pairs that satisfy $$s^T y \geq \epsilon \\|s\\|^2,$$ where $\epsilon > 0$ is a predetermined constant. Using said mechanism we prove that the eigenvalues of the inverse Hessian approximations generated by the S-LBFGS method are bounded above and away from zero. For this analysis, we make the following assumptions in addition to Assumption 5.1. Assumption 5.5. The function $F(w)$ is bounded below by a scalar $\tilde{F}$. Assumption 5.6. The gradients of $F$ are $L$-Lipschitz continuous for all $w \in \mathbb{R}^d$. Lemma 5.7. Suppose that Assumptions 5.1 and 5.6 hold. Let $\{H_k\}$ be the inverse Hessian approximations generated by Algorithm 2, with the modification that the inverse approximation update is performed using only curvature pairs that satisfy (5.1), for some $\epsilon > 0$, and $H_k = I$ if no curvature pairs satisfy (5.1). Then, there exist constants $0 < \mu_1 \leq \mu_2$ such that, $\mu_1 I \preceq H_k \preceq \mu_2 I$. We show that S-LBFGS with cautious updating converges to a stationary point (Theorem 5.8). Theorem 5.8.* Suppose that Assumptions 5.1, 5.5 and 5.6 hold. Let $\{w_k\}$ be the iterates generated by Algorithm 2, with the modification that the inverse Hessian approximation update is performed using only curvature pairs that satisfy (5.1), for some $\epsilon > 0$, and $H_k = I$ if no curvature pairs satisfy (5.1), where $0 < \alpha_k = \alpha \leq \frac{\epsilon}{\mu_2 L}$, and $w_0$ is the starting point. Then, for any $\tau > 1$, $$\frac{1}{\tau} \sum_{k=0}^{\tau-1} \\| \nabla F'(w_k) \\|^2 \leq \frac{2(F(w_0) - \bar{F})}{\alpha \mu_1 \tau} \xrightarrow{\tau \to \infty} 0.$$ ### 5.2 Sampled LSR1 In order to establish convergence results one needs to ensure that the SR1 Hessian update equation (2.5) is well defined. To this end, we employ a cautious updating mechanism; we update the Hessian approximation using only the set of curvature pairs that satisfy $$\|s^T(y - Bs)\| \geq \epsilon \\|s\\| \\|y - Bs\\|,$$ where $\epsilon > 0$ is a predetermined constant. It is not trivial to test this condition in practice without explicitly constructing $d \times d$ matrices. We discuss this in detail in Appendix B.4. For the analysis in this section, we make the following assumption that implies that at every iteration the trust-region subproblem is solved sufficiently accurately. Assumption 5.9. For all $k$, $m_k(0) - m_k(p_k) \geq \xi \\| \nabla F(w_k) \\| \min \left[ \frac{\\|\nabla F(w_k)\\|}{\beta_k}, \Delta_k \right]$ where $\xi \in (0, 1)$ and $\beta_k = 1 + \\|B_k\\|$. We prove that the Hessian approximations $B_k$ generated by the S-LSR1 method are uniformly bounded from above. The proof technique is an adaptation of that in [38]; however, modifications are necessary since the Hessian approximations are constructed using information only from the current iterate, and not constructed sequentially. Lemma 5.10. Suppose that Assumptions 5.1, 5.6 and 5.9 hold. Let $\{B_k\}$ be the Hessian approximations generated by Algorithm 3, with the modification that the approximation update is performed using only curvature pairs that satisfy (5.2), for some $\epsilon > 0$, and $B_k = I$ if no curvature pairs satisfy (5.2). Then, there exists a constant $\nu_2 > 0$ such that $\\|B_k\\| \leq \nu_2$. We show that the S-LSR1 with cautious updating converges to a stationary point (Theorem 5.11). This result is similar in nature to that in [38]. In order to prove the following result, we make use of well-known results for Trust-Region methods; see [14]. Theorem 5.11. Suppose that Assumptions 5.1, 5.5, 5.6 and 5.9 hold. Let $\{w_k\}$ be the iterates generated by Algorithm 3, with the modification that the Hessian approximation update is performed using only curvature pairs that satisfy (5.2), for some $\epsilon > 0$, and $B_k = I$ if no curvature pairs satisfy (5.2). Then, $\lim_{k \to \infty} \\| \nabla F(w_k) \\| = 0$. ### 6 Numerical Experiments In this section, we present numerical experiments on a toy classification problem and on popular benchmarking neural network training tasks\footnote{All codes to reproduce the results presented in this section are available at: \url{http://github.com/ANONYMOUS/LINK}. The code will be released upon acceptance of the paper.}. See Appendix B.5 for implementation details. #### 6.1 A Toy Classification Problem Consider the simple classification problem, illustrated in Figure 4, consisting of two classes each with 50 data points. We trained three fully connected neural networks—small, medium and large—with sigmoid activation functions and 4 hidden layers; see Appendix B.6, Table 1 for details. For this problem, we ran... each method 100 times starting from different initial points and show the results for different budget levels in Figure 5. As is clear from the figures, the proposed methods outperform their classical variants as well as the first-order methods. See Appendix B.6 for more results. ![Figure 5: Performance of GD, ADAM, BFGS, LBFGS, SR1, LSR1, S-LSR1 and S-LBFGS on toy classification problems. Networks: small (left); medium (right); large (right).](image) ### 6.2 MNIST and CIFAR10 We illustrate the performance of the sampled quasi-Newton methods on standard benchmarking neural network training tasks: MNIST [33] and CIFAR10 [34]. The details of the problems are given in Appendix B.7, Table 2. For these problems we used sigmoid activation functions and softmax cross-entropy loss. The results of these experiments are given in Figure 6. Overall, the sampled quasi-Newton methods outperform their classical variants. For the MNIST problem, the S-LSR1 method is able to achieve comparable accuracy to that of well-tuned ADAM, after a lot more epochs. That being said, in a distributed setting, the time to perform one iteration (one epoch) of S-LSR1 is significantly smaller than the time to perform one epoch of ADAM, and as such in terms of Wall Clock Time, the proposed method could be more efficient. Moreover, ADAM requires meticulous tuning (see Appendix B.7) whereas S-LSR1 is parameter-free. We posit that similar observations could be made for CIFAR10 if the experiments were run longer. ![Figure 6: Performance of GD, ADAM, BFGS, LBFGS, SR1, LSR1, S-LSR1 and S-LBFGS on MNIST (top) and CIFAR10 (bottom).](image) ### 7 Final Remarks and Future Work This paper describes two novel quasi-Newton methods; S-LBFGS and S-LSR1. Contrary to classical quasi-Newton methods, these methods forget past curvature information and sample new curvature information at every iteration. Numerical results show that the methods are efficient in practice, and the convergence guarantees of the methods match those of the classical variants. 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[55] Peng Xu, Farbod Roosta-Khorasani, and Michael W Mahoney. Newton-type methods for non-convex optimization under inexact hessian information. arXiv preprint arXiv:1708.07164, 2017. A Theoretical Results and Proofs We first restate the Assumptions that we use in the Convergence Analysis section (Section 5). We then prove all the results that appear in the main paper (Lemmas 5.3, 5.7 & 5.10; Theorems 5.4, 5.8 & 5.11). A.1 Assumptions Assumption 5.1. $F$ is twice continuously differentiable. Assumption 5.2. There exist positive constants $\mu$ and $L$, such that \[ \mu I \preceq \nabla^2 F(w) \preceq L I, \] for all $w \in \mathbb{R}^d$. Assumption 5.5. The function $F(w)$ is bounded below by a scalar $\tilde{F}$. Assumption 5.6. The gradients of $F$ are $L$-Lipschitz continuous for all $w \in \mathbb{R}^d$. Assumption 5.9. For all $k$, \[ m_k(0) - m_k(p_k) \geq \xi \\|\nabla F(w_k)\\| \min \left[ \frac{\\|\nabla F(w_k)\\|}{\beta_k}, \Delta_k \right], \] where $\xi \in (0, 1)$ and $\beta_k = 1 + \\|B_k\\|$. A.2 Proof of Lemma 5.3 Lemma 5.3. If Assumptions 5.1 and 5.2 hold, there exist constants $0 < \mu_1 \leq \mu_2$ such that the inverse Hessian approximations $\{H_k\}$ generated by Algorithm 2 satisfy, \[ \mu_1 I \preceq H_k \preceq \mu_2 I, \quad \text{for } k = 0, 1, 2, \ldots. \tag{A.1} \] Proof. First, note that there is a chance that no curvature pairs are selected in Algorithm 1. In this case, the inverse Hessian approximation is $H_k = I$, and thus $\mu_1 = \mu_2 = 1$ and condition (A.1) is satisfied. We now consider the case where at least one curvature pair is selected by Algorithm 1. Instead of analyzing the inverse Hessian approximation $H_k$, we study the direct Hessian approximation $B_k = H_k^{-1}$. In this case, the sampled LBFGS updating formula is given as follows. Let $\tilde{m}_k \in \{1, \ldots, m\}$ denote the number of curvature pairs that satisfy (5.1) at the $k$th iteration, where $m$ is the memory. At the $k$th iteration, given a set of curvature pairs $(s_{k,j}, y_{k,j})$, for $j = 1, \ldots, \tilde{m}_k$ 1. Set $B_k^{(i)} = \frac{y_{k,i}^T y_{k,i}}{s_{k,i}^T s_{k,i}} I$, where $l$ is chosen uniformly at random from $\{1, \ldots, \tilde{m}_k\}$. 2. For $i = 1, \ldots, \tilde{m}_k$ compute \[ B_k^{(i)} = B_k^{(i-1)} - \frac{B_k^{(i-1)} s_{k,i} s_{k,i}^T B_k^{(i-1)}}{s_{k,i}^T B_k^{(i-1)} s_{k,i}} + \frac{y_{k,i} y_{k,i}^T}{y_{k,i}^T s_{k,i}}. \] 3. Set $B_{k+1} = B_k^{(\tilde{m}_k)}$. In our algorithm (Algorithm 1), there are two options for constructing the curvature pairs $s_{k,j}$ and $y_{k,j}$. At the current iterate $w_k$ we sample points $\bar{w}_j$ for $j = 1, \ldots, m$ and set \[ s_{k,j} = w_k - \bar{w}_j, \quad y_{k,j} = \nabla F(w_k) - \nabla F(\bar{w}_j) \quad \text{Option I}, \] \[ s_{k,j} = w_k - \bar{w}_j, \quad y_{k,j} = \nabla^2 F(w_k) s_k \quad \text{Option II}. \tag{A.3} \] We now prove an upper and lower bound for $\frac{\\|y_{k,i}\\|^2}{y_{k,i}^T s_{k,i}}$, for all $j = 1, \ldots \tilde{m}_k$, for both options. Option I: A consequence of Assumption 5.2 is that the eigenvalues of the Hessian matrix are bounded above and away from zero. Utilizing this fact, the convexity of the objective function and the definitions (A.2), we have \[ y_{k,j}^T s_{k,j} \geq \frac{1}{L} \\|y_{k,j}\\|^2 \quad \Rightarrow \quad \frac{\\|y_{k,j}\\|^2}{y_{k,j}^T s_{k,j}} \leq L. \tag{A.4} \] On the other hand, strong convexity of the sub-sampled functions, the consequence of Assumption 5.2 and definitions (A.2), provide a lower bound, \[ y_{k,j}^T s_{k,j} \leq \frac{1}{\mu} \\|y_{k,j}\\|^2 \quad \Rightarrow \quad \frac{\\|y_{k,j}\\|^2}{y_{k,j}^T s_{k,j}} \geq \mu. \tag{A.5} \] Combining the upper and lower bounds (A.4) and (A.5) \[ \mu \leq \frac{\\|y_{k,j}\\|^2}{y_{k,j}^T s_{k,j}} \leq L. \tag{A.6} \] Option II: A consequence of Assumption 5.2 is that the eigenvalues of the Hessian matrix are bounded above and away from zero. Utilizing this fact and the definitions (A.2), we have \[ \mu \\|s_{k,j}\\|^2 \leq y_{k,j}^T s_{k,j} = s_{k,j}^T \nabla^2 F(w_k) s_{k,j} \leq L \\|s_{k,j}\\|^2. \tag{A.7} \] We have that, \[ \frac{\\|y_{k,j}\\|^2}{y_{k,j}^T s_{k,j}} = \frac{s_{k,j}^T \nabla^2 F(w_k)^2 s_{k,j}}{s_{k,j}^T \nabla^2 F(w_k) s_{k,j}}, \tag{A.8} \] and since $\nabla^2 F(w_k)$ is symmetric and positive definite, it has a square root and so \[ \mu \leq \frac{\\|y_{k,j}\\|^2}{y_{k,j}^T s_{k,j}} \leq L. \tag{A.9} \] The bounds on $\frac{\\|y_{k,l}\\|^2}{y_{k,l}^T s_{k,l}}$ prove that for any $l$ chosen uniformly at random from $\{1, \ldots, \tilde{m}_k\}$ the eigenvalues of the matrices $B_k^{(i)} = \frac{y_{k,i}^T y_{k,i}}{s_{k,i}^T y_{k,i}} I$ at the start of the sampled L-BFGS update cycles are bounded above and away from zero, for all $k$ and $l$. We now use a Trace-Determinant argument to show that the eigenvalues of $B_k$ are bounded above and away from zero. Let $Tr(B)$ and $\det(B)$ denote the trace and determinant of matrix $B$, respectively. The trace of the matrix $B_{k+1}$ can be expressed as, \[ Tr(B_{k+1}) = Tr(B_k^{(i)}) - Tr \sum_{i=1}^{\tilde{m}_k} \left( B_k^{(i-1)} s_{k,i} s_{k,i}^T B_k^{(i-1)} \right) + Tr \sum_{i=1}^{\tilde{m}_k} \frac{y_{k,i} y_{k,i}^T}{y_{k,i}^T s_{k,i}} \tag{A.10} \] \[ \leq Tr(B_k^{(i)}) + \sum_{i=1}^{\tilde{m}_k} \frac{\\|y_{k,i}\\|^2}{y_{k,i}^T s_{k,i}} \tag{A.10} \] \[ \leq Tr(B_k^{(i)}) + \tilde{m}_k L \tag{A.10} \] \[ \leq Tr(B_k^{(i)}) + mL \leq C_1, \] for some positive constant $C_1$, where the inequalities above are due to (A.6), the fact that the eigenvalues of the initial L-BFGS matrix $B_k^{(i)}$ are bounded above and away from zero, and the fact that $\tilde{m}_k \leq m$ for all $k$. Using a result due to Powell [46], the determinant of the matrix $B_{k+1}$ generated by the sampled LBFGS method can be expressed as, \[ \det(B_{k+1}) = \det(B_k^{(0)}) \prod_{i=1}^{\tilde{m}_k} \frac{y_{k,i}^T s_{k,i}}{s_{k,i}^T B_k^{(i-1)} s_{k,i}} \\ = \det(B_k^{(0)}) \prod_{i=1}^{\tilde{m}_k} \frac{y_{k,i}^T s_{k,i}}{s_{k,i}^T s_{k,i} s_{k,i}^T B_k^{(i-1)} s_{k,i}} \\ \geq \det(B_k^{(0)}) \left( \frac{\mu}{C_1} \right)^{\tilde{m}_k} \\ \geq \det(B_k^{(0)}) \left( \frac{\mu}{C_1} \right)^m \geq C_2, \] (A.11) for some positive constant $C_2$, where the above inequalities are due to the fact that the largest eigenvalue of $B_k^{(i)}$ is less than $C_1$ and Assumption 5.2, and the fact that $\frac{\mu}{C_1} < 1$. The trace (A.10) and determinant (A.11) inequalities derived above imply that largest eigenvalues of all matrices $B_k$ are bounded above, uniformly, and that the smallest eigenvalues of all matrices $B_k$ are bounded away from zero, uniformly. A.3 Proof of Theorem 5.4 Theorem 5.4. Suppose that Assumptions 5.1 and 5.2 hold, and let $F^* = F(w^)$, where $w^$ is the minimizer of $F$. Let $\{w_k\}$ be the iterates generated by Algorithm 2, where \[0 < \alpha_k = \alpha \leq \frac{\mu_1}{\mu_2^2 L},\] and $w_0$ is the starting point. Then for all $k \geq 0$, \[F(w_k) - F^* \leq (1 - \alpha \mu \mu_1)^k [F(w_0) - F^].\] Proof.* We have that \[ F(w_{k+1}) = F(w_k - \alpha H_k \nabla F(w_k)) \\ \leq F(w_k) + \nabla F(w_k)^T (-\alpha H_k \nabla F(w_k)) + \frac{L}{2} \\| \alpha H_k \nabla F(w_k) \\|^2 \\ \leq F(w_k) - \alpha \nabla F(w_k)^T H_k \nabla F(w_k) + \frac{\alpha^2 \mu_2^2 L}{2} \\| \nabla F(w_k) \\|^2 \\ \leq F(w_k) - \alpha \mu_1 \\| \nabla F(w_k) \\|^2 + \frac{\alpha^2 \mu_2^2 L}{2} \\| \nabla F(w_k) \\|^2 \\ = F(w_k) - \alpha \left( \mu_1 - \alpha \frac{\mu_2^2 L}{2} \right) \\| \nabla F(w_k) \\|^2 \\ \leq F(w_k) - \alpha \frac{\mu_1}{2} \\| \nabla F(w_k) \\|^2, \] (A.12) where the first inequality is due to Assumption 5.2, the second and third inequalities arise as a consequence of Lemma 5.3 and the last inequality is due to the choice of the steplength. By strong convexity, we have $2\mu(F(w) - F^) \leq \\| \nabla F(w) \\|^2$, and thus \[F(w_{k+1}) \leq F(w_k) - \alpha \mu \mu_1 (F(w_k) - F^).\] Subtracting $F^$ from both sides, \[F(w_{k+1}) - F^ \leq (1 - \alpha \mu \mu_1)(F(w_k) - F^).\] Recursive application of the above inequality yields the desired result. A.4 Proof of Lemma 5.7 Lemma 5.7. Suppose that Assumptions 5.1 and 5.6 hold. Let \{H_k\} be the inverse Hessian approximations generated by Algorithm 2, with the modification that the inverse approximation update is performed using only the curvature pairs that satisfy (5.1), for some $ \epsilon > 0 $, and $ H_k = I $ if no curvature pairs satisfy (5.1). Then, there exist constants $ 0 < \mu_1 \leq \mu_2 $ such that \[ \mu_1 I \preceq H_k \preceq \mu_2 I, \quad \text{for } k = 0, 1, 2, \ldots. \] (A.13) Proof. As in the proof of Lemma 5.3, note that there is a chance that no curvature pairs are selected in Algorithm 1. In this case, the inverse Hessian approximation is $ H_k = I $, and thus $ \mu_1 = \mu_2 = 1 $ and condition (A.13) is satisfied. Similar to the proof of Lemma 5.3, we study the direct Hessian approximation $ B_k = H_k^{-1} $. In our algorithm, there are two options for updating the curvature pairs $ s_{k,j} $ and $ y_{k,j} $: \[ s_{k,j} = w_k - \bar{w}_j, \quad y_{k,j} = \nabla F(w) - \nabla F(\bar{w}_j) \quad \text{Option I}, \] (A.14) \[ s_{k,j} = w_k - \bar{w}_j, \quad y_{k,j} = \nabla^2 F(w_k)s_k \quad \text{Option II}, \] (A.15) for $ j = 1, \ldots, m $. Let $ \tilde{m}_k \in \{1, \ldots, m\} $ denote the number of curvature pairs that satisfy (5.1) at the $ k $th iteration, where $ m $ is the memory. At the $ k $th iteration, given a set of curvature pairs $ (s_{k,j}, y_{k,j}) $, for $ j = 1, \ldots, \tilde{m}_k $ we update the Hessian approximation recursively (using the procedure described in the proof of Lemma 5.3, and set $ B_{k+1} = B_k^{(i)} $. In this setting, the skipping mechanism (5.1) provides both an upper and lower bound on the quantity $ \frac{\\|y_{k,j}\\|^2}{s_{k,j}^T y_{k,j}} $ for both Options, which in turn ensures that the initial sampled LBFGS Hessian approximation is bounded above and away from zero. The lower bound is attained by repeated application of Cauchy’s inequality to condition (5.1). We have from (5.1) that \[ \epsilon \\|s_{k,j}\\|^2 \leq y_{k,j}^T s_{k,j} \leq \\|y_{k,j}\\| \\|s_{k,j}\\| \quad \Rightarrow \quad \\|s_{k,j}\\| \leq \frac{1}{\epsilon} \\|y_{k,j}\\|. \] It follows that \[ s_{k,j}^T y_{k,j} \leq \\|s_{k,j}\\| \\|y_{k,j}\\| \leq \frac{1}{\epsilon} \\|y_{k,j}\\|^2 \quad \Rightarrow \quad \frac{\\|y_{k,j}\\|^2}{s_{k,j}^T y_{k,j}} \geq \epsilon. \tag{A.16} \] The upper bound is attained by the Lipschitz continuity of gradients, \[ y_{k,j}^T s_{k,j} \geq \epsilon \\|s_{k,j}\\|^2 \\ \geq \epsilon \frac{\\|y_{k,j}\\|^2}{L} \quad \Rightarrow \quad \frac{\\|y_{k,j}\\|^2}{s_{k,j}^T y_{k,j}} \leq \frac{L^2}{\epsilon}. \tag{A.17} \] Combining (A.16) and (A.17), we have \[ \epsilon \leq \frac{\\|y_{k,j}\\|^2}{y_{k,j}^T s_{k,j}} \leq \frac{L^2}{\epsilon}. \] The bounds on $ \frac{\\|y_{k,j}\\|^2}{y_{k,j}^T s_{k,j}} $ prove that for any $ l $ chosen uniformly at random from $ \{1, \ldots, \tilde{m}_k\} $ the eigenvalues of the matrices $ B_k^{(i)} = \frac{y_{k,l}^T y_{k,l}}{s_{k,l}^T y_{k,l}} I $ at the start of the sampled LBFGS update cycles are bounded above and away from zero, for all $ k $ and $ l $. The rest of the proof follows the same trace-determinant argument as in the proof of Lemma 5.3, the only difference being that the last inequality in A.11 comes as a result of the cautious update strategy. $ \square $ A.5 Proof of Theorem 5.8 Theorem 5.8. Suppose that Assumptions 5.1, 5.5 and 5.6 hold. Let $ \{w_k\} $ be the iterates generated by Algorithm 2, with the modification that the inverse Hessian approximation update is performed using only the curvature pairs that satisfy (5.1), for some $\epsilon > 0$, and $H_k = I$ if no curvature pairs satisfy (5.1), where $$0 < \alpha_k = \alpha \leq \frac{\mu_1}{\mu_2^2 L},$$ and $w_0$ is the starting point. Then, $$\lim_{k \to \infty} \\| \nabla F(w_k) \\| \to 0,$$ (A.18) and, moreover, for any $\tau > 1$, $$\frac{1}{\tau} \sum_{k=0}^{\tau-1} \\| \nabla F(w_k) \\|^2 \leq \frac{2[F(w_0) - \hat{F}]}{\alpha \mu_1 \tau} \xrightarrow{\tau \to \infty} 0.$$ Proof. We start with (A.12) $$F(w_{k+1}) \leq F(w_k) - \alpha \frac{\mu_1}{2} \\| \nabla F(w_k) \\|^2.$$ Summing both sides of the above inequality from $k = 0$ to $\tau - 1$, $$\sum_{k=0}^{\tau-1} (F(w_{k+1}) - F(w_k)) \leq -\alpha \sum_{k=0}^{\tau-1} \frac{\mu_1}{2} \\| \nabla F(w_k) \\|^2.$$ The left-hand-side of the above inequality is a telescoping sum and thus, $$\sum_{k=0}^{\tau-1} [F(w_{k+1}) - F(w_k)] = F(w_\tau) - F(w_0) \geq \hat{F} - F(w_0),$$ where the inequality is due to $\hat{F} \leq F(w_\tau)$ (Assumption 5.5). Using the above, we have $$\sum_{k=0}^{\tau-1} \\| \nabla F(w_k) \\|^2 \leq \frac{2[F(w_0) - \hat{F}]}{\alpha \mu_1}.$$ (A.19) Taking limits we obtain, $$\lim_{\tau \to \infty} \sum_{k=0}^{\tau-1} \\| \nabla F(w_k) \\|^2 < \infty,$$ which implies (A.18). Dividing (A.19) by $\tau$ we conclude $$\frac{1}{\tau} \sum_{k=0}^{\tau-1} \\| \nabla F(w_k) \\|^2 \leq \frac{2[F(w_0) - \hat{F}]}{\alpha \mu_1 \tau}.$$ $\square$ ### A.6 Proof of Lemma 5.10 Lemma 5.10.* Suppose that Assumptions 5.1, 5.6 and 5.9 hold. Let $\{B_k\}$ be the Hessian approximations generated by Algorithm 3, with the modification that the approximation update is performed using only the curvature pairs that satisfy (5.2), for some $\epsilon > 0$, and $B_k = I$ if no curvature pairs satisfy (5.2). Then, there exists a constant $\nu_2 > 0$ such that $$\\| B_k \\| \leq \nu_2, \quad \text{for } k = 0, 1, 2, \ldots.$$ (A.20) Proof. As in the proof of Lemma 5.3, note that there is a chance that no curvature pairs are selected in Algorithm 1. In this case, the Hessian approximation is $B_k = I$, and thus $\nu_2 = 1$ and condition (A.20) is satisfied. We now consider the case where at least one curvature pair is selected by Algorithm 1. In this case, the sampled LSR1 updating formula is given as follows. Let $\bar{m}_k \in \{1, \ldots, m\}$ denote the number of curvature pairs that satisfy (5.2) at the $k$th iteration, where $m$ is the memory. At the $k$th iteration, given a set of curvature pairs $(s_{k,j}, y_{k,j})$, for $j = 1, \ldots, \bar{m}_k$ 1. Set $B_k^{(0)} = \gamma_k I$, where $0 \leq \gamma_k < \gamma$. 2. For $i = 1, \ldots, \tilde{m}_k$ compute $$B_k^{(i)} = B_k^{(i-1)} + \frac{(y_{k,i} - B_k^{(i-1)}s_{k,i})(y_{k,i} - B_k^{(i-1)}s_{k,i})^T}{(y_{k,i} - B_k^{(i-1)}s_{k,i})^Ts_{k,i}}.$$ 3. Set $B_{k+1} = B_k^{(\tilde{m}_k)}$. In our algorithm (Algorithm 1), there are two options for constructing the curvature pairs $s_{k,j}$ and $y_{k,j}$. At the current iterate $w_k$ we sample points $\bar{w}_j$ for $j = 1, \ldots, m$ and set $$s_{k,j} = w_k - \bar{w}_j, \quad y_{k,j} = \nabla F(w_k) - \nabla F(\bar{w}_j) \quad \text{Option I},$$ $$s_{k,j} = w_k - \bar{w}_j, \quad y_{k,j} = \nabla^2 F(w_k)s_k \quad \text{Option II}.$$ (A.22) Given a set of $\tilde{m}_k$ curvature pairs that satisfy (5.2), we now prove an upper bound for $\\|B_k\\|$. We first prove the bound for a given iteration $k$ and for all updates to the Hessian approximation $i = 0, 1, \ldots, \tilde{m}_k (\\|B_k^{(i)}\\|)$, and then get an upper bound for all $k (\\|B_k\\|)$. For a given iteration $k$, we prove a bound on $\\|B_k^{(i)}\\|$ via induction, and show $$\\|B_k^{(i)}\\| \leq \left(1 + \frac{1}{\epsilon}\right)^i \gamma_k + \left[\left(1 + \frac{1}{\epsilon}\right)^i - 1\right] \bar{\gamma}_k.$$ (A.23) For $i = 0$, the bound holds trivially since $B_k^{(0)} = \gamma_k I$. Now assume that (A.23) holds true for some $i \geq 0$. Note that all the curvature pairs that are used in the update of the Hessian approximation satisfy (5.2). By the definition of the SRI updates, we have for some index $i + 1$ that $$B_k^{(i+1)} = B_k^{(i)} + \frac{(y_{k,i+1} - B_k^{(i)}s_{k,i+1})(y_{k,i+1} - B_k^{(i)}s_{k,i+1})^T}{(y_{k,i+1} - B_k^{(i)}s_{k,i+1})^Ts_{k,i+1}},$$ and thus $$\\|B_k^{(i+1)}\\| \leq \\|B_k^{(i)}\\| + \left\\|\frac{(y_{k,i+1} - B_k^{(i)}s_{k,i+1})(y_{k,i+1} - B_k^{(i)}s_{k,i+1})^T}{(y_{k,i+1} - B_k^{(i)}s_{k,i+1})^Ts_{k,i+1}}\right\\|,$$ $$\leq \\|B_k^{(i)}\\| + \frac{\\|(y_{k,i+1} - B_k^{(i)}s_{k,i+1})(y_{k,i+1} - B_k^{(i)}s_{k,i+1})^T\\|}{\epsilon \\|y_{k,i+1} - B_k^{(i)}s_{k,i+1}\\| \\|s_{k,i+1}\\|}$$ $$\leq \\|B_k^{(i)}\\| + \frac{\\|y_{k,i+1} - B_k^{(i)}s_{k,i+1}\\|}{\epsilon \\|s_{k,i+1}\\|}$$ $$\leq \\|B_k^{(i)}\\| + \frac{\\|y_{k,i+1}\\|}{\epsilon \\|s_{k,i+1}\\|} + \frac{\\|B_k^{(i)}s_{k,i+1}\\|}{\epsilon \\|s_{k,i+1}\\|}$$ $$\leq \\|B_k^{(i)}\\| + \frac{\\|y_{k,i+1}\\|}{\epsilon \\|s_{k,i+1}\\|} + \frac{\\|B_k^{(i)}\\|}{\epsilon}$$ $$= \left(1 + \frac{1}{\epsilon}\right) \\|B_k^{(i)}\\| + \frac{\bar{\gamma}_k}{\epsilon}.$$ where the first inequality is due to the application of the triangle inequality, the second inequality is due to condition (5.2), the fourth inequality is due to the application of the triangle inequality, and the fifth inequality is due to application of Cauchy’s inequality and in the last inequality we used that $\bar{\gamma}_k \geq \bar{\gamma}_{k,i+1} = \frac{\\|y_{k,i+1}\\|}{\\|s_{k,i+1}\\|} > 0$. Substituting (A.23), $$\\|B_k^{(i+1)}\\| \leq \left(1 + \frac{1}{\epsilon}\right) \left[\left(1 + \frac{1}{\epsilon}\right)^i \gamma_k + \left[\left(1 + \frac{1}{\epsilon}\right)^i - 1\right] \bar{\gamma}_k\right] + \frac{\bar{\gamma}_k}{\epsilon}$$ $$= \left(1 + \frac{1}{\epsilon}\right)^{i+1} \gamma_k + \left[\left(1 + \frac{1}{\epsilon}\right)^{i+1} - 1\right] \bar{\gamma}_k$$ which completes the inductive proof. Thus, for any $k$ we have an upper bound on the Hessian approximation. Therefore, since $B_{k+1} = B_k^{(i+1)}$, the sampled SR1 Hessian approximation constructed at the $k$th iteration satisfies $$\\|B_{k+1}\\| \leq \left(1 + \frac{1}{\epsilon}\right)^{i+1} \gamma_k + \left[\left(1 + \frac{1}{\epsilon}\right)^{i+1} - 1\right] \tilde{\gamma}_k.$$ Now we generalize the result for all iterations $k$. For $k = 0$, the bound holds trivially, since the first step of the sampled LSR1 method is a gradient method ($B_0 = I$). For $k \geq 1$, we assume that $\gamma_k \leq \gamma < \infty$ and $\tilde{\gamma}_k \leq \tilde{\gamma} < \infty$ for all $k$, and thus $$\\|B_{k+1}\\| \leq \left(1 + \frac{1}{\epsilon}\right)^{i+1} \gamma_k + \left[\left(1 + \frac{1}{\epsilon}\right)^{i+1} - 1\right] \tilde{\gamma}_k$$ $$\leq \left(1 + \frac{1}{\epsilon}\right)^{i+1} \gamma + \left[\left(1 + \frac{1}{\epsilon}\right)^{i+1} - 1\right] \tilde{\gamma} = \nu_2,$$ for some $\nu_2 > 0$. This completes the proof. $\square$ ### A.7 Proof of Theorem 5.11 Theorem 5.11. Suppose that Assumptions 5.1, 5.5, 5.6 and 5.9 hold. Let $\{w_k\}$ be the iterates generated by Algorithm 3, with the modification that the Hessian approximation update is performed using only the curvature pairs that satisfy 5.2, for some $\epsilon > 0$, and $B_k = I$ if no curvature pairs satisfy (5.2). Then, $$\lim_{k \to \infty} \\| \nabla F(w_k) \\| = 0.$$ Proof. Assume, for the purpose of establishing contradiction, that there is a subsequence of successful iterations (where $\rho_k > \eta_1$, Line 6, Algorithm 3), indexed by $t_i \subseteq S$ where $S = \{k \geq 0 \| \rho_k \geq \eta_1\}$, such that $$\\| \nabla F(w_{t_i}) \\| \geq 2\delta > 0 \quad (A.24)$$ for some $\epsilon > 0$ and for all $i$. Theorem 6.4.5 from [14] then ensures the existence for each $t_i$ of a first successful iteration $\ell(t_i) > t_i$ such that $$\\| \nabla F(w_{\ell(t_i)}) \\| < \delta > 0.$$ Let $\ell_i = \ell(t_i)$, we thus obtain that there is another subsequence of $S$ indexed by $\{\ell_i\}$ such that $$\\| \nabla F(w_{k}) \\| \geq \delta, \quad \text{for} \quad t_i \leq k < \ell_i \quad \text{and} \quad \\| \nabla F(w_{\ell_i}) \\| < \delta. \quad (A.25)$$ We now restrict our attention to the subsequence of successful iterations whose indices are in the set $$K = \{k \in S \| t_i \leq k < \ell_i\},$$ where $t_i$ and $\ell_i$ belong to the subsequences $S$ and $K$, respectively. Using Assumption 5.9, the fact that $K \subseteq S$ and (A.25), we deduce that for $k \in K$ $$F(w_k) - F(w_k) \geq \eta_1 [m_k(0) - m_k(p_k)] \geq \xi \delta \eta_1 \min \left[ \frac{\delta}{\nu_2 + 1}, \Delta_k \right] \quad (A.26)$$ where we used the result of Lemma 5.10. Since the sequence $\{F(w_k)\}$ is monotonically decreasing and bounded below (Assumption 5.5), it is convergent, and the left-hand-side of (A.26) must tend to zero as $k \to \infty$. Thus, $$\lim_{k \to \infty, k \in K} \Delta_k = 0. \quad (A.27)$$ As a consequence, the term containing $\Delta_k$ is the dominant term in the min (A.26) and we have, for $k \in K$, sufficiently large, $$\Delta_k \leq \frac{F(w_k) - F(w_{k+1})}{(\nu_2 + 1)\delta \eta_1}. \quad (A.28)$$ From this bound, we deduce that, for $i$ sufficiently large $$\\|w_{t_i} - w_{\ell_i}\\| \leq \sum_{j=t_i, j \in K}^{\ell_i-1} \\|w_j - w_{j+1}\\| \leq \sum_{j=t_i, j \in K}^{\ell_i-1} \Delta_j \leq \frac{F(w_{t_i}) - F(w_{\ell_i})}{(\nu_2 + 1)\delta \eta_1}. \quad (A.29)$$ As a consequence of Assumption 5.5 and the monotonicity of the sequence $\{F(w_k)\}$, we have that the right-hand-side of (A.29) must converge to zero, and thus $\\|w_{t_i} - w_{\ell_i}\\| \to 0$ as $i \to \infty$. By continuity of the gradient (Assumption 5.1), we thus deduce that $\\|\nabla F(w_{t_i}) - \nabla F(w_{\ell_i})\\| \to 0$. However, this is impossible because of the definitions of $\{t_i\}$ and $\{\ell_i\}$, which imply that $\\|\nabla F(w_{t_i}) - \nabla F(w_{\ell_i})\\| \geq \delta$. Hence, no subsequence satisfying (A.24) can exist, and the theorem is proved. $\square$ B Additional Numerical Experiments and Method Details In this section, we present additional numerical results and expand on some details about the methods.$^4$ B.1 Motivation Figure In this section, we present more motivating plots showing the accuracy vs. iterations and accuracy vs. epochs for a toy classification problem. In the following experiments, we ran each method from 10 different initial points. ![Graphs showing accuracy vs. iterations and epochs for various methods](image) Figure 7: Comparison of Gradient Descent (GD), ADAM, BFGS, LBFGS, SR1, LSR1, Newton-TR (Exact), Newton-TR (CG) on a toy classification problem in terms of iterations and epochs. $^4$All experiments we run on a machine with the following specifications: 24 cores Intel(R) Xeon(R) CPU E5-2620 v3 @ 2.40GHz; 128 GB RAM; 2 K80 GPUs; Linux Debian GNU/Linux 8.10 (jessie); TensorFlow 1.12.2; CUDA 8.0; Python 2.7. B.2 Eigenvalue Figures In this section, we describe the procedure in which Figure 2 was constructed. We plot the same figure below for ease of exposition, and also plot a similar figure for another network. Figure 8: Comparison of the eigenvalues of SR1, LSR1 and S-LSR1 at different points for a toy classification problem. Figure 9: Comparison of the eigenvalues of SR1, LSR1 and S-LSR1 at different points for a toy classification problem. To calculate the eigenvalues for SR1, LSR1 and S-LSR1 we used the following procedure. 1. We ran the SR1 method for $T$ iterations on a toy classification problem. During the optimization, we computed the eigenvalues of the SR1 Hessian approximation at several points (e.g., A, B and C); black $\times$ marks on plots. 2. We stored all the curvature pairs $\{s_k, y_k\}_{k=1}^T$ and the iterates $\{w_k\}_{k=1}^T$. 3. We constructed the true Hessian at all iterations and computed the eigenvalues of the true Hessian; dark blue $\bullet$ (positive eigenvalues) and light blue $\bullet$ (negative eigenvalues) marks on plots. 4. We then computed the limited-memory SR1 Hessian approximations at several points (e.g., A, B and C) using the $m$ most recent pairs and computed the eigenvalues of the approximations; orange $\blacktriangledown$ marks on plots. 5. Finally, we used the iterate information at points A, B and C, sampled $m$ points at random around those iterates with sampling radius $r$, constructed the sampled LSR1 Hessian approximations and computed the eigenvalues of the approximations; red $\bullet$ marks on plots. Note: for Figure 8 we used $T = 40$, $m = 16$ and $r = 0.01$, and for Figure 9 we used $T = 70$, $m = 32$ and $r = 0.01$. As is clear, the eigenvalues of the sampled LSR1 Hessian approximations better match the eigenvalues of the true Hessian. Similar results were obtained for other problems and for different parameters $m$ and $r$. B.3 Trust-Region Management Subroutine In this section we present, in detail, the Trust-Region management subroutine $(\Delta_{k+1} = \text{adjustTR}(\Delta_k, \rho_k))$ that is used in Algorithm 3. See [45] for further details. Algorithm 4 $\Delta_{k+1} = \text{adjustTR}(\Delta_k, \rho_k, \eta_2, \eta_3, \gamma_1, \zeta_1, \zeta_2)$: Trust-Region management subroutine Input: $\Delta_k$ (current trust region radius), $0 \leq \eta_3 < \eta_2 < 1$, $\gamma_1 \in (0, 1)$, $\zeta_1 > 1$, $\zeta_2 \in (0, 1)$ (trust region parameters). 1: if $\rho_k > \eta_2$ then 2: if $\\|p_k\\| \leq \gamma_1 \Delta_k$ then 3: Set $\Delta_{k+1} = \Delta_k$ 4: else 5: Set $\Delta_{k+1} = \zeta_1 \Delta_k$ 6: end if 7: else if $\eta_3 \leq \rho_k \leq \eta_2$ then 8: Set $\Delta_{k+1} = \Delta_k$ 9: else 10: $\Delta_{k+1} = \zeta_2 \Delta_k$ 11: end if B.4 Hessian-Free Implementation of Limited-Memory SR1 Methods In this section, we discuss the practical implementation of limited-memory SR1 methods where we need not construct the Hessian approximation $B_k$ explicitly. For the purpose of this discussion we focus on the S-LSR1 method, but a similar approach can be used for the LSR1 method too. To do so, we utilize the compact representation of the Hessian approximation discussed in [12] which is equivalent to $B_k$ in (2.5). The compact representation can be expressed as follows: $$B_{k+1} = B_k^{(0)} + (Y_k - B_k^{(0)}S_k) \left( D_k + L_k + L_k^T - S_k^T B_k^{(0)} S_k \right)^{-1} (Y_k - B_k^{(0)}S_k)^T,$$ \hspace{1cm} (B.1) where $S_k = [s_{k,1}, s_{k,2}, \ldots, s_{k,m}] \in \mathbb{R}^{d \times m}$ and $Y_k = [y_{k,1}, y_{k,2}, \ldots, y_{k,m}] \in \mathbb{R}^{d \times m}$, and $B_k^{(0)}$ is a symmetric positive definite initial Hessian approximation, which for the purpose of this discussion we assume has the form $B_k^{(0)} = \gamma_k I$ $(0 \leq \gamma_k < \gamma < \infty)$. In (B.1), $D_k$ and $L_k$ are two $m \times m$ matrices that are defined as follows, $$D_k = \text{diag}[s_{k,1}^T y_{k,1}, \ldots, s_{k,m}^T y_{k,m}]$$ \hspace{1cm} (B.2) $$(L_k)_{i,j} = \begin{cases} s_{k,i-1}^T y_{k,j-1} & \text{if } i > j \\ 0 & \text{otherwise} \end{cases}$$ \hspace{1cm} (B.3) The curvature pairs in the matrices $S_k$ and $Y_k$ are pairs that satisfy the condition given in (5.2). In large-scale applications, it is not memory-efficient, or even possible for some applications, to store a $d \times d$ Hessian approximation matrix $B_{k+1}$. Instead, we can calculate the Hessian vector product $B_{k+1}v$, for some $v \in \mathbb{R}^d$, by leveraging the compact form of $B_k$ in (B.1) as follows: $$B_{k+1}v = B_k^{(0)}v + (Y_k - B_k^{(0)}S_k) \left( D_k + L_k + L_k^T - S_k^T B_k^{(0)} S_k \right)^{-1} (Y_k - B_k^{(0)}S_k)^T v$$ \hspace{1cm} (B.4) The above, $B_{k+1}v$, is very efficient in terms of memory, and even more importantly efficient to compute; the complexity of computing $B_{k+1}v$ is $\mathcal{O}(m^2d)$. In Algorithm 3, we need to compute and use $B_{k+1}v$ in the following parts: (1) in checking the condition (5.2); (2) as part of the computation of solving the subproblem (2.4) using the CG solver (see [45]); and, (3) in the calculation of $\rho_k$. In the remainder of this section we describe the steps for checking whether the curvature pairs constructed by Algorithm 1 satisfy (5.2). This is by no means a trivial task; several researchers have proposed mechanisms for doing this [8, 38] by using spectral decompositions of $B_k$. We propose to do this in a dynamic manner leveraging (B.4). The condition that we want to check (5.2) has the following form: $$\|s_{k,i}^T(y_{k,i} - B_k^{(i-1)}s_{k,i})\| \geq \epsilon \\|s_{k,i}\\|\\|y_{k,i} - B_k^{(i-1)}s_{k,i}\\|,$$ \hspace{1cm} (B.5) for $i = 1, \ldots, m$, where $B_k^{(i)}$ are constructed recursively via, $$B_k^{(i)} = B_k^{(0)} + (Y_k^i - B_k^{(0)}S_k^i) \left( D_k^i + L_k^i + (L_k^i)^T - (S_k^i)^T B_k^{(0)} S_k^i \right)^{-1} (Y_k^i - B_k^{(0)}S_k^i)^T,$$ \hspace{1cm} (B.6) $S_k^i = [s_{k,1}, s_{k,2}, \ldots, s_{k,i}]$, $Y_k^i = [y_{k,1}, y_{k,2}, \ldots, y_{k,i}]$, and $D_k^i$ and $L_k^i$ are defined in equations (B.2) and (B.3), respectively, using $S_k^i$ and $Y_k^i$. Of course we want to check condition (B.5) without explicitly forming the matrices $B_k^{(i)}$, and instead construct $B_k^{(i)}s_{k,i+1}$ directly. To this end, by using (B.4), for any $i = 0, \ldots, m - 1$ we have: $$B_k^{(i)}s_{k,i+1} = B_k^{(0)}s_{k,i+1} + (Y_k^i - B_k^{(0)}S_k^i) \left( D_k^i + L_k^i + (L_k^i)^T - (S_k^i)^T B_k^{(0)} S_k^i \right)^{-1} (Y_k^i - B_k^{(0)}S_k^i)^T s_{k,i+1}$$ \hspace{1cm} (B.7) where the matrices $S_k^i$, $Y_k^i$, $D_k^i$ and $L_k^i$ are defined as above. The steps for checking (5.2) are as follows: 1. Consider the $k$th iteration of Algorithm 3, where the pairs $\bar{S}_k = [s_{k,1}, \ldots, s_{k,m}]$ and $\bar{Y}_k = [y_{k,1}, \ldots, y_{k,m}]$ and $B_k^0$ are constructed by Algorithm 1. Let $S_k = []$ and $Y_k = []$ be two empty matrices. 2. For any $i = 1, \ldots, m$, consider the pair $(s_{k,i}, y_{k,i})$ and compute $B_k^{(i-1)} s_{k,i}$ by using (B.7) and the updated lists $S_k$ and $Y_k$. Note that for $i = 1$ the matrices $S_k$ and $Y_k$ are empty and $B_k^{(0)}$ is the initial Hessian approximation, thus condition (B.5) can be checked directly. (a) If condition (B.5) is satisfied for this pair, then $S_k = [S_k s_{k,i}]$ add $Y_k = [Y_k y_{k,i}]$ (b) Else, discard the pair $(s_{k,i}, y_{k,i})$ Using the mechanism described above, we recursively check condition (B.5), and construct well defined pairs $S_k$ and $Y_k$ which are used for the calculation of $p_k$ and $\rho_k$. As mentioned above, we can use the same idea for implementing the LSR1 method. B.5 Implementation Details In this section, we discuss the implementation details for all the methods.\footnote{All codes to reproduce the results presented in this section are available at: \url{http://github.com/ANONYMOUS/LINK}. The code will be released upon acceptance of the paper.} - For \textbf{ADAM}, we tuned the steplength and batch size for each problem independently. We used a batch size of 1. - For \textbf{GD} and \textbf{BFGS}-type methods, we computed the steplength using a backtracking Armijo line search [45]. - For \textbf{SR1}-type methods, we solved the trust-region subproblems (2.4) using CG-Steihaug [45]. - For \textbf{BFGS} and \textbf{SR1}, we constructed the full (inverse) Hessian approximations explicitly, whereas for the limited-memory we never constructed the full matrices. - For \textbf{limited-memory BFGS} methods we used the two-loop recursion to compute the search direction [45]. - Implementing the \textbf{limited memory SR1} methods is not trivial; we made use of the compact representations of the SR1 matrices [12] and computed the steps dynamically; see Appendix B.4 for details. B.6 Toy Example In this section, we present additional numerical results for the toy classification problem described in Section 6. In the following experiments, we ran each method from 100 different initial points. The details of the three networks are summarized in Table 1. ![Toy Classification Problem](image) Figure 10: Toy Classification Problem \| Network \| Structure \| $d$ \| \|---------\|-----------\|-----\| \| small \| 2-2-2-2-2-2 \| 36 \| \| medium \| 2-4-8-8-4-2 \| 176 \| \| large \| 2-10-20-20-10-2 \| 908 \| Table 1: Toy Classification Problem: Neural Network Details B.6.1 Performance of Methods on small, medium and large toy classification problems - Box-plots The following box-plots show the accuracy achieved by different methods for different budgets (epochs) and iterations. ![Performance of GD, ADAM, BFGS, LBFGS, SR1, LSR1, S-LSR1 and S-LBFGS on toy classification problem (small network).](image) Figure 11: Performance of GD, ADAM, BFGS, LBFGS, SR1, LSR1, S-LSR1 and S-LBFGS on toy classification problem (small network). ![Performance of GD, ADAM, BFGS, LBFGS, SR1, LSR1, S-LSR1 and S-LBFGS on toy classification problem (medium network).](image) Figure 12: Performance of GD, ADAM, BFGS, LBFGS, SR1, LSR1, S-LSR1 and S-LBFGS on toy classification problem (medium network). ![Performance of GD, ADAM, BFGS, LBFGS, SR1, LSR1, S-LSR1 and S-LBFGS on toy classification problem (large network).](image) Figure 13: Performance of GD, ADAM, BFGS, LBFGS, SR1, LSR1, S-LSR1 and S-LBFGS on toy classification problem (large network). B.6.2 Performance of Methods on small, medium and large toy classification problems In this section, we present more experiments showing accuracy vs. iterations and accuracy vs. epochs for different methods on toy classification problem. Figure 14: Performance of GD, ADAM, BFGS, LBFGS, SR1, LSR1, S-LSR1 and S-LBFGS on toy classification problem (small network). Figure 15: Performance of GD, ADAM, BFGS, LBFGS, SR1, LSR1, S-LSR1 and S-LBFGS on toy classification problem (medium network). Figure 16: Performance of GD, ADAM, BFGS, LBFGS, SR1, LSR1, S-LSR1 and S-LBFGS on toy classification problem (large network). B.6.3 Comparison of BFGS-type methods In this section, we present more experiments showing the accuracy achieved in terms of iterations and epochs for BFGS-type methods on toy classification problem. Figure 17: Performance of BFGS-type methods on toy classification problem (small network). Figure 18: Performance of BFGS-type methods on toy classification problem (medium network). Figure 19: Performance of BFGS-type methods on toy classification problem (large network). B.6.4 Comparison of SR1-type methods In this section, we present more experiments showing the accuracy achieved in terms of iterations and epochs for SR1-type methods on toy classification problem. Figure 20: Performance of SR1-type methods on toy classification problem (small network). Figure 21: Performance of SR1-type methods on toy classification problem (medium network). Figure 22: Performance of SR1-type methods on toy classification problem (large network). B.7 MNIST and CIFAR10 In this section, we show additional numerical experiments on the MNIST and CIFAR10 datasets. The details of these problems are summarized in Table 2. Table 2: Details for MNIST and CIFAR10 Problems. \| Problem \| Structure \| $d$ \| \|-----------\|-------------------------------------------------\|-----\| \| MNIST \| $784 - C_{5,3} - C_{5,5} - 10 - 10$ \| 990 \| \| CIFAR10 \| $1024, 3 - C_{5,3} - C_{5,5} - 16 - 32 - 10$ \| 2312\| $C_{k,ch}$: convolution with kernel $k$ and $ch$ output channels. B.7.1 Performance of Methods on MNIST In this section, we present more experiments showing the accuracy and objective function value of different methods on the MNIST problem. Figure 23: Performance of GD, ADAM, BFGS, LBFGS, SR1, LSR1, S-LSR1 and S-LBFGS on MNIST problems. B.7.2 Performance of ADAM on MNIST In this section, we show the performance of ADAM with different steplengths on the MNIST problem. As is clear from the results in Figure 24, the performance of well-tuned ADAM is very good, however, when the steplength is not chosen correctly, the performance of ADAM can be terrible. Note, we have omitted runs for which ADAM diverged (i.e., when the steplength was chosen to be too large). Figure 24: Performance of ADAM with different steplengths on MNIST. B.7.3 Performance of Methods on CIFAR10 In this section, we present more experiments showing the accuracy and objective function value of different methods on the CIFAR10 problem. Figure 25: Performance of GD, ADAM, BFGS, LBFGS, SR1, LSR1, S-LSR1 and S-LBFGS on CIFAR problems. C Distributed Computing and Cost C.1 Cost of Communication In this section, we show experiments conducted on a HPC cluster using a Cray Aries High Speed Network. The bandwidth ranges depending on the distance between nodes. We compiled the C++ code with the provided cray compiler. In Figure 26, we show how the duration (seconds) of Broadcast and Reduce increases when vectors of longer length are processed. ![Figure 26: Duration of Broadcast and Reduce for various number of MPI processes and different length of the vector.](image) In Figure 27, we show how long it takes (seconds) to perform Broadcast and Reduce operations for vectors of a given length if performed on different numbers of MPI processes. We have performed each operation 100 times and are showing the average time and 95% confidence intervals. ![Figure 27: Duration of Broadcast and Reduce as a function of # of MPI processes for various lengths of vectors.](image) C.2 Distributed Computing Experiment Details Table 3 summarizes the networks used in Section 4 and Figure 3. \| Model \| $d$ \| Input \| # classes \| \|-------------\|---------\|----------------\|-----------\| \| LeNet \| 3.2M \| $28 \times 28 \times 3$ \| 10 \| \| alexnet v2 \| 50.3M \| $224 \times 224 \times 3$ \| 1,000 \| \| vgg a \| 132.8M \| $224 \times 224 \times 3$ \| 1,000 \| C.3 Cost, Storage and Parallelization The cost per iteration of the different quasi-Newton methods can be deconstructed as follows: (1) the cost of computing the gradient, and (2) the cost of forming the search direction and taking the step. Note, motivated by the results in Figure 3, we assume that the cost computing a function value, gradient and Hessian vector product is comparable and is $\mathcal{O}(nd)$. The cost of computing the gradient is common for each method, whereas the search directions are computed differently for BFGS-type methods and SR1-type methods. More specifically, for BFGS methods we employ a line search and for SR1 method we use trust-region and solve the subproblem (2.4) using CG [45]. We denote the number of line search iterations and CG iterations as $\kappa_{ls}$ and $\kappa_{cg}$, respectively. Table 4 summarizes the computational cost and storage for the different quasi-Newton methods. \| Method \| Computational cost \| Storage \| \|-------------\|--------------------\|---------\| \| BFGS \| $nd + d^2 + \kappa_{ls} nd$ \| $d^2$ \| \| LBFGS \| $nd + 4md + \kappa_{ls} nd$ \| $2md$ \| \| S-LBFGS \| $nd + mnd + 4md + \kappa_{ls} nd$ \| - \| \| SR1 \| $nd + d^2 + nd + \kappa_{cg} d^2$ \| $d^2$ \| \| LSR1 \| $nd + nd + \kappa_{cg} md$ \| $2md$ \| \| S-LSR1 \| $nd + mnd + nd + \kappa_{cg} md$ \| - \| As is clear from Table 4, the proposed sampled quasi-Newton methods do not have a significantly higher cost per iteration than the classical limited memory variants of the methods. In the regime where $m \ll n, d$, the computational cost of the methods are $\mathcal{O}(nd)$. Moreover, the sampled quasi-Newton methods do not have any storage requirements. We should also note, that several computations that are required in our proposed methods are easily parallelizeable. These computations are the gradient evaluations, the function evaluations and the construction of the gradient displacement curvature pairs $y$. \footnote{The structure of the deep neural network is taken from: \url{https://github.com/tensorflow/models/tree/master/research/slim}.}
U.S. Department of Commerce U.S. Patent and Trademark Office Privacy Threshold Analysis for the Identity Management Authenticator (ID-AUTH) Introduction: This Privacy Threshold Analysis (PTA) is a questionnaire to assist with determining if a Privacy Impact Assessment (PIA) is necessary for this IT system. This PTA is primarily based from the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) privacy guidance and the Department of Commerce (DOC) IT security/privacy policy. If questions arise or further guidance is needed in order to complete this PTA, please contact your Bureau Chief Privacy Officer (BCPO). Description of the information system and its purpose: Provide a general description (in a way that a non-technical person can understand) of the information system that addresses the following elements: The E-Government Act of 2002 defines “information system” by reference to the definition section of Title 44 of the United States Code. The following is a summary of the definition: “Information system” means a discrete set of information resources organized for the collection, processing, maintenance, use, sharing, dissemination, or disposition of information. See: 44. U.S.C. § 3502(8). Identity Management Authenticator (ID-AUTH) is an end-to-end system tasked with managing the personal identity credentials of USPTO employees and contractors. ID-AUTH will support the personalization and issuance of Smart Card identification credentials under Homeland Security Presidential Directive 12 (HSPD-12). The HSPD-12 credential (photo ID badge) and the issuance process applies to all USPTO employees and contractors. The ID-AUTH system manages the personal identity credentials (photo ID badge) of all USPTO employees and contractors seeking physical access to USPTO facilities and logical access to USPTO information systems. The ID-AUTH integrates both the physical and logical access controls. ID-AUTH consists of the following two (2) sub-systems: - Card Management System (CMS) provides personalization and issuance of the Smart Card identification credentials under Homeland Security Presidential Directive (HSPD-12). - Internal Public Key Infrastructure-Smart Card (IPKI-SC) provides the management of internal certificates to USPTO a) Whether it is a general support system, major application, or other type of system ID-AUTH is a Major Application. b) System location ID-AUTH is located at the USPTO Data Center, 600 Dulany Street, Alexandria, VA 22314. c) Whether it is a standalone system or interconnects with other systems (identifying and describing any other systems to which it interconnects) ID-AUTH solution(s) uses the existing USPTO PKI (Entrust) system. It also connects with the existing USPTO Physical Access Control System (PACS) called C-Cure. Workstations to support Enrollment, Production, and Issuance of ID-AUTH credentials are installed in the Security Services Center. ID-AUTH interconnects with the following systems: - Enterprise Windows Services (EWS) is an Infrastructure information system, and provides a hosting platform for major applications that support various USPTO missions. - Enterprise Unix Services (EUS) is an infrastructure operating system with a sole purpose of providing a UNIX base hosting platform to support other systems at USPTO. - Enterprise Desktop Platform (EDP) is an infrastructure information system which provides a standard enterprise-wide environment that manages desktops and laptops running on the Windows 7 and Windows 10 operating system (OS), providing United States Government Configuration Baseline (USGCB) compliant workstations. - Service Oriented Infrastructure System (SOI) provides the underlying services which provide a mobile, feature-rich, and stable platform upon which USPTO applications can be deployed. - Database Services (DBS ORACLE) provides a Database infrastructure to support the mission of USPTO Database needs. The DBS System is composed of a collection of various versions of Database systems. The subsystems within the DBS System includes: SQL Database Servers (MSSQL); Oracle (Oracle); and MySQL (MySQL). - Data Storage Management System (DSMS) provides the following services or functions in support of the USPTO mission: Secure environment for archival and storage of data and records vital to USPTO's Business Continuity and Disaster Recovery plan. Each of the Automated Information Systems (AISs) comprising Data Storage Management provides a different set of capabilities. - Enterprise Software Services (ESS EDS) provides an architecture capable supporting current software services. - Physical Access Control System (PACS) is an electronic physical security system, and provides the capability to restrict and/or control physical access to USPTO facilities, equipment and resources. This system is used by authorized security personnel to manage and monitor multiple entry points, intrusion detection, and video surveillance at the USPTO Headquarters in Alexandria, Virginia and satellite offices in: San Jose, California; Denver, Colorado; Dallas Texas; and Detroit, Michigan. - Security and Compliance Services (SCS), formally EMSO, provides enterprise level monitoring to the USPTO. d) The purpose that the system is designed to serve The purpose of the ID-AUTH system is the personalization and issuance of the Smart Card identification credentials under HSPD-12. e) The way the system operates to achieve the purpose The ID-AUTH system manages the personal identity credentials (photo ID badge) of all USPTO employees and contractors seeking physical access to USPTO facilities and logical access to USPTO information systems. The ID-AUTH integrates both the physical and logical access controls. The USPTO ID-AUTH solution(s) uses the existing USPTO PKI (Entrust) system. It also connects with the existing USPTO Physical Access Control System (PACS) called C-Cure. Workstations to support Enrollment, Production, and Issuance of ID-AUTH credentials are installed in the Security Services Center. f) A general description of the type of information collected, maintained, used, or disseminated by the system ID-AUTH collects, maintains, or disseminates PII/BII for federal employees and contractors. In accordance with HSPD-12 and FIPS 201-1, personal data such as Social Security Numbers (SSNs), fingerprints, personal information, and facial images are collected and stored for issuing Personal Identity Verification (PIV) cards to federal employees and contractors, and for conducting PIV card lifecycle maintenance functions. g) Identify individuals who have access to information on the system USPTO employees and contractors who are authorized users have access to information in the system. Authorized users of the system accounts, or roles, with access to ID-AUTH are managed. h) How information in the system is retrieved by the user Only ID-AUTH role holders have access to the application. ID-AUTH role holders must logon to workstation systems prior to authenticating to the ID-AUTH system. ID-AUTH roles are statically defined. Non-privileged access is for the use of all USPTO PIV card holders to only access the self-portal. i) How information is transmitted to and from the system Enrollment within Probaris ID is performed using Probaris Enrollment. This is a client module with biometric capture devices and a workflow based client that is integrated with the core Probaris ID servers to provide fast enrollment throughput, flexibility and security. All data is digitally signed and transmitted back to the solution with no privacy data stored locally to meet the stringent privacy guidelines. ID AUTH system utilizes workstations, identity management software and various peripheral devices to produce the PIV card. USPTO employees and contractors pertinent data is collected, photos are captured, and fingerprints are gathered to provide verification of identity of each applicant. The data along with work detail information are then loaded to the PIV card producing a credentialed Smart Card. The PIV card is printed and issued to the applicant for efficient identification and security control for both physical and logical access to USPTO facilities and assets. Questionnaire: 1. Status of the Information System 1a. What is the status of this information system? - [ ] This is a new information system. Continue to answer questions and complete certification. - [ ] This is an existing information system with changes that create new privacy risks. Complete chart below, continue to answer questions, and complete certification. \| Changes That Create New Privacy Risks (CTCNPR) \| \|-----------------------------------------------\| \| a. Conversions \| \| \| b. Anonymous to Non-Anonymous \| \| \| c. Significant System Management Changes \| \| \| d. Significant Merging \| \| \| e. New Public Access \| \| \| f. Commercial Sources \| \| \| g. New Interagency Uses \| \| \| h. Internal Flow or Collection \| \| \| i. Alteration in Character of Data \| \| \| j. Other changes that create new privacy risks (specify): \| - [x] This is an existing information system in which changes do not create new privacy risks, and there is not a SAOP approved Privacy Impact Assessment. Continue to answer questions and complete certification. - [ ] This is an existing information system in which changes do not create new privacy risks, and there is a SAOP approved Privacy Impact Assessment (version 01-2015 or 01-2017). Continue to answer questions and complete certification. - [ ] This is an existing information system in which changes do not create new privacy risks, and there is a SAOP approved Privacy Impact Assessment (version 01-2019 or later). Skip questions and complete certification. 1b. Has an IT Compliance in Acquisitions Checklist been completed with the appropriate signatures? - [ ] Yes. This is a new information system. - [ ] Yes. This is an existing information system for which an amended contract is needed. No. The IT Compliance in Acquisitions Checklist is not required for the acquisition of equipment for specialized Research and Development or scientific purposes that are not a National Security System. No. This is not a new information system. 2. Is the IT system or its information used to support any activity which may raise privacy concerns? NIST Special Publication 800-53 Revision 4, Appendix J, states “Organizations may also engage in activities that do not involve the collection and use of PII, but may nevertheless raise privacy concerns and associated risk. The privacy controls are equally applicable to those activities and can be used to analyze the privacy risk and mitigate such risk when necessary.” Examples include, but are not limited to, audio recordings, video surveillance, building entry readers, and electronic purchase transactions. Yes. (Check all that apply.) \| Activities \| \| \| \|----------------------------\|---\|---\| \| Audio recordings \| \| \| \| Building entry readers \| \| \| \| Video surveillance \| \| \| \| Electronic purchase \| \| \| \| Other (specify): \| \| \| No. 3. Does the IT system collect, maintain, or disseminate business identifiable information (BII)? As per DOC Privacy Policy: “For the purpose of this policy, business identifiable information consists of (a) information that is defined in the Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) as “trade secrets and commercial or financial information obtained from a person [that is] privileged or confidential.” (5 U.S.C.552(b)(4)). This information is exempt from automatic release under the (b)(4) FOIA exemption. “Commercial” is not confined to records that reveal basic commercial operations” but includes any records [or information] in which the submitter has a commercial interest” and can include information submitted by a nonprofit entity, or (b) commercial or other information that, although it may not be exempt from release under FOIA, is exempt from disclosure by law (e.g., 13 U.S.C.).” Yes, the IT system collects, maintains, or disseminates BII. No, this IT system does not collect any BII. 4. Personally Identifiable Information (PII) 4a. Does the IT system collect, maintain, or disseminate PII? As per OMB 17-12: “The term PII refers to information that can be used to distinguish or trace an individual’s identity either alone or when combined with other information that is linked or linkable to a specific individual.” Yes, the IT system collects, maintains, or disseminates PII about: (Check all that apply.) ☒ DOC employees ☒ Contractors working on behalf of DOC ☐ Other Federal Government personnel ☐ Members of the public ☐ No, this IT system does not collect any PII. If the answer is “yes” to question 4a, please respond to the following questions. 4b. Does the IT system collect, maintain, or disseminate Social Security numbers (SSNs), including truncated form? ☒ Yes, the IT system collects, maintains, or disseminates SSNs, including truncated form. Provide an explanation for the business need requiring the collection of SSNs, including truncated form. ID-AUTH collects, maintains, or disseminates PII/BII for federal employees and contractors. In accordance with HSPD-12 and FIPS 201-2, personal data such as Social Security Numbers (SSNs), fingerprints, personal information, and facial images are collected and stored for issuing PIV cards to federal employees and contractors, and for conducting PIV card lifecycle maintenance functions. Provide the legal authority which permits the collection of SSNs, including truncated form. Homeland Security Presidential Directive 12 (HSPD-12). ☐ No, the IT system does not collect, maintain, or disseminate SSNs, including truncated form. 4c. Does the IT system collect, maintain, or disseminate PII other than user ID? ☒ Yes, the IT system collects, maintains, or disseminates PII other than user ID. ☐ No, the user ID is the only PII collected, maintained, or disseminated by the IT system. 4d. Will the purpose for which the PII is collected, stored, used, processed, disclosed, or disseminated (context of use) cause the assignment of a higher PII confidentiality impact level? Examples of context of use include, but are not limited to, law enforcement investigations, administration of benefits, contagious disease treatments, etc. ☒ Yes, the context of use will cause the assignment of a higher PII confidentiality impact level. ☐ No, the context of use will not cause the assignment of a higher PII confidentiality impact level. If any of the answers to questions 2, 3, 4b, 4c, and/or 4d are “Yes,” a Privacy Impact Assessment (PIA) must be completed for the IT system. This PTA and the SAOP approved PIA must be a part of the IT system’s Assessment and Authorization Package. CERTIFICATION ☒ I certify the criteria implied by one or more of the questions above apply to the Identity Management Authenticator (ID-AUTH) and as a consequence of this applicability, I will perform and document a PIA for this IT system. ☐ I certify the criteria implied by the questions above do not apply to the Identity Management Authenticator (ID-AUTH) and as a consequence of this non-applicability, a PIA for this IT system is not necessary. \| System Owner \| \|---------------\| \| Name: Jimmy Orona, III \| \| Office: Software Services Branch 2 (I/SSB2) \| \| Phone: (571) 272-0673 \| \| Email: firstname.lastname@example.org \| Users, Orona, Jimmy III Signature: III Date signed: \| Chief Information Security Officer \| \|-----------------------------------\| \| Name: Don Watson \| \| Office: Office of the Chief Information Officer (OCIO) \| \| Phone: (571) 272-8130 \| \| Email: email@example.com \| DON R Watson Signature: DON R Watson Date: 2021.12.07 17:13:56 -05'00' \| Privacy Act Officer \| \|---------------------\| \| Name: Ezequiel Berdichevsky \| \| Office: Office of General Law (G/GLO) \| \| Phone: (571) 270-1557 \| \| Email: firstname.lastname@example.org \| Users, Berdichevsky, Ezequiel Signature: Ezequiel Date signed: \| Bureau Chief Privacy Officer and Authorizing Official \| \|------------------------------------------------------\| \| Name: Henry J. Holcombe \| \| Office: Office of the Chief Information Officer (OCIO) \| \| Phone: (571) 272-9400 \| \| Email: email@example.com \| Users, Holcombe, Henry Signature: Henry Date: 2021.12.09 11:53:05 -05'00' \| Co-Authorizing Official \| \|-------------------------\| \| Name: N/A \| \| Office: N/A \| \| Phone: N/A \| \| Email: N/A \| Signature: ____________________________ Date signed: ____________________________ This page is for internal routing purposes and documentation of approvals. Upon final approval, this page must be removed prior to publication of the PTA.
MILLENNIUM LE MONDE NEWSLETTER Back again … with a bang. We are always enthralled and excited to meet you along with our millennium scholars of North Bengaluru. They are talented, motivated and chiselled enough to astound you. Here are a few of them on these colourful pages of “Le monte” to surprise you. Still there are a few more waiting to surprise you… “Success is the sum of all efforts separated day in and day out – R. Collier” We witness it here in our MWS a day in and a day out makes a wonderful change and progress in their childhood. The holistic development and all-round growth are experienced here and excelled in its pinnacle of quality. Here is an open invitation to you, the parents, to have a scheduled stroll in our sprawling campus with your kith and kin, dear and near ones to have a glimpse of our exemplary infra and observe the exquisite learning of your children. Bye for now, stay safe, stay healthy. Learning Maths means opening a world of opportunity. To create an interest and love towards the wonderful world of mathematics, Math week was organized in Millennium World School Bengaluru North from 4th to 8th December 2023. During Math Week we aim to inspire and motivate our students when it comes to learning new concepts. The concept behind Math Week is to build self-confidence and strengthen problem solving skills in this vital subject area. By incorporating the use of various games, technology, and a multitude of fun activities, children are able to learn math in a creative and less structured environment. Math week provides students with a positive, powerful, and memorable learning experience for our students. High & Lows! Once, a professor asked his students to predict the movement of two metal balls of the same mass on a wavy and a straight path respectively. Students confidently predicted that the metal ball moving on the straight path would reach the other end of the platform faster. But, to their surprise when the ball rolling on the wavy path raced faster than that of the straight path. The professor explained, “Since the cycloidal path is steeper in the beginning than the straight path, the mass on the cycloidal path gains more kinetic energy. So science proves that life with highs and lows allows a person to reach his destination faster than a life without it”. A scientific perspective allows you to see life with a new energy and celebrate all its highs and lows. Millennium World School Library has books for learning from pre-school students to upper primary students. There are a total of 1600 books available in various parts, like pre-primary, primary, and secondary education fiction, short stories, arts and recreation, science, mathematics, social science, Hindi literature, children's activity books, and pop-up books. The library is located on the first floor, and everybody can easily access library resources. The library has running natural light, a fully air-conditioned reading room, reference halls, and other amenities. The total seating capacity is more than 30. The main attraction of the library is that whenever students come into the library, books are easily identified into pre-primary, primary, and upper-primary categories of books. These facilities fulfil the need to save readers' time. Millennium World School Library has a well-connected Wi-Fi facility. Library Facilities and Services Circulation register, student newspaper Time of India, computer, glass table and chair, puzzles, pop-up books, etc. Circulation service for 6 to 8 students. 1-5 students borrow books for the class library. Enhancing reading through short stories, graphic novels, and fiction. Provides reference assistance to children and teachers. A gate system is used for entry and exit to the library. General services Book-lending services User orientation services Magazines and news papers Reference services SDI services Current awareness services Library programmes Library orientation Library reference services to students and teaching and non-teaching staff. Yoga is essentially a spiritual discipline based on an extremely subtle Science which focuses on bringing harmony between mind and body. It is an art and science for healthy living. The word "Yoga" is derived from the Sanskrit root yuj meaning "to join", "to yoke" or "to unite". Our Children in Future MUSIC Millennium World School with its special educational partners in music- Torrins and SAPA conducts classes from Pre-primary to secondary to encourage the musicians in every child. So hitting the right note with this we saw the emergence of EAGLEYEES- the school band which took part in the “Battle of bands” organised by Euroschool, Whitefield, Bengaluru. Now Is The Time To Rock At TORRINS BATTLE! THEATRE Theatre opens us up to experiencing different perspectives that we may not be aware of or have contemplated. When theatre is introduced to kids, they explore the endless possibilities of their imagination and creativity. Other than this, it encourages communication, confidence, culture, patience, morals and empathy. When they have to perform a particular act with limited space, resources and time, they are forced to think as creatively as possible and mostly out of the box. This is one the most important skill that leaders in any industry need to possess in today’s competitive world. So, when this creative part of the brain is activated, most kids do exceptionally well in academics and in their careers in future. Theatre is instrumental in raising empathetic kids with emotional resilience. Kids exposed to theatre can better identify with multiple perspectives as they perform after understanding the character’s intention, viewpoint and goal. While acting improves verbal expression through voice projection, articulation of words and fluency with words, it also creatively improves non-verbal expression of ideas. This in turn improves their social interaction. In other words, understanding theatre helps us understand what it means to be human. BIOTECHNOLOGY When you go to a supermarket you must have come across two types of tomatoes. Hybrid Tomatoes and Local Tomatoes. Well, you might wonder what is the difference between the two. The difference is that in Hybrid Tomatoes ‘Biotechnology’ is used whereas the local tomatoes are grown naturally. ‘Biotechnology’ as the word says, involves the application of natural science and engineering science to achieve the desired results. The term ‘Biotechnology’ was first coined by Karoly Ereky in 1919 to refer to the production of products from raw materials with the help of living organisms. Biotechnology involves the utilization of organisms, parts of organisms, or biological processes to perform specific tasks or produce valuable substances. Biotechnology has significant role in the fields of medicine, agriculture, environmental science, etc. One of the major techniques used in biotechnology is genetic engineering, which allows engineers to edit the genetics of an organism and get the desired results. This process can involve adding other genes from other organisms into the creature, creating new features, or editing the existing ones. e.g. development of pharmaceuticals products like antibiotics, antibodies, drought hardy crops etc. Other important techniques used in biotechnology are tissue culture and fermentation. The use of the process of fermentation can be considered as classical biotechnology one such example is wine production. Like every coin has two sides same is the case with biotechnology. e.g. negative use of biological weapons can really destroy humanity. Let us hope we use biotechnology for betterment of our lives and create a better future for ourselves. SAANVI GUPTA Grade VI A 1. You walk into a room and see a bed. On the bed, there are two dogs, five cats, a giraffe, six cows, and a goose. There are also three doves flying above the bed. How many legs are on the floor? 2. My first is in chocolate but not in ham. My second is in cake and also in jam. My third at eating time is easily found. What am I? 3. The more you take the more you leave behind. What am I? 4. You can serve me, but not eat me. What am I? 5. I have many keys but can't open a single door, what am I? 6. What falls down but never goes up? Answer 1. 6 legs, the bed's legs and your legs 2. Cat, first- Chocolate Second – Cake jam third-eating-time 3. Foot prints/steps 4. A Volleyball, throwing a volley ball is also known as serving. 5. Key board 6. Candle while melting, pencil rain. OZONE HOLE being thrice the size as Brazil The ozone hole over the Antarctic has ballooned to near-record size, Warns a new study. According to the ESAC European Space Agency, the ozone depleting area reached a size of 26 million, sq. km. on September 26th 2023, which is roughly three times the size of Brazil. Scientists have said that the ozone hole grows even further than 26 million sq.km. It happens every August in Antarctic Springs It begins to and reaches a peak in October, before receding slightly and eventually closing again. Facts for Ozone Hole - Ozone depletion over the frozen continent was first Spotted in 1985, and over the last 36 have been introduced to try and shrink the hole. years, various measures. - Ozone is compound gas made of three oxygen atoms which occurs naturally in trace amounts high up in the atmosphere. Toxic to human when undigested. It protects us from ultraviolet rays spewed out from Earth! PARTHASARATHI YUVARAJ AI-Influence on Children Have you ever wondered what AI is and how does it affect Kids? Well today you will find out. AI is commonly known as Artificial intelligence, AI comes in many forms such as robots, programs, google assistant, Siri, etc. They all seem to know everything, yet are fake and lifeless. They don’t have blood and cells like us. They were made by programs/codes. But how does it affect Children? Well AI provides tools That could educate children. For example, if you say Hey Siri, can you tell me the multiplication table of 21?" Siri will give you the right answer. But everything comes with its disappointments. If a child gets addicted to AI by asking everything to it, the child May not use his or her intelligent brain and instead copy from AI. I hope you enjoyed the article today, until next time farewell. By Anushka Grade IV B Doodling And The Art Of Doodling Doodling is often dismissed as a mindless activity, is a surprisingly powerful tool for fostering creativity and concentration. Beyond mere idle scribbles, doodling engages the brain in a unique way, providing an outlet for expression and Sparking innovative thinking. As its core, doodling is spontaneous and unstructured form of drawing that emerges absentmindedly, during meetings, lectures, or idle moment far from being a distraction. Beyond its cognitive benefits, doodling serves as a visual diary. Each doodle, no matter how small, reflects the individual’s unique perspective and state of mind. Moreover, doodling transcends cultural and linguistic barriers making it a kind of universal language. You are most likely wondering “But I can only draw slick figures!” Don’t worry though! Doodling is all about how you want to draw; it is not just about absentminded drawings. It’s a realm where you can do and imagine ANYTHING! So, the next time you find yourself absentmindedly sketching in the margin of your notebook, remember that you might be unlocking a door to a world of creativity and innovation. Go! Start doodling. Pranathi D C Grade VI A My Weird Encounter One evening, a storm struck my town. I watched as the rain hit our roof making a thumping noise. Scary noises filled the room as it was a monster party was here to fight. The wind gave a familiar chill. Slowly the rain transformed into snow. Winter was near. But something wasn’t right. Suddenly everything became dark. ‘Run away child’ screamed a voice. I quickly hid under my blanket. A few minutes later, I peeked outside to see a monster! It was hairy and huge. Its head touched the ceiling as it entered my room. I froze but I was too late, the monster had spotted me! Soon we were neck to neck, but instead of eating me, it licked me! Then started wimping and turned into a tiny snow dog. “You just a little lonely guy,” I said, feeling pity for it. It then ran into the snowy blizzard outside. What a weird encounter! By Anushka Grade IV B Anime What is Anime? The word anime is a short form of animation while anime was created in Japan, it has spread to all other countries. Anime can be found in many languages including English. Why is Anime famous for? Anime has been a global phenomenon that has also captured the hearts of many people. Its distinct style genre, themes, and characters have made it popular. The top 10 anime in the world 1. Jujutsu Kaisen 2. One piece 3. Demon Slayer 4. Naruto 5. Death note 6. Spy x family 7. My Hero Academy 8. Attack on titan 9. Clanswoman 10. Attack on titan Women, who are they? A person who looks after the house, taking care of everyone in her family. She does all the work that has to be done and most of the time she goes beyond. She is a mother: she is a wife; she is a daughter to some and a daughter-in-law to another and yet she is just called a woman. She should be called a superwoman. Women are very important to the nation. Women should be educated. They are kind, polite, beautiful and sweet. The whole nation is proud of them. We have elected a woman to be our president also. Without a woman there is no nation. We can in all the fields like-entertainment, education, community help, etc. That is called women empowerment. Now adays, we can see women working in schools, colleges, banks, transport departments, etc. Women are also scientists, judges, cricketers, artists, singers, dancers, police officers. We are very proud of our President Droupadi Murmu, and out our Finance Minister -Nirmala Seetharaman of India. I admire Smt. Sudha Murthy as my role model. One of our Directors Dr. Santoshi Singh and our Principal Dr. Chrity Glory Shanti all are women. A Snapshot of the Latest In Space Explanation Mars Exploration Perseverance Rovers Discoveries Delve into the findings of NASA’s perseverance rover on Mars, including its exploration of the Jezero Crater the search for signs of ancient life, and the collection of rock samples for future return to Earth. Tienwen-1 Mission Explore China’s Tianwen-1 mission, which successfully deployed the Zhurong rover on Mars Making China the second nation to achieve a soft landing and conduct operations on the Martian surface. International Collaborations Artemis Program Discuss NASA's Artemis program, focusing on international collaborations, including partnership with the European Space Agency (ESA) and other global contributors with an emphasis on the mission to return humans to the Moon. Gateway Project Examine the Gateway project, an international lunar Out Post that will serve as a staging point for future missions to the moon and beyond, illustrating the cooperative efforts shaping the future of space exploration. Commercial Space Ventures SpaceX's Starship Progress Explore the latest developments in SpaceX's Starship Project, Elon Musk's ambitious vision for a fully reusable spacecraft capable of carrying humans to Mars and other destinations in the solar system. Blue Origin’s New Shepard and New Glenn Assess Blue Origin’s advancements with the new Shephard suborbital rocket and the upcoming New Glenn Orbital rocket, highlighting their contributions to commercial space travel. Advancements in Space Telescopes James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) Discuss the imminent launch of the James Webb Space Telescope, focusing on its capabilities to revolutionize our understanding of the universe, observe distant galaxies, and explore the atmosphere of exoplanets. Advancements in Ground-Based Telescopes Examine the best technologies and upgrades implemented in ground-based telescopes, enabling astronomers to make groundbreaking observations. SPACE TOURISM Commercial Space Flights Explore the emerging era of space tourism, featuring companies like Blue Origin and Virgin Galactic offering suborbital flights to civilians and the potential impact of this industry on the future of this space exploration. Potential for Lunar Tourism Discuss proposed plans for lunar tourism, including private companies aiming to offer civilians the opportunity to visit the Moon, marking a significant shift in accessibility to space and discoveries. FUTURE PROSPECTS Interplanetary Exploration Explore the prospects of upcoming interplanetary missions, including missions to Jupiter’s moon Europa and Saturn’s Moon Titan, aiming to unlock the mysteries of these intriguing celestial bodies. Interstellar Exploration Concepts Discuss theoretical concepts and proposals for interstellar exploration, including spacecraft designs and propulsion systems that could one day enable humanity to reach neighboring star systems. By Charith K R Grade VII A All About Cyclones What are cyclones? How are they formed? A cyclone is a large mass of air that rotates around a strong point of low-atmospheric pressure. Winds are very important as they carry moisture and cause rainfall. Sometimes, these winds blow at very high speeds and cause a cyclone. A cyclone is a system of winds that rotate inwards around a centre of low-atmospheric pressure also known as depression. Cyclones rotate clockwise in the southern hemisphere and anti-clockwise is in the northern hemisphere. The centre of the cyclone or the strong point of low-atmospheric pressure is known as the ‘eye’ of the cyclone. There are 4 types of cyclones - Tropical, Extratropical, Mesocyclones, and Polar cyclones. What are the effects of cyclones? Tropical cyclones also known as hurricanes or typhoons are the most destructive types of cyclones. It can cause heavy rainfall, strong winds, etc. Due to cyclones, human life and marine life will be destroyed, there will be a negative impact on the tourism industry, the economic value of the area is destroyed. Cyclones also reduce the fertility of the soil, eroding it. How are cyclones named? The cyclones that originate in the Indian Ocean and the South Pacific Ocean are named in alphabetical order, with women and men’s names being alternated. The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and member countries of the United Nations Economic and Social Commission (ESCAP) are responsible for naming the cyclones. Which was the recent cyclone? Cyclone Michaung. Michaung was the recent cyclone that hit India. It was a strong tropical cyclone that formed in the Bay of Bengal off the south-eastern coast of India. It originated as a low-pressure area in the Gulf of Thailand and crossed into the Bay of Bengal on 2nd December. It was so destructive that it damaged 770-kilometre roads, uprooted 35 trees and killed 13 people on 5th of December in the central coast of Andhra Pradesh. More than 140 trains and 40 flights were cancelled due to it. It also flooded Chennai, destroying the whole city with heavy rains. The super cyclone or Paradip Cyclone 1999, was the most intense cyclone India had ever faced. It hit Odisha with winds at the speed of 250km/h. The disaster killed more than 10,000 people, and injured 7,500, and orphaned 1,500 children. Some other deadly cyclones in Indian History are: Cyclone Bhola – 1970 Andhra Pradesh Cyclone-1977 Cyclone BOB 1 Hooghly River Cyclone – 1737 Coringa Cyclone 1839 Calcutta Cyclone – 1864 Bengal Cyclone 1833 Bengal Cyclone – 1942 What are the precautions to take in a cyclone prone area? If you are living in a cyclone prone area, follow the precautionary measures mentioned. - Prepare emergency kits - Close all doors and windows. - Check for gas leaks - Have contact numbers of police, ambulance, etc. - Don’t use wet electric appliances. - Listen to local radio for warnings and advice. By Siri Chandana Grade VII A My Snowy Summer Holidays It was the first week of my summer holidays. I had just reached Kashmir and all my first cousins were with me there. On the 2nd day, my family and I visited an apple grove. We had picked a few ripe apples and I was counting the apples in my basket. To my surprise, I saw snowflakes on the apples. Then suddenly I heard screams and squeals from my family. All of us, kids were squealing in awe while all the adults were screaming in panic. I turned to see what it was, a snowfall! When I saw it, I was very excited, as I had never seen snow in my life. All my cousins, my sister, and I started playing with the snow. We stayed there for an hour, but after that, a blizzard started! Since the orchard belonged to our hotel, we ran back to our room. We turned on our room heater after putting on four jackets, 2 sweatshirts, and a pair of furry room slippers. When our parents checked the weather forecast, they saw the temperature was a shocking -1 degrees Celsius! On the 3rd day, it was -10 degrees! It was freezing. We were sitting in our hotel, covered with several layers of jackets for a week. On the 8th day, the blizzard stopped and there was just a light snowfall with a temperature of 0 degrees. All of us, kids ran out while all our parents were bedazzled in this huge change of weather. We started playing in the snow. We made snow castles, snow hills, and snowmen. We were doing contests on which is the biggest snow hill, and we also tried a few snow sports, like Ice skating, Sledging, etc. It was the best and weirdest summer holiday ever, even though it wasn't that sunny! MAHATHI KRISHNAN Facts - The Mona Lisa has no eyebrows. - Most people fall asleep in seven minutes. - The strongest muscle in the body is tongue. - Coca-Cola was originally green. - The most common name in the world is Mohammed. - Rhythm is the longest English word without a vowel. - A snail can sleep for three years. - A shrimp's heart is in its head. - All polar bears are left-handed. - The electric chair was invented by a dentist. Lavani Grade VI A INDUS VALLEY CIVILISATION Project Model Students of grade VI were introduced to Indus Valley civilization. They were mesmerized by the techniques which were used in the town planning of the civilization. They were awestruck by the engineering techniques used in building homes, granaries, the great bath, drainage systems etc. Inspired by the Indus Valley civilization students made their own models and had an exhibition in their class. By this student not only learnt about the Indus Valley civilization, also exhibited their own talent in planning the towns or cities. FUN RIDDLES 1. What has a neck but no head? 2. What has hand but cannot clap? 3. What kind of room has no doors and windows? 4. I’m tall when I’m young and short when old. 5. What is your but mostly used by others? 6. The more you take, the more you leave behind what are? 7. What always found on the ground but never gets dirty? 8. I have one long body but no hands as legs, who am I? Niharika Grade III A Answers 1: A bottle 2: A clock 3: A mushroom 4: A candle 5: Name 6: Foot steps 7: A shadow 8: A snake Clever Charlie In the deep forest of fossil forest, there lived a hare called Charlie. He liked simple things such as simple classic music and wore simple clothes as T-shirt and Jeans. One day while walking on the foot path he saw wolf, they became friends. So, every time the met together, they go hunt for fruits and vegetables, Charlie took Timon to his burrow, and Timon took him to his cave. They were best friends. One day something unexpected happened! Timon jumped on Charlie ‘Oh, I can’t wait anymore, I will eat you here itself.’ Charlie worried looked around and sawa log! Phew! In one shot the wolf fainted! Charlie was heartbroken, even if got a bravery award. Niharika Grade III A The Mysterious Jungle One Sunday, my dad and I decided to take a tour in a jungle. After a short discussion, we chose the Amazon Jungle. I had always dreamed of exploring it since I read stories of the brave adventurers who ventured into its depths. I packed my backpack with a knife, flashlight, compass, and snacks. I was ready to embark on the adventure of a lifetime. We landed right in the middle of the jungle using our parachute. The jungle was full of wonders and dangers. The air was humid and fragrant, filled with the sounds of birds and insects. We felt excitement as we walked deeper into the green maze. What secrets would I discover? What challenges would I face? What treasures would I find? So lost in my thoughts was I that I turned around to see my father missing. I had no idea what to do next. Just then I saw a big snake swallowing a crocodile. I ran away as fast as I could to save my life. I ran till I felt tired. I sat in a place to relax. I heard someone speaking, that’s the OTS tribes (One Time Seen Tribes). For my luck, one of them believed that I would not harm them. That was a chieftain. He was about to introduce his team to me and that is when I noticed my father was getting chased by the same snake that I saw. The tribes hunted the snake and saved us. The chieftain continued the introduction. His name is Gru Nagir and they were not the OTS tribes. They were Mangou tribes. They are all very talented and showcased their talents before us. One of them is a great painter who painted the rare animal seen only once in a lifetime. It had the body of a tiger, the face of a pig, the tail of a horse, the wings of an eagle, the front legs of an ostrich, and the back legs of a cheetah. This was startling. By then the rescuers came and they were surprised to see the Mangou tribes. They took selfies with them. We departed from there with a question... WHO KNOWS WHAT ELSE IS THERE IN THIS MYSTERIOUS JUNGLE? FACTS ABOUT BUTTERFLY 1. Butterflies are cold blooded and require in ideal settings – a body temperature of approximately 85 degrees to activate their flight muscles. 2. Butterflies use their feet to taste. 3. Some butterfly wings are transparent. 4. All butterflies have tongues called Proboscis. 5. Butterflies only live for a few weeks. The Secret about Pets Pets are like the best friends that stay with you right in your home. You could adopt a pet, you could buy one, as it is the trend today or you could just look after the stray that sits outside your gate. Once you adopt a pet not only do you get a cute friend, but you also get the responsibility of taking care of it. Taking care of your pet could be a difficult task yet if it is shared, it could be the most joyful one ever. To do this, you need to unlearn, learn, and relearn some things. You need to learn what they eat, how they sleep, and play, how to keep them clean, and what medical attention they need. Doing this right could help you have a healthy pet. Keeping your pet clean as well as keeping your house clean could be very difficult but getting adult help or helping adults could ensure the task is done well. It really is not so difficult if you understand that team work, dedication and planning have a big part to play. What then will you get in return? Loads of love, unconditionally, and a loyal friend will make up for everything gave and much more. So get a pet, NOW!!!! By Faizah Grade V A AUTHOR: MEET & GREET - Mr. Nitin Kushalappa Welcome you for a session Author Meet & Greet By Author Nithin Kushalappa MP CAMBRIDGE TRAINING - Mr. Kirti Kumar Thank You Mr. Kirtikumar Mentor, Cambridge Learning JUNK FOOD Junk food!!! If it is food, why is it Junk? Food is generally any substance that is meant to provide nutritional support and helps one to survive. It boosts ones’ immune system, strengthen the bones, help different functions of the body and organs, lowers the risk of diseases, and promotes overall growth. But junk food includes all food that is high in calories, fat or sugar with very less proteins, minerals or vitamins that are required for the body. There are many reasons why these junk foods taste better than normal nutritional food. They are artificially flavoured or made with artificial material. This is enough to make us avoid Junk Food. So avoid it!!! By Samanvi S Grade V A ROBOTS Robots, the wonderful invention of man. Meant to help and serve but the future with them is uncertain. Why worry about things that are yet to come to pass. Right now, robots are helpful, aren’t they? They help us in so many different jobs. They are smart helpers, doing simple to complex jobs: doing easy to dangerous jobs. Let’s look at some of the things that robots assist us with. Some robots work in big factories making unique equipment; some help in hospitals assisting with complicated surgeries while others work in restaurants as waiters. Whatever the work, robots are talented and fun too. We have a lot to learn about them but for now we can be happy that they are here to help us. Like everything else, robots also come with disadvantages. They have no feelings, they malfunction sometimes or even breakdown completely. Other than this… we must wait and see. By Inaya Grade V A I had the opportunity to visit Jantar Mantar during my trip to Delhi and it was truly an amazing experience. The intricate astronomical instruments and the attention to detail in their construction left me in awe. It’s fascinating to think that these structures were built centuries ago, yet they still hold relevance in modern times. I was particularly impressed by the Sundials, which were massive and accurately measured time based on the Sun’s position. It’s incredible to think that these instruments were used to precisely measure the time and predict astronomical events long before the invention of modern technology. Overall, Jantar Mantar is a testament to ancient India’s scientific and architectural genius. It’s a must-visit for anyone interested in astronomy, history or architecture. The Jantar Mantar observatories in India have a rich history that dates back to the 18th century. Maharaja Jai Singh II, the ruler of the Kingdom of Amber, was interested in astronomy and was inspired by Islamic and European advancements in different cities across India, each chosen for its geographical location and intended purpose. The Jantar Mantar observatories were designed to measure and predict celestial events, track planetary positions, observe stars and calculate time. They featured a range of instruments such as Sundials, celestial globes and other devices aimed at precise astronomical measurements. The structures were built using stone and masonry and the showcased a fusion of traditional Indian architectural elements and advanced scientific instruments. While the observatories faced challenges in keeping up with advancements in astronomy, they remain enduring monuments to India’s scientific heritage and the dedication of Maharaja Jai Singh II to promote the study of astronomy and mathematics in the country. Today, they continue to attract visitors and scholars interested in exploring India’s astronomical past. By Saidarsh Grade VII A MILLENNIAL DA VINCI AYESHA AAYAT K.P. GR-III C YUKTI KATARIA GR II C YATHARTH YATHEENDRAN GR IV B YUKTHA REDDY A DHYAN SHASTRI GR. II B AARADHYA KRISHNAN GR II C YASHWANTH YADAV GR. III B ADIRA AMITH GR II B SURYASHIV GR IV A MUSFIRAH GR.III A MILLENNIAL DA VINCI NANDAN ADITYA S GR II C INAYA BARBHUIYA GRV A GUHAN A GR II D NAKSHTRA MAHESH GR IV B BABITHA KAWAR GR IV B SANMITH ADHITHYA C K GR.II B AYESHA AAYAT K. P. GR-III C MILLENNIAL DA VINCI PRASANNA S PATIL GR. VB AAYATH AHMADI GR II B ANAISHA PANDEY GR III C AKSHARA SANDEEP - GR V A AATMAN JAIN- GRIII C AARADHYA KRISHNAN - GR II C ISHAN BHANDARY, THILAKSHA S- GR II, ESSA MARIAM CHARLES- GR II C YASHSWINI S - GR IV A ART & CRAFT SAAHITHI ALANKRUTHA C MOHAMMED ARHAN SHAIK UDDHAV NISHITH MOHAMMED ARHAN SHAIK Millennium World School – Bengaluru North – www.mwsblr.com 90351 88888 88, Kogilu Main Rd, Kogilu, Bengaluru, Karnataka 560064 FOLLOW US ON Instagram, Facebook, YouTube
RESEARCH ANNOUNCEMENTS ABSENCE OF SINGULAR CONTINUOUS SPECTRUM IN N-BODY QUANTUM SYSTEMS\textsuperscript{1} BY P. PERRY\textsuperscript{2}, I. M. SIGAL AND B. SIMON ABSTRACT. For a large class of potentials including arbitrary bounded potentials with $r^{-2-\epsilon}$ falloff and also allowing suitable local singularities and slower falloff, we demonstrate that the singular continuous spectrum of $N$-body quantum Hamiltonians is empty. We accomplish this by extending Mourre's work on three body problems to $N$-bodies. We want to consider here multiparticle Schrödinger operators, i.e. the Hamiltonian operators of $N$-body quantum systems. Given a function, $V_\gamma$, on $\mathbb{R}^v$ for each pair $\gamma \subset \{1, \ldots, N\}$, the operator $$\widetilde{H} = -\sum_{i=1}^{N} (2m_i)^{-1} \Delta_i + \sum_{\gamma} V_\gamma(r_\gamma)$$ \hspace{1cm} (1) on $L^2(\mathbb{R}^{Nv})$ is the Hamiltonian before removal of the center of mass. In (1), we write $r \in \mathbb{R}^{vN}$ as $(r_1, \ldots, r_N)$; let $\Delta_i$ be the Laplacian with respect to $r_i$ and if $\gamma = (ij)$, we write $r_\gamma = r_i - r_j$. If one decomposes $L^2(\mathbb{R}^{Nv}) = H \otimes H_{cm}$ with the first factor functions of $r_\gamma$ and the second functions of $R = (\Sigma m_i)^{-1}(\Sigma m_i r_i)$, then $\widetilde{H} = H \otimes 1 + 1 \otimes T_{cm}$ with $T_{cm} = (2\Sigma m_i)^{-1} \Delta_R$ (see, e.g. [10]). $H$ is the Schrödinger operator we want to discuss. There are three main features of the spectrum of $H$ which one wants to establish in cases where $V_\gamma$ has suitable falloff at $r_\gamma \to \infty$. (i) Point spectrum can only accumulate at thresholds. (ii) $H$ has no singular continuous spectrum. (iii) Scattering is complete. Thresholds are defined as follows: Let $a$ be a partition of $\{1, \ldots, N\}$ and write $\gamma \subset a$ if $\gamma$ is a subset of one of the clusters in $a$. Write $H = H(a) + I(a)$ with $I(a) = \Sigma_{\gamma \not\subset a} V_\gamma$ and write $H = H^a \otimes H_a$ with the first factor functions of $r_\gamma$ with $\gamma \subset a$ and the second functions of differences of centers of mass of distinct clusters in $a$. Then $H(a) = H^a \otimes I + I \otimes T_a$: $H^a$ is the Hamiltonian of the internal motion of the clusters and $T_a$ the kinetic energy of motion of the \textsuperscript{1}Research partially supported by USNSF Grant MCS-78-01885 \textsuperscript{2}P. Perry is a predoctoral NSF fellow. clusters relative to each other. Eigenvalues of some $H^a$ with $a \neq a_1$, the one cluster partition, are called thresholds. In the 1950's the first general results for the simplest case $N = 2$ appeared and during the past twenty years, the case $N = 2$ has been extensively analyzed (see [10], [11] for a review). Faddeev's celebrated work [3] dealt with the solution of (ii) and (iii) in case $N = 3$ but even in that case Faddeev required technical conditions on $V_\gamma$ roughly requiring $r^{-2-\epsilon}$ falloff and that certain compact operators depending linearly on $V_\gamma$ not have 1 in their spectrum (there has recently been progress on removing this last restriction [7]). Note that these conditions are now known to imply that the point spectrum has no negative accumulation points, partially solving (i) [2], [15]. There have been solutions of (i)—(iii) for $N \geq 4$ assuming strong unproved hypotheses on the various $H^a$ [12]. As for results with assumptions only on the $V_\gamma$, we know of three types: (a) solutions of all three problems by Iorio and O'Carroll [5] when the $V_\gamma$ have small enough norms in suitable topologies; (b) solutions of all three problems by Lavine [6] when all $V_\gamma$ are repulsive; (c) solutions of problems (i) and (ii) by Balslev and Combes [1] and of (iii) (for "generic" short-range $V$'s in the Balslev and Combes class) by Hagedorn ($N = 4$) [4] and Sigal (all $N$) [13] when the $V_\gamma$ have rather strong analyticity properties. In cases (a) and (b), no $H^a$ can have any eigenvalues. Case (c) includes the important special cases of Coulomb and Yukawa potentials. Prior to our work reported here, there were no results depending only on the $V$'s even when all $V_\gamma$'s were $C^\infty_0$ functions of $r_\gamma$. We consider functions $V$ on $\mathbb{R}^v$ with $V = V_1 + V_2 + V_3$ so that the following six operators are compact after being multiplied by $(1 - \Delta)^{-1}$: (1) $(1 + x^2)V_1$; (2) $V_2$; (3) $V_3$; (4) $(1 + x^2)\nabla V_2$; (5) $(1 + x)\nabla V_3$; (6) $(1 + x^2)\nabla\nabla V_3$. Roughly speaking $V_1$ allows arbitrary potentials with $r^{-2-\epsilon}$ falloff and $V_2$, $V_3$ allow slower falloff as long as derivatives falloff sufficiently rapidly. Our main result is Theorem (arbitrary $N$). If all $V_\gamma$ are of the above form then $H$ has empty singular continuous spectrum and point spectrum can only accumulate at thresholds. Our proof is based in part on ideas in a remarkable paper of Eric Mourre [8] preprinted in January, 1979. Mourre focused attention on estimates of the form $$E_\Delta BE_\Delta \geq \alpha E_\Delta^2 + E_\Delta KE_\Delta \quad (2)$$ where $E_\Delta$ is a spectral projection for $H$, $K$ is compact, $\alpha > 0$ and $B = i[H, A]$ with $A = -(i/2)(x \cdot \nabla + \nabla \cdot x)$, the generator of dilations. Mourre requires additional technical hypotheses to which we return shortly and demands (2) hold for $\Delta$, a sufficiently small neighborhood of any nonthreshold points. It is also necessary that the closure of the thresholds be countable: this follows inductively if (i) is known for all subsystems. (2) and the technical hypotheses imply that (i) and (ii) are valid. Mourre’s hypotheses (and ours, also) require that $D(H) = D(H_0)$ ($H_0 = -\Delta$ on $H$). One then forms the spaces $H_j = \overline{D(H^{j/2})} = \overline{D(H_0^{j/2})}$ for $j = \pm 2, \pm 1, 0$ (the bar denotes the completion necessary for $j < 0$). Mourre requires that $B$ be bounded from $H_{+2}$ to $H$ and that $[A, B]$ be bounded from $H_{+2}$ to $H_{-2}$. We have improved the required technical hypotheses to only needing that $B$ is bounded from $H_{+2}$ to $H_{-1}$. In fact our hypotheses on $V$ are precisely chosen to get $[A, V]$ and $[A, [A, V]]$ bounded on the proper spaces. Our improvement here allows nonsmooth $V$’s where Mourre does not. Mourre also proved (2) for systems with $N = 2$ and $N = 3$ but his method is special to these $N$. Our main new ideas involve the proof of (2) for general $N$. The proof is not difficult but is unfortunately complicated. Let us sketch the ideas under the assumption that each $H^a$ has only a finite number of distinct eigenvalues each of them having finite multiplicity (this assumption while not necessary allows considerable simplification in the proof; see [9] for full details). To prove (2) we only need to show that for any $\lambda \notin$ thresholds, there is an $f_1$ which is identically 1 near $\lambda$ so that $$f_1(H)Bf_1(H) \geq \frac{1}{2} \text{dist}(\lambda, \text{thresholds}) f_1(H)^2$$ (3) where $\geq$ (and similarly $\equiv$) means the inequality (resp. equality) holds, up to a term which is compact plus a term whose norm can be made arbitrarily small by shrinking the support of $f_1$ suitably. Our proof requires the notion of $a$-compact operator. Operators, $O$, commuting with the momentum of relative motion of the clusters in $a$ are called $a$-fibered. Such operators have a direct integral decomposition with respect to the tensor product $H^a \otimes H_a$ with fibers $O(p_a)$ acting on $H^a$. $O$ is called $a$-compact if it is $a$-fibered, if the fibers $O(p_a)$ are compact on $H^a$, and if $p_a \to O(p_a)$ is a norm continuous operator vanishing in norm at infinity. A “typical” $a$-compact operator is $(H_0 + 1)^{-1}P(a)$ where $P(a) = P^a \otimes I$ and $P^a =$ projection onto the point eigenvectors of $H^a$, which we are assuming is finite rank. For $a = a_1$, we make the convention $P(a_1) = 0$. $a$-compact operators have the following properties: (1) they are closed under norm limits; (2) any $a$-compact operator is a norm limit of $a$-compact operators with $O(\cdot) \in C_0^\infty$ and with $O(p_a)$ having range and cokernel lying in some $p_a$-independent finite-dimensional space; (3) if $A$ is $a$-compact, then, for $a \neq a_1$, $\lim_{\|\Delta\| \to 0} \\|AP(a)E_\Delta(H(a))\\| = 0$, where $\overline{P(a)} = 1 - P(a)$ and $\|\Delta\|$ = Lebesgue measure of $\Delta$; (4) if $a \subset b$ and $A$ is $b$-compact, then $\lim_{\|\Delta\| \to 0} \\|AE_\Delta(H_a)\\| = 0$; (5) if $A$ is $a$-compact and $B$ is $b$-compact, then $AB$ is $a \cup b$ compact; (6) if $A$ is $a$-compact and $B$ is bounded, $a$-fibered with continuous fibers, then $AB$ is $a$-compact. In the above $a \subset b$ means that the partition $a$ is a refinement of $b$ and the symbol $a \cup b$ is union in the resulting lattice of partitions. Given the approximation property (2), the proofs of the above properties are not difficult. In [14], Simon proved that $$f(H) = K^f + \sum_{a_2} j_{a_2} f(H(a_2)) \quad (4)$$ for any continuous $f$ going to zero at infinity. In (4), $K^f$ is a compact operator depending on $f$, the sum is over all partitions with two clusters and the $j$'s are a suitable partition of unity on $R^{(N-1)\nu}$. In exactly the same way one finds $$f(H(a_k)) = K^f(a_k) + \sum_{a_{k+1} \subset a_k} j_{a_k a_{k+1}} f(H(a_{k+1})) \quad (5)$$ where $a_k$ has $k$-clusters, the sum is over all $k + 1$-cluster partitions and $K^f(a_k)$ is $a_k$-compact, in fact $K^f(a_k) (H_0 + 1)$ is $a_k$-compact. Given $N$ functions $f_1 \subset f_2 \subset \cdots \subset f_N$ (where $f \subset g$ means $0 \leq f \leq 1$, $0 \leq g \leq 1$ and $g \equiv 1$ on $\text{supp } f$), we write $$f_i(H(a_i)) = f_i(H(a_i)) P(a_i) + f_i(H(a_i)) \overline{P(a_i)} f_{i+1}(H(a_i))$$ and then expand the second term using (5). The net result is $$f_1(H(a_1)) = \sum_{i, a_i} [N(a_i) f_i(H(a_i)) P(a_i) + M(a_i) f_i(H(a_i)) \overline{P(a_i)} K^f i+1(a_i)], \quad (6)$$ where $N, M$ are bounded by combinatorial factors. By successively shrinking the supports of $f_N$, then $f_{N-1}, \ldots$, we can be sure that all the $Mf\overline{P}K$ terms have small norm, using property (3) of $a$-compact operators, or (for $a = a_1$), are compact. For $a \neq b$, $(H_0 + 1)^{-1} P(a) P(b)$ is a fixed $a \cup b$-compact operator and either $a \neq a \cup b$ or $b \neq a \cup b$ so the cross terms in $f_1^2$ have small norm by property (4) if $f_N$ has small support. Thus $$f_1(H(a_1))^2 = \sum_{i, a_i} N(a_i) f_i(H(a_i)) P(a_i)^2 f_i(H(a_i)) N(a_i)^.$$ Similarly $$f_1(H(a_1)) Bf_1(H(a_1)) = \sum_{i, a_i} N(a_i) f(H(a_i)) P(a_i) BP(a_i) f(H(a_i)) N(a_i)^.$$ But $B = B^{a_i} \otimes I + 2T(a_i) + \Sigma_{\gamma \not\subset a_i} W_\gamma$ with $W_\gamma = i[V_\gamma, A]$ and $T(c) = I \otimes T_c$. As in Mourre's paper, $f_i P(a_i) (B^{a_i} \otimes I) P(a_i) f_i = 0$ for $f_i$ having small support (expand $P(a_i)$ into individual projections and control diagonal terms by the Virial theorem and off-diagonal terms by shrinking support). $(H_0 + 1)^{-1} P(a_i) W_\gamma (H_0 + 1)^{-1}$ is $a_i \cup \gamma$ compact so those terms are small by shrinking $f_i$. Finally, by shrinking $f_i$, $$f_i(H(a_i)) P(a_i) T(a_i) P(a_i) f_i(H(a_i)) \geq \frac{1}{2} \text{dist}(\lambda, \text{thresholds}) f_i P^2 f_i$$ so (3) results. REFERENCES 1. Balslev and J. M. Combes, Spectral properties of Schrödinger Hamiltonians with dilation analytic potentials, Comm. Math. Phys. 22 (1971), 280–294. 2. M. Combescure and J. Ginibre, On the negative point spectrum of quantum mechanical three-body systems, Ann. Phys. 101 (1976), 355–379. 3. L. D. Faddeev, Mathematical aspects of the three body problem in the quantum theory of scattering, Israel Program for Scientific Translation, Jerusalem, 1965. 4. G. A. Hagedorn, Asymptotic completeness for a class of four particle Schrödinger operators, Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. 84 (1978), 155–156; Asymptotic completeness for classes of two, three, and four particle Schrödinger operators, Trans. Amer. Math. Soc. 258 (1980), 1–75. 5. R. J. Iorio and M. O’Carrol, Asymptotic completeness for multiparticle Schrödinger operators with weak potentials, Comm. Math. Phys. 27 (1972), 137–149. 6. R. Lavine, Commutators and scattering theory. I. Repulsive interactions, Comm. Math. Phys. 20 (1971), 301–323; Completeness of the wave operators in the repulsive N-body problem, J. Math. Phys. 14 (1973), 376–379. 7. M. Loss and I. M. Sigal, Many body scattering with quasibound states (in preparation). 8. E. Mourre, Absence of singular continuous spectrum for certain self-adjoint operators, Comm. Math. Phys. (to appear). 9. P. A. Perry, I. M. Sigal and B. Simon, Spectral analysis of N-body Schrödinger operators (in preparation). 10. M. Reed and B. Simon, Methods of modern mathematical physics. III. Scattering theory, Academic Press, New York, 1979. 11. ————, Methods of modern mathematical physics. IV. Analysis of operators, Academic Press, New York, 1978. 12. I. M. Sigal, Mathematical foundations of quantum scattering theory for multiparticle systems, Mem. Amer. Math. Soc. No. 209 (1978). 13. ————, On quantum mechanics of many-body systems with dilation-analytic potentials, Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. 84 (1978), 152–154; Scattering theory for multiparticle systems. I, II, (preprint) ETH-Zürich, 1977–1978 (an expanded version will appear in the Springer Lecture Notes in Mathematics). 14. B. Simon, Geometric methods in multiparticle quantum systems, Comm. Math. Phys. 55 (1977), 259–274. 15. D. R. Yafaev, On the point spectrum in the quantum-mechanical many-body problem, Math. USSR Izv. 10 (1976), 861–896. DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, PRINCETON UNIVERSITY, PRINCETON, NEW JERSEY 08544 DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS, PRINCETON UNIVERSITY, PRINCETON, NEW JERSEY 08544
John Bolton—Astronomer extraordinary Astronomers all over the world would have been saddened to hear of the death of John Bolton in July this year. Not only was he one of the great pioneers who created whole new branches of the subject, but, for those who knew him personally, a friend of truly remarkable individuality. With his unlimited courage and penetrating intuition, and physically indefatigable when in intense pursuit of whatever he was after, John Bolton was a phenomenon that had to be experienced to be believed. So different was he from other scientists of his eminence that it was almost as if he did not belong with them. Before World War II all information about the Cosmos had been obtained through the roughly half an octave window of the visible part of the electromagnetic spectrum. The half a century since then can truly be called the Golden Age of Astronomy when the field underwent a total transformation. The limits of the observable universe were pushed back beyond all reasonable expectations, and it was shown to be populated with surprisingly energetic galaxies radiating powerfully at wavelengths ranging over as many as fourteen orders of magnitude. As summed up by Paul Wild$^1$, Bolton’s distinguished colleague and contemporary: "...it all began in 1948 when a 26 year old Yorkshireman named John Bolton with two colleagues discovered that three distant objects known from optical observations were extremely powerful emitters of radio waves. One, which Bolton called 'Taurus A' was located in our own galaxy: the Crab Nebula. The other two ('Virgo A and Centaurus A') were external galaxies. This discovery marked the beginning of the new era in which the universe could be explored by means of its high energy galaxies". These revolutionary observations were made with equipment from World War II located on a cliff overlooking the sea in Sydney, Australia. John had opted to settle here at the end of the War because—according to one friend—"he had no desire to return to an England where a man from Yorkshire would find it hard to break into the academic community". Two other Yorkshiremen I got to know—through John—and admire as scientists, were Paul Wild, who like John also married an Australian and settled in Australia, and Fred Hoyle who as we all know, stayed in England, did break into the academic community with a vengeance, and to this day loves a fight. John Gatenby Bolton was born in Sheffield on 5 June 1922. After going through his local grammar school, he won a scholarship to Trinity College, Cambridge. He graduated with honours in 1942 and joined the Royal Navy as a Radar Officer, but was soon recruited into radar research at the then secret Telecommunications Research Establishment (TRE). Among who worked there at the time, and were to become famous later, were names like Paul Wild (already mentioned), Christiansen, Bernie Mills, Alec Little and Jack Piddington, besides a host of others almost as well known. To all of these scientists Pawsey was the father figure in Australian Radio Astronomy. Not so for Bolton however, one of whose first experiences was being ordered back to the lab by Pawsey when the latter unexpectedly visited the site and found the aerials not pointed at the Sun, because Bolton was looking for other radio sources. Bolton was reassigned to assist Stanley to build equipment to go on an eclipse expedition to Brazil in the following year. It was a matter of great good fortune for astronomy that the expedition was called off and Bolton was "released" to do what he pleased with the equipment they had built, and to avail of Stanley's services as well. They lost no time in moving the equipment out to the cliff-top site called Dover Heights, and so began a period of epoch-making observations. Notwithstanding the separation of Bolton from the solar group, his maiden publication$^2$ in August 1947 deals with the first observations at three well-separated frequencies (60, 100 and 200 MHz) of a solar outburst of Type II (as later designated by Wild). Bolton and coauthors correctly attributed the delays in arrival time with decreasing frequencies to the passage of a physical agency upwards through different levels of the corona. They estimated a velocity of almost 1000 km/s, close to that of auroral particles, and noted that an aurora was in fact observed in some parts of Australia a little more than a day after the outburst. From then on it was radio sources, of which only one had so far been discovered, by Hey in England, The cliff top location of the Yagi antennas enabled the sea surface to be used as a "Lloyd's mirror" to make a sea-interferometer providing an enormous increase in resolution. Fine interference fringes were observed on Hey's source fixing both its location in the constellation of Cygnus and an upper limit to its angular size of eight arc minutes. I may add in passing that it was the subsequent identification of this "strong" radio source with a very dim optical galaxy some years later that made everyone instantly realize that the accessible radio universe would be far larger than the visible one. Then followed the discovery of the three sources mentioned at the beginning. Determining their positions well enough to make the identifications was no simple matter. It involved shipping the equipment to New Zealand and towing it with an army truck to more than one location with a cliff of adequate height and appropriate orientation. Months of hard work later there was enough justification to write to three famous optical astronomers all of whom had an interest in the Crab Nebula — Jan Oort, Bengi Strömgren and Rudolf Minkowski. The letters provoked enthusiastic responses and led to cooperation and lifelong friendships. To quote Bolton\textsuperscript{3}: ‘The identification of the Crab Nebula was a turning point in my own career and for non-solar radio astronomy. Both gained respectability as far as the “conventional” astronomers were concerned’. A project undertaken by Bolton which should find a place in any account of his career is the 72 ft hole-in-the-ground antenna built in 1951 for a survey of the region near the galactic centre, which at the latitude of Sydney passed directly overhead. The excavation was done mostly by Bolton and Slee. Westfold, a Radio Astronomy theorist, also helped to dig, and Gordon Stanley trucked loads of ash from a power house each week to stabilize the sand out of which the hole was formed. The reflecting surface was made from steel strips formerly used for binding packing cases, and performed adequately at the operating frequency of 160 MHz. It was interesting however that the ‘site’ for the hole was chosen not to be visible from the official working area of the Dover Heights station. All of the digging etc., had to be carried out in one’s own time (lunch, after hours, etc) and in secrecy. Somewhere along the way Bowen was made aware of this exercise, and predictably, supported it. To be fair to Pawsey, after a first demonstration of the potential of this dish in early 1952, he too enthusiastically supported its upgrading to 80 ft in diameter and to 400 MHz in frequency. Observations with this improved version, made with Dick McGee, led to Bolton’s suggestion in 1953 that Sagittarius A was the nucleus of our Galaxy\textsuperscript{4}. Three years later the IAU ratified the view making the position of this (radio!) source the zero of longitude in the new system of galactic coordinates. The next chapter in Bolton’s story is set in the US where radio astronomy had been taking a back seat compared to the activity in Australia and England in the post-war years. I have already mentioned TRE in England where Bolton worked for a while and where radar was developed. The corresponding centre in the US, set up much later, was the MIT Radiation Laboratories headed by Lee DuBridge. Here work on microwave devices and measurements was carried out by a battery of distinguished physicists — Bethe, Dicke, Pound, Purcell and Van Vleck, among hundreds of others. Taffy Bowen, already mentioned as the Chief of Radio Physics in Sydney, was one of the key players in the drama of radar in World War II and was personally responsible for carrying an early sample of a ‘magnetron’ invented at Birmingham University across the Atlantic to the Radiation Laboratories. I mention this visit and Bowen’s subsequent stay for some years at the Radiation Labs as it has a bearing on the Bolton story. The links of friendship Bowen forged then were crucial in obtaining generous financial support from foundations in the US for the Parkes 210 ft telescope to be built many years later. In return, Bowen arranged for Bolton to spend time at the California Institute of Technology where Lee DuBridge was President. Bolton went to Caltech in January 1955 and in the six years before he returned to Australia in 1961, created the Owens Valley Radio Observatory which was quickly recognized as a world centre and which provided a much needed boost to radio astronomy in the US. Bolton’s crew in this exercise came from all over the world — England, Australia, New Zealand, India, Canada and Norway if I have not forgotten any others. The graduate students were American and included Barry Clark, Ken Kellerman, Al Moffet and Bob Wilson. I was the Indian and was hired to maintain the radio equipment that Gordon Stanley had already built. In Bolton’s own account\textsuperscript{4} of the Owens Valley period he dwells on the education he received, from day one onwards, from Minkowski on the need for and importance of accurate radio positions as the only way to make identifications that would lead to progress. The Caltech interferometer was unique and a forerunner of later instruments in having as elements large dishes operating at a frequency as high (at that time) as a GHz. It had the sensitivity and baseline to resolve a substantial fraction of the sources observed. Among the sources not resolved at the longest baselines was 3C295 which was identified by Bolton with an object for which Minkowski with the Palomar 200 inch telescope got a redshift of 0.46, roughly three times the highest then known and a record which was to stand for fifteen years. There were many interesting discoveries made by members of Bolton’s group during his years at Caltech, but his own interest in building the Owens Valley Observatory was, as he has stated himself, ‘to extend the observable scale of the universe to look-back times as great as the oldest stars in our own system’\textsuperscript{5}. It was a unique and unforgettable experience to see Bolton go about this exercise in as cool and low key a manner as someone building a cattle shed or repairing a washing machine. He gave people tasks about which they may not have had a clue to start with. He never taught you how to do anything, as if that would have been a presumption. But his example and even more his expectation made people rise to heights that they would never have dreamt possible. I have already mentioned 3C295, but the Caltech chapter of Bolton’s story would be incomplete without a mention of 3C48. Quite simply, 3C48 was the first identification of a quasar which went public without a redshift in a paper presented at the Christmas 1960 meeting of the American Astronomical Society with the authors T. A. Matthews, J. G. Bolton, J. L. Greenstein, G. Munch and A. R. Sandage\textsuperscript{6}, the chronological order in which they were involved. Matthews was the Canadian with whom I shared an office, and who obtained a position for the radio source which beautifully fitted a 16th magnitude star. Spectra were obtained by Munch and Sandage and measured by Greenstein. After considerable tuition from Ira S. (not Taffy) Bowen, director of the Palomar Observatory, Bolton arrived at a possible fit for the lines at a redshift around 0.37 but a four angstrom discrepancy was unacceptable to the spectroscopists and stopped matters dead for about three years\textsuperscript{5}. It was hence poetic justice that, as I shall recount shortly, Bolton played a vital part in the dramatic story of 3C273, hailed by most as the true first identification of a quasar. To the surprise and disappointment of most of us working at Owens Valley at the time, Bolton announced abruptly in late 1960 that he was returning to Australia to supervise the steelwork which had commenced on the 210 foot telescope that Bowen had been planning for years. This he did, not from the ground but from up on the structure. He also surveyed and reset every one of the more than thousand panels over an acre of surface. The telescope was commissioned in late 1961 and Bolton took charge as Director of the Australian National Radio Astronomy Observatory (ANRAO) to begin a third and equally spectacular phase of his career. Parkes attracted astronomers from all over the world including several of us who had worked with Bolton in California. Major contributions were made in almost every branch of radio astronomy of which there were a large number now. Bolton’s lifelong interest in the discovery, classification and identification of radio sources found his greatest reward in these years. The Parkes Catalogue, in the making of which Bolton was personally involved, lists more than 8000 sources including several hundred quasars. Here too he had students among whom was Ron Ekers who went on to head the VLA and now the Australia Telescope. As hinted earlier, Bolton and the Parkes dish were essential elements in the drama of the identification of the source 3C273 as a quasar. Cyril Hazard who had pioneered the lunar occultation technique of determining accurate positions for radio sources at Jodrell Bank happened to be in Australia in Hanbury Brown’s group at Sydney University. He was invited by Bolton to take part in observations at Parkes of occultations of the radio source 3C273, several of which had been predicted for 1962. It was typical of Bolton to figure out that the most critical of these occultations would require an extension of the existing zenith angle coverage of the telescope, and that this could be achieved by grinding off a considerable amount of metal from the bearing housings. I was not there to witness it, but knowing John, I can picture him with the grinder, hand-rolled cigarette hanging from his lip, knee braced against a girder and grinding away in a shower of sparks. In any event the observation was spectacularly successful and as a final touch to the drama, Bolton and Hazard each carried a record and travelled on different planes to Sydney. Minkowski who was on a visit to Australia at the time communicated the position to Maarten Schmidt who established the redshift as 0.158, considered astoundingly large for an object that looked like a star. This was the breakthrough and it led Greenstein and Matthews to believe the ‘redshift’ of 0.37 obtained earlier for 3C48 and to publish it in a paper following those on 3C273 (ref. 7). The Parkes telescope also played an important part in several of NASA’s Apollo missions. Not many may know that Neil Armstrong’s first steps on the moon seen all over the world, live on television, came via Parkes. Another, and unplanned occasion was when a sudden emergency on another of the Apollo missions required Parkes to come on line in a matter of hours. It just so happened that I was to have observed that night, and had to quickly clear the focus cabin of the pile of equipment that I had spent all day assembling. In a situation of such urgency, kicking someone off the dish required no effort, but to quote the London Times: ‘Bolton, typically, left nothing to chance. With the Australian sun beating down, he stood, stop watch in hand, rehearsing teams of his perspiring staff in hand-cranking the axis gearing of the 1000-ton dish at rates correct to follow the spacecraft should mains power fail’. The great importance of the discovery of the three radio sources described at the beginning was not a little due to Bolton’s identification of them with optical objects. More than anyone else, Bolton brought radio and optical astronomy together, through constant interaction with the best optical astronomers of his time, through the use of optical telescopes himself for identification purposes, and through efforts to set up major facilities like the Anglo Australian Telescope and the UK Schmidt Telescope. He was among the earliest to recognize the unity of astronomy across all wavelengths. Several changes took place at the Radio Physics Division in the period 1971–72. Bowen retired as the Chief of the Division and his place was taken by Paul Wild. John Bolton retired as Director of ANRAO but continued in Parkes as Astronomer at Large until 1981 when after a heart attack he decided to retire and move to a coastal resort in the warmer climate of Queensland. Many honours came his way as they should have, some a little belated like the Bruce Medal of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific. It was awarded to Bolton in 1988, when his health had already deteriorated to the point of ruling out travel to the US, but it was carried and presented to him at a special ceremony held in Australia. I am happy to point out that the Indian Academy of Sciences which publishes this journal elected Bolton an honorary fellow in 1973. No one who came in contact with Bolton would have failed to notice that determination was his main characteristic. This came through in sport even quicker than it did in other areas. Whether in table tennis, snooker or golf, once he had decided that he would win, it did his opponent little good being a much better player in other circumstances. Bolton’s power of concentration was phenomenal and his resolve unshakeable. Pity the bureaucrat who tried to get in his way. I consider myself very fortunate to have associated over many years with a person of such integrity and strength of character. I believe that it did good to all of us who had this privilege. Most people who have known Bolton paint him as harshly intolerant of mediocrity and poor judgement. I think this was true, but only if it interfered directly with his plans or actions, when most of us would react the same way too. Bolton was a fearless individual, who could be ruthless when needed, but I always thought of him as a fair and friendly person and one who together with his wife Letty kept open house to all of us who had ever worked with him. He was more than a great pioneer in science; he was an extraordinary man. 1. Wild, Paul, The Independent (Newspaper, Sydney). Thursday, 29 July 1993. 2. Payne–Scott, Ruby, Yabsley, D. G. and Bolton, J. G., Nature, 1947, 160, 256. 3. Bolton, J. G., Proc. Astron. Soc. Australia, 1982, 4, 349 4. McGee, R. X. and Bolton, J. G., Nature, 1954, 173, 985. 5. Bolton, J. G., Proc. Astron. Soc. Australia, 1990, 8, 381. 6. Matthews, T. A., Bolton, J. G., Greenstein, J. L., Munch, G. and Sandage, A. R., 1961, Am. Astr. Soc. Meeting, New York; Sky and Telescope, 1960, 21, 148. Greenstein, J. L. and Munch, G., Ann. Rep. Dir. Mt. Wilson and Palomar Obs., 1961, 80. 7. Hazard, C., Mackey, M. B., Shummas, A. J., Nature, 1963, 197, 1037. Schmidt, M., Nature, 1963, 197, 1040. Oke, J. B., Nature, 1963, 197, 1040. Greenstein, J. L. and Matthews, T. A., Nature, 1963, 197, 1041. V. RADHAKRISHNAN Raman Research Institute Bangalore 560 080, India
RADIO & Television RETAILING Including Radio and Television Today AUGUST 1944 There’s Little Enough Time To Do a Service Job the First Time And No Time To Do It Over! SPENDING valuable man hours to do a job over because a replacement part has failed wastes your time and money, uses critical material and helps to hinder America’s war effort. Your service work can be only as good as the replacement parts you use. By using Mallory parts, you avoid the danger of failure and the necessity of re-doing a job. Whenever the repair calls for volume controls, vibrators, capacitors, switches or resistors, use Mallory replacements and be safe. Years of outstanding service and a reputation for long life and dependability in the replacement field make Mallory parts the right parts to do the job right the first time. They’re available through Mallory distributors from coast to coast. P. R. MALLORY & CO., Inc., INDIANAPOLIS 6, INDIANA MAYE TECHNICAL MANUAL —108 pages of complete data on capacitors, noise suppression, receiving tubes, loud speakers, vibrators, phono-radios, automatic tuning and other valuable information. Available from your Mallory distributor...Price $2.95. 4TH EDITION RADIO SERVICE ENCYCLOPEDIA... Complete information on servicing any make or model of receiver. Clear references, original part numbers and recommended replacements. Available from your Mallory distributor...Price, 95 cents. Your Wisest Investment—Government War Bonds It's a postwar Promise ... from Admiral. A Refrigerator you never have to defrost! A Home Freezer to keep you supplied all winter with summer fresh vegetables! An Electric Range that automatically makes the coffee while you're still sleeping! Predictions of good things to come ...from Admiral! MEMO Here's the first "Blockbuster" in Admiral's "Saturation" advertising campaign - over a half billion messages this year in major magazines and newspapers...Ask your Admiral distributor about the profit possibilities with the Admiral line...also Flex-o-Plan store remodelling. Get the facts and you'll GET ABOARD WITH ADMIRAL TUNE IN CBS 2:30 p.m. E.W.T. Sundays for Admiral "World News Today" Admiral Corporation CHICAGO 47, ILLINOIS Farnsworth engineers... the men behind your sales staff Farnsworth’s future is assured by this organization of technical specialists skilled in research and development in television...radio...Radar...phonograph reproduction...record-changers...acoustics. Each is an expert in his field—today engaged in jobs of war, but for the peacetime tomorrow they assure Farnsworth dealers sound engineering and production craftsmanship—a guarantee of leadership in new products of the future. Their objectives are outstanding quality, performance and workmanship. These Farnsworth technicians are ready to provide your sales staff with the finest possible phonographs, radio and television sets in every price range. Any dealer who has ever sold pre-war Farnsworth lines knows that Farnsworth engineering is sound and the products are right. The Farnsworth line you’ll sell after the war will feature improved broadcast, shortwave and FM reception...fool-proof record-changers...television perfected through 19 years of research and development...cabinets with distinct sales appeal. Sounds mighty interesting, doesn’t it? That’s why you’ll want to build your post-war sales around a quality program that will pay dividends. WRITE US to get advance notice of Farnsworth post-war plans and products, and a copy of our new illustrated book on television. FARNSWORTH Television · Radio · Phonographs • Farnsworth Television & Radio Corporation, Fort Wayne 1, Indiana. Farnsworth Radio and Television Transmitters and Receivers; Aircraft Radio Equipment; Farnsworth Television Tubes; the Farnsworth Phonograph-Radio; the Capehart. You lost your star salesman—that hurt. Your technicians were drafted—that hurt. Taxes skyrocketed—that hurt. Tubes and parts vanished—that hurt. Gasoline and food were rationed—that hurt. In fact, “War is hell.” But there is one war contribution that doesn’t hurt at all; it takes only an hour. Phone your local Red Cross Chapter today. Make a date to give a pint of your blood. You can spare it, and the boys at the front need it—desperately. HYTRON HYLIGHTS During 1944, Hytron plans to reschedule (subject to revised WPB directives) the following BANTAM GT types which have been authorized for production by the WPB: \| Type \| Type \| \|--------\|--------\| \| 6C5GT \| 12SJ7GT\| \| 6K5GT \| 12SQ7GT/G\| \| 6K7GT \| 3SL6GT/G\| \| 6SA7GT/G \| 3SZ4GT \| \| 6SQ7GT/G \| 3SZ5GT/G\| \| 12K7GT \| 4SZ5GT \| \| 12SA7GT/G \| 5OL6GT \| As they go into production, Hytron will be able to supply only these BANTAM GT types on rated priority orders. The listed types and additional receiving types available through exchange with other tube manufacturers, will be allocated for shipment against L-265 priority orders. BUY ANOTHER WAR BOND The Name that is held in Highest Esteem HICKOK For Finer Instruments and Meters At all the Fighting Fronts on land, aboard ship and in the air, the Army, Navy, Signal Corps and Air Corps are using thousands of HICKOK tube testers, oscillographs, and other electronic service equipment with confidence in their utmost reliability. What greater tribute could be paid to a good name that has been symbolic of fine instruments for more than a third of a century? THE HICKOK ELECTRICAL INSTRUMENT COMPANY 10323 DUPONT AVENUE CLEVELAND 8, OHIO THE STANDARD OF QUALITY FOR A THIRD OF A CENTURY MEMBER AUDIT BUREAU OF CIRCULATIONS AUGUST, 1944 COVER—Radio Hospital, Hartford, Conn. owned by Ernest C. Augsten (see story on page 24). Page 21 Tube Situation 22 Manufacturer's News & Television Survey 24 Showmanship in Radio Distribution—via Independent Jobber 28 Appliance Display Pays 30 Dealers' Services Span Nation 32 Paintings Boost Disc Sales 34 Songster Lovelies on Summer Discs 36 Jeweled Link to Appliance Sales 38 Records Hold the "Combinations" 42 Appliance Dealer Keeps Customer Contacts 44 Radio Retailer Profits in Ad Sales Front Battle 53 "Luxury" Sets to Service 56 Dollars & Sense in Financing Servicing L. F. Amplifiers 60 Television Talk 64 Jobber Doings RADIO & Television RETAILING, August, 1944, Vol. 29, No. 8. 25 cents a copy. Published monthly by Caldwell-Clements, Inc., 480 Lexington Ave., New York 17, N. Y. M. L. M. Capron, president; Orestes H. Caldwell, treasurer. Subscriptions rates United States and Latin American countries, $1.00 for one year, $2.00 for three years. Canada $1.50 for one year, $3.00 for three years. All other countries $2.00 for one year, $4.00 for three years. Printed in U.S.A. Postage entered as second class matter April 21, 1944, at the Post Office at New York, N. Y., under the act of March 3, 1879. Member of Audit Bureau of Circulations. Copyright by Caldwell-Clements, Inc., 1944. ORESTES H. CALDWELL Editor M. CLEMENTS Publisher H. L. M. Capron, Merchandising Editor William E. Moulic, Technical Editor Helen Thurman, Associate Editor John L. Stoutenburgh, Associate Editor Charles F. Dreyer, Art Director E. T. Bennett Hope Bedard M. H. Newton J. A. Samborn B. V. Spinetta O. H. Sutter N. McAllister W. W. Swigert J. E. Cochran L. D. Chesson Lee Robinson, Sales Manager R. Y. Fitzpatrick, Western Manager Chicago, 201 N. Wells St. Telephone RANDolph 9225 Editorial and Executive Offices Telephone PLaza 3-1340 480 Lexington Avenue New York Keep that date with "ROSY FUTURE" "ROSY FUTURE'S" DATE BOOK Mr. Dealer—Sell Now for Post War! Nothing to sell? Don't kid yourself! True—your business today is mostly service, your servicemen are busy calling on customers—folks are bringing defective appliances into your store for repair. That's good business. It's also good business to ask your service customers what type radios, phonographs or appliances they will buy when the war ends. Jot it down in your notebook. Then—when "Delivery Day" comes, you'll have your own list of ready made customers. We'll be glad to supply a "Rosy Future's Date Book" for each of your servicemen—free. Simply request them. Then—start post war selling—make every service call a sales call and, by this method, build for the future. WRITE FOR Free "DATE BOOK" NOW! Pocket size, durable—get started on YOU'r post-war plans now. Just write—it's free! Distributed Nationally Thru Radio Equipment Jobbers MECK RADIOS • PHONOGRAPHS INDUSTRIAL SOUND JOHN MECK INDUSTRIES, PLYMOUTH, INDIANA, U. S. A. BUY MORE BONDS—AND KEEP THEM! EARLY COMMUNICATIONS BY AIR While electronics use the ether and other media, one of the most speedy methods of communications in the early days was through the air by carrier pigeon. With a finely printed note fastened to the leg, these birds faithfully reached home to bring in the latest news events and stock market reports. Today news commentary reaches into your homes in a flash of a second via electronic voice communications making use of the various types of Universal broadcast microphones. This being a modern age, the battle front is brought into the homes of the informed peoples of the democracies via military microphones such as those now being manufactured by Universal for the Allied Armed Forces. <Model 1700-UB, illustrated at left, is but one of several military type microphones now available to priority users through local radio jobbers. UNIVERSAL MICROPHONE COMPANY INGLEWOOD, CALIFORNIA SYMBOL OF QUALITY In the peacetime era to come, the Temple trademark will identify the finest line of radios the minds and hands of Man have ever produced—radios engineered and constructed to attain new performance standards—radios styled and cabined to new measures of beauty—radios valued and priced to make money for you. In brief, radios your customers will want to buy, radios you will want to sell. It will pay you to "team up with Temple". WHERE FM WILL ALSO MEAN FINEST MADE TEMPLETONE RADIO COMPANY, MYSTIC, CONN. FM...TELEVISION...RADIO-PHONO' COMBINATIONS Licensed under Armstrong and RCA patents INSTRUMENT DELIVERIES! American Instrument production is catching up with the needs of our armed forces—closing the gap between too little and enough. Caring for those needs has expanded Triplett production lines unbelievably far beyond previous capacities. And the experiences of war, added to more than forty years of instrument manufacturing, have bettered the products coming off those lines. Now—instruments—better than ever before—are ready for general use. Better place your orders, at once, with Triplett—headquarters for a complete line of instruments made to one fine standard of engineering. D'Arsonval Moving Coil D.C. Instruments Electrodynamometer A.C.-D.C. Double Iron Repulsion A.C. Instruments R.F. and Rectifier Types; Sizes 2" through 7" ★ Greater Production Capacity ★ Better Instrument Quality ★ Complete Line of Instruments ★ One Source of Supply ★ Prompt Deliveries SEND YOUR ORDERS TO TRIPLETT NOW Lend your ear and you shall hear... the magic name: PHILHARMONIC Radio-Phonograph. And if you are one of the country's 300 leading music and radio dealers, then the PHILHARMONIC is ear-marked for you... EAR-MARKED for a new high level of prestige and leadership for you in your community. EAR-MARKED by exceptional performance standards. EAR-MARKED by cabinet design and craftsmanship of rare artistry and distinction. EAR-MARKED by highly selective distribution and a four-square credo for your protection and profit. EAR-MARKED by continuous national advertising of distinguished character, coupled with unusually elaborate promotional and display material. You will be visited shortly by a PHILHARMONIC representative to discuss our postwar plans and exclusive franchise distribution. Inquiries are solicited from those who would like preliminary information. PHILHARMONIC RADIO CORPORATION 524 EAST SEVENTY-SECOND STREET, NEW YORK TRADE MARK RADIO AND PHONOGRAPH Talk is Important, here Transmitting orders, reporting results, exchanging information . . . even words of encouragement and commendation . . . that's the service that Communication is performing in every phase of our military operations, and under the most adverse and difficult conditions. At the front, Communication . . . or just plain talk . . . is helping win battles, but at home talk could be fighting on the side of the enemy. That's why we must heed the warning, "Let the man with the 'mike' do your talking". He knows just what to say. THE ROLA COMPANY, INC., • 2530 SUPERIOR AVENUE • CLEVELAND 14, OHIO Makers of Transformers, Coils, Head Sets and other Electronic Parts for Military Communications Systems ROLA April 8th a Star was added to Rola's Army-Navy "E" flag. MAKERS OF THE FINEST IN SOUND REPRODUCING AND ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT RADIO & Television RETAILING • August, 1944 Farewell TO ARMS... The tools of war have no place in a soldier’s picture of peace. And yet, the perfections that have made his battle equipment the finest in the world will have an immediate and practical application to the postwar way of life for which he is fighting. Radio, especially, will reflect the amazing advances made to meet the precise and varied requirements of modern warfare. From these exciting and expanded frontiers, FADA engineers already are planning the radio and television sets of tomorrow. These expert technicians will be responsible for creations that you will appreciate. You can safely place your faith in the FADA of the future. PLACE YOUR FAITH IN THE FADA Radio OF THE FUTURE Famous Since Broadcasting Began! FADA RADIO AND ELECTRIC COMPANY, INC., LONG ISLAND CITY, N.Y. The graph shows only one of the interesting points of discussion: "Frequency response curves of the same loud speaker as measured in three different laboratories." For years we at Jensen have keenly felt the need of dependable and useful information to guide both the professional and the layman in their selection, purchase, installation and use of loud speakers. Now we are going to meet that need by a series of informative technical Monographs prepared by the Jensen Technical Service Department. The first Monograph in the series deals with one of the most interesting and controversial subjects in the field of acoustics, "LOUD SPEAKER FREQUENCY RESPONSE MEASUREMENTS." It discusses thoroughly the practical aspects of this subject in such a way that the material is unhesitatingly recommended to the whole profession: the engineer, the trade, the student, and even the layman. The first Monograph is ready now. Copies are available from Jensen jobbers and dealers everywhere, or fill out the coupon below and send it with 25c to Jensen Watch for the rest of the series to be announced later. Other Monographs will deal with equally important and interesting subjects. FREE to men in the Military Services, to Military Technical Training Centers, and to Technical Schools and Libraries. Just write and request a copy. JENSEN RADIO MANUFACTURING COMPANY 6625 SO. LARAMIE AVENUE, CHICAGO 38, ILLINOIS Gentlemen: I am interested in the monograph, "Loud Speaker Frequency Response Measurement." Enclosed is 25c for my copy. NAME____________________________________ ADDRESS__________________________________ CITY_________________________STATE__________ It takes a steady, knowing hand to plow a straight furrow. And a good plowman is never satisfied with anything short of perfection. It takes men of experience and judgment—men imbued with quality ideals—to build quality products. The skilled direction the NEW DETROLA management now applies to the manufacture of precision war equipment will one day guide the making of fine electronic products for home and industry. Hasten The Day Of Victory By Buying More And MORE War Bonds. DETROLA RADIO DIVISION OF INTERNATIONAL DETROLA CORPORATION • BOARD AT CHAFFIELD, DETROIT 9, MICH. C. RUSSELL FELDMANN PRESIDENT Marines leap to the attack. News cameramen advance with them, recording the action. And, in short hours, those precious pictures taken under fire are telling their thrilling story to American newspaper readers. Short-wave radio makes possible the transmission of news pictures direct to any part of the world. The blacks, grays and whites of a photograph are broadcast as an audible signal, varying in strength according to the shading of the picture. Thousands of land- and sea-miles away, the electronic facsimile recording tube "hears" the picture and reproduces it, line by line, on sensitized paper. More and more news pictures of this war are recorded by Sylvania recorder tubes manufactured to one standard—the highest anywhere known. This Sylvania electron tube bears the same marked superiority you have long expected of Sylvania radio tubes. The Sylvania recorder tube is vital to quicker transmission than was formerly possible over news-cluttered commercial radio circuits, and it records clearer pictures that are more faithful to the original. A reputation for radio tube manufacture, attained by serving you, brought Sylvania important wartime assignments in electronics. The recorder tube is one of many electron tubes other than radio that Sylvania now produces. This wide wartime experience will bring you ever finer radio tubes and cathode ray tubes to help you develop your postwar opportunities in the radio and television field. Quality that serves the war shall serve the peace SYLVANIA ELECTRIC PRODUCTS INC. EMPORIUM, PENNSYLVANIA RADIO DIVISION RADIO TUBES, CATHODE RAY TUBES, ELECTRONIC DEVICES, FLUORESCENT LAMPS, FIXTURES AND ACCESSORIES, INCANDESCENT LAMPS War Baby? HELL, NO! War brought RADAR... and Radar multiplied Hamilton’s growth. But don’t let that mislead you... for Hamilton is in NO sense a “war baby.” Spectacular expansion was possible... only because there was a solid foundation of engineering development, ready for it. That foundation—broadened and strengthened—will be ready... when the post-war scramble comes... to provide selected outlets with vital competitive and delivery advantages. OLYMPIC Radio... by HAMILTON Radio Corporation • New York FM AM TELEVISION GOLD makes Electrons Behave It was a great day for radio communication when National Union engineers developed the technique of gold plating certain tube parts. For by this ingenious means they measurably extended the life of power tubes. The object, here, was not to make power tubes structurally stronger—or even more durable. Already these tubes were sound enough mechanically to do a bang-up job. What the N. U. process of gold plating did, was to make the electrons behave. N. U. engineers demonstrated that by gold-plating the grid wire, they automatically eliminated a very disturbing factor in power tube performance, known as grid emission. The source of this undesirable primary emission was imprisoned within the gold. No longer could it interfere with the planned and controlled electron flow within the tube. Result—power tubes of a higher performance level and longer life. In the post-war period of competitive selling—radio service men will be tremendously assisted by National Union’s great electronic research program. For many such improved tubes to sell post-war customers, at a profit—count on National Union. NATIONAL UNION RADIO CORPORATION, NEWARK, N. J. Factories Newark and Maplewood, N. J.; Lansdale and Rahesonia, Pa. LUCILLE MANNERS, soprano star of the Friday night Cities Service Concert program, has this to say about her choice of a postwar radio. "I've enjoyed the performance of Garod instruments for years," says Miss Manners," and you may have my reservation now for one of your peacetime consoles." In Garod consoles, too, will be incorporated the designing skill and technical excellence of Garod engineers and craftsmen. Superbly styled cabinets will enclose chassis of superior construction . . . resulting in immediate eye attraction and enduring performance satisfaction. Garod consoles will be available in a wide range of models . . . including AM and FM . . . and combinations. They will be priced right . . . for rapid, profitable business. And, as with all other Garod radios, you will enjoy full price protection. A few desirable franchises are still open . . . write today for information. GAROD FOR THE EXTRA MEASURE RADIO GAROD RADIO CORPORATION • 70 WASHINGTON STREET • BROOKLYN 1, N.Y. 2 PROPHECIES About Radio You Can't Afford to Believe • No sir, if your thinking, or reading, has led you into either of these camps, please change your thinking fast! You can't afford to live with it. During the past two years the facile pens of the paper prophets have far outstripped the practical inventions of the hard-working engineers and research men, who nevertheless have wrought new and concrete wonders! So the truth, as usual, lies in between. Zenith, always famed for greatly advanced thinking, will not guarantee to produce miracle radios for you. Nor, on the other hand, will Zenith return to pre-war methods. The great Zenith organization... numbering thousands, sharing tremendously in secret radionic war work, originating new radionic war developments... will apply its intensely practical war experience to every phase of its post-war home radios. Past Zenith policies, past lines, past performance—you know them well! With them, you and we went ahead together—and successfully. Planning for the future, at Zenith, consists right now of much more than mere words. Planning is being translated into action every day, is being crystallized into developments, models, features, and designs that will make you glad you are a Zenith dealer. You'll get a real lift when you see those first post-war Radionic Zeniths on your floor. WATCH ZENITH! Keep in touch with your Zenith Distributor. Zenith is all set to move forward along the lines of its proven and successful distribution methods with "war-advanced" ideas as soon as the signal is given. Zenith Distributors are being kept informed of latest factory developments. ZENITH LONG DISTANCE RADIO REC. U. S. PAT. OFF. RADIONIC PRODUCTS EXCLUSIVELY—WORLD'S LEADING MANUFACTURER ZENITH RADIO CORPORATION • CHICAGO, ILLINOIS FOR Dependability IN ANY EMERGENCY THEY RELY ON RAYTHEON TUBES In a busy industrial city like Fort Wayne, Indiana, it is necessary that any interruption in electric service be remedied immediately. INDIANA SERVICE CORPORATION which supplies electric light and power to Fort Wayne’s war plants, has found that two-way radio between the dispatcher’s office and service, patrol and repair trucks assures the quickest and most reliable means of communication in any emergency. To assure even greater reliability, this electronic communication system is equipped with RAYTHEON high fidelity tubes. That “Plus-Extra” quality that proved RAYTHEON the best tube in the past, will be enhanced with all the knowledge that is being gained from manufacturing advanced electronic equipment for the war effort. This wartime experience will doubly guarantee that you will be able to offer your customers the best engineered and precision-made electronic tubes for all applications. In the meantime, RAYTHEON will continue to supply you with all the MR tubes that WPB allows, for you to pass on to those who need them most. Raytheon Manufacturing Company RADIO RECEIVING TUBE DIVISION Newton, Massachusetts • Los Angeles • New York • Chicago • Atlanta RAYTHEON High Fidelity RADIO AND ELECTRONIC TUBES DEVOTED TO RESEARCH AND MANUFACTURE OF TUBES FOR THE NEW ERA OF ELECTRONICS RADIO & Television RETAILING • August, 1944 You know where you stand with the post-war STROMBERG-CARLSON! First, you have the firm foundation of Stromberg-Carlson’s widely recognized pre-war superiority. The quality of its FM and AM reception. The fidelity of its phonograph reproduction. Its pioneering effort in the development of television. But Stromberg-Carlson has already gone far beyond this—and will offer you a post-war line essentially pre-tested in all its aspects. Pre-tested in its appeal to dealers. For an exhaustive survey among the trade has developed clearly the features that our dealers are looking for at war’s close. And pre-tested in its appeal to the public. For a correspondingly widespread study of the post-war wants and desires of our prospects has permitted our engineers—in collaboration with some of the country’s leading industrial designers—to create a line of new Stromberg-Carlson instruments that will set even higher standards of leadership in appearance and in performance. STROMBERG-CARLSON’S sales story in a nutshell! 1. We will have—soon after Victory—a fine line of Stromberg-Carlson FM and AM radios, phonograph combinations, and television receivers in a wide range of prices. 2. We will have a policy of distribution planned to give every Authorized Dealer a good profit opportunity on the Stromberg-Carlson line. 3. And the Stromberg-Carlson name will be even more widely and favorably known than ever before. Washington News— The Tube Situation Distribution of radio tubes and parts continues to vex government agencies, wholesalers and retailers. War Production Board is receiving complaints from consumers and retailers, though it was disclosed that at a meeting of the Electronics Distributors Industry Advisory Committee with WPB officials, most members of the committee believed that the system of allocations from manufacturers to distributors is working as well as can be expected in view of the shortage of tubes. An official statement from WPB says that "distributors in general feel that the situation is improving." The point was made, however, that in metropolitan areas consumers are not receiving fair treatment because dealers are holding tubes to use in repair work rather than selling them separately for replacement purposes. Emphasis was laid on the fact that the greatest complaint in rural areas has to do with the lack of 'battery' tubes, production of which was stopped by L-76. Loudest Complaints Other complaints, however, are not always so well justified, according to an official statement, since "the loudest protests often come from those who were not in the radio business in 1941 or from dealers who are unwilling to take any stock except the most critical types of tubes." Since the practice on the part of some jobbers is to insist that dealers in order to get critically needed tubes and parts, take "assortments"—sometimes made up of items that are of no use to them, the editors of this magazine asked John Creutz, Chief, Domestic & Foreign Branch, Radio and Radar Division, WPB, who presided at the meeting mentioned above, for comment on this situation. Mr. Creutz answered as follows: "There is no WPB regulation covering the sale of 'assortments' of tubes. We understand that there are OPA regulations regarding the so-called 'Package Deals' which are sometimes used by the Trade in disposing of their less desirable items." Commenting further upon tube distribution, Mr. Creutz said: "Under War Production Board regulations a supplier cannot actually refuse a rated order for any article he may have for sale. It is illegal for a supplier who has parts to insist on a AA-1 rating. He must accept a AA-5 rating and deliver the parts if he has them in stock, even though he may intend to hold them for later sale on AA-1 ratings. Can't Force Purchase "War Production Board regulations, of course, prohibit the sale of tubes marked 'MR' on rated orders; therefore, these regulations do not apply to 'MR' tubes. There is no WPB regulation that would require a dealer to sell to a serviceman or a private individual 'MR' tubes. Likewise, there is no regulation that would compel a dealer to purchase any tubes he did not want." How the present tube situation appears is seen in the following statement issued by the Industry Advisory Committee: "On the basis of a yearly requirement of 18,000,000 tubes, virtually all civilian requirements should be produced during the third quarter. Since the going rate of the first 5 months has been only 16,000,000 a year, the situation is improving. "While the Division has given the producers 100 percent of their material requirements and has not attempted to hold back production in any way, overall production has decreased by reason of attempts to switch from one type of tube to another. Moreover, even a yearly requirement of 18,000,000 tubes will not satisfy the demand, since 1941 shipments of carton-packed tubes were 33,000,000. "An industry representative estimated that the normal demand for the last few years has been as much as 65,000,000 or 70,000,000. Although the figures published by the RCA license bureau for 1941 were only 36,000,000, he believed that many tubes purchased in bulk have been used for replacements rather than for original equipment. "The fact that no new radio sets have been made since 1941 means that demand for tubes has substantially increased." HOME RADIOS BY FEBRUARY OR MARCH seem well within possibilities if Germany collapses before snow falls, as Russians promise. Small sets should be ready within 30 to 45 days after WPB go-ahead is given; consoles will take 2 to 3 months. Console cabinets will be bottleneck. WOODEN MODELS of six suggested post-war automatic toasters and six automatic irons, were exhibited by Proctor Electric Co. during recent Housewares Show at Hotel Pennsylvania, New York City. Visiting dealers were asked to vote on favorite designs. Here's an idea radio manufacturers could adopt immediately. 25 MILLION TELEVISION HOMES are envisioned within a decade by Edgar Kobak, executive vice-president of the Blue Network. This video audience, he predicts, will be served by a thousand television transmitting stations, connected to three or perhaps four networks. WIRE RECORDERS will get big play in post-war quality sets, particularly combinations selling above $750. Several manufacturers even plan to concentrate on recorders exclusively. New "turnover" record-players are also on the post-war horizon. FOOD APPLIANCES are to be specialized in by General Mills, latest recruit to electrical appliance field. R. E. Imhoff, formerly of Westinghouse and later of Proctor, who is new sales manager of home-appliance division of General Mills, declares there is no intention to use these appliances as premiums. ICE PEOPLE plan to invade the electric-refrigeration field post-war. The Coolerator Corp. expects to continue making ice-boxes but will add to its line electric refrigerators as well as a home-freezer unit. MAJOR APPLIANCES installed in the home at the time of its construction and paid for as part of the mortgage payments, was a plan proposed by your Editor years ago in addressing electrical men. Now the idea is being advocated by "Architectural Forum" and by several manufacturers, as post-war device to make the purchase of refrigerators, ranges and laundry equipment easier for the customer. SMALL-APPLIANCE FIELD will soon be entered by Sperti Electric Co. of Cincinnati. Pre-war this company had a sun-lamp and also introduced into drug field a remedy for burns. 20 MILLION TUBES for civilian users are promised the last six months of 1944. This is at the rate of 40 million tubes per year, the replacement rate needed for present 60 million sets, in the absence of new receivers. Besides new production, 7 million tubes have been reclaimed from ### Television and FM Plans of Principal Home-Radio Manufacturers \| Manufacturer's Name \| Television \| Radio \| Recording \| \|---------------------\|------------\|-------\|-----------\| \| \| Do you expect to make television sets? \| Estimated retail price range \| Will you make projection type sets? \| Will broadcast sets include FM? \| Will you manufacture auto sets? \| Professional or home recording \| \| Admiral Corp. \| yes \| $175-$450 \| yes \| yes \| no \| yes \| pro. \| \| Air King Products Co., Inc. \| yes \| $250-$750 \| yes \| yes \| no \| yes \| home \| \| Andreas Radio Corp. \| yes \| $79-$790 \| yes \| yes \| no \| no \| \| \| Andley Radio Corp. \| yes \| - \| yes \| no \| no \| no \| \| \| Automatic Radio Mfg. Co. \| yes \| - \| yes \| yes \| - \| - \| \| \| Belmont Radio Corp. \| yes \| - \| yes \| yes \| yes \| home \| \| \| Browning Laboratories, Inc. \| - \| - \| yes \| no \| no \| - \| \| \| Colonial Radio Corp. \| yes \| - \| yes \| yes \| yes \| home \| \| \| The Crosley Corp. \| yes \| $125-$200 \| yes \| some \| no \| yes \| home \| \| Deleo-Radio \| - \| - \| yes \| yes \| - \| - \| \| \| DeWald Radio Mfg. Corp. \| yes \| probably \| yes \| no \| yes \| home \| \| \| Allen B. DuMont Labs, Inc. \| yes \| - \| yes \| no \| no \| - \| \| \| Eckstein R. & Tele. Co. \| no \| - \| some \| yes \| yes \| home \| \| \| Electrical Research Labs. \| yes \| - \| yes \| no \| - \| - \| \| \| Manufacturer's Name \| Television \| Radio \| Recording \| \|---------------------\|------------\|-------\|-----------\| \| \| Do you expect to make television sets? \| Estimated retail price range \| Will you make projection type sets? \| Will broadcast sets include FM? \| Will you manufacture auto sets? \| Professional or home recording \| \| Electronic Corp. of America \| - \| - \| - \| yes \| no \| yes \| home \| \| Emerson R. & Phono. Corp. \| yes \| - \| yes \| yes \| no \| yes \| both \| \| Espey Manufacturing Co. \| yes \| $200-$500 \| - \| yes \| no \| yes \| home \| \| Fada Radio & Electric Co. \| yes \| $300-$1000 \| yes \| 3 \| no \| 4 \| 4 \| \| Farnsworth Tele. & R. Corp. \| yes \| - \| yes \| yes \| yes \| probably \| - \| \| Fried-Viessmann Radio \| yes \| phono comb. $600 up \| yes \| yes \| no \| yes \| home \| \| Galvin Mfg. Corp. \| yes \| - \| - \| yes \| yes \| yes \| home \| \| Gared Radio Corp. \| yes \| - \| yes \| yes \| no \| yes \| home \| \| General Electric Co. \| yes \| $200 up \| yes \| yes \| no \| yes \| both \| \| General Tele. & R. Corp.* \| yes \| - \| - \| yes \| no \| yes \| both \| \| Gilfillan Bros., Inc. \| yes \| $375-$750 \| yes \| yes \| no \| yes \| home \| \| Hallicrafters Co. \| yes \| - \| no \| yes \| no \| no \| no \| \| Hamilton Radio Corp. \| possibly $400-$500 \| yes \| yes \| 5 \| - \| - \| \| Indicates that no reply to questionnaire was received at the time of going to press. 1-, and up; 2-, FM in Television Sets; 3-, Special FM Sets; 4-, Only as required for Combination units; 5-, On contract basis; 0-, Table Models; 7-, for Manufacturers only. Army and handed over to Defense Supplies Corporation, which will issue them to tube manufacturers for distribution through trade channels. STANDARDIZED COMPONENTS and parts may figure in those coming 1945 sets. Parts manufacturers figure they can reduce a thousand varieties to 40, reducing costs and increasing quality. Time to start is now, as 1945 sets are being planned and launched. Simplification proposed would be invaluable to distributors and repairmen in reducing inventories and assuring available repair parts. ARMY SURPLUSES will be disposed of through radio manufacturers, according to U. S. Defense Supplies Corporation which is vigorously opposing the distribution of radio-electronic communication equipment through jobbers or other civilian outlets. FARMERS, now enjoying top prosperity, are seen as future major market for radios and even television sets. Where tele broadcasts are available, video will mean much to isolated farm homes, bringing newsreels, drama and comedy. Even walkie-talkies have been proposed for quick communication between farmhouse, cowbarns and the "southwest forty". MFRS' POST-WAR SCHEDULES have just been surveyed by your editors, to learn about individual company plans for bringing out television sets, FM, automobile radios, and recorders. Details of official answers to RADIO & Television RETAILING'S questionnaire are tabulated across the bottom of these pages. OLD ABUSES of radio merchandising field probably will put in their appearance after new sets get plentiful—we groan to learn! Cruises, prizes, spiffs, premiums, kickbacks, etc., already are beginning to figure in some merchandisers' plans for the brave new post-war world! RE-CHARGEABLE PORTABLE that feeds from automobile electric system, is new development by Louis Pacent, radio pioneer. Idea is that as you motor to beach or mountains, the set-battery recharges, so as to be all ready for separate operation in cabana or cabin. 300,000,000 RECORDS—that's figure for annual sales of discs which Willard Ray of Times Appliance, New York, sees coming into being soon after post-war record production gets going. This would mean only 2 to 2½ times current record sales; certainly not unlikely by 194X! AUTOMATIC WASHERS will doubtless play big part in Westinghouse's plans for the post-war appliance selling field. Their "Laundromat," a post-war product, was shown for the first time on the Pacific Coast, displayed at the Western Merchandise Mart Fall Market, San Francisco, July 24 to 29. Also Automobile-Radio and Recorders, As Reported to Radio & Television Retailing \| Manufacturer's Name \| Television \| Radio \| Recording \| \|---------------------\|------------\|-------\|-----------\| \| \| Do you expect to make television sets? \| Estimated retail price range \| Will broadcast sets include FM? \| Will you manufacture auto sets? \| Will you manufacture recording equipment? \| Professional or home recording \| \| Hamarachund Mfg. Co. \| yes \| \| yes \| no \| yes \| home \| \| Hoffman Radio Corp. \| yes \| \| yes \| no \| yes \| home \| \| Howard Radio Co. \| yes \| \| yes \| no \| yes \| home \| \| International-Detroit Corp. \| yes \| $150-$300 \| some \| yes \| \| \| \| Magnavox Co., Ltd. \| yes \| \| yes \| no \| yes \| both \| \| Majestic R. & Tele. Corp. \| yes \| $200 up \| yes \| no \| yes \| home \| \| Meissner Mfg. Co. \| yes \| \| yes \| no \| yes \| home \| \| National Co., Inc.* \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Noblett-Sparks Industries \| yes \| \| yes \| no \| no \| \| \| Packard-Bell Co. \| yes \| $200-$500 \| yes \| yes \| no \| yes \| home \| \| Philco Corp. \| yes \| $125-$150 \| yes \| yes \| yes \| yes \| home \| \| Philharmonic Radio Corp. \| yes \| \| yes \| no \| yes \| \| \| Pilot Radio Corp. \| yes \| $500 \| yes \| yes \| no \| no \| no \| \| RCA Victor Div., R.C.A. \| yes \| $200-$400 \| yes \| yes \| yes \| pro. \| Indicates that no reply to questionnaire was received at the time of going to press. 1-, and up; 2-, FM in Television Sets; 3-, Special FM Sets; 4-, Only as required for Combination units; 5-, On contract basis; 6-, Table Models; 7-, For Manufacturers only. "The only kind of hospital that a patient enters dead and comes out alive!" is Ernest C. Augsten's claim and he is proud of his outstanding setup at his Radio Hospital, 714 Maple Ave., Hartford, Conn. (See front cover). Dealer-technician Augsten has built a unique service in curing sets suffering from laryngitis and other ailments ranging from ruptured appendix (condenser trouble) to high blood pressure (high current drain). His present staff consists of one nurse and two internes and himself, the doctor. Mrs. Augsten, who is the nurse, receives the "patients" and keeps their "records." Two radio technicians, Cliff Isleb and Russ Johnston, assist "Doctor" Augsten, who officiates at all major operations. The stethoscope is actually used in connection with Chanalyst checkups, the scalpel in fine cutting—such as on a speaker cone, the hypodermic syringe is filled with carbon tetrachloride and is used to clean small sections of receivers. In the good days—when gas wasn't rationed—the delivery truck, which is still painted white and blue and resembles an ambulance, called for sets, and the two internes carried the receiver out on a bona fide stretcher. Needless to say, crowds gathered at such events, and it was not at all unusual to have four or five persons in the crowd announce then and there that they, too, had a radio set to be fixed, and would the Hospital please call for it. "Dr." Augsten has been in his present locality for the past six years. When he entered the radio repair business he felt there were so many others in the field that he had to make himself outstanding. He gave a new angle to the repair business, and his showmanship brought him many customers. During his first year he repaired 4,653 sets and installed 2,881 new car radios. This averages 90 and 55 receivers weekly. Today, without radios to sell, the service end of the business has increased approximately 200 per cent. The defense plant area surrounding Hartford provides money and priority for the use of cars and about one-half of this business is in car radio repair. Augsten does rewiring, conversions, uses adaptors, rewrites stages to fit substitute tubes. Electronic Specialist* Much work has been done by Augsten in defense plants on electronic equipment, as well. This includes work on amplifiers, public address systems, surface gauges, automatic armatures, electronic checkers of texture and density of nylon parachutes, and factory men bring in electronic meters and parts for repair. Far from viewing the present electronic maintenance jobs as temporary work, Augsten sees a future for the radio technician in America's electronically controlled plants of the future. Many of the devices operated in today's war plants will be turned to the production of peacetime needs, is his belief; and the work he is doing today will provide for after-the-war business. "Dr." Augsten is shown above using the stethoscope chanalyst check. Below, assistants Islieb and Johnston demonstrate the use of the hypodermic syringe in cleaning delicate parts, and the "scalpel method" of speaker cone cutting. (See also front cover picture.) Jobbers Stress Features in Describing Distribution Advantages Offered by "Independents": "Operating under present conditions definitely proves that the independent jobber gives better service... Coverage results in more sales... in position to watch local conditions more closely and to move faster on promotions, advertising, etc."—C. C. Howard, Cleveland Radioelectric, Inc., Cleveland, Ohio. "... The jobber's salesman will work the smaller towns... harder than the factory will... also believe most dealers would rather buy from such distributor as latter is usually more centrally located."—B. J. DeJarnatt, Fresno, Cal. "... Certain manufacturers may feel that they can do without the jobber, but they will learn that other methods are too expensive. The retailer wants to deal with someone he knows; someone he can talk to and 'squawk' to—and get some service..."—Larry Arnold, The Arnold Co., Richmond, Va. "Adequate warehousing at central locations... more than ever necessary in modern merchandising. The 'independent' will handle this in the most economical manner... Territory coverage, sales training, service problems, credit control, merchandising management, educational work and sales promotion entail costs regardless of how you approach each problem. The independent distributor... will do these... at the lowest cost... far more dependably and thoroughly..."—Wm. F. Sremuth, Electro-Pliance Distributors, Inc., Milwaukee, Wis. "In ordinary times, average dealer cannot buy in sufficient volume to justify doing business with manufacturer... retailer depends upon the jobber to 'see him through'... dealer may spend an average of $100 a month, split up perhaps over two or three hundred items... sales made direct from manufacturer to dealer... would be limited."—Louis M. Herman, The Louis M. Herman Co., Boston, Mass. Personalized service, knowledge of the territory, familiarity with out-of-the-ordinary dealer-financing problems, and the possession of executive authority all under one roof are some of the potent features making up the independent distributor's stock in trade. Proponents of more direct methods of getting radios, parts and household appliances into the hands of the retailer would eliminate the independent jobber as an unnecessary "middleman"; as a sort of "fifth-wheel" in merchandising. But a careful examination of the subject reveals that any such bypassing of the independent jobber would work hardships on countless numbers of retailers whose business volume is not large, and who are frequently not in high enough credit brackets to justify having the "factory branch" or the manufacturer do business with them. Trading Area Coverage In many cases, the dealer having a limited business operation, finds that he is unable to make small purchases from any source other than the independent distributor. Such a dealer finds too that the "independent," concentrating upon a comparatively small trading area, is often more familiar with his territory as a result of this concentration of effort, and can separate the "goats" from the "sheep" in merchandise. In other words, the independent jobber is in a unique position to know in advance what will sell and what will not sell. Because his organization is compact, and his departments closely interwoven, the independent jobber's credit man can often deviate from established rules in his financial relations with the dealer. He is often able to keep a deserving dealer, whose credit statement would be unacceptable elsewhere, in business. While it is true that certain factory-branches and wholly-owned subsidiary wholesale firms distributing merchandise sell other makes in addition to those of the parent company, the choice does not often lie with the branch manager, say the champions of the independent jobber, who point out that the latter is better qualified to choose makes and models more suited to sales in his respective territory. He can move faster in discarding makes which do not sell fast, or do not perform satisfactorily, which, it is pointed out, is not often easy, and frequently impossible for the factory branch manager to do, since the latter in most cases must consult superior officials. Convenient Location Location often plays an important part in the merchant's choice of a desirable wholesaler. Often, the independent distributor, since he is frequently a specialist in making a profitable business out of a number of relatively small accounts, can locate his business in what larger operatives would term "isolated" territory. Privately Owned Firms — Specialists of Supplying the Retailer. Naturally, when the jobber is situated some distance from the centers of big business, he provides a convenient source of supply center for the merchants in this territory, and is able to make speedy deliveries of even small orders, usually via one carrier. In such cases, too, many transactions may be carried out over the telephone. Business Volume Factor Thus, we see that the independent jobber is often able to maintain a place of business where the potential sales are entirely too low to warrant the opening of a "factory-branch" or wholly-owned subsidiary establishment of a manufacturer. This location-near-the-trade feature possible to many independent distributors has other advantages also. It permits personal contact with the dealer, resulting in a better understanding between the supplier and the merchant, and it affords the opportunity for the merchant to go and select his merchandise, and, often, where rush orders are concerned, to pick up the purchases and take them to his store. Many dealers prefer to transact all of their business in the jobber's showroom, and this is particularly true of radio and refrigerator repairers, who combine such business with pleasure in visiting the distributor who "talks their language." All of these things do not mean that the independent distributor carries on his business, nationwide, on a small scale, since, as a matter of actual fact, he leads in sales of radios, radio parts and home appliances, but it does show that whether or not it is economically sound for him to operate as a "middleman" in the large centers of trade, he is absolutely essential to the retailer who is in an out of the way location or whose volume of business and credit standing is relatively small. One student of distribution makes this comparison: "The independent distributor's relationship to the independent retailer is comparable to the independent retailer's relationship to the ultimate consumer. "The factory-branch or factory-owned subsidiary firm's relationship with the independent retailer is comparable to the relationship of the chain-store, mail-order house or department store to the ultimate consumer." Close Dealer Contact The above, very broad statements do not mean that many factory branches do not maintain close dealer contacts and render service comparable in every way to the service rendered by the independent distributor, but they serve to break the subject, roughly into two general categories, and justify the existence of both kinds of distributor in the complex problem of shuttling merchandise from the factory to the ultimate consumer. The fact that so many dealers buy at the same time from the "independent," the factory branch; and direct from the manufacturer proves that each has certain advantages, and each has its niche to fill in the distribution pattern. "Facts about the Factory Branch" will appear in next month's issue, and will be followed by other articles, to complete a series on all phases of merchandise distribution. Some "Independents" Point Out How Their Services Benefit Retailer and Manufacturer: "The independent radio jobber gives his dealers quicker deliveries, faster service on parts and repairs, and establishes, trains, frequently contacts and continuously promotes the sales of many profitable dealers whom the factory would never even discover, and would not grant them the necessary credit if they did."—FRANK BURKE, 555, INC., LITTLE ROCK, ARK. "The independent radio jobber offers to the manufacturer his business and territorial knowledge, his finances as well as his localized territory efforts. . . . He offers the dealer technical and financial assistance, a speedy and efficient service . . . an understanding of the dealer's local problems."—TOM BROWN, TOM BROWN RADIO CO., ST. LOUIS, MO. "Almost all manufacturers, also retailers of all sizes, in both large and small communities, have found the independent jobber vital to their continued success. Most large concerns, both manufacturers and retailers, were once small. The independent jobber . . . played a great part in the growth and ultimate success of many of the large manufacturers and retailers in existence today."—E. B. INGRAHAM, TIMES APPLIANCE CO., INC., NEW YORK, N. Y. "The independent jobber . . . performs the following functions more efficiently and more economically than any other agency: He stocks the products of hundreds of different manufacturers, making these related products available to his many customers from one source, in relatively small quantities . . . extends credit based on close and often personal knowledge . . . provides technical service and advice . . . aggressively merchandises items he feels have merit."—R. C. HALL, R. C. & L. F. HALL, HOUSTON, TEX. APPLIANCE DISPLAY MAKES NEW LINES Radio-Appliance Dealer Diversifies Tells His Customers With Signs An appliance and radio shop that is coming through with flying colors is the Hannan Appliance Company, 707 East Lake St., Minneapolis, Minnesota. "We want to be in the appliance business when the war is over," said J. W. Hannan, owner of the business, "so we've had to diversify our efforts to help pay our overhead, the while we have given more attention than ever before to the service end of our business." "Diversifying," with the Hannan Company has meant just that. Furniture has been an important new line which has proved so good that, "We plan always to have a furniture spot in the store," said Mr. Hannan. One side of the shop is given over to furniture, some reconditioned, some new. Near the main entrance is a display of unfinished pieces for home painting and waxing. Advertising pieces near them give color schemes, show model kitchens and nooks in which the furniture is appropriate, and thereby create interest in the personalizing of one's rooms by decorating furniture as one wishes. Display Switches Toward the rear of the store, at the entrance to the service section, is a display of Coolerators and other ice-cooled refrigerators, which have sold well as substitutes for unavailable electrical units. The store has really pushed them through advertising and good display. Frequently, they are shown in window displays. "We also often give them a spot toward the front of the store," said Mr. Hannan. "We believe that moving them about in location brings new interest from customers." By picking up parts for washing machines and for vacuum cleaners, wherever they could be found, the shop established a reputation for being able to supply most needs in these items. These are displayed in a long counter case, on top of which are small items of general interest to householders, such as touch-up kits to use for small jobs that can be easily done at home. Customer Kits The shop recommends these kits to customers who inquire about small jobs, with the result that frequently the customer buys a kit and does his own simple repair instead of bringing the broken-down item to the shop—a service that the shop appreciates, since time and help are at a premium and shop labor and hours are needed for the more difficult jobs requiring expert attention. In the repair shop all kinds of appliances are serviced and reconditioned. The larger units, such as washing machines, vacuum cleaners, radios, are picked up and delivered, but customers are urged to bring in small repair work and to call for it at appointed time. Clock Repair A good business has been done on repairing alarm clocks and electric irons. "Just let the public know that repair service is done at your shop," said Mr. Hannan, "and the work flows in. We use lots of signs in our shop windows, and since we are on a big traffic street, the signs bring us business from many parts of the city from other than our regular customers." The signs have colorful backgrounds with large lettering that stands out well. There are no general statements. Instead mention is made of itemized repair work; for example: "Have Your Old Washer Fixed for the Duration NOW." "We service all makes of appliances and RADIOS." "We service all makes of washing machines and vacuum cleaners." "RADIO SERVICE—Prompt." "We repair electric irons, lamps, alarm clocks." "Radios, gas and electric ranges serviced." Rebuilds Used Items Like numerous other live shops during this period, Hannan's buys used items to be reconditioned and placed on sale. The business has become extensive. Newcomers to the city and longtime residents whose appliances have gone beyond repair keep this reconditioned merchandise moving rapidly. The shop is careful to buy nothing which cannot be repaired to give good service. High school boys help solve the labor problem. These boys who are mechanically inclined work part time during the school year and give full time during vacation periods. Older men who are expert repairmen make up the remainder of the force. Mr. Hannan works actively on some of the repair work and spends much time hunting for repair parts. Girls handle customer trade. Although the load of repair work the shop has is about as much as can be carried, the shop keeps up its advertising in order to keep its name alive and familiar to all. It uses newspaper advertisements not forgetting small neighborhood papers; it has also found listing in the classified directory of the telephone company valuable. The large expanse of windows that comprise the front of the store are filled at all times with merchandise. Displays are built low, however, so that a full view is given of the interior of the shop. Displays within the store are arranged with an eye to drawing in customers who can see the merchandise from the street. Service Utilized in Display The repair section of the shop is at the rear on the same floor. A partition separates it from the main shop, yet is low enough so that the shop is seen as a part of the main floor plan. A wide ledge across the top of the dividing wall holds repaired radios—ready for delivery. They add to the interest of the shop and advertise the radio repair section because customers can see them from any part of the main shop. On the inside of the partition shelves hold other radios to be repaired or which are ready for delivery. These shelves also serve to hold parts and tools which are used for checking of radios on the board at the back. HAGERSTOWN, Md.—Bohman-Warner, Inc., 35 W. Franklin St., is producing a steady flow in servicing volume, according to Robert P. Hussey, service director. For the past 18 years this firm has ably serviced the community, selling radios, refrigerators, electric ranges and laundry equipment, but for the duration depends upon its repair department to keep its radio-appliance picture alive. Service Now for Sales Tomorrow Its present success formula is found in the motto: "Give service today to create sales tomorrow." One of the ways this motto is made effective is the insistence on the part of the management that all sets be thoroughly tested before any repair is made. Bohman and Warner are the principal owners, but employees own stock in the company, thus insuring service cooperation and greater interest in the firm's welfare. SPRINGFIELD, MASS.—Paul D. Beckley, right, owner of Rae Radio Co., 911 State St., and his assistant Alvin Herbert, both are graduates of the National Radio Institute of Washington, D.C. Note visual tube-tester in right foreground, which lets the customer "see for himself!" Formerly a radio shop owner for many years in a nearby state, Paul Beckley, after a session at war plant work, decided to reopen in his original field, this time in Springfield, and has been in business there for the past year. Up until just recently, he has been repairing, renting and building sound systems, but lack of obtainable equipment has curtailed his activities along these lines. At present he is specializing in radio repair and the rebuilding of old receivers for resale. An accurate card system is kept in connection with this work which lists the customer's name and address, model receiver, remarks, credit, circuit changeovers, and any other work done. A guarantee of 90 days on all work and new tubes is made. PHOENIX, Ariz.—Ramsey Radio, 3703 N. 7th St., conducted by Clay and Floyd Ramsey, father and son, has operated in the same neighborhood for 11 years. The present shop was built in June, 1943. It is equipped, and the business is organized for service in radio exclusively. They run between 300 and 400 sets every month. Located in a district served by one of the main transportation stems, business comes from various resident groups, a large proportion of which are home owners. The range is broad, from modest income brackets through higher medium classifications in newer subdivisions centered around the huge new North High School, and up into the wealthier classes occupying the de luxe country club mansions. The Ramsey neighborhood selection demonstrated sound foresight on the part of the firm members. Service has developed a good will, assuring stability and growth. "Now," reports Floyd Ramsey, "the main thing is being able to substitute and to use things in radio that we never had thought about before. We have trained ourselves in this to such an extent that in reading of substitutions devised by others we often find that many of them duplicate ideas we have already worked out for ourselves. "We get some very helpful ideas from RADIO AND Television RETAILING." CHICAGO, Ill.—Carey's Radio & Record Shop, 5534 W. North Ave., specializing in popular and classical records joins the ranks of newly-opened shops here. Bill W. Ward, who works in a local warplant during the day, has opened a shop at 3140 N. Austin Ave., and takes care of radio repair work evenings. WATERTOWN, N.Y.—Radio Hospital ties in with a local feed mill. Farmers bring their defective radios to the mill, and the mill truck transports the sets to the repairer. Each receiver is tagged with an individual bill, and the mill truck picks them up a week later. The set owner pays the mill dealer, who in turn pays Radio Hospital. BALTIMORE, Md.—An interesting addition to the retail field has been made here by the opening of Thurlow's Music Bar by Carroll Thurlow at 2300 E. Monument St. This shop will feature a comprehensive line of records, both classics and popular numbers, featuring well known makes of recordings and sheet music. Thurlow has been identified with the music field for many years. He became identified with the business more than a decade ago, when he and Sam Hornstein operated a radio parts and radio servicing business. Several years ago, Thurlow opened a business for himself, trading as the Thurlow Electric Service Co., at McElderry and Rose Sts., where, in addition to featuring records, he operated a complete service on radios and appliances. BIRMINGHAM, Ala.—The Homewood Radio & Electric Co., has been opened at 1801 Montgomery Highway by Eugene Childress, who for 12 years operated an electric shop in Evansville, Ind. His new place of business is in a service station which he took over on account of its prominent location and drive-in facility. MANKATO, Minn.—The Schwickert Hardware Co. has gone in for service of used appliances in a big way. George Schwickert, owner, travels about Minnesota buying used radios and other appliances, reconditioning them and reselling locally. The firm has a separate radio repair department, staffed by a full-time man. Last year more than 290 radios were bought, reconditioned and resold, in addition to many other appliances. Reconditions Appliances Newspaper ads are run twice weekly for used appliances of any kind, and radio announcements on a local station are also employed. A sign outside the store also stresses that the store buys used appliances. This store maintains a service staff of from 10 to 15 men to handle all appliance repairs, tin shop work, furnace cleaning, industrial roofing and domestic jobs. Milking machines and cream separators are reconditioned and resold also. A fine profit has been made through such operations within wartime ceilings to date. HOUSTON, Tex.—"We can't get nearly enough tubes, and even the use of adapters and rewiring has its limitations," says Horace B. Matthews, owner of the Texas Radio & Television Service, 3707 Jensen Drive. "We have some welded tubes, but we don't sell these as new ones. We tell the customer that these tubes are rebuilt and repaired, and that they may last 5 minutes, five hours, five weeks or five months, and we don't get new tube prices for them. We take our customers into our confidence and tell them the truth about parts and repairs." MARTINSBURG, W. Va.—Dealer J. Gordan Baldwin, at right in above photo, 328 W. King St., launched his business in 1930. "I had a hunch," he says, "that with the prospects of many dealers going out of business it was the right time for me to go into business." Through advertising and improved business methods, Mr. Baldwin found his business growing by leaps and bounds. He sold Philco radio, Kelvinators, Bendix and Thor laundry equipment. Today, repair work of the better sort is the store's chief activity. Frank B. Troup, the service manager, assisted by Joseph A. Brunk, turns out about 8 sets a day. NEW YORK, N. Y.—Haynes-Griffin, one of New York's finest radio-record shops, which has been operating for some years at 373 Madison Ave., moved on Aug. 1 to larger quarters at 391 Madison Ave., a block north. Extensive remodeling has been done at the new location, where a much larger store will give the firm increased display and customer facilities. AUGUSTA, Ga.—David M. Johnson, owner of Johnson' Radio Repair Service, 1163 Broad St., is employed in a war plant but his wife takes care of radio repairs, with his assistance at night on jobs she is not able to do alone. Through this method the shop has managed to keep customers satisfied. When the war started Johnson began to buy all the second-hand radios he could find for sale, and stored them away. As a result he now has tubes and parts which come in handy repairing sets which he offers for sale. "What lovely paintings!" is an exclamation heard many times a day from people who stop before the windows of the Warren Radio Store on the busy main street of Salt Lake City, Utah, or who enter this live radio store, on the walls of which are dozens of bright canvasses adding interest and a certain cheerfulness to the store's interior. But the paintings are not merely for decoration; they are for sale. When the war came along and it was hard to get radios, the store put in a line of pictures by Robert Harsh, one of the West's best known landscape painters. Manager Frank Warren pointed to a particularly fine mountain scene: "That," he said, "sells for $50. The pictures range in price from $15 to $75, and bring in a nice type of buyer, who is exposed to the other merchandise we carry, specifically records." Stock Increase "Before the war," Mr. Warren continued, "we carried only about 200 records, but right now I have over 2000 records in stock." Whenever a customer shows interest in records, Mr. Warren is on the spot with a suggestion. For instance, "Do you ever listen to hit parades played over the radio?" we heard him ask a couple of young women who had entered the shop and were examining the record display. "You do? Then you'll want to hear 'Milk Man Keep Those Bottles Quiet.' It ranked high on the hit parade this week . . . why, it's the most popular record we have on hand." Before the prospective customers could object, the lively strains of the "Milk Man" record filled the room and manager Warren in his pleasant and enthusiastic manner, sold the visitors a record album and three records, including the "Milk Man" rendition. Located for Traffic Frank Warren came to Salt Lake City eight years ago from Canada. He chose a location at 28 So. Main St., for his radio store, within a half block of the famous Mormon temple and tabernacle and right across the street from the city's oldest and most respected department store: Zions Cooperative Mercantile Institution, originated by the Mormon church in Pioneer days. Music Specialist When the war hit and radios disappeared from the market, Warren turned to records in a large way and today, the entire north wall of his store is devoted to albums and records. Knowing the value of good sales women, manager Warren selected two personable young women, Marian Spratt and Margaret Holgerson, who know their business and have had much to do with the store's steady increase in record sales. "Gallery" Successful "Usually," said Miss Spratt, "people come in either to look at the pictures, or to inquire as to what we have in the way of records. They are of two classes—the older generation, to whom we sell more albums and old favorites, and the younger generation who prefer 'hot music,' and who keep up on the hit parades. By next Fall we expect to have the best record stock in Salt Lake City." Not only are Miss Spratt and Miss Holgerson topnotch saleswomen, but they have learned all angles of the business during their three years of service. They know how to test radio tubes, and are familiar with radio service problems. When manager Warren found that the draft and high salaried warplant jobs made it impossible for him to keep a repairman for 8 hours at a time, he tried keeping 3 repairmen on the job each three hours daily. The plan has worked like a charm. Radio service men, drawing big wages on warplant jobs, are always glad to pick up extra money, and Mr. Warren has found that 3 men on part time work out even better than one steady man employed a full day. Commission Basis The beautiful paintings previously referred to are not stocked particularly for their money-making value, as they are sold on a commission basis for the artist, but they do attract attention to the window and bring people into the store resulting in higher record sales. Besides, the pictures create new friends and customers and cause folks to discuss the radio store in highly favorable terms. The paintings also give an artistic atmosphere to the store and put record and radio service selling on a "new high." Display Uses While the Warren Radio store space is limited, manager Warren makes every inch count. He has only 2 record-playing booths, but has ample space along the walls for his complete assortment of records and albums. He has placed his office above his service department at the rear of the store, and maintains good looking windows with the aid of the high quality oil paintings. Songster LOVELIES Dorothy Lamour, movieland's Sarong Girl, has signed with Decca who is scheduling her album of romantic Hawaiian songs for near-future release. Dottie is currently appearing in the film "And the Angels Sing." Vacations-at-Home Build Big Sales in Records for Relaxation - The roving eye of the summer record purchaser has wandered to the lighter side of music during the vacation period. Selections tendered retailers by the recording companies cater to the summer mood, and many of this year's "home-vacationers" are still interested in this type music. Eye-catching display possibilities are envisioned from the summer group of songsters on August discs. Among Decca's current releases are: Hildegarde's rendition of "Lili Marlene" and "My Heart Sings" (No. 23348); Dick Haymes and Helen Forrest singing "It Had to Be You" and "Together" (No. 23349); Jimmy Dorsey on disc 18616, "An Hour Never Passes" and his own composition "Two Again"; and No. 18617 "Together" backed by "Come With Me My Honey." Calypso-type song treated by Guy Lombardo and his Royal Canadians. Dinah Shore, who ranks as one of the highest in demand by the fighting forces and is now singing in England, made a new record (mixed chorus) for Victor before she left: "Together" and "I Learned a Lesson I'll Never Forget," No. 20-1594, for release August 18th. "Together," an old favorite, is revived in the popular MGM film "Since You Went Away." Included in the 118 Victor reissues scheduled for August and September release to dealers are two discs by the glamorous Dinah Shore: Bluebird 11204, "I'm Through with Love," and Bluebird 10592 "I've Got My Eyes on You" and "Watching the Clock." Other reissues included in this group are recorded by artists Tommy Dorsey, Artie Shaw, Duke Ellington, Freddy Martin, Sammy Kaye, Tony Pastor, Benny Goodman and others. No. 20-592 is Victor's version of "Lili Marlene" sung by popular Perry Como. Flipover is "First Class Private Mary Brown." Note: Check with your Victor distributor regard- Decca's Helen Forrest is now on the radio, and making guest appearances on the West Coast. Victor's Dinah Shore, currently in England to sing for the boys, made one new recording before leaving, is featured in Victor's list of 118 reissues, ready for August-September distribution. Columbia's Ginny Simms, popular radio thrush, helps build servicemen's morale over NBC on the Phillip Morris program "Johnny Presents." Is included in Columbia's August releases. Blonde Bombshell Betty Hutton scored a direct hit with her first disc for Capitol, "His Rocking Horse Ran Away," No. 155, with more to come! Now a drawing card in films, the little girl from Lansing will soon be seen in "Here Come the Waves." Victor offers its dealers a new single disc display piece with interchangeable title space, practical for frequently altered display windows and on counters inside the store. The display piece is accompanied by a kit of 50 colored title strips. Further along the line of store display material are the frames for Red Seal Portraits now available. Columbia continues to release populars weekly and to average at least one classical album monthly. Their current releases: "Fry Me Cookie with a Can' of Lard" and "Request for Rhumba," No. 36719, Will Bradley, Aug. 7th. "Sylvia" and "This Side of Heaven," No. 36730, The Charioteers, Aug. 14th. "Operetta Potpourri," Set C-100, Marek Weber, Aug. 14th. "I'm Glad There Is You" and "Chinese Lullaby," No. 36731, Ginny Simms, Aug. 21st. "The Warfaring Stranger," Set C-103, Burl Ives, Sept. 5th. Definitely planned for tie-up promotion with Jimmy Durante's current film "Two Girls and A Sailor" (MGM), is his recording for Columbia of "Inka Dinka Doo" backed by "Hot Patatta," No. 36732, for release August 14th. True to its promise, Capitol is ready with its new album "New American Jazz," No. 3-A, which features 18 outstanding artists. Newest Capitol single disc, No. 166, features Stan Kenton's Orchestra in "Her Tears Flowed Like Wine," and "How Many Hearts Have You Broken." The Johnny Mercer "Music Shop" program over NBC has been renewed for another 13 weeks. Musicraft has signed Joan Brooks of radio fame. Her first discs are "Someday Somewhere" and "What A Difference A Day Made"; "If You Were the Only Girl in the World" and "Seven Days a Week." Musicraft's album release "American Waltz Memories," No 62, stars Paul Lavalle and his String Orchestra and includes such easy listening as "A Kiss in the Dark," "Remember," and "Always." Continental Music Co., Chicago, Ill., has readied three new record cabinets of period design, interestingly priced and affording plenty of sales appeal to record library collectors. Ohio Radio-Appliance Dealer Converted Business to Beat Shortages—Holds Former Customers with a “Jeweled” Link. Radio Service Retained. • You can’t keep a good man down—nor a rugged individualist—nor a resourceful and determined man who has a plan and has decided he will carry it out. Lynn A. Lyon, head of the firm bearing his name, is that sort of individual. Down in the west central part of Ohio is Findlay, the county seat of Hancock county. Here nearly everyone knows Lynn, and he is acquainted with many of the inhabitants of the city and the countryside, for he has conducted an appliance store in Findlay for more than 13 years. Sold Radios & Appliances In a year his refrigerator sales averaged more than one a day, which isn’t “hay” for a community of 35,000. Besides he sold hundreds of radios, ironers, washers and small appliances. He built his business on quality, featuring such nationally known merchandise as Frigidaire, General Electric, Philco, Hoover, Bendix, Thor, Maytag, Silex, etc. Contacts Public Before engaging in business for himself, he had been district sales-representative for a leading washing machine manufacturer, had managed appliance departments, and had otherwise enhanced his experience through years of contact with the public. He was always ready and willing to help his fellow man. This friendly spirit, however, nearly cost his life. Years back, he gave a wayfarer a ride. The hitch-hiker in return shot Lynn in the neck, and threw him into a ditch for dead. The life and experiences of Lynn Lyon read like a story from “The Arabian Nights.” Recovering, he decided to engage in business for himself. Consequently he started in the depression year of 1930 to sell washers and refrigerators from his home. Eventually he acquired his own up-to-date appliance shop. When the war left him without appliances, he went about converting his appliance business into a gift-novelty shop, featuring a wide variety of jewelry. Will Reconvert to Former Lines Mr. Lyon expects to return to the appliance business when the war is ended. Meanwhile he is maintaining contacts with his old friends and customers through his present store and is giving Findlay a new type of enterprise. His service department, one of the largest in this section of the state, continues to serve the community. We started from Scratch ... and built the world's finest recorder-radio-phonograph combination known as "Recordio." That is history. Tomorrow we'll produce a sensational new Recordio. Watch for it! Ask us about it! WILCOX-GAY CORPORATION CHARLOTTE, MICHIGAN Manufacturers of the Recordio, Famous Home Recording-Radio-Phonograph Combination Discs Hold Combination Frequent Display Changes Create Customer Interest - Remunerative retailing today depends a great deal on effective window displays. This intrinsic rule has been strictly followed by Ranald West, owner of the "Record Shop" of Hagerstown, Md. Twice a week the Record Shop changes its windows and finds its attractive displays create customers and are a business booster. For the duration, the Record Shop will cater to music and book lovers and its attractive interior is blueprinted to tie in records, music and books as the pathway to postwar radio business. Front-of-store space is divided between a rental library and best sellers on one side, while music and record albums present a gay display on the other. Combinations Featured In the background radio-combinations are shown. Here customers tarry and a great volume of business in records and albums is conducted. The store opens daily at nine and remains open nightly for the convenience of its customers. Firmly convinced that "music upholds morale," its owner encourages the service men from nearby Camp Ritchie to make themselves at home in the comfortable "Record Lounge" in the rear of the shop. Here, day and night, in their off hours, uniformed men gather as Bing Crosby and the Mills Brothers recordings make homesickness taboo. With no radios on the market, the Record Shop upholds its trade name as its major commodity. Records rank first and albums run a close second in sales. The "buy-lines," sheet music and books, ably play their part as sales promoters. The Record Shop is always well equipped with best-seller stock. The Record Shop opened only a few years ago. "Then," quaintly described its owner, "it was a hole in the wall, carrying a few thousands in stock. The business soon outgrew its second-rate surroundings, and today the Record Shop is now located on Washington St., and carries over $14,000 in stock." Concerning postwar planning, owner Ranald West declares, "the Record Shop will always be one step ahead. First, postwar radios will take precedence. Novelties will disappear and the Record Shop will major in radio combinations. Records in Education "We radio dealers are convinced that war has given radio such an impetus that in tomorrow's world we will face a new era. Radio and recordings will take first place as educational factors. They will be even utilized as textbooks. The musical portrait idea* will grow, and by this novel and interesting method, school children will have a keener insight into the spirit and character of the men that symbolize America." Two years ago Andre Kostelanetz commissioned various American composers to write a series of musical portraits of great Americans. "Abraham Lincoln" by Aaron Copland, "Mark Twain" by Jerome Kern, and 2 portraits by Virgil Thomson, "Dorothy Thompson" and "Mayor LaGuardia" have been written. Only one of these has been recorded: "Mark Twain," Columbia set X-227. Crosley Is Solving Its Own Postwar Employment Problem When war came, we at Crosley converted immediately and totally to production of war materials. We did this with the help of thousands of new employees. The postwar future of these employees and of former Crosley employees now serving their country is not a national problem or a community problem. It is a Crosley problem. This fact has been clearly recognized by everyone at Crosley. It has been the joint concern of Management and Labor. A postwar employment plan is in operation. The seven members of the Executive Committee of the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers Local No. B-1061 and four responsible representatives of Crosley Management have agreed on a plan for safeguarding the economic security of all Crosley people. THIS PLAN PROVIDES* 1. For a survey to determine how many Crosley employees in the Armed Forces plan to come back to their old jobs or to other work at Crosley more suited to their new capabilities and interests. 2. For an accurate check of the number of our present employees who plan to resume their pre-war occupations as housewives, salesmen, or other peacetime activities. 3. For a careful estimate of our post-war markets and the number of employees who could be utilized in an aggressive new product program and expanding postwar sales of home appliances. 4. For the establishment of a Crosley Employee Readjustment Board whose sole responsibility is to find employment for surplus employees through cooperation with the United States Employment Service and direct contact with other possible employers. All the details of the Crosley plan will appear in a little booklet now being prepared for distribution to our organization of more than 9,000 people. If you would like to have a copy, just write the Crosley Employee Readjustment Board, The Crosley Corporation, Cincinnati, Ohio. --- Peace time manufacturers of Crosley refrigerators, radios, other household appliances and the Crosley Car. Home of WJW, "The Nation's Station" BEFORE THE WAR — PHILCO LED THE INDUSTRY IN FM SALES! AFTER THE WAR — PHILCO LEADERSHIP WILL CONTINUE WITH A SENSATIONAL NEW FM SYSTEM Since the introduction of FM as a new kind of radio service to the listening public, it was Philco engineering and Philco merchandising that pointed the way to making FM a source of substantial volume and genuine profit to the radio dealer. The record speaks for itself...of all FM sales before the war, of all FM radios in use today, Philco leads the industry by an overwhelming margin! After the war, as FM spreads to the large and small population centers, Philco leadership in engineering and merchandising will bring the radio dealer again his greatest and most profitable sales opportunity. A sensational, new FM System will give the listening public the utmost in tone, performance and value...and will enable Philco dealers to meet the demand for FM receivers in every price bracket! Yes, as FM grows in Public Demand you can depend on PHILCO for your greatest Sales and Profits. Holds Appliance Prospects With No Servicers, Wisconsin Firm Owners "Pitch In"—Sell Sidelines - A large number of profitable sidelines, plus a continuation of regular lines, has helped the Laehn-Erickson Co., Fond du Lac, Wis., get along during the war period, despite some very vexing problems. D. O. Erickson states that he and his partner, A. H. Laehn, realized early in the war that they would have to add new lines to help them see the business through, and so considerable stocks were added. The result is a store which is full of merchandise of various sorts. Some of the most profitable lines will be retained after the war. Others will have to go to make room for appliances. Paint Line Well Displayed A paint department was installed in the store and placed right up at the front. A nationally advertised line was chosen, and displayed in neat, specially constructed shelves. While stove sales are down during the war period, due to restrictions, the firm is now selling cooking stoves and space heaters from time to time on ration applications. The two partners offer help to prospects in filling out such applications. Other new lines include kitchen tables and chairs, a line of dishes and glassware, cleaning supplies, lamps, pictures, wall plaques, hash-sacks, end tables, pottery and kitchen gadgets. "Our new lines have really helped increase our store traffic," says Mr. Erickson. "This is very valuable to us in increasing our contacts, for we can sell appliances to many such folks in the postwar era. Our repair department was hit hard during this war period. Mr. Laehn and I did mostly sales work in the pre-war days and were kept very busy. Our repair man has left us and we have not been able to replace him. We do some of the minor servicing ourselves, including testing of tubes, but the major repair work is sent to another shop, which has taken on this work for us for the duration. "This is a fine arrangement, because the radio sets still come into our store, and we continue to maintain contacts with our own customers. It's the best we can do under the circumstances. When refrigerators and washers we sold come in for repairs, we send them to the same shop that handles our radio business." Used Pianos The Laehn-Erickson Co. also dealt in pianos for many years, and still does a fine business in used ones during wartime. The secret formula of success here has been an active buying campaign on used pianos, dating back to the first days of the war period, as well as paying satisfactory prices for them. This firm pays as high as $35 for used pianos, depending on their condition, while roving piano buyers from other, larger cities rarely pay over $10 to $15. Gain Stock Pile As a result, folks in this area and nearby towns and cities, hold their pianos to sell to Laehn-Erickson. This enables the firm to have a stock of more than 100 pianos on hand at all times. These pianos are reconditioned and resold. They often bring as high as $200, according to Mr. Erickson. This firm also calls for and delivers its own pianos, sometimes traveling considerable distances. The reason for this is that pianos can be damaged in transit, says Mr. Erickson, and his company does not want to have any additional repairs to make on them than is absolutely necessary. "With our various lines, we manage to keep very busy during wartime," says Mr. Erickson. "We really didn't think we could solve our problem so well. We aren't making a fortune by any means, but we are holding our own and preparing for the postwar days when everyone seems to think appliance men will make many profitable sales." When Production for Peace is Resumed Howard will Again Bring You All that is Best in Entertainment Radio In supplying our armed forces with a continuous flow of the world's finest communications equipment, it has been Howard's privilege to utilize the most advanced principles in radio design and development. All of the skills acquired through this 100 percent "Production for Victory" program will be reflected in Howard Radio Receivers and Radio-Phonograph-Recorder Combinations for peace. As always, you can count on Howard for the finest. HOWARD RADIO COMPANY, 1731-35 Belmont Ave. CHICAGO 13 ILLINOIS THE OCEAN COMES TO EMERSON Sea water was urgently needed recently by our research laboratories to simulate actual combat conditions for a serious test-check on an important Emerson Radio-Electronic device...a unit that plunges through the surf on many a hard-fought beachhead. This is but one of many unusual, practical tests constantly performed in the famous Emerson "Brain Cell". Ingenious discoveries and improvements on war equipment are today enabling Emerson Radio engineers to pile up invaluable experience that will assure outstanding precision-built radio receivers tomorrow. Emerson's great engineering ideas...coupled with Emerson's advanced styling, merchandising and advertising will win new millions of customers for radios that bear the name Emerson. The post-war Emerson franchise will be more profitable than ever before to the dealer interested in faster turnover, greater profit, increased volume. Ask Your Emerson Distributor for Details of the P. D. Q. Plan FOR TOMORROW...A THEATRE IN EVERY HOME WITH EMERSON RADIO TELEVISION EMERSON RADIO & PHONOGRAPH CORPORATION, NEW YORK II, N.Y. EMERSON'S PLATFORM: Good Product—Dealer Acceptance—Consumer Acceptance HERE'S HOW NORGE DEALERS BENEFIT FROM THIS NATIONAL NETWORK OF INDEPENDENT DISTRIBUTORS... Your Norge distributor is an independent business man who knows every detail of every model of every line of Norge household appliances. And, like you, he backs his judgment with his own money. This assures his continuous personal interest in your problems, which he will often solve for you by his authority to make final decisions on the spot, cutting red tape and saving you days, even weeks. Since 1941 there has been a 37% increase in the number of Norge distributors. No matter where you do business today, an aggressive, progressive Norge distributor (carefully selected for his ability to keep you in a sound competitive position) is your neighbor. The sincere, helpful, profit-producing service rendered to dealers by sound, seasoned Norge distributors is another reason why today so many men in the know are saying, You have a great future with Norge. NORGE DIVISION, BORG-WARNER CORPORATION, DETROIT 26, MICHIGAN NORGE A BORG-WARNER INDUSTRY BATTLE on the SALES FRONT! Practice Selling in the "Seller's Market" Now is the time for all good salesmen to come to the aid of themselves. The salesman who allows himself to use the "there's a war going on" alibi to his current customers should remember that "there's a postwar coming on," and that it is necessary for him to keep his hand in if he wants to be able to use the modern selling weapons needed in tomorrow's battle for sales. The efficient salesman champs at the bit nowadays when he's forced to sell "pushovers" because there's much more satisfaction in engaging in a battle of wits with the customer, and a deep feeling of having done a good job well when the customer finally signs on the dotted line. Not long ago we visited one of Philadelphia's largest home appliance stores, where the postwar sales force, unusually enough, is virtually intact. The stock on display is typical of the merchandise in many other similar places. Substitute lines, gadgets, gee-gaws and a few rebuilt appliances, plus phonograph records, is about all there is to offer the customer. Since the store is unable to fill about half of the requests customers make due to merchandise shortages, and since it is no trick at all to get them to purchase what is available, we were interested to find out the attitude of one of the organization's star salesman—a fellow with a fine pre-war selling record—and a man who is sticking with his firm because he sees a great opportunity here when the war is over. Sales Effort This salesman's attitude was enlightening. "What am I doing now to keep myself in the groove?" he said in answer to a question. "I'm doing just this. I practice salesmanship on every customer. I pretend that the record I sell them, or the fifty-cent gadget is a high-priced radio-phonograph combination or a two-hundred-dollar refrigerator. I realize that the one way I can ruin my chances in the postwar selling picture is to become negative, uninterested or excuse-ridden in my sales presentations today. Believe me, Mister, I'm going to keep on being a salesman, come hell or high-water!" That's the spirit which salesmen, who're in the game because they want to make it a permanent career, should take today, and enhance and nurture at all costs. Tomorrow's Good Will Employers who let their salespeople follow the lines of least resistance in today's market, and who allow them to give slip-shod, hackneyed excuses to customers, are not only damaging the morale of the salespeople—many of whom are new in the game today, but are seriously injuring their own goodwill through antagonizing customers they (the employers) will be more than glad to have tomorrow. The excuse nowadays, on the part of the employer, manager or other responsible person, is that the help situation is so acute that it's dangerous to attempt to correct salespeople's methods because they may quit. The above argument has lots in its favor. That's obvious. But the smart merchant must realize that he isn't going to do business in a seller's market very long. Above all, today, he should realize that many of the customers his clerks antagonize now are going to remember the treatment they got. Profits in Courtesy In many cases, therefore, it is better to operate short-handed than it is to employ rude, inefficient salespeople, who are only performing the job "temporarily." Sell your salespeople—even your "temporary" workers—salesmanship, and maybe you'll develop them into valuable postwar employees. We know a radio dealer who maintains a one-man shop. In this place of business he sells records and giftware. He also repairs receivers, and it is unnecessary to tell our readers that he is as busy as the proverbial paper-hanger. No sooner does this man sit down at his bench to work on a set, than the door opens and he is obliged to jump up and wait on a customer. "I never laugh at a customer who comes in my place with a hopeful look on his face and a 12SA7 or a 50L6 tube in his hand," the above dealer writes us from an area where tubes are extremely hard to get. "The position might be reversed," he says, "and I might be that customer anxiously trying to get his set in an operating condition again." "I am never impatient or rude to a customer bringing in a repair job," says a Texas dealer, "no matter how unreasonable his request may be, because I remember many days in the past when not one single set came in for repair." Nothing today is more important than skillful customer contact. The present-day merchandising maelstrom is but a flash in the pan. A storm to weather out! Tomorrow is what will really count, and the merchant's every move should be predicated upon this tomorrow. During World War I the workers who sank all their money in silk (Continued on page 58) The 17 RCA Miniatures shown on this page—all of them destined to build a bigger business for you in the future—are: 1A3 — H-F diode 1L4 — R-F amplifier pentode 1R5 — pentagrid converter 1S5 — diode-pentode 1T4 — R-F amplifier pentode 3A4 — power amplifier pentode 3A5 — H-F twin triode 3S4 — power amplifier pentode 6AG5 — R-F amplifier pentode 6ALS — twin diode 6AO6 — Duplex-diode High-Mu triode 6C4 — U-H-F power triode 6JA — U-H-F amplifier triode 6J6 — twin triode 9001 — Sharp cut-off U-H-F pentode 9002 — U-H-F triode 9003 — Super-control U-H-F pentode Tiny tubes like these...every single one of them developed by RCA...were first picked up by the spotlight when the "Personal Radio" was announced in June, 1940. That history-making "super-portable" was designed around RCA's staunch little quartet, Miniatures 1R5, 1S4, 1S5 and 1T4. Thus, before Pearl Harbor, these Miniatures were already building an entirely new market for you. For they made possible the new type of radio which John Public wanted...not as a replacement for his conventional radio, but as an additional set. And Miniature sets meant profitable battery replacements, too. War found RCA Miniatures instantly available for overseas service in equipment such as the paratrooper's air-borne "Handie-Talkie." Once Victory is won, radios using Miniature tubes will return to your line...better than ever, and more popular than ever. For wartime advances in RCA tube engineering have already led to the development of many new Miniature types and even better Miniature performance. We look forward to that day, and to the continued broadening of your markets through RCA tube pioneering. Don't forget, the Magic Brain of all electronic equipment is a Tube...and the fountain-head of modern Tube development is RCA! BUY WAR BONDS RADIO CORPORATION OF AMERICA RCA VICTOR DIVISION • CAMDEN, N. J. LEADS THE WAY...in Radio...Television...Tubes... Phonographs...Records...Electronics It picks out a whisper from the roar of a crowd! Scientists see an extraordinary future for this new microphone. When attached to a television camera, for instance, it can be aimed precisely in any direction, thus singling out only the desired sound or voice, just as the camera "shoots" only the desired scene. LISTEN TO RCA's radio program, "The Music America Loves Best" ... every Saturday, 7:30 p.m., EWT, Blue Network. HOME TELEVISION RECEIVERS priced within the reach of millions will be a tremendous factor in the speed and growth of postwar television. RCA will produce them at surprisingly low cost, assuring you of early and profitable participation in the nation's "next great industry." YOU’LL NEVER CARRY THIS IN YOUR STOCK . . . yet it points the way to more postwar sales for you! IN THE illustration at the left you’re looking at another of the many striking RCA accomplishments in electronics—the RCA Ultra-Directional Microphone. With the precision of a beam of light, it focuses on one person across a city street, brings one voice to life, completely “blacking out” all the other voices of a crowd. The RCA Ultra-Directional Microphone isn’t something your customers will ask for. But they will want radio-phonographs and television receivers incorporating the last word in electronic advancements. RCA has them now—in war radios built for planes, tanks, ships, lifeboats, in the dozens of electronic tubes and devices designed to outwit our enemies on battlefronts all over the world. Through RCA advertising millions are hearing about these achievements now. Thus RCA is paving the way for RCA dealers to become the greatest source of radio, phonograph and television instruments after the war—and in the quickest possible time. Before the war millions made these fine RCA radio-phonographs their choice. Millions will again be attracted to RCA not only for instruments of surpassing beauty but for the last word in engineering achievement...the superb tone reproduction and static-free reception made possible by the RCA Super FM radio circuit. RADIO CORPORATION OF AMERICA RCA VICTOR DIVISION · CAMDEN, N. J. LEADS THE WAY . . . In Radio . . . Television . . Tubes . . Phonographs . . Records . . Electronics It's the Little Things That Count OR, WHAT MAKES THE 155-C DIFFERENT FROM OTHER 3" OSCILLOSCOPES? 1 "direct deflector connections"—For observations at radio frequencies when such are desirable. 2 "built-in light shield"—The front of the tube is recessed; you can see transients even in bright light. 3 "binding jacks"—Can be used with removable binding posts or with locking pin plugs. 4 "removable graph screen" to permit special observations—Place or replace it with a twist of the wrist. 5 "improved timing axis oscillator"—Range extended to 60 kilocycles—more linear sweep. 6 "6-volt AC terminals"—For obtaining a handy sine wave ordinate for calibrating purposes. BUY MORE WAR BONDS RADIO CORPORATION OF AMERICA RCA VICTOR DIVISION • CAMDEN, N. J. LEADS THE WAY... In Radio... Television... Tubes... Phonographs... Records... Electronics Like so many radio technicians, Tom Deirup, owner of Electronic Engineers, in Oakland, Cal., started fooling around with a crystal set when he was a boy. After building radios for himself for a number of years, he began rebuilding them for others as a natural consequence. His new shop, located at 2900 Telegraph Ave., is an example of what a hobby can develop into, if you let it get into your blood. All through engineering school at the University of California, Deirup carried on his home repair business, and found himself with a ready-made vocation at graduation. Electronic Engineer So in October of last year, Electronic Engineers was born. In choosing the name, Tom Deirup considered tomorrow, when the country will move forward in a relatively new, endlessly promising field. His particular interest is in that most speculated about, talked about, and written about of all postwar development fields—electronics. Deirup is equipped to handle special electronic work now. Activity in this line has been going on for some time, and will continue. But it's the dazzling prospect of future electronic expansion which is the hope of this shop. It is a good world to look forward to, and one which Tom Deirup will be prepared for. Repairs Medical Units Just now, institutional work is keeping Electronic Engineers very busy. Hospitals are plentiful in the area, and diathermy machines, other medical equipment, and multiple-outlet radio systems are constantly in need of repair. With one hard working assistant, Deirup handles as many of these orders as he can, in addition to family radio repair jobs. "We're in a fine location, here on the main drag," he explains. "Casual business, alone, keeps us busy. We also pick up and deliver, so home business is good. After less than a year in this spot, I'm up to my neck in work." In spite of the business-like, forward-looking firm he has established, Tom Deirup is still "riding" his hobby. Building radios fascinates him as much now as it did before radios became his career. He pointed this out by indicating a streamlined, bleached mahogany cabinet in the window of his store. "Before the war, when materials were available, I built those radio-phonograph combinations to order. This is my own model, kept there as a sort of promise for later on. We'll be back to turning out those sets as soon as we're able." Deirup did his own cabinet work, to the specifications of the customer, and built them with a liberal imagination and a luxurious touch. Naturally, these custom-built jobs can't compete with mass-produced sets, nor does he intend them to. They are for the man who wants his home furnished in complete harmony, and who can afford tailor-made ideas. It's creative work, interesting work. And it's to be a part of the future of Electronic Engineers when materials are again available. Custom-made Sets for Postwar Thus, from the first crystal set put together for himself, to the last custom built instrument he completed before priorities stopped him, Tom Deirup has allowed his hobby to guide him along an extremely profitable road. Deirup looks forward to the day when the science of electronics will come into its own. Delco Radio Products Mean Uniform Quality Delco Radio products—wherever in use—are of uniformly fine quality. For two reasons . . . First, capable engineering by Delco Radio's laboratories . . . Second, advanced techniques in mass production. It is through this combination of engineering vision and manufacturing precision that Delco Radio meets the demands of war, the needs of peace. Put Your Dollars In Action BUY MORE WAR BONDS Delco Radio DIVISION OF GENERAL MOTORS THERE IS NOTHING TO DO ABOUT A WAR EXCEPT WIN IT! The purpose of this advertisement is NOT to brag about Thordarson’s part in the war effort. While patriotism in a person or company may be something to be proud of, our own feeling is that it should not be exploited. Expressing patriotism in America is not even a duty; rather, it is a privilege . . . happily one that is understood and appreciated by the majority. That is why, for nearly 3 years, Thordarson has talked little about the war and war production . . . except to make the bare statement that we were busy supplying materials for the armed forces. Regardless of all this, we do think the time is now propitious to give a few more details as to what we are thinking and doing. When war came, we were one of the first companies to be chosen for front-line production duty. The need was urgent . . . the demands were great. As Americans, we were glad wholeheartedly to tackle the job assigned to us. Early and late . . . day and night . . . Sundays and holidays, we have continued to devote all of our efforts, 100% to winning the war. We have kept “eyes front” on this one task. We have had to forget, for the moment, personal considerations of “good business” . . . on occasion we have even had to turn down old and good friends who needed this or that which, under ordinary conditions, we would have been tickled to death to supply. The time will come . . . it’s coming shortly, we feel . . . when we again can think first and foremost of supplying civilian needs. That will be a far happier day for us than it could possibly be for you, no matter how much you have needed material you were unable to secure. But meantime, the war goes on . . . and we, in our small way, must continue to stand guard at our appointed post until the “at ease” command is given. As we said in the beginning: THERE IS NOTHING TO DO ABOUT A WAR EXCEPT WIN IT! THORDARSON TRANSFORMER DIVISION THORDARSON ELECTRIC MFG. CO. 500 WEST HURON STREET, CHICAGO, ILL. Transformer Specialists Since 1895 . . ORIGINATORS OF TRU-FIDELITY AMPLIFIERS DOLLARS AND SENSE in FINANCING Importance of "Credit Service" vs. "Money-Lending" Because there are so many obvious ramifications to any discussion upon the subject of attempting to compare the merits of the various lending agencies, no effort to treat this angle is made. Dealer situations vary as to size of operation, financial ability, etc., and each must view the entire scene carefully and make his own choice, predicated upon which lending agency seems the most logical, from all angles, to be his financial mentor. Line Up Essentials Here are the things desired and needed in the dealer's financial setup: 1. The dealer should be able to stock enough merchandise to properly demonstrate and display, without tying up too much of his capital, and with installment payment terms for his merchandise fitted to his financial situation. 2. He should endeavor to secure contracts which permit him to put an appliance into a customer's home for a reasonable length of time for demonstration purposes, despite the fact that he himself has not yet paid for it. 3. He should be able to offer the customer the same attractions, such as low down-payments, etc., as his competitor is able to offer. 4. His customer-installment contracts must be intelligently, courteously and promptly administered by the lending agency. 5. He must deal with an agency willing to consult him (the dealer) in payment delinquency situations, suits for repossession, improper performance claims, etc. In other words, the dealer, knowing more about the customer than anyone else involved, should always be consulted first. 6. The dealer must arrange to secure a contract between the lending company and the customer which will protect the dealer as much as possible in cases of repossession, etc. This is the concluding installment of an article on financing for dealers. (See July issue, p. 22-23.) Thus far we have probed into the postwar picture of "financing," and have used this word with respect to the dealer to describe the only two phases he is actually interested in, and these two phases are: 1. The dealer must have means of financing his own purchases which he offers then for resale. 2. The dealer must have means of financing his customers' purchases. What methods of carrying on the above phases are available to the dealer? 1. The independent finance company. 2. The manufacturer-operated finance company. 3. The local banking institution. 4. FHA plan in collaboration with financial institutions. (Note: Be sure to check what articles may be financed under FHA.) Before taking a quick look at things to avoid in installment selling, it is interesting to know why people buy "on time." The answer most likely to pop up in our minds is that they do so because they haven't the ready cash. This answer, however, applies to some of your customers only. Doubtless, more people buy via the spaced-payment plan because they haven't the money, and want to pay out of income. But there are many wealthy folk who buy on time because they feel that this method gives them a club to hold over the dealer's head in case the article purchased fails to function properly. As far as the actual financing transaction between the dealer and his customers goes, there are a number of hard-and-fast rules the dealer should observe. Some of these follow: Centralize Credits Don't let your salespeople "edit-the-credit" information on the prospective customer's contract. If your contract is "with recourse," your salesman, in "editing" out some information he considers might prevent the contract from going through, is betting your money that the deleted information is not an indication that the customer won't pay. Of vital importance to the dealer is the warranty or guarantee, and the verbal claims relating to the article sold. If you "oversell" an appliance—a television receiver, for instance, and make verbal claims that it will do certain things, and perform in a manner which you know is impossible, you're sticking your neck out. How? How, since there is a clause in the contract signed by the purchaser in which he agrees that the contract and the contract alone is binding upon both parties, and that no other understanding, either written or verbal, figures in the transaction? Here's what may happen, despite that seemingly iron-clad agreement: The "oversold" customer finds, for example, that the television set—which the seller told him, over and POLKA TIME Modern Style A new album of polka music with Stanislaw Mroczek and his Orchestra Ask the kids in your community—they'll tell you how this exciting old-world rhythm has swept the country like an epidemic. Polka music is that infectious. It fascinates young and old alike. And here is SONORA, out in front again, with a collection of Polka tunes that will make sweet music on your cash register. Waving the baton is that master of Polka rhythm, Stanislaw Mroczek. Add the brilliant bell-like quality of tone that is strictly SONORA's own and you have a combination that means good listening, good dancing. GOOD SELLING! The Polka Time Album is a brilliant addition to the fast-moving Series E of "Melodies That Will Live Forever," now being released by SONORA, and nationally advertised in a big list of potent publications. Be sure to get the complete line of SONORA Albums from your SONORA Record Jobber. 8 POLKA TIME RECORDS Mother Goose Polka • Victory Polka Ruby Polka • Saturday Night Polka Pennsylvania Polka • Helena Polka Clarinet Polka • Blackberry Polka Sonora Records Clear as a Bell SONORA RADIO & TELEVISION CORP. 325 N. Hoyne Ave. • Chicago 12, Illinois RADIO • PHONOGRAPHS • RADIO-PHONOGRAPHS • RECORDS • RADIO-PHONO-RECORDERS RADIO & Television RETAILING • August, 1944 IF YOU DO THIS! YES SIR, this television set'll bring in pictures from a thousand miles away, blah, blah! THE SET MAY "BOUNCE" BACK Here I am again! They wouldn't adopt me. Don't let this happen to you! (Continued from page 56) over, would bring in images from a distant city,—fails to do this. The irate customer calls the dealer and tells the latter that he will not pay the next installment when due, nor any of the others. The dealer reminds the customer that the matter is out of his hands, and that the finance company merely loaned him (the customer) money, and that he, the customer, agreed to pay this money back. Avoid Losses! So far, so good. But, suppose the set "bounces" back to the dealer through a repossession action? Then the dealer finds that he may be confronted with a serious loss, to say nothing of losing the goodwill of the customer and, importantly, the loss of the goodwill of the customer's friends and neighbors. In addition to this, and prior to the actual repossessing, the lending agency justly makes demands upon the dealer to attempt to satisfy the customer, and this may entail the rendering of a lot of free service in attempting to do the impossible. The free service you must maintain during guarantee periods is tied right in with your finances. Rendering quick, efficient service voluntarily is one of the greatest ways to keep the customer paying promptly. Despite arrangements you may have with the jobber and/or the factory, you must anticipate the possibility of having, in many instances, to render service alone. The time element entering this picture is often vitally connected with the reasons why you must assume this service. The manufacturer and the jobber may be perfectly willing, and even anxious to perform their duties in respect to the guarantee, but may be unable to render such service within a reasonable time. Prompt service invariably insures prompt installment paying by the customer. What can you do now to get yourself set to finance the big business that's on the way here? Prepare NOW For one thing, and perhaps the first step, you can sit down with a paper and pencil and figure out your present financial resources. You can explore your potential market with a view toward determining how much money you will need to operate successfully in such a market. You can determine whether your resources are adequate, or whether you will need additional working capital. And, above all, NOW is the time to line up with your financing agency, be your choice a local bank, a finance company, a jobber or a manufacturer. The dealer who puts his financial affairs in proper order and gets them ready for the firing line right now, is going to have more time to do his job, which is not financing, but is merchandising. Sales Battle (Continued from page 48) shirts, expensive cars and other available luxuries, found, that in a few years they didn't even have a shirt. So it is with the merchant who allows his life-blood—his good will—to be contaminated with wartime alibis and reprehensible selling methods. He's quite likely to lose his shirt in the coming competitive market. Chains Watch It! We saw this happen in a crowded "cut-rate" streamlined drug store the other day. The place was packed with customers, and one clerk had shown a woman a number of items. The woman left without making a purchase, and no sooner had she gotten out of earshot than the manager came right over to the clerk, and wanted to know why it all happened, and having received the answer, he pulled some other items from under the counter, and suggested that the next time such a thing took place, he, the clerk, was to make every endeavor to sell the customer. Maybe this example shows one of the reasons for the success of this type store. Contrast the above episode with this one. In another drug store a man went in and asked a clerk if he had any "metal safety razors." "Don't make me laugh, mister," replied the clerk languidly "Everything's plastic. Metal's gone to war." The employer pays such a clerk wages to insult the store's customers! Even in these jumbled times, salesmen and their employers should keep their feet on the ground. Nothing is as usual now. A sign in a New York picture frame store reads: "Sorry, no picture framing." One restaurant owner is reputed to have put the following sign in his window: "Waitress wanted. Will marry her, if necessary." Everything is topsy-turvy, but . . . a genuine salesman can still be a salesman. He can influence people and make friends while so doing. When the Blackout of Radio Sales is over The Spotlight will be on CLARION! One of these days war work will give way to peacetime production—business will resume its flow in normal channels—and radios will be released for sale to civilians. Radio dealers will then find CLARION in the spotlight, because we have been developing good consumer markets for you during the long months of preparation—invasion—and today's march to victory. We'll be glad to give you facts that will help you get your full share of the CLARION harvest that is coming after the war. WARWICK MANUFACTURING CORPORATION 4640 West Harrison Street • • • Chicago 44, Illinois Clarion RADIO Servicing L.F. Amplifiers Fundamentals of Audio Amplifier Stages. Frequency Response Characteristics and Gain Calculations - Low frequency amplifiers are designed to increase small voltages in the audible frequency range of approximately 16 to 18,000 cycles per second, obtained from microphones, electric phonograph pickups, the detector stage of a radio receiver, and other devices. In communication work these low frequency amplifiers are called audio amplifiers and these two terms will be used interchangeably. The amplified voltage is usually applied to a loudspeaker or other device to convert electrical energy into mechanical energy. Low frequency amplifiers usually must be capable of uniform gain over all or some portion of the 16-18,000 cycle band. The uniformity of gain with frequency is primarily a function of the type of coupling between the stages of tubes. One essential detail that must be accomplished by any system used in coupling the output of one tube to the input of another is that of preventing the direct plate voltage of one tube from disturbing the grid bias of the next tube, and yet it must pass the signal current with a minimum of modification of amplitude and phase as the frequency changes. The positive plate voltage on the first tube, possibly several hundred volts, must not be applied to the successive grid which is essentially negative, both being measured with respect to the B— or "ground." Audio stage coupling systems include iron core transformers, resistor-capacitor combinations, and inductor-capacitor combinations. All of these will ordinarily produce frequency distortion of the signal to some degree. It is necessary to study each problem as to the best coupling method to use. The conditions for perfect transfer of signal current from one stage to the next are: Faithful reproduction of all frequencies present in the original signal, without altering the wave shape; Magnification of the amplitude of the signal in a linear manner. The principal types of audio coupling methods and their general frequency response characteristics are shown in Fig. 1, Fig. 3 and Fig. 4. In some problems, there is a need to not only amplify the signal but to modify it in some pre-arranged manner, giving another problem to the design of vacuum tube amplifiers. R-C Coupled Voltage Amplifier The use of tetrodes and pentodes is a practical means for getting a simple voltage amplifier at lower cost and weight, and under usual conditions, with less frequency distortion, than those using transformers for coupling. A typical circuit in Fig. 1 shows a capacitor for coupling the plate of one tube to the grid of the next, and high-value resistors for plate and grid circuits. The coupling capacitor, $C_{c1}$, is sometimes called a blocking capacitor since it offers a very high impedance to D.C. This coupling system is often designated simply resistance coupling. Since the alternating voltage must appear across the following grid resistor $R_G$, there is provided a coupling capacitor $C_c$ which offers low impedance to signal current through the grid resistor $R_G$. The following tube also has an input capacitance which is in shunt with its own grid resistor. This input capacitance, $C_T$, is a parallel combination of the inter-electrode grid-cathode capacitance and the Miller effect capacitance. Thus the effective load on the first tube consists of a combination of the tube's own internal plate resistance $R_P$, the plate load resistor $R_L$, the grid resistor $R_G$, the coupling capacitor $C_c$ and the next tube's input capacitance $C_T$. The equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 2. The voltage gain of a resistance-capacitance coupled amplifier stage is never equal to the "$\mu$" or amplifica- Fig. 1. Typical resistance-capacitance coupled amplifier showing frequency response and effect of circuit components. $C_x$ is stray wiring and Miller effect capacitances. Fig. 2. Equivalent circuits for resistance coupled amplifiers at middle, low and high frequencies showing active components. Fig. 3. Impedance coupling gives frequency response similar to resistance coupling except where grid choke is used. Resonance in $C_G$ and $L_G$ give low frequency rise in amplification. Rise may be controlled by shunting resistor across $L_G$. At medium and low audio frequencies the tube's input capacitance $C_T$ is not important, since its reactance is usually greater than $R_G$, while $C_G$ can readily be chosen of such a size that the voltage drop through it is small. The load is then nearly pure resistive and the gain calculation becomes: $$\alpha = \text{Voltage gain} = \frac{G_m}{G_p + G_L + G_g}$$ Where $G_m$ is the mutual conductance of the tube in mhos (this value is usually listed in micromhos which is $10^{-6}$ mho.), $G_p$ is the tube's plate conductance $(1/R_p)$, $G_L$ is the conductance of the plate-load resistor $(1/K_L)$, $G_g$ is the conductance of the grid resistor $(1/R_G)$. At low audio frequencies (say below 100 cycles) the reactance of the coupling capacitor $C_c$ begins to cause a considerable voltage drop, since it is in series with $R_G$. The equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 2. For example at 60 cycles, with a coupling capacitor of 0.011 $\mu F$ and a grid resistor of one-half megohm only 90% of the voltage is effective between grid and cathode. If the same percentage is to apply at 30 cycles, $C_c$ must have twice the capacitance. It is not desirable to increase $C_c$ much beyond the actual low frequency response requirement for three reasons, (1) the amplifier stability becomes less, (2) a physically larger capacitor increases "hum" and noise pickup and (3) the leakage of DC to the grid increases. However, if several stages are to be used it may be necessary to go farther in the matter of securing "flatness" in the frequency response curve since the deficiencies of the stages are multiplied by cascading. Thus if a stage gain drops 20% at 60 cycles (response 0.8) then three such stages will respond $(0.8)^3 = 51\%$ of middle frequency gain. The gain at low frequencies is calculated by the process of applying correction factors to the gain calculated for the medium frequencies. These factors may be found in a number of standard texts.* At high frequencies $C_c$ may be ignored because of the decreasing reactance but $C_T$ assumes increasing importance and eventually becomes the dominant factor so that a plain resistance-coupled amplifier gives little gain above approximately 50,000 cycles. The lower gain is due to the decreasing reactance of the input capacitor $C_T$ which is shunted across $R_G$. The equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 2. For any tube, the input capacitance does not have only the small value listed as the grid-cathode capacitance but instead: $$\text{Input } C_T = G_{gk} + C_{gd} (1 + \infty)$$ For a typical amplifier using a 6F5 high $\mu$ triode, $$\text{Input } C_T = 5.5 + 2.3 (1 + 70) = 160 \mu F \text{ (maximum)}.$$ While tetrodes and pentodes have $C_{gd}$ values of about 1/1000 that of similar sized triodes, the stage gain $\alpha$ is greater also. In general the total input capacitance $C_T$ will be lower than for triodes. The gain of the resistance-capacitance amplifier is less at low frequencies (under 200 cycles) and at high frequencies (over about 8000 cycles) than at middle frequencies (1000 to 4000 cycles). The voltage gain of an amplifier stage is best shown by example. The problem is to determine the amplification of a 6J7 pentode with resistance-capacitance coupling. The tube's $G_m = 1200$ micromhos, plate resistance $R_p = 1$ megohm, (these are found from a tube data book). The coupling device consists of a plate- (Continued on page 62) The Electronic Engineering Handbook—Caldwell-Clements Radio Engineering—McGraw-Hill Servicing L.F. Amplifiers (Continued from page 61) Load resistor $R_L = 250,000$ ohms, a grid resistor of 500,000 ohms and a coupling capacitor of 0.01 $\mu F$. The next step in using equation (1) is to determine the corresponding conductance. The plate resistance of 1,000,000 ohms ($10^6$) has a conductance of $1/10^6$ or $10^{-6}$ mhos. The plate-load resistor value of 250,000 ohms gives $1/250,000$ or $4 \times 10^{-6}$ mhos and the one-half megohm resistor $R_g$, a conductance of $1/500,000$ or $2 \times 10^{-6}$ mho. These conductances are in parallel (see Fig. 2) hence adding them gives the total conductance of $7 \times 10^{-6}$ mho. To find the middle-frequency voltage gain it is now only necessary to divide the tube trans-conductance ($G_m = 1200$ micro-mhos = $1200 \times 10^{-6}$ mhos) by the sum of the circuit conductance ($7 \times 10^{-6}$ mhos). $$\alpha = \frac{1200 \times 10^{-6} \text{ mhos}}{7 \times 10^{-6} \text{ mhos}} = 171$$ Impedance-coupled Amplifier An obvious way to avoid the direct voltage drops in the resistors of an R-C coupled amplifier is to replace them by iron-cored inductors. Usually only the plate resistor is so replaced and the arrangement may be called an impedance-capacitance-resistance coupling or simply an impedance coupling. The frequency response is inferior to that of resistance-coupled amplifiers. Typical circuits and response curves are shown in Fig. 3. The decrease in gain at high frequencies is greater because chokes have more distributed shunt capacitance than resistors. The decrease in gain at low frequencies is greater because the inductive reactance falls with frequency while resistance does not. The arrangement is used less since tubes suited to resistance coupling have become available. Impedance coupling is used primarily with triodes where the relatively high plate current makes the use of load resistors costly since a large power supply voltage would be required. If both plate and grid resistors are replaced by chokes, "double impedance" coupling results as shown in Fig. 3. Since two chokes are then in parallel (for AC) the high frequency decrease is accentuated but a low-frequency rise can be produced by choosing the two chokes and the coupling capacitor to produce series resonance at the low end of the desired range. A desirable type of low frequency rise results if the coils are chosen so that their Q is between 1 and 2 at the resonant frequency. The gain at the resonant frequency over and above the ordinary middle frequency gain of the stage is about 1 DB for $Q = 1$; 3 DB for $Q = 1.4$ and 6 DB for $Q = 2$. It is necessary that the plate-circuit coil have a reactance 3 or 4 times as great as the plate resistance for good response. Transformer Coupling There are several advantages in audio transformer coupling. There is a negligible drop in plate supply voltage through the transformer windings, hence the "B" supply voltage may be moderate. The DC grid circuit resistance can be very small where an input transformer is used. This is an advantage with certain classes of power amplifier operation, particularly Class B. Since such coupling devices can be purchased ready-made the frequency response in considerable part depends upon the observation of general transformer design principles. A typical transformer coupled amplifier is shown in Fig. 4. Using a well-designed transformer for the medium frequency range the Class A gain of a transformer-coupled stage is nearly: $$\text{gain} \propto \mu \frac{\text{(sec. turns)}}{\text{(primary turns)}}$$ i.e. the tube gain multiplied by the transformer gain. It is correct only if the primary reactance is large as compared to its resistance and to the plate resistance of the tube. Consequently equation (3) holds true for medium frequencies but fails at low frequencies because the transformer's primary reactance falls. The decrease in amplification is related to the resistances just mentioned, and the transformer's low frequency response curve can be predicted if there is known: the tube's plate resistance (tube data book) and the resistance ($R_p$) of the transformer primary, and its inductance ($L$) with the secondary open such as might be measured on a bridge. It is to be noted in Fig. 5 that the effect is most pronounced in a transformer (Curve 1) whose secondary is unloaded, or connects to an extremely high resistance such as a Class A grid circuit. If the load resistance (as $R$ in Fig. 4) equals the source resistance, $R_p +$ primary $R_s$, (Curve 2) the low frequency loss is less. Finally with a load whose resistance is much less than that of the source (Curve 3) the low frequency loss is small. This is observed in a practical way in the relative small size and cheapness of Class A output transformers feeding low impedance loads. Conversely, if two transformers be equally well designed, one as a "plate-to-grid" transformer, shown as solid curves C and D of Fig. 6, it will produce a curve dropping off more at the low end than the corresponding "plate-to-line" or "line-to-line" transformers shown by the dashed curves in Fig. 6. This situation is aggravated if the transformer is made too small, as in the case of the curves for a cheap example, Fig. 6, Curve A. Occasionally this kind of thing is done deliberately to create a transformer which is peaked at some particular frequency that must be amplified. Curve B, Fig. 6, is for a transformer exactly like that with curve A except that a trifle over one-half of the primary has been removed, the primary reactance thus dropping to about one-fifth of its former value. Lack of amplification at low frequencies is now very apparent. The transformer becomes a very poor load for the tube except for that frequency to which it is tuned by its own inductance and the capacitances in the circuit and that of the transformer itself. The high frequency drooping of the gain curve is due to the shunting effect of the capacitances within the transformer and in the circuit. The user of the transformer can do very (Continued on page 100) Who’ll be your best customer? [AFTER THE WAR] TRAV-LER RADIOS AND RECORD PLAYERS Mrs. War Worker will be home again—on a full time shift! She’ll want to re-live small leisure pleasures sacrificed during work-rushed war years... like sleeping a bit later... listening to her favorite radio programs during kitchen hours. She’ll especially want a good radio for her very own to keep alive outside interests she became accustomed to in war work. Trav-Ler Karenola will be ready for the post-war demand... with the finest radios that equipment and skill can provide. TRAV-LER KARENOLA RADIO AND TELEVISION CORPORATION 1028-34 W. Van Buren Street, Chicago 7, Illinois MANUFACTURERS OF QUALITY RADIO AND COMMUNICATION EQUIPMENT Tracey Says Majestic Is Ready With Television E. A. Tracey, president Majestic Radio & Television Corp., Chicago, in a statement announcing the appointment of the Colen-Gruhn Co., New York City, as exclusive distributors of Majestic radio for the metropolitan New York area, also disclosed what Majestic's position will be in the postwar period. Mr. Tracey pointed out that the company's peacetime line would incorporate radio-phonograph models, employing automatic record changers, the finest versions of the new FM circuit designs, and said that the company's "television research and engineering was advanced to the point that would assure Majestic of being confidently competitive during the initial peacetime period." Sees Television a Potent Sales Medium Merchants viewing the potential postwar market for the sale of television sets are vitally concerned with the "coverage" situation, which itself is directly connected with the question of financial returns for those who put their money into relay stations or other means of "spreading out" programs. Revenue from television advertising seems promising since such advertising appears certain to have the utmost appeal to the prospective advertiser. Walter L. Lawrence, a field engineer of the RCA Service Company, recently said: "It can be a sales medium of unparalleled effectiveness—especially for consumer goods. The advertiser can present his wares visually—while they are being used or consumed, if that will enhance their consumer appeal—in the intimacy of the prospects' homes. Trade marks can continually be kept before the public eye under attention-compelling conditions. "So potent a sales medium, intelligently used, with its consequent stimulation of the market for the output of our industrial system, can have a most salutary effect on that largest of our postwar problems—unemployment." TELEVISION: A living-breathing encyclopedia of entertainment and education. A magic window opening on the world we live in. A view of history at the moment of its happening. The alchemist, the million-armed servant that brings to our eyes and ears living entertainers and art, science, literature, the wisdom of all time. Ready to Make Projectors At a meeting of the Radio Executives Club in New York, Arthur Levey, president of Scophony Television, said his company's television projectors for home and theatre would be "put into mass production as soon as war production permits." Allow Experiment Models The War Production Board has eased its ban on restricted materials to permit the building of experimental models where neither labor nor machinery is diverted from war work. This easement applies to television equipment, radios, refrigerators, vacuum cleaners, etc. G-E tells them NOW So you can SELL them later General Electric brings you the benefits of the biggest radio advertising campaign sponsored by any radio manufacturer! General Electric advertisements—full color, full page—like the colorful one shown above—are reaching 38,000,000 readers in 18 national magazines every month. This outstanding series is backed by the G-E radio news program—"The World Today"—broadcast every weeknight over the CBS network—123 stations with an estimated audience of 19,000,000 listeners per week. In addition, the new G-E booklet, "Your Coming Radio as Forecast by General Electric"—an exclusive preview of tomorrow's radio—is being distributed in large volume to your prospective future customers. All this adds up to a smashing, preselling job being done for you—NOW—to increase your opportunity for greater profits—SOONER—on your post-war radio sales. Electronics Dept., General Electric, Bridgeport, Conn. GENERAL ELECTRIC IS BUILDING MORE MILITARY RADIO EQUIPMENT THAN ANY OTHER HOME-RADIO MANUFACTURER GENERAL ELECTRIC WHAT'S YOUR CHOICE... Free-for-all or Fair-for-all? A free-for-all—that's what radio retailing becomes for the dealer who finds himself competing, on the same line, with price-cutters, auctioneers, parlor-dealers, and all the other fast operators who make it impossible for a legitimate radio dealer to make a legitimate profit. All too familiar, under the pressure of such competition, is a selling formula that looks about like this: \| Selling Price \| $100.00 \| \|---------------\|---------\| \| Cost (40% off list) \| 60.00 \| \| Margin \| $40.00 \| \| Trade-in Allowance \| 22.50 \| \| Margin after Trade-in \| $17.50 \| \| Re-sale Value (Maybe!) of Trade-in \| 6.00 \| \| Profit on Transaction \| $23.50 \| A $23.50 profit on a $100 sale—when studies show that average overhead expenses alone amount to $31.50 per $100 of gross volume! * * But fair-for-all are the conditions made possible for dealers who qualify for the Majestic franchise. A more-than-fair share of the potential radio business in any area, thanks to Majestic's right products, right pricing, right timing, right promotion. Even more important...a fair opportunity for a fair profit on every sale, thanks to Majestic's unique Controlled Distribution Plan. Looking ahead to the time when you'll be selling once again— MAJESTIC RADIO & TELEVISION CORPORATION • CHICAGO 32, ILL. Are you reluctant to go back to the old free-for-all on the line you depend on for your profits? Do you vote instead for a method of operation that's fair-for-all—because it permits a fair net profit for every dealer franchised to handle the line? Then let's hear from you! We'd like to show you what Controlled Distribution can mean to you...like to show you why... Majestic Means Business ...and lots of it! Majestic MIGHTY MONARCH OF THE AIR RADIO TELEVISION ELECTRONICS Yesterday, WARD antennas were found on most of the peacetime automobiles, radios and portable radios. All of the manufacture of antennas and radar equipment of THE WARD PRODUCTS CORPORATION is, today, going entirely to the war effort and being used on all fighting fronts. The knowledge that is being gained from this wartime effort will mean new and improved products in peacetime. If your postwar planning includes the use or specifying of antennas, look to WARD. Edgar Morris Sales Co. In Business for 25 Years The Edgar Morris Sales Co., 712 Thirteenth St., N.W., Washington, D. C., one of the city's prominent radio and appliance distributors recently observed its 25th anniversary. The business was organized by Edgar Morris immediately upon his return to Washington after World War I. It was a modest beginning. There were only 5 employees, and they had but one merchandise line. Today there are 50 employees, over 400 wholesale customers, and appliances sold by the firm are installed in over 75,000 homes in the metropolitan area. Concentrated Territory The firm wholesales Westinghouse refrigerators, laundry equipment, ranges and all other Westinghouse appliances and Zenith radio and Hearing Aids in addition to stokers, space heaters, gas ranges, etc. For many years the company engaged in both retailing and wholesaling, but in 1938 discontinued retail selling. During the quarter of a century of its existence the Edgar Morris Sales Company has adhered to the policy of restricting its efforts to a small number of nationally known lines. With a concentrated territory and a few selected lines, the company's customers receive superior service and its manufacturers are assured the most efficient distribution of their products. Ray Thomas Co. Named Ray Thomas Co., 1601 So. Hope St., Los Angeles, has been appointed southern California distributor for Majestic radios. Wilson Heads Sales Holcomb Gunn Co., 310-12-14 E. Third St., Little Rock, Ark., announces that it has appointed C. B. Wilson as sales manager and buyer. The firm distributes radio, home appliances, floor coverings, heating equipment and furniture. Coast Radio Supply Co. Now in New Quarters The Coast Radio Supply Company has moved from 85 So. Van Ness Ave., San Francisco, to its new quarters at 826 Van Ness Avenue. Products distributed by the firm include Emerson radio, washers, ironers, radio tubes and parts, refrigerators, table appliances, health lamps, freezing units, lamps, wiring devices, hardware, tools, kitchen utensils, sewing machines, cutlery, ranges, giftware, etc. In a circular sent out to its dealers, Coast Radio Supply Co. lists the items it usually stocks and prints the following message about merchandise: "Most of the above products are still..." NEW LETTER CONTEST for SERVICEMEN! ELEVEN 1st PRIZE WINNERS IN 5 MONTHS IN CONTEST #1! Yes sir, guys, the hundreds of letters received were so swell that double first prize winners had to be awarded each of the first four months and there were triple first prize winners the fifth and last month... SO - HERE WE GO AGAIN! Get in on this NEW letter contest—write and tell us your first hand experiences with all types of Radio Communications equipment built by Hallicrafters including the famous SCR-299! RULES FOR THE CONTEST Hallicrafters will give $100.00 for the best letter received during each of the five months of April, May, June, July and August. (Deadline: Received by midnight, the last day of each month.) . . . For every serious letter received Hallicrafters will send $1.00 so even if you do not win a big prize your time will not be in vain. . . . Your letter will become the property of Hallicrafters and they will have the right to reproduce it in a Hallicrafters advertisement. Write as many letters as you wish. V-mail letters will do. . . . Military regulations prohibit the publication of winners' names and photos at present . . . monthly winners will be notified immediately upon judging. hallicrafters RADIO BUY A WAR BOND TODAY! THE HALLICRAFTERS CO., MANUFACTURERS OF RADIO AND ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT, CHICAGO 16, U.S.A. THE FIRST CLEAR PICTURE OF TELEVISION PROFITS! Just as Allen B. DuMont, by his development of the Cathode-ray Tube, created the first clear image on the television screen... so DuMont now offers you the first clear picture of your coming television profits. Commercial television will begin, shortly after victory, very much like radio. There will be many assemblers of television sets in the lower price brackets. There will be various manufacturers of television instruments at medium prices. And there will be DuMont... definitely building to an engineering ideal, rather than to price. If you are in a position to sell this highest market level... already being intensively cultivated by DuMont national advertising... then you will want to feature the postwar DuMont Television-Radio Receivers. That's the way the Television picture is shaping up... brought into ever sharper focus under the leadership of Allen B. DuMont. Keep your eye on it... watch DuMont! "THANKS FOR THE LEAKPROOF BATTERIES!" RAY-O-VAC LEAKPROOF is bound to be the Post-War Leader It's the battery that STAYS FRESH because its sealed-in-steel construction prevents power leakage. It is guaranteed not to harm the flashlight by swelling or corrosion. Millions of men are learning the reliability of Ray-O-Vac LEAKPROOFS under life-and-death conditions. It's the cell they're going to insist upon when they return from the fighting fronts. Sorry, but no more RAY-O-VAC LEAKPROOFS till after Victory Those Ray-O-Vac LEAKPROOF Batteries that your customers want are all going to our fighting men. They furnish the heartbeat of communication systems, handie-talkie, bazookas, flashlights and other instruments of war. RAY-O-VAC COMPANY, MADISON 4, WISCONSIN • OTHER FACTORIES AT CLINTON, MASS. • LANCASTER, OHIO • SIOUX CITY, IA. • FOND DU LAC, WIS. • MILWAUKEE, WIS. (Continued from page 68) at war to help speed victory. We do have some material on hand and expect more from time to time. We solicit your inquiries or better yet, a visit to our new quarters. Through our dealer bulletins we will keep you advised as to what is available as well as any other information of interest to the trade." New Arvin Distributors Everybody's Supply Corp., 810 Arch St., Philadelphia, headed by Samuel Fingrund, president, has been appointed Arvin radio distributor. Lincoln Sales Takes On Norge and Farnsworth Lincoln Sales Corp., for over 17 years distributor in the Baltimore and Washington trade markets, has become distributor for the Baltimore area for Farnsworth radios and Norge refrigerators. Lincoln Sales is headed by C. Howard Buchwald, president; Clarence Deikman, vice-president, and Lou Fox, sales manager. Leach Is Sales Manager For New Jersey Firm Krich-Radisco, Inc., Newark, N. J., radio and appliance distributor, announces the appointment of Andrew K. Leach as general sales manager of the company. The Newark firm is exclusive distributor in New Jersey for RCA Victor records, Kelvinator, Beitdix, Ironite, New Home and Eureka products. They have recently augmented their lines and have added to the above, American All-Steel kitchens and Estate gas ranges and Heatrolas. Mr. Leach, who has served Krich-Radisco in various sales capacities for the past 15 years, will be in charge of the overall activities of the separate sales divisions the distributing firm has set up for various products. (Continued on page 74) Victors in the Race with Time 1860 The Pony Express carried the mail from Missouri to California in the record breaking time of 10 days. In those days there was no faster, more reliable means of transportation than that of a trusted messenger on a fast horse. 1944 Today a soldier with his Handy-Talkie radio transmitter receiver can start the news of a battle and of victory around the world in a split second. Effortless, 2-way communication is within the reach of everyone! Sentinel Though thousands of miles lie between the battle-fronts throughout the world, the forces of the widely separated United Nations are welded into a single victorious fighting unit through modern radio communications. Sentinel Radio is proud to be playing an effective part in developing and producing this supremely important war communications equipment. Six Sentinel plants are translating the blueprints of Sentinel engineers into victory-winning equipment. These wartime experiences will result in vastly improved new Sentinel products which will help Sentinel dealers translate postwar prospects into profitable sales. SENTINEL RADIO CORPORATION 2020 Ridge Avenue, Evanston, Ill. Will Distribute GE Sets In Metropolitan Area The General Electric Supply Corp., 585 Hudson St., New York City, and the General Electric Supply Corp., 221 Frelinghuysen Ave., Newark, N. J., have been appointed wholesale distributors for General Electric radio receivers. The New York house assumes the responsibility for the sale and service of these products in the Metropolitan New York area, except for Richmond Borough (Staten Island). This latter territory, plus northern New Jersey, will be sold by the Newark house. This was announced in letters to radio dealers from H. A. Crossland, manager of sales for the General Electric receiver division at Bridgeport, Conn. All metropolitan dealer requests for General Electric radio receiver repair service and supply parts will be handled by Neil Laby of the General Electric Supply Corp., 585 Hudson St., New York City. Bonfig Urges Jobbers to Get Ready for Postwar Zenith Radio Corporation's program of future expansion in the sale of household radio has now reached the point where it is time for distributors to begin active work on adding strength to Zenith's already virile and aggressive dealer organization, H. C. Bonfig, vice-president in charge of household radio, told a group of Zenith distributors at an informal round table discussion in Philadelphia. "Although our mailing list corrections indicate a dealer mortality of only 3 per cent since the shutdown of civilian production, a record of which we are very proud, neither you distributors nor the factory organization has been able to keep up an active program of field contacting during these war years," said Bonfig. "Now that the end is in sight, although it is months, perhaps even years, away, it is time to begin planning details of our future operations in the field." Zenith's Policy Bonfig said that, while there were a great many questions to which nobody has the answer today, Zenith has already decided on a number of fundamental policies. "First," he said, "Zenith is committed to a policy of remaining in the radionics field exclusively. We are not going to diversify into other fields, such as refrigerators, washing machines, air conditioners, vacuum cleaners, etc. etc. These fields, we feel, are ably handled by specialists. "We believe that the field of radionics is sufficiently large to hold and to occupy the entire attention of our organization, and by confining out efforts to the line of business we know, we will render infinitely better service to our distributors, to our dealers, and to the public. "Zenith intends to continue its policy of distributing its merchandise through independent distributors and dealers." (Continued on page 76) ASK FOR THEM BY NAME If you appreciate the Trading Post Advertising Service and hundreds of servicemen have told us that they do—we know we can count on you to ask for the Trading Post—get dry electrolytic capacitors by name, and to insist on getting them whenever they are available. Atoms are smaller, less costly, and are fully as reliable as the big, old-fashioned wet devices that replace. Use them universally on all of your jobs. They're more dependable—they speed up your work! FOR SALE—Hickok crystal sig. generator $170X, $60; Radio City multimeter $244, $325; Solar capacitor analyzer $200.01 and $200.1C; 1000 volt test tube tester $1213, $25; National recorder NC-100, $100. All A-L. A. Cheralier, P. O. Box 108, Preston, Wash. FOR SALE OR TRADE—Brand new Airline radio set and phono motor (less 2 tubes and mike), $250. Want complete P.A. system. Walter J. Hotalling, P. O. Box 99, Sidney, N. Y. WANTED FOR CASH—Three R-62 gas triodes, one 6L6, one 6V6, Wm. B. Thoes, 2839 Gaylord St., Denver, Colo. FOR SALE OR TRADE—35—244As, 35—27's (used but in perfect condition) and 50—53X8's new. Want Precision $2200 tube set tester, EVK Precision multi-range tester, 3" oscilloscope. Vital Radio Service, 209 Linden St., Camden, N. J. WANTED—V-O-31, sig. generator, analyzer and other test eqpt. Charles Glatz, 850 Stubbins Ave., Bronx 59, N. Y. FOR SALE—Hallarceiver SK-24, with matching speaker. Practically new. $80 f.o.b. W. H. Hammond, Jr., Box 49, Wenham, Mass. FOR SALE—Precision tube tester 612P; Solar capacitor analyzer CM-1-90; Triplet combination 1151A sig. generator; 1125B V-0-31, $100; free ship; need large supply of radio parts including tuning Melsman coils, trimmers, radio tools, etc.—also—$100.00. J. D. Curtice, P. O. Box 243, Beavonton, N. J. URGENTLY NEEDED—100 K.C. or 175 K.C. crystal, with or without crystal mount. Norman Lefcourt, 510 Robbins St., S.W., Atlanta, Ga. FOR SALE—4000 radio tubes, meter and set tester. All guaranteed. Complete selection of types and numbers. Bonded Service. 27 West 170th St., New York, N. Y. WANTED—Late model tube tester, reassembled priced. Charlie Allen, St. Charles Hotel, St. Joseph, Mo. WANTED—Amplifier, 117r, 50-50 cycles A.C. with mike and two speakers. George A. Wilson, 1000 S. Water, Warwick, R. I. WANTED—FM converter; also good old mike. Nick Walters, 203 North Terrace St., Atchison, Kans. WANTED—35L6 tube for a 1942 Philco record player. Donn Comer, S 2/6, 29 Sp. Co. B. Plats, 5, A.B.D., Port Hueneme, Calif. WANTED FOR CASH—$1280 Superior tube tester. Louis Mackay, R.F.D. #1, Box 19, Perth Amboy, N. J. FOR SALE OR SWAP—GE standard vacuum tube tester, $10.00; 1-10, 20 amp, 22.610.113, chart and pendant switch also Westinghouse $54.84B serial 120-105, 2000 amps, 100-200v, 50 cy. Both Instruments portable. Robert W. West, Parker, Arizona. WANTED FOR CASH—Tubes, any quantity, any type, 12v or higher. Must be new or new in boxes. Also wanted resistors and crystals. Leading Radio Service, 114 East Third St., Mount Vernon, N. Y. WANTED—EC-3 communication receiver in good shape, and 1A6 tube. Eugene T. Abbott, 201 S. 36th W. Pl., Tulsa 6, Okla. FOR SALE—Brand new, in original cartons, 39-41, 39-42, 39-43 radios, $40 ea. Also 39-41, 47, 232, 233, 234, 235, 336 tubes at 50% off list; Radiobric tube checker; $6; code practice machine; $10; code cards marked with practice tapes. $12. Want to borrow a chart/curve chart for a Clough-Brenge OC sig. generator. Evans Radio Service, 1601 Plum St., Erie, Pa. FOR SALE OR TRADE—Several brand new AC-DC 5-tube superhet kits and crystal kits. Want the following tubes: 116B, 316B, 516B, 516C, 125B, 128B, 128Q, 68AT, 697B, 1A6, 1B6, 1N5, 1N7, 117ZS, 80, 8K3, and others. Meitin 401m, Bryant Ave., Bronx 59, New York. FOR SALE OR TRADE—Clough Brenge 3" oscilloscope, CRA serial 2386. Excellent condition. Joe's Radio, 2224 West Belden Avenue, Chicago 47, Ill. WANTED—Tubes and phone motors. What have you? Joe Sweeney, 2224 W. Belden Avenue, Chicago 47, Ill. FOR SALE—RCA test oscillator, 90 to 25,000 K.C.; battery operated, case included. $10. Also: 1000 volt meter, 1923 to 1928, $25; used electric phone motors with turntables, $6 each; 1937 Philco automobile radio, $10; 1930 Motorola automobile radio, $35; used tubes and parts. Domestic Appliance Service, Bridgeport 1, N. Y. WANTED—Used Candler high speed radio code course, also Reed Teller or Instructograph. S. J. Connolly, Hingham, Mass. FOR SALE—New 20-watt amplifier with 10" speaker, in case, $47.50; new Turner $115.00; 1000 volt meter, $22.50. 2-016, Dixon Radio Lab., 2412 Strauss St., R. N.S. Pittsburgh 14, Pa. WANTED—Supreme Instruments. Paul Bernhardt, R.F.D. 2, Lorain, Ohio. WANTED Vibrator tester, analyzer, vacuum tube meter and modulator. O.K. Radio Service, 8023 E. Sprague St., Spokane, Wash. FOR SALE—New parts: synchronous vibrators, $2.50; non-synchronous vibrators, $1.50; 1000 tube sets, 1A6, 17M, 18M, 525G, 2A7, 2B7, 2D7, 6A4, 6A4, 61A, 53, 55, 81, 85CT, 805, 6U5, 6A4, 6L5, 80, 31, 33, 39. N. J. Cooper, 4517 N. Damen Ave., Chicago, Illinois. FOR SALE—Hallarceiver $S-22R complete, needs rebuilding. Four tubes. Will operate on AC-DC, 6 volts, band-spread tuning. D. Jarden, 7149 Ardleigh St., Pitts, 19, Pa. WANTED—Precision F-200 in perfect condition. $12, 35, 50, 70 and 117 tubes. Munroe Radio Service, 111 Shelby St., Kingsport, Tenn. FOR SALE—39-41, 39-42, 39-43 radios, $40 ea. Also 39-41, 47, 232, 233, 234, 235, 336 tubes at 50% off list; Radiobric tube checker; $6; code practice machine; $10; code cards marked with practice tapes. $12. Want to borrow a chart/curve chart for a Clough-Brenge OC sig. generator. Evans Radio Service, 1601 Plum St., Erie, Pa. FOR SALE OR SWAP—The following tubes: 116B, 316B, 516B, 516C, 125B, 128B, 128Q, 68AT, 697B, 1A6, 1B6, 1N5, 1N7, 117ZS, 80, 8K3, and others. Meitin 401m, Bryant Ave., Bronx 59, New York. FOR SALE OR TRADE—WE 633A and Astata T3 microphones. WE & VTC microphones, condenser microphone switches, 1/4-watt resistors, back issues Electronics, Radio Craft, Radio News and Service. 20 Mayo, 312 E. 16th St., Brooklyn 26, N. Y. URGENTLY NEEDED—Any commercial receiver in working condition. A/C Teddy Powell, C.A.P.C., Box 481, Belle-Glade, Fla. WANTED FOR CASH—3N6 tube. Will trade OE nidget portable for 397 semi-professional recorder with cutter and pick-up. Charlton W., Cleveland, 35 North St., Oneonta, N. Y. FOR SALE—Midwest 15-tube P.A. tuner; Midwest 15-tube radio complete with speakers. Conklin P.A. 15-tube Zenith radio chassis complete, 2-10" and 2 extra speakers. Joseph Harrison, 504 Third St., Albany, N. Y. YOUR OWN AD RUN FREE! This is Sprague's special wartime advertising service, help radio men get the parts and equipment, or dispose of surplus radio equipment they do not need. Send your ad today. Write PLAINLY OR PRINT IT—hold it to 40 words or less. Due to the large number received, ads will be run in groups of two, unless they can be printed as rapidly as possible. Remember that "Equipment for Sale" must bring best results. Sprague reserves the right to reject ads which do not fit in with the spirit of this service. HARRY KALKER, Sales Manager SPRAGUE PRODUCTS CO., Dept. RRT-84, North Adams, Mass. (Jobbing distributing organization of products manufactured by SPRAGUE ELECTRIC COMPANY) SPRAGUE CONDENSERS KOOLHM RESISTORS Obviously, Sprague cannot assume any responsibility, or guarantee goods, services, etc., which might be exchanged through the above advertisements RADIO & Television RETAILING • August, 1944 Thinking of after the War? We want to make the acquaintance of dealers and distributors alert enough to do their post-war planning now; men and organizations who will recognize the sweeping post-war sales potentials of the high fidelity tape recorders bearing the Fonda name. Here are a few Fonda features that will explain why our instruments will be in demand—high quality recordings at low cost; continuous recording for eight hours without supervision; automatic instantaneous playback; provides a permanent, indestructible record. The Fonda method of recording is based on our own exclusive patent which is the result of years of engineering and development effort. Let's start getting acquainted today by dropping us a note requesting our free literature! FONDA CORPORATION 245 EAST 23RD STREET, NEW YORK 10, N. Y. Designers and Manufacturers of Precision Recording Equipment The Fonda Recorder for the Home The Fonda Recorder for monitoring by Commercial Airlines and Radio Broadcast Stations The Fonda Recorder for Industry Jobber Praises Dealers For Staying in Business The D'Elia Electric Co., Inc., 1330 Fairfield Ave., Bridgeport, Conn., one of the oldest radio and appliance wholesale firms in the state, is now holding "open house" for its dealers, who have been praised by Mr. D'Elia for their "ingenuity" to celebrate the company's 27th anniversary. These dealers will see a complete new group of display and service rooms covering 11,000 sq. ft. The D'Elia building, comprising 33,000 sq. ft., has been redecorated from top to bottom in a pastel motif, creating salesrooms of beauty and refinement. Charles A. D'Elia, president, is receiving the congratulations of his many friends in the trade who have seen the new salesrooms. As Mr. D'Elia says, "It took a great deal of constructive thinking and careful planning to take this step at this particular time but, believing in the ultimate victory of our country and the great potential buying power of the people following the war, the step seems a forward one. "In my travels around Connecticut, visiting dealers, I am amazed at the ingenuity displayed in their being able to stay in business and still make money at a time when everyone was counting ten over them, believing they would be forced out of business because of lack of merchandise due to the war. I find they are aware of the tremendous need for household appliances and are alert and ready for postwar business." Crosley Wholesalers The Southwestern Electrical Appliance Co., Amarillo, Texas, has been named distributor for the Crosley Corp. in northwestern Texas, has been announced by B. T. Roe, Crosley manager of distribution. The Southwestern Electrical Appliance Co. is owned by Harvey Southworth, who started in business in 1935, and has built up a business with an annual sales volume of approximately $1,000,000. Named Emerson Jobbers Announcement has been made by Charles Robbins, vice-president in charge of sales of Emerson Radio and Phonograph Corp., New York City, of the appointment of Western Mass. Distributors, Inc., Springfield, Mass., as distributors of Emerson Radio products in that territory. This organization has been in business in that area for a number of years and has distributed well-known lines. Bruce Dean Vice-President Frank R. Elliott, Jr., president of the Elliott-Lewis Electrical Co., Inc., Philadelphia, Pa., announces the appointment of Bruce A. Dean, as vice-president. "Although the company is best known as a distributor of electrical home appliances, its increasing war work necessitated the expansion and announcement at this time," said Mr. Elliott. (Continued on page 79) Hammarlund precision variable capacitors have just the right amount of TORQUE, to permit smooth and accurate adjustment. You don't have to fight rough and jumpy action when you tune with Hammarlund variables. HAMMARLUND THE HAMMARLUND MFG. CO., INC., 460 W. 34TH ST., N.Y.C. MANUFACTURERS OF PRECISION COMMUNICATIONS EQUIPMENT How Andre Kostelanetz Responded to the Glory of the Meissner Call him a perfectionist, if you will, but Andre Kostelanetz likes to have a recording made of each major rehearsal. Then, before the actual performance, the record is played back while he jots down a variety of comments and suggestions. Thus, pen in hand, he sat waiting to hear one of his rehearsal recordings played for the first time on the Meissner radio-phonograph. Casually at first... then, intently... he watched as this new kind of automatic record-changer gently selected the record from the stack, silently placed it on the turn-table. "Remarkable," he said, and was about to make note of it, when... Crescendo on crescendo, the tiny room had become a magnificent sounding board for the unseen orchestra. Here, indeed, was recorded music with all the soul-stirring immensity of the instrumental range. "There were tones that were completely superb," reported Andre Kostelanetz. "My pen actually stopped in mid-air at the first note!" Andre Kostelanetz, one of the world's great conductors, had just heard the only Meissner radio-phonograph in existence—the final laboratory model perfected just before war turned all of Meissner's skill and knowledge to the manufacture of electronic war equipment. This priceless instrument is now on loan "for the duration" to the music department of Mt. Carmel High School, in Meissner's home community. Many families, however, are now looking forward to the day when luxurious postwar counterparts of the Meissner masterpiece will be obtainable for their own homes. Like you, they've been longing for some way to bring all the brilliant realism of the concert hall into the intimacy of the fireside circle...some way to recapture the "missing elements" for which present-day phonograph listeners so often wait in vain. And, like you, they'll welcome these other Meissner advantages: AUTOMATIC RECORD CHANGER—plays both sides of a record in sequence, one side only, or repeats a record just played... avoids record breakage. Provides 2 hours or more of music without your touching a record. FREQUENCY MODULATION—plus advanced electronic features for fidelity and tonal range greatly surpassing such qualities in home radio-phonographs now in use. SUPER SHORTWAVE... DISTINGUISHED CABINETS... NEW IDEAS in a host of other advancements already being engineered into Meissner equipment for our armed forces. Reprint of advertisement in The Atlantic, Fortune, Harper's Magazine, House Beautiful, House & Garden, National Geographic, Town & Country 78 RADIO & Television RETAILING • August, 1944 Name Pennsylvania Firm Appointment of the E. Keeler Co. as distributor of The Crosley Corp. in the central part of Pennsylvania has been announced by B. T. Roe, manager of distribution for Crosley. Jobbers Plan for Postwar Joseph Goldhamer, of Goldhamer, Inc., Cleveland, Ohio, distributors, and E. C. Wenger, well-known Pacific Coast distributor of Wilcox-Gay Recordio, and a member of the Electronics Distributors Industry Advisory Committee, have been discussing postwar plans with Wilcox-Gay officials at Charlotte, Mich. New Wholesale Firm A new firm under the name of Kay-Stern Distributing Co., has been formed to handle Admiral products in Pittsburgh. The company will occupy an 8-story building at 803 Penn Ave. This building will have a showroom equipped to display Admiral products as well as to warehouse them when radios and appliances are manufactured. Peel Issues Brochure Peel Sales Engineering Co., 154 E. Erie St., Chicago, Ill., has issued a handsome brochure entitled "Planning Ahead in the Electronics Field." The company distributes some of the following equipment: United Electronics, Jackson, Shallcross, Sigma, Turner, B. & W., G. S. Thompson, Vasco, Radiotone Recorders and Temco transmitters. Admiral Jobbers Named in Des Moines, St. Louis Luthe Hardware Co., Des Moines, Iowa, has been appointed distributor for Admiral radios and appliances, according to an announcement by J. H. Clippinger, Admiral vice-president in charge of sales. The Luthe organization will cover the central section of Iowa. Graybar Electric Co., St. Louis, has been appointed to distribute Admiral products in southern Illinois and eastern Missouri. New Wholesale Firm in Northern California Earl M. Kemp has established a wholesale radio and electrical supply business at 1115 R St., Sacramento, Cal., known as the E. M. Kemp Company. Mr. Kemp intends to serve Northern California territory, and is interested in hearing from business concerns offering supplies and distributorships. Entering the radio and electrical engineering field in 1916, Mr. Kemp has been associated with three utility companies, and has been with the city of Sacramento for 10 years as radio inspector of interference. For the past two years he has been engaged in electronic work for the government. Hans A. Soms Moves to White Plains, New York Hans A. Soms, radio parts jobber, located for the past 7 years at 336 Fort Washington Ave., New York City, has moved to new and larger quarters at 333 Mamaroneck Ave., White Plains, N. Y., and henceforth will operate as Hans A. Soms, Westchester Electronic Supply Co. Now situated in the county seat of Westchester county, Mr. Soms will be better able to serve his many customers in that territory, including radio repairers and dealers, schools, manufacturers, industrial laboratories, public utilities and police departments. Appliance Group Head Robert C. Hill, veteran sales official, appointed director Appliance division, National Electrical Wholesalers Assn. Speed Queen Jobbers Appointment of 3 distributors for Speed Queen washers and irons in California has been announced by P. J. Daniels, general sales manager for Barlow & Seelig Mfg. Co., Ripon, Wis. The new distributors are Coast Radio Supply, San Francisco, for northern California; Century Distributing Co., Los Angeles, for the southern part of the state, and Lester Distributing Co., Sacramento, for the Sacramento valley area. Adds Washers to Line The Henry O. Berman Company, Baltimore, for many years distributor for both the Baltimore and Washington markets for the Stromberg-Carlson line of radios and sound equipment, has been appointed distributor for the Baltimore trading area for the Blackstone line of home laundry equipment. Ready for Chicago Meeting The Representatives of Radio Parts Manufacturers, Inc., will hold its meeting along with the Electronic Parts and Equipment Industry Conference, at the Hotel Stevens, Chicago, October 19, 20 and 21. Sturdevant Leaves Zenith L. W. Sturdevant, West Coast manager for Zenith Radio Corp. for the past 12 years, has resigned. Mr. Sturdevant becomes associated with the Majestic Radio & Television Corp. in the capacity of western division manager. Frank Moore in Navy Frank Moore, Jr., vice-president and sales manager of Southern Furniture Sales Co., Chattanooga, Tenn., Zenith distributors, has entered the Navy. Change at Fada Company J. M. Marks, president of Fada Radio & Electric Co., Long Island City, N. Y., has issued the following statement: "This Company has severed its association with Mr. George H. Wilson, both as Vice-President and as an employee, effective July 12, 1944." Sylvania Names McEvoy E. Bruce McEvoy, Jr., has been appointed assistant to L. S. Raynor, radio tube equipment sales manager for the eastern division of Sylvania Electric Products Inc., it was announced by C. W. Shaw, general sales manager of the Radio Tube Division. Headquarters are in New York City. Philharmonic Announces Code of Selling Ethics Launching an extensive consumer advertising campaign, Philharmonic Radio Corp., New York, is currently distributing a folder to the trade stressing its code of ethics, as follows: 1. To select as elements of our distribution system, only organizations or individuals qualified for the tests they are to perform. 2. To select, for our products, methods of distribution which will provide fair and reasonable profits for those who participate in this distribution. 3. To adhere strictly to those chosen channels of distribution without recourse to subterfuges or exceptions. 4. To extend to all who participate in the distribution of our merchandise and who occupy a similar place in this distribution structure identical terms and privileges. 5. To represent our products for what they are without recourse to unfavorable comparison, implication or exaggerated claims. 6. To enter into agreements relating to price maintenance and trade practices only with a sincere intention to conform with and to enforce the provisions of such agreements without favoritism or partiality. Freed-Eisemann to Sell Direct to Retailers According to an announcement made by Arthur Freed, vice-president, general manager of Freed Radio Corp., New York, the postwar sales plans of the Freed-Eisemann line have been formulated. The restricted dealership policy remains unchanged and distribution will be on a direct factory-to-dealer basis. In order to complete the web of national distribution in territories where full representation has not been established, a few quality-minded dealers will be added. Details of the Freed-Eisemann franchise plan will soon be available. Philco Sales Manager William E. Kress has been appointed sales manager of the Middle West for Philco Corp., with headquarters in Chicago, it was announced by Thomas A. Kennally, vice-president in charge of sales. Kress succeeds John M. Otter, who was named sales manager for the home radio division. Stromberg Sales Soar War production at the Stromberg-Carlson Co., Rochester, N. Y., reached an all-time company high in the 6 months ending June 30, according to Dr. Ray H. Manson, company vice-president and general manager. The company delivered more than $27,000,000 worth of radio, radar, and communications equipment to the armed forces in the first half of its fiftieth year of operation, Dr. Manson said, as compared to its previous production record of $41,000,000 achieved during 1943. Hardy Tells What Radio Dealers Need Postwar There is every reason to believe that the radio business after the war will be exceptionally good, according to Larry F. Hardy, vice-president in charge of the Home Radio Division of Philco Corporation. "And because it will be good, the foresighted radio dealer will see a twofold opportunity ahead: First, for immediate profits; second, to build permanence, prestige and good will for his future business. For that quick profit, he will need a lot of merchandise in a hurry—merchandise backed with a name, reputation and styling that will move it quickly from his floors. To build permanence, prestige and good will for the future, the dealer will need, in addition to quality and value, those new radio developments which his customers have been promised from war research, as soon as these can be given peace-time applications." Lines Dealers Want As to the kind of radios dealers will need, Mr. Hardy predicted that they would want and need a full line of consoles, phonographs, table models, compacts, portables and, of course, farm sets for the rural markets. Of these very first models off the line, innovations will not be exactly sensational, but there will be many important improvements in design, engineering and performance. Despite all the numerous and diverse improvements in console radios and phonograph combinations, it is probable that table model radios and compacts will show the most immediate effects of war developments, in Mr. Hardy's opinion. New and different kinds of components will give these small sets greater sensitivity, greater output and better performance and compacts will reflect the tremendous strides made in the past three years in the plastics field. "While no one can predict when civilian radio production will be resumed, Philco plans to be ready to provide Philco dealers with what they need soon after the 'go' signal is given. Our manufacturing facilities are so organized that we can get back into civilian production with a minimum of lost motion." Smith Leaves Hotpoint G. H. Smith has resigned as general sales manager, Edison General Electric (Hotpoint) Appliance Co., according to an announcement by R. W. Turnbull, president. A successor to Mr. Smith has not been named, the announcement said. Hallicrafters Booklet The Hallicrafters Co., Chicago, is preparing its distributors and material suppliers for a distinctive postwar market. Its latest move has been the publication of a brochure, featuring full color reproductions, in which the war service of company communications equipment is reviewed and the peacetime opportunities for Hallicrafters is emphasized. Man-Hunting Executive stalks time... Radio dealers are finding Teletalk Amplified Intercommunication Systems an excellent source of extra profits in these war-busy days. All that is necessary is to show executives of the offices and small plants in their community how Teletalk adds many precious minutes to their day's work... avoids those office man-hunts that lose so much time. Whether their business is a small two-office suite or a large manufacturing plant, you can show them that the savings in time, energy and effort that Teletalk provides can easily pay for its installation in a few months' time. These savings come when high-priced executives no longer lose many minutes trying to contact each other... from extra call-backs avoided by taking care of matters instantly with Teletalk... from fewer errors. War orders almost always give the proper priority. Teletalk is easy to install, operates from the electric light circuit. It will operate for years on a minimum of maintenance. If you are not now handling Teletalk in your community, get in touch with us at once. Learn the profit-building possibilities it can offer you. Write us today. WEBSTER ELECTRIC COMPANY, Racine, Wis., U.S.A. • Established 1909 • Export Dept.: 13 East 40th St., New York (16), N.Y. • Cable Address: "ARLAB" New York City Licensed under U.S. Patents of Western Electric Company, Incorporated, and American Telephone and Telegraph Company WEBSTER ELECTRIC Where Quality is a Responsibility and Fair Dealing an Obligation Room Coolers Headed for 60 Million Dollar Years One of the important and fast growing postwar industries is going to be single-room fractional horsepower air conditioners or room coolers, even though only 5 or 6 years ago practically nobody knew what they were, according to Harry Boyd Brown, manager of air conditioning for Philco Corp. "The fact that very few people understood what a room cooler was, what it did or how it functioned was probably the chief reason the entire industry sold only 30,000 to 40,000 of these units a year before the war," Mr. Brown believes. "But the performance, service and utility of single-room air conditioners have been so outstanding and so apparent to the user, that word of mouth advertising within the past few years has done a remarkable educational job in so far as the general public is concerned. "The news about air conditioners has spread so rapidly that in the first postwar year three times as many units will be made and sold as ever before, and it is not too radical a prophecy to say that three or four years after the war, annual volume should increase to six or eight times that of 1941. In that event the business might amount to $60,000,000 a year." Operadio Names Kingsbury Appointment of Harold H. Kingsbury as production control manager for the Operadio Manufacturing Company's 3 plants in St. Charles, Ill., has been announced by G. R. Haase, vice-president and general manager of the company. Enemy Can't Match It! Spectators at Chicago war exhibit examine Hallicrafters' noted SCR-299, mobile communications unit, which, according to adjacent sign, has no enemy counterpart. Survey Shows Huge Pent-Up Demand in Milwaukee Figures based on the results of a survey made by "The Milwaukee Journal" reveal that: - 62,000 Milwaukee families want new radio sets. - Over 145,000 Milwaukee families want a quick-freezing unit in their refrigerator. - Over 70,000 families want to purchase a separate quick-freezer. - Forty-four per cent of all families want new automatic washers, and 35 per cent want an ironer. Sees Some Postwar FM Sets Selling at 60 Dollars More than 5 million FM home radio receivers, some of which may retail at $60, will be on the market within 18 months after the war, with the total going as high as 20 million within 5 years, H. A. Crossland, manager of sales, receiver division, of the General Electric Co., predicted in an address before the National Association of Music Merchants in convention at the Palmer House, Chicago. As soon as the government authorizes civilian production of radio equipment, he estimated that from 5 to 6 months will be required by the industry before it can begin large scale merchandise production. Beginning with first production, Mr. Crossland said, FM will dominate General Electric's product design, merchandising and advertising programs. Philco Sales Executives Receive Promotions Promotion of four Philco sales executives to positions as division managers in the company's postwar distribution organization was announced by Thomas A. Kennally, vice-president in charge of sales for Philco Corp. Joseph R. McCoy has been named manager of Philco's atlantic division, with headquarters in Philadelphia, Pa.; Joseph A. Bilheimer becomes manager of Philco's central division, with headquarters in Chicago, Ill.; John F. Leahy has been chosen to be manager of Philco's Yankee division, with headquarters in Boston, Mass.; and John E. Ramsey is the new manager of the company's southwest division, with headquarters in Kansas City. New Universal Catalog A condensed version of Universal's catalogs on major and small appliances has been published by Landers, Frary & Clark, New Britain, Conn., to present distributors and dealers with a brief description of the features of representative models in the various appliance lines produced prior to the termination of manufacturing. Printed in maroon and blue, the 28-page catalog is one of the first of many newly styled catalogs and printed matter being planned to describe and depict Universal appliances. Doing an Outstanding Job Jackson Service Labs provide custom-built appearance, but are comprised entirely of standard Jackson instruments—providing testing facilities to suit individual requirements. New ones aren't available now, of course, but will be again—some day. But many of them are still performing—easing the work of service men everywhere, and contributing to the greater satisfaction of radio listeners. The dependable performance of these pre-war Jackson instruments is more than matched by the stamina and accuracy of today's war-time models. Either or both, they demonstrate the INTEGRITY OF DESIGN that you'll want in your post-war instruments—by Jackson! Buy War Bonds and Stamps Today New Jackson Instruments, improved through war-time design and tested by war-time use, will be available to cope with the tremendous post-war radio rush. In the meantime, maintenance of Jackson instruments is an obligation that we honor as promptly as possible under war-time conditions. Model 652 Audio Oscillator JACKSON Fine Electrical Testing Instruments JACKSON ELECTRICAL INSTRUMENT COMPANY, DAYTON, OHIO Magnavox Sales Head George H. (Rock) Smith appointed sales manager of radio-phonio division of the Magnavox Co., Fort Wayne, Ind. Emerson Offers Dealers New Priority Sales Plan The problem of supplying radios to consumers at a time when the manufacture of civilian radios is strictly prohibited, found partial solution in a "P.D.Q." plan, announced at a meeting of eastern distributors of the Emerson Radio and Phonograph Corp. in New York. Under this plan, outlined by Jack Geartner, advertising director, consumers are merely required to sign a register soon to be made available in radio stores, which entitles the registrar to a "Preference Delivery Quota" certificate. Effort will then be made to deliver radios when they become available to certificate holders. The plan incurs no obligation to buy on the part of the consumer, but offers the promise that these certificates would expedite the delivery of the first postwar radios that roll off the assembly line. In a keynote address, Benjamin Abrams, president of Emerson, estimated that the immediate postwar demands would absorb 25 million radios as soon as the government permitted production, while the industry's manufacturing potentiality represented between 15 and 17 million sets. Mr. Abrams stated that even at the most accelerated rate of postwar production, it would take the industry years to fill the potential demand. He ventured the prediction that the demand for radios and allied products would result in an expansion of the industry into a 3 billion dollar volume as compared to its prewar volume of 3 to 4 hundred million. Farnsworth Announces New Television Brochure The Farnsworth Television & Radio Corp., Fort Wayne, Ind., has issued a brochure, "The Story of Electronic Television," in which the subject is reduced to everyday language and is profusely illustrated with color pictures used in Farnsworth national ads. The brochure was published as the result of thousands of inquiries received by Farnsworth requesting "down to earth" information on the relatively new science of television. Truesdell Sees Three Phases in Postwar Period "The immediate postwar period is only one of three phases which should be considered by manufacturers and retail distribution outlets in planning for the future," declared Leonard C. Truesdell, assistant commercial manager, The Crosley Corp., when he addressed members of the Alabama Retail Furniture Assn., at their annual convention at Birmingham. "These three phases are (1) the present period extending until the day when the first major appliances can be delivered to customers; (2) the immediate postwar period, with an abnormally high volume of sales continuing for some months after the war but probably not as long as some of us may expect; and (3) the long-range period, extending some years into the future," he said. Truesdell pointed out that each period is closely interdependent on each of the others and that successful operation in one period will mean much for success in the others. "During the present period, it goes without saying that the war effort must come first, in every respect," he declared. "However, it is part of a manufacturer's obligation to his wholesalers, his retail dealers, his retail salesmen and his consumers to utilize any time that is available in planning new products, planning manufacturing facilities and programs, analyzing markets, organizing the right kind of distribution organization and planning and preparing for the right kind of dealer organization." While it is important for retailers to select established brands for postwar distribution, Truesdell pointed out that consumers of postwar goods will be primarily interested in products with the most attractive features that are available when they are ready to buy. Stewart-Warner Will Remain in Radio Field F. A. Hiter, senior vice-president of Stewart-Warner Corp., announces the appointment of Floyd Masters as manager of the radio division and at the same time disclosed the corporation's postwar program covering production of radio products. Masters, since 1939 Midwest district manager for Stewart-Warner appliances, was formerly general sales manager for General Refrigeration Corp., Beloit, Wis. His experience in radio dates back to 1928, when he was sales manager of the radio division of Grigsby-Grunow Majestic Co. He is replacing L. L. Kelsey, who resigned to join Belmont Radio Corp. Hiter's statement on the firm's postwar plans included the assertion that "Stewart-Warner definitely will remain in the radio business after the war, and will manufacture consumer sets to be merchandised through normal distribution channels. Our production will include AM and FM sets for both the general and farm markets in a wide variety of table and console cabinets." Eight Makers Show War Products in Chicago In one of the first major public showings, 8 leading wartime electronic manufacturers exhibited their radar and radio equipment in use on battlefronts throughout the world at a special four weeks' display at the Lyon & Healy loop store in Chicago. Exhibitors were: Lyon & Healy, the Hallicrafters Co., and Galvin Manufacturing Corp., Chicago; Capehart Division of Farnsworth Television & Radio Corp., and Magnavox Corp., of Fort Wayne, Ind.; RCA Victor of Camden, N. J.; Sentinel Radio Manufacturing Co., Evanston, Ill., and C. G. Conn Ltd., Elkhart, Ind. Hamilton Has Long-Range Marketing Program Plan A. A. Juveler, president of Hamilton Radio Corp., New York, makers of "Olympic" radio, in announcing the appointment of Butler-Advertising, of the same city, as advertising counsel, said this move is part of a long-range marketing program, of which the first steps, including extensive consumer and engineering research, and an institutional series in domestic and export trade publications, are already in effect. According to Mr. Juveler, the company expects to be in a good position to reconvert to civilian requirements rapidly, and is therefore in the process of readying its market set-up. Be the FIRST to make a POST-WAR STRIKE The wartime necessity for saving time has uncovered scores of new applications for sound equipment, and has multiplied the demand for it! This acceptance of sound as standard business and industrial equipment will continue to grow in peace times. Sound installations will be desired in almost every type of building! So get ready now to start rolling as soon as these post-war markets open up. Be sure you get the first strike—with BELL Sound Systems. The complete BELL line puts every type of sound prospect right up your alley! BELFone offers everything in "intercom" service. All the newest, most practical features—and many exclusive ones—are available, including arrangements for private conversations between any two stations, simplified convenience of operation, and many others. BELL Voice Paging Equipment provides for time-saving vocal paging... recorded music programs for workers... broadcasting of announcements or instructions to employees... auxiliary time or alarm-signaling. Its compact, rugged "tamper-proof" units can be used together in any combination, to fit needs of any type or extent. The complete BELL line also includes public address and phono-P.A. system, amplifying equipment, school radio-sound systems, recording and disc-playing equipment, and other sound needs—plus important new developments to be announced after Victory. Get lined up now for a perfect post-war sales score—write for details! BELL SOUND SYSTEMS, INC. 1186 Essex Ave. Export Office: 4900 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland 3, Ohio New Booklet Pictures Postwar Television Sets In its new 28-page four-color booklet, "Your Coming Radio," the General Electric Company forecasts the innovations of postwar home radio and television equipment through illustrations. The section of the booklet devoted to television shows drawings of "tomorrow's" models and includes consoles and table models, one of the former employing projection of images to a screen. To gratify the wide-spread public interest in radio and television, "Your Coming Radio," which is sent free on receipt of a postcard request, is offered throughout the country on the General Electric sponsored news program, "The World Today." Adds Baltimore to Its Territory Frank M. Folsom, RCA Victor division head, and other company officials, greet Dave Schwab and Harry Spector, D & H Distributing Co., which has added Baltimore to its territory for RCA products. Left to right are Mr. Folsom, Dave Schwab, M. F. Blakeslee, RCA Victor's Eastern Regional Manager; Harry Spector, and T. F. Joyce, General Manager of RCA Victor's Radio, Phonograph and Television Activities. J. H. Clippinger Resigns Ross D. Siragusa, president of Admiral Corp., Chicago, made known at a board of directors' meeting the intention of J. H. Clippinger, vice-president in charge of sales, to resign from active participation in Admiral Corporation at the end of the war. Clippinger in his letter stated that he is resigning because of the health of his family which necessitates their moving from this locale. He also stated that he will remain with Admiral until all war contracts are terminated, after which he will rejoin his family. Ditty of the Dealer The daylight always follows night; From Adam's day we've known that's right. We know clear skies will follow rain; We know good times will come again. We're fighting Hitler and the Jap. What price the tiny little rap That hits our business? Well we know It's not a solar plexus blow. And when the new day dawns at last We'll more than make up for the past. We'll have an ample stock of things To sell. A stock that profit brings. We'll do more business in a week Than in the days of which we speak, The "Good Old Days"—why, they will be The trade's prime joke, a mockery. It's gloomy, raining now—well, then, I know the sun will shine again! W. T. Denniston LETTERS TO THE EDITOR Reader Complains of Unfair Distribution Editor, Radio & Television Retailing: Radiomen regret that there is no regulation to compel a radio distributor to pro-rate his allotments of materials. We know that there is no serious effort made by many manufacturers and distributors to allot materials to the professional radiomen of the country who are working hard and long to maintain civilian communications. We feel that the needs of this group of men should be met first, but our observations are, unfortunately, that equitable distribution of scarce radio tubes and batteries is made first to mail order houses, hardware stores, furniture stores and tire stores. The professional man (radio technician), who can make the best possible use of these vital necessities, does not seem to be considered at all. 300 Batteries One mail order store recently received a two weeks allotment of three hundred batteries. The average professional radio shop, like our own, would not receive that many batteries in ten years under present allocations. This store in particular does not have, and never did have a radio service department. Does that sort of distribution seem fair? We repair and maintain hundreds of radios bearing a well known, popular name. Yet, we learned today that an obscure hardware store received six times as many batteries in one shipment of this date as we have been able to beg in one year from that manufacturer's distributor. Obviously, this patriotic distributor, like many others of his kind, is planning for future sales. The motto "share what you have" to them applies only to waste paper and tin cans. Our credit rating is good, but we have been unable to convince this distributor that the men who are doing most to maintain his products should have a fair allocation of these scarce materials. Search for Products We recently approached a distributor who has been recommended to us by his manufacturer and asked for a share of his products. This concern is one of the combination wholesaler-retailer variety (a local auto parts store with absolutely no radio service department) and consequently, they can sell at retail all of the scarce articles which they receive for distribution. This distributor at first stated that he had not received any articles for distribution. When confronted with facts regarding delivery dates and nature of products he had received for distribution, this big-hearted patriot stated that he had not sold any merchandise to us in 1941-42, and consequently, government regulations would not permit him to distribute to us. Well, chances are good that we did not buy anything from this concern in either 1941 or 1942, because at that time we were engaged in ducking torpedoes with the U. S. Merchant Marine fleets. We had (Continued on page 88) OUT OF THE BLACK EARTH Nature has so planned it that out of black earth come beautiful flowers and the foods essential to our very sustenance. And so it is that from the darkness of the present hour...from the suffering and sacrifice of world war...will emerge a greater degree of understanding among men...more freedom for untold millions...and advanced ideas to make man's burdens lighter and life more enjoyable. Astatic, like so many other manufacturing concerns, has been broadened by the experience of war production, has employed its engineering skill and manufacturing facilities to create new products, the principles of which will be reflected in Astatic's commercial and civilian products of a new day. THE ASTATIC CORPORATION YOUNGSTOWN, OHIO HATRY & YOUNG HARTFORD 3, CONNECTICUT THE TUBE SITUATION We get an allotment of roughly 1/5 the tubes you and we need. This allotment we distribute as fairly as we can. Spread thinly one allotment is not enough for ALL our customers but—when time enough has passed, all get some of all allotments. ★ SOME CUSTOMERS THREATEN They say "we buy what else we need where we get tubes." Threats CAN'T stretch one tube into 5. We do not threaten nor do we insist on other purchases. Simple arithmetic tells us that a scarce system could not keep more than a fifth—it makes no sense. You have to find 4 more tubes somewhere else anyway. ★ BLAME THE WAR Humanly, some of you blame W.P.B. or the Government for the tube situation. What confusion exists can be laid equally well at the front-door of certain tube manufacturers. BUT, none of the problems that cause the practices at the root of the confusion—none of the problems!—would exist if WAR's life and death facts did not come FIRST. ★ BY THE TIME ? ? ? ? ? By the time this is printed we hope PEACE has come. In any case, PEACE can begin at home if YOU will remember that we do NOT use the few tubes we get to lose customers. Electronics Specialists Consultants • Expeditors temporarily suspended our business operation when it became apparent before and after Pearl Harbor that a shortage of ship radio officers existed. But, the fact still remains that many of these wholesale-retailer type of distributor are not distributing except to their own stores or service shops. They, together with the mail order houses, have an unfair tie-up with the manufacturer. Why not make an effort to break up this unholy alliance? Shortage Is Acute We know there is a serious shortage and none of us desire any course of action which will weaken the war effort. Scarce radio parts, tubes, and batteries can be most efficiently handled by professional radiomen. If the doctors or other professional groups found their much needed materials maldistributed, they would immediately and in unison start such a clamor that the ensuing noise would cause Hitler and Tojo to think a new front had started. Radiomen are not vocal and are not organized into protective groups, but why not make an effort to see that this group is treated more fairly? Real Effort Asked Our observations coincide with many others and are stated generally, because we are completely at the mercy of the manufacturer and his distributor. There is, as you know, no legal way in which we, ourselves, can manufacture these needed and scarce articles. Most of us feel that we are performing necessary work and are only asking the assistance and protection of the office responsible for efficient wartime use of scarce radio products. We are not in a position to make suggestions. All we are asking is that a more determined effort be made to place scarce radio parts, tubes, and batteries in the hands of professional radio shops. SUBSCRIBER Used Equipment Sale Without Priority Asked Editor, Radio & Television Retailing: Limitation Order L-265, (b) (2) provides "...no supplier...shall transfer any electronic equipment to any consumer...except...to fill orders bearing a preference rating of A-1-a or higher..." The interpretation put on this clause by the local Priority Division of the WPB, which contains the word ANY, is that it also includes USED, REBUILT' or RECONDITIONED EQUIPMENT. We cannot believe that this was the intent of the WPB when they issued this order. We believe their purpose was to prevent the promiscuous flow of NEW equipment; to compel the factories to restrict their manufacture to necessary defense and military uses and to limit the civilian purchase of electronic equipment to plants engaged in the production of necessary war materials. It stands to reason that a war industry which feels the need of and which will make priority application to obtain this equipment, will not accept used or rebuilt equipment as long as they are able to obtain new equipment on their priority rating. To save the few dollars which may be involved would not interest them. They would prefer the certainty of good performance which they would get from new equipment rather than the uncertainty which might result from old, repaired equipment. Most of the USED equipment can only be sold for "second rate" purposes; those businesses which do not have, or cannot obtain a priority rating by virtue of the KIND of things they manufacture or sell, yet which in a measure contribute to the overall war effort. These are the logical outlet for this "recovered" merchandise. Modify L-265 For the very larger part, this electronic equipment of which we speak, is the small inexpensive intercommunicating systems usable by the smaller manufacturers and distributors, whose money value in most instances will range from $40 to $75 and which would represent a small fraction of the overall electronic business. Certainly no benefit can be obtained by excluding the sale of this used electronic equipment, and thereby letting it go to waste and ruin. We believe some action should be taken by an organized body within the "electronic group" which will seek to have modified Order L-265, so as to permit the sale of this used equipment WITHOUT PRIORITY...or at least, permit it to be sold under an MRO, as formerly obtained. Jos. A. Stiffelman Radio Communications Co., St. Louis, Mo. Don't Start Tele Off On "Wrong Foot," Asks Seldes Gilbert Seldes, director of CBS television programs, in a talk before the Kiwanis Club of New York asked that a reasonable period be allowed after the war to adapt new electronic discoveries to television, before the new video art be launched as a full-fledged industry. "At the moment," said Seldes, "everything depends on our having, after the war, a little time to consolidate the enormous technical advances in electronics under the grim pressure of necessity. Radar, and, we are told, other inventions even more spectacular, embody some of the same principles and variants of the same mechanisms as those used in television. If we take the time to put them together, we will know with certainty how good a television picture—and that means how good a television program—we will be able to create in the immediate future. "If we rush in, without taking advantage of all the new discoveries, we may for the third time start television off on the wrong foot. And three strikes—as you know—is out," Mr. Seldes said in part. New Booklet Catalog of Pilot Light Assemblies No. 43 includes complete line jeweled pilot lights and lamps of Dial Light Company of America, 90 West Street, New York 6, N. Y. Radio Sets Lead in Items Needing Repairs Radios stand out as the item most in need of repair, according to the results of a survey based on replies from about 4,500 households, "geographically and economically representative of the nation as a whole," just completed by the Office of Civilian Requirements, War Production Board. Among radio-owning households, 8 per cent have none in working order. The extent of need for service and repairs found in the survey ranged from 1 per cent for electric water heaters to 28 per cent for radios. WPB said that more than half of the domestic radios in current use are 5 years old or more; that more than half of the people replying to the questions reported that they had no difficulty in obtaining repairs. In estimated number in households, radios lead the list of items, with more than 4.6 million in homes of the country, says the report. Of the heavier household appliances, mechanical refrigerators stand first in estimated number in American households—about 2.1 million. The survey showed that owners reported that 98 per cent of refrigerators are in working order; 63 per cent of mechanical refrigerators are 5 years old or older. Eighteen and a half million washing machines are estimated to be in households; 95 per cent of these washers are in working order although 72 per cent of them are more than 5 years old, says the report. The superiority of Ken-Rad "self-shielding" metal tubes is best exemplified by 10 years' successful manufacture of over sixty million. Today millions more are demanded by the military. This experience and capacity becomes available for civilian requirements postwar. Firms Honored for War Production Increases Major General Harry C. Ingles, Chief Signal Officer, has telegraphed his thanks to workers in the radio-electronic plant of International Detrola Corp., Detroit, for producing an enormous quantity of sorely needed mine detectors, against a one-day deadline, for immediate combat use. * * * For the fourth time in less than 2 years Zenith Radio Corp., Chicago, has received the Army-Navy Production Award for outstanding achievement in producing materials essential to the war effort. Kelley Named to Head Sales for Motorola Paul V. Galvin, president of Galvin Mfg. Corporation, makers of Motorola Home and Car Radios, announces the appointment of Wm. H. (Bill) Kelley as general sales manager of the corporation. Bill Kelley is well and favorably known to the radio trade, having been an important sales executive of RCA for a period of 20 years. He recently resigned as their regional manager of the San Francisco district, and will assume his new duties with Motorola Sept. 1. Prior to his RCA association, Mr. Kelley spent 2 years in the sales department of Garod Radio. Mr. Galvin states that the management of the Motorola sales and products organization is otherwise unchanged. Elmer H. Wavering will continue to head the Car Radio Division, Walter H. Stellner will continue as manager of the Home Radio Division, and N. E. Wunderlich remains sales manager of the Police Radio Division. Advertising and Sales Promotion activities will be handled by Victor A. Irvine. Phileco Sales Manager William E. Kress, left, newly-appointed Phileco sales manager for the middle west, congratulated by Thomas A. Kennally, Phileco vice-president in charge of sales. RADIO TUBE ADAPTORS We manufacture Radio Tube Adaptors and sell at wholesale prices only. Any type adaptor made to order. All types in stock now. Here are some of the adaptors we have: \| For \| Use \| \|-------\|------\| \| 80,523,83 \| 5U4G \| \| 12A6 \| 7A8 \| \| 12S6 \| 7C6 \| \| 12S8 \| 14A7 \| \| 35Z5 \| 35Z3 \| \| 12A6T \| 14A7 \| \| 12B6T \| 7A8 \| \| 1A7 \| 1L6G \| \| 1A7 \| 1L6G \| \| 35Z5 \| 12J5 \| \| 1A5 \| 1LA4 \| \| 1A7 \| 1C6 \| Lots of twelve ........ $5.54 each Smaller lots .......... $6.60 each Plus 10% Federal Tax All orders must be accompanied with Signed Limitation Order L-265. Mail order business only. Manor Electric & Appliance Co. 3236 SOUTHPORT AVENUE CHICAGO 13, ILLINOIS CLAROSTAT * Clarostat continues to be engaged 100% in the most important job of all—winning the war—on land, sea and in the air. But after victory has been won, Clarostat promises the trade—servicemen, jobbers and others—that Clarostat products for initial and replacement uses alike, will once more be generally available for peacetime pursuits. Meanwhile, let's keep 'em rolling! ARMY E NAVY Controls and Resistors CLAROSTAT MFG. CO., INC. - 2657 N. GO ST. - BROOKLYN, N.Y. Treasury Offers Surplus Appliances for Sale Now Companies desiring to be informed regarding surplus merchandise offered for sale by the Treasury Procurement Surplus War Property Division should write to the nearest regional office asking that their names be placed on the mailing list, and specifying merchandise lines interested in. Some of the property to be sold by the Treasury, according to information received includes electric appliances, household and commercial; dry cell batteries, home type laundry equipment, home sewing machines, radio broadcast receivers, air conditioning and refrigeration equipment, household refrigeration controls, etc. A list of the regional offices follows: Park Square Bldg., Boston, 16, Mass. 1229 20th St., N. W. Washington, 25, D. C. Room 300 209 S. LaSalle St., Chicago, 4, Ill. 10 Forsyth St. Bldg., Atlanta, 3, Ga. 2605 Walnut St., Kansas City, 2, Mo. 2005 Fifth Ave., Seattle, 1, Wash. 76 Ninth Ave., New York, 11, N. Y. Faller Bldg., 8th & Walnut Sts., Cincinnati, 14, Ohio. 7th Fl., Exchange Bldg., 1030 15th St., Denver, 2, Col. 609 Neil P. Anderson Bldg. Fort Worth, 2, Texas 30 Van Ness Ave., San Francisco, 2, Cal. Greet New Aero Official Stevens S. Clark, new vice-president Aero Needle Co., Chicago, is welcomed by Burton Browne, president of the company and Fred Williamson, chief engineer. Supreme 504-A Tube and Set Tester. One of many test instruments incorporating a Supreme Meter. SUPREME SUPREME INSTRUMENTS CORP. GREENWOOD MISSISSIPPI, U. S. A. Electronic Products Testing and Recording Instruments BATTERY ELIMINATORS Military requirements and limitations necessarily restrict our deliveries but our best efforts are being used to apportion production fairly among all distributors. Appreciating your understanding cooperation, we look forward to again serving adequately the requirements of industry when victory is achieved and normal conditions once more prevail. Electro PRODUCTS LABORATORIES 149 West Randolph St., Chicago 6, Ill. ESICO SOLDERING IRONS are widely used in industrial plants throughout the country. They are designed to withstand the strain of continuous service required of factory tools. SPOT SOLDERING MACHINE designed for trouble operation for adjustment of iron and solder, leaving operator's hands free for handling of product. SOLDERING IRON TEMPERATURE CONTROLS prevent overheating of soldering iron from excessive soldering operations. Irons do not deteriorate when being used. The idle period causes oxidation and shortens life. SOLDER POTS ruggedly constructed pots of various sizes and shapes for continuous operation and so constructed that they are easily and quickly serviced, without elements have to be replaced. Write for Catalog ELECTRIC SOLDERING IRON CO., INC. 2344 WEST ELM STREET, DEEP RIVER, CONN. WARTIME RADIO SERVICE and SUPPLEMENT NUMBER ONE Have thousands of satisfied users. Tube substitutions simplified. All data compiled from practical experience. No reference needed. Over 1,200 substitutions contained in book and supplement. 58 full pages of valuable information. Practical—Profitable—Tested Data, text and diagram for electrifying 1.4v and 2v battery radios. Diagram and text for building a filament welder with which you can repair many tubes. Best methods for making adaptors. WARTIME RADIO SERVICE $3.00 SUPPLEMENT NUMBER ONE $1.00 Get them both from your distributor today or order from CITY RADIO COMPANY 504-06 East Washington Street PHOENIX ARIZONA ON SWITCHBOARDS... PANEL EQUIPMENT Show 'em how Xcelite Hollow Shaft Nut Drivers get into tight places Seeing is believing! Display—explain the advantages of these Xcelite tools. You find scores of quick-to-buy customers. On all types of radio panels, telephone and switchboards, Xcelite Hollow Shaft Nut Drivers (shaft insulated if desired) speed up nut handling even in awkward installations. Thin hollow shaft prevents damage to protruding studs; the accurately machined socket accommodates two nuts. Genuine shock-proof Xcelite handle. Seven sizes, from 5/16" to 3/4" (nut sizes). Priorities required—delivery necessarily delayed by war conditions. Details and prices on request. Write Dept. M. PARK METALWARE CO., INC. Orchard Park New York XCELITE Back the Attack—Keep the War Bonds You Buy Former "Rep" in Army Lt. Merrill K. Franklin, veteran factory representative, Minn.-St. Paul area, recently transferred to his old stamping ground from Seattle. N. Y. Electronic Mfrs. Organize to Handle Production Problems At a meeting of radio and electronic manufacturers operating in the New York metropolitan area, held at the Hotel Waldorf-Astoria, August 2, the formation of the Electronics Manufacturers Association, Inc., was completed by the election of officers and directors. Principal functions of the new association are to handle production problems, establish harmonious labor relations, and represent local electronic employers before U. S. agencies. The New York association comprises manufacturers of radio sets, radio parts and other electronic products operating in the metropolitan and adjoining areas. Its officers are: I. Walter Wyckoff, Pilot Radio Corp., president; Arthur Freed, Freed Radio Corp., vice-president; Samuel J. Novick of Electronics Corp. of America, secretary-treasurer, all of whom are also directors. Other directors are David Wald, United Scientific Laboratories, Inc.; Jack M. Marks, Fada Radio & Electrical Co. Inc.; Percy Schoenen of Hamilton Radio Corp.; and Harold Shevers, Espey Mfg. Co., Inc. Littelfuse Sales Head R. G. Akin, who has been appointed sales manager, midwest division Littelfuse, Inc., Chicago. ALLIANCE "Even-Speed" Phono-motors Good News! ALLIANCE RESUMES PRODUCTION on One Standard Model - We are now able to return to production of one standard variation of Alliance Model 80 Phono-motor, according to the following definite specifications and on the production plan explained below. STANDARD SPECIFICATION No. 811—Turntable No. Y-278-S2; 110 Volt, 60 cycle, 9" Model 80 Production must be on the following practical basis under present conditions where there are no large volume priority orders—namely, by accumulating a sufficient quantity of small orders with necessary priority and making periodical single production runs at such times that the quantity of accumulated orders is enough to make this practical. Priority orders (currently only orders of AA-3 or higher with GOVERNMENT CONTRACT NUMBERS and MILITARY END USES) when qualified for use in Radar Systems, Inter-communications or Paging Systems, are exempted from order No. 819-C) may allow delivery time required to obtain a minimum practical production run; to procure material for all orders in hand; and make one production run of the one type standard unit only, for shipment of the various accumulated orders. - Check the above against your requirements, and if you have proper priority, communicate with us. REMEMBER ALLIANCE—Your Ally in War as in Peace! AFTER THE WAR IS WON, WE WILL TELL YOU ABOUT SOME NEW AND STARTLING IDEAS IN PHONO-MOTORS ALLIANCE MANUFACTURING COMPANY ALLIANCE, OHIO AMPLICALL MULTIPLIES MANPOWER Getting things done faster with AMPLICALL Paging and Two-Way Communications Systems is enabling thousands of industrial plants to save many man-hours daily ... actually multiplying their manpower! And the stand-out quality and flexible design of AMPLICALL equipment is enabling RAULAND jobbers to build up a profitable business right now. RAULAND national advertising, aimed at the nation's top-flight industrial executives, is also backing up jobber sales efforts, bringing them many new contacts. THE RAULAND CORPORATION • CHICAGO 41, ILLINOIS Electroneering is our business BACK THE ATTACK BUY MORE WAR BONDS RADIO • RADAR • SOUND • COMMUNICATIONS • TELEVISION Speed Queen Sees Some Washers in November In a statement appearing in its house organ, "Speed Queen Agitator," Barlow & Seelig Mfg. Co., Ripon, Wis., declare that the outlook for resumption of washing machine manufacture is brighter. A portion of the article follows: "While the outlook for the resumption of washer and ironer production for the civilian market is much brighter than it has been, there is very little chance of any machines being available for delivery to dealers before 1945. "The latest information we have is that the way will be open for our industry to begin building washers again, on a restricted basis, by November of the current year. Of course, when that 'go ahead' signal is actually given by the War Production Board, the manufacturer still faces the problem of securing his raw materials from whatever surpluses may be available, not needed by war industries. "He must also set up his production lines, and recruit his help from those not already employed on war production jobs. "Here at Barlow & Seelig we are setting our sights on the goal of being able to make some deliveries in January of 1945. Our plant is in order, and while we are handling a capacity production of war materials we are ready on short notice to swing into production of washers and ironers." Playing "Postoffice"—Modern Version A Los Angeles talking mail box gets a break as actress Lynne Baggett discloses her address in order to discover the mail zone. You walk up, tell your address, and the box answers with the right number, all part of an effort to make Los Angeles mail zone conscious. Electricity For Any Job—Anywhere For a dependable source of electricity on projects remote from commercial power, Onan Electric Plants are proven leaders in the field. More than half of the armed Forces' total requirements for Power plants are built by Onan. Gasoline driven... Single-unit, compact design... Sturdy construction... Suitable for mobile, stationary or emergency service. Over 65 models, ranging in sizes from 350 to 35,000 watts 50 to 800 cycles, 110 to 660 volts, A.C.—6 to 4000 volts, D.C.—Also dual A.C.-D.C. output types. Descriptive literature sent promptly on request. D. W. ONAN & SONS, 2022 Royalston Avenue, Minneapolis 5, Minn. Snyder MFG. CO. 22ND & ONTARIO STS. PHILA. 40, U.S.A. RADIO ANTENNAE and Associated Products Heads Home Radio Sales John M. Otter, now sales manager for Philco's home radio division. Consider Manufacture Resumption, Asks Nance The Zenith organization, from laboratory and factory to distributor and dealer, is stronger and in better shape today than ever before in the company's history, J. J. Nance, vice-president and director of sales, told a group of midwestern Zenith distributors at a round table conference in Chicago. "The time is approaching when we can begin to consider the resumption of civilian manufacture," said Mr. Nance. "We must consider ourselves fortunate that we adopted, more than three years ago, a policy of confining our war production to the field we know so well: mass production of radionic equipment. "Through the war years we have retained almost all of our key sales personnel by having these men devote their talents to expediting materials and to supervising war contracts. They have done an admirable job. During the same period we have maintained close ties with our dealer and distributor organizations, ties which will be strengthened in coming months." Postwar Refrigerator Here's a glimpse of Admiral's new refrigerator, with built-in freezer, developed by Stewart-Warner early this year. May Ready for Postwar Distribution Avalanche D. W. May, head of the newly-formed D. W. May Corp., 1 E. 42nd St., New York, has announced the scheduling of a postwar meeting and smoker for all metropolitan New York, northern New Jersey and Fairfield County, Conn., radio, television, refrigerator and home appliance retailers, Aug. 16, at the Hotel Commodore, New York. Announced features of the meeting include the display of postwar models and the revealing of the plans of a number of manufacturers, as well as those of the May organization, which has been appointed distributor for a complete line of radio, television, recorders, refrigerators, home freezers and also home laundry equipment, vacuum cleaners, electric and gas ranges, kitchen cabinets and a new hearing aid. Galvin Postwar Plans The sales management of the Galvin Mfg. Corporation is now developing complete plans for postwar radio distribution, many of which will soon be announced to the trade. The company will resume the civilian production of a complete line of AM and FM home radios, automatic phonographs, portable and personal radios, standard and specific automobile sets and 2-way radiotelephone systems immediately the green light has been given by the WPB. HERE'S HELP THAT WORKS 'ROUND THE CLOCK Today you have to be patient with your employees. They are working hard and under great pressure. But you have to be sure that their working hours are as productive as possible — you must provide them with every kind of servicing aid. Such as Rider Manuals. Never have these authoritative volumes been so widely used as today when speed in the tracing of circuits means not only additional profits, but the development and preservation of invaluable good will among employees and customers. Have all thirteen volumes of Rider Manual on each of your benches. Check the list to the right—order any missing volumes today. Check, too, the list of Rider Books. They're chock-full of technical information that can further speed your repair work and enable you to make the most of your present opportunities to add to the volume and good will of your business. PLACE YOUR ORDER TODAY! RIDER MANUALS (13 VOLUMES) Volumes XIII to VII. . . . $1.00 each volume Volumes VI to III. . . . 8.25 each volume Abridged Manuals I to V [1 volume]. . . $12.50 Automatic Record Changers and Recorders 6.00 OTHER RIDER BOOKS YOU NEED The Cathode Ray Tube at Work Accurate authority on subject. . . . $3.00 Frequency Modulation Gives principles of FM radio. . . . 1.50 Servicing the Sine-Of-Tuning Basic Method of radio servicing. . . . 3.00 The Meter at Work An elementary text on meters. . . . 1.50 The Oscillator at Work How to use, test and repair. . . . 2.00 Vacuum Tube Voltmeters By theory and practice. . . . 2.00 Automatic Frequency Control Systems For radio and broadcasting systems. . . . 1.25 A-C Calculation Charts Two to five times as fast as slide rule. . . . 7.50 Handy "Do-while" Chart Series— On "Alternating Current in Radio Receivers"— On "Resonance & Alignment"— On "Automatic Volume Control"— On "D-C Voltage Distribution" . . . 90c each JOHN F. RIDER PUBLISHER, INC. 404 Fourth Avenue, New York 16, N.Y. Export Division: Rocke-International Corporation 13 E. 40th Street, New York City Cable: ARLAB The stage is set! Suddenly, shattering the hushed calm, hell breaks loose. Sharp orders are issued clearly from directional loud speakers and the infantrymen "hit the beach on the double," eventually to take another enemy base. Everything must dovetail ... must be unfailing! Atlas Sound Speakers are beachhead veterans. Dawn will one day usher in a day of Peace. Soon after, Atlas veteran performance will be available for civilian use. Complete Atlas Sound Catalog on request. ATLAS SOUND CORPORATION 1451 39th Street Brooklyn, N. Y. "Old Man Centralab "Old Man" is right... for he is a real "old timer". There is no substitute for experience, and the "Old Man" now, as in the past twenty-two years, is still your best bet. Centralab Division of GLOBE-UNION INC., Milwaukee Still your best bet for replacements Centralab VOLUME CONTROLS Angle Issues Call to Radio-Minded Youth A ringing call to the nation's radio engineering-minded youth in the armed forces or at school to assume their places in the profession "with the least possible delay" was sounded by Wesley M. Angle, president of the Stromberg-Carlson Co. The Rochester, N. Y., communications executive, writing in the current issue of the official publication of the Institute of Radio Engineers, beamed his words in the specific direction of communications engineering "because that field promises to offer richer, fuller and more compelling interests than its sister fields in tomorrow's world." In his article, entitled "Radio—Past and Present," Mr. Angle sketched the communications engineer's function since the science's early days as he saw it from his vantage point at the helm of the fifty year old radio manufacturing firm. Emerson Launches "PDQ" Postwar Delivery Plan Miss Frances Lessin of New York City does not have to worry about predictions that new radios will be scarce for more than a year after the war. She was put on the list to receive the first Emerson radio to roll off the assembly line when production is resumed. Miss Lessin, shown in the picture, is filling out the first registration blank under the "preference delivery quota" program just launched by the Emerson Radio and Phonograph Corp. Shown with her is Perk R. Bowers, manager of The Rudolph Wurlitzer Co., well-known Emerson Radio dealer. No Down Payment Under the Emerson Radio "PDQ" plan, consumers throughout the country are invited to register now with any authorized Emerson Radio dealer, indicating what type of radio they will want to buy after the war. In return, they receive a "preference delivery quota" certificate. No down payment is required. KATOLIGHT A.C. GENERATORS Furnish Same Current as City Power Lines Kato Engineering products are carrying out an important job in the War Effort. A maneuvering fighting force cannot arrange for a power line hook-up. KATOLIGHT GENERATORS furnish electricity on the field of battle which permits equipping our fighting forces with the most modern electrical appliances. "10 K.W. Revolving Field Generator" Fighting forces need guns, planes, tanks, trucks, kitchens, emergency hospitals, lights, etc. To keep this equipment going, complete repair equipment such as drills, grinders, saws, air-compressors, etc., are needed. Standard A.C. electricity, the same as you get from the power line, must be had for operating these devices. Portable KATOLIGHT GENERATORS supply this electricity. They also supply current for radio transmitters, beacons, landing field controls, etc. Available in all standard voltages and sizes up through 25,000 watts. Also manufacturers of rotary converters, frequency changers, motor-generator sets, gas engine driven battery chargers, high frequency motor-generators and converters. KATO ENGINEERING COMPANY 21 ROCK STREET MANKATO, MINN., U.S.A. Any difficulty obtaining PARTS? Write for our latest catalog listing Condensers, Speakers, Volume Controls, Vibrators, Resistors, Transformers and hundreds of hard-to-get replacement parts at unbelievably low prices! ★ IMMEDIATE DELIVERY Olson Radio Warehouse 73-d EAST MILL ST., AKRON 8, OHIO WANTED FOR CASH for EXPORT ONLY any quantity radio tubes, speakers, transformers, chokes, condensers, amplifiers, microphones, vibrators, of all types. Write or wire what you have, with prices. HARRY J. SCHEEL, EXPORTER 2654 Morse Ave., Chicago, Ill. RADIO & Television RETAILING • August, 1944 MORE PHONOGRAPH OWNERS THAN EVER ARE BUYING Fidelitone DE LUXE FLOATING POINT NEEDLES Dealers report steady increase in demand... Good news travels fast. Fidelitone's nation-wide advertising and its many thousands of delighted users are spreading the news of Fidelitone superiority everywhere. Use Fidelitone counter and window displays, free literature and other sales helps to identify your store as one that recommends America's fastest selling long-life phonograph needle...Fidelitone Deluxe Floating Needle. PERMO, Incorporated 6415 Ravenswood Avenue, Chicago 26, Illinois Radiart's SALES POLICY FULL COOPERATION Radiart's Sales Policy has been and will continue to be based on full cooperation with our jobbers and service men. Our civilian production is divided equitably among our jobbers to give each his share. Our catalog (a new one is now being printed) is designed to give the greatest possible help on all vibrator problems. It is the only catalog with complete cross index. Radiart is a leader in the vibrator field. Our entire sales policy of full cooperation with our jobbers and service men is directed toward maintaining that leadership. Radiart Corporation 3571 W. 62nd St. CLEVELAND 2, OHIO Music Group Elects McCormack President The forty-third annual convention and wartime educational council of the National Association of Music Merchants, held at the Palmer House, Chicago, July 24 to 26, was a well-attended event where a trade exhibit of musical merchandise was one of the features. Dwight F. McCormack, vice-president of Sherman, Clay & Co., San Francisco, was elected president, succeeding Harry D. Griffith, of Newark, N. J. The other officers elected were: Carl Wittich, head of Wittich's, Reading, Pa., whose firm's operation was featured in an article in the March issue of this magazine; L. G. La Mair, Lyon & Healy, Inc., Chicago; Russell B. Wells, vice-president Charles E. Wells Music Co., Denver, Col., and Ensign Paul E. Murphy, M. Steiner & Sons, Boston, vice-presidents. List of Directors William R. Steinway, of Steinway & Sons, New York, was elected secretary, and the following directors were named: George L. Byerly, Byerly Bros. Co., Peoria, Ill.; Ray S. Erlandson, vice-president Wurlitzer Co., Cincinnati; Paul Jenkins, Jenkins Music Co., Kansas City; Parker M. Harris, president Philip Werlein, Ltd., New Orleans; Frank O. Wilking, Wilking Music Co., Indianapolis; Thomas Dahl, president Thayer Piano Co., Honolulu; Earl Campbell, Campbell Music Co., Washington, D. C., and Harry Callaway. Many Exhibits A number of well-known radio manufacturers reserved booths at the show, and these included Capehart, Garod, General Electric, Magnavox, Waters Conley, Meissner, Philharmonic, Wilcox-Gay and Admiral. Phonograph record, needle and accessory manufacturers included Decca, RCA Victor, Duotone, Walco, Permo, Peerless Album, Columbia Recording, Musicraft, Capitol and Continental Music Co. Joins Wilcox-Gay Staff Gerald E. Murphy, formerly with Tung-Sol, has taken position on sales staff of the Wilcox-Gay Corp., Charlotte, Mich., according to announcement by Warren Hasemeier. Named Postwar Planner Lester L. Kelsey, above, has been appointed a member of the executive staff of Belmont Radio Corp., Chicago. He will assist in post-war plans. War Council Meeting Nearly 400 enthusiastic members and supporters of the Music War Council of America, attending the second annual meeting of the organization at the Palmer House, Chicago, July 24, applauded the annual report of Max Targ, retiring president, in which he reviewed the Council's achievements during the past year. Ray S. Erlandson, Chicago, who was elected later on the program to succeed to the presidency, presented distinguished service citations to Mrs. Royden J. Keith, for 4 years president of the Illinois Federation of Music Clubs; Charles Schneider, promotional editor of the Cleveland Press; and Andy Arcari, internationally famous accordionist. Distribution Pattern Changing, Robbins Says "The pattern of retail distribution has changed like so many other things due to the war impact, and as a result necessitates a completely new analytical study," Charles Robbins, vice-president of Emerson Radio and Phonograph Corp., New York City, declared when he addressed a meeting of the company's eastern distributors. Mr. Robbins pointed out that with greatly expanded production facilities, augmented by the drive to maintain in the postwar era a high degree of purchasing power, the distributor will be called upon to play an increasingly important part. Mr. Robbins said, "The distributor must performe become a 'salesmanager' for his respective territory. He must survey and thoroughly analyze his area with a view towards achieving extensive, yet intensive, retail distribution. "For this purpose, we have provided each Emerson Radio distributor with the material and basic ingredients to thoroughly dissect his territory, and thereby set a goal to accomplish the necessary objective." Servicing L.F. Amplifiers (Continued from page 62) little about this, but the maker of the transformer can (and usually does in the case of high grade transformers). Thus in the solid curve C of Fig. 6, for the high-quality broadcast service transformer there is a resonance peak at 10,000 cycles, produced by tuning the transformer inductance with the capacitance of transformer and circuit to 10,000 cycles. Here the leakage inductance is referred to, obtained by measuring the primary's inductance on a bridge with its secondary short-circuited. That this is the actual cause is shown by the dashed curve in C for a similar transformer working into 500 ohms. The 10,000 cycle rise by resonance, cannot take place with only a 500 ohm load. Similarly the solid curve D shows a resonance which has been moved out to 30,000 cycles by diminishing both the capacitance and the inductance of the transformer secondary. In the absence of this high frequency "bump" the curve simply droops in the permanent manner of the dashed curves. NEW BOOKS Shop Job Sheets in Radio, Book 1, Fundamentals By Robert Neil Auble. Published by The Macmillan Co., 60 Fifth Avenue, New York City. This handbook contains experiment or job sheets designed to assist the beginner in radio to obtain a practical working knowledge of the electrical fundamentals of radio. The book is designed for use in well-equipped radio work shops and offers 30 problems from electrical fundamentals to construction of simple receivers and simple test equipment. Each job sheet is laid out stating the objectives of the experiment, references to text books, the procedure to follow plus other information required to do the jobs. Space is given to answer the questions printed on the sheets. The price of the Job Street Book is $1.50. How to Pass Radio License Examinations. Second Edition By Charles E. Drew, Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, N. Y. This 320-page volume contains a series of questions and answers on basic radio regulations, theory and principles of radiotelephone and radiotelegraph equipment. An appendix includes rules governing commercial radio operators, extracts from radio laws, Q signals plus miscellaneous useful engineering data. The price of this book is $3.00. INDEX To Advertisers \| Company \| Page \| \|----------------------------------------------\|------\| \| Admiral Corp. \| 1 \| \| Aerovox Corp. \| 82 \| \| Alliance Mfg. Co. \| 93 \| \| Atlantic Corp. \| 88 \| \| Allen-Bradley Corp. \| 74 \| \| Automatic Radio Mfg. Co., Inc. \| 87 \| \| Bell Sound Systems, Inc. \| 85 \| \| Burgess Battery Co. \| 83 \| \| Centralia Corp. \| 96 \| \| Chicago Co. \| 72 \| \| Clarestat Mfg. Co., Inc. \| 91 \| \| Continental Music Co., Inc. \| 90 \| \| Cornish Wire Co. \| 59 \| \| Criley Corp. \| 59 \| \| Delco Radio Div. General Motors \| 13 \| \| Detrola Radio Div. International Detroit Co. \| 13 \| \| DuMont Labs., Allen B. \| 70 \| \| Dumont Electric Co. \| 98 \| \| Duotone Corp. \| 92 \| \| Electric Soldering Iron Co., Inc. \| 92 \| \| Electro Products Labs. \| 92 \| \| Electronic Products Mfg. Corp. \| 87 \| \| Electro-Voice Mfg. Co., Inc. \| 86 \| \| Emerson Radio & Phon. Corp. \| 45 \| \| F. A. Radio & Electronics, Inc. \| 11 \| \| Farnsworth Television & Radio Corp. \| 2 \| \| Fonda Corp. \| 76 \| \| Garod Radio Corp. \| 17, 80\| \| General Electric Co. \| 65 \| \| Hallicrafters Co. \| 65 \| \| Hamilton Radio Corp. \| 15 \| \| Hammarlund Mfg. Co., Inc. \| 77 \| \| Hatry & Young \| 88 \| \| Hitcock Electrical Instrument Co. \| 4 \| \| Howard Radio Co. \| 4 \| \| Hytron Corp. \| 3 \| \| Jackson Electrical Instrument Co. \| 84 \| \| Jensen Radio Mfg. Co. \| 12 \| \| JFD Mfg. Co. \| 12 \| \| Kato Engineering Co. \| 97 \| \| Ken-Rad Tube & Lamp Corp. \| 89 \| \| Majestic Radio & Television Corp. \| 66 \| \| Mallory & Co., Inc., P. R. \| Cover 2\| \| Mazor Electric & Appliance Co. \| 91 \| \| Mead Radio Corp., John \| 5 \| \| Meissner Mfg. Co. \| 78, 79\| \| Monarch Mfg. Co. \| 74 \| \| Muter Co. \| 95 \| \| National Union Radio Corp. \| 15 \| \| Novo-Dixie Radio & Marine Corp. \| 46 \| \| Olson Radio Warehouse \| 97 \| \| Onan & Sons, D. W. \| 94 \| \| Operadio Mfg. Co. \| 98 \| \| Pax Metalware Co., Inc. \| 92 \| \| Permo \| 7 \| \| Philco Corp. \| 40, 41\| \| Philharmonic Radio Corp. \| 9 \| \| Quam-Nichols Co. \| 100 \| \| Radio Corp. \| 97 \| \| Radio Council of America: \| \| \| RCA Victor \| 49, 50, 51, 52\| \| Rauland Victor \| 93 \| \| Ray-O-Vac Battery Co. \| 71 \| \| Rechard Mfg. Co. \| 13 \| \| Rider, Publisher, John F. \| 95 \| \| Rola Co. \| 10 \| \| Scheel, Exporter Harry J. \| 97 \| \| Seneca Corp., J. P. \| Cover 3\| \| Sentinel Radio Corp. \| 73 \| \| Snyder Mfg. Co. \| 94 \| \| Sonora Radio & Television Corp. \| 57 \| \| Sprague Products Co. \| 75 \| \| Standard Transformer Corp. \| 73 \| \| Stromberg-Carlson Co. \| 20 \| \| Supreme Instruments Corp. \| 91 \| \| Sylvania Electric Products, Inc. \| 14 \| \| Tempestone Radio Co. \| 97 \| \| Thompson Electric Mfg. Co. \| 55 \| \| Troy-Lar Kareola Radio & Television Corp. \| 63 \| \| Triplettr Electrical Instrument Co. \| 8 \| \| Universal Microphone Co. \| 6, 99\| \| Utica Radio Products Co. \| Cover 4\| \| Ward Products Corp. \| 67 \| \| Warwick Mfg. Co. \| 59 \| \| Webster Electric Corp. \| 81 \| \| Wilcox-Gay Corp. \| 37 \| \| Zenith Radio Corp. \| 18 \| While every precaution is taken to insure accuracy, we cannot guarantee against the possibility of an occasional change or omission in the preparation of this index. SEEBURG RECORD CHANGERS WILL BE THE CHOICE OF QUALITY RADIO COMBINATION MANUFACTURERS AFTER VICTORY! 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Activity-mediated AMPA receptor remodeling, driven by alternative splicing in the ligand-binding domain Penn, Andrew C; Balik, Ales; Wozny, Christian; Cais, Ondrej and Greger, Ingo H (2012) Activity-mediated AMPA receptor remodeling, driven by alternative splicing in the ligand-binding domain. Neuron, 76 (3). pp. 503-510. ISSN 0896-6273 This version is available from Sussex Research Online: http://sro.sussex.ac.uk/57004/ This document is made available in accordance with publisher policies and may differ from the published version or from the version of record. If you wish to cite this item you are advised to consult the publisher's version. Please see the URL above for details on accessing the published version. Copyright and reuse: Sussex Research Online is a digital repository of the research output of the University. Copyright and all moral rights to the version of the paper presented here belong to the individual author(s) and/or other copyright owners. To the extent reasonable and practicable, the material made available in SRO has been checked for eligibility before being made available. Copies of full text items generally can be reproduced, displayed or performed and given to third parties in any format or medium for personal research or study, educational, or not-for-profit purposes without prior permission or charge, provided that the authors, title and full bibliographic details are credited, a hyperlink and/or URL is given for the original metadata page and the content is not changed in any way. Activity-Mediated AMPA Receptor Remodeling, Driven by Alternative Splicing in the Ligand-Binding Domain Andrew C. Penn,1,2,5 Ales Balik,1,3,5 Christian Wozny,1,4,5 Ondrej Cais,1 and Ingo H. Greger1,* 1Neurobiology Division, MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Hills Road, Cambridge CB2 0QH, UK 2Present address: Université de Bordeaux, Interdisciplinary Institute for Neuroscience and CNRS, Interdisciplinary Institute for Neuroscience, UMR 5297, F-33000 Bordeaux, France 3Present address: Institute of Physiology, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic v.v.i., Videnska 1083, 142 20 Prague 4, Czech Republic 4Present address: Neuroscience Research Center, Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, 10117 Berlin, Germany 5These authors contributed equally to this work Correspondence: firstname.lastname@example.org http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2012.08.010 Open access under CC BY license. SUMMARY The AMPA-type glutamate receptor (AMPAR) subunit composition shapes synaptic transmission and varies throughout development and in response to different input patterns. Here, we show that chronic activity deprivation gives rise to synaptic AMPAR responses with enhanced fidelity. Extrasynaptic AMPARs exhibited changes in kinetics and pharmacology associated with splicing of the alternative flip/flop exons. AMPAR mRNA indeed exhibited reprogramming of the flip/flop exons for GluA1 and GluA2 subunits in response to activity, selectively in the CA1 subfield. However, the functional changes did not directly correlate with the mRNA expression profiles but result from altered assembly of GluA1/GluA2 subunit splice variants, uncovering an additional regulatory role for flip/flop splicing in excitatory signaling. Our results suggest that activity-dependent AMPAR remodeling underlies changes in short-term synaptic plasticity and provides a mechanism for neuronal homeostasis. INTRODUCTION AMPA-type glutamate receptors (AMPARs) initiate postsynaptic signaling at excitatory synapses (Traynelis et al., 2010; Trussell, 1999). Receptor desensitization can shape synaptic transmission and in turn information processing (Chen et al., 2002; Koike-Tani et al., 2008; Rozov et al., 2001; Xu-Friedman and Regehr, 2003) as a function of the cleft glutamate transient (Cathala et al., 2005; Jonas, 2000; Xu-Friedman and Regehr, 2003). AMPAR kinetics are tuned by the composition and alternative RNA processing of the four core subunits (GluA1–GluA4) (Geiger et al., 1995; Jonas, 2000) and by auxiliary factors (Guzman and Jonas, 2010; Jackson and Nicoll, 2011). Neurons express a variety of functionally distinct AMPARs, which can be recruited selectively in response to different input patterns (Liu and Cull-Candy, 2000) and be targeted to specific dendritic subdomains (Bagal et al., 2005; Gardner et al., 1999; Tóth and McBain, 1998). However, whether assembly into distinct heteromers is modulated by activity is not known (Pozo and Goda, 2010; Turrigiano, 2008). Activity-driven remodeling of kinetically distinct receptors would permit adaptive responses to changing input patterns. The ion channel and ligand-binding domain (LBD) of the receptor feature regulatory elements at subunit interfaces introduced by alternative RNA processing (Seeburg, 1996). Q/R editing at the A2 channel pore controls Ca$^{2+}$ flux and receptor tetramerization (Greger et al., 2003; Isaac et al., 2007), whereas the R/G editing and alternative splicing within the LBD modulate gating kinetics and subunit dimerization (Lomeli et al., 1994; Seeburg, 1996; Greger et al., 2006). Both impact on secretion of recombinant A2 from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), where prolonging ER residence facilitates heteromeric assembly (Sukumaran et al., 2012; see also Coleman et al., 2010). Whether this mechanism contributes to the biogenesis of native AMPARs has not been addressed. Here we show that alternative splicing in the LBD is subject to regulation. Chronic reduction of activity in hippocampal slice cultures results in changes at the flip/flop (i/o) cassette. Altered RNA splicing occurs for A1 and A2 in the CA1 subfield but not in CA3, implying cell-autonomous splicing regulation. Characterization of AMPARs after activity deprivation reveals changes in pharmacology and kinetics of extrasynaptic receptors, culminating in increased response fidelity. A functional switch is also evident at CA1 synapses, which cannot be explained by a direct effect of mRNA processing (Mosbacher et al., 1994) but rather by splice variant-driven receptor remodeling. These data reveal homeostatic regulation of short-term plasticity (STP) and suggest the existence of a dynamic mechanism readjusting AMPAR kinetics in the face of altered neuronal activity. RESULTS AMPAR mRNA Reprogramming after Activity Deprivation AMPAR i/o splicing is segregated in rodent hippocampus—flip isoforms dominate in CA3, whereas CA1 neurons express... predominantly flop (Sommer et al., 1990). This segregation is also apparent in RNA from rat organotypic slice cultures (see Figures S1A and S1B available online). This subfield-specific RNA profile will mostly reflect AMPAR expression in hippocampal pyramids since these cells make up approximately 90% of neurons in CA1 (Mishchenko et al., 2010; Olbrich and Braak, 1985; see Supplemental Information). Upon chronic activity deprivation (48 hr) with the Na+–channel blocker tetrodotoxin (TTX), levels of A1i and A2i transcripts diminish significantly in CA1, relative to untreated controls (Figure 1B). Since alternative splicing of i/o exons is mutually exclusive (Figure 1A) and overall A1 and A2 transcript levels are unaltered (Figure 1C), silencing with TTX leads to a concomitant upregulation of flop isoforms (Figure 1E, inset). Interestingly, RNA recoding at the i/o cassette is restricted to the CA1 subfield, i.e., is not apparent in CA3 (Figures 1B, S1B, and S1C) and is reversible—TTX washout reversed the processing pattern back to control (Figure S1F). Therefore, AMPAR alternative splicing is regulated in a reversible and subfield-specific manner, bearing hallmarks of homeostatic regulation. Alternative splicing can be subject to control by external cues, in particular Ca2+ fluctuations (Xie, 2008). To test whether this is true for the i/o cassette, we blocked two major routes of external Ca2+ influx, NMDARs and L-type Ca2+ channels, the latter of which have been implicated in synapse-to-nucleus signaling (Thiagarajan et al., 2005; Wheeler et al., 2008). Whereas NMDAR block by chronic AP-5 treatment did not alter the balance of i/o splicing (data not shown), nifedipine (NIF) block of Ca2+ channels reduced levels of A2i, approaching values post-TTX (p < 0.05; ANOVA; Figure 1D), revealing regulation of the i/o cassette via Ca2+ through L-type channels. The Predominance of A1/A2 Heteromers Is Preserved after Chronic TTX* We next investigated the time course for alterations in RNA processing. The A2 mRNA half-life (t1/2) was ~8–12 hr (data not shown), whereas alterations in i/o mRNA splicing were apparent ~4 hr after TTX treatment and plateaued ~24 hr post-TTX (A2i t1/2 ~4.0 hr; Figures S1D and S1E). The A1 mRNA pool turned over more rapidly with i/o splicing changes already apparent ~2 hr post-TTX (A1i t1/2 ~2.4 hr; Figures 1E and S1E). This implies that 24 hr after TTX, recoded AMPAR mRNA predominates (see also Figure S7). To allow for sufficient protein turnover, we recorded AMPAR responses 48 hr post-TTX. Hippocampal pyramids express mRNA for A1, A2, and A3 (Geiger et al., 1995; Tsuzuki et al., 2001), with A1/A2 heteromers predominating (Lu et al., 2009). To determine whether TTX treatment had an effect on subunit stoichiometry, we assessed AMPAR subunit composition. Low calcium permeability (PCa/PNa > 0.05, two-tailed t test) and the near unity rectification indices (RIs, g-10 / g-40) of current-voltage (I/V) relationships were not different between the conditions (p > 0.05, Mann–Whitney U) (Figures S2A and S2B; Table 1). Therefore, A2-containing receptors prevail post-TTX. To determine whether A2 coassembled with A1 or A3, we used the polyanine toxin PhTx-74, which selectively blocks A1/A2 heteromers (Nilsen and England, 2007). Subunit selectivity could be confirmed in HEK293 cells expressing γ-8, a transmembrane AMPAR regulatory protein (TARP) (data not shown) (Rouach et al., 2005). When applied to CA1 patches from control slices, PhTx-74 almost completely attenuated currents and this inhibition was preserved after chronic TTX (p > 0.05, two-tailed t test; Table 1), indicating that A1/A2 heteromers remain the predominant AMPAR after activity blockade (Figures S2C and S2D). Alteration in Cyclothiazide Efficacy Suggests Changes in Splice Form Expression A relative increase of flop mRNA is observed after TTX (Figures 1B and 1E, inset), which was unexpected as recombinant flop varieties are associated with more rapid desensitization kinetics (Jonas, 2000; Mosbacher et al., 1994). However, no significant changes in miniature excitatory postsynaptic current (mEPSC) decay kinetics were observed (p > 0.17, KS test; Figures S3C and S3F), in accord with previous studies (Kim and Tsien, 2008; Turrigiano et al., 1998). Similarly, entry into desensitization during prolonged glutamate application to excised patches was not significantly different (p > 0.05, two-tailed t test) (Table 1; Figure S4A, left). Since native AMPARs are associated with auxiliary factors, which modulate gating (Guzman and Jonas, 2010; Jackson and Nicoll, 2011), differences in kinetics of splice isoforms may only become apparent in response to multiple stimuli (Arai and Lynch, 1996). We employed two approaches to compare AMPAR responses before and after activity blockade: multipulse protocols and drugs that differentiate between AMPAR splice isoforms. Cyclothiazide (CTZ) selectively blocks desensitization of flip receptors (Partin et al., 1994) and distinguishes splice isoform expression in hippocampal subfields (Arai and Lynch, 1996). Surprisingly, at odds with the decreased flip expression phenotype, CA1 patches from TTX-treated slices displayed significantly greater CTZ efficacy than controls (Figure 2A). As expected, responses from CA3, where flip forms predominate (Figure S1C), featured the greatest attenuation of desensitization (Figure 2A; Table 1). CTZ displays a greater potency for A1/A2 heteromers containing A2i than A1i (Fleck et al., 1996; Miu et al., 2001; Partin et al., 1994). A greater proportion of A1/A2 heteromers harboring A2i may thus explain the elevated CTZ efficacy after TTX. To test this, we probed CTZ efficacy of A1/A2 splice heteromers expressed in HEK293 cells; recordings were done in the presence of the TARPs γ-2 (data not shown) or γ-8 (Figure 2B). In addition to mimicking native receptors more closely, this was also of interest since TARPs have the capacity to modulate CTZ action on AMPARs (Tomita et al., 2006). A1/A2 heteromers containing A2i did display a greater CTZ efficacy than heteromers harboring A1i (in the presence of both, γ-2, or γ-8) (Figure 2B and data not shown). Thus, the increased CTZ efficacy after chronic TTX could be explained by a greater proportion of A1/A2 heteromers containing A2i (Figure 2D). Selective AMPAR Assembly Driven by Flip/Flop Splicing AMPAR assembly is also impacted by i/o splicing (Brorson et al., 2004; Coleman et al., 2010; Greger and Esteban, 2007; Penn and Greger, 2009), which implies that the i/o switch could modulate heteromeric assembly. We therefore measured I/V relationships of A1/A2 splice combinations in the presence of intracellular spermine with limiting transfection levels of A2i (Figure 2C). A2 incorporation alleviates inward rectification at positive holding potentials, resulting in an increase of the RI, a marker for heteromerization competence. The nonidentical splice heteromer A1o/A2i indeed produced a larger fraction of functional heteromers (RI ~0.7) when compared to the identical splice pair A1i/A2i (RI ~0.1) (Figure 2C). This indicates that the A1o isoform, which is elevated rapidly after chronic activity deprivation (Figures 1B and 1E), is more effective in recruiting A2i into heteromers, in harmony with the CTZ data. This preference was also seen in the presence of γ-2 (Figure S4B). Enhanced assembly of the opposite splice heteromer A1i/A2o was also observed relative to the splice homomers, albeit to a lesser extent (p < 0.01; ANOVA) (Figure S4B). These data reveal that A1o/A2i is the preferred subunit combination. A1 protein transits through the secretory pathway more rapidly than A2. A2 accumulates in the ER and is thus saturating for heteromeric assembly at the subunit expression levels observed in our slices (Greger et al., 2002). The speedier A1 turnover rates in the ER together with the more rapid onset of splicing changes... observed reversal potential and expressing these as a ratio, $g_{-10}/g_{-40}$. RIs are summarized as box plots, numbers of patches for 1o/2i were n = 10 and were n = 12 for 1i/2i. Mann-Whitney U test, p < 0.001. Representative current traces of responses to 100 ms application of 3 mM L-Glu are shown above (current responses at −70mV, 0mV, and +50mV are shown). (D) A model of activity-dependent abundance of A1/A2 splice variant combinations in hippocampus based on the observed changes in CTZ efficacy and differential CTZ affinity of AMPAR flip variants. (to a flop:flip ratio of 1.4, relative to 0.9 seen under control conditions; Figure S7B) are expected to increase A1o levels in the early phases post-TTX. This relative and more rapid increase of A1o in TTX would have greater capacity to drive assembly of A1o/A2i heteromers (Figures 2C, 2D, and S7). Increased AMPAR Response Gain in Response to Reduced Activity Kinetic differences between alternative splice forms of native AMPARs can be revealed by applying multiple pulses of agonist (Arai and Lynch, 1996). We applied trains of glutamate (five 1 ms pulses; 100 Hz) to CA1 and CA3 patches, which mimic spike firing patterns of Schaffer collateral inputs during CA3 pyramidal cell bursting (Spruston and McBain, 2007). AMPARs in CA3 feature less brief-pulse desensitization and reduced depression due to the prevalence of flip receptors, which desensitize slower and recover from desensitization more rapidly (Arai and Lynch, 1996; Mosbacher et al., 1994). Similarly, in our cultures, response fidelity was more pronounced in CA3 than in CA1 (Figure S4A, right). Fidelity of somatic AMPARs in CA1 was elevated after TTX treatment at both 100 Hz (Figures 3A and 3B) and at 50 Hz (data not shown). Since in A1/A2 heteromers A2i (but not A1i) dominate desensitization kinetics (Mosbacher et al., 1994) (Figure S4C), these results further imply a greater contribution of A2i-harboring heteromers after chronic TTX. Moreover, the response pattern to 100 Hz trains after TTX also resulted in an almost 15% increase in charge transfer (p < 0.05, two-tailed t test; Figures 4C and 4D); this increased gain could compensate for the dampened network activity post-TTX (Kim and Tsien, 2008). To test the potential reshuffling of A1/A2 splice forms after TTX more directly, we subjected A1/A2 variants expressed in HEK293 cells to the same protocol. A1o/A2i heteromers displayed greater response fidelity than A1i/A2o receptors (Figures 3C and 3D), mimicking the behavior of native AMPARs post-TTX (Figures 3A and 3B). AMPAR desensitization is also affected by R/G editing (Lomeli et al., 1994). However, nonedited (A2o-R) and edited (A2o-G) looked identical in this assay (Figure S4C). Moreover, response properties of the pure flip combination (A1i/A2i) closely matched the A1o/A2i heteromer, arguing against a contribution from the A1i splice form (Figure S4C). In the presence of TARPs γ-2 or γ-8, gating kinetics were slowed, the relative difference between the splice heteromers was however preserved and increased response fidelity of A1o/A2i receptors was still evident (Figure S4D). In sum, selective incorporation of A2i into A1/A2 heteromers after TTX results in AMPARs with enhanced responsiveness to burst-like stimulations. Involvement of AMPAR Auxiliary Factors Is Not Altered after Chronic TTX Since TARPs modulate receptor kinetics, we directly assayed potential changes in expression of these cofactors in response to TTX (Figure S5A). This analysis did not uncover differences in TARP expression between control and TTX for γ-2, γ-3, and γ-8 (Figures S5B and S5C). TARPs dose-dependently slow deactivation kinetics and increase the slow component of AMPAR desensitization (Jackson and Nicoll, 2011; Tomita et al., 2005). We could not discern differences in deactivation time constants (p > 0.05, two-tailed... AMPAR mEPSC amplitudes in CA1 (Kim and Tsien, 2008), which we also observe (Figures S3A–S3D and S3F). To investigate whether reduced depression of AMPAR responses to burst-type stimulations (Figures 3A and 3B) is expressed at synapses, we recorded CA1 excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs) evoked by stimulating Schaffer collaterals (five pulses at 10 Hz). Whereas CA1 neurons from control slices exhibited a marked depression, responses faithfully followed the train post-TTX: (EPSP2/1: CTRL: 0.93 ± 0.04, n = 25; TTX: 1.05 ± 0.05, n = 24, p < 0.05; EPSP5/1: CTRL: 0.65 ± 0.04, n = 25; TTX: 0.90 ± 0.04, n = 24, p < 0.01; Figure 4A). A similar pattern was obtained by increasing the frequency to 50 Hz at elevated recording temperature (34°C–37°C) (Figure S6A). The burst-type stimulations used are an extension of paired-pulse protocols, which are used to evaluate presynaptic changes such as release probability (Pr) (Pozo and Goda, 2010; Zucker and Regehr, 2002). Limiting transmitter release by lowering the Ca:Mg ratio caused facilitation in control slices (Figure S6Cii). We explored whether presynaptic effects contributed to the altered EPSPs post-TTX. First, we recorded NMDAR-mediated EPSP bursts. No differences between control and TTX were evident for the NMDAR component at 10 Hz (EPSP2/1: CTRL: 0.97 ± 0.03, n = 8; TTX: 0.99 ± 0.03, n = 8, p = 0.6; EPSP5/1: CTRL: 0.82 ± 0.05, n = 8; TTX: 0.78 ± 0.05, n = 8 (p = 0.58) (Figure 4B). As a more direct measure for changes in Pr, we determined the rate of use-dependent block of NMDAR responses by MK-801, which is proportional to Pr (Hessler et al., 1993). However, MK-801 block was not significantly different between control and TTX (p > 0.1, two-tailed t test; Figure S6B). If anything, we observed a trend toward faster block after TTX—implying a greater Pr or higher glutamate concentration in the synaptic cleft, which would be associated with greater depression rather than the reduced depression in TTX (Figure S6Cii) (Zucker and Regehr, 2002). This was confirmed by using the low-affinity, competitive AMPAR antagonist γ-DGG, which suppresses AMPAR responses more effectively under reduced glutamate concentrations (Lei and McBain, 2004; Shen et al., 2002; Wadiche and Jahr, 2001). Again, this assay showed no significant difference between the two conditions, but pointed to a trend-wise increase in synaptic glutamate after TTX (as γ-DGG was less effective in suppressing AMPAR responses) (Figure S6Cii). Therefore, the reduced depression of the AMPAR response after chronic TTX observed at somatic and synaptic sites (Figures 3A and 4A) is consistent with a global, RNA-based AMPAR remodeling mechanism. DISCUSSION Here we present a mechanism for synaptic homeostasis—the expression of kinetically different AMPARs after activity deprivation, which increases transmission fidelity in response to repetitive stimulation. Subunit remodeling is triggered by an alteration of splice variant mRNA, which is regulated by activity in a reversible, subfield-specific manner. As a result, an elevated contribution of A1α/A2β heteromers is apparent (Figure S7), which compensates for the loss of synaptic drive in TTX. Positions recoded by i/o splicing line the LBD dimer interface, where they have been implicated in modulating assembly of... recombinant AMPARs (Brorson et al., 2004; Greger and Esteban, 2007; Penn and Greger, 2009). Such a mechanism is expected to be metastable (a function of mRNA turnover rates) and to act globally and could thus affect other forms of synaptic plasticity. Regulated RNA Processing in CA1 TTX treatment reduces CA1 flip levels, which remain the predominant isoform in CA3. Factors regulating different RNA processing in CA1 and CA3 have not been elucidated. The general splicing factors SF2 and SC35, which favor the expression of flop variants (Crovato and Egebjerg, 2005), were no different in their mRNA levels between CA1 and CA3 (data not shown). A selective involvement of SRp38 in facilitating expression of the flip exon has been highlighted (Feng et al., 2008; Komatsu et al., 1999), where reduced levels of SRp38 result in flop inclusion (Feng et al., 2008). However, analysis of SRp38 mRNA levels did not reveal differences between CA1 and CA3 (in mouse and rat; I.H.G. and A.B., unpublished data). SRp38 protein is activated by phosphorylation but acts as a splicing repressor upon dephosphorylation (Feng et al., 2008), which has only been noted under specific circumstances such as heat shock (Shin and Manley, 2002). SRp38 phosphorylation levels in CA1 and CA3 were unaltered (I.H.G. and A.B., unpublished data). Therefore, candidate splicing factors remain elusive. AMPA Receptor Assembly Driven by Altered RNA Processing in the LBD A summary of the events leading to activity-mediated assembly is outlined in Figure S7A; both mRNA and protein turnover will contribute: A1i mRNA turns over more rapidly, thus A1o transcripts will be enriched relative to A2o in the earlier phases after TTX treatment. In addition, A1 protein has a shorter ER half-life in neurons, whereas A2 stably resides in the ER (Greger et al., 2002). Therefore, in response to TTX, A1o protein will emerge earlier and will sample from a mixed pool of A2 splice forms, preferentially recruiting A2i into heteromers. Here we show that this altered expression of splice variants affects preferential assembly of native AMPARs. Whether the i/o assembly drive is mediated directly by selective LBD association affinities or is predominantly linked to functional properties (Penn et al., 2008) requires further investigation. In support of the latter, the higher ER residency of A1o (Coleman et al., 2010) (which increases after TTX) would boost heteromeric assembly of the favored A1o/A2i combination. Regarding the former, analytical ultracentrifugation of isolated LBDs from A2i and A2o do not suggest tighter dimerization between splice heteromers (I.H.G., unpublished data). Whether differences could be revealed with splice heteromers of A1/A2 LBD dimers or a role of the R/G editing site, which also changes in response to TTX, remains an open question. Homeostasis via AMPAR Short-Term Plasticity Homeostatic control operates via diverse, parallel mechanisms, both intrinsic and synaptic (Turriano, 2008). To date, postsynaptic homeostatic plasticity almost exclusively involves changes in the number of AMPARs. The finding that the balance of i/o splice isoforms has the capacity to modulate expression of functionally distinct AMPAR heteromers provides additional plasticity to synaptic homeostasis. The expression of AMPARs with altered kinetics will increase postsynaptic efficacy under conditions of network silence, while we have shown that the involvement of a prominent presynaptic component seems less likely. Since TTX treatment reduces burst duration in CA3 (Kim and Tsien, 2008), AMPAR remodeling in CA1 will facilitate faithful information processing. Whether physiologically relevant activity such as brain oscillations can trigger splicing-mediated subunit remodeling and to what extent this splicing regulation affects AMPAR signaling in other circuitries remains to be elucidated. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES Slice Cultures All procedures were carried out in accordance with UK Home Office regulations. Transverse hippocampal slices (300–400 μm thick) were cut from postnatal day 5 Sprague-Dawley pups and cultured for at least 3 weeks prior to drug treatments. Molecular Biology RNA was isolated from hippocampal subfields with Trizol (Invitrogen), DNaseI treated, and random primed with reverse transcriptase; resulting cDNA served as template for PCR amplifications of the regions of interest (ROIs). Products were Sanger sequenced, and peak heights in chromatograms were measured to determine splice variant ratios. Electrophysiology Outside-out patches were excised from pyramidal cells and AMPAR conductances were activated via ultra-fast L-Glu application. Synaptic AMPAR EPSPs were evoked by Schaffer collateral fiber stimulation. Refer to Supplemental Experimental Procedures for details. SUPPLEMENTAL INFORMATION Supplemental Information includes seven figures, one table, and Supplemental Experimental Procedures and can be found with this article online at http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2012.08.010. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We thank O. Raineteau for help with the roller tube device, the LMB workshop for constructing it, and the Biomedical Facility for help with animal work. We thank B. Andrašfalvy, N. Rebola, and M. Mayer for critical reading of the manuscript. A.B. was supported by an EMBO short-term fellowship and by the Czech Academy of Sciences Programme of International Collaboration (M200110971), C.W. by an EU Marie-Curie Fellowship (MC-IEF 235256), and I.H.G. by the Royal Society. All authors were supported by the MRC. Accepted: August 3, 2012 Published: November 7, 2012 REFERENCES** Arai, A., and Lynch, G. (1996). Response to repetitive stimulation of AMPA receptors in patches excised from fields CA1 and CA3 of the hippocampus. Brain Res. 716, 202–206. Bagal, A.A., Kao, J.P., Tang, C.M., and Thompson, S.M. (2005). Long-term potentiation of exogenous glutamate responses at single dendritic spines. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 102, 14434–14439. Brorson, J.R., Li, D., and Suzuki, T. (2004). 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THE WIRELESS AGE MARCH 1916 WARFARE WAGED WITH WIRELESS WHAT THEY'RE DOING AT THE FRONT By A British Army Officer FIFTEEN CENTS Books on Wireless A list of some of the best books pertaining to the wireless art. We have made arrangements whereby we can supply our readers with any book on wireless published in America at regular published price. We can also import on order any book published abroad. Send us your orders. They will receive prompt attention. YEAR BOOK OF WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY (1915) pp. 1000. Contains a yearly record of the progress of wireless telegraphy; complete lists of ship and shore stations throughout the world, their call letters, wave-lengths, range and hours of service, and articles by the greatest authorities on vital questions. HOW TO CONDUCT A RADIO CLUB, pp. 128, 116 illustrations. E. E. Bucher. Describing Parliamentary Procedure indoor and outdoor experiments. 5,000-mile Receiving Set and many other features. HOW TO PASS U. S. GOV. WIRELESS EXAMINATION. 116 Actual Questions Answered. 72 pp. E. E. Bucher. The greatest wireless book ever published for amateurs and prospective wireless operators. LIST OF RADIO STATIONS OF THE WORLD. 220 pp. Compiled by F. A. Hart, Chief Inspector of Marconi Wireless Telegraph Company of Am., and H. M. Short, Resident Inspector U. S. A. Marconi International Marine Com. Co. The only complete authoritative call list published. THE ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY. new and revised edition. pp. 360. Bannay, R. D. explains in the simplest possible manner the theory and practice of wireless telegraphy. Arranged for use as a reference book for amateur students and Boy Scouts. THE BOOK OF WIRELESS, pp. 222, 219 illustrations: Collins, A. Frederick. An excellent book for amateurs, contemplating building their own stations, gives cost of installing ready built equipment and also cost of material for building your own equipment. Special chapters on amateur long distance receiving sets, with costs both ways. HAND BOOK OF TECHNICAL INSTRUCTIONS FOR WIRELESS TELEGRAPHISTS. pp. 250. Hawkhead, J. A. Covering principally the practice of the Marconi Co. abroad and elsewhere, explanation of technical and practical principles. TEXT BOOK ON WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY, pp. 359. Stanley, R. A text book covering the elements of electricity and magnetism, with details of the very latest practice in wireless telegraphy in European countries—recommended to all workers in the art of radio telegraphy. AN ELEMENTARY MANUAL OF RADIO-TELEGRAPHY AND RADIO-TELEPHONY FOR STUDENTS AND OPERATORS. pp. 360. Fleming, J. A. A splendid treatise for students and practical operators. New and revised ed. 1/2 (Sept. 1915). The author is the front with the English Navy. WIRELESS TELEGRAPH CONSTRUCTION FOR AMATEURS. pp. 200. Morgan, A. P. The construction of a complete set of wireless telegraph apparatus for amateurs use. Recommended to beginners. PRACTICAL USES OF THE WAVEMETER IN WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY. Mauburne, J. O. Originally compiled for the Officers of the U. S. Signal Corps; comprises an explanation of the use of the wavemeter, the most complete publication on the subject so far produced. WIRELESS TELEGRAPH AND TELEPHONE. pp. 271. Kennelly, E. E. One of the Principles of giving in simple language an explanation of electro-magnetic waves and their propagation through space, also fundamental facts about wireless telegraph equipments. EXPERIMENTAL WIRELESS STATIONS, pp. 224. Edelman, Philip E. A book for amateurs. The design, construction and operation of an amateur wireless station in compliance with the new Radio Law. EXPERIMENTS, New, pp. 256. Edelman, Philip E. Practical, up-to-date information for building simple, efficient apparatus at small cost, for conducting tests and experiments and for establishing a laboratory. MANUAL OF WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY FOR USE OF NAVAL ELECTRICIANS. Revised and enlarged. 1915. 220 pp., 120 illustrations, by Commander S. S. Robison, U. S. Navy. Text Book and practice of wireless as used in U. S. Navy. Invaluable to prospective Navy Radio Operators and Electricians. LESSONS IN PRACTICAL ELECTRICITY, pp. 507. Swoope, Walton C. Published by the Spring Garden Institute for use in its evening classes in practical electricity. It is one of the most popular books on practical electricity covering as it does principles, experiments and arithmetical problems.—104 illustrations. THE WIRELESS TELEGRAPHERS' POCKETBOOK OF NOTES, FORMULAE AND CALCULATIONS. pp. 347. Dr. J. A. Fleming. Bound in full flexible, rich blue leather, stamped in gold, with round corners and gold edges. A book of practical working formulae and calculations for the student of radio telegraphy, found to be considered an indispensable part of the working equipment of every wireless station. WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY. pp. 442, 161 Illustrations by Dr. J. Zenneck. Translated from the German. The work is the most scientific and thorough that has appeared on this subject. It covers all phases from physical principles to finished commercial apparatus. PROCEEDINGS OF THE INSTITUTE OF RADIO ENGINEERS, edited by Dr. Alfred N. Goldsmith. Nos. 3 and 4—1913; Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4,—1914, and Nos. 2 and 4 for 1915 sold singly at $1.00 each. (Vols. 14, 15 Buckram bound, $5.00 each.) Sub. by yr. 6 Nos. Send Orders to The Wireless Age, 450 4th AVENUE, NEW YORK, N.Y. ## CONTENTS \| Title \| Page \| \|----------------------------------------------------------------------\|------\| \| Wireless Transmission Problems, An Address delivered by Dr. Michael I. Pupin \| 376 \| \| New Order Regarding Coal Vessels \| 377 \| \| The Romantic Cruise of a Phantom German Raider \| 378 \| \| Under Fire on the Hesperian \| 381 \| \| The Sayville Censorship Modification \| 382 \| \| German Raider Chases Liner \| 382 \| \| National Association Holds Signal Corps Meeting \| 383 \| \| Alexanderson Addresses Institute \| 388 \| \| An Oscillation Transformer of Unique Design. By Charles Horton \| 389 \| \| Direction Finder Experiments \| 393 \| \| Professor Zenneck on Problems \| 393 \| \| How Wireless is Being Used in the War. By a British Army Officer \| 394 \| \| How to Conduct a Radio Club. By Elmer E. Bucher. Article XXI \| 400 \| \| Recommendations for the Weather Bureau \| 405 \| \| With the Amateurs \| 406 \| \| Wireless Equipped Aeroplanes in Warfare \| 409 \| \| From and for Those Who Help Themselves \| 422 \| \| Vessels Recently Equipped with Marconi Apparatus \| 434 \| \| The Share Market \| 434 \| \| Obituary—Belvidere Brooks \| 434 \| \| Dinner in Honor of Dr. Pupin \| 434 \| \| Wires Down, Wireless is Used \| 434 \| \| The Lightship's Far-Flung Signals \| 435 \| \| An Artist's Conceptions of Wireless in Warfare \| 438 \| \| Queries Answered \| 439 \| --- RENEWALS When your subscription expires you will find a renewal blank enclosed. You should fill out and return same with remittance at once to avoid missing a number. Positively no copies will be mailed on any subscription after same expires unless renewed, and we cannot agree to begin subscriptions with back numbers. CHANGE OF ADDRESS Notify us promptly of any change in your address, giving both the old and new location. Since our mailing list for each issue closes the 20th of the month, changes received after that date must necessarily take effect with issue for the second month following. Postmaster as well as Publisher should always be notified of changes in order to forward mail sent to old address. --- Issued Monthly by Marconi Publishing Corporation, 450 Fourth Ave., N. Y. City John Bottomley, Pres. G. S. De Sousa, Vice-Pres. G. Harold Porter, Secy. John Curtiss, Treas. Yearly Subscription, $1.50 in U. S.; $2.00 Outside U. S.; Single Copies, 15 Cents Entered as second class matter at the Post Office, New York The National Association—What They Think About It I have read all the matter and announcements concerning the whole idea very carefully and wish to say I think this proposition is a splendid one both for the amateurs individually and the Government (if the occasion should ever arise therefor) and you can figure on my most hearty approval and co-operation and help in any and all ways possible at any and all times. Ralph Short. The address of Mr. White, printed in the November issue of The Wireless Age, was a message of hope and encouragement that should meet with a hearty response. It opened a vista to me, I know, and I look to the National Association as a means of fitting myself for future advancement. C. V. Smith. I received all of the Charter Members' Equipment and am much pleased with it, but the best of all is The Wireless Age. I would rather miss a meal than miss a single issue. J. C. Hollmann. I am heartily in favor of your association and think it by far the best one. I have been interested in wireless for five years, and have often wondered why some such organization was not formed before. E. Ford. I am more than pleased with the equipment, to be frank. It greatly exceeded my expectations, and I was unaware that there were two books on the market that covered the subject of wireless so completely. N. B. Schott. "How to Conduct a Radio Club," is a real pippin, and the rest of the charter members' equipment is fine. I was going to ask how long the charter memberships would be held open and I found it in "How to Conduct a Radio Club." Believe me, it certainly sounded good to my ears to hear that the charter memberships would be held open until May 1st. Wishing you the best of success, I remain, Chas. H. Bell. NATIONAL AMATEUR WIRELESS ASSOCIATION, 450 Fourth Ave., New York Owing to the fact that certain statements and expressions of opinion from correspondents and others, appearing in these columns from time to time may be found to be the subject of controversy in scientific circles and in the courts, either now or in the future, and to sometimes involve questions of priority of invention and the comparative merits of apparatus employed in wireless signaling, the owners and publishers of this magazine positively and emphatically disclaim any privity or responsibility for any statements of opinion or partisan expressions if such should at any time appear herein. MARCH, 1916 Wireless Transmission Problems An Address Delivered by Dr. Michael I. Pupin in Which Vexed Questions in Radio Telephony were Discussed Dr. Michael I. Pupin spoke on "Wireless Transmission Problems" at a meeting of the New York Electrical Society held at the Engineering Societies Building on January 27. In the address not only were the various problems involved in the recent developments in long distance talk transmission analyzed and solved with simplicity and clarity, but Dr. Pupin declared that the discovery and conquest of that menace and bugbear of all time—the static—was about to be given to the world. He said that this discovery, which had cost him seven years of experimentation, not to mention the work of others, will make possible the transmission of messages by wireless telephone to every part of the world. Dr. Pupin took up in their historical order the various problems of wireless transmission. A broad description of the constructive elements of the wireless transmission system was given, to show that, as far as these constructive elements are concerned, there is no essential difference between the wireless transmission system and the ordinary electrical transmission system; but the difference, slight as it is, in the constructive elements, necessitates the introduction in the wireless system of a radically different mode of operation, namely, the employment of electrical forces of very high frequency. The earliest method of producing these high frequency electrical forces was briefly described and Dr. Pupin expressed it as his personal opinion that Joseph Henry in 1842 first discovered electrical oscillations which Marconi first employed in wireless transmission. After Prof. William Thompson formulated, in 1855, the law of motion of electricity along conductors, the time was ripe for the invention of wireless telegraphy. However, it was not invented until 1895, when Marconi, stimulated by the beauty of the Hertzian experiments, and while repeating them in Righi's laboratory in Bologna, discovered that an oscillator connected to the ground and a resonator connected to the ground gave electrical transmission by electrical waves of high frequency enormously increased range. A distinct period in wireless telegraphy was inaugurated when Marconi discovered the new art. The problems which were solved during this inventive period were few, but every one of them was epoch-making. The first problem was the substitution of the high frequency generator for the oscillator, with its noisy and unreliable spark gaps. This was accomplished by the patient and persistent work of E. F. W. Alexanderson and others. The second great step was the introduction of amplifiers into wireless work. Dr. Pupin referred to his first announcement of the electric amplifier in 1911, made before the National Academy of Science. It was an induction generator of special construction. Since that time the vacuum tube amplifier has been developed. He said that in this connection the work of Fleming and De Forest formed the starting point. He pointed out that much had been accomplished in perfecting the vacuum tube with a hot cathode, and amplifiers that work with reliability and are capable of amplifying feeble electrical impulses even hundreds of thousands of times have been brought into use. "But they not only amplify," he said, "they actually reproduce very feeble electrical impulses with an accuracy which defies the finest microscope ever constructed." Dr. Pupin called attention to the fact that articulate speech transmitted from Arlington to Honolulu (4,900 miles) was reproduced at Honolulu by a vacuum tube amplifier with such accuracy that the listener at Honolulu recognized the speaker at Arlington, although the energy of the feeble electrical waves conveying this speech was probably amplified 100,000 times at Honolulu. "The third great problem solved lately by the inventive genius of man," he continued, "is that of regulating the power output of the generator at the transmitting station. To illustrate: the generator at Arlington which supplied the electric energy for the transmission of speech to Honolulu, delivered something like 100 horsepower, yet its output was regulated by the human voice. It looks as if we were on the threshold of regulating the electrical output of our high-frequency generators by what may be called mere will power. In considering all these things it would seem that there is nothing to prevent us from transmitting telegraphic and telephonic signals from any point of the earth to any other point. "And yet there is a most serious obstacle indeed. I refer to the well-known interfering action of the static. What is the static? It is the everlasting presence of electrical waves in the terrestrial atmosphere due to electrical discharges in it. The electrical charges in the atmosphere are produced by the action of sunlight and other causes. The electrical waves produced by the electrical discharges in the atmosphere are so much more powerful than the waves coming from the distant wireless transmitting station that they drown out the messages. When means have been found to protect the receiving station effectively from the disturbing influence of the static, there will be no obstacle in the way of employing wireless telegraphy and wireless telephony as the simplest means of universal communication." In conclusion Dr. Pupin said: "This problem is the greatest problem today in wireless transmission. It has occupied my attention for a number of years, and I know that the solution is within our reach. But I have come here to extol the splendid work of those kings of wireless who have brought us to where we are today, and not to enter into any discussion of the special problems on which I am now closely engaged." The following were elected life members of the society: Bion J. Arnold, Putnam A. Bates, P. G. Gossler, H. G. Scott, John Bottomley and Dr. Francis B. Crocker. NEW ORDER REGARDING COAL VESSELS Dudley Field Malone, collector of the port of New York, has been notified that it is unnecessary to dismantle the wireless apparatus of bunker coal steamers of belligerent countries when they remain in port for so short a time that it is not necessary for them to "enter" and "clear." In such cases, however, the collector is instructed to deliver to the master of the vessel a copy of the printed instructions issued by the Navy Department. The collector is also instructed to inform the master of the vessel that the ship has not "entered" and "cleared" he will not be required to seal his radio apparatus nor lower his antenna, but that the apparatus must not be used in any way, either for transmitting or receiving, until after the vessel has cleared the limits of the port. S O S SAVES POLLENTIA'S CREW The British freighter Pollentia in mid-Atlantic, was leaking dangerously and in need of aid on January 19, when her operator flashed the S O S. The appeal was picked up by the Italian liner America, the captain of which instructed the Marconi operator to send out the S O S to all craft within range. After a search which lasted until the night of January 22, the Narragansett and the Giuseppe Verdi found the distressed vessel. The sea was so rough, however, that no attempt was made to launch lifeboats and the rescue vessels stood by until daylight. On January 23 the Narragansett poured oil on the water and the Giuseppe Verdi sent lifeboats which took the crew of thirty-five from the Pollentia as she was settling in the water. The Romantic Cruise of a Phantom German Raider How Wireless Aided a Naval Auxiliary in the Capture of the African Liner Appam and Seven Other British Prizes From the decks of the British steamship Appam, some eight miles off Madeira, was sighted on the afternoon of January 15, a vessel which seemed to be in distress. She would go forward for a short distance, turn to one side, come to a stop and then repeat her erratic performance. It looked like a case of steering or engine trouble, and the Appam's people characterized her as "just an ordinary tramp" in need of aid. They could not know, as reports of her exploits afterwards purported, that she had stolen silently away from Kiel a short time before and, with darkened port holes and wireless operators "listening in" to warn the German commander of the positions of enemy craft, had made her way through the cordon of British warships in the North Sea; they could not know that the so-called tramp was accompanied by a scout ship which had successfully scoured the waters in search of other entente craft and informed the raider by wireless of the prospective prizes, even as the sea rover had been told of the Appam and where to find her. And so those on the Appam, still unsuspecting, looked on with amused interest as the strange vessel came nearer. It was not until the latter was within easy range of the British ship that she disclosed her real character. Then a lightning-like transformation in the nondescript appearing craft was effected. Just as the scenes are shifted in a play, plates were lifted, revealing a formidable array of guns; armed men, too, were shown tramping the decks. A peremptory command to heave to at once was sent by signal. This was followed by the order: "Stop wireless immediately, or we will sink you." Came two shots to emphasize the command. Thus was the Appam included in the list of eight prizes which the German raider, described as the Moewe, or the Ponga, captured. Quite properly has the Moewe been called the phantom ship of the seas, for her movements are for the most part shrouded in mystery. However, it is known that her men spent Christmas in Kiel, and it is believed that she began her depredations soon afterward. It is not difficult to bring to mind the swift run of the vessel through the British blockade. Doubtless her success in eluding the ships of her enemy was due in a measure to the reliance which her commander placed in wireless and wireless men, for on the rover were six radio operators who maintained six continuous watches. And it is likely also, declare those who have followed the history of the cruiser, that she used a direction finder in order to determine the positions of the British craft. Her wireless men, of course, preserved absolute silence, employing their time in "listening in." Some time after the cruiser had run the gauntlet of British war craft, so the story of her exploits goes, she met the scout ship. The latter vessel is described as a smaller craft than the Moeve and capable of making better speed. It was her duty to comb the ocean for merchant vessels flying the flags of the entente and report her finds by wireless to the cruiser. How successfully wireless was employed in this undertaking is shown by the record of the raider's cruise. First to fall a victim to the sea rover was the Corbridge which was taken on January 10. Her cargo of coal was seized and she was sunk. The Farringford was sunk on the same day and three days later the Dromonby, Author and Trader were sent to the bottom. On January 15 the Ariadne was sunk, the next day the Appam was captured and on January 17 the Clan McTavish was sunk. All of these vessels flew the British flag and six of them were captured in the open Atlantic. As to the Appam, she was voyaging from Dakar, French West Africa, to Liverpool, in her wireless cabin being Marconi Operator Robert Jones. "We sighted a tramp steamship proceeding in the same direction as ourselves," he said, in telling of the capture of the vessel and the events which followed. "Little notice was taken of her, as it is not unusual to see ships of her type in the waters where we were. She was quite close to us at half past two o'clock in the afternoon and the officer on the bridge remarked, 'Look at that old tramp.' The next thing we knew she was flying signals to 'stop instantly.' There was no flag to denote her nationality, however. We thought she was in distress, but I was on duty all this time and had heard nothing from her." "She flew more signals, giving orders not to operate the wireless or she would sink us, and then unfurled the German ensign to the breeze. Then she fired two shots. From the Appam's bridge came to me: 'Don't touch those keys, or she will sink us.'" "A naval lieutenant on the Appam rushed aft, where we had a gun, with the intention of throwing the breach overboard and rendering the gun useless. The cruiser's men observed him and started sniping at the gunners, one of whom had his cap shot off his head. "By this time the Germans had boarded us and three German wireless operators with loaded revolvers and a kit of tools entered my cabin. They demanded my inventory. This demand I refused to comply with and started to leave the cabin. They stopped me, however, and opened every drawer in my cabin in an effort to find the object of their search. Then they began to dismantle the set, using for this purpose a hammer and chisel. I learned afterwards that they believed that the Appam was to be sunk and intended to convey the apparatus to the German cruiser. "This was a wrong impression, for after a while, when orders came for the Appam's officers and sailors to be transshipped to the cruiser I was told to remain on board. The reason for this order developed later when a command was issued to replace the wireless apparatus. It seems that I was wanted to aid in the work." Jones said that one of the German operators with whom he talked commented on the excellence of the Marconi magnetic detector on the Appam. Crysttals were used on the Moewe and, in the words of the cruiser's wireless man, "Every time the ship fired her guns, the crystals were placed out of adjustment and for a few minutes it was impossible to receive." "A German officer sent for me the next morning (January 17)," continued the Marconi operator, "and commanded me to put the wireless set in order again. I refused flatly to comply with the order and at half past five o'clock in the afternoon I learned that I was to be taken to the German cruiser as a prisoner. I was on deck with my luggage, waiting to go to the raider, when smoke was sighted on the horizon. This came, as we afterward learned, from the funnels of the Clan McTavish. The men on the cruiser had no sooner sighted the smoke than she steamed away at top speed toward it, accompanied by the Appam. "The raider and the McTavish a short time afterwards began to exchange signals by Morse lamp. The German asked the McTavish regarding her identity and the British ship replied with a similar question. The Moewe answered that she was a German cruiser, but those on the Clan McTavish showed by their answer that they were skeptical regarding the statement, or defiant. The result was an exchange of shots. The cruiser fired seven shots from her big guns and also launched a torpedo. The McTavish returned the fire with several shots from her six-pounders. In view of the odds against which she was contending, she fought well, but after she had lost half of her Lascar crew and sustained damage to her engines, she surrendered, being in a sinking condition. "The Germans boarded her, ordered her crew to leave and placed on board two large bombs with fuses attached. We were a considerable distance away, but we could hear the explosions distinctly and saw the ship gradually settle into the water. The wireless operator on the McTavish in describing the capture of the vessel, said that he flashed the distress call, but the 'jamming' of the operators on the cruiser prevented it from reaching vessels of the Allies. "The taking of the McTavish prevented me from going aboard the Moewe that night, but toward the close of the next day I was taken to the cruiser and placed below under guard. From what I overheard I inferred that my captors believed, on account of the Marconi uniform which I wore that I was a British naval officer. Then I asked to see the commander of the Moewe and, after consulting with other officers, he gave me permission to return to the Appam. When I jumped into the small boat waiting to convey me to the British vessel my box containing my clothes and money was thrown after me. It missed the boat, however, and, falling into the water, disappeared. So I clambered over the side of the Appam without any clothes but those which I wore. For all that I was thankful to be once more on the vessel." But the adventures of the Appam did not end at this point, for with 452 persons aboard, a large number of whom had been taken from the captured vessels, and a German prize crew in charge, she steamed for Newport News. Sometimes scudding along so rapidly that the throb of her engines shook her from stem to stern; at others limping and halting, with her wireless almost constantly in use, she jockeyed through the ocean lanes and past the enemy warships. From time to time her operators picked up signals which by determining their strength enabled the German commander to guess shrewdly concerning the proximity of craft suspected of being hostile. During the early part of the cruise the German operators transmitted considerably and it was the belief of those from the prize vessels that they were communicating with the Moewe. As the Appam neared the Atlantic coast, however, there was little use of the transmitting set; "listening in" was the order of the day. In this manner did the Appam steam into Hampton Roads early on the morning of February 1 and drop anchor. It was not until then that the wireless operators doffed their head phones and relaxed their vigilance. And with the arrival of the steamship in port came the dismantling of her radio set, thus ending the wireless history of the Appam as far as her capture by the Moewe is concerned—at least for the time being. When the Hesperian left Liverpool late in the afternoon of September 3 last, bound for Montreal with 300 passengers and 250 wounded soldiers, there was little thought among those on board that she was destined to meet the fate of the Lusitania. There was so much suffering, so much of the horror of war represented on the vessel by the wounded, many of whom were blind or crippled for life, that most of us forgot present danger. The ship had made her way well down the Irish Channel and was on the outskirts of the danger zone at about half past eight o'clock in the evening of the next day. Darkness was just falling when the attack was made. I was in the wireless cabin at the time. There was no warning, no forerunner of what was about to occur—only a quivering of the ship, cries of alarm and the muffled roar of the engine of death. For a minute I was dazed. The next instant a telephonic order came from the bridge to send the SOS and I learned that we had been torpedoed. My flash was instantly answered by British destroyers and patrol boats. One vessel wirelessly that she was "coming at thirty-seven knots an hour." From various craft messages were sent, a de- Piece of the torpedo that struck the British hospital ship Hesperian, on her fatal trip to Montreal The torpedo struck the vessel between two of the cargo holds forward of the bridge and lodged in one of the compartments. A period of perhaps thirty seconds elapsed before the explosion occurred. The top of a hatch was blown into the air and many persons seated on it were killed. The Hesperian listed considerably to port, but straightened herself to a certain extent. Rockets were set off to aid the rescue ships in their search and the Hesperian's boats were lowered, the wounded and the passengers being placed in them. Fifty minutes after the ship had been struck only thirteen men remained aboard the vessel. These included the captain and some of his officers, H. Jones, second Marconi operator, and myself. All of us were relieved when a wireless came from a destroyer saying "Picked up three of your lifeboats." Thirty minutes afterward I received a message reading "All hands picked up." The Hesperian was still afloat, but that was about all that could be said of her; the nearest port was 150 miles away. To navigate the partly-wrecked vessel to land seemed no little task for thirteen men, but they set about trying to accomplish it. For thirty-six hours we remained on the vessel. At the end of that time she was settling in the water so rapidly that I sent a message asking for aid. The waters had placed the dynamo out of commission, but I was able to use the emergency set and after a time the British destroyer Veronica, heaved to within sight of us. I was among the last to leave the ship, being compelled to jump over the side. We were all rescued, however. Seven minutes afterward I saw the Hesperian disappear beneath the waves. My experience was simply one of the fortunes of war but I am not anxious to repeat it; for in addition to the nervous strain and excitement resulting from the torpedo attack, we who remained on the Hesperian till the last, were compelled to go without food and water during the thirty-six hours' struggle to bring the vessel to port. --- THE SAYVILLE CENSORSHIP MODIFICATION To avoid any complications in the proposed modification of the censorship on wireless messages at Sayville, Secretary Daniels, on February 17, appointed a board of naval officers, headed by Captain W. H. G. Bullard, superintendent of the Radio Service, to consider whether the revision should permit the passage into the United States of radio messages referring to naval vessels of the countries at war. Under the present censorship at Sayville such messages are suppressed, a notable instance being that portion of a recent German official statement which announced the sinking of the British cruiser Arabic in the North Sea. Suppression of the announcement caused Count von Bernstorff, the German Ambassador, to ask the State Department for an explanation. Mr. Daniels explained that the censors had acted under the existing regulations, drafted by a board of naval officers after an exhaustive study of the question of radio censorship and prohibiting the transmission into this country of any message referring to "movements or location of war or other vessels of belligerents." The object of the regulation, he said, was to prevent violations of neutrality by the admission of dispatches containing information of a military value which might be used by agents of a belligerent nation in this country. In cases of the information coming officially from a foreign government and also printed in the territory of an enemy country the secretary said he believed the prohibition could be removed. --- GERMAN RAIDER CHASES LINER The captain of the French liner Chicago, on the night of February 17th, according to a newspaper report, received two wireless messages when his vessel was nearing the Bay of Biscay, warning him of the presence of "enemy corsairs." A vessel suddenly appeared on the Chicago's starboard bow, and ordered her to heave to. The captain promptly ordered full steam ahead and the stranger gave chase for a quarter of an hour, but the Chicago was making seventeen knots and quickly outdistanced her. Members of the National Amateur Wireless Association residing in New York City met in Fayerweather Hall, Columbia University, on February 7 to organize a signal corps battalion of the Junior American Guard. More than one hundred radio enthusiasts learned of the progress of the local military units and were told many interesting details in connection with the use of wireless in modern warfare. The speakers were: Major William H. Elliott, vice-president of the Association; Lieutenant Robert W. Maloney, of the First Signal Corps of New York; Elmer E. Bucher, instructing engineer, and J. Andrew White, acting president. Lieutenant Maloney, the first to address the assemblage, covered very thoroughly the work of signal corps troops in the army, both in time of peace and when engaged in war. He endorsed the principles of the Association's preparedness movement and said military men recognized the importance of being able to lay their hands on skilled men in event of emergency, noting that in his experience he had found that it required six years training to make a signal corps private a sergeant, thirteen years to make a lieutenant. It was the belief of his fellow officers, he said, that the military training purposed would establish a reserve of incalculable value should a call come to enlist under the flag. He described the field operation of cart and pack sets and illustrated with lessons learned in the present war how the fate of thirty thousand men had rested on the thin communication line set up between the artillery bases and the trench fighters. His address closed with an offer to acquaint his commanding officer with the high aspirations of the New York amateurs and to urge that permission be given to use the apparatus of the First Signal Corps Battalion of the National Guard. Mr. Bucher followed with a talk on portable sets used in the army, illustrating his remarks with lantern slides and a complete portable equipment loaned for the occasion by the Marconi Wireless Telegraph Company. Major Elliott confined his remarks to the objects of the military reserve and urged the members to look upon their duty to the country in a serious way. He outlined the work which would be covered in the summer camps and expressed the wish that the two companies of the signal corps battalion be builded up to full complement so the winter drilling in local armories would be effective in preparing the members for extended maneuvering in the field. He added that he was endeavoring to secure the consent of the acting president of the Association to take command of the local unit, recognizing that his military training in the early nineties and his later experience with actual warfare would be of material benefit to the corps. Mr. White then rose to address the assemblage, saying that Major Elliott's remark had come as a surprise. The matter had been discussed, he admitted, but thus far he had been unable to decide whether his obligations as a national officer of the Association would permit specialized service to the local organization. His formal address began with the statement that he was not lukewarm on the subject of preparedness; he considered adequate protection for the country a great national issue and one which concerned every member of the Association, whether he lived North, East, West or South. Introducing the question of creating signal corps throughout the country, he said: "If we are to enter into the work of preparing ourselves as efficient military units we must know just what we are to do—what we expect to accomplish, and how the result will be achieved. I might say a great deal along this line without getting anywhere; I might take you through a lengthy dissertation on your duty to your country; I might explain in detail what is expected of the signal corps in time of war, and how we can equip ourselves with military and technical knowledge to meet the demands which may be made upon us. But these things would not accomplish the purpose of our meeting tonight. Skill in radio operation and efficiency in field maneuvering will come with the training generously offered by the competent instructors who have volunteered their services without thought of compensation. So all that is in the future. Let us confine ourselves now to consideration of the practicability of this training we are to receive; let us consider, in a serious way, the value of our efforts—not the physical welfare we secure by systematic training in the open, for that is at once obvious, and attractive—but how we can accomplish a great benefit to others as well as ourselves." The administrative head of the Association then endorsed President Wilson's appeal to the nation, saying of the Chief Executive, "Following the counsel of every true American since the nation was born, he has come out strongly in favor of a reasonably proportioned army of regulars, backed up by a huge body of men who will continue to follow the commercial pursuits of peace, but will be ready—prepared—when the time comes to take the field." Attention was called to the remark heard daily on every side: "What we need is a good army, not a large one," which, Mr. White said, were the identical words used by Washington shortly after the disastrous battle of Camden. Quotations were made from a letter written by Washington to the President of Congress on the inadequacy of the Continental troops. In this communication Washington noted that had we formed a permanent army in the beginning, capable of discipline, we should never have had to retreat with a handful of men across the Delaware in 1776, trembling for the fate of America; that it would not have been necessary to fight Brandywine with an unequal number of raw troops, and later see Philadelphia fall into the hands of a victorious army. According to America's first leader, too, the destitution at Valley Forge was all due to lack of trained men; in fact, quoting Washington, "We should not have found ourselves so weak as to be insulted by 5,000 men, unable to protect our baggage and magazines, their security depending on a good countenance and a want of enterprise in the enemy; we should not have been the greatest part of the war inferior to the enemy, indebted for our safety to their inactivity, enduring frequently the mortification of seeing inviting opportunities to ruin them pass unimproved for want of a force which the country was completely able to afford, and of seeing the country ravaged, our towns burned, the inhabitants plundered, abused, murdered, with impunity from the cause." The whole situation of the United States today remained unchanged, the speaker pointed out, and the peril under existing conditions was identically what Washington said in his fifth annual address to Congress: "If we desire to avoid insult we must be able to repel it." An appeal to the pride of every true American was then made. It was all very well, Mr. White observed, to demand that the Government remain firm in its foreign diplomatic relations, but it was obvious that an attitude of firmness meant nothing without the means to back it up. He referred then to the official preparedness measures. "The President asks that the regular army be increased to 142,000," he said. "There is no question that this will be done, but although 142,000 seems a great number of soldiers to put into the field at once, this land force would be barely sufficient to withstand the first shock of an invasion. One month ago the British casualties in the titanic struggle abroad were given in other day he cautioned the nation to remember that: 'Modern warfare is very different from what warfare used to be. Warfare has changed so within the span of a single life that it is nothing less than brutal to send raw recruits into the trenches and into the field.'" Attention was called to the fact that the President had asked for a great host of free men, rising as one to the call "Are you ready?" But that these men must not be mere targets for shot and shell; they must know something of the arms --- Army's Chief Signal Officer Now a Vice-President WAR DEPARTMENT OFFICE OF THE CHIEF SIGNAL OFFICER WASHINGTON It will give me great pleasure to serve as an honorary vice-president of the National Amateur Wireless Association. I consider it a great compliment to be asked to serve with the distinguished gentlemen you mention, and I shall be glad to do whatever I can in furthering the national movement for the educational development of young men who will eventually be fitted for operators and engineers. These will be of great service to the War Department in case of emergency, and I trust you will be able, from time to time, to give me a list of such of your members who have signified their intention of volunteering for radio service in the Army in time of need. Sincerely yours, SAMUEL REBER, Lieut.-Col., Signal Corps. --- the official figures as 539,467. I haven't at hand anything official on the losses of the French, Russians and Italians, but the British losses alone represent an average of more than 30,000 a month. On this basis our present army would be wiped out in thirty days and our projected army in less than five months. "It is evident, therefore, that any invasion which may come in the future will be repelled by volunteers. All of this country's wars have been won by volunteers, for that matter, but is this any assurance that we can repeat our glorious victories as we stand equipped today? "Our sane and sensible President doesn't feel that victory will come to us through sheer patriotism alone. Only the they have in their hands; know something of what the orders mean; men who can comprehend and easily and intelligently step into the duties of national defense. Reference was then made to the generosity of the National Guard of New York in aiding the signal corps work proposed. Mr. White noted that armories have been placed at the disposal of the Junior American Guard and skilled officers have voluntarily come forward to supervise the training of members. This service could be given by no other body of men in like proportions, he believed; while many might offer, nowhere else could the combination of skill and available time be so readily secured. "I don't propose, however, to take up your time tonight with an academic discussion of the relative values of the plans for citizen preparedness," he added. "We will let the future supply the answer. But I most emphatically do assert—and defy contradiction—that whatever the answer, it lies right in this room! Here among you young men, representatives of the patriotic youth of the nation, lies the safety of the nation. From gatherings such as this will come the soldiers of the future—citizen volunteers, militiamen, regular army officers—all will be created from material moulded at the plastic age. Time will decide which is the best method of training men, but nothing on earth is more certain than the fact that the nation is not getting ready if it overlooks preparing the boys!" To support this statement, Colonel Glenn and General O'Ryan were quoted as saying that all wars are waged by boys from sixteen to twenty-five years of age; that history teaches that wars are fought and won by youngsters. The amateurs were urged to realize that their need for military training was urgent. "Should a crisis come tomorrow, the safeguarding of our shores lies with you!" said Mr. White. "Do you realize that? Our first line would no sooner take the field than a call would come to get the young men ready to follow. "And it will always be so. American ideals will never permit this country to be dominated by a fighting machine. We shall have an adequate standing army and a better navy, but the reserve forces which will be depended upon eventually to turn back the tide of invasion will come from citizen defenders trained to the use of arms." He then stated the definite object of the meeting. "We are gathered here tonight to form a signal corps battalion, which will represent New York in the Junior American Guard. With forty companies of infantry organized, uniformed and drilling, we have need of signaling troops to make the prospective reserve ready for maneuvering under field conditions, which will begin within a few months. In calling together the local members of the National Amateur Association, and their friends, I know I have not only brought out staunch and willing citizen soldier material, but skilled manipulators of wireless apparatus as well. The amateur wireless enthusiasts of New York City are second to none in the country, and I can assert without fear of contradiction that a similar call, made nation-wide, would bring me a thousand young men who can take any ordinary wireless set and operate it under the most adverse conditions. As members of our Association you have already been given instruction in the technical features of various types of equipment; you have been taught the construction and operation of portable sets and fixed stations; so far as the operation of apparatus is concerned, you are well equipped to take the field right now. "But to be efficient as military units, you must undergo a long period of special training. You must know, both in theory and practice, what the commands of an officer mean, what discipline accomplishes in the field, what the execution of military orders entails. As members of the signal corps you will be thoroughly instructed in the methods and means of bringing up reinforcements, ordering ammunition and provisions forward from the supply trains, plotting a landscape, preparing and reading maps which indicate the position of enemy troops and your own forces. You will learn how to take care of your physical well-being in camp and on the march, and will be thoroughly schooled in the principles of first aid to the injured. Those among you who rise from the ranks will begin study of tactics and military strategy, will be given an opportunity to display generalship in mimic warfare, where you will be opposed by other troops of the same organization. All the work will be thoroughly practical, because at the outset it will be directed by experienced officers, and later will be continued by those who have acquired in the ranks the knowledge which will entitle them to leadership." Emphasis was laid on the fact that members who have followed the Association's teachings are no longer novices: "They can build, and do build, wireless equipments which could actually be used in military field work. Furthermore, study has trained the minds of members; they know how to think, know how to concentrate on problems; consequently they are certain to prove highly efficient in military work when they take it up. "We are not dealing with children when we consider them as defenders of the nation," said Mr. White. "Before I came here tonight I had an age analysis of the first thousand members drawn. Only a half dozen had not reached their teens; the heaviest representation centered in the ages between sixteen and nineteen; more than thirty-five per cent. were over twenty-one, and our oldest member has reached the silvery age of sixty-five. "With our peak load at age sixteen, we have a valuable nucleus for signal corps training; this is the best period of a lifetime to take up serious study; the playfulness of the youngster has been left behind and the thoughts are turning to the serious obligations of manhood. Here is material for the signal corps ranks that cannot be equalled; here are young men who will be willing and anxious to acquire military knowledge in the two years before they are eligible to officers' commissions in the Junior American Guard. Here we have our officers of the future. "In the analysis referred to ages eighteen to thirty-five included just about half of the thousand—the best possible material for immediate use as subordinate officers. "Commanders have already been supplied through the generosity of the National Guard. All we now await is enrollment, the purpose of our meeting tonight." Mr. White then said he felt that with some proportion of the audience he thought had arisen: Why had he confined himself to the warlike aspects of the movement? Why had not some mention been made of the other benefits to be secured through training along military lines—the value of drilling as a means of building up the boy mentally, morally and physically. He answered this unspoken thought with the observation: "I have refrained from extended mention of these features for two reasons: the first, because I know you are all intelligent enough to appreciate and value them for their obvious advantages; the second, because I feel it my duty as an American citizen to urge you toward preparedness in event of war. The second reason so far dominates the first that I am inclined to use it as a sole inducement to join with us in this patriotic movement. 'Ideal and commendable as peace plans may be, you may feel certain that wars will continue. The dawn of universal peace is a long way off. But even if it were near, would that warrant our nation remaining unarmed? You can't keep order, cannot insist upon holding other nations accountable, unless you can make good. The protest of a weak nation doesn't mean much; to speak of accountability without means of enforcement will never make this a better world. "Firmness and justice to all is the ideal upon which the whole American nation is founded. We wish to spread that gospel all over the civilized globe. To have our words and rights respected we must be able to enforce them when necessary. Neutrality means maintenance of duty. Defense of America's policy of neutrality brought on the war of 1812—may bring upon us another war; for the maintenance of neutrality depends upon force to defend that policy, when it is attacked. America will always be neutral in spirit, therefore Americans must be ready to uphold the duties of neutrality. "In organizing signal corps battalions, the National Amateur Wireless Association expects to teach Americans what it means to be a citizen of a free country; hopes to bring in an interesting way before the youth of the nation the clear fact that it is their duty to take up arms for national defense if their country needs them. It further proposes to aid in correcting a great national abuse of the flower of the nation—the sending to slaughter of heroic volunteers, who in the wars of the past haven't had an equal chance with their foes because they were unprepared for the rigors of the campaign. All of this country's wars have been fought and won by volunteers, and under the ideals of the nation, citizen soldiers will continue to bear the burdens of the future. The regular army and the navy are designed to withstand only the first shock of invasion. And, as I have shown in the British casualty figures, the army, brought up to its full strength, would be out of action within five months after meeting at grips with a powerful adversary. "It takes two years to make a soldier. Our first line is not designed to hold that long. To rush reinforcements to its support requires a trained reserve, prepared for action and capable of prompt mobilization. We must have a prepared reserve. Patriots by the million can be counted upon to swell our ranks at the first sign of danger, but it will be on our national conscience if we again send our heroic defenders to certain death because they are not trained. "And we must have officers to lead these men. The nation must be made to insist upon leaders who understand the problems they are called upon to face. We must not depend upon hurried training; we must not endanger the lives of our finest citizens by placing them under officers whose experience is gained in beleaguered camps; nor can we tolerate the thought of faltering decisions made in the smoke and thunder of the battlefield. We must not allow the safety of thousands of heroic fighting men to depend upon the transmission of the commanding general's orders at hands of a novice. If there is any choice in the matter of getting troops prepared in order, by all means have the signaling branches of the service ready first. "Now this is my appeal to you: 'I want men who will take the military training we offer, I want material to be moulded into officers; I want true patriots who will faithfully give what little time we ask for, to prepare themselves as signal corps experts. I am asking for spirited young Americans to enroll in the battalion which will represent New York; some to swell the ranks of the one radio company which is already organized and drilling, others to form themselves into a second company to complete the battalion. There are no dues to be paid to headquarters—no obligations but faithful attendance on drill nights and the loyalty and patriotism which inspires determination to become efficient defense units for the safeguarding of the nation. "I ask that New York show the way to the rest of the country; set an example which will extend the movement throughout the length and breadth of the nation." The response which marked the conclusion of the speech was generous. It developed as enrollments were made that several experienced militia men were in the audience and a request was made that a committee be appointed to acquaint the members who had not been able to attend with the proceedings of the evening. This committee has since reported to headquarters that several hundred New Yorkers who were unable to attend have made a special request that another meeting be held, among these are a half dozen operators who have had military experience, and wish to submit their qualifications to serve as instructors. A canvass of those making the petition is to be made with a view of selecting the time and place most convenient to all concerned. ALEXANDERSON ADDRESSES INSTITUTE At the meeting of the American Institute of Radio Engineers, held at Columbia University, February 2, E. F. W. Alexanderson delivered a lecture on the magnetic control of powerful high-frequency alternators by means of a small controller of his own design and a vacuum bulb. An Oscillation Transformer of Unique Design By Charles Horton In the construction of oscillation transformers in the early days of wireless telegraphy, round wire was most generally used, probably on account of the fact that conductors of any other cross-section were hard to obtain and also, owing perhaps to the fact that in their detailed perfection of wireless apparatus, wireless engineers had not yet taken up this instrument. When attention was finally focused on the transformer various changes were made. It was found that area for area a flat conductor has more surface area than a round one, which fact had the effect of causing the elimination of the round wire and the adoption of the flat strip. Now the only flat strip to be readily obtained was, of course, a strip with straight edges which necessitated that the strip be wound into helices in such a way that its lateral dimension was parallel to the longitudinal dimension of the helix; that is flat on a cylindrical form. But in the use of these helices it became apparent that there was considerable brushing between the turns, caused by the sharp, narrow edges of the metal strip, and consequent lowering of efficiency. Furthermore, it was evident that on account of the strip having its width parallel to the axis of the helix, close winding could not be obtained with sufficient air-space, and consequently sufficient inductance meant large coils. So, in order to overcome these disadvantages and still retain the large surface area of the strip conductor, the edgewise-wound strip was developed. This type of conductor has its transverse or narrow dimension parallel to the axis of the helix and thus the turns can be made very close; and on account of the large flat surfaces presented by one turn to another, brushing is to a large extent eliminated and neat, compact coils are obtained. It has been the ambition of amateurs in wireless to make helices of the edgewise-wound type for their own stations, but the edgewise bending of the metal strip presented difficulties which could not be surmounted except by the construction of a costly bending machine. Fig. 1 In considering this problem the writer developed a type of transformer coil which can be cut from a flat plate and has the advantage of being edgewise wound; it has additional advantage in that the helices are semi-spherical and consequently rotary adjustment of coupling is made possible. The instrument is of that type which is intended to be mounted on the transmitting panel, on which are also mounted the condensers, aerial loading helix, etc. Reference to Fig. 1 of the drawings will give a clear idea of the appearance of the instrument when mounted on the transmitting panel viewed from above. There is provided a wood base which is screwed to the transmitting panel and on which the transformer proper is mounted, being supported thereon and insulated therefrom by the corrugated, hard rubber posts. On these posts is mounted a second wood panel having a circular opening therein and supporting four hard rubber, arc-shaped pieces which serve to mount the primary helix. Adjustment of the number of active turns is made by the usual contact clips, of which, in this case, there are two, one being shown in Fig. 1. The secondary is mounted on the primary panel in metal bearings and is constructed similarly to the primary, except that in this case, the adjustment of inductance is continuous and is made by means of a metal follower which rides along the inside of the helix and is controlled by the smaller of the hard rubber knobs. Adjustment of the coupling is obtained by the rotation of one helix in and out of the plane of the other and is controlled by the large knob. Set screws are provided for retaining any degree of coupling. The fastening nuts at the outer ends of the hard rubber columns are also used as anchorages for the several flexible leads, two for the primary leads and two for the secondary leads. If desired, the hard rubber columns may be made hollow and a rod passed through each one to carry the connections through to the back of the transmitting panel, thus making a very neat arrangement. Reference to Figs. 2 and 3 will serve to show various parts in other views; Fig. 2 being a view taken from the front of the panel and showing, among other things, the brush contact to the primary slider. Fig. 3 is a view of the instrument taken from the right side, in which the primary helix has been removed and the supporting members of the primary cut in the middle to show the arrangement of the secondary helix and supports. In the construction of the transformer, oak is suggested as the best wood to be used. It should be stained very dark brown and finished with floor polishing wax. Referring now to the detail drawings: Detail No. 1 is the wood back or base piece which should be of $ \frac{3}{4} $ of an inch stock and perfectly true as this is the foundation for the entire instrument. Holes are drilled in the corners, as shown, for $ \frac{3}{8} $ of an inch flat head brass machine screws to mount the columns. Detail No. 2 is the top panel which is mounted on top of the columns and supports the primary helix. The large circular opening shown is bevelled to agree with the helix supporting pieces, in order to give a neat appearance. Detail No. 3 is the wood ring which supports the secondary helix supporting members and is carefully made as shown, care being taken to prevent warping. Detail No. 4 is the primary helix proper and shows the method of laying out the helix. A piece of 3/64-inch copper wire, 12 1/2 by 11 3/4 inches, is secured and a half circle drawn with a radius of 6 inches close to the left hand side. Then, with the same center and using radii 3/8 of an inch less each time, six other half circles are struck within the first. Next, a center is found in the same diameter as before and a radius of 5 13/16 inches is taken; a half circle is drawn below the first group, joining the left-hand end of the first half circle, to the right hand end of the second half circle. Then using the same center and radii successively 3/8 of an inch shorter, draw the remaining six half circles, thus completing a spiral of a width of 3/4 of an inch. The helix is now cut out with a pair of metal shears, care being taken to prevent the strip cut from losing its flatness. This done, the helix is hammered flat if necessary with a wood mallet and laid aside. The secondary helix, detail No. 5, is made similarly from a piece of 1/32-inch copper sheet, 11 1/8 inches by 11 inches, but the helix is in this case only 3/4 of an inch wide. Detail No. 6 shows the primary helix supports and should be cut from half-inch hard rubber or fibre exactly as shown. Hard rubber should be used unless it is too expensive; in that event fibre may be substituted. When mounted on the top panel (detail No. 2) these pieces should be mounted in the order in which they are drawn so as to insure proper form for the helix. Detail No. 7 is the connecting disk for the other ends of the pieces just described and should be perfectly true. Detail No. 8 is the hard rubber columns which should be turned as shown and polished. Detail No. 9 shows the supports of the bearings for the secondary helix form. Detail No. 10 is the mounting piece for the secondary helix form. Pieces of 3/8 of an inch brass rod are to be pinned in each end for bearings. The hard rubber bushing in the middle is to insulate the slider shaft from the wood and is lined with brass to insure easy rotation. Detail No. 11 shows the brass bearings proper which are mounted in the bearing pieces, 9. Detail No. 12 shows the friction springs intended to be mounted between the mounting piece, 10, and the bushings, 9, at each end, in order to cause the secondary to rotate under friction. Detail No. 13 shows the insulating support for the end of the primary helix. Detail No. 14 is the main part of the secondary slider. Its construction and action will be evident from an examination of the drawings. Detail No. 15 is the insulating support for the end of the secondary helix. Detail No. 16 is the rod on which the slider head, 14, slides and rotates and is mounted at the center of the secondary form supporting disk, to be described, by means of the nuts and washers shown. Detail No. 17 is the hard rubber washers for the tops and bottoms of the columns. Detail No. 18 is the contact spring for the secondary slider shaft. Detail No. 19 is the secondary form supporting the disk mentioned. Detail No. 20, is the secondary helix supporting members and should be made exactly as shown of $ \frac{1}{2} $-inch rubber. The peculiar outline on the inside of the pieces is caused by filing away the rubber near the turns of the helix to permit the slider to pass. This is done after the secondary helix is assembled in its form. Detail No. 21 is the slider proper and is intended to slide on the loose rollers on the block-piece of detail No. 14. On the left hand of the same is forced a piece of soft rubber tube to prevent brush discharge to adjacent turns. Detail No. 22 shows the primary contact clips which are made exactly as shown, the flexible leads being connected thereto by means of the 10-32 screw specified. Detail No. 23 is the knob for the adjustment of coupling and is made entirely of hard rubber to permit handling when the set is in operation. It is attached to its shaft by means of a pin extending entirely through its hub. Detail No. 24 is the knob for the adjustment of secondary inductance and is made as above. When this transformer is carefully made and assembled it presents an excellent appearance and is quite effective in operation. It is designed particularly for $ \frac{1}{4} $-kw. sets. The secondary does not have as many turns as usual and a loading coil may be used when a longer wave is desired. Direction Finder Experiments The United States Government is conducting a series of experiments at the Radio Station, North Turo, Massachusetts, to perfect the Bellini Tosi Direction Finder. The purpose of the instrument, as explained in previous issues of The Wireless Age, is to enable navigators to send signals to the shore station and from it receive their ships' bearing. The method of finding a vessel's bearing, as at present used, consists of a call to the North Turo station, and request for her position. North Turo acknowledges and requests the ship to send long dashes for five minutes on the 600-meter wave-length. North Turo will then record the direction on the finder and report it to the ship. As the station is on the point of Cape Cod, a ship may be on either side of the cape for the same setting of the instrument; the ship is, therefore, given the two possible angles from the true north, the decision being left to the ship as to which is her correct bearing. Fascination of Vibrations At the meeting of the Radio Club of America held at Columbia University on February 18, Professor J. Zenneck, of the Technical College Danzig, delivered an interesting lecture on "Some Problems of Wireless Telegraphy." He discussed especially spark systems and methods of continuous sending, and the use and limitations of the various forms of detectors in the measurement of amplitude of vibrations. Following Professor Zenneck's lecture, Dr. John Stone Stone urged an effort to secure a more liberal treatment of amateurs by the government in the matter of wave-lengths permitted, and suggested that originators of heavy traffic and steamship lines be assigned special wavelengths to prevent the present interference on 600 meters. Fritz Lowestein and E. J. Simon also made remarks. At the close of the discussion Professor Zenneck was made an honorary member of the Club. How Wireless is Being Used in the War By A British Army Officer Editor's Note—Owing to conditions which are at once obvious, it is necessary to keep secret the identity of the author of this article. The publishers of this magazine wish to go on record, however, with the statement that he is a British army officer of high rank who has been at the front since the war began. The points which he makes about wartime wireless are all the result of personal observation, and what he claims in regard to the revolutionizing of methods of wireless signaling is, to use his own words, "common knowledge at the Allies' front and of course to be known the world over when the war shall end." The manuscript, perhaps the most unusual one thus far published in this country, reached THE WIRELESS AGE under conditions which absolutely verify its authenticity. Not until this war is over can the full measure of the priceless service rendered by the wireless be made known in all its details. It can be easily understood that at this time it is impossible to give more than the most vague hints of the improvements which have been made in the art and science of wireless telegraphy, but this much at least is certain— After the war is over, if not before, there will be given to the world improvements which will practically revolutionize wireless work and will open up possibilities not even now dreamed of by the uninitiated. And to Marconi, for his intense devotion to the Cause for which he is fighting, for his wonderful, tireless work and for his ceaseless efforts to improve what has already been done, will come much deserved honor. I hope I shall be forgiven for referring so off-handedly to the inventor as "Marconi," but it seems to me that one could no more give him a formal prefix than to Washington, Lincoln, Garibaldi, Edison, or any of the men who have done so much for their countries—and the world. As a matter of fact, I don't know his first name, or even his official or military title. I only know what he has done and what his inventions are now doing for the Allied Forces. I wish it were possible to tell you just what is being done with wireless at the Front right now—but it is impossible. I can only mention those things which are already known; but perhaps the fact that what I write is of personal observation, may render it of some interest. When the war broke out, army wireless operators—competent and capable men who really knew their business—were as few in numbers as were the rest of those we so sorely needed. Luckily, however, there were many who had taken up the art for the pure love of the thing, and they were quick to volunteer. Telegraph operators of the Postal Department were soon broken in to wireless work, so that it was not long before we had a good and very efficient force in the field. (Please understand that as far as regards wireless technicalities I am very much of a layman, knowing nothing of the correct terms.) The balloon, looking like nothing so much, in color and shape as a gigantic banana, finally reached the desired height and then the wireless machine in the car started to snap and spark, the operator writing and passing his sheets from time to time to the officer standing beside him. I learned that as the observing officer in the balloon located certain positions he gave the information to the operator who, in turn, transmitted it to In a Belgian village near King Albert's headquarters, wires are run from the spire of a church down to a limousine automobile, elevated on piles of brick, which generates the power for the wireless system. The first time I saw a wireless operator at work was just outside Poperinghe, about five miles behind Ypres. An observation balloon was going up and into the little car below the great gas-bag climbed a young chap carrying a headpiece and a mess of wires attached to a small box. I was told he was the wireless operator and I stopped to watch his work. In the field below the balloon was a motor car with a pole above it with wires extending downwards to the ground. The man below. Below the balloon's car trailed wires about forty feet long and these, I was told, had something of the function of the ground wires of a stationary equipment. The balloon, carried by the winds and held to earth by the cable which attached it to a powerful motor truck—looking like nothing so much as a big, fat woman hauling a pomeranian along on a leash—drifted away a mile or so towards Ypres. Still the ceaseless flash and chatter of the In an observation balloon near Ypres. The operator is signalling information to a station on the earth. Notice the antenna wires trailing below the balloon's car. instruments kept up and at last I was impelled to ask the question: "Why not a telephone line to the ground instead?" With a pitying smile the expert told me that a telephone line was not anyway near as good because it would need many men to follow along with it and see that it did not catch in the trees, when it would be easily broken. "Besides," said my informant, "if the bally gasbag breaks loose and drifts over the German lines the operator can keep in touch to the last minute, don't you see." And I learned later that this had happened on one occasion and that the operator had "kept in touch." The "last minute" was when the balloon was exploded by a shell! When attached to the Belgian Army for certain purposes which it is not necessary to mention here, it was part of my duty to visit the little village behind the lines where King Albert had his official headquarters. He was located in the house of the Curé of the parish, a beautiful old mansion surrounded by a moat. Right beside it was the church and from its tower ran wires to the ground. In front of it was a very fine limousine automobile which I was told used up many gallons of petrol (gasoline) a day, but never made as much as a mile a week. When I asked why, I was shown that it was elevated on piles of brick so that the wheels did not touch the ground, its motor was used to generate the power for the wireless system. This, I may say, is the way power is obtained for the field outfits, the engine of the motor field equipments being so constructed that when the car is at rest—and in some cases, when in motion—it can be used for wireless work. While every division is connected with General Headquarters by endless numbers of telephone and telegraph lines, the wireless plays an important and indispensable part. From the headquarters of each division also, the air carries messages to the regiments ahead. Out as far as the front line of trenches the wireless operators are at work sending back their A French wireless station in operation in the vicinity of Saloniki. The operators are keeping in touch with the units of an aviation corps during an engagement. messages. And in the casualty lists are the names of many wireless operators whose epitaph is "Died on the field of honor." The telephone and telegraph have, of course, played an important part in this war. Their lines are by no means "laid in pleasant places"—and bad as this joke is, it is not so bad as the reality. I have seen them at work under the most trying conditions and have never ceased to admire their pluck and daring. During the many bombardments of Ypres I saw them time and again dash along a road which was being shelled with shrapnel and high-explosive and, under a fire which was worse to face than the most vivid imagination could picture, tie up the broken wires. A dozen men have gone out, one after the other, from a communication trench to tie up the line from the observation artillery officer to the guns in the rear—and the twelfth man only has crawled back torn by shell or wounded by bullet. But—the line was tied and communication established. Much of this loss has been reduced by the use of wireless and I believe that under present and future improvements it will be still further diminished. And that brings up the question of the importance of having a sufficient number of properly trained and competent men to take over this kind of work when needed. My experience has been—and I can positively declare that it is within the knowledge of every officer who has served in this war—that the amateur, no matter how loyal, how eager to serve his country, or how competent in the techwas a wireless station next to the house where I was billeted. I had been in the habit of going over when I had the chance to talk to the operator and get what news he was picking up. Watching the sparks flying, I was absorbed in my thoughts, when he broke in with the news of the disaster. He got it from the air as it was being flashed across to England from an Irish station and thus we at the front knew it before the public of England or America did. Of course, the wireless method of communication has been used for ulterior purposes. Only after the war is over will it be possible to tell openly of the many wireless plants which have been discovered giving information to the enemy. In one town on the front it was necessary to practically demolish every house in order to stop the activities of a wireless plant which was sending out priceless information and which could not be located. Below Dixmude, on the Belgian coast, a mill was discovered with a fine installation in it and, on the other hand, much valuable information for us was stopped because the other side found a plant which had been operating with much success in Ostende for the Allies. Regarding the usefulness of theoretAn Italian wireless field station. This photograph shows how the portable equipment is being employed in the European war. tical and field training for actual work much, of course, will be learned from this war. Nothing which teaches a man to stand on his feet and accept responsibility is useless; that goes without saying. Nevertheless, I fancy that much which is being taught now will be changed later on. For instance: There is, I understand, a method of keeping up communications of portable wireless units which is known as the "leap-frog." By this, units A, B, and C go out. When A. moves forward, C theoretically leaps over B., into his place and, subsequently, B. takes A.'s place on the next move, and so on, the last man taking the place of the foremost man at each move. All men are, of course, keeping in touch with each other and with Divisional Headquarters or base. Well, by experience, I should say that under fire this would not be practical. If a shrapnel or high-explosive shell, with a killing radius of 30 to 50 feet, should wipe out one of these units, it would destroy the forward connection and, unless the officer commanding was unhurt and in touch with all units some confusion would possibly arise. The best method, as I understand, has been to have the units scattered along an equal front and, as in skirmishing order, fill up whatever gaps are made by drawing closer together. This, of course, is merely given to illustrate what is done and is not officially authoritative. In conclusion, I can but repeat that following this war there will be much of interest and value given to the world regarding the wonders of wireless communication. In many methods there will be what will practically amount to a revolution and much that is now accepted as standard will be discarded. It has taken this practical test to demonstrate how much is useless and how many former theories are now practical. One thing, however, is sure and that is: As the aeroplane has been proven to be the eyes of an army, so in an even greater degree has the wireless gained the right to be called "The Ears of the World." How to Conduct a Radio Club (Specially Prepared for the National Amateur Wireless Association) Elementary Instructions for the Construction and Use of the Wave-Meter By Elmer E. Bucher ARTICLE XXI An essential, but seldom found piece of apparatus at the average amateur station is a wave-meter for calibration of the transmitting and receiving circuits to resonance or to a definite value of wave-length. Many of the problems of the radio experimenter could be immediately solved if he would purchase or construct a wave-meter of suitable range and determine for himself whether or not his apparatus or aerial system complies with the United States restrictions. It is not a difficult matter to construct a wave-meter for amateurs' use but unless a calibrated instrument is available for comparison, it will be of no value to the designer. Experimental determinations were recently made with a home-made wave-meter comprising a Mesco condenser No. 294, designed to have a maximum value of capacity of .001 of a microfarad connected in series with an inductance coil having forty-six turns of No. 16 single silk covered wire, wound on a hard rubber tube exactly $6\frac{1}{2}$ inches in diameter. Two leads, 12 inches in length were extended from the coil of inductance to the terminals of the condenser. A crystalline detector, connected unilaterally, as shown in Fig. 1, was employed for determination of the point of resonance. At the zero position of the condenser scale the wave-length of the circuit was found to be 185 meters, and at the 180 degree position, 1,040 meters. It will then be observed that a meter of this range is quite suitable for calibration purposes between 200 and 800 meters. A complete table of wave-lengths for the entire scale of the condenser is tabulated as follows: \| Degrees of Condenser Scale \| Corresponding Value of Wave-Length \| \|----------------------------\|-----------------------------------\| \| 0 \| 185 \| \| 10 \| 225 \| \| 20 \| 325 \| \| 30 \| 380 \| \| 40 \| 465 \| \| 50 \| 530 \| \| 60 \| 580 \| \| 70 \| 630 \| \| 80 \| 670 \| \| 90 \| 710 \| \| 100 \| 760 \| \| 110 \| 825 \| \| 120 \| 840 \| \| 130 \| 890 \| \| 140 \| 915 \| \| 150 \| 930 \| \| 160 \| 980 \| \| 170 \| 1,000 \| \| 180 \| 1,040 \| The foregoing data plotted in curve form appears in Fig. 2, from which the intermediate values corresponding to the intervening degrees of the condenser scale may readily be obtained. For good signals in the head telephones, with the unilateral connection, a sensitive crystal, such as galena or cerusite must be used and, if very loud signals are required, one terminal of the condenser should be connected to the grid of a sensitive vacuum valve. (Fig. 1.) A Wave-Meter of Lower Range Another coil of wire comprising twenty-two turns of No. 16 single silk covered wire wound on an insulating tube of hard rubber $6\frac{1}{2}$ inches in diameter with two extended leads each 12 inches in length, gave the following values of wave-length when connected in shunt to the small Murdock variable condenser No. 368. This condenser has a maximum value of capacity of .0005 of a microfarad. The data follows: \| Degrees of Condenser Scale \| Corresponding Value of Wave-Length \| \|----------------------------\|-----------------------------------\| \| 0 \| 140 \| \| 10 \| 160 \| \| 20 \| 195 \| \| 30 \| 235 \| \| 40 \| 260 \| \| 60 \| 300 \| \| 80 \| 340 \| \| 100 \| 365 \| \| 120 \| 400 \| \| 140 \| 440 \| \| 160 \| 470 \| \| 180 \| 500 \| It cannot be expected that several of these condensers will check up identically, but if the coil of wire of the dimensions given is used, a reasonable degree of accuracy can be expected rendering it unnecessary for the experimenter to work out elaborate formulae for the computation of the wave-length. The data given in table No. 2 is depicted in the curve. (Fig. 3.) After either wave-meter has been constructed in accordance with the foregoing instructions, it is important to understand thoroughly the manner in which the instrument is to be used. Suppose, for example, it is desired to measure the fundamental or natural wave-length of a transmitting aerial to find out whether it complies with the restrictions: The complete procedure is shown diagrammatically in Fig. 4. The aerial wires are represented at A, the earth connection at E, a small spark gap connected in series at S-2 and the secondary terminals of a small induction coil at S-1. The inductance coil of the wave-meter is indicated at L, the small variable condenser at C, the crystalline detector at D and the head-telephones at P. The circuit to the primary winding of the induction coil is closed and the length of the spark gap carefully adjusted until a clear spark note, free from arcing, is obtained. The inductance coil, L, is placed in proximity to the earth lead from the spark gap S-2, and careful adjustment made of the detector, D. The small condenser, C, is then altered in capacity and if the natural wave-length of the antenna is within range of the scale of wavelengths on the wave-meter, a point will be located where loud signals are obtained in the head telephones. This indicates that the circuits of the wave-meter are in resonance with the antenna system and by reference to the table of wave-lengths corresponding to the degrees on the variable condenser the required reading is quickly obtained. If the point of resonance is not well defined and the signals can be heard over a considerable number of degrees on the scale, the coil, L, should be moved to a distance from the earth lead until the signals are barely audible. In this manner sharper readings on the scale of the condenser are obtained. If a humming sound is heard in the head telephones over the entire scale of the variable condenser, it indicates that the wave-meter is not of suitable range for the antenna system and therefore one of greater (or possibly lesser) range will have to be constructed. Should the measurement made as in Fig. 4 indicate that the fundamental wave-length of the aerial system is in excess of 200 meters, the value may be reduced either by decreasing the length of the flat top portion of the antenna or by connecting three or four small condenser plates (connected in series with each other) in series with the aerial system. By proper selection of capacity, the natural wave-length of the aerial may readily be reduced to 200 meters. If an oscillation transformer is used to transfer the energy from the spark gap circuit to the aerial wires, as indicated in Fig. 5, and a close degree of coupling is employed between the primary and secondary windings, the emitted wave from the aerial wires is apt to be broad, i.e., the aerial wires may radiate two waves one of which is far in excess of 200 meters. In this case if the wave-meter is placed in close inductive relation to the earth lead and the spark caused to discharge across the gap, two points will be found on the condenser scale where the signals are audible. But if the primary and secondary windings, L-1 and L-2, respectively, (Fig. 5) are drawn apart, the two points of resonance will come nearer on the condenser scale until finally but one sharp point of resonance is located. The emitted wave from the aerial wires is now said to be "pure" and if the decrement of damping is less than 2, the requirements of the government regulation are fully met. In a similar manner the amateur may measure the wave-length of the spark gap circuit as shown in Fig. 6 and then subtract or add turns at the coil, L-1, or increase or decrease the size of the condenser bank until the wave-length of the closed circuit is in complete resonance with the aerial wires. Excited by a buzzer and used as a small radio transmitter, the wave-meter becomes an exceedingly useful piece of apparatus for the calibration and sensitive adjustment of receiving tuners. It may also be used to calibrate coils of wire to a definite range of wave-length, thereby removing all doubt in the experimenter's mind concerning the dimensions of a coil for a given purpose. It will be noted in Fig. 7 that the condenser, C, of the wave-meter is shunted by a bell buzzer, B-1, connected in series with one or two dry cells, B-2. The windings of B-1 are shunted by a condenser of 1 microfarad capacity. If the buzzer is set into operation a change of lines of force takes place through the coil, L, which acts inductively upon the earth lead of the receiving aerial wires, A-1. Suppose, Measurement for the Wave Length of an Amateur Aerial. Determination of the Purity of the Wave. for example, it is desired to adjust the receiving system to exactly 600 meters: The condenser, C, of the wave-meter is then set at that position which will give a value of 600 meters. With the buzzer in operation, the variable contact on the coil, L-4, is altered in position until a loud response is secured in the head telephones, P. During this adjustment the secondary winding, L-5, should be placed in fairly close inductive relation to L-4 and slight variation made of its variable contact to assist in determining conditions of resonance between the two circuits. By this method the experimenter is positively assured that his and the possible range of wave-length adjustment in the circuit thus obtained. During these calibrations it is important that a low value of coupling between the wave-meter and the circuit under measurement be used. The actual relative position is determined by experiment and should remain at that point where the signals are just heard. The Mesco condenser No. 294 can be used for a wave-meter of increased range by connecting it in series with an inductance coil of increased dimensions. A hard rubber insulating tube 6½ inches in diameter and approximately 8½ inches in length was wound with 146 turns of No. 16 S. S. C. wire. Calibration of the Spark Gap Circuit. At the tenth division of the condenser scale the wave-length of the circuit is 610 meters and at the 180th division, 2,650 meters. The intermediate values are given in the following table: \| Degrees on the Condenser \| Corresponding Wave-Lengths \| \|--------------------------\|----------------------------\| \| 10 \| 610 \| \| 20 \| 845 \| \| 30 \| 1,040 \| \| 40 \| 1,230 \| \| 50 \| 1,400 \| The last described wave-meter fulfills the requirements of the average amateur radio station and even though, owing to the unequal construction of condensers, a slight error of calibration exists, it will be a relief to the experimenters who heretofore have not had available facilities for measuring the wave-length of their apparatus, to have an approximation of the frequency of the circuits. Additional measurements, such as the inductance and capacitance of an amateur's aerial, are fully explained in the book, "How to Conduct a Radio Club." (To be continued) RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE WEATHER BUREAU The latest report of the chief of the Weather Bureau urges the adoption of wireless as part of the equipment. Four experimental stations are now in operation. Communication with parts of the country, isolated from wire service by violent sleet or floods could be maintained by radio, and frost warnings, invaluable to fruit, truck and tobacco growers, could be scattered broadcast. Not only could vessels at sea be reached direct by wireless, but the thinly settled mountainous sections of the West could be kept under observation by means of the art. These desolate areas, uninhabited during the winter on account of their isolation and intense cold, are often the starting point of very destructive storms. With the Amateurs New Rochelle (N. Y.) amateurs met on the evening of February 3 and formed the Radio Club of New Rochelle. A committee was appointed to establish a circulating club library on wireless and electricity. Several persons well versed in wireless promised to deliver lectures. The following officers were elected: President, John Buckman; vice-president, Etinne Donovan; secretary and treasurer, Thomas Howard. Edward Bettels was named as press agent. Correspondence is invited. It should be addressed to the secretary at 48 John street, New Rochelle, N. Y. The Suburban Radio Club of Washington, D. C., held its third annual election of officers on January 8. John Pursell was elected president; Charles Longfellow, Jr., secretary, and Harold Snow, chief operator. The club is the possessor of a number of valuable instruments. Persons interested in wireless telegraphy are invited to attend meetings of the organization and to correspond with the secretary at 3038 R street, Washington, D. C. The Society for Radio Research has been organized in Atlanta, Ga. D. Martin is president; A. Corey, vice-president and secretary, and F. Caldwell, treasurer and consulting engineer. Headquarters and the library of the society are at the home of the secretary, 379 North Jackson street. All correspondence should be addressed to Secretary Corey. A series of lectures has been prepared, which all interested in wireless are cordially invited to attend. The Dot and Dash Club has been organized in East Orange, N. J., for the study of wireless telegraphy. The officers are as follows: President, Charles Summers; vice-president, Courtney Whitman; secretary, Thomas Brothers. The Mountain States Radio Association has been organized at Denver, Colo., for the purpose of promoting wireless communication among the amateurs of the Rocky Mountain region. Two meetings have been held. The following officers have been elected: President, D. L. Clark; vice-president, R. S. Whitaker; secretary, C. F. Neumann; treasurer, A. J. Winterer; chief operator, E. R. La Duke. The club is made up entirely of licensed members. A time-sending service has been inaugurated, and time as received by the chief operator from Arlington is sent out nightly at 9 o'clock on a 200-meter wave-length. Communications from other clubs are invited and should be sent to the secretary at 1523 South Ogden street, Denver, Colo. A club to be known as the Astoria (Ore.) Amateur Wireless Association was organized recently at the home of E. P. Hawkins, No. 556 Grand Avenue. This is the first organization of its kind ever formed in Astoria. The following officers were elected: President, E. P. Hawkins; vice-president, Carl Josephson; secretary-treasurer, Charles Gratke. H. L. Tabke has been appointed chairman of the Library Committee. The duty of this committee is to appoint a member in the second week of each month to prepare a paper on some interesting feature of wireless activity. Mr. Josephson has been appointed chairman of the Electrical Committee, the duty of which is to arrange for some new experiment to be discussed and worked out at each weekly session. Mr. Hawkins has been elected chief operator. The organization will meet every Friday evening at the home of Mr. Hawkins, who has special quarters set aside for a complete wireless outfit. He owns a 1 k.w. set. The object of the association is to promote working acquaintanceship and general wireless study for amateurs. Magazines relating to the subject will be kept on file. During the summer months it is planned to establish a camp with portable wireless outfits. As soon as the project becomes feasible permanent quarters in the downtown section will be secured. The organization will eventually become affiliated with the National Amateur Wireless Association. At the last meeting of the Binghamton Progressive Radio Association announcement was made that the association had cleared itself of all debts. It now possesses a valuable clubhouse at Glenwood avenue and Main street. The club has been in existence for a year and has had phenomenal success. Many subjects of interest in wireless have been discussed, including that of local amateur interference. A considerable number of lectures have been given and more are planned. The Irvington (N. J.) Radio Club maintains a home of its own at 55 Linden avenue. It possesses a receiving set on which it has heard Colon, and it is expected that messages from points further distant will be copied when the 70-foot aerial which is now being planned is erected. The officers of the club are as follows: President, Herman E. Enderwoods; vice-president, William G. Hunt; recording secretary, Jacob Foerster; corresponding secretary, Alfred C. Oechler; treasurer, Clarence Rossnagle; assistant treasurer, Harold Godby; librarian, Orlando Earl; chairman Good and Welfare Committee, George T. Grieshaber. All communications should be addressed to the corresponding secretary, No. 82 Smith street, Irvington, N. J. He has written as follows: "All the members are interested readers of the Wireless Age and the librarian has his hands full when there is a call for the book which we find so helpful to us. "Several members are interested in the Amateur Wireless Association." M. B. West, of Lima, Ohio, writes as follows: "In reference to the article by R. H. E. Matthews, published in the "From and For Those Who Help Themselves" department in the February issue of The Wireless Age. "Such work as the author has been doing is not at all uncommon among amateurs in the Middle West, and his record is all the more notable because of the fact that signals from the vicinity of Chicago seem to fade or swing a great deal worse than in other localities at even greater distance. Much of this work is done on a wave-length of almost exactly 200 meters. For instance, 9KU at Winnetka, Ill., was tuned to exactly 200 meters by the radio inspector of his district and used one of the old style $ \frac{3}{4} $ k.w. Packard transformers and has often equalled if not exceeded Mr. Matthews' records. I, myself, often talked with him for half an hour at a time as fast as we could send and with no repeats or long calls for adjustment. In fact most of the amateurs in and around Chicago are tuned almost exactly on 200 meters and I know of none that are doing good work whose sets are emitting two waves. 9JC, at Racine, Wis., is tuned to 200 meters, and his signals are so loud at my station that I can easily read him when in the next room, some thirty feet from the 'phones. I am using an ordinary Brandes superior 2000-ohm set. "I have worked satisfactorily under ordinary winter night conditions with moderate Q R M, 2JD, 2KK, 2IB, 3NB, 4AA, 4CL, 9TP, 9LO, 9DM, 9BD, 9DB, 9FY, 9NN, 9SP, 9HQ and many others, and the same can be said by a considerable number of amateurs in the Middle West. Under exceptional conditions have done better than this. My set is tuned to 214 meters, which is near enough to 200 for all practical purposes, and, while not tuned exceptionally sharp, emits only one wave. When sharply tuned it covers the same distances, but takes too much jamming around with long calls to get an answer. As to daylight summer work, I have no trouble to work stations within a radius of 100 miles through any but the very worst 'static.' "I believe it will be found upon investigation that most of these successful stations are adjusted to the exact balance required between gap speed, condenser capacity and transformer voltage, and that the majority of them are using short antenna with very low resistances. There are comparatively few such stations in the East, but the fact that there are some would indicate that the difference was in the transmitters and not in conditions or locality." New apparatus that will extend the sending power of the courthouse installation to more than 500 miles has been purchased by the Minneapolis Wireless Club. The new sending devices will place the station in direct communication with Chicago, Duluth, Milwaukee and other large cities. The new set will be of 1 k.w. type. The club has accepted the resignations of President William Reynolds and elevated Claude Sweeney, vice-president and station operator, to the presidency. Progress along all lines was reported at a recent meeting of the Washington Radio Association, in Trenton, N. J. A letter from the National Amateur Wireless Association, congratulating the Trenton Club on being one of the first organizations in New Jersey to receive a charter of membership in the national body, was read by President Pillsbury. Plans are being made for the installation of a high-power transmitter at the headquarters of the association in the Washington Market Building. All amateurs in Trenton are invited to attend the weekly meetings, which are held each Thursday evening. The death of Virgil Simpson, who had been active in amateur wireless in St. Louis, occurred on February 4. He was one of several students who installed the wireless station at Christian Brothers' College and he was actively in charge of the station until his graduation in June, 1914. Since then he had continued to take an interest in it and spent much of his spare time in the college laboratory. He was 21 years old. The data given for the dimensions of the coil, L-4, in the article "How to Conduct a Radio Club," in the January, 1916, issue of The Wireless Age, page 244, read incorrectly. It should have read as follows: The coil, L-3, the secondary winding for the coil, L-4, may be 5 inches in length by 4$ \frac{1}{2} $ inches in diameter, etc. William H. Kerwan, of 9XE, who initiated the New Year's call described in last month's Wireless Age, ushered in Washington's Birthday with a general call for preparedness. It was picked up officially by at least 5,000 amateurs. Wireless Equipped Aeroplanes in Warfare Radio Flying Machines an Important Feature in Plans for Our Coast Defense The successful wireless experiments by aeroplane carried out at Hendon. Mr. Valentine's Bristol monoplane is being fitted with the installation, only 40 feet of wire being necessary to complete the station on the aeroplane. The experiments proved successful. "It's the scout of the air. It's faster than the fastest ship, with a voice that can talk to the gunner waiting on land or sea, half a hundred miles away." The man who spoke these words had just spent six months abroad. And for the first time in that period his words were "uncensored." "If you'd heard the explosions—bombs from a German airship, dropping down on the heart of London—you'd say with me, we need such scouts by the thousand. And that's the way they guard Paris, day and night. The scouts are always up, armed with cannon—inch-and-a-half Hotchkiss guns, ready to fight or to warn the men at the anti-aircraft guns below." The speaker is one of the greatest authorities on aeronautics in the country. The air scout of which he spoke was the wireless equipped aeroplane. He had seen it in operation. That was the reason for the emphasis he laid on his words. One could divine that events such as he had witnessed had left an indelible impression on his mind. The conclusions he had derived from practical observations, are, moreover, the opinions of the best minds in the country that have devoted themselves to a study of this subject. Many of these men have formulated plans for our coast defense, one of the chief features of which is the aero-radio signal corps. It is the voice of the wireless equipped aeroplane that must warn our country of a coming foe. It is the deadly enemy of the submarine, as the submarine is fearsome to the dreadnought. "The United States should have 2,000 aeroplanes," says Henry Woodhouse, governor of the Aero Club of America, MAPS SHOWING HOW OUR COAST WOULD BE DIVIDED INTO PROTECTION "ZONES" UNDER AERO-RADIO SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. Proposed aero-radio zones to balk a possible enemy and give this country time to strengthen its army and navy in case of sudden need. Cost of installing such a system of coast defense would not be great and its maintenance in time of peace would be no financial burden. This aero-wireless system of coast defense has been endorsed by President Wilson, the Secretary of War and the Secretary of the Navy. This plan provides for the patrolling of all our coasts by forty-four aeroplanes, and these, with the wireless installation, receiving stations, hangars and other equipment, would cost less than $500,000. There would be three shifts of aviators, or 132 men, and these, with forty telegraphers, would be able to man the whole system. Maine would have three stations or zones; Massachusetts, Rhode Island and New Jersey, one zone; Virginia and North Carolina, two zones; South Carolina, three zones; Georgia, one zone; Florida, nine zones; Alabama, one zone; Mississippi, one zone; Louisiana, three zones; Texas, three zones; California, eight zones, and Oregon and Washington, two zones each. “and it has but twenty. This is our deplorable situation in a nutshell.” Henry A. Wise Wood expresses the belief that the time has come in the development of aeronautics when aerial fleets must be reckoned with as vital arms in a country’s means of defense. Of the aeroplane afloat, he says: “It is an incomparable scout, with three times the speed of a ship of the line; it may go far afield in its work and regain its vessel at will; and with a trained observer and wireless outfit, it can communicate its discoveries while within fifty miles of its base.” John Hays Hammond, Jr., has formulated an excellent system of protective surveillance to guard our coast fortifications, the country’s second line of defense. He submitted the details to the Aero Club of America. His defensive plan embraces the construction of inexpensive radio receiving stations along shore, one hundred miles apart, provided with aeroplanes equipped with wireless, which, he believes, will make it possible to protect the Atlantic and Pacific coasts and the Mexican border. The proposal has been laid before the heads of the National Guard and the Naval Militia and of the States, which are co-operating with the Club in developing aviation corps in the National Guard and Naval Militia. In presenting a drawing of the northeastern division of our coast line, Mr. Hammond says: “I have shown five areas of fifty-mile radius, constituting the patrol areas for five aero scouts. In the centre (approximately) of each area is situated a radio receiving station connected with land lines. Each aero scout is equipped with a radio transmitter of sixty-mile daylight radius. Each scout is in constant communication with his central radio station, and each station is directly connected by phone or telegraph with the existing land system. “The movement of ships, their disposition and the strategy of the enemy will be readily discovered with the information obtained from scouts covering such an extended front. An intelligent understanding of the enemy’s purpose would be gained and our forces could be concentrated at decisive points to meet the invader. “From New York to Mount Desert, five areas would be located. From New York to the Mexican border, seventeen would be established, and on the Pacific coast there would be eleven more." Mr. Hammond's proposed coast patrol is regarded as an invaluable aid to our established coast defenses, as well as to our mobile forces, for the aeroplane has proved itself an efficient aid in gunfire, especially where the range has got beyond the reach of the masthead spotters, as well as where indirect fire is necessary. Hydroaeroplane Zones Another plan for the defense of our seacoast by the use of hydroaeroplanes has been formulated by an air strategist, Captain Virginius E. Clark, of the Aviation Corps, U. S. A. This scheme was first made public in an issue of the Coast Artillery Journal, published by the officers of the Coast Artillery Corps. Captain Clark, an Annapolis man, was graduated from the Naval Academy in 1907, and after two years of service afloat, was transferred at his own request to the coast artillery arm of the army. He prepared a strategic map of the Atlantic coast line from a point below Roanoke Sound, N. C., to another just north of Portland, Me. In this way he divided the coast into three hydroaeroplane zones, the centre of the northern zone being Boston; of the central zone, New York, and of the southern zone, Fort Monroe, Va. "In discussing," says Captain Clark, "the adaptation of the hydroaeroplane to coast reconnaissance, I will assume that the machine will always carry two men, who will divide between them the duties of pilot, observer and signalman, and be provided with compass, other instruments, and a signal transmitting equipment. For some purposes the latter should be a wireless outfit; and for others, a smoke-puff device, such as a cylinder containing soot with apertures which can be opened and closed by the signalman." This description of the air strategist lends emphasis to the fact that extraordinary advances in aeroplane construction have been made every few months since the great war began in Europe. The original German Taube, a marvel at the commencement of the war, has long since been superseded by other craft, the latest model being the Fokker monoplane. French machines, originally armed with small machine guns, are now mounted with guns of larger calibre. As I write this, Great Britain is said to have placed an order in this country for ten torpedo-carrying triplane hydroaeroplanes, each carrying six men, and a $3\frac{1}{2}$-inch rapid-fire gun in addition to machine guns. And smoke-bombs and smoke-puff devices are being rapidly superseded by wireless directions for the location of targets. "Practical tests in France," continues Captain Clark, "have shown that a compact wireless outfit, weighing only about sixty pounds with antenna, and not interfering with the flight of the aeroplane, is capable of sending messages sixty miles, under ordinary conditions. "In the map have been indicated roughly three flight courses, illustrating a plan by which, in case of an expected approach by hostile men-of-war or transports, three hydroaeroplanes may effect a more complete reconnaissance of our North Atlantic coast waters by making, back and forth, daily flights of three hours' duration, than would be possible by employing a score of the fastest destroyers. "On a day of average atmospheric transparency, an observer in a machine flying at a height of 2,000 feet could make out a fleet of vessels at a distance of at least fifty nautical miles. After he had entered the area in which the enemy would be visible to at least one of the flying scouts, the size of the fleet, the character of his vessels, and the direction of his movement would be reported to the waiting coast defense commanders. The report would at the very least, give the Coast Artillery personnel at New York, Fort Monroe, Boston and Philadelphia, fifteen hours, and at the other fortified points within the zone, eight hours in which to prepare powder, fire trial shells, and even, possibly, provide more troops for the points not threatened and those that appeared to be in danger. In the meantime the enemy would be utterly unaware of the presence of the air scout. It is impossible to see or hear an aeroplane at a distance of even ten miles. "A hydroaeroplane equipped with wireless, circling over a line normal to the line of fire drawn from the target, as close to the target as safety permitted, could, by using a simple code, keep the fire commanders on shore constantly informed as to the proper range corrections." Indeed, as Mr. Marconi recently pointed out, aeroplanes with a small wireless outfit can remain in the enemy's zone, and continue their scouting operations while still in touch with their own army and communicating with their headquarters. Here we see then the lines of thought and effort to which men of public spirit and enterprise, with military and scientific knowledge, are devoting their attention today, in the conviction that aircraft equipped with wireless are a prime essential in the plans for the protection of the first and second lines of our country's defense. While these are studying the strategical and tactical values of the wireless-equipped aeroplane and hydroaeroplane, the best inventive minds of the United States and in fact of the world, are seeking the development of the wireless equipment best adapted to aircraft and elaboration of methods for the control and operation of torpedoes and other forms of explosives by wireless. Rear Admiral Bradley Allen Fiske, of the Navy War College, has already succeeded in converting the seaplane into an aerial torpedo craft, so arranging it that a torpedo may be launched from it with ease and precision. Admiral Fiske has already taken out fifty-seven patents and has three more pending. He invented, in 1890, what has come to be known as the Sir Percy Scott method of pointing guns on shipboard, and in 1904 he conceived the turret range finder. His recently patented invention is, in effect, an aerial torpedo boat—a hydroaeroplane from which a torpedo may be discharged into the water. In recently describing his invention, Admiral Fiske said he wished to correct a misapprehension regarding the possibilities of the aerial torpedo boat, in that it could be used in attacking a fleet in a land-locked harbor. "This would," he said, "be difficult to achieve without the destruction of the aeroplane, which probably would be destroyed before reaching the fleet. What I had in mind was rather an attack on a fleet in the open sea, or one which had taken refuge in a large inland body of water of considerable size, where the aeroplanes could rise over some intervening hills and would have plenty of room and some opportunity to discharge their torpedoes before the gunners of the fleet could attack them." Admiral Fiske said he first became interested in the subject of steering torpedoes by wireless in July, 1897, while stationed at Chemulpo, Korea, and reading of the work that had been accomplished by various scientists in sending an electric signal across space. Edison and Sims, he said, had already worked on the plan of steering a torpedo by wire, and it occurred to him that this could be simplified by doing it without wires. He invented at that time a device for the wireless steering of torpedoes, and since then, he said, John Hays Hammond, Jr., has done excellent work along similar lines. "A torpedo," said Admiral Fiske, "is steered by wireless through the means of two solenoids which are affected by impulses transmitted by Hertzian waves of varying periodicity. Thus the touching of one key at the sending station will turn it to the right and another to the left. Mr. Hammond, I understand, can control torpedoes by wireless as far distant as twenty-eight miles if need be; he can make any ordinary torpedo into a dirigible by the use of certain slight modifications. I understand that as a matter of experiment, he has found that he can even control torpedoes by his voice, pitching it on different notes to affect the steering apparatus in various ways. "Now the uses of such a torpedo are obvious. You do not have to aim a torpedo and trust to luck that the ship you are firing at will be in the line on which the torpedo is going when the torpedo gets there. You can even fire a torpedo from the opposite side of your ship to that on which the enemy is situated, directing the torpedo clear around your own ship and then sending it at the enemy. As he turns you can turn your torpedo. Aside from a ship, it could be furthermore operated from shore or from an aeroplane. In coast defense, especially of some such body of water as Chesapeake Bay, it would be invaluable, for from small hidden stations on the shore, torpedoes could be discharged as well as from destroyers or submarines. "It may be said that under such conditions the chances of hitting the hostile ship might be slight. That difficulty will be obviated by the use of 'spotting' aeroplanes, such as are now used in artillery firing. An airman, high above the enemy's position, signals back to the battery far away in his rear what changes in elevation should be made in order to drop the shells with better effect. So a 'spotting' aeroplane could signal back to the shore station from which the torpedo is directed; or when a torpedo is once launched from shore, it could be steered by an apparatus in the aeroplane. "The hydroplane torpedo boat, after rising to a great height, could direct its own torpedo in this way." Admiral Fiske expresses the belief that torpedoes have been launched from aeroplanes in the present war. "It is the natural tendency of the American people," he added, "to expect their inventors in time of war to think up devices which will offset the initial superiority of their enemies." This naval expert apparently refers to the mysterious explosions that have occurred on and destroyed the warships Bulwark, Princess Irene, Natal and the Benedetto Brin. These "war mysteries" have stimulated the imaginations of scores of war correspondents, and long series of real or imaginary inventions and devices have been described in glowing and unscientific terms ever since the commencement of the war. Thus a dispatch from Rotterdam some months ago described an aerial torpedo which it was purposed to use in the new super-Zeppelins. It was described as being made of aluminum, and filled with gas when discharged from a tube in the airship. These 1. Transformer 2. Choke coils 3. Condensers 4. Jigger primary 5. Jigger secondary 6. Connections to Disc Discharger 7. Aerial and earth terminal torpedoes, it was said, are sustained by gas and controlled by wireless from the airship. They can be directed from a great distance and exploded at any point required. It was said that this device was an elaboration of an invention by a Swedish officer. Time alone must show whether these subjects so treated are mere "war romances" or actual devices. Marconi Aeroplane Set There can be no dispute, however, of the fact that the aerial scout, equipped with wireless, has emerged from the pages of romance to assume a definite place in modern fighting equipment. And there has been a wide application of wireless to military aircraft, and a continuation of marked development. The type I. Marconi aeroplane set, for example, has been so developed that it may be adapted to any type of machine. A consideration of the utmost importance has been the effecting of a wide margin for the distribution of weight, so the set has been made up into several separately contained units, which may be fitted underneath the pilot's seat and in any position; even placed upside down, if necessary. Figure 1 gives the front and side views of the disc discharger attached to the shaft of the motor generator. The generator is run by a belt drive from the motor of the aeroplane and absorbs less than two-thirds of one horsepower. The dynamo can be supported by a horizontal tube at X, one and one-eighth inches in diameter, and with the lugs at Y, in which case the supporting pedestal shown is not required. The total weight of the generator and disc discharger is 80 pounds. ![Diagram](image) Fig. 3.—(1) Receiver, (2) Batteries, (3) Battery cutout, (4) Telephones, (5) Manipulating key, (6) Aerial tuning inductance, (7) Aerial tuning condenser, (8) Crystal holders, (9) Valve tuning condenser, (10) Intensifier, (11) Potentiometer Primary or secondary batteries can also be used, and if the latter type are adopted, a special unspillable accumulator case is supplied, preventing acid from splashing out and damaging the machine in the event of a rough landing or a fall. The transmitting unit, shown in detail in Figure 2, is contained in a polished hardwood case and weighs 8.4 pounds. The portable receiver, shown in Figure 3, is built exceptionally light, weighing less than 20 pounds. A general view of the equipment fitted to a monoplane now in use by the French and Belgian armies is shown in an accompanying drawing. Using the upper pylon, B, as a mast, the aerial wire is run once around the plane from tail to wing tips and back, the remainder of the wire trailing from the extreme end of the tail skid. A counterpoise capacity is used in place of a ground connection, or in place of other trailing wire used when the outfit is fitted on a biplane. The plan to the left of the drawing shows a general view of the antenna seen from the above plane. The three united units are placed in the cockpit of the monoplane in front of the pilot's or observer's seat, with the receiving unit and manipulating key so placed to the right of either of them that adjustments can be made on the tuning coils or the key be operated by either one. All parts are highly insulated and there is no danger of either person receiving an electric shock. The aerial trailing wire attached to the tail skid is fitted with a safety catch adjusted to stand only as much strain as it would be subjected to when the machine is flying; in the event of its becoming entangled in trees, housetops or any other obstruction, it frees itself immediately. Aerial trailers lost in this fashion are replaced by spare wires provided for the purpose. As the wave-length is comparatively short, the receiving apparatus is seldom troubled by interference and little adjustment is required in tuning. This efficient aeroplane equipment has recently been applied with success to submarines, an insulated jet of water being used as an aerial conductor. There were two sizes of wireless sets for use on aeroplanes in the French army and navy at the beginning of the war. According to a description in the Aerial Age, the smaller of the two had a range of about 62 miles and weighed complete about 77 pounds. The larger set, weighing about 105 pounds, had a range of 124 miles. The aerial consists of a bronze cable about three sixty-fourths of an inch in diameter, having at its loose end a spindle of sufficient weight to cause it to unroll from the drum and to give the tension required. The aerial is cast loose after the aeroplane has taken flight, and owing to the weight of its free end, and the speed of the machine, it trails in a nearly horizontal position, offering so little resistance to the air that this feature is negligible. Ordinarily this cable is wound on a spool with insulated sides and handle, and the spool is fitted with a circular device so arranged that the cable may be wound or unwound without interrupting the operation of the apparatus. It also permits the rapid turning of the different circuits. A cutter with insulated handle enables the operator instantly to sever the cable in case any situation should arise where- ![Fig. 4.—Bethenod Magneto-Alternator](image) ![Fig. 5.—Oscillating Circuit](image) metallic parts of the machine being connected together electrically. The metallic parts, which are insulated from each other, or in which the contact is poor, are carefully joined by means of very small electric connections. The aerial is indirectly excited by means of a musical note transmitter consisting of a generator, transformer, oscillating circuit and manipulating key. The generator consists of a special Betherod magneto-alternator having an output of 350 watts, low tension, and giving 800 sparks per second. This alternator (Fig. 4), does not have any current collecting rings or commutator, and as a result it is extremely strong and simple. The generator is driven from the aeroplane motor either by a friction drive or by gearing. For the larger set a special Betheronod resonance alternator, as illustrated in Fig. 7, is provided, and it is driven from the motor in the same way that the smaller set is driven. This generator has a normal output of 750 watts, 1,500 cycles, at a speed of 4,500 revolutions per minute. Generally speaking, this generator is of the same type as those used in land stations and portable military stations. The oscillating circuits (Fig. 5) of both sets are arranged so as to give a wavelength of 400 meters, and consist of a condenser, having a capacity of .001 microfarad, and a spark gap, which in the smaller set is of the point and plate type; while in the larger set the electrodes are in the form of a tube and a plate, which is fitted with a special ventilating arrangement. A high frequency ammeter is also connected in the circuit. The aerial for the larger set is similar in general design to that used with the smaller station, as is also the variometer, which allows the wave-length to be instantly varied in a continuous manner without interrupting the operation of the transmitter; and transmitting is effected on the low tension primary circuit, by means of a light sending key, in both sets. With certain modifications these two types, which have been designed primarily for use on aeroplanes, may be used on seaplanes. As the seaplane station must be capable of being operated while the plane is on the water, an independent source of supply of energy is the first requisite to maintain communication while the motor is shut down and a new scheme is also necessary for the aerial. To furnish power when the seaplane motor is still, a light water-cooled single-cylinder motor, developing 1 B.H.P., and weighing 20 pounds, is provided with the 62-mile set, while the motor for the 124-mile set weighs 39 pounds, has two cylinders, and develops 3 B.H.P. In both sets the motor drives the alternator by means of a belt. The receiving sets weigh about two pounds and are fitted with both crystal and electrolytic detectors and very sensitive loud-speaking double headgear telephones to enable the operator to receive signals when the motor is running. The 'phones are also combined with the aviators' helmets in order to facilitate reception. When the machine is in the air, the aerial cable is unrolled beneath the craft, but when the plane is on the surface of the water, the end of the cable is attached to a special type of box kite, of very small dimensions when closed, and when opened has a surface area of 80 square feet, which is sufficient to keep it up even in a very light breeze. The kite opens quickly, and there is nothing for the operator to do but to fasten the end of the aerial to it and allow it to unwind as he descends. This box kite arrangement gives a much longer range than is possible while the seaplane is in flight. Where it is undesirable to install an auxiliary motor, it is possible to have an equipment consisting of a musical vibrator (Fig. 8), with its condenser, an induction coil, spark gap with point and plate electrodes, sending key, etc. The energy in this case is furnished by a battery of accumulators of light weight, which supply current for the set for a period of ten hours continuously, and the total weight of the set would be 70 pounds. The output of this apparatus is 50 watts, and it is possible to transmit about 50 miles during the daytime. Other Ingenious Minds It may prove a stimulus to other ingenious minds to learn what problems are being considered or have been solved by inventors in connection with wireless equipped aeroplanes. An American recently obtained a patent, the primary objects of which are the accomplishment of efficient communication between moving bodies, such as balloons and flying machines and other stations situated either on the earth or on other moving vehicles. The invention in the illustration (Fig. 10), is applied to a flying machine proper to enable it to communicate with the shore or ships or other flying machines. The drawing represents the apparatus in diagram. The inventor says that he overcomes difficulties and gains other advantages by substituting for antenna, two extended surfaces of conducting material arranged horizontally so as to form the two capacities of a horizontal antenna. By making these capacities of sheets of aluminum foil, for example, they may be applied to the structure of a vessel, as on balloons or aeroplanes. An additional advantage, he says, is gained by the ability to place the capacity surfaces in a horizontal or in any other desired plane, and thus give directive effect to the messages, so that a scout could communicate with his own camp without sending signals in the enemy's direction. As arranged, for example in the drawing, which represents such a machine as the Wright aeroplane, the main supporting planes are of stretched canvas; on these, placed to the right and left of the machine, are provided surfaces of metal such as tin or aluminum foil. From these surfaces conductors are run to the signaling instruments, which are here shown for simplicity as a spark gap and a receiver. An entirely different view of the application of wireless to aeroplanes is taken by a German inventor, who has taken out a patent on an antenna structure designed so as not to interfere with the ordinary construction or operation of the aeroplane (Fig. 11). The inventor maintains that the difficulty arises in application of wireless to flying machines; that land or sea is not close enough when the machine is in flight to serve as one of the elements, so that both of the antenna elements must be carried on the machine. He says he has found that there are several essential requirements to be met in applying wireless transmitting or receiving equipments to aeroplanes. The antenna structure should be arranged so as to effect a substantially uniform radiation of the electric waves on all sides and parallel to the earth and to have a considerable range, while the electrical characteristics should remain substantially constant under all conditions of flight. These requirements for an aeroplane, he asserts, are nicely met in accordance with his invention by consolidating one element of the antenna structure with the aeroplane structure, either by utilizing the conducting parts thereof or by mounting wires on the structure; and in forming the second by the use of an insulating mast and conductors. He discovered by experiment that a mast of more than six meters or thereabouts may render the aeroplane unstable or unsafe, but that a mast of the kind herein shown of a height within this limit is sufficient to give the desired range of transmission to the wireless equipment. In the drawing he shows in perspective view a biplane of ordinary form, having the supporting planes, 1 and 2, the landing gear, 3, and the frame, 4. The steel tube, 5, is rigidly mounted on the frame. With the gable arrangement of the wires, 8, it is permissible to extend the steel tube above the upper supporting plane. The bamboo mast, 7, extends in a substantially vertical direction from the tube, 5. The wireless transmitting and receiving mechanism of suitable type is mounted in the aeroplane and is connected on one side with the aeroplane structure and on the other side with the elevated element of the antenna structure by means of the conductor, 10. A third difference in application is shown in a patent obtained by a French inventor, who reasons that in fitting up a wireless telegraph station upon an aeroplane, it is of great importance that in operation there shall be absolute protection from the possibility of the aviator's receiving a fatal or other electric shock. (Fig. 12). The pilot, in particular, must not be exposed to the fear of accident through coming in contact with the installation. In fitting up a station on the aeroplane with floating antenna, that is, a wire hanging beneath the aeroplane, he asserts that all the fixed parts of the installation can be perfectly insulated. The winch, however, for rolling up and unrolling the antenna presents greater difficulty in the matter of perfect insulation, he adds, and emphasizes the fact that the winch is the part of the apparatus which has to be most often manipulated. His invention relates to a general arrangement of the installation, by which a tension node is obtained at the starting point of the antenna, that is to say at the winch upon which it is rolled. In this way the insulating of this portion becomes very simple and the dangers of sparks or electrification through contact with this part are practically eliminated. The drawing (Fig. 12) shows an example of this arrangement and a diagram of the same arrangement. It shows an aeroplane which is provided with a wireless installation constructed according to the invention. Such are some of the problems confronting the men who are studying the potential value of the wireless equipped aeroplane, its construction, its strategy. "We need such scouts by the thousands!" To the scientist, the inventor, the patriot, here is a study worth a life's endeavor. Fig. 12.—In this invention, its creator uses floating antenna, but insulates the installation to prevent the aviator or pilot from receiving an electric shock. FIRST PRIZE, TEN DOLLARS A Novel Dead-End Switch for Receiving Transformers In looking over the designs of dead-end eliminating switches described by amateurs, I find that the majority are constructed so that insulating material passes directly over the electrical contacts with the consequent danger of fouling. The switch which I present in the accompanying drawings entirely eliminates the difficulty by the device shown in detail in the lower righthand corner of Fig. 2. The manner in which this switch operates will be clear from an examination of the diagram of connections (Fig. 4), wherein it will be observed that the various sections of the tuner winding are designated at points 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8. These sections are disconnected from each other by means of a spring contact resting directly over the points of the multiple-point switch upon which the handle of the lever operates. As indicated in Fig. 4, sections 1 to 5 are in use, but 6, 7 and 8 are disconnected from the circuit at point a—that is to say, section 5 is metallically disconnected from section 6 by the lever of the switch, to which is attached a piece of hard rubber which separates the points, a and b, as shown in the detail of Fig. 2. It is to be noted that the contacts in the switch blade are mounted inside of the secondary tube which tends to protect them from dirt and oxidization. As shown in Fig. 3, a hard rubber knob and an adjustment scale are mounted on the outside of the tube. This scale should be divided to correspond with the number of contacts inside. The knob should carry a pointer attached in respect to the switch blade, so that the contact upon which it rests is clearly indicated. The switch blade may be cut from 1/16-inch spring brass; the dimensions will depend upon the diameter of the secondary tube. As shown in detail in the lower left-hand corner of Fig. 2, a groove should be filed in the switch blade to effect an edgewise contact. Small holes are drilled at the points indicated in the drawing to receive small copper rivets made from No. 14 wire. A piece of 1/16-inch hard rubber should be cut as shown in the same detail, and fastened to the switch blade by means of the rivets. As mentioned previously, this piece of rubber serves to break the circuit between each section of the tuner winding. The edge of the piece of hard rubber should be filed down to a wedge shape to allow it to slip under the spring contacts. The contacts can be purchased from an electrical supply house or made from brass machine screws by filing down the heads, which should be at least 3/4 of an inch in diameter. The spring contacts disconnecting the dead-end portion are indicated at g (Fig. 1) and also in the detail B (Fig. 2). They should be made of spring brass or phosphor bronze about 3/4 of an inch in width. The portion that extends beyond the contact making piece is curved upwards at both edges, thus affording a smooth surface for entry of the hard rubber piece, thereby raising the spring off the contact, R. The portion of the spring, A, is doubled back in order that operates over a considerable range of wave lengths. Norman R. Hood, Iowa. SECOND PRIZE, FIVE DOLLARS A ¼ K. W. Cabinet Transmitting Set of Unusual Compactness The majority of amateurs desire transmitting sets that will take up small space and at the same time will give a high degree of efficiency. A side view of a set of this type is shown in Fig. 1 and a top view in Fig. 2, with the accompanying necessary dimensions. The cabinet may be either of birch or mahogany and contains the closed core transformer and the high potential condenser. Hard rubber bushings are used to insulate the leads from the transformer to the condenser, while the primary leads are brought out to binding posts on the side of the case. With a little patience on the part of the builder this switch can be easily constructed. I believe it will make an improvement in any receiving tuner which the cabinet. Connections are made to the plates by two 1/4-inch brass rods with spring brass clips extending down between the plates. The rods are held in position by means of a small block of fibre placed underneath the end of each rod. A binding post fitted with a hard rubber bushing is then mounted directly above each rod to which connections are made by a piece of stranded wire which should have sufficient length to allow the hinged lid indicated in Fig. 2 to be raised up. An inductively-coupled oscillation transformer or helix is mounted directly above the transformer. The primary consists of four turns of edgewise wound copper strip, $10\frac{3}{4}$ inches in diameter, and the secondary of eight turns of the same material, $7\frac{1}{2}$ inches in diameter. The latter is mounted on an upright rod so that the coupling between the windings can be altered as desired. The rotary spark gap can be of any design suitable to the builder, but the one which I employ has sixteen plugs mounted on a disc $3\frac{1}{2}$ inches in diameter, which in turn is fitted to a 1/20 horsepower motor revolving at the rate of 5,000 revolutions per minute. On each corner of the motor base I glued a piece of sponge rubber about one inch square to absorb all possible vibration. When the transmitting set is connected up, as per the drawings, it will be found that the connecting leads between the component parts of the transmitting circuit are very short, which will tend to make for efficiency and will allow the full power at a wave-length of 200 meters. John B. Coleman, Pennsylvania. THIRD PRIZE, THREE DOLLARS An Eighty Foot Mast for Long Distance Transmitting For the amateur who seeks long distance records, a tall and strong mast for support of the aerial wires is essential to success. Here is a description of a completely satisfactory design suitable for all amateur requirements: The mast proper is shown in Fig. 8. The following timber is required: One piece, 4 inches by 4 inches by 30 feet; a second piece, 3 inches by 4 inches by 30 feet, and a third piece 3 inches by 3 inches by 30 feet. In the first named piece bore a half-inch hole 16 inches from the end, and 16 inches further down bore a similar hole. Bore a hole of the same size and in corresponding places in the 3-inch by 4-inch by 30-foot piece, and at the opposite end bore four holes as indicated at Fig. 1. At the lower end of the 3-inch by 3-inch by 30-foot piece bore four more holes corresponding to those of the 3-inch by 4-inch by 30-foot piece. Next have a blacksmith make five ring nuts, as indicated in Fig. 2; two clamps as shown in Fig. 3, and four iron strips as at D in Fig. 1. The ring nuts are intended to take the place of ordinary nuts for the ring bolts. It will be seen that this combination is the means of fastening the guy wires to the mast. The length of the shank of the ring bolt varies, one being $4\frac{5}{8}$ inches, the second $3\frac{7}{8}$ inches, the third 7 inches and the remaining two $3\frac{7}{8}$ inches. These are used for the lower, second center, fourth and top sets of guy wires, respectively, as indicated in Fig. 8. All bolts are $\frac{3}{8}$ of an inch in diameter. The next step in the procedure is to bolt the 3-inch by 4-inch by 30-foot piece and the 3-inch by 3-inch by 30-foot sections together, using three $\frac{1}{2}$-inch bolts, 7 inches in length. In addition, place one ring bolt, using the iron strips in place of washers, thereby considerably strengthening the joints, as shown in Fig. 1. Returning to the first section: Bore a $3\frac{1}{4}$-inch hole 3 inches from the top and insert the $4\frac{5}{8}$-inch ring bolt, being sure to place it at right angles to the direction of the other bolt holes in this piece (see Fig. 8). Next construct two arms of 2-inch by 4-inch timber, about $2\frac{1}{2}$ feet in length, half lapping their ends and nail them to the 4 by 4, one foot from the top, as shown in Fig. 5. After nailing a sufficient number of strips on this piece, they are ready to be painted. Two coats of a good grade of white paint, allowing plenty of time for drying between the coats, are sufficient. While the paint is drying, construct the anchors for the guy wires, in the manner shown in Fig. 8, and note especially Fig. 4. Four pieces of wood, 6 inches by 6 inches by 3 feet, are buried to a depth of 3 feet and to these are attached four cables, 7 feet in length. To construct these loops, bend an eye in the cable to the desired size, leaving about 10 inches additional unstranded, as at A (Fig. 4). Then, after bending one of these strands at right angles to the cable, wind it tightly about the whole as at E, Fig. 4. At the end of the finished strand (6 feet) bend another at right angles and continue as before until it appears as at C in Fig. 4. With a wire splicer the foregoing operation is simple, but the work can be performed satisfactorily. After digging a hole two feet in depth, the bottom piece is ready for erection. This can be done with the aid of a few young men. Construct a dummy of two pieces, 2 inches by 4 inches by 20 feet in length, bolted together one foot from the top and set up as shown at E in Fig. 5. Place the butt of the piece to be erected over the hole and fasten the blocks to the top of the pole and the dummy. Then by pulling on the rope haul it up and securely guy it; also surround it with cement at the base. Now the top mast is erected in a manner similar to the first piece. Before erection, form a truss of the pulley rope by nailing a board, 6 feet in width by 5 feet in length, at the joint of the two top masts and pass a rope over this in a V-shaped groove cut in its end, tying it securely at the base of the section being raised. Note particularly F and G (Fig. 6). With this precaution there is no danger of the section bending dangerously as might otherwise be expected when it --- Fig. 1, Fourth Prize Article with a heavy pair of pliers. From the standpoint of cheapness it will be found that a neater or stronger anchor could not possibly be devised. Fig. 2, Fourth Prize Article Fig. 3, Fourth Prize Article is being raised from the ground to a vertical position. When the section of the mast has attained the position shown in Fig. 7, fasten two pieces of rope, H and H', about both poles to hold it steady and guard the further erection. Next climb the pole, remove the temporary truss, F, and place the blocks so that they appear as indicated in Fig. 7; one at the arm and another at the base of the top mast, to be raised. Sufficient competent help should be obtained to assist in raising the upper section. It is absolutely necessary to have a man at each anchor to pay out and control the guy wires as the mast rises. The free ends of the guy wires attached to the top of the center should be securely fastened to the anchor loop to prevent a "runout" and a certain fall at the top mast. Continue now to haul on the rope and when the pole has reached such a height that the bottom of the top mast is within four feet of the top of the 4 by 4 30-foot piece, pass two $ \frac{1}{2} $-inch bolts, 7$ \frac{1}{2} $ inches long, through their holes, tightening them well. Now take the iron clamps previously made for the purpose and place them as indicated at 1 in Fig 8; bolt them tight. When this task has been completed, tighten all the guy wires and insert turnbuckles in the top, center and lower sets to take up the slack from time to time. These three sets of wires should not be larger than 7-strand No. 18, heavily galvanized steel cable, and the remaining guys of No. 8 galvanized steel wire. All should have strain insulators every twelve or fifteen feet to reduce the absorption of the radiated energy while transmitting. To insure safety, the guys should be anchored at least 30 feet from the mast. The experimenter usually has his own ideas regarding the aerial wires, but I might state that I have found that the vertical type, as in Fig. 8, is well suited to amateur transmitting sets. Referring to Fig. 8, J J are the spreaders, each 12 feet in length; K, the aerial wires, of which there are four, each consisting of 7-strand No. 22 copper, 50 feet in length. L L are insulators, preferably of the electrose type, 4 inches in length, and M the lead-in insulator. Frank M. O'Neill, California. FOURTH PRIZE, SUBSCRIPTION TO THE WIRELESS AGE Details of the Primary Switch for Receiving Tuner After he has decided to build a receiving tuner along certain definite lines, the amateur experimenter frequently lacks the details of construction for a suitable primary switch to alter the inductance value a turn at a time. The design for a switch of this type is given in Figs. 1, 2 and 3. Referring to Fig. 2: The switch marked X is employed to cut in a single turn of the primary winding at each point of contact, while the switch, Y, alters the inductance by twelve turns at a time. The amount of inductance which each contact places in the circuit is, of course, optional with the builder, but the one of the dimensions herein given is found suitable for the average run of amateur work. It will be noted from the side view (Fig. 1) that the blade of the switch, X, presses against a brass ring held in place by two or three machine screws. The end of the switch arm is bent as shown to make contact with the ring. A connection lead extends from this ring to a binding post on the outside of the tuner. An electrical connection is made to the switch, Y, through the brass lever upon which it is mounted. It is preferred that the switch blade be made of either spring brass or phosphor bronze. This statement also applies to the spring, K, which is indicated in detail in Fig. 3. A piece of metal is cut as shown and the edges bent over. The necessary hard rubber knobs can be obtained from the Clapp-Eastham Company, and will fit the size bushing as shown. A detail of the wiring diagram is given in Fig. 2. If a condenser is placed in shunt to the primary winding, it may be found practical to include as many as two turns to each contact of the switch, X. The first method, however, is recommended, as generally increased strength of signals is obtained when the inductance value is varied by means of inductance alone. Complete details of the bushing are given in Fig. 3. R. NEUPERT, Pennsylvania. HONORARY MENTION An Easy Method for Shifting a Variable Condenser After the completion of our cabinet receiving set, I and my associates found it necessary, on account of the size of the aerial, to connect a condenser in series with the primary winding, to allow the reception of signals from amateur stations. We often found it desirable to connect this condenser in multiple or across the primary winding, the connections for which were effected by a D.P.D.T. switch. We were not satisfied with the appearance of this switch on polished hard rubber, so we worked out the multiple point switch along the lines shown in Figs. 1, 2, 3 and 4. The binding posts, acting as the pivots on which the switch blades turn, should be of the pattern shown in the W. S. Duck Company's catalogue, page 106, and known as No. 8-X. The 8/32 brass rods should be soldered into the lower half of the binding posts so that they turn, acting as pivots, although if desired, the blades could be made to turn on the binding posts. It is evident from the drawing that connections to the switch are made from the rear. A satisfactory diagram of connections is shown in Fig. 4. We were well pleased with the appearance of this switch and it is recommended to the amateur field. Edwin C. Pantke and Associate, Michigan. HONORARY MENTION An Electro Magnetic Aerial Switch An aerial change-over switch for rapid shifting of the aerial from a transmitting to a receiving position is requisite in any up-to-date station. By using a little ingenuity the parts of apparatus found in any amateur station may be employed to construct a change-over switch operated from a distant control switch. A side view of a complete switch of this type is shown in Fig. 1, a detail of the contact breaker in Fig. 2 and a front view in Fig. 3. The complete switch when assembled is preferably placed in a vertical position. The control magnet may be of the ordinary sounder type, having a resistance value of, say, ten ohms. The iron core is removed and in place thereof is substituted a sliding core, which is fastened to the levers, L and L-1. These, in turn, are fastened to the blades of the switch proper. When the circuit to the upper magnet is closed, the plunger is drawn in and the switch closed say, for example, to a sending position. When it is desired to receive, the push button of the second magnet is closed and the complete switch is drawn in the opposite direction. It becomes evident at once that the aerial switch may be placed on the ceiling of the room or outside the window, if desired, and operated from the inside as shown. The two blades of the switch are strengthened by means of the fibre bars in Fig. 3. The terminals of the secondary winding of the oscillation transformer for the transmitting set are connected to the switch contacts, M and M, while the terminals of the primary winding of the receiving transformer are connected to S and S'. The switch is fitted with a handle, H, so that in case the magnets become inoperative, it may easily be shifted by hand. Strict dimensions have not been given, as they may be altered to suit the needs of the individual builder. It is, however, suggested, in order that the magnets may work freely, that care be taken to see that the parts are not too cumbersome. I desire also to present to the readers of your magazine details of a slider, which I have found to be particularly effective and suitable for ordinary amateur purposes. The construction should be sufficiently clear from an examination of Figs. 4 and 5. O. E. Cote, Rhode Island. HONORARY MENTION Good Results Obtained With a Temporary Receiving Aerial During a recent windstorm which wrecked my aerial, it occurred to me to try out some of the schemes for temporary aerials, that have been described in The Wireless Age. We have a two-wire bell circuit that is placed the entire length of the house. Despite the fact that the wire is bare in many places and runs parallel to the 110-volt A. C. wires for about ten feet and under the house for six feet, it serves well as an aerial for receiving purposes. With the Armstrong circuit I have heard NAA (Radio, Va., 1,000 miles from here), XAB (Campeche, Mexico), WGN, WRU, WST and WIIK, with the head telephones fully two feet from my ears. Although I have seen numerous descriptions of such aerials and the ranges which have been covered, I do not recollect having read of anyone who has been able to cover an equal distance under the conditions referred to. I am inclined to believe that the energy in the bell circuit is set up by radiation from nearby telephone wires because the latter are at least 50 feet from any point of the bell wire circuit. The total length of the bell wire is about 300 feet. John M. Clayton, Arkansas. HONORARY MENTION A simple and efficient motor which will run on 110 volts alternating current can be constructed from an upright battery motor as follows: Remove the brushes, connect segments of commutator together, and rewind field to its fullest capacity with No. 24 D. C. C. copper magnet wire. Connections should be made, as indicated in the accompanying drawing, placing a thirty-two candlepower lamp in series with field and current. Howard R. Lee, California. ### Vessels Recently Equipped With Marconi Apparatus \| Names \| Owners \| Call Letters \| \|----------------\|---------------------------------------------\|--------------\| \| Munwood \| Munson Steamship Line \| KUH \| \| Paloma \| Munson Steamship Line \| XB \| \| Standard \| Standard Oil Company of New Jersey \| KIC \| \| Charles Pratt \| Standard Oil Company of New Jersey \| KSQ \| \| Senator Bailey \| Gulf Refining Company \| KGS \| \| Pearl Shell \| Pearl Shell Steamship Company \| WIC \| \| Strinda \| Ludwig Mowinckel \| LFO \| \| Clan Lamont \| Clan Line \| YON \| \| Yaguez \| Vacuum Oil Company \| (Not assigned) \| ### THE SHARE MARKET New York, February 16. Trading in Marconi shares has been somewhat quiet during the past month, with American steady between 3½ and 4¼. Bid and asked prices today: American 4-4¼; Canadian, 1½-1¾; English, preferred, 8½-11; English, common, 9-12½. ### OBITUARY Belvidere Brooks Belvidere Brooks, vice-president of the Western Union Telegraph Company, died suddenly of heart disease at his home, No. 116 Riverside Drive, New York City, on February 10. Mr. Brooks' career holds unusual interest, as he rose to the office he filled at the time of his death from the position of a messenger boy. Born in Wheelock, Texas, July 6, 1859, he mastered the Morse code while working in a store and at the age of twelve, entered the telegraph service as a messenger. Afterward he was employed in railroad work. In 1870 he entered the service of the Western Union Telegraph Company as operator, and the following year he was appointed manager of the Navasota, Texas, office. He was appointed manager of the Denver office in 1890, assistant superintendent in 1893, general superintendent of the Eastern Division in 1902, and general manager in 1910, after which he became vice-president. The funeral services were attended by men prominent in the telegraph world and included Edward J. Nally, vice-president and general manager of the Marconi Wireless Telegraph Company of America. ### DINNER IN HONOR OF DR. PUPIN At a dinner in his honor on the evening of February 17, at the University Club, New York City, Dr. Michael Idvorsky Pupin, of Columbia, electrical engineer and physicist, was officially notified by the French Academy that the Herbert Prize had been awarded to him for his "Method of Mathematical Analysis of Electrical Circuits," and for his "Discoveries and Inventions in Electrical Resonance, the Tuning of Electrical Circuits, and the Loading of Telephone Lines." Among those present was Edward J. Nally, vice-president and general manager of the Marconi Wireless Telegraph Company of America. ### WIRES DOWN, WIRELESS IS USED Marshall, Marin County, California, population seventy-five, became the center of all the wire business of the Pacific Coast for a few days recently. If it had not been for Marshall and Astoria, Oregon, San Francisco, Seattle and Portland would have been in a bad way. All the wires were down. Urgent messages dealing with Alaska had to be transmitted. The Marconi Wireless Telegraph Company of America arranged communications between Marshall and Astoria and an outlet for the traffic was found. The Lightship's Far-Flung Signals The Story of the Steel-Hulled Guardians of the Sea Coast That Warn the Storm-Bound Ships THIS is the season of storms and wrecks at sea, a time of year when probably no wireless stations afloat play so important a part in safeguarding our shipping as those aboard the lightships. The heaviest storms of the entire year sweep the coast during the late winter and early spring months, menacing even the largest vessels. From their lonely stations, standing guard before the danger points or harbor entrances, the lightships are called upon to render invaluable aid which in recent years has been enormously augmented in worth by the installation of wireless apparatus. A plan to extend these stations by placing wireless equipments upon every lightship along the entire coast line, is now being urged upon the Government, for wireless installations greatly increase the effective radius of the signals of the lightships, and is of course independent of weather conditions. It comes as a surprise to the layman to learn the actual distances the sea sentinel's warning signals will carry. The most powerful lights upon the ships, for instance, carry about thirteen miles under the most favorable conditions; the submarine signals with which some of the ships are supplied, can be heard perhaps ten miles. Bells and whistles on the other hand can be heard for very short distances when thick weather prevails, or through heavy rains, snow or fog — at times not more than a few yards. The wireless signal in contrast is effective in all extremes of weather and makes possible giving an approaching ship definite information a hundred miles or more in all directions. Deck view of the sea guardian, whose warning voice has a range of a hundred miles or more It is obvious, therefore, that wireless aboard the lightships is indispensable in safeguarding the lives of all those who go down to the sea in ships. The effective radius of one lightship overlaps that of the next in turn along the coast line, so that it is impossible for a ship to miss their signals. A broad safety zone is thus thrown about the danger points along the coast line. Many a ship in the past has been wrecked due to the inability of her men to read the danger signals thrown out by lighthouses, signal bells or whistles, or because the warning was received too late. Today the captain of an incoming steamer directs his course with perfect certainty and if any doubts arise, his question, asked by wireless, can be answered by the lightship in a few seconds. Not the least important advantage of the wireless installation aboard the lightships is that communication is thus established without interruption with the land. Long before the days of wireless, repeated attempts were made to establish communication with the lightships by means of undersea cables. A cable was laid at great expense to the Nantucket Lightship which is anchored upwards of fifty miles out to sea, but the results were never satisfactory. The Nantucket Lightship is in reality the point of departure for the great volume of oversea traffic leaving New York. It is the last substantial thing seen of the North American continent for the outward bound passenger and the first bit of America to greet the incoming steamer. The familiar phrase, "passed Nantucket," is flashed thousands of times in the course of a year from the lonely lightship to the shore stations to be repeated throughout the country. By these two words millions of people are reassured that the sea voyage is nearly over and that the friends or the shipments they are expecting are nearing port. And by means of this wireless intelligence, too, they are given ample time to reach the pier from any point within a considerable distance of New York. The public accepts this wonderful service as a matter of course without realizing the price in human effort, skill and patience which it entails. The wireless operator aboard one of these lightships lives doubtless the most isolated existence in many respects to be found upon the seven seas. He is anchored far out to sea and must carry on his lonely vigil for weeks at a time without relief. His ship sails no regular course and is constantly beat upon by the wind and waves. The lightships are usually of but a few hundred tons' burden and are tossed about like corks. Only the best of sailors can contrive to live aboard. Some idea of the extreme violence of the motion can be gained from the fact that in very stormy weather it is impossible for those on the vessel to eat from tables in the conventional manner. The food is placed in swinging baskets and the crew, holding desperately to some fixed object in the cabin, grab their food as it swings from side to side. Let one's hand slip for a moment, and the body may be thrown violently across the cabin. Under such conditions as these the wireless operator often must cling to his table and delicately manipulate the complicated apparatus which keeps him in touch with the passing steamships and enables him to throw out signals of danger. There are compensations, nevertheless, even for the wireless man aboard the lonely lightships. There is scarcely an hour of the day or night that he is not in direct communication with a great steamship bound in or out, and hears the latest news of the ship. He is acquainted with the wireless operators of scores of vessels, so that he is not lacking for society. The news for the ship newspapers which is broadcasted every night from the station at Cape Cod, keeps him informed of the latest happenings of the world, even to baseball scores. All the lightships along the Atlantic seaboard are of much the same type, whether anchored off Nantucket, the Bay of Fundy or the Diamond Shoals. They have two masts, each with a gallery about sixty feet above the water line. They are built of steel, for only the stoutest hulls can withstand the pounding of the seas in such exposed positions. In recent times these ships have been fitted with engines, so that they may be kept under steam; the engines are of sufficient power to develop a speed of perhaps seven knots an hour. Therefore, in case the ships break loose from their anchorage, which is a common occurrence, they are no longer at the mercy of the waves. Signaling devices, in addition to the wireless, comprise as a rule, modern lanterns of about one hundred candlepower with the lenses for throwing rays of light of any desired length at regular intervals of time. The powerful whistles are mechanically operated and used in foggy weather. Marconi 1/2 k.w. sets are used on some of the lightships. The equipment has a range of twenty-five miles and a wave-length of 300, 400, and 600 meters. AN ARTIST'S CONCEPTIONS OF WIRELESS IN WARFARE (From The New York World) Mutt and Jeff—Jeff, after all, you can't blame Jeff. Mutt and Jeff—Jeff knew when the enemy had his range. Queries Answered Answers will be given in this department to questions of subscribers, covering the full range of wireless subjects, but only those which relate to the technical phases of the art and which are of general interest to readers will be published here. The subscriber's name and address must be given in all letters and only one side of the paper written on; where diagrams are necessary they must be on a separate sheet and drawn with India ink. Not more than five questions of an individual can be answered. To receive attention these rules must be rigidly observed. Positively no Questions Answered by Mail. G. L. W., Austin, Texas, inquires: Ques.—(1) Where can litzendraht wire be obtained? Ans.—(1) Communicate with the Belden Manufacturing Company, 23rd Street and Western Avenue, Chicago, Ill. Ques.—(2) Describe the construction of a billi-condenser and give a diagram of connections for its use with the ordinary receiving instruments. Ans.—(2) The billi-condenser is nothing more than a variable condenser having a maximum value of capacity of .0091 of a microfarad. It generally consists of two small concentric brass tubes one of which is covered with an insulating material in order that the other may be slid directly over it. By withdrawing the inner tube the capacity of the condenser is readily varied as desired. The billi-condenser is generally connected in shunt to the secondary winding of the receiving tuner; a diagram of connections therefore is unnecessary. Ques.—(3) What is the fundamental wave-length of an aerial 150 feet in length, 70 feet in height at one end and 60 feet at the other? Ans.—(3) Approximately 410 meters. Ques.—(4) If the aerial described is in excess of 200 meters in wave-length how many plates are required in a series condenser to reduce it to 200 meters? Ans.—(4) This aerial is too large to be reduced to a value of 200 meters. To comply with the restricted wave the flat top portion cannot be more than from 50 to 70 feet in length. * * * H. V. R., Jamaica, N. Y., inquires: Ques.—(1) Please tell me the fundamental wave-length of an aerial 250 feet in length, composed of two wires spaced 12 feet apart. The aerial is of the inverted L type, 60 feet in height. Ans.—(1) The fundamental wave-length of this aerial is approximately 425 meters. Ques.—(2) What is the natural wave-length of a second aerial 55 feet in length, consisting of six wires spaced 2 feet apart? It is 60 feet in height on one end and 20 feet in height on the other. Ans.—(2) The fundamental wave-length of this aerial is approximately 172 meters. Ques.—(3) Can a rotary spark gap be employed advantageously with a 4-inch coil? Ans.—(3) A rotary gap is of no value in connection with a spark coil. The spark note of a coil is controlled by the number of interruptions at the vibrator and consequently we see no advantage in fitting a rotary gap. Ques.—(4) Can signals be received from high-power European stations with the aerial described in my first query, a Poulsen tikker, crystalline detector and loading coils of the correct size to tune to their wavelengths? Ans.—(4) You will not be able to copy signals from European stations with the ordinary Poulsen tikker. You require a super-sensitive receiving set like that described in "How To Conduct A Radio Club." In this system special circuits are employed in connection with the vacuum valve detector which, upon the correct adjustments, will allow the reception of signals from European stations employing undamped oscillations in broad daylight. Ques.—(5) Please explain the construction of a Poulsen tikker. Ans.—(5) The slipping contact type of tikker is the one generally employed. It consists of a small brass wheel with a groove, mounted on the shaft of the motor and rotated at a speed of about 1,500 R.P.M. A flexible piece of wire is placed in light contact to the groove and carefully adjusted. This detector occupies the same position in the secondary circuits of a receiving tuner as the crystalline detector, but it is customary to wind the secondary with litzendraht or other wire having a low value of resistance. With this type of detector the condenser in shunt to the telephones should have a high value of capacity, in the neighborhood of .2 of microfarad. Any sort of a mechanical device which will interrupt the circuits of a receiving tuner at a rate of from 300 to 600 times a second will be suitable as a tikkert, although that which is described is considered the most practical. * * * J. V., Kalamazoo, Mich., inquires: Ques.—(1) I wish you would tell me how to operate a three-slide tuning coil. Ans.—(1) With apparatus of this type it is essential that the detector circuit be placed in resonance with the antenna circuit, or at least be so adjusted as to receive the highest possible value of potential from the current flowing in the antenna. Connect the aerial to one slider of the tuner and the second slider to a terminal of the detector. The third slider should be connected through a fixed condenser to the opposite terminal of the detector. The wave-length of the antenna circuit is altered by the first named slider; turns are added or subtracted until the desired station is heard. If you will draw a diagram of connections in accordance with these instructions, you will observe that it is possible to select a number of turns for the detector circuit at some distance from the turns actually included in the primary circuit. In this manner the degree of coupling between the primary and secondary circuits can readily be altered as desired. Ques.—(2) What is the wave-length of an aerial composed of two No. 14 wires, 138 feet in length with two lead-ins 50 feet in length, the aerial being 50 feet in height on one end and 30 feet on the other? Ans.—(2) The fundamental wave-length of this antenna is approximately 325 meters. Ques.—(3) What is the wave-length of the same aerial, 50 feet in height on both ends? Ans.—(3) Approximately 340 meters. * * * O. E. C., Providence, R. I., inquires: Ques.—(1) Is a carborundum detector more sensitive than an extra good piece of galena? Ans.—(1) For commercial purposes it is more practical, but not quite as sensitive as a good piece of galena. Occasionally carborundum crystals are found which seem to possess a high degree of sensitiveness and oftentimes are nearly equal to the more sensitive crystals, such as cerusite and galena. Ques.—(2) How can I construct a potentiometer for use in connection with a carborundum detector, that would not require a space larger than 3½ inches in diameter and two inches in thickness? Ans.—(2) We advise you construct a potentiometer along the lines employed in the United Wireless type of tuner. A number of graphite resistance rods are mounted in a semi-circle with brass studs which terminate in the points of a multiple-point switch. From ten to fifteen of these studs, each having a resistance of from 15 to 25 ohms, may be employed. Ques.—(3) How many Columbia dry cells are required for this potentiometer and how long would they last? Ans.—(3) It is customary to employ three cells in connection with the carborundum detector, although not more than one is required generally. Ques.—(4) To secure the best result from this detector, please tell me which is preferable; two pieces of carborundum touching each other, or a piece of fine wire in contact with a single crystal. Ans.—(4) The best results are obtained by the use of a sharp pointed contact pressed tightly against the crystal. Some carborundum crystals require a heavy pressure, while others require an extremely light pressure. It is customary to mount a carborundum crystal in a small brass containing cup with some form of soft metal. Ques.—(5) What is the average pay of a Marconi operator on board ship and on land stations? Ans.—(5) Ship operators receive from $25 to $60 a month with a commission on the commercial receipts. Land station operators receive from $50 to $90 a month in the marine division and from $90 to $125 a month in the Trans-Oceanic division. * * * L. F., Fort Stanton, New Mexico, inquires: Ques.—(1) If the only available supply of current is 110-volt direct current, can a Poulsen arc, rated at 3-k.w., be satisfactorily operated on such low voltages for wireless telegraphy? Ans.—(1) Better results will be obtained with potentials between 500 and 1,500 volts. We have not heard that small arc sets could be operated with stability on 110 volts direct current. Ques.—(2) If an interrupting device were inserted in the earth connections of an arc set, would resulting signals be audible in a station employing an ordinary type of crystal detector, assuming that the interruptions take place at a rate of, say, 1,000 a second? What is your opinion of the efficiency of such an arrangement? Ans.—(2) Apparatus has been thus employed commercially, but we have been informed that the range of the set is considerably decreased and that generally only one-fifth of the distance obtainable with the arc set used in the standard manner is secured. Ques.—(3) With an arc system, why is the transmitting key placed directly in the circuit so as to make and break the aerial circuit instead of being operated to make signals by shunting a portion of the aerial inductance, thereby placing the set in and out of tune with the receiving station? Ans.—(3) It is customary to shunt a portion of the aerial tuning inductance, but in this system unless the receiving apparatus is very accurately tuned, the receiving operator will experience interference from the compensation wave as well as the transmitting wave. In other words, a Poulsen transmitter operated in this manner will emit its energy at two wave-lengths and interfere with stations in the vicinity in which the latter equipments are located. When the entire output of the antenna circuit is broken directly, this interference is eliminated and an advantage, of course, is derived, particularly from a commercial standpoint. * * * W. C. H., Windrock, Tenn., inquires: Ques.—(1) What is the natural wave-length of an aerial, 86 feet in height at one end and 59 feet at the other, comprising four No. 12 copper wires spaced 44 inches apart? The flat top portion is 130 feet in length, with a lead-in of 55 feet. The earth wire is 10 feet in length. Ans.—(1) The wave-length of this aerial is approximately 390 meters. Ques.—(2) What would be the natural wave-length of this aerial, connected in the form of a loop, with two lead-in wires taken from the two outside wires with a flat top? Ans.—(2) For receiving purposes it is difficult to estimate the wave-length that may be expected, unless the capacity of the condenser and the dimensions of the tuning coil, which are to be included in series with the loop, are definitely known. Even with this information, the solution is not readily arrived at. Ques.—(3) Please tell me whether in order to obtain maximum results, it is necessary to place insulators at frequent intervals in the guy wires which support the aerial mast, the aerial being used for the reception of signals only? Ans.—(3) It is not so important that the guy wires of a receiving station be insulated from the earth as at the transmitting station. If the receiving aerial proper is swung out at a considerable distance from the guy wires, there will be little if any effect. However, if the receiving wires are near to the guy wires, some absorption of the received energy may be expected. To insure the maximum strength of signals, it is advisable to insulate the wires. * * * R. C. B., Columbus Grove, O., inquires: Ques.—(1) What and where are the stations having the call letters BVQ and VPP? Ans.—(1) We have no record showing that these letters have been assigned. Ques.—(2) Is it possible to connect up two step-up transformers, one having a voltage of 13,000 and the other 5,000? Ans.—(2) If desired, the secondary winding of these transformers may be connected in series, but care should be taken to secure the correct polarity so that the voltage of one coil will not oppose that of the other. Ques.—(3) What is the wave-length of an aerial of the T type, consisting of two aluminum wires 175 feet in length, 70 feet in height at one end, sloping down to 30 feet at the other? It is connected at one end only. Will this aerial be practical for the reception of long wave-lengths at, say, 9,000 meters? Ans.—(3) The fundamental wave-length of this aerial is approximately 250 meters. With a supersensitive receiving set such as described in "How to Conduct a Radio Club," this aerial will allow the reception of signals at a wave-length of 9,000 meters, but increased results will be obtained if the antenna is changed from the T type to the inverted L type. For the reception of signals at 9,000 meters from very long distances the antenna should be at least 500 feet in length. * * * F. R. P., Somerville, Mass., inquires: Ques.—(1) Is the high potential battery described in the Second Prize Article published in the December Wireless Age entirely practical? What amperage might be expected if the plates were 2 inches by 2 inches? If some of these batteries were connected up in multiple would there be sufficient power to operate a spark coil? Ans.—(1) The battery described is entirely practical for the purposes for which it was designed. The vacuum valve detector requires an exceedingly low value of amperage in the head telephone circuit; and a rather high value of potential. The current output of the battery described in the December issue is of low value and cannot be used for operation of the spark coil. Ques.—(2) What is the fundamental wave-length of an aerial, 50 feet in height by 50 feet in length, consisting of three wires and a lead-in of 30 feet? Ans.—(2) The fundamental wave-length of this aerial is approximately 175 meters. Ques.—(3) Are there any stations in the vicinity of Boston using wireless telephone apparatus? If so, what instruments are required to receive their conversations? Ans.—(3) So far as we are aware there are no wireless telephone stations in operation in the immediate vicinity of Boston. A special experimental station is located at Montauk Point, L. I., but we have not been informed that it is in daily operation. A number of scientists in the eastern part of the United States are at present engaged in experimenting in wireless telephony, but their working hours are somewhat irregular. It is difficult to obtain definite information concerning the wave-lengths employed. Ques.—(4) Will the undamped wave receiving set described in "How to Conduct a Radio Club" give results on the aerial mentioned in question No. 2? Ans.—(4) It will give good results provided sufficient inductance is added in series with the antenna system to make it responsive to wave-lengths between 7,000 and 10,000 meters. You should experience no difficulty in reading the naval station at Darien, Isthmus of Panama, the arc set at Arlington (Radio, Va.) and the new naval station located at Lake Bluff, Ill. Ques.—(5) Have you any information concerning the tuner invented by Radio Inspector Gawler? Ans.—(5) We have received no information concerning this tuner. * * * F. E. D., Kansas City, Mo., inquires: Ques.—(1) What is the natural wave-length of an aerial 125 feet in length, 60 feet in height, consisting of four No. 14 copper wires, spaced 3 feet apart? Ans.—(1) The natural wave-length of this antenna is approximately 340 meters. Ques.—(2) Please inform me whether I should be able to get the time signals from Arlington with the following apparatus: An inductively-coupled receiving tuner with a primary winding 4 inches in length by 4½ inches in diameter wound closely with No. 24 S. C. C. wire, the taps taken out to a multiple point switch; a secondary winding 4 inches in length, 3¼ inches in diameter, wound with No. 30 S. C. C. wire, taps taken out at every fifteen turns; a loading coil, 4 inches in length by 5¾ inches in diameter, wound with No. 18 S. C. C. wire with the taps taken out to a twelve-point switch. I also have a silicon detector, fixed condenser and a pair of Brandes navy type head telephones. Ans.—(2) For the reception of the time signals the foregoing apparatus will undoubtedly allow adjustments to resonance at a wave-length of 2,500 meters. Please take into account that at other schedules throughout the day the Arlington station operates with undamped oscillations at a wave-length in the vicinity of 7,000 meters. Special apparatus, like that described in "How to Conduct a Radio Club," is required for the reception of these signals. Ques.—(3) Can you estimate my receiving range? Ans.—(3) At night during the favorable months of the year you should be able to hear stations on the Atlantic and Gulf coasts. Your daylight range is problematical. With a supersensitive receiving set you should be able to hear the Arlington signals in daylight and also those of the high power radio station located at Tucker-ton, N. J. A. P., Santa Maria, Cal., inquires: Ques.—(1) At present I employ a vertical antenna for receiving purposes, consisting of nine No. 10 aluminum wires spaced 2 feet apart, suspended between the top of a 95-foot pole and the roof of my residence. The antenna is 100 feet in length and the lead-in adds to this 20 feet. The instruments are grounded to a water pipe a few feet distant from them. It is now my plan to install a 1-kw. transmitter. Would you recommend any changes in the aerial? I also intend to extend the height of this pole to 130 feet but owing to peculiar local circumstances this would not increase the length of the lead-in by more than 10 feet. Do you think the antenna would be too large or would it have a natural period in excess of 200 meters? Do you think it would be advantageous to shorten the aerial and change its type to that of an inverted "L"? Ans.—(1) The fundamental wave-length of the first described aerial is approximately 135 meters which can readily be loaded to 200 meters by the insertion of the secondary winding of the transmitting oscillation transformer. If the aerial is raised to the height suggested the natural period will be in the neighborhood of 180 meters. In the latter case but two or three turns will be required at the secondary winding of the oscillation transformer to raise it to a wave-length of 200 meters. For purposes of transmission we do not see wherein any advantage would be derived by changing this aerial from a vertical position to a horizontal position. If a flat top inverted L type aerial is desired the flat top portion cannot exceed 50 to 70 feet in length by 40 to 50 feet in height in order to be kept within the restricted government wave-length. Ques.—(2) Is there any material difference between the rotary quenched spark discharger described on pages 201 and 202 of The Wireless Age for December, 1915, and the type referred to in question 10, page 24 of "How to Pass the U. S. Government Wireless License Examination?" What would be the spark frequency of these gaps operated by current transformed from 110-volt, sixty-cycle source of supply? Ans.—(2) The rotary quenched discharger described in the December issue is intended to give a high spark frequency from a low primary frequency. Of course the frequency can be increased by an increase of the speed of the disc. As stated by the contributor, at a speed of 1,200 R. P. M. that particular type of gap will give six sparks per revolution or approximately 120 per second. Quenching is obtained because the discharge path is exceedingly short. In the reply given to the tenth query on page 24 of "How to Pass U. S. Government Wireless License Examination," reference was not made to any particular type of spark gap; the statements were intended to apply to any type of discharger which gives a high spark frequency. Commercial quenched spark dischargers give a high spark note because the primary frequency is of 500 cycles. Ques.—(3) Could you approximate my night working range, using the foregoing apparatus? Ans.—(3) It is very difficult to conjecture your transmitting range for it will depend largely upon local conditions surrounding your transmitting station and also upon the type of apparatus employed at the receiving station. Amateurs in the central part of the United States frequently cover distances of from 100 to 800 miles at night. Ques.—(4) I have had the following data given me for the construction of a high potential transformer. Ninety-four per cent. efficiency is claimed. It is to be of the closed core type, $8\frac{3}{4}$ inches by 15 inches outside dimensions; the cross section is 2 inches by 2 inches. The primary winding has four layers of No. 10 D. C. C. B. & S. gauge copper wire of 85 turns each, taps being brought out to a rheostat or reactance coil at each turn. The secondary winding comprises twenty-four flat coils, $2\frac{1}{2}$ inches inside diameter and $6\frac{1}{2}$ inches outside diameter, with a thickness of $\frac{1}{4}$ of an inch and a spacing of $\frac{1}{4}$ of an inch. There are 40,000 turns in the secondary. Can you suggest any improvement? Ans.—(4) The design suggested will give a secondary potential of about 12,000 volts. Apparently no provision has been made for magnetic leakage between the primary and secondary windings. In consequence it may be necessary to insert a reactance coil in series with the primary winding in order to prevent the lights in your house from flickering. You will find that it will be no more expensive to purchase a transformer of this type than to construct it. Ques.—(5) If two or more duplicate motor-generators, running at identical speeds, are connected in series is the frequency increased in proportion to their number as well as the potential? Ans.—(5) The frequency is not increased. * * * M. A., Cleburne, Texas, inquires: Ques.—(1) What is the fundamental wave-length of an aerial 112 feet in length, 65 feet in height, composed of four No. 14 copper wires, spaced $3\frac{1}{2}$ feet apart? What would be the wave-length if I employed but two copper wires of the same height placed on 10-foot spreaders? Ans.—(1) The fundamental wave-length of this aerial is approximately 325 meters. It will be reduced slightly if two wires are employed, say, to 300 meters. Ques.—(2) An acquaintance has informed me that a fixed condenser is of no value in the receiving circuit and that only variable condensers should be employed. Is he correct? Ans.—(2) When the receiving detector is of the crystalline type a fixed condenser is employed in shunt to the head telephones. There is little value in having one of variable capacity at that point. The remaining condensers in the circuit should be variable in capacity. Ques.—(3) Is marble considered a good insulator? I am about to build a switch-board of marble and I wish to know what transformer discharge a slab of marble 1 inch in thickness will stand without leaking. Ans.—(3) The average run of marble is unsuited for high potential work and should therefore be avoided. Insulating material such as dielecto, bakelite, micarta, etc., should be used. Ques.—(4) Is a four-wire aerial productive of better results than a two-wire aerial? Ans.—(4) Not necessarily. The four-wire aerial will have a high degree of conductivity and a slightly increased value of capacity. For receiving purposes two wires will do as well as four. * * * L. L., Monticello, Ia.: Ques.—(1) To what wave-lengths will the following described receiving tuner be adjustable when used in connection with a three-wire aerial, 90 feet in length by 50 feet in height, with a 25-foot lead-in? The primary winding is $4\frac{3}{4}$ inches in diameter by $7\frac{1}{2}$ inches in length. The secondary is $3\frac{1}{2}$ inches in diameter, wound with No. 30 D. S. C. wire and is $6\frac{1}{2}$ inches in length. Ans.—(1) The fundamental wave-length of this antenna is approximately 255 meters. The actual range of wave-lengths to which it will be adjustable depends upon the value of capacity used in shunt to the secondary winding. With a variable condenser of small capacity it will be adjustable to wavelengths of about 3,500 meters. Ques.—(2) Does this type of transformer represent an efficient design? The primary winding is controlled by two sets of switches; one set takes single turns of wire and the other cuts in groups of eighteen. The secondary winding is controlled by a twelve-point switch. The primary winding has a short wave-length switch. Ans.—(2) The tuner is apparently well designed and should give good results within the range of wave-lengths suggested. Ques.—(3) My receiving set consists of a three slide tuning coil, 24 inches in length by $4\frac{1}{2}$ inches in diameter, wound with No. 24 enameled wire. The additional apparatus comprises a crystalline detector, a fixed condenser, Brandes 2,000-ohm superior head telephones. I could distinctly hear an amateur station one half mile away, but one night the signals ceased suddenly and as yet I have not been able to hear him nor could he hear me. I have tried a variety of hook-ups and a smaller tuning coil in place of the large one. My aerial is perfectly insulated and all joints are well soldered. The ground connection consists of a pipe driven into wet ground for a distance of about eight feet. What could possibly be wrong? Ans.—(3) A tuning coil 24 inches in length has sufficient turns for the construction of several amateur tuners. The energy losses on this tuner will be excessive and it is recommended that it be re-designed. For the reception of amateur signals at a wave-length of 200 meters it need not be more than 4 or 5 inches in length. We are unable to state just where the error lies in your receiving apparatus, but there certainly must be an open circuit. Had you supplied us with a correct diagram of connections we might have been able to solve your problem. Look carefully to the connections in the head telephones. See that there are no open circuits in the winding of your receiving tuner and determine with a battery and head telephone whether the fixed condenser is short circuited. It is rather difficult to estimate the receiving range of your apparatus under the conditions stated. You will, of course, observe that the fundamental wave-length of the receiving aerial is in excess of 200 meters. At night you should be able to hear signals from stations in the Great Lakes district. Ques.—(5) Can you give me the address of a dealer who handles graphite rods? Ans.—(5) Communicate with the Joseph Dixon Crucible Co., Jersey City, N. J. * * * A. R., Ravenna, Neb., inquires: Ques.—(1) I have under construction a receiving transformer for long wave reception and desire your opinion in regard to the same. The primary is 9 inches in length, by 6 inches in diameter, covered with No. 22 enameled single silk wire. The secondary winding is concentric. It is wound with No. 30 enameled single silk covered wire and fitted with a special dead end eliminating switch. Would such a tuner operate satisfactorily and what is its wave-length on the average aerial? How many points should the secondary have? Ans.—(1) We do not advise the use of enameled wire in the primary or secondary windings of a receiving tuner. Single silk covered wire is preferred. The primary winding is preferably covered with No. 24 wire, but No. 30 is quite correct for the secondary. It is difficult to estimate the wave-length to which this tuner will be adjustable without data concerning the capacity of the condenser to be connected in shunt to the secondary winding. If, however, the secondary winding is, say, 5½ inches in diameter by 8 or 9 inches in length, with a fair sized condenser it should be adjustable to wave-lengths of approximately 6,000 meters. The taps of the secondary should be divided between the points of a 15-point switch. * * * D. G. C., Grosse Point, Mich., inquires: Ques.—(1) What is the difference between the ordinary signals emitted from any wireless telegraph transmitter and the "continuous wave train" sent out by Sayville and other stations? Ans.—(1) The points of difference between these two systems are fully described in text books on wireless telegraphy. The ordinary spark transmitter sends out damped waves; that is to say, for each spark discharge at the transmitter there flows in the antenna circuit a series of high-frequency oscillations of the decaying amplitude. At the finish of each spark discharge the oscillations, of course, cease. In a continuous wave system there is no damping; that is to say, the oscillations do not decrease in amplitude nor are there any interruptions in their production. Continuous waves can be generated by the Goldsmith high frequency alternator, the Alexanderson High Frequency Alternator, the Poulsen arc, or by a battery of vacuum valves. Ques.—(2) What kind of apparatus is required to receive these signals? Ans.—(2) Either a tickler, a slipping contact detector, or an oscillating vacuum valve. Ques.—(3) What is an oscillating vacuum valve and where can one be obtained. Are they expensive? Ans.—(3) The oscillating valve is well described in "How to Conduct a Radio Club." A complete vacuum valve set can be constructed for sums ranging from $40 to $60. Ques.—(4) On what wave-length do Tuckerton, Sayville and Nauen usually operate? Ans.—(4) The wave-length of Tuckerton is 8,000 meters, the call letters WGG. The wave-length of Sayville is 8,400 meters; the call letters are WSL. The Nauen station usually operates at a wave-length of 9,400 meters, but it is frequently changed. The call letters are l'OZ. * * * M. A. C., Cuenca, Ecuador, inquires: Ques.—(1) Please tell me the wave-length of my aerial. It consists of five aluminum wires, spaced one foot apart. It is 60 feet in length by 50 feet in height. Ans.—(1) The natural wave-length of this antenna is approximately 200 meters. Ques.—(2) What advantage is gained by the use of the compressed air spark gap? Ans.—(2) The compressed air gap has greater self-restoring insulating qualities and produces a more disruptive spark discharge, which may result in increased amplitude of the initial oscillation per wave train. Ques.—(3) If an aerial is situated on the point of a hill, should its height above the base of the tower be taken into consideration or is the height of a hill an important factor? Ans.—(3) In the calculation of wave-lengths the height of the antenna above the base of the tower alone would be taken into consideration. B. C., Los Angeles, Cal.: The diagram of connections for the oscillating vacuum valve was given in the National Amateur Wireless Association Bulletin for December, 1915. The telephones with mica diaphragm will give approximately twelve times the strength of signals obtained with the ordinary telephones. The receiving range of the apparatus you describe is problematical, depending upon the power of the wave-length of the station from which you expect to receive. Concerning the effect of compressed air on a spark gap, see answer to the second query of M. A. C. in this issue. It is not always considered advisable to load the primary and secondary windings of a small receiving tuner to obtain the longer range of wave-lengths. It is desirable to reconstruct the entire windings, giving them sufficient inductance values to obtain the necessary wave-length adjustment. Long distance receiving apparatus is fully described in "How to Conduct a Radio Club." * * * R. N. C., Chicago, Ill.: An impedance coil for the open core transformer may have the same dimensions as the present primary windings. It should be fitted with variable tap-offs brought out through a multiple-point switch. A condenser for operation on the 200-meter wave should have a capacitance between .008 and .01 of a microfarad. Your condenser plates, 8 by 10 inches, coated with tin-foil 6 by 8 inches, will have a capacitance each of .0006 of a microfarad. Fourteen or fifteen plates, connected in parallel, will be sufficient for operation on the 200-meter wave. The fundamental wave-length of your aerial is about 230 meters, which is above the government restriction for operation at a wave-length of 200 meters. Your query concerning the measurement of the logarithmic decrement is fully answered in "How to Conduct a Radio Club." The decrement measurement is, in reality, a percentage indication of the energy losses in a circuit of radio frequency. It also enables the experimenter to determine the number of complete oscillations flowing in the antenna circuit per single spark of the transmitter and therefore allows an estimation of the tuning qualities of the latter. * * * S. A. C., Springfield, Mass.: With proper care and subsequent adjustment the crystaloi detector is said to be very sensitive and will remain in adjustment for an indefinite period. It consists essentially of a specially treated crystal of galena in contact with a mixture of filings, the latter consisting largely of scrapings from galena crystals. Regarding the receiving tuners described, we prefer the first design, which is a primary winding, 7½ inches in length by 6 inches in diameter, wound with No. 26 D. C. C. wire, and the secondary 7½ inches in length by 5¾ inches in diameter, wound with No. 32 D. S. C. wire. Enameled wire is not recommended. Your aerial, 125 feet in length by 35 feet in height, has a fundamental wave-length of approximately 285 meters. We cannot estimate the range of wavelengths to which the receiving tuner is adjustable unless we know the capacity of the condenser connected in shunt to the secondary winding. With a small variable condenser, such as is supplied to the amateur market, your tuner should be adjustable to wave-lengths in the vicinity of 5,000 meters. * * * E. F. T., Charleston, S. C.: The fundamental wave-length of your aerial, 100 feet in length with an average height of 65 feet, is approximately 315 meters. The diagram for the units and tens switch accompanying your queries is quite correct and will permit the desired variation of inductance. Connect the earth lead to the unit switch and the antenna lead to the tens switch. It is not practicable to connect two receiving sets to a single aerial under the average conditions. Results can be obtained, but the tuning on one set will effect the resonant adjustment of the other set. * * * D. S. C., Glensummit Springs, Pa.: Your aerial, 70 feet in length by 50 feet in height, has a natural wave-length of 219 meters and will require a series condenser for reduction to the fundamental wavelength of 200 meters. Four plates of glass, connected in series, having dimensions 8 inches by 8 inches, covered with foil 6 inches by 6 inches, will give the required value of capacity. Turns should then be added at the secondary winding of the oscillation transformer until a wave-length of 200 meters is obtained. Take into consideration that the Arlington and Key West stations operate at certain periods with undamped oscillations. Special apparatus, such as described in "How to Conduct a Radio Club," is required for the reception of these signals. A receiving tuner for use with crystalline detectors and particularly applicable to reception of the time signals from Arlington is described in the National Amateur Wireless Association Bulletin for February, 1916. Six or eight strands of No. 12 wire will take the place of a single No. 4 B. & S. wire for an earth connection. The dimensions for a receiving tuner suitable for adjustment to 2,500 meters, is given on page 214 of the December, 1915, issue of The Wireless Age, under F. C. T.'s inquiry. D. J. C., Sioux City, Ia., inquires: Ques.—(1) My aerial is 150 feet in length, 60 feet in height at the top end and 43 feet in height at the lower end. The wires are spaced 2½ feet. Approximately, what is the fundamental wave-length? Ans.—(1) The natural wave-length of this antenna is approximately 375 meters. Ques.—(2) Is the spacing between wires sufficient? Ans.—(2) There is no advantage in increased spacing. Ques.—(3) Will an E. I. Company’s ½-k.w. coil connected to an electrolytic interrupter, be sufficient to charge this aerial? Ans.—(3) If an oscillation transformer and condenser of suitable dimensions are supplied, there will be no difficulty in radiating energy near to the fundamental wavelength of the aerial. You of course understand that this antenna is too large to be operated at the restricted wave-length of 200 meters. Ques.—(4) Approximately, what is the transmitting range with the ½-k.w. coil and a fixed spark gap? Ans.—(4) Operating near the fundamental wave-length of the antenna, you should have no difficulty in covering, say, 300 or 400 miles at night time, during the favorable months of the year. Your daylight range is from thirty to seventy-five miles, depending of course upon the type of receiving apparatus used at the receiving station. Ans.—(last query) Your receiving range is problematical. During the night time you may be able to hear signals from stations 1,000 to 1,500 miles distant. During the daytime, you will have to rely on local amateur stations. * * * R. C., Baltimore, Md.: You should have no difficulty in receiving signals from the spark station at Key West, Fla., with the receiving apparatus you describe, provided you employ a super-sensitive apparatus, such as the vacuum valve amplifier. Your receiving aerial has a natural wave-length of 143 meters, which of course cannot be expected to give the strength of signals that might be obtained with an antenna of increased dimensions. You should reconstruct your receiving apparatus for the reception of Sayville signals. You are referred to “How to Conduct a Radio Club” for the solution of your problem in this respect. * * * F. D., Hingham Center, Mass., inquires: Ques.—(1) I employ a 250 watt transformer for transmitting. When a pointed gap is placed in the aerial circuit a spark about ¼ of an inch in length may be obtained, while the hot wire ammeter registers ¼ of an ampere. If a gap ¼ inch in length represents a voltage of at least 4,000 volts, I do not understand why it seems as though I obtain more watts than I started with. Ans.—(1) You can not possibly obtain a higher wattmeter reading in the antenna circuit than you supply to the high potential transformer. The seeming inaccuracy is due to the high mechanical period of the mechanism of the meter compared to that of the wave trains, and the matter is so completely covered on pages 925 and 926 of the September, 1913, issue of this magazine that you are advised to secure a copy of it. Ques.—(2) Should a high frequency ammeter register the same as a direct current ammeter on the same direct current circuit? Ans.—(2) If the hot wire ammeter is properly constructed it should give the same reading on direct current as the direct current ammeter. Ques.—(3) I have great trouble in measuring the wave-length with the open circuit of my transmitting set, and also in trying to make my wave-meter circuit vibrate. I can measure the closed circuit with ease, but when I try the open circuit I can hear the buzzer all over the meter, even when I place the wave-meter at such a distance that the buzzer is hardly audible. Sometimes changing the position of my hand changes the intensity of the signals. Is this the electrostatic action? Can you suggest some remedy? See drawings which I sent you. Ans.—(3) After careful consideration of your diagram we are of the opinion that you are not thoroughly familiar with the operation of the wave-meter. In previous issues of The Wireless Age, particularly in the articles under the heading, “Operators’ Instruction,” complete instructions regarding the subject have been published. We observe in one of your drawings that you have the buzzer for setting the wave-meter into excitation connected directly in series with the inductance coil, and condenser of the wave-meter, which, of course, makes the wave-meter totally inoperative. To measure the open circuit of this aerial connect a small spark gap in series and energize it by, say, a 1-inch spark induction coil. You should then place the crystal detector and head phone in series with each other, and the two in shunt to the variable condenser of the wave-meter. The inductance coil of the wave-meter should then be placed in inductive relation to the earth lead of the antenna system, and by proper adjustment of the detector and variation of the condenser of the wave-meter the point of resonance is readily located. In the February, 1914, issue of The Wireless Age, you will find under the heading, “Operators’ Instruction,” complete advice for determining the wave-length of the receiving circuit, and also a method for exciting the wave-meter by a battery and buzzer to make it a miniature transmitting set. SPECIAL EXTENSION NOTICE Announcement and Application Blank National Amateur Wireless Association CHARTER MEMBERS ACCEPTED TO MAY 1, 1916. So that clubs may have time to complete organization work now under way, and also to give ample opportunity to all who wish to become Charter Members, an extension has been allowed by the Officers and applications will be received up to May 1, 1916. After this date the Initiation Fee of $1.00 will be required from all new members. OFFICERS OF THE ASSOCIATION. President, Guglielmo Marconi. NATIONAL ADVISORY BOARD OF VICE PRESIDENTS Professor Alfred N. Goldsmith College of the City of New York, Institute of Radio Engineers. Professor A. E. Kennelly, Harvard University. Hiram Percy Maxim, President, American Radio Relay League. Capt. W. H. G. Bullard, U. S. N. Superintendent, U. S. Naval Radio Service. Col. Samuel Reiver, U. S. A., Chief Signal Officer U. S. Army. E. E. Bucher, Instructing Engineer, Marconi Wireless Telegraph Company. Professor Samuel Sheldon, Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn. Professor Charles R. Cross, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Major William H. Elliott, Adjutant General Junior American Guard. ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICERS: Acting President, J. Andrew White, Editor, THE WIRELESS AGE. Managing Secretary, Clayton E. Clayton, 450 4th Avenue, New York. A national organization of wireless amateurs was announced in the October, 1915, number of THE WIRELESS AGE. Further details of the organization are given in an address made by J. Andrew White, which was published in the November WIRELESS AGE. Reprint copies sent upon request. ENROLLMENT OF CHARTER MEMBERS. Charter members of the National Amateur Wireless Association will be enrolled on special arrangement. Charter members will receive the following: CHARTER MEMBERS' EQUIPMENT. 1st. CERTIFICATE OF MEMBERSHIP. The handsomely steel-engraved Certificate, with shadow background half-tone, is sealed and signed by Officers, with the endorsement of Senator Marconi, as President. Every member will want to frame and place it alongside of his Government License certificate, two documents establishing status as wireless amateurs. 2nd. AERIAL PENNANT. The 36 inch aerial pennant, painted in four colors on scarlet felt, will stand long service at your aerial mast head. Every member will be proud of the National Insignia flying from his aerial. 3rd. MEMBERSHIP PIN. The National Amateur Wireless Association Pin in gold and enamel is the National emblem of the Association. The design shown on this page can but faintly describe its handsome appearance in three colors and gold. The pin has a special patented hub and shank which permits it being securely fastened on the coat lapel or on the vest without turning upside down. 4th. HOW TO CONDUCT A RADIO CLUB. This splendid book, which has been months in preparation and incorporates portions of articles running under the same title in THE WIRELESS AGE, is re-written to cover every new development, and with a large proportion of new matter. It is the foundation stone of the National Amateur Wireless Association activities. Price of this book 50c. 5th. LIST OF RADIO STATIONS OF THE WORLD. Revised Edition just published. See advertisement. Regular 50c edition. 6th. HOW TO PASS U. S. GOVERNMENT WIRELESS LICENSE EXAMINATIONS. Regular 50c edition of this popular book. Members who already have a copy, see concessions below. 7th. MONTHLY BULLETIN SERVICE. It is intended to make the monthly bulletin service for members of the National Amateur Wireless Association one of the most important features of the Association. This bulletin is to be used in connection with "List of Radio Stations of the World" described above. It will carry an additional list of stations and correspond to "List of Radio Stations of the U.S." issued by the Bureau of Navigation, U.S. Department of Commerce, and secured for members at 18c a copy. It is issued only once a year. The Association Bulletin will keep both lists up to date for you month by month, and in addition, will carry other special and invaluable Association features not obtainable elsewhere. 8th. ONE YEAR'S SUBSCRIPTION TO THE WIRELESS AGE. THE WIRELESS AGE becomes the Official Organ of the National Amateur Wireless Association and will contain full reports of wireless amateur activities, both national and local. It is planned to give published recognition to individual amateur achievement. CONCESSIONS: Those who, during the past six months, have become subscribers to THE WIRELESS AGE, or have renewed their subscription, or have purchased any portion of the Charter Membership Equipment, may consider such payment as partial payment of Charter Membership Application as given below. If you have paid for a subscription to THE WIRELESS AGE which includes books which are not a part of the Membership Equipment, then you may credit $1.25 of the remittance as partial payment on the Charter Membership. For example, you may have remitted $2.25 for the combination offer of the 1915 Year Book with one year's subscription to THE WIRELESS AGE. In this combination, the price of both the book and the subscription was reduced, to make the special offer; therefore, you may be credited only with that part of the payment which went to the magazine—that is, $1.25. Coupon subscribers receive no credit for trial orders. Subscribers to THE WIRELESS AGE who began or renewed more than six months ago, will secure through full Charter Membership fee a renewal for another year; and their subscriptions will be extended for one year from the time the present subscription expires. ANNUAL DUES FOLLOWING FIRST YEAR. The annual dues are to be not more than $2.00, after the first year. For this, all members are to receive: 1st. The Monthly Bulletin Service. 2nd. THE WIRELESS AGE for one year. 3rd. Special 50c Instruction Books at 30% off list price. 4th. 10% discount on any book on wireless published, and other features to be announced later. SPECIAL NOTICE REGARDING CORRESPONDENCE. As the National Amateur Wireless Association is in no sense a money making enterprise, and as the nominal dues will cover a very small amount of handling expense, it is desired that the correspondence be limited to only the most essential necessities. Many general questions will be answered in the Service Bulletins; special matters pertaining to local questions should be handled through the Corresponding Secretary of Local Clubs and Associations. A cordial invitation is extended to all club officials to write on matters pertaining to organization. This invitation also includes those who are interested in starting new clubs. Clayton E. Clayton, Managing Secretary, 450 4th Ave., New York. Checks and money orders should be made payable to: Natl. Amateur Wireless Assn. APPLICATION FOR MEMBERSHIP. Clayton E. Clayton, Managing Secretary, NATIONAL AMATEUR WIRELESS ASSOCIATION, 450 4th Avenue, New York City. As I desire to receive full recognition as an amateur wireless worker of the United States, I ask the privilege of enrollment as a Charter Member in the National Amateur Wireless Association and request that you send me the Charter Members' Equipment for which I enclose herewith remittance of $2.50* (Option.) I trust that you will act upon my application promptly and forward the equipment to me at the earliest possible date. My qualifications for membership are given in blank spaces below. Signature .......................................................... Age ............ Street Address .......................................................... Town and State .......................................................... Please credit me with $........ paid for............................. * Option. In the event that an applicant is unable to send the entire amount of the membership dues with this application, the figure $2.50 may be crossed out and $1.00 written in its place. This will be considered an agreement on the part of the applicant accepted for Membership that the balance of dues ($1.50) will be paid at the rate of 50c per month for the next three months, at which time pin, pennant and Certificate of Membership will be issued. The other equipment will be sent at once. FILL IN ANSWERS TO THESE QUESTIONS. 1—Have you a Government License (give number.........) or do you purpose applying for one?.................................................................. 2—If you are under 21 years of age, give names of two adults for references as to character. Reference.................................................................. Reference.................................................................. 3—If you are a member of any Local, State or Interstate wireless club or association, give its name, and name of Secretary with address. .................................................................. 4—Are you now a subscriber to THE WIRELESS AGE?................... 5—If you already have any books included in the equipment, state which ones....... For Clubs and Members of National Amateur Wireless Association The following list of items of optional equipment is listed at cost price in order to give members and clubs of the Association every material advantage in the way of a complete equipment that may be desired. Prices include transportation charges. LETTER HEADS AND ENVELOPES: - 100 National Association Letter heads with imprint of member at left hand side, as illustrated above $75c - Without member's imprint...........$35c - 100 Envelopes with imprint.......$65c Special prices on 1000 Letter Heads to Clubs. MESSAGE BLANKS: - Pads of 50..........................$10c STATION LOG BOOK: - A record book in which to keep track of all your operations and communications, in paper........$15c - in cloth............................$30c RADIO STATIONS OF THE U. S.: - Call list issued by the U. S. Department of Commerce, postpaid..$18c PHOTOGRAPHS AND PICTURES: - Photographs of important stations, such as Belmar, Arlington, Sayville, Honolulu, etc., 9" x 12", each.................................$1.00 - Duotone picture of G. Marconi, with facsimile signature, suitable for framing..........................$25c SOLID GOLD BUTTONS, 14 Karat N. A. W. A. emblem..................$1.75 WIRELESS MAP OF THE WORLD in colors.............................$50c YEAR BOOK OF WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY AND TELEPHONY, published at $1.50, special to members and clubs......................$1.10 CLUB PENNANTS: Made of first quality wool bunting; letters and emblem sewed on with cut outs in color and name of club added, prices on application. Send all orders to Clayton E. Clayton, Managing Secretary, National Amateur Wireless Association, 450 Fourth Ave., N. Y. City. OSCILAUDION The above cuts show the OSCILAUDION BULB and the OSCILAUDION CABINET. These are two of the most useful articles ever offered to the experimenter. READ WHAT USERS SAY: "I saw your bulb tested out at Harvard University and it was by far superior to the———bulb." Another writes: "Enclosed find remittance for six bulbs. If these should prove as satisfactory as two I am now using I promise you an order for EIGHT MORE." The Oscilaudion Bulb was used in establishing a new world's long distance receiving record of 9,000 miles. Price of Oscilaudion Bulb . . $7.50 HARRY V. ROOME 940 West Twentieth St. LOS ANGELES, CAL. 5,000 MILES FROM Hawaii to Richmond, Va. WITH CRYSTALOI "On Dec. 23 I made what I believe to be a new record for the Crystaloi Detector. About 11 p.m. I heard the station at Lahaina, Hawaiian Islands, a distance of 5000 miles. Heard the station four different times. (Signed) "Ralph J. Robey, 3314 Floyd Ave., Richmond, Va." WE GUARANTEE EVERY CLAIM MADE FOR CRYSTALOI The Highly Sensitive, Permanent, WIRELESS DETECTOR What It Is Crystaloi offers a large surface of highly sensitive mineral, which is brought into contact with a finely divided metal cylinder, giving innumerable contact points. By rotating the cylinder the most sensitive spot is found immediately. What It Does Crystaloi will work under the heaviest static conditions—will not burn out—and will proper to last a lifetime. With it every message will come in strong and clear. All Live Dealers Carry Crystaloi. If your dealer cannot supply you, write us. Catalog "A," fully describing Crystaloi and all of our other High Class Receiving Apparatus, sent on receipt of 5 cents in stamps. Eugene T. Turney Co., Inc., New York City 3 Types—Crystaloi TYPE O—Dimensions 3/8" x 3/4". Price, $3.50. Mailing Weight, 1 lb. TYPE A—Equipped with a cohering inductance. Dimensions 4" x 3/4". Price, $6.00. Mailing Weight, 2 lbs. TYPE BB—Equipped with cohering inductance, fixed condenser buzzer, test and frequency control. Dimensions 7/8" x 5/8" x 3/4". Price, $12.00. Mailing Weight, 4 lbs. Long Un-Damped Waves Are Now Being Used by the Following Stations Naa—Arlington, Va. Wgg—Tuckerton, N. J. Nad—Boston, Mass. Wsl—Sayville, L. I. Naj—Lake Park, Ill. Oul—Hanover, Germany Nat—New Orleans, La. Poz—Nauen, Germany Nao—Charleston, S. C. You can hear them on short aerials and increase your receiving range to thousands of miles with our improved "Undamped" circuit. Send 2c stamp for "Undamped" Bulletin. RADIO APPARATUS COMPANY OF AMERICA Parkway Building, Philadelphia. STOP! LOOK! "LISTEN!" A NEW CHAMBERS COUPLER No. 744, PRICE ONLY $4.50 Positively UN-EQUALLED for the money. Is 6 high, 6" wide, and 14" over all. Wound with Enameled Wire, and has a very unique slider. Woodwork mahogany finished. Tune 2,000 Meters. Try one, you will not be disappointed. 5c in stamps brings our 64-page Catalogue (100 illustrations). B2-4, NONE OTHERWISE. F. B. CHAMBERS & CO., 2046 ARCH STREET PHILADELPHIA, PA The Eastern Radio Institute The ONLY school of its kind in New England that specializes on Radio telegraphy. Special care given to the Marconi system upon a complete Marconi set. Last year EVERY ONE of our graduates successfully passed his Commercial Operator's Examination upon the first trial. Send for new prospectus containing free call list, commercial abbreviations, prefixes, etc. Winter classes now forming. 899 C. Boylston St. Boston, Mass. When writing to Advertisers please mention THE WIRELESS AGE "LEARN BY DOING" Get a complete training by actual practice. Get the knack of "HOW" together with the theory of "WHY" and the best business methods used in the World of Electrical Activity. The N. Y. Electrical School is the pioneer and premier school of the "Learn by Doing" method. When you have completed this Course you shall be fully qualified to handle ALL branches of Electrical industry. The equipment of this School is unequalled and up-to-the-minute. No preparation needed to become a "learner" in this school. You can start to learn on any day of any week throughout the whole year. Visitors heartily welcomed. Send for catalogue. 34 West 17th Street New York City N.Y. ELECTRICAL SCHOOL THE Jewel Crystal Holder is the standard, and most perfect, Crystal holder. Has double screws for crystal and phone. Firmly held crystals of different minerals at angles, giving full range of contact from one to the other. Carefully made, a sensitive point of contact, correct pressure held, and no vibration without using a single screw or nut. Designed and finished in our high grade factory, setted on dark enameled porcelain, metal nuts nickel-plated, and highly polished. Postage weight 1 lb. Price, Net. $1.00 Send stamp for our Wireless Catalog No. 368 with "Premium Offer." J. H. BUNNELL & CO. 32 Park Place NEW YORK 110 FOOT AERIAL MAST $20 Send One Dollar and receive full working details, actual photographs and blueprints showing how you can duplicate my 110 foot Tubular Steel Mast at a cost Not To Exceed $20. This is not a gaspini affair, but a stout mast of seamless steel tubes 3½ inches in diameter. FRED W. JAMESON Leavenworth, Kansas. EARN TELEGRAPHY Marconi and Wireless—R. E. Armstrong's Station Agent's manual. Should be in families. Positions secured. Marconi Co. takes our wireless graduates. We own and exclusively occupy two large modern wireless stations at 500 and 1,000 kilowatts. Unexp wlers and complete $1,000 Marconi Wireless Stations. Largest School established in the world. 295,000 students trained by Marconi and Western Union Officials. Expert practical instruction. Wireless operators can earn $1,000 a year. Tuition low. Easy payments. Correspondence courses. Dodge's Telegraph, Ry. & Wireless Institute Green Street, Valparaiso, Ind. When writing to Advertisers please mention THE WIRELESS AGE HERE is your future charted for you, based on the actual average earnings of trained and untrained men. Which way will you go—up, through training, to a position that means good money, or down, through lack of training, into the ranks of the poorly paid? It rests with you. And now is the time to decide. Not next year, not next month, but now! You can get the training that will command a trained man's salary. The International Correspondence Schools have helped hundreds of thousands to qualify for advancement. Let them show you how you can prepare yourself, in your own home, for the position you want in the work you like best. Just mark and mail this coupon. It will be the first step upward. Mark and mail today. I. C. S., Box 6003, Scranton, Pa. INTERNATIONAL CORRESPONDENCE SCHOOLS Box 6003, SCRANTON, PA. Explain, without obligating me, how I can qualify for the position, or in the subject, before which I mark X. \| ELECTRICAL ENGINEER \| ADVERTISING MAN \| \| Electric Lighting \| Window Trimmer \| \| Electric Power \| Shop Carpenter \| \| Electric Wiring \| Outdoor Sign Painter \| \| Telephony \| MILL OPERATOR \| \| MECHANICAL ENGINEER \| DESIGNER \| \| Mechanical Draughtman \| BOOKKEEPER \| \| Machine Shop Practice \| Secretary, Stenographer and Typist \| \| Gas Engineer \| Cert. Public Accountant \| \| CIVIL ENGINEER \| Railway Accountant \| \| Surveying and Mapping \| Conductor \| \| MIN FOREMAN OR ENGINEER \| GOOD ENGLISH \| \| Mining Engineer or Prospector \| Teacher \| \| STATIONARY ENGINEER \| Common School Subjects \| \| Marine Engineer \| CIVIL SERVICE \| \| ARCHITECT \| Railway Mail Clerk \| \| Architect and Builder \| AGRICULTURE \| \| Architectural Draughtman \| POULTRY RAISING \| \| Concrete Builder \| Textile Overseer or Sup't \| \| Structural Draughtman \| Tex. teacher Spanish \| \| PLUMBING AND HEATING \| Usher \| \| Wood Finish Worker \| German \| \| SALESMAHNSHIP \| Auto Running \| \| \| Auto Receiving \| \| \| Italian \| Name ____________________________ Occupation or Employer ____________________________ Street and No. ____________________________ City ____________________________ State ____________________________ When writing to Advertisers please mention THE WIRELESS AGE "Mignon System" Apparatus of Scientific Construction for the Reduction of Static Interference High Resonance—Unapproached Selectivity NO TICKERS NOR ARMSTRONG CIRCUITS REQUIRED for the reception of CONTINUOUS wave signals if you own a MIGNON-SYSTEM CABINET DeForest Audion Detectors and Amplifiers BRANDES RECEIVERS Crystaloi Detectors, Etc. Write for R6 Catalog, Dept. "D" MIGNON WIRELESS CORPORATION Elmira, N. Y., U. S. A. Radio Telegraph and Telephone Engineering Stations, Antennae, Instruments Designed and Constructed Large catalog on Radio Telephone and Telegraph Instruments; Steel Towers and Masts; High and Low Frequency Motor-Generators; Rotary Converters; Switchboards and Parts; High-Tension Insulators; Storage Batteries, and a complete line of Radio Construction Material, now ready for distribution. Please remit ten cents to cover postage. Our specially designed and manufactured apparatus is giving a high state of satisfaction throughout the country, as we have eminent radio engineers in our service. We solicit your inquiries for information or quotations. Eastern Scientific Apparatus Co. West Roxbury, Mass. NOUN, GERMANY, Has been read in daylight on a 100 FOOT AERIAL, using RESCO inductances! If you own an audion and have the average experimenters' receiving apparatus you can read the German stations as well as all the undamped wave stations in this country. The inductance shown in this cut was designed to enable you to obtain the same results. Each inductance is 3 Feet long, 6½ inches in diameter built to give maximum inductance adjustment and dead-end elimination. Let us tell you about them. RESCO LONG WAVE RECEIVING TRANSFORMER. Specially designed for audion and amplifying circuits and therefore the most efficient for any circuit. Double silk covered wire throughout. Perfect adjustment. Note extreme loose coupling obtainable. 3500 meters without loading. Get Our Ironclad Guarantee on Resco Apparatus Postcard will bring full description. Price $10.00 RADIO ELECTRIC SPECIALTY CO. 5643-H South Wabash Ave., Chicago. When writing to Advertisers please mention THE WIRELESS AGE STEEL TOWERS GALVANIZED or PAINTED of any desired height, of first class construction and at extremely low prices. The self-supporting type does away with guys entirely and those of moderate height do not require expensive concrete footings. MILLIKEN BROTHERS INCORPORATED NEW YORK, 111 BROADWAY London - San Francisco - Buenos Aires Hydro-Electric Transmission Engineers Manufacturers of all Classes of Structural Steel Work. Station at Fort Monroe, Virginia Multi-Audi-Fone NOTE THIS Owing to the great advance in the development of the M. A. F. it can now be used with any Head Set you may have and we are going to give our customers all the advantage of the improvement. With our specially wound Head Set $23.00, without $18. Two Step Multi-Audi-Fone without Head Set, $60; with Head Set, $85. Un-Damped-Waver according to wave length, $60 and $100. Telephone Voice Multiplier for weak lines and poor ears, $15. Detectorphones for Detectives, County Attorneys, Hotels and Manufacturers, $35. Deaf-Man's-Ear is for you, if you are deaf and want to hear, $35. Send for circular today and don't fail to name which instrument MULTI-AUDI-FONE $18. 271 Morris Ave., Elizabeth, N. J. NEW! NEW!! NEW!!! "RADIO" Oil-Immersed Condensers. will not blow up. Guaranteed puncture proof. Single plate adjustment. Hard Rubber Containers. Absolutely no brushing with a decided increase of radiation. 1/4 KW condenser complete with oil........ $14.00 1/2 KW " " " " " " " " " " 21.00 1 KW " " " " " " " " " " 36.00 UNDAMPED WAVE APPARATUS. We construct loading coils and large inductances of superior quality and design for use in the reception of undamped signals, also long wave tuners. Get our quotations. State dimensions of aerial when inquiring. Our catalogue 5c. THE RADIO APPARATUS CO., Pottstown, Penn., U. S. A. When writing to Advertisers please mention THE WIRELESS AGE Two Pieces of Metal Toned Alike will both vibrate when one of them is struck. This same principle has been applied to Brandes Wireless Receivers. By perfectly matching the tones of the two receivers, the weak signals that you would otherwise lose are brought out so as to be easily interpreted. Brandes Wireless Receivers are made expressly for wireless service; they are not telephone receivers adapted to serve the purpose. They are very light and easily adjustable. No pinching or slipping. You set them to fit exactly; after that they're as easy on your head as your hat. Our Catalog W contains some very valuable information on radio reception, together with a full examination of many types of Brandes head sets. Send 4c. in stamps for your copy today. C. BRANDES, Inc. Wireless Receiver Specialist Room 818 32 Union Square New York Superior Type Complete With Headband $5. BRANDES Wireless Head Sets MEN WE HAVE TAUGHT ARE NOW SAILING THE SEVEN SEAS! LEARN RADIO, COMMERCIAL, OR RAILROAD TELEGRAPHY. FREE TRIAL ATTENDANCE BEREL'S SCHOOL OF TELEGRAPHY 343-345 LENOX AVE. bet. 127-128 streets NEW YORK CITY. 5 DAYS A WEEK—5 EVENINGS A WEEK OPEN ALL YEAR. START AT ANY TIME. DAY, $7.50 PER MO.—EVE., $5.00 PER MO. SEND FOR FURTHER PARTICULARS. NO CONNECTION WITH ANY OTHER SCHOOL Established 1905 THE LUZERNE RUBBER CO. Manufacturers of Fine Quality HARD RUBBER GOODS STANDARD AND SPECIAL Main Office and Factory: TRENTON NEW JERSEY A. J. Cox & Company WESTERN REPRESENTATIVES 28 South Jefferson Street CHICAGO, ILL. The "Exide" Battery for Wireless Service The "Exide" Battery has been specially designed for wireless and emergency lighting services. The "Exide" Battery is the most widely used battery in the country. A majority of all electric vehicles are equipped with the "Exide" Battery, it is used in the U. S. submarines, hundreds of thousands are in service for automobile starting. Bulletin No. 149, a copy of which can be secured from any office, illustrates and describes the special design of "Exide" Battery used for wireless service. THE ELECTRIC STORAGE BATTERY CO., PHILADELPHIA, PA. New York Boston Chicago St. Louis Cleveland Atlanta Pittsburgh 1888-1916 Detroit Washington Rochester Denver San Francisco Toronto Marconi School of Instruction The unusually high grade of young men required for the Marconi marine service has made this company's standard of efficiency favorably known all over the world. There are at present more than 50 vacancies in the school for young men who have the necessary qualifications and references. Positions are open and waiting to be filled by competent operators. Including all the latest types of apparatus developed by the Marconi Company, this school stands first with more complete wireless telegraph equipment than any institution in the United States. Special attention is given to promising young men for future advancement. Students of unusual ability are often assigned to positions higher than those of the regular marine service. Positions assured to those who satisfactorily complete the course. Call or write. INSTRUCTING ENGINEER EDISON BUILDING, 57 DUANE STREET, NEW YORK CITY When writing to Advertisers please mention The Wireless Age The Marconi Trans-Atlantic Wireless Telegraph Stations of America, Canada, England, and Italy are equipped with American Transformers made by specialists in the design and construction of transformers for extremely high potentials for testing, ozone generation, wireless work, etc. American Transformer Company NEWARK, N. J. ELECTROLYTIC COPPER CASTINGS Our completely modern equipped foundry—one of the largest in this section—has unexcelled facilities for the prompt production of castings in COPPER, BRONZE, and ALUMINUM—in large quantities. Extreme accuracy to pattern guaranteed. FISCHER-SWEENEY BRONZE COMPANY HOBOKEN, N. J. IF YOU ARE INTERESTED IN WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY The Wireless World will give you the latest information relating to the subject THE WIRELESS WORLD records monthly the world-wide progress of telegraphy and telephony, and every phase of the subject is dealt with in its columns, so that no one, whether he be student, amateur, engineer or commercial man, can afford to do without it. A feature of THE WIRELESS WORLD is the publication of new and revised laws and regulations. SUBSCRIPTIONS: $2.00 per Annum for America Single Copies 20c Post Paid THE WIRELESS PRESS, Limited Marconi House, Strand, London, W.C. When writing to Advertisers please mention The Wireless Age NEW RECEIVING SET We are now offering our new amateur receiving set which, while being moderate in price is exceptionally efficient and pleasing in appearance. It consists of a receiving transformer, a special detector, fixed condenser, variable condenser and loading coil, all mounted on a finely finished base, connected ready for use. It is of sufficient size to allow the reception of time signals from Arlington when used on any amateur aerial, and is the finest priced receiving set of high quality ever offered for sale. Our bulletin illustrating and describing this receiving set will be furnished to any one upon receipt of a two-cent stamp. Parts of same are sold separately. We now have in stock for immediate delivery the new Draper Audion Detectors—much improved and by far the best detector on the market. Get our bulletins. THE WIRELESS MFG. CO. CANTON, O. PATENTS WILLIAM N. MOORE PATENT ATTORNEY Loan and Trust Bldg., Washington, D. C. The first important step is to learn whether you can obtain a patent. Please send sketch of your invention with $5, and I will examine the patent records and inform you whether you are entitled to a patent, the cost and manner of procedure. TRADE MARKS, LABELS and COPYRIGHTS OBTAINED Personal Attention Established 25 Years RUSSELL-SCHWARZ COMPANY Cabinet Makers. Instrument Cases & All Wood Parts for the Electrical Trades. 109 Frelinghuysen Ave. Newark, N. J. Send for Our Manual No. 16 of Wireless Telegraphy To the student of Wireless Telegraphy, the Manual contains much useful information and is a practical guide to the study of the art. A good portion of it is now published for the first time—and consists of formulae, tables, diagrams, Federal regulations, codes, diagrammatic instructions for installing, maintaining and operating wireless stations, together with a complete list of up-to-date wireless instruments and accessories. The Manual contains 120 pages, fully illustrated on high grade paper, back with a two-color cover. We ask ten cents ($1.0) for it—give you a coupon receipt which can be applied on any order amounting to One Dollar ($1.00) or more. Do not wait until some other time but sit down now and send us your name and address, and get one of the most complete, comprehensive and reliable wireless pamphlets published. MANHATTAN ELECTRICAL SUPPLY CO. NEW YORK CHICAGO ST. LOUIS 17 Park Place 114 S. 5th St. 1108 Pine St. SAN FRANCISCO, CAL. BECOME A First Grade Wireless Operator And don't spend a fortune or waste a whole year to master Code, Traffic and Engineering. $35.00 pays your tuition and prepares you in from 3 to 9 months. Easy payments. U. S. Govt. Radio Inspector, Experts, Engineers and operators, instructors, Draftsmen, and all Y. M. C. A. privileges to students. Also Commercial Telegraphy, Electricity, Drafting, Structural Engineering, Automobile, etc. Send for catalogues. Y. M. C. A. Telegraph School, 157 East 86th St. New York, N. Y. Learn Wireless Telegraphy There is an ever-increasing demand for competent operators; this profession offers steady employment at increasing salary—wireless operators travel all over the world. Send for Catalogue A. THE PAINE Uptown BUSINESS SCHOOL 1931 Broadway (65th). New York City. "THERE'S MONEY IN IT" LEARN TELEGRAPHY AT HOME MORSE AND WIRELESS TEACH YOURSELF in half usual time, at trifling cost, with the wonderful Automatic Transmitter, THE OMNIGRAPH. Sends unlimited Morse or Continental messages, at any speed. Just as an expert operator would. Adopted by U. S. Government. 4 styles. Catalogue free. OMNIGRAPH MFG. CO., 39-C. Cortlandt St., New York BACK NUMBERS OF THE WIRELESS AGE AND THE MARCONIGRAPH We can supply back numbers of THE WIRELESS AGE at 15c each, beginning Oct., 1913, with the exception of Jan., June and July, 1914, and Jan. and Feb., 1915. BOUND VOLUMES. We do not have bound volumes of MARCONIGRAPH. We have a very few bound volumes of THE WIRELESS AGE. While they last Vol. I at $3.00 each, Vol. II, $2.50 each. If you want your copies bound, send copies to us by parcels post with 75c for binding and additional amount sufficient to prepay return postage. We can supply back numbers of THE MARCONIGRAPH (changed to WIRELESS AGE, Oct., 1913) from Nov., 1912, to Sept., 1913, at 25c each, or set of 11 numbers for $1.75 (only 9 sets left). THE WIRELESS AGE 450 Fourth Avenue, New York City When writing to Advertisers please mention THE WIRELESS AGE More Rugged than Slate—more Serviceable than Marble—J-M Ebony Asbestos Wood This should suggest many uses around the station to the wireless engineer. The fact that this material is tough, highly dielectric and at the same time resistant to the heat of the arc makes it admirable for any electrical mounting that is needed in service. You can machine and tool this material in your own shop without loss due to breakage, and you won't be worried with metallic veins or flaws. Write our nearest branch for "Switchboard Materials" booklet today. H. W. Johns-Manville Co. Station "I" Pacific Gas & Electric Co. San Francisco, Cal. Atlanta Columbus Milwaukee Pittsburgh Baltimore Denver Minneapolis Portland Boston Detroit Newark St. Louis Buffalo Galveston New Orleans Salt Lake City Chicago Indianapolis New York San Francisco Cincinnati Kansas City Louisville Omaha Seattle Cleveland Los Angeles Memphis Philadelphia Toledo The Precision Varicoupler Patented March 7, 1916 is perfection in receiving tuners. It gives you absolute precision without variable condensers; has NO TAPS, NO SWITCHES, NO CONTACTS, NO DEAD ENDS, NO SLIDERS. It is perfect for oscillating circuits. Approved by all experts as the coming tuner. You cannot afford to be without one. Write for Bulletin PI.—4 Styles—$17.50-$25.00. Precision Radio Equipment Co., Inc. General Office: 868 PUTNAM AVE., BROOKLYN, N. Y. BIGLOW QUALITY STANDS FOR Tasteful Printing L. H. BIGLOW & COMPANY 62 BROAD STREET NEW YORK SWAN & FINCH COMPANY Announce the removal of their offices from 151 MAIDEN LANE to 165 BROADWAY, NEW YORK Refiners and Dealers in Oils Telephone, Cortlandt 5464 Established 1853 AT LAST WE HAVE THEM Guaranteed Amplifier Coils. Increase your receiving range. Write for Prices. Send 10c for our large complete catalog. Parts catalog free. PITTSBURGH WIRELESS EQUIPMENT CO., Ridgway, Penna. TRANSFORMERS BUILT FOR "WIRELESS" Closed Core — Fully Guaranteed. Best of Insulation — Efficient Operation — Service. 1/2 K.W. $ 8.50 In Case $10.50 1/2 K.W. 15.00 In Case 18.00 When writing to Advertisers please mention THE WIRELESS AGE Read What the Man Who Employs the Marconi Operators Has Said of This Book --- Marconi Wireless Telegraph Company of America (Eastern Division) New York June 23, 1915. The Marconi Publishing Corporation 450 Fourth Avenue New York City. Dear Sirs: I have read your recent publication entitled "How to Pass the Government Wireless Examination." I consider it invaluable to all aspirants who wish to become commercial operators. Operators will also find this little volume extremely useful in assisting them to obtain renewal of their licenses. The author, who has had many years of experience in the commercial field of wireless telegraphy and who speaks from experience, is perhaps better qualified than any one I know of to compile a book of this kind. Very truly yours, [Signature] Superintendent. --- Educational Institutions All over the Country are Sending in Quantity Orders Only 50 cents Book Department THE WIRELESS AGE 450 4th Ave., New York When writing to Advertisers please mention THE WIRELESS AGE A COMPARATIVE TEST This cut, reproduced from a photograph of a test made to demonstrate the superiority of the Interlock Weld (the branch on the left) over the ordinary butt weld (the branch on the right), speaks for itself. For your next installation write "Interlock Welded Necks" in your specifications and eliminate two-thirds of your joint trouble. Examine method of fabrication from lower cut and you will see why it is the only joint of this type that is As Strong As the Pipe. We design and execute complete piping contracts for electrical installations. PITTSBURGH VALVE, FOUNDRY and CONSTRUCTION CO. PITTSBURGH, PA. INTERLOCK WELDED NECK (Patented) CONTROLLING DEVICES In positions of responsibility—where they must work every time—that is where I-C controllers find greatest favor. Operators of Marconi sets, Government wireless, machine tools, printing presses, pumps, etc., know and appreciate them. Would be pleased to mail you our new Hand Book No. 4 M. Industrial Controller Co. MILWAUKEE WALKER BROS. & HAVILAND Chicago Peoples Gas Bldg. New York 50 Church St. Philadelphia 1532 Sansom St. BAKELITE-DILECTO The Standard Insulating Material for all RADIO WORK Waterproof—Strong—High Electrically—Furnished in Sheets, Rods, Tubes, and Special Shapes. Samples on request. Also makers of High-Grade Vulcanized Fibre. THE CONTINENTAL FIBRE CO., NEWARK, DEL. Woolworth Bldg. New York, N. Y. McCormick Bldg., Chicago, Ill. NEW BINGHAM Cor. 11th & Market Streets European Plan Philadelphia Pa. Better Than Ever Thoroughly Modernized Remodeled and Equipped NEW MANAGEMENT CAFE and ROOF GARDEN In connection Special Club Breakfasts and Luncheons Rates—Without Bath, $1.50 With Bath, $2.00 and up. FRANK KIMBLE, Mgr. Telephone Bryant 5477 Electrical Industries Mfg. Co. 328 West 41st St. New York ELECTRIC GENERATING OUTFITS FOR WIRELESS SERVICE Information and Prices on Request. THE ROBBINS & MYERS CO. SPRINGFIELD, O. Branches and Agencies in Principal Cities. WANTED THE WIRELESS AGE For January, June and July 1914, also January and February, 1915 We will give four months' additional subscription for each copy sent us which is in perfect condition. We will pay 25c a copy or a 4 months' subscription as may be desired. Address— The Wireless Age, 450 4th Ave., New York When writing to Advertisers please mention The Wireless Age "RABOK" LIQUID CARBON PAINT A REAL METAL PRESERVATIVE not affected by Acid, Brine or Climatic Conditions Standard with MARCONI WIRELESS TELEGRAPH COMPANY OF AMERICA for painting Towers and Mast Poles The Steel Mast Illustrated is painted with "RABOK" "Best quality—lowest cost"—our motto Rabok Manufacturing Co. 102-104 So. Commercial St., St. Louis, U. S. A. The wireless masts of the Marconi Telegraph Company of America at New Brunswick, N. J., are protected from rust and decay by DIXON'S SILICA GRAPHITE PAINT which gives the longest protective service upon all types of exposed steel construction. Booklet No. 30-B upon request. Made in JERSEY CITY, N. J., by the JOSEPH DIXON CRUCIBLE COMPANY Established 1827 YOUR PRINTING AS YOU WANT IT WHEN YOU WANT IT GIBB BROS. & MORAN, Inc. PRINTERS 45-51 ROSE STREET NEW YORK ESTABLISHED 1886 TELEPHONE BEEKMAN, 1970 Weston Switchboard Indicating Instruments are the Standard for use on WIRELESS TELEGRAPH PANELS The group includes Wattmeters, Frequency Meters, Ammeters and Voltmeters of 7-inch diameter. In dependability, durability, accuracy and efficiency these instruments practically attain perfection. The recognized superiority of Weston Indicating Instruments is due to the fact that this company not only originated the art of electrical measurement, but has been the source of every improvement and development in that art. Write for complete descriptions. AMMETER Switchboard Type Weston Electrical Instrument Co. 27 Weston Ave., Newark, N. J. New York Chicago Detroit Boston St. Louis San Francisco Philadelphia Richmond Toronto Buffalo Denver Montreal Cleveland Winnipeg Cincinnati Vancouver When writing to Advertisers please mention The Wireless Age JUST PUBLISHED Half of First Edition Is Already Sold Order Your Copy Now HOW TO CONDUCT A RADIO CLUB Describing Parliamentary Procedure, Indoor and Outdoor Experiments, 5000-Mile Receiving Set and Many Other Features. 116 ILLUSTRATIONS By E. E. BUCHER, Instructing Engineer The Marconi Wireless Telegraph Company of America. TABLE OF CONTENTS Advice for the Amateur Chapter I Preliminary Education—Buzzer Practice System—Timely Advice—An Elementary Receiving Set—Receiving Aerials—Receiving Detectors—General Advice Concerning Government Licenses—Requirements for an Operator’s License—Where to Take the Examination—Land Station License—A Beginner’s Transmitting Set—A Transmitting Set of the More Advanced Type—Further Progress—Books on Wireless for Amateurs. The Formation of a Radio Club How to Get Together—Temporary Organization—The Permanent Organization—Constitution and By-Laws for Radio Clubs—Quarters—Antenna—The Club Literature—The Workshop—Drawing Materials—Radio Apparatus—Important Advice. Instruction in the Telegraphic Codes Code Practice—How to Make the Buzzer Squeal—A Small High Frequency Generator. A 200 Meter Amateur Set An Amateur Transmitting Aerial—Natural Wave-Length of Four-Wire Aerials—Aerial Insulation—Earth Connection—The Oscillation Transformer—Oscillation Transformer of the Spiral Type—Closed Oscillatory or Spark Gap Circuit—Placing the Foil—Rotary Spark Gap—A Rotary Gap of Simple Construction—Transmitting Keys Transformers—The Reactance Coil—A Transformer of Increased Capacity—A Condenser for a Three-Inch Spark Coil—Data for a Three-Inch Spark Coil—Data for a One-Inch Coil—A Lightning Switch—Protective Devices—Linking Circuit Applied to the Transmitter—General Precautions—Notes on the Adjustment of a Transmitting Set—Notes on Coupling. An Amateur’s Wave-Meter and Its Uses Determination of the Point of Resonance—Care in Operation of the Wave-Meter—Calibration of a Wave-Meter—More Accurate Method of Calibration—Measurement of the Inductance and Capacity of an Aerial—Reduction of Wave-Length by a Series Condenser—Increasing the Wave-Length of an Aerial. The Measurement of the Logarithmic Decrement Calculation of the Decrement of the Decremeter—Definition of a Pure and Sharp Wave. Chapter VII Explanation of the Theory of Operation of the Receiving Tuner Natural Wave-Length of the Receiving Aerial—Oscillation Transformer and Coupling—Setting Up of Energy—Practical Operation of the Receiving Tuner—"Stiffening" the Circuits—Conditions for "Standby" and "Tuning" Adjustments—The Practical Adjustments of a Receiving Tuner—Receiving Detectors. Chapter VIII Receiving Tuners Receiving Tuners for Definite Range of Wave-Length—Coils and Condensers of Measured Wave-Length—Linking Circuit Applied to the Receiving Apparatus—Timed Buzzer Tester—Test Buzzers—Preferred Circuits for Radio Telegraphic Detectors. Chapter IX The Vacuum Valve Amplifier The Detector Explained—Actions of the Valve—The Single Step Amplifier—Double Amplifier—Magnetic Field About the Valve—Use of a Permanent Magnet—Linking Circuit—"Beat" Receivers—A Supersensitive Set for Undamped Oscillations—A Unique Method for Detecting Undamped Oscillations—Measurement for the Dead-Ends of a Receiving Tuner—Balancing Out Aerials—Elimination of Arc Light Induction. Chapter X "Break-In" Systems A New "Break-In" Method—The Theory of Operation—Duplex Wireless—Another New "Break-In" Method—Theory of Operation—Limitations—Modified System. Chapter XI The Radio Variometer Its Actions Explained—General Design—Uses of the Variometer—The Variometer as an Element of a Wave-Meter—A Variometer of Increased Range—A Variometer of Simple Construction. Chapter XII Amateur Wireless Telegraphy During the Summer Overhauling the Station—Advice for the Amateur Away from Home—Amateurs in the Country—Aerials Supported by Kites—Constructional Details—Kite Coverings—Kite Bridles—The Construction of a Box Kite—When to Fly Kites—A Long Distance Receiving Set—A Supersensitive Receiving Set—Substitute for an Aerial—Tests May Be Necessary—Wireless in the Summer Camp—Increasing the Range. Chapter XIII An Amateur Portable Wireless Set Transportation Suggestions—Aerial in the Trees—Design for the Portable Set—The Transmitting Apparatus—Receiving Apparatus—Final Adjustments. PRICE 50 CENTS A COPY Published by THE WIRELESS AGE 450 Fourth Avenue, New York When writing to Advertisers please mention THE WIRELESS AGE The Year Book of Wireless Telegraphy and Telephony Reduced Illustration of Year Book Full Size, 6 x 8½ When writing to Advertisers please mention The Wireless Age WHILE THEY LAST This 1915 Year Book is up to date, having been issued late in 1915. The 1916 edition is not due for many months. The special articles in this edition will not be repeated. So you must have this edition to get them. — Special Offer — WITH THE WIRELESS AGE ONE YEAR only $2.00 THE YEAR BOOK OF WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY AND TELEPHONY 1000 Pages Size 6 x 8 1-2 THE ONLY COMPLETE REFERENCE WORK ON WIRELESS Contains a yearly record of the progress of wireless telegraphy; the regulations of the International Convention; the radio laws of all countries; complete lists of ship and shore stations throughout the world, their call letters, wave-lengths, range and hours of service; articles by the greatest authorities on vital questions; the Articles of the International Convention on Safety of Life at Sea; application of wireless to the mercantile marine; the technical situation of radiotelephony—in fact, everything YOU haven't been able to find out elsewhere. Besides, at the back of the book, a full glossary containing the most useful wireless data ever compiled. Too, there are special articles by Dr. A. J. Fleming on "Function of the Earth in Radio Telegraphy"—Wireless Telephony" by H. J. Round—"International Radio Telegraphic Research During 1914," by Dr. W. H. Eccles—"Wireless and War at Sea" by A. Hurd—"Influence of Wireless Telegraphy on Modern Strategy" by Col. F. N. Maude, and many others. Price, $1.50 Postpaid INCLUDING THE WIRELESS MAP OF THE WORLD We will send both the 1915 Year Book (while they last) and The Wireless Age for one year for $2.00. If we cannot supply the Year Book we will refund $1.00. SPECIAL.—If you have subscribed or renewed during the past 6 months, send $1.00 for the 1915 Year Book. Marconi Publishing Corporation, 450 Fourth Avenue, New York City. Gentlemen:— I received my copy of the "Year Book of Wireless Telegraphy and Telephony" this morning, and I wish to thank you for so promptly attending to this order. After having read the book as soon as I could unravel it, I have a few kind and well meant words for this publication. I think it must be admitted that the book is not only as good as you advertise it to be, but one hundred times better than you say; also better in solid technical matter, statistics and the things that go towards making up a book of this kind than any year book, almanac, or similar publication that I have ever seen. And I have seen an uncountable number of books of this type. It certainly does me good to find one corporation so modest in its claims for its works that it does not exaggerate the minutest particular. Thanking you again, I am, Respectfully yours, Edward G. Miller. THE WIRELESS AGE, 450 Fourth Ave., New York City When writing to Advertisers please mention THE WIRELESS AGE New Edition of LIST OF Corrected and Completed up to August 1, 1915 RADIO STATIONS OF THE WORLD Compiled by FRANK A. HART and H. M. SHORT Chief Inspector of the Marconi Wireless Telegraph Company of America Resident Inspector (U. S. A.) Marconi International Marine Communication Company, Ltd. The following is reproduced from the preface of the book: "This book has been compiled for the use of operators in wireless telegraphy and for all those who have receiving instruments. It is so arranged as to be equally available to the operator who desires to find the call of any given station, and to the operator who wants to trace instantly the calls that come to him over his receiver. "The tabulation of naval vessels gives, at a moment's glance, a comparison of the wireless equipment of the Powers. The list of commercial ship stations not only enumerates vessels equipped with wireless, but also gives the character of wireless control, the owner and the nationality. The list of coast stations is so devised that any ship operator can find the nearest station without any delay. This volume has been compiled by practical men for practical use, and every point needed will be found to have been included." Contents Arranged as Follows: Key to Lists in Volume. All Ship Stations Alphabetically by Call Letters. Naval Ship Stations Alphabetically by Country and Vessel. Commercial Ship Stations Alphabetically by Vessel, giving owner, nationality and control. Key to Control of Stations. Coast Stations Alphabetically by country and Stations, with control. Compiled for use by all who have wireless receiving sets. PRICE 50 CENTS PER COPY, Paper Covers Foreign Postage 20c. Published by THE WIRELESS AGE 450 Fourth Avenue New York, N. Y. When writing to Advertisers please mention The Wireless Age THE J. G. WHITE Engineering Corporation Engineers Contractors Reports—Valuations Constructing the following high power wireless stations for the Marconi Wireless Telegraph Company: New Brunswick - New Jersey Belmar - New Jersey Marion - Massachusetts Chatham - Massachusetts Bolinas - California Marshalls - California Kahuku, Oahu I. - Hawaii Koko Head, Oahu I. - Hawaii Also engaged in the engineering and construction of steam and electric railroads; power plants; water powers; and engineering reports and physical valuations of public utility properties. 43 Exchange Place, New York World Wide Wireless Is recognized throughout the world as an absolute necessity in marine commerce and an invaluable aid in trans-oceanic communication. Marconi service is reliable, accurate and economical; telegraph experts acknowledge its efficiency in message transmission to be on a par with land line and cable communication. More than 1,800 ships are equipped with Marconi wireless and its shore stations are landmarks in practically every country on the globe. Press and commercial messages are transmitted daily from continent to continent—direct. Shore to ship and ship to shore business during the year past ran into millions of words. Less than 19 years old as a commercial institution, Marconi wireless is already indispensable in the maritime field, invaluable in others. Regular communication has been established with icebound settlements and desert communities, and official running orders transmitted to moving railroad trains. Its service is dependable under all conditions, and embraces activities and locations inaccessible to any other telegraph system. Continuous service is maintained. Messages for transmission by wireless at reduced rates are accepted at the Marconi Office, 42 Broad Street, New York, and at all Western Union Offices in America and Canada. Various types of Marconi equipment are designed for the merchant marine, warships, submarines, pleasure craft, motor cars and railroad trains; also portable signal corps sets, apparatus for aircraft, cavalry sets, knapsack sets and high-power installations for trans-ocean communication. The Direction Finder and Wireless Compass are recent Marconi inventions. Marconi Wireless Telegraph Co. of America Woolworth Building, New York
IN THE UNITED STATES DISTRICT COURT FOR THE WESTERN DISTRICT OF TEXAS SAN ANTONIO DIVISION LULAC OF TEXAS, MEXICAN AMERICAN BAR ASSOCIATION OF HOUSTON, TEXAS (MABAH), ANGELA GARCIA, BERNARDO J. GARCIA, ELVIRA RIOS, ROGER ROCHA, ROSARIO VERA, and RAYMUNDO VALVERDE, PLAINTIFFS v. STATE OF TEXAS and TEXAS DEMOCRATIC PARTY DEFENDANTS PLAINTIFF’S ORIGINAL COMPLAINT 1. This complaint is an enforcement action under Section 5 of the Voting Rights Act, 42 U.S.C. §1973c. This is also an action pursuant to Section 2 of the Voting Rights Act, 42 U.S.C. §1973. Plaintiffs challenge the manner in which the State and the State Democratic Party distribute and allocate delegates for participation in the Party’s precinct, senatorial or county, state and national nominating conventions. The challenged practice of allocating delegates based on raw voter turnout results in restricting participation in high concentrated Latino Senatorial districts and rewarding Senatorial Districts with high Anglo population, and high Republican participation. This allocation system does not allow Latino voters an equal opportunity to participate in the electoral process and select candidates of their choice, in violation of Section 2 of the Voting Rights Act. Moreover, the current allocation system was adopted in 1988 and has been periodically modified to their current status for use in the 2008 election process and these changes have not been submitted for, nor have they received the required pre-clearance pursuant to Section 5 of the Voting Rights Act. 2. Plaintiffs seek to enjoin the Defendant and their successors from conducting elections pursuant to the non pre-cleared changes and illegal delegate allocation plan. JURISDICTION 3. Jurisdiction of this Court is invoked pursuant to 42 U.S.C. §1973c, 28 U.S.C. §1343(3) and (4), and 28 U.S.C. § 2201. PARTIES Organizational Plaintiffs 4. The League of United Latin American Citizens of Texas, hereinafter LULAC, is a civil rights organization with thousands of members, citizens and voters in Texas, whose purpose include to fight discrimination in voting. 5. The Mexican American Bar Association, Houston Chapter, is a professional association of Latino lawyers who are citizens and voters in the Houston area, devoted to speak on behalf of the Hispanic community on legal issues affecting the community, including the principle that our voting processes should be free of discrimination. Individual Plaintiffs 6. Plaintiff Angela Garcia is a citizen, voter, and resident of Senate District 26 in Bexar County, Texas. Plaintiff A. Garcia is an active member of LULAC of Texas. Plaintiff Bernardo J. Garcia is a citizen, voter and resident of Senate District 6 in Harris County, Texas. Plaintiff B. Garcia is a member of and the President-elect of MABAH. Plaintiff Elvira Rios is a citizen, voter and resident of Senate District 20 in Hidalgo County, Texas. Plaintiff Rios is an active member of LULAC of Texas. Plaintiff Roger Rocha is a citizen, voter and resident of Senate District 21 in Webb County, Texas. Plaintiff Rocha is an active member of LULAC of Texas and is the State Director for LULAC of Texas. Plaintiff Raymundo Velarde is a citizen, voter and resident of Senate District 29 in El Paso County, Texas. Plaintiff Velarde is an active member of LULAC of Texas. Plaintiff Rosario Vera is a citizen, voter and resident of Senate District 19 in Bexar County, Texas. Plaintiff Vera is an active member of LULAC of Texas. Defendants 7. The Defendant State of Texas is a political jurisdiction that is covered by the pre-clearance provisions of Section 5 the Federal Voting Rights Act, 42 U.S.C, Sec. 1973c as well as Section 2 of the Voting Rights Act, 42 U.S.C. §1973. 8. The Defendant Texas Democratic Party is authorized by the State of Texas and is acting under the authority of the State of Texas in conducting its nominating primary elections and nominating conventions. STATEMENT OF THE FACTS 9. Under authority of the State of Texas, the Texas Democratic Party conducted its primary election on March 4, 2008. (See: Tex. Election Code, § 191.004) 10. Under authority of the State of Texas, the Texas Democratic Party conducted its nominating precinct conventions on March 4, 2008. (See: Tex. Election Code, § 174.022). 11. Under authority of the State of Texas, the Texas Democratic Party adopted rules to govern the conduct of its nominating precinct conventions. (See: Tex. Election Code, § 163.002 et seq.). 12. Pursuant to rules adopted for the conduct of its nominating precinct conventions, the Texas Democratic Party allocated the number of delegates each precinct convention would be allowed to elect to attend its Senatorial and County conventions according to the raw vote cast in each such precinct for the Democratic nominee for governor in 2006. (See: Rules of the Texas Democratic Party 2006-2008, Article IVB8.) 13. The adoption of rules for the conduct of Texas Democratic Party precinct conventions, including rules establishing the allocation of delegates to be elected to attend the Senatorial or County conventions has not be pre-cleared pursuant to Section 5 of the Voting Rights Act. (See Exhibit No. 1, Affidavit of Luis R. Vera, Jr.) 14. The manner used to allocate the delegates to be elected from the precinct conventions under-values Latino Democratic voters and does not provide Latino voters with an equal opportunity to participate in the nominating process and to elect candidates of their choice. 15. Under authority of the State of Texas, the Texas Democratic Party conducted its nominating senatorial and county conventions on March 29, 2008. (See: Tex. Election Code, § 174.063) 16. Pursuant to rules adopted for the conduct of its nominating senatorial and county conventions, the Texas Democratic Party allocated the number of delegates each Senatorial and County convention would be allowed to elect to attend its State convention according to the raw vote cast in each Senate District for the Democratic nominee for governor in 2006. (See: Rules of the Texas Democratic Party 2006-2008, Article IVC8.) 17. The adoption of rules for the conduct of Texas Democratic Party senatorial and county conventions, including rules establishing the allocation of delegates to be elected to attend the State convention has not been pre-cleared pursuant to Section 5 of the Voting Rights Act. (See: Exhibit 1) 18. The manner used to allocate the delegates to be elected from the senatorial and county conventions under-values Latino Democratic voters and does not provide Latino voters with an equal opportunity to participate in the nominating process and to elect candidates of their choice. 19. Under authority of the State of Texas, the Texas Democratic Party will conduct its nominating State convention on June 5-7, 2008. (See: Tex. Election Code, § 174.093). 20. Pursuant to rules adopted for the conduct of its nominating State convention, the Texas Democratic Party allocated the number of delegates each Senatorial delegation would be allowed to elect to attend the Democratic national convention according to the proportion of vote cast in each such district of the total statewide vote for the Democratic nominee for governor in 2006. (See: Rules of the Texas Democratic Party 2006-2008, Article VII, 8(b)) 21. The rules adopted for the conduct of Texas Democratic Party State convention, including rules establishing the allocation of delegates to be elected from the Senatorial District caucus’ to attend the Democratic National convention have not been pre-cleared pursuant to Section 5 of the Voting Rights Act. (See: Exhibit No. 1) 22. Texas will send 228 delegates and 32 alternates to the National Democratic Convention. Of those the Senatorial District delegations to the State Convention will elect 126 delegates and 21 alternates, chosen and allocated pursuant to the non precleared and discriminatory rules adopted by the Texas Democratic Party under authority of the State of Texas. 23. More delegates are allocated to Republican Senatorial districts than to the Democratic Senatorial districts even though more than 60% of the Hispanic voting age population lives in the Democratic districts. While the seven Latino majority Senatorial districts all gave the Democratic nominee for Governor in 2006, plurality support in a four person race, and all vote overwhelmingly for Democratic candidates, the Democratic Party rules used to allocate delegates resulted in an average of only 3.5 delegates per district for the Latino majority districts. 24. Had the State Democratic Party employed an allocation plan based on proportion of support for the Democratic candidate for governor, or the proportion of vote for Democratic candidates, or even on an even distribution for each district, the allocation would have resulted in a distribution that rewarded Democratic loyalty without punishing Latino voters. Numerous options existed that would have provided all Democratic voters with a fair opportunity to participate, and a fair allocation of delegates without diluting Latino voter participation. 25. The manner used to allocate the delegates to be elected from the senatorial district caucus at the State Convention under-values Latino Democratic voters and does not provide Latino voters with an equal opportunity to participate in the nominating process and to elect candidates of their choice. For example, Senate District 6, in Harris County is over 53% Spanish Surnamed of registered voters. In the critical election used by the Democratic Party to calculate the allocation of delegates, Senate District 6 voted for Mr. Bell at about 51%. Conversely, Senate District 25 in Bexar County is only about 19% Spanish Surname of registered voters. In the critical election used by the Democratic Party to calculate the allocation of delegates, Senate District 25 gave the Republican nominee for Governor, Mr. Perry about 40% of its votes, and Mr. Bell, the Democratic nominee only about 26% of its votes. Yet, in allocation of delegates, the majority Latino Senate District 6 is rewarded for its loyalty to the Democratic Party with 3 delegates to the National Convention. The Anglo majority Senate District 25 is rewarded for its loyalty to the Republican Party with an award 6 delegates to the Democratic National Convention. 26. Elections in Texas primaries and general elections are racially polarized and Latino voters are politically cohesive. 27. Latino voters continue to suffer from the effects of historical discrimination in that over a number of socio-economic and educational factors, the Latino community fares poorly when compared to the Anglo population of Texas. FIRST CAUSE OF ACTION Section 5. 28. With respect to this cause of action, plaintiffs incorporate, reallege and reaver all of the matters contained in paragraphs 1-27 as if fully set forth herein. 29. The State of Texas and the Texas Democratic Party are currently enforcing rules and an election process adopted by the Texas Democratic Party under the authority of the State of Texas for use in the nominating conventions that has not been pre-cleared by the Department of Justice under Section 5 of the Federal Voting Rights Act and fully intends to continue to hold the nominating conventions under terms and conditions that make it more difficult for Latinos to participate in the political process and elect representatives of their choice. 30. Unless enjoined by this Court, the State of Texas and the Texas Democratic Party will continue to hold nominating conventions using a process without the requisite preclearance and in clear violation of Section 5 of the Voting Rights Act, 42 U.S.C. §1973c. SECOND CAUSE OF ACTION Section 2. 31. With respect to this cause of action, plaintiffs incorporate, reallege and reaver all of the matters contained in paragraphs 1-27 as if fully set forth herein. 32. The manner used to allocate the delegates to be elected from the precinct conventions, senatorial and county conventions and the senatorial district caucus at the State Convention, under-values Latino Democratic voters and does not provide Latino voters with an equal opportunity to participate in the nominating process and to elect candidates of their choice, in violation of Section 2 of the Voting Rights Act, 42 U.S.C. §1973. IMMUNITIES 33. Plaintiffs allege, inter alia that qualified and absolute immunity do not protect the defendants because this suit asks only injunctive relief, declaratory relief and attorney's fees. Plaintiffs also allege that absolute immunity does not protect the defendants because so far as the scope of this suit, defendants are not acting in any of the capacities which received immunity at common law, The defendants are not entitled to Eleventh Amendment Immunity because plaintiffs seek only injunctive relief, declaratory relief and attorney's fees. EQUITIES 34. Plaintiffs have no adequate remedy at law other than the judicial relief sought here. Unless the defendants are enjoined, they will persist in this election scheme, which will violate the rights of the plaintiff, which are secured under Federal statutory law. No legitimate or compelling governmental interest requires the procedures complained about. ATTORNEYS FEES 35. In accordance with 42 U.S.C. Sections 19731(e) and 1988 plaintiffs' counsel are entitled to recover a reasonable fee and appropriate expenses, including expert fees as part of the costs in this matter. PRAYER Plaintiffs respectfully pray that this Court enter Judgment granting Plaintiffs: A. A declaratory judgment that Defendants’ actions regarding the use of Democratic Party rules for primary conventions and delegate allocations for the conduct of primary elections, without Section 5 pre-clearance, violate the rights of Plaintiff as secured by the Voting Rights Act, 42 U.S.C. §1973c; B. A declaratory judgment that Defendants’ actions regarding the use of Democratic Party rules for primary conventions and delegate allocations for the conduct of primary elections, dilutes Latino voting strength, violates the rights of Plaintiffs as secured by Section 2 of the Voting Rights Act, 42 U.S.C. §1973; C. Preliminary and permanent injunctive relief enjoining Defendants, their successors in office, agents, employees, attorneys and those persons acting in concert with them and/or at their discretion from not taking action to proceed with nominating conventions using the discriminatory delegate allocation system described herein. D. An order requiring Defendants to comply with Section 5 pre-clearance requirements of the Voting Rights Act; E. The costs of this suit and reasonable attorneys fees; F. An order of this Court retaining jurisdiction over this matter until all Defendants have complied with all orders and mandates of this Court; and G. Such other and further relief as the Court may deem just and proper. DATED: May 9, 2008 Respectfully Submitted, JOSE GARZA LAW OFFICE OF JOSE GARZA 7414 Robin Rest Dr. San Antonio, Texas 78209 210-392-2856 George Korbel The Law Office of George Korbel 220 Gardenview San Antonio, Texas 78213 (210) 216-3336 Luis Roberto Vera, Jr. SBN: 20546740 / FBN: 16294 LULAC General Counsel 1325 Riverview Towers 111 Soledad San Antonio, Texas 78205-2260 Ph (210) 225-3300 Fax (210) 225-2060 Attorneys for LULAC et al.
Repairable TV's Are Being Scrapped... with them go servicers' profits and customers Sony's New Trinitron Chassis FET Fundamentals Selecting Commercial Audio Amps ...new pts products...stop...new 1974-1975 tuner replacement guide and parts catalog no. 4...stop...96 pages of top tuner information...stop...blow-ups of all types of vhf and uhf tuners for easy parts identification...stop...largest exact tuner replacement guide available in the industry...stop...antenna coil replacement guide...stop...multifit replacement tuner shaft guide...stop...available for $2.00...stop...redeemable with min. order...stop...pts elex... LET US TAKE CARE OF YOUR TUNER PROBLEMS... PTS will repair any tuner—no matter how old or new—black & white or color—transistor or tubes—varactor or electronically tuned—detent UHF. 8 hour service is a must! ...THIS IS THE SERVICE WE OFFER: 1. Fastest Service—8 hour—in and out the same day. Overnight transit to one of our strategically located plants. 2. Best Quality—Your customers are satisfied and you are not bothered with returning tuners for rework. 3. PTS uses only ORIGINAL PARTS! No homemade or make-do, inferior merchandise (this is why we charge for major parts!). You get your tuner back in ORIGINAL EQUIPMENT condition. 4. PTS is recommended by more TV Manufacturers than any other tuner company. 5. PTS is overhauling more tuners than all other tuner services combined. Fast 8 hr. Service! We offer you finer, faster... ...Precision Tuner Service VHF, UHF $10.95 UV-COMBO 17.95 IF-SUBCHASSIS 12.50 Major parts and shipping charged at cost. (Dealer net!) Over 4000 exact tuner replacements available for $14.95 up (new or rebuilt) ELECTRONICS, INC.... ...Number ONE and still trying harder! (Not a Franchise Company) ...for more details circle 127 on Reader Service Card 27 INDISPUTABLE REASONS FOR USING DATA TECHNOLOGY'S HANDHELD DIGITAL MULTIMETER—FREE FOR TWO WEEKS. 1. FREE TRIAL OFFER DataTechnology's Model 21 is unique. There's no question about it: a palm-sized 3½ digit DMM that measures capacitance along with AC and DC volts and resistance. Send for the Model 21 now and use it daily in the field or at your bench. Carry it around, knock it around, use it hard, work it long, and if at the end of two weeks you don't think it's worth the $269.00 we're asking, send it back. And you won't spend a dime. 2. DELIVERY WITHIN 14 DAYS We understand. Once you've decided you want an instrument, especially a piece of equipment as new and exciting as the Model 21, you don't want to have to go through the old, tedious, inquiry run-around. Mail in the coupon. Before fourteen days have passed, you'll be using your Model 21. 3. SMALL LIGHTWEIGHT PORTABILITY FOR HANDHELD OPERATION What do you need in a portable DMM? How about a palm-sized unit that fits comfortably in your hand? We've fit all of the range and function features you wanted into a package that slips into a pocket. Only 12 ounces in a case 6.80 inches by 3.25 inches by 1.75 inches. 4. UNIQUE CAPACITANCE READINGS Data Technology's Model 21 is the first, and only, handheld digital multimeter to give the capability of measuring capacitance, along with AC and DC volts and resistance. Two meter capability for the price of one. 5. MOMENTARY OR CONTINUOUS ACTION Battery charge life is conserved by push-to-read switches on the case side and optional push-to-read probe. For a hands off "ON" state, slide the push-to-read switch into its "locked-on" position. 6. 0.270 INCH LED READOUT Immediately and easily visible whatever the light conditions, not like reflective liquid crystals, or small LEDs. In a digital multimeter, what could be more important than an easy-to-read display? 7. 3½ DIGITS FOR FULL 2000 COUNT 8. FLASHES OVER RANGE The last three digits flash automatically when you are out of range. No reading errors due to the wrong range. 9. IMPACT RESISTANT Rugged construction, inside and out, absorbs physical shock. It'll get dropped. And banged. But, anytime, anywhere your work requires, it'll keep working. 10. ACCURACY Here are accuracy comparisons between the Model 21 and its volts and ohms competitors, the HP 970A and the Danometer. We offer this comparison because we know variety of function and range is important, but accuracy is crucial. There are four Model 21 ranges for each function. DC voltage: 2V, 20V, 200V, and 1,000V. AC voltage: 2V, 20V, 200V, and up to 1,000 peak. Resistance: 2KΩ, 20KΩ, 200KΩ, 2,000KΩ. Capacitance: 2nFd (2,000pFd), 20nFd, 200nFd, and 2,000nFd (2µFd). 11. USE YOUR CREDIT CARD OR P.O. NUMBER Just fill in Bank-AmeriCard, MasterCharge or P.O. number, and give us your signature authorizing charge. In 15 days, when you're a happy man, we'll submit an invoice. Or you can include a check or money order with your order. 12. $525 SPECIAL DEAL (SEE COUPON) 13. JUST FILL IN SELF MAILER BELOW Pick up a pen or pencil and get started, so that we can send you a Model 21. But, if you're still not convinced, our strongest kickers are yet to come. Name Company Address City State Zip ☐ Send a Data Technology Model 21 for $269* If I am not completely satisfied, I may return the Model 21 within 15 days and owe nothing. Recharger: ☐ 110V ☐ 115V ☐ 230V ☐ Two of us would like to order Model 21's so pass the savings on. Two Model 21's for $525. Save $13.00. That's special. ☐ I'd like the push-to-read option for $10. ☐ I'll take a high voltage probe for $15. ☐ Data Technology's product line sounds interesting. Send me additional literature on these other items: I prefer to be billed: ☐ MasterCharge ☐ BankAmericard ☐ P.O. Your credit card or P.O. Number (Include four digit bank number if MasterCharge) Signature (please sign here) ____________________________ State and local taxes, if any, will be added. data technology corporation FEATURES 15 SONY'S WIDE-ANGLE TRINITRON COLOR TV A new 114-degree Trinitron color CRT, a gate-controlled switch (GCS) in the horizontal-output stage and a switching type low-voltage regulator system, which uses another GCS, are some of the new features and circuitry in Sony's 17-inch KV-1722 color chassis. By G. P. McGinty. 24 REPLACEMENT COLOR PICTURE TUBES—Propping up Servicers' Profits Income from the sale and installation of replacement picture tubes can offset decreases in servicer/dealers' incomes from sources which are being changed by technology, economics and marketing trends. By Richard Deutsch, Vice President, Picture Tube Operations, Channel Master Division, Avnet, Inc. (Cover photo courtesy of Channel Master.) 26 EFFECTIVE ADVERTISING FOR THE SERVICE DEALER A recognized authority reveals five proven tricks of the trade which will increase the effectiveness of your advertising. By William Walker, Vice President & Management Supervisor, Cunningham & Walsh, Inc. 28 MODERN SERVICING TECHNIQUES—Field-Effect Transistor Fundamentals A servicer-oriented explanation of basic FET theory, JFET's and MOSFET's. By B. B. Dee. 34 SELECTING COMMERCIAL AUDIO AMPLIFIERS A review of fundamental, but important, factors you must consider to select the correct amplifier for a particular application. By Jack Hobbs. TEKFAX—Admiral Ch. M24, Airline Model GAI-17025A, General Electric Ch. R-2, Philco-Ford Ch. 3CS45 and Zenith Ch. 19FB12, 13. DEPARTMENTS 6 READER'S AID 10 TECHNICAL DIGEST 11 TECHNICAL LITERATURE 12 NEWS OF THE INDUSTRY 13 ELECTRONIC ASSOCIATION DIGEST 38 COLORFAX 42 NEW PRODUCTS 49 DEALER SHOWCASE 54 ADVERTISER'S INDEX 55 READER SERVICE A HARCOURT BRACE JOVANOVICH PUBLICATION HARCOURT BRACE JOVANOVICH PUBLICATIONS: James Milholland, Jr., Chairman; Robert L. Edgell, President; Lars Fladmark, Senior Vice President; Richard Moeller, Treasurer; John G. Reynolds, Vice President; Thomas Greney, Vice President; Ezra Plincus, Vice President; Bruce B. Howat, Vice President; James Gherna, Vice President. ELECTRONIC TECHNICIAN/DEALER is published monthly by Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Publications. Corporation Offices: 757 Third Avenue, New York, New York 10017. Advertising Offices: 1 East First Street, Chicago, Illinois 60611 and 757 Third Avenue, New York, New York 10017. Editorial, Accounting, Ad Production and Circulation Offices: 1 East First Street Duluth, Minnesota 55802. Subscription rates: One year $6, two years $10, three years $12. In the United States and Canada. Outside countries, one year $15, two years $24, three years $30. Single copies: $1.00 in the U.S. and Canada; all other countries $2. Second class postage paid at Duluth, Minnesota 55806 and at additional mailing offices. Copyright © 1974 by Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. POSTMASTER: Send form 3579 to ELECTRONIC TECHNICIAN/DEALER, P.O. Box 6016, Duluth, Minnesota 55806. Our little "3-incher" is bigger than anybody's! LBO-302 3" DUAL TRACE/DUAL CHANNEL TRIGGERED SCOPE $699.95 With accessories Conquer the test bench squeeze! Obtain lab-grade quality! Here's solid state accuracy plus push-button convenience for trig. & auto. sweep & "free run" momentary function. • 10MHz bandwidth • 10mVp-p/div to 5Vp-p/div Vert. Sensitivity, 9 steps. • Sep. or simult. sweep display, ch 1 & 2 • all., chopped, algebra added and X-Y vector. • Sweep range from 1μs/div (0.2μs w/5X mag) to 0.2s/div, 17 steps. • Polarity inversion on ch 2. • 4¾"H, 10 lbs. "Put us to the test" LEADER INSTRUMENTS CORP. 151 Dupont St., Plainview, L.I., N.Y. 11803 (516) 822-9300 ... for more details circle 123 on Reader Service Card FREE catalog of BUSINESS FORMS for TV and appliance dealers Featuring ... SERVICE ORDERS SALES SLIPS STATEMENTS PURCHASE ORDERS, ETC. printed on NCR Paper Provides clean, clear copies without carbons—nothing to insert, tear out or throw away. MONEY-BACK GUARANTEE ... LOW PRICES ... 6 DAY SERVICE * A reg. T.M. of National Cash Register Co. Mail to: New England Business Service, Inc., P.O. Box 500, Townsend, Ma. 01439 Yes, please mail me your FREE catalog of business forms. Name ____________________________________________________________ Street ___________________________________________________________ City, State, Zip ____________________________________________________ READERS' AID Space contributed to help serve the personal needs of you, our readers. Business for Sale After 20 years, I would like to retire from established Radio/TV Sales and Service business. Good franchise. Located in fast-growing town and reasonably priced. Please write for details. TIRSHMAN'S TV Box 1153, Sta. A. Surrey, B.C., Canada Established radio/TV sales and service in business for 22 years. Well equipped and stocked. Excellent opportunity and priced right. Located in western Pennsylvania. TED'S TELEVISION 516 Fifth Avenue Freedom, Pa. 15042 TV Service Business for sale. One or two man established electronic service shop, near downtown Provo, Utah. Please write for details. GORDON E. SIMKIN P.O. Box A Provo, Utah 84601 Swap I have a B & K 1077B television Analyst that I would like to trade for a new or used AM/SSB CB radio, preferably new. I will consider Ham equipment. BERNARD R. EGER 1958 Comm Sq (AFCS) PSC #1, Box 1762 A.P.O. San Francisco, Cal. 96334 Wanted Power transformer for a Courier Royale FM Transmitter/Receiver. Serial No. 316299. C. U. COBERLEY Trenton Radio & TV 502 W. 13th St. Trenton, Mo. 64683 Jackson Capacitor Checker, Model 650A or newer. LEON AREND 102 N. Webster Shenandoah, Iowa 51601 Substitute for a Knight Kit AM/FM IF Transformer, Part No. 113216, used in a Model KF-90 (83Y914) Stereo Multiplex FM/AM Tuner. HOWARD C. HACKMAN 50 Township Road Dundalk, Md. 21222 Vertical-output choke for G.E. black and white TV, Model TR805, Part No. ET63X66. ZEPHYR ELECTRONICS Jim O. Coleman 723 5th Avenue Zephyrhills, Fla. 33599 Accurate Receiving and Picture Tube Tester, Model 42. Also, Mercury Model 1900, Color-Bar Generator or other brands. Please state prices. R. STANTON 428 W. Roosevelt Blvd. Philadelphia, Pa. 19120 Schematic for a Federal Model 610 Portable Radio. (Federal Transistor Co., Inc.) SAM YUPPA 16191 Melody Lane Huntington Beach, Ca. 92649 Schematic or owners manual for a BSR McDonald 5500 (Decromatic), Serial No. 2033, Model No. 500/X-PB-5. HOWARD TOLLETT P.O. Box 1072 Clovis, New Mex. 88101 Owners manual and related material for a Lafayette Comstat 19 CB Radio. RANDY MAURER 463 Pelham Road New Rochelle, N.Y. 10805 Audio-output transformer for Webcor Tape Recorder Model 210. REV. H. P. BARRETT 2025 W. Coronado Orange, Tex. 77630 For Sale Sylvania Model 500 TV Sweep Generator and Sylvania Model 501 TV Marker Generator. In original cartons. CERTIFIED RADIO-TV LABORATORIES 5519 New Utrecht Ave. Brooklyn 19, N.Y. 11219 Jerrold Model 601 Sweep Generator. Good condition, calibrated. G. BRONNER 2 Crabapple Drive Lawrence Twp., N.J. 08638 Early RCA Service Manuals, 1923 through 1948 and Rider Manuals, Volumes 1 through 21 in good condition. Best offer. MAURER RADIO-TELEVISION SERVICE 29 S. 4th Street Lebanon, Pa. 17042 ARE YOUR KIDS WATCHING OFF-COLOR TV? THEN CALL YOUR NEIGHBORHOOD TV TECHNICIAN. When Marshall Dillon's horse starts turning green on your color TV set, don't wait until you've got really big headaches. Early attention prevents related problems and makes it easier...and less expensive...to find and cure the trouble. Call your independent TV-radio service technician when color trouble starts. THIS MESSAGE WAS PREPARED BY SPRAGUE PRODUCTS COMPANY. DISTRIBUTORS SUPPLY SUBSIDIARY OF SPRAGUE ELECTRIC COMPANY NORTH ADAMS, MASSACHUSETTS FOR YOUR INDEPENDENT TV-RADIO SERVICE DEALER PUT THIS BUSINESS-BUILDING TRAFFIC-STOPPER ON YOUR SHOP WALL OR IN YOUR WINDOW See your Sprague Distributor for window-size blow-ups of this message. Or, send 25¢ to Sprague Products Co., 65 Marshall St., North Adams, Mass. 01247 to cover handling and mailing costs. Just ask for Poster RP-41. SPRAGUE THE MARK OF RELIABILITY THE BROAD-LINE PRODUCER OF ELECTRONIC PARTS ...for more details circle 133 on Reader Service Card AUGUST 1974, ELECTRONIC TECHNICIAN/DEALER \| 7 RCA's Free & Easy Dealer Awards RCA Electronic Components Harrison, New Jersey 07029 Toastmaster Plug-in Automatic Timer for Lamps and Appliances Cordless timer plugs directly into outlet. Time cycle extends from 90 minutes to 22½ hours. Turns lamps and appliances on or off any time of day or night and repeats the operation every 24 hours without resetting. FE-630 Polaroid Colorpack 5 Land Camera and Kit. Enjoy Instant Photography in Color and Black and White - Big 3¼ x 4¼ color pictures in one minute - Black and white pictures in seconds - 3-element lens and unique face-in-the-square viewfinder FE-687 Value: $44.95 Canon Palmtronic LE-83 Calculator Slender enough to put in your pocket, the Canon Palmtronic LE-83 combines convenience with precision. - Adds, subtracts, multiplies, divides, performs mixed calculations, calculations with a constant and n-th power calculations. - Comes with an AC adapter or can be used with 4 penlight batteries. - Smooth key touch, easy to read LED indication panel. FE-LE-83 Value: $44.95 Schick Styling Driers, Man’s & Lady’s Models For Women: Quick drying with more natural styling For Men: Dries fast while it styles and grooms - 2 Speeds, 2 Heats - Dry setting – high airflow and high heat - Style setting – low airflow and low heat - Professional styling brush and styling comb - Air concentrator nozzle Spalding “Rebel” Golf Balls (One Dozen) Spalding is the premier distance ball with indestructible Surlyn cover. Two-piece construction gives you extra yards for the power you pack into your drive. Spalding “Collegiate” Football The best value you’ll find in a full-grain leather football. Tough butyl rubber bladder. Triple fabric lining with lockstitch construction. When you buy RCA tubes from your participating RCA tube distributor, he delivers the goods the easy way. No muss, no fuss, no constant cutting of carton flaps, no torn cartons on your shelf or in your caddy. Just give your tube order to your RCA distributor and get your premium the free and easy way. The bigger your tube order, the more valuable your gift. So visit him soon and select your Free and Easy RCA award with your purchase of RCA tubes. (The values are really extra special.) No Muss • No Fuss • No Torn Tube Cartons. Visit Your Participating RCA Tube Distributor. Place Your RCA Tube Order and Select Your “Free and Easy” RCA Award! Remember, the Award Values Are Extra Special! Omaha Steaks Ten RCA "Steak-out '74" certificates can be redeemed for one package of tender, succulent Omaha steaks as follows: 6 (11 oz.) Boneless Strip Sirloins 1 ½" thick or 8 ( 8 oz.) Filet Mignons 1 ¼" thick or 8 ( 8 oz.) Top Sirloins 1 ¾" thick or 6 ( 8 oz.) Filets of Prime Rib 1" thick Choice cuts, generous portions and outstanding flavor! 1A2116 BULOVA...The watch you wear with pride. Bulova...synonymous with quality, craftsmanship, precision and style. Oceanographer — Highly contemporary 17 jewel, automatic instant change day/date calendar; depth tested to 333 feet. FE-12604 Value: $110 La Petite — Stunning feminine timepiece with 23 jewels, 4 diamonds, 10K rolled gold plate case. Adjustable mesh bracelet. FE-55775 Value: $110 Sea King — Stalwart Bulova Sea King, 17 jewel precision timepiece, water-resistant with luminous dial. FE-12280 Value: $65 Concerto — Prettily sculptured model with 17 jewels, 10K rolled gold plate, stainless steel back and silver dial. FE-63628 Value: $65 Compass Binoculars Perfect for use at the track, at the stadium, in the woods. Field of view is a large 367 Feet at 1000 yards. Hard-coated optics. Complete with case and strap. FE-3022 Value: $44.95 Shakespeare Deluxe Spinning Combo Balanced Tackle Set Shakespeare #2210 Marina Green spinning reel, matching Shakespeare SP-160 6' 6" Wonderrod, 200 yards 6-pound monofilament, box of stainless steel hooks and spinning lure. For fresh and light salt-water fishing. FE-S460 Value: $42.00 Spalding Pancho Gonzales "Pro Champ" Tennis Set Pancho Gonzales "Pro Champ" racket, waterproof racket cover, plus three Pancho Gonzales tennis balls. FE-531053 Value: $18.65 The material used in this section is selected from information supplied through the cooperation of the respective manufacturers or their agencies. ADMIRAL Tape Player Chassis 8Y6—Motor Failure Admiral console stereo Models KS821, KS823, KS828, KS833 and KS843M were produced with alternate 8-track tape player chassis 8Y6 instead of the specified 8G6A. The chassis number is stamped on the player chassis. If you encounter any 8Y6 tape players with motor failure caused by the motor fan rubbing or stalling on the bottom motor bracket, replace the motor with the 700A858-516 motor, which has been modified to prevent this type of failure. MAGNAVOX New “CE” Color TV Models—Modifications Last year, the 10-digit, alpha-numeric model numbering system was put into effect. Models introduced in 1973 were identified by the letter "D" in the model number, such as the color TV model CD4730WA11. Since the first of this year, several models have been shipped with the second letter updated to "E," such as CE4731WA11, to indicate 1974 model introductions. Certain color TV models which use the T989 chassis and carry the "E" designation have been modified in the following ways: First, the wiring for the AFT switch has been altered to enhance the benefits provided by the Videomatic feature. Formerly, the AFT circuit could be switched on or off only when the VIDEOMATIC button was in the on position. With Videomatic off, the AFT circuit was inoperative. This switching action has been reversed in the "CE" models so that AFT is always on when Videomatic is on, regardless of the AFT switch position. When Videomatic is off, the AFT circuit may be turned on or off as desired. The AFT switch is located on the front panel of "E" models and on the secondary control (rear) panel of "D" models. A second change concerns the HIGH BRIGHTNESS ADJUST (on the rear apron of the chassis), which has been deleted in the "CE" models. One PRESET BRIGHTNESS control has been retained for Videomatic set up, and is positioned behind the customer-operated BRIGHTNESS control. This preset control should be adjusted for the desired brightness level with the VIDEOMATIC switch in the on position and with the customer BRIGHTNESS control set at the 12 o'clock position. Also, a PRESET CONTRAST control has been mounted behind the main CONTRAST control. Similar to the other preset adjustments, the PRESET CONTRAST control is adjusted through the hollow shaft of the customer-operated CONTRAST control, and it is set for the desired contrast level with the VIDEOMATIC switch in the on position and the customer CONTRAST control set at the 12 o'clock position. Stereo theatre models which use the 704078 remote control do not have the PRESET CONTRAST control, because the PRESET COLOR control occupies this position. Color TV Chassis T989—Digital Channel-Indicator Dimmer Circuit Color TV models which use the T989 chassis and the 704084-1 Six-Function Remote Control system have a dimming circuit to control the brilliance of the channel-indicator lamps. In normal operation, the proper combination of lamps is switched in for each position of the channel-selector knob to indicate the channel number. When a channel is first switched in, the selected channel-indicator lamps glow at maximum brilliance for several seconds. At the end of this time, a dimmer circuit switches the lamps to a half-power condition so that the channel number becomes less noticeable during normal viewing. There have been cases reported where the lamps remain at full brilliance all of the time. In each instance, the problem was traced to a shorted or leaky diode, D20, on the Remote Receiver module. The diode is made of germanium, rather than silicon, and this fact is important to the correct operation of the remote system. Should diode D20 require replacement, be sure to use the correct replacement—Part No. 530092-1001. RCA CORPORATION “Triple-Branded” 6MJ6/6LQ6/6JE6C Horizontal Deflection Tube The new RCA 6MJ6, which has been triple-branded to include 6LQ6 and 6JE6C, is a double-ended, high-perveance, beam power tube of the novar type with a T-12 envelope. This tube type is specifically designed to be an ultra-reliable field replacement for the older 6LQ6 and 6JE6C tubes in horizontal deflection amplifier service in color TV receivers. This new horizontal-output tube has an integral envelope top-cap assembly which eliminates loose top-caps and minimizes glass dome failures. The design also assures reduced microphonics and improves the ability to withstand shock and vibration. Other improvements allow this type to endure the excessive plate dissipation encountered during receiver fault conditions. Control testing assures that the tube can withstand a 200-w plate dissipation for a continuous or accumulated exposure time not exceeding 40 seconds, which should be sufficient time to permit conventional receiver protection devices to function. The sharp high-voltage cutoff characteristic and the high transconductance (gm) of the tube assure low retrace conduction levels even in TV receivers with reduced drive voltage. A plate connector cools the plate by conduction, resulting in lower plate operating temperatures and longer life. The special plate structure is designed to minimize secondary-electron emission from the plate and “knee” discontinuities in the zero-bias region of the $E_b - I_e$ characteristic. A separate base-pin connection to grid No. 3 is provided so that positive voltage can be applied to grid No. 3 to minimize interference from “snivets” and to increase power output. ■ --- Electronic discoveries are being made daily so I don’t want to make a definite diagnosis until I’ve consulted other specialists. Speakers A 2-page, two-color data sheet describes the company's Magneplanar Tympani line of loudspeakers. It describes five different speaker models and includes detailed specifications on performance as well as physical factors. Audio Research Corp., 2843-26th Avenue South, Minneapolis, Minn. 55406. Industrial SCR's A brochure describing SCR's Triacs and Ignitrons designed for industrial equipment is now available. Included are products suitable for power controllers, inverters, induction heating, radar pulse modulators and high-power welding. Bert Green, Product Manager, Power Tubes and Devices, Amperex Electronic Corp., Hicksville, N.Y. 11802. Industrial Tubes and Semi-Conductors A 48-page wholesale industrial type electron tube and semiconductor directory is available. Listing over 20,000 entertainment, industrial, power conductors, such as diodes, transistors, SCR's, FET's and integrated circuits. Communications, Inc., 2115 Avenue X, Brooklyn, N.Y. 11235. Voltage Regulator Diodes An 8-page, short-form catalog of voltage regulator diodes is now available. The catalog provides technical data on more than 100 types of zener diodes, reference diodes, and stabistors available from Amperex. Included in the catalog are charts showing temperature coefficients and derating factors, noise generation, and stabistor conductance characteristics. Amperex Electronics Corp., Solid State and Active Devices Division, Slatersville, Rhode Island 02876. Sound Equipment A 124-page catalog of sound equipment and accessories describes in detail the product lines of 48 leading manufacturers. The publication is illustrated throughout, and products are indexed by both category and manufacturer. Net prices are provided, completely up-to-date and current as of press time. Sound Foyer, 1521 South Hill St., Los Angeles, Calif. 90015. --- DC to 10 MHz, 10 mV/cm sensitivity 5" CRT Simpson Model 455 5" SCOPE $310 - Direct input for vector display - Sensitivity: vertical, 10 mV/cm to 5 V/cm; horizontal, 300 mV/cm. - 9-step calibrated and compensated vertical attenuator - Accepts standard scope cameras and viewing hoods - Low-parallax, high-contrast, calibrated graticule - 1 kHz square wave calibration signal - High linearity sweep with retrace blanking—separate 7875 Hz position for TV work - 120 or 240 VAC operation, 50 or 60 Hz - Fold-in support for incline viewing - Size: 10¾" H x 8" W x 16½" D - Low-capacitance 10:1 probe available SEE YOUR ELECTRONICS DISTRIBUTOR OR WRITE FOR CATALOG 4300 SIMPSON ELECTRIC CO. 853 Dundee Avenue, Elgin, Illinois 60120 (312) 695-1121 • CABLE: SIMELCO • TELEX: 72-2416 IN CANADA: Bach-Simpson, Ltd., London, Ontario IN ENGLAND: Bach-Simpson (U.K.) Limited, Wadebridge, Cornwall IN INDIA: Ruttonsha-Simpson Private, Ltd., Vikhroli, Bombay ...for more details circle 132 on Reader Service Card AUGUST 1974, ELECTRONIC TECHNICIAN/DEALER \| 11 PTS Electronics Opens Three New Tuner Service Centers PTS Electronics, Inc., an Indiana-based tuner repair company, has announced the opening of three new service centers, in Miami, Florida (12934 N.W. 7th Avenue); Detroit, Michigan (13709 W. 8 Mile Rd.); and Memphis, Tennessee (3614 Lamar Ave.). Consumer Electronic Sales During First Four Months of 1974 Below Levels of Same Period in 1973 Total U.S. sales to dealers of all categories of consumer entertainment electronic products during the first four months of 1974 were substantially below sales in the same period of 1973, according to a report issued recently by the Electronic Industries Association's (EIA) Marketing Services Department. Color TV sales to dealers were down 7.6 percent in the first four months of 1974 over sales in the same period last year. Monochrome TV sales to dealers were down 11.5 percent in the same period. Total TV set sales to dealers were down 9.3 percent in the first four months of 1974 from the level of sales in the same period in 1973. WESCON '74 Sept. 10-13 The 1974 Western Electronic Show and Convention (WESCON) will be held September 10-13 at the Los Angeles Convention Center. Exhibitors at WESCON include a number of manufacturers who produce products and test instruments for consumer electronic servicing. Zenith '75 Color Line Includes Only One Tube Type Chassis Of the approximately 52 color TV models introduced by Zenith in the company's 1975 product line, only one, a hybrid 16-inch portable receiver, contains receiving tubes. The others are all-solid-state. By June 1975, the complete Zenith color TV line will be all-solid-state, according to Walter C. Fisher, Zenith sales and marketing executive vice president. RCA to Phase Out Home Audio Products in 1975 RCA Consumer Electronics has announced that it will phase out of the home audio products business by next year and will concentrate solely on television-related home entertainment products. The 1975 line of home audio products will be the last such line of radios, audio tape players and recorders, and phonograph equipment, including home stereo systems, to be offered by RCA. William C. Hittinger, RCA executive vice president, Consumer and Solid State Electronics, said the decision to drop the home audio line "will enable us to marshal our technological and marketing resources behind television-related products which continue to offer superior profit potential and an excellent worldwide growth outlook." Teledyne Packard Bell Phasing Out Production of Home Entertainment Electronic Products Teledyne Packard Bell has announced that it plans to discontinue the production of home entertainment products. The phase out of television and stereo manufacturing at its plants in Nogales, Mexico, and Los Angeles, California, reportedly began in May. Marketing of Teledyne Packard Bell products will continue for the present through existing channels of distribution. Packard Bell also announced that its retail dealers will continue to receive product support, parts availability and warranty service through Teledyne Service Company, which has ten parts depots and 55 service branches located in major cities throughout the United States. Vermont Passes TV Technician Licensing Law The Vermont State Legislature has passed a bill which provides for the licensing of radio and television technicians, effective January 1, 1975. The bill recently was signed into law by Vermont Governor Thomas Salmon. New York EASAC Elects New Officers The Electronic & Appliance Service Association Council, Inc., (EASAC) Albany, New York, has announced election of the following new officers: Henry Wawryck, Hicksville, president; Thomas Delaney, Long Island City, executive vice president; Hy Latman, Brooklyn, vice president-appliances; Warren Baker, CET, Albany, vice president-electronics; and Hy Sheffron, Brooklyn, treasurer. EIA and AEM Agree on Merger The Electronic Industries Association (EIA) has announced that it has agreed in principle to a merger of the Association of Electronic Manufacturers (AEM) into the Distributor Products Division (DPD) of EIA. The EIA approval of the merger in principle follows similar action by each of the two AEM Divisions, Eastern and Central, at their respective June 4 and June 5 meetings. A joint EIA/AEM Merger Committee has been meeting frequently since the beginning of the year to reach agreement on the principle terms of the merger, which have been identified as membership eligibility requirements, dues rates, and the organizational structure of the merged organizations. Agreement on these matters, as well as a merger timetable, was reached by the Merger Committee on June 10. NARDA Institute of Management The National Appliance and Radio-TV Dealers Association's (NARDA) 20th annual Institute of Management will be held August 11-16 at the University of Notre Dame Modern Center for Continuing Education, near South Bend, Indiana. The six-day Institute, which focuses on both fundamental and advanced techniques for managing consumer electronic retailing and servicing businesses, offers three levels of study: the First Year Class, for those attending for the first time; the Advanced Class, for everyone who previously attended the First Year Class; and the Graduate Class, for those who have participated in two or more Institutes. Topics which will be covered include: Watch Your Expenses, Sales Budgeting Effectively, Problem Solving in the Service Department, How to Organize and Profit from a Critique Group, Getting the Most Out of Your Cost-of-Doing-Business Survey, Looking at Your Store Image, and Using Financial Statements More Effectively, plus many other management-oriented topics. Instructors include a number of nationally known management authorities, including Dr. William R. Davidson (Management Horizons), Drs. Bernard J. Kilbride and John J. Malone (Notre Dame), Dr. Martin L. King (University of Tennessee), and Dr. James Owens (American University). Cost of the Institute is $180 for NARDA members and $225 for nonmembers, and includes tuition, housing (two in a room), all meals and all materials. Registration can be made in advance or at the Notre Dame Residence Hall (Juniper Road) on August 11. For more information, contact: NARDA (Phone 312-726-5583). Sony’s Wide-Angle Trinitron Color TV by G. P. McGinty GCS equipped horizontal output, a unique low-voltage regulator system and a 114-degree Trinitron Color CRT Most color TV receivers employ some type of power supply regulator to compensate for variations in line voltage. The Sony Model TV-1722 employs a new type of switching-mode regulation which is driven by the horizontal oscillator and is not only very efficient but takes up very little cabinet space. The Gate Controlled Switch (GCS) used in the regulator circuit operates like an SCR except that it can be turned off by reverse current drive to the gate terminal. Another GCS is used in the horizontal-output circuit. This chassis also employs a new Excess Voltage Protection circuit which monitors the B+ voltage and, in case of a shorted circuit, the auxiliary circuit functions as a shutdown circuit to prevent damage to the GCS and other sections of the TV receiver. The Trinitron color picture tube has a deflection angle of 114 degrees and a cylindrical face plate using continuous, vertical phosphor strips. The 114-Degree Trinitron Picture Tube Like the earlier Trinitron picture tubes, the 114-degree version features a cylindrical face plate using continuous, vertically oriented phosphor stripes which are backed by an aperture grille indexing mask that employs continuous, unbroken slots. The gun structure is shorter than that of previous Trinitrons, which, together with the 114-degree deflection angle, permits much shallower cabinet designs. In addition, the shorter distance between the muzzle of the electron gun and the phosphor surface reduces the amount of electron beam divergence caused by mutual repulsion of electrons within the beam. This factor, aided by the reduction in beam diameter made possible by passing all three beams through a common, large electron-focusing lens, produces a very small and dense beam at the points where the electrons strike the phosphors. This, in a nutshell, is why the Trinitrons produce relatively sharper focus at high levels of brightness and contrast. Purity and Convergence Purity and convergence adjustments are simple and straightforward in the Trinitrons because the vertical phosphor stripes are continuous and the tiny vertical errors in beam landing that can cause purity problems in delta-type phosphor dot tubes have no effect. (The same phosphor stripes are hit, just higher or lower.) Thus, purity adjustments are reduced to side-to-side aiming only. Because the electron beams are horizontally in line, convergence is also simplified. There is only one static convergence control, adjustment of which brings all three beams The Kay-Townes Long Ranger 1. RUGGED TWIN LOCKING ELEMENT BRACKET 2. IC AMPLIFIER BOARD—24dB GAIN—LOW NOISE—CHANNELS 2-83 3. DOUBLE MAST CLAMP PROVIDES LOW PROFILE FOR HIGH WIND RESISTANCE 4. EXTRA HEAVY CYCOLAC INSULATORS—ALL ELEMENTS ELECTRICALLY SHORTED TO BOOM 5. BROADBAND PARASITIC DIRECTOR SYSTEM—HIGH GAIN—CHANNELS 14-83 6. INSULATION PIERCING, WEATHER PROTECTED TERMINALS 7. DUAL CORNER REFLECTOR BRACKET WITH DUAL LOCKING CLAMPS 8. DUAL BOOM BRACING, TWIN RIVETED 9. OPTIONAL TANDEM AMPLIFIER PROVIDING ADDITIONAL 6dB GAIN AT EACH OF FOUR OUTPUTS ANTENNA COMES COMPLETE WITH COAXIAL CABLE KIT FOR SIMPLE INSTALLATION KAY-TOWNES, INC. Post Office Box 593 Turner Chapel Road Rome, Georgia 30161 Telephone (404) 235-0141 ... for more details circle 122 on Reader Service Card together at the screen. Called the H STAT control (see Fig. 1), it varies the DC voltages applied between the inner and outer deflecting plates at the muzzle of the electron gun. In addition to this primary control, there are two magnetic trim tabs, mounted on the neck assembly, which correct for static errors in twist or unequal spacing of the three beams within manufacturers' tolerances. There is only one dynamic convergence knob to adjust, the TILT control. Minor changes in horizontal and vertical dynamic amplitude are made by wire-link selection on the deflection PC board. Although the basic setup adjustments are simple and straightforward, there is no difficulty in determining when you have set the controls to the optimum points. Small disc magnets and permalloy strips cemented to the yoke housing and tube funnel correct any small areas of misconvergence at the corners of the tube. The technician's only concern with these "doodads" is when the picture tube needs to be replaced. If you're going to service the Trinitron, it is a good idea to have a few disc magnets and permalloy strips on hand. You can get new ones from Sony or you can reuse those you save from dud tubes. Serviceability* Chassis layout is clean, with all printed-circuit boards positioned for easy accessibility. They are mounted foil-side-out to permit easy troubleshooting, and silk-screened solder resist is used to label components. The all-solid-state circuitry employs 26 transistors, 33 diodes, seven integrated circuits (with the equivalent of 244 transistors), three gate-controlled switches and one FET. All of these components are soldered in, and there are no plug-in modules. The tuners, the speakers and all circuit components which are not mounted on the PC Boards are readily accessible (see Fig. 2.) Because coupling between the tuner and the IF circuits is accomplished by a flat, 75-ohm system (not the conventional link-coupled over coupled stage), IF realignment is not required when the tuner is replaced. GCS Horizontal Output A new type of semiconductor device is used in the horizontal-output stage. This is a gate-controlled switch (GCS) which operates like an SCR except that it can be turned off by reverse current drive to the gate terminal. (Once an SCR is turned on it can be turned off only by reducing the cathode to anode forward current.) The GCS permits efficient switching of the large currents required for deflection, and withstands high anode voltages during flyback. The GCS is driven by the current waveform shown in Fig. 3. The small positive spike on the leading edge of the pulse turns the GCS on during the trace interval, and the large negative spike on the trailing edge is required to divert sufficient cathode current through the gate to turn off the GCS at the end of the trace. One vital factor, from a troubleshooting standpoint, is that loss of drive to the GCS while it is powered causes it to latch up in the on state. This causes immediate failure on the GCS. If you have to replace a defective GCS, be sure the correct drive waveform is being applied to the replacement before B+ is applied to the output stage—more about this later. Switching-Mode Power Supply All Sony TV receivers use a power supply regulator to ensure optimum performance and correct raster size throughout the expected variation in line voltage. Conventional series regulators are wasteful of both power and space. The pass transistor must dissipate quite a bit of power and, consequently, is usually mounted on a sizable heat sink. The KV-1722, and the larger KV-1920, employ a new type of switching-mode regulator that is extremely efficient and takes up little space. It uses a GCS as the switching element. When used as an on/off device, the GCS consumes little energy—when on, its voltage drop is close to zero; when off, no current flows. If the transition between on and off is rapid, the total power consumed is very small. The switch, Q603 in Fig. 4, is in series with a 60-Hz voltage doubler, which produces about 303 volts, and the load, which requires a B+ of 130 volts. On/off control for Q603 is applied at the line rate of 15,750, and the control circuitry regulates the duty cycle of the switch. Because the supply operates at 15,750 Hertz, all ripple components are in sync with the horizontal deflection and, consequently, filter components can be quite small. The output is somewhat like a 300-volt (p-p) square wave, but with the on time slightly shorter than the off time. Output after filtering becomes 130 volts. Regulation is achieved by controlling the percentage of on time for each cycle. A block diagram of the control circuit is shown in Fig. 5. The key to control of the duty cycle is the pulse-width modulator (PWM). This is a monostable multivibrator that is flipped into its unstable state by a trigger obtained from the horizontal drive stage in the deflection system. The duration of the unstable state is determined by the Error Amp. This block compares the DC output of the supply with a Zener reference voltage and supplies a voltage proportional to error. The error voltage, in turn, alters the bias on the cutoff transistor in the PWM during its unstable state and determines how soon the PWM will flip back into its stable state. A rectangular-wave signal from the PWM is amplified by the regulator drive stage and applied to the gate of the GCS through a transformer. This permits the entire gate circuit to float above ground. The basic operation of the control loop is as follows: If output voltage should increase for some reason, the Error Amp detects the increase and sends a larger positive voltage to the PWM. This shortens the duration of the unstable state of the PWM multivibrator which, in turn, reduces the on time of the series-switching GCS. We will return to the Build-Up circuit and EVP trigger later in the analysis. The PWM circuit is shown in Fig. 6. Bias for the base of Q606 is obtained from the collector of Q607, so that, in the absence of drive, the stable state is Q607 on and Q606 off. A 15,750-Hz drive pulse, from the horizontal deflection system, is applied to Q606 through a 560-pF capacitor and an isolating diode. The pulse turns on Q606, the collector voltage of which then decreases to near zero. Capacitor C614 now discharges, applying a negative-going pulse on the base of Q607, turning off Q607. This is the unstable state of the multivibrator, and it lasts until C614 is discharged sufficiently to permit Q607 to again conduct. However, the off period for Q607 is also affected by the voltage developed at the emitter of the Error Amp, transistor Q608. If the error voltage increases, Q607 will come back into conduction sooner. One thing worth remembering is that the GCS switching regulator operates in phase with Q607. That is, the drive circuitry is set up so that when Q607 is off, the GCS is also off. The drive circuitry for the switching GCS is shown in Fig. 7. When Q607 of the PWM is turned off, its collector voltage swings more positive. This turns on drivers Q605 and Q604, which, in turn, create across transformer T603 a voltage with the polarity indicated by the uncircled polarity signs in Fig. 7. Diode D607 conducts at this time, "charging" L604. When Q607 conducts again, Q604 and Q605 are cut off and the polarity of voltage across the three reverses, as indicated by the circled polarity signs in Fig. 8. This reverse biases D607, and the energy stored in L604 produces a voltage of the opposite polarity as the field around the coil collapses. This produces the drive current required to switch on Q603. During the next transition, when Q607 cuts off once again, polarities reverse once more. Now, however, because Q603 had been conducting, the reverse voltage is applied between the cathode and the gate of the GCS, cutting it off. At the same time, L604 is also "charged in parallel with the gate-cathode of Q603, to be ready to turn on the GCS during the next operating condition. Start and Shut-Down Circuits Because the switching-type regulator system is driven by the horizontal oscillator, which, in turn, requires supply voltage to operate, some type of auxiliary system is needed to get the horizontal oscillator started. These starting circuits are shown in Fig. 8. Most of the low-voltage circuits, including the horizontal oscillator and the drive circuits for the regulator, operate from a +19-volt source, which, after the set is turned on and operating normally, is produced by a pulse rectifier driven from a winding on the horizontal-output transformer. However, during a short period when the set is turned on, a "kick-start" voltage is fed into the +19-volt line. This kick-start voltage is developed by charging C605 through D608 from the 303-volt output of the AC rectifier. This produces the voltage needed to get the horizontal oscillator and drive circuits operating. After C605 charges fully, no current flows and the +19-volt supply must be supplied from its normal source. The kick-start circuit is helped by the circuit shown in Fig. 8, block B. This system monitors the 19 volt line as follows. If the 19-volt line is low, Zener diode D610 does not conduct and Q601 remains off. With Q601 cut off, the gate of Q602 (another GCS) is biased on and a path exists from the 303-volt line through R608, Q602, and D605 to the +19-volt line. This circuit helps support the +19-volt line until it is supplied by the normal source. It also provides support for the +19-volt line if the set is switched off and on again rapidly. Under such conditions, kick-start capacitor C605 does not have a chance to discharge and therefore will not draw sufficient current when power is applied. (Caution: The kick-start circuit will not function if the input line voltage is increased slowly by using a variac.) When the +19-volt line begins receiving a normal flyback pulse input, Zener diode D610, in the base circuit of Q601, conducts, turning on Q601. Conduction of Q601 grounds the gate of Q602, and the auxiliary starting circuit is disconnected from the +19-volt line. The auxiliary starting circuit also functions as a special shut-down circuit, to prevent the destruction of the GCS if its drive is lost. Thus, special consideration must be given to killing the horizontal-output stage supply voltage before the drive voltage is lost. To effect this condition the +19-volt line is held constant (to keep the oscillator running) while the +130 v supply is "dumped." This function is accomplished by the auxiliary starting circuit. At turnoff, a decrease in the +19-volt line turns off the zener diode transistor and Q601, switching Q602 on, and the +130-volt supply is then fed into the +19-volt line through R642, D604, Q602 and D605. When troubleshooting the power supply it is important to remember that the auxiliary starting circuit will try to support the +19-volt line if it is not receiving its normal input voltage. For example, if horizontal drive is lost and the flyback input pulse to the +19-volt rectifier is absent, the auxiliary starting circuit will be on and will try to keep the +19-volt line constant. This causes overheating of resistor R608 because it is not rated for continuous duty. Excess Voltage Protection Circuit In a switching regulator circuit with an approximate 50-percent duty cycle, a shorted series switch will increase the B+ voltage to nearly the full DC input (about 300v). This might cause failure of large sections of the television receiver. To prevent such damage, the B+ is monitored by transistor Q609 and Q610, shown in Fig. 9. If a shorted regulator causes the B+ voltage to increase above 150 volts, Q609 conducts and saturates Q610, shorting the output of the horizontal oscillator to ground. As a result, the horizontal-output GCS shorts and the main fuse is opened. Troubleshooting the Power Supply Although the switching-mode power supply seemingly is complex, continued on page 52 An Extraordinary Offer to introduce you to the benefits of Membership in ELECTRONICS BOOK CLUB for a limited time only you can obtain ANY 3 OF THESE UNIQUE BOOKS ... yours for only 99¢ each (Combined List Price $40.85) Club Membership May we send you your choice of any three books on the facing page as part of an unusual offer of a Trial Membership in Electronics Book Club? Here are quality hardbound volumes, each especially designed to help you increase your know-how, earning power, and enjoyment of electronics. 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The book provides information on materials, processes employed in mass production, giving the designer in-depth knowledge of the broad range of materials available today in evolving, final product configurations. Does not simply define the best materials for each given application, but gives the choice for fabrication, but it also points out incompatibilities which may arise in design and production. 208 pages. Hardbound. List Price $12.95 Order No. 287 --- Practical Electronic Servicing Techniques Here is a new and unique handbook that will sharpen your servicing and troubleshooting ability. You can learn to whip through tough problems, prepare yourself for any electronic gear that comes your way, until the "inside" information is yours for the taking in this handbook. You'll be surprised how simple and logical the professional techniques are. Begin with an analysis of what troubleshooting really is, consider your thinking (which is part of the secret), the importance of the analysis of troubleshooting logic; then he tells you how to think like a technician. He also gives service approaches to DC circuits, tube circuits, transistors, FETs, triacs, integrated circuits. The first section offers suggestions for building and modifying these circuits. Sections 2 through 6 provide a wide range of devices for your car, home, office, wherever electronics can serve you, including power supplies, and how to use them in a variety of electronic circuits, and control functions. Section 6 is devoted to integrated-circuit projects. 192 pp., 100 illus. Hardbound. List Price $7.95 Order No. 542 --- Transistor Projects for Hobbyists & Students If building useful electronic gadgets and projects turns you on, your imagination can be triggered into conducting experiments. If you pick up this book, you'll build all sorts of projects with SCR's, LASORS, transistors, FET's, triacs, triacs, integrated circuits. The first section offers suggestions for building and modifying these circuits. Sections 2 through 6 provide a wide range of devices for your car, home, office, wherever electronics can serve you, including power supplies, and how to use them in a variety of electronic circuits, and control functions. Section 6 is devoted to integrated-circuit projects. 192 pp., 100 illus. Hardbound. List Price $7.95 Order No. 542 --- Amateur Radio General-Class License Study Guide A new and unique text—the only one entirely devoted to the subject—for anyone who wants to pass the FCC General-Class exam successfully. The question is dealt with individually, and the answers are explained in depth at a level that can be easily understood by beginners. Even if you have no interest in ham radio, you'll find the content of this publication to be a handy source of information of value to anyone interested in electronics. Pertinent facts are grouped in palatable, easy-to-assimilate doses, and the conversational style makes the material fresh and interesting from the first page to the last. 320 pp. Hardbound. List Price $9.95 Order No. 551 --- Fire & Theft Security Systems An extraordinaire offer... ...for more details circle 103 on Reader Service Card Replacement Color Picture Tubes--Propping Up Servicers' Profits by Richard Deutsch Increased income from the sale and installation of replacement picture tubes can help offset decreasing income from sources which are drying up because of technological, economic and marketing changes. My father-in-law once owned a small resort hotel. One day, his brother, a successful businessman in South America whom he had not seen for 30 years, arrived for a one-month visit. Day after day, the rich brother watched my father-in-law as he catered to guests, fixed leaky faucets, did small carpentry jobs, worked the check-in desk and supervised his small staff. Finally, in exasperation, he said, "Harold, I don't understand you. You're always so busy. When do you have time to think about ways of making more money?" I think this true story accurately describes the situation of many consumer electronic servicers and dealers today: They are so busy with the day-to-day operation of their business they don't take the time to look at the big picture, to analyze the movement of the industry they're in, and to examine their own situation and future prospects in that industry. And that, after all, is what going to determine how much money they're going to make 5 years from now, or whether they'll even be in business at that time. The consumer electronic sales and service market has and is changing, and will continue to change. These changes are, and will continue to, affect the income of dealers and servicers. The sooner they recognize the changes and adjust their business to them, the less severe will be the impact of the changes on their income. The Impact of Technology Solid-state technology and a byproduct of it, modular design of chassis, is, and will continue to, affect the consumer electronic servicing market in three principal, direct ways: - Incidence of service need reduced by improved reliability—The inherent reliability of solid-state devices, combined with effective quality control at the manufacturing level, promises to significantly reduce the incidence of need for service. This eventually will significantly affect service labor income. - Reduction of receiving tube sales—Although there is still a significant number of tube-type consumer electronic products in use, as the ratio of all-solid-state vs tube-type products in use shifts in favor of all-solid-state products, as it will be doing in the next 5 to 6 years, the reduction in profit from sales of receiving tubes, already felt by many servicers, will accelerate. - All-electronic TV tuners will reduce tuner cleaning income—Almost all of the major manufacturers of TV receivers have introduced all-electronic tuners in at least one or two of their color TV models, particularly those sets that are remotely controlled, and this trend seemingly will gradually include all black-and-white and color TV receivers. As it does, income from tuner cleaning and replacement will be reduced at an increasing rate. The Impact of Marketing and Pricing Changes Two principal trends related to the methods of marketing and pricing of consumer electronic products will have an increasing effect on dealers and servicers alike: - Mass merchandising—An increasingly larger percentage of the total volume of consumer electronic products is being marketed through mass merchandising and so called "discount" outlets. Continuation of this trend undoubtedly will significantly reduce the retail income of independent consumer electronic dealer/servicers, whose relatively smaller volume will not permit them to price their merchandise competitively with that of mass merchants and discounters. - The effect of lower-priced products on servicing—Technology and manufacturing economies have gradually reduced the retail price of many consumer electronic products and, despite inflation, will continue to do so on a relative basis. Already, many consumer electronic products, such as personal portable and table model radios, have been effectively priced out of the servicing market, and the prices of many personal portable black-and-white TV receivers are not far from the level at which servicing of them will not "FIX IT OR JUNK IT?"—FACTORS IN THE EQUATION These are the elements that help determine whether or not the consumer is likely to replace his old picture tube or junk the set and buy a new one. Sometimes the decision is as much the technician's as it is the customer's. - Age of existing set. (The older it is, the less likely the consumer is to keep it.) - Type of set. (A quality console with attractive wood cabinetry is often hard to part with, and the owner may be a better-than-average prospect for a replacement picture tube.) - Life expectancy of set. (Regardless of actual age, some sets are just too "used-up" to bother with, but others may be usable for many years with a new CRT, an extended warranty and some occasional routine service. Your professional evaluation here is important to the customer.) - Cost of the replacement picture tube. (Flexibility in quoting labor charges may make the difference between an order to "fix it" and "forget it.") - Cost of a new set. (Many new color portables carry low price tags, and might look attractive to the customer compared to the cost of a CRT replacement. However, the customer may not be too happy about exchanging his old 21- or 25-inch set for a smaller portable—and once he starts thinking about a large new console, that's the time for the technician to point out how much cheaper it is to replace only the picture tube, not the complete set. For those servicers/dealers who also sell new sets, it should be pointed out that the profit from replacing a color CRT is considerably greater than the profit from selling a new portable, especially if you've got to price your sets competitively with the mass merchandisers.) - "Capture of the consumer." (The picture tube extended warranty is a form of service contract that keeps the old set in operation, protects the consumer against very large, unexpected service costs over a 3-year period, gets you a service order, and gives you a "captive" customer who will call you first whenever future service is required on that set. The servicer/dealer should weigh these valuable benefits against the alternative of having the consumer leave his store and buy a new set and service contract elsewhere.) be economically feasible. Action Now These trends, although well established, to date have had only a relatively minor impact on the income of consumer electronic servicers and independent dealers. However, because all of these trends are accelerating, servicers and dealers should begin now their strategy for coping with the effects of them. As some traditional sources of income begin to decrease, other sources must be sought to offset such decreases, or existing sources of income which are affected less by these trends should be more fully exploited to take up some of the slack. A Continuing Stable Income Source: Replacement Picture Tubes One such existing source of income which not only will continue to exist but will grow despite present trends is the sale and installation of replacement picture tubes. It will continue as a profitable source of income for servicers and dealers during at least the next ten years and probably longer because there is now no practical alternative to the present basic form of picture tube, nor is there a practical one on the drawing boards of industry. And the potential market for replacement picture tubes will increase because the number of sets in use will continue to increase. In addition to being a continuing, stable source of income, sales and installations of replacement picture tubes also serve the interest of the consumer electronic servicer by keeping customers with serviceable sets in the service market. Every time a customer decides to scrap his set instead of replacing the picture tube, the serviceman gets it in the neck twice: first, when he loses the picture tube replacement; and second, when he loses all the future service business the set would normally be expected to generate if it remained in use. Color set owners, faced with high replacement expenses when a CRT fails, are scrapping their sets in increasing numbers and buying new sets instead. Set scrappage in the past 3 years has steadily climbed from 15% to 19% to 24%. Most of these are good, serviceable sets. Why are they being junked? Because the cost of a color CRT replacement is often more than the customer wants to spend, in view of some new set prices. "Why," he asks, "should I pay $200 to put a tube into my old set, when I can go down to the local mass merchandiser and get a new color portable for as little as $250?" And the older his set, the more persuasive this argument becomes. It is especially disturbing when you consider that most sets scrapped because of customer fear of high CRT replacement costs are actually serviceable sets, capable of providing many additional years of satisfactory operation. In other words, serviceable TV sets are dying early, needless deaths—and we've all been letting it happen. What the consumer electronic service business has needed is a way that will make it attractive for a color TV owner to keep his set, even when he has to replace the picture tube. The CRT "Double" Warranty One way that CRT manufacturers have attempted to accomplish this has been with extended warranties. Channel Master, as a pioneer in this area, has taken a somewhat different approach with its new "Opti-Vue Plus" color picture tube warranty program. It works like this: Every top-of-the-line "Opti-Vue Plus" color picture tube carries two guarantees. The first one guarantees the tube unconditionally for 3 years. This is a "total" guarantee; if the replacement tube becomes defective any time within 3 years, a brand new "Opti-Vue Plus" will be given to the servicer/dealer at no cost. The second guarantee says that if the tube fails any time after 3 years—for the life of the set while in the hands of the present owner—Channel Master will replace it with another 3-year tube at a guaranteed fixed cost to the dealer and the consumer. The consumer will pay $69.95 (plus installer's labor, of course); the dealer will pay $46.95, giving him a 33 percent gross profit. This guarantee will stand regardless of inflation, and continued on page 52 Effective Advertising For The Service Dealer by William (Mac) Walker Five tricks of the trade can help you write a better ad - What determines the effectiveness of your advertising? Size? Humor? An elaborate layout? Eye-catching illustrations? Not so. As the men on Madison Avenue will tell you, successful advertising is the sum of many parts—all carefully combined and aimed at specific goals: 1) To reach your best prospects. 2) To make them read your ad. And, ultimately, 3) to convince them to buy from you, not from a competitor. Your advertising can do this, too. Whatever media you may use. However large (or small) your budget. All you need do is apply the following five basic "tricks of the trade" used by the advertising pros. These can help you prepare an advertising campaign that produces a bounty of new business: 1) Pick Your Best Prospects. Before one word goes on paper, take a moment to create a mental image of your customer. What do they most often need? How can you help them? What can you—and no one else—offer them? Do you carry a special brand of goods? A special service? A lower price? Your business undoubtedly has advantages that no competitor can match. It's your job to decide what they are and to state them briefly, succinctly. This is your headline. It can be catchy or clever. It can be a simple, direct statement. But, without bragging or shouting, it should quickly make clear how the reader will gain from doing business with you. This holds true for all forms of advertising. One note of caution: Don't use your firm's name and telephone number as your headline. Yes, these are important, but they will not by themselves sell a prospect—especially a prospect who does not know your firm by name. Stress benefits first. Then tell your name. Next, answer all of your customer's other questions: - What can you offer? (Describe your products and services.) - Who sells it? (You do.) - Why should I buy from you? (Again, the advantages of your product or service.) - How and where is it available? (Your location and telephone number.) The Author: William (Mac) Walker is a Vice President and Account Group Supervisor for Cunningham & Walsh, Inc., one of the nation's leading advertising agencies. He draws his advice about effective advertising from 20 years of experience handling a variety of accounts—from grocery products, encyclopedias and appliances to building materials, beer and golf equipment—for major ad agencies. At Cunningham & Walsh, he helps prepare attention-getting advertising for some of America's biggest corporations with annual programs worth millions of dollars. ● When? (Your hours.) 2) Choose a Single Selling Message. Less information is often best in advertising. Fight the temptation to tell all. If you give too many facts, you may wind up with an ad that emphasizes nothing and repels rather than attracts prospects. Your ad should have a single theme, emphasized in all of its elements—layout, headline, copy, and illustrations. If your major advantage is a wide range of products or services, build your ad on that theme. Tell the buyer he can find almost anything under your roof. Stress variety, completeness. If you have an exclusive franchise or offer special service in one area, make this the highlight of your ad. This can give you the edge—especially over competitors who make completeness their selling message. If you sell or service brand name products, emphasize that. Use trademarks in your ad to attract brand-conscious buyers. 3) Match the Message to the Medium. Where does your selling message belong? Every ad medium worth its salt has facts and figures about its audiences. Not only the number of people, but their age, sex, income, education, hobbies, and occupations. Before writing your ad, study as much of this data as you can get. Match the audience offered by the medium with what you have to sell. Then, choose the media that will reach your best prospects at lowest cost. But remember: each medium—newspapers, magazines, radio, Yellow Pages or television—has a unique "selling contest." That's the particular blend of news, entertainment, education or basic information that appeals to its audience. In newspapers, for example, the context is news. With radio, it's entertainment. With the Yellow Pages, it's directional information. Write your ad to fit into the selling context of the medium. For newspapers, make your ad timely, newsworthy. Stress a current sale, new product, special service. For the Yellow Pages, stress basic information. Give the facts that persuade prospects to call you, not your competitor. Make sure your ad speaks right to the need that brought the prospect to the classified directory. 4) Mix Your Media Well. No one medium is likely to reach all your best prospects all the time. So you'll want to concoct a "media mix"—a combination that will reach as many prospects as possible with minimum overlap of audiences. You might use some newspaper or radio advertising for news; to promote a special sale or weekly special. Direct mail to send a specific offer to a selected audience. Or magazine ads to build an image of quality and service. Whatever your choices, back up all your advertising with a permanent local reference, such as a telephone directory ad. This will be ready and waiting for prospects who may want what you offer, but are not ready to buy when one of your other ads appears. Like all your advertising, this Yellow Pages ad should be tailored to its medium—and its place in your media mix. Aim to help prospects who are pre-sold by your newspaper or broadcast advertising. When they consult the telephone directory, prospects are ready to buy. So remind them of the advantages of doing business with you. Such a year-around reference can make all your advertising more effective by giving it longer life. 5) Make Your Ad Special. How do you make your ad stand out from all the other advertising your prospects see? Give your ad a special character and appearance. Make certain every word and illustration is appropriate to your business and your prospects. Then follow these tips: Keep your layout simple. Use lots of open space. Arrange the ad to lead the eye logically through the message: From attention-getting headline or illustration. To the reasons why people should buy. To a call for action by your prospects. And to your name, address, and telephone number. Keep your copy short. Write it for quick, easy understanding. Avoid flowing phrases or fancy adjectives. Each word should expand the basic promise of your headline. Otherwise, it doesn't belong in your ad. With these tricks of the advertising trade, you can be sure you'll get more for every ad dollar you spend. Compared to field-effect transistors (FET's), conventional bipolar transistors have relatively low input resistance, high input capacitance, relatively high output-to-input feedback capacitance, and cross-modulation and inter-modulation characteristics which can be troublesome in some applications. A tendency to oscillate at high frequencies unless well loaded, cross-talk in transistor tuners operating in the vicinity of a strong station and the large impedance transformations required in interstage coupling are examples of the problems associated with the inherent characteristics of conventional bipolar transistors. Conventional bipolar transistors also have a very limited AGC capability, and when they are gain controlled, it is usually at the cost of increased noise or other adverse effects. The FET, on the other hand, has a very high input resistance, low input capacitance, low feedback capacitance, superior cross-modulation and overload capability and excellent AGC characteristics. In fact, the FET has all the advantages of a vacuum tube without the tube's disadvantages of aging and filament power requirements. Also, FET's are available in several different designs, each of which offers unique advantages for different applications. This design variation is not duplicated to an appreciable extent by bipolar devices. FET THEORY Fig. 1 is a cross-sectional view of an elementary type of FET. The device consists of a bar of "N" type material, with two sections of "P" type material opposite each other part way up the bar. If we connect a 10-volt battery to the bar so that the top is +10 volts and the bottom is zero volts, the potential at the center of the bar will be somewhere between zero and +10 volts. We will assume that the "N" type material in the vicinity of the P type material is at +5 volts. If we now connect a negative source of voltage to the "inserts" formed by the P type material, a reverse-biased pair of junctions is formed, with current being repelled at the junction barriers, just as in any reverse-biased diode. You will recall from previous articles about semiconductor junctions that the field extends into the material for some distance. Thus, the repelling effect of each "diode" extends throughout the shaded areas in Fig. 1, and, therefore, current cannot flow in these areas. Notice that the two shaded areas almost touch each other, severely restricting the flow of current from one end of the bar to the other. If we increase the negative potential applied to the P type material, we can get these areas to "touch" each other, thereby cutting off current flow almost completely. Conversely, if we reduce the negative potential on the P type material, current flows more freely as the channel becomes wider. Terminology At this point, we should get our terms straight. The bottom of the bar corresponds to the emitter of a bipolar transistor, and is called the source. The top of the bar corresponds to the collector of a bipolar, and is called the drain, while the input, or control, element, which corresponds to the base of a bipolar transistor, is called the gate. The material through which the current flows, between source and drain, is called the channel. In the FET illustrated in Fig. 1, the channel is made of N type material, so the device is called an N channel FET. Biasing Note that the FET in Fig. 1 operates with the gate reverse biased, while a bipolar transistor operates with the base forward biased. And there is no collector junction at all. Therefore, the only junction, the gate, is always biased in one direction, in comparison to a bipolar transistor, which has two junctions, one forward biased and the other reverse biased. Because the one junction of the FET is controlled with one polarity of voltage, we call it a unipolar device (one polarity), while the conventional transistor is called a bipolar (two polarity) device. The output current of the FET shown in Fig. 1 is reduced as the negative input voltage (bias) is increased. Because of this, it is called a depletion mode device. The use of the word depletion is used to indicate that an increase in gate voltage reduces the current through the device. (Note that the input signal can never forward bias the gate junction, just as the input signal cannot reverse bias the base of a bipolar transistor in normal operation.) Because the gate is a reverse-biased junction, this device is also called junction FET. Putting all of the descriptive terms together, we have been looking at an N-channel, depletion mode, junction FET. (The term junction FET is usually abbreviated to JFET.) By reversing the polarities of the materials used in the junctions, we can also create a P-channel... New life for the old test jig. Make it a solid-state tester with our new Sylvania Rig-A-Jig™ CK1900X. The old test jig you used with tube-set chassis can work full time again. Connect the new Sylvania Rig-A-Jig CK1900X to it and presto—you have a test jig for solid-state and hybrid TV as well. The Rig-A-Jig CK1900X has a self-contained anode voltmeter, a complete set of yoke programmers, and an internal focus supply. And, it will give you a close impedance match in receiver deflection circuits for almost any hybrid or solid-state sets you might have to service. And these connections are easy to make with up-front, highly accessible receptacles. With simple modifications, you can give new life to your old test jig so it can handle sets with 350 to 500 μH SCR sweep, 1 and 3 mH for transformer sweep, or tube and hybrid sets with yoke inductances from 7, 12, and 16 mH. Instruction sheets and set-up manual are also included. Ask your Sylvania distributor for more information. Rig-A-Jig CK1900X. The newest addition to the versatile family of Chek-A-Color™ Test Equipment. GTE SYLVANIA GTE Sylvania, Electronic Components Group, 100 First Avenue, Waltham, Mass. 02154. JFET, just as we have PNP and NPN bipolar transistors. Note that the channel of the FET in Fig. 1 is narrower at the top than at the bottom. The reason for this becomes evident if we consider the channel to be a resistive path. A comparison of the potentials at several points throughout the resistive path reveals that the voltages at the bottom will be small, with increasingly larger voltages toward the top. If we assume that the gate junctions are at a level of +5 volts, then the top area of the gate will be at a higher potential (+6V), and the bottom area of the gate at a lower potential (+4V). If we assume that the gates are at zero, or ground potential, then the center of the gate would be at 5 volts reverse bias, the top at 6 volts reverse bias and the bottom at 4 volts reverse bias. This is shown as three separate diodes in Fig. 2 for simplification. Because the top of the gate has the highest reverse potential, the depth of the electric field is greatest; therefore, the channel restriction is greater at the top than at the bottom. If you see this effect in FET diagrams in other literature, you now will understand the reason for it. Shown in Fig. 3 is a simple N-channel JFET audio amplifier. The source, gate and drain are labeled $S$, $G$ and $D$, respectively, and the supply voltage is labeled $V_{DD}$. The gate arrow points inward, indicating that this is an $N$-channel device (similar to the emitter arrow pointing inward on an NPN bipolar transistor), thus requiring a positive drain voltage (also similar to the collector voltage requirement of NPN bipolar). A $P$-channel JFET would have the gate arrow pointing outward (as with a PNP bipolar), and would require a negative $V_{DD}$. The gate symbol represents a diode (junction), which it is, and, because in a JFET it is always reverse biased, it reveals the polarity requirements of the JFET. Notice that simply returning the gate to ground produces a reverse bias, as was explained earlier in reference to Fig. 2. The amount of the reverse bias applied when the gate is tied to the source depends only on the supply voltage. Because the gate voltage is physically tapped off of the voltage divider formed by the channel, much as a voltage divider with a fixed tap, the voltage at the tap varies with the voltage applied to the top of the divider (in this case, $V_{DD}$). Therefore, increasing the applied voltage ($V_{DD}$) will increase the reverse bias on the gate and will cause the channel current to be pinched off—and that is exactly what this phenomenon is called—pinch-off. To control the pinch-off action, the bias applied to the gate can be varied by adding a resistor, as shown in Fig. 4. The resistor is placed in the source lead, as with emitter resistor biasing of a bipolar. Fig. 5 shows a divider added between $+V_{DD}$ and ground to further control the applied gate voltage in the desired manner. Any or all of these are effective methods of controlling the gate voltage. Sometimes a resistor is placed between the drain and the gate to provide DC inverse feedback for stabilization of the operating point, as is done with both vacuum tubes and bipolar transistors. As you can now see, the JFET is not radically different from devices you are accustomed to, even though it operates on the principle of a voltage input applied to a reverse-biased junction as opposed to a bipolar transistor which operates with a current input applied to a forward-biased junction. Consequently, the JFET has an extremely high input impedance compared to that of a bipolar transistor. THE DUAL-GATE JFET Because the input signal is applied to both gates of the FET to produce a pinch-off effect, it is possible to design a FET with a separate J lead for each gate, with one used for signal input and the other for AGC or for mixing two signals. Fig. 6 shows the symbols for such a device, which is known as a dual-gate JFET. Gate 1 (G1) is either the bottom gate or the "front" gate on the symbol, with gate 2 (G2) at the top or "back" of the symbol. Gate 1 is usually the signal input, with gate 2 the AGC or modulating signal, although they may be used otherwise to achieve other desired results. THE MOSFET Conduction of the FET is controlled by the electric field produced by the gate, as described previously. The electric field can be produced by a capacitor as well as a reverse-biased junction. Fig. 7 shows an Insulated-Gate Field-Effect Transistor (IGFET). Notice that the gate electric field is coupled through a capacitor symbol instead of a reverse-biased junction symbol. In modern IGFET's the capacitor is formed by depositing an ultra thin insulating layer, as shown in Fig. 8. Modern IGFET's are usually called MOSFET's, because the insulated gate capacitor is formed by depositing metal on an insulating oxide layer, thereby forming a semiconductor field-effect transistor. The first letters of the italicized words form the acronym MOSFET. MOSFET's are fabricated in the same way modern integrated circuits are—by starting with a basic material called a substrate and then depositing other materials on top of the substrate or diffusing other materials into it. Usually, all fabrication is performed on one side of the substrate, with the substrate on the bottom, as in Fig. 8. Many such devices are made at once, on a 2- or 3-inch diameter wafer. Because each device is small, thousands are made at one time on a single wafer, thus reducing the price by mass production. The wafer is then scribed with a diamond point, and the devices are broken apart, in the same way that a pane of glass is cut. With this method, no other elements can be fabricated on the edges of each device, because there are no separate edges until the finished device is broken off the wafer. The type of material used in the channel of a MOSFET is indicated by the direction in which the arrow on the substrate element points—in for N channel, and out for P channel, just as for bipolar and JFET's. A wafer of P type material has a... lead connected to its bottom, as shown in Fig. 8. A layer of N type material then is diffused into the top of the P type substrate, forming a junction. This is why the substrate of the MOSFET still retains the arrow-type junction symbol, even though the signal input terminal (gate) is a capacitor. Note in Fig. 7 that the substrate of the FET forms a second gate (G2), as in the JFET. Two metal, deposited contacts are formed at each end of the N channel, for the source and drain leads. A very thin layer of insulating oxide is formed over the channel, to function as the dielectric of the gate "capacitor." A metal contact deposited over the glass functions as the capacitor electrode. Because the channel is directly under the capacitor formed by the gate, any electric field created by the potential applied to the gate will influence the current through the channel. If a negative potential is applied, the field will be a repelling one and will tend to pinch off current in the channel, as indicated by the shaded area in Fig. 8. Thus, we have a depletion mode device again. But there is one fundamental difference in operation between the MOSFET and JFET—the JFET is a junction input device and must always be reverse biased, which makes it a depletion device only. The MOSFET is a capacitance-coupled device, and, therefore, there is no inherent forward or reverse bias requirement. Consequently, the MOSFET can operate in either the depletion or the enhancement mode. A depletion-mode MOSFET starts out with some desired level of conduction, and the gate input or bias can reduce, or deplete, the current flow. An enhancement mode MOSFET starts out with zero bias and very little current flowing through it, and the signal or bias applied to the gate then increases, or enhances, the flow of current. Some MOSFET's are designed as enhancement/depletion devices, which means that the normal flow of current can be either increased or decreased by applying a suitable bias. The mode of operation of a MOSFET is revealed by the symbol of the device, as shown in Fig. 9. Note that the channel is a solid line for depletion type devices, and an interrupted line for enhancement types. One convenient method for remembering which is which is: A solid line indicates conduction, which can be reduced. An open circuit, represented by the interrupted line, has no way to change but to increase. Some MOSFET's have only three terminals brought out, with the substrate tied internally to the source. Because many MOSFET's are used in circuit configurations which require that the substrate be connected to the source, it makes little difference whether it is done internally or externally. For circuit configurations which require that the substrate be used as a second gate, a MOSFET with the substrate lead brought out separately is needed. Some MOSFET's have two input gates as well as the substrate, and are used as mixers and AGC devices, etc. Their schematic symbol is shown in Fig. 10. Some minor variations of symbols exist among different manufacturers because the device is relatively new and standardization is not yet complete, but technicians should have no trouble determining the mode of operation of the MOSFET if they analyze the symbol on the schematic diagram of the circuit being tested. Until recently, MOSFET's had one very severe handicap: Because the gate insulation is very thin, it can be punctured easily and, once punctured, like any capacitor, it is destroyed. Static charges incurred in handling are capable of puncturing the gate insulation. Consequently, to avoid such damage, MOSFET's were mounted in conductive plastic. Even so, many were ruined, both in and out of circuit. Newer MOSFET's have diode protected gates, as shown in Fig. 11. Each gate has two back-to-back zener diodes connected between gate and source. If the input voltage, regardless of polarity, exceeds a certain level, the diodes conduct and clamp the input voltage to a safe level. This is easily understood when you recall that a zener conducts in the forward direction as any diode, but, when reverse biased, it conducts at a predetermined design level. Because the diodes are reverse connected, one is always forward biased and the other reverse biased for any signal. The total drop is therefore the zener voltage plus one forward diode drop. This seemingly has solved the biggest problem inherent in MOSFET's. Because MOSFET's do not draw input current, and because enhancement-mode MOSFET's draw no output current until turned on, they are extremely efficient low-current-drain devices. For this reason, MOS technology is used increasingly in systems in which power drain and heat dissipation are important and expensive factors. They are also used more and more in integrated circuits (IC's), which are becoming increasingly complex. An IC today has the ability to replace thousands of discrete devices—just one 4000 bit MOS memory integrated circuit contains over 14,000 transistors. Obviously, with that many transistors on a single chip, each must draw only microwatts of power or the total power dissipation will overheat the small IC. Technicians will see increased application of MOS devices in automotive use, in motor controls in home appliances, in test equipment and a host of other ever-increasing applications. No other 10 MHz oscilloscope gives you all this for $475 The TELEQUIPMENT D61 is a low priced 10 MHz dual trace oscilloscope with sweep rates up to 100 ns/div. It is ideally suited for students, technicians, and hobbyists. Operating Ease. Front panel controls are engineered for instant recognition. Line or frame displays are selected automatically in the TV trigger position. And, chopped or alternate modes are determined automatically to optimize display clarity. Bright, stable viewing. Stable waveforms, displayed on an 8 x 10 cm crt, are easy to view, even under unfavorable ambient light conditions. Two identical input channels simplify generation of X-Y displays. This is particularly useful in analysis of vector patterns. Application versatility. Because of its X-Y capability, the D61 simplifies alignment and troubleshooting of color television sets. Its performance equals or exceeds the requirements for servicing audio equipment, pocket calculators, public safety control, alarm, and communications systems, microwave ovens, digital clocks, and similar consumer electronic products. Compact, portable. Fully transistorized, and weighing only 15 pounds, the D61 occupies only 6.3 inches of bench width. It's easy to transport and use in confined working areas. Tektronix reliability. TELEQUIPMENT products carry the well-known Tektronix warranty and are marketed and supported by the Tektronix organization. Automatic triggering. TV Frame and line triggering. Dual-trace, X-Y and vector modes. Send me the D61 Spec Sheet and Telequipment catalog. Have your field engineer call to arrange a demonstration. Tektronix, Inc., P.O. Box 500, Beaverton, Oregon 97005 Name ____________________________________________ Title ___________________ Telephone No. ___________ Company _________________________________________ Address __________________________________________ City __________________ State ______ Zip _________ Selecting Commercial Audio Amplifiers by Jack Hobbs Avoid being entrapped in the “power-doubling muddle” Previous articles in these pages have made it clear that once a commercial audio installation survey is completed and necessary speakers selected, we are then in a position to select a suitable amplifier. But all we know at this point is the amplifier’s total output requirement in watts. And before we can discuss the basic, overall considerations involved in the selection of present-day commercial audio amplifiers, we may need to reorient our thinking in certain technical areas which have undergone near-revolutionary changes with the development of modern solid-state audio circuitry. The Impact of Solid-State Audio Circuitry A few years ago an outstanding audio authority saw fit to reevaluate certain conventional audio distribution techniques which had been employed for many years with commercial electron-tube audio equipment. His conclusions were revealing: Development of modern solid-state audio circuitry has now made available to the audio technician and service-dealer more efficient audio distribution methods at lower cost in dollars-per-watt. Hence, in selecting an amplifier for a given installation, especially the small- and medium-size jobs, we must consider these new techniques. In fact, there is a chance that employment of this new approach may soon become a competitive necessity on many jobs. Transistorized audio amplifiers are available with low impedance outputs for driving speakers directly. In low- and medium-powered installations not involving a large number of speakers, the amplifier output can be fed directly to speakers in series, parallel or series/parallel configurations. You may find many audio-installation jobs where this method of distribution will prove satisfactory—eliminating the cost of line-speaker matching transformers. This method of driving speakers also provides a significantly higher power efficiency. In reference to these new techniques, however, we will need to brush up on simple math and knowledge of impedances in series, parallel and series/parallel, and power division in these circuits. This is especially true if we want to provide different power levels to different speakers in a given group without having to use “T” or “L” pads or transformers. As one example, suppose a small installation calls for five speakers. (See Fig. 1.) If the five speakers are all of the same impedance, the three shown in parallel will run close to four times the power of the two in series/parallel. If we use 16-ohm speakers the total, or net, load impedance will be near 4.5 ohms. If 28w power is supplied, the three parallel speakers will run at about 8w each and the two in series/parallel will run at approximately 2w each. With this illustration in mind, you can take it from there and work out all kinds of speaker combinations to match the direct output of one or more available transistorized audio amplifiers. At this point, some cautious, conservatives among us may wish to sound a quiet, skeptical note of warning. Indeed, it is too early to conclude that new solid-state techniques are infallible, fail-safe and actually better than the older methods employing CV (constant-voltage) distribution or other methods. Old conventions die hard and only the passage of time and many application experiences will tell if the new approach is really worthwhile. Basic Amplifier Requirements and Specifications Obviously, in a general sense, the type of amplifier needed for any installation is determined primarily by the individual system requirements. And this includes, of course, distinctions which must be made between fixed installation equipment and portable equipment such as that used on automobiles and “sound” trucks for PA (public-address) applications. Additionally, we may wish to select an amplifier having 5, 10 or more watts output than immediately required—to handle possible future expansion of a system. And there are other important considerations—some obvious and others not so obvious. For example, we must determine if we need a separate preamp/mixer/control unit to be used with a separate power amplifier, or will it prove adequate if we select a combination (or package) unit with everything on one chassis? For most jobs, we can choose the latter. For the “big jobs,” we might have to select or even design a preamp/mixer/control unit to be operated separately from the power amplifier. For Our New Digital IC color generator deserves a hand... MODEL 1230 ACTUAL SIZE B&K MODEL 1230 DIGITAL I.C. COLOR GENERATOR YOURS! The time you waste running back to the truck to pick up your bulky color convergence generator costs you money. B & K's solution to the problem is the model 1230 Digital IC Color Generator—a solution you can hold on the palm of your hand. How much performance can you expect from a package just 1¾" high, 5" wide and 7¾" deep that snuggles nicely into the place of a few tubes in your caddy? Plenty—like a broadcast-stable 10,000µV signal with four rock-steady patterns so jitter-free that you can expand and examine the quality of the color subcarrier with an oscilloscope. And that's unique. Why is it so stable? Because all video, sync, blanking and color signals are derived from a crystal-controlled 4.751748MHz master oscillator. Because of the progressive scan system, which presents the same signal on each field. Because all counting functions and signal processing are performed by accurate, reliable digital integrated circuits. And because the ripple-free regulated power supply maintains generator stability even under abnormal line conditions. No expensive batteries to replace, either. Plenty of good reasons to get your hands on one today. In stock at your distributor or write DYNASCAN. MODEL 1230 $96.00 B&K PRODUCTS OF DYNASCAN 1801 W. Belle Plaine Ave. Chicago, IL 60613 • (312) 327-7270 ... for more details circle 102 on Reader Service Card AUGUST 1974, ELECTRONIC TECHNICIAN/DEALER \| 35 very long microphone cables, we might need a small, separate preamp close to the mike. What kind and how many preamp inputs do we need? Here we might require either high- or low-impedance mike inputs or both. Do we need high-level phono, tape-head or AM/FM radio inputs? We might also have to give special consideration to the sensitivity of some inputs. Do we need individual gain controls on all preamp inputs? Separate controls will usually be desirable. It should be mentioned, at this point, that some packaged equipment is available which has a variety of plug-in input modules. One difficult job, caused by the lack of uniform industry specification and test standards, is translating manufacturers' specifications into significant and meaningful intelligence. Here we must question closely the individual manufacturer. In most cases, you will find amplifier manufacturers cooperative. Obtain and carefully study their product catalogs and spec sheets. Once again, job requirements will vary. One job may require an amplifier having a total harmonic distortion (THD), or total harmonic content (THC), specification of "one percent or less." A THD of "five percent or less" may be adequate for another—other factors being equal. Likewise with FR (frequency response). But here, things really get fuzzy. An amplifier having a specification of "50Hz to 15KHz" may actually be better than one which is said to have an FR from "50Hz to 20KHz." You are seldom informed how flat the FR is or how the test was made. If the manufacturer specifies "flat across the FR spectrum plus or minus somewhere between 1 to 3 dBm," this would appear adequate for the "average" application. And again, an amplifier rated at "200Hz to 10KHz" may provide better voice intelligibility for straight PA work than one rated over a much wider spectrum. Based on the job, of course, amplifiers are available for a continuous duty cycle. They will run continuously without being switched off. And inquire if a particular amplifier's total output rating in watts is based on continuous, RMS sine-wave power. Inquire what protective provisions are designed into an amplifier to guard against shorts or other overload conditions to protect amplifier output circuit components, speakers, etc. Hum and noise should be down -70 dBm or more. The "Power-Doubling Muddle" Now, we must remind ourselves of a few important facts, so we can avoid that old pitfall which has embarrassed and frustrated many unwary audio technicians. It's known as the "power-doubling muddle." As we know, the Weber/Fechner law tells us that the human ear responds to changes in volume levels in a predictable way. Tests made with "normal" human ears reveal that, beginning at a certain audible level, the ear can detect a change in that level, say an increase, of about 25 to 30 percent. But then the ear is "stuck" and cannot detect a comparable increase unless the next increase and subsequent increases in level include the 25 to 30 percent accumulatively. For example, beginning with a reference level of 5w, this power would have to be increased about 1.5w to, say, 6.5w before the increase becomes detectable to the ear. Then, for the next increase to be detectable, the power would have to be increased about 2w, to 7w. The next significant increase would be 9w, and so on. Hence, as we are reminded, the human ear responds exponentially, or logarithmically, to power level changes. That is why the dBm system is used to determine audio levels. (Zero dBm reference of 1 milliwatt at 0.7746v across 600 ohms.) A 3dBm increase in level closely represents doubling the power. And a 1dBm increase roughly represents increasing the power one third. Study the accompanying dBm/power/voltage chart. Note that the original power is increased 10 times for the first 10dBm increase in level. And the 60dBm level (1kw) represents a one-million times increase in the original level of 1mw. So, if you run into a problem, especially in large indoor or outdoor areas, don't try to solve it necessarily by doubling the power; instead, concentrate on proper placement of the correct number of specialized speakers. If voice intelligibility is degraded because of long reverberation times, solve the problem by revamping the acoustical character of the location—never try increasing power under these conditions. Otherwise you may end up by doubling and doubling and doubling—throwing ineffective power to the ceiling, the walls, the winds and wide-open spaces. Figures in the dBm/power/voltage chart closely conform to $P = \frac{E^2}{R}$, $E = PR$, dBm = $10 \log \frac{P_2}{P_1}$ and were derived by employing a five-place common logarithm table. Of course, here "P" must be figured in watts or decimal fractions and "E" in volts the same way. "R" remains constant at 600 ohms, and $P_1$ at 0.001w. For those not familiar with these processes, note that the reference power has increased exponentially; at 10dBm, 10 times; at 20dBm, 100 times; at 30dBm, 1,000 times, and so on. Note also that the voltages increase in like manner but in 20dBm increments. And voltage gain can be translated to dBm by employing the formula dBm = $20 \log \frac{E_2}{E_1}$, where $E_1$, 0.7746v (0.775v is close enough), remains constant. The even numbered dBm/power/voltage relationships have been more closely refined than the odd dBm lines simply because the even numbered 2dBm continued on page 53 COLORFAX The material used in this section is selected from information supplied through the cooperation of the respective manufacturers or their agencies. ADMIRAL Color TV Chassis K19 Series—Hum Bar in Picture at 60 Hz Rate The possible cause of an hum bar in the picture can be an open electrolytic capacitor on the 20v B+ supply—Part No. 67A200-250-4. If you encounter a set with this problem, the ripple on the higher B+ supplies will appear normal. Checking the waveform at the plate (pin 2) of the Video Amplifier tube, 11CH11, will confirm the defective capacitor; you will observe 60 Hz on the video signal. Color TV Models 5L5851, 5L5853, 5L5855—Loss of Sound There has been a few reports of loss of sound in color TV Models 5L5851, 5L5853 and 5L5855 which are equipped with the 8T9A, 8-track tape player. The TV sound signal in these models is amplified by the left channel amplifier of the tape player, so component failure in the audio section of the tape player can also cause loss of TV sound. Investigation of these reports showed that the sets were, More for your money - $189.00* - than any other Color Bar/Pattern Generator Superpulse — Provides a big, fat square pulse for easy CRO tracing in the set, and a white window pattern for quick checks of gray-scale tracking, smearing, and ringing right on the TV screen. Bar Marker — Identifies color bars, 3, 6, 9—a "must" on overscanned sets. IF Output — at 45.75 MHz for troubleshooting in mixer and IF stages. Excellent for servicing "modular" solid-state sets. Video Output — 2 volts, max. "+" and "-" at 75 ohms for commercial/industrial closed-circuit TV. 75- and 300-Ohms Output — at both RF and IF. Snap-on BNC heads for fast impedance changes. RF works into MATV, CATV systems. 100% Digital ICs — Computer-type counters need no adjustments — ever! Patterns stay locked-in. RCA Electronic Instruments ...for more details circle 129 on Reader Service Card in most cases, being operated in carpeted rooms and that a static discharge was noted as the controls were touched. Component failures that may occur as a result of a strong static discharge include one or more of the following transistors: Q7, Q9, Q11, Q13 or the equivalent right-channel parts. In the 5L5850 series models, the on/off/volume control is mounted to the tuner by a plastic bracket. We recommend grounding the control case to eliminate this problem. Add a 9A207-2 ground lug under the screw on the tuner bracket, position the other end of the lug against the control case and solder it (see illustration). This is the only approved method of grounding the control case. Do not add this ground lug to any models other than the 5L5851, 5L5853 or 5L5855. Power Supply Module M900 (AB926-1) The DC voltage at pin 5 of the contact terminals P900, located on the power supply module M900, should be 20v. All M25 production power supply modules include resistor R909 (5.6K, 3w). The voltage to pin 5 of contact terminals J801 should be 20v (not 130v as shown on early schematics). The voltage at pin 5 of contact terminals J800 is 130v; this voltage is received from the 130v regulated supply originating in the M900 power supply and fused by F102 (1 amp). You can trace this back through coil L104, the windings of T103, resistor R113 and pin 7 of J1001. The jumper between pins 2 and 3 of J1003 provides an interlock to protect circuit components in the event that the set is operated without the L101 yoke plugged in. Do not overlook checking Q102, the horizontal-output transistor, and damper diode D101. They are mounted on the heat sink adjacent to the T103 HV transformer. MAGNAVOX Color TV Chassis T979—Vertical Line on Left Side of Raster A narrow vertical line on the left side of the raster has been noticed on a limited number of T979 chassis. The cause has been traced to an error in the wiring from the "B" board. The illustration shows the correct wiring arrangement. The vertical line on the screen is produced continued on next page when the wire from pin 6 of the "C" board is erroneously connected to pin 3 of the "B" board instead of to pin 2. The result is that the video signal is routed through R79. Buzz This condition is commonly called "sync buzz" or "vertical sync buzz" and is caused by vertical sync feeding into the audio circuits. If the television is operated in a quiet room with the volume at low levels, a few customers may object to the level of buzz that can be heard. The problem on the "B" board before being applied to the video stages. R79 introduces a small pulse into the video signal. The solution is to remove this wire from pin 3 of the "B" board and connect it to pin 2. MGA Color TV Models CH160, CH190, CH191—Sound Problem A small percentage of these models may develop an unusual sound condition after a period of use by the customer. Two distinct and separate problems can occur: 1) buzz, 2) squeal or loud growl. can be corrected by performing the following steps: 1) Clip the ground lead connected to terminal B4 on the audio board. 2) Insert and solder a 2-inch length of #18 insulated wire in series with the ground lead. 3) Dress the insulated loop along the yoke housing and move it around until a position is found in which the vertical buzz is reduced to a minimum. 4) Tape the loop to the yoke housing at the point of minimum buzz, using black vinyl electrical tape. Squeal or Loud Growl This condition will also occur at low settings of the VOLUME control but it requires a different correction than that... of the first buzz problem. Study the accompanying drawing of the audio board—the top schematic shows the electrical layout and the bottom drawing shows the mechanical layout. Disconnect the negative side of capacitor C319 on the PC board. The easiest way is to cut the printed circuit at the negative end of C319, as shown in the mechanical drawing. Add a short piece of new wire from the negative side of C319 to terminal B1 on the PC board. Remove the five-connector plug on the audio board and clean the contacts at ground terminal B4. Using a tuner cleaner that does not attack plastics, clean contact B4. Also, visually inspect and do whatever else is necessary to be absolutely certain that contact B4 is making positive contact. After completing the previous steps, follow the brown lead from contact B4 to a male-female disconnect plug that also contains a green wire going to the VOLUME control. Check the contacts within the molex plug at both the brown wire point and the green wire point going to the VOLUME control. Make certain that the pins are fully seated and secured within the plug. Check to see that pins are not loose or bent. Exercise the necessary technical checks, including continuity tests and perhaps soldering, to assure that all audio circuit connections through the plug are making positive contact. "Are you trying to mix me up? Every other customer demands a rush job.—And you tell me to take my time!" NEW PRODUCTS Descriptions and specifications of the products included in this department are provided by the manufacturers. For additional information, circle the corresponding numbers on the Reader Service Card in this issue. TRANSISTORS 700 Transistors for major Japanese entertainment equipment A new line of original equipment transistors for all major Japanese entertainment equipment is announced by International Rectifier Corp. The line, packaged in a DK20 kit, consists of the 24 transistors most often specified by the manufacturers of Japanese stereos, tape recorders and other electronic equipment. VOM 701 Incorporates stable differential FET amplifier The Model FET-300 transistorized VOM is a new addition to Mura's line of multimeters. Basic to the circuit is a stable differential FET amplifier. There are seven DC voltage ranges from 250 mv to 1000 v, with 10 M input impedance. Five AC voltage ranges to 1000 v have a 5000 ohms/volt sensitivity. DC current can be measured from 25 µa to 250 ma. Five resistance ranges permit accurate measurements to 500 M. A mirror arc, on-the-spot calibration adjustments on the front panel, zero center scale adjustments, and battery check facilities are important factors which add to the utility and accuracy of the instrument. PARTS CASE 702 Can be used in the shop or on service calls The Tube Products Department of General Electric Co. is offering service dealers two new folding parts cases for use in the shop or on service calls. The small, compact case (ETRS-5980) offers adequate room for hundreds of resistors, capacitors, semiconductors and other parts required in servicing electronic equipment. The case, which has more than 500 cubic inches of storage space, is equipped with ten trays that can be divided into three sections each by using the 20 dividers supplied with each unit. When closed, the high-impact polystyrene case forms an 8-cubic-inch square. The larger case (ETRS-5981) features 12 trays which can be divided into four sections each by using the 12 dividers included with each unit. Both cases are available through your local authorized GE distributor. The compact case (ETRS-5980) is $5.95, the large case (ETRS-5981) is $29.95. AUDIO ADAPTERS 703 Interconnects almost any audio equipment New, versatile audio "Y" adapters for interconnecting almost any audio equipment are introduced by Switchcraft, Inc. The 391Q "Q-G" (Quick-Ground) Y Adapters give the audio engineer, sound installer and technician wide flexibility in adapting and connecting audio circuitry and components. Three-pin male and three-pin contact female plugs (or equivalent) can be supplied in any combination for the adapter, for shielded audio connections. For example, outputs of two microphones are easily and conveniently connected in parallel and to a single output using the 391Q23 Y-Adapter; a series 391Q Y-Adapter can be used where a single audio output is required to drive two extension speakers. The cable used has two conductors, is shielded with a durable gray outer jacket and is two feet long with a molded Y-junction at the center point. Price is $16.10. MATV/CATV ATTENUATOR 704 Simplifies CATV and MATV signal equalization problems A new shielded attenuator designed for use in both low-level signal calibration of test equipment and MATV/CATV installation and service applications is announced by RCA Electronic Components. The RCA WM-542A 75-Ohm Attenuator is a valuable aid for MATV/CATV TV installation and servicing when it is desirable to equalize signal levels at various outputs. The attenuator permits adjustment of signal output levels as low as 1 microvolt from suitable signal generating equipment. This five-step attenuator has stepswitches arranged in a convenient 3-6-10-20-20 dB sequence, providing a selection of the most used attenuator values from 3 dB to 59 dB. Attenuation of RF signals with a one dB accuracy up to 250 MHz is provided and is usable for signals up to 900 MHz. The unit measures 1½ inch by 1-3/16 inch by 4-5/16 inch and weighs approximately 6½ ounces. Price is $29.50. CONTACT CLEANER 705 Leaves no residue to interfere with electrical properties A non-flammable, non-crazing contact cleaner that is harmless to most plastic is announced by 3M Company. "Scotch" brand Premium Contact Cleaner 1613 is formulated for cleaning switches, brushes, solenoids, generators, circuit breakers, computer heads, gold and low-voltage contacts, etc. It dries instantly and leaves no residue to interfere with electrical properties. The aerosol cleaner is formulated to provide solvent action for removing oil, grease and dirt without harm to metals and is virtually non-toxic. DISTRIBUTION AMPLIFIERS 706 Features high input and output A new line of distribution amplifiers, called the Metro-Line, is introduced by Winegard Co. The line is especially designed for areas in cities or suburbs with strong signals. There are five DA models to choose from—three VHF/FM models and two VHF/UHF/FM models. The compact amplifiers offer economical solutions to design problems in homes, small commercial systems and CATV systems. Extended bandpass (54 to 300 MHz) covers the mid-band and super-bands, making the amplifiers compatible with CATV inputs. The amplifiers are housed in a steel box and contain a lightning protection diode. They feature low noise figures, which helps to eliminate ghosts or snowy pictures. The Model DA-215 (shown in picture), for VHF/FM, provides an output of 53 dBmV, input of 40 dBmV, 13 dB gain, 75-ohm impedance and 4.8 dB noise figure. INVERTER 707 Powers AC equipment from 12 v battery The Model TI-250B Inverter introduced by EPS Co., Inc., powers AC equipment directly from your 12 v DC battery. Exclusive features include --- BOTTOMS UP Start saving the gray bottom flaps with the GE monogram from GE entertainment receiving tube cartons. They're worth valuable awards to independent service dealers and technicians in a fabulous gift bonanza program from General Electric. The gift list includes some 43 items ranging from sporting equipment to home appliances, from diamond jewelry to distinctive luggage, from globes and books to calculators and Attend-a-Phones. It even includes the much prized Polaroid SX-70 camera and American Experience weekend vacations at any one of 101 prestigious resorts. BOTTOMS UP!!! Redeem your flaps by November 30, 1974. Full details at your authorized distributor. TUBE PRODUCTS DEPARTMENT GENERAL ELECTRIC COMPANY OWENSBORO, KENTUCKY 42301 GENERAL ELECTRIC AUGUST 1974, ELECTRONIC TECHNICIAN/DEALER \| 43 A LITTLE EXTRA FROM TECH SPRAY One that sprays out the end And our new OMNI-SPRA® that sprays out the end and in a 360° circle to clean behind components. OMNI-SPRA® probably won't set the world on fire but if it will help you do a better job even 10% of the time we figure it's worth it to include one with each can of BLUE SHOWER. OSCILLOSCOPE 708 25-MHz bandwidth and five display modes Scopes Unlimited, Inc., has introduced a new medium-bandwidth, dual-trace, portable oscilloscope. Among the features of the scope are an internal, parallax-free, 6 X 10 cm CRT graticule, a 1 mv sensitivity on both vertical channels with a full 25-MHz bandwidth, 5 display modes and a stable, high-speed, gated trigger capable of locking virtually any signal from DC to 40 MHz, including TV line and frame. Any special operating requirement is obtained by pressing the appropriate button. The unit also is equipped with internal delay lines. An optional battery pack is available. Price is $1150. CATV DROP CABLE 709 New design reduces installation costs New CATV drop cables developed by Belden Corp. are equipped with a bonded-foil shielding method that simplifies connector installation and lessens chances of faulty termination. The CATV drop cable series features new Duobond shielding, an overlapping aluminum foil tape bonded by a special process directly to the cable's polyethylene insulation core for 100 percent coverage. The tight shield-to-core bond is designed to overcome impaired shield effectiveness that might occur at the termination when an F connector is forced onto a cable shielded with conventional laminated foil. Bonding the tape to the core prevents the shield from being forced back, exposing the core as the connector is pushed on. With the shield remaining intact inside the connector, radiation leakage and signal pickup at the termination is minimized. The cables are available in RG-59/U type and RG-6/U type constructions, including messengered, siamese, and siamese/messengered configurations. PORTABLE TESTER 710 Performs many tests previously requiring larger and expensive equipment Elimination of costly equipment and rapid fault analysis in both digital and analogue circuits found in computer and data communications electronics is accomplished through the use of Lissom Electronics, Versi-Probe multi-function tester. This compact, self-powered unit can perform many tests previously requiring larger, more expensive equipment such as an oscilloscope. The lightweight, 3 inch by 5 inch tester is designed for field service and test applications. It employs a unique combination of audio and LED indicators to test digital circuits such as TTL, DTL, RS232 and CCITT interfaces, communications loop and VF circuits, as well as normal component testing. Specifications for the tester include: 3 v source to generate input levels; 1-megohm input impedance; bandwidth to 2 megahertz; 50 v peak input; and tri-state indications. The price is $59. TELEPHONE ANSWERING/RECORDER SYSTEM 711 Stores fifteen incoming messages up to thirty seconds long The Memory Phone by Ford Industries, Inc., is an uniquely designed dial-in-handset telephone with the capacity to automatically answer your telephone, deliver a short message in the subscriber's own voice to persons calling, and then record the caller's message for playback at the subscriber's convenience. Designed especially for the home and small office, the system provides a full time answering service when the subscriber is away and eliminates the necessity for answering the telephone when the subscriber wishes not to be disturbed. With the device switched off, the system operates as a normal telephone. The unit stores fifteen incoming messages up to thirty seconds long, with full telephone fidelity, and provides visual indication of the number of messages recorded. The unit comes in three colors: white, beige and green. FM ANTENNA 712 Log-Periodic design provides uniform impedance over entire band Two new antennas for the FM broadcast band are announced by Blonder-Tongue Laboratories, Inc. Both the eight-dipole Stereo-Eight and five-dipole Stereo-Five are log-periodic designs with dipole elements which operate on the half-wave mode. This log-periodic design provides good gain, clean patterns and impedance which is essentially uniform over the entire band. The Stereo-Five provides 4 dB of gain across the band and has a front-to-back ratio of 16 dB over the entire FM band. It has a beamwidth of 70 degrees and measures 67¾ inches long by 68 inches wide and is priced at $27.28. The higher gain of the Stereo-Eight averages 6.5 dB across the band, and the antenna also has a higher front-to-back ratio (26 dB min.) and a narrower horizontal beamwidth (60 degrees). It measures 104½ inches long by 68 inches wide, and is priced at $40.29. Both models feature the lightness, strength and low wind resistance of dual-boom construction. OSCILLOSCOPES 713 Solid-state units with DC to 15 MHz range Systems Electronics, Inc., has introduced two portable, solid-state DC-to-15 MHz triggered oscilloscopes. The single-trace Systems Scope, Model 77, is shown on left in picture and the dual-trace Model 87 is on the right. The units include color-coded vertical and horizontal controls for rapid reading, plus an "easy-grip" carrying handle that doubles as a three-position tilt stand. Features of the scopes include: a flat-face 8 div. by 10 div. CRT; full 15-MHz bandwidth; vernier controls on the Model 77 and push-button controls on the Model 87; and vector scope capability. Characteristics of the continued on next page These new IR devices make replacing Zenith Semiconductors a local buy... everywhere! International Rectifier's "guaranteed" replacement kit for Zenith semiconductors Now you can buy International Rectifier's "Guaranteed" replacements for the most popular Zenith semiconductors right at your local IR distributor. Besides cutting days from the usual ordering-shipping cycle, they're priced locally too — more than competitive with the Zenith pricing structure. Like everyone, we recognize Zenith's equipment is top quality, and we're not about to compromise their name, or ours. We analyzed circuits and devices for five months before we guaranteed that IR's devices will match, and meet or exceed Zenith's electrical and physical parameters in all applications. Right now you can pick up a kit* of 23 IR semiconductors, and save an additional 10%. Add it all up: Local availability. Local price. Guaranteed IR replacements for Zenith semiconductors. You can't lose. 13-Transistors; 5-ICs; 3-Rectifiers; 1-Diode; 1-Crystal. INTERNATIONAL RECTIFIER Semiconductor Division 233 Kansas Street, El Segundo, California 90245, Phone (213) 678-6281 ...for more details circle 120 on Reader Service Card continued from previous page vertical deflection system are: 10mV/div. to 10mV/div. in 10 calibrated steps, selected in 1-2-5 sequence, with an uncalibrated continuously variable control which covers the range between steps; ±5-percent accuracy; DC to 15 MHz with DC coupling, and 5 Hz to 15 MHz with AC coupling; a rise time of less than 23.3 nsec; and an input impedance of one Megohm shunted by 35 pF. Horizontal control characteristics include: sweep rates of 0.2 sec./div. to 0.5 µsec/div., in 17 calibrated steps, selected in 1-2-5 sequence, with an uncalibrated full sweep to cover steps in between, ±5-percent accuracy; and sweep expansion through a five-times magnification switch that extends the sweep range to 0.1 µsec/div. Price is $550 for Model 77 and $625 for Model 87. MATV HEAD ENDS 714 Factory assembled to fit any specification A factory assembled, fully tested, custom MATV Head End is available from Jerrold Electronics. The custom Head End consists of a Jerrold Channel Commander II Signal Processor or Modulator for each channel to be carried over the system. The Channel Commanders are rack- or cabinet-mounted and pre-wired, with all necessary mixing. Each piece of equipment is tested individually for compliance with video specifications such as frequency response, sync compression, noise performance and color capability. Then, the entire unit is checked for proper carrier levels and overall capability on 10, 12 or up to 30 channels. A particularly significant test is used as a conclusive proof of performance: All channels except one are modulated with video. A TV receiver is connected to the Head End and tuned to the unmodulated channel. To pass this test, the unit cannot cause discernible beats, lines or patterns; the screen must be completely blank. SWEEP/FUNCTION GENERATOR* In the price range of low-frequency sine/square-wave oscillators A sweep/function generator in the price range of low-frequency sine/square-wave oscillators is introduced by Exact Electronics, Inc. The Model 195 Sweep/Function Generator, housed in a compact case, produces sine, square, triangle and swept waveforms as well as fixed-amplitude pulses. It has a frequency range from 2 Hz to 200 KHz in three ranges, with a linear/logarithmic frequency control. An internal sweep generator will sweep 1000:1 (three decades) on any of the three main frequency ranges. The generator has three 1000:1 sweep rates: slow, medium and fast. High- and low-level sine outputs, with amplitude control of both, are provided. A voltage-control frequency (VCF) input permits controlling the frequency from an external source. Sweep rates are specified as "slow," at 25 seconds/sweep; "medium," at 250 msec; and "fast," at 2.5 msec/sweep. Frequency accuracy is ±2 percent of full scale. The instrument measures 7¾ inches wide, by 2¼ inches high, by 8½ inches deep, and weighs 2 pounds. Price is $149.50. VOM Drop resistant with a virtually indestructible case A "drop-resistant" rugged version of its hand-sized Model 310 VOM, the Model 310-Type 3, is introduced by Triplett Corp. It features a virtually indestructible thermoplastic case with an easy-to-grip "finger tread" finish, a high-impact resistant clear thermoplastic polycarbonate front cover, and an easy access battery and fuse compartment with a simple, positive-lock slide latch. To free one hand, the unit can be converted into a common probe by simply unscrewing the tip from the black lead and placing it into a special jack on the top of the tester. The meter movement is diode-protected against accidental overloads, the R X 1 ohms range is guarded by a fuse, and the voltage ranges are protected by high impedance. The unit features a spring-back jewel meter movement that provides 20,000 ohms per volt DC and 5,000 ohms per volt AC sensitivity, with 18 ranges that can be clearly read on only three arcs. The unit is self-shielding, to provide accurate readings in strong magnetic fields. Price is $48. HEAD DEMAGNETIZER Removes residual magnetism from heads, capstans and guides Nortronics Company, Inc., is introducing a head demagnetizer which is designed to remove residual magnetism from recording heads, capstans and guides. Designated Model QM-202, the unit generates a controlled 60-Hz... continued on next page DELUXE DIGITAL COLOR CONVERGENCE GENERATOR NOW AT A PRICE EVERYONE CAN AFFORD ROCK SOLID PATTERNS ALL IC COUNTDOWN CIRCUITS QUARTZ CRYSTAL OSCILLATORS 2 FULL YEARS' WARRANTY MODEL SG-200 $79.95 reg. $99.95 10 Patterns: Full & Gated Rainbow, 4 Crosshatch, 4 Dot Die Casted 1/8" Aluminum Case. MODEL SG-150 $59.95 reg. $74.95 10 Patterns: B&W Bars, White Field, 4 Crosshatch, 4 Dot. MODEL SG-100 ONLY $47.95 reg. $59.95 2 Patterns: 20 x 16 Crosshatch, 320 Dots, weight only 17 oz. SPECIAL PRICE LIMITED TIME ONLY FULL 15 DAYS MONEY BACK GUARANTEE ELenco ELECTRONICS INC. 8744 W. North Ter., Niles, Ill. 60648 □ My check or money order enclosed. □ COD—Add $2.50 mailing & handling. NAME ADDRESS CITY STATE ZIP DISTRIBUTORS' INQUIRIES INVITED continued from previous page magnetic field which is strong enough to effectively demagnetize, without being so strong that additional residual magnetism is created. Its primary function is to demagnetize active pole pieces and faces in recorder playback heads, preventing hiss, noise and possible erasures which can be caused by magnetized head. It features a flexible probe which will flex to reach usually inaccessible recorder/player parts. The magnetic field radiates from the tip of this probe, which is designed to contact sensitive areas without danger of physical damage. FIELD-STRENGTH METER 718 Features precision gear drive with 1 dB accuracy Sadeclo, Inc., has introduced the Model FS3B VHF/UHF Professional Field-Strength Meter, which features a built-in speaker and precision gear drive with 1 dB accuracy. Other features include a logarithmic scale that cuts attenuator manipulations in half. Direct-reading VSWR and return-loss scales extend this instrument's capabilities when used in conjunction with Sadeclo's Spectrum Analyst. It has a voltage-regulated battery supply, gold-plated attenuator switches and a safety switch that turns off power when the cover is closed. Another safety feature is built into the on/off switch: When in the off position, the meter is automatically shorted, reducing the possibility of damage during transit. For more information on these NEW PRODUCTS See pages 55-56 READERS SERVICE The Money Making line with over 2000 types. • The most complete range of domestic and foreign consumer and industrial receiving tubes in the world. Classic and antique, too. • Complete range of replacement Semiconductors. • Discounted to give you higher profit margins • Quality your customers can depend on. For the name of your local distributor call (516) 293-1500 Or write, International Components Corporation 105 Maxess Drive Melville, New York 11746 DEALER SHOWCASE Descriptions and specifications of the products included in this department are provided by the manufacturers. For additional information, circle the corresponding numbers on the Reader Service Card in this issue. SPEAKER 719 Operates within temperature ranges from 150° F to -30° F Atlas Sound is manufacturing the first temperature-rated, "Voice-Control" speaker models for application as audible signal appliances in conjunction with life-safety and fire alarm signaling systems. The high efficiency, 15 watt rms, re-entrant type models, AP-15TU and AFP-15TU, comply with National Fire Protection Association. Within temperature limits ranging from 150° F to -30° F, the speakers will operate without loss of signal, and they are designed for application in electronically supervised alarm facilities. The Model AP-15TU, shown in picture, is designed for surface installation or can be strap-mounted on columns or beams and is equipped with an omni-purpose mounting bracket. Frequency response is from 275-14,000 Hz. The flange-mounted Model APF-15TU can be installed directly in wall or ceiling and offers unlimited selection of aesthetic appearance. The speakers produce 114 dB output on axis at 10 feet distance at rated power with input from standard 25 v or 70 v audio amplifier. STEREO NEEDLE LOCK 720 Helps eliminate shrinkage, damage and theft Diamond needle cartridges can now be protected from damage or theft and left in place, for immediate stereo demonstrations, with a locking device introduced by Se-Kure Controls, Inc. Called "Diamond Needle Lock," the safeguard consists of a heavy-duty, durable plastic shield which slips over the record player arm and locks. The needle cannot be used, removed or tampered with while the locking device is in place, yet it can be quickly unlocked and released by using a master key. The device is a universal design which will fit most tone arms and requires no special tools to install. The tone arm, the needle and cartridge are visible through the clear, sun glow amber-colored, durable plastic construction. PARTS RACK 721 Inventory control system for fast-moving RCA parts The RCA QT parts rack is designed to hold the parts included in the RCA Dealer QT (quick turnover) Parts Program. The rack is a parts inventory control system that makes it easy for continued on next page HOW TO RESTORE TV TUNERS DIRTY, CORRODED OR GUNKED-UP TUNER CONTACTS MEAN SNOWY PICTURES. IF YOU HAVE TO WIGGLE THE CHANNEL SELECTOR TO IMPROVE PICTURE QUALITY, CONTACTS ARE DEFINITELY POOR. Now a brand new product solves these problems TUN-O-POWER RESTORES TUNERS! Just spray TUN-O-POWER on tuner contacts and rotate the tuner. Within 5 seconds, contacts will be clean and shiny, shiny. Detent action will be smooth as silk. Most important, you'll get sharp pictures on all channels, without wiggling knobs. TUN-O-POWER works so well, (even on the worst tuners) it's hard to believe. Unless you try it yourself. Offer to restore the tuner of every set you service— for an extra charge of $5.00 or more, depending on how hard it is to get at the tuner. Your customer will appreciate the extra service because the set will work like new. You'll improve your reputation as well as your profit margin. Only TUN-O-POWER restores TV tuners. Try it ... you'll love it! CHEMTRONICS INCORPORATED 1260 RALPH AVE. BROOKLYN, N.Y. 11236 Our business is improving yours. continued from previous page servicing dealers to manage their replacement parts more efficiently. The rack is extremely easy to set up and stands 30 inches high and 36 inches wide. The shelves measure 11¾ inches deep. The rack can be set up on a countertop or workbench or it can be wall mounted. It comes with 18 removable wire dividers, which are used to keep the QT parts in their specific locations on the shelves. Two special steel hanger brackets are supplied to accommodate blister packed parts. Included with the rack are two wire baskets for convenient storage of parts packed in pouches. A special "reorder" basket is also supplied to hold empty pouches and box tops as a reminder to reorder out-of-stock parts. The list of QT parts is updated every six months, with faster-moving parts added and slower-moving parts dropped. AUTO CASSETTE TAPE PLAYER Compact unit with radio dial in the cassette door An in-dash stereo cassette tape player, with AM/FM/FM stereo radio, is announced by Lear Jet Stereo. The unit features fast forward and fast rewind, automatic and manual reject, and has the radio dial in the cassette door. The player, designated Model A-72, has 5 w RMS per channel, 10 w RMS total, and 30 w of Peak Music Power. Wow and flutter are less than .3-percent and signal noise and crosstalk are at 45 dB. The all-solid-state unit has a distant/local switch and adjustable shafts for simplified installation. The unit has a standard nose piece for custom in-dash installation, and special custom installation pieces can be obtained by the customer from the manufacturer at no charge. 8-TRACK CARTRIDGE RECORD DECK 723 Incorporates automatic noise reduction circuits JVC is introducing their Model ED-1245, an 8-track record/playback deck with built-in automatic noise reduction circuitry (ANRS). In addition to ANRS, it has a special fast-forward switch, a pause control, two professional VU meters and two record-level controls. The unit also has selectable automatic program repeat and automatic or manual cartridge ejector. Price is $249.95. MOVING? Be sure to let us know your new address. Please enclose a complete address label from one of your recent issues. New goodies add measure power to Fluke 8000A Best selling 3½ digit DMM even better with new options and accessories New ac/dc high current option lets you measure 10 A. continuously or up to 20 A. momentarily. New low 2 and 20 Ω scales give 0.001 Ω resolution. Low cost RF probe offers new capability. Other options include rechargeable battery pack, digital printer output, deluxe test leads, 40 kV high voltage probe, 600 A. ac current probe, carrying cases, dust cover and rack mount. Basic "best buy" $299 DMM feature dc accuracy of 0.1%. Measure ac/dc volts from 100 µV to 1200 V, current from 100 nanoamperes to 2 A. and resistance from 100 milliohms to 20 megohms. Guaranteed 20,000 hour MTBF. For data out today, dial our toll-free hotline, 800-426-0361 Is there a grandfather clock in your tube caddy? There could be. We award one for 345 "Waltham" address tabs from Sylvania entertainment receiving tube boxes. Other awards range from table lighters to a weekend holiday at a famous resort. Write for an award catalog or ask your distributor. Who knows what's in your tube caddy right now? Sylvania SAV-A-TAB program, Sylvania Award Hq., P.O. Box 1000, Fenton, Mo. 63026. Replacement Tubes... continued from page 25 no matter how high future market prices might go. To see what such a policy can mean to the servicer or dealer, let's examine it within the context of a typical service situation when a color tube replacement is required: The first out-of-warranty CRT replacement in a color set usually comes when the set is between four and six years old. At that point it usually isn't too difficult to sell the owner on a $175-200 replacement, especially if the dealer points out that the tube will be guaranteed (exclusive of labor) for 3 full years. This is the kind of protection that customers are looking for today. At this point, however, the servicer/dealer should be looking ahead into the future. Why should he guarantee to sell another picture tube 5 or 6 years later for only $69.95 plus labor and lose out on another $200 sale? You already know the answer to that one. Later on, the set will be 10 to 12 years old, and the customer will probably be unwilling to spend that kind of money, as the climbing scrappage rates clearly show. The customer will be faced with the choice of investing $200 in an old set that will probably require additional service from time to time, or going out to buy a brand new set. The dealer, on the other hand, will be faced with the choice of losing the customer completely (for both present and future service), or installing a cheap tube of doubtful quality, with a limited guarantee or none at all (a step many dealers would rather avoid). The Channel Master guarantee program was developed to solve all of these dilemmas for the benefit of both the serviceman and his customer. The picture tube extended warranty is an effective marketing tool for the servicer/dealer. It offers the customer protection, and removes much of the fear he might have about keeping an old set in use. It also gives the dealer additional options: 5 years later, for example, he is in a position to "deal" more flexibly with his customer, by offering a top-of-the-line color tube (with another 3-year guarantee) for as little as $99 installed, or some other "bargain" price. It might not produce the initial gross profit he would like, but it's a lot better than losing the sale to the new-set discounter. And it offers these other important advantages to technicians: 1) It provides a good reason for the customer to keep and repair his present set, and to buy a top-of-the-line picture tube instead of a cheaper one. 2) It practically guarantees the servicer/dealer first crack at future service business on that set, because his name is on the guarantee. 3) The protection it offers the consumer arms the servicer/dealer with an effective counterweapon against the service contracts sold by captive service organizations and large chain retailers. With the independent servicer or dealer holding the warranty on the number one cost item in TV set repair, the picture tube, the customer is not likely to see much percentage in buying a service contract elsewhere. 4) It gives the independent servicer/dealer the inside track on future new set sales. There is, of course, a good chance that many set owners will still prefer to purchase a new set a few years later, even in preference to the $69.95 replacement. In this case, the whole issue would be academic, and the servicer/dealer will at least get a shot at selling his customer a new set. Helping the Independent Extended warranties, when properly understood and used by the independent servicer/dealer, can be effective tools in helping him cope with market conditions that he cannot possibly control by himself. Manufacturers committed to the continued profitability and growth of independent consumer electronic servicers and dealers are obliged to do everything in their power to develop products and policies that assist servicers and dealers in adapting to a changing market. Sony... continued from page 19 it is not too difficult to troubleshoot. However, it is necessary to break the feedback loops. The best way to accomplish this is to troubleshoot the power supply separately using an external 19-volt supply. A bench type power supply with a capability of providing 19 volts at about 2 amperes will do the job. This supply voltage is applied between pin 16 of the PR (power regulator) Board (positive) and ground. It is then possible to trace the drive pulse from the horizontal oscillator through the PWM to the gate-cathode circuit of the GCS regulator transistor. The normal gate waveform at Q603 is a 12 microsec under these conditions, and a narrow pulse (4 microsec) indicates excessive load on the power supply, such as a shorted horizontal output stage. Before putting the set back into operation, check the drive voltage at the gate of the horizontal-output stage. An elaborate check-out procedure for this system is available from Sony if you run into a difficult problem. Selecting Amplifiers . . . continued from page 37 steps appear to be more useful in practice. The odd numbered dBm line figures are all close enough, however, for practical work. Installation Basics Perhaps the first consideration for a fixed installation is a centrally located, enclosed, clean area for the equipment—preferably a small, well-ventilated, close-size room having a locked door. In addition to space for amplifier or amplifiers, space should also be allowed for input, or program source, equipment—AM/FM tuner, tape player, phono or whatever is required for the particular installation. And, of course, the room should be provided with a sufficient number of proper 117VAC power outlets. If you contract for and survey a job in an already completed structure, you would determine how much speaker wiring is necessary, the B&S gage of wire required, whether the building code requires that it be run in rigid conduit, BX cable or whether balanced or unbalanced lines are appropriate, and then you must determine the best way to install it. In new construction, you would normally work with the construction architects during the planning phase and then farm out speaker and other necessary cabling to subcontracting electricians. All input cables, including microphone, should be shielded and made as short as possible. Servicing Considerations The straight technical aspects in servicing commercial audio equipment, whether solid-state or electron-tube type, are similar to those most technicians are already familiar with. Whether you lease or sell an installation outright will determine to some extent your servicing procedures. Since most serious breakdowns require shop work, you would normally have an amplifier replacement on hand, to provide the customer with uninterrupted service. In a leasing arrangement, you would usually include an additional charge for servicing. All of this, however, is spelled out along with other business and maintenance problems beginning on page 57 in the August 1972 issue of ELECTRONIC TECHNICIAN/DEALER. miniature soldering stations NO. 1 ANSWER FOR PRINTED CIRCUITS BY Weller® MP Series. Two models, 650°F or 750°F output, designed especially for today's printed circuit electronics. Famous closed loop control protects sensitive components from heat damage. Comfortable pencil-grip iron with non-burnable cord. Power unit operates from line-voltage with step-down transformer. ON/OFF switch and red indicator light. "Non-sinking" tool stand. Tip-cleaning sponge receptacle. Variety of available tips multiply usefulness of this versatile station. Ask your local distributor or write... Weller-Xcelite Electronics Division The Cooper Group P.O. BOX 728, APEX, NORTH CAROLINA 27502 ...for more details circle 139 on Reader Service Card READERS SERVICE INDEX ADVERTISER'S INDEX \| No. \| Company/Division \| Page \| \|-----\|----------------------------------------\|------\| \| 101 \| Bell Industries \| 51 \| \| 102 \| B & K Division Dynascan Corp. \| 35 \| \| 103 \| Book Club—Tab Books \| 20-23\| \| 104 \| Chemtronics \| 50 \| \| 105 \| Cornell \| 53 \| \| 106 \| Data Technology \| 3-4 \| \| 107 \| Eico Electronic Instruments Co. \| 45 \| \| 108 \| Elenco Electronics \| 48 \| \| 109 \| Finney Company \| 42 \| \| 110 \| Fluke \| 51 \| \| 111 \| Fordham \| 52 \| \| 112 \| GC Electronics \| 13 \| \| \| GTE Sylvania Consumer Renewal \| 29-45-47-49-51 \| \| 118 \| Heath \| 19 \| \| 119 \| International Components \| 48 \| \| 120 \| International Rectifier \| 46 \| \| 121 \| Jensen \| 52 \| \| 122 \| Kay-Townes \| 15 \| \| 123 \| Leader \| 6 \| \| 124 \| Mountain West \| 52 \| \| 125 \| NCR \| 6 \| \| 126 \| Pomona Electronics \| 39 \| \| 127 \| PTS \| Cover 2 \| \| 128 \| Quietrole \| 53 \| \| 129 \| RCA Electronic Instruments \| 38 \| \| 130 \| Rohn \| 41 \| \| 131 \| Sadelco \| 53 \| \| 132 \| Simpson \| 11 \| \| 133 \| Sprague \| 7 \| \| 134 \| Systems Electronic \| 40 \| \| 135 \| Tech Spray \| 49 \| \| 136 \| Tech Spray \| 44 \| \| 137 \| Tektronix \| 33 \| \| 138 \| Triplett \| Cover 4 \| \| 139 \| Weller Xcelite \| 54 \| \| 140 \| Weller Xcelite \| 54 \| \| 141 \| Winegard \| Cover 3 \| \| 142 \| Winegard \| 47 \| NEW PRODUCTS \| No. \| Product \| Page \| \|-----\|----------------------------------------\|------\| \| 700 \| Transistors \| 42 \| \| 701 \| VOM \| 42 \| \| 702 \| Parts Case \| 42 \| \| 703 \| Audio Adapters \| 42 \| \| 704 \| MATV/CATV Attenuator \| 43 \| \| 705 \| Contact Cleaner \| 43 \| \| 706 \| Distributor Amplifiers \| 43 \| \| 707 \| Inverter \| 43 \| \| 708 \| Oscilloscope \| 44 \| \| 709 \| CATV Drop Cable \| 44 \| \| 710 \| Portable Tester \| 44 \| \| 711 \| Telephone Answering System \| 45 \| \| 712 \| FM Antenna \| 45 \| \| 713 \| Oscilloscopes \| 45 \| \| 714 \| MATV Head Ends \| 46 \| \| 715 \| Sweep Function Generator \| 47 \| \| 716 \| VOM \| 47 \| \| 717 \| Head Demagnetizer \| 47 \| \| 718 \| Field Strength Meter \| 48 \| \| 719 \| Speaker \| 49 \| \| 720 \| Stereo Needle Lock \| 49 \| \| 721 \| Parts Rack \| 49 \| \| 722 \| Audio Cassette Tape Player \| 50 \| \| 723 \| 8-Track Cartridge Record Deck \| 51 \| NOW, FOR ANY ASSIGNMENT... 2 attaché tool cases BY Xcelite® Technicians, servicemen, field engineers: Here's the ideal combination — Xcelite professional hand tools housed in a rugged, attractive attaché case with your initials. Tools mounted in pockets on removable trays, plus generous space for test instruments, parts boxes, soldering gun and other tools. Your choice of two: Model TC-100/ST provides a larger, yet compact case containing 41 individual and 13 interchangeable tools with 3 handles, and 5 separately cased sets of drivers. Model TC-200/ST offers an economical selection of 10 individual and 28 interchangeable tools and handles for less demanding work. Ask your local distributor or write... Weller-Xcelite Electronics Division The Cooper Group ORCHARD PARK, N.Y. 14127 ...for more details circle 140 on Reader Service Card ## GENERAL ELECTRIC TV Chassis R-2 (Late Production) ### SCHEMATIC NO. \| Model \| No. \| \|----------------\|------\| \| Admiral \| 1540 \| \| Color TV Chassis M24 \| \| \| Philco-Ford \| 1542 \| \| Color TV Chassis 3CS45 \| \| \| Airline \| 1541 \| \| TV Model GAI-17025A \| \| \| Zenith \| 1543 \| \| TV Chassis 19FB12, 13 \| \| \| General Electric \| 1539 \| \| TV Chassis R-2 (Late Production) \| \| ### Waveforms - WF-1: 1.3Vp-p 60Hz - WF-2: 1.3Vp-p 15.750Hz - WF-3: 10Vp-p 15.750Hz - WF-4: 9.2Vp-p 60Hz - WF-5: 9.2Vp-p 15.750Hz - WF-6: 3.3Vp-p 60Hz - WF-7: 10Vp 60Hz - WF-8: 10Vp 60Hz - WF-9: 10Vp 60Hz - WF-10: 10Vp 60Hz ### Symbols and Descriptions \| Symbol \| Description \| Part No. \| \|--------\|------------------------------------\|----------------\| \| L100 \| coil horiz osc \| ES3X6 \| \| L110 \| coil deflection choke \| ES3X33 \| \| L120 \| deflection yoke \| ES76X7 \| \| T100 \| attenuator 47.5MHz trap \| ES3X47 \| \| T101 \| diode for sync lock off \| ES3X34 \| \| T102 \| attenuator 2 MHz \| ES3X36 \| \| T103 \| attenuator 2 MHz \| ES3X36 \| \| T110 \| attenuator audio detect \| ES3X15 \| \| T111 \| attenuator audio detect \| ES3X14 \| \| T112 \| attenuator audio detect \| ES3X14 \| \| T113 \| attenuator audio detect \| ES3X14 \| \| T114 \| attenuator audio detect \| ES3X14 \| \| T115 \| attenuator HV assembly \| ES77X13 \| \| T116 \| attenuator VHF \| ES3X63 \| \| fuse \| 75A fast blo F701 \| ES1X63 \| \| fuse \| 10A fast blo F702 \| ES1X63 \| \| fuse \| 10A fast blo F703 \| ES1X63 \| \| tuner \| VHF \| ES8EX14 \| ### Circuit Diagrams - 1ST VIF AMP - 2ND VIF AMP - 3RD VIF AMP - VIDEO DET - VIDEO AMP - VERT. DRIVE - HORIZ. OSC. - HORIZ. DRIVE - VERT. OUTPUT - H.V. RECT. --- COPYRIGHT 1974 BY ELECTRONIC TECHNICIAN/DEALER • 1 EAST FIRST STREET, DULUTH, MINNESOTA 55802 VHF TUNER 94A492-3 UHF TUNER 94A440-2 UHF TUNER 94A447-2 Schematic Notes: Unless otherwise indicated, all resistors 1/2 watt, 10%. All capacitors in microfarads. "V" values selected (510 to 680) to adjust bias on UHF or VHF tuner. VHF tuner is shown in channel 17 position. Chassis ground. No serviceable parts contained. Schematic for reference only. ELECTRONIC TECHNICIAN/DEALER TEKFX COMPLETE MANUFACTURERS' CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS AND TECHNICAL INFORMATION FOR 5 NEW SETS AUGUST • 1974 COPYRIGHT 1974 BY ELECTRONIC TECHNICIAN/DEALER * 1 EAST FIRST STREET, DULUTH, MINNESOTA 55802 OSCILLOSCOPE WAVEFORM PATTERNS These waveforms were taken with the oscilloscope AGC control adjusted for an automatic peak-to-peak output of two volts at the maximum sensitivity on an ac signal. Dots on the AGC control indicate color bar generator. All monochrome voltages, beam with discharge arc signal, and all chroma voltages, beam with a color bar signal, are shown in the following terminals. The chroma peak-to-peak voltages were taken with the chroma control set for 0.3V peak-to-peak at center tap of chroma transformer. The monochrome voltages were taken with the sync control set for 1.5V peak-to-peak. Chroma bar generator output set for -1.5 VDC at M109, all other controls set for normal viewing. The frequencies shown are: 15,750 Hz for horizontal sweep and 62.5 Hz for vertical. Monochrome AC voltages taken with a wide band scope having a 5 MHz bandwidth similar to B&K Model 1450. Line voltage 120V. PHILCO-FORD Color TV Chassis 3CS45 CENTER LANDING ADJUSTMENTS CRT COLOR TEMPERATURE ADJ. COPYRIGHT 1974 BY ELECTRONIC TECHNICIAN/DEALER • 1 EAST FIRST STREET. DULUTH. MINNESOTA 55802 Announcing the WINEGARD METRO-LINE TV-FM DISTRIBUTION AMPLIFIERS ...the first high input, high output, low-cost MATV system amplifiers for strong signal areas Winegard's new Metro-Line amplifiers are specifically engineered to accommodate strong signals and eliminate overload economically and efficiently. Because they have the same commercial quality construction and circuitry as the DA-830, DA-825B and DA-851, they are ideal for home, hotel, apartment and office building systems. Check these other important performance features: - High output capability makes a Metro-Line your best db buy - High input solves distortion and overload problems common in strong signal areas - Lightning protection diode - 82 channel models have separate VHF and UHF amplifier stages - Extended band pass (54 to 300MHz) includes mid and super band coverage making Metro-Line approved for CATV use - Eliminates multiple outlet charge for extra sets or MATV systems on cable TV - UL listed - Easy for any competent TV service dealer to install - Choose from 3 VHF-FM and 2 VHF-UHF-FM models; suggested list prices from $30.85 to $47.30 \| OUTPUT PER CHANNEL* \| DA-203 \| DA-205 \| DA-215 \| DA-803 \| DA-805 \| \|---------------------\|--------\|--------\|--------\|--------\|--------\| \| VHF \| 46dbmv NA \| 46dbmv NA \| 53dbmv NA \| 43dbmv 35dbmv \| 45dbmv 35dbmv \| \| UHF \| NA \| NA \| NA \| NA \| NA \| \| INPUT PER CHANNEL* \| DA-203 \| DA-205 \| DA-215 \| DA-803 \| DA-805 \| \|-------------------\|--------\|--------\|--------\|--------\|--------\| \| VHF \| 31dbmv NA \| 31dbmv NA \| 40dbmv NA \| 31dbmv 26dbmv \| 31dbmv 26dbmv \| \| UHF \| NA \| NA \| NA \| NA \| NA \| \| GAIN \| DA-203 \| DA-205 \| DA-215 \| DA-803 \| DA-805 \| \|------------------\|--------\|--------\|--------\|--------\|--------\| \| VHF \| 15db NA \| 15db NA \| 13db NA \| 12db 9db \| 14db 9db \| \| UHF \| NA \| NA \| NA \| NA \| NA \| \| IMPEDANCE \| DA-203 \| DA-205 \| DA-215 \| DA-803 \| DA-805 \| \|------------------\|--------\|--------\|--------\|--------\|--------\| \| \| 300 ohm \| 75 ohm \| 75 ohm \| 300 ohm \| 75 ohm \| \| Bandpass \| DA-203 \| DA-205 \| DA-215 \| DA-803 \| DA-805 \| \|------------------\|--------\|--------\|--------\|--------\|--------\| \| VHF \| 54 to 300MHz NA \| 54 to 300MHz NA \| 54 to 300MHz NA \| 54 to 300MHz 470 to 810MHz \| 54 to 300MHz 470 to 810MHz \| \| UHF \| NA \| NA \| NA \| NA \| NA \| \| NOISE FIGURE \| DA-203 \| DA-205 \| DA-215 \| DA-803 \| DA-805 \| \|------------------\|--------\|--------\|--------\|--------\|--------\| \| VHF \| 4.2db NA \| 3.3db NA \| 4.8db NA \| 4.3 db 10.0db \| 3.3db 7.3db \| \| UHF \| NA \| NA \| NA \| NA \| NA \| \| POWER REQUIREMENTS \| DA-203 \| DA-205 \| DA-215 \| DA-803 \| DA-805 \| \|--------------------\|--------\|--------\|--------\|--------\|--------\| \| \| 117VAC, 60Hz, 2.3 watts \| 117VAC, 60Hz, 2.3 watts \| 117VAC, 60Hz, 2.3 watts \| 117VAC, 60Hz, 3.5 watts \| 117VAC, 60Hz, 3.5 watts \| *7 channels VHF, 5 channels UHF 0.5% Cross Modulation For additional information and sample system layouts, request New Product Bulletin No. 24. WINEGARD TELEVISION SYSTEMS Winegard Company / 3000 Kirkwood Street Burlington, Iowa 52601 ... for more details circle 141 on Reader Service Card The easy-to-read 630 makes learning easy. The Model 630 V-O-M is priced at a thrifty $72. The rugged, general purpose Triplett Model 630 is the kind of dependable V-O-M that both teachers and students appreciate. And for the same reasons the electronic and electrical maintenance professionals do. Uncompromising accuracy. Sturdy lightweight (only 3 lbs. with batteries). Simplified single switch operation holds errors to a minimum, and diode overload protection for the meter suspension movement reduces the chance of tester damage when mistakes do occur. With long, clean scales covering 27 ranges in only four arcs, the Triplett Model 630 is remarkably easy-to-read. It’s packed with major features: 1. Diode overload-protected suspension movement V-O-M; single range switch minimizes error. 2. 4 Ohmmeter range with 4.4 ohms center scale. 3. Simplified scale—only 4 arcs for all 27 ranges. Sensitivity is 20,000 Ohms per Volt DC, 5000 Ohms per Volt AC. Accuracy is an excellent 2% on DC, and 3% on AC. Measures resistance to 100 megohms, with 6,000 Volt AC and DC capability. Handles DC microamperes 0-60, and DC milliamperes 0-120, both at 250 mV, and can read DC amperes 0-12. Rugged black molded plastic case with removable black leather carrying strap. All this for just $72. Get the same convenience and operating advantages plus 1½% DC accuracy and mirrored scale with the Triplett Model 630-A, priced at only $83. For more information or a free demonstration, call your Triplett distributor or sales representative. For the name of the representative nearest you, dial toll free (800) 645-9200, New York State, call collect (516) 294-0990. Triplett Corporation, Bluffton, Ohio 45817. Triplett. The easy readers. ... for more details circle 138 on Reader Service Card
Capital's Eyre Heads 'INR4' Network Plans by Mike McGeever The UK commercial radio industry is in the early stages of setting up a "network" of mostly syndicated music and news/information programming which will offer national advertising through local stations. Supporters say they hope the concept, dubbed 'INR4,' will help boost radio's stagnant 2% share of the advertising revenue pie. No decision has been made on whether the venture will be broadcast via satellite or terrestrially. Capital Radio MD Richard Eyre, who is spearheading the effort, says the logic behind the concept stems from the introduction of national commercial radio and its impact on the industry. "[National commercial radio] is a good thing for radio overall because it gives agencies another bite into our medium," he says. Eyre says something is needed to augment national advertising along with the three national stations, one of which is already on air, while the others are set to start up within the next few years. "I think INR1 and INR2 together will create a weekly reach which is not necessarily going to satisfy every advertiser's ambition when it comes to a national commercial medium," Eyre comments. The Capital MD says INR4 will not be an actual network, but (continues on page 29) RTL Holds Onto Ratings Lead; Europe 1 Recovers by Emmanuel Legrand The major French stations are feeling positive about the September-October 1992 Médiamétrie ratings. The total radio audience has increased slightly over last year's same period (77.3% against 77.1%), while the majors are on their way to recovery. Full-service AM net RTL remains the undisputed leader for the 11th year with an 18.7% audience cume share, despite losing 0.1 points from the second quarter and 0.8 points over the same period last year. Fellow full-service AM web Europe 1 jumped 0.5 points from the second quarter to 11.6%. EHR net NRJ also has lost listeners, but remains the leading FM network with a 9.3% share. NRJ is followed by EHR Fun Radio (5.8%), which has increased its audience on the same period last year (4.8%), but lost audience compared to April-June (6.5%). AC FM net Europe 2 has started to regain some audience (4.5% against 4.3%), and EHR Skyrock jumped to 5.5% versus 5.0%. (continues on page 29) EMI Belgium Appoints De Clippeleir New GM by Marc Moes EMI Music Belgium continues the reorganisation of its operations with the promotion of marketing manager Dirk de Clippeleir to GM. The move, effective January 1, 1993, follows the appointment of Guy Brulez as Capitol VP International in Los Angeles. The promotion is part of a recent streamlining of EMI Music's operations on the Continent (M&M, October 31) where by the French and Benelux regions now report to EMI France president Gilbert Ohayon. Commenting on his appointment, de Clippeleir, 30, says, "I would like to honour Guy Brulez for building EMI Belgium to what it has become today. I'm inheriting a well-structured company. Also, with EMI having such a big national artist roster, it is important to have a Belgian on this post." EMI's local roster (continues on page 29) Audio-Visual Products Dropped From GATT Talks US and EC representatives have tentatively agreed to omit audio-visual products from discussions in the GATT global trade negotiations. US trade representatives had threatened on November 5 to slap 200% levies on US$300 million worth of European goods, mostly agricultural products. Initially targeted for taxation, however, were CDs, prerecorded and blank audio tapes and master tapes. Despite the headlines over the recent complications over (continues on page 29) Eastern Europe SPECIAL See page 14 No. 1 in EUROPE European Hit Radio TASMIN ARCHER Sleeping Satellite (EMI) Eurochart Hot 100 BOYZ II MEN End Of The Road (Motown) European Top 100 Albums ABBA Gold - Greatest Hits (Polar) HOT GERMAN TALENT!!! See page 9. love v. 1. adore, adulate, be attached to, be in love with, cherish, dote on, have affection for, hold dear, idolize, prize, think the world of.... LIONEL RICHIE 'Love, Oh Love' THE NEW SINGLE FROM THE MULTI PLATINUM ALBUM Back To Front GIVE MORE LOVE THIS CHRISTMAS Major Changes Expected In Munich Private Radio by Miranda Watson Germany Big changes in Munich's private radio scene are planned for next year. At a meeting of the Bavarian Media Authority BLM two weeks ago to decide the future of Munich's private radio, it was proposed to have six frequencies instead of the current five and to set up a broadcasting centre with four out of the five existing private radio stations. The BLM meeting was called to discuss the reallocation of licences for the city's five private stations: Radio Gong 2000, Chirvari Radio, Radio Xanadu, Radio Arabella (together with Jazz-Welle Plus) and 89 Hit FM, which all expire this year. The licences could be reissued for a period of up to eight years, but the BLM has chosen to extend them for just one year. Some in the Munich radio world claim that this is a deliberate ploy by the BLM to make decisions going along with the reforms. BLM says the advantage of having a sixth frequency is that Radio Arabella, which currently hands over its evening airtime to Jazz-Welle Plus, will be able to broadcast 24 hours a day on its own frequency and Jazz-Welle Plus will get more airtime. The new frequency is planned as being 105.2 UHF, which can be received throughout Munich. BLM has also approved the testing of two additional programmes: Radio Feierwerk and Radio Lora. For lack of a frequency, the stations have been engaged in "telephone radio" for the past seven years. They will be granted a full licence in one year's time; a seventh frequency is then expected to be established to accommodate them, according to a spokesperson for BLM. The main reform planned though is the formation of a kind of "super station," a broadcasting centre for Arabella, Gong 2000, Chirvari and Xanadu. The grouping of these four stations will bring together some of the biggest commercial media companies in the Munich area, namely the Munich daily papers, Gong Publishing, the Holzbrennink concern, the Nuremberg telephone book publishers, Bavarian radio investor Gunther Osehmann and film trader Herbert Kloiber. BLM says that the grouping of the broadcasters will save money as well as increase the efficiency of the stations. All technical operations will be combined within the centre, while each of the four stations will continue to operate independently. This would leave just two stations over: 89 Hit FM and Jazz-Welle Plus. To avoid these stations being squeezed out by the new radio sales house, the BLM says it plans to market all six stations together. Chirvari Radio MD Heinrich Wiedemann says his station is not happy with BLM's decision to extend the private radio licences only for one year. "How can we feel secure with a licence for just one year?" he asks. "I think the BLM should hurry up and issue eight-year licences as soon as possible." Wiedemann, however, supports the idea of a broadcasting centre. "We think it is necessary here in Munich on a programming, economic and marketing level," he says. "It will help all the stations concerned to save money and become more cost efficient, increase audience reach and produce more sharply formatted radio." Wiedemann says he thinks the proposal should be implemented as soon as possible. The proposed reforms do not meet the approval of all the stations concerned, however. Radio Xanadu MD Benny Schnier says the changes would be disastrous for the Munich market. "Six frequencies here in Munich would be a catastrophe," he predicts. "Another frequency would mean a smaller market and would put pressure on us all." Schnier says he is not too keen on the idea of the broadcasting centre either. "The BLM likes the idea of grouping all the local frequencies together under one roof, so they can control things more easily," he says. "I don't like the idea of this: One marketing company handling the marketing for all five stations for instance. Also, this proposal has not been made very clear yet, so I can't form more of an opinion." The next shake-up in the Bavarian radio world will be in the local radio sector, where a decision is to be made shortly about the Antenne Bayern situation and whether local and regional stations should get a share of its profits. Chrysalis Taps Lewis To Rebuild Music Unit by Mike McGeever UK Virgin Music veteran Steve Lewis has been appointed worldwide MD and CEO of a new music division created by the Chrysalis Group. The new operation will encompass a new record company, as yet unnamed, which will begin trading next year. It will also include all of Chrysalis Music's publishing activities in Europe and North America, and Chrysalis' interest in the Hit label, the Speaking Book Company, Air Edel Associates and Wessex Studios. Lewis will have an equal stake in the new company and will also retain his current investment in the Touchwood label. He has been named to the Chrysalis Group board of directors, and will take up his new position on January 4, 1993. The heads of all companies within the newly formed music division will report to Lewis, who in turn will report directly to Chrysalis Group chairman Chris Wright. The new division will be based at Chrysalis' headquarters in London. Commenting on his appointment, Lewis says, "I hope to build a record company which is both innovative and exciting, but has at the heart of its philosophy certain timeless values; in particular we will be taking a long-term view of artists careers. "Chris and I believe there is a gap in the market for an independent label with this attitude, and we will be making both the emotional and financial commitment to make it work." Wright adds: "It was always my intention to rebuild Chrysalis Group's recording interests on the solid foundation of our music publishing and related activities. There is nothing I enjoy more than being in the record business. I want the buzz of finding an artist, making a record and seeing that career develop." Wright sold the remaining 50% stake in Chrysalis Records to Thorn EMI last year for US$62 million, including assumption of debt (M&M, November 30). Lewis and Wright say they hope to have a core roster of six to 12 artists within a year, with the first release next spring. They will sign a wide spectrum of acts, rather than focus on any one genre. Wright says the company will "search for talent on a worldwide basis." Lewis, one of the industry's most prominent figures, takes up his new job after 20 years with Virgin, where he was deputy MD of Virgin Records for five years. He was instrumental in launching acts such as Phil Collins, Culture Club, Mike Oldfield and Simple Minds. Europe At A Glance Holland: Harding's Radio 538 Starts Testing EHR-formatted Radio 538, the newest venture of ex-Radio Veronica director Lex Harding, began test broadcasting its programmes over Sky's EHR Hit Radio in mid-November. In a deal with Sky, Radio 538 will acquire some three million Hit Radio cable connections and Hit Radio will go off the air when 538 is awarded its cable licence. The station applied for the licence in early November and hopes to go on air officially in December. Marlene Edmunds Holland: Retail Chain Creates Strong Import Muscle Dutch retail organisation Rotonde Holdings—100% owned by entertainment company Face Holdings (parent company of CNR Records)—has teamed up with Holland's leading record importer Rigu Sound to create one of the country's largest record music wholesaler. The combined company is claimed to have a total retail turnover of about Dfl 120 million (app. US$67 million) in 1992, representing more than 10% of the Dutch market. The merger is bad news for the Dutch record industry, already plagued by increasing parallel imports. MB Norway: In Advance Launches First Label Oslo ad agency In Advance has launched a new record company called In Advance Entertainment. Former PolyGram and Grammofon A/S Electra A&R veteran Jon Erik Versen will also work with the company. The label's first signing is UK rockers The Fugitives, who will release their debut album Fugitivity on November 25. Kai Roger Ottesen Italy: RAI Orders L100b In Cutbacks Cut of L100 billion (app. US$73 million) to be made at pubcaster RAI next year will affect its radio stations, as well as TV channels. RAI director general Gianni Pasquarelli says programme production funds at regional stations must now be ploughed into news in an attempt to cut costs and improve its regional news service. David Stansfield Sweden: Local, National Radio Nets To Merge In addition to programming changes at radio networks P3 and P4 (M&M November 21), on January 1, 1993 pubcaster Sveriges Radio will merge sister companies Sveriges Riksradio (the Swedish national radio company) and Sveriges Local Radio (the local radio operations). Reason: to improve programme quality and cut costs. Some 100 jobs will be lost. Kari Helopaltio UK: Capital Radio Pre-Tax Profits Fall £1m Pre-tax profits for Capital Radio slipped 9% to £8.8 million (app. US$5.9 million) for the fiscal year ended September 30, 1992. Turnover at the company, which operates an EHR and a gold service in London, was virtually unchanged at £32.29 million versus £32.54 million last year. Capital Radio stock fell three pence on the announcement. Mike Mc Geever Music For Therapy — Bon Jovi donated £1.00 from each ticket sold for their Astoria gig to the Nordhoff Robbins Music Therapy charity, and at the end were able to present a cheque for £1,100 to the charity. Pictured [lr] are: Nordhoff Robbins appeals organiser Audrey Balfour, NR chairman Andrew Miller, artists Tico Torres, Richie Sambora, Jon Bon Jovi, David Bryan, Alec Jon Such and Phonogram MD David Clipsham. Silvestri To Head New CGD International Department by David Stansfield ITALY CGD, the Warner-owned record company with a roster of over 20 domestic acts and artists, has set up a new international department to be headed by former A&R director Tino Silvestri. He is being joined by CGD licensing manager Alda Dury and another staffer yet to be appointed. Fabrizio Giannini, ex-head of A&R for domestic talent at WEA, has taken over as CGD A&R director. Silvestri says the special department was necessary. "If you only have one artist who releases an album every couple of years there's not too much to do," he says. "But when you have four or five achieving international success you need people and time to work on them." "We also have ambitious projects for rock band Litfiba, plus artists Enrico Ruggeri and Vinicio Capossella," he adds. He says a different approach is needed to develop Italian repertoire in other countries. "It's not the same as UK product, which is easier to understand," he says. "Our partners in other territories don't just need new releases. They have their own acts and artists, so they need somebody from CGD to be there to explain the whole project to them." Silvestri says he feels well suited to this new globetrotting role. "I've been running the CGD A&R department for the last nine years, so I know its repertoire very well," he says. "I also have five years of experience in international marketing and have built up a lot of contacts." He stresses that it's not just the company's current artists roster that is important either. "CGD is a bit different to other firms," he comments. "We have a catalogue of over 3,000 titles and have requests from territories like South Africa or Japan to re-compile albums by artists such as Gianni Bella or Missimo Ranieri. We're not just exploiting one or two artists on a few markets. Through the administration of the CGD catalogue we are doing business in 42 countries." Silvestri lists CGD artists Umberto Tozzi and Paolo Conte as two who have already achieved crossover success. For the first time in 10 years major artist Adriano Celentano has made himself available to promote his new album on the European market, he says, and the artist Raf will be a major 1993 priority in 10 countries including the US. Jazz Festival Draws Media Attention by Anna Marie de la Fuente SPAIN The month-long XIII Jazz Festival in Madrid, from October 25 to November 26, is receiving unprecedented media coverage this year. Private EHR net Cadena 100 has a station on site to broadcast live concerts, while TV pubcaster TVE aired six of the 30 concerts, offering free spots in exchange for broadcasting rights. El Mundo newspaper also signed a barter deal, whereby its logo figured in all promotional material and TV ad spots in exchange for ad space coverage. Says Enrique Calabuig, MD of the festival's private promoter, CP, "This is strictly a private investment effort, and it's been the most daring and most extensive festival ever. As important as Montreux." Cadena 100 associate PD Carlos Finlay says the concerts were aired during the network's optional local time slot of 21:00-22:00, where each station chooses to broadcast its own local programmes. He adds that the festival had been very well received by the public, although, apart from the Miles Davis Tribute Concert and the Duke Ellington Orchestra, the more commercial acts had been most popular. The festival includes veteran artists Etta James and the Roots band, B.B. King, Nina Simone, George Coleman Quartet, Kenny Garret Sextet, Delfeayo Marsalis and bands Manhattan Transfer, Blood, Sweat and Tears and Emerson, Lake and Palmer. The latter part of the festival featured new age artists Michael Nyman, Wim Mertens and John Cale among others as well as jazz-rock alternatives such as Romy Jordan. Referring to future plans for artist line-ups, Calabuig commented, "We hope to include some African acts next year." Radio Awaits 6th Diamond Awards by Marc Maes BELGIUM The Diamond Awards resume on November 26-28 in Antwerp after a one-year sabbatical. Originally conceived as a one-week multi-media event with live concerts, TV recordings, award ceremonies, interview sessions and industry seminars, the event has now slimmed down to three days of concerts and appearances in the city's Sportpaleis. This year's sixth edition (organised by City 7) features a 'Las Vegas' night with live appearances by the Four Tops, Donna Summer and Barry White; a Diamond Awards TV show on November 27, with artists such as London Beat, the Christians, Bananarama, Beckie Bell and Belgians The Dinky Toys, Blue Blot and Mama's Jasje. A live November 28 50s-60s show will also be featured, with headliners Little Richard, Chuck Berry and Jerry Lee Lewis, as well as Bobby Vee, Lloyd Price and Little Eva. The three days will be recorded by pubcaster BRTN TV for later broadcast purposes. Both the BRTN's Radio Donna and Radio 21 (French-language RTBF) will be supporting the festival. The November 28 show will be hosted by BRTN radio personality Guy Depré, while Radio Donna producer Mark Pinte adds that the station will have three days of live broadcasts, interviews and spotlights on the performing artists. Tarsem Attends Launch Of New Video Encyclopedia by Kari Helopaltio FINLAND Some 30,000 to 40,000 music videos have been released worldwide, according to a newly released encyclopedia of music video "Saksoiset Unet" (Electric Dreams). Special guest at the launch of the book, held at Finnish publishing house VAPK Kustannus, was Indian-born video and film director Tarsem, 32, best known for his MTV-award-winning video for Losing My Religion by R.E.M., and the much acclaimed Levi's "The Swimmer" TV ad. Tarsem addressed some 400 journalists and record and video business personnel at a new press conference, and gave interviews for local radio, TV and press. "I don't believe in making notes and sketches," he commented on his method of working, "because once I get to work things change fast and what I see and feel becomes the main factor." The 350-page encyclopedia, is hailed as the next authoritative reference book since "The Rolling Stone Book of Music Video" by Michael Shore. And, at US$35, comes complete with a 45-minute video cassette featuring video excerpts and an interview with Tarsem. EMI Absorbs Publishing Arm Editions Virgin Musique by Emmanuel Legrand FRANCE The effects of the EMI acquisition of Virgin are beginning to show, and the Virgin publishing arm Editions Virgin Musique has been folded into EMI's. Editions Virgin Musique has been one of the most active publishing companies in France, with a strong local catalogue which includes Negress Vertes, Rita Mitsouko, Khaled, Mano Negra, Liane Foly and Martin Dibangay, developed under the management of Emmanuel de Buretel, who is now president of Virgin Records France. Comments EMI Music Publishing president Olivier Huret, "The two companies are going to remain separate from a legal and artistic point of view, each with a specific team; but we are merging the management and administrative departments. The Virgin computer system will soon be transferred to EMI's." For the moment, both systems operate in parallel. Huret maintains that with the combined catalogues, EMI-Virgin, "Offers one of the best choices in the market. Virgin Music had a relatively small national and international catalogue, but most of its 25,000 copyrights are active, as most of their signings are recent. The two catalogues are complementary." The new combined structure will have a turnover of Frf180 million (app. US$33 million), says Huret, close to that of the leading company Warner/Chappell, and will employ 23 people. Huret estimates that with the two catalogues, EMI-Virgin will publish around 30% of the singles and the albums charted in France. "That's 15% to 20% more than any of our competitors," comments Huret. He says that three out of the 10 Virgin Music staffers will remain in the new structure. Marc Thonon, who was Virgin Music A&R director and responsible for daily decisions, moved to Barclay. Staying within EMI are Elena Norbedo (A&R) and Elisabeth Cornaton, who will be in charge of the financial and copyright checking departments for both catalogues. Huret has hired Fabrice Benoit, who previously worked for subscription channel Canal Plus, to be in charge of the Virgin local catalogue. Meanwhile, Virgin Sound, the department specialised in music soundtracks, has been folded. Instead, he says he is going to put more emphasis on a synchronized department developing both catalogues. Huret says that his priority for the moment is "to meet with all the artists signed to the Virgin catalogue, explain what we are planning, and answer all their questions. If problems arise, we'll try to solve them. Even if there is a change in management, the contracts remain. It's a fact that has to be taken into account. I knew it was not easy to work with artists having signed, but I think we have strong elements that can interest them. I am not ashamed of the work we have been doing at EMI these past years. It's up to me to convince the artists and build a relationship with them. Besides, the Virgin artists have a lot of international potential and EMI can bring them an international network that Virgin didn't have." For the future, Huret says he plans to have "an active policy of signing French acts and developing a local catalogue. Our turnover is currently 80% of international origin. My ambition is to get a better balance between the local and international catalogue." CONGRATULATIONS TO COCKER — Joe Cocker, who has just released his Best Of album, was recently presented with a platinum disc by EMI Germany for sales of over 500,000 copies of his previous album "Night Calls." Pictured (l-r) are: EMI Germany divisional MD Erwin Bach, Cocker and EMI Electrola President Helmut Fest. Neigel Is First Act On Rooster Roster by Miranda Watson GERMANY The recently launched Red Rooster Records, formed by BMG and Peter Maffay, has signed its first artist—female rock/pop artist Jule Neigel. Franz von Auersperg left BMG Ariola/Hamburg in June to become MD of the label. Red Rooster now holds the worldwide rights to Neigel, who is to release six albums with the company under her new contract. Comments Auersperg, "It's very exciting for us to have signed Neigel against major competition. I think she decided to sign with us because she feels at home here and we have a real understanding of what she wants." Rooster will handle production, A&R, marketing and promotion for Neigel, while BMG Munich will take care of distribution. Neigel, previously with Intercord, first shot to fame four years ago with the single Schatten An Der Wand. She has since released three albums, all of which have sold between 150,000 and 200,000 copies. She is still contractually obliged to release one more album with Intercord, due out early 1993. Auersperg says he expects Neigel to release her first album on the Red Rooster label by the end of 1993 or early 1994. Red Rooster also confirms that rock legends Deep Purple will be recording their new album at the Red Rooster studios in Tutzing, near Munich. Clouseau Announces Club Tour In Germany by Marc Maes BELGIUM Following successful concerts as opener for Roxette's German dates in cities such as Berlin, Bielefeld, Stuttgart and Dortmund, Belgian band Clouseau is now taking its music to the clubs. As from November 22, the band will visit smaller venues in Cologne, Hamburg, Berlin, Beeliefeld, Erlangen and Frankfurt. The shows will be promoted by concert promoters Mama Concerts & Rau. Says EMI international manager Benelux repertoire Danny Friedrichs, "The English language Close Encounters single entered the Top 20 in Germany and both Anna and Love achieved good air play. We think the band has established a firm basis for a future in Germany." Friedrichs adds that EMI has released a new version of Nathalie, plus "official live bootleg" versions from other Close Encounters album titles, recorded live during the Roxette "Joyride" tour in Berlin and Budapest. Newsmakers UK: Ronald Guerts has been appointed marketing director of Sony Classical, reporting to Elmar Lindmann in Hamburg. UK: Virgin Records UK commercial director Charlie Diamond replaces International MD Jon Webster, who is leaving to pursue a freelance career. Meanwhile, Thorn EMI has confirmed that Simon Draper, chairman of the Virgin Music Group, is leaving in the near future. SPAIN: Rafael Jimenez de Parga, Manuel Martin Ferrand and Javier Gimeno have been dropped from the board of Radio de Galicia, owned 50% by Antena 3, following Antena 3's administrative board changes. They have been replaced on the board by Juan Maria Sainz Munoz, Alfonso Cavalle Sese and Carlos Godo Valls, who become MD, assistant director general and councillor/board member respectively. Profile Since 1987, when the Greek government allowed private stations to operate, 62 local stations have been launched in Athens alone. This proliferation has caused problems, according to Elias Xynopoulos programme director at Athens-based commercial station Antenna 97.1 FM Stereo. "Anyone can own a radio station now, but many don't follow the rules of the market," he comments. "We are forced to be very commercial and competitive and that's not good for radio. Many of the small stations will close down within the next three years." With a national audience share of 19.5%, Antenna 97.1 FM Stereo is Greece's second most listened-to station. It captured around 30% of the national advertising market, which equals the share enjoyed by the country's lead station Sky 100.4 FM Stereo, according to Xynopoulos. Antenna 97.1 FM Stereo programmes news and information in its morning slot from 07.00-14.00. From then on there is music, with Greek artists accounting for 75% of the playlist and international product 25%. The station has changed its format since it launched in May 1987. "We originally targeted a young audience with music programmes dominated by international talent," says Xynopoulos. "Our ratings were slipping and we were forced to change our policies. Our main target is now 25 to 54 year-olds." The station's main competitor, Sky 100.4 FM Stereo, couldn't own a second network reaching more than 15 million potential listeners. That is why CLT was blocked in the expansion of the Maximum network. The SRGP pleaded for a measure which would allow any group to own directly up to 100% of two national networks and an unlimited number of minority partnerships. The government has chosen the system of a maximum potential reach of 100 million inhabitants by the total number of stations in each group. Other positive aspects of this law include the simplified bidding methods for frequencies and the fact that the CSA will publish the map of available frequencies for the region concerned before the call-for-offer. We also view positively the fact that the CSA will take into account the economic viability of bidders before granting a frequency licence. In other words, if 10 potential frequencies are available in one city, the CSA might just grant five, or six stations if it believes the market can sustain no more than this number of stations. M&M: Will your arrival at SRGP mean a change in policy? RS: Not at all. I will continue to implement the strategy decided by the three members of the group, detailed in the white paper we presented last year to the CSA. Our main concern was advertising and subscription. Radio France. Now that this fight has been won, our priorities include the new communications law—which we wholly support—and Europe. I would really like give more strength to the newly-formed European Radio Association. M&M: What are, in your view, the positive changes announced in the new communication law? RS: First of all, the modification of the anti-concentration ceiling. Until now, a national broadcaster programmes an all-news format, as news is very important in Greece says Xynopoulos. "We've increased our own commitment to news without losing faith with our listeners. We've retained music and when the world is a quieter place once more we'll go back to programming even more." Antenna 97.1 buys in the UK programme Rock Over London and Capital Radio's "Rock Chart." It aired the "Freddy Mercury Memorial Concert" and Elton John's recent Wembley gig and backed up both events with a week dedicated to each act and artist. Xynopoulos admits that unexpected problems can arise with scheduled concerts. "We had some great things to do with Michael Jackson, but his concert in the Olympic Stadium Athens was cancelled." The station programmes most international music on the weekends when young people are not at school. But Greek music is also becoming increasingly popular with a younger audience, a trend which surprises Xynopoulos. "That's why we decided to playlist more," he explains. "The bulk of our listeners may be between 25 and 54 but we are not about to forget kids when it comes to music." Xynopoulos, 38, worked at Greece's pubcaster station ERA as soon as he left college. He later spent short spells at the BBC and stations in the US, and joined Antenna 97.1 as a DJ when it launched in 1987. He was later promoted to programme director. David Stansfield Programmer Of The Week Elias Xynopoulos PD Antenna 97.1 FM Greece Interview M&M: Is there really a solidarity between the three members of the SRGP on this issue? RMC was less than happy to see the other two going South and compete with its programme! RS: There is a solidarity on the basic principal of reciprocity. For example we have agreed that RMC could have a frequency in Paris. RMC can apply for frequencies in all the northern cities and neither RTL nor Europe 1 is opposed to that. Meanwhile, RMC accepts that we can apply for frequencies in the South. There is a strong tradition of competition between our stations. The SRGP was never created to kill or slow down the competition between its members. It was created to fight for common interests to all these stations. M&M: Are you asking the CSA for a priority treatment for historical reasons, as you have been operating already for years in France? RS: Absolutely not. We don't consider that our historical background give us the right to any privilege. On the other hand, we are tired of hearing that for some historical reason to do with the areas covered by our AM transmitters, RTL, and Europe 1 should be confined to the North of France and RMC to the South. We think we should be allowed to have frequencies anywhere. M&M: Do you think that CSA handles the radio situation correctly? RS: I think that there is a real progress. All the different regulation bodies France has had over these past ten years have done a lot of work and a lot of things have been improved. The CNCL, before the CSA, set up the first rules under which frequencies were granted. The CSA took this over and added new elements such as the CTRs, the bodies ruling airwaves at a local level, and Communiqué 34. However, this is not enough and I think that the CSA is conscious of it. The CSA has adopted a policy working with radio which is different from its policy with television in the sense that it has tried to be a real regulatory body. Each time it has had room for action, it has used it to set rules without waiting for approval from the government. I still believe that the CSA gives far too many authorisations and is too lenient in controlling stations once the authorisation is granted. Emmanuel Legrand After 2.5 million album sales in the UK, the first single from their forthcoming album, produced by Steve Osborne and Paul Oakenfold. Marketing The Music Nena Takes European Market Step By Step Translations of continental European hits into English can turn local heroes into world stars. And then...? Does that mean that an artist should completely switch to English-language repertoire, simply because it worked once? German singer Nena, who struck it big worldwide with 99 Red Balloons (99 Luft Ballons), has chosen the "Zucchero way." On her new album "Bongo Girl" she recorded three tracks in English for the international market and the rest is in German for the domestic market. Once Sony Music has re-established her first at home, crossborder exploitation is next. by Robbert Tilli GERMANY Cashing in on international success by recording an album completely in English is nonsense in the eyes of Bernd Reisig, Nena's manager. "Don't forget she had her greatest success with German songs." He points out that band, management and record company Sony Music Germany take it step by step. The new album Bongo Girl was pre-tested in September with a typical "German Nena" power pop single Manchmal Ist Ein Tag. According to Sony Music Germany product manager Klaus Pomykaj the first step of the campaign—bringing Nena back to her original fans in the GSA—worked out fine. "We felt that would be the best start for the album. We secured many TV shows, and it also became a radio hit. To a lesser extent it was a sales hit too." Further radio spots and billboards across the republic were used to focus the people's attention on Nena's comeback after her maternity leave. The controversial cover photo on the October issue of the German edition of Max magazine, showing a body painting of Nena, was also vital in this respect. Phase two of the campaign looks over the borders of the German speaking countries with the international release of the album—out in the GSA territories from September 28. Adds Reisig, "It is out in the Benelux already, while we're waiting for release commitments from France, Greece, Spain, Hungary, Portugal and Japan." Around the new year phase three comes in action with the international release of Conversation, the second single (out in Germany on December 1), meant to break the European borders. Nena will sing the English language song—almost a tropical version of the Everly Brothers classic Love Of The Common People best-known in Paul Young's rendition—in a special Eurovision broadcast 1 Europe, to celebrate the "united states of Europe" in 1993. A clip for the single has been filmed in Barbados, where the album was mixed as well in Eddie Grant's Blue Wave studio. Programmers who want to stick to original Nena should try the pop tune Mach Dir Keine Sorgen with one of the best choruses of the year. Those who want to air another English song should check out You Don't Have To Cry, a duet with the writer of this reggae song, Jonny Pazzo. Another good option is the title track with its tribal overtones and heavy percussion. Nena's return to the front will be backed up by touring, starting with the GSA and Japan in February and March. Concludes Reisig, "An expansion of the tour to more European countries depends on the reaction on the singles." SHORT TAKES - A bold statement by a bald head. Former Hot Chocolate frontman Errol Brown's solo debut Secret Rendezvous is now out on East West. - EMI has released a Strangers four CD-box set, entitled The Old Testament (The United Artists Recordings 1977-1982), containing songs out of their punk days leading to the first period of their next, the more poppy period—roughly from No More Heroes to Golden Brown. - After last year's re-release of Phil Spector's Christmas Album, more soulful songs from the rich '60s were to be expected to be scraped from the shelves. What about Motown's 20 Christmas Classics, featuring Diana Ross, Smokey Robinson and Michael Jackson. - Special Warning! Watch out for your head when the new Jean-Jacques Goldman live album Sur Scène is thrown on your desks. Just for your personal protection, it is packed in a steel case... - The German Metronome label has won the bidding war for the European rights (excluding Scandinavia) on Mega Records pop reggae act Ace Of Base from Sweden—recently spotlighted in M&M's MTM, for occupying the first two slots in the Danish singles chart. - For some joke box history help yourself to the The Singles Collection 1974-1979) by teeny boppers the Rubettes, who still exist and who have a brand new album out as grown ups, called Riding On A Rainbow (Arts). Conte Contemporises Jazz ITALY One of the iron rules in music is: the higher the artistic level of a work, the lower the ranking in the charts. The Italian singing lawyer Paolo Conte is the exception that proves the rule. Mass and snob appeal go hand in hand. On the one hand he manages to reach the people in the streets with predominantly jazz-tinged music, which is a miracle in itself. On the other hand as a lyricist he enjoys the recognition of the literary fraternity. Last year he won the prestigious Montale prize for poetry in pop music, named after the one time Nobel prize winner, and at the Sorbonne University in Paris. Conte is regarded as an important modern poet. Find out for yourself; the lyrics of the new album 900 are printed in various translations—English, French, Spanish, German and Dutch. In 1988 the man with the dark gravelly voice definitively broke through outside his native Italy with the single Max, a song which presented Conte's art in a nutshell. Cabaret, Brecht/Weill, and pre-war jazz, those are the main ingredients Conte "contemporised." By doing so extensively he found himself a very stable market for his "Euro jazz," especially in France, Germany and Holland. His music works very well in the plush surroundings of the theatres, and so the new album will be promoted with a lengthy European tour. You don't have to be a jazz programmer to play a Conte composition. EHR and AC shouldn't miss out on some tracks. The hidden dixieland of Gong-Oh—the European single—is an instantly hummable tune. Ragtime pops up on the track Brillantina Bengalese, while Novecento could be a delayed 3.30-minute soundtrack to the Bertolucci seven-hour motion picture. The elegantly stepping jazzy track Il Treno Ya is so light that, if aired, it will lift the programmer into the air as well. - Signed to CGD. - Publisher: Sugarmusic/L'Alternativa. - Manager/producer: R. Fantini/ Bologna. - New album: 900 released across Europe through Warner Music on October 30. It is at number 6 in the Musica E Dischi chart and at number 9 in the Rai Stereodue list; in the European Top 100 Albums it is at number 68. - Recorded at Studiottanta Fortuna/Calamino Monferrato. - Marketing: TV spots are run on the Bertelsmann-owned networks. - The next half year Conte will be on a European concert tour, performing live in Italy, Germany, Austria, Holland, Belgium and France. Go West Back In Shape UK Out of sight, out of mind. Does this expression apply to Go West? Not so, the blue-eyed soul duo in a Hall & Oates vein may have been lost for quite a while, but suddenly they're to be found back in shape in the upper regions of the UK singles chart with the gospel-styled song Faithful, featuring the late Toto drummer Jeff Porcaro. As album artists the absence took some five years, while their last single hit was registered two years ago. That was The King Of Wishful Thinking, recorded for the Pretty Woman soundtrack, and now included on the new album Indian Summer. That title underlines the fact that the two believe in a second chance. Now the success of the days of We Close Our Eyes has somewhat died away, they take another bite of the cherry. One reason for their longtime absence is that Richard Drumnie and Peter Cox are perfectionists who spend a lifetime in the studio, just like another duo—Steeleye Dan—in the past did. Admits manager John Glover, "These guys work slowly. They wrote 43 songs, of which they only recorded 13 for the album. The timing is we all only like an album as long as we've got the idea that it is really finished. Another reason for the long wait is that the recording sessions had to be interrupted because of a seven-month promotion for the Pretty Woman single in the US." The album, produced partly by their former A&R man Ron Fair, is a gold mine from a publishers point of view. You can imagine the likes of Freddie Jackson and Luther Vandross queuing up for soulful ballads like Tell Me, The Sun And The Moon and What You Won't Do Four Love, the next single to be released in January. Glover acknowledges that the two songwriters are very much in demand, "Since the album is available, I get lots of phone calls. Although we can shop around with a lot of songs now, promotion for the album comes first." - Signed to Chrysalis. - Publisher: Dodgy/EMI Music. - Management: Blueprint/London. - New album: Indian Summer released on November 2. - New single: Faithful released on October 5; it peaked at number 12 in the UK, and is still holding at number 78 in the Eurochart. - Recorded at various studios in LA. - Producer: Peter Wolf/Ron Fair/Go West/Jon Sass/Donnell Sullivan. - Marketing: TV ads in the UK. - In mid February Go West, enlarged to a 10-piece band, goes on a European tour. Marketing The Music: Artists featured have achieved Top 15 chart status in their country of origin. The Sony UX-S Talent Award 1992 was launched this year under the motto "Don't judge, discover!" with the aim of supporting young talent in Germany and helping new acts enter the music industry. The awards are supported by Sony's Recording Media Group, Fachblatt Musik Magazin, Sony Music, Kick Musikverlag, Electrola, Maarweg Studios and POPKOMM. Eight bands were chosen this year for their originality, character, musical and technical ability—At The Movies from Frankfurt, No Harms from Berlin, Rude Poets from Cologne, Suckspeed from Hannover, Tech Ahead from Aindling and Eric "IG" Gray and Die Sterne from Hamburg. The winning bands have all received DM 4,000, free use of the Maarweg studios in Cologne and a free 24-track digital recording. In addition, the bands have also been set up with contacts in record companies, publishers and agencies, given support gigs on major tours and also marketing and promotion support. The bands are still free for signing, however—Rude Poets and At The Movies are totally free, Tech Ahead, Suckspeed and No Harms have all released records but are looking for a major deal, as are Die Sterne and Eric "IQ" Gray, which have both released records on the independent scene. SINGLES THE BLACK CROWES Hotel Illness - Del American R/EHR PRODUCER: George Drakoulias More music as we haven't heard it played much of late. The fourth single from the Crowes' second effort features more R&B riffing that will have you grooving before you can say Keith Richards. CHARM I Love Music - Atlantic D/EHR PRODUCER: P. Ranzone/B. Fisher/G. Sicard This hip house is built according to C&C Music Factory blueprints. Male raps and female choruses are sometimes interrupted by an "Ooh Ooh" quote from '70s disco hit Get Off by Foxy. COUNT BASIC Jazz In The House - Spray/BMG D/EHR PRODUCER: Peter Legat Kathy Simpson's expressive vocals cascade effortlessly over excellent spacey keyboards with a groove to burn yer Reeboks out. Peter Legat's accomplished guitar flashes in and out, but only the guitar remix does justice to his skills. DEACON BLUE Your Town - Columbia EHR/D PRODUCER: Paul Oakenfold/Steve Osborne Visage? Or maybe New Order? Wrong. You won't recognize the fragile Glaswegian pop band—the 12" dance remix under the initials DB is beyond belief. Comments Red Dragon/Cardiff music librarian Jonathan Payne, "I like both Paul Oakenfold and Deacon Blue. The combination is absolutely brilliant. They still manage to catch the song." JASON DONOVAN As Time Goes By - Polydor AC/EHR PRODUCER: Paul Staveley O'Duffy Jason croons his way through this Casablanca classic accompanied by swish orchestral backing. Not quite Sinatra, but a fair attempt by the versatile Mr. Donovan. FISH Hold Your Head Up - Polydor R/EHR PRODUCER: James Cassidy The first single from his covers album, Songs From The Mirror, due for release on January 25, is an almost identical remake of the 1972 Argent classic. BRIAN MAY Back To The Light - Parlophone R/EHR PRODUCER: Brian May/Justin Shirley-Smith Her Majesty's most prolific guitarist sees the light at the end of tunnel by plugging in his electric guitar again for a blistering rocker coupled with the re-released Star Fleet sessions, the 1983 collectors item. DONEL RUSH Symphony - ID/Sony Music D/EHR PRODUCER: Steve "Silk" Hurley Rush, last seen on this page with Body 2 Body's Let's Get Intimate, serves up another cool, sweet vocal dish. The Brand New Heavyies remix is spot on, injecting enough of that easy jazziness to grab airplay. SIMPLY RED Montreux EP - East West AC PRODUCER: Stewart Levine This moody live EP recorded at this year's edition of the Montreux Jazz Festival proves that Mick Hucknall's own composition (Lady Godiva's Room) easily holds its own among classics such as Bill Withers's Gramma's Hands and Cole Porter's Love For Sale. SONIC YOUTH Youth Against Fascism - Geffen A/R/EHR PRODUCER: Butch Vig/Sonic Youth The most direct declaration of war against all mindless swastika slaves. Read again the "Labels Up Against Fascism" front cover story in M&M, November 14. THERAPY? Teethgrinder - A&M PRODUCER: Horvey Birrell A mouth piece is required for this one. It's a deadly left hook, something like Killing Joke getting a "metallic k.o." ALBUMS GOLDEN EARRING The Naked Truth - Columbia R/A/C/EHR PRODUCER: John Sowdenne/Golden Earring Should the rock fraternity ever have to face a long power cut, it should be now with all these "unplugged" sessions. The reason this Dutch band is so good in playing acoustically is probably that they were already on the scene before Edison invented electricity. Stripped to the bone, their 1973 world hit Radar Love still has balls. K-CREATIVE Q.E.D. - Talkin' Loud - D/EHR PRODUCER: K-Creative It's been puzzling why more Talkin' Loud stuff hasn't invaded the radio charts. After all, accessible jazz dance is storming the clubs like nobody's business. Inject some new blood into your playlist with this posse. Don't be fooled by the clean cut image; these white boys sure know how to funk it up. Q.E.D. ("Question Everything Done") is coolly orchestrated with a strong latin jazz feel, while V Love's rap ambles comfortably along. Finger snapping good. MAXI PRIEST Fe Feel - Ten - D/EHR/AC PRODUCER: Various Following 1991's compilation Best Of Me, this is the first new collection of material in over two years from reggae's most soulful singer. Even though this album is very much a product of the '90s, he never really strays far from his reggae roots, as is witnessed by Promises, Sublime, Angelized Are We, and this current single, Just Wanna Know. Says Power RV! The Black Radio/Turin/HM Paolo Lauri, "It's good fresh reggae, and it's easily programmable around the clock, even in the mornings." ROY ORBISON King Of Hearts - Virgin AC/EHR PRODUCER: Various "The best of the rest," so to speak. The songs that didn't make the late Big O's last album Mystery Girl are now to be found on this new CD. That doesn't mean that it is a randomly compiled set. A tragic song like Wild Hearts Run Out Of Time is too good for such incriminations. It proves, just like last year's posthumously released album by that other great "singing" singer Del Shannon, that Orbison "rocks on!" Meanwhile, after Drove All Night and Crying (the lovely duet with k.d. Lang), Heartbreak Radio, the third hit single from this album is on its way. SHABBA RANKS X-Tra Naked - Epic D/EHR PRODUCER: Clifton Dillon/Vivian L. Scott "Mr. Loverman" is telling more cocky love rhymes, sometimes assisted by a guest vocalist, like Johnny Gill on the single Slow And Sexy. Housecall, a cross between swing beat and reggae, is a duet with Maxi Priest. Together with Queen Latifah, the acceptable face of male chauvinism presents us What Cha Gonna Do?, a kind of follow-up to the Otis Redding and Carla Thomas tête-à-tête Tramp. THE RATTLEBONES Lives And Times - No Image (LP) [UK] PRODUCER: Richard Willemen This album reeks of age old atmosphere, with Lorna Cumberland in the role of high priest. Call it "ambient Gaelic" music. Contact tel: (+44) 793.617.487. ROOTS PIRANHA Sound Tracks Into Worldmusic - Piranha (LP) [Germany] PRODUCER: Various Described as "music that stubbornly refuses to tune itself to the regularity of the ruling European 12-tone scale," this is an insightful sampler displaying the best of the Piranha label. From Township jive, to Nubian wedding music to gypsy Balcan music. Contact Akbar Borokwsky at tel: (+49) 30.883.6096; fax: 30.882.5069. UNDER THE INFLUENCE The Original Versions Of The Songs The Beatles Covered - (LP) - Sequoia Records [UK] PRODUCER: Various In their official album career, The Beatles recorded 24 covers, all included on this great package. Supported by some great liner notes, programmers might like to unearth the origins of songs like Chains (by The Cookies) and Act Naturally (Buck Owens). Contact Bob Fisher at tel: (+44) 71.433.1641; fax: 71.431.4368. THE RAGGED BOYS Rat Tat (Who Are You) - Timbuktu [UK] PRODUCER: The Ragged Boys/John Cornfield Marshall amps will catch fire with this '70s rock-styled lead track. Time for recuperation will be provided by the sound of a dobro at sunset on the track Lord I'm Calling. Contact Peter Bond at tel: (+44) 71.436.3371; fax: 71.436.2837. THE SAW DOCTORS All The Way From Tuan - Solid/Warner Music A/EHR PRODUCER: Phillip Tennant Folk with a punk attitude is no longer a novelty. The combination, however, of the well-known folk instrumentation with a twanging guitar in a true Duane Eddy tradition is new. Another difference from other bands in this particular genre is the number of slow songs like Wake Up Sleeping and Midnight Express. They shift to high gear on the hilarious tune Hoy Wrap. SCREAMING TREES Sweet Oblivion - Epic A/R PRODUCER: Don Flemming What sets Screaming Trees apart from most other members of the Seattle brigade is their finely tuned sense of melody. Let yours be haunted by tracks like Butterfly and A One Knows. On More Or Less they ride the same "crazy horse" like Neil Young. The poor animal gets the spurs on Shadow Of The Season and Nearly Lost You. RADIO STATION SOFTWARE: Programmes That Meet Your Stations Needs As Europe begins to loosen its broadcasting regulations, more and more private stations are launching, rapidly turning the airwaves into a battleground for listeners. Although the success of these new privates depends on several factors, the software selected—assisting managers in everything from music scheduling to accounts receivable—could just make that difference. Several of the major stations in Europe have found that formatted programming could be an answer to attracting a loyal audience. And keeping this consistency may be easier than it sounds, with the help of computer software created with just this purpose in mind. Besides music programming, software packages are available to help a station with its accounts and billing, control the placement of advertisements, as well as packages for research and the sales department. Capital FM/London programme director Richard Park says his station is dependent on software for its daily operation. For music programming Capital FM has chosen Selector. An in-house network system was created for the sales department. "You can't really put a price figure on what a station should spend on software," says Park. "It really depends on the requirements and size of your particular station." Although he acknowledges software is an invaluable addition to a station, Park finds negative points in relying on the software. "Training people how to use the software is, of course, always a hassle and rather time-consuming. In addition, we are constantly calling the company in America concerning bugs in the programme, and support services can be rather annoying." Park says, however, that all of this is outweighed by the time-saving abilities of such a programme. "This is definitely the number one plus. Such programmes also offer a great amount of convenience." With the number of private stations increasing, thus creating stiffer competition, Park doesn't see how stations can survive without some type of music programming software. "I would say that it is unwise to set up a 24-hour formatted station without some type of music software. I'm not saying that it should be Selector; something like Colombine is also good, of course. But stations just getting off the ground, such as the wave of new stations in Eastern Europe, should really invest in software for programming before coming on air." Europe 2/Paris programme director Marc Garcia uses several commercial software programmes at his station. For programming, Europe 2 has chosen Selector, and Songtrack for music research. The sales department adopted Radio Pilot, and the management branch makes use of Easy and Excel. Although Garcia is content with his decision in software for music programming and sales, he does see room for improvement. "Selector has one big advantage: It has been thought out by programmers for programmers and that makes it the answer for almost all our needs. On the other hand, it is not adapted enough to French musical programming. For example, the software does not make a distinction between Anglo-Saxon hits and their French versions. Another problem we have to face is the incompatibility of Selector and Songtrack." On Radio Pilot, Garcia says that software's main advantage is its data updating capabilities. "It permanently recalculates space availabilities. It also meets all our demands concerning the planning, marketing, administration, statistics, broadcasting and the message service between operators and the airing." Employees do complain, however, that the software is often not compatible with other programmes. The decision to buy software before sending a signal depends on the type of station, according to Garcia. "If you are starting up a local station, I don't think buying software would be one of the first things you would do. With smaller stations, you don't have so much work that you can't do it yourself. But if you are starting up with national radio, I would say it has more of a priority. It all depends on the structure you have. The first thing to study is whether the software will answer your problems." RTL 104.6/Berlin PD Arno Müller has also decided to use Selector for music management, utilizing the Novell network, while the sales department is managed by Daccord software. For editorial purposes the station uses R-News/R-Wire and Agenda software. RTL depends on Digispot software for digital audio processing/editing and Audio file management for on-air use. "For a first investment," says Müller, "a station should calculate about DM5,000 (app. US$3,500) per work station/user. To stay updated, I suggest investing DM1,500 every year per work station." Müller is convinced the biggest difficulty in getting involved with this kind of software is making the systems compatible with each other, but he believes the hassle is worth the result. "First installations of data processing systems always cause problems with regard to user training and adjusting, but these things vanish after a while. The advantages of time saving and more extensive and faster accessibility of data is what remains, which makes it easier to realize creative ideas." In case of a new installation, he says it is quite important to make sure there is someone around who is able to make all the individual adjustments required by the station. In Poland, Radio RMF/Cracow head of music Piotr Metz has already learned the importance of software from his western neighbours. Radio RMF uses Selector and Linker, and is planning to implement Master Control in the near future. Metz is hesitant about stating a price stations should be willing to give out for such programmes. "Determining an amount of money one should invest in software is difficult to say. I think the answer lies partly in what software a station needs and what one expects to get out of it," he says. However, Metz is loyal to the products he has decided upon. "After considerable research, we found that only RCS products [Selector, Master Control] are difficult to improve upon, in addition to the excellent support we receive from the company. The software gives us the ability to start from a very basic application, and then as the station grows, to expand it into the most sophisticated system. Not to mention how time-saving this software is." The station also has software programmes for the newsroom, commercial airing and sales/accountancy, but has decided to depend on local programmers for these projects. "Ready-made packages in these areas tend to either do too much of what's unnecessary for your needs or lack some features you want. And in Polish there's an additional problem—of different letters—most programmes do not offer this feature." When asked to make a suggestion for those considering buying software, Metz replies, "Buy music and sales/commercials software first. Don't go for cheap solutions, consider what you really need and think ahead." by Mary Weller RADIO PROGRAMMING RESEARCH JOINT VENTURE OPPORTUNITY Broadcast Programming & Research are based in Sydney, Australia. We offer international programming and research consultation, including a fully featured software package to enable our clients to carry out a complete range of in-house music, tracking and attitudinal research projects. BPR currently has clients in Australia, New Zealand, Singapore, Ireland, The United Kingdom, Sweden and Czechoslovakia. Our intention is to expand our client base in Europe and we seek expressions of interest from companies and individuals interested in a joint venture partnership to service the region. BPR will supply: 1. A fully featured research software package offered for sale, rent or lease to prospective client stations. 2. Full training and installation with the expectation that our partner will take increasing responsibility for these functions in the future. 3. Where appropriate, full programming consultation. 4. Full software support and development to stay at the forefront of radio research in the region. Our associate will need: 1. Office and equipment, including fax, word processing and computing facilities. 2. The ability to act as sales agent for the BPR software. 3. The ability to act as first point of contact for software operation and research support. 4. Multilingual capacity in the major European languages. Interested companies or individuals should initially write or fax detailing your current situation and the levels of sales and support you are able to provide. Address correspondence to: Attn : Inez Landwier BPI Communications PO Box 9027 1006 AA Amsterdam Radio star. For further information contact: Amsterdam 01-581273 Basingstoke, UK 0256 489666 Brussels 02/731771 Cologne 0211 599900 Copenhagen 042 891100 Dubai 04 371472 Helsinki 0 52031 Jeddah 02 6444537 Lisbon 01 858 4086 Madrid 061 536 5700 Milan 02 4801000 Moscow 095 100000 New York 021 581 1000 Paris 01 4943 1000 Rome 06 5920 8011 Stockholm 08 6410000 Vienna 0222 6151 Zurich (Scheiben) 01 33 3511 Dortmund (Hamburg) 0211 584400 Tokyo 03 3211 0111 Toronto 0416 754 4000 Washington DC (USA), UK 0161 551111 Middle East, Geneva 022 7361850 Africa, UK 0256 55011 SONY® The new PCM-7010 – a brilliant radio performer Ideal for broadcast radio applications, the new PCM-7010 professional DAT recorder from Sony offers quick loading, instant start, fader start and simple remote or direct control. The recorder has four heads for simultaneous confidence monitoring and its modular architecture provides options for digital I/Os, memory start, timecode interface and an RS-232 interface option for PC control. Like all Sony products, the PCM-7010 is robust, reliable and versatile and, like all DAT recorders, offers substantial cost and performance benefits compared with ¼" analogue. DAT is a well established and proven professional format, now being used across a wide range of broadcast and production applications. Backed by the EBU recommendation of DAT as an exchange medium, broadcasters have been quick to realise its benefits. Sony has pioneered DAT technology and in 1991, with the PCM-7000 series, launched its first DAT recorders designed purely for the professional. Since then over 1500 units have been delivered to customers in Europe alone, a clear sign of success. Now, with the PCM-7010, Sony can offer an unmatched range of five studio models, two portables and two remote controls, to cover all the requirements of field and studio recording, post production and transmission. Sony DAT – brilliant performance, unmatched range. A sound choice! Sony Broadcast & Communications European Headquarters Jays Close, Viables, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG22 4SB, United Kingdom Tel: (0256) 55 0 11, Telex: 85 84 24, Fax: G2/G3 (0256) 47 45 85 The Eastern European record market is quickly gaining in importance. Partly due to strengthened economies and a brighter outlook on copyright legislation and the fight against piracy, the major record companies are stepping up their investments. Particularly in Hungary, the Czech Republic/Slovakia and Poland, Western record companies share enthusiasm, but warn against being over-optimistic. Hungary is economically the most-advanced market. IFPI figures over 1991 (see table on page 17) show that CD sales jumped by 50% compared to the year before, yet total unit sales dropped 36%. Similar statistics for Poland (significant CD growth; total sales down by 84%) and the Czech Republic/Slovakia (growth for both CD/cassette, overall drop by 28%) demonstrate that, despite market potential, short-term return on investment is unlikely. Unified by taking the long-term view, operating philosophies for the region, however, differ markedly. Whereas both PolyGram and Warner Music sell finished product to licensees, BMG Music and Sony Music favour the approach of establishing affiliated companies. EMI Music, on the other hand, made a relatively big slash by buying into Budapest-based Quint (M&M July 4). DISCREET COURSE PolyGram has been trading with Eastern Europe for at least two decades and has steered a discreet course towards the region, cautious not to scare off established contacts. Through its Hamburg-based Direct Export office, run by GM Lothar Steyer, it has been selling finished product, as well as making second and third-option arrangements with customary licenses. PolyGram Continental Europe president Allen Davis says now the time is ripe to set up local subsidiaries. "Through Steyer's office, we've gained a lot of intelligence," says Davis. "But we're not in a hurry. I would rather do it slow than making mistakes. Our philosophy is to establish a presence, as in many countries we feel the prospects are good, both in terms of local A&R and in the development of international artists. You have to be a local company, not just for spreading out international talent." Due to the unstable political and social situation in the area, priorities for PolyGram have been shifting around. However, Hungary is the company's immediate target and Davis confirms he is aiming to have two PolyGram offices open by next year. "Eventually, we want to establish our own, 100%-owned company and that may or may not start with a joint venture. The main objective at the moment is to get paid and not to hurt any licensees in the process of setting up [own companies]." AFFILIATED COMPANIES The most active record company operating in the Eastern European territories is BMG. It runs fully owned affiliates in Poland, Hungary and the Czech Republic/Slovakia. The launch of its Budapest-based office, BMG Music International Service Kft, on January 1, 1991, made BMG the first major global record company to be represented in Eastern Europe. It has also opened BMG International Prague, while on September 1 it launched BMG Poland. Following the servicing of local companies, BMG stopped selling licenses to third parties on July 1 and is now actively involved in marketing its own repertoire and making the first steps in the build-up of a local roster. BMG's Eastern European operations are directed by senior VP central Europe Arnold Bahlmann and manager European licensees Michael Braun. Bahlmann says record companies should be committed to serving the area and to building a strong presence, although never at the expense of the local people. "BMG wants to support national cultures," he says. "But you have to build from the inside with the..." local people. Western-style marketing and promotion has not existed before." What is most needed now, says Bahlmann, is to lobby for copyright protection, to fight piracy and to establish an efficient distribution system. "We should compete for artists, not on distribution," he says. "I would love to set up a joint-venture distribution system, comparable to [Holland-based] RSB." PolyGram's Davis says he feels Bahlmann's suggestion is "worth investigating. I know of a pirate who has a fleet of 20 trucks serving the market. I can't afford that. So, yes, we should talk together about the non-competitive areas. Relatively, we're all doing business in the same way." BMG's Braun says it is very important to be actively involved in the marketplace rather than take a "wait and see" stance. "You have to be there in the market," says Braun. "You can't conduct business by just flying in for a few days and cash some easy money. We want to build market share as soon as possible. If you're there early enough, it gives you the best opportunities. But we don't want to take too much of a risk. So far, we've made a little money out of our operations." All three affiliates of BMG currently have a staff of approximately five people mainly in the marketing, promotion and A&R fields, whereby financial/administration and distribution expertise is often sought outside. Eventually, Braun aims to have a staff of 10 people. LOCAL A&R "In all three markets BMG has moved into local A&R. Of Czech rock band Mnaga & Zdorp's second album, BMG has sold some 12,000 copies in the first four weeks following its early October release. Braun is aiming to sell 60-70,000 units in the end (40,000 copies qualifies for gold in the Czech/Slovak market). Another act BMG has set high hopes on is Pulnoc ("Midnight"), a dissident band under the former communist regime, and a favourite of president Vaclav Havel. The band's debut album 'City Of Hysteria' will be released on November 24 on the Arista label. Another act is Latvia ("New Moon"), who will have an album out next year. On the chances for such talent to be exploited outside, Braun says expectations for A&R managers are very high. "Everything here has been heard before in the West and especially the language barrier is immense. But chances are actually not that bad," he says. "It depends on the product. As studio time is not very expensive here, we have bands making English-language vocal versions of their songs." BMG has also signed Hungarian pop/rock act Lu Boros and is ready to move into Polish music. "If you wanna sign Eastern European acts, go to Poland," says Braun. "It's a big and wild market; very rock and roll. We expect to get great repertoire from Poland and we have four projects lined up at the moment." (continues on page 17) The Main Obstacles The key problems facing Eastern Europe impede short-term developments: - Rampant piracy, especially in Poland where 95% of product sold is illegally manufactured. Pirated product in Poland is often sold at one-third of the prices charged by the retailers. The efforts by the Polish IFPI group ZPAV, headed by Bianka Kortlan, to fight piracy have recently begun to bear fruit, and legitimate sales are claimed to have increased by 5%-10% over the last six months. - Unlicensed CD rental operations, especially in the Czech-Slovak Federal republic, take away some 50% of current CD business. - Inadequate copyright protection. Although copyright laws are expected to pass parliament by the end of this year, effective enforcement of these laws could take another six months year. - Underdeveloped distribution/retailing infrastructures and lack of selling skills by record shops. - The difficulties of converting local currency into foreign money. - Low living standards and a slow development of the consumer market. - Political and economic instability. HUNGARY IS THE GATEWAY TO CENTRAL AND EASTERN EUROPE EUROTON IS THE GATEWAY TO HUNGARY Central shop and headquarters: 1113 BUDAPEST, Bartók Béla u. 152 Hungary Phone/Fax: (36) 1 - 166 - 56 - 46 President: Thomas D. Vadas M. Sc. Ec. Managing Director: Dezső Szentpéteri Duplicating plant: 2040 BUDAÖRS Sport u.2. Hungary Phone: (36) 1 - 153 - 66 - 61 Manager: Mrs. Katalin Kenyeres EUROTON is a major Hungarian MC duplicating and a MC, LP and CD distributing private company with a sophisticated high capacity MC duplicating facility, a 700 sq m. music media wholesale shop, and an ever increasing network of contract shops all over Hungary. IT IS REWARDING TO DO BUSINESS WITH US IN HUNGARY, SO PLEASE COME AND HAVE A WORD WITH US SOON. IF YOU HAVE THE WILL, WE PROVIDE THE LOCAL KNOWLEDGE. TOGETHER WE SHALL HAVE SUCCESS. FULLY INTEGRATED COMPANY EMI had to face some stumbling blocks before it could move into Eastern Europe. In 1989, they were close into entering a US$25 million joint-venture agreement with Hungarian state-owned Hungaraton, but the deal fell apart when Jeno Bors was suddenly dismissed by the ministry of culture. Bors, however, reluctant to sit still, established the private owned Quint Kft in 1990 and quickly gained market share. Two years later, the time seemed to be ripe and EMI bought 60% of Quint. Headed by Bors, who reports to EMI Music development director for Eastern Europe Tony Salter, the company employs 20 people. Comments Salter, "EMI-Quint) has sales force, distribution, warehouse, local A&R, the whole works. It is currently the only place where we are intend in making such big commitment." For the Czech/Slovak market, EMI has made a licensing agreement with Monitor Records, a company founded in 1990 and claimed to have a local market share of 20%-27%. Salter is very confident about the deal and calls the relationship one of "a partnership. Monitor is treated as any other EMI company. I intend to make a long-term commitment with them." The Polish market is still too rough for EMI. Although licensing its repertoire to MUM, Salter has not yet made an ultimate decision. "I'm not in a desperate hurry and not looking for a deal that I'm not 100% sure off," he says. "Poland is a market where the crusaders for legitimacy have to be very strong." EMI Music Continental Europe president/CEO Alexis Rotelli says record companies have to be very patient in dealing with Eastern Europe. "We're still pioneering," he says. "Both for political and economical reasons and the lack of real entrepreneurs, we all have a wait-and-see attitude. But we are [constantly] making an assessment of the market. When we find the right people, we make the move." EXCLUSIVE LICENSING Warner Music has not yet moved into Eastern Europe and works with exclusive licensing agreements: MMC (Hungary), Popron (Czech/Slovak), Polton (Poland) and Kroatia Records (Kroatia). Warner Music Austria MD Manfred Lappe says the market is quickly moving forward. "Things are catching up," he says. "It stopped being a supplier market. There is now a bigger variety of product available and you now have to start marketing your records, instead of mere releasing." Lappe cites a report by the Media Market Observer in which a comparison in media expenditure over the first half of 1992 was made between the Austrian, Hungarian and Czech/Slovak markets. In Austria, 27% of marketing expenditure went to TV, while daily newspapers earned a 33% share, radio grabbed 12% and the rest was for print. In Hungary, TV dominates with a 62% share, while radio only gets 2% of the advertising pie. In the Czech/Slovak market, the majority (60%) went to the daily newspapers; TV seized 31% and radio 2%. Based on the report, Lappe says, "Each market demands its own style of marketing. There's not one model that works for all the territories." Sony Music was the first major record company to employ a full-time staffer in Prague, Suzanne Smetana who joined in June 1990. Now operating a small-sized office in Prague, Sony intends to move into Hungary very soon (currently its product is distributed by Quittner). Sony Music's Eastern European operations is overseen by business development manager David Main. 1991 SALES IN THREE EASTERN EUROPEAN MARKETS \| \| CDS \| CASSETTES \| LPS \| TOTAL \| RETAIL VALUE \| \|----------------\|-------\|-----------\|-------\|-------\|--------------\| \| Czech Slovak \| 1.5 (+50%) \| 3.7 (+19%) \| 3.6 (-56%) \| 8.8 (-28%) \| 27.8 \| \| Poland \| 0.8 (+433%) \| 3.0 (-86%) \| 1.0 (-88%) \| 4.8 (-84%) \| 15.0 \| \| Hungary \| 0.3 (+50%) \| 2.7 (-21%) \| 0.4 (-76%) \| 3.4 (-36%) \| 23.6 \| Source: IFPI. Figures in millions. The comparison with 1990 is put in brackets. Retail value in US$. Singles sales are negligible. ### Station Reports #### METRO RADIO GROUP/Newcastle - Liz Elliott - Music Organiser - A List: - AD Chris Rea's Great Banana Skin - B.I.R.T.H. - Genesis - Invisible - Michael Jackson - Heal - US West - The Moon - B List: - AD Bananarama - Last Thing - Glitter Like Fire - Diana Ross - Do It Right - Gwen Ifill - Because - Happy Mondays - Sunshine - Kylie Minogue - Celebration - Madonna - The Harder They Fall - Prince 7 - Sinead O'Neil - Papa - Simply Red - Drawing In - Take That - Could I #### PICCADILLY RADIO/Manchester - Liz Smith - Kath Pringle - Head Of Music - A List: - Michael Jackson - Heal - R.E.M. - Man On The Moon - B List: - 190 Valleys - Hi, I'm Chucky - Cher - Oh No You Didn't - Vegas - I'm So Happy - Marie Strix - Peace Love - Williams & Morris - Time After Time - Richard Marx - Just The Way You Are - Simply Red - Drawing In - Undercover - Never Let #### FOCUS/FM/London - James Merritt Crawford - Head Of Music - A List: - Whitney Houston - I Will Always Love You - ABBA - Waterloo - Alphaville - True Love - Arrows - Devotion - Revival - Beirut - The Lovers - Elenita Denisse - Never - Expozit - Walk - Faithless - (I'm Gonna) Love You - Full Force - New York - General Public - I'm Not - Jadu - Don't Worry - James Taylor Quartet - Hope & Fear - Jerry Whittle - I'm In Love - Nona Gaye - I'm Never Going - Patbo Labellle - All Night Long - Rasmussen & Co - I'm A Dreamer - Sweetie - I'm Fine #### CITY FM/Liverpool - G (114) - Sue Taylor - Co-ord - A List: - Alison Unsworth - Have My Way - Sylenth in Sound - Groove - Whitney Houston - I'm Never Gonna Give You Up #### B List: - AD Bashadora - Who Can Express It Well - Brenda Edwards - Undeadness - Genesis - Never - Jazida & Morgens - Why - Kenny Loggins - I'm Not - KCP - Ain't No Mountain - Linsey Buckingham - I'm - Madonnas - Deeper - Meat Loaf - Just What I Needed - Melissa Etheridge - Direct - R.E.M. - Man On The Moon - Simply Red - Drawing In - Undercover - Never Let #### RADIO CITE/Disco/Glasgow - G (186) - Alan Dickson - Prog Dir - A List: - AD Kyle Minogue - Celebration - Michael Jackson - Heal - Patty Smyth - No - Prince 7 - UB40 - Can't Get The Moon - Rod Stewart - Walking - US West - Groove Ride #### B List: - AD Bananarama - Last Thing - Carley Rose - I'm - Chris Rea - God's Great Banana Skin - Happy Mondays - Sunshine - Williams & Morris - Time After Time - Michael W. Smith - I Will - Stereos MC's - Step It Up - Take That - Could I #### RADIO LUXEMBOURG/Luxembourg - G (114) - Jeff Graham - Prog Dir - A List: - AD Chris Rea - God's Great Banana Skin - House Of Love - Crush Me - Polka Tschop - I'm - Simply Red - Drawing In #### B List: - AD Little Angel - I'm Much - Brian May - Rock - Gerry Rafferty - Could - Gloria Estefan - Always - Patty Smyth - No - Prince 7 - UB40 - Can't Get The Moon #### RED ROSE/RADIO/Preston/Bloomsbury - G (114) - Dave Sanders - Head Of Music - A List: - AD Tasmin Archer - Archer - Brian May - Rock - B List: - AD About Eve - Some - Gerry Rafferty - Could - Gloria Estefan - Always - Patty Smyth - No - Prince 7 - UB40 - Can't Get The Moon #### RED ROSE - G (114) - Rob Penney - Head Of Music - Power Play: - Cher - Oh No You Didn't - Happy Mondays - Sunshine - Williams & Morris - Time After Time - Michael W. Smith - I Will - Stereos MC's - Step It Up - Take That - Could I #### RADIO BRITANNIA/Edinburgh - G (114) - John Paul Ballantine - Head Of Music - A List: - AD Corlis Sliggers - Peace Love - Extreme - Stop The - Joe Cocker - Real Man - R.E.M. - Man On The Moon - B List: - AD B-2-S - I'm That Guy - Benny D - Every - Chris Rea - God's Great Banana Skin - Cilla Black - I'm On My Own - Go West - That's What - Inspired By The News - I'm - James Taylor - Hope & Fear - Little Steffan - Someday - Meat Loaf - Pray - Pseudomonas - I'm - Rickard Ellis - Here Around My Heart - Simon Closen - I'm Never #### DOWNTOWN RADIO/Belfast - G (114) - John Rathbone - Prog Dir - A List: - AD Bananarama - Last Thing - Chris Rea's Great Banana Skin - Cilla Black - I'm On My Own - Kylie Minogue - Celebration - Williams & Morris - Time After Time - Michael Jackson - Heal - R.E.M. - Man On The Moon - Vegas - She #### B List: - AD Chris Rea - God's Great Banana Skin - Cilla Black - I'm On My Own - Happy Mondays - Sunshine - Michael Jackson - Heal - Stereos MC's - Step It Up - Take That - Could I #### FOX FM/Edinburgh - G (114) - Steve Ellis - Prog Conr - A List: - AD Duncan Blue - Your - Diana Ross - Do It Right - Kylie Minogue - Celebration - Pseudomonas - I'm - Richard Marx - Just The Way You Are - Shakespeare Sisters - Hail Mary #### OWEE FM/Bristol/Swindon - G (114) - Gary Vincent - Head Of Music - A List: - AD Charles & Eddie - Would I - Cher - Oh No You Didn't - Chris Rea - God's Great Banana Skin - Simply Red - Drawing In #### B List: - AD Alison Limerick - Hear My - B-52's - I'm That Guy - Bob Marley - Exodus #### FRANCE - EUROPI 2 NETWORKS/Paris - A List: - Christian Sievingy - Prog Dir - B List: - AD Julien Tanguy - Prog Dir - Michael Jackson - Heal - Power Wear - I'm Lon. #### M6/Paris - DIR: - Patrick Leprouxey - Prog Dir - B List: - AD Chris Rea - Nothing To - Elton Food - I'm - Florence - I'm - Jackie Moore - I'm - Mr. Big - Just Take It #### RADIOD MANCHESTER/Relais 8 - G (114) - Thierry Hot - Prog Dir - A List: - AD Annie Lennox - Walking On - David Dexter - Jack In - Didier Barbelet - Maries De - Fredriksson - I'm - Jimmy Halli - Ain't No Doubt - Lars & Levi - Aime Moi - Sean E MC - Doctor #### NEJ NETWORK/Paris - P (114) - Max Guzzini - Dir - A List: - AD Guns N' Roses - November Rain - Invader - What's It Worth - Mylène Farmer - Que Mon Coeur #### RTL/Paris - A List: - AD Claude Phillips - I'm - Kerihah James - Where's Life - Montal - De Vol - Mylène Farmer - Que Mon Coeur - Philippe Lafontaine - Machine - Charles Trentet - Philippe Lourié #### SKYROCK NETWORK/Paris - P (114) - Laurent Bauvaux - Prog Dir - A List: - AD AC/DC - Highway To - East 17 - Power Of - Indochine - L'Exode Des Mauv - Shannon - I.S.I. #### RFI/Paris - G (114) - Jean-Paul Michel - Head Of Music - Power Play: - Billy Ray Cyrus - Achy Break - A List: - AD Boys II Men - End Of - Daft Punk - Les Choses Assuriv - DJ Aubein - I'm - Nicolas Sirikis - Afara Dans La Lune - Chris Rea #### VOLTAGE FM/Restry-teau-Bel - G (114) - Olivier Albert - Music Dir - A List: - AD Vandross - Jackson The Best - Al Lil Louis #### L'ONDE LATINE/Aix en Provence - S (114) - AD Soirée - Festas #### RADIO BIBERON/Monte Carlo - S (114) - Andrew Aubry - Music Dir - A List: - AD Fame - Don't You - Gerry Rafferty - Don't Give Up - Guns N' Roses - November Rain - Joe Cocker - I'm - R.E.M. - Drive #### RTL/RTL Paris - S (114) - George Long - Lionel Ritchie - Al Bob Dylan - Genesis - Jeff Healey #### SCDD/Ryan - S (114) - Alain Liberty - Prog Dir - A List: - AD Freddy Mercury - Queen - Diana Ross - Do It Right - Michael Jackson - Heal - Power Wear - I'm Lon. #### B List: - AD Bruce Springsteen - Lucky Town - Celine Dion - I'm - Jean-Louis Murat - Coeur Dans - Les BO - Don't Give Up - Lisa Stansfield - Set Your - Mylène Farmer - Que Mon Coeur - Sub-Nu-Pop - Turn And Shout #### WFT FM/Bordeaux - S (114) - Hervé Touzic - Prog Dir - A List: - AD Tasmin Archer - Archer - Brian May - Rock #### B List: - AD Chris Rea - Too Much - Cure - I'm - Elton John - I'm Song - Freddy Mercury - Queen - Grand Manigot - Longue Distance - INXS - I'm - Karolse - Where's Life - Mylène Farmer - Que Mon Coeur - Négroisses Vertes - Honte Moi Moi #### ISABELLE FM/Toulouse Sainte Ap - S (114) - Patrick Leprouxey - Prog Dir - B List: - AD Chris Rea - Nothing To - Elton Food - I'm - Florence - I'm - Jackie Moore - I'm - Mr. Big - Just Take It #### RADIOD MANCHESTER/Relais 8 - G (114) - Thierry Hot - Prog Dir - A List: - AD Annie Lennox - Walking On - David Dexter - Jack In - Didier Barbelet - Maries De - Fredriksson - I'm - Jimmy Halli - Ain't No Doubt - Lars & Levi - Aime Moi - Sean E MC - Doctor #### BIL-RTL/Paris - G (114) - Serge Jankovic - Prog Dir - A List: - AD Charles Aznavour - Telle Et Ille - Genesis - Tell Me Why - Umberto Tozzi - Gi Innocent - B List: - AD Charles Trentet - Je Car - Chris Rea - I'm - Christians - Father - David Sinclair - Jenny #### AUSTRIA - 8-2 Vienna - FHR - Günther Laysek - Head Of Music - A List: - AD Billy Ray Cyrus - Could We - Diana Agaton - I'm - David Guetta - I'm - Farrausfischen - Die Oh - Helmut Lotti - I'm - Hubert Von Goisern - Kiss - Jan Sevcenko - I'm - Michael Jackson - Heal - Michael W. Smith - I Will - Peter Dolce - Work - Shaggy - I'm - Wolfgang Amadeus - Bleib #### BELGIUM - BR STUDIO BRUSSELS/Brussels - EHR/Rock - Jean Vanhoutte - Producer - Power Play - Tasmin Archer - Sleeping - Black Crowes - Hold Evanes - INXS - I'm #### A List: - AD Charles & Eddie - Would I - Alphaville - I'm - Guns N' Roses - November Rain - Joe Cocker - I'm - Julian Cope - I'm - Moby - I'm - Morris - I'm - R.E.M. - I'm #### B List: - AD Billy - I'm - Bolly - I'm - Bon Jovi - I'm - Solidarities - Nobody - Soul Asylum #### RADIO 21/Brussels - P (114) - Christophe Gevaud - Producer - Anna Goroux - Producer - A List: - AD INXS - I'm - Al Lil Louis - I'm - Keith Richards - I'm - Michael Jackson - Heal - Michael Jackson - Grove - R.E.M. - I'm - Rembrandts - Johnny Have You - Sonic Daddy - I'm - Stone Roses - I'm - U2 - I'm - U.S. - I'm #### RADIO CONTACT/N/Brussels - P (114) - Jean Leu Bartin - Prog Dir - A List: - AD Beckin Bell - I'm Never Know - Berger/Bell - Supercliff - Bon Jovi - I'm - Christophe Gevaud - I'm - Diane Carroll - Special Kind - Double Too Who's I'm - Eiffel 65 - I'm - Eiffel65 - Las Vegas - Eiffel65 - I'm - Michael Jackson - Heal - Prince - I'm - Solid - I'm - Sinead O'Connor - I'm - Vienneque Sonn - I'm #### BIL-RTL/Paris - G (114) - Serge Jankovic - Prog Dir - A List: - AD Billy Ray Cyrus - Could We - Diana Agaton - I'm - David Guetta - I'm - Farrausfischen - Die Oh - Helmut Lotti - I'm - Hubert Von Goisern - Kiss - Jan Sevcenko - I'm - Michael Jackson - Heal - Michael W. Smith - I Will - Peter Dolce - Work - Shaggy - I'm - Wolfgang Amadeus - Bleib Midem. The international show of shows. For every aspect of music, Pop, Rock, Jazz, Classical and Contemporary. For every international music industry professional who's into rights, distribution, new deals, partnerships, products, promos and artists. It's strictly business. In Cannes, with live television, live performances, concerts, showcases and loads of opportunities to do deals. Take a stand. It's your headquarters away from home. The brilliant way to profile your operation. Music and Strategy. A vantage point to see where the profession is going with Midem's conferences and seminars which constitute a unique forum with leading experts reflecting on the likely future of the music industry. If the music industry needs you, you need MIDEM For more details, contact: Christophe Blum or Susan Dyevre. PALAIS DES FESTIVALS • CANNES • FRANCE 24TH - 28TH JANUARY 1993 MIDEM ORGANISATION 179, Avenue Victor Hugo - 75116 Paris Tel : 33 (1) 44 34 44 44 Fax : 33 (1) 44 34 44 00 A member of the Reed International Group. ## Top 10 Sales in Europe ### United Kingdom Singles 1. Charles & Eddie - Would I Lie To You? (Capitol) 2. Boyz II Men - End Of The Road (Motown) 3. Arrested Development - Baby Everyday (Polydor) 4. Whitney Houston - Never Let Her Slip Away (JPM, Intl.) 5. Whitney Houston - I Will Always Love You (Arista) 6. Vanessa Paradis - Be My Baby (PolyGram) 7. The B-52's - Rock Drum (One Little Indian) 8. Genesis - Invisible Touch (Live) (EMI) 9. Rage - Run To You (Pulse 8) 10. Simply Red - Montreux E.P. (East West) Albums 1. Cheap - Greatest Hits '85-'92 (MCA) 2. Bon Jovi - Keep The Faith (Mercury) 3. Simple Minds - Glittering Prize (Virgin) 4. Michael Bolton - Timeless (Warner) 5. Chris Rea - Golden Banana Skin (East West) 6. Neil Diamond - Have You Ever (Epic) 7. Gloria Estefan - Greatest Hits (PolyGram) 8. Abba - Gold - Greatest Hits (Warner) 9. R.E.M. - Automatic For The People (Warner) 10. Madonna - Erotica (Warner) ### Spain Singles 1. Ca.Ro - Because The Night (Ginger) 2. Felix - Don't You Want Me (BMG) 3. Willie & Co - If You Leave Now (Max) 4. Madonna - Erotica (Warner) 5. Snap - I'm A Dancer (Warner) 6. Double You - We All Need Love (Blanco Y Negro) 7. O.B.K. - Historias De Amor (Blanco Y Negro) 8. Peppeto - Pinacoo (Max) 9. Ellegio - Una Historia De Ellegio (Blanco Y Negro) 10. Los Manolos - Amigos Para Siempre (BMC) Albums 1. Jon Secada - Jon Secada (Hispano) 2. Mike Oldfield - Tubular Bells II (Warner) 3. Abba - Gold - Greatest Hits (PolyGram) 4. Vengaboys - The Disco Hits (BMG) 5. Various - Bandas Sonoras Orig. (BMG) 6. Sade - Love Deluxe (Epic) 7. Various - Gigantes (Epic) 8. Various - El Paseo De Paraiso (BMG) 9. R.E.M. - Automatic For The People (Warner) 10. Roxette - Tourism (EMI/Odeon) ### Denmark Singles 1. Ace Of Base - All That She Wants (Mega) 2. Ace Of Base - Wheel Of Fortune (Mega) 3. Inner Circle - Sweet (Warner) 4. Undercover - Baker Street (Warner) 5. Metallica - Wherever I May Roam (PolyGram) 6. Billy Ray Cyrus - Achy Breaky Heart (BMG) 7. Erasure - Who Needs Love (Sone) 8. Erasure - Love Is A Verb (Sone) 9. The Shamen - Eleenzoer Goede (Mega) 10. Mats Ronander - Gør mig lykkelig Nu (Warner) Albums 1. Abba - Gold - Greatest Hits (PolyGram) 2. Madonna - Erotica (Warner) 3. Various - Absolute Music 1 (EMI) 4. Joe Cocker - The Best Of Joe Cocker (EMI/Medley) 5. Henning Stærk - Saturday Saturday (BMG) 6. Ace Of Base - Happy Nation (BMG) 7. AC/DC - Live At Donington - Double (Warner) 8. Various - Wild Attraction 2 (Sony) 9. Alannah Myles - Rockingham (Warner) 10. Eric Clapton - Unplugged (Warner) ### Switzerland Singles 1. Felix - Don't You Want Me (BMG) 2. Undercover - Baker Street (Warner) 3. Inner Circle - Sweet (Warner) 4. Jon Secada - Just Another Day (EMI) 5. Bon Jovi - Keep The Faith (PolyGram) 6. Stereo MC's - Connected (BMG) 7. R.E.M. - Drive (Warner) 8. Tasmin Archer - Sleeping Satellite (BMG) 9. Boyz II Men - End Of The Road (PolyGram) 10. Felix - It Will Make Me Crazy (BMG) Albums 1. Abba - Gold - Greatest Hits (PolyGram) 2. Vaya Con Dios - Time Flies (BMG) 3. Bon Jovi - Keep The Faith (PolyGram) 4. Peter Gabriel - Us (BMG) 5. AC/DC - Live At Donington - Single (Warner) 6. R.E.M. - Automatic For The People (Warner) 7. Peter Gabriel - Us (BMG) 8. Eric Clapton - Unplugged (Warner) 9. Sade - Love Deluxe (Sony) 10. AC/DC - Live At Donington - Double (Warner) ### Germany Singles 1. Inner Circle - Sweet (Warner) 2. Felix - Don't You Want Me (BMG) 3. Die Fantastischen 4 - Wir Daßt! (Sony) 4. Captain Hollywood Project - More And More (BMG) 5. Undercover - Baker Street (Warner) 6. Jon Secada - Just Another Day (EMI) 7. Boyz II Men - End Of The Road (PolyGram) 8. Edelweiss - Rauschen & Wiedenken (Warner) 9. Guns N' Roses - November Rain (MCA) 10. Bon Jovi - Keep The Faith (Phonogram) Albums 1. Abba - Gold - Greatest Hits (PolyGram) 2. Bon Jovi - Keep The Faith (Phonogram) 3. R.E.M. - Automatic For The People (Warner) 4. Die Fantastischen 4 - 4 Gewinn (Sony) 5. AC/DC - Live At Donington - Double (Warner) 6. Peter Gabriel - Unplugged (Warner) 7. Eric Clapton - Unplugged (Warner) 8. Die Prinzen - Küssen Verboten (Hansa) 9. Roxette - Tourism (EMI) 10. Sandra - Greatest Hits (Virgin) ### France Singles 1. Jordy - Dur Dur D'etre Bebe (Columbia) 2. Snap - I'm A Dancer (BMG) 3. Cyndi Lauper - The World Is Stone (Epic) 4. Sting & Clapton - Probably Me (PolyGram) 5. Vanessa Paradis - Be My Baby (Warner) 6. B. Marley/Wailers - Iron Lion Zion (Island) 7. Patrick Bruel - She's Like The Wind (RCA) 8. Les Garçons Du Boulevard - Marie De Vendange (BMG) 9. Roch Voisine - La Legende De Ouchagui (BMG) 10. Butterfly Ball - Love Is All (POM) Albums 1. Sade - Love Deluxe (Epic) 2. Vaya Wav - Regagner Les Plaines (Remix) 3. AC/DC - Live At Donington - Double (Warner) 4. Vanessa Paradis - Vanessa Paradis (Remix) 5. Michael Jackson - Dangerous (Epic) 6. Madonna - European Tour 4 (BMG) 7. Madonna - Erotica (Warner) 8. Prince/The N.P.G. - Love Symbol (Warner) 9. Vangelis - The Conquest Of Paradise (EMI) 10. Didier Barbelivien - Vendee 93 (PCM) ### Holland Singles 1. Jordy - Dur Dur D'etre Bebe (Sony) 2. Snap - I'm A Dancer (Columbia) 3. Vanessa Paradis - Be My Baby (PolyGram) 4. Inner Circle - Sweet (Warner) 5. The Unity Mixx - Unity Mix No. 2 (Indigo) 6. Cyndi Lauper - You Make Me (BMG) 7. Annie Lennox - Cold (BMG) 8. Will Tura - Mos Van Teh (Topkap) 9. Brian May - Too Much Love Will Kill You (EMI) 10. Undercover - Baker Street (Warner) Albums 1. Simple Minds - Glittering Prize '81-'92 (Virgin) 2. Abba - Gold - Greatest Hits (PolyGram) 3. Vaya Con Dios - Time Flies (BMG) 4. Sade - Love Deluxe (Warner) 5. R.E.M. - Automatic For The People (Warner) 6. Simple Minds - Glittering Prize (Virgin) 7. Madonna - Erotica (Warner) 8. Sade - Love Deluxe (Sony) 9. Bon Jovi - Keep The Faith (Warner) 10. Papa Dee - Ain't No Substitute (Telegram) 11. Mauro Scocco - Om Du Var Min (Music Diesel) ### Belgium Singles 1. Jon Secada - Just Another Day (EMI) 2. E.T.H. - I'm A Dancer (PolyGram) 3. Bob Marley & The Wailers - Iron Lion Zion (BMG) 4. Felix - Don't You Want Me (BMG) 5. Boyz II Men - End Of The Road (PolyGram) 6. Madonna - Erotica (Warner) 7. Undercover - Baker Street (Warner) 8. Bon Jovi - Keep The Faith (PolyGram) 9. Papa Dee - Ain't No Substitute (Telegram) 10. Mauro Scocco - Om Du Var Min (Music Diesel) Albums 1. Marie Frederiksson - Dan Steandig Resan (EMI) 2. Abba - Gold - Greatest Hits (PolyGram) 3. Mauro Scocco - Ciapci (Music Diesel) 4. Vaya Con Dios - City Hits 4 (PolyGram) 5. Bon Jovi - Keep The Faith (PolyGram) 6. Madonna - Erotica (Warner) 7. Peter Gabriel - Us (EMI) 8. Alanis-Lyric - Här Kommer Nysskar (H-Fish) 9. Various - Medaille Cinema (BMG) 10. Sade - Love Deluxe (Sony) ### Norway Singles 1. Bon Jovi - Keep The Faith (PolyGram) 2. Metallica - Wherever I May Roam (PolyGram) 3. R.E.M. - Drive (Warner) 4. Ace Of Base - Wheel Of Fortune (BMG) 5. Helen Hoffner - Summer Of Love (Warner) 6. Boyz II Men - End Of The Road (PolyGram) 7. P.Smyth/D. Henley - Sometimes Love (BMG) 8. Sade - Love Deluxe (BMG) 9. Guns N' Roses - Yesterday (BMG) 10. Michael Jackson - Heatwave (Sony) Albums 1. Abba - Gold - Greatest Hits (PolyGram) 2. Dum Dum Boys - Train (Columbia) 3. Arve Tellefsen - Intermezzo (Grappa) 4. Bon Jovi - Keep The Faith (PolyGram) 5. Various - Neon 1 (Sony) 6. AC/DC - Highway To Hell (Warner) 7. Inner Circle - Bad To The Bone (Warner) 8. Sade - Love Deluxe (PolyGram) 9. Messiah/P.Wilson - Feelin' Love (Warner) 10. Neljus Ruusora - Juppilahipunkki (Remix) (EMI) ### Finland Singles 1. Felix - It Will Make Me Crazy (BMG) 2. Nean 2 - Ts Talosaa (Sony) 3. Madonna - Erotica (Warner) 4. Brown D. Dokeyne - I Got You (Mega) 5. AC/DC - Highway To Hell (Warner) 6. Inner Circle - Bad To The Bone (Warner) 7. Sade - Love Deluxe (PolyGram) 8. Messiah/P.Wilson - Feelin' Love (Warner) 9. Neljus Ruusora - Juppilahipunkki (Remix) (EMI) Albums 1. Bon Jovi - Keep The Faith (PolyGram) 2. Abba - Gold - Greatest Hits (PolyGram) 3. Eric Clapton - Unplugged (Warner) 4. Laura Branigan - The Very Best Of... (Warner) 5. Various - Neon 1 (Sony) 6. AC/DC - Live At Donington (Warner) 7. Madonna - Erotica (Warner) 8. Miljonasaade - Pullo Hunjasia (Finlay) 9. R.E.M. - Automatic For The People (Warner) 10. Puukiluori - Nyt Loppuu Todellisuus (Finlay) ### Ireland Singles 1. Boyz II Men - End Of The Road (Polydor) 2. Undercover - Never Let Her Slip Away (PWL, Intl.) 3. Tasmin Archer - Sleeping Satellite (EMI) 4. Sade - Run To You (Pulse 8) 5. The Shamen - Boss Drum (One Little Indian) 6. Felix - It Will Make Me Crazy (RCA) 7. Vanessa Paradis - Be My Baby (Polydor) 8. Various - Never Let Her Slip Away (Sony) 9. Charlie's Eddie - Would I Lie To You? (Capitol) 10. W.Houston - I Will Always Love You (BMG) Albums 1. Various - A Woman's Heart (Dara) 2. Simple Minds - Glittering Prize (Virgin) 3. Various - Ultimate Country Collection (Columbia) 4. Abba - Gold - Greatest Hits (Polydor) 5. Bon Jovi - Keep The Faith (Mercury) 6. Various - Best Of Dance '92 (Telstar) 7. Michael Jackson - Bad (Columbia) 8. Neil Young - Harvest Moon (Warner) 9. Lionel Richie - Back To Front (Polydor) 10. Talking Heads - Once In A Lifetime (EMI) ### Greece Singles 1. Madonna - Erotica (Warner) 2. Felix - Don't You Want Me (BMG) 3. Prince/The N.P.G. - Sexy MF (Warner) 4. R.E.M. - Drive (Warner) 5. Sade - No Ordinary Love (Sony) 6. Various - Money Love (Virgin) 7. Khaled - Dist (PolyGram) 8. Dr. Alban - It's My Life (BMG) 9. Keziah Jones - Where's Life (Virgin) 10. Jon Secada - Just Another Day (EMI) Albums 1. R.E.M. - Automatic For The People (Warner) 2. Peter Gabriel - Us (Virgin) 3. Prince/The N.P.G. - Love Symbol (Warner) 4. Various - Call Me Time Flies (BMG) 5. Michael Jackson - Dangerous (Sony) 6. Jon Secada - Jon Secada (EMI) 7. Dr. Alban - One Love (BMG) 8. Bob Marley - The Man Who Won (Warner) 9. Keziah Jones - Funk Is A Fact (Virgin) 10. Bobby Brown - Bobby (BMG) ### Portugal Singles 1. G.Michael/E.John - Don't Let The Sun (Sony) 2. Rat Veloso - Masquer (BMG) 3. Was (Not Was) - Shake Your Head (PolyGram) 4. Joker - Easy Come And Go (PolyGram) 5. Madonnas - Erotica (Warner) 6. Resistencia - Nova Selvagem (BMG) 7. Ellegio - Ellegio (Sony) 8. The Grid - Heartbeat (Edison) 9. U2 - One (BMG) Albums 1. Abba - Gold - Greatest Hits (PolyGram) 2. The Police - Greatest Hits (PolyGram) 3. Joe Cocker - The Best Of Joe Cocker (EMI) 4. AC/DC - Rock In Rio Douro (BMG) 5. Various - Double (Warner) 6. Prince/The N.P.G. - Love Symbol (Warner) 7. Sade - Love Deluxe (Sony) 8. R.E.M. - Automatic For The People (Warner) 9. Various - Earth (PolyGram) 10. Eric Clapton - Unplugged (Warner) --- Based on the national sales charts from 16 European markets. Information supplied by MRR (UK); Bundesverband Der Phonographischen Wirtschaft/Media Control/Musikmarkt (West Germany), Eurosonic 1/Canal Plus/Télé7jours (France), Musica e Dischi/Centro Musica/Musikmarkt (Switzerland); Pop + Rock (Greece). Listed are the national marketing companies. Maria De Luigi (Italy); Stichting Nederlandse Top 40 (Holland); SABAM/IFPI (Belgium); GfK/IFPI (Sweden); IFPI/Johan Schleiter (Denmark); VG (Norway); ALEF MB/TVE (Spain); Seura/IFPI (Finland); IFPI (Ireland); APE (Portugal); Austria Top 30 (Austria); Media \| THIS WEEK \| LAST WEEK \| ARTIST \| TITLE \| ORIGINAL LABEL \| COUNTRIES CHARTED \| \|-----------\|-----------\|--------\|-------\|-----------------\|-------------------\| \| 1 \| 6 \| Abba \| Gold - Greatest Hits - Polar ▲ \| U.K.D.B.N.L.E.A.C.H.S.P.DK.S.F.G.R.I \| \| \| 2 \| 4 \| Bon Jovi \| Keep The Faith - Jambco \| U.K.F.D.B.N.L.E.A.C.H.S.P.DK.S.F.G.R.I \| \| \| 3 \| 7 \| R.E.M. \| Automatic For The People - Warner Brothers ▲ \| U.K.F.D.B.N.L.E.A.C.H.S.P.DK.S.F.G.R.I \| \| \| 4 \| 2 \| Madonna \| Erotica - Maverick ▲ \| U.K.F.D.B.N.L.E.A.C.H.S.P.DK.S.F.G.R.I \| \| \| 5 \| 3 \| AC/DC \| Live At Donington - Double - Atco ▲ \| U.K.F.D.B.N.L.E.A.C.H.S.P.DK.S.F.G.R.I \| \| \| 6 \| 11 \| Sade \| Love Deluxe - Epic \| U.K.C.D.B.N.L.E.A.C.H.S.P.DK.I.S.F \| \| \| 7 \| 6 \| Simple Minds \| Glittering Prize '81 - '92 - Virgin \| U.K.D.B.N.L.E.A.C.H.S.P.D.K.I.R \| \| \| 8 \| 8 \| Prince & The New Power Generation \| Love Symbol - Paisley Park ▲ \| U.K.B.B.N.L.E.A.C.H.S.P.D.K.S.F.G.R.I \| \| \| 9 \| 12 \| Eric Clapton \| Unplugged - Reprise ▲ \| U.K.C.D.B.N.L.E.A.C.H.S.P.D.K.S.F.G.R.I \| \| \| 10 \| 7 \| Peter Gabriel \| Us - Virgin \| U.K.C.D.B.N.L.E.A.C.H.S.P.D.K.S.F.G.R.I \| \| \| 11 \| 10 \| Vaya Con Dios \| Time Flies - Ariola \| D.B.N.L.E.A.C.H.S.P.D.K.N.S.F.G.R \| \| \| 12 \| Cher \| Cher's Greatest Hits: 1965 - 1992 - Geffen \| \| \| \| \| 13 \| 9 \| Neil Young \| Harvest Moon - Reprise \| U.K.D.B.N.L.C.H.S.D.K.N.S.F.R \| \| \| 14 \| 14 \| Roxette \| Tourism - EMI \| D.B.N.E.A.C.H.S.D.K.S.F.G.R \| \| \| 15 \| 13 \| Michael Bolton \| Timeless - The Classics - Columbia \| U.K.D.N.L.E.S.P.D.K.I.R \| \| \| 16 \| 17 \| Jon Secada \| Jon Secada - EMI \| U.K.D.N.L.E.A.C.H.S.GR \| \| \| 17 \| 15 \| Michael Jackson \| Dangerous - Epic ▲5 \| U.K.F.D.B.N.L.E.A.DK.GR \| \| \| 18 \| 18 \| Chris Rea \| God's Great Banana Skin - East West ▲ \| U.K.D.B.N.L.C.H.S.P.D.K.N.S.F.R \| \| \| 19 \| 12 \| Mike Oldfield \| Tubular Bells II - WEA ▲ \| U.K.D.B.N.L.E.A.PIR \| \| \| 20 \| 16 \| Lionel Richie \| Back To Front - Motown ▲ \| U.K.D.B.N.L.E.A.DK.GR \| \| \| 21 \| 30 \| Gloria Estefan \| Greatest Hits - Epic \| U.K.B.N.L.DQ.IR \| \| \| 22 \| 29 \| Joe Cocker \| The Best Of Joe Cocker - Capitol \| D.B.N.L.C.H.S.P.D.K.S.F.R \| \| \| 23 \| 22 \| Zucchero Fornaciari \| Misere - Polydor \| U.K.B.C.H.A \| \| \| 24 \| 21 \| Die Fantastischen 4 \| 4 Gewinn - Columbia \| D \| \| \| 25 \| 20 \| Genesis \| We Can't Dance - Virgin A6 \| U.K.F.D.NL \| \| \| 26 \| 23 \| Vangelis \| OST 1492 - The Conquest Of Paradise - East West \| U.K.F.B.NL \| \| \| 27 \| 38 \| Bob Dylan \| Good As I Been To You - Columbia \| U.K.B.N.L.C.H.S.D.K.N.R \| \| \| 28 \| 27 \| Pow Wow \| Regognier Les Plaines - Remark \| F.B \| \| \| 29 \| 33 \| Sandra \| Greatest Hits - Virgin \| D.B.N.L.S.DK.SF \| \| \| 30 \| 25 \| Vanessa Paradis \| Vanessa Paradis - Remark \| U.K.F.B.S \| \| \| 31 \| 31 \| Boyz II Men \| Cooleyhighharmony - Motown \| U.K.NL \| \| \| 32 \| 36 \| Die Prinzen \| Küssten Verboten - Hansa \| D.CH \| \| \| 33 \| 34 \| The Shamen \| Bass Drum - One Little Indian \| U.K.D.NL.GR.IR \| \| \| 34 \| 24 \| Brian May \| Back To The Light - Parlophone \| U.K.D.B.N.L.E.A.C.H.S.P \| \| \| THIS WEEK \| LAST WEEK \| ARTIST \| TITLE \| ORIGINAL LABEL \| COUNTRIES CHARTED \| \|-----------\|-----------\|--------\|-------\|-----------------\|-------------------\| \| 35 \| 28 \| Guns N' Roses \| Use Your Illusion III - Geffen ▲ \| F.D.N.L.E.A.C.H.S.P.DK \| \| \| 36 \| 36 \| AC/DC \| Live At Donington - Single - Atco \| D.CH.S.DK \| \| \| 37 \| 26 \| John Lee Hooker \| Boom Boom - Pointblank \| U.K.F.D.B.N.LCH.S.D.K.R \| \| \| 38 \| 32 \| Belinda Carlisle \| The Best Of Belinda Vol. 1 - Offside \| U.K.D.S.GR.R \| \| \| 39 \| 35 \| Queen \| Greatest Hits II - Parlophone ▲4 \| U.K.D.B.N.E.A.C.H.S.D.K.SF \| \| \| 40 \| 43 \| Elton John \| The One - Rocket ▲ \| U.K.F.D.E.CH.F.I \| \| \| 41 \| 39 \| Bonnie Tyler \| Angel Heart - Hansa \| D.A.C.H.S.DK.N.SF \| \| \| 42 \| 68 \| Paolo Conte \| 900 - CGD \| I \| \| \| 43 \| 40 \| Inner Circle \| Bad To The Bone - Metronome \| D.N.LA.C.H.DK.SF \| \| \| 44 \| 67 \| Roch Voisine \| Europe Tour - GM \| F.B \| \| \| 45 \| 42 \| Dr. Alban \| One Love - SweMix \| D.N.LA.C.H.DK.S.F.GR \| \| \| 46 \| 44 \| Renzo Arbore \| Napoli Punto E A Capo - Fanit Cetra \| I \| \| \| 47 \| 57 \| The Police \| Greatest Hits - A&M \| U.K.B.P \| \| \| 48 \| 48 \| Nirvana \| Nevermind - DGC ▲ \| U.K.F.NL.P.G.R \| \| \| 49 \| 49 \| Talking Heads \| The Best Of - Once In A Lifetime - EMI \| U.K.NL.IR \| \| \| 50 \| 37 \| Sinead O'Connor \| Am I Not Your Girl? - Ensign \| D.B.N.E.A.C.H.S.P.D.K \| \| \| 51 \| 55 \| The Smiths \| Best...II - WEA \| U.K.IR \| \| \| 52 \| 51 \| Marie Frederiksson \| Den Steändig Resan - EMI-Medley \| S.DK \| \| \| 53 \| 47 \| Francesco De Gregori \| Canzoni D'Amore - Columbia \| I \| \| \| 54 \| 53 \| Annie Lennox \| Diva - RCA \| U.K.D.GR \| \| \| 55 \| 46 \| Guns N' Roses \| Use Your Illusion I - Geffen ▲ \| D.N.LA.DK.GR \| \| \| 56 \| 52 \| Gipsy Kings \| Live - Columbia \| F.D.B.NL \| \| \| 57 \| 78 \| Arrested Development \| 3 Years, 5 Months & 2 Days - Cooltempo \| UK \| \| \| 58 \| 58 \| Alannah Myles \| Rockinghorse - Atlantic \| D.CH.S.DK.SF \| \| \| 59 \| 41 \| Tasmin Archer \| Great Expectations - EMI \| U.K.CH.DK \| \| \| 60 \| Jimi Hendrix \| The Ultimate Experience - Polygram IV \| U.K.NL.IR \| \| \| 61 \| 59 \| Münchner Freiheit \| Ihre Größten Hits - Columbia \| D \| \| \| 62 \| 54 \| Didier Barbelivien \| Vendée 93 - POM \| F \| \| \| 63 \| 45 \| Elsa \| Dooce Violence - Ariola \| F.B \| \| \| 64 \| 60 \| Mina \| Sorelle Lumiere - EMI \| I \| \| \| 65 \| Peter Maffay \| Freunde & Propheten - East West \| D \| \| \| 66 \| 50 \| Toto \| Kingdom Of Desire - Columbia \| F.D.N.L.C.H.S.DK \| \| \| 67 \| 62 \| Soundtrack - Dirty Dancing \| Dirty Dancing - RCA \| F \| \| \| 68 \| 56 \| Extreme \| III Sides To Every Story - A&M \| U.K.D.N.L.CH.SF \| \| \| THIS WEEK \| LAST WEEK \| ARTIST \| TITLE \| ORIGINAL LABEL \| COUNTRIES CHARTED \| \|-----------\|-----------\|--------\|-------\|-----------------\|-------------------\| \| 69 \| 61 \| Bobby Brown \| Bobby - MCA \| D.N.LF.GR \| \| \| 70 \| Die Flippers \| Liebe Ist Eine Rose - Ariola \| D.NL \| \| \| 71 \| La Soirée Des Enfoirés \| La Soirée Des Enfoirés - Columbia \| F \| \| \| 72 \| 57 \| Simply Red \| Stars - East West ▲5 \| U.K.D \| \| \| 73 \| 63 \| Manowar \| The Triumph Of Steel - Atlantic \| D.CH.SF \| \| \| 74 \| 77 \| Ron \| Le Foglie E Il Vento - WEA \| I \| \| \| 75 \| 76 \| Mauro Scocco \| Ciao! - Diesel Music \| S \| \| \| 76 \| 71 \| Bob Marley \| Legend - Island \| U.K.D \| \| \| 77 \| Take That \| Take That & Party - RCA \| UK \| \| \| 78 \| 69 \| Michel Jonasz \| Ou Est La Source - WEA \| F \| \| \| 79 \| Daniel O'Donnell \| Follow The Dream - Ritz \| U.K.R \| \| \| 80 \| 83 \| Curtis Stigers \| Curtis Stigers - Arista \| U.K.DK \| \| \| 81 \| Fabio Concato \| In Viaggio - Phonogram \| I \| \| \| 82 \| 74 \| Ugly Kid Joe \| America's Least Wanted - Mercury \| D.POK.SE.GR \| \| \| 83 \| 65 \| Metallica \| Metallica - Vertigo ▲ \| D.N.LA.IR \| \| \| 84 \| Bob Marley \| Songs Of Freedom - Island \| F.NL \| \| \| 85 \| Therapy? \| Nurse - A&M \| U.K.IR \| \| \| 86 \| 81 \| Rene Froger \| Sweet Hello's & Sad Goodbyes - Dino \| Nl \| \| \| 87 \| 82 \| Snap \| The Madman's Return - Logic/Ariola \| F.D.GR \| \| \| 88 \| 85 \| Barricada \| Balas Blancas - PolyGram \| E \| \| \| 89 \| 99 \| Madness \| Madstack - GoDiscs \| UK \| \| \| 90 \| 87 \| Peach Weber \| Nix Wie Gääx - Polydor \| CH \| \| \| 91 \| 75 \| Dum Dum Boys \| Transil - Columbia \| N \| \| \| 92 \| Hubert Von Goisern & Die Alpinkatzen \| Aufgegangen Statt Niederschlaissn - Ariolo \| A \| \| \| 93 \| Ornella Vanoni \| Stella Nascente - CGD \| I \| \| \| 94 \| Yello \| Essential Yello - Mercury \| U.K.D.S \| \| \| 95 \| Pooh \| Il Cielo E' Blu Sopra Le Nuvole - CGD \| I \| \| \| 96 \| O.B.K. \| Llamalo Suena - Blanco Y Negro \| E \| \| \| 97 \| Sissel Kyrkjebø \| Gift Of Love - EMI-Medley \| DK.N \| \| \| 98 \| Go West \| Indian Summer - Chrysalis \| UK \| \| \| 99 \| Die Prinzen \| Das Leben Ist Grausam - Hansa \| D \| \| \| 100 \| 54 \| Neneh Cherry \| Homebrew - Circa \| NL.C.H.S.DK \| \| The European Top 100 Albums is compiled by BPI Communications BV in cooperation with Buma/Stemra, © BPI Communications BV/Buma/Stemra. All rights reserved. Compiled from the national album sales charts of 16 European territories. - Recognition of pan-European sales of 100,000 units. - Recognition of pan-European sales of 1 million units, with multi-million sales indicated by a numeral following the symbol. = FAST MOVERS NEW ENTRY = RE-ENTRY AmericanRadioHistory.com The Black Crowes Hotel Illness THE NEW SINGLE OUT NOW!! ON TOUR NOVEMBER Sat 7 BERLIN/Die Halle Sun 8 HAMBURG/Docks Mon 9 COPENHAGEN/Pumpheuset Tue 10 STOCKHOLM/Concert House Thu 12 NUREMBERG/Resi Fri 13 MUNICH/Metropolis Sat 14 STUTTGART/Kongressenter Mon 16 FRANKFURT/Hugenottenhalle Tue 17 COLOGNE/Zeit-Werk Thu 19 NEWPORT/Carnegie Fri 20 BRADFORD/St Georges Hall Sat 21 MANCHESTER/Apollo Sat 22 SHEFFIELD/Hall Tue 24 GLASGOW/Tuorrowslands Wed 25 NEWCASTLE/City Hall Thu 26 BIRMINGHAM/Aston Villa Leisure Centre Sat 28 BRITON/Academy Sun 29 BRITON/Academy DECEMBER Tue 2 ROTTERDAM/Alloy Wed 3 DENZE/Brief Poort Fri 4 PARIS/Elysee Montmartre Sun 6 BARCELONA/Zelaste Mon 7 MADRID/Sala Canciller MTV MUSIC TELEVISION BUZZ BIN AmericanRadioHistory.Com OFF THE RECORD FUN RADIO ON THE BLOCK?: According to published reports in France, press tycoon Robert Hersant is considering selling his EHR network Fun Radio, CLT and TV operator TFI are said to be interested in buying the web. A DANISH-NORWEGIAN ALLIANCE?: M&M hears that a Danish company has contacted Norwegian chart compiler Radio Topp 20 about launching an airplay chart in Denmark. No date on when such a chart will debut or if Radio Topp 20 will join. DE MEULDER PROMOTED TO MD/PD?: Word in Belgium is that BRTN Radio 2's Paul de Meulder has been tapped as the new Radio 2/Anwerp MD/programme director. He would replace Lies Huylebroeck, who left to join BRTN TV. PRIVATE RADIO BILL THREATENED: Sweden's Liberal Democrats are threatening to vote against legislation to allow private commercial radio in the country because of its impact on the nation's publiccaster. The Swedish Parliament will vote on the measure at a December 16 meeting. BLUME RETIRES: Hansa Blume, founding member of the Meisel brothers label Hansa and MD at Hansa Musikproduktion since 1984, is retiring at age 62 at the end of November after 27 years with the company. He will be leaving the label, which BMG bought in 1984, to co-operate in his partnership with George Glueck's music publishing operations. IN MEMORANDUM: Carlos Juan Casado, MD of Virgin Spain, died on November 13 from lung cancer. He was 43. Before founding the Virgin Spanish subsidiary in 1983, Casado had made his mark in the promotion department of BMG Ariola and at EMI Hispavox, where he managed the Flash label. TRUE OR FALSE?: What is true of the rumours that veteran singer/songwriter Roger Whittaker will be signing to BMG Ariola Munich in a worldwide deal? If so, it would mean Intercord's second major act to join the competition following Jule Neigel (see page 5). VOTING RULES CHANGING: French music industry awards organizer Les Victoires de la Musique is believed to be interested in introducing a new voting system to make the results more consistent. There will still be two rounds of voting. However, the new element will be that only those people who have voted in the first round will be allowed to vote in the second. The Victoires will be held in Paris on February 8, 1993. --- EMI (continued from page 1) includes European crossover bands such as Clouseau, Soulister and The Radios. De Clijppelier says the first priority in the new year will be to maintain EMI's strong position on the local market. "We think that the Belgian market will suffer a decline next year. This year, EMI Belgium has had the industry's most impressive growth, and the challenge will be to remain a strong competitor. This will not necessarily implicate that we plan to sign more local talent—we've just added Dirk Blanchart [ex-BMG] and a new band, The Big Noise—as we still have a long way to go with acts like Soulister." Meanwhile, the responsibilities of some of the company's other executives have also been changed. Product manager Erwin Goegebuer is named marketing manager, while head of promotion Bart Cools and assistant product manager Marc Toussaint are appointed product managers. --- GATT (continued from page 1) the GATT talks, the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI) is not rushing into lobbying action, preferring to take a wait and see attitude. "As far as we are concerned we are not that worried," says IFPI spokesperson Mark Kingston. "For one, we think it is not going to come to that [implementing levies on audio-visual products]. Also, the situation is changing all the time..." Kingston cautions, though, that "the situation could flare up at any minute." The European music industry is facing a double-edged sword when it comes to including audio-visual products in the GATT talks. On the one hand, the news is a welcome relief for European recorded music exporters to the US, who feared being priced out of the world's largest single market because of threatened tax levies. On the other hand, higher tariffs for US product could curtail the rise of parallel imports into Europe. One published report estimates that 25 million CDs are being imported by European retailers and wholesalers. --- INR4 (continued from page 1) rather a facility to purchase national network advertising through local radio. For example, national buyers are currently available with products such as "News Link" and the "Network Chart Show," which originate from Capital. But INR4 will be made up of a large number of programmes. "We are not talking about becoming a network like ITV, where the majority of programming comes from one centralized source," he says. "In fact, we think there is a limited scope for long-form national programmes. Short three-minute segments, such as news on new record releases, concert information or financial advice, could be attractive sponsorship opportunities." Eyre says several major advertisers are "buying into the idea of INR4" and are now working on some programming ideas. "The ultimate goals of INR4 will be to satisfy the advertiser's needs," he says. "At the same time it is not something that individual local programmers see as an intrusion into their programme schedules." The response to INR4 from the industry has been positive, says Eyre. "By and large the response has been This is a great idea. We do need more techniques to win national advertising money." He strongly emphasizes that INR4 will not be exclusively Capital-owned and operated, but that the resources of the industry and syndicators will pull together. "The important thing for me is that it does not all come through Capital, but rather that all the stations are involved," he says. "I am very aware that historically there has been concern among some of the stations that Capital Radio tries to dominate everything. "This idea won't work if we can't convince them [radio executives] that this is an initiative that has come out of very logical thinking, about how the industry goes about increasing our share of national advertising revenue." --- France (continued from page 1) All-news station France Info's audience was stable with an 8.1% share. Comments Philippe Labro, vice-president/GM of programmes at RTL, "The results were very good for generalist stations, which have gained 634,000 listeners compared to the April-June 1992 results." He says, however, that "compared to the September-October '91 results, generalists have lost 633,800 listeners." Even public station group Radio France has improved its position despite France Inter's slump (11.0% down 0.7%), due mainly to the good results of France Info. Since the April-June ratings, the group—which includes Inter, France Info, France Culture, France Musique, Radio Bleue, 39 local stations and nine urban stations—has increased its share from 19.0% to 21.5%. Europe 1 gained 92,000 listeners in the afternoon, and 100,000 in the morning, when both RTL and France Inter were losing audiences. The station introduced two new young DJs in September: Jean-Luc Delarue in the 6.00-9.00 AM drive-time slot and former Fun morning DJ Arthur in the strategic 16.00-18.00 spot. RTL remains the AM leader, however, with a cume audience share during the time of 5.1%, followed by Europe 1 (3.4%) and France Inter (3.2%). Fun, meanwhile, has lost 10% of its audience since the departure of Arthur. Europe 1 programme director Patrice Blanc-Brancard says the results represent a first step on the road to recovery. "Delarue has beefed up our morning audience, which puts us ahead of France Inter," he says. "With Arthur, we have gained 36%." He says listener demographics for the station may have changed. "If we have lost listeners over 50, we have gained those between 15-35 and even 25-49," he comments. "As a result, the follow-up programme, Découvertes has gained 100,000 new listeners. By adding Delarue and Arthur, it shows we have chosen a deliberate strategy to give some youth to our programmes. Now, we have to keep those listeners and add some more." Commenting on his station's ratings, Skyrock president Pierre Bellanger says, "This result encourages us to continue in this direction of the programming changes implemented in September." AC FM net RFM's president Andrew Manderstam calls his station's jump from a 1.7% to a 1.9% share "a nice surprise." Meanwhile, newcomer EHR Web M40 slipped 0.4 points to 1.2%. M40 MD Javier Pons acknowledges it will be hard to reach the planned year-end goal of a 2% audience, but says there is no reason to panic. "We will analyse this drop and try to find the reasons," he says. "Many FM networks have suffered a similar drop in audience, so it looks like a trend. We will look closely at our programmes, but we don't plan changes in format, which will remain focused on new releases and with a dominant French content." The rise in audience of Europe 2 has been welcomed by GM Martin Brisac, who is especially pleased that the station has increased its penetration in the 25-34 age demo. Europe 2 programme director Marc Garcia comments: "After a series of downturns which went back to the Gulf War, and a stabilisation during the last months, it seems that Europe 2 is starting to pull up again." Garcia considers that the changes implemented during the year "show that we are on the right track." --- French Radio Ratings (Audience Cume %) \| Station \| 1991 \| 1992 \| 1992 \| \|------------------\|------\|------\|------\| \| RTL (FS) \| 19.5 \| 18.6 \| 18.7 \| \| Europe 1 (FS) \| 11.7 \| 11.1 \| 11.6 \| \| France Inter (N/T) \| 11.7 \| 10.7 \| 11.0 \| \| NRJ (EHR) \| 10.1 \| 9.7 \| 9.3 \| \| France Info (N/T)\| 7.5 \| 8.1 \| 8.1 \| \| Fun (EHR) \| 4.8 \| 6.5 \| 5.8 \| \| Skyrock (EHR) \| 5.0 \| 5.2 \| 5.5 \| \| Europe 2 (AC) \| 4.3 \| 4.2 \| 4.5 \| \| Nostalgie (Gold) \| 4.3 \| 4.5 \| 4.5 \| \| RMC (MOR) \| 5.2 \| 4.0 \| 4.5 \| \| Cherie FM (Gold) \| 2.2 \| 2.6 \| 2.3 \| Source: Médiamétrie 100 x Archer After four consecutive weeks at the top of the EHR ranks, Madonna's Erotica is dethroned by EMI artist Tasmin Archer, who is now leading by many chart points. It marks the first time in the history of the EHR Top 40 that a debut artist rules the chart. In addition, Archer is the third artist to score a top-10 figureament of Most Added in a row. The first two were Elton John (issue 29) and Madonna (issue 32). The latter reached the highest issue in issue 35 when 109 EHR stations reported This Used To Be My Playground to M&M. Higher new entry this week goes to Michael Jackson, whose ballad Heal The World, the sixth single from the Dangerous album, grabs the top position of Most Added with no less than 28 adds throughout Europe in one go. Thus, Heal The World performs a promising 54% penetration rate. It enjoys its best penetration in Holland, Germany, Austria and Switzerland. In Denmark, however, airplay on the new single is only starting hesitantly. Second most added on EHR this US duo Charles & Eddie's debut hit, Would I Lie To You, is also a R.E.M. hit On The Moon, sharing a tie with 18 adds each. While the latter is a definite contender for a chart entry next week (the UK leads the way with a 62% penetration), Charles & Eddie are already charting for four weeks. Their performance in France makes them the only French act besides moving title on EHR. This is partly due to powerplay rotation on Dutch national pop channel Radio 3, something that also contributes to the single's entrance at number one on the West Central Regional EHR chart. Also fast moving is Cher's rendition of Oh! No Not My Baby. Jumping up from 40 to 22, with 15 additions under her belt, Cher looks ready to storm into the chart's upper half next week. The UK (86% EHR coverage), Austria and Spain are her strongest supporters at the moment. As yet, however, France hasn't joined in. Peter Kopp MOST ADDED \| Artist/Title \| Original Label \| Total Stations \| Rotation A \| Rotation B \| New Adds \| \|------------------------------\|----------------\|----------------\|------------\|------------\|----------\| \| MICHAEL JACKSON/Heal The World \| Epic \| 28 \| \| \| \| \| CHARLES & EDDIE/Would I Lie To You \| Capitol \| 18 \| \| \| \| \| R.E.M./Man On The Moon \| Warner Brothers \| 18 \| \| \| \| \| CHER/Oh No Not My Baby \| Geffen \| 17 \| \| \| \| \| RICHARD MARX/Chains Around My Heart \| Capitol \| 17 \| \| \| \| \| WHITNEY HOUSTON/I Will Always Love You \| Arista \| 11 \| \| \| \| \| ELTON JOHN/The Last Song \| Rocker \| 11 \| \| \| \| Most added are those songs which received the highest number of playlist additions during the week. In the case of a tie, songs are listed alphabetically by artist. "A" ROTATION LEADERS \| Artist/Title \| Original Label \| Total Stations \| Rotation A \| Rotation B \| New Adds \| \|------------------------------\|----------------\|----------------\|------------\|------------\|----------\| \| TASMIN ARCHER/Sleeping Satellite \| EMI \| 73 \| \| \| \| \| MADONNA/Erotica \| Maverick \| 67 \| \| \| \| \| VANESSA PARADIS/Be My Baby \| Polydor \| 67 \| \| \| \| \| BOYZ II MEN/End Of The Road \| Motown \| 64 \| \| \| \| \| CHARLES & EDDIE/Would I Lie To You \| Capitol \| 58 \| \| \| \| The "A" Rotation Leaders are those songs which have the highest number of stations playing them in a 24-hour period. In the case of a tie, songs are listed alphabetically by artist. "A" ROTATION PERFORMANCE \| Artist/Title \| Original Label \| Total Stations \| Rotation A \| Rotation B \| New Adds \| \|------------------------------\|----------------\|----------------\|------------\|------------\|----------\| \| UNDERCOVER/Never Let Her... \| PWL International \| 92 \| \| \| \| \| INNER CIRCLE/Sweat (Alalalalalang) \| Metronome \| 90 \| \| \| \| \| HEIGHTS/How Do You Talk To An Angel \| Capitol \| 80 \| \| \| \| \| BJÖRN AGAIN/A Little Respect \| M&M/Polystar \| 76 \| \| \| \| \| ERASURE/Who Needs Love \| Mute \| 76 \| \| \| \| \| LIONEL RICHIE/My Destiny \| Motown \| 77 \| \| \| \| \| CHER/Oh No Not My Baby \| Geffen \| 77 \| \| \| \| \| ONE MORE TIME/Highland \| CNR \| 73 \| \| \| \| \| BETTY BOOP/I'm On My Way \| WEA \| 72 \| \| \| \| "A" Performance is a feature of those records that have achieved the best A station penetration. Records listed are those outside the EHR top 20 and with a total number of reporting stations of at least 20. Songs tied are listed alphabetically by artist. TOP RECURRENTS \| Artist/Title \| Total Stations \| \|------------------------------\|----------------\| \| JON SECADA/Just Another Day \| 38 \| \| JIMMY NAIL/Ain't No Doubt \| 28 \| \| BILLY RAY CYRUS/Achy Breaky Heart \| Mercury \| 26 \| \| STING/It's Probably Me \| A&M \| 26 \| \| L. VANDROSS & J. JACKSON/The Best Things... \| A&M \| 26 \| Top Recurrents are former EHR top 20 records that have fallen off the chart but are still receiving significant airplay. In case of a tie, songs are listed alphabetically by artist. NEW TOP 20 CONTENDERS \| Artist/Title \| Original Label \| Total Stations \| \|------------------------------\|----------------\|----------------\| \| MARIE FREDRIKSSON/Så Lange Det \| Medley \| 24 \| \| BIZARRE INC./I'm Gonna Get You \| Vinyl Solution \| 22 \| \| HEIGHTS/How Do You Talk To An Angel \| Capitol \| 20 \| \| NEIL YOUNG/Horizon Moon \| Reprise \| 20 \| \| ERMA FRANKLIN/Piece Of My Heart \| Epic \| 20 \| \| MARIE FREDRIKSSON/Så Lange Det* \| Medley \| 24/6 \| New top 20 Contenders are those artists that have not yet had an EHR top 20 hit and appear on its current chart. In case of a tie, songs are listed by total number of stations. In case of a tie, records are listed alphabetically by artist. CHARTBOUND \| Artist/Title \| Original Label \| Total Stations \| Rotation A \| Rotation B \| \|------------------------------\|----------------\|----------------\|------------\|------------\| \| TREY LORENZ/Someone To Hold \| Columbia \| 31/4 \| \| \| \| ROB ORBISON/Heartbreak Radio \| Virgin \| 30/9 \| \| \| \| R.E.M./Man On The Moon* \| Warner Brothers\| 28/18 \| \| \| \| EXTREME/Stop The World \| A&M \| 28/7 \| \| \| \| ERASURE/Who Needs Love \| Mute \| 28/5 \| \| \| \| RICHARD MARX/Chains Around My Heart* \| Capitol \| 27/12 \| \| \| \| UNDERCOVER/Never Let Her...* \| PWL International \| 27/9 \| \| \| \| RAGE/Run To You \| Pulse \| 27/3 \| \| \| \| GENESIS/Tell Me Why* \| Virgin \| 26/10 \| \| \| \| ONE MORE TIME/Highland \| CNR \| 26/4 \| \| \| \| DR. ALBAN/One Love \| SwMusic \| 26/0 \| \| \| \| CURÆ/A Letter To Elise \| Fiction/Polystar \| 25/2 \| \| \| \| BETTY BOOP/I'm On My Way \| WEA \| 25/1 \| \| \| \| ERMA FRANKLIN/Piece Of My Heart \| Epic \| 25/0 \| \| \| \| MARIE FREDRIKSSON/Så Lange Det* \| Medley \| 24/6 \| \| \| The EHR Top 40 chart is based on a weighted-scoring system. Songs score points by achieving airplay or M&M's EPR reporting stations, that target 12-24 year-old listeners with contemporary music listening at discrete reporting points. Songs in "A" rotation airplay receive more points than those in "B" rotation or more limited airplay exposure. Stations are weighted by market size and by the number of hours per week committed to the format. The EHR "chartbound" chart lists the total number of EHR reporting stations playing newer songs that do not yet have enough airplay points to rank among the EHR Top 40. The second number represents how many stations reported it to M&M for the first time this week. Songs which have received no new airplay for two consecutive weeks will be deleted from this chart, but may reappear with new airplay. In the case of a tie, songs are listed by new adds. Asterisks indicate new entries in Chartbound. KIM WILDE. MILLION MILES AWAY EARLY BELIEVERS ACROSS EUROPE!! Austria CD INTERNATIONAL Vienna Belgium RADIO CONTACT N Brussels Denmark RADIO VIBORG Viborg RADIO HERNING Herning RADIO MOJN Aabenraa & Sønderborg RADIO VICTOR Esbjerg RADIO SYDKYSTEN Copenhagen Germany WDR 1: SCHLAGERRALLYE Cologne RB 4 Bremen RADIO REGENBOGEN Mannheim RADIO T.O.N Bad Mergentheim NDR 2 (DAYTIME PROG.) Hamburg Switzerland RADIO PILATUS 104.9 Luzern Sweden EAST FM Norrköping HIT FM Stockholm THE NEW SINGLE CROSS FORMAT CLIMBER
Multi-Defendant Strict Product Liability Cases: Making the Case for Application of ORS 31.605(4) Nicholas E. Wheeler Cosgrave Vergeer Kester LLP Like other tort claims, claims for strict product liability are subject to the comparative fault statutes, ORS 31.600 et seq.$^1$ Application of those statutes typically gives each qualifying at-fault party its own “slot” on the verdict form, and the jury uses those “slots” to apportion fault.$^2$ Complications arise in applying these statutes to strict product liability cases, because a product seller’s liability is not premised upon negligence or “fault” in the traditional sense. That complication is compounded when the jury is asked to compare the fault of multiple defendants in the product’s chain of distribution, especially in light of the Oregon Supreme Court’s recent abrogation of common-law indemnity in Eclectic Investment, LLC v. Patterson.$^3$ This article advocates for the application of ORS 31.605(4) in multi-defendant strict product liability cases as a mechanism to achieve results consistent with both pre-Eclectic Investment case law and the theory of strict product liability. Oregon’s Strict Liability Approach Oregon’s approach to strict product liability is modeled on Restatement (Second) of Torts, § 402A.$^4$ Liability attaches when one “sells or leases any product in a defective condition unreasonably dangerous to the user or consumer.”$^5$ Liability is “strict” in that it attaches “even though the seller or lessor has exercised all possible care in the preparation and sale or lease of the product.”$^6$ Further, unlike other jurisdictions,$^7$ the claim may be automatically brought against any “manufacturer, distributor, seller or lessor” of the product.$^8$ Defining the “Fault” in Strict Product Liability Cases Comparative fault has been recognized as a defense to a claim for strict product liability since 1982.$^9$ Instead of being based on negligence, however, that “fault” flows from “putting a dangerously defective product on the market.”$^10$ To quantify that “fault” relative to the plaintiff’s negligence, the jury considers “the magnitude of the defect rather than the negligence or moral ‘blameworthiness’ of the defendant.”$^11$ Complications Arising in Multi-Defendant Product Cases The interplay of the comparative fault statutes and the meaning of “fault” in strict product liability becomes problematic in multi-defendant product cases. Although each defendant’s liability is expressly not premised upon negligence, under the comparative fault statutes, each defendant is given its own “slot” on the verdict form. That effectively necessitates an apportionment among the defendants based on a negligence-based analysis, because the duty breached by each strictly liable defendant is typically identical—putting the same dangerously defective product on the market. Phrased differently, it will be the very rare case where the “magnitude of the defect” in a product changes as it passes through the chain of distribution, justifying apportionment of the jointly breached duty among the chain-of-distribution defendants. The Historical Solution The historical solution for non-manufacturing defendants apportioned a percentage of fault with the manufacturer was a derivative claim for common-law indemnity.$^12$ The historical right to indemnity in such circumstances is well established.$^13$ For example, in Irwin Yacht Sales, Inc. v. Carver Boat Corp., the court permitted a defendant found to be 40 percent at fault to pursue a claim for indemnity from a co-defendant who was 45 percent at fault.$^14$ The court reasoned “the allocation of fault [by the jury] did not determine whether plaintiff’s fault was active or passive,” which was the relevant inquiry under the indemnity analysis.$^15$ Continued on next page Eclectic Investment, LLC v. Patterson On March 19, 2015, the Oregon Supreme Court in Eclectic Investment, LLC v. Patterson abrogated common-law indemnity in tort claims in which the fault of all tortfeasors is compared by the jury under ORS 31.600 et seq.$^{16}$ The court reasoned: The doctrine of common-law indemnity was developed before comparative responsibility and is inconsistent with its framework. In cases in which the Oregon comparative negligence statutes apply and in which jurors allocate fault—and thereby responsibility—for payment of damages between tortfeasors, and each tortfeasor’s liability is several only, a judicially created means of allocating fault and responsibility is not necessary or justified.$^{17}$ In reaching its decision, the court noted that “a clear majority” of other comparative negligence states considering the issue had reached the same result.$^{18}$ However, it further footnoted “the exception to those [out of state] lines of cases appears in the context of strict liability. Courts are reluctant to permit apportionment of damages in cases in which one party’s liability results from the manufacture of an unreasonably dangerous product.”$^{19}$ While the court’s footnote might lead to a future recognized exception to the abrogation of common-law indemnity claims in the context of strict product liability, Eclectic Investment’s holding otherwise clearly encompasses such claims, as they are subject to ORS 31.600 et seq.$^{20}$ The ORS 31.605(4) Solution Since 1995, ORS 31.605(4) has provided that “the court may order that two or more persons be considered a single person for the purpose of determining the degree of fault of the persons specified in ORS 31.600(2).”$^{21}$ When applied, this statORS 31.605(4) IN PRODUCT LIABILITY CASES continued from page 13 ute effectively makes the liability of the combined parties joint, notwithstanding Oregon’s several liability-only statutory scheme otherwise applicable to claims for strict product liability.\textsuperscript{22} Further, application of this statute would appear to avoid the holding in \textit{Eclectic Investment}, in that its abrogation of common-law indemnity only applies in cases premised on several liability. In the 20 years that ORS 31.605(4) has been on the books, no Oregon appellate decision has analyzed the circumstances under which the statute should or should not be applied. The statute’s use of the word “may” shows the trial court has discretion over when to apply it, and the statute’s legislative history confirms that understanding.\textsuperscript{23} The legislative history also suggests it was intended to apply in the context of multi-defendant strict product liability cases,\textsuperscript{24} and \textit{Eclectic Investment’s} footnote on strict product liability further supports its application. Finally, ORS 31.605(4) is consistent with the generally recognized purpose of strict product liability: An often-cited rationale for holding wholesalers and retailers strictly liable for harm caused by manufacturing defects is that, as between them and innocent victims who suffer harm because of defective products, the product sellers as business entities are in a better position than are individual users and consumers to insure against such losses. In most instances, wholesalers and retailers will be able to pass liability costs up the chain of product distribution to the manufacturer.\textsuperscript{25} Conclusion Traditional application of the comparative fault statutes is problematic in the context of multi-party strict liability cases, especially in light of \textit{Eclectic Investment’s} abrogation of common-law indemnity. ORS 31.605(4) is a logical mechanism to be used by non-manufacturer strict product liability defendants to achieve results not only consistent with pre-\textit{Eclectic Investment} case law, but also with the theory behind strict product liability. Endnotes 1. \textit{Sandford v. Chevrolet Div. of Gen. Motors}, 292 Or 590, 598 (1982). 2. ORS 31.605(1)(b). 3. 357 Or 25 (2015). 4. ORS 30.920(3). 5. ORS 30.920(1). 6. ORS 30.920(2)(a). 7. In Washington, subject to certain exceptions, a non-manufacturing reseller is generally not subject to a claim for strict product liability. RCW 7.72.040. 8. ORS 30.900. 9. \textit{Sandford}, 292 Or at 598. 10. \textit{Id.} at 597. 11. \textit{Id.} at 607. 12. See \textit{Rains v. Stayton Builders Mart, Inc.}, 264 Or App 636, 640 (2014), rev allowed 357 Or 111 (March 26, 2015) (trial court awarded retailer indemnity following jury’s finding that the retailer was 30 percent at fault and the manufacturer was 45 percent at fault; on appeal, indemnity awarded reversed for lack of evidence of discharge element on indemnity claim). 13. See Restatement (Third) of Torts: Prod. Liab. § 2, Comment a (1998) (“wholesalers and retailers will be able to pass liability costs up the chain of product distribution to the manufacturer . . . [and] local retailers can pay damages to the victims and then seek indemnity from manufacturers.”). 14. 98 Or App 195, 198 (1989). 15. \textit{Id.} 16. 357 Or 25 (2015). 17. \textit{Id.} at 38. 18. \textit{Id.} at 37. 19. \textit{Id.} at 37 n 7. 20. \textit{Sandford}, 292 Or at 598. 21. Or Laws 1995, ch 696, § 696. Prior to 2003, ORS 31.605 was numbered ORS 18.480. 22. ORS 31.610(1). 23. Hearing before Oregon Senate Committee on Judiciary, May 17, 1995, transcribed from Tape I7I/A, pp. 28-30, testimony of Robert J. Neuberger and Thomas H. Tongue. 24. \textit{Id.} See also Uniform Comparative Fault Act, Comment to § 2 (“In situations such as that of . . . manufacturer and retailer of a product, the court may under appropriate circumstances find that the two persons should be treated as a single party for purposes of allocating fault.”). 25. Restatement (Third) of Torts: Prod. Liab. § 2, Comment a (1998).
Metabotropic Glutamate Receptors Switch Visual Response Mode of Lateral Geniculate Nucleus Cells From Burst to Tonic DWAYNE W. GODWIN, J. WILLIAM VAUGHAN, AND S. MURRAY SHERMAN Department of Neurobiology, State University of New York, Stony Brook, New York 11794-5230 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 1. Metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs) on relay cells of the lateral geniculate nucleus appear to be activated exclusively by cortical inputs. We thus sought to manipulate these receptors in an effort to gain insight into the possible role of the corticogeniculate pathway. We used in vivo recording and pharmacological techniques in cats to activate or inactivate these receptors on geniculate neurons while analyzing their response properties. 2. Iontophoretic application of the mGluR agonist 1-amino-cyclopentane-1,3-dicarboxylic acid (ACPD) to X and Y cells in the geniculate A laminae diminished or abolished burst activity characteristic of low-threshold Ca$^{2+}$ spikes. This was accompanied by pronounced changes in the visual response, including a decrease in signal detectability as measured with receiver operating characteristic curves. 3. ACPD effects appear specific to mGluRs, because a specific antagonist of ionotropic glutamate receptors (iGluRs) failed to affect the ACPD-evoked responses, and antagonists of ACPD failed to affect iGluR-mediated responses. We found that 3,5-dihydroxyphenylglycine, an agonist reported to be specific for phosphatidylinositol (PI)-linked mGluRs, had effects similar to those of ACPD, implying that these effects are mediated by PI-coupled mGluRs. Furthermore, antagonists reported to be effective against PI-linked mGluRs were effective in antagonizing the ACPD-mediated effects, and substances reported to be agonists to mGluRs coupled to the adenosine 3',5' cyclic monophosphate cascade did not affect neuronal responses on their own. These data, when added to our preliminary anatomic data, indicate that the receptor responsible for the observed effects may be mGluR1, or a functionally equivalent mGluR. 4. Activation of mGluRs produces changes in geniculate relay cell activity consistent with depolarization of these cells seen during in vitro studies. Such membrane depolarization has been shown to control the activation state of a voltage-dependent Ca$^{2+}$ conductance, and this, in turn, determines whether the relay cell fires in tonic or burst mode. Our data show that application of ACPD produces a shift in response mode from burst to tonic. Because response mode is an important characteristic of the geniculate relay and because the activation state of certain mGluRs, which helps determine response mode, may be controlled by corticogeniculate input, we conclude that an important function of this input is to provide a visuotopically discrete transition from burst to tonic response mode. INTRODUCTION The dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus is a dynamic relay of the visual information transmitted from the retina to primary visual cortex. It is a relay in the sense that most of the receptive field structure originating in the retina is transmitted through the lateral geniculate nucleus to cortex, but it is also dynamic in that visual information may be filtered or gated according to behavioral state or stimulus attribute (Livingstone and Hubel 1981; Norton and Godwin 1992; Sherman and Koch 1990, Singer 1977). A property of relay cells that is important to this gating is their ability to respond to afferent input in one of two very different response modes (Jahnsen and Llinás 1984a,b; Steriade et al. 1993; Sherman and Koch 1986, 1990): tonic or burst.\footnote{“Tonic” used in this sense refers to a response mode of a geniculate relay cell, and here it is paired with “burst.” X and Y cells, the relay cell types found in the A laminae of the cat’s lateral geniculate nucleus, display both response modes. This should not be confused with another, archaic use of “tonic” when paired with “phasic” to refer to a cell type: “tonic” for X and “phasic” for Y. Throughout this account, we use “tonic” only to refer to response mode and not to cell type.} The response mode depends on the activation state of a voltage-dependent Ca$^{2+}$ conductance known as the low-threshold spike. At depolarized membrane potentials, this conductance is inactivated, and an incoming depolarizing input such as an excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) leads to firing in tonic mode with a continuous stream of conventional Na$^+/K^+$ action potentials. At hyperpolarized levels, the conductance is deinactivated, or primed, and an EPSP produces a low-threshold spike due to Ca$^{2+}$ entry; typically riding its crest is a high-frequency burst of 2–10 action potentials with interspike intervals $\leq 4$ ms, and these bursts are separated by $\approx 50–100$ ms. The activation state of the low-threshold spike also has a time dependency: roughly 50–100 ms of continuous hyperpolarization is needed to switch the state from inactivated to deinactivated, and a similar period of depolarization is needed to switch states in the opposite direction. We have shown that geniculate cells in burst mode detect and signal the presence of visual stimuli more reliably than when in tonic mode, but at the expense of response linearity that is important for accurate and detailed analysis of visual form (Guido et al. 1995). Certain nonretinal inputs to geniculate relay cells are capable of depolarizing these cells, inactivating the low-threshold spike to promote tonic firing, and thereby affecting retino-geniculate transmission. The best example of this to date is the cholinergic input arising from the parabrachial region of brain stem. Activation of this pathway, or activation of cholinergic receptors on lateral geniculate nucleus cells, provides enough prolonged depolarization of relay neurons to switch them dramatically from burst to tonic mode (Eysel et al. 1986; Francesconi et al. 1988; Lu et al. 1993; McCormick and Prince 1987). To the extent that other nonretinal inputs may produce a long-lasting depolarization of relay cell membrane potential, they may also promote tonic responses. An excellent candidate for this is the axons from layer 6 of visual cortex, which provides the largest synaptic input to geniculate relay cells (see Sherman and Koch 1986, 1990). There is in vivo and in vitro evidence that this corticogeniculate pathway is glutamatergic and depolarizing (McCormick and von Krosigk 1992; Sharfman et al. 1990). Both N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) and 2-amino-3-(3-hydroxy-5-methylisoxazol-4-yl) propanoate (AMPA) receptors are involved. These receptors are ionotropic glutamate receptors (iGluRs) and they directly gate ionic channels to produce fast EPSPs. Scharfman et al. (1990) showed that both retinal and cortical axons activate both AMPA and NMDA receptors to produce EPSPs on geniculate cells. A problem with the suggestion that the corticogeniculate input may control tonic versus burst response modes via these iGluRs is their dynamics: the resultant EPSPs may be too fast to inactivate the low-threshold spike. However, recent evidence suggests a neuromodulatory role for glutamate through metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs), which act on ion channels through intracellular, second-messenger pathways. EPSPs resulting from activating certain mGluRs are much more prolonged and seem well suited to controlling response mode. There are at least eight subtypes of mGluRs, which are segregated into three groups on the basis of sequence similarity, intracellular second-messenger involvement, and agonist sensitivity (for details, see Duvosin et al. 1995; Watkins and Collingridge 1994): group I includes mGluR1 and mGluR5, which are coupled via phosphatidylinositol (PI)-specific phospholipase C to PI hydrolysis and intracellular Ca$^{2+}$ mobilization; group II includes mGluR2 and mGluR3, which are negatively coupled via adenylate cyclase to forskolin-stimulated adenosine 3',5'-cyclic monophosphate (cAMP) formation; and group III includes mGluR4, mGluR6, mGluR7 and mGluR8, which are also negatively coupled to cAMP formation but demonstrate a different agonist sensitivity from mGluR2 and mGluR3 (Duvosin et al. 1995; Watkins and Collingridge 1994). Other second-messenger systems may also be involved with these mGluRs (Conn et al. 1994), but those described above distinguish the three groups. All are activated by the mGluR agonist 1-amino-cyclopentane-1,3-dicarboxylic acid (ACPD). Recently, a series of phenylglycine derivatives has been shown to be effective agonists or partial antagonists to mGluRs (Birse et al. 1993), with varying degrees of subtype specificity. In ventrobasal thalamus, Salt and Eaton (1994) used some of these to demonstrate effective antagonism of excitatory responses to ACPD. McCormick and von Krosigk (1992) showed in the guinea pig lateral geniculate nucleus that application of ACPD or activation of mGluRs through the corticogeniculate (but not the retinogeniculate) pathway resulted in a long-lasting EPSP (on the order of several seconds) due to the decrease of a resting K$^+$ conductance. The evidence that activation of mGluRs on geniculate relay cells leads to very slow EPSPs and that such activation occurs primarily, if not solely, via corticogeniculate inputs suggests the possibility that this input may be well able to control response mode. Our preliminary in vitro data confirm the involvement of this receptor system in cat lateral geniculate nucleus, and confirm that this slow EPSP promotes the expression of tonic response mode by a membrane depolarization that inactivates the low-threshold spike (Zhou et. al 1994). We wished to extend these studies of activation of mGluRs on geniculate neurons. Previous studies have relied on \textit{in vitro} methodology, so we concentrated on activating mGluRs in geniculate cells in the intact cat and determining how such activation affected responses and response mode during visual stimulation. To the extent that the mGluR activation is exclusive to the corticogeniculate pathway, as has been reported from \textit{in vitro} experiments (McCormick and von Krosigk 1992), we hoped that this approach could offer new insights into the functioning of the corticogeniculate pathway. Preliminary results of this study have been reported in abstract form (Godwin et al. 1994). METHODS Preparation We adopted previously published methods (Godwin 1993; Guido et al. 1992, 1995; Holdefer et al. 1989; Lo et al. 1991; Lu et al. 1992), briefly outlined below, to perform experiments on adult cats. We anesthetized the cats initially with 3.5% halothane and maintained anesthesia after surgery with 0.5–1.0% halothane in a 70:30 mixture of N$_2$O:O$_2$. The cats were paralyzed with gallamine triethiodide (5.0 mg) and were artificially respired through a tracheal cannula. We maintained paralysis with drugs delivered through a cannulated femoral vein (gallamine triethiodide, 3.6 mg/h; and tubocurarine, 0.7 mg/h). Wound margins and pressure points were treated with a topical anesthetic. We then placed the cats in a stereotaxic apparatus for recordings. Rectal temperature, heart rate, and end-tidal CO$_2$ were continuously monitored and maintained within normal physiological limits. At the end of the recording session, the cats were killed with an overdose of barbiturates without ever recovering from anesthesia. Access to the lateral geniculate nucleus was obtained though a craniotomy (5.0 mm diam) centered at A5.0, L9.0. A pair of insulated tungsten electrodes (500-$\mu$m exposed tips, 4-mm separation) were lowered to straddle the optic chiasm through a second craniotomy centered on the midline at A13.0. We orthodromically activated geniculate neurons through these electrodes with the use of single stimuli (0.1 ms, 1 Hz, 100–500 $\mu$A) to assist in identifying different geniculate neuronal classes (see below). After dilating the pupils with atropine sulfate, we protected the corneas with contact lenses selected by retinoscopy to focus the retinas on stimuli presented on a frontal tangent screen placed 57 cm in front of the eyes. We used a fiberoptic light source to reflect the tapetum onto the tangent screen (Pettigrew et al. 1979), permitting us to plot retinal landmarks (including the optic disk, area centralis, and major retinal blood vessels). We recorded from single neurons in the geniculate A laminae and delivered drugs with a tungsten-in-glass recording electrode (impedances 8–14 M$\Omega$) combined with a multibarrelled drug pipette (Godwin 1993). Neuronal activity was amplified, displayed on an oscilloscope, voltage window discriminated, and stored on computer as spike arrival times with a resolution of 0.1 ms. Visual stimulation and classification of geniculate cells Neuronal receptive field position, on- or off-center type, size, and ocularity were initially determined by plotting activity evoked from small spots of light projected onto the tangent screen. The tangent screen was then replaced with a Tektronix 608 oscilloscope monitor for the presentation of visual stimuli under computer control. Counterphase modulated sinusoidal gratings were used to test linearity of spatial summation to assist with cell classification (see below). We used the oscilloscope to present dark or light spots centered on the receptive field of each geniculate cell, dark spots for off-center cells and light spots for on-center ones. The spots were presented on a cathode ray tube under computer control. The background was held at a luminance of 15 cd/m², bright spots were typically 60 cd/m², and dark spots were typically 3.7 cd/m². These values provide a contrast of 0.6 for both bright and dark spots. Occasionally spots of less contrast were used, but we noted little difference in responses, and thus the data presented here reflect responses to the bright and dark spots as indicated. We classified all neurons as X or Y like with the use of a battery of tests, including latency to electrical stimulation from optic chiasm, linearity of spatial summation, center size, and the response of the surround to a large, rapidly moving stimulus of opposite contrast to the receptive field center (Shapley and Lennie 1985; Sherman 1985). We classified burst responses due to low-threshold spikes from extracellularly recorded spike arrival times with the use of previously published criteria (Guido et al. 1995). In brief, a response was classified as a low-threshold burst if its constituent action potentials were ≤4 ms apart, with the first spike in a burst preceded by a silent period of ≥100 ms. We summarized burst activity for each cell and under each drug condition with a burst index, which is simply the proportion of stimulus presentations that evoked a low-threshold burst (Guido et al. 1992, 1995; Lu et al. 1992). This index could thus range between 0 and 1. Pharmacology We iontophoretically applied the following agonists and antagonists at pH 8.0, delivered as anions, through a multibarrelled pipette (Godwin 1993) at the concentrations indicated in parentheses: trans-(1S,3R),-1-amino-1,3-cyclopentanedicarboxylic acid (1S,3R-ACPD; 30 mM); trans-(±)-ACPD (trans±ACPD; 30 mM); s-4-carboxy-3-hydroxyphenylglycine (4C3HPG, 60 mM); NMDA (100 mM); (±)-2-amino-5-phosphonopentanoic acid (AP5, 50 mM); 3′/5′-dihydroxyphenylglycine (DHPG, 30 mM); s-4-carboxyphenylglycine (4CPG, 60 mM); quisqualate (25 mM); and 6,7-dinitroquinoxaline-2,3-dione (DNQX, 20 mM). Conventional controls were performed to preclude nonspecific effects of pH and current, including iontophoretic application of vehicle solutions of identical pH (but devoid of drug) and the use of circuitry that balanced to zero net currents occurring at the tips of the iontophoretic pipette. We recorded neuronal signals through a tungsten-in-glass electrode affixed 30–60 μm in advance of the iontophoretic pipettes (Godwin 1993). In addition to antagonist activity at group I mGluRs, 4CPG and 4C3HPG also have reported agonist activity at group II mGluRs (specifically mGluR2) as expressed in Chinese hamster ovarian cells (Hayashi et al. 1994). However, we used these substances to probe group I mGluRs for three reasons. First, they are known to antagonize group I mGluRs, and 4CPG has been suggested to be specific to mGluR1 (Joly et al. 1995). Second, possible group II agonist effects could be probed by testing these substances without ACPD. Third, ACPD is also an agonist to group II mGluRs, and thus any excitatory or inhibitory effect produced by ACPD through group II mGluRs should be augmented by 4CPG and 4C3HPG, not diminished, and this can be tested. It is possible that group II agonist effects occur that are invisible to our recording electrode through second-messenger involvement, but such hypothetical effects are beyond the scope of the current study. Receiver operating characteristic curve analysis In addition to other standard response measures (e.g., firing rate and burst index), we generated receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves for responses of geniculate neurons. These curves provide a criterion-free, nonparametric estimate of detectability, or how well a neuron discriminates visually driven (signal) from maintained activity (noise). The details of this analysis technique have been presented elsewhere (Guido et al. 1995; Holdefer et al. 1989; Macmillan and Creelman 1991; Wilson et al. 1988). In brief, we develop ROC curves as follows. We determine the cumulative probability distributions of activity occurring in two sampling periods, 500 ms in duration, one occurring just before the presentation of the visual stimulus (maintained activity), the other occurring just after the onset of the stimulus (visually driven activity). We determine these distributions for all possible criterion levels present in our data and plot these against one another at each possible criterion level. The possible criterion levels range from the least stringent of no spikes occurring to the most stringent of the largest number of spikes seen in any epoch. It follows that the probability of the response exceeding the least stringent criterion will be very high, approaching 1, that the probability for the most stringent will be very low, approaching 0, and that intermediate criterion values will lead to intermediate probability values. The plotting of these various probability values for each criterion generates the ROC curve. The area under the ROC curve, or ROC area, may vary between 0 and 1, although in practice it varies between 0.5 and 1, and it is monotonically related to detectability. An area of 1 denotes perfect detectability, and an area of 0.5 denotes an inability to distinguish signal from noise. The validity of the technique does not depend on assumptions about the nature of the underlying distributions (Guido et al. 1995; Holdefer et al. 1989; Macmillan and Creelman 1991; Wilson et al. 1988). We plotted ROC curves from data collected under each drug treatment condition noted above. RESULTS We studied the visual responses of 61 cells (35 X and 26 Y cells; 33 on-center and 28 off-center cells) in the A laminae of the lateral geniculate nucleus. Of these, 17 were also tested with one of two antagonists effective against excitatory mGluR activation. Seven of these were also tested with iGluR agonists and antagonists. The receptive fields of the recorded neurons were within 30° of the area centralis. The effects to be reported here were not selective for cells identified as X versus Y or on-center versus off-center, and we thus pooled data across all cells for the analyses. Effects on spontaneous activity Of our total sample of 61 cells, 14 exhibited spontaneous activity exclusively in tonic mode with no evidence of bursting, and thus 47 cells showed at least some spontaneous activity in burst mode. The effects of iontophoretic application of ACPD (either trans±ACPD or 1S,3R-ACPD) took ~3 min to become established. The clearest and most consistent effect of ACPD application was seen on the 47 cells showing at least some burst firing: there was a strong tendency during spontaneous activity to shift response mode from burst to tonic. Figure 1 shows a typical example. In the control condition before ACPD application (Fig. 1A), the cell shows frequent spontaneous bursts. Also, the interspike interval distribution revealed a large, sharp peak at very short intervals (≤4 ms) representing the bursts. ACPD application (Fig. 1B) completely eliminated burst activity, and the interspike interval distribution was without any obvious peak. Each cell that showed at least some spontaneous bursting in the control condition had its burstiness reduced after ACPD application. Presumably the depolarization caused by activation of the mGluRs (McCormick and Von Krosigk 1992) was often sufficient to inactivate the low-threshold spike underlying the bursts of action potentials. Thus the main tendency of ACPD application was to reduce burst responses and increase tonic ones. Note that this refers not to overall responsiveness but simply to the subset of action potentials in burst or tonic mode. Other than this relative effect on burst and tonic responsiveness, there was often little effect on spontaneous activity observable immediately after application of this drug. Effects were seen after tens of seconds. In most cells, ACPD application resulted in a modest increase in spontaneous activity, but in others, there was little change in the activity level, and in some cases, ACPD caused a modest reduction in spontaneous activity (see below), a feature never seen with application of iGluR agonists. This is in contrast to AMPA or NMDA receptor activation, which caused a noticeable peak in firing within a second or two of agonist delivery and which could produce eventual depolarization block (not illustrated). Activation of these iGluRs opens channels for various cations to flow into the cell, and the reversal potentials for these cations are quite positive with respect to the resting membrane potential (Mayer and Westbrook 1987). This leads to powerful depolarization, which is apparently often strong enough to directly activate action potentials, independent of retinal input. However, activation of mGluRs by ACPD produces a much weaker depolarization, because this results from a reduced $K^+$ leak current, and this can only provide a slightly more depolarized resting potential. This weaker depolarization is evidently insufficient in most cases to directly excite action potentials on its own, but by moving the membrane potential closer to threshold, it raises the probability that EPSPs due to activation of iGluRs will fire action potentials. Also, in some cases, the slight depolarization may switch the cell from fairly active burst activity to tonic firing, but at a relatively hyperpolarized level for tonic mode that is reflected in a lower overall firing rate (see below). Effects of ACPD application on visually driven activity ACPD had several dose-dependent effects on visually driven responses. In tandem with decreases in burst firing, we typically observed increases in both spontaneous and the sustained portion of visually driven activity with increasing iontophoretic currents and application times. This is illustrated in Fig. 2, which also shows the effect of drug application on the burst index (see METHODS). Note, however, that although increasing ACPD application produced a lower burst index, and that as a result the sustained portion of the response increased, the initial, abrupt peak in response to spot onset actually decreased. In other words, the switch from burst to tonic firing caused by ACPD promoted a smaller initial peak response but a larger sustained response to a flashing spot. However, in most cases, when we considered the 500-ms period after onset of the stimulus, ACPD application increased the response (see below for details). These effects recovered within 3 min. Figure 3 shows further that both 1S,3R-ACPD (the active enantiomer of trans-ACPD) and DHPG (an agonist reported to be specific to FIG. 2. Effect of application of metabotropic glutamate receptor (mGluR) agonist, trans-ACPD, on the activity of a geniculate Y cell. Unless otherwise specified in this and succeeding figures, agonist and antagonist are delivered iontophoretically for 5 min before and during the period the responses are obtained for analysis. Shown are the cell’s responses to a spot of light with a contrast of 0.6 flashed on and off in the receptive field center (see vertical dashed line and trace at bottom for on and off phases of the stimulus). The solid histogram in each panel represents all spikes, and the white histogram represents the subset of spikes present in burst mode responses. The burst index is given in the top right corner of each panel (see text). The binwidth for these and all other histograms in succeeding figures is 5 ms. Each histogram represents data recorded in sequence from the same cell. A: control response before any agonist is delivered. B: response after ACPD was delivered with a current of 15 nA. C: response after trans-ACPD was delivered with a current of 30 nA. D: response after trans-ACPD was delivered with a current of 55 nA. E: control response 3 min after delivery of trans-ACPD is terminated. Note that, as the iontophoretic current increased to deliver more trans-ACPD, the cell’s burstiness decreased, the initial transient response to the spot decreased, and the sustained component of the response increased. These effects recovered within 3 min. PI-coupled mGluRs; (Schoepp et al. 1994) had similar, reversible effects to those shown in Fig. 2. Of our cell sample, the same 14 cells that showed only tonic firing during spontaneous activity also responded to flashing spots exclusively in tonic mode with no evidence of bursting, and the same 47 cells with some bursting during spontaneous activity also showed at least some visually evoked responses in burst mode. The scatter plot in Fig. 4A shows that ACPD reduced the burst index in 38 of the 47 cells (these points fall below the line of slope 1), and for the population, this effect is statistically significant ($P < 0.001$ on a Sign test). Figure 4B shows further that the effectiveness of ACPD in eliminating burst firing was related to the burstiness of the cell when the drug was applied. These two variables are significantly correlated ($r = -0.95; P < 0.001$). The net effect of ACPD was thus to promote tonic firing in cells that were in burst mode, presumably by depolarizing them and inactivating the low-threshold spike underlying burst responses. The minimal effects on cells responding chiefly in tonic mode suggests that these cells were already somewhat depolarized. Specificity of the ACPD effect ACPD is a specific agonist for mGluRs (Palmer et al. 1989; Watkins and Collingridge 1994). However, there are suggestions from other systems that mGluRs may modulate NMDA receptor function (e.g., Colwell and Levine 1994). We thus felt it important to verify that the measured drug effects did not result from either direct cross reactivity of the putative agonist with other iGluRs or indirect modulation of other iGluRs through intracellular pathways. We verified for seven cells that the ACPD effect on geniculate neurons was independent of activation of NMDA (5 cells) or AMPA receptors (2 cells). TEST OF NMDA RECEPTOR INVOLVEMENT. Possible NMDA receptor involvement was probed by achieving an NMDA response, antagonizing the response with concurrent application of APV, and then using that level of APV against the ACPD application at the same antagonist current effective against NMDA. This control experiment is shown in Fig. 5, which shows the response histograms of an X cell to a flashed spot under the drug conditions indicated in the inset of each plot, with each record taken at intervals of ~4 min. Both the entire response (black histograms) and the subset of action potentials residing in burst responses (white histograms) are shown. NMDA application alone does reduce burst firing, but not as dramatically as did ACPD application (Fig. 5, B and F). Also, although the effect of NMDA was blocked by adding AP5, a specific NMDA antagonist (Fig. 5C), this same antagonist has no effect on ACPD effects (Fig. 5, J and K). In no case was the ACPD response antagonized or diminished by the AP5 application, although 4CPG, an antagonist of PI-coupled mGluRs, did antagonize the ability of ACPD to switch responses from burst to tonic (Fig. 5G). TEST OF AMPA RECEPTOR INVOLVEMENT. We did not follow exactly the same protocol as outlined in Fig. 5 for NMDA receptors to control for AMPA receptors, because in our hands, complete antagonism of AMPA receptors could effectively block retinogeniculate transmission, preventing assessment of effects on responses to the visual stimuli. Both NMDA and AMPA receptors are used for retinogeniculate transmission (Kemp and Sillito 1982; Kwon et al. 1991; Scharfman et al. 1990; Sillito et al. 1990), but apparently although antagonism of the NMDA receptors permits visual The basic effect of ACPD in converting a response to the flashing spot from largely burst mode to largely tonic mode is illustrated in Fig. 6, $A–E$. Note that the ACPD-evoked responses were antagonized by iontophoretic application of the phenylglycine derivative 4CPG (Fig. 6C), but retinogeniculate transmission is not disrupted. Indeed, we have never been able to eliminate retinogeniculate transmission with the phenylglycine-derived antagonists. We have only been able to antagonize the effects of ACPD on firing rates and burst discharges. This is consistent with the reported physiological actions of excitatory mGluRs on the leak K$^+$ current, which does not seem to contribute directly to synaptic transmission. In contrast, antagonism of quisqualate-mediated responses with DNQX in the same cell (Fig. 6H) almost completely blocked retinogeniculate transmission, which argues that the effects of ACPD and DNQX occur through different mechanisms. Finally, Fig. 6, $M$ and $N$, shows that the quisqualate evoked responses are not antagonized by application of 4CPG at iontophoretic currents sufficient to antagonize the ACPD-mediated effects, even after prolonged application of 4CPG (Fig. 6N). This does not rule out the possibility that quisqualate is an agonist at the mGluRs under study, but if so, quisqualate-evoked effects are much larger than those evoked by ACPD, and we were able to antagonize the ACPD effects with 4CPG. Quantitative effects of ACPD on response levels Figure 7 summarizes the population effects of ACPD application on both spontaneous and visually driven activity. Spontaneous activity (Fig. 7A) was measured as the average firing rate during the 500 ms immediately before onset of the flashing spot, and the rate for visually driven activity (Fig. 7B) was likewise measured during the 500 ms starting with spot onset. The scatter plots show the relationship between initial firing rates and rates after ACPD application. The majority of points are above the line of slope 1 for both spontaneous (56 of 61 cells) and visually driven activity (51 of 61 cells), and for the population, this increase during both response epochs is statistically significant ($P < 0.001$ on Sign tests). The bottom histograms show a similar result in a different fashion, comparing the response levels during ACPD application with that attained after recovery, which we took as $\geq 5$ min after ACPD application was terminated. Again, the increases during ACPD application for both spontaneous and visually driven activity were statistically significant ($P < 0.001$ on Mann-Whitney $U$ tests). Influence of phenylglycine-derived antagonists on ACPD-mediated effects As noted above, we used phenylglycine-derived compounds to antagonize ACPD (Watkins and Collingridge 1994). In several cells, we further assessed the effectiveness of two of these compounds, 4CPG and 4C3HPG, in reducing the ACPD-mediated effects. Although ACPD application made the response mode of many cells switch from predominantly burst to mainly tonic (e.g., Figs. 1–3, 5 and 6), Fig. 4 shows that the magnitude of this effect depends on the burst index in the control condition before ACPD application. Thus, by this measure, ACPD had little effect on cells. in tonic mode. A more general index of ACPD effects was the increase in mean firing rates for spontaneous and visually driven activity (Fig. 7). We used this measure to test the ability of the two phenylglycine derivatives to antagonize the effects of ACPD application. Figure 8 summarizes these results. Both 4CPG and 4C3HPG proved effective antagonists to the ACPD-mediated response increases, so Fig. 8 shows the pooled data from the tested cells, which were put through four conditions: the first (ACPD1) represents ACPD alone; the second (CPG) represents the addition of the antagonist; the third (ACPD2) represents another cycle of ACPD alone (i.e., after cessation of phenylglycine derivatives); and the fourth (Recovery) represents removal of agonist and antagonist, permitting the response to return to baseline. Because the phenylglycine compounds were applied concurrently with the ACPD in condition 2, there is some agonist rebound after antagonist treatment. Because 4CPG and 4C3HPG may also have agonist activity at group II mGluRs (Hayashi et al. 1994), we tested these substances in separate control runs to determine whether we could detect changes in our physiological responses due to this possible agonist activity. We found that these substances had no significant effect on our response variables when applied in the absence of ACPD (not shown). Because ACPD is an agonist for both group I and group II mGluRs, coapplication of ACPD with 4CPG or 4C3HPG should yield additive effects if the excitation we observed were due to activation of a group II mGluR, but this did not occur. Effects of ACPD application on signal detectability We have previously used ROC analysis to show that as the response mode of geniculate cells becomes more tonic and less bursty, a switch occurs that is associated with membrane depolarization. These cells also become less able to detect stimuli because they exhibit decreases in the areas of their ROC curves (Guido et al. 1995). It appeared that this was due chiefly to an increase in spontaneous activity. Because ACPD application causes a switch from burst to tonic response mode, we anticipated that this would also be associated with a decrease in signal detectability. This indeed occurred. Figure 9 shows a typical example of this for an on-center Y cell. Iontophoretic application of ACPD produced an increase in response rate that was larger for spontaneous than for visually driven activity, and, as in other cells, also switched the cell from mainly burst to predominantly tonic firing. The right column shows that a decrease in the area under the ROC curve occurred in tandem with these other response changes. The phenylglycine derivative 4CPG antagonized the ACPD effect on each of these variables. Figure 10A shows that the decrease in ROC area, and thus the decrease in signal detectability, caused by ACPD application was true for the population, because 46 of the 61 cells exhibited such a decrease ($P < 0.001$ on a Sign test). This figure shows ROC area of the ACPD treated cells plotted against the areas measured in the control condition. We found that four factors were associated with these decreases in ROC area. First, Fig. 10B shows that the ratio of visually driven activity (Fig. 7B) to spontaneous activity (Fig. 7A) tended to decrease with ACPD application for 47 of the 61 cells ($P < 0.001$ on a Sign test), and the average reduction in this ratio was $>10$ ($P < 0.001$ on a Mann-Whitney $U$ test). That is, spontaneous activity increased with ACPD application proportionately more than did visually driven activity (see Fig. 7, A and B), and the reduced ratio associated with ACPD application was consistent with the reduced signal detectability. Second, and consistent with Fig. 10B, Fig. 10C shows that the decrease in ROC area was significantly correlated with increased spontaneous activity ($r = -0.58$, $P < 0.001$) but not with increases in visually driven activity ($r = -0.02, P > 0.1$; not illustrated). Third, Fig. 10D shows that the decrease in the area under the ROC curve was significantly correlated with the drop in burst index ($r = +0.50, P < 0.001$). Fourth, Fig. 10E shows that the decrease in ROC area was significantly correlated with changes in the variance of visually driven activity. We measured this by computing the coefficient of variation of the visually driven responses on a trial-by-trial basis (i.e., the standard deviation divided by the mean activity), and the correlation between this measure and the change in ROC area was statistically significant ($r = -0.60; P < 0.001$). Interestingly, we found no relationship between the changes in ROC area and the analogous measure of variance in spontaneous activity ($r = +0.17, P > 0.1$; not illustrated). As a final link between ACPD effects on response mode and ROC area, Fig. 10F shows that, for the 47 cells showing at least some burst firing, decreases caused by ACPD application in burst index were significantly correlated with increases in the coefficient of variation in visually driven activity ($r = -0.61; P < 0.001$). DISCUSSION Our in vivo results indicate that activation of mGluRs on geniculate cells by the agonist ACPD causes these cells to respond to visual stimulation more in tonic mode and less in burst mode. This is an extension of prior in vitro observations, which demonstrated that activation of these receptors produces a slow, long-lasting depolarization, which inactivates the Ca$^{2+}$ conductance underlying the low-threshold spike and thereby converts cells from the burst mode of responding to tonic (McCormick and Von Krosigk 1992). The available evidence indicates that certain mGluRs on relay cells are activated by corticogeniculate but not retinogeniculate axons (McCormick and Von Krosigk 1992), and thus our pharmacological activation of these receptors offers some insights into a possible role for the corticogeniculate pathway. Specificity and route of ACPD effects Because many of our observations are based on the effects on visual responses of applying ACPD, an agonist that activates mGluRs, it is worth considering the specificity and route of these effects. We have provided evidence that the result of ACPD application cannot be explained by activation of iGluRs, and that it appears to be mediated through mGluRs coupled to PI hydrolysis. Application of the specific NMDA antagonist APV did not antagonize the ACPD-mediated responses (Fig. 5). Likewise, application of mGluR antagonists failed to diminish responses generated by stimulation of AMPA receptors (Fig. 6). DHPG, an mGluR agonist that appears selective to PI-linked mGluRs (Schoepp et al. 1994), produced effects similar to those of the less specific agonist ACPD (Fig. 2). In addition, the antagonists used in this study, 4C3HPG and 4CPG, are also agonists to mGluRs negatively linked to the cAMP cascade, and neither had significant inhibitory or excitatory effects on its own. Furthermore, 4CPG seems to be ineffective as an antagonist to glutamate-stimulated inositol phosphate production mediated by splice variants of mGluR5, but both 4CPG and 4C3HPG are full competitive antagonists at mGluR1α, a splice variant of mGluR1 (Joly et al. 1995). Because both drugs antagonized the effects of ACPD in the current study, we are led to conclude that our ACPD-mediated effects are through activation of mGluR1α, or a closely related mGluR. Although these related receptors share a link to PI hydrolysis, they may also be coupled to different second-messenger pathways (Conn et al. 1994), and our data do not address the specific intracellular route of these excitatory effects. These physiological and pharmacological data are consistent with in vitro data showing that ACPD application depolarizes geniculate cells (McCormick and Von Krosigk 1992; Zhou et al. 1994). Because the effects reported here are antagonized by 4CPG, an antagonist to mGluR1 (Joly et al. 1995), these data are also in agreement with our preliminary anatomic observations showing that mGluR1α is present on geniculate relay cell dendrites postsynaptic to contacts from cortical terminals (Godwin et al. 1995). Also, our finding that 4CPG and 4C3HPG, both of which act as agonists to group II mGluRs, have no independent effect on geniculate cells is consistent with our failure to locate mGluR2 or mGluR3 in geniculate relay cells (Van Horn et al. 1995). Previous anatomic studies failed to detect messenger RNA for mGluR2 or mGluR3 in the rat lateral geniculate nucleus (Ohishi et al. 1993a,b). The role of other cAMP-coupled mGluRs (mGluR4 and mGluR7) in the lateral geniculate nucleus is left open, but results in rat ventrobasal thalamus indicate a possible disinhibitory role at inhibitory terminals originating from the thalamic reticular nucleus for some of these (Salt and Eaton 1995). Possible ACPD effects on interneurons For technical reasons, we were unable to unambiguously identify recorded geniculate neurons as relay cells or interneurons. That is, we did not employ techniques involving antidromic activation to identify relay cells, and other differences reported are very subtle (but see below). We can assume that most of the cells in our sample are relay cells, and thus the main conclusions certainly relate to these cells. Two other points are worth mentioning. First, we note that regardless of how interneurons may change their firing patterns in response to ACPD application, this may have little effect on the synaptic release of γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) by the interneuron. This is because of an unusual feature unique to these cells within the lateral geniculate nucleus: although they have a conventional axonal output that would be affected by firing rate, most of their synaptic output emanates from terminals located in the distal dendritic arbor (Hamos et al. 1985; Ralston 1971). Cable modeling suggests that these dendritic terminals are electrotonically distant from the soma (Bloomfield and Sherman 1989) and thus may not be much affected by firing rate. Instead, they innervate relay cells in complex synaptic zones in which they interact locally with other inputs, mostly retinal, to the same relay cell (Hamos et al. 1985; Ralston 1971). Thus the problem of determining effects of ACPD on interneurons is that we cannot be certain from conventional recording of action potentials near the soma that this tells us much about the postsynaptic effects these cells have via their dendritic outputs (Bloomfield and Sherman 1989). In our sample of recorded cells were two X cells that behaved like interneurons (Pape and McCormick 1995; Pape et al. 1994): these cells did not show burst firing, and burst firing is rare in interneurons; also, their action potential durations were short, which is another feature of interneurons. Thus we suspect, but cannot prove, that these cells are interneurons. Interestingly, these two cells stand out in the sense that neither was affected by ACPD application in terms of the parameters we measured. Furthermore, although we did not observe significant effects with these cells, we observed significant ACPD effects on cells within the same electrode penetration, both above and below the recorded position of these cells, making it less likely that the lack of ACPD effects shown by these cells was due to failure of the iontophoretic electrode. These conclusions are consistent with the in vitro evidence of Pape and McCormick (1995) showing no effect of ACPD on identified interneurons in slices, and with our own anatomic data showing no evidence for the presence of mGluR1s in interneurons. Control response mode by mGluR activation In principle, any depolarizing input can inactivate the conductance underlying the low-threshold spike and thus promote tonic firing. Thus we cannot rule out the possibility that activation of iGluRs, such as AMPA and NMDA receptors from either retinal or cortical input, may powerfully control response mode along with activation of mGluRs from cortical input. However, there are reasons to conclude that the fast synaptic activation resulting from iGluR activation may not be suitable for such inactivation of the low-threshold spike. This is because synaptic activation of iGluRs produces an EPSP based on an increased Na$^+$/Ca$^{2+}$ conductance that lasts only a few milliseconds. Although in principle this might inactivate the low-threshold spike for a very brief period, it may not provide for inactivation that lasts on the order of many seconds, as is seen with mGluR activation (McCormick and von Krosigk 1992). If synaptic activation of iGluRs from retinal or cortical input were sufficiently sustained, this is unlikely to lead to prolonged depolarization, because the opening of the Na$^+$/Ca$^{2+}$ conductance for more than a few milliseconds would cause a condition of depolarization block and possibly eventual neuronal damage (Greenamyre and Porter 1994; Lynch and Dawson 1994; McCulloch 1994; Meldrum 1994). Indeed, this phenomenon is thought to be the basis for NMDA-receptor-mediated neuronal ischemia (Greenamyre and Porter 1994; Lynch and Dawson 1994; McCulloch 1994; Meldrum 1994). Although we did observe a decrease in burst firing in Figs. 5 and 6 in response to continuous iontophoretic application of iGluRs, this is under special conditions that may be difficult to achieve with more natural synaptic activation. To obtain these records, an iontophoretic current was used that yielded a controllable increase in the neuronal discharge of the cell, but did not result in depolarization block. We found that only a narrow range of iontophoretic currents worked in this manner for activation of iGluRs. --- FIG. 9. Effects of ACPD application on response mode and of signal detectability on an on-center Y cell. The histograms at left follow the conventions of Fig. 2. Right: corresponding receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves; the area under each curve is in black with the line of slope 1 and actual area under the curve indicated in white. A: response of cell during predrug control, showing extensive bursting in response to the flashed spot and large ROC area. B: response during application of ACPD, which eliminated bursting and reduced the ROC area. C: response during antagonism of ACPD by 4CPG, which restores most of bursting and raises ROC area. D: response to continued application of ACPD after removal of 4CPG, which restores responsiveness and ROC area seen in B. E: recovery after cessation of ACPD administration. This is in contrast to mGluR activation, the result of which provided consistent effects on response mode over a wide range of iontophoretic currents. Synaptic activation of these receptors causes a very slow EPSP that lasts for several seconds. This is precisely what is needed to mediate the kind of dramatic transition from burst to tonic mode as observed in our study. Furthermore, the EPSP results from blocking an ongoing K⁺ “leak” conductance, which limits the amplitude of the EPSP to ~10 mV. This is sufficient to inactivate the low-threshold spike, but does not cause the uncontrolled firing that would be expected with massive iGluR activation. Thus, although we cannot rule out a role for iGluR in controlling response mode, this does not affect our main conclusion that the mGluRs indeed have a quite prominent role in controlling response mode. Insights into function of the corticogeniculate pathway The single largest input to the lateral geniculate nucleus derives from visual cortex, yet the function of the corticogeniculate pathway has remained elusive (reviewed in Koch 1987; Sherman 1993; Sherman and Koch 1986, 1990). Past studies have been somewhat confusing, some suggesting that the pathway facilitates relay cell firing, whereas others suggest the opposite (Baker and Malpeli 1977; Geisert et al. 1981; Kalil and Chase 1970; McClurkin and Marrocco 1984; Richard et al. 1975). Schmielau and Singer (1977) have proposed that corticogeniculate input is important to binocular functions, such as stereopsis. More recent studies have suggested that the pathway affects temporal properties of relay cell discharges (McClurkin et al. 1994) or establishes correlated firing among nearby relay cells with similar receptive field properties (Sillito et al. 1994). Despite these several hypotheses, we cannot yet assign any functions that would require the great size of the pathway, and its function remains one of the most important enigmas of thalamocortical relationships. One interpretation of the data presented here is that it offers another means of determining the effects on the geniculate relay of activating the corticogeniculate input. This is because ACPD serves as an agonist of mGluRs on relay cells, and the available evidence indicates that cortical axons are the main if not only glutamatergic input that can directly affect these receptors (McCormick and Von Krosigk 1992; Zhou et al. 1994). Thus application of ACPD would partly mimic activation of the corticogeniculate input. One important proviso to this interpretation is the evidence that corticogeniculate axons (as well as retinogeniculate axons) would also activate iGluRs. With our technique of locally applying agonists and antagonists to the geniculate neuron under investigation, we could not pharmacologically mimic full activation of corticogeniculate axons, which would require activation of both mGluRs and iGluRs, without also activating iGluRs associated with retinal inputs. However, activation of mGluRs, because they lead to prolonged depolarization (McCormick and Von Krosigk 1992), seems ideally suited to switching firing from burst to tonic, and the additional activation of iGluRs would provide further depolarization of a more temporally discrete nature. It is also plausible that mGluR activation and subsequent prolonged membrane depolarization affects synaptic transmission via iGluRs. In particular, NMDA receptors could be greatly facilitated by conjoint activation of mGluRs, because this would tend to relieve any hyperpolarization block of synaptic transmission dependent on NMDA receptors. CONSEQUENCES OF EFFECTS ON RESPONSE MODE. It is now well established that both tonic and burst firing modes represent effective relay states for geniculate relay cells, because in both relay modes these cells respond vigorously to visual stimulation (present study; see also Guido et al. 1992, 1995; Lu et al. 1992, 1993; Mukherjee and Kaplan 1995). This basic observation of visual responsiveness in both modes has recently been extended to the awake, behaving cat (Guido and Weyand 1995), and it is thus not a peculiar artifact of the sort of anesthetized preparation used in our experiments. Several studies have begun to document the significance of these different response modes for the relay of visual information, and three such differences so far have been emphasized: tonic mode provides a more linear faithful relay (Guido et al. 1992; Mukherjee and Kaplan 1995); burst mode provides a relay better suited to signal detection (present paper; see also Guido et al. 1995); and the different modes affect the temporal tuning of relay cells, with the result that tonic firing acts more as a low-pass filter (Mukherjee and Kaplan 1995). These different response patterns have led so far to two different suggestions for these different firing modes of relay cells. The first is based on better detectability but more nonlinear distortion in burst mode (Guido et al. 1992, 1995; Mukherjee and Kaplan 1995). It suggests that burst mode would be used when visual target detection was more important, so that the sudden presence of a potentially interesting or threatening object could be noted for further analysis. This could happen any time the receptive field of a geniculate relay cell in question was not involved in accurate analysis of a stimulus under study, such as occurs when a stimulus is being analyzed in another part of the visual field, during saccadic eye movements requiring reacquisition of a target, during visual search, when another sensory modality (e.g., hearing) is preferentially used, or during general inattentiveness or drowsiness. Burst mode would be useful under these circumstances to signal the presence of a new stimulus, but the nonlinearity of visual responses seen during this mode would make it less suitable to accurately analyze the stimulus. For this, tonic mode would be better (Guido et al. 1995), because the less nonlinear distortion means that the signal relayed to cortex is a more faithful representation of the incoming signal from retina. The second hypothesis, which is based on the different temporal tuning of the two response modes, suggests that these firing modes can act as a “tunable temporal filter” for the geniculate relay (Mukherjee and Kaplan 1995). It is important to note, however, that these two notions are not contradictory and can be regarded as complementary. If a geniculate cell is in tonic mode to promote detailed and accurate stimulus analysis, it would have to be broadly responsive to temporal frequencies that would be present during fixation. On the other hand, if the cell is in burst mode to promote detection of changes in the visual scene, sensitivity to temporal frequencies in transients would be more important to signal these changes, and filtering out the lower temporal frequencies would keep the cell relatively unresponsive to unchanging features of the scene. Whatever the detailed effects of changing response mode between tonic and burst, it seems clear that these modes can strongly affect the nature of the information relayed to cortex. Our evidence, albeit indirect, that corticogeniculate axons can have a powerful influence on response mode of the geniculate relay suggests that this feedback pathway can strongly influence the nature of the visual information provided to cortex. A number of previous studies have led to a variety of different hypotheses for the role of the corticogeniculate pathway (Baker and Malpeli 1977; Geisert et al. 1981; Kalil and Chase 1970; McClurkin and Marrocco 1984; McClurkin et al. 1994; Richard et al. 1975; Schmiclau and Singer 1977; Sillito et al. 1994). Given the size of the corticogeniculate pathway, it seems plausible that it subserves multiple functions, and evidence does exist for heterogeneity within this pathway (Katz 1987; Tsumoto and Suda 1980). The idea presented here that the corticogeniculate pathway controls response mode is thus meant to represent only a partial role for this pathway. Comparison of cortical versus brain stem inputs to the lateral geniculate nucleus ACPD VERSUS BRAIN STEM ACTIVATION. Electrical activation of the brain stem inputs to the lateral geniculate nucleus in the cat provides a robust means of converting bursting geniculate cells to the tonic firing mode (Lu et al. 1993). This is at least superficially similar to the effects of ACPD application reported here and raises the possibility that the underlying mechanisms are similar. In fact, the available evidence suggests that many of the receptors activated by cortical and brain stem inputs converge onto the same set of transmembrane conductances. These transmitters include norepinephrine and acetylcholine, and in vitro studies point to a similar reduction of a $K^+$ leak conductance by activation of $\alpha_1$ adrenoceptors and by muscarinic cholinergic receptors (McCormick 1992). The in vitro evidence to date supports a similar control of this leak conductance by activation of mGluRs (McCormick and Von Krosigk 1992; Zhou et al. 1994). In this context, it is not surprising that many of the effects reported here reflect response changes that have also been associated with brain stem activation (Lu et al. 1993). DIFFERENT ROLES FOR CORTICAL VERSUS BRAIN STEM INPUTS. Even if cortical and brain stem inputs control common final conductances and have a similar effect on response mode, this is not to suggest that the two sources of input are organized to subserve the same function. One of the key features of organization of the corticogeniculate projection is its precise retinotopic order (Updyke 1975, 1977). A physiological concomitant of this was provided by Tsumoto et al. (1978), who studied the effects on visual responses of geniculate cells of local stimulation of cortical layer VI with glutamate. The effects were excitatory if the receptive fields of the geniculate cell and those of cortical cells within the region of the glutamate injection were aligned within $\sim 2^\circ$ of visual angle, and inhibitory if misaligned further. The inhibitory effects may reflect cortical activation of local inhibitory, GABAergic neurons (e.g., interneurons or cells of the thalamic reticular nucleus). From our present study, we would predict that the local excitation would be accompanied by activation of mGluRs and would tend to keep the relay in tonic mode for accurate analysis. The surrounding inhibition and, presumably, hyperpolarization of geniculate cells mapping areas outside of that represented by the receptive fields of the corticogeniculate axons would tend to promote burst responses in these geniculate cells, because both GABA$_A$- and GABA$_B$-receptor-mediated inhibition can contribute to burst firing through deactivation of the current underlying the low-threshold spike (Deschênes et al. 1984; Soltész and Crunelli 1992). Thus the feedback from cortex may be capable of establishing tonic firing focally among groups of geniculate relay cells, and may simultaneously promote burst firing in surrounding geniculate cells to enhance vigilance for the sudden appearance of any novel stimuli. This in effect would create a sort of “spotlight” of focal attention for accurate analysis, in some ways analogous to Crick’s (1984) “searchlight” hypothesis, and surround this with a zone in which new or changing stimuli can be detected with great sensitivity. The surround might be useful in tracking a stimulus in motion or to signal other parts of a large target being analyzed. In contrast to this, the organization of the brain stem projection to the lateral geniculate nucleus seems much more diffuse (Uhlrich et al. 1988) and may thus influence the geniculate relay in a less discrete fashion. It is also quite heterogeneous, comprising pathways from different sources and employing different transmitters (for a review and more detailed description, see Sherman and Koch 1990). Functions ascribed to the various brain stem inputs range from general arousal requirements to more specific roles related to eye movements, among many others (Lal and Friedlander 1989; Sherman and Koch 1986, 1990; Steriade and McCarley 1990). In many of these cases, control of response mode may be a key result of brain stem input. Thus, although both brain stem and cortical inputs to geniculate neurons have similar effects on response mode and may even make use of similar cellular mechanisms to do so, the role in vision served by these different inputs is probably quite different, with cortical inputs controlling response mode much more selectively and focally than do those from brain stem. This work was supported by a grant from the National Eye Institute (NEI) (EY-03038). D. W. Godwin was supported through National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke Grant F32-NS-09163 and J. W. Vaughan by NEI Grant F32-EY-06340. Present address of D. W. Godwin and J. W. 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Signal to noise comparisons for X and Y cells in the retina and lateral geniculate nucleus of the cat. Exp. Brain Res. 70: 399–405, 1988. Zhou, Q., Godwin, D. W., Bickford, M. E., Sherman, S. M., and Adams, P. R. Relay cells and local GABAergic cells contribute to responses mediated by metabotropic glutamate receptors in cat LGN. Soc. Neurosci. Abstr. 20: 133, 1994.
Session 1 Why We Value Understanding the Biblical View of the End Times I. A FEW FOUNDATIONAL THOUGHTS A. The IHOPKC leadership team does not ask anyone to accept our views blindly. Rather, we urge all to refuse ideas that they cannot clearly see in Scripture themselves—be a Berean (Acts 17:11). B. Our understanding of the end times is not complete—we seek to learn from other ministries. C. The IHOPKC team holds convictions which differ from the popular view that the Church may be raptured at any time and will, thus, miss the revival and crisis in the Tribulation (Rev. 7:9). We honor the genuineness and godliness of many who hold this view but see it as a mistake that will leave multitudes spiritually unprepared when negative events escalate in the end times. II. WHY UNDERSTANDING THE BIBLICAL VIEW OF THE END TIMES IS IMPORTANT A. Unique dynamics: The generation of Jesus’ return will have unique dynamics—unprecedented pressures (shaking, sin, darkness) and an unprecedented outpouring of the Spirit and revival. It will be a unique generation when there will be more people on earth than at any time in history. > For behold, the darkness shall cover the earth, and deep darkness the people; but the Lord will arise over you, and His glory will be seen upon you. (Isa. 60:2) B. Biblical reasons: Scripture highlights one generation much more than any other. By far the most described generation in God’s plan is the generation that will be alive when Jesus returns. It is the main focus in over 150 chapters in the Bible (see mikebickle.org/resources/resource/2888 for a list of these chapters). C. Pastoral reasons: People must understand the biblical narrative for what will happen and why it will happen, or they will by default embrace a secular narrative of the events, making them more vulnerable to being overcome by fear, offense, lust, and deception. By understanding the biblical narrative of the end times, God’s people will be better equipped to process the escalating pressures in a way that will help them to thrive spiritually and grow in love. 1. Jesus highlighted four issues that will challenge many people’s faith in the end times: Fear (Lk. 21:26), Offense (Mt. 24:10), Lust (Lk. 21:34), and Deception (Mt. 24:11)—F.O.L.D. > “...men’s hearts failing them from fear...” > “But take heed to yourselves, lest your hearts be weighed down with carousing [lust, immorality, pleasure, etc.], drunkenness... and that Day [Jesus’ second coming] come on you unexpectedly.” (Lk. 21:26, 34) > “Then many will be offended...” > “Many false prophets will rise up and deceive many.” (Mt. 24:10-11) 2. The end-time falling away will be one of the most tragic and serious events in history. Paul presented it as being as obvious and significant as the appearing of the Antichrist on the world stage (2 Thes. 2:3). > “Let no one deceive you by any means; for that Day [Jesus’ return] will not come unless the falling away comes first and the man of sin [Antichrist] is revealed. (2 Thes. 2:3) The result of escalating fear, offense, lust, and deception will result in some believers falling away from the faith (1 Tim. 4:1-2; 2 Tim. 3:1-7; 4:3-5; Heb. 6:4-6; 10:26-31, 39; 2 Pet. 2:1-3, 20-22; 3:17). D. Prophetic reasons: The biblical signs of the times include events and trends that are predicted in Scripture. Jesus, the apostles, and the OT prophets prophesied signs of the times—these signs will alert God’s people (who are alive in the generation of Jesus’ return) of His soon return. 1. Jesus commanded one generation to “know” that His return was near—the generation living when all 22 signs prophesied in Matthew 24:5-28 and Luke 21:8-36 occur. > “When you see all these things, know that it is near—at the doors! …this generation will by no means pass away till all these things take place…Of that day and hour no one knows.” (Mt. 24:33-36) 2. The timing: In the generation that Jesus returns, “all” 22 signs will accelerate in a way that can be “seen” by the global Body of Christ. Now, for the first time in history, most of these 22 signs of the times are increasing and making headline news on a global level. 3. The Lord indicated that a generation may last up to 100 years (Gen. 15:13-16). E. The promise of increased understanding (Jer. 23:20; Dan. 11:33): Since the Lord can accurately foretell the details of His end-time plan, we know that He has power over them and is able to use them redemptively for the good of His people. By having a biblical picture of the unique dynamics of the end times, God’s people will be equipped with right expectations and understanding of various negative events. 1. The Lord will raise up “people of understanding” who will help others understand the biblical narrative related to the end times (Dan. 11:33; 12:10). This promise is available to all believers. “Many” will be hungry for answers from God’s Word. > “And those of the people who understand [end-time messengers] shall instruct many; yet for many days they shall fall [be martyred] by sword and flame, by captivity…to refine them, purify them…until the time of the end.” (Dan. 11:33-35) 2. God will give His people “perfect,” or mature, understanding of His end-time judgments (Jer. 23:20). > “The anger of the Lord [His judgments] will not turn back until He has executed…the thoughts of His heart. In the latter days you will understand it perfectly. (Jer. 23:20) F. Jesus is returning as a King with power, a Bridegroom with desire for deep relationship with His people, and a Judge with zeal to remove all that hinders love. There are no contradictions in Him. III. THE LORD’S “JUSTICE MASTER PLAN” FOR HUMAN HISTORY A. The Lord’s end-time “justice master plan” includes positive and seemingly “negative” activities. Isaiah prophesied that the Messiah would establish justice in all the nations (Isa. 42:1, 4). 1. “I have put My Spirit upon Him; He will bring forth justice to the Gentiles [all nations]... 4He [Jesus] will not...be discouraged, till He has established justice in the earth...” (Isa. 42:1, 4) B. The positive activities include an unprecedented outpouring of the Spirit’s presence and power, evangelism, physical healing, the restoration of broken lives, godly legislation, and more. C. The “negative” activities include the Lord disciplining His people and judging His enemies. 1. The Lord will discipline the Church and national Israel to awaken them to fully receive the love of God and to respond to Jesus in obedience and bridal partnership (Rev. 19:7). (Note: Both Jews and Gentile are only saved through Jesus—becoming one New Man; Eph. 2:15). 2. The Lord will raise up the Antichrist who will mobilize an unprecedented persecution of the Church and Israel (many will be imprisoned or martyred). This will result in both a great falling away from the faith and the purifying of the Church and Israel (Dan. 11:35). 3. The Lord will judge the Antichrist’s empire for its wickedness and persecution of the Church and Israel (Rev. 19:2), resulting in an unprecedented destruction of the nations (under the Antichrist) and the death of half of the earth’s population (Rev. 6:8; 9:15). 4. The Lord will allow demonic activity and man’s sin to come to fullness, thus giving one generation the unique opportunity to choose to fully love God or to pursue the deep things of Satan and sin (Dan. 8:23; Mt. 24:9-22). 9They will...kill you, and you will be hated by all nations for My name’s sake. 10And then many will be offended...11false prophets will...deceive many...14This gospel of the kingdom will be preached...to all the nations...21There will be great tribulation...22Unless those days were shortened, no flesh would be saved.” (Mt. 24:9-22) D. The Lord’s “justice master plan” will result in a purified Church loving and obeying Jesus as a prepared Bride (Dan. 11:33-35; Rev. 19:7), a great harvest of souls (Rev. 7:9), Israel’s national salvation and millennial calling (Isa. 60), Satan being cast into prison (Rev. 20:1-3), and the earth being filled with God’s glory (Hab. 2:14), including every sphere of society being filled with love and justice and the garden of Eden conditions being restored to the environment. E. Optimum environment: God is establishing the optimum environment for His people to walk in love and purity. God uses the least severe means to bring the greatest number of people to the deepest level of love. Because Jesus is in control of all things, He will cause negative events to work for good (Rom. 8:28; cf. Gen. 50:20). He will use persecution and death in a glorious, redemptive way. What the devil means for evil, God will use for good to train His people. 28 And we know that all things work together for good to those who love God… (Rom. 8:28) F. In the end times, justice will be a primary theme in both kingdoms—God’s and Satan’s. 1. Satan will raise up a counterfeit justice movement in the end times using biblical terminology. We recommend Stuart Greaves’ book, False Justice. The distorted-grace message opens wide the door for false justice by promoting a Christianity that is not based on what the Bible says about Jesus and His salvation and that does not call for genuine repentance. 2. God’s justice can only be understood by those who have an eternal perspective. False justice is focused on gaining temporary comfort and benefits without regard for the age to come. G. Jesus anchored His mandate to bring justice to the earth to night-and-day prayer (Lk. 18:7-8). The parable in Luke 18:1-8 is connected to the Isaiah 42:4 prophecy of Jesus releasing justice in the earth. The context of this parable is the end-time injustice of the Antichrist being stopped when the Son of Man comes (18:8) to defeat the Antichrist’s empire (Lk. 17:27, 37; Rev. 19:19). 7 “Will not God bring about justice for His elect who cry to Him day and night…? 8 When the Son of Man comes, will He find faith [agreement] on the earth?” (Lk. 18:7-8, NASB) IV. THE MESSENGER CALLING: TO PREPARE THE WAY OF THE LORD (ISA. 40:3-5) A. The messenger calling—to prepare people spiritually to receive the Lord’s leadership by making straight a “spiritual highway of truth” for God—is applicable at Jesus’ first and second comings. God is raising up messengers—via speaking, singing, writing, sharing, social media, acting, etc. \[ \text{Prepare the way of the LORD; make straight in the desert a highway for our God. Every valley shall be exalted and...the crooked places shall be made straight... the glory of the LORD shall be revealed, and all flesh shall see it together. (Isa. 40:3-5)} \] B. All flesh shall see it together: Isaiah set this “messenger calling” (40:3) in an end-time context when all nations will see God’s glory together (40:5) in the context of Jesus’ return. John’s ministry was very important, but it was only a partial fulfillment of the 40:3-5 prophecy. C. The Spirit is raising up messengers to prepare people spiritually to walk in agreement with God in the context of Jesus’ return. John the Baptist modeled the way to prepare a spiritual highway for God (Lk. 3:1-17), emphasizing a 2-fold message: calling people to repent (agreeing with God’s values; Lk. 3:8-14) and announcing Jesus’ coming (agreeing with God’s plans; Lk. 3:16-17). D. The forerunner message prepares people to walk in agreement with the Lord’s values and plans so that they can fully participate with Him in releasing His glory. This spiritual highway is a highway of purity (God’s values) and a highway of understanding (of God’s plans). E. Make straight: Isaiah issued a call to the Lord’s messengers to “make straight a highway of truth” by preparing people spiritually to respond to Jesus’ coming (40:3-5). The Lord’s messengers are to make the message straight, or clear, by removing any ambiguity. They are to boldly, clearly, and tenderly proclaim God’s values and plans. This includes speaking God’s truth in relation to issues associated with the current cultural wars along with events related to Jesus’ return.
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The two common insulation types are tree-retardant, cross-linked polyethylene (TRXLPE) and ethylene propylene rubber (EPR). The insulation level (100%, 133% or 175%) depends on the system grounding as well as the magnitude and duration of temporary phase-to-ground overvoltages under fault conditions. Wind-Farm-Electrical-Systems.pptx [Read-Only] Wind Farm Electrical System Design this reason, wind turbines in a wind farm are typically placed 3-5 rotor diameters apart perpendicular to the prevailing wind and 5-10 rotor diameters apart parallel to the prevailing wind. Energy loss due to the "Wind Park Effect" may be 2-5%. Wind Farm Layout to minimize "Wind Park Effect" Wind Farm Electrical Systems.pptx [Read-Only] An offshore wind farm electrical system consists of six key elements: Wind turbine generators; Offshore inter ... Wind Farm Electrical System Design And Optimization designing the electrical arrangement of very large offshore wind farms (500 MW plus) has still to be clearly defined. As such, designing an effective electrical system for the proposed Beatrice OWF is the principal aim of this research. 1.3 Proposed approach The nature of this project is to find the optimum electrical arrangement for the Beatrice Electrical-System-Design-for-the-Proposed-One-Gigawatt-... Offshore wind turbines must be designed for ocean conditions. Wind turbines rarely run at full capacity since their energy generation is weather-dependent. In addition to wind turbines, a wind farm requires an electrical power collection system, transformers, a communications network, and substations. How-to-Build-a-Wind-Power-Farm Offshore locations in the North and Baltic seas are expected to host large arrays of wind farms that plan to export formidable amounts of electricity to the continent. The design of such plants is... (PDF) Offshore wind farm electrical design: A review The wind farm infrastructure consists of civil works – such as roads and drainage, wind turbine, met mast foundations and buildings housing electrical switchgear – and electrical works such as equipment at the point of connection (POC), underground cable networks and/or overhead lines forming radial ‘feeder’ circuits to strings of wind turbines, switchgear for protection and disconnection of the feeder circuits, and transformers and switchgear associated with individual turbines ... Wind Farm Design: Planning, Research and Commissioning ... Based on existing component models and the available information about the wind farm electrical components, more detailed models of cables, transformers, switchgears and protective equipment will be developed and implemented in short circuit studies, insulation coordination studies, islanding operation studies and How to improve the design of the electrical systems in ... Wind turbines are distributed in an array in which ambient winds blow across fan blades connected to turbines that generate electrical energy. However, while wind always blows it does not blow... Wind Farm Transformer Design Considerations \| Power ... Suitable O&M knowledge and experience of wind farm or similar mechanical/electrical assets. ... Renewable Energy Systems 3.6. Kings Langley. Broad engineering knowledge covering, at a high level, all aspects of offshore wind farm design and operation. Wind Farm Electrical Jobs – October 2020 \| Indeed.co.uk Wind Farm Electrical System Design And Optimization Wind Farm Electrical System Design Wind Farms A wind farm is a collection of wind turbines in the same location Wind turbines are often grouped together in wind farms because this is the most economical way to create electricity from the wind if multiple wind turbines are placed too close to ... Kindle File Format Wind Farm Electrical System Design And ... The MV electrical network takes the power to a central point (or several points, for a large wind farm). A typical layout is shown in Figure 4.8. In this case the central point is also a transformer substation, where the voltage is stepped up again to high voltage (HV, typically 100 to 150 kV) for connection to the existing electricity network. Electrical works – Wind Energy A wind farm or wind park, also called a wind power station or wind power plant, is a group of wind turbines in the same location used to produce electricity. Wind farms vary in size from a small number of turbines to several hundred wind turbines covering an extensive area. Wind farms can be either onshore or offshore. Wind farm – Wikipedia WT convert wind energy into electrical energy, which is fed into electricity supply systems. The connection of WT to the supply systems is possible to the low voltage, medium voltage, high voltage as well as to the extra high voltage system. Wind turbine grid connection and interaction 1.1 Design objective Electrical design of a wind farm concerns all electrical components and how these are put together in a suitable grid structure. The overarching goal is to design an electrical system that ensures that as much as possible of the available wind power is transferred to the transmission system with as small as possible costs. Design procedure for inter-array electric ign (D2.2) There are several factors that have an impact on the performance of the wind farm, mainly energy production of wind farm which is highly decided by the wind condition of construction area and micro-siting of wind turbines (WTs), as well as initial investment which is influenced by both the placement of WTs and the electrical system design, especially the scheme of cable connection layout. A review of offshore wind farm layout optimization and ... Wind farm electrical system design presents some unique grounding considerations not always associated with other types of electrical power systems. The three major grounding design areas include the wind turbine-generators (WTG's), the collector cable system, and the utility interconnect substation. Figure 1 from Considerations in wind farm grounding design ... Another important aspect of wind farm design is the cabling layout between the individual turbines and the wind farm substation. Meanwhile specialized wind turbine transformers are now being made available to replace less reliable off-the-shelf units. Wind Farms – an overview \| ScienceDirect Topics • Wind farm collector system • Inter-turbine Medium Voltage (MV) AC cables (typically 34.5 kV) • Substation platform with transformer and electrical equipment • Converter platform if High Voltage (HV) DC transmission is used An offshore wind farm electrical system consists of six key elements: Wind turbine generators; Offshore inter-turbine cables (electrical collection system); Offshore substation (if present); Transmission cables to shore; Onshore substation (and onshore cables); and, Connection to the grid. Figure 5.11 illustrates these schematically and the following sub-sections describe them in more detail. Offshore locations in the North and Baltic seas are expected to host large arrays of wind farms that plan to export formidable amounts of electricity to the continent. The design of such plants is... WT convert wind energy into electrical energy, which is fed into electricity supply systems. The connection of WT to the supply systems is possible to the low voltage, medium voltage, high voltage as well as to the extra high voltage system. Wind turbine grid connection and interaction Electrical system – Wind Energy How to improve the design of the electrical systems in ... Wind Farm Electrical Jobs – October 2020 \| Indeed.co.uk Wind Farms – an overview \| ScienceDirect Topics designing the electrical arrangement of very large offshore wind farms (500 MW plus) has still to be clearly defined. As such, designing an effective electrical system for the proposed Beatrice OWF is the principal aim of this research. 1.3 Proposed approach The nature of this project is to find the optimum electrical arrangement for the Beatrice How to Build a Wind Power Farm Electrical works – Wind Energy Wind farm – Wikipedia (PDF) Offshore wind farm electrical design: A review Wind turbines are distributed in an array in which ambient winds blow across fan blades connected to turbines that generate electrical energy. However, while wind always blows it does not blow... Another important aspect of wind farm design is the cabling layout between the individual turbines and the wind farm substation. Meanwhile specialized wind turbine transformers are now being made available to replace less reliable off-the-shelf units. Wind Farm Transformer Design Considerations \| Power ... Figure 1 from Considerations in wind farm grounding design ... Wind Farm Electrical System Design And Optimization Wind Farm Electrical System Design Wind Farms A wind farm is a collection of wind turbines in the same location. Wind turbines are often grouped together in wind farms because this is the most economical way to create electricity from the wind. If multiple wind turbines are placed too close to... Collector System Cabling Collector system cable design considerations include the conductor size (based on system ampacity requirements) and the insulation type and level. The two common insulation types are tree-retardant, cross-linked polyethylene (TRXLPE) and ethylene propylene rubber (EPR). The insulation level (100%, 133% or 173%) depends on the system grounding as well as the magnitude and duration of temporary phase-to-ground overvoltages under fault conditions. Wind farm electrical system design presents some unique grounding considerations not always associated with other types of electrical power systems. The three major grounding design areas include the wind turbine-generators (WTG's), the collector cable system, and the utility interconnect substation. Design procedure for inter-a-ray electric ign (D2.2) The MV electrical network takes the power to a central point (or several points, for a large wind farm). A typical layout is shown in Figure 4.8. In this case the central point is also a transformer substation, where the voltage is stepped up again to high voltage (HV, typically 100 to 150 kV) for connection to the existing electricity network. Based on existing component models and the available information about the wind farm electrical components, more detailed models of cables, transformers, switchgears and protective equipment will be developed and implemented in short circuit studies, insulation coordination studies, islanding operation studies and... - Wind farm collector system - Inter-turbine Medium Voltage (MV) AC cables (typically 34.5 kV) - Substation platform with transformer and electrical equipment - Converter platform if High Voltage (HV) DC transmission is used A review of offshore wind farm layout optimization and... There are several factors that have an impact on the performance of the wind farm, mainly energy production of wind farm which is highly decided by the wind condition of construction area and micro-siting of wind turbines (WTs), as well as initial investment which is influenced by both the placement of WTs and the electrical system design, especially the scheme of cable connection layout. The wind farm infrastructure consists of civil works – such as roads and drainage, wind turbine, met mast foundations and buildings housing electrical switchgear – and electrical works such as equipment at the point of connection (POC), underground cable networks and/or overhead lines forming radial 'feeder' circuits to strings of wind turbines, switchgear for protection and disconnection of the feeder circuits, and transformers and switchgear associated with individual turbines ... Wind Farm Electrical System Design And Optimization Wind Farm Electrical System Design This reason, wind turbines in a wind farm are typically placed 3-5 rotor diameters apart perpendicular to the prevailing wind and 5-10 rotor diameters apart parallel to the prevailing wind. Energy loss due to the "Wind Park Effect" may be 2-5%. Wind Farm Layout to minimize "Wind Park Effect" Wind Farm Electrical Systems.pptx [Read-Only] An offshore wind farm electrical system consists of six key elements: - Wind turbine generators: Offshore inter... - A wind farm or wind park, also called a wind power station or wind power plant, is a group of wind turbines in the same location used to produce electricity. Wind farms vary in size from a small number of turbines to several hundred wind turbines covering an extensive area. Wind farms can be either onshore or offshore. Wind Farm Electrical Systems.pptx [Read-Only] 1.1 Design objective Electrical design of a wind farm concerns all electrical components and how these are put together in a suitable grid structure. The overarching goal is to design an electrical system that ensures that as much as possible of the available wind power is transferred to the transmission system with as small as possible costs. Wind Farm Design: Planning, Research and Commissioning ... Suitable O&M knowledge and experience of wind farm or similar mechanical/electrical assets. ... Renewable Energy Systems 3.6. Kings Langley. Broad engineering knowledge covering, at a high level, all aspects of offshore wind farm design and operation.
Trade and Growth Relationship: Some Evidence from Comoros, Madagascar, Mauritius and Seychelles HAMORI Shigeyuki* and Ivohasina F. RAZAFIMAHEFA** Abstract This paper applies time-series analysis to examine the effects of trade on growth for four African countries (Comoros, Madagascar, Mauritius, and Seychelles). Results might suggest that the size of the economy and the importance of trade relative to the GDP markedly determine the effects of trade on growth. 1. Introduction and Review of Literature The net effect of trade openness on economic growth has been and remains a subject of controversy. Two issues are at the center of the debate: theoretical elaboration and empirical investigation. On the theoretical side, since the time of Smith through Ricardo and Solow, trade has been shown to allow a country to reach a higher level of income since it permits a better allocation of resources. The growth effects of trade openness are made more explicit by the use of the new growth theory led by Romer [1986] and Lucas [1988]. Within such framework, Grossman and Helpman [1991] establish that openness enhances economic growth through the following channels. Trade enlarges the available variety of intermediate goods and capital equipment, which can expand the productivity of the country's other resources. Trade permits developing countries the access to improved technology in developed countries, in the form of embodied capital goods. Trade allows intensification of capacity utilization that increases products produced and consumed. Openness offers a larger market for domestic producers, allowing them, on one hand, to operate at minimum required scale, and on the other hand, to reap benefits from increasing returns to scale. Skepticism about the effect of trade openness on income is based essentially on two premises, as put forward by Prebisch [1950] and Singer [1950]. First, incessant decrease in the international price of raw materials and primary commodities would lead, without industrialization in developing countries, to more profound differences between developed and developing countries. Second, for their indus- * 羽森茂之，Graduate School of Economics, Kobe University ** Graduate School of Economics, Kobe University 1) The authors would like to acknowledge two anonymous referees for valuable comments on an earlier draft of the paper. rialization, developing economies require short or medium term protection of their infant industries. Furthermore, the structure of trade, under which exports are concentrated on a few primary products and imports are constituted mostly by manufactured goods, renders developing countries overly dependent and vulnerable. Due to the low price elasticity of developing countries' export products and the fact that demand for primary products is rather contained in the international market, these small economies face continuously deteriorating terms of trade. Levine and Renelt [1992] show that trade openness may affect growth through investment. Continuous openness may lead to faster long-run growth since openness allows larger access to investment goods. Trade liberalization provides incentives for foreign direct investment; nevertheless, foreign investment may crowd-out domestic investment. In sum, the impact of trade openness on income is rather uncertain. Rodriguez and Rodrik [1999] also emphasize the indefinite sign of the effects of trade on growth. Net effects are positive if the resource allocation driven by trade policy promotes sectors that generate more long-run growth, but are negative otherwise. As for the empirical investigation, disagreement concerning the analysis of the effects of trade on growth usually turns around the three following issues: the construction of a single appropriate trade openness index, the use of cross-section analysis and the direction of causality. Measures vastly used, among other proxies, are ratio of trade (sum of imports and exports) to GDP, the importance of tariffs and the coverage of non-tariff barriers. Rodrik [1995] argues that in most studies of openness and growth, indicators used inappropriately reflect the trade regime. Edwards [1997] tests, for a data set of 93 countries, the robustness of the impact of trade on growth by introducing, first alternatively and then simultaneously, nine measures of openness. He concludes that each proxy for openness is correlated positively with economic growth and the composite index from those proxies also enters with a positive coefficient in the growth regression. Krueger [1978] finds a positive effect of openness on growth through testing two hypotheses: more liberalized regimes result in higher rates of growth of exports, and a more liberalized trade sector has a positive effect on aggregate growth. Feder [1982] from a cross-sectional analysis of a set of 31 semi-industrialized countries discovers that exports have positive externality effects on economic growth. Esfahani [1991] extends Feder's work by introducing the idea that apart from the externality effects, the contribution of exports to growth appears more substantial through its effect of reducing import shortages. Esfahani tests the robustness of his findings by running a cross-sectional analysis of a set of semi-industrialized countries. He concludes that the significant impact of exports on growth is the alleviation of scarcity of imports faced by those countries. When the second channel is taken into account, the coefficient of the externality effects drops rather remarkably. Coe, Helpman and Hoffmaister [1997] show that trade allows developing countries to benefit from research conducted in developed countries. Imports of a larger variety of intermediate and capital goods, which incorporate the outcome of research led in the developed trading partners, can increase the productivity of the developing economy. From a cross-sectional study of 77 developing countries, the work shows that R&D spillovers through trade are transmitted from 22 industrial countries to the former group. To address the controversy related to the endogeneity between trade variables and growth, Frankel and Romer [1996] introduce geographic factors to derive instrumental variables. They argue that those factors substantially determine conditions of trade and are unlikely to be directly correlated to growth. They conclude that trade has a significant positive effect on growth, and that results from ordinary least squares underestimate that effect. Wacziarg [2001] suggests a new trade openness indicator, namely a composite index of the usual measures. He studies the trade and growth relationship in a set of 57 countries. To deal with the direction of causality problem, he estimates the effects of the new openness indicator on six principal sources of economic growth: macroeconomic policy, government size, price distortion, factor accumulation, technology transfer and foreign direct investment. He concludes that, depending on the specification, between 46% and 63% of the impact of trade openness on growth occurs through the accumulation of physical capital. Furthermore, he argues that the analysis thoroughly captures the impact of trade on growth. The cross-sectional approach vastly used, until recently, for the analysis of the trade and growth relationship contains two main shortcomings. First, as pointed out by Harrison [1996], long-run averages are unsatisfactory measures of openness since they do not reflect the significant fluctuations in trade policy over time. Second, according to Jin [2000], cross-sectional analysis cannot distinguish the specific characteristics of each country, and it might be misleading to generalize the effect of trade on openness in one economy to other economies even of rather similar characteristics. Harrison [1996] provides ways to address the measurement error and cross-sectional analysis controversy. Seven different measures are used to proxy the degree of openness of each country. The analysis covers the period 1960-88 for 51 countries. Both long-run average cross-sectional analysis and cross-country time series panel analysis are conducted. It is shown from the former method that i) only one of the seven openness indices enters the growth regression with a positive and statistically significant coefficient, ii) three out of seven indices affect growth positively when average five-year data are analyzed and iii) six from the seven indices become statistically significant when annual data are taken in consideration. Hence, the study accentuates on the importance of a time-series approach in analyzing the trade and growth relationship. Jin [2000], by analyzing time-series data for each country, studies the short-run dynamics of trade openness and economic growth in six East Asian economies. A five-variable Vector Auto Regression (VAR) model is employed incorporating GDP, money supply, government spending, foreign price and openness. Impulse Response Functions (IRF) and Variance Decompositions (VDC) are computed to look at the effects of trade on growth. From the IRFs, he finds that short-run output impacts of trade are positive but small and insignificant for five countries. From the VDCs, the forecast error variance of GDP explained by the trade openness innovation is also small and insignificant for the five countries. Effects of the shocks on government spending and foreign price are more substantial. Hatemi and Irandoust [2001] study the direction of causality between export and productivity in five OECD countries. First, the Johansen method suggests the existence of one cointegrating vector between export and productivity. Then, the Granger causality test augmented with the error-correction term is carried out for each country. Although results are rather disparate, causality generally runs from export to productivity. VDCs between export and Total Factor Productivity (TFP) are also computed. The export innovations explain around 3% of the forecast error variance of TFP in France, 48% in Germany, 42% in Italy, 80% in Sweden and 86% in the UK. Van Den Berg [1996] addresses the causality controversy in six Latin American countries by comparing results from single equation and simultaneous equation models. He argues that, first, both imports and exports have positive and distinct effects on economic growth; second, there exists a simultaneity between trade and growth; and finally, impacts of openness on growth are higher and more significant through a simultaneous over a single equation model.$^2$ Finally, for the case of Africa, Rodrik [1998] suggests that the effect of trade openness on economic growth seems to be indirect and small. The exports share of GDP, the Sachs-Warner openness index, import taxes and the black market premium do not enter the growth equation significantly. He shows that trade policy plays a rather secondary role in output growth, after human capital, physical infrastructure, macroeconomic stability and rule of law. The present paper is motivated by three main issues. First, although the thought that trade openness enhances economic growth seems to be dominant nowadays, results of theoretical and empirical investigations still show disparate conclusions. Our study tries to bring more insights into the debate. Second, the trade and growth relationship in the case of African economies remains, comparatively, $^2$ However, Afentiotou and Serletis [2000] do not find any causal relationship between exports or imports and growth. insufficiently investigated. We attempt to reduce that gap. To our knowledge, there has not yet been a specific study of openness and income growth focusing on the four countries presented here. Finally, the preponderant empirical studies in the field employ cross-sectional methodology. Given the limits of such a method, as mentioned earlier, we apply a time-series analysis to examine the effects of trade on growth in each of the four countries. 2. Data The choice of the four African countries of Comoros, Madagascar, Mauritius and Seychelles to form the objects of the present analysis was driven by the fact that these four economies possess rather similar geographical and historical conditions. The four countries are islands, and distances from the major international markets are almost equal. The four countries have strong historical ties with large economies in Europe. Therefore differences in the effects of trade on economic growth in the four countries may be considered as results of policy measures rather than other conditions. Moreover, the four countries constitute, with La Réunion, a regional economic cooperation named “Comité de l’Océan Indien” (Indian Ocean Committee). Since La Réunion is classified as part of France, it is not included in the present analysis. This paper uses the annual data for Comoros, Madagascar, Mauritius and Seychelles. The sample period for each country is as follows: 1980 through 2000 for Comoros, 1960 through 2000 for Madagascar, 1960 through 2000 for Mauritius, and 1976 through 2000 for Seychelles. The model variables include real GDP in 1995 prices and the trade share as a proxy of the openness measure (OPEN) of each country. Although the use of trade share as a measure of the openness of an economy receives continuously severe criticisms, we take the proxy for two reasons. First, alternative measures are not available on a long-term basis to conduct an appropriate time-series analysis, which is the core of the present paper. Second, among trade openness indexes, trade share appears to be the measure that has the highest correlation coefficients with other proxies.$^3$ The logs of variables are used for empirical analysis. The sources of all data are explained in the Appendix. 3. Empirical Results Prior to specification and estimation of the VAR, the unit root test developed by Phillips and Perron [1988] is carried out to see if each variable includes a unit root or not. Table 1 and Table 2 show the $^3$ As in Harisson [1996], trade share shows, generally, the largest correlation coefficients with high significance level. Stryker and Pandolfi [2000] also choose the trade share for analyzing the case of Sub-Saharan African economies. Table 1. Unit root test (Level) \| Country \| Variables \| Specification \| Test statistics \| \|-----------\|---------------\|------------------------\|-----------------\| \| Comoros \| GDP \| Constant and Trend \| -2.404 \| \| \| \| Constant \| -3.533* \| \| \| Trade Share \| Constant and Trend \| -2.491 \| \| \| \| Constant \| -2.255 \| \| Madagascar\| GDP \| Constant and Trend \| -1.944 \| \| \| \| Constant \| -0.735 \| \| \| Trade Share \| Constant and Trend \| -2.622 \| \| \| \| Constant \| -1.899 \| \| Mauritius \| GDP \| Constant and Trend \| -2.226 \| \| \| \| Constant \| 0.054 \| \| \| Trade Share \| Constant and Trend \| -2.744 \| \| \| \| Constant \| -1.209 \| \| Seychelles\| GDP \| Constant and Trend \| -2.259 \| \| \| \| Constant \| -0.803 \| \| \| Trade Share \| Constant and Trend \| -0.502 \| \| \| \| Constant \| -1.575 \| Note: “Constant and Trend” shows that the auxiliary regression includes a constant and a time trend. “Constant” shows that the auxiliary regression includes a constant only. * shows that the null hypothesis of a unit root is rejected at the 5% significance level. Table 2. Unit root test (First difference) \| Country \| Variables \| Specification \| Test statistics \| \|-----------\|---------------\|------------------------\|-----------------\| \| Comoros \| GDP \| Constant and Trend \| -4.982 \| \| \| \| Constant \| -4.321 \| \| \| Trade Share \| Constant and Trend \| -4.936 \| \| \| \| Constant \| -5.093 \| \| Madagascar\| GDP \| Constant and Trend \| -5.120 \| \| \| \| Constant \| -5.200 \| \| \| Trade Share \| Constant and Trend \| -7.441 \| \| \| \| Constant \| -7.435 \| \| Mauritius \| GDP \| Constant and Trend \| -7.301 \| \| \| \| Constant \| -7.172 \| \| \| Trade Share \| Constant and Trend \| -6.925 \| \| \| \| Constant \| -7.010 \| \| Seychelles\| GDP \| Constant and Trend \| -4.185* \| \| \| \| Constant \| -4.165 \| \| \| Trade Share \| Constant and Trend \| -4.593 \| \| \| \| Constant \| -3.777** \| Note: “Constant and Trend” shows that the auxiliary regression includes a constant and a time trend. “Constant” shows that the auxiliary regression includes a constant only. * shows that the null hypothesis of a unit root is rejected at the 5% significance level. ** shows that the null hypothesis of a unit root is rejected at the 1% significance level. results for the level of the logs of each variable and the first difference of them. As is clear from these tables, each variable is found to include only one unit root, i.e., I(1) variable. Then, the cointegration test developed by Johansen and Juselius [1990] is carried out to see if variables are cointegrated for two variables in each country. As is clear from Table 3, there is no clear evidence of cointegration for all countries.$^4$ Thus, it is not necessary to include an error correction term. The model is estimated using the log difference of system variables. Regarding the selection of the VAR lag order, all information criteria suggest VAR(1) for Comoros, Madagascar and Seychelles. For Mauritius, the sequential modified likelihood ratio test, the final prediction error test, the Akaike information criterion and the Hannan-Quinn information criterion recommend VAR(5), while the Schwarz Bayesian information criterion proposes VAR(1). Therefore, VAR(1) is opted for Comoros, Madagascar and Seychelles, and VAR(5) for Mauritius. However, given the limited sample size, a lag order of five seems rather long. Hence, shorter lag lengths were also investigated for the case of Mauritius in order to assert the robustness of the findings. Except for VAR(1), all lower lag lengths produced similar conclusions to those presented hereafter, for both the IRF and VDC.$^5$ To check the model specification, this paper reports, in Table 4, the results of VAR residual portmanteau tests for serial correlation, which is shown by Q(10) and its P-value. The null hypothesis is that there is no autocorrelation up to lag 10. This test is valid only for lags larger than the VAR lag order. As is clear from the table, there is no evidence of --- $^4$ The trace test shows that there can be one cointegrating vector for Mauritius. Since the maximum eigen-value test does not support this result, however, we simply assume that there is no cointegration for Mauritius. $^5$ Results are available from the authors on request. serial correlation and thus the model specification used in this paper is empirically supported. Based on the estimated VAR model, the IRF and VDC are computed. Here the variables are ordered as OPEN and GDP. The placement of GDP after OPEN allows the former to respond to current-period as well as previous-period shocks to the latter. Moreover, based on theoretical elaborations, historical considerations of the four countries here and previous literature, trade openness can be considered as preceding output, not vice versa. Figures 1, 2, 3 and 4 show the IRF for each country. In each figure, the point estimates are plotted with a solid line, whereas the dotted lines represent a two standard deviation band around the point estimates. These show the response of GDP to the innovation of tariff share (OPEN). In the case of Comoros, the IRF begins with negative response. Then it fluctuates around zero and becomes zero in five years. For Madagascar, the IRF starts with positive response, then fluctuates around zero and ![Fig. 1. Impulse response function: Comoros](image1) ![Fig. 2. Impulse response function: Madagascar](image2) ![Fig. 3. Impulse response function: Mauritius](image3) ![Fig. 4. Impulse response function: Seychelles](image4) finally becomes zero in five years. For Mauritius, the IRF begins with negative response and fluctuates around zero up to the 19th period. For Seychelles, the IRF starts with positive response and monotonically decreases to zero in five years. It is interesting to see the response differs from country to country. In particular, the GDP in Mauritius has a relatively long response to the innovation of trade share. Table 5 shows the results of VDC. The ten-period forecast error variance of GDP explained by OPEN innovation is 1.353% for Comoros, 13.617% for Madagascar, 29.324% for Mauritius and 9.792% for Seychelles. Thus, these large values are consistent with the view that OPEN shock is an important source of economic growth, especially for Madagascar and Mauritius but not for Comoros. The results might suggest two conclusions. First, the extent of the effects of openness on economic growth depends on the size of the economy and the importance of trade in GDP. And second, the size of the economy seems to be more determining. Computation of the VDC displays that innovation in the openness variable accounts for 29.324%, 13.617%, 9.792% and 1.353% of the ten-period forecast error variance of GDP in Mauritius, Madagascar, Seychelles and Comoros, respectively. Classifying the four countries based on country size and importance of trade in GDP produces similar ranking. The GDP of Mauritius varies between 35% and 137% of that of Madagascar, and the trade share increases from 74% in 1960 to 130% in 2000. For \| Country \| Horizon \| GDP explained by innovations in \| \|-----------\|---------\|---------------------------------\| \| \| \| Trade share \| GDP \| \| Comoros \| 1 \| 0.391 \| 99.609 \| \| \| 3 \| 1.350 \| 98.650 \| \| \| 5 \| 1.353 \| 98.647 \| \| \| 10 \| 1.353 \| 98.647 \| \| Madagascar\| 1 \| 9.407 \| 90.593 \| \| \| 3 \| 13.614 \| 86.386 \| \| \| 5 \| 13.617 \| 86.383 \| \| \| 10 \| 13.617 \| 86.383 \| \| \| 20 \| 13.617 \| 86.383 \| \| Mauritius \| 1 \| 25.427 \| 74.573 \| \| \| 3 \| 28.785 \| 71.215 \| \| \| 5 \| 29.022 \| 70.978 \| \| \| 10 \| 29.324 \| 70.676 \| \| \| 20 \| 28.431 \| 71.569 \| \| Seychelles\| 1 \| 7.261 \| 92.739 \| \| \| 3 \| 9.791 \| 90.209 \| \| \| 5 \| 9.792 \| 90.208 \| \| \| 10 \| 9.792 \| 90.208 \| Madagascar, trade represents 26% of GDP at the beginning of our analysis and reaches 59.42% at the end of the period. Concerning Seychelles, the GDP fluctuates between 4% and 16% of that of Madagascar, and trade share is within the range of 107% and 165%. As for Comoros, the GDP is between 5% and 8% of the GDP of Madagascar and trade amounts for 51.398% to 73.51% of GDP. Hence, from those findings, it appears that in a larger economy with a higher trade share, in this case Mauritius, effects of openness on growth are more considerable. Openness effects are more significant in a larger economy with a lower trade share, i.e. Madagascar, than in a smaller economy with a higher trade share, i.e. Seychelles. Effects of openness are least important in the smallest economy with the lowest trade share, i.e. Comoros. Moreover, IRFs show that the response of GDP to the openness innovation last the longest (19 periods) in the larger economy with the larger trade share. Results in the present paper put two contrasting thoughts together. On one hand, openness to international trade is advocated to policy makers, mainly in developing economies, as an indispensable way for economic development. On the other hand, it is asserted that the small size of the economy and the trade structure do not allow developing countries to reap benefit from openness, and to use trade as an instrument for economic growth. In line with the first theory, the countries in our analysis are all developing economies, and indeed, we can confirm that trade openness contributes to output enhancement, mainly in Mauritius and Madagascar. Along with the second thought, we find that the size of the economy is an important factor determining the gain that a country can obtain from trade. 4. Some Concluding Remarks Although a large bulk of studies has focused on the relationship between trade and growth, the subject remains a topic of intense debate for economists. We attempted to offer further insights into the discussion. We studied the case of four economies of Africa, a region where examination of this topic is largely insufficient. Instead of the period-average cross-sectional method, vastly used up to now, we applied a time-series analysis for each country. The latter approach allows us to analyze significant fluctuations in trade openness during the period, and to distinguish specific characteristics for each country. Results of the VDCs show that openness innovation explains 29.324% of the ten-period forecast error variance of GDP in Mauritius, 13.617% in Madagascar, 9.792% in Seychelles and 1.353% in Comoros. Results might suggest that the size of the economy and the importance of trade relative to the GDP determine markedly the effects of trade on growth. As a policy suggestion, despite the initial small size of the economy, it would still be advisable for a developing country to intensify participation in international trade, i.e. to increase the share of trade in GDP. Such measures would enhance, probably slowly but steadily, the size of economy. Thereafter, the larger the size of the economy becomes, the more substantially trade openness will contribute to growth. To close the paper, we would like to notice the following two points. First, we recognize that the sizes of the samples are relatively small, mainly for Comoros and Seychelles. Data of a larger span or higher frequency are not available. This might imply a limited robustness of the conclusions, however, the present analysis provides, at least, an insight into the investigated subject. Second, the present study is based on bivariate VARs. Since results of IRFs and VDCs are sensitive to the variables included in the model, using a trivariate model might offer more pertinent conclusions. Such a framework would extend the study for future research. Appendix The GDP, exports and imports of goods and services of the four countries are in Constant 1995 USD. 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Identification of Disulfide-Containing Chemical Cross-Links in Proteins Using MALDI-TOF/TOF-Mass Spectrometry Gordon J. King,†‡ Alun Jones,§ Bostjan Kobe,‡§ Thomas Huber,‡ Dmitri Mouradov,‡ David A. Hume,†§, and Ian L. Ross,† Cooperative Research Centre for Chronic Inflammatory Diseases, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, St. Lucia Brisbane, 4072, School of Molecular and Microbial Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia Brisbane, 4072, Institute for Molecular Biosciences and Special Research Centre for Functional and Applied Genomics, University of Queensland, St. Lucia Brisbane, 4072, and The Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Roslin, EH25 9PS, U.K. Cross-linking can be used to identify spatial relationships between amino acids in proteins or protein complexes. A rapid and sensitive method for identifying the site of protein cross-linking using dithiobis(sulfosuccinimidyl propionate) (DTSSP) is presented and illustrated with experiments using murine cortactin, actin and acyl-CoA thioesterase. A characteristic 66 Da doublet, which arises from the asymmetric fragmentation of the disulfide of DTSSP-modified peptides, is observed in the mass spectra obtained under MALDI-TOF/TOF-MS conditions and allows rapid assignment of cross-links in modified proteins. This doublet is observed not only for linear cross-linked peptides but also in the mass spectra of cyclic cross-linked peptides when simultaneous fragmentation of the disulfide and the peptide backbone occurs. We suggest a likely mechanism for this fragmentation. We use guanidinylation of the cross-linked peptides with O-methyl isourea to extend the coverage of cross-linked peptides observed in this MALDI-MS technique. The methodology we report is robust and amenable to automation, and permits the analysis of native cystines along with those introduced by disulfide-containing cross-linkers. Chemical modification in solution has been used to gain structural information about proteins for almost a century. Evidence for the involvement of reactive amino acid side chains in diverse biological processes, including enzyme catalysis and protein–protein interactions, has been provided by this approach. Chemical modification using cross-linking reagents allows estimates of the proximity of the cross-linked amino acids, in turn providing information that can inform modeling of the three-dimensional structure of the protein or protein complex. Chemical cross-linking combined with mass spectrometric analysis has been sufficient for the production of moderate resolution models for proteins and protein complexes. This complements the information provided by X-ray and NMR techniques and can also yield structural information for proteins or protein complexes that are refractory to these techniques. Our group has established a structural genomics pipeline in which we aim to obtain structural information about genes expressed in macrophages. Only a small subfraction of proteins that are produced as soluble recombinant molecules can be crystallized, or are small enough to be amenable to NMR structure determination. In many cases, good approximations of secondary structural elements, known folds and domains, can be identified, but their position in space relative to each other is less clear. We therefore wished to use the large number of recombinant proteins obtained through our pipeline to gain some additional structural information, a goal which can potentially be achieved using chemical cross-linking. Identification of cross-linked peptides commonly involves LC–MS analysis of enzymatic or chemical digests of the cross-linked protein (MS = mass spectrometry). The digests are prefractionated on reverse-phase or ion-exchange matrixes, and MS data is collected on the eluting peptidic species. Because the identification of cross-linked peptides cannot always rest on accurate mass determination alone, MS/MS (tandem mass spectrometry) data is frequently collected. Tandem mass spectra of cross-linked peptides are typically complex, and much effort has been put into the analysis of fragmentation patterns of cross-linked species, with automated analysis of MS/MS spectra of (2) Young, M. M.; Tang, N.; Hempel, J. C.; Oshiro, C. M.; Taylor, E. W.; Kuntz, I. D.; Gibson, B. W.; Dollinger, G. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 2000, 97, 5802–5806. (3) Ihling, C.; Schmidt, A.; Kalkhof, S.; Schulz, D. M.; Stingl, C.; Mechtler, K.; Haack, M.; Beck-Sickinger, A. G.; Cooper, D. M.; Sinz, A. J. Am. Soc. Mass Spectrom. 2006, 17, 1100–1113. (4) Jacobsen, R. B.; Sale, K. L.; Ayson, M. J.; Novak, P.; Hong, J.; Lane, P.; Wood, N. L.; Kruppa, G. H.; Young, M. M.; Schoeniger, J. S. Protein Sci. 2006, 15, 1303–1317. (5) Mouradov, D.; Craven, A.; Forwood, J. K.; Flanagan, J. U.; Garcia-Castellanos, R.; Gomis-Ruth, F. X.; Hume, D. A.; Martin, J. L.; Kobe, B.; Huber, T. Protein Eng. Des. Sel. 2006, 19, 9–16. (6) Sinz, A. Mass Spectrom. Rev. 2006, 25, 663–682. (7) Puri, M.; Robin, G.; Cowleson, N.; Forwood, J. K.; Listwan, P.; Hu, S. H.; Guncar, G.; Huber, T.; Kellie, S.; Hume, D. A.; Kobe, B.; Martin, J. L. Biomol Eng. 2006, 23, 281–289. fractionated cross-linked protein digests being the ultimate goal.\textsuperscript{8,9} Key variables influencing a successful outcome include the choice of cross-linker; the cross-linking reaction conditions; the choice of protein digestion methods; the method of peptide fractionation; and the mass spectrometric analysis of the protein digests. The unequivocal identification of cross-linked peptides, which may only be present in low abundance in the complex digests of the proteins, is a technical challenge commonly addressed either through the use of affinity tags\textsuperscript{10–12} to reduce the complexity of the digest or through the use of isotope tags.\textsuperscript{13,14} For example, Hurst et al.\textsuperscript{10} used the biotin-tagged trifunctional cross-linker sulfo-SBED to enrich digests in cross-linked peptides and identified the cross-linked peptides using MALDI-TOF-MS before and after reduction of this cleavable cross-linker (MALDI = matrix assisted laser desorption/ionization; TOF = time of flight). On the other hand, Collins et al.\textsuperscript{13} used the isotope tag approach, synthesizing an $^{18}$O-containing cross-linker and reacting the protein with a mixture of both labeled and unlabeled cross-linker. Another example of the isotope tag approach is the use of $^{18}$O-containing water during the digestion of cross-linked proteins; this approach has been used to facilitate the identification of native disulfide cross-linked peptides in complex protein digests.\textsuperscript{14} In these isotope tag approaches, cross-linked peptides are identified by the isotope pattern produced by the presence of both labeled and unlabeled peptidic species. We have adopted the cleavable cross-linker 3,3’-dithiobis(sulfo-succinimidyl propionate) (DTSSP) (I) as the primary tool in our efforts to obtain spatial constraints for modeling proteins of unknown structure. ![Diagram of DTSSP](image) The disulfide bond is readily reduced, thus making identification of DTSSP-modified peptides more straightforward. In addition, following work by Bennett et al.\textsuperscript{15} we reasoned that the reduced peptides would provide simpler fragmentation patterns making MS/MS data easier to interpret. During the course of these studies we have found that under MALDI-TOF/TOF-MS conditions the DTSSP-cross-linked species fragment in a distinctive way consistent with the facile asymmetric fragmentation of the disulfide. This distinctive fragmentation makes possible a rapid identification of DTSSP cross-linked peptides. Once identified, these can be validated by reduction and conventional tandem MS sequencing. We demonstrate that this method enables rapid and unambiguous identification of sites of cross-linking in proteins. EXPERIMENTAL SECTION* Protein Production. The gene encoding murine cortactin (RefSeq NP_031829) was amplified by PCR from a mouse cDNA clone (NCBI AK084249) using a splice overlap strategy that fused a ribosome binding site, start codon and 6xHis-tag-coding region to the amino terminus. The gene was cloned into the Gateway expression vector pDEST15 (Invitrogen) following the manufacturer’s instructions. The cortactin protein was expressed in \textit{Escherichia coli} strain BL21 (DE3) pLysS at 30 °C for 24 h in rich autoinduction media (Novagen). The bacteria were lysed using the B-Per (Pierce) cell lysis reagent and purified on TALON metal affinity resin (Clontech) using 50 mM HEPES pH 7.4 containing 300 mM NaCl and 10 mM imidazole as the wash buffer and 50 mM HEPES pH 7.4 containing 300 mM NaCl and 250 mM imidazole as the elution buffer. The eluted protein was further purified by size exclusion chromatography on a Superdex 200 16/60 column (GE Healthcare) using 50 mM HEPES pH 7.4 containing 300 mM NaCl as the mobile phase. The protein was concentrated to $\sim$7 µM using a 10 kDa cutoff spin concentrator (Millipore) and frozen in liquid nitrogen in 50 µL aliquots in thin walled PCR tubes before being stored at −80 °C. Protein Modification. A solution of murine cortactin ($\sim$7 µM) in 20 mM HEPES buffer, pH 7.0 was reacted with DTSSP (2.4 mM) at 25 °C for 12 min. The reaction was stopped by desalting on Sephadex G-25 at 4 °C. The sample was incubated for a further two hours to allow hydrolysis of any bound DTSSP and then concentrated using a Centricon filtration device (Millipore) with a cutoff of 30 kDa. Similar conditions were used for rabbit muscle actin (Sigma) and recombinant mouse acyl-CoA thioesterase 7 (ACOT7; RefSeq NP_579926) as described by Forwood et al.\textsuperscript{16} Nonreducing Polyacrylamide Gel Electrophoresis (PAGE). The concentrated protein sample was subjected to nonreducing SDS–PAGE using a 12% gel and the NuPAGE Bis-Tris system (Invitrogen). After Coomassie staining the band corresponding to monomeric cortactin was excised and the gel slice prepared for trypsin digestion in the following manner. The gel slice was dehydrated for 5 min in 100% methanol, rehydrated in 30% aqueous methanol for 5 min, washed twice in water for 10 min and finally washed 3 times in 100 mM ammonium bicarbonate containing 30% acetonitrile (10 min per wash). The gel slice was cut into small pieces of approximately 1 cubic millimeter, washed briefly in water and dried under vacuum for 30 min. Trypsin Digest. Promega sequencing grade modified porcine trypsin was used in a 20:1 mass ratio (cortactin/trypsin) in 50 mM ammonium bicarbonate. The digest was performed in a PCR heating block (MJ Research PTC-200) in the following manner: 2 h at 4 °C, 8 h at 37 °C and 6 h at 50 °C. This digestion regime was designed to maximize digestion of cross-linked proteins. The 4 °C step was intended to allow for diffusion of trypsin into the gel. Digestion at 37 °C is a standard trypsin condition, and the 50 °C step was included to enhance denaturation of the cross-linked protein. \textsuperscript{(8)} Schilling, B.; Row, R. H.; Gibson, B. W.; Guo, X.; Young, M. M. \textit{J. Am. Soc. Mass Spectrom.} \textbf{2003}, \textit{14}, 834–850. \textsuperscript{(9)} Gaucher, S. P.; Hadi, M. Z.; Young, M. M. \textit{J. Am. Soc. Mass Spectrom.} \textbf{2006}, \textit{17}, 395–405. \textsuperscript{(10)} Hurst, G. B.; Lankford, T. K.; Kennel, S. \textit{J. J. Am. Soc. Mass Spectrom.} \textbf{2004}, \textit{15}, 832–839. \textsuperscript{(11)} Trester-Zedlitz, M.; Kamada, K.; Burley, S. K.; Fenyo, D.; Chait, B. T.; Muir, T. W. \textit{J. Am. Chem. Soc.} \textbf{2003}, \textit{125}, 2416–2425. \textsuperscript{(12)} Fujii, N.; Jacobsen, R. B.; Wood, N. L.; Schoeniger, J. S.; Guy, R. K. \textit{Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett.} \textbf{2004}, \textit{14}, 427–429. \textsuperscript{(13)} Collins, C. J.; Schilling, B.; Young, M.; Dollinger, G.; Guy, R. K. \textit{Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett.} \textbf{2003}, \textit{13}, 4023–4026. \textsuperscript{(14)} Wallis, T. P.; Pitt, J. J.; Gorman, J. J. \textit{Protein Sci.} \textbf{2001}, \textit{10}, 2251–2271. \textsuperscript{(15)} Bennett, K. L.; Kussmann, M.; Bjork, P.; Godzwon, M.; Mikkelsen, M.; Sørensen, P.; Roepstorff, P. \textit{Protein Sci.} \textbf{2000}, \textit{9}, 1503–1518. \textsuperscript{(16)} Forwood, J. K.; Thakur, A.; Guncar, G.; Marfori, M.; Mouradov, D.; Meng, W. N.; Robinson, J.; Kellie, S.; Martin, J. L.; Hume, D. A.; Huber, T.; Kobe, B. \textit{Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.} \textbf{2007}, \textit{104}, 10382–10387. Peptide Extraction. After the removal of the supernatant, peptides were extracted from the gel pieces by serial extraction using 1.0% formic acid in the first extraction and then 0.1% formic acid in two further extractions. The volume of each extraction was such that the gel pieces were well covered by the solvent. Each extraction started with a brief vortex of the suspended gel pieces, followed by a 20 min incubation at room temperature. The pooled extract was concentrated using vacuum centrifugation and made approximately 2.0% in formic acid prior to nanoHPLC (HPLC = high pressure liquid chromatography). Peptide Modification with O-Methyl Isourea. A quantity of extracted peptides theoretically equivalent to 25–50 μg of the protein was adjusted to pH 10 with 1.0 M sodium carbonate pH 10. The reaction was performed in a final concentration of 300 mM sodium carbonate. This solution was made approximately 2.0 M in O-methyl isourea by dilution of a freshly prepared aqueous stock. The reaction was performed at 60 °C for 30 min and stopped by acidification with formic acid to approximately pH 2.0. The methanol generated by the hydrolysis of O-methyl isourea was removed using a vacuum centrifuge, and the concentrated reaction solution was desalted using Millipore C$_{18}$ ZipTips according to the manufacturer’s instructions. Acetonitrile in the ZipTip eluant was removed by evaporation in a vacuum centrifuge prior to nanoHPLC. NanoHPLC/MALDI-TOF/TOF-MS. Samples were analyzed by nanoHPLC on an Agilent 1100 system with fractionation directly onto a MALDI plate, followed by MALDI-TOF/TOF-MS using an Applied Biosystems 4700 Proteomics Analyzer mass spectrometer as described in more detail below. The samples (8 μL) containing peptides originally derived from 5 to 10 μg of cortactin, reconstituted to approximately 2.0% aqueous formic acid, were injected onto a 150 μm to 150 mm Vydac 300A, C$_{18}$, 5 μm column. A reversed phase linear gradient from 0 to 80% aqueous acetonitrile containing 0.1% formic acid was used to elute the peptides. The elutant was mixed with MALDI matrix (5 mg/mL of α-cyano-4-hydroxycinnamic acid in 50% acetonitrile, 25% ethanol and 25% 0.1% aqueous trifluoroacetic acid) and deposited directly onto a 4700 MALDI target plate using an Agilent micro fraction collector (Micro-FC, G1364D) adapted to hold the 4700 Proteomics Analyzer MALDI-TOF/TOF sample plate. All mass spectra were recorded in positive reflector mode in the automatic control mode of the 4700 Proteomics Analyzer MALDI-TOF/TOF. The 10 most intense precursor ions from each spot were selected for MS/MS spectrum acquisition using a timed-ion selection gate of ±8 Da. The MS/MS spectra were collected using a 1 kV change in voltage (source 1, 8 kV; collision cell, 7 kV) with no additional CID gas. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION DTSSP Fragmentation. Chemical cross-linking of proteins can provide structural constraints for the modeling of protein domain relationships, both within and between proteins. This technique needs only small amounts of material, and the procedure is rapid and simple, but several experimental obstacles limit its usefulness at present. One major challenge is the low abundance of cross-linked peptides in the complex mixture produced by digestion of the modified protein, which makes picking out cross-linked peptides a difficult task. Another is the complexity of the fragmentation patterns of cross-linked peptides, which makes problematic the tandem-MS-based confirmation of their identity. A cross-linked precursor will display a mixed fragmentation series owing to the presence of two peptide sequences, and further complexity is created by the presence of cross-linked fragments, and amino acids modified by the fragmented cross-link. This complexity can be greatly reduced by cleaving the cross-link prior to MS/MS identification, yielding easily identifiable linear peptides. We chose the cleavable disulfide cross-linker DTSSP for this purpose with the intention of using reducing agents to cleave the disulfide. Unexpectedly, we observed facile MS fragmentation at the disulfide in the absence of reducing agent, which provided a distinctive MS/MS signature. As described below, this signature enables the rapid identification of cross-linked peptides in complex peptide mixtures. We have assigned the dominant 66 Da doublets that we have observed in the MALDI-TOF/TOF-MS data to the products of the asymmetric fragmentation of the DTSSP disulfide. The analogous fragmentation of cystine disulfides has been reported to occur during MALDI-MS of peptides.\textsuperscript{17,18} Two fragmentations are described for the cystine disulfide: a symmetric fragmentation that occurs between the sulfur atoms and an asymmetric fragmentation that occurs on either side of the disulfide. The symmetric fragmentation has been reported as a MALDI-MS insource phenomenon; the products observed in the spectrum are those expected for the chemical reduction of the disulfide and are thought to occur by electron capture followed by protonation. Both the symmetric and the asymmetric fragmentation of the disulfide have also been reported to occur as a postsource phenomenon.\textsuperscript{17} Mechanism of Fragmentation. A characteristic triplet, illustrated in Figure 1, arising from the occurrence of both types of fragmentation in MALDI-post source decay (PSD) analyses has been used to identify cystine-containing peptides.\textsuperscript{18} The triplet can be understood as a result of the appearance of the combination of the products of the symmetric fragmentation (cysteine-containing peptides) and the products of the asymmetric fragmentation. The products of the asymmetric fragmentation of the disulfide of cystine cross-linked peptide are dehydroalanine- and thiocysteine-containing peptides. In alkaline solution, these products are known to form as a result of the base-catalyzed β-elimination reaction on the cystine of proteins. This β-elimination is illustrated for cystine cross-linked peptides in Figure 2; the β-elimination occurs from either end of the cystine producing a dehydroalanine-containing \begin{figure}[h] \centering \includegraphics[width=\textwidth]{figure1.png} \caption{The triplet observed in MALDI-PSD mass spectra arising from the fragmentation of cystine-containing peptides. The symmetric fragmentation product (b) and the asymmetric fragmentation products (a) and (c) are illustrated.} \end{figure} \begin{thebibliography}{9} \bibitem{17} Schnaible, V.; Wefing, S.; Resemann, A.; Suckau, D.; Bucker, A.; Wolf-Kummeth, S.; Hoffmann, D. \textit{Anal. Chem.} \textbf{2002}, \textit{74}, 4980–4988. \bibitem{18} Jones, M. D.; Patterson, S. D.; Lu, H. S. \textit{Anal. Chem.} \textbf{1998}, \textit{70}, 136–143. \end{thebibliography} and a thiocysteine-containing peptide for each of the cross-linked peptides. Kim and Kim\textsuperscript{19} thermally promoted the aqueous $\beta$-elimination reaction in cystine-containing peptides and then used MALDI-TOF-MS to identify the presence of a triplet corresponding to that observed in MALDI-PSD spectra of cystine-containing peptides. More recently, Schnaible et al.\textsuperscript{17} reported a method of screening for native disulfides using LIFT-TOF/TOF-MS that makes use of these cystine disulfide fragmentations but did not attempt to explain the mechanism of formation of these species. The cross-link introduced by reaction with DTSSP is clearly analogous, giving rise to both symmetric and asymmetric fragmentation of the disulfide. For DTSSP reacting with proteins at pH values above 7.0 the major site of reaction is the $\epsilon$-amine of lysine residues.\textsuperscript{20} The fragmentation of the disulfide of the chemically introduced DTSSP cross-link is illustrated in Figure 3. For the asymmetric fragmentation (reaction 2) each cross-linked peptide produces an acryloyl-modified peptide and a 3-disulfanyl-propionyl-modified peptide because the fragmentation occurs from either side of the cross-link. These peptides differ in mass by 66 Da and constitute the dominant 66 Da doublets we have observed in the MALDI-TOF/TOF-MS data of DTSSP cross-linked peptides. Although the MS/MS spectra of DTSSP-modified peptides contain evidence for both the symmetric and asymmetric fragmentation of the DTSSP disulfide (and display the characteristic disulfide triplet), we find that typically the asymmetric fragmentation dominates (Figures 5 and 6), resulting in a smaller central peak than those reported for cystine disulfides.\textsuperscript{17} Cleavage across disulfide bonds has also been observed in ESI-QTOF-MS/MS studies by Gaucher et al.,\textsuperscript{9} who utilized the cross-linker dithiobis(succinimidylpropionate) (ESI = electrospray ionization). This reagent introduces into proteins the same disulfide-containing cross-link as does DTSSP. In addition to a complex peptide backbone fragmentation, Gaucher et al.\textsuperscript{9} report fragmentation of the cross-link between the sulfur atoms and across the cross-link amides during ESI-QTOF-MS/MS but they do not see the asymmetric fragmentation described here. Using MALDI-TOF/TOF-MS we have observed the same two cross-link fragmentations described by Gaucher et al.\textsuperscript{9} as minor species, but the MALDI TOF/TOF-MS spectra of DTSSP cross-linked peptides was dominated by 66 Da doublets. Finally, Wells et al.,\textsuperscript{21} in an ESI-FTICR-MS study of the fragmentation of intact insulin, demonstrated that cleavage at the disulfide was favored by the $[\text{MH}]^{+}$ ion but not in multiply charged ions, suggesting that one reason this fragmentation event is seen with MALDI-MS/MS but not ESI-MS/MS is that singly charged ions of cross-linked peptides predominate in MALDI-MS spectra but will rarely be selected for analysis in ESI-MS. Fragmentation of Different Types of DTSSP Adducts. Based upon an understanding of the underlying chemistry, we next compared fragmentation patterns that arise from the various types of adducts formed by DTSSP. The digests of proteins that have been modified with cross-linking reagents will contain three types of modified-peptide products. Schilling et al.\textsuperscript{8} proposed the following classification: “type-0” or “dead ends” arise when just one end of the cross-linking reagent has reacted with the protein; “type-1” cross-links produce cyclic peptides and arise when both ends of the cross-linking reagent have reacted with the protein but no trypsin digestion site exists between the sites of reaction; and “type-2” cross-links occur where both ends of the cross-linking reagent have reacted with the protein and a trypsin digestion site exists between the sites of reaction, yielding two linear peptides bridged by a cross-linker. In order to understand the fragmentation signatures of DTSSP-modified peptides we considered the experimental outcomes of fragmentation of each type of cross-link based upon modification of recombinant proteins being studied within the structural genomics group. In Table 1 we have summarized some results to illustrate that this method yields useful data for several proteins and protein complexes. Each type-2 peptide reported in Table 1 was observed in an MS/MS spectrum that contained two 66 Da doublets. The precise nature of the adducts produced in this experimental series is discussed below. Fragmentation of Type-0 Modifications. A type-0 DTSSP-modified peptide (II) arises from the reaction of one end of the bifunctional cross-linker with the $\epsilon$-amine of a lysine residue while the other end of the cross-linker is hydrolyzed either because there is no additional suitable lysine or because the reagent was already hydrolyzed at one end prior to reaction with the protein. A type-0 modification has two consequences: the loss of a cleavage site at the modified lysine (which is no longer recognized by trypsin), and the consequent generation of a longer peptide (upon trypsin digestion of the modified protein), which has an anomalous mass owing to the modified lysine. Type-0 modifications are unavoidable. They yield little information specifically concerning cross-links, although the presence of a type-0 modification means that the site is available as a cross-linking partner. The absence of cross-links \textit{other than} type-0 adducts can suggest that a site is not oriented close to other reactive lysines. In other contexts type-0 adducts can be useful, for example, to assess regions of solvent accessibility and the order of lysine reactivity. When the disulfide of a type-0 DTSSP modification fragments symmetrically, the 3-mercapto-propionyl lysine-containing product which is 104 Da lighter than the precursor ion is expected. By contrast, in the case of asymmetric fragmentation the mass losses of 72 and 138 Da are expected for the 3-disulfanyl-propionyl lysine-containing product and the mass loss of 138 Da for the acryloyl lysine-containing product. --- (19) Kim, J. S.; Kim, H. J. \textit{Rapid Commun. Mass Spectrom.} \textbf{2001}, \textit{15}, 2296–2300. (20) Swain, C. L.; Smith, J. B.; Smith, D. L. \textit{J. Am. Soc. Mass Spectrom.} \textbf{2004}, \textit{15}, 736–749. (21) Wells, J. M.; Stephenson, J. L.; McLuckey, S. A. \textit{Int. J. Mass Spectrom.} \textbf{2000}, \textit{203}, A1–A9. Figure 3. The symmetric and asymmetric fragmentation of peptides cross-linked with DTSSP. The symmetric fragmentation is illustrated in reaction 1 and the asymmetric fragmentation in reaction 2. Figure 4. MALDI-TOF/TOF mass spectrum of a type-0 DTSSP modified peptide. The precursor ion (m/z 1065.4) has been assigned to the peptide KLEEQAR produced by the trypsin digestion of DTSSP-modified cortactin. (K indicates the site of modification.) Surveys of our MALDI-TOF/TOF-MS data sets generated by DTSSP modification of cortactin reveal that type-0 modifications did not give rise to the distinct doublet that arises from the asymmetric fragmentation of the disulfide. Instead, the acryloyl-lysine product dominated. All 19 type-0 modifications found in this study fragmented to give this product, which is observed at precursor mass minus 138 u. Six of these spectra also contained evidence for the 3-disulfanyl-propionyl-lysine product although at a diminished intensity relative to the acryloyl-lysine product. Presumably, the presence of a carboxylic acid moiety on type-0 modifications makes the $\beta$-elimination less likely to occur from the free end of the modification and there is little or no 3-disulfanyl-propionyl-modified product. The mass spectrum presented in Figure 4 is that of the type-0 DTSSP modification, KLEEQAR (m/z 1065.4; K indicates the site of modification). The 66 Da doublet, m/z 927.2 and 993.2, illustrates the dominance of the acryloyl-lysine product in the fragmentation of type-0 modifications. Incidentally, we have observed that type-0 modifications containing tris(hydroxymethyl) aminomethane ("Tris") adduct (III) fragment readily to produce both the acryloyl-lysine and the 3-disulfanyl-propionyl-lysine in approximately equal amounts (data not shown). When Tris is used to terminate a cross-linking reaction, an amide is formed at the free end of the cross-linker (III). We suggest that the presence of this amide makes the asymmetric fragmentation occur readily from either end of the modification, just as it does when a second lysine side chain has reacted with the cross-linker to form a type-2 cross-link, and a 66 Da doublet is then observed. Table 1. Peptides Displaying a 66 Da Doublet in MALDI-TOF/TOF-MS Studies of DTSSP Cross-Linked Proteins and Protein Complexes \| modification$^a$ \| 66 Da doublet \| protein \| 66 Da doublet \| protein \| \|-------------------\|---------------\|-----------\|---------------\|-----------\| \| type-0 \| MAKER \| cortactin \| KLEEQAR \| cortactin \| \| \| KAEAER \| cortactin \| GFGGKYGVQK$^b$ \| cortactin \| \| \| YGVQKDR \| cortactin \| ANFENLAKER \| cortactin \| \| type-1$^b$ \| YQGKTEK$^c$ \| cortactin \| \| \| \| type-2$^c$ \| IKIIAPPER \| actin$^d$ \| GFGGKFGVQMDR \| cortactin \| \| \| KLEEQAR \| cortactin \| M$^{35}$AKER \| cortactin \| \| \| AKK$^c$ \| cortactin \| DKVDK$^c$ \| cortactin \| \| \| KAEAAR \| cortactin \| YEAQKLER \| ACOT7 \| \| \| MAKER \| cortactin \| YLOM$^{35}$KAKR \| ACOT7 \| \| \| ANFENLAKER \| cortactin \| FEEGKGR \| ACOT7 \| \| \| TVPIEAVKTSNIR\| cortactin \| KR \| ACOT7 \| \| \| YGVQKDR \| cortactin \| \| \| $^a$ Modification symbols: , site of DTSSP modification; \#, site of guanidinylation; M$^{35}$, methionine sulfoxide. $^b$ This peptide is derived from the type-1 (cyclic) cross-linked peptide VDKSAVGFEYQGKTEK$^c$ which has a propensity to break at the glutamic acid residue, in which case the C-terminal (homogarginine-containing) ion becomes detectable. $^c$ For type-2 cross-links the cross-linked peptides have been separated into their component linear peptides and each peptide has been reported just once. Each peptide found in a type-2 cross-link was observed in a MS/MS spectrum that contained two doublets which corresponded to both the cross-linked peptides. $^d$ Although only one cortactin–actin peptide is reported here, an exhaustive analysis of this complex has not yet been carried out. Nineteen type-0 modifications were identified in this study, 12 arginine-terminated peptides and a further 7 lysine-terminated peptides that were only observed in the analysis of the O-methyl isourea-treated peptides. The reaction with O-methyl isourea increases the peptide coverage obtained when using MALDI-MS techniques.\textsuperscript{22} The predominant products of the reaction of O-methyl isourea with peptides are homoarginine-containing peptides which arise from guanidination of the $\epsilon$-amine of lysine residues. Homoarginine-containing peptides appear to be strongly selected in MALDI-MS, just as arginine-containing peptides are strongly selected.\textsuperscript{23} \textit{Fragmentation of Type-1 Modifications.} A type-1 DTSSP cross-linked peptide (IV) arises from the reaction of both ends of the bifunctional cross-linker (DTSSP) with the $\epsilon$-amine of lysine residues that are not separated by a trypsin hydrolysis site. A cyclic cross-linked peptide is generated upon trypsin digestion of the modified protein. When peptides containing a type-1 DTSSP cross-link fragment, a mass gain of 2 Da might be expected for the symmetric fragmentation based on what is seen for linear cross-links. For the asymmetric fragmentation no mass change is expected. If the symmetric fragmentation (2 Da mass increase) occurs, the product is not seen because it will be close to the precursor mass which is routinely suppressed in these MS/MS spectra. However, any fragmentation of the peptide backbone will simulate the introduction of a proteolytic site, and fragmentation of the disulfide will produce discernible products. The mass spectrum presented in Figure 5 is that of a DTSSP type-1 cross-linked peptide that appears to have fragmented in this way. The 66 Da doublet ($m/z$ 949.2 and $m/z$ 1015.1) has arisen from the fragmentation of the precursor ion at the peptide backbone and at the disulfide. We assigned this doublet to the acryloyl-modified and 3-disulfanylpropionyl-modified guanidinylated precursor C-terminal fragment YQGKTEK* (where * indicates the site of guanidinylation). As discussed below, type-2 modifications typically produce a pair of 66 Da doublets in each spectrum, one doublet from each of the linear peptides which result from breakage of the cross-link. Similarly, when a type-1 cross-linked peptide fragments at the peptide backbone \textit{between} the sites of cross-linking, two 66 Da doublets might be expected because the products will usually be similar to those produced by the asymmetric fragmentation of a type-2 cross-linked peptide. In the case of the example presented in Figure 5, just one 66 Da doublet was observed, perhaps because the VDKSAVGE fragment is unlikely to be protonated. This suggests that type-1 cross-links will only occasionally result in a pair of 66 Da doublets, when the C-terminal fragment is visible in MALDI-TOF/TOF-MS due to a favorable internal residue. \textit{Fragmentation of Type-2 Modifications.} Type-2 peptides are most likely to be informative for structure determination, because the sites involved may be remote from each other in the tertiary structure, or on different molecules in a protein complex. A type-2 DTSSP cross-linked peptide (V) arises from the reaction of both ends of the bifunctional cross-linker (DTSSP) with the $\epsilon$-amine of lysine residues that are separated within the protein by a trypsin hydrolysis site (or when it is derived from cross-linking of different protein molecules). Trypsin digestion then results in two linear peptides cross-linked through internal lysines. When the asymmetric fragmentation occurs on a type-2 DTSSP cross-link, the masses of both peptides may be revealed simultaneously. Two 66 Da doublets are then expected because each linear peptide may comprise a doublet. These doublets reveal the masses of the acryloyl-modified and the 3-disulfanyl-propionyl modified peptides. This information together with the precursor mass is sufficient to assign the identity of the cross-link with a high degree of confidence. Further evidence in support of the assignment may come from the limited but useful y-ion and b-ion series typically found in these mass spectra. Alternatively, following identification using the 66-pair technique, the cross-linked peptides can be reduced with Tris[2-carboxyethyl] phosphine (TCEP) and sequenced conventionally with tandem MS. The mass spectrum presented in Figure 6 is that of a DTSSP type-2 cross-linked peptide. This spectrum is typical of the type-2 cross-links we have observed in this study, and the presence of the prominent 66 Da doublets has made the identification of these cross-links straightforward. The cross-linked precursor mass ($m/z$ 2067.89) is consistent with ANFENLAKER cross-linked to KAEAER. The 66 Da doublet ($m/z$ 757.1 and $m/z$ 823.1) is consistent with the masses expected for the acryloyl-modified and 3-disulfanyl-propionyl-modified peptide KAEAER respectively. The 66 Da doublet (1245.3 and 1311.2 $m/z$) is consistent with the masses expected for the acryloyl-modified and 3-disulfanyl-propionyl modified peptide ANFENLAKER respectively. One further feature of the mass spectra that we have found useful in the identification of type-2 cross-links is the frequent presence of a major species 156 Da lighter than the precursor ion. In Figure 6, this species appears at $m/z$ 1911. We assign this signal to a b + 18 ion that arises via a rearrangement at the C-terminus which has been previously reported in native peptides.\textsuperscript{24} Our experience is that type-2 cross-links are particularly prone to this loss and searching for it leads rapidly to the identification of type-2 cross-links. Because of the ease of fragmentation at this site we rarely see extensive peptide backbone fragmentation obscuring the 66 Da doublet. Seven type-2 modified peptides were identified in this study: six of these peptides produced MS/MS spectra that contained two 66 Da doublets (that is 66 Da doublets corresponding to both parent peptides of the cross-link). The spectrum that contained \textsuperscript{(22)} Hale, J. E.; Butler, J. P.; Knierman, M. D.; Becker, G. W. \textit{Anal. Biochem.} \textbf{2000}, \textit{287}, 110–117. \textsuperscript{(23)} Baumgart, S.; Lindner, Y.; Kuhne, R.; Oberemm, A.; Wenschuh, H.; Krause, E. \textit{Rapid Commun. Mass Spectrom.} \textbf{2004}, \textit{18}, 863–868. \textsuperscript{(24)} Ballard, K. D.; Gaskell, S. J. \textit{J. Am. Chem. Soc.} \textbf{1992}, \textit{114}, 64–71. an unaccompanied 66 Da doublet was assigned to a cross-linked species that included the peptide AKK as one of the parent peptides. The 66 Da doublet arising from the AKK peptide of the cross-link was only observed in the MS/MS data after guanidinylation of the peptide. Role of This MS Technique. The question arises as to the generality of this method and the frequency with which 66 Da doublets can be observed in a variety of different proteins. Our experience suggests that, as expected, cross-linked peptides derived from different proteins generally behave similarly during fragmentation, and we anticipate that most proteins capable of being cross-linked and digested will yield peptides with the 66 Da signature upon MALDI-TOF/TOF-MS. To date we have employed this method for several unrelated proteins, which will be the subject of future publications, and we anticipate that further data will enable more robust conclusions to be drawn about the generality of this method. CONCLUSIONS AND PERSPECTIVES The approach presented in this report makes possible a rapid and sensitive identification of DTSSP cross-links in proteins, and it extends previous observations of disulfide fragmentation in MALDI-MS. The prominent 66 Da doublets observed for type-2 cross-links and occasionally for type-1 cross-links and type-0 modifications greatly facilitate the analysis of the cross-link products of DTSSP modified proteins. Automation of the detection of the 66 Da doublets using a pair finding tool would allow faster processing of the cross-link MS/MS data sets. We currently make effective use of the Applied Biosystem’s Peak Explorer software in the neutral loss mode to identify type-0 and type-2 modifications. Type-0 modifications are effectively filtered into mass lists by searching for a 138 Da neutral loss; as discussed earlier we found that type-0 modified peptides preferentially fragmented to produce the dehydroalanine analogue (138 Da lighter than the precursor ion). As a first pass selection, type-2 modifications are effectively filtered into mass lists by searching for a 156 Da neutral loss from precursor ions. Even though this species also arises from the normal C-terminal rearrangement investigated by Ballard and Gaskell, and may not be specific to DTSSP cross-linked species, in practice six of the seven type-2 modifications found in this study were detected in this manner. Frequently, the loss of the terminal arginine in a neutral loss product will result in an undetectable ion. We suggest that the ongoing presence of a terminal arginine (or homoarginine) in the neutral loss product of a type-2 ion facilitates its observation and accounts for the general usefulness of this filtering approach. We interpret the mechanism of the asymmetric fragmentation as a $\beta$-elimination occurring in the gas phase which implies structural constraints on the types of cross-linkers that may fragment in this way. DTSSP cross-linked peptides fragment in a way analogous to cystine only because DTSSP contains a disulfide on the carbon which is beta to the carbonyl moiety. It does not follow that the presence of a disulfide in a cross-link will inevitably lead to this distinctive fragmentation, because it requires the ability to undergo $\beta$-elimination mechanism which is dependent on the presence of a nearby acidic carbon. We note that the $\beta$-elimination mechanism proposed here is not dependent on the presence of a disulfide nor on the presence of a carbonyl; all that may be required is an acidic carbon and an appropriately placed leaving group. We are currently designing cross-linkers that exploit this $\beta$-elimination chemistry to achieve a similar fragmentation but without a disulfide. The ease of identification of type-2 cross-links offered by this method will be useful in the characterization of protein–protein interactions and in the generation of protein structural constraints. ACKNOWLEDGMENT This work was supported by a grant from the University of Queensland (to T.H. and B.K.) and by the CRC for Chronic Inflammatory Diseases. B.K. is an Australian Research Council Federation Fellow and a National Health and Medical Research Council Honorary Research Fellow. Murine cortactin was a generous gift from Dr. Nathan Cowieson. Received for review November 4, 2007. Accepted February 25, 2008. AC702277Q
2.12 Unconstrained Optimization Optimization refers to finding the maximum or minimum of a continuous function $f(x_1, \ldots, x_m)$. This is an extremely important problem, lying at the heart of modern industrial engineering, management science, and other areas. This section discusses some methods and perspectives for calculating the minimum or maximum of a function $f(x_1, \ldots, x_m)$. No formal algorithms are given, since this would require too extensive of a development. Vector notation is used in much of the presentation, to give results for a general number $m$ of variables. We consider only the unconstrained optimization problem, in which there are no limitations on $(x_1, \ldots, x_m)$. For simplicity only, we also assume $f(x_1, \ldots, x_m)$ is defined for all $(x_1, \ldots, x_m)$. Because the behaviour of a function $f(x)$ can be quite varied, the problem must be further limited. A point $\alpha$ is called a strict local minimum of $f$ if $f(x) > f(\alpha)$ for all $x$ close to $\alpha$, $x \neq \alpha$. We will limit ourselves to finding a strict local minimum of $f(x)$. Generally an initial guess $x_0$ of $\alpha$ will be known; and $f(x)$ will be assumed to be twice continuously differentiable with respect to its variables $x_1, \ldots, x_m$. Reformulation as a nonlinear system With the assumption of differentiability, a necessary condition for $\alpha$ to be a strict local minimum is that $$\frac{\partial f(\alpha)}{\partial x_i} = 0, \quad i=1, \ldots, m \quad (2.12.1)$$ Thus the nonlinear system \[ \frac{\partial f(x)}{\partial x_i} = 0, \quad i=1,\ldots,m \tag{2.12.2} \] can be solved, and each calculated solution can be checked as to whether it is a local maximum, minimum, or neither. For notation, introduce the gradient vector \[ \nabla f(x) = \begin{bmatrix} \frac{\partial f}{\partial x_1} \\ \vdots \\ \frac{\partial f}{\partial x_m} \end{bmatrix} \] Using this, the system (2.12.2) is written more compactly as \[ \nabla f(x) = 0 \tag{2.12.3} \] To solve (2.12.2), Newton's method (2.11.4) can be used, as well as other rootfinding methods for nonlinear systems. Using Newton's method leads to \[ x_{n+1} = x_n - H(x_n)^{-1} \nabla f(x_n), \quad n \geq 0 \tag{2.12.4} \] with $H(x)$ the Hessian matrix of $f$, \[ H(x)_{ij} = \frac{\partial^2 f(x)}{\partial x_i \partial x_j}, \quad 1 \leq i, j \leq m. \] If $\alpha$ is a strict local minimum of $f$, then Taylor's theorem (1.1.12) can be used to show that $H(\alpha)$ is a nonsingular matrix; and then $H(x)$ will be nonsingular for $x$ close to $\alpha$. For convergence, the analysis of Newton's method in the preceding section can be used to prove quadratic convergence of $x_n$ to $\alpha$ is chosen sufficiently close to $\alpha$. The main drawbacks with the iteration (2.12.4) are the same as those given in the last section for Newton's method for solving nonlinear systems. There are other, more efficient, optimization methods that seek to approximate $\alpha$ by using only $f(x)$ and $\nabla f(x)$. These methods may require more iterations, but generally their total computing time will be much less than with Newton's method. In addition, these methods seek to obtain convergence for a larger set of initial values $x_0$. Descent methods Suppose we are trying to minimize a function $f(x)$. Most methods for doing so are based on the following general two step iteration process. Step D1: At $x_n$, pick a direction $d_n$ such that $f(x)$ will decrease as $x$ moves away from $x_n$ in the direction $d_n$. Step D2: Let $x_{n+1} = x_n + sd_n$, with $s$ chosen to minimize $$\varphi(s) = f(x_n + sd_n), \quad s \geq 0$$ (2.12.5) Usually $s$ is chosen as the smallest positive relative minimum of $\varphi(s)$. Such methods are called descent methods. With each iteration, $$f(x_{n+1}) < f(x_n).$$ Descent methods are guaranteed to converge under more general conditions than for Newton's method (2.12.4). Consider the level surface $$C = \{x \| f(x) = f(x_0)\},$$ and consider only the connected portion of it that contains $x_0$. Then if $C$ is bounded, descent methods will converge under very general conditions. For the two variable case, this is illustrated in Figure 2.7. Several level curves $f(x_1, x_2) = c$ are shown for a set of values $c$ approaching $f(a)$. The vectors $d_n$ are directions in which $f(x)$ is decreasing. There are a number of ways for choosing the directions $d_n$, and the best known are as follows: 1. The method of steepest descent. Here $d_n = -\nabla f(x_n)$. It is the direction in which $f(x)$ decreases most rapidly when moving away from $x_n$. It is a good strategy near $x_n$, but it usually turns out to be a poor strategy for rapid convergence to $\alpha$. 2. Quasi-Newton methods. These methods can be viewed as approximations of Newton's method (2.12.4). They use easily computable approximations of $H(x_n)$ or $H(x_n)^{-1}$, and they are also descent methods. The best known examples are the Davidon-Fletcher-Powell method and the Broyden methods. 3. The conjugate gradient method. This uses a generalization of the idea of an orthogonal basis for a vector space to generate the directions $d_n$, with the directions related in an optimal way to the function $f(x)$ being minimized. In Chapter 8, the conjugate gradient method will be used for solving systems of linear equations. There are many other approaches to minimizing a function, but they are too numerous to include here. As general references to the above ideas, see Dennis-Schnabel (1983), Fletcher (1980), Gill-Murray-Wright (1981), and Luenberger (1984). An important and very different approach to minimizing a function is the simplex method given in Nelder-Mead (1965), with a discussion given in Gill-Murray-Wright (1981, p. 94) and Woods (1985, Chapter 2). It uses only function values (no derivative values), and it seems to be especially suitable for noisy functions. An important project to develop programs for solving optimization problems and nonlinear systems is under way at Argonne National Laboratory. The program package is called MINPACK, and version 1 is available; see Moré-Garbow-Hillstrom (1980) and Moré-Sorenson-Garbow-Hillstrom (1984). It contains routines for nonlinear systems and nonlinear least squares problems. Future versions are intended to include programs for both unconstrained and constrained optimization problems. One variable minimization Motivated by the need to minimize the function $\varphi(s)$ in (2.12.5), we consider the problem of minimizing a function $f(x)$ of a single real variable $x$. As with systems, the problem can be converted to a rootfinding problem, $$f'(x) = 0,$$ which can be solved by applying the methods given earlier in this chapter. In contrast, we will only consider minimization methods that do not use $f'(x)$. The first method to be discussed is comparable in some ways to the bisection method for rootfinding. Beginning with an interval $[a, b]$ that contains the desired minimum point $\alpha$, the interval is reduced to smaller intervals, each of which will also contain $\alpha$. In addition, the length of the interval will be reduced by a fixed percentage with each iteration. We will assume that $f(x)$ is unimodal on an interval $[a,b]$, in which the minimum $\alpha$ is located. For $f$ to be unimodal means there is an $\alpha \in [a,b]$ with $$\alpha \leq x \leq y \leq \alpha \Rightarrow f(x) > f(y)$$ $$\alpha \leq x < y \leq b \Rightarrow f(x) < f(y)$$ Thus $\alpha$ is a unique local and global minimum of $f(x)$ on $[a,b]$. The principle used for reducing the interval $[a,b]$ to a smaller interval is as follows. For $f$ unimodal on $[a,b]$ and for $a < x_1 < x_2 < b$, $$f(x_1) \geq f(x_2) \Rightarrow x_1 \leq \alpha \leq b$$ $$f(x_1) \leq f(x_2) \Rightarrow a \leq \alpha \leq x_2$$ Let $[a_{i-1}, b_{i-1}]$ and $[a_i, b_i]$ denote the intervals in use at the beginning and end of step $i$, respectively. We will require that $$\frac{b_i - a_i}{b_{i-1} - a_{i-1}} = \lambda, \quad i \geq 1,$$ for some constant $\lambda < 1$, fixed independently of $i$. Let $x_1^{(i-1)}$, $x_2^{(i-1)}$ be two points in $[a_{i-1}, b_{i-1}]$, with $x_1^{(i-1)} < x_2^{(i-1)}$. These two points will be used in conjunction with (2.12.7) to obtain a smaller subinterval $[a_i, b_i]$ containing $\alpha$. Specifically, $$f(x_1^{(i-1)}) \geq f(x_2^{(i-1)}) \Rightarrow [a_i, b_i] := [x_1^{(i-1)}, b_{i-1}]$$ $$f(x_1^{(i-1)}) < f(x_2^{(i-1)}) \Rightarrow [a_i, b_i] := [a_{i-1}, x_2^{(i-1)}]$$ In addition, the points $x_1^{(i-1)}$ and $x_2^{(i-1)}$ are to be chosen so that (2.12.8) is satisfied. This requires \[ x_2^{(i-1)} - a_{i-1} = b_{i-1} - x_1^{(i-1)} = \lambda (b_{i-1} - a_{i-1}) \quad (2.12.10) \] With this, the above algorithm will result in a decrease by a factor of $ \lambda $ in the length of the interval at each step. From (2.12.8) and the ordering of the points $ x_1 $ and $ x_2 $, the factor $ \lambda > \frac{1}{2} $. With a given $ \frac{1}{2} < \lambda < 1 $, the points $ x_1 $ and $ x_2 $ can be chosen from (2.12.10) at each step. The test (2.12.7) will then require two evaluations of $ f $ per iteration. A natural question is whether $ \lambda $ can be so chosen that there is only one evaluation of $ f $ per iterate. This is illustrated in Figure 2.8. To find the needed value of $ \lambda $, we consider the first step. For definiteness, suppose that \[ [a_1, b_1] = [a_0, x_2^{(0)}] \quad (2.12.13) \] ![Figure 2.8 The golden section search](image) Then \[ \frac{x_2^{(0)} - a_0}{b_0 - a_0} = \frac{b_0 - x_2^{(0)}}{b_0 - a_0} = \lambda \quad (2.12.14) \] We want the point $ x_1^{(0)} $, which is interior to $[a_1, b_1]$, to be one of the points $ x_1^{(1)}, x_2^{(1)} $. With this, $ f(x_1^{(0)}) $ can be used again in the next step of the iteration. It is straightforward to show that $ x_1^{(1)} = x_1^{(0)} $ is not possible. Thus we want $ x_2^{(1)} = x_1^{(0)} $, as shown in Figure 2.8. From (2.12.8) and (2.12.13), \[ \lambda = \frac{x_2^{(1)} - a_1}{b_1 - a_1} = \frac{x_1^{(0)} - a_0}{\lambda(b_0 - a_0)} \] \[ \lambda^2 = \frac{x_1^{(0)} - a_0}{b_0 - a_0} = 1 - \frac{b_0 - x_1^{(0)}}{b_0 - a_0} = 1 - \lambda \] The positive solution of $ \lambda^2 = 1 - \lambda $ is \[ \lambda = \frac{\sqrt{5} - 1}{2} \approx .618, \] which is called the golden mean. With this value of $ \lambda $, the above algorithm requires only one evaluation of $ f $ per iterate (except for the first step). In this case, the above algorithm is called the golden section search. The length of $[a_i, b_i]$ decreases by a factor of about .618 per step, allowing a rigorous error bound for $ \alpha $. If $ f(x) $ is not uninodal on $[a, b]$, then this algorithm will still converge to a relative minimum of $ f $ on $[a, b]$, but it may not be the absolute minimum of $ f $ on $[a, b]$. Example Minimize $ f(x) = x^2 + 1/x $. Table 2.21 contains the results of applying the golden section search to the minimization. \| i \| $ a_i $ \| $ b_i $ \| \|---\|-----------\|-----------\| \| 0 \| .20000 \| 1.00000 \| \| 1 \| .50557 \| 1.00000 \| \| 2 \| .69443 \| 1.00000 \| \| 3 \| .69443 \| .88328 \| \| 4 \| .76656 \| .88328 \| \| 5 \| .76656 \| .83870 \| \| 6 \| .76656 \| .81115 \| \| 7 \| .78359 \| .81115 \| \| 8 \| .78359 \| .80062 \| \| 9 \| .79010 \| .80062 \| \|10 \| .79010 \| .79660 \| \|11 \| .79258 \| .79660 \| \|12 \| .79258 \| .79507 \| \|13 \| .79258 \| .79412 \| \|14 \| .79317 \| .79412 \| \|15 \| .79353 \| .79412 \| of this $f(x)$ on $[0.2, 1]$. To obtain an interval of length $\leq 10^{-7}$ will require 33 iterates. In the table, $b_{15} - a_{15} = 0.000587$. The iteration converges steadily, but slowly. A second method for minimizing $f(x)$ is based on using quadratic interpolation. Suppose that $x_1, x_2, x_3$ are given estimates of $\alpha$. The quadratic polynomial that interpolates $f(x)$ at $x_1, x_2, x_3$ is given by $$P(x) = \frac{(x-x_2)(x-x_3)}{(x_1-x_2)(x_1-x_3)} f(x_1) + \frac{(x-x_1)(x-x_3)}{(x_2-x_1)(x_2-x_3)} f(x_2) + \frac{(x-x_1)(x-x_2)}{(x_3-x_1)(x_3-x_2)} f(x_3).$$ The topic of interpolation is not taken up until Chapter 3, but this formula can be checked directly by substitution to show that $P(x_i) = f(x_i)$ for $i=1, 2, 3$. We use the minimum of $P(x)$ to approximate the minimum of $f(x)$. For points $x_1, x_2, x_3$ sufficiently close to $\alpha$, this will be valid, and the minimum of $P(x)$ is given by $$x_4 = \frac{1}{2} \frac{y_{23} f(x_1) + y_{31} f(x_2) + y_{12} f(x_3)}{x_{23} f(x_1) + x_{31} f(x_2) + x_{12} f(x_3)}$$ where $x_{ij} = x_i - x_j$, $y_{ij} = x_i^2 - x_j^2$. Next use $x_2, x_3, x_4$ to find $x_5$, and continue in a like manner. We will call this the quadratic fit method. For points $x_1, x_2, x_3$ chosen sufficiently close to $\alpha$, and for $f(x)$ sufficiently differentiable, it can be shown that this method converges. Moreover, the error will satisfy $$\|\alpha - x_{n+1}\| \leq C \|\alpha - x_n\|^r$$ for some constant $C$, with $r \approx 1.3$. This shows that the quadratic fit method will converge more rapidly than the golden section. search, once the iterates are sufficiently close to $\alpha$. Example Let $f(x) = x^2 + 1/x$, as in the last example. The results of using the quadratic fit method are shown in Table 2.22. They were computed in double precision Fortran on an IBM-PC. \| i \| $x_i$ \| $f(x_i)$ \| $\alpha - x_i$ \| \|---\|-----------\|----------------\|------------------\| \| 1 \| .2 \| 5.04 \| 5.94E-1 \| \| 2 \| 1.0 \| 2.0 \| -2.06E-1 \| \| 3 \| .6 \| 2.026666667 \| 1.94E-1 \| \| 4 \| .8035714286 \| 1.890171485 \| -9.87E-3 \| \| 5 \| .8108433735 \| 1.890750780 \| -1.71E-2 \| \| 6 \| .7960124360 \| 1.889897579 \| -2.31E-3 \| \| 7 \| .7936042221 \| 1.889881603 \| 9.63E-5 \| \| 8 \| .7936847983 \| 1.889881576 \| 1.57E-5 \| \| 9 \| .7937006340 \| 1.889881575 \| -1.08E-7 \| \|10 \| .7937005254 \| 1.889881575 \| 6.36E-10 \| A program combining the golden section search and the quadratic fit method is given in Brent (1973, Chapter 5). It has the guaranteed convergence of the golden section search while generally it will converge with the speed of the quadratic fit method. It also takes into account the effects of using computer arithmetic. The program is available in many widely used computer libraries. Uncertainty in calculating the minimum The calculation of a minimum will contain significant uncertainty if the derivative is not used. To see this, we consider the case of minimizing $f(x)$, a function of a real variable. At the minimum $\alpha$, \[ f(\alpha + \epsilon) = f(\alpha) + \epsilon f'(\alpha) + \frac{\epsilon^2}{2} f''(\xi), \] with $ \xi $ between $ \alpha $ and $ \alpha + \epsilon $. Since $ \alpha $ is a minimum, $ f'(\alpha) = 0 $. Thus \[ f(\alpha + \epsilon) \approx f(\alpha) + \frac{\epsilon^2}{2} f''(\alpha), \quad (2.12.18) \] if $ \epsilon $ is sufficiently small. To the machine, \[ f(\alpha + \epsilon) = f(\alpha) \quad (2.12.19) \] if $ \epsilon $ is sufficiently small. Using the unit round $ \delta $ [see (1.2.11)], this will be true if \[ \frac{\epsilon^2}{2} \|f''(\alpha)\| \leq \|f(\alpha)\| \delta, \] assuming $ f(\alpha) \neq 0, \ f''(\alpha) \neq 0 $. This is equivalent to \[ \|\epsilon\| \leq \left[ \frac{2\delta \|f(\alpha)\|}{\|f''(\alpha)\|} \right]^{1/2} \quad (2.12.20) \] For the example in Table 2.22, this becomes \[ \|\epsilon\| \leq 8.36E-9 \] Since the associated arithmetic has 15-16 decimal digits, this shows that (2.12.19) is true over a fairly large interval relative to that arithmetic. This same phenomenon is also true for multivariable problems. For a further discussion, see Gill-Murray-Wright (1981, p. 335).
South Dakota Department of Social Services CERTIFICATE OF LICENSE as a CHILD WELFARE AGENCY This is to certify that Abbott House is hereby granted this license to conduct and maintain an Independent Living Preparation Program located at 909 Court Merrill in Mitchell, SD 57301 to provide care for 4 female children ages 16 to 21 years, for the period from June 1, 2019 to May 31, 2020. This facility satisfactorily complies with requirements of the South Dakota Compiled Laws of 1967, Sections 26-6-1 through 26-6-27 and the Child Care Standards as established by the South Dakota Department of Social Services. This license is subject to revocation for reasonable cause as cited in SDCL 1967; Section 26-6-23. Issued this 1st day of June 2019. Kingsoma Williams CPS Division Director License Number R 21593 Department of Social Services Child Protection Services 700 Governors Drive Pierre, S.D. 57501-2291 605-773-3227 AGENCY NAME: Abbott House - ILPP (Bridges) (R21593) DIRECTOR: Eric Klooz, Executive Director 1. Licensing Requirements - SDCL 26-6-11 A. The following have been submitted to the Department: 1. Application materials for license. ✓ 2. Documentation of need. ✓ 3. Documentation that supervising agency is currently licensed as a Child Placement Agency, Group Care Center for Minors or a Residential Treatment Center. ✓ B. A statement of compliance with the Civil Rights Act of 1964 is included in the agency's policies or has been submitted to the Department. ✓ Comments: An application of licensure of Abbott House to operate an Independent Living Preparation Program, dated May 21, 2019, is on file in the licensing record. It contains a signed statement of compliance with the Civil Rights Act of 1964. The program serves youth 16 to 20 years of age. Potential participants are provided an assessment of independent living skills to determine their needs. Staff will assist with budgeting, personal hygiene instruction, transportation, job placement, school, vocational training, and mentor coordination. 2. Agency Responsibilities – SDCL 26-6-11 A. The building and equipment needs of the organization are adequately met. ✓ B. The agency has sufficient funds to meet the needs of participants in the program. ✓ Comments: There are four efficiency apartments available to residents attached to the rear of the Bridges Foster Homes. There are two per home and one resident is housed per apartment. Facilities are deemed to be adequately furnished and maintained to provide for the needs of the participants and program objectives. Financial reports submitted with the application for licensure indicate the availability of sufficient funds to provide for the needs of the program. 3. Insurance - 67:42:01:35 A. Vehicles used to transport clients have appropriate passenger liability insurance. ✓ B. The agency carries public liability insurance. ✓ Comments: Abbott House submitted verification documentation of auto liability insurance coverage (# 47SPK14949603) commercial general liability (#47RWS14949503) and umbrella liability (#47SUM14949703) through July 1, 2019, with their application materials and the documentation can be found in the licensing record. Staff who use their own vehicles to transport clients have proof of up to date auto insurance in their personnel file. 4. Accounting Systems - 67:42:01:34 A. An audit of the accounts has been done in the past year by a CPA. Comments: An audit of Abbott House’s financial reports for the period ending June 30, 2018, and 2017 was completed by ELO Professional L.L.C, on October 12, 2018. A copy of the audit report, including a summary of significant accounting policies is on file in the licensing record. 5. Staff Qualifications - 67:42:07:02, 67:42:07:07, 67:42:08:02, 67:42:09:07, 67:42:09:07:01, 67:42:09:08 A. Program Director 1. Bachelor's degree in an accredited behavioral or social science area or equivalency and two years of relevant alternative child care experience if supervising agency is a group care center for minors; or ![✓](#) 2. Masters degree in an accredited behavioral or social science area and two years of relevant alternative child care experience, or a bachelors degree and four years experience if supervising agency is a residential treatment center; or ![✓](#) 3. Social work associate who works under supervision of a certified social worker or individual qualified to supervise a CSW-PIP candidate, who has two years administrative or supervisory experience, if supervising agency is a child placement agency. ![✓](#) Comments: Tyson Schultz (CSW #3200, exp. 12/31/2020) is the Director and provides social worker supervision. Tyson has a Master of Social Work Degree from the University of Iowa. Tyson began working with youth in 2001 at Volunteers of America, Dakotas where he worked until 2002. He then worked from 2002-2006 at Chamberlain Academy. Tyson has worked for the Abbott House since 2006. Beacy Nelson (SWA #3317, exp. 12/31/2019) is an Assistant Director and has a Master’s Degree in Public Administration with an emphasis on Criminal Justice. Beacy was the Director of the Women’s Shelter in Yankton where she worked with women and children who were victims of Domestic Violence from 1988-1995. From 1995-1997 she was the Program Director for Prairie Hills Center residential facility for boys and girls. From 1999-2009 she worked for Child Protection Services. Beacy has been employed by the Abbott House since 2009. Michael Wickwire (SWA #4666, exp. 12/31/2020) is an Assistant Director has a BS in Human Services with a minor in Religion. Michael in located in Rapid City and was hired in November 2016. B. Other Staff 1. For a program supervised by a group or residential center, if under age twenty-one, is under direct supervision of an experienced staff; and 3 years older than any youth supervised. ![NA](#) 2. Meet the qualifications of child care or social work staff for the Comments: The program currently does not have additional employees. The program falls under the umbrella of the Child Placement Agency. 6. Supervision Requirements - 67:43:07:03, 67:42:08:03, 67:42:13:06, 67:42:13:07 A. Appropriate staff/child ratios are observed for programs located in the same living unit at a group care center or residential treatment center. - NA B. No more than four participants are placed together in an off-site living unit. - ✓ C. Participants meet with their supervisor at least once every two weeks with at least a monthly meeting in their living environment. - ✓ Documentation of supervision includes: 1. No reasonable cause to believe the residence or lifestyle presents a risk to the participant's health or safety; - ✓ 2. The participant is receiving necessary medical care; - ✓ 3. The treatment program provides for appropriate and sufficient services for the participant. - ✓ D. Arrangements made for substitute staff during vacations, illness, or off-duty time of regular staff. - ✓ Comments: Abbott House written procedures relating to supervision requirements are in compliance with licensing rules. Three records were reviewed for participants in the ILPP. Documentation was found in each record to verify compliance with the above requirements. 7. Personnel Records - 67:42:07:07, 67:42:07:08, 67:42:07:09, 67:42:09:08.11, 67:42:09:11 A. Personnel records are maintained and contain the following: - YES - NO 1. Resume or application that includes educational background, personal, and employment history. - ✓ 2. Job description. - ✓ 3. Annual Performance Appraisal. - ✓ 4. Verification of contact with at least three former employers or professional references if former employers not available. - ✓ 5. Verification of screening for substantiated reports of child abuse or neglect. - ✓ 6. Verification of submission of fingerprints to DCI within fourteen days of employment. - ✓ 7. Verification of sex offender registry checks. - ✓ Comments: Abbott House written procedures relating to personnel records are in compliance with licensing rules. Records for the four current employees of the program were reviewed. Documentation was found in reach record to verify compliance with the above requirements, except one file reviewed did not contain yearly performance appraisal. Please ensure all files contain a yearly performance evaluation to comply with 67:28:09:11. 8. Inservice Training - 67:42:07:04, 67:42:08:04, 67:42:09:10 \| \| YES \| NO \| \|---\|-----\|----\| \| A. There is a written plan for orientation and training for staff and volunteers. \| ✓ \| \| \| B. Each employee has a documented record of an initial orientation to the agency within one month of the date of hire that includes the facility’s functions, services, community resources and specific job functions. \| ✓ \| \| \| C. Each employee has a documented record of at least the minimum number of hours of annual in-service training as required for staff of the supervising agency or facility. \| ✓ \| \| \| D. Each employee receives in-service training during the first year of employment that includes all of the areas required in 67:42:07:04 or 67:42:09:10. \| NA \| \| \| E. Training for all employees after the first year of employment is determined by an annual evaluation and is competency based. \| ✓ \| \| Comments: Abbott House written procedures relating to in-service training are in compliance with licensing rules. An Annual In-service Training Plan for Foster Home and ILPP Staff was included in the application for renewal. After review of the training plan it appears the scheduled annual training meets all of the requirements of licensing rule. Personnel records reviewed indicated the two employees of the program received above the minimal requirements of annual training and both records indicated the completion of an initial orientation by staff. 9. Reporting Suspected Child Abuse or Neglect and Changes in Circumstances - 67:42:01:12, 67:42:07:05, 67:42:07:15, 67:42:07:16 \| \| YES \| NO \| \|---\|-----\|----\| \| A. Each employee is aware of the requirement to immediately report incidents of suspected child abuse or neglect. \| ✓ \| \| \| B. The facility is aware of its need to report any changes of circumstances that may affect its licensed status. \| ✓ \| \| Comments: Abbott House written procedures relating to reporting of suspected incidents of child abuse or neglect are in compliance with licensing rules. Each personnel record reviewed contained a signed statement defining child abuse and neglect and outlining agency reporting procedures. 10. Treatment - 67:42:01:01(3), 67:42:01:21, 67:42:13:03, 67:42:13:04, 67:42:13:05, 67:42:13:08 \| \| YES \| NO \| \|---\|-----\|----\| \| A. There are written procedures relating to: \| \| \| \| 1. Criteria used to select participants in the program. \| ✓ \| \| \| 2. The approach used to assess the appropriateness of the placement. \| ✓ \| \| 3. The nature and frequency of supervision provided to participants. ✓ 4. Services available to participants. ✓ 5. An explanation of living environments provided by the program. ✓ 6. The crisis response system ensuring participant’s 24-hour access to program personnel. ✓ B. A full assessment of participant’s life skills is completed prior to placement. ✓ C. Case records are maintained and include the following: 1. Face sheet/application form with identifying information. ✓ 2. A copy of the assessment of the participant’s life skills. ✓ 3. Case service plan is signed and involves the placing agency, adolescent, ILPP and parent or guardian. ✓ 4. Case service plans are established within 14 days of placement. ✓ 5. Case service plans state roles and responsibilities, goals and services, financial plan, and projected length of stay. ✓ 6. Case service plan is reviewed and updated and progress reports are submitted to placement agency every three months. ✓ 7. Documentation of Supervision. ✓ 8. A signed authorization for medical care. ✓ 9. Residents are provided training in emergency procedures. ✓ D. Records are kept in a locked file. ✓ E. The interstate compact administrator has been contacted before acceptance of an out-of-state child. ✓ Comments: Abbott House written procedures relating to the program are in compliance with licensing rules. Three participant records were reviewed, and documentation was found in each to verify compliance with the above requirements. 11. Volunteers - 67:42:07:14, 67:42:09:09 \| \| YES \| NO \| \|---\|-----\|----\| \| A. Have a written job description with specific responsibilities. \| NA \| \| \| B. Supervised and evaluated by an experienced staff member. \| NA \| \| \| C. Three documented unrelated references. \| NA \| \| \| D. Screening for substantiated reports of child abuse or neglect. \| NA \| \| \| E. Criminal record checks completed if appropriate. \| NA \| \| \| H. Documented orientation. \| NA \| \| \| I. Documented inservice training as per requirements for supervising agency. \| NA \| \| \| J. Informed of obligation to report suspected CA/N. \| NA \| \| K. Verification of sex offender registry checks. Comments: Abbott House has written policies relating to the use of volunteers that are in compliance with licensing rules. There was no indication that the program utilized any Volunteers who had consistent contact with children. 12. Physical Facility - 67:42:07:11, 67:42:07:12, 67:42:13:07 A. Off-site facilities meet the requirements of 67:42:13:07. YES B. There is a current approved fire inspection for the supervising agency when living environment is on-site. NA C. There is a current approved health inspection for the supervising agency when living environment is on-site. NA D. A fire escape plan is posted. NA E. Each participant has his own bed. NA Comments: Abbott House has written policies relating to 67:42:13:07 that are in compliance with licensing rules. Documentation of regular inspections of the off-site living facilities were found in the records as well as documentation of residents signing off that they have inspected the residence and it meets all of the requirements of ARSD 67:42:13:07. 13. Recommendations Abbott House has been found to be in substantial compliance with licensing rules and has indicated the intent to continue compliance. It is recommended that a satisfactory license be issued to Abbott House to operate an Independent Living Preparation Program in Mitchell, South Dakota and Rapid City, South Dakota to provide services for youth ages sixteen to twenty years. Please refer to the body of this study for comments and recommendations regarding personnel records. Completed By: Eric Grover, Program Specialist Date of On-Site Visit: 05/30/2019
Pleasure Hunt The drawings by Tim Prentice in this issue are all of objects visible from Cornwall roads. They are lettered so you can check your identification. Answers, upside down, are on page 4. If you go driving to try finding the "treasures," maybe you should have a designated looker. Rock Cottage Rehab The Charles Addams-style house behind the West Cornwall Post Office has undergone a transformation. Its new owner, Joseph McKenna, a native Scotsman now working in the New York fashion world, is giving the Rock Cottage — as it is known in old deeds — a basic rehab that preserves familiar lines. Aside from the introduction of modern facilities, the only design change is elimination of the third story's ceiling, giving the upper interior of the house a mini-cathedral effect. The exterior of the house is to remain as it is. Cornwall is to be McKenna's second home. He says he fell in love with the house on first spotting it one day when emerging from Barbara Farnsworth's bookstore; he was visiting Cornwall friends. The Rock Cottage, more recently known as the Golden house after the family name of the last resident owners, was built about 1875 for Arthur Warner, who practiced law in West Cornwall for 11 years, then moved to Woodbury. Among the property's subsequent owners was Patrick ("Copp") O'Donnell, who acquired the place in 1913 and was later a Cornwall selectman. He seems to have used the Rock Cottage only in summer; the rest of the year he lived in his house beside Cream Hill Lake. The Joseph Goldens acquired it in 1955 from O'Donnell's heirs, and raised seven children there. Between Warner and O'Donnell the house had a number of owners — some local, some out-of-town investors. One of their deeds provides a glimpse of a rustic pre-World War I West Cornwall. The document describes a two-foot-wide right of way apparently leading from a hillside pasture then existing back of the house; the track curved behind the present parking lot, allowing cattle to reach the brook near today's post office. — Michael Gannett Death by Lightning The storm circled Cornwall Center, but the sky seemed too light to offer an immediate threat. We were sitting in the kitchen before supper, reading the paper — vaguely aware of thunder approaching. A rumble nearer than the others made us look up; remembering something I'd read, I turned out most of the lights in the kitchen and in my adjoining office. I had scarcely sat down again when the lightning hit. It was as if a gigantic sledgehammer had smitten the ridgepole of the house. My wife, who happened to be looking through the door into my office, watched sparks fly out of the fax machine. We smelled smoke, and saw it in the beam of a flashlight. A quick inspection of the house revealed that it had not been struck; there was no further sign of fire, and switches hopefully flipped showed we had not lost power. But the phones were dead, and the gadgets in the office, including an answering machine and a computer, were inoperative. The lightning had not struck the house — but it had hit a majestic Norway spruce about 30 feet in front of the building. The tree, 11 feet, eight inches around near the base, took the hit by virtue of being 30 or 40 feet taller than the house. The bolt killed the (continued on page 2) tree — or condemned it to death. Next day, when Mike Root came over to advise us about the tree — it must be cut down — he told me the incandescent heat of the lightning had instantly brought the moisture in the tree to a boil, causing a deadly explosion, evidenced on the trunk by a fearsome white gash. I have a photograph of the house taken about 100 years ago. The spruce is visible. My guess, possibly to be confirmed when the tree comes down, is that it was already 50-odd years old when the picture was taken. If so, it was here when the house was built in the 1840s, just before the Mexican War. Phone service is restored; the gadgetry works once again — or soon will. But the gallant spruce, which may have saved our lives, which seemed to have been here always and appeared destined to outlive us by many years, must die. We will miss it. — Charles Osborne Families First This year marks Cornwall's first "Families First" annual community picnic and games day, sponsored by the Cornwall Drug and Alcohol Prevention Council. The picnic will be held August 27, 4-8 p.m. on the Village Green directly following the Agricultural Fair. Highlights of the event include an intergenerational slow-pitch softball tournament with the three Cornwalls vying for first place and the honor of holding the championship cup for one year. Other activities include New Games (non-competitive), volley ball, chess, and a nonalcoholic punch-tasting contest; recipes are requested. A square dance will begin at 6 p.m. Cornwall's own Ken Keskinen will call, accompanied by Rob Patton. Bring a picnic or buy a burger and soda from the VFW. The Drug and Alcohol Prevention Council, newly formed by the First Selectman's office, plans to purchase educational material on substance-abuse prevention and family issues related to addiction. The materials will be available in the Cornwall Library. Funding for these special events and programs comes from the State Department of Public Health and Addiction Services through a yearly renewable grant. If interested in becoming a member of the council, please call Jill Gibbons (672-2603). — Cynthia Bianchi Kugeman at Capacity All 18 units at Kugeman Village are occupied, reports Anne Baren, administrator. After a thorough application procedure, which included interviews and home visits, residents have been moving in since April. Now the mini-community which is Kugeman Village has taken on its own diverse character, with a mixture of the elderly, the young, and the in-betweens. Residents include nine families with 18 children who range in ages from seven months to 16 years. Nine of the apartments are rented by people with Cornwall connections; the remaining occupants have come from Kent, Sharon, and New Milford. An informal residents' association is already taking shape, resulting in the sharing of ideas and the volunteering of services. A common garden site is being prepared, and several fathers are ready to assemble playground equipment. With landscaping mostly completed, the village is acquiring an established look that is a source of satisfaction to all those who have been involved in the project for the past eight years. The Cornwall Housing Corporation is also pleased to announce that three of the leaseholders in the Parcel Program will begin building their homes this year — Debra Tyler and Mike DeGreenia on their Pierce Lane parcels, and Lonnie Carter on Town Street. The other four leaseholders plan to build within the next two years. Those interested in either Kugeman Village or the Parcel Program may call 672-4439 (Kugeman Village) for information. — Ken Keskinen Barkoff's Oils at Library The small oil studies by Ira Barkoff at the Cornwall Library until August 13 are all about color and light. These Cornwall hills and forests are really portraits of atmosphere — maybe of the hazy humidity of the past sultry weeks. They illustrate admirably how the character of light can both define and dissolve images, how shimmering color can evoke a mood of summer languor. Two black and white etchings are especially luminous. Ira studied at Pratt Institute and the Art Students' League and has taught at the School of Visual Arts. His work has been included in American Artist, and he is a past president of the Association of Romantic Representational Art. — Brigitte Hanf CCC Wish List In order for the Cornwall Child Center to open this winter, it will need the following items. We hope that donors will sponsor them: • Fence for play yard • Bench 15" tall x 18" wide x 48" long • 30 built-in cubbies 12" square x 9" deep • Cabinets: 6'6" length for over sink; 4' length of base cabinet • 18 linear feet of shelving • 2 or 4 drawer vertical file cabinet • Desk, office chair, and pad for rug • 2 armchairs • Tack strip for hanging artwork • 3' x 4' bulletin board • Mini-blinds for windows • Shrubs • 2 additional activity tables • 6 children's chairs Please let Cheryl Evans or Pam Brehm know if you can sponsor one of these items. — Cornwall Child Center Building Committee Goodbye to a Friend Lawrence M. Stevens Congratulations Andrew Farnsworth to Theresa Rowland Sean Patrick Keenan to Jennifer Ann Levy Land Transfers Michael Vogel and Eva Rex-Vogel to James and Corinne Levy, 10.8 acres on Cream Hill Road, $108,000. Fund for Jaye Wolfe Jaye Wolfe, 18, of Popple Swamp Road, was badly injured in June during an altercation outside the house of a Winsted middle-school teacher who hit Jaye with a baseball bat, inflicting a blow that impeded his ability to speak and walk. To help defray his family's considerable medical expenses, a Jaye Wolfe Fund has been established at the National Iron Bank in Cornwall Bridge, to which all may contribute. According to his mother, Dody Clarke-Wolfe, Jaye's speech and ability to walk are improving. — John Leich Crime Wave Wanes No one has ever confused Cornwall with Gotham when it comes to crime, but residents were locking their doors following a cluster of burglaries during late May through the end of June. Thefts were centered in an area of North Cornwall around Cream Hill Road, Town Street, Cogswell Road, and Cherry Hill Road, and the loot included guns, bikes, silver, a TV, a stereo, and cameras. Lt. David Werner, commander of the state police barracks in Canaan, said that the police were still actively working on the thefts but that no arrests had yet been made. No new break-ins have been reported since July 1, but he felt it was too early to relax. So keep the doors locked and report any suspicious vehicles or persons to the police. — Ed Ferman Scenic Roads At their first July meeting, the Board of Selectmen listened to a proposal from Phyllis Wojan that would join Cornwall with neighbors Kent and Sharon in declaring its stretch of Route 7 a scenic road. This designation, which could be obtained from the state without cost to the town, would, Wojan believes, "give Cornwall a say" in keeping the road at its present width, helping to set the future ambience of the town, and maintaining its rural character. Scenic-road status, she told the selectmen, would allow the town to participate in future plans for widening or rerouting state roads in Cornwall. Right now, Wojan said, Cornwall is a "weak link" between the scenically designated Kent and Sharon portions of the thoroughfare. Esthetics aren't the only consideration, says Wojan. In Cornwall Bridge, Route 7 runs atop the largest of two major aquifers in town (the second is near Route 43, another candidate for scenic-road designation). According to Wojan, a road-widening project in that stretch of Route 7 might damage the aquifer. To give the selectmen a chance to study the state scenic-road document package (and a map available at the Town Office), the board took the proposal under advisement. — Charles Osborne Region 1: 0 for 5 Cornwall voted no by a margin of one vote — 111 to 110 — in the fifth defeat, on June 30, of the Region 1 school budget. The total vote was 896-814, a closer result than the previous tally: 1,107 to 874. As it had in the earlier negative vote, Cornwall joined all the towns in the region except Sharon and Salisbury. Looking ahead to a sixth referendum on July 28, the Region 1 Board of Education voted to cut $45,000 from the budget — mainly in administrative costs. — Charles Osborne Letters to the Chronicle I CORNWALL'S OWN CUSTARD Mixing a most delicious custard recipe, I realized that three main ingredients, as well as the bowl they were baked in, originated in Cornwall. Having renamed it Cornwall Custard, I want to share it with other lovers of good food! Thanks to Debra Tyler, Phil and Joyce Hart, Gordon and Jayne Ridgway, and Todd Piker. The recipe: 4 Hart eggs 2-1/2 cups Local Farm milk 1/3 cup Ridgway maple syrup dash of cinnamon dash of nutmeg 1/2 tsp. salt Beat eggs. Mix in other ingredients. Pour into large Cornwall Pottery bowl. Place bowl in baking pan filled with water. Bake 40-50 minutes at 350 degrees. Remove bowl from hot water when edge is done (test with knife) and center is slightly soft. Chill. Enjoy! Serves 4-5, may be doubled. — Anne Chamberlain J THANKS FROM JUBILEE SCHOOL I want to thank the people of Cornwall for making our stay so fun-filled and educational. I'm the person that said thank you at the church when we sang, but that's not enough. The first day was fun, but when it came close to nightfall we got really scared. I didn't think we were going to have much fun. The picture that I painted in my mind of Cornwall was a whole bunch of hillbilly, talk-too-much, jumper-wearing farmers. I saw nothing of the sort, I saw kind people. That is what this letter is about. I'm expressing all of my thank you feelings to you in writing. Thank you, Town of Cornwall. Best of love. — Leevetta Jones NO DEVELOPMENT CONTEMPLATED "Subdivision" can be a scary word, suggesting real estate development. "Resubdivision" was used about my land in the July issue of the Chronicle. To allay any fears, I want to make it clear that I've given four parcels to my grandchildren, who I hope will enjoy and use them. They can't legally sell without family approval. Also, 25 acres have been designated as "forever forest." The rest goes with the house. — Naneen Bunnell YOUTH GROUP NEEDS ADULTS For the past three years I have been a co-leader with Peter Hammond of the Cornwall Youth Group. We have gone tubing down the Housatonic, luge sledding, hiking, bowling, and car-washing, and done various other things over the years. As you all know, the children of Cornwall are polite, well-behaved, and very energetic. We have had one problem, though: lack of grown-up participation. Peg Keskinen has handled our paperwork and organized snacks, and some parents have helped us truck these young folks around, but we have very little leadership help. The Youth Group meets every other week during the school year and breaks for the summer. This has been a large commitment for two people with their own jobs, families, gardens, etc. If we only had a few more adults to ease the pressure! Think about it, and then call 672-2667 (Celia) or 672-6840 (Peter) with your commitment to our teenagers. — Celia Frost ASLEEP ON THE STOOP A young brown bear is finding East Cornwall homes comfortable for snoozing. Recently one was discovered sleeping on my front doorstep. When nudged by my visiting nurse, Sally Smith's, foot, he rolled over, looked at her eye to eye, and slowly ambled down the road to George and Dot Bouteiller's, where he is often seen resting on their front porch. — Harriet L. Clark EXCITING SIGHTINGS What excites one person may not another. I've lived in Cornwall all my life. Growing up on what was once a dirt road, in a very rural setting, we were attuned to the sights and sounds of nature. We heard the hoots and screeches of owls, though we seldom saw one. We heard raccoons fighting over a morsel of food and occasionally we would hear bobcats up on the ledges in back of the house. We never saw one. Just recently, on my way to work, I had the wonderful experience of seeing a sleek, athletic young bobcat just below Roland Fenn's house on Route 4. It crossed the road from the right, pausing just long enough to check the traffic, and loped on with the graceful gait of an experienced jogger. Its coat was soft and shiny, and the unmistakable bobbed tail held high. Each day I watch carefully when I head down the hill hoping for another glimpse of the magnificent creature. — Barbara Victorien DEER SLAYERS On June 17, I joined the unhappy ranks of those who have collided with and killed a deer on the roads of Cornwall. On that same day I understand that at least five other deer were hit by cars in Cornwall and neighboring towns, including one which was hit ten minutes after my accident in almost the identical spot on Warren Hill Road. In order to deal with this problem I am trying to amass some statistics. I would be most grateful if Chronicle readers could call (672-6193) and tell me about their collision experiences with deer, especially during the last two weeks of June. — John Leich Events & Announcements Algrant Show: As it has for more than 30 years, the work of Cornwall's artists will be exhibited August 19-21 in the annual Friends of Rose Algrant Art Show. Opening at the Marvelwood School student lounge on Friday, August 19, 4-8 p.m., the show will continue for two more days, 10 a.m. to 5 p.m. Profits after expenses will be donated to the Cornwall Child Care Center. Justice of the Peace Update: The controversy over procedures for selecting justices of the peace has finally been resolved. The Secretary of State's office has outlined new procedures and calculated how many justices each town is allowed. Cornwall gets 33 — 11 for Republicans, 11 for Democrats. A Connecticut Party has two, and nine are allotted to other parties and the unaffiliated. Republicans and Democrats were to endorse candidates at July caucuses; ACP chooses by primary petition. The nine openings available to minor parties and unaffiliated voters in Cornwall are to be filled by the town clerk on written applications filed with the clerk between August 1 and November 1 (dates inclusive). Current Cornwall JPs (all in office until January 1995) are: Bill Beecher, Scott Cady, Dick Dakin, Nick Edler, Jack Forster, Michael Gannett, Monty Hare, Ken Keskinen, and Patsy Van Doren. Voter Registration: On Saturday, August 27, from noon to 3 p.m., and again on Tuesday, August 30, from 6 to 9 p.m., the Registrars of Voters will hold special registration sessions in the Town Hall for new Cornwall voters who wish to vote in the September primaries for state, district, and municipal offices. At these two sessions the registrars will also consider requests from voters previously removed from the voter list who wish to be restored. New voters wishing only to vote in the November general election have until October 28 to register. Questions? Call Lisa Cruse, 672-6049 or Judith Gates, 672-6568. CCS Opening: Cornwall Consolidated School will open for the 1994-95 school year on September 1, at 8:40 a.m. The first day will be a full session from 8:40 a.m. to 2:55 p.m. Kindergarten classes will be held in the morning from 8:40 to 11:15, and the afternoon session will begin at 12:20 and end at 2:55. Letters will be mailed to all families of Cornwall students (CCS and HVRHS) with pertinent opening-day information, including transportation routes and a school calendar for the year. Beginning Friday, August 19, the school office will be open from 9 a.m. to 1 p.m. for parents who have questions and for the registration of new pupils. Kindergarten orientation and bus ride will take place on Friday, August 29 at 10 a.m. Slide Show and Dollhouses: The Cornwall Historical Society will present a slide show of old Cornwall views on August 19 at 7:30 p.m. at the Town Hall. The society's exhibit of dollhouses will continue through August and can be seen Tuesdays and Saturdays from 9:30 a.m. to noon. Book Bargains: A rich assortment of titles will be up for grabs at the annual Cornwall Library book sale, to be held at the Town Hall in conjunction with the Agricultural Fair, Saturday, August 27, noon to 4 p.m. Come, browse & buy. "Roots of Roe": Jeremy Brecher will show, and discuss, his award-winning TV documentary at the Town Hall at 8 p.m., August 11. Jeremy was co-author of the documentary, which deals with Connecticut's role — going all the way back to 1742 — in the controversies over abortion, contraception, and reproductive rights that led up to the historic Roe v. Wade decision. "Roots of Roe" won regional Emmy awards for "best documentary," "best direction," and "best writing." Jeremy's talk is sponsored by the Friends of the Cornwall Library. Admission free — everybody welcome. Church Fair: St. Bridget's Church will hold its 22nd annual Country Fair August 13, 9 a.m. to 3 p.m., rain or shine. Vendor space is available for $15, payable no later than August 7. Items needed for the fair are books, jewelry, tools, appliances in working order, toys, food for the bake sale, white elephant items. Noclothes will be accepted. To reserve a space, call St. Bridget's Rectory, 672-6515. Road Work: Our town crew will be hard at work throughout August oiling Whitcomb, Bald Mountain, Pritchard, and Flat Rocks Roads. The paved section of River Road in West Cornwall will also be resurfaced. Jack Preston is supervising work on the Popple Swamp Bridge and the salt storage facility, both projects to be completed by mid-September. Upbeat Financial Update Our treasurer is breathing a little easier, thanks to 51 contributors who responded to last month's appeal with a total of $1,515. Thanks to all. But we're hardly on easy street, so if you haven't sent a check recently, please do so. Yes, I want the Chronicle to continue. Here's my tax-deductible contribution of $ __________ NAME _______________________________________ ADDRESS ______________________________________ CITY/ST/ZIP _____________________________________ $10 will get the Chronicle mailed out of town.
TESLA THE LIFE AND TIMES OF AN ELECTRIC MESSIAH NIGEL CAWTHORNE Nikola Tesla is the towering genius who made the modern world. All the electrical devices around us owe something to him. Not only did he invent many of the gadgets we depend on today, he had a vision of the future, much of which has become reality long after his death. He is now acknowledged to have beaten Guglielmo Marconi to the invention of the radio. Indeed, he spoke of his world system of wireless transmission the year before Marconi transmitted the first radio signal across the Atlantic. His Tesla Coil, invented in 1891, is widely used in radio and television sets, and he developed electric motors, generators, X-rays, fluorescent tubes, remote control and radar. He was one of the outstanding figures of the 20th century, arguably more influential than Einstein, Stravinsky or Picasso. Seventy years after his death, this book reveals why Nikola Tesla’s legacy to the world deserves to be more widely acclaimed. Despite being incredibly popular during his time, Nikola Tesla today remains largely overlooked among the greatest inventors and scientists of the modern era. Thomas Edison gets all the glory for discovering the lightbulb, but it was his one-time assistant and lifelong arch-nemesis, Tesla, who made the breakthrough in alternating-current technology. Edison and Tesla carried on a bitter feud for years, but it was Tesla's AC generators that illuminated the 1893 World's Fair in Chicago; the first time that an event of such magnitude had ever taken place under artificial light. Today, all homes and electrical appliances run on Tesla's AC current. Born in Croatia in 1856, Tesla spoke eight languages and almost single-handedly developed household electricity. During his life he patented more than 700 inventions. He invented electrical generators, FM radio, remote control robots, spark plugs and fluorescent lights. He had a photographic memory and did advanced calculus and physics equations in his head. Although he was never awarded a Nobel Prize, three Nobel laureates lauded him as one of the outstanding intellects of the world who paved the way for many of the technological developments of modern times. Journalist and author Nigel Cawthorne graduated in physics from University College, London, England. In the 1970s he worked on Science and Mechanics magazine in New York where Nikola Tesla had worked decades before. He has worked on scientific titles such as The Universe Explained, Tomorrow's Technology, The History of Aviation, The History of Technology and The History of Ordnance, and periodicals including Electronics Today, Space Frontiers, Quest and Nature. He has also written many biographies. He lives in Bloomsbury, London, England. This edition published by Chartwell Books an imprint of The Quarto Group 142 West 36th Street, 4th Floor New York, NY 10018, USA Printed in China TESLA The following is a list of the most important documents that have been created by the Office of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan. 1. The Constitution of the Republic of Kazakhstan (1995) 2. The Law on the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan (1995) 3. The Law on the Government of the Republic of Kazakhstan (1995) 4. The Law on the Parliament of the Republic of Kazakhstan (1995) 5. The Law on the Judiciary of the Republic of Kazakhstan (1995) 6. The Law on the Constitutional Court of the Republic of Kazakhstan (1995) 7. The Law on the Election of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan (1995) 8. The Law on the Election of the Parliament of the Republic of Kazakhstan (1995) 9. The Law on the Election of the Judiciary of the Republic of Kazakhstan (1995) 10. The Law on the Election of the Constitutional Court of the Republic of Kazakhstan (1995) TESLA THE LIFE AND TIMES OF AN ELECTRIC MESSIAH NIGEL CAWTHORNE CHARTWELL BOOKS Nikola Tesla (1856–1943) ## CONTENTS INTRODUCTION ........................................... 6 PART ONE STRANGER FROM A STRANGE LAND - BIRTH OF A VISIONARY .......................... 10 - ELECTRIC BRAINWAVES ............................ 17 - MEETING THOMAS EDISON .......................... 27 - THE WESTINGHOUSE CORPORATION ................. 35 PART TWO UNLIMITED POWERS - FATHER OF THE WIRELESS ......................... 50 - NIAGARA FALLS ..................................... 68 - TESLA’S EXTREME SCIENCE .......................... 74 - IN COLORADO SPRINGS .............................. 81 PART THREE IMPOSSIBLE IDEAS - TAKING ON MARCONI ............................... 92 - FRESH DREAMS OF FLYING .......................... 102 - THE NOBEL PRIZE ................................... 118 - DESTROYING THE DREAM ............................ 125 PART FOUR DESCENT AND RE-ASSESSMENT - TALKING TO PIGEONS ............................... 134 - A NEW SOURCE OF ENERGY .......................... 144 - THE FINAL DAYS .................................... 162 - POSTHUMOUS RECOGNITION .......................... 180 - SOURCES AND CITATIONS ........................... 185 - INDEX .................................................. 190 If you mean the man who really invented, in other words, originated and discovered – not merely improved what had already been invented by others, then without a shade of doubt, Nikola Tesla is the world’s greatest inventor, not only at present, but in all history. Hugo Gernsback, Father of Modern Science Fiction, 1919 Nikola Tesla (1856 - 1943) is the towering genius who made the modern world. All the electrical devices around us owe something to him. Not only did he invent many of the gadgets we depend on today, he had a vision of the future, much of which has become reality long after his death. As long ago as 1900, Tesla wrote of a world system of wireless transmission: The World-System has resulted from a combination of several original discoveries made by the inventor in the course of long continued research and experimentation. It makes possible not only the instantaneous and precise wireless transmission of any kind of signals, messages or characters, to all parts of the world, but also the inter-connection of the existing telegraph, telephone, and other signal stations without any change in their present equipment. By its means, for instance, a telephone subscriber here may call up and talk to any other subscriber on the globe. This is surely the mobile phone network we have over a century later. And in his autobiography, My Inventions, published in 1919, he envisaged that in nine months, without undue expense, he could deliver: - The interconnection of existing telegraph exchanges or offices all over the world; - The establishment of a secret and non-interferable government telegraph service; - The interconnection of all present telephone exchanges or offices around the globe; - The universal distribution of general news by telegraph or telephone, in conjunction with the press; - The establishment of such a ‘World System’ of intelligence transmission for exclusive private use; - The interconnection and operation of all stock tickers of the world; - The establishment of a world system of musical distribution, etc.; - The universal registration of time by cheap clocks indicating the hour with astronomical precision and requiring no attention whatever; - The world transmission of typed or handwritten characters, letters, checks, etc.; The establishment of a universal marine service enabling the navigators of all ships to steer perfectly without compass, to determine the exact location, hour and speed; to prevent collisions and disasters, etc; The inauguration of a system of world printing on land and sea; The world reproduction of photographic pictures and all kinds of drawings or records... Here we have the internet, GPS and Satnav. But Tesla was not just a visionary who delivered theory. He was a practical man who pioneered alternating current that made it possible to transmit electricity over long distances, allowing electrical appliances to be powered by remote power stations, rather than have a power station on every street corner as the earlier direct current system envisaged. He is now acknowledged to have beaten Guglielmo Marconi to the invention of the radio. Indeed, he spoke of his world system of wireless transmission the year before Marconi transmitted the first radio signal across the Atlantic. His Tesla Coil, invented in 1891, is widely used in radio and television sets, and other electronic equipment. He developed electric motors, generators, X-rays, fluorescent tubes, remote control and radar. However, many of his inventions are unacknowledged because he was so busy developing new ideas to bother patenting them. Although he was never awarded a Nobel Prize, three Nobel laureates lauded him as ‘one of the outstanding intellects of the world who paved the way for many of the technological developments of modern times’. He appeared on the cover of Time magazine and the unit of magnetic induction, a minor planet, a crater on the moon, an award and an airport are named after him. He was also played by David Bowie in the 2006 movie The Prestige. Otherwise, with his talk of death rays and communication from other planets, his image endures as that of the mad scientist. But he was far from mad. He was one of the outstanding figures of the 20th century, arguably more influential than Einstein, Stravinsky or Picasso, and 70 years after his death, he deserves to be better known. Nikola Tesla examining some of his induction motors, 1898. Fig. 6. Fig. 7. PART ONE STRANGER FROM A STRANGE LAND In my boyhood I suffered from a peculiar affliction due to the appearance of images, often accompanied by strong flashes of light, which marred the sight of real objects and interfered with my thought and action. They were pictures of things and scenes which I had really seen, never of those I imagined. When a word was spoken to me the image of the object it designated would present itself vividly to my vision and sometimes I was quite unable to distinguish whether what I saw was tangible or not. This caused me great discomfort and anxiety... Nikola Tesla¹ Legend has it that Nikola Tesla – the pioneer who brought electric light to nearly every home on the planet – was born in a dazzling electrical storm. Sadly, the meteorological records of the Balkans in the 19th century are not readily to hand. But it would have been a fitting debut for the man who made his own artificial lightning with thunder that could be heard 15 miles (24 km) away. In 1894, before a large gathering of people in Philadelphia, Tesla ran 250,000 volts through his body to demonstrate the safety of alternating current. An eyewitness to his experiments said that there was ‘light flaming at every pore of his skin, from the tips of his fingers and from the end of every hair on his head’. On the night of his birth, hearing the thunder, according to family lore, the fearful midwife said: ‘He’ll be a child of the storm.’ His mother responded: ‘No, of light.’ Born in the dark of the small Croatian village of Smiljan at midnight on 10 July 1856, Tesla was ethnically a Serb. His family had left Serbia, then under the Ottoman empire, for Catholic Croatia when it became part of the burgeoning Austrian Empire in the 1700s. Both his grandfathers had fought in Napoleon’s Illyrian Army that aimed to kick out the Hapsburgs and the Ottomans, and unite the Balkans. Tesla’s father, Milutin, was an Orthodox priest and wanted Nikola to follow in his footsteps. Milutin was a poet and political activist who wrote of a united Yugoslavia, which did not come about until 1929. His mother Djouka never learned to read, but could memorize epic Serbian poems and long passages of the Bible. Tesla attributed his phenomenal memory to her. It was the Tesla family’s cat, Macak, that introduced the 3-year-old Tesla to electricity. ‘As I stroked Macak’s back, I saw a miracle that made me speechless with amazement,’ he recalled. ‘Macak’s back was a sheet of light and my hand produced a shower of sparks loud enough to be heard all over the house.’ The young Tesla asked his father what had caused the sparks. Milutin replied: ‘Electricity, the same thing you see through the trees in a storm.’ It led Nikola to think that nature was a cat and God was stroking it. That night, as it grew dark, Nikola noticed that the cat was surrounded by a halo from the static electricity in its fur. In 1939, looking back on the experience, Tesla said: ‘I cannot exaggerate the effect of this marvellous night on my childish imagination. Day after day I have asked myself “what is electricity?” and have found no answer. 80 years have gone by since that time and I still ask the same question, unable to answer it.’ Mother of Invention Tesla inherited his flair for inventing from his mother who, he said, ‘descended from one of the oldest families in the country and a line of inventors. Both her father and grandfather originated numerous implements for household, agricultural and other uses.’ But she stood out even among this remarkable family. He said: My mother was an inventor of the first order and would, I believe, have achieved great things had she not been so remote from modern life and its multi-fold opportunities. She invented and constructed all kinds of tools and devices and wove the finest designs from thread which was spun by her. She even planted the seeds, raised the plants and separated the fibres herself. He also inherited his immense appetite for work from her. ‘She worked indefatigably, from break of day till late at night,’ he said, ‘and most of the wearing apparel and furnishings of the home was the product of her hands. When she was past sixty, her fingers were still nimble enough to tie three knots in an eyelash.’ While famous for her embroidery, she also devised a mechanical eggbeater. He took clocks to pieces and discovered how difficult it was to put them back together again. He also made himself a wooden sword and, imagining himself a great Serbian warrior, he slashed at cornstalks, ruining the crop and earning himself a spanking from his mother. INFAMOUS FROG CATCHER In his autobiography My Inventions, Tesla recalled his first invention. One of his playmates had a fishing rod and set out with friends to catch frogs. But Tesla was left out because he had had a quarrel with the boy. So he got hold of a piece of soft iron wire, hammered the end into a point between two stones, bent it into shape and attached it to a strong string. Then he cut a branch to make a rod and, armed with some bait, went to the brook. However, he found that, while the frogs would not take his bait, they would bite on the bare hook. He kept this secret from the other boys who caught nothing, only telling the secret at Christmas, in the generous spirit of the season. Next, he made an early attempt ‘to harness the energies of nature to the service of man,’ he said. He attached a rotor to a spindle with a disc on the other end in an attempt to make a primitive helicopter. To power the device, he attached four June bugs. ‘These creatures were remarkably efficient,’ he said, ‘for once they were started, they had no sense to stop and continued whirling for hours and hours, and the hotter it was, the harder they worked.’ But then another boy came along and ate the June bugs alive. After that, Tesla was never able to touch another insect. TRAGIC DEATH OF DANE Tesla possessed a powerful imagination, at that time, filled with superstition and religious images. They were almost tangible and often accompanied by flashes of light that obscured the real world. He did not think this peculiar as his elder brother Dane saw the same things. The young Nikola was overshadowed by Dane who, he said, was ‘gifted to an extraordinary degree.’ But, when Nikola was 5, Dane was thrown by the family’s Arabian horse and died of his injuries. ‘I witnessed the tragic scene and, although so many years have elapsed since,’ he wrote in 1919, ‘my visual impression of it has lost none of its force.’ However, there was another version of this story. In it Dane was said to have died after falling down the cellar stairs. He suffered a head injury and in his delirium accused Nikola of pushing him. Nearly 70 years later he still recalled the night of Dane’s death: It was a dismal night with rain falling in torrents. My brother, ... an intellectual giant, had died. My mother came to my room, took me in her arms and whispered almost inaudibly: ‘Come and kiss Daniel.’ I pressed my mouth against the ice-cold lips of my brother knowing only that something dreadful had happened. My mother put me again to bed and lingering a little said with tears streaming: ‘God gave me one at midnight and at midnight he took away the other one.’ Following Dane’s death, his parents recalled his achievements, making Nikola’s seem dull by comparison. This undermined his confidence and he ran away, seeking refuge in an inaccessible mountain chapel that was only visited once a year, remaining there ‘entombed for a night’.¹⁴ The tragedy of Dane’s death never left him. For the rest of his life he would have nightmares about it. And after Dane’s death, Tesla’s waking fantasies became more real and he began to have out-of-body experiences. CHILDHOOD TRAUMAS There were other traumatic events in Tesla’s childhood. After having a bath on a summer’s day, his mother put him outside naked to dry in the sun where he was attacked by a goose that seized him by the navel with its beak and almost pulled it inside out. He once fell headlong into a huge vat of boiling milk, risked drowning swimming under a raft and found himself almost swept over a waterfall created by a nearby dam. As well as being lost, frozen and entombed, he claimed to have had ‘hairbreadth escapes from mad dogs, hogs, and other wild animals’.¹⁵ Even ordinary things held hidden terrors. He developed a strange aversion to women’s earrings. The sight of a pearl would almost give him a fit, though he was fascinated by crystals. He would not touch other people’s hair ‘except, perhaps, at the point of a revolver’. He would get a fever from looking at a peach and hated having camphor anywhere in the house. Dropping little squares of paper into a dish filled with liquid produced an awful taste in his mouth. Some of these strange quirks helped prepare him for the world of science. He would count his steps as he walked and calculate the volume of soup plates, coffee cups and pieces of food. Otherwise he did not enjoy his meals. Every repeated act had to be done a number of times that was divisible by three. If not, he would start over.¹⁶ UNSETTLING TOWN LIFE Soon after Dane’s death, Tesla’s father was promoted and moved to an onion-domed church in the town of Gospic. There Nikola started school. His father had a well stocked library, but flew into a rage when he discovered Nikola reading at night. Fearing the boy’s eyesight would be strained, he hid the candles. Undeterred the enterprising Nikola cast his own and sealed up any cracks in his room so the light could not be seen from the outside. Then he read until dawn. Nikola missed the countryside and found himself ill-equipped for life in the town. ‘In our new house I was but a prisoner,’ he wrote, ‘watching the strange people I saw through my window blinds. My bashfulness was such that I would rather have faced a roaring lion than one of the city dudes who strolled about.’¹⁷ Then this shy boy met with an incident ‘the mere thought of which made my blood curdle like sour milk for years afterwards’.¹⁸ Coming down from the church belfry one Sunday after ringing the bell, he stepped on the train of one of the town’s grand dames which ‘tore off’ with a ripping noise which sounded like a salvo of musketry fired by raw recruits². His father was livid and slapped him on the cheek. This was the only corporal punishment he ever administered.¹⁹ DEVELOPING MIND OVER MATTER Until the age of 8, Tesla admitted that his character was ‘weak and vacillating’. Then he came upon an historical novel called Abafi - which means ‘Son of Aba’ - by Hungarian writer Miklós Jósika. In it, the young roué Olivér Abadir gradually mends his ways and becomes a national hero in Transylvania’s fight against the onslaught of the Hungarians, Turks and Austrians. Following his example, Tesla set about developing willpower. ‘In a little while I conquered my weakness and felt a pleasure I never knew before – that of doing as I willed,’ he said. Following the incident of the torn train, Tesla had been ostracized in Gospic. Now he managed to redeem himself. The town had recently organized a fire department and was showing off its new fire engine. The entire populace turned out for the ceremony and speeches. With the hose at the ready, the order was given to start pumping, but not a drop of water came out. While the bigwigs tried in vain to locate the trouble, Tesla felt instinctively for the suction hose that ran down into the river. He found it collapsed. Plainly there was a blockage, so he waded into the river and unblocked it. Suddenly he was the hero of the day and found himself carried shoulder high. CALCULUS, COILS AND TURBINES At 10 years old, Tesla entered the local Real Gymnasium – the equivalent of a British prep school or an American junior high school. It had a well-equipped physics department. ‘I was interested in electricity almost from the beginning of my educational career,’ he said. ‘I read all that I could find on the subject ... [and] experimented with batteries and induction coils.’ He was also keen on waterwheels and turbines, and experimented designing a flying machine which, he realized later, could not work because it depended on perpetual motion. Then, after seeing a picture of Niagara Falls, he told his Uncle Josif that one day he would go to America and put a big wheel under the falls to harness its power. Finishing at the Real Gymnasium at the age of 14, Tesla fell ill. During his youth he claimed that three times he was in such a bad way that he was ‘given up by physicians’. While he was recuperating, the local library sent all the books it had not catalogued for Nikola to read and classify. It was then, for the first time, he came across the works of Mark Twain, whom he would later befriend. When he recovered, his father sent him to Karlovac – also known as Karlstadt – to the Higher Real Gymnasium to prepare him for the seminary. Nikola’s father was still determined that his son should follow him into the priesthood, a prospect which filled Tesla with dread. At the Higher Real Gymnasium, he showed early signs of genius, performing integral calculus in his head, leading his teachers to think he was cheating. Again the Gymnasium at Karlovac had a good physics department. Tesla became fascinated by the Crookes radiometer they had there. Invented by British scientist William Crookes, it consisted of four metal vanes, polished on one side, blackened on the other, mounted on a vertical pivot in a glass bulb. The mechanism spun when bright light fell on it. It was also in Karlovac, in 1879, he saw, for the first time, a steam train. CONTRACTING CHOLERA AND RECUPERATING When he had completed his studies at Karlovac, Tesla got a message from his father telling him to go into the mountains with a hunting party. This puzzled him as his father did not approve of hunting, so he ignored the message and returned to Gospic to find it in the grip of a cholera epidemic. That was why his father wanted him to stay away. Nikola soon came down with the disease and was confined to bed for nine months. When he was at death’s door, his father tried to encourage him in the hope he would rally. Nikola seized the opportunity and said to his father: ‘Perhaps I may get well if you will let me study engineering.’ His father replied: ‘You will go to the best technical institution in the world.’ After that he pulled through. During his recuperation, he would take long walks in the forest. Along the way he conceived a way to send letters and parcels between continents via tubes under the oceans. Mail would be packed in balls that would be forced along the pipes by water at high pressure. However, he did not take into account the resistance to the flow of water and the system would not have worked. He also thought up a scheme to speed up worldwide travel. A stationary ring would be erected high above the equator, with the world turning underneath it. People would travel up onto the ring, then wait for their destination to appear below. He conceded that it would be impossible to build such a ring, but these thought experiments prepared his mind for later work. He said: I observed to my delight that I could visualize with the greatest facility. I needed no models, drawings or experiments. I could picture them all as real in my mind. Thus I have been led unconsciously to evolve what I consider a new method of materializing inventive concepts and ideas, which is radically opposite to the purely experimental and is in my opinion ever so much more expeditious and efficient. As good as his word, Tesla’s father secured a scholarship for him from the Grenzlandsverwaltungsbehörde – the Military Frontier Administration Authority – paying 420 gulden a year for him to attend the Joanneum Polytechnic in Graz, Austria. When he has finished, he would then have to serve 8 years in the Military Authority. Tesla left for college with a bag covered with the embroidered designs his mother was famous for. He treasured that bag for the rest of his life. A radiometer, invented by William Crookes (1832 - 1919). The ancient Greeks discovered that you could produce static electricity by rubbing amber with silk. In the 18th century, scientists such as the American Benjamin Franklin (1706 – 90) and the Briton Henry Cavendish (1731 – 1810) made a systematic study of the phenomenon. In 1791, the Italian Luigi Galvani (1737 – 98) discovered electricity in animal tissue when he saw a frog’s leg twitch when touched by two different metals. This led his friend Alessandro Volta (1745 – 1827) to make the first electric battery in 1800. Danish physicist Hans Christian Ørsted (1777 – 1851) discovered the relationship between electricity and magnetism in 1820 when he saw a compass needle being deflected when an electric current was turned on and off. French physicist André-Marie Ampère (1775 – 1836) developed this into the science of electrodynamics. In 1831, British scientist Michael Faraday (1791 – 1867) demonstrated the laws of electromagnetic induction, producing a current in a coil by moving a magnet back and forth inside it. This led to the development of both the electric motor and the generator where coils of wire were mounted in a rotor, or armature, within a magnetic field. As the magnetic effect is only apparent when the current is turned on and off, an electric motor has a commutator – that is, a split ring with electrical contact, or brushes, resting on either side. As the motor turns, contacts switch, reversing the current flow in the coil. Similarly, a generator needs a commutator to prevent the current reversing as the rotor turns. An early electric motor of the 19th century, driving a mill. It has cost me years of thought to arrive at certain results, by many believed to be unattainable, for which there are now numerous claimants, and the number of these is rapidly increasing ... Nikola Tesla¹ Arriving at the Polytechnic in 1875, Tesla did not study engineering initially. Perhaps in deference to his father, he studied physics and mathematics with the aim of becoming a professor like his Uncle Josif. The Polytechnic had recently bought a Gramme dynamo which physics professor Jacob Pöschl used to teach his students about electric currents. During his lectures, he connected the dynamo to a battery, so it would work as a motor. While Professor Pöschl was making demonstrations, running the machine as a motor, the brushes gave trouble, sparking badly, and I observed that it might be possible to operate a motor without these appliances. But he declared that it could not be done and did me the honour of delivering a lecture on the subject, at the conclusion he remarked, ‘Mr Tesla may accomplish great things, but he certainly will never do this. It would be equivalent to converting a steadily pulling force, like that of gravity into a rotary effort. It is a perpetual-motion scheme, an impossible idea.’ But instinct is something which transcends knowledge. We have, undoubtedly, certain finer fibres that enable us to perceive truths when logical deduction, or any other wilful effort of the brain, is futile. Tesla would go on to make a motor that did without troublesome brushes. It was his first great invention. EXPERIMENTING WITH THOUGHT While somewhat intimidated by his professor’s authority, Tesla was determined to prove that he was right and ‘undertook the task with all the fire and boundless confidence of youth’. To take up the challenge of building a spark-free motor, Tesla switched to the engineering course. However, electrical engineering was in its infancy and the course in Graz concentrated on civil engineering. Consequently, Tesla returned to his thought experiments: I started by first picturing in my mind a direct-current machine, running it and following the changing flow of the currents in the armature. Then I would imagine an alternator and investigate the progresses taking place in a similar manner. Next I would visualize systems comprising motors and generators and operate them in various ways. The images I saw were to me perfectly real and tangible. Tesla was a diligent student – for the first year. He worked from 3 am until 11 pm, 7 days a week, taking no holidays. He passed his exams way ahead of his fellow students. But when he went home with his exemplary exam certificates his father was furious. ‘That almost killed my ambition,’ he wrote. It was only later, after his father had died, that he discovered letters from his professors telling him to take his son away from the polytechnic, otherwise he would kill himself with overwork. CAROUSING AND GAMBLING In his second year at college Tesla gave himself over to carousing and, in his third year, he gave up going to lectures altogether. This led to his scholarship being cancelled. He tried to get another scholarship from the publishers of the pro-Serbian newspaper, Queen Bee, calling himself a ‘technician’ and saying he could speak Italian, French and English, as well as Serbian, Croatian and German. It was refused and he was thrown out of school for gambling and, it was said, ‘womanizing’. He disappeared from Graz without a word and friends feared that he had drowned in the river. In 1878, he re-appeared in Maribor, which was then in the Austrian province of Styria, now in Slovenia. He found work there as a With the rapid development of the telegraph system in the 1840s and 1850s, what was needed was direct current (DC) that flowed in only one direction. This is the type normally produced by batteries. Even with a commutator, introduced by Parisian instrument-maker Hippolyte Pixii (1808 – 35) in 1832, the current delivered by a generator, while not reversing, was not smooth and constant like that from a battery. It builds to a peak then drops back to zero again. However, Belgian electrical engineer Zénobe-Theophile Gramme (1826 – 1901) demonstrated his Gramme dynamo at the French Academy of Sciences in 1871. By increasing the number of coils on the rotor and the number of sections on the commutator, it could produce a near constant direct current. Shown at the International Exhibition in Vienna, one Gramme dynamo was connected to another one which acted as a motor. Until then, motors had only been powered by expensive batteries. Gramme’s business partner, French engineer Hippolyte Fontaine (1833 – 1910) had demonstrated that power could be transmitted from one place to another without the inefficient shafts, belt, chains or ropes used to connect steam engines to machines – with obvious advantages for industry. A Gramme dynamo, invented by Zénobe-Théophile Gramme (1826 – 1901). draftsman in a tool and die shop, though he seems to have spent much of his time playing cards for money.\textsuperscript{10} His father, who did not approve of gambling, found out where he was and came to beg him to return to school, this time in Prague.\textsuperscript{11} A few weeks after his father’s visit, Tesla was arrested as a vagrant and deported back to Gospic. At his father’s church, he met and fell in love with a girl called Anna. Strolling by the river or on long walks back to his hometown of Smiljan, they discussed the future. She wanted a family; he wanted to be an electrical engineer.\textsuperscript{12} Then his father fell seriously ill. He died soon after, aged 60, and was given a funeral fitting for a saint.\textsuperscript{13} Tesla continued gambling. One day his mother came to him and gave him a roll of notes, saying: ‘The sooner you lose all we possess the better it will be. I know that you will get over it.’\textsuperscript{14} He said: ‘I conquered my passion then and there and only regretted that it had not been a hundred times as strong. I not only vanquished but tore it from my heart so as not to leave even a trace of desire. Ever since that time I have been as indifferent to any form of gambling as to picking teeth.’\textsuperscript{15} He reported giving up excessive smoking and coffee drinking with similar ease.\textsuperscript{16} And he seems to have given up his passion for Anna too. \section{THE COMING OF THE TELEPHONE} Tesla then honoured his dead father’s wishes. Supported by two maternal uncles, he went to Prague University and signed up for courses in mathematics, experimental physics and philosophy. This introduced him to the Scottish philosopher David Hume (1711 – 76) and the idea that human beings were born a blank slate that was shaped through life by sensory perceptions – ideas that would come into play when he later worked on robotics.\textsuperscript{17} The intellectual ferment of Prague stimulated Tesla and, again, he put his mind to building a new type of electric motor, removing the commutator to eliminate the sparking. Eventually, the money from his uncles dried up. Tesla needed a job and he saw in the newspapers that one of Thomas Edison’s agents, Tivadar Puskás, was setting up a telephone exchange in Budapest, having already built one in Paris. Puskás’ idea was to build telephone exchanges in major European cities.\textsuperscript{18} Until then Alexander Graham Bell had only thought of installing his invention on private lines linking two locations. However, in Budapest, no work was forthcoming, so Tesla took a government job as a draftsman in the Central Telegraph Office. This bored him and he quit to devote himself full time to inventing. Coming up with no practical idea, he had a nervous breakdown. \section{A FLASH OF INSPIRATION} Tesla was only rescued from a deep depression by his new friend Anthony Szigeti. One afternoon they were walking in the City Park reciting poetry. ‘At that age,’ he said, ‘I knew books by heart, word for word.’\textsuperscript{19} As the sun was setting, he began a passage in German from Goethe’s \textit{Faust}. The quote concludes: \begin{quote} Alas the wings that lift the mind no aid \\ Of wings to lift the body can bequeath me. \end{quote} Tesla said: \begin{quote} As I uttered these inspiring words the idea came like a flash of lightning and in an instant the truth was revealed. I drew with a stick on the sand the diagram shown six years later in my address before the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, and my companion understood them perfectly. The images I saw \end{quote} were wonderfully sharp and clear and had the solidity of metal and stone, so much so that I told him, ‘See my motor here, watch me reverse it.’ I cannot begin to describe my emotions.” The idea Tesla had come up with was using a rotating electric field within the motor. Although Tesla described his ‘Eureka’ moment in his autobiography, he did not patent the alternating current (AC) motor until 1903. He did further experiments on it in 1883 and 1887, and the idea was still not fully worked out when he addressed the AIEE in 1888. However, Tesla had solved the problem that Professor Pöschl had said was impossible. He was now convinced he was an inventor, and he had made the intellectual breakthrough that would make him rich and famous. Tesla may have also found inspiration at the works of Ganz and Company in Budapest where AC electrical distribution was being developed. Electricity can be transmitted down wires with less loss at higher voltages. With AC electricity you can step up the voltage - and step it down again - using a transformer. In the Ganz works, engineers found that a metal ball placed on top of a transformer would revolve. Later, Tesla would use this in his Egg of Columbus demonstrations. I never can forget the deep impression that magic city produced on my mind. For several days after my arrival I roamed through the streets in utter bewilderment at the new spectacle. The attractions were many and irresistible, but, alas, the income was spent as soon as received. When Mr Puskás asked me how I was getting along ... I [replied] ‘the last 29 days of the month are the toughest.’ Employed at the Edison works in the suburb of Ivry, Tesla learned a great deal about the practical business of building generators and motors. At the time, little of the basic science had been done and progress was made by trial and error. However, Tesla had the advantage that, unlike the other engineers, he had studied physics and mathematics, and could make calculations. His schedule, as usual, was unrelenting. He would get up in the morning at 5 am and swim 27 laps of a bathhouse on the Seine. In the evenings he would play billiards with his colleagues. Even then, he would explain his idea for an AC motor, again in the dirt with a stick. In his spare time, he worked on alternative designs for his flying machine and outlined the specifications for his AC motor in a notebook. It would need three different alternating currents delivered to the motor down six wires at 120° out of phase. This would produce a rotating magnetic field. But he could not get any of Edison’s men interested. The business making money at the time was delivering electric light rather than powering motors. The other problem was that, using six wires, rather than the three used in Edison’s system, would use much more copper which was a major factor in the cost of new equipment at the time. Only one Edison man, David Cunningham, saw the potential in Tesla’s motor and suggested that they set up a stock company. But Tesla was unfamiliar with the American way of doing business and nothing came of it. Born in Ohio, Edison had little schooling. At the age of 12 he got a job on the railroad where he learned telegraphy. He went on to develop the duplex system that sent two messages at once and a printer that converted electrical signals into letters. He quit and went into business for himself, developing the quadruplex system, which sent four messages at once for Western Union and their rivals. With the help of his father, he established a laboratory and machine shop at Menlo Park, New Jersey, which became the world's first industrial research facility. There he developed underwater cable for the telegraph, set about improving the primitive telephone developed by Alexander Graham Bell, and inventing the phonograph. This brought him worldwide fame as the Wizard of Menlo Park. He worked on the incandescent light bulb, though battles over patents ensued. He also developed electric motors and generators to power his lighting systems, first on the steamship Columbia, then on buildings in New York and London. A pioneer in motion pictures, he also developed batteries for submarines and the Model T Ford. In all, he took out a world record 1,093 patents and remains the most famous inventor in American history. Edinburgh-born Bell first visited the USA in 1871 where he demonstrated his father’s method of teaching speech to the deaf. The following year he opened a school for teachers of the method in Boston. With young technician Thomas Watson, he set to work on developing ways of using electricity to transmit sound, getting his patent for the telephone in 1876. Hundreds of patent suits followed. Nevertheless, the Bell Telephone Company was established the following year, successfully fighting off suits by two subsidiaries of the Western Union Telegraph Company. Bell also invented the photophone, which transmitted sound on a beam of light, and the Graphophone, that recorded sound on wax cylinders. He experimented with sonar detection, huge flying kites and hydrofoils, while continuing to find ways to aid the deaf. Alexander Graham Bell in New York in 1892, making a telephone call to Chicago. He was still suffering from seeing flashing lights. One night in Paris, he said: ‘I felt the positive sensation that my brain had caught fire. I was alight, as though a small sun was located in it and I passed the whole night applying cold compressions to my tortured head.’\textsuperscript{27} However, though painful, these did not worry him. Throughout his life, he said, ‘these luminous phenomena still manifest themselves from time to time, as when a new idea opening up possibilities strikes me…’\textsuperscript{28} SECRETS IN STRASBOURG Tesla was sent as a trouble-shooter to lighting stations in France and Germany. He oversaw the illumination of an opera house in Paris, a theatre in Bavaria and cafés in Berlin. After helping develop an automatic regulator for Edison dynamos, he was sent to fix the illuminations at the central railway station in Strasbourg, which, in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71, had been taken over by Germany. There had been a problem there when the wiring had shorted, blowing out a section of the wall during a visit of Kaiser Wilhelm I and a German-speaking engineer was needed to sort it out. In the station’s powerhouse, there was a Siemens AC generator. In their spare time, Tesla and Szigeti secretly experimented with the prototype of one of Tesla’s AC motors. ‘It was the simplest motor I could conceive of,’ said Tesla. ‘It had only one circuit, and no windings on the armature or the fields. It was of marvellous simplicity.’\textsuperscript{29} The problem was it did not work. The initial trouble was that it used a brass ring that would not magnetize. Steel had to be added in various positions. Then, said Tesla, ‘I finally had the satisfaction of seeing rotation effected by alternating current of different phase, and without sliding contacts or commutator, as I had conceived a year before. It was an exquisite pleasure, but not to compare with the delirium of joy following the first revelation.’\textsuperscript{30} He had finally proved Professor Pöschl wrong. PASSAGE TO NEW YORK Tesla tried unsuccessfully to raise money to back his invention in Strasbourg. He returned to Paris expecting a bonus for his work in Strasbourg which did not materialize. He tried to find financial backing there too, again unsuccessfully. However, he did catch the eye of Charles Batchelor who had been head of the Edison organization in Paris. He was returning to New York to head the Edison Machine Works there and asked Tesla to come with him. To smooth Tesla’s passage into the Edison organization Batchelor got a letter of introduction from Tivadar Puskás addressed to Edison, saying: ‘I know two great men and you are one of them; the other is this young man.’\textsuperscript{31} Just before leaving for America, Tesla spent time with scientists studying microscopic organisms in drinking water. Having suffered cholera before, he now shunned unpurified water, avoided poor quality restaurants, and scoured the crockery and cutlery before eating. Later he wrote: ‘If you would watch only for a few minutes the horrible creatures, hairy and ugly beyond anything you can conceive, tearing each other up with the juices diffusing throughout the water – you would never again drink a drop of unboiled or unsterilized water.’ His uncles again paid for the trip. The journey to New York was not a happy one. His money and most of his belongings were stolen, and there was some sort of mutiny on the ship and Tesla nearly got pushed overboard. On 6 June 1884, Tesla sailed into New York on the \textit{City of Richmond} just as The electricity from a battery, lightning or a Van de Graaf generator that produces a static charge is direct current. It flows in only one direction. Alternating current flows in one direction, then the other. It cycles through peaks and troughs as it changes direction. With a direct current, when a switch is thrown a magnetic field builds up around the wire, inducing a current in any conductor nearby. This only occurs when the field is building up or when the field collapses when the current is switched off. With an alternating current, the electric current is effectively being switched on and off all the time, inducing an alternating current in the secondary conductor. This property is utilized in an induction motor, where a current is induced in secondary coils on the rotor, and in a transformer, where the voltage is stepped up and down. the first stones of the Statue of Liberty’s pedestal were being hauled into place. He was 28 years old. Although he spoke English, Tesla had difficulty making himself understood as the customs officer recorded that he was from Sweden. Tesla then recalled the clerk barking: ‘Kiss the Bible. Twenty cents.’ His first impressions of America were not good. He wrote: What I had left was beautiful, artistic, and fascinating in every way. What I saw here was machine, rough, and unattractive. A burly policeman was twirling his stick which looked to me as big as a log. I approached him politely with the request to direct me. ‘Six blocks down, then to the left,’ he said, with murder in his eyes. ‘Is this America?’ I asked myself in painful surprise. ‘It is a century behind Europe in civilization.’ He went to work immediately. Passing a machine shop, he saw a mechanic who had just given up on trying to fix an electric machine and offered to help. In one version of the story, Tesla did this ‘without thought of compensation’; in another, it was one of the machines he had helped design and he charged $20. In either case, legend has that he said: ‘I had it running perfectly in an hour.’ Nikola Tesla in 1879, aged 23. I was thrilled to the marrow by meeting Edison who began my American education right then and there. I wanted to have my shoes shined, something I considered below my dignity. Edison said: ‘Tesla, you will shine the shoes yourself and like it.’ He impressed me tremendously. I shined my shoes and liked it. Nikola Tesla¹ Tesla was soon too busy to dwell on the shortcomings of the New World. The dynamos the Edison organization had installed on the SS Oregon, then the holder of the Blue Riband for the fastest transatlantic passenger crossing, had broken down, delaying her sailing. Tesla immediately volunteered to make the repairs. He and his crew worked overnight and the Oregon set sail the following day for another record-breaking run. Returning to Edison’s Manhattan offices at 5 am, Tesla bumped into Charles Batchelor and Edison, who were just going home. According to Tesla, Edison said: ‘Here is our Parisian running around at night.’ They had met before in Paris and seem to have got on famously. Edison recalled: Oh, he’s a great talker, and, say, he’s a great eater too. I remember the first time I saw him. We were doing some experimenting in a little place outside Paris, and one day a long, lanky lad came in and said he wanted a job. We put him to work thinking he would soon tire of his new occupation for we were putting in twenty to twenty-four hours a day then, but he stuck right to it and after things eased up one of my men said to him: ‘Well, Tesla, you’ve worked pretty hard, now I’m going to take you into Paris and give you a splendid supper.’ So he took him to the most expensive café in Paris – a place where they broil an extra thick steak between two thin steaks. Tesla stowed away one of those big fellows without any trouble and my man said to him: ‘Anything else, my boy? I’m standing you a treat.’ Well, if you don’t mind, sir,’ said my apprentice, ‘I’ll try another steak.’ After he left me he went into other lines and has accomplished quite a little. At their first meeting in New York, Tesla explained that he had just returned from the Oregon and had repaired both the dynamos. Edison said nothing and walked away. When he was a little distance away, Tesla saw him turn to Batchelor and say: ‘Batchelor, this is a damn good man.’ EMULATING EDISON Plainly Tesla had impressed Edison and began work at the Edison Machine Works on 8 June 1884, only two days after arriving in America. He worked hard. ‘For nearly a year, my regular hours were from 10.30 am to 5 o’clock the next morning without a day’s exception,’ he said. Possibly thinking that Tesla came from Transylvania, Edison asked whether Tesla had ever tasted human flesh. Tesla was also appalled at Edison’s ‘utter disregard of the most elementary rules of hygiene’, but enquired what the great man’s diet consisted of. ‘You mean to make me so all-fired smart?’ said Edison. Tesla nodded. Edison replied, perhaps in jest, that he ate a daily regimen of Welsh Rarebit as ‘it’s the only breakfast guaranteed to renew one’s mental faculties after the long vigils of toil’. Tesla began to do the same despite a protesting stomach. But his admiration was undiminished. Tesla wrote in his autobiography: I was amazed at this wonderful man who, without early advantages and scientific training, had accomplished so much. I had studied a dozen languages, delved in literature and art, spent my best years in libraries reading all sorts of stuff that fell into my hands, from Newton’s Principia to the novels of Paul de Kock, and felt that most of my life had been squandered. The admiration was mutual. According to Tesla, Edison told him: ‘I have had many hard-working assistants, but you take the cake.’ However, Tesla still took the time to enjoy a good meal – the table d’hôte at a restaurant in Greenwich Village with a bottle of red wine The first electric lights were arc-lamps that gave off light from electric sparks. But in 1879, Edison came up with the improved incandescent lamp. Arc lamps had been connected in series – if one failed, all of them went out. Edison connected his lamps in parallel, so each faulty bulb could be replaced individually. This had created an astonishing demand for electric power. Edison built his first DC power station on Pearl Street in lower Manhattan in 1882, initially to power 400 lamps owned by 85 customers. It quickly became a monopoly and by 1884 it was serving 508 customers with 10,164 lamps. The electricity was carried above ground on poles with dozens of crooked crossbeams supporting sagging wires. The exposed electrical wiring was a constant danger and unsuspecting children climbing the poles would suffer lethal electric shocks. In spite of the perils, wealthy New Yorkers rushed to have their homes wired, the most important being the banker, J.P. Morgan, who had invested heavily in Edison. A gentleman explains the first Edison Electric Lighting Station at Pearl Street in lower Manhattan in the 1880s. and play billiards, a game he had mastered as a student. According to Edison’s personal secretary Alfred O. Tate: ‘He played a beautiful game. He was not a high scorer but his cushion shots displayed a skill equal to that of a professional exponent of this art.’\textsuperscript{10} AVOIDING THE AC SUBJECT Tesla set about redesigning Edison’s dynamos, replacing their long magnets with more efficient short cores, claiming that they gave three times the output for the same amount of iron. He kept quiet about his AC motor though, perhaps recalling the indifference of Edison’s men in Paris. Once, though, he was tempted to bring up the subject with Edison himself. ‘It was on Coney Island,’ he said, ‘and just about as I was going to explain it to him, someone came and shook hands with Edison. That evening, when I came home, I had a fever and my resolve rose up again not to speak freely about it to other people.’\textsuperscript{11} Otherwise Tesla and Edison got on well enough. Tesla told the tale of visiting Edison’s office at 65 Fifth Avenue, when the great man was playing a game guessing weights. ‘Edison felt me all over and said: “Tesla weighs 152 pounds to the ounce” – and he guessed it exactly,’\textsuperscript{12} Tesla recalled. He asked how Edison could guess his weight so accurately and was told: ‘He was employed for a long time in a Chicago slaughter house where he weighed thousands of hogs every day.’\textsuperscript{13} Tesla would occasionally dine with Edison, Batchelor and others of the company’s top brass in a restaurant across the road from the showroom at 65 Fifth Avenue where they would swap stories and tell jokes. Afterwards they would go to a billiard room where Tesla would impress them with his bank shots and his vision of the future. ARC LIGHTING Companies that had grown up making arc lights were now moving into incandescent lighting, robbing Edison of valuable contracts. He struck back by going into arc lighting which was more suitable for street lighting or illuminating large spaces. He filed an arc-lamp patent in June 1884 and left Tesla to work out the details. Tesla completed the job, but his system was shelved when Edison made a deal with a dedicated arc-lighting company and, by then, larger incandescent bulbs suitable for lighting larger spaces had been developed. Tesla felt cheated. ‘The manager had promised me $50,000,’ he wrote, ‘but when I demanded payment, he merely laughed, saying “You are still a Parisian! When you become a fully-fledged American, you will appreciate an American joke.”’\textsuperscript{14} As it was, Tesla could not even get his salary of $18 a week increased to a modest $25. This was a painful shock and he resigned. Later in life, Tesla re-assessed his opinion of Edison. When the Wizard of Menlo Park died in 1931, Tesla said: If he had a needle to find in a haystack he would not stop to reason where it was most likely to be, but would proceed at once with the feverish diligence of a bee, to examine straw after straw until he found the object of his search ... I was almost a sorry witness of his doings, knowing just a little theory and calculation would have saved him ninety per cent of the labour ... Trusting himself entirely to his inventor’s instinct and practical American sense ... the truly prodigious amount of his actual accomplishments is little short of a miracle.\textsuperscript{15} INDEBTED TO EDISON Despite the rift between the two men, Tesla was indebted to Edison. With Edison’s former patent attorney Lemuel Serrell, Tesla began patenting improvements to arc lights and dynamos. In Serrell’s office, Tesla met B.A. Vail and Robert Lane. They set up the Tesla Electric Light and Manufacturing Company. Tesla tried to interest them in his AC motor, but they were only interested in arc lighting. Together they set about lighting the streets and factories in Rahway, New Jersey, Vail’s hometown. Meanwhile Tesla used the patents he had been granted to buy shares.$^{16}$ When the electrification of Rahway was completed, Electrical Review featured it on the front page of its 14 August 1886 issue. It was so successful that Vail and Lane decided to run the utility, leaving no role for Tesla. He was bounced from the company leaving him with nothing but ‘a beautifully engraved certificate of stock of hypothetical value’.$^{17}$ He could not even use his own inventions as patents had been assigned to the company. It was the ‘hardest blow I ever received,’$^{18}$ he said. In the winter of 1886–87, he was forced to dig ditches. I lived through a year of terrible heartaches and bitter tears, my suffering being intensified by my material want. My high education in various branches of science, mechanics and literature seemed to me like a mockery.$^{19}$ RESCUED BY A PATENT In 1884, Edison had been experimenting with ways of producing electricity from burning coal or gas. It ended when an explosion blew the laboratory’s windows out. However, Tesla figured out a simpler – and safer – way to do it, and in March 1886, he applied for a patent for his thermo-magnetic motor. TESLA’S THERMO-MAGNETIC MOTOR When iron magnets are heated they lose their magnetic strength. Tesla devised a small motor with one fixed magnet and a second moving magnet attached to a flywheel and a pivot arm that pushed against a spring. At room temperature, the attraction between the two magnets was enough to compress the spring and pull the moving magnet into the flame of a Bunsen burner. This would heat up the magnet. It would lose strength. The spring would then push the magnet back, turning the flywheel. With the magnet now out of the flame, it cooled down. Its magnetic strength was restored and the cycle began all over again. Patent application for Tesla’s thermo-magnetic motor, March 1886. While Tesla was digging ditches, he told his foreman about his inventions. It seems that the foreman had been digging the ditches for the underground cables that connected Western Union’s head office with the stock and commodity exchanges, and knew Alfred S. Brown (1836 – 1906) who was superintendent of Western Union’s New York Metropolitan District.$^{20}$ Brown probably knew of Tesla from the article in Electrical Review and was impressed by his thermoelectric motor and his AC inventions. TESLAS PYROMAGNETIC GENERATOR Tesla took a large horseshoe magnet. Across its poles ran a number of hollow iron tubes which were magnetized and had coils of wire wrapped around them. Under the centre of the tubes was a firebox. Above there was a boiler. The coal fire in the firebox heated the iron tubes until they reached about 600°C (1,112°F) and glowed a dull red. As the tubes heated up, they would lose their magnetism and the collapsing magnetic field would induce an electric current in the coils. Then a valve was opened and steam, at 100°C (212°F), would circulate through the tubes, cooling them. As the magnetism in the tubes was restored, electric current would again be induced in the coils.$^{21}$ N. TESLA. PYROMAGNETO ELECTRIC GENERATOR. No. 428,057. Patented May 13, 1890. ![Patent application for Tesla’s pyromagnetic generator.](image-url) THE EGG OF COLUMBUS Eager to exploit Tesla’s ideas, Brown contacted Charles F. Peck, a wealthy lawyer from New Jersey. However, Peck knew of the general prejudice against AC and refused even to witness some tests. ‘I was discouraged,’ Tesla said. But then he remembered the ‘Egg of Columbus’. The story goes that Columbus was having dinner with some Spanish nobles who mocked him. So he challenged them to stand an egg on its end. They all tried and failed. Then he took the egg, tapped it lightly on one end, cracking the shell and denting it, so it would stand upright. As a result he was granted an audience with Queen Isabella and won her support for his voyage. Tesla told Peck that he could go one better. He would make an egg stand on its end without cracking the shell. If he could trounce Columbus, Tesla asked, could he count on Peck’s support? Peck said he had no crown jewels to pawn, but he would help.$^{22}$ After the meeting, Tesla took a hard-boiled egg to a blacksmith and got him to cast one in copper. Then he placed four coils under the top of a wooden table to create a magnetic rotating field. When he turned on the current, the egg began to spin. Growing faster, it ceased to wobble and stood on its end. Peck was impressed. Not only had Tesla gone one better than Columbus, he had demonstrated the principle of his AC motor. TESLA ELECTRIC COMPANY Together Tesla, Brown and Peck formed the Tesla Electric Company in April 1887. Tesla would get a third share of any money generated. Brown and Peck would split another third, and a third would be reinvested. Tesla also received a salary of $250 a month, while Brown and Peck would cover the cost of the patents. The following month, Szigeti came to New York to work as Tesla’s assistant. They set up a laboratory at 89 Liberty Street above a printing company. During the day the printing shop used a steam engine to power its presses. At night it provided power for Tesla’s experiments.$^{23}$ First Tesla developed his thermomagnetic motor into the pyromagnetic generator, using the same principles. Tesla believed this was a great invention, but it did not work very well and his patent application was denied. Nevertheless, Peck encouraged him to continue inventing and his mind turned back to the AC motor he built in Strasbourg. This time, instead of a single coil, he used four coils wound around a laminated ring. Two separate AC currents were fed to the pairs of coils on opposite sides. If these two currents were $90^\circ$ out of phase - that is, when one was at its maximum positive value, the other was at its maximum negative value - a rotating electrical field was produced. To Tesla’s delight, the rotor - initially a shoe polish tin balanced on a pin - began to spin.$^{24}$ From this prototype, Tesla and Szigeti produced two full-scale motors. They were, Tesla said, ‘exactly as I had imagined them. I made no attempt to improve the design, but merely reproduce the pictures as they appeared to my vision and the operation was as I expected.’$^{25}$ Patents were applied for and issued on 1 May 1888. The motors were then tested for their efficiency by Professor William Anthony (1835 – 1908) of Cornell University and, on 15 May, Tesla delivered his groundbreaking paper A New Alternating Current Motor to the American Institute of Electrical Engineers (AIEE). Nikola Tesla in 1885, aged 29. There were many days when [I] did not know where my next meal was coming from. But I was never afraid to work, I went where some men were digging a ditch ... [and] said I wanted to work. The boss looked at my good clothes and white hands and laughed to the others ... but he said, ‘All right. Spit on your hands. Get in the ditch.’ And I worked harder than anybody. At the end of the day I had $2. Nikola Tesla¹ Power stations had sprung up across America and Europe to provide electric light at night. In the 1880s the owners saw electric motors as a way to sell power to factories and streetcar lines during the day. However, most of the power stations produced DC and Brown and Peck were a little dubious of Tesla’s fixation with AC. Other inventors had used AC to power arc lights. This was particularly popular in Europe where experimenters found they could raise or lower the voltage of an alternating current using primitive transformers. Engineers at the Ganz Company found that, at a high voltage, electricity could be distributed over long distances using thin copper wires. Then, to make it safe to use in the home, it would be stepped down using a transformer. WESTINGHOUSE AND AC In 1884, George Westinghouse became interested in electric lighting and hired the inventor William Stanley Jr (1858 - 1916), who had invented an incandescent lamp and a self-regulating dynamo. At first, Westinghouse thought of developing a DC system, but abandoned it as the market was already overcrowded. For a DC system to be profitable, numerous small power stations had to be situated near to the homes and factories they served. Westinghouse saw that an AC system could provide power to towns and cities where the population was spread out, reaching a market that DC systems could not serve. There would also be considerable economies of scale by using an AC system where the voltage could be stepped up and distributed over a wider area, serving more customers. The disadvantage was that no one had yet developed a meter to measure how much each individual consumer used, nor had a serviceable AC motor been developed to provide power for factories and streetcars. Besides, Edison had dismissed AC as ‘not worth the attention of practical men’. In 1885, Westinghouse imported a transformer made by Lucien Gaulard and John Gibbs in London which Stanley began experimenting with. By the time Tesla presented his paper to the AIEE in May 1888, Westinghouse had already sold more AC power stations than all the other companies providing DC power put together. In response, Edison began warning that AC power was dangerous. TESLA DEMONSTRATES AC In his paper to the AIEE, Tesla sought to demonstrate the superiority of AC once and for all. He told the audience gathered in the lecture hall at Columbia University: The subject which I now have the pleasure of bringing to your notice is a novel system of electric distribution and transmission of power by means of alternate currents, affording peculiar advantages, particularly in the way of motors, which I am confident will at once establish the superior adaptability of these currents to the transmission of power and will show that many results heretofore unattainable can be reached by their use; results which are very much desired in the practical operation of such systems and which cannot be accomplished by means of continuous currents... In our dynamo machines, it is well known, we generate alternate currents which we direct by means of a commutator, a complicated device and, it may be justly said, the source of most of the troubles experienced in the operation of the machines. Now, the currents so directed cannot be utilized in the motor, but they must – again by means of a similar unreliable device – be reconverted into their original state of alternate currents. The function of the commutator is The transformer uses the same principles of electromagnetic induction employed in electric motors and generators. Two coils of wire are wound around a single iron core. When an electrical current is passed through one of them, it magnetizes the iron core. This, in turn, induces an electric current in the other one. The voltage is stepped up or stepped down according to the ratio of the number of turns of wire in each coil. However, induction only works when the electrical current is being switched on and off again, so an alternating current rather than a direct current must be used. The transformer is a vital component of any power distribution system as transmission losses are much smaller when the voltage is higher – as less current is needed to convey the same amount of energy. So electricity generated at a power station is stepped up in voltage using a transformer before it reaches the transmission lines. Then, at its destination, it is stepped down for use in the home or factory. Westinghouse AC generator. The world’s first single-phase AC power transmission system. Built in 1895, by Nikola Tesla and George Westinghouse at Ames Hydroelectric Plant, Telluride, Colorado (photo c. 1900). entirely external, and in no way does it affect the internal working of the machines. In reality, therefore, all machines are alternate current machines, the currents appearing as continuous only in the external circuit during their transit from generator to motor.\textsuperscript{3} After the lecture, Tesla demonstrated that his AC motor could be instantly reversed. He provided precise calculations on how the speed and power of the motor could be determined, and he showed how his system could be married up to DC apparatus. Professor Anthony said that, in his test, he had found Tesla’s motors 50 - 60 per cent more efficient than DC models. Then arc-lighting pioneer Elihu Thomson (1853 - 1937) stepped forward to say that he had already developed an AC motor. However, his still used a commutator and was consequently inefficient. Tesla pointed this out and earned himself a life-long enemy, while he himself was catapulted to fame. SELLING THE AC MOTOR PATENTS Brown and Peck now invited bids on Tesla’s patents. Westinghouse expressed an interest, only to be told that a Californian syndicate had offered $200,000 plus $2.50 per horsepower for each motor installed. The terms were monstrous, but without the patents it would be impossible for Westinghouse to develop a motor of his own. ‘The price seems rather high, but if it is the only method for operating a motor by alternating current, and if it is applicable to a streetcar work,’ Westinghouse wrote, ‘we can unquestionably easily get from the users of the apparatus whatever tax is put upon it by the inventors.’\textsuperscript{24} On 7 July 1888, Westinghouse agreed to pay $25,000 in cash, $50,000 in notes and a royalty of $2.50 per horsepower for each motor. Westinghouse also guaranteed that the royalties would be at least $5,000 in the first year, $10,000 in the second year and $15,000 a year from then on. Brown and Peck were also reimbursed the money they had paid out on the development of the motors. Over 10 years Tesla, Brown and Peck stood to make $200,000 and $315,000 over the 17-year lifetime of the patents.\textsuperscript{5} As Brown and Peck had negotiated this shrewd deal, as well as bearing the financial risk of developing the motors, Tesla gave them five-ninths of the deal, keeping four-ninths for himself.\textsuperscript{6} MOVING TO PITTSBURGH Later that month, Tesla took the train to Pittsburgh to put his motors into production at Westinghouse’s factory, where he met the great man himself. Later Tesla paid tribute to George Westinghouse, saying on his death: The first impressions are those to which we cling most in later life. I like to think of George Westinghouse as he appeared to me in 1888, when I saw him for the first time. The tremendous potential energy of the man had only in part taken kinetic form, but even to a superficial observer the latent force was manifest. A powerful frame, well proportioned, with every joint in working order, an eye as clear as a crystal, a quick and springy step – he presented a rare example of health and strength. Like a lion in a forest, he breathed deep and with delight the smoky air of his factories. Though past 40 then, he still had the enthusiasm of youth. Always smiling, affable and polite, he stood in marked contrast to the rough and ready men I met. Not one word which would have been objectionable, not a gesture which might have offended – one could imagine him as moving in the atmosphere of a court, so perfect was his bearing in manner and speech. And yet no fiercer adversary than Westinghouse could have been found when he was aroused. An athlete in ordinary life, he was transformed into a giant when confronted George Westinghouse was a descendent of the aristocratic Russian von Wistinghousen family. His father was also an inventor with six patents for farming machinery to his name. In his father's machine shop in Schenectady, New York, the young Westinghouse experimented with batteries and Leyden jars – glass jars coated with metal foil, used for storing electrical charge. At 15, he made his first invention, a rotary steam engine. After serving in both the US Army and Navy during the American Civil War, he attended the nearby Union College, but soon dropped out. In 1865, he patented his rotary engine, and a device for putting derailed freight cars back on the tracks. Soon after, he designed a reversible cast-steel frog which prolonged the life of railroad track switches. Having been involved in a near collision on the railway, he put his mind to improving the braking system which, until then, had depended on a brakeman on every carriage. His first system, using steam, proved impractical. But then in 1869 he came up with air-brakes that soon became standard in the US and Europe. He then worked on signalling, devising an electrical system. With the aid of Tesla, Westinghouse entered the 'War of the Currents', championing AC against Edison's DC system. By 1889, the Westinghouse Electric Corporation was a global company, employing over 500,000 people. However, in the financial panic of 1907, he lost control of the companies and retired altogether in 1911. with difficulties which seemed insurmountable. He enjoyed the struggle and never lost confidence. When others would give up in despair he triumphed. Had he been transferred to another planet with everything against him he would have worked out his salvation. His equipment was such as to make him easily a position of captain among captains, leader among leaders. His was a wonderful career filled with remarkable achievements. He gave to the world a number of valuable inventions and improvements, created new industries, advanced the mechanical and electrical arts and improved in many ways the conditions of modern life. He was a great pioneer and builder whose work was of far-reaching effect on his time and whose name will live long in the memory of men. TESLA’S TASK Founded in 1886, the Westinghouse Electric Company made $800,000 in 1887 and over $3 million in 1888, despite expensive legal battles with Edison. Even so, Tesla took no salary while he worked there. He did this on principle, he said. Since he devoted himself to scientific research, he would never accept fees or compensations for his professional services. However, after a year, he was given 150 shares of capital stock and he was given $10,000 when he discovered that Bessemer steel made a better transformer core than soft iron. In New York, he had lived in a garden apartment. In Pittsburgh, he got his first taste of living in grand hotels. DYING IN THE NAME OF SCIENCE Under the headline: ‘Died for Science’s Sake – A Dog Killed With The Electric Current’, The New York Times of 31 July 1888 reported on one of Harold P. Brown’s demonstrations. In Professor Chandler’s lecture room at Columbia’s School of Mines, Brown told an invited audience that he represented no company and no financial or commercial interest. He also maintained that he had proved by repeated experiments that a living creature could stand shocks from a continuous current much better than from an alternating current. He had applied 1,410 volts of DC to a dog without fatal results, but had repeatedly killed dogs with 500 to 800 volts of alternating current. Brown then brought out a Newfoundland mix weighing 76 pounds (34 kg). The dog was muzzled and tied down inside a wire cage. The newspaper reported: Mr Brown announced that he would first try the continuous current at a force of 300 volts [DC]. When the shock came the dog yelped and then subsided. A relay has been attached to the apparatus, which shut off the current almost as soon as it was applied. When the dog got 400 volts he struggled considerably, still yelping. At 700 volts he broke his muzzle and nearly freed himself. He was tied again. At 1,100 volts his body contorted with the pain of the brutal experiment. His resistance to the current then dropped from 15,000 to about 2,500 ohms. ‘He will be less trouble,’ said Mr Brown, ‘when we try the alternating current. As these gentlemen say, we shall make him feel better.’ It was proposed the dog be put out of his misery at once. This was done with an alternating current of 330 volts killing the beast.’ When Brown brought out another dog, an agent from the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals stepped in. Meanwhile, the assembled electricians said that the dog had been weakened by the DC current before the AC was applied. But Brown insisted that the only places AC should be used were ‘the dog pound, the slaughter house and the State prison’. Tesla’s task in Pittsburgh was to adapt his motors, which ran best at 50 or 60 cycles per second, to the 133 cycles per second used by the Gaulard-Gibbs transformer at the 120 power stations Westinghouse had already set up. They used this higher frequency to prevent the lights flickering. Since Westinghouse’s chief electrician, Oliver B. Shallenberger (1860 - 98), had adapted an electrical meter to run at this frequency, it was reasonable to believe that Tesla’s motors could be adapted too. Tesla also had the problem of adapting his motors to run on the two-wire system used by Westinghouse power stations, rather than the four or six wires used to provide out-of-phase AC current to his prototypes. ENCOUNTERING NIKOLA TESLA At Westinghouse, Tesla’s assistant, was to be Charles Scott (1864 - 1944) who admitted that he had only learned that there was such a thing as alternating current in 1887 after reading an article written by William Stanley in Electrical World. ‘I had graduated from college two years earlier, and I wondered why I had not heard of such things from my professors,’ said Scott. Now, a year later, he was to meet Tesla himself. ‘There he came, marching down the aisle with head and shoulders erect and with a twinkle in his eye. It was a great moment for me,’ he said. Scott would later become a Professor of Engineering at Yale, but in Pittsburgh he was ‘Tesla’s wireman ... preparing and making tests’. He recalled: It was a splendid opportunity for a beginner, this coming in contact with a man of such eminence, rich in ideas, kindly and friendly in disposition. Tesla’s fertile imagination often constructed air castles which seemed prodigious. But, I doubt whether even his extravagant expectations for the toy motor of those days measured up to actual realization ... for the polyphase system which it inaugurated ... exceeded the wildest dreams of the early days.’ THE WAR OF THE CURRENTS With the successful introduction of Westinghouse’s AC system, Edison, who was still wedded to DC, was on the back foot and a full-scale industrial war broke out. He launched an all-out propaganda onslaught on the dangers of alternating current. Westinghouse, who would be the eventual victor, said: I remember Tom [Edison] telling them that direct current was like a river flowing peacefully to the sea, while alternating current was like a torrent rushing violently over a precipice. Imagine that! Why they even had a professor named Harold Brown who went around talking to audiences ... and electrocuting dogs and old horses right on stage, to show how dangerous alternating current was.’ REPLACING THE HANGMAN Having collected a list of over 80 casualties, Harold P. Brown was concerned over the safety of electricity. At the School of Mines, part of Columbia University in New York City, he began experimenting with animals to show that AC was more dangerous than DC. In December 1888, Edison brought Brown out to Menlo Park to electrocute animals with AC as part of his propaganda war. A number of cities began using electricity to clear their dog pounds. New York went a step further and set up a commission, under the auspices of the Medico-Legal Society of New York to see whether electricity could be used for capital punishment. Brown became the official state electrical execution expert. The guinea pig was to be William Kemmler, a 30-year-old alcoholic who had killed his common-law wife with a hatchet. Edison testified to the committee. The following day the New-York Daily Tribune carried the headline: ‘Edison Says It Will Kill, The Wizard Testifies As An Expert In The Kemmler Case, He Thinks An Artificial Current Can Be Generated Which Will Produce Death Instantly And Painlessly In Every Case - One Thousand Volts Of An Alternating Current Would Be Sufficient.’$^{15}$ The Electrical Review detailed Edison’s proposed method: He proposes to manacle the wrists, with chain connections, place ... the culprit’s hand in a jar of water diluted with caustic potash and connect therein ... to a thousand volts of alternating current ... place the black cap on the condemned, and at a proper time close the circuit. The shock passes through both arms, the heart and the base of the brain, and death is instantaneous and painless.$^{16}$ Brown surreptitiously bought some Westinghouse motors and began experimenting with larger animals. In Edison’s laboratory he ‘Westinghoused’ 24 dogs, bought from local children at 25 cents each, while Edison himself ‘Westinghoused’ two calves and a horse. After this demonstration, The New York Times reported: ‘The experiments proved the alternating current to be the most deadly force known to science, and that less than half the pressure used in this city for electric lighting by this system is sufficient to cause instant death. After Jan. 1 the alternating current will undoubtedly drive the hangman out of business in this State.’$^{17}$ ELECTRICAL CHALLENGE George Westinghouse wrote to The New York Times in protest. Brown responded by using the letters page to draw attention to Westinghouse’s ‘pecuniary interests’ in ‘death-dealing alternating current’ and issued a challenge: I therefore challenge Mr Westinghouse to meet me in the presence of competent electrical experts and take through his body the alternating current while I take through mine a continuous current. The alternating current must have not less than 300 alternations per second (as recommended by the Medico-Legal Society). We will commence with 100 volts, and will gradually increase the pressure by 50 volts at a time, with each increase, until either one or the other has cried enough, and publicly admits his error.$^{18}$ Westinghouse did not reply, though Brown was later denounced by the New York Sun. Under the headline ‘For Shame, Brown’, the newspaper revealed that he had been ‘paid by one electric company to injure another’.$^{19}$ Brown protested: ‘I am exposing the Westinghouse system as any right-minded man would expose a bunco starter or the grocer who sells poison where he pretends he sells sugar.’$^{20}$ But his protests did no good. --- FACING THE ELECTRIC CHAIR William Kemmler’s execution went ahead on 6 August 1890. It was neither instantaneous nor painless. ‘To the horror of all present, the chest began to heave, foam issued from the mouth, and the man gave every evidence of reviving,’$^{21}$ said Electrical Review. A doctor present told The New York Times he would rather have seen ten hangings. Westinghouse said they would have done better with an axe, while Edison blamed the doctors. They had applied the current to the top of the head, though hair was not conductive, and they had not put his An electrical motor works through the interaction of two sets of magnets – one stationary, the stator, and one able to move freely, the rotor. For practical motors, electromagnets are used as they don’t weaken over time. Permanent magnets do. So both the stator and rotor are essentially coils of wire around metal cores. However, even electromagnets have no reason to set the rotor spinning. But magnetic attraction will draw a north pole on the rotor towards a south pole on the stator. To keep the motor turning, the polarity of the electromagnets has to keep on switching. In early DC motors this was done by a split ring commutator supplying current to the rotor. Tesla’s genius was that he realized that you did not have to send electricity to the electromagnets on the rotor at all. If you supplied alternating current to the coils on the stator, the magnetic field created would induce an electric current in the coils of the rotor. The magnetic field produced would oppose that on the stator and the motor would turn. Essentially, a dynamo or generator is a motor worked in reverse. With a motor you supply electricity and get a mechanical turning force. In a dynamo you supply the mechanical turning force and get electricity. Add in the transformer and Tesla had created a complete system of generating, transmitting and utilizing power. A diagram of the inner workings of an induction motor, drawn by Nikola Tesla on Metropolitan Hotel notepaper. hand in a jar of water. However, next time they would get it right, he said. Brown was notable by his absence. But the damage had been done. Backers began to pull their money out of Westinghouse and work on Tesla’s induction motor was abandoned. But Tesla still had faith in his invention and agreed to remove the royalty clause from the contract if work resumed. ‘George Westinghouse was, in my opinion, the only man on the globe who could take my alternating current system under the circumstances then existing and win the battle against prejudice and money power,’ Tesla said. ‘He was a pioneer of imposing stature and one of the world’s noblemen.’ After 2 years, work on Tesla’s motors resumed. The young engineer Benjamin Lamme examined the patents and the prototypes, and concluded that Tesla had exhausted all the possibilities of adapting them to run at higher frequencies. He managed to talk his superiors round. Westinghouse had to go over to 60 cycles per second – the frequency of alternating current used to this day in the US – and the company simply announced that a young engineer named Lamme had discovered the efficiencies of lower frequencies. TESLA TRAVELS THE WORLD In 1889, Tesla left Pittsburgh and went to Paris for the Universal Exposition of 1889 where the Eiffel Tower made its first appearance. Edison was there too. He had been given a one-acre site to display his inventions and the latest – the phonograph – was causing a sensation. With his new wife, 24-year-old Mina, Edison had lunch with Alexander Eiffel in his apartment at the top of the tower. He also visited Louis Pasteur in his laboratory and received the Grand Cross of the Légion d’Honneur for his achievements. Meanwhile Tesla met Norwegian scientist Vilhelm Bjerknes (1862–1951) whose study of electrical resonance was vital in the development of radio. While dining out in Paris with French engineer and physicist André Blondel, he also ran across the famous French actress Sarah Bernhardt (1844–1923) when she dropped her lace handkerchief near his dining table and Tesla rushed to hand it back to her. Legend has it that their eyes met with a burning intensity. The Electrical Review remarked that he may be ‘invulnerable to Cupid’s shafts’, but Sarah Bernhardt may have been an exception. Tesla said much later, that it was a scarf he had picked up, not a handkerchief and he did not return it. He kept it, without washing it, for the rest of his life. While Edison continued his tour of Europe, being feted everywhere he went, Tesla paid a short visit to his family, then returned to New York, where he opened a laboratory on Grand Street. There he began work on lighting and radio transmission. ‘I was not free in Pittsburgh,’ he said. ‘I was dependent and could not work ... When I [left] that situation, ideas and inventions rushed through my brain like Niagara.’ MAKING OUTLANDISH CLAIMS When Edison was in London, visiting his power stations, an engineer named Sebastian Ziani de Ferranti (1864–1930) was building an AC power station in Deptford, south London, that was able to transmit electricity at 11,000 volts to central London, seven miles away. Meanwhile, Tesla claimed that he had a system that could ‘place a 100,000 horsepower on a wire and send it 450 miles in one direction to New York City, the metropolis of the East, and 500 miles in the other direction to Chicago, the metropolis of the West.” This outlandish claim was greeted like those of the current conmen John Ernst Worrell Keely (1837 - 98), who was jailed in 1888 for contempt of court after having claimed to have invented a perpetual-motion machine, and Walter Honenau, who tried to sell pills that, he said, turned water into petrol. However, Tesla’s claim turned out, just a few years later, to be true. Tesla also continued helping Westinghouse with their development of his motor, again taking no payment apart from the equipment Westinghouse provided to furnish his new lab. Tesla stayed in touch with the men in his family by letter, but usually only sent cheques to his sisters. He also made an effort to pay back all the money his uncles had spent on him. Uncle Petar had risen to become a Metropolitan – the Orthodox equivalent of a Cardinal – while Uncle Pajo responded by sending fine wines as Tesla often complained of the poor quality of wine in the US. He had little time to enjoy them though. He was working seven days a week, stopping only to freshen up in the hotel that had now become his home, or to keep some pressing appointment. February 1890, a meeting of the AIEE was devoted to Tesla’s AC system. Experiments in the long-distance transmission of AC current were then being conducted in Germany and Switzerland. Westinghouse was opening a hydroelectric plant at a mining camp in Telluride, Colorado, using Tesla’s AC system and the International Niagara Commission announced that it was looking at the best way to exploit the Niagara Falls. WHIRLING THROUGH ENDLESS SPACE Tesla agreed to present his work on high-frequency phenomena to the AIEE. The meeting would be open to the public and the journalist covering the symposium for Electrical World also managed to sell a piece to the prestigious mainstream magazine Harper’s Weekly. It said that Tesla had gone beyond noted European physicists such as Professor Heinrich Hertz in his understanding of the electromagnetic theory of light. He also put on a number of spectacular demonstrations. In one, light streamed from a wire attached at one end to a coil. In another, a fine thread of platinum wire inside a glass bulb span, forming a funnel of light. He produced light bulbs that worked with just one wire attached, or with none at all, and generated huge sparks and electric flames. Electricity, he showed, would run to earth. As a finale, Tesla ran tens of thousands of volts of AC through his body to light up light bulbs and shoot sparks from his fingertips to show that alternating current was not a killer when handled properly. Electrical World said: ‘Exhausted tubes ... held in the hand of Mr Tesla ... appeared like a luminous sword in the hand of an archangel representing justice.’ Tesla concluded his lecture, saying: We are whirling through endless space with an inconceivable speed. All around us everything is spinning, everything is moving, everywhere is energy. There must be some way of availing ourselves of this energy more directly. Then, with the light obtained from the medium, with the power derived from it, with every form of energy obtained without effort, from the store forever inexhaustible, humanity will advance with giant strides. The mere contemplation of these magnificent possibilities expands our minds, strengthens our hopes and fills our hearts with supreme delight.$^{31}$ In the audience was Robert Millikan (1868 - 1953), who won the Nobel Prize in 1923 for his work on cosmic rays. He said: ‘I have done no small fraction of my research work with principles I learned that night.’$^{32}$ THE LONDON LECTURES Tesla then took his show to London in 1892, where he gave two lectures at the Royal Institution. There, Tesla said, James Dewar (1842 - 1923), the Institution’s Professor of Chemistry, ‘pushed me into a chair and poured out half a glass of a wonderful brown fluid which sparkled in all sorts of iridescent colours and tasted like nectar. “Now,” he said, “you are sitting in Faraday’s chair and you are enjoying the whisky he used to drink.”’$^{33}$ It was not lost on Tesla that he was lecturing on the same stage where Faraday had outlined the fundamental principles of electromagnetic induction in the 1830s. Again he put on a show of sparks, glowing wires, no-wire motors and coloured lights that spelt out the name William Thomson, the leading engineer, mathematician and physicist who was in the audience, and who that year, had become Lord Kelvin. Again he ran high-volt AC current through his body, to the amazement of his audience of distinguished scientists. He also melted and vaporized tinfoil in a coil and produced a new type of lamp that would disintegrate zirconia and diamonds, the hardest known substances. Then he described the ruby laser which would not be built until 1960. Most of these demonstrations were brand new, not repeats of ones he had given in America. He also demonstrated the first vacuum tube. This would later be used to amplify weak radio signals. And he concluded the lecture with speculation that improvements could be made to the transatlantic telegraph cables so that they could carry telephone calls, and the possibility of wireless transmission. The Electrical Review said: The lecture given by Mr Tesla... will long live in the imagination of every person ... that heard him, opening as it did, to many of them, for the first time, apparently limitless possibilities in the applications and control of electricity. Seldom has there been such a gathering of all the foremost electrical authorities of the day, on the tiptoe of expectation.$^{34}$ At the end, he tantalizingly informed his listeners that he had showed them ‘but one-third of what he was prepared to do’. Consequently, the audience remained in their seats and he had to deliver a supplementary lecture. He then presented Lord Kelvin with one of his early experimental Tesla Coils which would be crucial in the development of wireless transmission. Tesla went on to wow French academicians with a lecture in Paris, before heading home to Gospic where he found his mother gravely ill. She died soon after. He later wrote: ‘The mother’s loss grips one’s head more powerfully than any other sad experience in life.’$^{35}$ Scottish engineer, mathematician and physicist, William Thomson was knighted in 1866 and made a peer in 1892 for his services to science and engineering. He helped develop the Second Law of Thermodynamics, the mathematical analysis of electricity and magnetism, the electromagnetic theory of light, the geophysical determination of the age of the Earth and the basics of hydrodynamics. His work on submarine telegraph cables helped make Britain the hub of global communications. He perfected the mariner's compass and worked out the correct value of absolute zero. The units of the absolute temperature scale are named Kelvin in tribute to him. A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z PART TWO UNLIMITED POWERS A mass in movement resists change of direction. So does the world oppose a new idea. It takes time to make up the minds to its value and importance. Ignorance, prejudice and inertia of the old retard its early progress. It is discredited by insincere exponents and selfish exploiters. It is attacked and condemned by its enemies. Eventually, though, all barriers are thrown down, and it spreads like fire. This will also prove true of the wireless art. Nikola Tesla While in Europe, Tesla visited the Ganz works in Budapest to see a 1000-volt alternator they were building. He also visited Belgrade where the Serbian King Alexander I conferred the special title of Grand Officer of the Order of St Sava on him and the Serbian poet Jovan Jovanović Zmaj wrote a poem in tribute to him. On the return leg of his journey he went to Berlin to visit Hermann von Helmholtz, who developed the mathematics of electrodynamics, then went on to Bonn to see Heinrich Hertz, who was the first man to transmit and receive radio waves. Hertz had conducted his experiments with a simple sparking apparatus that could transmit radio waves across his lab. However, Hertz was a theoretical physicist who simply wanted to investigate the theories of James Clerk Maxwell, not an electrical engineer who wanted to put them to a practical use. Tesla had already duplicated Hertz’s experiments and, from them, developed the Tesla Coil which was capable of transmitting wirelessly over long distances. Hertz had sought to demonstrate that space was filled with a substance called ether, which was both inconceivably tenuous, yet extremely rigid. The reasoning was that, if light and other electromagnetic phenomena are waves, they must have something to propagate through. Tesla maintained that such a substance could not exist and the two men did not get on. In fact, the existence of Hertz’s ether had already been disproved experimentally by A.A. Michelson (1852 – 1931) in Germany in 1881 and, again, in collaboration with Edward Morley (1838 – 1923) in the US in 1887. On board ship on the way back to the US, Tesla had one of his epiphanies. He was thinking about an experience he had while walking in the Alps. Observing an oncoming thunderstorm, he noticed that rain held off until the first flashes of lightning and wondered whether he could use electricity to control the weather. When Tesla arrived back in New York after his triumphal trip, he was greeted with a photograph of Edison signed: ‘To Tesla from Edison.’ Then Westinghouse dropped by with the news that they had won the contract to provide the power for the forthcoming 1893 World’s Fair in Chicago. THE WIRELESS TRANSMISSION OF POWER Hertz had conducted his experiments with a battery and a simple circuit interrupter, like a Morse key, connected to an induction coil – a small transformer – to produce a high-voltage spark. This could be detected using a copper loop with a spark gap. Tesla quickly realized that, instead of a battery with a circuit interrupter, it would be better to use an AC current. While a circuit interrupter would only give a frequency of, at best, a few hundred cycles per second, an alternator could give 10,000 or 20,000 cycles per second. However, once an alternator reached that speed it began to fly apart, but higher frequencies could be generated electrically. He had already used induction coils and capacitors – electrical storage devices such as a Leyden jar – to give split-phase AC currents to run his motors. These could also be used to increase the frequency even higher. Putting a connecting capacitor across the terminals of a coil produced a circuit that resonated, giving a spike in output. He called this the oscillating transformer, though other experimenters began calling it the Tesla Coil. A coil coupled to a capacitor that resonates at a specific frequency is the basis of all wireless transmission. Refining his oscillating transformers, he earthed one terminal to the city’s water main, he moved around New York detecting the electromagnetic waves generated at various frequencies. Abandoning Hertz’s primitive spark gaps, he used other tuned circuits and vacuum tubes as detectors. However Tesla’s aim was not to transmit an intelligible signal as we use radio waves now. His goal was the wireless transmission of power. THE SKIN EFFECT Early in these experiments, Tesla accidentally touched a high-voltage terminal and, to his surprise, was unhurt. At high frequencies, electricity exhibits what is known as the ‘skin effect’. The magnetic field created pushes the current to the outside of a conductor, so it does not run through the body, damaging the nerves and --- ELECTRICAL FOREFATHERS JAMES CLERK MAXWELL (1831–79) Born in Scotland, James Clerk Maxwell had already demonstrated colour photography and worked on the standardization of electrical units when, in 1865, he published A Dynamical Theory of Electrical Field. In it, he sought to convert the physical laws of electromagnetic induction discovered by Faraday into mathematics. His famous equations showed that electric and magnetic fields travel through space as waves moving at the speed of light. This led him to propose that light was electromagnetic radiation and predicted the existence of radio waves. HEINRICH HERTZ (1857 – 94) After studying under Helmholtz, Hertz began his investigation of the theories of James Clerk Maxwell. He developed primitive equipment to generate electromagnetic waves and measured their wavelengths and velocity. Demonstrating that they could be reflected and refracted like light and radiant heat, he showed that light and heat were also electromagnetic waves. He was just 36 when he died. MICHELSON-MORLEY EXPERIMENT Devised by A.A. Michelson and later refined with Edward Morley, the Michelson-Morley experiment sought to detect the velocity of the Earth through the all-pervading ether which Helmholtz and Hertz maintained electromagnetic waves were propagated through. A sensitive interferometer was used to compare the speed of light in two directions at right angles to each other. If the universe is filled with ether, the speed of light along the Earth’s direction of travel should be less than its velocity at right angles to it. No difference was detected. Ergo the ether did not exist. muscles. Instead it travels across the surface, leaving the internal structure undamaged. In his public demonstrations, he touched one terminal of a high-frequency apparatus generating tens of thousands of volts and illuminated a bulb or tube held in the other hand. This also showed that alternating current, if at a sufficiently high frequency, was safer than direct current. ON THE ROAD Tesla and his lectures hit the road in 1893, and pulled in huge audiences with his dazzling demonstrations and novel ideas. In Philadelphia, he outlined a method of transmitting pictures - that is, television. The secret of wireless transmission, he said, was resonance. Wires become unnecessary as electrical impulses jump from a sending device to a receiver if they are tuned to the same frequency, and he presented a diagram showing aerials, transmitters, receivers and earth connections, all the elements of a modern broadcast system. This was not just theory. He gave practical demonstrations. On one side of the stage he had a high-voltage transformer connected to a bank of Leyden jars, a sparking gap, a coil and a length of wire hanging from the ceiling. On the other side was an identical length of wire and an identical coil and bank of Leyden jars. But instead of the sparking gap there was a Geissler, or discharge tube that glowed when electricity was passed through it, like a primitive neon light. Not only was the demonstration dazzling, it was full of strange sounds. When electricity was fed to the transformer, the core strained, making odd groaning sounds. Corona sizzled around the edges of the foil on the Leyden jars and sparks cracked across the sparking gap. But the radio waves travelled noisily from one antenna to the other and the Geissler tube lit up. In 1894, Marconi began experimenting with an induction coil, a Morse key and a sparking gap, along with a simple detector, at his father's estate near Bologna. Devising a simple aerial, he increased the range to 1.5 miles (2.4 km). He moved to London where he filed his first patent in June 1896. Using balloons and kites, he increased the range still further. In 1899, signals were sent across the English Channel and the America's Cup used Marconi's equipment for ship-to-shore communication. The following year Marconi took out patent No. 7777, which enabled several stations to operate on different frequencies. This was overturned by the US Supreme Court in 1943 when it was shown that Tesla and others had already developed radio-tuning circuits. In December 1901, Marconi transmitted a signal across the Atlantic from Cornwall in England to Newfoundland in Canada. This led to the discovery that the curvature of the Earth had proved no obstacle because radio waves reflected off ionized layers in the upper reaches of the atmosphere. Marconi continued to improve the range and efficiency of wireless devices and set up companies to exploit his discoveries. In 1909 he was awarded the Nobel Prize for physics and in 1932 the Marconi company won the contract to establish short-wave communication between England and the countries of the British Empire. Nikola Tesla quietly reads a book in his Colorado Springs laboratory in 1899, surrounded by millions of volts of electricity and streams of artificial lightning created by a giant Tesla Coil. The great inventor later revealed that it was a trick image produced by time-lapse photography. THE LEGENDARY TESLA COIL Tesla had used coils and capacitors when experimenting with rotating magnetic fields for his motor. He continually refined the components, particularly the special transformer, or coil, at the heart of the circuit, taking out his first patent for a device to run a new and more efficient lighting system in 1891. The basic circuit connected a power supply to a large capacitor, the coil or inductor and the electrodes of an adjustable spark-gap. As the capacitor charges up, the voltage lags behind. In an inductor, voltage is felt immediately while current is held back as it has to work against the magnetic field its own passage causes. If the size of the coil and condenser are selected to have exactly opposite timing – with voltage peaking in the capacitor just as it reaches a minimum in the coil – current and voltage can be made to chase each other back and forth. This oscillation is initiated by the spark gap. When the voltage in a capacitor builds up, it reaches a level when the air in the gap, which acts as an insulator, breaks down due to ionization and lets current flow. In a Tesla Coil the inductor is the primary coil of a transformer. When the circuit sparks, all the energy stored over several microseconds is discharged in a powerful impulse, producing a high voltage in the secondary coil. Once the energy has been discharged, the voltage across the spark gap falls and the air becomes an insulator again, until the voltage in the capacitor builds up to the required level again. This whole process can repeat itself many thousands of times per second. In a Tesla Coil, secondary winding is designed to react quickly to a sudden energy spike. These electrical impulses propagate along the winding as waves. The length of the coil is calculated so that, when the wave crests reach the end and are reflected back, they meet and reinforce the waves behind them, so it appears that the voltage peaks are standing still. If the high-voltage end of the secondary coil is attached to an aerial, it becomes a powerful radio transmitter. In the early decades of radio, most practicable radio transmitters used Tesla Coils. Tesla himself used larger or smaller versions of his invention to investigate fluorescence, X-rays, radio, wireless power and even the electromagnetic nature of the earth and its atmosphere. Tesla was advised to play down the possibilities of his wireless system. It seemed so fanciful it might deter conservative businessmen who might otherwise be interested in his motors or his lighting systems. Nevertheless, he said, it earned him the title of ‘Father of the Wireless’ among fellow researchers. Others had investigated the phenomenon of wireless transmission before him, but Tesla had pioneered the use of the tuned circuit, the aerial and the ground connection. He was giving these demonstrations of wireless transmission a full year before Guglielmo Marconi even began experimenting. In 1896, Tesla received a letter from Sir William Preece (1834 – 1913) of the Imperial Post Office in London, asking Tesla for two wireless sets for trial. But Marconi was in London by then. He intervened, telling Preece that he had tried the Tesla system and it had not worked. Nevertheless, Tesla filed a patent for wireless transmission in September 1897. --- CONSPIRING WITH THE DEVIL In St Louis, Missouri, 4,000 copies of a small-circulation electrical journal were sold because it carried an article about Tesla. When Tesla came to town, 80 electrical utility wagons paraded down the street. The 4,000-seat Grand Music Entertainment Hall was filled to overcapacity as several thousand more packed in. Tickets were being sold by scalpers for between $3 and $5 ($80 and $130 at today’s prices). Tesla did not disappoint, passing 200,000 volts through his body. He described the experiment in his published lecture: I now set the coil to work and approach the free terminal with a metallic object held in my hand, this simply to avoid burns. As I approach the metallic object to a distance of 8 or 10 inches, a torrent of furious sparks breaks forth from the end of the secondary wire, which passes through the rubber column. The sparks cease when the metal in my hand touches the wire. My arm is now traversed by a powerful electric current, vibrating at about the rate of one million times a second. All around me the electrostatic force makes itself felt, and the air molecules and particles of dust flying about are acted upon and are hammering violently against my body. So great is this agitation of the particles, that when the lights are turned out, you may see streams of feeble light appear on some parts of my body. When such a streamer breaks out on any part of the body, it produces a sensation like the pricking of a needle. Were the potentials sufficiently high and the frequency of the vibration rather low, the skin would probably be ruptured under the tremendous strain, and the blood would rush out with great force in the form of fine spray or jet so thin as to be invisible, just as oil will when placed on the positive terminal of a Holtz machine [electrostatic generator]. The breaking through of the skin though it may seem impossible at first, would perhaps occur, by reason of the tissues under the skin being incomparably better at conducting. This, at least, appears plausible, judging from some observations. I can make these streams of light visible to all, by touching with the metallic object one of the terminals as before, and approaching my free hand to the brass sphere, which is connected to the second terminal of the coil. As the hand is approached, the air between it and the sphere, or in the immediate neighbourhood, is more violently agitated, and you see streams of light now break forth from my fingertips and from the whole hand. Were I to approach the hand closer, powerful sparks would jump from the brass sphere to my hand, which might be injurious. The streamers offer no particular inconvenience, except that in the ends of the fingertips a burning sensation is felt ... The inventors of early electric lighting knew two ways to produce illumination – either by creating a spark, or arc, between electrodes or by running a current through a wire or fibre, heating it up until it glowed. Arc lamps are very bright and were used in searchlights, floodlights, lighthouses and movie projectors. They were not suitable for domestic use. But heated filaments also have their drawbacks. Most materials don’t behave well when heated near their melting points. They oxidize, unless surrounded by vacuum or inert gas, or break apart through internal stress. Joseph Swan (1828 – 1914) in 1878 and Thomas Edison the following year independently developed the carbon-filament bulb. This was superseded by the more efficient tungsten-filament bulb in 1908. However, there is another problem with incandescent lamps. In a domestic 60-watt light bulb, for example, no more than a few per cent of the energy radiated is visible. Most is lost as heat. But in 1859, Alexandre-Edmond Becquerel (1820 – 91) discovered that certain substances fluoresced when a current was passed through a Geissler tube – that is, a partially evacuated glass cylinder. Tesla developed this into the phosphorescent lamp – phosphorescent substances are slower to emit light than fluorescent ones and continue to glow for some time after the power is switched off. He began by powering conventional filament or arc lamps with high-frequency currents. This caused the diffuse gases inside to glow and made certain solid materials give off light. The bulbs remained cold because most of the electrical energy passed through them turned into light, rather than heat. Consequently, they were much more efficient. But although he used these experiments to illustrate his celebrated lectures, he seldom patented them. Having developed apparatus that produced higher frequencies and voltages than were available to anyone else, by 1890, he was able to light phosphorescent tubes without connecting wires. The energy was transmitted to them at radio frequencies. At higher energies, Tesla’s tubes gave off X-rays. The Man with Flaming Swords. Tesla lectures before the French Physical Society and the International Society of Electricians, Paris, France, 1892. Radio communication uses electromagnetic waves in the range of frequencies lying between around one hertz, or one cycle per second and a few gigahertz, or a thousand million cycles per second. The wavelength of electromagnetic radiation is the distance from one crest to the next. In an ordinary AM broadcast signal, say about 1,000 kHz on the AM dial, wave crests are spaced at about 969 ft (295 m) apart. The number of crests going by in one second is called the frequency. In all waves, the frequency multiplied by the wavelength equals the velocity. The velocity of radio waves is the speed of light. The height of a wave is called its amplitude. In radio waves that is given in volts. For waves of the same voltage or amplitude, the more of them that arrive per second the higher the energy, so higher frequency gives more power. A single burst of high-frequency gamma rays is extremely dangerous, while the lower frequencies of radio disperse more easily and pack less of a punch. Radio communication requires a transmitter that produces a signal powerful enough to be detected some distance away, while at the same time incorporating useful information in that signal. The receiver must be able to pick up that signal and extract the information. Once scientists had understood the nature of electromagnetic waves and detected them, the race was on to produce frequencies and voltages high enough to make wireless transmission. With what he called the ‘magnifier coil’ – now known as the Tesla Coil – Tesla had found a way to produce both. It quickly became clear to Tesla that, once radio transmission had become practicable, the airwaves would be full of signals. What was needed was a way to develop circuits that worked on pre-selected frequencies so that the desired signal could be picked out from among a background of static and unrelated radio traffic. Tesla perfected tuning which lies at the heart of all communication systems today. Tesla’s patent application for an ‘Apparatus for Transmitting Electrical Energy’. The streams of light which you have observed issuing from my hand are due to a potential of about 200,000 volts, alternating in rather irregular intervals, sometimes like a million times a second. A vibration of the same amplitude, but four times as fast, to maintain which over three million volts would be required, would be more than sufficient to envelop my body in a complete sheet of flame. But this flame would not burn me up; quite contrarily, the probability is, that I would not be injured in the least. Yet a hundredth part of that energy, otherwise directed, would be amply sufficient to kill a person... Waving various shaped tubes in the powerful electromagnetic field his oscillating transformer had produced, Tesla created beautiful effects like the ‘spokes of a wheel of glowing moonbeams’, the Electrical Engineer said. Towards the end of the performance, Tesla held up one of his phosphorescent lamps, the precursory of fluorescent lights, and announced that he would illuminate it by touching the terminal of his oscillating transformer with his other hand. When he did, the lamp lit up. ‘There was a stampede in the two upper galleries and they all rushed out,’ said Tesla. ‘They thought it was some part of the devil’s work.’ AN ALL-AMERICAN JOKE Returning to New York, Tesla acquired his US citizenship. To get back at Edison for his jibe years earlier of ‘You are still a Parisian’, Tesla decided, now that he was a fully-fledged American, to find out if Edison could take an all-American joke. He set up an experiment pitting a carbon-filament incandescent light that Edison had invented against an identical bulb that was empty. Applying a current at a frequency of around one million cycles per second, the empty bulb glowed brightly – more brightly than Edison’s bulb which was being run on direct current. What’s more, the empty bulb stayed cool to the touch. Edison was far from amused and, once again, Tesla had shot down his former mentor in the popular press. An incandescent light bulb is only 5 per cent efficient. The other 95 per cent is lost in the form of heat. This waste, Tesla said, was ‘on a par with the wanton destruction of whole forests for the sake of a few sticks of lumber’. TESLA KEEPS INVENTING However, to Tesla, the attention of the press was a distraction. He went to work increasing the power of his oscillators until he reached one million volts. Then he immersed a high-frequency oscillator in a vat of oil. By modulating the frequency he could get the oil to rotate at different rates. Tesla then invented a new steam-driven generator that produced as much power as one 40 times its size. Instead of using the piston action of the steam engine to turn a crankshaft and flywheel, which then turn the generator, he put the cylinder inside the coils of the generator so that the metal pistons moving up and down generated electricity. CHICAGO WORLD’S FAIR 1893 Westinghouse had won the contract to light the World’s Columbian Exposition, aka the Chicago World’s Fair, in May 1893 by putting in a bid much lower than that of General Electric, which now owned Edison’s patents. The buildings at the fair were to be illuminated with 200,000 bulbs, so this was an ideal opportunity to demonstrate how Tesla’s AC system could be used to light an entire city. The Venetian Las Vegas A Grand Resort & Casino Las Vegas, Nevada 89145 (702) 693-7111 The Electricity Pavilion at The World’s Columbian Exposition in Chicago in 1893 at night. GE had initially estimated that it would cost $1.8 million to light the fair. When this was rejected, they revised it down to $554,000. Westinghouse came in at $399,000. At that price, Westinghouse had to devise a more economical system. In less than six months, they designed and built bigger generators than had ever been built before. Using AC at high-voltage, they could distribute this throughout the fair on thin wires, saving hundreds of thousands of dollars worth of copper. The fair site would be a blaze of light and consume three times the amount of electricity then being utilized by the whole of the city of Chicago. Westinghouse also had come up with a new design for an incandescent lamp to avoid infringing Edison’s patents and manufactured 250,000 of them. Consequently when Westinghouse went to see Tesla when he arrived back in New York, he had not put much thought to promoting his motors or his polyphase system. But realizing the importance of the World’s Fair as a showcase, Tesla went to Pittsburgh, he said, ‘to bring the motor to high perfection’. WORDS ARE NOT ENOUGH The Columbian Exposition covered almost 700 acres (283 Hectares) and attracted some 28 million visitors from all over the world. The centre-piece was a Ferris wheel standing 264 ft (80 m) high that could carry over 2,000 people. It revolved on the largest one-piece axle ever forged. But it was Westinghouse’s illuminations that took the breath away. Former governor of Illinois, Will E. Cameron said: Inadequate words have been found to convey a realizing idea of the beauty and grandeur of the spectacle which the Exposition offers by day, they are infinitely less capable of affording the slightest conception of the dazzling spectacle which greets the eye of the visitor at night... Indescribable by language are the electric fountains. One of them, called ‘The Great Geyser’, rises to a height to 150 ft [45 m] above a band of ‘Little Geysers’... so bewildering no eyes can find the loveliest, their vagaries of motion so entrancing no heart can keep its steady beating. VISITING THE ELECTRICITY PAVILION At the Chicago World’s Fair, the Electricity Pavilion rose to 169 ft (52 m) and covered 3.5 acres (1.4 Hectares) - the size of two soccer fields. In it, AEG exhibited the equipment they had used to transmit AC the record-breaking 109 miles (175 km) from Lauffen to Frankfurt in Germany. GE also demonstrated their new AC system. Both were technically infringing Tesla’s patents, but Westinghouse made no objection as it helped demonstrate the superiority of AC. Instead, they erected a 45-ft (14 m) high monument to the ‘Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing Co. Tesla Polyphase System’. Not to be outshone, GE erected a 82-ft (25 m) Tower of Light in the centre of the Electricity Pavilion, with 18,000 bulbs around the pedestal, which was topped by a huge Edison light bulb. Other stands showed electric body invigorators, charged belts and electricity hairbrushes. It was then thought that electricity could cure all ills. Elihu Thomson exhibited a high-frequency coil that could produce a spark 5 ft (1.5 m) long. Alexander Graham Bell launched a telephone that transmitted sound on a beam of light, while Elisha Gray (1835–1901) unveiled a prototype fax machine called the teleautography – for a few cents, you could have your signature reproduced electronically at a distance. Edison himself exhibited his phonograph, the multiplex telegraph and his kinetoscope, which produced moving pictures for an individual viewer. On the Westinghouse stand, Tesla exhibited AC motors and generators, and had the names of famous electrical pioneers - Franklin, Helmholtz, Faraday, Maxwell and Henry - all spelt out in phosphorescent tubes, along with that of Jovan Jovanović Zmaj (his old friend, the Serbian poet). Huge flashing neon signs saying Westinghouse and Welcome Electricians were lit by discharges of artificial lightning that made a deafening sound. Among the flashing sparks and the tubes, lit wirelessly, was a large Egg of Columbus spinning furiously. THE WIZARD OF PHYSICS Tesla visited the World’s Fair in August to put on a week of demonstrations and to attend the International Electrical Congress being held there. Its honorary chairman was Helmholtz, who Tesla showed his personal exhibit. A thousand electrical engineers attended, including most of the leaders in the field. Ten dollars were offered for seats to see Tesla, who was introduced as the ‘Wizard of Physics’. However, entrance was limited to those who could produce the appropriate credentials. Tesla demonstrated mechanical oscillators and steam generators that were so small it was said they could fit in the crown of a hat. He produced motors that could run so precisely they could be used as electric clocks and a continuous-wave radio transmitter, the implications of which were lost on most of his distinguished audience. He also exhibited a version of his Egg of Columbus which demonstrated his theory of planetary motion. The Electrical Experimenter said: In this experiment one large, and several small brass balls were usually employed. When the field was energized all the balls would be set spinning, the large one remaining in the centre while the small ones revolved around it, like moons about a planet, gradually receding until they reached the outer guard and raced along the same field. But the demonstration which most impressed the audiences was the simultaneous operation of numerous balls, pivoted discs and other devices placed in all sorts of positions and at considerable distances from the rotating field. When the currents were turned on and the whole animated with motion, it presented an unforgettable spectacle. Mr Tesla had many vacuum bulbs in which small, light metal discs were pivotally arranged on jewels and these would spin anywhere in the ball when the iron ring was energized. The Columbian Exposition had proved to its 28 million visitors that AC was safe. From then on, over 80 per cent of all electrical devices bought in the US worked on alternating current. TESLA’S FAMOUS FRIENDS As a result, Tesla was proclaimed ‘Our Foremost Electrician’ and hailed as the ‘New Edison’. But Tesla’s health was failing again, due to overwork. Tesla’s friend, Thomas Commerford Martin introduced him to socialites Robert and Katherine Underwood Johnson who took him under their wing. Tesla began calling them ‘the Filipovs’ after a Serbian poem, Luka Filipov, he had translated for them. Robert Johnson was associate editor of the prestigious Century magazine that ran a new profile of Tesla. His regular dinners with the Johnsons, particularly those at Thanksgiving and Christmas, became the closest thing he knew to home life. He would arrive in a hansom cab, which would have to wait outside for hours to take him back to his hotel which was only a few blocks away. The Johnsons were the only people with whom he was on first-name terms, except for the railroad-heir William ‘Willie’ K. Vanderbilt (1849 - 1920) who would let Tesla use the Vanderbilt box at the Metropolitan Opera House. Apart from opera, Tesla enjoyed theatrical comedies, particularly those featuring actress Elsie Ferguson who, he said, ‘knew how to dress and was the most graceful woman he had ever seen on the stage’. Gradually, he stopped going to the opera and the theatre, going to the movies instead. It was through the Johnsons that Tesla met the writer Mark Twain, who was an admirer. Tesla told Twain that his books had saved his life when he was a boy of 12, struck down with a bout of malaria. This, apparently, brought tears to the author’s eyes. Visiting Tesla’s laboratory, Twain asked whether the inventor could come up with a high-frequency electrotherapy machine that he could sell to rich widows in Europe on his next visit. Tesla said he already had a machine that would aid their digestion. It vibrated in sympathy with the peristaltic waves that moved food through the gut. Enthusiastic, Twain insisted that he tried it out. It worked – too well – and sent the great writer dashing for the lavatory. ‘I think I will start with the electrotherapy machine,’ said Twain when he returned. ‘I wouldn’t want the widows to get too healthy all in one shot.’ The Johnsons also introduced Tesla to the hero of the Spanish-American War, Richmond Pearson Hobson, who became a life-long friend, naturalist John Muir, who invited him out to Yosemite Valley, and writer Rudyard Kipling, who had come to live in Vermont. After dining with the author in 1901, Tesla wrote to Mrs Johnson: ‘What is the matter with ink-spiller Kipling? He actually dared to invite me to dine in an obscure hotel where I would be sure to get hair and cockroaches in the soup.’ With Twain and other notables in the laboratory, the first photographs under phosphorescent light were taken. However, despite his overwork, Tesla refused to accept the Johnsons’ invitation to take a holiday with them at their home at the Hamptons on Long Island. FAME, BUT NO FORTUNE With Tesla’s help, Thomas Martin published The Inventions, Researches and Writings of Nikola Tesla in 1894. But Tesla kept giving copies away free. Both Martin and the Johnsons were worried that Tesla made no effort to make money out of his work and suggested that he should, at least, tell the newspapers about taking photographs under phosphorescent light so he would get the credit. Meanwhile, Martin had to lend Tesla money from his share of the book – money that Tesla would never repay. The University of Nebraska offered Tesla an honorary doctorate, but this was considered too trifling an accolade for the great inventor. Instead, Johnson organized an honorary doctorate from Columbia. One from Yale soon followed. To boost his fame, Martin arranged for Tesla to have his voice recorded on a phonograph, an honour already bestowed on the Australian opera singer Nellie Melba (1861 - 1931) and Sarah Bernhardt. He also got Tesla to sit for a sculptor and do interviews with the mainstream media. Journalists flocked around Joseph Pulitzer (1847 - 1911) – who later established the Pulitzer prizes but was then publisher of the New York World – sent a young reporter named Arthur Brisbane (1864 - 1936) to interview Tesla in one of his favourite haunts, Delmonico’s Restaurant where, for many years, he ate every night. Brisbane noted the famous restaurateur lowered his voice at the mention of Tesla’s name. According to Brisbane, Charles Delmonico said in hushed tones: That Tesla can do anything. We managed to make him play pool one night. He had never played, but he had watched us for a little while. He was very indignant when he found that we meant to give him 15 points. But it didn’t matter much, for he beat us all even and got all the money. There are just a few of us who play for 25 cents, so it wasn’t the money we cared about, but the way he studied out pool in his head, and then beat us, after we had practised for years, surprised us. Brisbane said he found that Tesla ‘stoops – most men do when they have no peacock blood in them. He lives inside of himself. He takes a profound interest in his own work.’ However, the engraving that accompanied the article famously showed Tesla erect and unbowed. When asked what it was like to subject himself to such huge voltages, Tesla said: ‘I admit that I was somewhat alarmed when I began these experiments, but after I understood the principles, I could proceed in an unalarmed manner.’ Later he explained the spectacle presented when he was connected to an AC voltage of two-and-a-half million volts. It was, Tesla said: ...a sight marvellous and unforgettable. One sees the experimenter standing on a big sheet of fierce, blinding flame, his whole body enveloped in a mass of phosphorescent wriggling streamers like the tentacles of an octopus. Bundles of light stick out from his spine. As he stretches out the arms, thus forcing the electric fluid outwardly, roaring tongues of fire leap from his fingertips. Objects in his vicinity bristle with rays, emit musical notes, glow, grow hot. He is the centre of still more curious actions, which are invisible. At each throbbing of the electric force myriads of minute projectiles are shot off from him with such velocities as to pass through the adjoining walls. He is in turn being violently bombarded by the surrounding air and dust. He experiences sensations which are indescribable.* VOW OF CHASTITY Tesla also became a close friend of society architect Stanford White, designer of Madison Square Garden, the Washington Memorial Arch and the New York Herald Building. They met in 1891 when piano virtuoso Ignacy Paderewski (1860 - 1941) played at Madison Square Garden for five nights. White even put Tesla up at his club, The Players, which became one of the inventor’s favourite haunts. But it was a strange friendship. While Tesla was thought to be chaste, White, though married, invited him to one of his parties where naked girls emerged from pies. White was later shot dead by Harry Thaw, the jealous husband of White’s mistress showgirl Evelyn Nesbit. It seems from their correspondence that Katherine Johnson took some amorous interest in Tesla. He was also seen dining out with women. However, he had become interested in Buddhism and seems to have sworn a vow of chastity after meeting Swami Vivekananda (1863 - 1902) at a dinner with Sarah Bernhardt. Swami was in America for the Congress of World Religions held at the Chicago World’s Fair and preached chastity as a path to enlightenment. Both Bernhardt and Vivekananda visited Tesla’s laboratory in New York. Tesla also studied the theosophical theories of the spiritualist Madame Blavatsky (1831 - 91), now widely seen as a charlatan.* Mark Twain and Joseph (Joe) Jefferson, a well-known American actor of the time, in Tesla's South Fifth Avenue laboratory, 1894, with a blurred image of Tesla between. MARK TWAIN (1835 – 1910) Born Samuel Langhorne Clemens, Twain was an American humorist and writer who found worldwide fame with The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (1876) and The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1885). He was also known for his travel writing – The Innocents Abroad (1869), Roughing It (1872) and Life on the Mississippi (1883). JOSEPH RUDYARD KIPLING (1865 – 1936) Born in Bombay (Mumbai), India, Kipling was a short-story writer, poet and novelist who chronicled the British Empire at the height of its power. He also wrote for children. Principally remembered for the adventure novel Kim, The Jungle Book, Just So Stories, the short-story The Man Who Would be King and the poems Mandalay, Gunga Din, The White Man’s Burden and If-, he won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1907. JOHN MUIR (1838 – 1914) Born in Scotland, Muir emigrated to the US with his family in 1849. After studying science at the University of Wisconsin, he found work in a factory where he adapted and improved machinery. An accident nearly cost him his sight. In its aftermath he undertook a walk of nearly 1,000 miles (1,600 km) from Indiana to Florida. In 1868, he arrived in the Yosemite Valley in California and became an advocate for the preservation of the wilderness there. Due to his lobbying, National Parks were set up at Yosemite, Sequoia and elsewhere. In 1903, he accompanied President Theodore Roosevelt on a camping trip in the Yosemite region. RICHMOND PEARSON HOBSON (1870 – 1937) Graduating from the US Naval Academy in 1889, Hobson was given temporary command of the collier Merrimac during the Spanish-American War. Off Cuba, his ship was disabled by enemy fire and he scuttled her in the entrance to Santiago Harbour, blockading the Spanish Fleet. He and his crew of six were imprisoned in Morro Castle. When he was released in a prisoner exchange in 1898, he returned to the US to a hero’s welcome. Women admirers flocked to him and he became ‘the most kissed man in America’. Awarded the Medal of Honor, he became a congressman. One of Tesla’s closest friends, he said the inventor once told him that he had ‘never touched a woman’. In the schoolroom there were a few mechanical models which interested me and turned my attention to water turbines. I constructed many of these and found great pleasure in operating them. How extraordinary was my life an incident may illustrate. My uncle had no use for this kind of pastime and more than once rebuked me. I was fascinated by a description of Niagara Falls I had perused, and pictured in my imagination a big wheel run by the Falls. I told my uncle that I would go to America and carry out this scheme. Thirty years later I saw my ideas carried out at Niagara and marvelled at the unfathomable mystery of the mind. Nikola Tesla¹ In 1886, civil engineer Thomas Evershed, who had worked on the Erie Canal, proposed digging a series of canals and tunnels to carry water from Niagara Falls to waterwheels that would be used to power industrial mills and factories. Three years later, Edison drew up a plan to electrify the city of Buffalo, NY, which was 20 miles (32 km) away. However, DC had never been transmitted more than one or two miles. Even Westinghouse, at that time, was dubious that electricity could be transmitted so far and suggested a complex system of compressed air tubes and cables to convey the power. Plans were drawn up for the construction of an industrial complex next to the Falls, but then came the news that AC power had been transmitted the 109 miles (175 km) from Lauffen to Frankfurt by AEG in Germany. The International Niagara Commission, headed by Lord Kelvin, offered $20,000 for the best plan to harness the power of the Falls. Like Edison, Kelvin was opposed to AC - until he saw it in action at the Columbian Exposition. Then he became an enthusiastic convert. Westinghouse refused to enter at first as he felt that, to win, he would be handing over $100,000-worth of advice. Of the twenty schemes submitted, fourteen used hydraulics or compressed air. Four involved DC power, one of which was endorsed by Edison. Two used AC. One of them was not fully worked out; the other used the Tesla system manufactured by Westinghouse. CLOSING THE DEAL GE thought they were still in the running and when blueprints went missing from the Westinghouse works they were accused of industrial espionage. However the success of the hydroelectric plant at Telluride followed by Westinghouse’s triumph at the Chicago World’s Fair left no one in doubt about who should be awarded the contract. Thomas Martin’s article on Tesla in Century closed the deal. The following year, The New York Times wrote: ‘To Tesla belongs the undisputed honor of being the man whose work made this Niagara enterprise possible ... There could be no better evidence of the practical qualities of his inventive genius.’ Meanwhile the president of the Cataract Construction Company, Edward Dean Adams, visited Tesla in New York and offered him $100,000 for a controlling interest in fourteen US and foreign patents, along with any future inventions Tesla may come up with. Tesla accepted and in February 1895 the Nikola Tesla Company was set up. Not only was Tesla working on wireless and remote control, he was putting his mind to cheap refrigeration, the production of liquid air, the manufacture of fertilizers and nitric acid from the air, and artificial intelligence. ELECTRIFYING BUFFALO Construction of the first power station at Niagara took 5 years. It was a headache for investors throughout. The outlay was huge and no one knew whether it would work as the plans lay principally in Tesla’s three-dimensional imagination. However their worries evaporated when the switch was thrown and the first power reached Buffalo at midnight on 16 November 1896. The Niagara Gazette reported: ‘The turning of a switch in the big powerhouse at Niagara completed a circuit which caused the Niagara River to flow uphill.’ The first 1,000 horsepower of electricity reaching Buffalo was taken by the street railway company, but already the local power company had orders from residents for 5,000 more. Within a few years the number of AC generators at Niagara Falls The Great Bell of St. Paul's Cathedral, London, is shown in the illustration. It was cast by Messrs. Mears and Stainforth, of Whitechapel, and weighs 138 tons. The bell is 12 feet in diameter, and 10 feet high. It is hung in a specially constructed tower, which is 350 feet above the ground. The bell is struck every hour by a clock mechanism, and the sound can be heard for miles around. reached the planned ten, and power lines ran as far as New York City. Broadway was ablaze with lights. It powered streetcars and the subway system. Even Thomas Edison’s networks converted to alternating current. However, Westinghouse was a hard-headed businessman and billed Tesla. Meanwhile, he announced that he was planning to use Tesla’s motors, whose patents he owned, to power locomotives. The following year, 1896, Tesla told the press that he was looking into the ‘possibility of beckoning Martians’$^{26}$ and, when Lord Kelvin arrived in America in 1897, he suggested using the lights of New York to flash a signal to the Martians. Meanwhile Edison was working on something even more outlandish - a telephone to contact the dead. But for Tesla contacting Mars was just an ‘extreme application of [my] principle of propagation of electric waves’.$^{27}$ It was merely an extension of a more Earthly goal. He pointed out: ‘The same principle may be employed with good effects for the transmission of news to all parts of the Earth ... Every city on the globe could be on an immense circuit ... a message sent from New York would be in England, Africa and Australia in an instant. What a grand thing that would be.’$^{28}$ ELECTRIC DEMON DUO Arthur Brisbane in The World newspaper had announced that Tesla was ‘greater even than Edison’, but New York’s Troy Press asked: ‘Who is electric king, Edison or Tesla?’$^{29}$ Meanwhile, the two men, now billed as the ‘Twin Wizards of Electricity’,$^{30}$ were appearing at the National Electrical Exposition in Philadelphia. Tesla was then on the ascendant as AC had been transmitted along telephone lines for a record-breaking 500 miles (800 km). Tesla was disappointed though as the power at the Exposition was restricted due to the fear of fire. By this time, Edison was conceding: ‘The most amazing thing about this Exposition is the demonstration of the ability to deliver here an electric current... generated at Niagara Falls. To my mind it solves one of the most important questions associated with electrical development.’ Bell concurred, stating, ‘This long distance transmission of electric power was the most important discovery of electric science that had been made for many years.’ Tesla told the Philadelphia Press: ‘I am now convinced beyond any question that it is possible to transmit electricity ... to commercial advantage over a distance of 500 miles at half the cost of generation by steam ... I am willing to stake my reputation and my life on this declaration.’ THE POWER OF ELECTRICAL HEALING Following on from Mark Twain’s idea, Tesla began to experiment on the healing properties of electricity in his new laboratory on Houston Street in Greenwich Village. At the time, doctors were promoting electricity as a ‘vitality booster’ and a ‘universal healing agent’. Some even said that it could cure tuberculosis, which was rife at the time. It was reported that Tesla took daily doses to deal with his depression after his lab burnt down. He said that high-frequencies ‘produce an anti-germicidal action’. As part of his daily routine, he would strip off and climb on board his apparatus and crank up the juice. He was also said to be working on an electric weeding tool to clear railroad tracks of unwanted undergrowth. He paid a short visit to Colorado, where he claimed to have transmitted a signal through Pike’s Peak, using the energy of the Earth, rather than his oscillators. Announcing the success of this experiment in Arthur Brisbane’s newspaper The World on 8 March 1896, he said: ‘Electricity would be as free as the air. The end has come to telegraph, telephone companies, and other monopolies ... with a crash.’ X-RAYS, SHADOWGRAPHS AND COSMIC RAYS While running a current through partially evacuated glass tubes, Tesla had also noticed a special radiation was given off that could be detected by phosphorescent and fluorescent substances. In 1892, he gave lectures on what he called ‘black light and very special radiation’. Experimenting with his radiation he notice that he could produce what he called ‘Shadowgraphs’ on plates inside metal containers. Unfortunately, these were lost when his laboratory burned down. When he read of Röntgen’s discovery of X-rays, he realized that these were the same thing as his ‘very special radiation’. He produced more shadowgraphs and sent them to Röntgen who asked how they had been made. Tesla quickly realized that he could get better results with a Tesla Coil that developed 4 million volts. While others were X-raying thin structures such as hands and feet, he was taking photographs through the skull at a distance of 40 ft (12 m) from the tube. While experimenting, Tesla noticed that the energy had both particle and wave-like attributes, something later recognized by Albert Einstein. He also speculated that the tiny lumps of matter involved, later known as electrons, might be broken up into even smaller pieces and said that ‘similar streams must be emitted by the Sun’ – what we now know as cosmic rays. Tesla X-rayed birds and animals, himself and his assistants, quite oblivious to the fact that this might be dangerous. He reasoned that the amount of material involved was so small that it would take centuries to build up enough to be poisonous. He himself suffered from bad headaches when experimenting with X-rays and an assistant suffered blistering and inflammation of exposed skin. Edison was also experimenting with X-rays and noted that they caused sensations in the eyes of the blind. He believed that eyesight might be restored by the application of X-rays. Tesla disagreed and there was another falling out.\textsuperscript{21} The rift was mended when the Kentucky School of Medicine combined devices made by Tesla and Edison to remove birdshot from the foot of a voter who had been shot during an election scuffle. Thomas Martin then took Tesla, Edison and other electricians on a fishing trip off Sandy Hook. Ironically, Tesla caught a large flounder; Edison a huge fluke.\textsuperscript{22} \section{HEADING FOR THE FALLS} In July 1896, Tesla, Westinghouse, Adams and others involved in the Niagara project, travelled up to the Falls. On their arrival, the \textit{Niagara Gazette} reported: \begin{quote} Tesla is an idealist, and anyone who has created an ideal of him from the fame that he has won will not be disappointed in seeing him for the first time. He is fully six feet tall, very dark of complexion, nervous, and wiry. Impressionable maidens would fall in love with him at first sight, but he has no time to think of impressionable maidens. In fact, he has given as his opinion that inventors should never marry. Day and night he is working away at some deep problems that fascinate him, and anyone that talks with him for only a few minutes will get the impression that science is his only mistress, and that he cares more for her than for money and fame.\textsuperscript{23} \end{quote} Tesla was overcome at the sight of the Falls and the first of the hydroelectric power stations designed by Stanford White built there. It would house some ten gigantic Tesla turbines generating over 35,000 kilowatts. Afterwards he returned to New York City, where he threw himself back into research into the wireless transmission, fearing that Marconi may steal a march. Again he refused to holiday with the Johnsons, though he did have Christmas dinner with them. \section{RESPECT, ACCLAIM AND KUDOS} The celebration for the inauguration of the Niagara Falls power station was held in January 1897 in the Ellicott Club in Buffalo, NY. The top 350 of America’s most prominent businessmen made the trek there. A notable no-show was Thomas Edison. Tesla was introduced as the ‘greatest electrician on Earth’ and received a standing ovation. However, Tesla made a rambling, self-deprecating speech, saying it had been a mistake to invite him. He heaped praise on those who had helped. Running out of time, the master of ceremonies intervened and cut off the end of his speech.\textsuperscript{24} Just as well, as a blissfully unaware Tesla was about to enlighten the distinguished audience by telling them that they had wasted all their time and money building a power line from Niagara to Buffalo - he would soon be transmitting the electricity wirelessly ...\textsuperscript{25} His continual self-deprecation did him no favours. Others were claiming to have invented the induction motor and the Tesla Coil, and they were pirating his inventions. Meanwhile he turned down several applications to be his assistant from a top Yale student, Lee De Forest (1873 - 1961), who eventually went on to rival Marconi in the development of radio.\textsuperscript{26} Suppose the whole earth to be like a hollow rubber ball filled with water, and at one place I have a tube attached to this, with a plunger in the tube. If I press upon the plunger the water in the tube will be driven into the rubber ball, and as the water is practically incompressible, every part of the surface of the ball will be expanded. If I withdraw the plunger, the water follows it and every part of the ball will contract. Now, if I pierce the surface of the ball several times and set tubes and plungers at each place the plungers in these will vibrate up and down in answer to every movement which I may produce in the plunger of the first tube. If I were to produce an explosion in the centre of the body of water in the ball, this would set up a series of vibrations in the whole body. If I could then set the plunger in one of the tubes to vibrating in consonance ... in a little while and with the use of a very little energy I could burst the whole thing asunder. Nikola Tesla, explaining a global telegraph system¹ Back in New York, Tesla began developing Elisha Gray’s teleautography into telephotography. Edison then announced that he planned to launch the autographic telegraph, which would allow journalists to file their stories effortlessly, along with sketches and pictures. Tesla claimed his system could also work wirelessly, at a time when sending a Morse signal still had to be perfected. Tesla had studied a system developed in 1846 by Scottish physicist Alexander Bain (1810 - 77). It transmitted pictures using a grid of wires imbedded in wax under a sheet of chemically treated paper. The receiver used the same grid where an electric stylus drew the shape. Tesla found that it was better to break down the elements of the picture using one wire and a spinning disc. Dr Arthur Korn of the University of Munich, who transmitted a photograph in 1902, cited his debt to Tesla. These experiments were the basis of the fax machine and the television. From there, he could tune in to the signal from the transmitter. He did this two or three times, he told a court in 1915. At the same time, he considered harnessing wind power, tidal power, solar energy and geothermal energy. Electricity could be used to electrolyze water, separating it into hydrogen and oxygen, whose explosive recombination would produce heat and steam. He patented a machine to produce ozone and worked out how to separate nitrogen out of air electrically. The farmer would simply shovel earth into the machine and switch it on. The current would drive out the oxygen and hydrogen, leaving the nitrogen to be absorbed in the soil which would emerge ready-fertilized. Over 4,000 people turned out to see his lecture on the advances he had made in the field of X-rays at the New York Academy of Science, though it is thought that they had hoped to see him hurling thunderbolts again. Then in an article in Scribner’s Magazine on Marconi’s successful transmission of a radio signal 8 miles (13 km), he outlined a system for transmitting messages instantly around the world using the telluric currents that run below the surface of the Earth. He also had plans to transmit signals through the ionized layers thought to exist in the upper atmosphere. While Tesla had done all the early development in radio, Marconi was preparing to transmit a signal across the English Channel. Once again Tesla had failed to exploit his own invention. Without the money to pursue his bigger projects, his pronouncements made him sound like a mad scientist. Brown and Peck were still earning thousands from his patents, while Westinghouse had joined forces with GE. Tesla’s induction motors and polyphase system were about to power subway trains without a penny going to the inventor. Tesla was further sidelined at an electrical exhibition in New York organized by Stanford White. The Marconi company was represented by Edison’s son, Tom Edison Jr. Marconi had needed some wireless patents that Edison had taken out, and the Wizard of Menlo Park was happy to do business. MAKING THE EARTH MOVE Tesla placed one of his oscillators in the central support beam in the basement of the building of his Houston Street lab and adjusted the frequency until the beam began to hum. While he was distracted momentarily, the building began to shake, along with the earth and all the buildings around it. According to the Brooklyn Eagle: ‘The Fire Department responded to an alarm frantically turned in; four tons of machinery flew across the basement and the only thing which saved the building from utter collapse was the quick action of Dr Tesla in seizing a sledgehammer and destroying his machine.’ Tesla called the device a ‘Frankenstein’s monster’, and pointed out that no building could stand the strokes of a 5-pound hammer, delivered at its resonant frequency. On another occasion, Tesla claimed to have gone down to Wall Street where there was a ten-storey steel frame of a building under construction, clamped an oscillator the size of an alarm-clock to it and tuned it in. In a few minutes, I could feel the beam trembling. Gradually the trembling increased in intensity and extended throughout the whole great mass of steel. Finally, the structure began to creak and weave, and the steel workers came to the ground panic-stricken, believing that there had been an earthquake. Rumours spread that the building was about to fall, and the police reserves were called out. Before anything serious happened, I took off the vibrator, put it in my pocket, and went away. But if I had kept on 10 minutes more, I could have laid that building flat in the street. And, with the same vibrator, I could drop the Brooklyn Bridge in less than an hour. He told reporters that he could have split the Earth the same way, destroying mankind. He had worked out that the resonant frequency of the Earth has a periodicity of 1 hour, 49 minutes. If he were to explode a ton of dynamite every 1 hour, 49 minutes, the shock waves would keep reinforcing one another. He estimated that it would take a year to smash the world to pieces, ‘but in a few weeks I could set the earth’s crust into such a state of vibration that it would rise and fall hundreds of feet, throwing rivers out of their beds, wrecking buildings and practically destroying civilization. The principle cannot fail.’ RESEARCHING REMOTE CONTROL In 1898, the United States went to war with Spain after the battleship, the USS Maine, was sunk in Havana harbour. Cuba was still a Spanish colony at the time. It was thought that Tesla was on John Jacob Astor’s yacht when, to aid the war effort, he proposed the idea of a guided torpedo. While Astor and his yacht went to war, Tesla began making preliminary experiments with a remote-controlled boat. Tesla had a large tank in the auditorium of the Electrical Exhibition in 1898. In it was a 4 ft (1.2 m) boat. By means of transmitters working at various frequencies, he could start and stop the boat, steer it and switch its lights on and off. He had also planned to build a submersible, perhaps to stage mock battles between Spanish ships and the American fleet. But he was upstaged by the Marconi company who were demonstrating remotely controlled mines, detonated wirelessly. The press got particularly excited when Tom Edison Jr accidentally blew up his desk where other mines were stored. CREW-LESS DEVIL AUTOMATA Tesla’s invention seemed all the more crazy when he proposed a Torpedo Boat Without a Crew: My submarine boat, loaded with its torpedoes, can start out from a protected bay or be dropped over a ship’s side, make its devious way below the surface, through dangerous channels of mine beds, into protected harbours and attack a fleet at anchor, or go out to sea and circle about, watching for its prey, then dart upon it at a favourable moment, rush up to within a hundred feet if need be, discharge its deadly weapon and return to the band that sent it. Yet through all these wonderful evolutions it will be under the absolute and instant control of a distant human hand on a far-off headland, or on a warship whose hull is below the horizon and invisible to the enemy. I am aware that this sounds almost incredible and I have refrained from making this invention public till I had worked out every practical detail of it. In my laboratory I now have such a model, and my plans and description at the Patent Office at Washington show the full specifications of it. Even the Electrical Engineer, edited by his friend Thomas Martin, complained that Tesla was always promising great things and failing to deliver, saying: ‘Mr Tesla fools himself, if he fools anybody, when he launches forth into the dazzling theories and speculations associated with his name.’ He would tether up aloft balloons in those strata and deliver to them large quantities of current at such high potential that it would travel economically across the space without wires, say from Niagara Falls to Paris. By this facile distribution of water power, coal and steam would become unnecessary to industry. The new plan may explain why Mr Tesla has abandoned his old steam oscillator. It is earnestly to be hoped that this novel idea will prove workable. Balloons were a dismal failure in our late war, but that is no criterion, and Mr Tesla may have some superior gas for inflation and sustentation purposes. It will be remembered that Mr Marconi has already telegraphed from balloon to balloon, without wires, a distance of over 20 miles, thus proving in advance the tenability of Mr Tesla’s proposition. Perhaps Tesla was caught up in war fever but he was convinced his ‘Devil Automata’ was the way of the future. ‘The continuous development in this direction must ultimately make war a mere contest of machines without men and without loss of life,’ he wrote, ‘a condition which would have been impossible without this new departure, and which, in my opinion, must be reached as preliminary to permanent peace.’ Others agreed with him. One of them was Mark Twain who wanted to sell patents to European governments. Tesla himself entered into negotiations with Czar Nicholas II (1868 – 1918) of Russia. Nevertheless, some began to write him off. The journal Public Opinion compared his remote-control boat to the mysterious ‘motive power’ of John Worrell Keely (1837 – 98) who had just died, and said: ‘The facts of Mr Tesla’s inventions are few and simple as the fancies which have been woven around it are many and extravagant. The principle of the invention are not new, nor was Tesla the original discoverer.’ BEAUTIFUL BUT INCOMPLETE INVENTIONS Tesla was upset by Thomas Martin’s attack and wrote a response that Electrical Engineer was forced to publish. It said: ‘Being a bearer of high honours from a number of American universities, it is my duty, in view of this slur, Tesla’s tub-like craft was powered by large batteries on board. Radio signals activated switches, which controlled the boat’s propeller, rudder and running lights. But even registering the arrival of a radio signal pulse taxed the rudimentary technology of 1898. Tesla had to invent a new kind of coherer or a radio-activated switch to achieve this. The coherer was a canister with a little metal oxide powder in it. The powder orients itself in the presence of an electromagnetic field, such as radio waves, and becomes conductive. In Tesla’s coherer, the canister flips over after the signal has passed, restoring the powder to a random, non-conductive state. Each signal advanced a disc one step, making a new set of contacts. So if the contacts had previously given the combination ‘right rudder/propeller forward full/light off’, the next step might combine ‘rudder center/propeller stop/lights on’. The connected circuits operated levers, gears, springs and motors, then flipped the coherer over so it was ready to receive the next instruction. Tesla assumed that this system could be used on radio-guided torpedoes. But it was too far ahead of its time. The US Navy did finance some trials in 1916, but the money went to one of Tesla’s competitors as his patent had expired. Nevertheless, as the 20th century progressed, more and more uses were found for remote control. Left: Tesla Patent - Apparatus for Controlling Mechanism of Moving Vessels or Vehicles. Right: Tesla demonstrates a radio-controlled boat to the public during an electrical exhibition at Madison Square Garden, 1898. to exact from you a complete and humble apology ... On this condition I will again forgive you, but I would advise you to limit yourself in your future attacks to statements for which you are not liable to be punished by law.\textsuperscript{17} Martin struck back, saying directly after Tesla’s letter: ‘Our foremost electrical inventor has been kind enough to say that the \textit{Electrical Engineer} made Mr Tesla.’\textsuperscript{18} The implication, of course, being that Tesla was not America’s foremost electrical engineer. And it was true that between 1890 and 1898, \textit{Electrical Engineer} had published 167 articles by or about Tesla. In that time, \textit{Electrical Review} had published 127 and \textit{Electrical World} just 97.\textsuperscript{19} The rebuttal was headed ‘His Friends to Mr Tesla?’ and urged him to complete a long list of ‘beautiful but unfinished inventions’, but he should stop making statements about such fantastic things as remote-control aircraft that would ‘explode at will... [and] never make a miss?’. The world was not ready at that point in time for the cruise missile that Tesla was describing. But Martin had a point. Tesla’s oscillator was not a commercial success. His fluorescent tubes never went on the market. And his wireless transmission of power was never realized. Tesla was sanguine. He wrote later: ‘I’m glad that I am living in a place in which, though they can roast me in the papers, they cannot burn me at the stake.’ As a final shot at Martin and the \textit{Electrical Engineer}, he published an article in \textit{Electrical Review} with pictures showing him, holding a glowing wireless vacuum lamp the size of a basketball lit by millions of volts conducted by his body.\textsuperscript{21} \textbf{I, ROBOT ...} A reporter from \textit{The New York Times} watching his remote control boat said he could envision a wireless torpedo. Tesla had a bigger vision. ‘You do not see there a wireless torpedo,’ he said, ‘you see there the first of a race of robots, mechanical men which will do the laborious work of the human race.’ For Tesla it was a short leap from a remote-controlled machine to one that could think for itself. In \textit{Century} magazine in June 1900, he wrote: ‘I am an automaton endowed with power of movement, which merely responds to external stimuli beating upon my sense organs, and thinks and acts and moves accordingly. I remember only one or two cases in all my life in which I was unable to locate the first impression which prompted a movement or a thought, or even a dream.’ Consequently, a sentient being could be manufactured. \textit{Long ago, I conceived the idea of constructing an automaton which would mechanically represent me, and which would respond, as I do myself, but, of course, in a much more primitive manner, to external influences. Such an automaton evidently has to have motive power, organs for locomotion, directive organs, and one or more sensitive organs so adapted as to be excited by external stimuli ... Whether the automaton be of flesh and bone, or of wood and steel, it matters little, provided it can perform all the duties required of it like an intelligent being.}\textsuperscript{23} However, people found it hard to take his ideas seriously. Tesla called his remotely controlled boat ‘The First Telautomaton’, but the examiner-in-chief of patents found the concept so unbelievable that he had to come and see it for himself. And when he thought of offering it to the government, the official in Washington he spoke to burst out laughing. During the Spanish-American war, the Secretary of the Navy also turned down Tesla’s offer of wireless transmitters to help coordinate ship and troop movements for fear of the sparks that they might give off. Tesla assured him that he had overcome this problem, but the persistent image of Tesla with lightning bolts pouring from his fingers was too vivid. IGNITED BY COSMIC FORCES Tesla also believed that we are shaped by cosmic forces ‘not in the vague and delusive sense of astrology, but in the rigid and positive meaning of physical science’. After all, science ‘admits that the suns, planets, and moons of a constellation are one body, and there can be no doubt that it will be experimentally confirmed in times to come, when our means and methods for investigating psychical and other states and phenomena shall have been brought to great perfection’. The spark of life was present in every inanimate object too. ‘Even matter called inorganic, believed to be dead, responds to irritants and gives unmistakable evidence of a living principle within,’ he said. ‘Thus, everything that exists, organic or inorganic, animated or inert, is susceptible to stimulus from the outside ... What is it that causes inorganic matter to run into organic forms? ... It is the Sun’s heat and light. Wherever they are there is life.’ NOT MAD AT ALL Some people still had faith. Tesla boasted that he had produced a lamp that was far superior to the incandescent bulb, using one-third of the energy. As my lamps will last forever, the cost of maintenance will be minute. The cost of copper, which in the old system is a most important item, is in mine reduced to a mere trifle, for I can run on a wire sufficient for one incandescent lamp more than a thousand of my own lamps, giving fully five thousand times as much light. On the strength of this, Tesla’s friend John Jacob Astor invested $100,000 in the Tesla Electric Company and Tesla moved into the Waldorf-Astoria. HAMMOND AND SON Mining engineer and philanthropist John Hays Hammond (1855 – 1936) gave Tesla $10,000 to develop his Telautomaton. Later his son, John (Jack) Hays Hammond Jr (1888 – 1965), developed Tesla’s ideas and became known as ‘The Father of Remote Control’. At Yale, Jack developed electrically controlled steering and engine control for a boat, controlling the mechanisms at a distance using a wireless device. In 1909, he got his father to arrange a meeting for him with Tesla because there was some ‘important information’ he needed from him. With Marconi wireless, which itself used Tesla Coils, attached to two 360-ft (110 m) towers, Jack could control a crew-less boat from a lookout station near his laboratory at Freshwater Cove. Later, Jack invited Tesla to speak at his graduation from Yale. Nikola Tesla, the Serbian scientist, whose electrical discoveries are not of one nation, but the pride of the world, has taken up his abode in Colorado Springs ... On East Pike’s Peak avenue, with limitless plains stretching to the eastward, and a panorama of mighty mountains sweeping away north and south, to the west – Tesla has caused to be constructed a [wireless] station for scientific research. Desire Stanton, Colorado Springs, 1899¹ With Tesla’s coils now generating up to 4 million volts with sparks jumping from the walls to the ceilings, Tesla’s Houston Street laboratory was becoming a fire hazard. Nor was it secure against the snooping of Edison’s spies. And Tesla had experiments that he wanted to conduct, he said, in secret. He had been out to Pike’s Peak outside Colorado Springs in 1896 at the invitation of Westinghouse patent attorney Leonard E. Curtis. For his new experiments, he needed huge amounts of power, but he would be working mostly late at night when the load would be least and Curtis arranged for him to get free power from the local utility, the El Paso Power Company. After stopping to show off his Telautomaton in Chicago, he arrived in Colorado Springs on 18 May 1899 and immediately breached his own secrecy. When a reporter asked him what his plans were, he said: ‘I propose to send a message from Pike’s Peak to Paris, France. I see no reason why I should keep the thing a secret any longer.’ He was welcomed with a banquet. Mining camps in the area had adopted his AC system, so he was already a celebrity out West. With a local carpenter named Joseph Dozier, he built an experimental station on an empty field known as Knob Hill, which had a view over Pike’s Peak to the west and rolling plains to the east. It was essentially a wooden barn measuring 60 ft by 70 ft (18 m by 21 m). It consisted of one large room with a roof that opened, two small offices at the front and a balcony. Again intent on keeping the exact nature of his experiments secret, Tesla had the only window that Dozier had provided, boarded up. A fence ringed the station with numerous signs on it saying: KEEP OUT, GREAT DANGER. Above the door was a phrase from Dante’s Inferno said to be the inscription above the entrance to Hell: Abandon hope, all ye who enter here. THE MAGNIFYING TRANSMITTER Colorado Springs was 6,000 ft (1,800 m) above sea level and Tesla planned to tap into the rarefied air 5,000 ft (1,500 m) above the Earth. He soon discovered that the 10 ft (3 m) helium balloons he had bought from Germany could not lift the hundreds of feet of wire, so he devised a telescopic mast that raised a copper ball to a height of 142 ft (43 m). To steady the mast, Tesla built a 25 ft (8 m) tower on the roof of his laboratory. Under it, he built a ‘magnifying transmitter’. On top of a 6 ft (1.8 m) wall, he laid two turns of thick cable. This was fed 500 volts from the end of a streetcar line that stopped just short of Knob Hill. Current was passed through a 50-kilowatt Westinghouse transformer, stepping the voltage up to 20,000 or 40,000 volts.4 In the centre of the room, was a secondary coil comprising hundreds of turns of finer wire. One end was connected to a round terminal inside the laboratory or the copper ball on top of the mast. The other end was earthed. The apparatus was completed by a bank of capacitors that could be discharged by a motorized brake-wheel, while other large coils moved in and out of the magnetic field. Tesla began experimenting with wireless telephones, reporting to Astor: ‘There is nothing novel about telephoning without wires to a distance of 5 or 6 miles [8 or 9 km], since this has been done often before ... In this connection, I have obtained two patents.’5 TAKING THE PULSE OF THE PLANET Tesla also experimented sending electrical signals through the earth. Then on 4 July 1899 a huge electrical storm arrived. He recorded ‘no less than 10,000 to 12,000 discharges being witnessed inside of 2 hours. The flashing was almost continuous and, even later in the night, when the storm had abated, some 15 to 20 discharges per minute were witnessed. Some of the discharges were of a wonderful brilliancy and showed often ten or twice as many branches.’6 He could track these discharges with his sensitive detecting equipment and he noted that they registered, periodically, even when the storm had moved out of sight. They seemed to start and stop every half an hour. Tesla concluded that the lightning strikes had created electromagnetic waves in the earth’s crust which, reflected back on themselves, set up stationary waves. These moved past the receiver as the storm receded.7 While Marconi could send radio waves across the English Channel, Tesla believed that by harnessing these waves ‘not only would it be practicable to send telegraphic messages to any distance without wires, but also to impress upon the entire globe the faint modulations of the human voice, far more still, to transmit power, in unlimited amounts, to any terrestrial distance without loss.’8 ‘With these stupendous possibilities in sight,’ wrote Tesla, ‘I attacked vigorously the development of my magnifying transmitter, now, however, not so much with the original intention of producing one of great power, as with the object of learning how to construct the best one.’9 MARS ON THE HORIZON Improving his instruments, Tesla found he could detect electrical disturbances 1,100 miles (1,770 km) away. The detector was a ‘coherer’ - a glass tube filled with iron fillings - connected via a capacitor to the ground. This was placed within the secondary coil of the magnifying transmitter. When a signal was applied to the electrode, the iron fillings would align, allowing current in a secondary circuit to pass through it. Nikola Tesla peeps out the door of the Colorado Springs experimental station, early summer 1899. Nikola Tesla holding a gas-filled phosphor coated wireless light bulb which he developed in the 1890s, half a century before fluorescent lamps came into use. Published on the cover of the Electrical Experimenter in 1919. Tesla connected a telephone receiver across the coherer which would beep each time a signal was detected. Alone in the laboratory one night, he was surprised to hear regular beeps – first one, then two, then three. ‘My first observations positively terrified me,’ said Tesla, ‘as there was present in them something mysterious, not to say supernatural ... I felt as though I were present at the birth of a new knowledge or the revelation of a greater truth.’ He quickly discounted that a signal with ‘such a clear suggestion of number and order’ could have come from disturbances in the Sun, the aurora borealis or currents in the Earth. They could not be entirely accidental and the thought flashed through his mind that they might be under intelligent control. He could not decipher them, but over the next year ‘the feeling was constantly growing on me that I have been the first to hear the greeting of one planet to another’. At Christmas 1900, the local Red Cross Society asked him what the greatest achievement of the next hundred years would be. In his answer, he said: ‘Brethren! We have a message from another world, unknown and remote. It reads: one... two... three...’ In interviews, Tesla maintained only that the signals were of an extraterrestrial origin, but journalists quickly concluded they were from Mars. Thanks to Percival Lowell, everyone thought that Mars was inhabited. In his book Mars (1895), Lowell concluded that there had been a drought on Mars and the Martians had built canals to carry water from the polar ice caps. Biographer Marc Seifer concluded that Tesla had picked up signals from the tests Marconi was doing with the British and French fleets. But, at that time, the transmitters Marconi was using would not have had the power to transmit a signal half way round the world. Moreover, Marconi was using the high frequencies needed to carry radio waves through the air, while Tesla’s equipment was tuned to the very low frequencies that he believed were transmitted better through the Earth’s crust. Another theory was advanced by Kenneth and James Corum who pointed out that Io, a moon of Jupiter, emits a signal in the 10 kHz range used by Tesla. In 1996, they built a Tesla receiver and recorded a series of bleeps like those Tesla described in 1899. Studying astronomical charts they also discovered that both Jupiter and Mars would have been in the night sky over Colorado in the summer of 1899. What’s more, on several nights in July, the signal from Io would have broken off just as Mars was setting. If Tesla had walked out of his lab when the beeping stopped, he would have seen Mars disappearing over the horizon. The press began to speculate how Tesla would reply to the Martians, while others dismissed Tesla as a man who would do anything to attract self-publicity. WONDERFUL WHITE LIGHTNING Tesla continued experimenting with his magnifying transmitter, boosting the voltage until it produced streams of artificial lightning 16 ft (5 m) long which set fire to the building more than once. Tesla was continually finding himself close to danger. For handling the heavy currents, I had a special switch. It was hard to pull, and I had a spring arranged so that I could just touch the handle and it would snap in. I sent one of my assistants down town and was experimenting alone. I threw up the switch and went behind the coil to examine something. While I was there the switch snapped in, when suddenly the whole room was filled with streamers, and I had no way of getting out. I tried to break through the window but in vain as I had no tools, and there was nothing else to do. than to throw myself on my stomach and pass under. The primary carried 500,000 volts, and I had to crawl through the narrow place ... with the streamers going. The nitrous acid was so strong I could hardly breathe. These streamers rapidly oxidize nitrogen because of their enormous surface, which makes up for what they lack in intensity. When I came to the narrow space they closed on my back. I got away and barely managed to open the switch when the building began to burn. I grabbed a fire extinguisher and succeeded in smothering the fire.\textsuperscript{17} Frightening though this experience was, Tesla was thrilled. ‘I have had wonderful experiences here,’ he wrote, ‘among other things, I tamed a wild cat and am nothing but a mass of bleeding scratches. But in the scratches, there lies a mind.’\textsuperscript{18} Although the famous pictures of Tesla show him surrounded by lightning, they were not discharged during the normal running of the machine. They would have been a waste of energy. When the magnifying transmitter was run at night, a blue beam would be seen rising straight up over the station into the night sky, caused by a corona of fine streamers surrounding the mast and sphere. ‘At night,’ Tesla said, ‘this antenna, when I turned on to the full current, was marvellous sight.’\textsuperscript{19} MISSING THE BOAT WITH THE NAVY While in Colorado, Tesla was contacted by the US Lighthouse Board who wanted to install a wireless on board the Nantucket Lightship so that it could give advanced warning of incoming ships to New York and other east-coast ports. Tesla initially agreed to supply some experimental Another time-lapse image from Colorado Springs, 1899. A 12 million volt discharge from the Tesla Coil creates huge artificial lightning bolts while Tesla sits reading, apparently unperturbed. equipment to test on the lightship. But his relations with the Lighthouse Board quickly soured when he discovered that his equipment was going to be tested against Marconi’s. The Lighthouse Board then said that they would prefer ‘home to foreign talent’. Tesla was furious, insisting that he was the pioneer who had laid down the principles of wireless telegraphy and was not prepared to compete with the upstart Marconi.$^{20}$ But Marconi was arriving in New York for the America’s Cup in September 1899 and something must be done quickly. Tesla was adamant. He had important work to do in Colorado and would not break off unless the board put in an order for at least 12 wireless sets. They refused. So Tesla missed an opportunity to demonstrate the effectiveness of his equipment and, when the US Navy bought its first wireless equipment, it was ordered from French and German companies.$^{21}$ TURNING UP THE JUICE As Tesla continued to increase the power of his magnifying transmitter, he became a danger to all around him. In the article ‘Can Radio Ignite Balloons?’ he said: Referring to electrical or radio wave action at a distance, I know from experience that if proper precautions are not taken, fires of all kinds and explosions can be produced by wireless transmitters. In my experiments in Colorado, when the plant was powerfully excited, the lightning arresters for 12 miles around were bridged with continuous arcs, much stronger and more persistent than those which ordinarily took place during an electric storm. I have excited loops (coil aerials) and lighted incandescent lamps at a considerable distance from the laboratory without even using more than 5 or 10 per cent of the capacity of the transmitter. When the oscillator was excited to about 4 million volts and an incandescent lamp was held in the hand about 50 or 60 feet from the laboratory, the filament was often broken by the vibration set up, giving some idea of the magnitude of the electromotive forces generated in the space. The accompanying illustration shows one of my experiments in which I lighted several lamps at a distance of 100 feet [30 m] from the laboratory, purely by wireless energy. Such induced currents might easily fire a gas balloon under the proper conditions.$^{22}$ Arriving for work one day in mid-autumn, his assistant, Kolman Czito, found Tesla the inventor watering the ground around the metal plate he had buried near the lab as an earth. ‘If I could only insulate these wires with liquid oxygen,’ he said, ‘I could reduce losses another magnitude.’ He gave Czito a pair of rubber soled shoes and put on a pair himself. ‘All the way today, sir?’ asked Czito. ‘To the limit, my friend,’ said Tesla. ‘Now remember, keep one hand behind your back at all times.’ This was to prevent a circuit being created between his two arms that would send a lethal current through the heart. ‘When I give you the signal I want you to close the switch and leave it closed until I give you the signal to open it,’ said Tesla. Usually, he told Czito to close the switch for a second, no longer. Then Tesla tottered out of the lab on his high shoes, past the testing equipment and cold lamps planted in the ground at various places, and positioned himself on a knoll about a mile away where he could see the top of the mast. Even though insulated, sparks jumped from the ground to his feet as he crunched along the path.$^{23}$ TOTAL BLACK OUT It was already evening and the lights were going on in Colorado Springs as Tesla gave the signal and Czito closed the switch. There was a crackling sound from the coils. The room was filled with an eerie blue light. The coils and the building itself sprouted needles of flames as the place filled with the smell of ozone. A low rumble built to a roar of thunder that was so strong it could be heard 15 miles (24 km) away. Butterflies circled as if caught in a whirlpool and a horse half-a-mile away bolted. ‘I suppose the capacity of the body was sufficiently great to derive a rather strong current through the legs which would frighten the animal,’ said Tesla. Streamers of lightning shrouded the mast high above the roof of the lab. Suddenly there was silence. Below, Colorado Springs had been plunged into darkness. Tesla raced back to the lab to berate Czito ‘Why did you do that?’ he shouted. ‘I did not tell you to open the switch. Close it again immediately.’ Czito pointed to the meters on the switchboard. The wires carrying power to the lab were dead. When they phoned the power station, Tesla grabbed the phone. ‘This is Nikola Tesla,’ he said. ‘You have cut off my power! You must give me back my power immediately! You must not cut off my power.’ The power station worker on the other end of the phone explained that Tesla had short-circuited their generator and had totally wrecked the power station. The generator was on fire, but fortunately the powerhouse had a second, standby generator which was started up soon after. Tesla insisted that he be supplied with current from the reserve generator as soon as it was up and running. This was refused. In the future, he was told, he would be supplied by a generator operating independently from the one supplying the El Paso Electric Company’s other customers. The generator would be the one Tesla had just burnt out. It was up to him to fix it.$^{24}$ Tesla left Colorado Springs – without paying his electricity bill – convinced that his experiments had been a success.$^{25}$ WHAT HAPPENED IN COLORADO SPRINGS? Tesla conducted experiments at Colorado Springs for nine months and though he kept a daily diary, it is not clear what the results of his experiments were. He had promised to transmit a wireless signal from Pike’s Peak to Paris. He also aimed to transmit electricity without wires at high altitudes where the air was thinner and more conductive. He did succeed in lighting up the sky. He transmitted extra-low-frequency signals from the surface of the earth to the ionosphere. Tesla then calculated that the resonant frequency of this area was approximately 8 Hz. It was not until the 1930s that this idea was taken seriously and researchers were surprised to discover that the resonant frequency of this space was indeed around 8 Hz. He also found the earth to be ‘literally alive with electrical vibrations’$^{26}$ and came to believe that lightning striking the ground set up powerful waves that moved from one side of the earth to the other. If the Earth was a great conductor, Tesla thought that he could transmit unlimited amounts of power through it with virtually no loss. To test this theory, he had attempted to become the first man to create electrical effects on the scale of lightning. And there were some reports that he transmitted a signal powerful enough to illuminate vacuum tubes planted in the ground several miles away. But this may be attributed to conductive properties of the ground locally at Colorado Springs.$^{27}$ Fig PART THREE IMPOSSIBLE IDEAS When I sent electrical waves from my laboratory in Colorado around the world, Mr Marconi was experimenting with my apparatus unsuccessfully at sea. Afterward, Mr Marconi came to America to lecture on the subject, stating that it was he who sent those signals around the globe. I went to hear him, and when he learned that I was present he became sick, postponed the lecture, and up to the present time has not delivered it. Nikola Tesla¹ Marconi was in town when Tesla returned to New York to the comfort of the Waldorf-Astoria. He paid him a visit. ‘I remember him when he was coming to me asking me to explain the function of my transformer for transmission of power to great distances,’ said Tesla. ‘Mr Marconi said, after all my explanations of the application of my principle, that it is impossible.’ ‘Time will tell, Mr Marconi,’ Tesla replied. Tesla was still trying to get interest in his Telautomatons. He proposed a ‘dirigible wireless torpedo’ or small remote-controlled airships. ‘I have constructed such machines, and shown them in operation on frequent occasions,’ said Tesla. ‘They have worked perfectly and everybody who saw them was amazed at their performance.’ He went to Washington DC, where he was again rebuffed. He still hoped that the US Navy or Coast Guard might buy his wireless transmitters, and planned to prove his system by transmitting a signal across the Atlantic. Westinghouse, though now in financial difficulties, fronted the money and an agent was sent to Britain to find a suitable site for a receiving station. In 1900, Tesla filed three patents on wireless communication and reworked his plans for a transoceanic broadcasting system. He also set to work on an article for Century magazine. At the time he was under the influence of the philosophers Friedrich Nietzsche (1844 – 1900) and Arthur Schopenhauer (1788 – 1860). Robert Johnson begged him not to make the article too metaphysical. Tesla took no notice. LIFE ON MARS As well as his scientific interests the article covered such arcane subjects as the evolution of the race, artificial intelligence, the possibility of future human beings living without eating, inorganic life forms and life on Mars. However, the magazine decided they had no alternative but to publish it anyway. It was a sensation, among his friends, at least. However, anonymous reviews in Popular Science Monthly and Science dismissed it as ‘science and fiction’. Oblivious to criticism, Tesla followed up with an article in Collier’s magazine called Talking With the Planets where he discusses the possibility of communicating with Martians. This brought renewed criticism, especially from those who had axes to grind. Meanwhile Tesla tried to get fresh funds out of Astor. They were not forthcoming. Astor was angry with Tesla. Instead of using the money he had given him before to perfect his fluorescent tube, Tesla had run off to Colorado Springs and spent it on his wireless experiments. There were other problems on the emotional front. The son of his first – and, probably, only – love Anna turned up in New York, saying he wanted to be a boxer. Tesla, a boxing fan, encouraged him. Stanford White set up a bout, but the boy was knocked down and died soon after. Tesla, it was said, grieved for him as if he were his own son. FINDING A NEW BACKER Tesla moved in high circles. In the autumn of 1900, he was invited to attend the wedding of Louisa, the daughter of Wall Street magnet J. Pierpont ‘J.P.’ Morgan (1837 – 1913), along with the Astors and Teddy Roosevelt (1858 – 1919) who became US president the following year. He turned out with a top hat, white gloves and cane. Tesla always prided himself on his appearance and claimed to be one of the best-dressed men on Fifth Avenue. At the wedding, Louisa’s younger sister Anne took a fancy to Tesla. She invited him to the Thanksgiving dinner at the Morgans’ home where Tesla put on a show involving coloured lights, lightning and various wireless devices. Morgan was a yachtsman and commodore of the New York Yacht Club. During the America’s Cup, he offered Marconi $200,000 for his American patents, including the ‘Ocean Rights … if ever wireless telegraphy could communicate from England to New York’. But the deal fell through and Morgan opened negotiations with Tesla. However, when they met, Morgan was not impressed. Already mired in controversy, Tesla was boastful and, aside from his early deal with Westinghouse, he had yet to show a profit on any of his inventions. Nevertheless Morgan agreed to give Tesla $150,000 to build a transatlantic transmitter with a 90-ft (27-m) tower in return for 51 per cent of the company and the patents. The lighting patents that Astor had an interest in were added to this later. Tesla took the opportunity to pay Westinghouse back the money he owed him for re-equipping his laboratory and the new venture was celebrated with a banquet at the Waldorf-Astoria. WORLD TELEGRAPHY CENTRE Tesla bought a 200-acre (81-hectare) tract of land at Shoreham on Long Island Sound. It was named Wardenclyffe, after James S. Warden, the businessman who handled the deal. The plan was to expand from there an 1800-acre (728-hectare) ‘Radio City’ which Stanford White set about designing. Travelling out to the site by train one morning, Tesla read an article in Electrical Review where Marconi admitted using a Tesla Coil in his wireless experiments. Enraged, Tesla immediately scrapped plans to build a modest 90-ft (27-m) tower and started designing a 600-ft (183-m) edifice. When he grew tired of commuting from the city, Tesla would stay out on Stanford White’s estate near Shoreham. When White’s wife asked Tesla why he wandered around the garden at night, Tesla replied: ‘I never sleep.’ When Morgan got wind of Tesla’s grandiose plans he fulminated. White quickly scaled things down. MARCONI’S MIRACLE Tesla’s wireless ambitions were about to suffer another setback. Marconi had installed a power transmitter with a 200-foot (60 m) mast at Poldhu in Cornwall and was sending test transmissions to Crookhaven in Ireland, 200 miles (320 km) away, while the sister station was being built on Cape Cod, MA. Both were flattened by storms in September 1901. The Poldhu station was rebuilt, but the aerial on the other side of the Atlantic was to be carried aloft by a kite from Signal Hill, Newfoundland. On 12 December 1901, it picked up a signal - three dots, the Morse code for the letter S, from Poldhu. The age of global communication had begun. At first no one believed it. According to Tesla, Marconi had once told him that, because of the curvature of the Earth ‘wireless communication across the Atlantic was impossible because there was a wall of water several miles high between the two continents, which the rays could not traverse’.¹⁶ On hearing the news, Otis Pond, an engineer then working for Tesla, said, ‘Looks as if Marconi got the jump on you.’ Tesla replied, ‘Marconi is a good fellow. Let him continue. He is using seventeen of my patents.’²¹⁷ Thomas Martin was doubtful about Marconi’s achievement, but after consulting with colleagues, he booked a banqueting hall in the Waldorf-Astoria for 13 January 1902 and invited 300 guests to celebrate Marconi’s achievement. Tesla did not attend, having ducked out of the hotel before Marconi arrived. The dinner exacerbated the ill-will between Martin and Tesla, who was now preparing a new edition of The Inventions, Researches and Writings of Nikola Tesla, this time without Martin’s name on it. According to The New York Times at the dinner: There were cheers when the toastmaster came to a letter from Nikola Tesla, who said he felt that ‘he could not rise to the occasion’. The letter went on: --- Marconi’s radio station at Poldhu, on the coast of Cornwall, England. I regret not being able to contribute to the pleasure of the evening, but I wish to join the members in heartily congratulating Mr Marconi on his brilliant results. He is a splendid worker, full of rare and subtle energies. May be prove to be one of those whose powers increase and whose mind feelers reach out farther with advancing years for the good of the world and honour of his country.\textsuperscript{18} In his speech, Marconi pointed out that his wireless was already installed on over 70 ships - 37 in the British Royal Navy, 12 in the Italian Navy and the rest on liners belonging to Cunard, North German Lloyd and others. There were already 20 stations in operation on land in Great Britain and more in construction. He concluded by saying: ‘I have built very largely on the work of others ... I may miss a few of them, but I would like to mention Clerk Maxwell, Lord Kelvin, Professor Henry and Professor Hertz.’\textsuperscript{19} There was no mention of Tesla, but he was not cowed. He wrote to Morgan saying that he had developed a machine that would produce ‘an electrical disturbance of sufficient intensity to be perceptible over the whole of the Earth ... when I throw a switch, I shall send a greeting to the whole world and for this great triumph I shall ever be grateful to you.’\textsuperscript{20} Not only would he take on the telegraph companies, but he threatened to destroy newspapers. Every customer of Tesla’s wireless system would be able to print their own. However, Tesla was already running out of money and this would be his last communication with Morgan for 9 months.\textsuperscript{21} THE WARDENCLYFFE TOWER Though Tesla’s experimental station was impressive, it was not as grand as he had planned. Morgan had only given him $150,000 when a more realistic sum would have been $1 million. The tower rose just 187 ft (57 m) in the air. On the top was a 57-ton steel sphere. Under the tower was a shaft that plunged 120 ft (36 m) into the ground. Sixteen iron pipes were driven down another 300 ft (91 m) so that currents could pass deep into the Earth. ‘In this system that I have invented,’ Tesla said, ‘it is necessary for the machine to get a grip of the Earth, otherwise it cannot shake the Earth. It has to have a grip ... so that the whole of this globe can quiver.’\textsuperscript{22} While Marconi was sending his messages through curved air, said the \textit{Port Jefferson Echo}, Tesla proposed to send them through the Earth as well.\textsuperscript{23} But construction was already grinding to a halt when Marconi sent his transatlantic signal. He may have been using Tesla’s patents, but his equipment was inexpensive by comparison. Then the stock market crashed and the cost of materials Tesla needed to complete Wardenclyffe doubled. Morgan would not stump up any more money, so Tesla went back to the manufacture of his oscillators that had proved so popular among his rivals, and to perfecting fluorescent lights. Money began to trickle in and he completed the cupola crowning the tower at Wardenclyffe. At the end of July 1903, Tesla finally cranked up his magnifying transformer. The mushroom-shaped cupola became fully charged. Local villagers heard the rumble of thunder and a strange light appeared above Tesla’s tower. This could be seen on the shores of Connecticut on the other side of Long Island Sound. Soon after, creditors from Westinghouse came to cart away the heavy equipment and Tesla’s tower fell silent. Unbowed, Tesla raised money from his uncles in the Balkans, then did the rounds of Wall Street financiers. In October 1903, Thomas Fortune Ryan (1851 – 1928) promised $100,000, but Morgan scuttled the venture.\textsuperscript{24} It seems that Tesla’s boast of being able to transmit unlimited amounts of power over any Right: An image of the way Tesla’s Wardenclyffe Tower would look when completed. WORLD WIRELESS RETURN TO NIKOLA TESLA CO. 8 West 40 St., N.Y. distance was seen as a threat to the moguls of Wall Street. How were they going to charge for the electricity it generated? Tesla clearly intended to give power away for free. Even distributing information freely was a challenge to those who controlled major corporations. Tesla responded with an article published simultaneously in Electrical World and Scientific American: The results attained by me have made my scheme of intelligence transmission, for which the name of ‘World Telegraphy’ has been suggested, easily realizable. It constitutes a radical and fruitful departure from what has been done heretofore... It involves the employment of a number of plants, all of which are capable of transmitting individualized signals to the uttermost confines of the earth. Each of them will be preferably located near some important centre of civilization and the news it receives through any channel will be flashed to all points of the globe. A cheap and simple device, which might be carried in one’s pocket, may then be set up somewhere on sea or land, and it will record the world’s news or such special messages as may be intended for it. Thus the entire earth will be converted into a huge brain, as it were, capable of response in every one of its parts. Since a single plant of but one hundred horsepower can operate hundreds of millions of instruments, the system will have a virtually infinite working capacity, and it would immensely facilitate and cheapen the transmission of intelligence. The first of these central plants would have been already completed had it not been for unforeseen delays... He said elsewhere that, if only Morgan would fund it, he would bring about world peace. But Morgan was adamant and Tesla sought refuge in Wardenclyffe, only venturing out to attend the funeral of Stanford White which, due to the scandalous circumstances, was shunned by most other New York socialites. MORE RIVALS EMERGE Marconi was not Tesla’s only rival. Lee De Forest had now completed his doctorate in --- J.P. MORGAN (1837 – 1913) The son of a successful financier, Junius Spencer Morgan (1813-90), John Pierpont Morgan began his career in 1857 with the New York banking firm of Duncan, Sherman and Company, which was the US representative of the London firm George Peabody and Company. By 1871 he was a partner at Drexel, Morgan and Company, soon the predominant source of government financing. In 1895, it became J.P. Morgan and Company, and one of the most powerful banking houses in the world. Because of his links with Peabody, Morgan was able to provide the rapidly growing US industrial corporations with capital from British banks. Investing in railroads, by 1902, he controlled some 5,000 miles (8,000 km) of track. In 1891, he arranged the merger of Edison General Electric and Thomson-Houston Electric Company to form General Electric. In the depression that followed the panic of 1893, he formed a syndicate to resupply the US government’s depleted gold reserve. Having financed the creation of the Federal Steel Company in 1898, he merged it with the giant Carnegie Steel Company in 1901 to form US Steel Corporation. The following year, he formed the International Harvester Company and the International Merchantile Marine, which dominated transatlantic shipping. He led the attempt to avert a general financial collapse following the stock market panic of 1907. Then he began amassing banks and insurance companies. This gave him control over the nation’s leading corporations and financial institutions. electrical engineering at Yale. In 1901, he sent wireless messages across the Hudson River. He speeded up transmission to 30 words a minute, which was about as fast as a Morse-code operator could send them. By 1904, he could send a signal from Buffalo to Cleveland, a distance of 180 miles (290 km). Then in 1908, he succeeded in bridging the Atlantic.\textsuperscript{27} While Marconi and De Forest concentrated on sending messages in Morse code, sending brief bursts of signals, Canadian-born Reginald Fessenden realized that it was possible to modulate a continuous signal to follow the irregularities of sound. At the receiving station, it would then be possible to unscramble the signal and reconvert it to sound. This is what we now know as AM (amplitude modulated) radio. In 1906, he transmitted music down the Massachusetts coast. In 1910, De Forest was broadcasting the voice of Italian opera singer Enrico Caruso (1873 - 1921) from the Metropolitan Opera House in New York. However, Tesla sued him for infringing his patents and won. THE MILLION-DOLLAR FOLLY The newspapers began to call Wardenclyffe \textit{Tesla’s Million-Dollar Folly}. Forced to close it down, Tesla had a nervous breakdown. He railed against the critics: \begin{quote} It is not a dream. It is a simple feat of scientific electrical engineering, only expensive – blind, faint-hearted, doubting world ... Humanity is not yet sufficiently advanced to be willingly led by the discoverer’s keen searching sense. But who knows? Perhaps it is better in this present world of ours that a revolutionary idea or invention instead of being helped and patted, be hampered and ill-treated in its adolescence – by want of means, by selfish interest, pedantry, stupidity and ignorance; that it be attacked and stifled, that it pass through bitter trials and tribulations, through the heartless strife of commercial existence. So do we get our light. So all that was great in the past was ridiculed, condemned, combated, suppressed – only to emerge all the more powerfully, all the more triumphantly from the struggle.\textsuperscript{28} \end{quote} Tesla retreated to his room at the Waldorf-Astoria where he nursed an injured pigeon he had found near the New York Public Library. However, at night, he sometimes stole out to Wardenclyffe to hook himself up to the high-frequency machinery. ‘I have passed 150,000 volts through my head,’ he told \textit{The New York Times}, ‘and did not lose consciousness, but I invariably fell into a lethargic sleep sometime after.’\textsuperscript{29} He found the electricity soothing. --- SEEING INTO THE FUTURE Although Wardenclyffe did not live up to his expectations, Tesla’s vision remained intact. In ‘The Future of the Wireless Art’ in \textit{Wireless Telegraphy and Telephony} in 1908 he said: \begin{quote} As soon as it is completed, it will be possible for a business man in New York to dictate instructions, and have them instantly appear in type at his office in London or elsewhere. He will be able to call up, from his desk, and talk to any telephone subscriber on the globe, without any change whatever in the existing equipment. An inexpensive instrument, not bigger than a watch, will enable its bearer to hear anywhere, on sea or land, music or song, the speech of a political leader, the address of an eminent man of science, or the sermon of an eloquent clergyman, delivered in some other place, however distant. In the same manner any picture, character, drawing, or print can be transferred from one to another place. Millions of such instruments can be operated from but one plant of this kind. More important than all of this, however, will be the transmission of power, without wires, which will be shown on a scale large enough to carry conviction.\textsuperscript{30} \end{quote} Like Tesla, De Forest was the son of a church minister who hoped his son would follow him into the ministry. Lee spent much of his youth at Talladega College, traditionally an African-American school where his father was president. In 1893, he enrolled at the Sheffield Scientific at Yale where he studied engineering. Six years later he was awarded a PhD for a thesis entitled Reflections of Hertzian Waves from the Ends of Parallel Wires. Experimenting in radio-telegraphy, he managed to interest the US Army and Navy in his apparatus. His equipment was used by European reporters to send despatches during the Russo-Japanese War of 1904 – 05. In 1906, De Forest filed a patent for a vacuum tube diode to detect radio waves. The following year, he patented the triode or Audion valve. This placed a grid between the electrodes which allowed it to amplify feeble electric currents. While others developed its full potential, it was the mainstay of amplification until the invention of the transistor. In 1912, De Forest was indicted, and subsequently acquitted, of mail fraud by seeking to promote this ‘worthless device’. His triode made transcontinental wireless telephony possible. Seeking to promote radio as a new medium, in 1910, De Forest broadcast a live performance by Italian opera star Enrico Caruso from the Metropolitan Opera House. Two years later De Forest found he could boost a weak signal further by feeding the output of one tube to the grid of the next, and so on. He also found that by feeding the output of an Audion tube back to its own grid, he could produce a stable oscillator whose signal could be modulated to carry speech and music. In the face of a storm of infringement suits, he sold his patents to others to exploit. He went on to invent a system for recording sound on film, making the talkies possible. Born in Quebec, Fessenden studied mathematics, but left university without a degree. In 1886, he moved to the US and went to work for Thomas Edison. He worked on a series of projects, but in 1890, when Edison suffered a financial setback, he was laid off. After working in various manufacturing companies, he became professor of electrical engineering at Purdue University, moving onto the Western University of Pennsylvania – now Pittsburgh University – the following year. From 1900 to 1902, he worked for the Weather Bureau adapting wireless telegraphy for weather forecasting and storm warnings. In 1900 he was granted a patent for a sensitive detector that made wireless telephone possible and invented the heterodyne receiver which combines two high-frequencies to produce an audible tone. With two Pittsburgh financiers, he formed the National Electric Signaling Company in 1902, which transmitted the first voice signals over a distance. In 1906, he made the first two-way transatlantic transmission. But he fell out with his backers and the company ended up bankrupt. During his career Fessenden filed some 300 patents, many were subject to litigation. He sued RCA for $60 million, settling out of court in 1928 for a large cash payment. Among his admirers was Elihu Thomson who called Fessenden ‘the greatest wireless inventor of the age – greater than Marconi’. On my slow return to the normal state of mind, I experienced an exquisitely painful longing after something undefinable. During the day I worked as usual and this feeling, though it persisted, was much less pronounced, but when I retired, the night, with its monstrous amplifications, made the suffering very acute ... my torture was due to a consuming desire to see my mother. Nikola Tesla¹ Slowly Tesla recovered. He would go out during the day, as dapper as ever, to have warm compresses applied to his face and his scalp massaged. He looked for new offices and delighted on travelling on the subway which was powered by his induction motors. In May 1907, Tesla was inducted into the New York Academy of Sciences. He managed to borrow some money and raise a few mortgages, including one with George C. Boldt, the proprietor of the Waldorf-Astoria, where he had not paid rent for 3 years. Just as he seemed to be getting back on his feet came the ‘Panic of 1907’, when shares plunged 50 per cent from the peak the previous year, causing a run on the banks. Nevertheless, his imagination was as good as ever. The Wright brothers had made their first powered flight in 1903. Astor was also keen on flying machines and encouraged Tesla to take an interest. However, at a dinner at the Waldorf-Astoria at the beginning of 1908, he made another of his pronouncements: The coming year will dispel another error which has greatly retarded the progress of aerial navigation. The aeronaut will soon satisfy himself that an airplane ... is altogether too heavy to soar, and that such a machine, while it has its uses, can never fly as fast as a dirigible balloon. Once this is fully recognized the expert will concentrate his efforts on the latter type, and before many months are passed it will be a familiar object in the sky. However, he was not entirely wrong as he went on to say: ‘Aerial vessels of war will be used to the exclusion of ships.’ He also said ‘the propeller is doomed’. It would, he said, have to be replaced by ‘a reactive jet’. Despite his gloomy prognostication, Tesla revealed in The New York Times of 8 June 1908 that he was working on a heavier-than-air machine of his own. By 1911, Tesla was ready to spell out his vision in a press interview: The flying machine of the future – my flying machine – will be heavier than air, but it will not be an airplane. It will have no wings. It will be substantial, solid, stable. You cannot have a stable airplane. The gyroscope can never be successfully applied to the airplane, for it would give a stability that would result in the machine being torn to pieces by the wind, just as the unprotected airplane on the ground is torn to pieces by a high wind. My flying machine will have neither wings nor propellers. You might see it on the ground and you would never guess that it was a flying machine. Yet it will be able to move at will through the air in any direction with perfect safety, higher speeds than have yet been reached, regardless of weather and oblivious of holes in the air or downward currents. It will ascend in such currents if desired. It can remain absolutely stationary in the air, even in a wind, for great length of time. Its lifting power will not depend upon any such delicate devices as the bird has to employ, but upon positive mechanical action. Tesla could not bear being left behind. In 1911, he said: ‘20 years ago I believed that I would be the first man to fly; that I was on the track of accomplishing what no one else was anywhere near reaching. I was working entirely in electricity then and did not realize that the gasoline engine was approaching a perfection that was going to make the aeroplane feasible.’ His idea, naturally, was to have a plane powered by electricity, with power supplied by stations on the ground. ‘I have not accomplished this as yet, but am confident that I will in time,’ he said. THE FLIVVER PLANE TAKES OFF Tesla applied for a patent on a flying machine in 1921. Dubbed the ‘flivver plane’ – flivver was early 20th-century slang for a cheap car – it was said to combine the qualities of a helicopter and a plane, and could fly vertically as well as horizontally. According to a press report: It is a tiny combination plane which, its inventor asserts, will rise and descend vertically and fly horizontally at great speed, much faster than the speed of the planes of today. But despite the feats which he credits to his invention, Tesla says that it will sell for something less than $1,000. The helicopter-airplane is a small structure, with two wings about 8 ft square. It may have one propeller and it may have several, to be driven by a light but powerful turbine motor of Tesla’s invention. When the plane rests on the ground the propeller will be overhead and the wings will be standing vertically. The motor is expected to generate a terrific power that will lift the plane into the air. This power can be sustained only a short while. At the desired height, the aviator begins to tilt his plane. The wings gradually are brought into a horizontal position that puts the propeller in front of the machine. During this operation the engine power is decreased, and, at this lower power, the helicopter becomes an airplane and is operated as such. The wings now are supporting surfaces, and, except when exceptional speed is wanted for a few moments, the engine will be run at a low rate. Seats for the pilot and three or four passengers are suspended from trunnions on which they can turn through an angle of 90 degrees. This enables those in the plane to sit in a normal position at all times. With two wheel bases at right angles, the helicopter-airplane is able to descend in a glide or vertically, landing easily either way. As a helicopter, it has a low landing velocity. Although he obtained more patents for The Flivver Plane in 1928, even by then, he still had not built a full-scale model. BECOMING YESTERDAY’S NEWS By 1909, Lee De Forest had perfected the radio-telephone which had been adopted by the navies of Britain, the US and Italy. He had cut out the spark and minimized the chances of the interruption of messages. By transmitting the speaking voice, he claimed, information could now be passed at a rate of 40,000 words an hour instead of 40 words a minute, which was the speed of the fastest Morse operator. Tesla was rapidly becoming a footnote in the history of wireless. Radio-telephones were being set up on top of tall buildings and, to add insult to injury, radio towers were erected on top of the Waldorf-Astoria. While Tesla took nighttime rambles to Grand Central Station which would soon boast its astronomical ceiling, Professor William Pickering announced that he had raised $10,000 to erect a set of mirrors in Texas to send signals to Mars. ADVANCED BLADELESS TURBINES Considering his own experiments with wireless transmission ‘evidently far in advance of the times’, Tesla moved on to other inventions. He came up with a ‘bladeless turbine’ which, he believed, would replace the petrol engine in a car or could be used to power aircraft, ships or torpedoes. It also worked as a pump. Just as a rotating magnetic field dragged the rotor around in his AC motors, Tesla believed that it was possible to use steam or compressed air to turn a series of discs attached to a turbine. They utilized the property of viscosity – that is, a fluid’s resistance to flow. By adjusting the distance between the discs to match the viscosity and speed of flow of the fluid, Tesla believed that he could create an efficient engine. In Tesla’s engine, fluid entered at the edge of the disc and exited at the shaft in the centre. As the fluid spiralled down between the discs, it dragged them around with it. When the action was reversed, the fluid spiralled out from the centre and acted as a pump or a blower. Without blades, the engine would be cheaper to build and easier to maintain. What’s more it gave a vastly improved power to weight ratio. Tesla claimed that, while the lightest aeroplane engine produces one horsepower (746 watts) for each 2.5 pounds (1.1 kilograms), his engine would produce 25 horsepower (18,642 watts). In his own mind, he had solved the problem of flying. ‘I have accomplished what mechanical engineers have been dreaming about ever --- WHAT IS VISCOSITY? All fluids have viscosity. Thick fluids such as molasses have a high viscosity; thin ones, such as air, a low viscosity. All fluids, to a greater or lesser extent, stick to solid surfaces. The molecules near to the surface adhere to it and travel at the same velocity. Molecules a little further away are slowed by a viscous interaction with those stuck on the surface. Further away still, the fluid flows freely. The transition between the layer stuck to the surface and the free-flowing stream is called the boundary layer. Tesla found that he could use ‘viscous shear’ in the boundary layer to transfer energy from the fluid to the turbine. --- Tesla’s original patent diagrams for a turbine engine. since the invention of steam power,’ said Tesla. ‘That is the perfect rotary engine.’ That was all very well in theory, but it had taken Tesla years to go from the idea of a rotating magnetic field to the production of a functioning AC motor. Producing a bladeless turbine similarly required a great deal of meticulous engineering. All sorts of different materials and configurations would have to be tested. Nevertheless Tesla was confident that his new engine would be so successful that he would have the money to reopen Wardenclyffe. which cannot help [but] prove a colossal success,’ he said. ‘The only trouble is to get the cash, but it cannot last very long before my money will come in a torrent.’ Later he wrote, undaunted: ‘Things are developing very favourably, and it seems my wireless dream will be realized before next summer.’ There is speculation that Tesla installed one of his engines on a ‘mysterious craft’ that Astor had moored on the Harlem River. ‘It seemed to embody an airship with a practical water craft,’ said The New York Times. However, after a year, it disappeared. COMING UP WITH THE PROTOTYPES In 1906, Julius Czito, son of Tesla’s long-serving assistant Kolman, built the first prototype. It had eight discs each 6 inches (15 cm) in diameter. Weighing less than 10 pounds (4.5 kg) it developed 30 horsepower and would rotate at up to 35,000 revolutions per minute (rpm). At this speed, the metal disks began to distort. Nevertheless, in 1909, Tesla filed two patents – one for the turbine, the other for the pump. The following year, Czito produced a second prototype with 12 inch (30 cm) discs. With the speed limited to 10,000 rpm, it developed 100 horsepower. A third prototype was slightly smaller. Its discs were 9.75 inches (24.8 cm) in diameter. The speed was limited to 9,000 rpm, but it developed 110 horsepower. Tesla proclaimed that he had invented ‘a powerhouse in a hat’. Hooked up to an induction motor it could have made a jet engine. As he shuttled between various workshops in New York, Providence, Rhode Island, and Bridgeport, Connecticut – where most of the development was done – he became increasingly optimistic. ‘I am now at work on new ideas of an automobile, locomotive and lathe in which these inventions of mine are embodied and PUTTING ON A PUBLIC SHOW Astor refused to invest, so Tesla set up the Tesla Propulsion Company with Joseph Hoadley, whose Alabama Consolidated Coal and Iron company planned to use the Tesla pump as a blower in its blast furnaces. Certain his fortunes were on the up again, Tesla took offices in the new Metropolitan Life Tower on Madison Square, then the tallest building in the world. Eager to promote his new invention, Tesla arranged to give a public demonstration at the Waterside Station of the New York Edison Company. Tesla had two engines built with 18-inch (46-cm) rotors. They were just 3 ft (90 cm) long, 2 ft (60 cm) wide and 2 ft (60 cm) high, and weighed 400 pounds (181 kg). Revolving at 9,000 rpm, they each developed 200 horsepower. In the demonstration, the two turbines were connected by a torque rod. Turning in the opposite direction, the two motors would engage in a tug-of-war, with the power they developed registered on the torque rod. But in this configuration, with the two turbines pushing against one another, the motors did not actually turn, just strained against each other. The audience was not impressed and the story soon circulated that the test was a complete failure. BUILDING UP HIGH HOPES To Tesla, though, the test had been a success. He told the New York Herald Tribune: ‘One such pump now in operation, with eight discs, 18 inches in diameter, pumps 4,000 gallons a minute to a height of 360 feet.’¹⁰ As a motor, they would be run using water, air, steam, gas or any other fluid under pressure. ‘The motor is especially adapted to automobiles, for it will run on gas explosions as well as on steam,’ said Tesla. ‘Coupling these engines in series, one can do away with gearing in machinery. Factories can be equipped without shafting.’ The applications were limitless. ‘With a thousand horse-power engine, weighing only 100 pounds, imagine the possibilities in automobiles, locomotives and steamships,’ he said. ‘In the space now occupied by the engines of the Lusitania 25 times her 80,000 horse power could be developed, were it possible to provide boiler capacity sufficient to furnish the necessary steam.’¹¹ The engine would also be perfect to power Tesla’s flying machine. Using the current reciprocating petrol engine, he said, ‘the aeroplane is fatally defective. It is merely a toy, a sporting plaything. It can never become commercially practical.’ The problem was, of course, he needed money to develop it. Westinghouse was out of business; Astor was not interested. Then in 1912, Astor was lost on the Titanic. The following year J.P. Morgan also died. After his funeral, Tesla approached his son Jack for funding. Tesla was still hoping to get Wardenclyffe up and running again, but Jack showed no interest. However, he loaned the inventor $20,000 to develop his turbine. Tesla then moved into the Woolworth Building, which had taken over from the Metropolitan Life Tower as the world’s tallest building. On the wall of his office there, Tesla had the famous picture of him in his lab at Colorado Springs quietly reading while huge streaks of artificial lightning crack over his head. The picture is, of course, a cheat, taken using time-lapse photography. Tesla then tried to sell his turbine to Sigmund Bergmann (1871 - 1927), an old colleague of Edison’s who had set up a large manufacturing concern in Germany. But the deal was not concluded before the start of World War I, when Jack Morgan became involved in helping Britain and France to finance the war and lost interest.¹² MARCONI VERSUS TESLA Tesla was bitter when Marconi won the Nobel Prize in 1909 for what Tesla considered was his invention. Jack Hammond tried to balance the two men’s contributions in his article ‘The Future of Wireless’ in the National Press Reporter in 1912: Mr Tesla in 1892 showed that the true Hertzian effect was not a means by which it was possible for a sending station to communicate with a receiving station at any great distance. He demonstrated furthermore, that waves propagated at a transmitting station travelled along the ground as a conductor. Today it is acknowledged that these views are correct. It was, however, left to the splendid enterprise of Marconi to crystallize the results of previous investigators into a complete and practical system of space telegraphy ... In 1897, Mr Marconi transmitted messages to a distance of 8.7 miles. Today Mr Marconi says that the maximum effective distance of transmission is 6,000 miles. REMOTE CONTROL MECHANICAL DOG A disgruntled Tesla resented that any credit should go to Marconi. He also heard that, while working with Alexander Graham Bell and Tesla’s former assistant Fritz Lowenstein, Hammond had invented a mechanical dog that worked by remote control. While Hammond assured Tesla that he had not infringed any of his patents, Tesla insisted that he get a share in any profits. The two of them formed the Tesla-Hammond Wireless Company funded by Hammond’s father. Tesla saw this new company as a way to market his bladeless turbine, perhaps to the military. But Hammond was more interested in Tesla’s patents on selective tuning, which divided up the radio spectrum into numerous channels – a crucial development in radio. Hammond contacted the War Department with the proposal for a ship-to-shore communication system and hired Fritz Lowenstein and Benjamin Franklin Miessner to form a military research group at the family estate in Gloucester, Massachusetts. Again Tesla was sidelined. TESLA’S TALENTED TEAM FRITZ LOWENSTEIN (1874 – 1922) Born in Carlsbad in the Austro-Hungarian Empire (now Karlovy Vary in the Czech Republic), Lowenstein studied engineering in Europe before emigrating to the US in 1899 where he went to work for Tesla. He helped build and operate the magnifying transmitter in Colorado Springs. ‘Possessed of the highest technical training,’ Tesla said, he became a close confidant, discussing the project with him every day over lunch and dinner at the Alta Vista Hotel. They parted when Lowenstein returned to Germany to marry, but Tesla re-employed Lowenstein in 1902 to work at Wardenclyffe. He also worked with Jack Hammond and Alexander Graham Bell, and subsequently began a company making radio sets for the US Navy during World War I, paying royalties to Tesla for the use of his patents. BENJAMIN FRANKLIN MIESSNER (1890 – 1976) Miessner studied electrical engineering at Purdue University and worked for the US Navy in 1908 before becoming chief assistant in the Tesla-Hammond lab at Gloucester. He worked on the development of the electric dog and superheterodyne reception. This improved the amplification in a wireless set fifty-fold and allowed them to work without a long aerial, essentially turning the wireless receiver from an experimental apparatus into a domestic appliance. He is also credited with inventing the ‘cat’s whisker’ detector in early crystal sets, which he sold for $200, and the electric organ. A pioneer in aircraft radio and directional microphones in submarines, he sold more than two hundred patents, making over $2 million. SENDING MESSAGES THROUGH THE AIR While practical work was underway in Gloucester, Tesla was making more outrageous claims to the convention of the National Electric Light Association in 1911. He said that he would be able to run the streetcars in Dublin by a power station in Long Island City. His wireless transmitter would generate enough power to light the entire United States. ‘The current would pass into the air and, spreading in all directions, produced an effect of a strong aurora borealis,’ he said. ‘It would be a soft light, but sufficient to distinguish objects.’ The New York Times said: ‘Queen Isabella of Spain could not have been more amazed when meeting Christopher Columbus to hear about the new world.’ Tesla was even prepared to take on Euclid: I have annihilated distance with my scheme and when perfected it will not be one mite different than my present plans call for. The air will be my medium, and I will be able to transmit energy of any amount to any place in the world. I will also be able to send messages to all parts of the world, and I will send words out into the world, which will come out of the ground in the Sahara Desert with such force that they can be heard for 15 miles around. I also hope to set up a central wireless telephone station whereby there will be a force of a million horsepower behind each word uttered into my instrument, and in which distance will play no hindrances whatever. Many hundreds of people will be able to talk at the same time and without any interference with each other. He also said that he had perfected a new steam engine, a turbine that would produce 10 horsepower but weighed only one pound. The machine would be ‘the smallest thing ever seen on wheels and will be more powerful than any automobile engine ever manufactured’. ENDING THE HAMMOND PARTNERSHIP Tesla made overtures to the Japanese, hoping that they would take 500 of his turbines to power their torpedoes. He also had meetings with GE and the Seiberling Company, who developed high-speed power boats. Then he worked on prototype car engines, approaching Ford. Kaiser Wilhelm II also took an interest in possible military applications. But Tesla was having problems with the design. The ball bearings wore down too quickly. As Tesla preferred to work during the night, labour costs soared. Though he did not take a salary himself, in just a few months he found he had laid out $18,000 and asked Hammond for another $10,000 to keep going. But Hammond and Lowenstein were busy installing wireless equipment on naval vessels and competing with De Forest for a $50,000 amplifier deal with AT&T. So Hammond’s main interest now was perfecting wireless and he ignored Tesla’s request. By then it was clear that it would take a great deal more than $10,000 to perfect the turbine. This effectively ended their partnership. Hammond spent the money he saved developing remote control, spending around $750,000 dollars on crewless ships, aircraft and submarines. He was eventually compensated by the War Department and did a separate deal with the Radio Corporation of America – later RCA – shortly after Tesla’s wireless patents had run out. Yet again the inventor had failed to profit from his inventions. However, they had made Hammond a millionaire in his own right. He used the money to build a faux medieval castle less than a mile from his parents’ house. It boasted a nude statue of the famous inventor. IS IT ELECTRIFIED? Tesla was never idle for long. An experiment with his Tesla Coils in Sweden had demonstrated that children in an electrified environment grew more quickly and scored higher in aptitude tests. So Tesla went to work for the superintendent of New York’s public schools installing Tesla Coils in the walls of a school for a pilot study. The guinea pigs were 50 backward pupils and it was said that ‘the brains of the children will receive artificial stimulation to such an extent that they will be transformed from dunces into star pupils’.23 For Tesla, there would be limitless applications. The New York Times reported: According to the inventor this experiment in schools will be merely an opening wedge, a suggestion to the people that by the use of high potential electricity they may do away with the use of bromides, phosphates, pepsin tablets, and all kinds of drugs taken for disorders of the nervous and digestive system. If his dream comes true, 10 years from now people will inquire when renting an apartment or a house, ‘Is it electrified?’ Everyone will have at least one room in his house furnished with a coil generating high-frequency currents. By that time the appliance will be inexpensive, so that at a moderate cost people will be able to obtain superb health and mental brilliancy. Ordinary conversation will then be carried on in scintillating epigrams, and the mental life of the average adult will be so quickened as to equal the brain activity of the most brilliant people living before the time when a generator of high-frequency currents was a household essential.24 EXPLAINING STANDING WAVES A standing wave is caused by the combination of two waves moving in opposite directions and is usually found where a wave is reflected from a surface or the end of a wire. The two waves are superimposed and either add together or cancel each other out. A vibrating rope tied at one end will produce a standing wave. At some positions along the rope there is no movement. These points are called nodes. Either side, where the movement is the greatest, are antinodes. Standing Waves change in amplitude but do not move. EVERYONE WANTS TO BE TESLA Tesla also told the newspaper that one of his assistants had been exceedingly stupid, but after a time working around high-voltage equipment the man grew brighter and worked better. Asked about any harmful side-effects, Tesla said that the rays of light issuing from ordinary household incandescent lamps were more harmful than those from a high-voltage coil. He also maintained that the increased prevalence of baldness was due to the effect on the scalp of rays from incandescent bulbs. But the electromagnetic radiation from his coils was, he insisted, perfectly safe.$^{25}$ CONSTANT LEGAL BATTLES When the Titanic sank, Marconi was credited with saving the lives of the 710 survivors, as it was his equipment that had summoned the rescue ships. This was galling for Tesla and other pioneers. So Tesla began suing Marconi for patent infringement. In Britain, Tesla already had let a vital patent lapse. However, Sir Oliver Lodge, the inventor of the coherer, won a suit against Marconi. In France, Tesla succeeded in challenging two of Marconi’s patents.$^{26}$ Tesla was sued himself, first by an investor who failed to reap the riches he was promised, then by Westinghouse over equipment they had lent him.$^{27}$ Tesla argued that he was not personally liable for this, but agreed to return the equipment.$^{28}$ Though his losses were small, he was deeply in debt and the bad publicity damaged his reputation.$^{29}$ It seemed he was now fair game. A Mrs Tierstein wanted to shoot him for ‘throwing electricity at her’. She was confined to an asylum.$^{30}$ While Telefunken in Germany infringed Tesla’s patents, it was too important to sue. But, when the company came to America to SIR OLIVER LODGE (1851 – 1940) Lodge entered his father’s clay business in Staffordshire, England when he was 14. Then on a visit to London he heard prominent physicist John Tyndall (1820 – 93) lecture at the Royal Institution. This piqued his interest in science and, at the age of 22, he resumed his education. In 1890, the French scientist Édouard Branly (1844 – 1940) showed that iron filings in a glass tube coalesced – or ‘cohered’ – under the influence of electromagnetic waves. Lodge added a ‘trembler’ that shook up the filings between waves and made other improvements, making an effective detector. Following in the footsteps of Hertz, he studied standing waves in conducting wires. After Hertz’s untimely death in 1894, he gave a lecture at the Royal Institution called The Work of Hertz. When this was published, it had a widespread influence across Europe. He also filed a number of important patents. When his son Raymond was killed in World War I, he became interested in spiritualism and served as president of the Society for Psychical Research. set up transatlantic stations at Tuckerton, New Jersey, and Sayville, New York, its founder Adolf Slaby (1849 - 1913), sought out Tesla in the hope that they could present a united front to Marconi. However, in 1914, Tesla was also approached by the American Marconi company. But they only offered stock; Tesla needed cash. He appealed to Jack Morgan for help, saying the US government had already installed $10-million-worth of his equipment and he was expecting to receive compensation.$^{31}$ Meanwhile Telefunken was suing Marconi who, in turn, was suing Lowenstein and the US Navy. However, as the wireless equipment Hammond supplied the War Department was being used to test guided missiles, it was classified, so Hammond was immune from litigation.$^{32}$ WORLD WAR I With the outbreak of World War I in 1914, the British cut Germany’s transatlantic cables. Consequently, the Telefunken stations at Tuckerton and Sayville became of vital importance. Fearing that they may be used to direct the movements of battleships and submarines, the British wanted them shut down. While ostensibly neutral, President Woodrow Wilson (1856 - 1924) signed a bill prohibiting radio stations from sending or receiving messages of an ‘unneutral nature’ and took over the station at Tuckerton.$^{33}$ Although one-tenth of the population of the United States was of German origin, most Americans backed Britain and Tesla’s connections with Telefunken made him unpopular. Indeed, he was receiving royalties from their subsidiary, the Atlantic Communication Company, and was giving them advice on how to boost the output of their station at Sayville, which was on Long Island just a few miles from Wardenclyffe. On 23 April 1915, The New York Times reported that its power had been increased from 35 kilowatts to 100 kilowatts and that two 500 ft (150 m) towers were about to be erected, transforming it into one of the most powerful transatlantic communication stations.$^{34}$ In a test transmission the previous year, The New York Times had received a message from the Burgomaster of Berlin. TESLA’S DAY IN COURT Marconi won its case against Lowenstein, but lost its suit against the US Navy. In preparation for the case, the Assistant Secretary for the Navy - later president - Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882 - 1945) reviewed Tesla’s 1899 file at the Lighthouse Board. In it was the letter asking Tesla whether he could supply wireless telegraphy apparatus. A review of Marconi’s patents was also made. In 1900, the commissioner of patents John Seymour - who had already upheld Tesla’s patents against Michael Pupin’s claim that he had invented the AC system - had rejected Marconi’s first patent application because of the prior claims of Tesla, Lodge and Ferdinand Braun, who had shared the Nobel Prize for physics with Marconi in 1909. In 1903, the patent office wrote: ‘...Marconi’s pretended ignorance of the nature of a Tesla oscillator being little short of absurd... the term Tesla oscillator has become a household word on both continents?’ - that is, Europe and North America.$^{35}$ In 1904, after Seymour had retired, Marconi had been granted a patent. This was being contested in Telefunken’s suit against Marconi now going to trial. The Brooklyn Eagle reported that some of the world’s greatest inventors were on hand to testify$^{36}$ - not least Marconi himself. He arrived in New York on the Lusitania in --- Right: Tesla’s Electrical Oscillators published in the Electrical Experimenter, July 1919. Electrical Oscillators Fig. 1. Oscillator with detachable transformer for experimental purposes. Fig. 2. Small Tesla Coil for car engine ignition and similar uses. Fig. 3. Tesla Transformer, 12 inch spark, chiefly for wireless. Fig. 4. Tesla Oscillator in action, generating undamped waves. Fig. 5. Later type of Tesla Transformer. Fig. 6. Small oscillator for production of ozone. Fig. 7. Large Tesla Transformer for various purposes. Fig. 8. Tesla Transformer with rotary break for wireless. Fig. 9. Tesla Transformer with mercury interrupter. Fig. 10. Barton Transformer with hermetically sealed mercury interrupter. Fig. 11. Tesla Transformer with sealed mercury interrupter for low tension work. Fig. 12. Another type of Tesla Transformer with sealed mercury interrupter. April 1915, telling reporters that he had seen the periscope of a German submarine on the crossing.\textsuperscript{37} The press were on his side as Italy sided with the Allies in World War I. Also appearing for the defence was Tesla’s old adversary, Columbia Professor Michael Pupin, who shocked the court by saying: ‘I invented wireless before Marconi or Tesla and it was I who gave it unreservedly to those who followed.’\textsuperscript{38} A local newspaper reported that Tesla was so shocked that ‘watching his fellow Serb upon the stand, Tesla’s jaw dropped so hard, it almost cracked upon the floor’.\textsuperscript{39} Pupin had already made it clear where he stood. In the press he said of Marconi: ‘His genius gave the idea to the world, and he taught the world how to build a telegraphic practice upon the basis of this idea … In my opinion, the first claim for wireless telegraphy belongs to Mr Marconi absolutely, and to nobody else.’\textsuperscript{40} Following Tesla to the stand was John Stone Stone, who could himself claim to be the inventor of the radio. He filed a crucial patent on tuning 2 years before Marconi, and he acknowledged that it was Tesla, not Marconi, who was a trailblazer. Due to World War I, the legal battle was abandoned before the case was decided. Fearing a German attack, Marconi did not return to Europe on the \textit{Lusitania}. Instead under a false name and in heavy disguise, he set sail on the \textit{St Paul}. On 7 May 1915, the \textit{Lusitania} was sunk by a German submarine with the loss of 1,134 lives, including 128 US citizens. America was outraged. It was already suspected that the Telefunken radio station was passing coded messages to submarines. Two weeks later \textit{The New York Times} reported that the Germans had developed ‘air torpedoes’ which were dropped from zeppelins and controlled by wireless\textsuperscript{42} – the very thing Tesla had claimed to have invented. When the US joined World War I in 1917, the former head of the Tuckerton station was arrested for spying and the Sayville station was taken over by the government. Tesla’s monthly royalty cheques from Telefunken stopped. Edison, Fessenden, Pupin, Thomson and others got jobs as advisors to the government, but Tesla – possibly because of the connections with Telefunken – was left out.\textsuperscript{43} \section{TESLA THE TRAILBLAZER} While Pupin could only assert that Marconi was the inventor, Tesla came armed with lectures, articles and patents. While Marconi had only been granted his first US patent in 1904, Tesla had given a practical demonstration of wireless in St Louis, Missouri in 1893. He had transmitted a signal from his Houston Street laboratory to West Point before 1897. People who visited his lab saw the equipment. He then compared the Marconi patent to his own, saying: ‘If you take these two contemporaneous diagrams, and examine the subsequent developments, you will find that absolutely not a vestige of that apparatus of Marconi remains, and that in all the present system there is nothing but my four-tuned circuits. Everybody is using them.’\textsuperscript{41} Tesla demonstrates wireless power transmission in his Houston Street laboratory, 1899. MICHAEL PUPIN (1858 – 1935) Born in Banat, a buffer zone between the Ottoman and the Austrian Empires, Pupin was a Serb like Tesla. His parents were illiterate and sent him to Prague. After a year, not yet 16, he went alone to America, arriving in New York in 1874. For 5 years, he took a series of odd jobs, while studying at night for admission to Columbia College, now Columbia University. He went on to study in Cambridge and Berlin, where he worked under Helmholtz. He returned to New York to teach mathematical physics at the newly formed department of electrical engineering. In 1901, he was made Professor of Electromechanics, a position he held until he retired in 1931. In 1896, he discovered that atoms struck by X-rays emit secondary X-ray radiation and worked on X-ray fluoroscopy. Five years later, the Bell Telephone Company bought the patents for his method of extending the range of telephone communication by placing loading coils at specific distances along the line. In 1924, he was awarded a Pulitzer Prize for his best-selling autobiography From Immigrant to Inventor. Pupin sided with Elihu Thomson in the controversy over who invented the AC polyphase system and Tesla accused Pupin of stealing his work. In the long passages on the development of AC in From Immigrant to Inventor, Tesla is hardly mentioned. When working with X-rays, Pupin again ignored Tesla’s contribution. It was Pupin who introduced Marconi to Tesla in 1900, but he also helped facilitate Marconi’s cooperation with Edison, earning him, once more, the enmity of Tesla. When Pupin was on his deathbed in 1935, he got his secretary to visit Yugoslav diplomat Stanko Stoilkovic and ask him to plead with Tesla to visit Pupin who wanted to make peace with him before he died. Tesla said that he would have to think about Pupin’s request overnight. The following day, Tesla turned up at the hospital. In Pupin’s room he approached the bed with his hand extended and said: ‘How are you old friend?’ Pupin was overcome with emotion. They were left alone to talk. Tesla said they had agreed they would meet up again, but Pupin died immediately after Tesla’s visit. Reconciled at last, Tesla attended his funeral. JOHN STONE STONE (1869 – 1943)* Born in America, but brought up in Egypt and Europe, Stone, who was fluent in Arabic, French and English, was brought home to the US to study in the school of mines at Columbia and Johns Hopkins University, before entering the Bell Labs in Boston. In 1899, he set up the Stone Telegraph and Telephone Company. Lecturing on electrical oscillations at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, he filed a patent on tuning in 1902. He also developed a wireless direction finder, worked on the use of loading coils on telephone lines before Pupin and became president of the Institute of Radio Engineers and the AIEE. He holds many ‘space telegraphy’ patents. KARL FERDINAND BRAUN (1850 – 1918) Born in Germany, Braun received his doctorate from the University of Berlin in 1872 and held a number of academic posts before becoming director of the Physical Institute and Professor of Physics at the University of Strasbourg in 1895. In 1897, he developed the first oscilloscope, or Braun tube, to study alternating currents using a beam of electrons in a cathode ray. From this, television tubes were developed. He went on to study why early wireless transmission was limited to 9.5 miles (15 km), concluding that the limiting factor was the length of the spark. The solution was to introduce a sparkless antenna circuit, which he patented in 1899. He also developed an antenna that directed the transmission in one direction. The Nobel Committee recognized that he had made considerable improvements to Marconi’s apparatus and awarded the Nobel Prize to them jointly in 1909. Braun travelled to New York in 1915. When the US joined the Allies in World War I in 1917, he was detained as an enemy alien and died before the war ended. I have concluded that the honour has been conferred upon me in acknowledgement of a discovery announced a short time ago which concerns the transmission of electrical energy without wires. This discovery means that electrical effects of unlimited intensity and power can be produced, so that not only can energy be transmitted for all practical purposes to any terrestrial distance, but even effects of cosmic magnitude may be created. Nikola Tesla¹ On 6 November 1915, The New York Times announced that Tesla and Edison had been awarded the Nobel Prize for physics. The source of the story, apparently, was the Copenhagen correspondent of the Daily Telegraph. Tesla had received no notification, but when interviewed by the Times he said that he thought he had been given the Nobel Prize for a device he had filed a patent for a month earlier that made it ‘practicable to project the human voice not only for a distance of 5,000 miles, but clear across the globe. I demonstrated this in Colorado in 1899.’ He went on to explain how it would work: The plant would simply be connected with the telephone exchange of New York City and a subscriber will be able to talk to any other telephone subscriber in the world, and all this without any change in his apparatus. This plan has been called my ‘world system’. By the same means I propose also to transmit pictures and project images, so that the subscriber will not only hear the voice, but see the person to whom he is talking. A further advantage would be that the transmission is instant and free of the unavoidable delay experienced with the use of wire and cables. As I have already made known, the current passes through the earth, starting from the transmission station with infinite speed, slowing down to the speed of light at a distance of 6,000 miles, then increasing in speed from that region and reaching the receiving station again with infinite velocity. It’s all a wonderful thing. Wireless is coming to mankind in its full meaning like a hurricane some of these days. Some day there will be, say, six great wireless telephone stations in a ‘world system’ connecting all the inhabitants of this earth to one another not only by voice but by sight. It’s surely coming. ILLUMINATING THE SKY This discovery had a direct bearing on the problems uppermost in the public’s mind, he said, the perfection of wireless telephony. On 7 November, he told the Times: We will deprive the ocean of its terrors by illuminating the sky, thus avoiding collisions at sea and other disasters caused by darkness. We will draw unlimited quantities of water from the oceans and irrigate the deserts and other arid regions. In this way we will fertilize the soil and derive any amount of power from the sun. I also believe that ultimately all battles, if they should come, will be waged by electrical waves instead of explosives. He would say nothing further on the matter. However, he agreed that Edison deserved a dozen Nobel Prizes, though he said he had no idea which one he had been awarded the prize for. When shown the despatch, Edison wisely declined to comment. Meanwhile the idea of winning the prize had gone to Tesla’s head. He wrote to the Johnsons: In a thousand years, there will be many recipients of the Nobel Prize. But I have not less than four dozen of my creations identified with my name in the technical literature. These are honours real and permanent, which are bestowed not by a few who are apt to err, but by the whole world which seldom makes a mistake, and for any of these I would give all the Nobel prizes during the next thousand years … Josie will never had the chance of turning me away as a beggar, but I shall give her soon, the opportunity of slamming your door in the face of a millionaire. This was no joke to Robert Johnson who had fallen on hard times. He wrote later: ‘When that Nobel Prize comes, remember that I am holding onto my house by the skin of my teeth and desperately in need of cash!’ As it was, neither Tesla nor Edison was awarded the prize. That year the Nobel Prize for physics went to William Bragg and his son Lawrence for their research into crystalline structures using X-rays. Tesla had not even been nominated, though Edison was. Tesla was not nominated until 1937 and did not get it then either. However, Tesla’s long-standing friend and first biographer John O’Neill said that Tesla actually turned down the award. ‘To have the award go first to Marconi, and then to be asked to share the award with Edison, was too great a derogation of the relative value of his work to the world for Tesla to bear without rebelling,’ he wrote in Prodigal Genius. According to O’Neill, Tesla did not put himself in the same category as Edison. He considered himself a discoverer of new principles, while Edison was an inventor who exploited new discoveries for commercial gain. THE BOLTS OF THOR Although The New York Times had announced that the Braggs had won the Nobel Prize on 14 November 1915, it continued to say that Tesla was a 1915 Nobel Prize winner in an article on 8 December, headlined Tesla’s New Device Like Bolts of Thor, when the paper reported that he was taking out a patent on a ‘manless airship’. It had neither an engine nor wings and could be sent at a speed of 300 miles (480 km) a second to any place on the globe using electricity. According to the Times: ‘Ten miles or a thousand miles, it will all be the same to the machine, the inventor says. Straight to the point, on land or on sea, it will be able to go with precision, delivering a blow that will paralyze or kill, as is desired. A man in a tower on Long Island could shield New York against ships or army by working a lever …’ Tesla refused to go into further details. However, he dismissed electrical engineer Charles H. Harris’s suggestion that, in time of war, the country would be surrounded by ‘an electrical wall of fire’ as ‘not practical’ as it would take more than all the generators in the US to power it. DESCRIBING RADAR While Tesla’s ideas on unmanned airships and bolts of Thor seem unworldly, he also described a way of detecting ships at sea. His idea was to transmit high-frequency radio waves that would reflect off the hulls of vessels and appear on a fluorescent screen. In 1917, he said: ‘We may produce at will, from a sending station, an electrical effect in any particular region of the globe; we may determine the relative position or course of a moving object, such as a vessel at sea, the distance traversed by the same, or its speed.’ This was one of the first descriptions of what we now call radar. Again it was too far ahead of its time to be taken seriously. However, in 1934 the French engineer Émile Girardeau (1882–1970) built an obstacle-locating radio apparatus – ‘conceived according to the principles stated by Tesla,’ he said – and obtained a patent for a working system, part of which was installed on the liner Normandie in 1935. THE EDISON MEDAL In 1917, Tesla was awarded the Edison Medal by the American Institute of Electrical Engineers. According to O’Neill, Tesla was reluctant to accept it at first, but was persuaded to do so by the chairman of the medal committee, Bernard A. Behrend, who was an admirer and close personal friend. Tesla turned the medal down initially because it was nearly 30 years since he had announced his rotating electric field and his AC system to the Institute. ‘I do not The Edison Medal was created in 1904 by a group of Edison's friends and associates as an annual award to be given to a living electrician for 'meritorious achievement in electrical science and art'. In 1909, the American Institute of Electrical Engineers agreed to present it as their highest award. The first recipient was Tesla's rival Elihu Thomson. George Westinghouse and Alexander Graham Bell also received the award. The medal is now presented by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, formed when the AIEE merged with the Institute of Radio Engineers. The Edison Medal recipients 1909 - 1922. need its honours and someone else may find it useful," he said. Pressed by Behrend for further explanation, Tesla said: "You propose to honour me with a medal which I could pin on my coat and strut for a vain hour before the members and guests of your Institute. You would bestow an outward semblance of honouring me but you would decorate my body and continue to let it starve, for failure to supply recognition, my mind and its creative products which have supplied the foundation upon which the major portion of your Institute exists. And when you would go through the vacuous pantomime of honouring Tesla you would not be honouring Tesla but Edison who had previously shaved unearned glory from every previous recipient of this medal." Despite his rancour, Tesla was cajoled into accepting the Medal. After all it could hardly be awarded to Edison. But the acceptance speech presented Tesla with something of a problem. When he had addressed the AIEE in 1888, he had a lab where he could prepare his demonstrations. Now he had none. Nor could he expect to equal the lectures he had taken on the road in the 1890s. He had no props. After a private dinner at the Engineers' Club, the medal winner was to give a formal address in the auditorium of the United Engineering Societies Building. However, as the members of the Institute assembled there, Tesla was nowhere to be seen. Behrend found him feeding the pigeons in the plaza of New York Public Library. As Behrend approached, Tesla had pigeons perched on his head, shoulders and arms, and he had a carpet of them pecking at seed around his feet. It was clear that the pigeons meant more to him than the members of AIEE. Behrend begged Tesla not to let him down. In the auditorium of the United Engineering Societies Building, Behrend said that Tesla had been taken temporarily unwell, but he was now okay and the proceedings would be delayed by about 20 minutes. When the presentation began Dr Arthur Kennelly from the Edison company said that Tesla was being awarded the Edison Medal for the development of rotating magnetic fields, which had made it possible to use AC in electric motors, and for his investigations into high-frequency currents. Charles A. Terry, who had worked with Tesla on some of his early research, ran through Tesla's achievements to date. Behrend followed up by pointing out that, by an extraordinary coincidence, Tesla had given the first lecture on polyphase AC there exactly 29 years earlier, adding: "Not since the appearance of Faraday's experimental researches in electricity has a great experimental truth been voiced so simply and so clearly as this description of Mr Tesla's great discovery of the generation and utilization of polyphase alternating currents. He left nothing to be done for those who followed him. His paper contained the skeleton even of the mathematical theory. Three years later, in 1891, there was given the first great demonstration, by Swiss engineers, of the transmission of power at 30,000 volts from Lauffen to Frankfurt by means of Mr Tesla's system. A few years later this was followed by the development of the Cataract Construction Company, under the presidency of our member, Edward D. Adams, and with the aid of the engineers of the Westinghouse Company. It is interesting to recall here tonight that in Lord Kelvin's report to Mr Adams, Lord Kelvin recommended the use of direct current for the development..." of power at Niagara Falls and for its transmission to Buffalo. The due appreciation or even enumeration of the results of Mr Tesla’s invention is neither practicable nor desirable at this moment. There is a time for all things. Suffice it to say that, were we to seize and to eliminate from our industrial world the results of Mr Tesla’s work, the wheels of industry would cease to turn, our electric cars and trains would stop, our towns would be dark, our mills would be dead and idle. Yet, so far-reaching is this work that it has become the warp and woof of industry... His name marks an epoch in the advance of electrical science. From that work has sprung a revolution in the electrical art.$^{17}$ Behrend then asked Tesla to accept the Medal, not for the purposes of perpetuating his name - ‘the name of Tesla runs no more risk of oblivion than does that of Faraday, or that of Edison’. Nor was the Medal evidence that Tesla’s work had received official sanction - ‘his work stands in no need of such sanction’.$^{18}$ No, Mr Tesla, we beg you to cherish this medal as a symbol of our gratitude for the new creative thought, the powerful impetus, akin to revolution, which you have given to our art and to our science. You have lived to see the work of your genius established. What shall a man desire more than this? There rings out to us a paraphrase of Pope’s lines on Newton: ‘Nature and Nature’s laws lay hid in night. God said, Let Tesla be, and all was light.’$^{19}$ TESLA’S ACCEPTANCE SPEECH Accepting the Edison Medal, Tesla said he was grateful for the sympathy and appreciation shown him. Great strides had been made in the transmission and transformation of energy, he said, but ‘we are pressing on, inspired with the hope and conviction that this is just the beginning, a forerunner of further and still greater accomplishments’.$^{20}$ He had not written an acceptance speech and spoke off the cuff, saying: I come from a very wiry and long-lived race. Some of my ancestors have been centenarians, and one of them lived 129 years. I am determined to keep up the record, and believe there is a prospect of accomplishing it. Then, nature has given me a vivid imagination which, through incessant exercise and training, through the study of scientific subjects, and the verification of theories through experiment, has become very accurate in results, so that I have been able to dispense, to a large extent, with the slow labours, wasteful and expensive processes of practical development of the ideas I conceive. It has made it possible for me to explore extended fields with great rapidity and get results with the least expenditure of vital energy. By this means, I may tell you also, I am able to picture the objects of my desires in forms so real and tangible that I can rid myself of that morbid craving for perishable possessions to which so many succumb. My life was also wonderful in another respect, for physical endurance or energy. If you inquire into the career of successful men in the inventor's profession, you will find, as a rule, that they are as remarkable for their physical as for their mental capacities... When I turned my thoughts to inventions, I found that I could visualize my conceptions with the greatest facility. I did not need any models and drawings or experiments, I could do it all in my mind, and I did. The way I unconsciously evolved what I considered a new method in materializing inventive concepts and ideas, is exactly opposed to the purely experimental method, of which undoubtedly Edison is the greatest and most successful exponent. The moment you construct a device to carry into practice a crude idea you will find that you will be engrossed with the details and effects of the apparatus. As you go on changing and constructing, you will lose the forces of concentration, and you will lose sight of the great underlying principle. You obtain results, but at the sacrifice of quality. I did not construct. When I got an idea, I started right away to build it up in my mind. I changed the structure, I made improvements, I experimented, and I ran the device in my mind. It is absolutely the same to me whether I place my turbine in my mind or have it in my shop actually running in my test. It makes no difference. The results are the same. In this way you see I can develop and perfect an invention without touching anything, and when I have gone so far that I have put into that device every possible improvement I can think of, that I can see no fault in it any more, I then construct it, and every time my device works as I conceived it would, my experiment comes out exactly as I plan it, and in 20 years there has not been a single, solitary experiment which did not come out exactly as I thought it would. ARTHUR E. KENNELLY (1861 – 1939) Born in India of Irish parents, Kennelly studied in London before going to work for Edison in New Jersey as a mathematician. With Harold P. Brown, he worked on the development of the electric chair. He also developed the use of complex numbers in analyzing AC circuits. In 1901, he noticed that Marconi’s signals arrived in Newfoundland in greater strength than expected and postulated that they had been reflected from an ionized layer in the upper reaches of the atmosphere predicted by English electrical-engineer Oliver Heaviside (1850 – 1925). This became known as the Kennelly-Heaviside layer. Professor of Electrical Engineering at Harvard, Kennelly served as president of the AIEE (1898 – 1900) and the Institute of Radio Engineers (1916). He was awarded the Edison Medal in 1933. I have received reports which have completely confounded me all the more as I am now doing important work for the government with a view of putting the plant to a special moment... I trust that you will appreciate the seriousness of the situation and will see that the property is taken good care of and that all apparatus is carefully preserved. Nikola Tesla¹ Tesla had signed over Wardenclyffe to the Waldorf-Astoria as he could not pay his hotel bill which had now reached $20,000 ($400,000 at today’s prices). However, he still hoped it would be returned when he raised the money to pay the bill, but the hotel management was determined to demolish the tower and sell off parts. Tesla’s response was to emphasize the tower’s usefulness in the event of war. It was, after all, home to his death ray and could shatter armies with its ‘Bolts of Thor’. Nevertheless, he was told that the demolition of the tower was to go ahead. With the US now in World War I, there would be no more money. As part of the war effort, Westinghouse, American Marconi and AT&T were allowed to pool their patents and produced each other’s equipment without compensating the original inventors. ‘A great wrong has been done,’ he wrote later, ‘but I am confident that justice will prevail.’ In July 1917, Tesla left the Waldorf-Astoria where he had lived for 20 years. After persuading the management to let him keep many of his personal effects in the basement, he took the train to Chicago where he planned to continue work on his bladeless turbines. There he moved into the Blackstone Hotel next door to the University of Chicago. The following month, Tesla received a letter from George Scherff, his secretary, telling him that explosives experts had placed charges on major struts of the tower at Wardenclyffe and had blown them up. SUSPICIONS OF ESPIONAGE Meanwhile the story was circulated that suspected German spies had been using the tower for radio communication. The Electrical Experimenter said: ‘Suspecting that German spies were using the big wireless tower erected at Shoreham, L.I., about 20 years ago by Nikola Tesla, the Federal Government ordered the tower destroyed and it was recently demolished with dynamite. During the past month several strangers had been seen lurking about the place.’ And the New York Sun gleefully reported: ‘The destruction of Nikola Tesla’s famous tower ... shows forcibly the great precautions being taken at this time to prevent any news of military importance getting to the enemy.’ Tesla was upset by the implication that he was disloyal to his new country. He had argued that the structure should have been preserved to help locate and destroy enemy submarines. If the tower had been destroyed to curb spying, Tesla pointed out that he should have been compensated by the government for the large amount of money he had put into it. As it was, he made no public protest when the US was at war. However, 2 years later he wrote that his dream had been destroyed by rivals, saying: I am unwilling to accord to some small-minded and jealous individuals the satisfaction of having thwarted my efforts. These men are to me nothing more than microbes of a nasty disease. My project was retarded by the laws of nature. The world was not prepared for it. It was too far ahead of time, but the same laws will prevail in the end and make it a triumphal success. TELEPHONY TAKES OVER With Tesla’s World Telegraphy Centre now in pieces, representatives of American Marconi, AT&T, Westinghouse and GE got together behind closed doors in Washington and formed RCA. At the end of the war, radio stations were returned to their rightful owners, favouring RCA. Using Marconi patents, Westinghouse set up independently. In 1920, Tesla wrote, offering his services. They were refused. However, a little later, Westinghouse wrote again, asking Tesla if he would like to broadcast to their ‘invisible audience’ one Thursday evening. Tesla replied that, 20 years earlier, he had promised his friend J.P. Morgan that his ‘world system’ would enable the voice of a telephone subscriber to be transmitted to any point on the globe. ‘I prefer to wait until my project is completed before addressing an invisible audience,’ he said proudly. THE SCIENCE FANTASY FACTOR Though Tesla’s tower was in ruins, the idea would live on. Before leaving New York, Tesla teamed up with long-term admirer Hugo Gernsback, the editor of Electrical Experimenter. He had met Tesla in 1908 when he visited his lab to see a bladeless turbine. Eleven years later, Gernsback recorded his impressions in Electrical Experimenter: The door opens and out steps a tall figure – over 6 ft high – gaunt but erect. It approaches slowly, stately. You become conscious at once that you are face-to-face with a personality of a high order. Nikola Tesla advances and shakes your hand with a powerful grip, surprising for a man over 60. A winning smile from piercing light blue-grey eyes, set in extraordinarily deep sockets, fascinates you and makes you feel at once at home. You are guided into an office immaculate in its orderliness. Not a speck of dust is to be seen. No papers litter the desk, everything just so. It reflects the man himself, immaculate in attire, orderly and precise in his every movement. Dressed in a dark frock coat, he is entirely devoid of all jewellery. No ring, stickpin, or even watch-chain can be seen. Tesla speaks – a very high almost falsetto voice. He speaks quickly and very convincingly. It is the man’s voice chiefly which fascinates you. As he speaks you find it difficult to take your eyes off his own. Only when he speaks to others do you have a chance to study his head, predominant of which is a very high forehead with a bulge between the eyes – the never-failing sign of an exceptional intelligence. Then the long, well-shaped nose, proclaiming the scientist. How does this man, who has accomplished such tremendous work, keep young and manage to surprise the world with more and more new inventions as he grows older? How does this youth of sixty, who is a professor of mathematics, a great mechanical and electrical engineer and the greatest inventor of all times, keep his physical as well as remarkable mental freshness? Gernsback employed the artist Frank R. Paul to show the world what Tesla’s tower would have looked liked if it had been completed. For the cover of the Electrical Experimenter Paul added transmitters and Tesla’s wingless flying machines zapping nearby ships with their death-rays. Tesla was so thrilled, he used the illustration as his letterhead. In 1919, Electrical Experimenter serialized Tesla’s autobiography My Inventions. This too was illustrated by Frank Paul’s drawing, along with photographs of the equipment. This boosted the circulation of the magazine to around 100,000 and provided Tesla a modest income. However, Tesla felt he had been underpaid and when Gernsback sought to put him on the cover of Electrical Experimenter again, Tesla refused, saying: ‘I appreciate your unusual intelligence and enterprise, but the trouble with you seems to be that you are thinking only of H. Gernsback first of all, once more, and then again.’ Nevertheless, Gernsback never stinted in his praise of Tesla, running his articles in several of his magazines. He even latched on to some of Tesla’s more outlandish ideas. While Tesla did not believe in extrasensory perception or mind-reading in the psychic sense, he did think it possible to read another person’s thoughts by attaching television equipment to their retina. Paul depicted this on the cover of Science Wonder Stories in October 1929 which showed two people wearing thought-reading helmets. THE CHICAGO YEARS Tesla stayed in Chicago until the end of World War I. He worked on his turbines at Pyle National. Again he refused a salary, hoping to make bigger profits from his inventions in the end. But earning nothing from his wireless patents, his only source of income was the Waltham Watch Company who were manufacturing a speedometer he had designed. THE BIG SHIP Tesla was still depending on his turbines to make him rich ‘within four months’, he told Jack Morgan before he left New York. ‘My big ship is still to come in,’ he said, ‘but I have a marvellous opportunity having perfected an invention that will astound the whole world.’$^{13}$ But he had yet to perfect it. The high rotational speed put too much stress on the discs which risked cracking. Various alloys were tried. However, the advantages of his turbine was obvious. ‘Suppose that the steam pressure of the locomotive would vary from say 50 to 200 pounds, no matter how rapidly,’ he wrote, ‘this would not have the slightest effect on the performance of the turbine.’$^{14}$ The US Machine Manufacturing Company asked about putting one in an aeroplane. The Chicago Pneumatic Tool Company also made enquiries. He told George Scherff that he was expecting to make $25 million a year from his turbines. All the while the debts kept piling up.$^{15}$ MADE IN MILWAUKEE Tesla finally succeeded in getting the Allis-Chalmers Manufacturing Company of Milwaukee interested. They made reciprocating engines, turbines and other heavy machinery. However, he displayed a lack of tactic and diplomacy that ruined the project from the outset. Insisting on entering negotiations with the senior staff, he went directly to the president of the company and, while his engineers were preparing a feasibility report, Tesla contacted the board of directors and sold them the idea before the engineers had had their say. Three of Tesla’s turbines were built. Two had 20 discs that were 18 inches (46 cm) in diameter. Tested with 80 pounds HUGO GERNSBACK (1884 – 1967) Born Hugo Gernsbacker in Luxembourg, Gernsback had heard of Tesla as a child. He studied electronics in Bingen Technicum in Germany, before emigrating to the US in 1903. He imported electronic components from Europe and, in 1908, founded the magazine Modern Electrics. The Electrical Experimenter followed in 1913 and Science and Invention in 1920. These magazines began to carry science-fiction stories, starting with his own RALPH 124C41+ set in the year 2660, which was serialized in Modern Electronics in 1911. He began the first dedicated science-fiction magazine, Amazing Stories, in 1926. Despite his reputation for dubious business practices, he continued to write and publish. The Hugo Awards, presented annually by the World Science Fiction Convention, were named after him and, in 1960, he received a special Hugo Award as the ‘Father of Magazine Science Fiction’. FRANK R. PAUL (1884 – 1963) One of the most influential science fiction illustrators of his time, Frank Paul was born in Austria and studied art in Vienna, Paris and New York. He was working as an illustrator on a rural newspaper when Gernsback employed him to work on Electrical Experimenter. He produced the cover illustration for Gernsback’s RALPH 124C41+ when it appeared in book form in 1925. He also worked for Amazing Stories, Science Wonder Stories, Planet Stories, Superworld Comics, Science Fiction magazine and Marvel Comics. Paul is credited with the first depiction of a flying saucer, a space ship and a space station. Frank R. Paul’s science fiction illustration of the Wardenclyffe Tower. pressure, they developed 200 horsepower at between 10,000 and 12,000 rpm. This had the same output as Tesla’s 1911 model with discs half the diameter when operating at 125 pounds pressure and 9,000 rpm. They also built a larger version.\textsuperscript{16} Hans Dahlstrand, consulting engineer of the steam turbine department, wrote a report saying: \textit{We also built a 500 kilowatt steam turbine to operate at 3,600 revolutions. The turbine rotor consisted of 15 disks 60 inches [152 cm] in diameter and one-eighth of an inch thick [3 mm]. The discs were placed approximately one-eighth inch apart. The unit was tested by connecting to a generator. The maximum mechanical efficiency obtained on this unit was approximately 38 per cent when operating at steam pressure of approximately 80 pounds absolute and a back pressure of approximately 3 pounds absolute and 100°F [38°C] superheat at the inlet. When the steam pressure was increased above that given the mechanical efficiency dropped, consequently the design of these turbines was of such a nature that in order to obtain maximum efficiency at high pressure, it would have been necessary to have more than one turbine in series.}\textsuperscript{17} Dahlstrand reported that difficulties were encountered in the Tesla turbine from vibration, making it necessary to re-enforce the discs, and that this difficulty is common to all turbines. Vibration cracked wheels and wrecked turbines, sometimes within a few hours and sometimes after years of operation. This vibration was caused by taking such terrific amounts of power from relatively light machinery. The Dahlstrand Report identified other problems: \textit{The efficiency of the small turbine units compares with the efficiency obtainable on small impulse turbines running at speeds where they can be directly connected to pumps and other machinery. It is obvious, therefore, that the small unit in order to obtain the same efficiency had to operate at from 10,000 to 12,000 revolutions and it would have been necessary to provide reduction gears between the steam turbine and the driven unit. Furthermore, the design of the Tesla turbine could not compete as far as manufacturing costs with the smaller type of impulse units. It is also questionable whether the rotor disks, because of light construction and high stress, would have lasted any length of time if operating continuously. The above remarks apply equally to the large turbine running at 3,600 revolutions. It was found when this unit was dismantled that the discs had distorted to a great extent and the opinion was that these discs would ultimately have failed if the unit had been operated for any length of time. The gas turbine was never constructed for the reason that the company was unable to obtain sufficient engineering information from Mr Tesla indicating even an approximate design that he had in mind.}\textsuperscript{18} \section{TERMINATING THE TURBINE} Tesla seems to have walked out at this stage. Later Tesla was asked why he stopped working with Allis-Chalmers. He said: ‘They would not build the turbines as I wished.’ But he would not elaborate. Allis-Chalmers went on to manufacture a different type of gas turbine that was in production for years.\textsuperscript{19} A number of engineers had tried to explain the failure of Tesla’s turbine. One expert said that, while being a fine concept and an excellent machine, it was not that much better than other designs. Another said that not enough money had been spent on research and development. Metallurgy was in its infancy and the instrumentation for measuring its performance had not been developed, nor had the magnetic bearing it would have needed to run efficiently.\textsuperscript{20} However, manufacturers have made pumps using Tesla’s principles and others have experimented with making the discs using advanced materials such as carbon fibre, titanium-impregnated plastic and Kevlar. In disappointment, Tesla returned to Colorado Springs where he conducted some experiments in the lab of the local engineering school and relived old times. After a sojourn at Waltham Watches in Boston, he worked on a petrol-powered turbine at Budd Manufacturing in Philadelphia. And he was not without his successes. He sold a motor that was used in cinema equipment to Wisconsin Electric and a ‘fluid diode’ to an oil company that was said to be ‘the only valving patent without moving parts’.\textsuperscript{21} Money began coming in, but never in the amounts that he over-optimistically predicted. Well, it is an obstacle, but I don’t think it is insurmountable. You see, one might get through some message such as 2 plus 2 equals 4, and go on repeating it until an answer came back signifying ‘Yes’, which would be one word. Mathematics must be the same throughout the physical universe. By sticking to mathematics over a number of years one might come to speech. It is certainly possible.\textsuperscript{22} Tesla said that he had little confidence in Marconi’s idea of trying to communicate with aliens using mathematics. He thought it would be better to send pictures by wireless - the human face, for example. \textit{The New York Times} was surely being sarcastic when it suggested that they follow up by sending movies. Perhaps it could even be a commercial enterprise. ‘With this beginning whole feature films can be sent by radio across the solar system and released on Mars on the night that sees their premiere on Broadway,’\textsuperscript{23} the paper said. In 1919, rocket-pioneer Robert Goddard (1882 – 1945) published \textit{A Method of Reaching Extreme Altitudes}, claiming that it would be possible to send things as far as the Moon. Tesla said that this scheme seemed far-fetched as the fuels then known did not have the necessary ‘explosive power’. He also doubted that any rocket could ‘operate at 459 [F] below zero - the temperature of interplanetary space’.\textsuperscript{24} \textbf{PLANET EARTH CALLING ...} Marconi moved onto Tesla’s patch again when he claimed to have detected radio signals coming from outside the atmosphere. Tesla pooh-poohed this, claiming that Marconi was only picking up signals from other terrestrial wireless operators. This could not have been the case with his own signals from Mars in 1899, he claimed, as there were no radio transmitters with a range of more than a few miles at that time. Nevertheless Robert Johnson wrote to Tesla pointing out that, once again, when Marconi had repeated one of his ideas, it was ‘no longer laughed at’. ‘Communication with intelligence on other stars? It may someday be possible,’ said Marconi. Language may be a problem, but Marconi said: fig. 2 PART FOUR DESCENT AND RE-ASSESSMENT I have been feeding pigeons, thousands of them, for years; thousands of them. But there was one pigeon, a beautiful bird, pure white with light grey tips on its wings; that one was different. It was a female. I would know that pigeon anywhere. No matter where I was, that pigeon would find me; when I wanted her I had only to wish and call her and she would come flying to me. She understood me and I understood her. I loved that pigeon. I loved her as a man loves a woman, and she loved me ... As long as I had her, there was a purpose in my life. Nikola Tesla¹ Back in New York, Tesla moved into the Hotel St Regis. Robert Johnson had been appointed ambassador to Italy, so his friends left for Rome. On his own, Tesla became more eccentric. He would circle the block three times before entering the hotel, avoiding stepping on the cracks in the sidewalk. And he was fanatical about cleanliness, except when it came to pigeons which he still fed outside the New York Public Library. Having given up the appetites of his youth, he now practised what he called ‘gastronomical frugality’ to which he owed his perpetual youth. According to Hugo Gernsback, Tesla believed that most people not only eat all of their bodily ills, but actually ate themselves to death by either consuming too much, or else by eating food that does not agree with them.$^2$ His daily menu consisted of: Breakfast: One to two pints of warm milk and a few eggs, prepared by himself.* Lunch: None whatsoever, as a rule. Dinner: Celery soup or similar, a single piece of meat or fowl, potatoes and one other vegetable, a glass of light wine. For dessert, perhaps a slice of cheese, and invariably a big raw apple. And that’s all.$^3$ While he ate very little, Tesla insisted that what he did eat must be of the highest quality. He was also an accomplished cook who invented a number of appetizing dishes. ‘His only vice is his generosity,’ said Gernsback. ‘The man who, by the ignorant onlooker has often been called an idle dreamer, has made over a million dollars out of his inventions - and spent them as quickly on new ones. But Tesla is an idealist of the highest order and to such men, money itself means but little.’$^4$ FILET MIGNON AND ROAST DUCK Tesla’s frugal diet in his later years is markedly different from his consumption in his heyday. Then at dinner he would enjoy thick steaks, preferably filet mignon,$^5$ and often two or three of them, though he never put on weight. He remained 10 stone (142 pounds or 64 kg), from 1888 to around 1926 except for a brief period of illness, when he lost 5 pounds (2 kg). Later he turned to lamb, ordering a roast saddle large enough to serve several people. He would eat only the central portion of the tenderloin. Another favourite was a crown of baby lamb chops, or duck roasted under a layer of celery stalks - a dish of his own invention. He would often supervise its cooking in the kitchen and it would be the centre-piece when entertaining friends. But Tesla would only eat the meat either side of the breast bone.$^6$ Gradually, he substituted boiled fish, then turned to a vegetarian diet. Throughout his life he drank milk and towards the end warm milk became the mainstay of his diet.$^7$ When he was young, he drank a lot of coffee. Although he decided it was bad for him, he had difficulty giving it up. So with each meal, he would order a pot of coffee so that he could smell the aroma. Eventually he went off the smell and gave up this practice. He had always avoided tea and cocoa, but, along with wine, he drank whisky. This, he believed, was responsible for the longevity of his ancestors and prolonged his own life. When Prohibition was introduced in 1919, Tesla denounced it, saying it was an intolerable infringement of the rights of an individual.$^8$ ‘It imposes restrictions on the most needed and harmless of stimulants,’ he said, ‘while permitting unlimited consumption of poisons by all classes, from childhood to old age.’$^9$ He admitted that he had consumed enough alcoholic beverages to ‘form a lake Nikola Tesla in 1920, aged 64. of no mean dimensions$^9$. But, being a law-abiding citizen, he gave it up, declaring that it was 6 months before he could digest a meal and that abstinence would reduce his life-expectation to 130 years.$^{10}$ ‘I feel sure that if everyone had done the same,’ he said, ‘millions of Americans would have shortened their life-span and thousands would have died in the first 2 years. A sudden change of diet or the omission of one of its important elements, especially in advanced years, is extremely dangerous.’$^{11}$ In later years, after the repeal of Prohibition, he would have a bottle of wine brought in an ice bucket, but not have it opened. It remained there purely to show that he could restrain himself from drinking. He had also been a heavy smoker in his youth, particularly enjoying cigars. However, when he was in his early twenties, one of his sisters fell ill. She said she could try to get better if he gave up smoking. She recovered and he never smoked again.$^{12}$ EXTREME GERM PHOBIA After studying microscopic organisms before he left Europe, Tesla developed a phobia about germs.$^{13}$ The washroom in his laboratory was private. No one else was allowed to use it. He would be impelled to wash his hands on the slightest pretext, insisting that his secretary provide a freshly laundered towel each time to dry them. He would also avoid shaking hands, usually keeping his hands clasped behind him in social situations. This led to embarrassment when visitors advanced proffering their hand. If Tesla was caught unawares and his hand was shaken, he would rush to the washroom at the first possible opportunity to scrub it, ignoring any business the visitor was there to conduct. And he found it particularly nauseating when workmen ate their lunch with dirty hands.$^{15}$ Hotel staff were kept at a distance of at least 3 feet. Head waiters grew used to his demand to be seated at a table that was not to be used by other customers. He needed a fresh table cloth with every meal and two dozen serviettes. The silverware had to be sterilized before it left the kitchen. Tesla would then pick each item up with a serviette, and polish it with another. Then he would drop both serviettes on the floor before attending to the next item of cutlery. And if a fly alighted on the table, he would insist that everything was removed from the table and the meal would start over.$^{16}$ He lived in hotels that could meet his meticulous standards and only employed assistants that were scrupulously clean. When he visited the barbers to have his half-hour scalp massage three times a week, he insisted on fresh towels on his chair, but strangely he did not object to being shaved using the same brush and shaving mug as the other customers.$^{17}$ STEPPING OUT IN STYLE To the end of his life, Tesla was a fastidious dresser. Well-cut clothes suited his tall, slim figure. ‘In the matter of clothes’, he observed, ‘the world takes a man at his own valuation.’ He wore white monogrammed silk shirts that had to withstand constant laundering. Collars and cuffs were discarded after a single use, as were handkerchiefs. Ties were replaced every week. Costing a dollar each, the only colours he would consider were red and black. They were tied in the old-fashioned, four-in-hand style. His pyjamas also had his initials embroidered on the left breast and his linen arrived freshly packaged. Except on formal occasions, Tesla wore high-laced shoes, possibly to give his ankles extra support because of his height. They extended halfway up his calves. He insisted on a long narrow shoe with a tapered, square toe which had to be handmade. His suits had waisted coats and he usually wore a black bowler or derby, which gave him an air of quiet elegance. He carried a cane and wore grey suede gloves. At $2.50 a pair, they were also replaced weekly, even if they were as clean as they had been when they came from the makers.$^{18}$ RESTLESS SLEEPING HABITS Tesla claimed that he usually slept for just 2 hours a night, 3 hours being too much. But he would go to bed at 5 am and get up at 10, the extra three hours rest, he maintained was for quiet contemplation. Once a year, he would sleep for the full 5 hours which, he said, gave him a tremendous reserve of energy. In this, he competed with Edison who claimed only to sleep 4 hours a night, though when he sat in his lab he would take two 3-hour naps a day. Tesla probably did the same. Hotel staff said that they often found him sitting transfixed and they found they could work around him in his home without disturbing him.$^{19}$ He took brisk walks to aid his concentration, but even then he was often in a dream. People who he knew quite well could walk past him, even though he appeared to be looking straight at them. In 1935, he said he was lucky not to have been killed while jaywalking in such a state.$^{20}$ Two years later, he was hit by a taxi and badly injured though, refusing to see a doctor he limped home. He had three cracked ribs and was confined to bed for 6 months. WARDENCLYFFE REVISITED Tesla still had not given up on Wardenclyffe and sued the Waldorf-Astoria over its destruction. He maintained that he had put up Wardenclyffe as collateral against the $20,000 he owed. They assumed that it was theirs. They had torn it down to sell for scrap and resell the land. Tesla, of course, was expecting to make $30,000 a day from Wardenclyffe if it was ever finished. If he then paid the $20,000, the experimental station would then be his again. In court he insisted that the Waldorf-Astoria were supposed to take care of it but, even before it had been torn down, they had allowed vandals to break in and steal expensive equipment. During the trial Tesla was to give a loving description of his lost palace. The attorney for the Waldorf-Astoria tried to block this testimony, but the judge let him go ahead. The building formed a square about 100 ft by 100 ft [30 by 30 m]. It was divided into four compartments, with an office and a machine shop and two very large areas ... The engines were located on one side and the boilers on the other side, and in the centre, the chimney rose. There were two 300-horsepower boilers surrounded by two 16,000-gallon water tanks. To the right of the boiler plant was one 400-horsepower Westinghouse engine and a smaller 35-kilowatt engine to drive the dynamo for the lighting. Along with them was the main switchboard that controlled the pumps and various compressors. Towards the road, on the railroad side, was the machine shop. That compartment was 100 ft by 35 ft [30 m by 10 m] with a door in the middle and it contained, I think eight lathes. Then there was the milling machine, a planer and shaper, a splinter, three drills, four motors, a grinder and a blacksmith's forge. Now, in the compartment opposite, there was contained the real expensive apparatus. There were two special glass cases where I kept historical apparatus which was exhibited and described in my lectures and scientific articles. There were at least a thousand bulbs and tubes each of which represented a certain phase of scientific development. Then there was also five large tanks, four of which contained special transformers created so as to transform the energy for the plant. They were about, I should say, 7 ft [2 m] high and about 5 ft by 5 ft [1.5 by 1.5 m] each, and were filled with special oil which we call transformer oil, to stand an electric tension of 60,000 volts. Then there was a fifth similar tank for special purposes. And there were my electric generating apparatus. That apparatus was precious because it could flash a message across the Atlantic, and yet it was built in 1894 or 1895.21 The Waldorf-Astoria’s attorney objected again, but the judge allowed Tesla to continue. Beyond the door of this compartment, there were to be condensers, what we call electric condensers, which would store the energy and then discharge and make it go around the world. Some of these condensers were in an advanced state of construction, and others were not. Then there was a very expensive piece of apparatus that the Westinghouse Company furnished me, only two of its kind have ever been constructed. It was developed by myself with their engineers. That was a steel tank which contained a very elaborate assemblage of coils, and elaborate regulating apparatus, and it was intended to give every imaginable regulation that I wanted in my measurements and control of energy.\textsuperscript{22} He went on to describe a special 100-horsepower motor equipped with elaborate devices for rectifying the alternating currents and sending them back to the condensers. On this apparatus alone, Tesla said he had spent thousands of dollars. ‘Then along the centre of the room I had a very precious piece of apparatus,’ he said. It was his remote-controlled boat. A BOLT FROM THE BLUE Asked whether that was all, Tesla replied: ‘Oh, no, nowhere near.’ And he went on to describe a series of cupboards that contained numerous devices that each represented a different phase in the development of his work. In the testing room there were other instruments, some of which had been given to him by Lord Kelvin. Tesla then described the tower with its expensive underground workings containing special apparatus for ‘gripping the earth’.\textsuperscript{23} The shaft, your honour, was first covered with timber and the inside with steel. In the centre of this there was a winding stairs going down and in the centre of the stairs was a big shaft through which the current was to pass, and this shaft was so figured in order to tell exactly where the nodal point is, so I could calculate exactly the size of the Earth or the diameter of the Earth and measure it exactly within + ft [1.2 m] with that machine. And then the real expensive work was to connect that central part with the earth, and there I had special machines rigged up which would push the iron pipes, one length after another, and I pushed, I think 16 of them, 300 ft [90 m]. The current through these pipes was to take hold of the earth. Now that was a very expensive part of the work, but it does not show on the tower, but it belongs to the tower. The primary purpose of the tower, your honour, was to telephone, to send the human voice and likeness around the globe. That was my discovery, that I announced in 1893, and now all the wireless plants are doing that. There is not another system being used. Then the idea was to reproduce this apparatus and connect it just with a central station and telephone office, so that you may pick up your telephone and if you wanted to talk to a subscriber in Australia you would simply call up that plant and that plant would connect you immediately. And I had contemplated to have press messages, stock quotations, pictures for the press and reproductions of signatures, cheques and everything transmitted from there.\textsuperscript{24} Tesla was asked whether he had any warning that the tower was going to be demolished. He replied, ‘No, sir. It came like a bolt from a blue sky…’\textsuperscript{25} Although the Waldorf-Astoria had not accounted for the machinery, they had sold off and destroyed property worth $350,000 to recoup $20,000, the judge found in favour of the hotel, who also had the last word: As a solace to the wild hopes of this dreamy inventor, if prior to that time he should grasp in his fingers any one of the castles in Spain which always were floating about in his dreams, and had be paid the board bills which he owed, this wild scrubby woodland, including the Tower of Babel thereon, would cheerfully have been reconveyed to him.\textsuperscript{26} LISTENING TO COMMUNIST OVERTURES The 1920 US Presidential Election was the first to be broadcast to a national audience - though Lee De Forest had announced the wrong winner to a small audience four years before. In Italy, Fascist leader Benito Mussolini (1883 - 1945) saluted Marconi. His national broadcasting system allowed the dictator to reach the entire Italian nation after he came to power in 1922. Meanwhile, Vladimir Illich Lenin (1870 - 1924), who had led the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia in 1917, made overtures to Tesla, asking him to come to the Soviet Union to build power stations and an AC distribution system. Tesla was also invited to speak at a meeting of the Friends of Soviet Russia in Springfield, Massachusetts, travelling there with Ivan Mashevkief from the Russian Workers Club of Manhattan. At the meeting, the organizers, a group of Italian radicals, addressed Tesla mysteriously as ‘Bettini’. According to an FBI agent at the event, Tesla ‘prophesied that Italy would soon adopt a communist form of government’. However, there is no evidence that he knew what he was getting himself into. Tesla took little interest in politics and he was, at best, naïve. WAITING FOR THE MIDNIGHT HOUR While commuting to Milwaukee, Tesla was paying $15 a day for room 1607 in the Hotel St Regis on Fifth Avenue. However, he neglected to pay for 7 months and was forced to move to the Hotel Marguery on Park Avenue and 48th Street. Fortunately this was still close to his night-time haunts, Grand Central Station and Bryant Park behind New York Public Library. He was spotted there one night, sporting his derby, cane and white gloves by the New York World: Midnight is the hour he chooses for his visits ... Tall, well-dressed, of dignified bearing, he whistles several times, a signal for the pigeons on the ledges of the building to flutter down about his feet. With a generous hand, the man scatters peanuts on the lawn from a bag. A proud man, yet humble in his charities — Nikola Tesla. HOW THIS MAN WORKED ... A young science journalist named Kenneth Swezey, once praised by Albert Einstein for his explanation of the Archimedes principle, sought out Tesla. While Swezey was only 19 and Tesla in his late sixties, they became firm friends for the rest of his life. According to Swezey, Tesla sometimes greeted him at the door stark naked, but insisted that Tesla was ‘absolutely celibate’. He confirmed that Tesla slept less than 2 hours a night, though he would occasionally doze to recharge his batteries. He would walk 8 to 10 miles a day and relax in a bathtub, though gone was the electric shower that bombarded him with cleansing particles. He would also clench and unclench his toes a hundred times each night to stimulate the brain cells. Swezey recalled: And how this man worked! I will tell you about a little episode ... I was sleeping in my room like one dead. It was three after midnight. Suddenly the telephone ring awakened me. Through my sleep I heard his voice, ‘Swezey, how are you, what are you doing?’ This was one of many conversations in which I did not succeed in participating. He spoke animatedly, with pauses [as he had worked] out a problem, comparing one theory to another, commenting: and when he felt he arrived at the solution, he suddenly closed the telephone. In 1926, Tesla moved to the Hotel Pennsylvania. There the ‘tall, thin, ascetic man’ was interviewed by Colliers magazine and he gave another of his predictions: This struggle of the human female toward sex equality will end in a new social order, with the human female as superior.\textsuperscript{31} Tesla forwarded his prediction to J.P. Morgan’s daughter Anne, who he had remained in touch with and was now an advocate for the women’s movement. \section{INTO THE REALMS OF THE FUTURE} It was around that time, Tesla retired. Miss Dorothy F. Skerritt, Tesla’s secretary until he closed his office at 70, described him at that age: As one approached Mr Tesla you beheld a tall, gaunt man. He appeared to be an almost divine being. When about 70, he stood erect, his extremely thin body immaculately and simply attired in clothing of a subdued colouring. Neither scarf pin nor ring adorned him. His bushy black hair was parted in the middle and brushed back briskly from his high broad forehead, deeply lined by his close concentration on scientific problems that stimulated and fascinated him. From under protruding eyebrows his deep-set, steel grey, soft, yet piercing eyes, seemed to read your innermost thoughts. As he waxed enthusiastic about fields to conquer and achievements to attain his face glowed with almost ethereal radiance, and his listeners were transported from the commonplaces of today to imaginative realms of the future. His genial smile and nobility of bearing always denoted the gentlemanly characteristics that were so ingrained in his soul.\textsuperscript{32} \section{TOO GREAT A SACRIFICE} In an interview with the \textit{New York World} in 1926, he said: ‘Sometimes I feel that by not marrying I made too great a sacrifice to my work, so I have decided to lavish all the affection of a man no longer young on the feathery tribe. I am satisfied if anything I do will live for posterity. But to care for those homeless, hungry or sick birds is the delights of my life. It is my only means of playing.’\textsuperscript{33} One particular pigeon was special to him. When he found it, it had a broken leg and wing. ‘Using my mechanical knowledge, I invented a device by which I supported its body in comfort in order to let the bones heal.’\textsuperscript{34} He kept the bird in his hotel suite and figured that it cost him more than $2,000 to heal her. It took a year-and-a-half before she was well again and, Tesla said, she was ‘one of the finest and prettiest birds I have ever seen’.\textsuperscript{35} \section{MY LIFE’S WORK WAS FINISHED ...} His love of that one pigeon and her death affected him profoundly. He told John J. O’Neill: When she was ill I knew, and understood; she came to my room and I stayed beside her for days. I nursed her back to health. That pigeon was the joy of my life. If she needed me, nothing else mattered. As long as I had her, there was a purpose in my life. Then one night as I was lying in my bed in the dark, solving problems, as usual, she flew in through the open window and stood on my desk. I knew she wanted me; she wanted to tell me something important so I got up and went to her. As I looked at her I knew she wanted to tell me – she was dying. And then, as I got her message, there came a light from her eyes – powerful beams of light … it was a real light, a powerful, dazzling, blinding light, a light more intense than I had ever produced by the most powerful lamps in my laboratory. When that pigeon died, something went out of my life. Up to that time I knew with a certainty that I would complete my work, no matter how ambitious my programme, but when that something went out of my life I knew my life’s work was finished.\textsuperscript{36} Nikola Tesla, in 1933, aged 77. I'm happy to hear that you are celebrating your 75th birthday, and that, as a successful pioneer in the field of high-frequency currents, you have been able to witness the wonderful development of this field of technology. I congratulate you on the magnificent success of your life's work. Albert Einstein While working on his petrol-powered turbine in Philadelphia in 1924-25, Tesla met John B. Flowers, an inspector of an aircraft factory. With development of his bladeless turbine reaching a dead end, Tesla returned to the idea of powering planes and cars remotely from large central power stations like the one he had tried to build at Wardenclyffe. In Tesla’s hotel suite, Flowers helped draft a proposal to test and implement Tesla’s Wireless Power System to present it to J. H. Dillinger, head of the Radio Laboratory at the Bureau of Standards in Washington, DC. Flowers told Dillinger that Tesla’s system would power a plane at any point around the world and that Tesla had already developed an oscillator to provide the power which he was willing to give to the American government if they agreed to build the plant. A meeting in Washington was arranged and Dillinger sent the proposal to physicist Harvey L. Curtis (1875-1956). The 10-page document outlined a plan to use standing waves to operate cars and planes. To demonstrate this, a sketch showed a balloon, standing in for the Earth, and a mechanical oscillator standing in for the electrical device: ... a mechanical oscillator arm was fastened to the tied opening of a rubber balloon 20 inches [50 cm] in diameter. The oscillator arm was operated with an electrical motor at 1,750 rpm by means of an eccentric on the motor shaft. The balloon hung free in the air. The rubber surface of the balloon represented the earth's conducting surface and the air inside its insulating interior. The waves were propagated in the rubber surface at the rate of 51 ft per second [15.5 m per second], the frequency of transmission was 29 cycles per second and the wavelength was 21 inches [53 cm]. The mechanical oscillator was used in place of Tesla’s electrical oscillator as it presents an almost perfect analogy. Standing or stationary waves of the rubber surface replace the electromagnetic waves of Tesla’s system. By the test of this analogue, the operation of Tesla’s system can be forecast. When the oscillator arm was set in motion by operating the motor, there were three standing waves having six loops on the Earth’s surface – all having the same amplitude of vibration! When the finger was pushed against one or more loops, all the loops were reduced in amplitude in the same proportion showing the ability to obtain all the power out at one or more points! The waves extended completely around the world and returned to the sending station. Curtis rejected the proposal as, with Tesla’s standing waves, there would be a concentration of energy at the nodes. But, as Curtis pointed out: The system proposed by Mr Flowers does not have this feature. He proposes to collect energy at any point ... some means would have to be devised for concentrating this energy and making it available. No such method has been proposed, and I do not think of any that would be feasible ... I do not know of any wireless apparatus of sufficient magnitude to warrant the expectation that power can be economically transmitted by radio methods. Faster than the Speed of Light Tesla denied that the electricity would be available only at the nodal points, advising that, in a hydraulic system, the pressure of the fluid is the same throughout. There was energy available at an electrical outlet even when nothing is plugged in. He explained that the oscillations would spread from his magnifying transmitter theoretically at an Born in Germany, Einstein completed his education in Switzerland and took a job in the patent office in Bern. It was there he realized that, if the speed of light was an absolute, Isaac Newton’s laws of motion must be rewritten to accommodate Maxwell’s equations. The result was his theory of special relativity, which he published in 1905. He then realized that this did not deal with acceleration or gravity. He combined those to make his theory of general relativity in 1915. This was confirmed by astronomical observation 4 years later and he was awarded the Nobel Prize for physics in 1921. In 1933, he emigrated to the United States, settling in Princeton. Einstein’s equation $E=mc^2$ predicts the possibility of making an atomic bomb. Fearing that Nazi Germany may well have been on their way to doing so, Einstein was persuaded to sign a letter to President Franklin D. Roosevelt warning him of the possibility. He spent the rest of his life trying to develop a unified field theory that would combine all the forces of motion into one theoretical framework. infinite speed, then slow down - at first very quickly, then at slower rate. After around 6,000 miles (9,500 km) they would travel at the speed of light. From there on it increases in speed, slowly at first, and then more rapidly, reaching the antipode with approximately an infinite velocity. The laws of motion can be expressed by stating that the waves on the terrestrial surface sweep in equal intervals of time over equal areas, but it must be understood that the current penetrates deep into the Earth and the effects produced on the receivers are the same as if the whole flow was confined to the Earth's axis joining the transmitter with the antipode. The mean surface speed is thus about 471,200 km per second [292,790 miles a second] – 57 per cent greater than that of the so-called Hertz waves.$^5$ There was a problem with this. James Clerk Maxwell’s equations predicted the speed of light at 186,000 miles a second (300,000 km a second). At first, it was assumed that this speed was relative to the background ether that electromagnetic radiation propagated through. But the Michelson–Morley experiment showed there was no such thing as ether. Einstein realized that this meant the speed of light was an absolute – and there was no such thing as a speed faster than light. Tesla railed against Einstein and relativity. He would not accept the concept of curved space, as predicted by Einstein’s theory of general relativity, either. But Einstein, with his Nobel Prize, was the new star in the scientific firmament. Tesla, Edison, who died in 1931, Bell, who died in 1922, and the Wright brothers, who died in 1912 and 1948, were old hat. BUSINESS AS USUAL* Despite the rejection of their plans in Washington, Flowers and Tesla went to Detroit to try and sell his ‘flying automobile’ to General Motors. Tesla also tried to sell his speedometer to Ford, but its high cost made it better suited to luxury cars. In Detroit, Tesla met his nephew Nicholas Trbojevich and there was an incident that became part of family lore. The two were going for a late snack in an expensive hotel. The head waiter suggested that they wait five minutes. Then the $5 cover charge would be lifted. This was in the middle of the Great Depression when $5 would feed a family for a week. But Tesla was not prepared to wait. When Trbojevich questioned his uncle over the matter of the cover charge, Tesla said: ‘I’ll never die rich unless the money comes in the door faster than I can shovel it out of the window.’$^6$ Tesla held talks with US Steel concerning installing his bladeless turbines on the exhaust from the blast furnaces, generating huge amounts of electricity. But, apparently, a test did not go ahead. Then in Buffalo, Tesla conducted some top-secret experiments. It was said that the petrol engine of a Pierce-Arrow sedan was replaced by an AC induction motor. A ‘power receiver’ using 12 vacuum tubes was set in the dashboard connected to a 6 ft (2 m) antenna.$^7$ There is other speculation that it was powered by a steam or petrol-driven turbine, but no physical evidence of either design has been found. While experimenters were using Tesla Coils to try and split the atom, Tesla himself was making more outlandish predictions, saying that all the machinery on Earth could be powered by cosmic rays. Unlimited quantities of power could be transmitted through wires or wirelessly from a central station to anywhere on the globe, --- Left: Albert Einstein in 1921, the year he won the Nobel Prize for physics. The man in the photograph is standing indoors, wearing a dark suit and tie. He has short, neatly combed hair and is looking down at his hands, which are clasped together in front of him. The background features a window with a curtain partially drawn, revealing some objects on a shelf behind him. The setting appears to be a room with a simple, classic decor. Tesla examining electrical apparatus in his laboratory. eliminating the need for coal, oil, gas or any other terrestrial energy source. Already the central source of energy on Earth was the Sun, he said, but the new source of power would not be turned off at night. HERALDING A NEW INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION With just five days to go to his 75th birthday, Tesla said that he would soon announce ‘by far the most important discovery’ of his long career. ‘It will throw light on many puzzling phenomena of the cosmos,’ he said, ‘and may prove also of great industrial value, particularly in creating a new and virtually unlimited market for steel.’ He said that he had been wonderfully fortunate in coming up with new ideas that he was sure would be remembered by posterity. He was confident that his rotating magnetic field, induction motor and wireless system would live on long after he was gone, but he still considered his latest discoveries the most important. They would mark a new departure in science, be of great practical values and inaugurate a new industrial revolution, he said. He had already succeeded in proving his theories by experimentation and, if the calculations based on them turned out to be true, the world would have a new source of energy in practically unlimited amounts, available at any point on the globe. But, again, he was tantalizingly vague when it came to the details: I can only say at this time that it will come from an entirely new and unsuspected source, and will be for all practical purposes constant, day and night, and at all times of the year. The apparatus for capturing the energy and transforming it will partake both mechanical and electrical features, and will be of ideal simplicity. At first the cost may be found too high, but this obstacle will be overcome. Moreover, the installment will be, so to speak, indestructible, and will continue to function for any length of time without additional expenditures. The press had heard such promises from Tesla before and wanted to know when he was going to make an official announcement of his new discoveries. But the great man was unwilling to be pinned down. These ideas had not come to him overnight, but as the result of intense study and experimentation for nearly 36 years. He said he was anxious to give the facts to the world as soon as possible, but wished to present them in a finished form. That may take a few months, or a few years, he said. All the energy that the Earth receives from all the suns and stars of the universe is only about one-quarter of one per cent of that which it receives directly from the Sun. Therefore, it would be incomparably more rational to harness the heat and light rays of the Sun than attempt to capture the insignificant energy of this radiation ... We can do it now, and we are doing it to a certain extent. But the tremendous handicap is found in the periodic character of this kind of energy supply. Many attempts have been made in this direction, but invariably it was found that the power was too expensive. DISMISSING ATOMIC ENERGY Having rejected Einstein’s theory of relativity, Tesla also dismissed the idea of atomic energy. ‘The idea of atomic energy is illusionary,’ he said, ‘but it has taken so powerful a hold on the minds that, although I have preached against it for 25 years, there still are some who believe it to be realizable.’ He claimed to have disintegrated atoms in his experiments with the high-potential vacuum tube he developed in 1896, which he considered one of his best inventions. He operated at a range of potentials from 4 million to 18 millions volts. More recently, he said, he had designed an apparatus that would work at 50 million volts, which should produce results of great scientific importance. ‘But as to atomic energy, my experimental observations have shown that the process of disintegration is not accompanied by a liberation of such energy as might be expected from present theories,’$^{13}$ he said. COSMIC RAYS AND BEYOND Tesla claims to have discovered cosmic rays while investigating X-rays and radioactivity in Colorado Springs in 1899, but his findings were in disagreement with theories advanced more recently: I have satisfied myself that the rays are not generated by the formation of new matter in space, a process which would be like water running up hill. Nor do they come to any appreciable amount from the stars. According to my investigations the Sun emits a radiation of such a penetrative power that it is virtually impossible to absorb it in lead or other substances. It has, furthermore, other extraordinary properties in regard to which I shall express myself at some future date. This ray, which I call the primary solar ray, gives rise to a secondary radiation by impact against the cosmic dust scattered through space. It is the secondary radiation which now is commonly called the cosmic rays, and comes, of course, equally from all directions in space.$^{14}$ He also dismissed the idea that radioactivity resulted from activity within radioactive substances. It was caused by rays emitted from the Sun. If radium could be screened effectively from this ray, it would cease to be radioactive, he said. He had also been designing rocket-ships that he said could attain speeds of nearly a mile a second – 3,600 miles an hour (5,793 km per hour) – through the rarefied medium above the stratosphere. Again, he hoped his rocket-ships would bring world peace: I anticipate that such machines will be of tremendous importance in international conflicts in the future. I foresee that in times not too distant wars between various countries will be carried on without a single combatant passing the border. At this very time it is possible to construct such infernal machines which will carry any desired quantity of poisoned gases and explosives, launch them against a target thousands of miles away and destroy a whole city. If wars are not done away with, we are bound to come eventually to this kind of warfare, because it is the most economical means of inflicting injury and striking terror in the hearts of enemies that ever has been imagined. Densely populated countries, like England and Japan, will be at a great disadvantage as compared with those embracing vast territories, such as the United States and Russia.\textsuperscript{15} Although some of Tesla’s ideas in later life can be dismissed as the ravings of a mad scientist, sometimes he shows remarkable prescience. \section{SENDING SIGNALS TO THE STARS} When \textit{Time} magazine put the ageing and eccentric inventor on their cover of the 20 July 1931 issue to celebrate his 75th birthday, Tesla did not disappoint. He told them of his new invention, the Tesla-scope, that he could use to signal to the stars, saying: \begin{quote} I think that nothing can be more important than interplanetary communication. It will certainly come some day, and the certitude that there are other human beings in the universe, working, suffering, struggling like ourselves, will produce a magic effect on mankind, and will form the foundation of a universal brotherhood that will last as long as humanity itself.\textsuperscript{16} \end{quote} Asked when this would happen, he said: ‘I have been leading a secluded life, one of continuous, concentrated thought and deep meditation. Naturally enough I have accumulated a great number of ideas. The question is whether my physical powers will be adequate to working them out and giving them to the world.’ He also claimed that with 15 million volts – ‘the highest ever used’ – he split atoms over and over again, but no energy was released. The \textit{Time} article carried several other amusing stories about Tesla. It said that he left the ‘swank’ Hotel St Regis after the maids complained that he kept four pet pigeons in his roll-top desk and that, while walking down an icy Fifth Avenue, ‘he slipped, threw himself into a flying somersault, landed on his feet, unperturbed kept on walking’. \textit{Time} reported more eccentricities: At the Hotel Governor Clinton where he now lives, if someone rings him up on the telephone or knocks at his door and he does not want to answer, he locks himself in the bathroom, turns the water loudly on. He is very sensitive to sensory stimuli. When he gets excited, blinding lights flash through his mind. He retreats to bed. A lifelong bachelor, habitually he goes to bed at 5.30 am, rises at 10.30 am. But he does not sleep the whole period. Proudly, yet almost plaintively, he explains: ‘I roll around and work on my problems.’\textsuperscript{17} \section{THE PLAUDITS OF PEERS} Birthday accolades flooded in. Over a hundred letters of congratulation were received from other scientists or inventors including Sir Oliver Lodge, Lee De Forest and Albert Einstein. Notably absent were birthday greetings from Marconi and Pupin. And none could match the tribute bestowed on Edison when he died 3 months later and the lights of New York were dimmed in reverence. Naturally, Tesla was full of new predictions. ‘I feel that we are nearing a period when the human mind will perform greater wonders than ever before,’ he said. ‘This is due to the continuous refinement of means and methods of observation and ever-increasing delicacy of our perception.’\textsuperscript{18} We were about to conquer nature, contact beings on other planets and transmit huge amounts of power vast distances. A reporter from The New York Times again asked when he was going to make his discovery public. ‘There was a trace of regret in his voice as he answered,’ said the paper, ‘and the look of a man who has work enough for centuries and only a few years to do it in.’$^{19}$ Tesla then quoted Goethe. ‘He had not read Goethe for 40 years, he said, and he quoted it from memory.$^{20}$ He was also at odds with the new ideas of quantum mechanics. ‘There is no chance in nature,’ he said, ‘although the modern theory of indeterminacy attempts to show scientifically that events are governed by chance. I positively deny that. The causes and effects, however complex, are intimately linked, and the result of all inferences must be inevitably fixed as by a mathematical formula.’$^{21}$ WAVES IN TIME AND SPACE He re-asserted that human beings were automatons completely under the control of external forces and he denied the existence of individuality, saying: It took me not less than 20 years to develop a faculty to trace every thought or act of mine to an external influence. We are just waves in time and space, changing continuously, and the illusion of individuality is produced through the concatenation of the rapidly succeeding phases of existence. What we define as likeness is merely the result of the symmetrical arrangement of molecules which compose our body.$^{22}$ He also denied the existence of the soul or spirit, saying they were merely expressions of the functions of the body. ‘These functions cease with death and so do soul and spirit,’ he said. ‘What humanity needs is ideals. Idealism is the force that will free us from material fetters.’$^{23}$ PHOTOGRAPHING THOUGHT At 77, Tesla told a journalist from the Kansas City Journal-Post that he expected soon to be able to photograph thoughts, explaining: In 1893, while engaged in certain investigations, I became convinced that a definite image formed in thought must, by reflex action, produce a corresponding image on the retina, which might possibly be read by suitable apparatus. This brought me to my system of television, which I announced at that time. My idea was to employ an artificial retina receiving the image of the object seen, an ‘optic nerve’ and another such retina at the place of reproduction. These two retinas were to be constructed after the fashion of a checkerboard with many separate little sections, and the so-called optic nerve was nothing more than a part of the earth. An invention of mine enables me to transmit simultaneously, and without any interference whatsoever, hundreds of thousands of distinct impulses through the ground just as though I had so many separate wires. I did not contemplate using any moving part – a scanning apparatus or a cathodic ray, which is a sort of moving device, the use of which I suggested in one of my lectures. Now if it be true that a thought reflects an image on the retina, it is a mere question of illuminating the same property and taking photographs, and then using the ordinary methods which are available to project the image on a screen. If this can be done successfully, then the objects imagined by a person would be clearly reflected on the screen as they are formed, and in this way every thought of the individual could be read. Our minds would then, indeed, be like open books.$^{24}$ As always, he claimed to have discovered a new source of power. He was not ready to go into details. He had to check his findings before they could be formally announced. But he had been working the underlying principles for many years. From the practical point of view, his generator would require a huge initial investment, but once a machine was installed it would work indefinitely and the cost of operation would be next to nothing. But this time he gave more details. The design was relatively simple - ‘just a big mass of steel, copper and aluminium, comprising a stationary and rotating part, peculiarly assembled’.25 The electricity would then be distributed long distances by his AC system which, he said, already distributed 30 million horsepower of waterpower, and there were projects then going on all over the world which would double that amount. ‘Unfortunately, there is not enough water power to satisfy the present needs,’ he said, ‘and everywhere inventors and engineers are endeavouring to unlock some additional store of energy.’26 THE FORMULA FOR A LONG LIFE In his eighth decade, Tesla still expected to live a long time and reflected on life and longevity. Quite early in life I set about disciplining myself, planning out a programme of living for what I considered the most sane and worthwhile life. Since I love my work above all things, it is only natural that I should wish to continue it until I die. I want no vacation – no surcease from my labours. If people would select a life work compatible with their temperaments, the sum total of happiness would be immeasurably increased in the world. Many are saddened and depressed by the brevity of life. What is the use of attempting to accomplish anything? they say. Life is so short. We may never live to see the completion of the task. Well, people could prolong their lives considerably if they would but make the effort. Human beings do so many things that pave the way to an early grave. Above: Tesla’s theoretical invention, the thought camera, projecting human thoughts onto a screen. First of all, we eat too much, but this we have heard said often before. And we eat the wrong kinds of foods and drink the wrong kinds of liquids. Most of the harm is done by overeating and under-exercising, which bring about toxic conditions in the body and make it impossible to throw off the accumulated poisons. My regime for the good life and my diet? Well, for one thing, I drink plenty of milk and water. Why overburden the bodies that serve us? I eat but two meals a day, and I avoid all acid-producing foods. Almost everyone eats too many peas and beans and other foods containing uric acid and other poisons. I partake liberally of fresh vegetables, fish and meat sparingly, and rarely. Fish is reputed as fine brain food, but has a very strong acid reaction, as it contains a great deal of phosphorus. Acidity is by far the worst enemy to fight off in old age. Potatoes are splendid, and should be eaten at least once a day. They contain valuable mineral salts and are neutralizing. I believe in plenty of exercise. I walk 8 or 10 miles every day, and never take a cab or other conveyances when I have the time to use leg power. I also exercise in my bath daily, for I think that this is of great importance. I take a warm bath, followed by a prolonged cold shower. Sleep? I scarcely ever sleep. I come of a long-lived family, but it is noted for its poor sleepers. I expect to match the records of my ancestors and live to be at least 100. My sleeplessness does not worry me. Sometimes I doze for an hour or so. Occasionally, however, once in a few months, I may sleep for 4 or 5 hours. Then I awaken virtually charged with energy, like a battery. Nothing can stop me after such a night. I feel great strength then. There is no doubt about it but that sleep is a restorer, a vitalizer, that it increases energy. But on the other hand, I do not think it is essential to one’s well being, particularly if one is habitually a poor sleeper. Today, at 77, as a result of a well-regulated life, sleeplessness notwithstanding, I have an excellent certificate of health. I never felt better in my life. I am energetic, strong, in full possession of all my mental faculties. In my prime I did not possess the energy I have today. And what is more, in solving my problems I use but a small part of the energy I possess, for I have learned how to conserve it. Because of my experience and knowledge gained through the years, my tasks are much lighter. Contrary to general belief, work comes easier for older people if they are in good health, because they have learned through years of practice how to arrive at a given place by the shortest path.$^{27}$ DEVELOPING THE DEATH RAY Tesla had inherited a deep hatred of war from his father. Throughout his life, he sought ways to end warfare. Short of that, he thought wars should be fought out between machines. His idea for a death ray began back in the 1890s when he produced a type of lamp which, with a beam of electrons, could vaporize zirconia or diamonds. And in 1915, he talked of beaming energy from Wardenclyffe, that would ‘paralyze or kill’. In World War I, British inventor Harry Grindell-Matthews claimed to have invented a ‘diabolical ray’ that could be used against zeppelins. In the early 1920s, both the British and the French governments showed an interest. In 1924, he went to New York where he met Hugo Gernsback and, probably, Tesla. However, Gernsback and Professor W. Severinghouse, a physicist from Columbia University, tried unsuccessfully to duplicate his findings. Not to be outdone, the Germans and the Soviets both claimed to have developed beams that could bring down planes. But, Tesla was not convinced. In 1934, he said: ‘It is impossible to develop such a ray. I worked on that idea for many years before my ignorance was dispelled and I became convinced that it could not be realized.’ He was working on something that he said was entirely different. ‘This new beam of mine consists of minute bullets moving at a terrific speed, and any amount of power desired can be transmitted by them. The whole plant is just a gun, but one which is incomparably superior to the present.’$^{28}$ The war clouds were gathering over Europe again and, on 11 July 1934, The New York Times carried the headline on its front page, reading: Tesla, at 78, Bares New ‘Death Beam’. Tesla said his new invention ‘will send concentrated beams of particles through the free air, of such tremendous energy that they will bring down a fleet of 10,000 enemy airplanes at a distance of 250 miles (400 km) from a defending nation’s borders and will cause armies of millions to drop dead in their tracks’.$^{29}$ The death beam would operate silently at distances as far as you could see with a telescope and limited only by the curvature of the Earth. It would be invisible and leave no marks beyond the evidence of its destruction. An army of a million men would be annihilated in a second and, even with the most powerful microscope, it would not be possible to see what had caused their deaths. It would also be the perfect defence against bombing. ‘The flying machine has completely demoralized the world,’ he wrote, ‘so much that in some cities, as London and Paris, people are in mortal fear of aerial bombing. The new means I have perfected afford absolute protection against this and other forms of attack.’$^{30}$ Tesla said that his death beam would make war impossible by offering every country an ‘invisible Chinese Wall, only a million times more impenetrable’.$^{31}$ It would make every nation impregnable to attack by aeroplanes or large invading armies. While making every nation safe from invasion, Tesla said they could not be used as offensive weapons as the death beam ‘could be generated only from large, stationary and immovable power plants, stationed in the manner of old-time forts at various strategic distances from each country’s border … they could not be moved for purposes of attack’. However, he admitted that smaller generating plants could be mounted on battleships with enough power to destroy incoming aircraft - re-establishing the superiority of the battleship over the aeroplane again. Submarines could also become obsolete, he said, as methods of detecting them had been perfected to the point where there was no point in submerging. Once a submarine had been located, the death beam could be employed as it would work underwater, though not as well as in air. Elsewhere he proclaimed that the battleship was doomed. ‘What happened to the armoured knight will also happen to the armoured vessel,’ he said. The money spent on battleships ‘should be directed in channels that will improve the welfare of the country’.$^{32}$ --- MANIFESTATIONS OF ENERGY The production of the death beam involved four new inventions of Tesla’s, though he would not provide details of these until they had been submitted to the proper scientific authorities. However, he said, the first invention was an apparatus for producing rays and ‘other manifestations of energy in free air’, eliminating the high vacuum necessary at present for the production of such rays and beams. The second was a new method for producing a very great electrical force. The third was a method for amplifying this and the fourth, he said, was ‘a new method for producing a tremendous electrical repelling force’. Again Tesla was looking at a potential of 50 million volts which would catapult microscopic particles of matter towards the target.$^{33}$ He reckoned that it would cost no more than $2 million and take only three months to build. ‘All my inventions are at the service of the United States government,’ he said. Should the government take him up on his offer, he said he would go to work at once and keep on going until he collapsed. However, he added: ‘I would have to insist on one condition - I would not suffer interference from any experts. They would have to trust me.’ In the New York Herald journalist Joseph Alsop described the progress Tesla was making developing his death ray: He illustrated the sort of thing that the particles will be by recalling an incident that occurred often enough when he was experimenting with a cathode tube. Then, sometimes, a particle larger than an electron, but still very tiny, would break off from the cathode, pass out of the tube and hit him. He said he could feel a sharp, stinging pain where it entered his body, and again at the place where it passed out. The particles in the beam of force, ammunition which the operators of the generating machine will have to supply, will travel far faster than such particles as broke off from the cathode, and they will travel in concentrations, he said. As Dr Tesla explained it, the tremendous speed of the particles will give them their destruction-dealing qualities. All but the thickest armoured surfaces confronting them would be melted through in an instant by the heat generated in the concussion. Such beams or rays of particles now known to science are composed always of fragments of atoms, whereas, according to Dr Tesla, his would be of microscopic dust of a suitable sort. The chief differentiation between his and the present rays would appear to be, however, that his are produced in free air instead of in a vacuum tube. The vacuum tube rays have been projected out into the air, but there they travel only a few inches, and they are capable only of causing burns or slight disintegration of objects which they strike. Tesla tried to get Jack Morgan to finance a prototype of his invention, but Morgan was unconvinced. He tried to deal directly with the British, to no avail. Frustrated, he sent an elaborate technical paper, including diagrams, to a number of nations including the US, Canada, Britain, France, the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia. Called ‘The New Art of Projecting Concentrated Non-Dispersive Energy Through Natural Media’, the paper provided the first technical description of a charged particle beam weapon. And it was not just fantasy. Tesla had solved one of the key problems of a death ray – how to operate a vacuum chamber with one end open to the atmosphere. He achieved this by directing a high-velocity stream of air at the tip of his gun to maintain ‘dynamic seal’. This would be provided by a large Tesla turbine. Interest came from the Soviet Union and, in 1937, Tesla presented a plan to the Amtorg Trading Corporation, in New York City, which handled trade with the Soviet Union. Two years later, in 1939, part of the prototype was tested in the USSR and Tesla received a payment of $25,000. But by then, the Soviet Union had allied itself with Nazi Germany. While Tesla’s death beam did not see the light of day in World War II, during the Cold War both the US and the Soviet Union worked on charged particle beams. RESEMBLING DR FRANKENSTEIN Tesla made a further move into science fiction when the 1931 horror classic Frankenstein used Tesla Coils to make lightning flashes. Much of the equipment used by Dr Frankenstein bears an uncanny resemblance to the apparatus Tesla invented for his experiments. Indeed, Tesla favoured the movie’s producer Carl Laemmle as he fought patent battles with Edison when establishing Universal Pictures. In 1935, one of Tesla’s electrical extravaganzas was filmed by a newsreel camera man and offered to Paramount, but they found the subject too technical. Nevertheless Hugo Gernsback and Frank Paul continued to use Tesla’s ideas in their sci-fi comics. Meanwhile Tesla went about work on his death ray in a secret laboratory under the Fifty-ninth Street Bridge. One of his other inventions of the period was a wooden birdcage, complete with birdbath. Western Union boys were despatched with these to rescue injured pigeons from around New York Public Library, Bryant Park and St Patrick’s Cathedral. Tesla also had ties with a Hungarian architect named Titus deBobula, possibly through the Puskás brothers. deBobula borrowed money from the inventor as early as 1900. In 1908, he married the niece of Pittsburgh steel magnate Charles Schwab (1862 - 1939). deBobula then designed and built Schwab’s new mansion and borrowed money from him for a number of real estate ventures. He offered to find the backing to rebuild Wardenclyffe, but deBobula’s ventures turned sour. He fell out with Schwab and became an anarchist. Back in Budapest, he joined a pro-Hitler group and Dr Frankenstein (Colin Clive) utilizes a Tesla Coil to reanimate the Monster (Boris Karloff) helped by his assistant Fritz (Dwight Frye) in Frankenstein (1931). wrote a paper denouncing ‘Jewish physics’ as the Nazis dubbed the new departures into relativity and quantum physics. Echoes of anti-Semitism can be found in Tesla’s attacks on Einstein. Returning to the US, deBobula designed a 120-ft (36-m) tower for Tesla’s death beam. However, his involvement with a munitions company run by a German-American brought him to the attention of the IRS and the FBI. When his apartment was searched it was found to be full of grenades, tear-gas bombs and dynamite. Tesla was furious when deBobula used his name in an arms deal with Paraguay. Questioned by the authorities, deBobula denied any ties to the Communist Party or the German-American Bund which supported Hitler. The FBI monitored his activities throughout World War II. Nothing was ever proved against him. However, Tesla was tainted by association.$^{42}$ REVIEWING HIS GREATEST INVENTIONS The following year Tesla was still full of wild and abstruse pronouncements. He invited some 30 journalists to a gourmet luncheon to celebrate his 79th birthday in the private dining room of the Hotel New Yorker, where he was then staying. He had been thrown out of the Hotel Pennsylvania in 1930, owing $2,000, when other patrons complained of the pigeon droppings. While the reporters feasted at his expense, Tesla did not even touch a glass of water. However, towards the end of the meal, he went and got a small bottle of pasteurized milk which he poured into a silver dish and heated on a small oil stove beside the table. The Hotel New Yorker then supplied a birthday cake with one candle for their honoured guest. Asked what was his greatest feat in the field of engineering, he said: ‘An apparatus by which mechanical energy can be transmitted to any part of the terrestrial globe.’$^{43}$ He called this discovery ‘tele-geodynamics’ and admitted that it would ‘appear almost preposterous’. However, it would give the world a new means of unfailing communication, provide a new and by far the safest means for guiding ships at sea and into port, furnish a ‘divining rod’ for locating any type of ore beneath the surface of the Earth, and give scientists a means of ‘laying bare the physical conditions of the Earth and enable them to determine all the Earth’s physical constants’.$^{44}$ The apparatus needed to do this, he said, was simple. It consisted of a stationary part and a cylinder of fine steel ‘floating’ in the air. He had, he said, discovered a means of ‘impressing on the floating part powerful impulses which react on the stationary part, and through the latter to transmit energy through the Earth’. To do this he had ‘found a new amplifier for a known type of energy’. The purpose was ‘to produce impulses through the Earth and then pick them up whenever needed’.$^{45}$ His second greatest invention, he said, ‘will be considered absolutely impossible by any competent electrical engineer’. It was a new method of producing direct current without a commutator - something, he said, ‘that has been considered impossible since the days of Faraday’.$^{46}$ ‘Incredible as it seems,’ he said, ‘I have found a solution for this old problem.’ Next he came to cosmic rays which, he said, were produced by the force of electrostatic repulsion and consisted of powerfully charged positive particles that come to Earth from the Sun and other stars. ‘After experimentation,’ he said, ‘the Sun is charged with an electrical potential of 215 billion volts, while the electric charge stored in the Sun amounted to around 50 billion billion electrostatic units.’$^{47}$ X-RAY VIEW OF LATEST APARTMENT DE LUXE ELECTRIC PIANO ELEC HEATED BLANKET ELEC ALARM CLOCK ELECTRICALLY ELEVATED DOOR REFRIGERATOR IN EVERY APARTMENT SOILED DISHES IN THIS BOX ELEC DUMBWAITER FOR CONVEYING FOOD FROM KITCHEN AND RETURNING SOILED DISHES HOT COLD ICE WATER CENTRAL KITCHEN CENTRAL DISHWASHING PLANT ELECTRIC DISHWASHER HALL DINING ROOM LIVING ROOM BATH ROOM KITCHEN PANTRY POTTERY BAY CONSUMPTION ELECT. GRAPH AND RADIO TELEPHONE VACUUM CLEANER OUTLET IN EACH ROOM ELECTRIC TABLE FOUNTAIN MULTIPLE ELECT. APPLIANCES CAN BE CONNECTED TO EACH TABLE TOP ELEC HEAT OR PAN ON NON FROSTING WINDOWS ELEC WINDOW OPENER MAIN ENTRANCE Again he dismissed the theory of relativity, describing it as ‘a mass of error and deceptive ideas violently opposed to the teachings of great men of science and even to common sense’. The theory wraps all these errors and fallacies and clothes them in magnificent mathematical garb which fascinates, dazzles and makes people blind to the underlying errors. The theory is like a beggar clothed in purple whom ignorant people take for a king. Its exponents are brilliant men, but they are metaphysicists rather than scientists. Not a single one of the relativity propositions has been proved. One of Tesla’s great bugbears with relativity was its prohibition of anything travelling faster than the speed of light, which upset his theories about standing waves and the wireless transmission of energy. He was adamant that, in his observations of cosmic rays, he had already discovered particles that travelled faster than light. In 1899, I obtained mathematical and experimental proofs that the Sun, and other heavenly bodies similarly conditioned, emit rays of great energy which consist of inconceivably small particles animated by velocities vastly exceeding that of light. So great is the penetrative power of these rays that they can traverse thousands of miles of solid matter with but slight diminution of velocity. In passing through space, which is filled with cosmic dust, they generated a secondary radiation of constant intensity, day and night, and pouring upon the earth equally from all directions. As the primary rays projected from the suns and stars can pass through distances measured in light-years without great diminution of velocity, it follows that whether a secondary ray is generated near a sun or at any distance from it, however great, its intensity is the same. As of yet, no one else has found particles that travel faster than light. However, neutrinos generated by the fusion reactions in the Sun do have the penetrative power Tesla mentioned. They were predicted by the Italian-born physicist Enrico Fermi (1901–54) in 1934, but not detected experimentally for another 20 years. Nevertheless in 1932, Tesla said that he had ‘harnessed the cosmic rays and caused them to operate a motive device’. Cosmic rays, he said, struck the atmosphere, ionizing the air and creating charged particles – ions and electrons. ‘These charges are captured in a condenser which is made to discharge through the circuit of a motor,’ he said. He also said that he had ‘hopes of building such a motor on a large scale’. However, by 1935, he was also telling the New York Herald Tribune that some day the Sun would explode. THE TESLA INSTITUTE In 1936, the Tesla Institute was opened in Belgrade, then the capital of Yugoslavia. A fully equipped research centre, it was funded by the Yugoslav government and private sources. A week of celebrations commemorating the great man’s 80th birthday followed. They occurred in Belgrade on 26, 27 and 28 May, in Zagreb, capital of Croatia, on 30 May and in his native village of Smiljan on 2 June, and again on 12 July 1936. What has the future in store for this strange being, born of a breath, of perishable tissue, yet Immortal, with his powers fearful and Divine? What magic will be wrought by him in the end? What is to be his greatest deed, his crowning achievement? Nikola Tesla¹ At 81, Tesla was honoured by both the Yugoslav and Czechoslovakian governments. He was awarded the Grand Cordon of the White Eagle, Yugoslavia’s highest honour bestowed by King Peter through his regent Prince Paul, and Czechoslovakia’s Order of the White Lion. These were presented at his birthday luncheon at the Hotel New Yorker. Meanwhile he was still making his birthday announcements of new discoveries to newspapermen. In 1937, he told them that he had perfected the principle of a new tube that would make it possible to smash atoms and produce cheap radium. He would give a demonstration of it in ‘only a little time’. He was expecting to put his discovery forward for France’s Pierre Guzman Prize of 100,000 francs (around €50,000). It was awarded by the Académie des Sciences to ‘the person of whatever nation who will find the means ... of communicating with a star and of receiving a response’. Tesla receives the Order of the White Lion from the Czechoslovakian government, 11 July 1937. The money, of course, is a trifling consideration, but for the great historical honour of being the first to achieve this miracle I would be almost willing to give my life. I am just as sure that prize will be awarded to me as if I already had it in my pocket. They have got to do it. It means it will be possible to convey several thousand units of horsepower to other planets, regardless of distance. This discovery of mine will be remembered when everything else I have done is covered in dust. [The Guzman Prize was finally awarded to the crew of Apollo 11 in 1969 after the first Moon landing.] His apparatus, Tesla said, employed more than three dozen of his own inventions. ‘It is absolutely developed,’ he said. ‘I wouldn’t be surer that I can transmit energy a hundred miles than I am of the fact that I can transmit energy a million miles up.’ It used a different kind of energy than was commonly employed which travels through a channel of ‘less than one-half of one-millionth of a centimetre’. ‘I could undertake a contract to manufacture the apparatus,’ he said. While he was certain that there was life on other planets, the problem with his equipment, he said, was hitting other moving planets with a needle-point of tremendous energy. But he thought that astronomers could help solve this problem. First they should aim this Tesla Ray at the Moon where they could easily see its effects – ‘the splash and the volatilization of matter’. He also imagined advanced thinkers living on other planets were experimenting in this field, mistaking Tesla energy rays for cosmic rays. On the practical front, he announced a new type of tube. His experiments had been rewarded with ‘complete success’ and he had ‘produced a tube which it will be hard to improve further’. It is of ideal simplicity, not subject to wear and can be operated at any potential, however high – even 100 million volts – that can be produced. It will carry heavy currents, transform any amount of energy within practical limits and it permits easy control and regulation of the same. I expect that this invention, when it becomes known, will be universally adopted in preference to other forms of tubes and that it will be the means of obtaining results undreamed of before. Among others, it will enable the production of cheap radium substitutes in any desired quantity and will be, in general, immediately more effective in the smashing of atoms and the transmutation of matter. However, this tube will not open up a way to utilize atomic or subatomic energy for power purposes. It will cheapen radium so that it will be just as cheap – well, it will get down to $1 a pound – in any quantity. Tesla was annoyed that some newspapers said he would be giving a full description of his invention at his birthday lunch. He could not release the information, he said, because he was bound by financial obligations involving ‘vast sums of money’. And this was not an idle boast, he insisted: ‘It is not an experiment. I have built, demonstrated and used it. Only a little time will pass before I can give it to the world.’ The New York Times, perhaps with tongue in cheek, went on to report that Dr Tesla entertained his guests with colourful personal reminiscences and observations including his opinions on dieting and immortality. Tesla being interviewed by reporters, 10 January 1935. MORE MONEY WORRIES Although Tesla’s mind was as fertile as ever, his financial situation continued to decline. When Hugo Gernsback showed him Westinghouse’s latest radio set, Tesla saw immediately that they were flagrantly infringing his wireless patents. He protested, but was in no position to fight a large corporation. Unable to pay his hotel bill, again, Tesla handed over the ‘working model’ of his death beam as collateral. It was worth, he said, $10,000. He also told Jack Morgan that the Russians were keen to buy his death beam to defend themselves against the Japanese. However, he already owed Morgan a great deal of money over his bladeless turbines and, despite filling his letters with attacks on Franklin Roosevelt’s ‘New Deal’ with Astor who Morgan hated, no money was forthcoming. Eventually, Westinghouse acknowledged Tesla’s contribution to the company and paid him $125 a month as a consulting engineer. They also came to an agreement with the Hotel New Yorker where Tesla lived rent free for the rest of his life. In his last years, the Yugoslav government also gave him an honorarium of $7,200 a year. This allowed him to give generous tips to those who had rendered him the slightest assistance and hand-outs, that he could ill-afford, to anyone he thought was in need.$^7$ TESLA’S LAST INTERVIEWS Tesla gave some of his last interviews to Nazi apologist George S. Viereck. Again he explained that he was not a believer in God in the conventional sense. Perhaps under Viereck’s influence, Tesla espoused eugenics – the forced sterilization of those thought to be mentally unfit – which were then being practised in the US as well as Nazi Germany. The year 2100 will see eugenics universally established. In past ages, the law governing the survival of the fittest roughly weeded out the less desirable strains. Then man’s new sense of pity began to interfere with the ruthless workings of nature. As a result, we continue to keep alive and to breed the unfit. The only method compatible with our notions of civilization and the race is to prevent the breeding of the unfit by sterilization and the deliberate guidance of the mating instinct. Several European countries and a number of states of the American Union sterilize the criminal and the insane. This is not sufficient. The trend of opinion among eugenicists is that we must make marriage more difficult. Certainly no one who is not a desirable parent should be permitted to produce progeny. A century from now it will no more occur to a normal person to mate with a person eugenically unfit than to marry a habitual criminal.$^8$ Although at the time, the environment was hardly on the agenda, Tesla told Viereck: Hygiene, physical culture will be recognized branches of education and government. The Secretary of Hygiene or Physical Culture will be far more important in the cabinet of the President of the United States who holds office in the year 2035 than the Secretary of War. The pollution of our beaches such as exists today around New York City will seem as unthinkable to our children and grandchildren as life without plumbing seems to us. Our water supply will be far more carefully supervised, and only a lunatic will drink unsterilized water.$^9$ He looked forward to a time where science and education would be more important than war: Today the most civilized countries of the world spend a maximum of their income on war and a minimum on education. The 21st century will reverse this order. It will be more glorious to fight against ignorance than to die on the field of battle. The discovery of a new scientific truth will be more important than the squabbles of diplomats. Even the newspapers of our own day are beginning to treat scientific discoveries and the creation of fresh philosophical concepts as news. The newspapers of the 21st century will give a mere ‘stick’ in the back pages to accounts of crime or political controversies, but will headline on the front pages the proclamation of a new scientific hypothesis.$^{10}$ Now gaunt from his meagre diet, he had clear views on the future of food: More people die or grow sick from polluted water than from coffee, tea, tobacco, and other stimulants. I myself eschew all stimulants. I also practically abstain from meat. I am convinced that within a century, coffee, tea, and tobacco will no longer be in vogue. Alcohol, however, will still be used. It is not a stimulant but a veritable elixir of life. The abolition of stimulants will not come about forcibly. It will simply be no longer fashionable to poison the system with harmful ingredients. [Bodybuilder] Bernarr Macfadden has shown how it is possible to provide palatable food based upon natural products such as milk, honey, and wheat. I believe that the food which is served today in his penny restaurants will be the basis of epicurean meals in the smartest banquet halls of the 21st century. There will be enough wheat and wheat products to feed the entire world, including the teeming millions of China and India, now chronically on the verge of starvation. The earth is bountiful, and where her bounty fails, nitrogen drawn from the air will fertilize her womb. I developed a process for this purpose in 1900. It was perfected 14 years later under the stress of war by German chemists.$^{11}$ After subsisting on a diet of bread, warm milk and what he called ‘Factor Actus’, Tesla gave up solid food altogether, living on thin gruel of cauliflower, leeks, cabbage, turnips and lettuce. But he was still strong enough to make predictions. Then, in his last days, he lived on milk and honey, believing them to be the purest foods. Nevertheless, the future looked bright: Long before the next century dawns, systematic reforestation and the scientific management of natural resources will have made an end of all devastating droughts, forest fires, and floods. The universal utilization of water power and its long-distance transmission will supply every household with cheap power and will dispense with the necessity of burning fuel. The struggle for existence being lessened, there should be development along ideal rather than material lines.$^{12}$ What’s more, the work would be done by robots, something Tesla had been working on for nearly 40 years. At present we suffer from the derangement of our civilization because we have not yet completely adjusted ourselves to the machine age. The solution of our problems does not lie in destroying but in mastering the machine. Innumerable activities still performed by human hands today will be performed by automatons. At this very moment scientists working in the laboratories of American universities are attempting to create what has been described as a ‘thinking machine’. I anticipated this development. I actually constructed ‘robots’. Today the robot is an accepted fact, but the principle has not been pushed far enough. In the 21st century the robot will take the place which slave labour occupied in ancient civilization. There is no reason at all why most of this should not come to pass in less than a century, freeing mankind to pursue its higher aspirations.$^{13}$ One of Tesla’s more unusual friends towards the end of his life was the poet and author George Sylvester Viereck. Born in Munich, he was thought to have been the illegitimate grandson of Kaiser Wilhelm I, an idea he encouraged. He emigrated to the US with his family in 1896 and published his first book of poetry Gedichte in 1904 while still a student at the College of the City of New York. It received some favourable critical attention and he quickly built a reputation. But then came World War I. He said: ‘In spite of my staunch support of the American war effort, I was decried as an isolationist and a pro-German. I was boycotted by the war party. Five celebrated authors banded themselves together under the slogan, Never Again Viereck. My verse was dropped from anthologies and my name from Who’s Who in America. I was expelled from the Poetry Society of America which owed its existence largely to my efforts and from the Author’s League. I was now a poet without a licence.’$^{14}$ He then laboured to build a reputation as a novelist and, as a journalist, interviewed Sigmund Freud, George Bernard Shaw, Mussolini, Hindenburg, Grand Duke Alexander of Russia, Einstein, Henry Ford and, of course, Tesla. With the advent of World War II, he was again thought to be pro-German. This time with good reason. He was found to have accepted money from the Nazi Party to spread propaganda in the US and was jailed. After the war, his memoir of his prison experiences Men Into Beast sold well, but he never regained his literary reputation. Tesla knew all his poems by heart. Another of the dinner guests Tesla met at Viercek’s house on Riverside Drive was the attorney Elmer Gertz. He was a friend of the poet Carl Sandburg (1878 – 1967) and the biographer and agent of British journalist and voluptuary Frank Harris (1856 – 1931). He also defended the work of American writer Henry Miller (1891 – 1980) in obscenity trials, murderer Nathan Leopold (1904 – 71) in the 1924 Leopold and Loeb case and club owner Jack Ruby (1911 – 67) who murdered President Kennedy’s assassin Lee Harvey Oswald (1939 – 63). He was impressed that he had seen Tesla in the same house as novelist Sinclair Lewis (1885 – 1951), Einstein and countless others. He said: ‘In a communicative mood, Tesla told his life story unostentatiously, simply, with quiet eloquence. He told of his platonic affairs of the heart … explained the inventions that have made the world his debtor … and told of his plans, of his credo, of his foibles. It was a tale of wonder, told with guileless simplicity.’ WORLD WAR II Tesla was growing feeble, but with the help of his nephew Sava Kosanovic he wrote a foreword to a Serbo-Croat edition of The Future of the Common Man by the then Vice-President Henry Wallace (1888 – 1965). In it, he said: ‘Out of this war, the greatest since the beginning of history, a new world must be born that would justify the sacrifices offered by humanity, where there will be no humiliation of the poor by the violence of the rich; where the products of intellect, science and art will serve society for the betterment and beautification of life, and not the individuals for achieving wealth. This new world shall be a world of free men and free nations, equal in dignity and respect.’ While the regent of Yugoslavia, Prince Paul (1893 – 1976), sought to make a treaty with the Nazis, King Peter (1923 – 70) opposed it. When he came of age at 17, Germany invaded and the king went into exile. Sava Kosanovic went with him. However, he began to favour the Communist guerrilla leader Josip Broz Tito (1892 – 1980), who the British and Americans were also reluctantly backing. However, in the US, Kosanovic brought King Peter to Tesla’s hotel. In his diary King Peter wrote: I visited Dr Nikola Tesla, the world-famous Yugoslav-American scientist, in his apartment in the Hotel New Yorker. After I had greeted him the aged scientist said: ‘It is my greatest honour. I am glad you are in your youth, and I am content that you will be a great ruler. I believe I will live until you come back to a free Yugoslavia. From your father you have received his last words: “Guard Yugoslavia.” I am proud to be a Serbian and a Yugoslav. Our people cannot perish. Preserve the unity of all Yugoslavs – the Serbs, the Croats and the Slovenes.’\textsuperscript{17} The two of them wept over the fate of their homeland. GENEROUS TO THE END Although Tesla was dogged by his own financial problems, he was generous to the end. A few days before he died, he called one of his favourite messenger boys, a lad named Kerrigan, and gave him an envelope, addressed to: \textit{Mr Samuel Clemens, 35 South Fifth Avenue, New York City}. He told him it was to be delivered as quickly as possible. After a while the boy returned, saying that there was no such street as South Fifth Avenue. Tesla was furious. Mr Clemens was a very famous author who wrote under the name of Mark Twain, he told Kerrigan, and the address he had given was correct. Kerrigan tried again. And when he had no luck he reported to his office manager, who quickly spotted the boy’s difficulty. South Fifth Avenue had changed its name to West Broadway years before and Mark Twain had been dead over 30 years. The address Tesla had given him was that of his laboratory that had burnt down. Kerrigan returned to Tesla to explain his difficulties. Tesla was outraged when the boy told him that Mark Twain was dead. ‘He was in my room here last night,’ Tesla insisted. ‘He is having financial difficulties and needs my help.’ And he sent the boy to deliver the envelope again. Confused Kerrigan returned to his manager who opened the envelope to see whether it contained any clue to where it should be delivered. All that was inside was a blank piece of paper and $100 in $5 bills. When Kerrigan returned the envelope to Tesla yet again, the inventor told him that, if he could not deliver the money, he should keep it.\textsuperscript{18} At the same time, while Tesla could not pay the $297 for his possessions that were being kept in storage, he sent a cheque for $500 to a Serbian Church in Gary, Indiana. Tesla’s biographer John J. O’Neill saw an advertisement for Tesla’s possessions that were being sold off by the storage company to cover the bill and contacted the inventor’s nephew Sava Kosanovic who paid the bill, preventing the loss of Tesla’s priceless papers.\textsuperscript{19} THE SLIGHT HINT OF A SMILE During the latter part of 1942, Tesla became practically a recluse. Physically weak, he retired to bed and permitted no visitors. Hotel staff were not to visit his room unless he summoned them and he refused to listen to any suggestion that they call a doctor. On 5 January 1943, he called a maid to his room and issued orders that he was not to be disturbed. Nothing was heard from him for three days. Finally the maid decided to risk his wrath and check up on him. She entered the room in trepidation and found him dead, with the slight hint of a smile on his gaunt face. As he had died alone without medical attention, the police were called. The Medical Examiner put the time of death as 10.30 pm on Thursday 7 January, just a few hours before the maid’s early morning visit. Tesla had died in his sleep. The cause of death was given as coronary thrombosis and the Medical Examiner noted that there were ‘No suspicious circumstances.’\textsuperscript{20} Agents from the FBI came to open the safe in Tesla’s room and read his papers FRAGMENTS OF OLYMPIAN GOSSIP Under the influence of Viereck, Tesla, who was always competitive, wrote a poem called Fragments of Olympian Gossip, poking fun at the scientific establishment: While listening on my cosmic phone I caught words from the Olympus blown. A newcomer was shown around; That much I could guess, aided by sound. There’s Archimedes with his lever Still busy on problems as ever. Says: matter and force are transmutable And wrong the laws you thought immutable. Below, on Earth, they work at full blast And news are coming in thick and fast. The latest tells of a cosmic gun. To be pelted is very poor fun. We are wary with so much at stake, Those beggars are a pest – no mistake. Too bad, Sir Isaac, they dimmed your renown And turned your great science upside down. Now a long haired crank, Einstein by name, Puts on your high teaching all the blame. Says: matter and force are transmutable And wrong the laws you thought immutable. I am much too ignorant, my son, For grasping schemes so finely spun. My followers are of stronger mind And I am content to stay behind, Perhaps I failed, but I did my best, These masters of mine may do the rest. Come, Kelvin, I have finished my cup. When is your friend Tesla coming up. Oh, quoth Kelvin, he is always late, It would be useless to remonstrate. Then silence – shuffle of soft slippered feet – I knock and – the bedlam of the street. At the age of 14, Armstrong read of the achievements of Marconi and set about building wireless equipment in the attic of his family home in New York. He studied under Pupin at Columbia, where he developed the regenerative, or feedback, circuit using De Forest’s Audion tube. This increased the amplification a thousand-fold. Signals that could barely be distinguished through headphones could now be heard across the room. At its highest amplification, the circuit became an oscillator that generated radio waves and became the basis of radio and television broadcasting. However, Armstrong was challenged by De Forest in a series of patent suits which dragged on for 14 years. In the army during World War I, Armstrong improved Fessenden’s heterodyne circuit to make the superheterodyne circuit, which again greatly improved the sensitivity and stability of radio signals that underlies nearly all radio, radar and television reception over the airwaves. He sold the patents to Westinghouse, which made him, briefly, a millionaire, and he married Marion MacInnis, secretary to David Sarnoff, then general manager of RCA. Armstrong went on to invent FM, or frequency modulation. By modulating the frequency of the signal rather than its amplitude, or strength, as in AM, high-fidelity broadcasting became possible. But the well established AM broadcasters were resistant. Armstrong had to spend $300,000 on building an FM station to prove its worth. After World War II, Armstrong began a patent-infringement suit against RCA who had adopted FM for television. Impoverished by litigation, Armstrong jumped to his death from a 13th storey window. in case there was anything in them that might aid the war effort. However, Hugo Gernsback, Kenneth Swezey, Sava Kosanovic and George Clark of RCA had already entered the apartment. While Gernsback went to organize a death mask, the other three had the safe opened by a locksmith with representatives of the hotel management present. The FBI said that valuable papers were taken. However, the hotel management said that Kosanovic only took three pictures and Swezey took the testimonial book created for Tesla’s 75th birthday. However, Kosanovic was sure that someone had already gone through his uncle’s effects. Technical papers were missing, along with a black notebook he knew that Tesla kept. It contained several hundred pages of notes, some of which were marked ‘government’. STATE FUNERAL The Yugoslav ambassador Dr Constantin Fotitch laid on a state funeral for Tesla at the Cathedral of St John the Divine. Over 2,000 mourners were present, including other inventors. While the church was Episcopalian, the service was Orthodox and conducted in Serbian. The honorary pallbearers included Dr Ernst Alexanderson of General Electric who patented a high-frequency transmitter, Edwin Armstrong, father of FM radio, Gano Dunn, president of J.G. White Engineering who had been Tesla’s assistant at his ground-breaking lecture at Columbia, and representatives from Westinghouse, Columbia University and the Hayden Planetarium where Tesla would often go to meditate. A number of Yugoslav ministers were there. King Peter II of Yugoslavia sent a wreath and the chief mourner was Tesla’s nephew Sava Kosanovic, who was by then president of the Eastern and Central European Planning Board, representing Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, Poland and Greece. Later he became Yugoslav ambassador to the US. Scientists paid tribute to his intellect and technological achievements, and telegrams of condolence came from Nobel Prize winners, prominent scientists, literary figures and US officials. A message from Mrs Eleanor Roosevelt read: ‘The President and I are deeply sorry to hear of the death of Mr Nikola Tesla. We are grateful for his contribution to science and industry and to this country.’ Vice-President Henry Wallace paid a more personal tribute: ‘Nikola Tesla, Yugoslav born, so lived his life as to make it an outstanding example of that power that makes the United States not merely an English-speaking nation but a nation with universal appeal. In Nikola Tesla’s death the common man loses one of his best friends.’ Over the radio New York Mayor Fiorello La Guardia (1882 – 1947) read a eulogy written by Slovene author Louis Adamic. After the service, Tesla’s body was taken to Ferncliff Cemetery in Ardsley, New York, and was later cremated. TRIBUTES TO TESLA Tesla had always been loved by the popular press for his shocking experiments and outrageous pronouncements. On his death, the New York Sun wrote: Mr Tesla was 86 years old when he died. He died alone. He was an eccentric, whatever that means. A non-conformist, possibly. At any rate, he would leave his experiments and go for a time to feed the silly and inconsequential pigeons in Herald Square. He delighted in talking nonsense; or was it? Granting that he was a difficult man to deal with, and that sometimes his predictions would affront the ordinary human’s intelligence, here, still, was an extraordinary man of genius. must have been. He was seeing a glimpse into that confused and mysterious frontier which divides the known and the unknown ... But today we do know that Tesla, the ostensibly foolish old gentleman at times was trying with superb intelligence to find the answers. Probably we shall appreciate him better a few million years from now.\textsuperscript{28} More tributes came rolling in. Hugo Gernsback wrote: ‘We cannot know, but it may be that a long time from now, when patterns have changed, the critics will take a view of history. They will bracket Tesla with Da Vinci, or with our own Mr Franklin ... One thing is sure. The world, as we run it today, did not appreciate his peculiar greatness.’\textsuperscript{29} The President of RCA David Sarnoff said: ‘Nikola Tesla’s achievements in electrical science are monuments that symbolize America as a land of freedom and opportunity ... His novel ideas of getting the ether in vibration put him on the frontier of wireless. Tesla’s mind was a human dynamo that whirled to benefit mankind.’\textsuperscript{30} Edwin Armstrong, who went on to sue RCA for infringing his patents, said: Who today can read a copy of \textit{The Inventions, Researches and Writings of Nikola Tesla}, published before the turn-of-the-century, without being fascinated by the beauty of the experiments described and struck with admiration for Tesla’s extraordinary insight into the nature of the phenomena with which he was dealing? Who now can realize the difficulties he must have had to overcome in those early days? But one can imagine the inspirational effect of the book 40 years ago on a boy about to decide to study the electrical art. Its effect was both profound and decisive.\textsuperscript{31} Nine months after Tesla’s death the USS \textit{Nikola Tesla} – a Liberty ship, vital to the Allied war effort – was launched in Baltimore.\textsuperscript{32} THE MISSING PAPERS The papers from the safe in Tesla’s room were lodged with the Office of Alien Property. This was unusual as Tesla was a US citizen. The day after Tesla died Abraham N. Spanel, the designer of floating pontoon stretchers, got in touch with FBI agent Fredrich Cornels about the Tesla papers, fearing that, via Kosanovic, they might fall into Communist hands. Before he had started the International Latex Company of Dover, Delaware (who later made space suits), Spanel had worked as an electrical engineer and considered that some of Tesla’s unmade inventions might play a vital role in the war. He made waves in high places, contacting others in the White House and the FBI. Spanel also got in touch with the young electrical engineer Bloyce Fitzgerald who had also contacted Cornels. Fitzgerald had been writing to Tesla for some time. Finally he got to meet Tesla just a few weeks before his death. At the time, Fitzgerald was at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology working on the ‘dissipation of energy from rapid-fire weapons’. Around the same time Tesla had complained that someone had been trying to steal his invention. His room had been entered and his papers examined, but ‘the spies had left empty handed,’ he said. Fitzgerald told Cornels that, among Tesla’s papers, were complete plans for his death beam, along with specifications and explanations of how the thing worked. There was also ‘a working model ... which cost more than $10,000 to build in a safety deposit box of Tesla’s at the Governor Clinton Hotel’. Charles Hausler, one of Tesla’s pigeon handlers, also said that Tesla kept a large box in his room near his pigeon cages. ‘He told me to be very careful not to disturb the box as it contained something that could destroy an airplane in the sky and he had hopes of presenting it to the world,’ Hausler said. Nikola Tesla in 1943, aged 87. Probably the last photograph taken before his death. TRUNKS FULL OF ALIEN PROPERTY According to Fitzgerald, Tesla had claimed that he had some 80 trunks in various places around the city. It was vital for the war effort that the government get their hands on the Tesla papers. He also expressed doubts about the loyalty of nephews Sava Kosanovic and Nicholas Trbojevich. There was even talk of having Kosanovic and Swezey arrested for theft, but as the papers were now with the Office of Alien Property, this seemed unnecessary. Cornels’ boss P.E. Foxworth, assistant director of the New York FBI office, was called in to investigate. The government, he said, was ‘vitally interested’ in preserving Tesla’s papers. The legality of the OAP holding onto Tesla’s papers was questionable. Although legal title had fallen to Kosanovic, who was a foreigner, the government agency was not permitted to seize ‘enemy assets’ without a court order. Nevertheless Alien Property custodian Irving Jurow got a call ordering him to impound all of Tesla’s belongings as he was reputed to have invented a death ray that disintegrated enemy planes in the sky and German agents were after it. Along with agents from Naval Intelligence, Army Intelligence and the FBI, Jurow visited the Hotel New Yorker, the Governor Clinton, the St Regis, the Waldorf-Astoria and the storage facility where Tesla had kept the rest of his things. Papers in possession of John J. O’Neill, who was preparing a biography of Tesla, were also confiscated. These were perused by various branches of the military. Dr John G. Trump, an electrical engineer with the National Defense Research Committee of the Office of Scientific Research and Development, was also called to analyze the Tesla papers in OAP custody. Following a three-day investigation, Dr Trump concluded that Tesla’s ‘thoughts and efforts during at least the past 15 years were Tesla meets King Peter II of Yugoslavia on 15 July 1942. Tesla’s nephew, Sava Kosanovic, is third from the left. primarily of a speculative, philosophical, and somewhat promotional character often concerned with the production and wireless transmission of power, but did not include new, sound, workable principles or methods for realizing such results. However, in his report, he admits that he had not bothered to open many of the trunks, so confident was he that nothing of value would be found. THE PARTICLE BEAM However, among the papers was the still unpublished ‘The New Art of Projecting Concentrated Non-Dispersive Energy Through Natural Media’. This was classified top secret and distributed to Naval Intelligence, the National Defense Research Council, the FBI, MIT, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base – where the V1 flying bomb was reverse engineered – and, probably, the White House. The paper described in detail the new features, including how to create a non-dispersive beam of particles: I perfected means for increasing enormously the intensity of the effects, but was baffled in all my efforts to materially reduce dispersion and became fully convinced that this handicap could only be overcome by conveying the power through the medium of small particles projected, at prodigious velocity, from the transmitter. Electro-static repulsion was the only means to this end and apparatus of stupendous force would have to be developed, but granted that sufficient speed and energy could be realized with a single row of minute bodies then there would be no dispersion whatever even at great distance. Since the cross section of the carriers might be reduced to almost microscopic dimensions an immense concentration of energy, irrespective of distance, could be attained. Then there was a diagram of the open-ended vacuum where, he said: It will be observed that in this tube I do away with the solid wall or window indispensable in all types heretofore employed, producing the high vacuum required and preventing the inrush of the air by a gaseous jet of high velocity. Evidently, to secure this result, the dynamic pressure of the jet must be at least equal to the external static pressure. The high-potential generator, creating a charge of up to 100 million volts, worked on the principle of a Van de Graaf generator – with the belt replaced by a high-speed stream of ionized air. The charges would be stored in specially shaped bulbs around the top of a 100 ft (30 m) tower. In the super-gun itself, tungsten wire would be fed into the high-vacuum firing chamber. Under the huge electrostatic forces generated, tiny droplets of metal would be sheared off and projected out of the chamber at over 400,000 feet per second (120 km per second). John Trump also went to the Hotel Governor Clinton to examine the working model that Tesla had said he left there. Tesla had told the management that the box containing a secret weapon that was rigged to detonate if it was opened by an unauthorized person. Trump approached with trepidation. All he found inside was ‘a multi-decade resistance box of the type used for Wheatstone bridge resistance measurements – a common standard item to be found in every electrical laboratory before the turn of the century’. Trump took no further interest. THE VANISHING DEATH RAY In 1937, Tesla had claimed that he had built his death beam, saying: ‘It is not an experiment. I have built, demonstrated and used it. Only a little time will pass before I can give it to the world.’ At the time, he did have two secret labs where journalists were not allowed. Mrs Czito, whose husband’s father and grandfather both worked for Tesla, said that her father-in-law said Tesla had a device that could bounce a beam off the Moon. There is also a story that the deBobula design was taken to Alcoa Aluminium who said they would furnish the material required once the capital had been raised. There is, of course, a conspiracy theory to account for the missing model. When the safe in Tesla’s room was opened, the locksmith was asked to change the combination. Inside the safe, when it was locked again, was a set of keys and Tesla’s 1917 Edison Medal. The new combination was given to Kosanovic and no one else. When the safe was finally shipped to Belgrade and opened some 10 years later, the medal and the keys were missing. The medal has never been found, but the keys were found in one of the numerous cases of documents that accompanied the safe in the shipment. According to the Office of Alien Property, the two representatives of the hotel management who were present were Mr L.O. Doty, credit manager, and Mr L.A. Fitzgerald, assistant credit manager. We have already met Bloyce Fitzgerald in connection with Tesla, but Tesla’s biographer Marc Seifer has also unearthed a letter from a Colonel Ralph E. Doty, chief of the Washington Branch of the Military Intelligence Service. Dated 22 January 1946, it is addressed to the Alien Property Custodian and reads: Dear Sir: This office is in receipt of a communication from Headquarters, Air Technical Service Command, Wright Field, requesting that we ascertain the whereabouts of the files of the late scientist, Dr Nikola Tesla, which may contain data of great value to the above Headquarters. It has been indicated that your office might have these files in custody. If this is true, we would like to request your consent for a representative of the Air Technical Service Command to review them. In view of the extreme importance of these files to the above command, we would like to request that we be advised of any attempt by any other agency to obtain them. Because of the urgency of this matter, this communication will be delivered to you by a Liaison Officer of this office in the hope of expediting the solicited information. If the Fitzgerald and Doty at the opening of the safe were government agents, they might easily have got hold of the combination and the keys. It seems that Spanel was already under surveillance by the FBI for his pro-Communist sympathies. In November 1942, he met Fitzgerald at an engineering meeting, shortly before Tesla’s death. At the time Fitzgerald was an army private at Wright Field. The FBI report later describes him as ‘a brilliant 20-year-old scientist who spent hours with Tesla before his death ... Fitzgerald had developed some sort of anti-tank gun.’ Spanel tried to form a partnership with Fitzgerald to sell the weapon to the Remington Arms Company, but the deal fell through when a more lucrative offer came from the Eiogens Ship Building Company. Fitzgerald was fired by Eiogens in November 1943 and returned to Wright Field as a private. According to his FBI file, in 1945, he was ‘engaged in a highly secret experimental project at Wright Field ... In spite of his rank as private, Fitzgerald is actually director of this research and is working with many top young scientists ... on the perfection of Tesla’s ‘death ray’ which in Fitzgerald’s opinion is the only defence against the offensive use by another nation of the atomic bomb.’ The files that Colonel Doty requested did find their way to Wright Field because, on 24 October 1947, the Director of the Office of Alien Property wrote to the commanding officer of the Air Technical Service Command, asking for them back. The following month, a Colonel Duffy wrote back, saying: ‘These reports are now in the possession of the Electronic Subdivision and are being evaluated. This should be completed by January 1, 1948. At that time your office will be contacted with respect to final disposition of these papers.’ BELGRADE BOUND In 1946, Sava Kosanovic had become Yugoslavian ambassador to the US after the US recognized Tito’s Communist government. But by 1950, he was still not allowed access to Tesla’s effects. He made official representations and in 1952, 80 trunks containing Tesla’s papers, equipment and other belongings were shipped to Belgrade. Five years later, Tesla’s ashes followed. In the Tesla Museum they were placed in a spherical urn as this was Tesla’s favourite shape. This did not stop American Scientist being interested in Tesla’s papers. Regularly individuals contacted the FBI who were thought to have made microfilm copies of everything sent to Yugoslavia. In the 1970s, it was thought that Tesla’s fireballs might be a way of containing nuclear fusion. During the Cold War, both sides again investigated the possibility of making a particle beam to disable incoming nuclear missiles. Naturally Tesla’s work would have been a starting point. In 1977, Aviation Week & Space Technology published an article called Soviets Push for Beam Weapon. In it, the retired head of Air Force Intelligence, General George J. Keegan said that the Soviet Union was attempting to develop a charge-particle beam at the test facility near the city of Semipalatinsk in Kazakhstan. The editor of Aviation Week, Robert Holtz said: The Soviet Union has achieved a technical breakthrough in high-energy physics applications that may soon provide it with a directed-energy beam weapon capable of neutralizing the entire United States ballistic missile force and checkmating this country’s strategic doctrine … The race to perfect directed-energy weapons is a reality. Despite initial skepticism, the US scientific community is now pressuring for accelerated efforts in this area. The news got through to the White House, but President Jimmy Carter (1924– ) said: ‘We do not see any likelihood at all, based on our constant monitoring of the Soviet Union, that they have any prospective breakthrough in a new weapons system that would endanger our country.’ Nevertheless, under the Carter administration, work began on a major space-based laser programme. Under the direction of the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, the ALPHA chemical laser project was begun in 1978. Contracts for the TALON GOLD targeting system were awarded in 1979, and the Large Optics Demonstration Experiment (LODE) started in 1980. These programmes formed the basis for the Strategic Defense Initiative – aka ‘Star Wars’ – announced by President Ronald Reagan (1911–2004) in 1983. SDI added X-ray lasers and neutral particle beams, all of which were reminiscent of Tesla’s ‘Chinese wall’. While this work was going on, fresh applications were made to the FBI to release any copies of the Tesla files they had, if only to know what the Soviets may had learned about beam weapons in Belgrade. However, after the collapse of the Soviet Union it was discovered that the test site outside Semipalatinsk was not working on a beam weapon at all, but rather on nuclear-powered rockets. John Pike, defence analyst at the Federation of American Scientists, said that the misidentification of the Semipalatinsk test site ‘must rank as one of the major intelligence failures of the Cold War’. I misunderstood Tesla. I think we all misunderstood Tesla. We thought he was a dreamer and visionary. He did dream and his dreams came true, he did have visions but they were of a real future, not an imaginary one. John Stone Stone¹ In 1943 - a few months after Tesla’s death - the US Supreme Court upheld Tesla’s radio patent number 645,776. The Court had a selfish reason for doing so. The Marconi Company was suing the United States Government for use of its patents in World War I. The Court simply avoided the action by restoring the priority of Tesla’s patent over Marconi. Nevertheless, it re-established the situation that had applied 40 years earlier when Tesla was recognized as the inventor of radio whose patents had been infringed by Marconi. In 1956, the Nobel laureate Niels Bohr (1885 – 1962), father of quantum physics, spoke at a centennial congress held in Tesla’s honour. In Yugoslavia, a commemorative stamp was issued. Tesla appeared on the 100 dinar note and the ‘Tesla’ became the unit of magnetic flux density. The asteroid 2244 Tesla was named by Serbian astronomer Milorad Protić in Belgrade when he discovered it on 22 October 1952. The Tesla Crater on the far side of the Moon was named after him when five Lunar Orbiters photographed the other side in 1966 and 1967. The IEEE has presented the Nikola Tesla Award for outstanding contributions to the generation or utilization of electric power annually since 1976. Nikola Tesla Corner is located in the heart of Manhattan, at the corner of West 40th Street and 6th Avenue reminding New Yorkers that the great man used to roam those very streets. Niagara Falls also celebrates the legendary inventor with two monuments, one on Goat Island was unveiled in 1976, while in 2006 a statue of Tesla standing on an AC motor was erected in Queen Victoria Park on the Canadian side of the falls. Finally, back in Serbia, Belgrade International Airport was renamed Belgrade Nikola Tesla Airport in 2006. During the second half of the 20th century Tesla was overlooked by the history books. Unlike Marconi and Edison, he did not have large companies named after him. Westinghouse could have honoured him, but not unnaturally they give their plaudits to George Westinghouse himself. Also unlike Westinghouse, Edison and the Wright Brothers, Tesla was not born in America. Those great Americans were seen as practical men who made things that ordinary people could understand. Few people in the general populace understand what AC is, how an induction motor works or what the principles behind the propagation of radio waves are. With Tesla’s seemingly science-fiction ideas towards the end of his life, he was seen as a mystic and, more than anything, the ultimate mad scientist with his middle-European accent and his eccentric personal habits. However, in the 1950s, Tesla’s fame grew in the burgeoning counter-culture. An electrical engineer name Arthur H. Matthews claimed to have made a Teslascope to communicate with the inhabitants of other planets. He said that Tesla was a Venusian born on a spaceship travelling from Venus to Earth in July 1856, revealing all in Wall of Light: Nikola Tesla and the Venusian Spaceship. In 1959, Margaret Storm published the occult biography of Tesla, Return of the Dove. Her story also involved flying saucers which were very much in vogue. In the 1970s, Ralph Bergstresser, who had known Tesla for the last 6 months of his life, produced ‘Tesla Plates’ which are marketed by the Swiss Tesla Institute. These, in some fashion, are supposed to tap into the energy of the universe. As Tesla’s ideas, especially in later life, drew on thinking from both the East and the West, he became of interest to New Age thinkers. His striking, dark, middle-European looks and his development of willpower also appealed. With the energy crisis of the 1970s, Tesla’s idea of free energy had renewed PROPHET OF SCIENCE NIKOLA TESLA IS THE FORGOTTEN GENIUS WHO REVOLUTIONIZED THE SCIENCE OF ELECTRICITY AND MADE FANTASTIC PREDICTIONS WHICH TIME PROVED TRUE. NIKOLA WAS BORN IN 1857 AT SMILGAN, CROATIA. ONE DAY... NOW OUR NEW FIRE ENGINE WILL START TO PUMP WATER...BUT SOMETHING'S WRONG. I'LL FIX IT. THERE GOES NIKOLA. WHAT DOES HE KNOW? BUT YOUNG NIKOLA KNEW THE HOSE WAS CLOGGED AND... HE'S DONE IT! WATCH OUT FOR THE WATER! appeal and a researcher named Robert Golka tried to recreate Tesla’s Colorado experiments. In 1984, the first International Tesla Symposium was held in Colorado Springs. The group met annually for the next 14 years. It spawned the International Tesla Society whose membership grew to 7,000 worldwide, but it went bust in 1998. Devotees have found new homes in the Tesla Memorial Society of New York, the Tesla Engine Builders Association and the Tesla Universe website. Tesla and his inventions still fascinate fans of science fiction and computer games, and he has been celebrated in documentaries on his life and the War of the Currents on America’s PBS and the BBC. In 2003, Tesla Motors began producing electric vehicles in California, using engines based on Tesla’s designs. They are now quoted on the NASDAQ stock exchange and have a European Headquarters at Maidenhead in the UK. Tesla Magazine was launched on 10 July 2013. At the same time, the Tesla Science Foundation joined forces with Belgrade’s Nikola Tesla Museum to create a travelling exhibition called Tesla’s Wonderful World of Electricity which toured the United States and Canada. Its aim was to get Tesla the recognition he deserves in America. With new movies being made about his life, it is possible that it is not too late - this goal may still be achieved. Left: Prophet of Science comic strip depicting Tesla’s life. Above: The Tesla Model S electric car, 2013. Nikola Tesla, reading in front of the spiral coil of a high-frequency transformer at his East Houston Street laboratory in New York. This popular biography of Nikola Tesla has been produced by research carried out using the archives of one of the most renowned institutions in the world – the British Library in London. Primary source knowledge from the publications of the Tesla Museum in Belgrade, Tesla’s own autobiography, My Inventions, published in 1919, articles from contemporary electrical scientific journals and newspapers of the time, along with copies of Tesla’s original patent diagrams, have all been blended with material from an extensive variety of previously published books on Tesla. The resulting recreation of the life and times of Nikola Tesla, is an informative and entertaining introduction to the great man. There are other more academic publications available should the reader wish to delve more deeply. Books that were especially useful in the preparation of this book are listed below along with the abbreviations shown in square brackets to refer to them in the full list of citations that follows. SOURCES Burgan, Michael, Nikola Tesla: Physicist, Inventor, Electrical Engineer, (Minneapolis, Compass Point Books, 2009) [Burgan, NT: PIEE] Carlson, W. Bernard, Tesla: Inventor of the Electrical Age (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2013) [Carlson, Tesla] Cheney, Margaret, Tesla: Man Out of Time (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1986) [Cheney: Man Out of Time] Cheney, Margaret & Uth, Robert, Tesla, Master of Lightning (New York: Barnes & Noble, 1999) [Cheney & Uth, Master of Lightning] Jonnes, Jill, Empires of Light: Edison, Tesla, Westinghouse, and the Race to Electrify the World (New York: Random House, 2003) [Jonnes, Empires of Light] Martin, Thomas Commerford, Inventions, Researches and Writings of Nikola Tesla. (First published 1894, reprinted New York: Barnes & Noble, 1995) [TCM, IRWNT] Mrkich, Dan, Nikola Tesla: The European Years. (Ottawa: Commoners Publishing, 2004) [Mrkich, Tesla: The European Years] O’Neill, John J., Prodigal Genius: The Life of Nikola Tesla (First published 1943, reprinted London: Granada Publishing, 1968) [O’Neill, Prodigal Genius] Passer, Harold. The Electrical Manufacturers, 1875–1900. (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1953) [Passer, The Electrical Manufacturers] Ratzlaff, John T., Tesla Said (Millbrae, Tesla Book Co, 1984.) [Tesla Said] Seifer, Marc J. Wizard: The Life and Times of Nikola Tesla, Biography of a Genius (Secaucus, New Jersey: Birch Lane Press, 1996) [Seifer, Wizard] Stewart, Daniel Blair, Tesla: The Modern Sorcerer (Berkeley, California: Frog Ltd., 1999) [Stewart, Modern Sorcerer] Tate, Alfred O., Edison’s Open Door: The Life Story of Thomas A. Edison, A Great Individualist (New York: E.P. Dutton, 1938) [Tate, Edison’s Open Door] Tesla, Nikola & Childress, David H., The Tesla Papers (Stelle, Illinois: Adventures Unlimited, 2000) [NT & Childress, The Tesla Papers] Tesla, Nikola, My Inventions and Other Writings (1919) www.teslasautobiography.com [NT, My Inventions] Tesla, Nikola Lectures, Patents, Articles (1856-1943). (Belgrade: Tesla Museum, 1956) [NT, Lectures, Patents, Articles] Valone, Thomas, Harnessing the Wheelwork of Nature: Tesla’s Science of Energy, 21–23 (Kempton, Ill: Adventures Unlimited Press, 2002) [Valone, Wheelwork of Nature] CITATIONS INTRODUCTION 1. Electrical Experimenter, January 1919, 614 2. NT, My Inventions 3. New York Times, January 23, 1943, 24 CHAPTER 1 1. NT, My Inventions 2. New York World, July 22, 1894 3. Mrkich, Tesla: The European Years, 55 4. Seifer, Wizard, 5 5. Burgan, NT: PIEE, 20 6. Tesla Said, 283–84 7 – 19. NT, My Inventions 20. Seifer, Wizard, 13 (citing NT, April 23, 1893) 21. Cheney & Uth, Master of Lightning, 9 22 – 26. NT, My Inventions CHAPTER 2 1. Electrical Engineer, September 24, 1890 2. Carlson, Tesla, 26 3 – 7. NT, My Inventions 8. Mrkich, Tesla: The European Years, 10 – 11 9. Seifer, Wizard, 17 10. Seifer, Wizard, 18 11. NT, My Inventions 12. Detroit Free Press, August 10, 1924 13. Mrkich, Tesla: The European Years, 76 14 – 16. NT, My Inventions 17. NT, Lectures, Patents, Articles, 173 18. Mrkich, Tesla: The European Years, 100 19 – 21. NT, My Inventions 22. Electrical World, May 25, 1889 23. Seifer, Wizard, 29 24. NT, My Inventions 25. Cheney, Man Out of Time, 25 26 – 28. NT, My Inventions 29. Carlson, Tesla, 68 (citing Tesla in Complaint’s Record on Final Hearing, Volume 1: Westinghouse vs. Mutual Life Insurance Company and H.C. Mandeville [1903]; NT, “Electric Magnetic Motor”, US Patent #24,036 [filed May 20, 1889, granted March 25, 1890]; TCM, IRWNT, 69) 30. NT, My Inventions 31. Hunt, Samantha, The Invention of Everything Else, 52 (Houghton Mifflin, 2008) 32. The Essential Tesla, 135 (Radford VA: Wilder Publications, 2007) 33. New York Sun, July 12, 1937 CHAPTER 3 1. Tesla Said, 208 2. Stewart, Modern Sorcerer, 163 3. Buffalo New York News, August 30, 1896 4 – 6. NT, My Inventions 7. Century, February 1894 8 – 9. NT, My Inventions 10. Tate, Edison’s Open Door, 149 11. Carlson, Tesla, 71 12 – 13. NT, My Inventions 14. Cheney & Uth, Master of Lightning, 20 15. Thulesius, Olav, Edison in Florida: The Green Laboratory, 120. (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1997) 16. Seifer, Wizard, 40-41 (citing Tesla Electric Co., [advertisement], Electrical Review, September 14, 1886) 17. NT, My Inventions 18. Tesla Said, 280 19. O’Neill, Prodigal Genius, 65 20. Seifer, Wizard, 42 (citing Electrician and Electrical Engineer, 1886) 21. TCM, IRWNT 111-13, 429-31 22. Electrical Experimenter, March 19, 1919 23. Carlson, Tesla, 81 (citing Tesla in Complaint’s Record on Final Hearing, Volume 1: Westinghouse vs. Mutual Life Insurance Company and H.C. Mandeville [1903]; Szigeti, 1889 deposition, A398) 24. Carlson, Tesla, 84-85 (citing NT, 78. 21 “Defendant’s Brief, Derivation Electric Motor”, in Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Company vs. Dayton Fan and Motor Company, 1900) 25. NT, My Inventions CHAPTER 4 1. New York Sun, July 12, 1937 2. Carlson, Tesla, 90; also Klein, Maury, The Power Makers: Steam, Electricity, and the Men Who Invented Modern America; Davis, L.J. Fleet Fire: Thomas Edison and the Pioneers of the Electric Revolution; Material History Review, Vol. 33-37, 25 3. The Essential Tesla, 10 (Radford VA: Wilder Publications, 2007) 4. Seifer, Wizard, 50 (citing Westinghouse, internal memorandum, July 5, 1888; Passer, The Electrical Manufacturers) 5. Passer, The Electrical Manufacturers, 279 6. Carlson, Tesla, 113 (citing Tesla in Complaint’s Record on Final Hearing, Volume 1: Westinghouse vs. Mutual Life Insurance Company and H.C. Mandeville [1903]) 7. Electrical World, March 21, 1914 8. New York Times, July 31, 1888 9. Moran, Richard, Executioner’s Current, Thomas Edison, George Westinghouse, and the Invention of the Electric Chair (New York: Vintage Books, 2003) 10. Electrical World, September 20, 1924 11 – 13. Seifer, Wizard, 54 (citing Scott to Tesla, July 10, 1931) 14. Cheney & Uth, Master of Lightning, 24 15. McPherson, Stephanie Saracmartino, War of the Currents: Thomas Edison vs Nikola Tesla, 40 (Breckenridge, Co.: 21st Century Books, 2012) 16. Electrical Review, June 30, 1888 17. Munson, Richard, From Edison to Edison, 26-27 (Praeger, 2005) 18. Brandon, Craig, The Electric Chair: An Unnatural American History, 82 (McFarland & Co, 2009) 19. New York Sun, August 25, 1889 20. Jonnes, Empires of Light 21. Electrical Review, August 16, 1890 22. New York Times, August 6, 1890 23. O’Neill, Prodigal Genius, 83 24. Lamme, B. Benjamin Garver Lamme: An Autobiography, 60. (New York: G.P. Putnam, 1926) 25. Electrical Review of London, August 14, 1896 26. O’Neill, Prodigal Genius, 77 27. Electrical Engineering, May 1934 28. Electrical World, April 18, 1891 29. Harper’s Weekly, July 1891 30. Electrical World, March 26, 1892 31. The Essential Tesla, 63. (Radford, VA: Wilder Publications, 2007) 32. Cheney, Man Out of Time, 293 33. NT, My Inventions 34. Electrical Review, March 19, 1892 35. Seifer, Wizard, 415 (citing Tesla to JP Morgan Jr, November 21, 1924) CHAPTER 5 1. Belohlavek, Peter & Wagner, John W., Innovation: The Lessons of Nikola Tesla, 88 (Blue Eagle Group, 2008) 2. Tesla Journal, November 2 & 3, 1982-83, 25 3. Seifer, Wizard, 99; Carlson, Tesla, 193 4. Electrical Experimenter, May 1919 5. NT, My Inventions 6. New York World, April 13, 1930 7. TCM, IRWNT, 318-20 8. Electrical Engineer, June 28, 1893 9. Anderson, Ieland (ed) Nikola Tesla on His Work with Alternating Currents, p XV (Breckenridge, Co.: 21st Century Books, 2002) 10. Century, April 1895 11. Carlson, Tesla, 161 (citing Tesla to Westinghouse, September 12, 1892) 12. TCM, IRWNT, 319-20 13. Cameron, William, The World’s Fair, 318 (New Haven, Conn.: James Brennan & Co., 1894) 14. Barrett, J.P. Electricity at the Columbian Exposition, 168-69 (Chicago: R.R. Donnelly, 1894) 15. Chicago Tribune, August 26, 1893 16. Electrical Experimenter, March 1919 17. World, July 22, 1894 18. Review of Reviews, March 1894 19. O’Neill, Prodigal Genius, 329 20. Johnson, Robert Underwood Remembered Yesterdays, 400 (first published in Century Illustrated Monthly Magazine, 1923, reprinted Literary Licensing, LLC, 2013) 21. Seifer, Wizard, 128 22. Cheney & Uth, Master of Lightning, 52 23. O’Neill, Prodigal Genius, 324 24. New York World, July 22, 1894 25. English Mechanic and World of Science, March 8, 1907 26. Letters of Swami Vivekananda, 281-83 CHAPTER 6 1. NT, My Inventions 2. Adams, Edward Dean, Niagara Power; History of the Niagara Falls Power Company 1886-1918 3. New York Times, July 16, 1895 4. Cheney & Uth, Master of Lightning, 61 5. Tribute to Nikola Tesla, 1961, I-S-4 6 – 8. Electrical World, April 4, 1896 9. New York World, July 22, 1894 10. Troy Press, April 20, 1895 11 – 12. Seifer, Wizard, 149 13. Philadelphia Press, June 24, 1895 14. Electrical Experimenter, March 1917 15. Seifer, Wizard, 158 (citing Comlort, May 1896, and untitled newspaper clipping, Omaha, Nebraska, June 14, 1896) 16. New York World, March 8, 1896 17 – 18. Electrical Review, March 11, 1896 19. Bechol, Keith, The Electrifying Nikola Tesla, 15; Electrical Review, April 8, 1896 20. Electrical Review, December 1, 1896 21. New York Evening Journal, December 2, 1896 22. New York Morning Journal, August 10, 1897 23. Niagara Falls Gazette, July 20, 1896 24. Buffalo Evening News, January 12, 1897 25. Tesla Journal, 6 & 7, 1989-90, 4-10 26. De Forest, Lee, Father of Radio: An Autobiography, 76, 81, 85 (Willcox & Follet, 1950) CHAPTER 7 1. Scribners Monthly, 1897, 527-28 2. Tribute, 25-27 3. Seifer, Wizard, 189 4. New York Times, April 7, 1897 5. Scribners Monthly, 1897, 527 6. Seifer, Wizard, 194 7. Brooklyn Eagle, July 11, 1935 8 – 9. Benson, Allan, The World Today, 1915, 173 10. NT, My Inventions 11. New York Times, May 3, 1898 12. Current Literature, February 1899, 136-37 13 – 14. Electrical Engineer, November 17, 1898 15. Century, June 1900 16. Public Opinion, December 1, 1898 17 – 18. Electrical Engineer, November 24, 1898 19. Seifer, Nikola Tesla: Psychobiography, 272 (citing survey by Ratliff & Anderson, 1979) 20. Electrical Engineer, November 24, 1898 21. Electrical Review, January 5, 1898 22 – 23. Century, June 1900 24 – 25. NT, Lectures, Patents, Articles, A-122 CHAPTER 8 1. Mountain Sunshine, July-August 1899 2. Colorado Springs Evening Telegraph, May 17, 1899 3. Colorado Springs Evening Telegraph, June 2, 1899 4. Carlson, Tesla, 267-68 (citing Hull, Richard L. The Tesla Coil Builder’s Guide to the Colorado Springs Notes of Nikola Tesla, A28; Cheney & Uth, Master of Lightning, 87; Tesla vs Fessenden, 24; New York Sun, January 3, 1901) 5. Seifer, Wizard, 218 (citing Tesla to Astor, September 10, 1900) 6. Carlson, Tesla, 271 (citing Tesla, Research Notes, Colorado Springs, 1899-1900, 69) 7. Carlson, Tesla, 272 (citing Seifer, Wizard, 471) 8 – 9. Electrical World and Engineer, March 5, 1904 10 – 11. Collier’s Weekly, February 19, 1901 12. Seifer, Wizard, 220 (citing Pyramid Guide, 1977) 13. New York Sun, January 3, 1901 14. Seifer, Wizard, 224 15. www.teslasociety.com/mars 16. Hawthorne, Julian, Philadelphia North American, 1901 17. Tesla, speech accepting the Edison Medal, May 18, 1917 18. Carlson, Tesla, 282 (citing Tesla to Johnson, October 1, 1899) 19. Tesla, Colorado Springs Notes, October 23, 1899; Hull, Coil Builder’s Guide, 90 20. Seifer, Wizard, 227 (citing Tesla to U.S. Navy, September 27, 1899) 21. Howeth, L.S. History of Communications-Electronics in the United States, ch4. (Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1963) 22. Electrical Experimenter, October 1919 23. Seifer, Wizard, 233-34 (citing Electrical Experimenter, October 1919) 24. O’Neill, Prodigal Genius, 186-87 25. Colorado Springs Gazette, October 30, 1903 26. Cheney & Uth, Master of Lightning, 87 27. O’Neill, Prodigal Genius, 193-94 CHAPTER 9 1. Seifer, Wizard, 236 (citing Politika, April 27, 1927) 2. Tesla Journal, 26-29 3. New York Times, March 20, 1907 4. Electrical World & Engineer, January 7, 1905 5. Popular Science Monthly, July 1900 6. Colliers, February 9, 1901 7. Everyday Science and Mechanics, December 1931 8. Seifer, Wizard, 246 9. New York Herald Tribune, September 27, 1927 8. Seifer, Wizard, 246 10. Cheney, Man Out of Time, 158; O’Neill, Prodigal Genius, 198 11. Seifer, Wizard, 255 12. Seifer, Wizard, 260 13. Long Island Democrat, August 27, 1901 14. Electrical Review, January 12, 1901 15. Seifer, Wizard, 267 16. New York World, April 13, 1930 17. Cheney, Man Out of Time, 203 18 – 19. New York Times, January 14, 1902 20. Carlson, Tesla, 338 (citing Tesla to Morgan, January 9, 1902) 21. Carlson, Tesla, 339 (citing Tesla to Morgan, January 9, 1902) 22. Cheney & Uth, Master of Lightning, 100 23. Port Jefferson Echo, March 25, 1902 24. Seifer, Wizard, 297 (citing Tesla to Morgan April 22, 1903) 25. Electrical World and Engineer, March 5, 1904 26. Seifer, Wizard, 322–23 27. New York Times, February 14, 1909 28. Bergstresser, Ralph, Dr. Nikola Tesla: The Forgotten Super Man of Our Industrial Age, 6-7 (Mokelumne Hill Press, 1996) 29. New York Times, October 16, 1907 30. Wireless Telegraphy and Telephony, 1908 CHAPTER 10 1. Carlson, Tesla, 366 (citing Tesla to Viercek, December 17, 1934) 2. New York World, January 6, 1908 3. New York Times, June 8, 1908 4. New York Herald, October 15, 1911 5. The Bee, Danville, Virginia, March 2, 1928 6. New York Times, May 23, 1909 7. New York Herald, October 15, 1911 8. Stewart, Modern Sorcerer, 399 9. Pajmansos, Theo, Free Energy Pioneer: John Worrell Keely, 139 (Adventures Unlimited Press, 2004) 10 – 11. New York Herald Tribune, October 15, 1911 12. Carlson, Tesla, 373 (citing Seifer, Wizard, 302–66) 13. National Press Reporter, May 1912 14. O’Neill, Prodigal Genius, 173 15. Seifer, Wizard, 47–49 (citing correspondence) 16. NT & Childress, The Tesla Papers, 120 17. Electrical Review and Western Electrician, May 20, 1911 18 – 20. New York Times, May 16, 1911 21. Seifer, Wizard, 352–53 (citing correspondence) 22. Seifer, Wizard, 354–55 23 – 25. New York Times, August 18, 1912 26. Seifer, Wizard, 358–59 27. New York Sun, March 24, 1912 28. Electrical World, June 28, 1912 29. New York Times, July 21, 1912 30. Seifer, Wizard, 360 (citing Tesla to Morgan Jr, March 19, 1914) 31. Seifer, Wizard, 370 (citing correspondence) 32. Seifer, Wizard, 370 (citing Hammond Collection, National Archives) 33. New York Times, September 6, 1914 34. New York Times, April 23, 1915 35. NT & Childress, The Tesla Papers, 138 36. Seifer, Wizard, 371 (citing Ratzlaff & Anderson, 100) 37. Jolly, W. P., Marconi, 225 (Stein and Day 1972) 38. Los Angeles Examiner, May 13, 1915 39. NT & Childress, The Tesla Papers, 136 40. New York Times, October 6, 1912 41. Tesla, Nikola Tesla on His Work with Alternating Currents, 105 42. New York Times, July 10, 1915 43. Seifer, Wizard, 377 (citing Lloyd Scott, Naval Consulting Board of the U.S., Washington: Government Printing Office, 1920) CHAPTER 11 1. New York Times, November 7, 1915 2 – 3. New York Times, October 3, 1915 4. Carlson, Tesla, 375 (citing Seifer, Wizard, 380) 5. Seifer, Wizard, 378 (citing Johnson to Tesla, March 1916) 6. O’Neill, Prodigal Genius, 229 7. Seifer, Wizard, 379 (citing O’Neill, Prodigal Genius, 229) 8 – 9. New York Times, December 8, 1915 10. Electrical Experimenter, August 1917; also Century, June 1900 11. Cheney, Man Out of Time, 213 12. O’Neill, Prodigal Genius, 229–30 13 – 15. O’Neill, Prodigal Genius, 231 16. O’Neill, Prodigal Genius, 235 17 – 19. Tesla Said, 179–80 (citing Minutes of the Annual Meeting of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, Held at the Engineering Societies Building, New York City, Friday Evening, May 18, 1917) 20. Tesla Said, 181 (citing Minutes of the Annual Meeting of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, Held at the Engineering Societies Building, New York City, Friday Evening, May 18, 1917) 21. Tesla Said, 181–84 (citing Minutes of the Annual Meeting of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, Held at the Engineering Societies Building, New York City, Friday Evening, May 18, 1917) CHAPTER 12 1. Seifer, Wizard, 387 (citing Tesla to Waldorf-Astoria, July 12, 1917) 2. New York Times, December 8, 1915 3. Seifer, Wizard, 386 (citing I.B. Smiley, J.B., to Frank Hutchins, July 16, 1917) 4. Seifer, Wizard, 392–93 (citing Tesla to George Scherff, July 26, 1917) 5. Cheney, Man Out of Time, 174 6. Electrical Experimenter, September 1917 7. New York Sun, August 5, 1917 8. NT, My Inventions 9. Seifer, Wizard, 92–94 (citing correspondence) 10. Cheney, Man Out of Time, 223 (citing NT, My Inventions) 11. Electrical Experimenter, February 1919 12. Seifer, Wizard, 405 (citing Tesla to Gernsback, November 30, 1921) 13. Seifer, Wizard, 396–97 (citing Tesla to Morgan Jr, June 13, 1917) 14. Seifer, Wizard, 397 (citing Tesla to Scherff, September 25, 1917) 15. Seifer, Wizard, 397–98 (citing Tesla to Scherff, December 25, 1917) 16 – 19. O’Neill, Prodigal Genius, 225-26 20. Seifer, Wizard, 402-03 21. International Science and Technology, November 1963 22. New York Times, January 19, 1919 23. New York Times, February 3, 1919 24. Cerf, C. & Navasky, V., The Experts Speak, 259 (New York: Villard, 1998) CHAPTER 13 1. O’Neill, Prodigal Genius, 316 2 – 4. Electrical Experimenter, February 1919 5 – 7. O’Neill, Prodigal Genius, 291 8. O’Neill, Prodigal Genius, 291-92 9 – 10. New York Times, June 22, 1932 11 – 13. O’Neill, Prodigal Genius, 292 14 – 15. O’Neill, Prodigal Genius, 293-294 16. O’Neill, Prodigal Genius, 290 17. O’Neill, Prodigal Genius, 292-93 18. O’Neill, Prodigal Genius, 289-290 19 – 20. O’Neill, Prodigal Genius, 293 21 – 26. Seifer, Wizard, 406-08 (citing Nikola Tesla v. George Bold Jr., Suffolk County Supreme Court, April 1921) 27. Adrian Potter, FBI report of Friends of Soviet Russia, 1921-23 28. New York World, November 21, 1926 29 – 30. Politika, July 8, 1956 31. Colliers, January 30, 1926 32. O’Neill, Prodigal Genius, 289 33 – 35. New York World, November 21, 1926 36. Cheney, Man Out of Time, 283 CHAPTER 14 1. Burgan, NT: PIEE, 87 2. Seifer, Wizard, 417 3. Valone, Wheelwork of Nature, 21-23 4. Seifer, Wizard, 417 (citing Flowers, John B., “Nikola Tesla’s Wireless Power System and its Application to the Propulsion of Airplanes”, August 8, 1925) 5. Telegraph & Telephone Age, October 16, 1927 6. Proceedings of the 1988 Tesla Symposium, Colorado Springs, 8-11 7. NT & Childress, The Tesla Papers, 88 8. Philadelphia Public Ledger, November 2, 1933 9 – 10. Time, July 20, 1931 11 – 15. New York Times, July 5, 1931 16 – 17. Time, July 20, 1931 18 – 23. New York Times, July 11, 1931 24 – 26. Kansas City Journal-Post, September 10, 1933 27. Charleston Daily Mail, September 10, 1933 28. Everyday Week Magazine, October 21, 1934 29. New York Times, July 11, 1934 30. ttcbooks.com/teslafaq/q&_011 (citing Tesla to Morgan Jr., November 29, 1934) 31. New York Times, July 11, 1934 32 – 35. Baltimore Sun, July 12, 1940 36. New York Herald Tribune, July 11, 1934 37. ttcbooks.com/tesla/1935-00-00 38. Newsweek, May 19, 1986 39. Seifer, Wizard, 428 (citing Tesla to Laemmlle, July 15, 1937; Gabler, Neal, An Empire of Their Own, 58, Crown Publishing, 1988) 40. Siegel, Mark, Hugo Gernsback: Father of Modern Science Fiction (Borgo Pr, 1988) 41. New York Times, May 1, 1937 42. The 1984 Tesla Centennial Proceedings, 50-58 43 – 48. New York Times, July 11, 1935 49. New York Times, February 6, 1932 50 – 51. Brooklyn Eagle, July 10, 1932 52. New York Herald Tribune, August 18, 1935 53. teslasociety.com/mtnn CHAPTER 15 1. San Antonio Sunday Light, July 20, 193 2 – 3. New York Times, February 6, 1932 4 – 6. New York Times, July 11, 1937 7. Seifer, Wizard, 435 8 – 10. Liberty, February 9, 1935 11 – 13. Smithsonian.com, April 19, 2013 14. New York Times, March 21, 1962 15. Geritz, Elmer, Odyssey of a Barbarian: The Biography of G.S. Viercek, 24 (Buffalo, NY: Prometheus, 1978) 16. Serbian Newsletter, 1943 17. teslauniverse.com/nikola-tesla/timeline (citing King Peter’s diaries, July 8, 1942) 18. O’Neill, Prodigal Genius, 272-73 19. Seifer, Wizard, 443 (citing O’Neill, Prodigal Genius) 20. Cheney, Man Out of Time, 265 21. pbs.org/tesla/l/ 22. Seifer, Wizard, 446-48, 458; Carlson, Tesla, 390-91; Cheney, Man Out of Time, 265 23 – 25. New York Times, January 13, 1943 26. teslasociety.com/eulogy 27. New York Times, January 13, 1943 28. Seifer, Wizard, 445 (citing New York Sun, January 1943) 29. Seifer, Wizard, 444 30. scribd.com/doc/200969295/Columbia 31. Gernsback, Hugo, “NT: Father of Wireless, 1857-1943,” Radio Craft, February 1943 32. Serbian Newsletter, 1943 33. Cheney, Man Out of Time, 268-89; Seifer, Wizard, 448-56 34. Proceedings of the 26th Intersociety Energy Conversion Engineering Conference: IECEC-91, August 4-9, 1991, Boston, Mass., Vol 2, 410 35. Cheney, Man Out of Time, 276 36. Tesla Said, 278 37. Cheney, Man Out of Time, 278; Seifer, Wizard, 446 38 – 39. Seifer, Wizard, 458-59 (citing E.E. Conroy to J. Edgar Hoover, FBI, October 17, 1945) 40. Cheney, Man Out of Time, 278-79 41. Seifer, Wizard, 260 42. Valone, Wheelwork of Nature, 133 43. Aviation Week & Space Technology, May 2, 1977 44. Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States, Jimmy Carter, 1977, 793 45. Carlson, Tesla, 394-95 (citing SAC, Cincinnati, to Director, FBI, August 18, 1983) 46. fas.org/spp/eprint/keegan CHAPTER 16 1. Anderson, L. I., John Stone Stone, Nikola Tesla’s Priority in Radio and Continuous-Wave Radiofrequency Apparatus, The AWA Review, Vol. 1, 1986 2. Carlson, Tesla, 397 (citing Wyn Wachhorst, Thomas Alva Edison; Steven Watts, The People’s Tycoon) A AEG 62, 69 aeroplanes 14, 21, 79, 103–4, 105, 107, 145, 156 alternating current (AC) 7, 11, 21, 25, 36, 37, 45–46, 53, 63, 69, 71 electric chair 41–42, 44, 124 alternating current (AC) motors 21, 24, 33, 38, 43, 44, 51–52, 122, 140 AM (amplitude modulated) radio 58, 99, 172 arc lighting 29, 30–31, 36, 57 Armstrong, Edwin 172, 174 Aston, John Jacob 71, 76, 80, 93, 94, 103, 106, 107 atomic energy 146, 150–51 automaton 77, 79, 153 automobiles 107, 145, 147 B Behrend, Bernard A. 120, 122–23 Bell, Alexander Graham 20, 23, 62, 121, 147 Bell Telephone Company 23, 116 bladeless turbine pumps 106–7, 131 bladeless turbines 104–7, 108, 109, 128, 130–31, 145, 147, 166 boats, remote control 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 140 boxing 93, 94 Braun, Karl Ferdinand 112, 117 Brown, Alfred S. 32–33, 36, 38, 75 Brown, Harold P. 40, 41–42, 44, 124 C cars see automobiles charged particle beam 156–57, 161, 179 Chicago World’s Fair 51, 59, 60–61, 62–63, 69 Colorado Springs 82–83, 86–87, 88–89, 93, 107 cosmic forces 80 cosmic rays 46, 72, 147, 150, 151, 159, 161 Crookes radiometer 14, 15 cruise missiles 79 D De Forest, Lee 73, 98–99, 100, 104, 109, 141, 172 death ray 7, 126, 155–57, 158, 159, 166, 174, 176, 177–78 deBobula, Titus 158–59, 178 diet 13, 24, 28, 135, 137, 167 direct current (DC) 19, 25, 43, 53, 59, 69, 159 direct current (DC) systems 29, 36, 38, 43, 69 dog, remote control 108 dress style 93–94, 137–38 E eccentricities 13, 24, 28, 135, 137, 167 Edison Medal 120, 121, 122–23, 178 Edison, Thomas Alva 28, 30, 31, 42, 44, 62, 69, 71, 73, 138, 147, 152 alternating current 36, 41, 71 incandescent lighting 21, 22, 29, 30, 59 Nobel Prize 119, 120 Pearl Street Power Station 29 ‘Egg of Columbus’ 21, 33, 63 Einstein, Albert 72, 146, 147, 159 electric chair 41–42, 44, 124 electric motors 16, 20, 36, 43 electrical extravaganzas see light demonstrations electricity 11, 16, 21, 36, 45, 52–53, 72, 75 electrons 72, 155, 161 electrotherapy 64, 72 F fax machine 62, 75 Fessenden, Reginald 99, 101, 114 Fitzgerald, Bloyce 174, 176, 178 fliwer plane 104 Flowers, John B. 145, 147 flying machines 14, 21, 103–4, 105, 107, 145, 156 FM (frequency modulation) radio 172, 173 Fragments of Olympian Gossip 171 G General Electric (GE) 59, 62, 69, 71, 75, 98, 126 generators 16, 32, 43, 59, 62, 63, 153–54 germ phobia 137 Gernsback, Hugo 127–28, 129, 135, 155, 158, 166, 173, 174 Geriz, Elmer 169 Gramme dynamo 18, 19 guided torpedoes 76, 78, 79 Guzman Prize 163–64 H Hammond, John Hays 80 Hammond, John (Jack) Hays 80, 107–8, 109, 112 Helmholtz, Herman von 51, 52, 63 Hertz, Heinrich 45, 51, 52 Hobson, Richmond Pearson 64, 67 I incandescent lighting 21, 22, 29, 30, 57, 59, 111 induction motors 25, 43, 44, 71, 75, 150 J Joanneum Polytechnic 15, 18 Johnson, Robert Underwood 63–64, 73, 93, 119, 131, 135 K Kelvin, Lord (William Thomson) 46, 47, 69, 71 Kemmler, William 41–42, 44 Kennelly, Arthur E. 122, 124 Kipling, Joseph Rudyard 64, 67 Kosanovic, Sava 169, 170, 173, 174, 176, 179 L light demonstrations 11, 45–46, 53, 56, 65 Lighthouse Board, US 87–88 ligning systems 24, 29, 30, 36, 55 arc lighting 29, 30–31, 36, 57 incandescent lighting 21, 22, 29, 30, 57, 59, 111 Lodge, Oliver, Sir 111 Lowenstein, Fritz 108, 109, 112 M magnifying transmitters 82–83, 86–87, 88–89, 96, 145, 147 Marconi, Guglielmo 53, 76, 93, 111, 112, 114, 117 Nobel Prize 53, 107, 112, 117 radio 7, 75, 95–96, 181 wireless transmission 56, 86, 95–96, 131 Mars 71, 86, 93, 104, 131 Martin, Thomas Commerford 45, 63, 64, 69, 73, 77, 79, 95 Maxwell, James Clerk 52, 147 Michelson-Morley experiment 51, 52, 147 Miessner, Benjamin Franklin 108 Morgan, Jack 107, 112, 157, 166 Morgan, John Pierpont ‘J.P.’ 29, 93–94, 96, 98, 107 Muir, John 64, 67 N neutrinos 161 Niagara Falls 45, 69, 71, 73, 181 Nobel Prize 7, 53, 107, 112, 117, 119–20 O Office of Alien Property 174, 176–77, 178 oscillators 59, 63, 76, 79, 96, 100, 113, 145 ozone therapy 107 P Paul, Frank R. 127, 128, 129, 158 Pearl Street Power Station 29 Peck, Charles F. 33, 36, 38, 75 Peter II (King of Yugoslavia) 163, 169–70, 173 phosphorescent lights 57, 59, 63, 64 planes see aeroplanes power stations 7, 29, 36, 37, 41, 44–45, 69, 71, 73 Pupin, Michael 112, 114, 116–17 pyromagnetic generator 32, 33 R radar 120 radio 7, 53, 58, 75, 95–96, 99, 100, 108, 114, 181 radio-telephones 104 radio transmitters 55, 58 radio waves 51, 52, 53, 58, 83, 86, 99, 172 radioactivity 151 RCA (Radio Corporation of America) 101, 109, 126, 172, 174 relativity 146, 147, 150, 161 remote control 69, 93, 108, 109 aeroplanes 79, 145 boats 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 140 resonance frequency 53, 59, 76 robotics 20, 77, 79, 167 rockets 131, 151–52 rotating magnetic field 21, 104, 122, 150 S SDI (Strategic Defense Initiative) 179 Soviet Union 141, 155, 157, 179 space communication 71, 86, 89, 93, 104, 131, 163–64 Spaniel, Abraham N. 174, 178 speed of light 52, 58, 147, 161 speedometers 128, 147 standing waves 110, 145 Stone, John Stone 114, 117 Swezey, Kenneth 141, 173, 176 Szegi, Anthony 20, 21, 24, 33 T technical papers, Tesla 170, 173, 174, 176–77, 178–79 tele-geodynamics 159 Teleautomaton 79, 80 Telefunken, Germany 111–12, 114 telephone: 20, 23, 46, 62, 71, 116 wireless telephony 83, 100, 101, 104, 119 telephotography 75 television 53, 75, 117, 172 Tesla Coil 7, 46, 51–52, 54–55, 58, 110, 147, 157 Tesla, Dane (Daniel) 12–13 Tesla, Djouka 11–12, 13, 15, 20, 46 Tesla Electric Company 33, 80 Tesla Electric Light and Manufacturing Company 31 Tesla, Milutin 11, 13, 14, 15, 18, 20 Tesla, Nikola 6–7, 11–15, 18, 20–21, 24–25, 152–55, 163, 170, 173–74 dress style 93–94, 137–38 eccentricities 13, 24, 28, 135, 137, 167 technical papers 170, 173, 174, 176–77, 178–79 Tesla-scope 152 Tesla Societies 183 thermo-magnetic motor 31 Thomson, William see Kelvin, Lord torpedo boat 77 torpedoes 76, 78, 79, 109, 114 transformers 21, 25, 36, 37 turbines 104–7, 108, 109, 128, 130–31, 145, 147, 166 Twain, Mark 14, 64, 67, 77, 170 V Viereck, George Sylvester 166–67, 168 viscosity 104–5 W Waldorf-Astoria 80, 103, 126, 138–40 Wardenclyffe 94, 96, 99, 106, 126, 138–40, 155 Westinghouse Corporation 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 44, 45, 69, 75, 96, 111, 126, 166, 181 Chicago World’s Fair 59, 60–61, 62, 63 Westinghouse, George 36, 38, 39, 42, 51, 62, 69, 71, 93, 107, 127 White, Stanford 65, 73, 75–76, 93, 94, 98 wireless telephony 83, 100, 101, 104, 119 wireless transmission 6–7, 46, 51–53, 56, 71, 95–96, 98–99, 108, 114, 131 World War I 107, 112, 114, 126, 181 World War II 157, 169 World’s Columbian Exposition (Chicago World’s Fair) 51, 59, 60–61, 62–63, 69 X X-rays 57, 72–73, 75, 116, 117 Brimming with creative inspiration, how-to projects, and useful information to enrich your everyday life, Quarto Knows is a favorite destination for those pursuing their interests and passions. Visit our site and dig deeper with our books into your area of interest: Quarto Creates, Quarto Cooks, Quarto Homes, Quarto Lives, Quarto Drives, Quarto Explores, Quarto Gifts, or Quarto Kids. © 2014 Oxford Publishing Ventures Ltd This edition published in 2014 by Chartwell Books, an imprint of The Quarto Group, 142 West 36th Street, 4th Floor, New York, NY 10018, USA T (212) 779-4972 F (212) 779-6058 www.QuartoKnows.com All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form without written permission of the copyright owners. All images in this book have been reproduced with the knowledge and prior consent of the artists concerned, and no responsibility is accepted by producer, publisher, or printer for any infringement of copyright or otherwise, arising from the contents of this publication. Every effort has been made to ensure that credits accurately comply with information supplied. We apologize for any inaccuracies that may have occurred and will resolve inaccurate or missing information in a subsequent reprinting of the book. ISBN-13: 978-0-7858-2944-7 15 14 13 12 Printed in China PICTURE CREDITS Cover: Front © Photo Researchers / Alamy/ Back: © Pictorial Press Ltd / Alamy/ Tesla Patent 487796 1892 Internal: 4 © Photo Researchers / Alamy/ 15 © INTERFOTO / Alamy/ 16 ©INTERFOTO / Alamy/ 19 © INTERFOTO / Alamy/ 22 © RGB Ventures LLC dba SuperStock / Alamy/ 23 © Pictorial Press Ltd / Alamy/ 29 © Everett Collection Historical / Alamy/ 31 Tesla Patent 396,121/ 32 Tesla Patent 428,057/ 37 © Everett Collection Historical / Alamy/ 39 © North Wind Picture Archives / Alamy/ 43 Nikola Tesla Induction Motor Drawing/ 47 © Mary Evans Picture Library / Alamy/ 53 © MARKA / Alamy/ 57 © bilwisse\|edition Ltd. & Co. KG / Alamy/ 58 Tesla Patent 1,119,732/ 70 © INTERFOTO / Alamy/ 78 Tesla boat/ 78 Tesla Patent 613,809/ 82 Tesla Colorado/ 95 Poldhu radio station/ 97 flickr_wardenclyffe/ 100 © Photos 12 / Alamy/ 101 © Pictorial Press Ltd / Alamy/ 105 Tesla Patent 1,061,206/ 111 © Hilary Morgan / Alamy/ 113 Electrical Experimenter 1919, Vol.22, p.124/ 116 © PF-(bygone2) / Alamy/ 117 © Archive Pics / Alamy/ 121 Tesla Society of New York/ 128 © Science Wonder Stories October, 1929/ 129 © Frank R. Paul/ 138 Wardenclyffe demolition/ 146 © Mary Evans Picture Library / Alamy/ 151 © Time magazine 1931/ 154 Tesla thought_camera/ 158 © Moviestore collection Ltd / Alamy/ 160 Science and Invention 1922, Vol.9, No.9, p.809/ 168 © PF-(bygone) / Alamy/ 172 © Popular Radio 1922, Vol.2, No.3, p.159/ 183 © ZUMA Press, Inc. / Alamy/ 184 © Pictorial Press Ltd / Alamy/ 186/187 © AF archive / Alamy \| Date \| Time \| Location \| Event Description \| \|------------\|--------\|-------------------\|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| 10/25/2023 \| 9:00 AM\| Conference Room A \| Workshop on Sustainable Practices in Healthcare \| \| 10/26/2023 \| 1:00 PM\| Auditorium \| Keynote Speech by Dr. Jane Smith on Emerging Medical Technologies \| \| 10/27/2023 \| 4:00 PM\| Exhibition Hall \| Product Showcase featuring latest medical devices \| \| 10/28/2023 \| 8:00 AM\| Registration Desk \| Registration for the conference begins \| \| 10/29/2023 \| 10:00 AM\| Session 1 \| Panel Discussion on Ethical Considerations in Medical Research \| \| 10/30/2023 \| 2:00 PM\| Session 2 \| Interactive Session on Patient-Centered Care \| \| 11/01/2023 \| 5:00 PM\| Networking Event \| Evening Reception with Live Music \| For more information, visit our website at www.healthcareconference.com.
Michigan Association of Planning’s SPRING INSTITUTE \| Housing Summit Wednesday, May 18th, 2022 8:30 am - 4:45 pm \| Marriott, East Lansing, Michigan 6.75 AICP Certification Maintenance Credits \| 6 Master Citizen Planner Continuing Education Credits An adequate supply of housing, at a range of densities, typologies, and price points, is a required element of a well functioning and vital community. But the development and redevelopment of housing is proving to be more challenging than ever for planners, housing professionals, and elected and appointed municipal leaders. From density resistant neighbors and soaring construction costs to policy choices that stymie new housing development, the challenge of planning for and executing viable alternatives to the current system can seem overwhelming. THREE WAYS TO PARTICIPATE: \| In-person \| Virtual: Live plus recorded content \| Both \| \|-----------\|-----------------------------------\|------\| \| Wednesday, May 18, 2022 \| Wednesday, June 15, 2022 \| Student Member: $30 \| \| 8:30 p.m. - 4:30 p.m. \| 2-4:30 p.m. (plus recorded content) \| Member Rate: $160 \| \| Member Rate $160 \| Member Rate: $45 \| Nonmember Rate: $180 \| \| Student Member: 30 \| Student Member: $15 \| Nonmember Rate: $65 \| Register online at www.planningmi.org p: (734) 913-2000 f: (734) 913-2061 email@example.com Please fill out one form per registrant and send to MAP office: 1919 W. Stadium Blvd, Ste 4 Ann Arbor MI 48103 ☐ $60 - Join MAP (Membership runs from July 1st to June 30th) Total Fee: ________________________ ** Add $25 for registrations after April 18th Name Credentials Affiliation ________________________ Please list any special needs (dietary restrictions, barrier free access, etc) ___________________________________________________________ Phone (with area code) ________________________ Email (confirmation and directions will be sent via email) ________________________ Billing Address ________________________ City ________________________ State ________________________ ☐ Master Card ☐ Visa Security Code Expiration Date ________________________ Card Number ________________________ Registration Procedures & Policies: For cancellations received in writing on or before April 26th, a $25 cancellation fee will be charged. Cancellations received on May 4th or later, and no-shows the day of the event, will be responsible for the full amount of the registration because food/beverage and workshop materials costs have already been incurred. You may 1) send a substitute or 2) receive the workshop materials via email in the event you are unable to attend but not able to cancel in time. 7:30 a.m. - 8:30 a.m. \| Registration 8:30 a.m. - 8:45 am \| Welcome, Opening Remarks & Overview Andrea Brown, AICP, Executive Director Michigan Association of Planning, Carmine Avantini, AICP, President, Michigan Association of Planning, CIB Planning, and Ron Bacon, Mayor, City of East Lansing 8:45 a.m. - 9:30 a.m. \| Opening Keynote: Fixing the Broken Housing System \| Live Zoom \| 0.75 AICP CM The main obstacle to fixing our broken housing system is not the absence of good policy ideas, but wicked hard politics. Those who benefit from the status quo—including many middle- and upper-income homeowners—are understandably reluctant to allow changes. Those who stand to gain the most from change (younger households, especially renters) are underrepresented among elected officials, often face barriers to political participation, and have not yet built durable coalitions around shared policy goals. The speaker will be joining us for this session live through zoom. Jenny Schuetz, Brookings Institute 9:35 a.m. - 10:30 a.m. \| Zoning Reform in Michigan: What you can do NOW? \| 1.0 AICP CM MAP’s MSHDA funded Zoning Reform Project is live! This how-to guide provides local regulatory solutions that can be implemented now, without changes to the State Zoning Enabling Act. This session provides an overview of the 15 tools included in the Zoning Reform Guidebook, introduces master plan approaches to introduce housing innovations, and provides talking points to get you past common obstacles to implementing successful housing solutions. Suzanne Schulz, FAICP, Progressive AE, Julie Tschirhart, Progressive AE, Ryan Kilpatrick, AICP, Housing Next 10:30 a.m. – 10:45 a.m. \| Networking Break 10:45 a.m. - 11:45 a.m. \| Partners in Michigan \| 1.0 AICP CM There are scores of state agencies, governmental and non-profit organizations, and municipalities advancing policies, plans, programs, and partnerships to address housing needs in Michigan. From MSHDA’s first ever 5 Year Housing Plan and MEDC’s innovative approach to technical assistance and funding tools supporting a resilient Michigan, to the Housing Michigan Coalition and the MEDC/MML/CNU partnership to collaborate to develop 2 code reform guidebooks, there is a collective recognition that action must be taken now to help municipalities serve their residents, build economic prosperity, increase wealth building opportunities, and meet the housing needs of all. Gary Heidel, MSHDA, Sarah Rainero, MEDC, Joshua Lunger, Grand Rapids Chamber and Executive Committee member of Housing Michigan Coalition, Richard Murphy, AICP, Michigan Municipal League 11:45 a.m. - 12:30 p.m. \| 0.75 AICP CM \| Gallery Walk highlighting speakers, Book signing, Networking, Q and A This interactive and informal event provides the opportunity for attendees to stroll among speaker booths and ask the experts your questions; buy a book - we’ll be selling both Fixer Upper (Jenny Schuetz) and The Affordable City (Shane Phillips) and engage with the author (Shane will be here in person); find your counterpart from another municipality and ask how they are solving local housing challenges; or find a quiet corner to check emails. This lead up to the keynote lunch is YOUR time to network and learn - Fixer-Upper: How to Repair America’s Broken Housing Systems Jenny Schuetz, Brookings Institute. Discounted price in person $25 Online: $30 - The Affordable City: Strategies for Putting Housing Within Reach Shane Philips, UCLA Lewis Center Housing Initiative Discounted price in person $25 Online: $30 MAP Reads Book Club Wednesday, April 27, 2022\| 6 PM - 8 PM Join us as we discuss Fixer Upper- Order your signed copy today email Andrea at firstname.lastname@example.org to sign up for the book discussion 12:30 p.m. - 1:50 p.m. \| Keynote Lunch \| Building Political Support \| 0.75 AICP CM Supply, Stability, Subsidy. Each is essential to the housing equation, yet communities and practitioners rarely prioritize all three. Different disciplines — planners, tenant advocates, architects, community based organizations, environmentalists, affordable and market housing developers, and others — must work together to ensure that each goal is advanced. By combining “all of the above” housing policy with smart messaging and effective partnerships, we can ensure that no one’s left behind as we plan for more affordable and equitable cities. Shane Phillips, Urban planner and policy expert, manages the UCLA Lewis Center Housing Initiative, authored The Affordable City, a book about housing policy, and produces the Housing Voice Podcast. Shane Phillips, UCLA Lewis Center Housing Initiative 1:50 - 2:00 pm \| Short Break 2:00 p.m. - 2:45 p.m. \| Understanding Your Local Housing Market \| 0.75 AICP CM Most communities in Michigan are struggling with a mismatch between housing demand and housing supply, but every community is a little different, and every neighborhood unique in its own way. This session will highlight commonly available tools to help planners better understand hyper-local market dynamics and to use that understanding to better inform policy and zoning recommendations. Questions we will cover include: Why aren’t we seeing more mixed-use buildings? When do accessory dwelling units make financial sense? What are the most important elements to consider when zoning for missing middle housing types? Ryan Kilpatrick, AICP, Executive Director, Housing Next 2:45 - 3:00 pm \| Networking Break 3:00 p.m. - 4:00 p.m. \| Innovations from the Trenches \| 1.0 AICP CM Municipalities large and small are tackling local housing issues with a variety of approaches. This session showcases local stories, and highlights ways your community can bolster density and diversity, and increase housing supply that meets local needs. These stories illustrate the complexity of the housing crisis in Michigan communities, and uplift a range of solutions. Tom Fehrenbach, Deputy City Manager/Director of Planning, Building & Development, East Lansing LeighAnn Mikesell, Deputy City Manager, City of Muskegon 4:00 p.m. - 4:45 p.m. \| Closing Plenary “Experience Session” \| 0.75 AICP CM This facilitated, general closing session will provide participants with the opportunity to exchange thoughts about the day’s sessions, network and engage with peers, ask questions of the presenters who are able to stay to the end, and share personal experiences and anecdotes that relate to the day’s topics. This “experience session” is back by popular demand, and closes the day on an intimate note. A rare opportunity to informally discuss and dig deeper into the institute’s themes. Ryan Kilpatrick, AICP, Housing Next, Shane Philips, UCLA Lewis Center Housing Initiative Suzanne Schulz, FAICP, Progressive AE Virtual Component \| June 15, 2022 \| 2:00 p.m. - 4:30 p.m. plus recorded content Zoning Reform Stories from Across the Country Moderated by Jason Jordan, APA’s Legislative Policy Director, this virtual session will explore how other states are advancing zoning reforms that contemporize outdated zoning laws that perpetuate segregation, threaten the supply of affordable housing and hinder sustainable development. Learn what other APA Chapters are doing. The Michigan Chapter’s Zoning Reform Guidebook This session will demonstrate how to use the toolkit, including overviews of which tools are most appropriate in different municipal settings. Ryan Kilpatrick, AICP, Housing Next Suzanne Schulz, FAICP, Progressive AE, Julie Tschirhart, Progressive AE • Fixing the Broken Housing System, Jenny Schuetz’s opening keynote from May 18, was recorded and is included in this supplemental virtual training package. See session description at the top of this flier.
Recording engineer producer INCLUDING: CONCERT SOUND REINFORCEMENT RELATING RECORDING SCIENCE • TO RECORDING ART • TO RECORDING EQUIPMENT www.americanradiohistory.com Introducing Everything Audio, a second generation turn-key studio company. A brand new company offering you the results that until now have only been obtainable through expensive experimentation. Building on experience, we have moved into the second generation of turn-key studio construction with a seasoned staff and an impressive array of consulting specialists. In offering the professional studio market a new turn-key company we are stressing integrity, quality and competence. We represent only the highest quality and most reliable product lines. Our expertise can furnish unique solutions to the most difficult acoustical design problems, including quad mix-down rooms, mastering studios and remote trucks. All of our designs provide tailored frequency responses to suit your specific requirements. Accept our invitation to contact us and discuss your studio needs. 14045 Sherman Way, Van Nuys, California 91405 / (213) 873-4447 www.americanradiohistory.com Swiss performance at American prices has made the ELECTRO SOUND 505 the new standard of the tape recording world. It isn't surprising when you consider the Electro Sound tradition of excellence and high reliability that has made us the world's leading manufacturer of professional high-speed tape duplicators. It certainly isn't surprising when precision performance like that of the ES-505 comes at one half the price of the most expensive European and domestic machines. Why has the ES-505 met with instant acceptance the world over? Because of modest price coupled with "operator engineered" features found nowhere else. Like a disappearing headgate for easy editing and cleaning. A built-in audio oscillator to speed alignment and testing. Optical motion sensing to prevent tape damage. Improved timing accuracy. Extremely low wow and flutter. And the time-proven reliability of disc brakes and a replaceable capstan idler, both developed originally for our tape duplicators. Add to this an optional third reel to simplify tape handling and the world's only 1½ year extended parts warranty and you have reasons enough for the success of the Electro Sound ES-505. Send for a brochure and all the specs. You'll like what you see. ELECTRO SOUND® 725 Kifer Road Sunnyvale, CA 94086 (408) 245-6600 International distribution by Audiomatic Corporation: 1290 Avenue of the Americas New York, NY 10019 4, rue Ficatier 92400 Courbevoie France (Paris) Latin American export by Telemerica, Incorporated: 25 West 43rd Street New York, NY 10036 The SPECTRA SONICS Model 700 Power Amplifier provides the “MUSCLE” for bi/tri/quad amplification in sound reinforcement systems up to thousands of watts. SPECTRA SONICS sound reinforcement systems, powered by SPECTRA SONICS Model 700, are preferred by most discriminating organizations, such as: HARRAH’S, Lake Tahoe ABC ENTERTAINMENT CENTER SHUBERT THEATRE HOLLYWOOD BOWL WASHINGTON COLOSSEUM SIX FLAGS OVER MID AMERICA BLOSSOM MUSIC CENTER PAUL ANKA PRODUCTIONS AQUARIUS THEATRE MIKE CURB CONGREGATION NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY ONTARIO PLACE System reliability is enhanced and maintenance problems minimal through use of an amplifier that is interchangeable throughout the system! A sound reinforcement system with SPECTRA SONICS Model 700 Power Amplifiers and associated SPECTRA SONICS designed ancillary equipment is modestly priced. For a cost quote on a complete sound reinforcement system to meet your needs, call or write: 770 WALL AVENUE OGDEN, UTAH 84404 (801) 392-7531 6430 SUNSET BLVD., SUITE 1117 HOLLYWOOD, CALIFORNIA 90028 (213) 461-4321 SPECTRA SONICS LEADER IN ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY RECORDING engineer/producer - the magazine to exclusively serve the recording studio market... all those whose work involves the recording of commercially marketable sound. - the magazine produced to relate... RECORDING ART to RECORDING SCIENCE... to RECORDING EQUIPMENT. Editor/Publisher... MARTIN GALLAY Associate Editor... WAYNE YENTIS Engineering Editors...... RON MALO WILLIAM ROBINSON GARY DAVIS Business Manager..... V.L. GAFFNEY Circulation Manager LARRY DOUGLAS Reader Service Manager....... SHARON LARSON Assistant Editor.. MARGE ANDERSON RECORDING engineer/producer is published bi-monthly and is sent free to qualified recipients in the United States. Subscriptions for other than qualified individuals or companies may be purchased at $6.50 per year. (All foreign subscriptions: $7.50 per year.) Material appearing in R-e/p may not be reproduced without written permission of the Publisher. RECORDING engineer/producer is not responsible for any claim made by any person based upon the publication by RECORDING engineer/producer of material submitted for publication. Controlled circulation postage paid at Los Angeles, California. RECORDING engineer/producer 6430 Sunset Boulevard P.O. Box 2287 Hollywood, Ca. 90028 (213) 461-7907 album production analysis: GOATS HEAD SOUP an indepth interview with Rolling Stones' producer JIMMY MILLER 15 Paul Laurence BACKGROUND NOISE REDUCTION ... practical aspects and alternatives 35 Stan Polinsky ... thoughts on QUAD MIXING 47 James Cunningham Bruce Swedien the new (AUDIO) home of the GRAND OLE OPRY 55 Wayne Yentis Letters and Late News 10 New Products 65 Classified 70 The Cover: A combination of double exposures: the U-87 over a brilliantly lighted pressing, and the VU meters over a rack of Kepex by GARY DAVIS creates the cover montage. Photo credits: Jimmy Miller by Gary Davis Opryland (as noted) by: Gordon H. Schenck, Jr. Box 4203 Charlotte, N.C. 28204 Opryland by Wayne Yentis THIS ISSUE SPONSORED BY THE FOLLOWING ADVERTISERS \| Page \| AKG \| 34 \| \|------\|-----\|----\| \| \| ALLISON \| 8 \| \| \| AMBER \| 36 \| \| \| AMPLEX \| 12-13 \| \| \| API \| 52 \| \| \| AUDIO DESIGNS \| 39-42 \| \| \| AUDIO INDUSTRIES \| 19 \| \| \| AUDITRONICS \| 33 \| \| \| BOSS \| 50 \| \| \| CETEC \| 58 \| \| \| COMMUNITY LT & SND \| 61 \| \| \| COUNTRYMAN \| 61 \| \| \| DBX \| 51 \| \| \| ELECTRO SOUND \| 5 \| \| \| ELECTRO-VOICE \| 14, 49 \| \| \| EVERYTHING AUDIO \| CVR 2 \| \| \| FRAP \| 36 \| \| \| GARNER \| 63 \| \| \| GATELY \| 48 \| \| \| GOTVAM \| 11 \| \| \| HAECO \| 67 \| \| \| INOVONICS \| 51 \| \| \| McGREW \| 70 \| \| Page \| MILAM AUDIO \| 9 \| \|------\|-------------\|---\| \| \| MODULAR AUDIO \| 37 \| \| \| MRL \| 47 \| \| \| NEVE \| 54 \| \| \| OTARI \| 64 \| \| \| ORBAN/PARASOUND \| 18 \| \| \| QUAD-EIGHT \| 28-29 \| \| \| SCULLY \| 46 \| \| \| SESCOM \| 50 \| \| \| SHURE \| CVR 4 \| \| \| SPECTRA SONICS \| 6, 69 \| \| \| SPHERE \| 36 \| \| \| STUDER \| 37 \| \| \| STUDIO SUPPLY \| CVR 3 \| \| \| TABER \| 53 \| \| \| TASCAM \| 26, 45 \| \| \| TELEFUNKEN/GOTHAM \| 11 \| \| \| 3-M \| 17 \| \| \| UREI \| 10, 70 \| \| \| WESTLAKE \| 21-24 \| \| \| WAREHOUSE SALES \| 57 \| R-e/p 7 have it your way, OK. LOOK. TAKE OUT THE STRINGS ON THE SECOND EIGHT OF THE FIRST VERSE, RAISE THE HORNS ON THE "DO DUM DUMS", BRING UP THE VOCAL GROUP ON THE "LA-LA'S" BUT KEEP THEM DOWN ON THE "LU-LU'S". THE LEAD VOICE IS FLAT ON THE FIRST EIGHT OF THE SECOND VERSE, SO TAKE HIM OUT AND BRING UP THE FLUGEL HORN. THE BRIDGE IS WEAK SO LET'S RE-STRUCTURE THE WHOLE MIX AT THE SECOND EIGHTH NOTE OF BAR TWO. YOU KNOW, BASS, GUITAR AND DRUMS UP, STRINGS AND HORNS OUT, AND START PANNING EVERYTHING ELSE IN CIRCLES, BUT WATCH THE "LA-LA'S" AND "LU-LU'S". BY THE WAY, IF YOU DON'T GET IT RIGHT THIS TIME I'M GOING TO HIT YOU WITH THIS WRENCH!!! or ours!! memories little helper + your console = AUTOMATED MIXING allison research inc nashville, tennessee [615] 385-1760 For the past 36 months, Milam Audio has been instrumental in the development of "2000 tracks" at dozens of locations throughout the nation. No! We didn't say, "dozens of locations with 2000 tracks," we said, "2000 tracks at dozens of locations." This incredible track record is topped only by the success of Milam Audio clients. To date, not a single facility has closed its doors from lack of business. What can Milam Audio offer YOU? HOW ABOUT? — A fully equipped 16/24 track studio for your personnel to train in, if desired. HOW ABOUT? — An installation so advanced, converting your equipment into a high-level remote system takes just minutes. If remoting is not desired—expansion, trouble shooting, and service becomes simple and pleasant. HOW ABOUT? — Acoustical design that leaves little to be desired, while costing you less time and money. HOW ABOUT? — A dealer that is financially stable, that will be around to help you for many years. Our business is your success. HOW ABOUT? — Contacting us for your next project. "We're more than just pretty faces." MILAM AUDIO WISHES TO THANK \| Zenith Cinema Service \| Chicago, Ill. \| \| Curton Records "Curtis Mayfield" \| Chicago, Ill. \| \| Sound House \| Chicago, Ill. \| \| P.S. Recording \| Chicago, Ill. \| \| Pumpkin Recording \| Chicago, Ill. \| \| Paragon Recording \| Chicago, Ill. \| \| ACME Recording \| Chicago, Ill. \| \| Northern Ill. University \| DeKalb, Ill. \| \| Crusade Enterprises \| Flora, Ill. \| \| Illini Records \| Springfield, Ill. \| \| Castle Recording \| Lake Geneva, Wis. \| \| TRC \| Ind., Indiana \| \| Grand Funk Railroad \| Flint, Michigan \| \| Hellfrich Recording \| Allentown, Pa. \| \| Appalacsha Sound \| Chillicothe, Ohio \| \| The Way Inc. \| New Knoxville, Ohio \| \| Cathedral Of Tomorrow \| Akron, Ohio \| \| Communico \| St. Louis, Mo. \| \| Fran Hunt Creative Services \| St. Louis, Mo. \| \| Gold Future Prod \| St. Louis, Mo. \| \| Track Master Inc. \| St. Louis, Mo. \| \| RCA Record Corp \| New York, N.Y. \| \| RCA Record Corp \| Nashville, Tenn. \| \| RCA Record Corp \| Hollywood, Ca. \| \| Mo-West \| Tulsa, Okla. \| \| Shelter Records \| Tulsa, Okla. \| \| Leon Russel. \| Omaha, Neb. \| \| Sound Recorders \| Kansas City, Mo. \| \| UPC Recording \| Omaha, Neb. \| \| Triad Productions \| Des Moines, Iowa \| \| Kjjack Records \| Carlisle, Iowa \| \| West Minist'r Sound \| Ford Dodge, Iowa \| \| Brians Recording \| Tyler, Texas \| \| Latin Sound Recording \| New York, N.Y. \| \| Sounds Unlimited \| Flint, Mi. \| \| Cam Interprises. \| Okla. City, Okla. \| \| Dynamie Recording \| Pittsburg, Kansas \| \| Masden's Recording \| Louisville, Kentucky \| \| A-tie Fields Productions \| Detroit, Mi. \| \| Ironside Productions. \| Nashville, Tenn. \| \| Save Productions \| Temple Terrace, Florida \| Milam Audio Co. 700 West Main St. So. Pekin, Ill. 61564 309 / 348.3112 348-9605 Circle No. 105 Our Model 527-A Active Equalizer Has 27 Keys To Sound Health 27 precise vertical equalizer controls displayed on the front panel of its 3-1/2 x 19 inch package, which show off graphically the 40 Hz to 16 kHz response correction you introduce to cure sick room-equalization deficiencies of sound reinforcement or playback systems. Each precision equalizer is centered on a standard ISO 1/3 octave frequency, making the 527-A compatible with all current measuring equipment for room equalization. As a creative tool, it offers the studio engineer command of the audio spectrum for contouring or correction. The 527-A is an active device, - no insertion loss. Each equalizer is continuously variable from -10 dB to +10 dB. You'll sound better after you use one. Available through your UREI dealer. From: HAM H. BROSIOUS PRESIDENT AUDIO-TECHNIQUES, INC. 142 HAMILTON AVENUE STAMFORD, CONN. 06902 We appreciate, very much, the opportunity R-e/p has offered for AUDIO-TECHNIQUES, as another of the major studio builders, to present an Eastern approach to studio acoustics and design as practiced by our company. In order to establish a good approach to this project we analyzed the excellent articles R-e/p has recently published on the topic, beginning with... GEORGE AUGSPURGER's informative piece on his design work at Village Recorders... then on to TOM HIDLEY's fine job on the historical background of Westlake's current acoustic practices... and most recently, DAVE HARRISON's common sense studio construction article that is loaded with valuable tips. Well, after considerable reading, re-reading, studying and comparing the articles by these three experts (and, believe me, we mean experts... these guys are really tops in the field!), we began to realize that for the most part we were sitting there nodding our heads and agreeing with them... (and not only that, they seemed to agree pretty much among themselves). And, we were well on the way to writing a "me too" article. Let us point out just a few examples and maybe you can see the problem. (1) A symmetrical control room is a must! Augspurger... "make the left and right halves of the room identical." Hidley... "The slightest departure from room symmetry can detract from uniform acoustic performance." (2) Control room ceilings should be false! Harrison... "a trapped false ceiling is installed approximately 8 feet above the platform to totally attenuate the vertical mode of the room." Augspurger... "the false ceiling is low, right over the console... that's part of the basic approach." (3) Control room ceilings should be "V" shaped. Hidley... "the ceiling would slope down toward the mixer... and slope up just ahead of him, behind him or right overhead. This was effective and helped break up the floor to ceiling standing waves." Augspurger . . . "The angled ceiling does double duty . . . the area above it becomes a bass trap and the geometry of the angle is designed to break up the floor to ceiling standing waves." (4) Carpet is good! Hidley . . . "A floor with dense carpet will attenuate these sounds sufficiently . . ." Harrison . . . "An absorbent carpet on the floor is beneficial . . ." (5) Control Room Monitor equalization is primarily for correction of monitor deviations. Augspurger . . . "accidental overloads, horrendous operating levels . . . these things (monitors) will shift dramatically over two to three months." Hidley . . . "the primary reason (for eq.) is to correct for drift when loudspeakers begin to deviate . . ." (6) Traps, resonators, absorbers can go almost anyplace . . . but the back of the control room is a good place to start! Harrison . . . "the control room rear wall is trapped to the extent necessary to properly control the front to back room mode . . ." Hidley . . . "placing broad band traps behind the mixer did a fine job of keeping the low frequencies from bouncing around the room." Augspurger . . . "The rear wall is usually made as absorptive as possible down to the low frequency region." Our point is that these gentlemen are truly representative of the current thinking in studio design and we are sure R-e/p isn't looking for us to write a piece that in some devilishly clever way manages to say in some different manner the same thing our friends have already written. (Who needs that?) And, speaking of studio design, if anyone reading this is about to get a studio project under way, the six items compared previously are a pretty good initial checklist. (or call George, or Tom, or Dave . . . or me) . . . 'EVERYTHING AUDIO' BOWS As announced by founder BRIAN CORNFIELD the new studio design, construction and service organization will headquartered at 14045 SHERMAN WAY, VAN NUYS, CA. 91405. Telephone: (213) 873-4447. Cornfield, well known in studio circles, had previously been associated with Westlake Audio and Custom Fidelity in Los Angeles. He will be assisted by longtime associate Annette Saldana, who had also been with Westlake and Custom Fidelity. ALTEC REALIGNMENT OF PROFESSIONAL SOUND PRODUCTS RESPONSIBILITIES ANNOUNCED As announced by W. F. Gannon, corporate vice president, operations, of Altec Corp., a number of new assignments, of interest to the professional audio market, have been announced. Charles E. VanLiew has been appointed as vice president-general manager of the Sound Products Division. Robert Ruffkahr, promoted to vice president, marketing, for the Sound Products Division. Mark Engebretson, promoted to director of new product development, Sound Products Division. Succeeding Engebretson as marketing manager, Professional Products, is Jerry Hogerson. Gotham Audio takes a progressive step backward. Back to the basics in tape recorder design. When the best solution to a problem was the simplest. Because the simplest is usually the most reliable and the easiest to maintain. The Telefunken M 12 "Magnetophon" is the result of over thirty years devoted to making the best better. With the price of IC's and transistors so low, this generation of engineers has been tempted to smother a problem rather than solve it. Telefunken solved the problem of mechanical tape motion control when they first invented the tape recorder in the early forties. And their engineers have been refining it, making it simpler and more elegant ever since. They've gotten to the point where there is just not much left to go wrong, and look what they provide: A unique mechanical servo system on both reels maintains constant tape tension over the entire length of the tape. It also eliminates the need for brake solenoids. Typical weighted peak flutter: ± 0.02%. Telefunken's recently developed ter-rite heads and sintered ruby tape guides are so rugged that they are guaranteed for 15 years. Take a progressive step backward to Telefunken. You'll find the benefits that can come only from the experience of the world's first tape recorder manufacturer. And you'll get these benefits at just about the same cost that you pay for domestic professional recorders. GOTHAM AUDIO CORPORATION Headquarters 741 Washington St., New York, NY 10014 (212) 741-7411 West Coast Sales Office: 1710 N. LaBrea Ave., Hollywood, CA 90046 (213) 874-4444 www.americanradiohistory.com A very rugged tape recorder for a very delicate business Ampex designed the MM-1100 multi-channel tape recorder with your business in mind. We've been building professional recorders longer than anyone else, and we've learned that producers, engineers, and studio operators have a lot to worry about. So we build the one piece of equipment you can plug in and forget. Coddle your talent, if you must, but shove around your MM-1100 That's right, shove it around. That's why we put wheels on the MM-1100. Dolly it from studio to studio, or truck it across town. The heavy cast frame and solid steel cabinetwork will keep all the little parts and things where they belong, and the only "installation" routine you'll go through is to plug in the power and input lines. Pinch your pennies, hoard your dollars, but squander your discrete channels One MM-1100 can give you 24 tracks. Two of them hooked up together with a synchronizer will give you 46 channels. That's enough to mike your setup for left-and-right running water, if you want it that way. And with all that channel capacity, you can save plenty of channels for sweetening, later additions, and a last-minute background by a hundred voice choir. Three heads are better than one when you can change them yourself Ampex makes 24-channel, 16-channel, and 8-channel head assemblies for the MM-1100, and changing them is as easy as turning one thumb screw and swapping units. Touch up the equalization and get on with the session. No need to worry about tape tension adjustments because that's all done automatically by the MM-1100 transport mechanism. Never enough time, never enough tape. But we handle a 16" reel of two-inch easily The tape transport in the MM-1100 is a real grizzly bear. It has plenty of control power, even when the reel is a sixteen-incher loaded with 2" tape. And even with all that mass to control, the capstan servo zeroes in on synchronizer commands fast enough to use two MM-1100s in parallel for the 46-channel stuff you always wanted to try. Your maintenance guy can work banker's hours because our "doctor" makes house calls Ampex field service sells a lot of equipment for us. We build a fantastic machine, and it almost never develops a problem. If it does, however, you'll appreciate our policy of having service engineers who know both our product and your industry. They're available to keep your group together and working. The business gives you a headache; Ampex gives you a tape you can sell Full technical specifications are in our MM-1100 brochure, which we'll be glad to send you free. Working models are in studios all around you, and if you don't have a friend who'll let you inspect his MM-1100, we'll arrange a demonstration. In fact, we'll do anything we can to get you rolling in the multi-track business, if you'll just tell us how we can help. In a delicate business like production recording, there just isn't any substitute for the Ampex MM-1100—a very rugged tape recorder. Freedom of choice! Professional sound has entered a new era. It started with the Electro-Voice Model RE15. And now there are four E-V dynamic cardioid microphones that share its distinctive advantages—with some unique benefits of their own. Unaffected by Distance . . . Angle Basic to all of these microphones is Exclusive Electro-Voice Continuously Variable-D* construction. Now it offers something you’ve never heard before with any microphone: no matter what you do, microphone response never varies! Whether performers almost swallow the microphone, wander far off-mike . . . or even move around to the back . . . you’ll still get the same smooth response. Only the level changes. Once you set equalization it remains constant. You have full assurance that tonal balance won’t change between the dress rehearsal and the final performance, no matter what the talent does. Improved Cardioid Pattern Only acoustics and noise can limit you. Yet even here these new E-V microphones gain an advantage from the super-cardioid pattern that provides better sound control than ordinary cardioids. With maximum rejection 150° off axis, it is easier to eliminate unwanted sound while maintaining normal stand or boom microphone positions. There’s also an integral bass-tilt circuit to cut rumble below 100 Hz. when needed. Now Select from Four Models In addition to the original RE15, we’ve added the RE16. The same fine microphone with an external “pop” filter to solve the problems of ultra-close miking. The new RE10 is the economy version of the RE15. The same concept and quality, but for slightly less rigid requirements. And the RE11 is the lower cost twin to the RE16. These four great cardioid microphones give you new freedom to head off sound problems before they start. Your E-V microphone headquarters has them waiting. Choose today. U.S. Patent No. 3,115,207. Trademark registered. ELECTRO-VOICE, INC., Dept. 941V 638 Cecil Street, Buchanan, Michigan 49107 Electro-Voice manufactures quality audio equipment for broadcast, recording, and sound reinforcement including all types of microphones, audio studio monitors, speakers and enclosures, sound systems and stands. Circle No. 109 www.americanradiohistory.com For years, I knew Jimmy Miller only through album credits. "Why is it," I wondered, "that I've never read one thing about him, or even seen a photo of him? Could it be that there really is no Jimmy Miller?" Perhaps it was a pseudonym for someone else, who wished his true identity kept secret. Maybe it was a cover for some sort of production company, composed of a half-dozen efficient but otherwise drab technical experts. I could not rule out the possibility that "Jimmy Miller" was a wholly fictitious person — the Stones playing a little joke on us all by conjuring up an imaginary associate (a la their early co-writer "Nanker Phelge"). Three years ago, I met and ultimately came to know the man behind the myths. To most, though, he remains a mystery. This is because he shies away from publicity, preferring to eschew the notoriety and self-aggrandizement potential of his position for the artistry of his craft. Still, this unorthodoxy hasn't prevented him from being one of the decade's most successful record producers. Since his first release back in 1966, he has gone on to produce some of the era's pre-eminent acts (among them being Traffic, Spooky Tooth, Blind Faith, Delaney & Bonnie, and the Rolling Stones), garnering 11 gold records in the process. The most recent Rolling Stones album, "Goats Head Soup," is maybe their most controversial ever. Alternately celebrated and damned, it nevertheless managed to attain and hold down "Billboard"'s No. 1 position for four weeks during October/November of 1973. "Soup" stands in notable contrast to the Stones' previous effort, "Exile On Main St.," in its "sound," arrangements, and mixes. "Soup" has maybe the richest sound of any Rolling Stones album — especially apparent in the piano, drums, and strings. "Exile," on the other hand, has maybe the thinnest sound of all their stereo LP's. Still, (in the tried-and-true Rolling Stones tradition) they both have what is commonly referred to as a "dirty" sound. This was achieved on each record by totally different means, however. "Exile" is dirty because it has so many tracks per song and not much "depth," resulting in a curious "one-dimensional" quality reminiscent of early stereo recordings. "Soup," however, has a very contemporary type of dirty sound, achieved through the use of studio ambience, leakage, tape delays and stereo mixing/mixing. Arrangement-wise, "Goats Head Soup" harkens back to earlier days. Most obviously, there is less brass, with longtime Stones sidemen Keys, Price, et al appearing on fewer cuts, usually with a much less prominent mix. Also, there is not the female chorus that was so evident on the previous album. Two of the songs even feature strings, an instrumentation not used since "Sticky Fingers" (1971). On "Goats Head Soup," Mick Jagger debuts on piano, and even sings some up-front harmonies to his lead vocal (again a technique not used for many years). Keith Richard, that all-important rhythm guitar, is back to playing Gibsons after a brief romance with Fenders on the previous album. On "Soup," lead guitarist Mick Taylor unveils his latest style, using wah-wah, phase shifting, and Leslie. As far as mixing goes, "Goats Head Soup" is a much more dynamic and visual record than its predecessor. Because of its sparser instrumentation, there was more room to experiment with stereo mixing/mixing and tape delays, creating a lot of "omnipresent" tracks whose placement within the stereophonic spectrum is difficult to ascertain. The album's vocals, though sometimes buried, are often clearly audible. The bass guitar, a lost casualty on "Exile," has been brought back up, occasionally being a tune's most "up-front" track. The drums are more prominent as well, with Charlie Watts receiving perhaps his widest stereo spread (the overall effect of which he tends to minimize by not moving around much). Of interest is the album's greater use of dynamic panning, which occurs on five of "Soup"'s 10 songs. Also reminiscent of earlier days ("Satanic Majesties" in particular), there are some laterally-placed background vocals. P.L. album production analysis: GOATS HEAD SOUP an indepth interview with Rolling Stones producer JIMMY MILLER by Paul Laurence PAUL LAURENCE: What were the circumstances surrounding the making of "Goats Head Soup?" JIMMY MILLER: It was done in two segments — late winter '72 and spring of '73. We chose to do it in Jamaica for a number of reasons, one being that the Stones couldn't record in Britain, as they're supposed to live and work out of the country for a couple of years. When you get right down to it, there aren't too many countries where you can get top notch recording facilities. Germany has pretty good studios, so does Japan. When you start to get into the other countries, you find that only the major label (like RCA or CBS) has adequate studios, and then they're usually pretty booked up. We prefer to use block booking, where you can have the studio day and night — any time you fancy going in, you can. Dynamic Studios in Kingston was very willing to do such a block booking for us. Also, it's a nice climate and area — a very musical country to begin with. There just always seemed to be music about. Jamaica has hundreds of record shops — there are probably more per capita than in any other country. If there are two in one block, for example, they try to drown each other out with their loudspeakers, just blasting reggae music out into the streets. As you walk along, one starts to take over before the other dissipates. It doesn't much matter because the records are so similar. When I was down there, the No. 1 song had been No. 1 six times — the same basic track slightly reworked! 1. "Gimme Some Lovin'"/"Blues In F" (United Artists 50108) by the Spencer Davis Group, released December 1966. PAUL LAURENCE: Were there any basic concepts or ideas you wanted to realize with "Goats Head Soup," or was it just another album? JIMMY MILLER: The first night I arrived in Jamaica, I remember Mick and I sat down and talked into the night about the album, and kind of reflected on the last one ("Exile on Main St."), which had been a lot of trouble. The only thing we were really shooting for was stronger material, which we all agreed was somewhat lacking with "Exile." PAUL LAURENCE: What were some of the problems with "Exile?" JIMMY MILLER: Well, first of all, it was recorded in a basement — the bottom of Keith's house in the south of France. We used the Stones' mobile truck, which is really a great truck. PL: Is that the same one that was in Britain? JM: Yes, the same one that was at Stargroves — that's Mick's house. The only thing about the truck is that its equipment is fine, but you can't make it sound better than the place you're using. Stargroves, for example, was lovely for recording. That great hall with all of its wood and that big bay window from floor to ceiling . . . PL: What tunes came out of that set-up? JM: "Bitch" was done at Stargroves, "Sway" — a good portion of "Sticky Fingers." Also "Bent Green Needles," which later became . . . "Sweet Black Angel." Anyway, in France we had problems with not finding an adequate place to record, finally settling on Keith's basement. It was very hot and humid, and not at all conducive to good sound. Another minus factor was that it didn't let the band play together as a unit. We were all spread out in different rooms — it wasn't one big basement, but several different rooms in fact. We ended up with Nicky (Hopkins) in the "Piano Room," a "Horn Room" with Jim (Price) and Bobby (Keys), etc. The way we had it set up, Bill (Wyman) had to stand out in the hall! This of course prevented them from playing off each other visually, you know, feeling the other players. The sound was really pretty bad, but what can you do? I think we were there from May till November, taking our time recording. We really worked to get the best sound out of the place we possibly could, but we were still aware that it wasn't what we were after or what we particularly liked. PL: I'm surprised that this situation, of all the others, would be the one to have generated a double album. JM: Yeah, it does seem a bit strange. I can tell you why, though. It was the first time that we ever had a situation where there was unlimited time — there were no deadlines. It was also the first time that we were all living that close together for that long a period of time. Charlie (Watts) was the farthest away — it was about a two-hour drive — but he used to stay at Keith's during the week and go home on weekends. Everyone else was within 15 minutes. You can see where the basic situation lent itself to a lot of tapes being done, despite all the sound problems. Personally, there aren't that many double albums that I'm fond of. I think that most could have made great single albums if only the best half had been used. I feel that way about "Exile on Main St." too. You know, someone will say, "Have you heard such-and-such a cut?" and you'll say, "Which one is that? — Oh yes, that's that one on side four. I haven't gotten there yet." It's hard to make a double album a living, breathing entity. Even with it being a double album, we had a lot of material left over. PL: Did any of those tunes appear on "Goats Head Soup?" JM: Surprisingly enough, no. I expected that when we went to Jamaica, we would be taking along some of those unused things and re-doing them or overdubbing them. We didn't because Mick and Keith had written some new songs, and were more keen on them. The left-over tracks were just thought of as being the weaker ones — better to go and get on with something new that you're excited about, rather than re-hash some old things. PL: What about the brass players — were they there for the basic tracks, or did they come in for two weeks of overdubbing? For my tastes, "Exile" has far too much brass. JM: Well basically it was because they were there. You know, we'll run through a tune and they'll be coming up with a horn line that's nice. Maybe the song doesn't need it, and you probably wouldn't use horns if you'd thought about it beforehand. But it's like playing in a ball game when you're a kid — you don't want to have to tell someone they have to sit this one out, 'cause they want to play too. You're aware that the horns are superfluous, but at the same time, it's all part of the atmosphere. I look at that album as the summer of '71. Somehow it was a long hot summer. PL: It seems to me that the Stones have fallen prey to a kind of "musical levelling" as far as their instrumentation goes. They used to really build their tracks from the ground up — "Lady Jane" for example had acoustic guitar, dulcimer, and harpsichord. Nowadays, there's almost always two guitars and piano, to where a lot of their songs begin to sound the same. JM: That's true, especially with "Exile." Much of this was because we were in France and we couldn't get the people who could play those other instruments. If you're recording in London or California, for example, and you want a steel guitar, you ask who's around and you can get a really good steel player. When you're in France, though, you've got to do it yourself. You're right, though — we fell into the trap of being locked into the same instrumentation instead of treating each song as a separate entity and developing it along those lines. PL: I guess the fact that Nicky Hopkins can play a good part to almost any song is also a contributing factor. Brian Jones, on the other hand, was much more limited as a keyboardist. JM: Yeah, when Nicky starts playing, your song immediately starts to sound like a polished, professional track. PL: I've always felt that the Stones let some "turkeys" out on "Exile." With the Beatles' double album also — you could tell that they really racked their brains to put something down. JM: It's true. We really had no material ready for "Exile." We recorded every night without having any definite songs — most of them were half blows that evolved into songs. That was another consistent problem with that album. continued Say "Hi" to Chris. You may never see him again. After your 3M Brand Series 79 Recorder is installed, you'll get a phone call. It'll be Chris Cabral (or one of the other factory-direct servicemen we've got blanketing the country) letting you know that he's going to be Johnny-on-the-spot when you need him. But we're doing everything we can to make sure that you never need him. With every Series 79 Professional Audio Recorder, you still get the same performance that has set the standards for tape speed accuracy, flutter and wow, and signal-to-noise specs. (Qualified studios may request Series 79 demonstrations.) And now we've put together what may be the tightest quality control program in the industry. So the next time you're in one of those hairy middle-of-the-night sessions when everything else seems to have come to pieces and you'd like to shoot the piano player, you'll find your Series 79 recorder hanging right in there. At 2:00 AM, Chris wouldn't want it any other way. Professional Audio Products. 3M Center, St. Paul, Minnesota 55101. Tel: 612/733-7323 or 612/733-0803. Service centers in Los Angeles, Memphis, Chicago, Detroit, New York, San Francisco, Camarillo, Rixxle Island, Pennsylvania, Texas, Georgia, Washington (DC) and St. Paul. (at this point, the "blindfold test" was initiated and "Goats Head Soup" was put on) "DANCING WITH MR. D" JM: Back to Jamaica! That's Keith on rhythm. The double tracked lead is Mick Taylor, playing through a Leslie. PL: The Stones really don't feature lead guitar, except for maybe three or four solos per album. Mick Taylor seems to always be in the background or at the end, snaking around. Myself, I think that's a stronger basic concept—a rhythm guitar band versus a lead guitar band. How did you get so much depth on this album? Was that the intent—to have a lot of leakage—or did it just happen? JM: Our studio set-up, I guess, had a lot to do with it. We didn't put up a lot of baffling and stuff—the band pretty much set up like it was a live show. I might add that the baffles we did use weren't even real baffles—they were just homemade cushions or pieces of foam that we kind of threw around the amps. As a result, there was a lot of leakage, but it was the kind of leakage that helps their sound. PL: Is that Mick doing those screams? JM: No—I was hoping you'd ask that, though. Originally, we planned to have a chick come in and do that part. Instead, Mick got a hold of this tape from Hammer Films. It was of a chick who was auditioning to do some screaming for them. It was so funny, 'cause it had all these different kinds of screams on it—a whole production of screams! You'd hear the director say, "Okay, dear, are you ready?" and she'd say, "Yes," and he'd say, "All right, we're rolling," and then she'd let out this bloodcurdling scream. It was so funny, she even started laughing at one point. "100 YEARS AGO" JM: "100 Years Ago" was one of those tracks that didn't mix well. Needless to say, it was the track I was most sick of hearing by the time we were all finished. Also, this was the one where the bass was so out of tune. We must have done the bass 20 times on this track, in Jamaica, at Village, back in England... PL: From the chording, I would guess that this is primarily Mick's song. Is that right? JM: Yeah. PL: To what extent do Mick and Keith collaborate on each other's songs? JM: They don't really "collaborate" in the traditional sense of the word. They independently write songs, or bits of songs, which they put down on cassettes. When they get together, each will help the other finish or polish up the other's tunes. For example, Keith will bring in a song where he's got the story and the refrain figured out, but needs some of Mick's really nice visual lyrics for the verses. Mick quite often writes on piano rather than guitar, but when he plays it for Keith, Keith'll come up with a riff or a hook that will really help the song—give it something that it didn't have as just a piano demo. This is how most of their tunes are written, at least since I've known them. It's really kind of a refining process, rather than them starting from scratch together. PL: As far as lead guitarists go, I would imagine that Mick Taylor is one of the hardest to mix, because he's always changing his volume and his circuits. You can tell that he's been "mixed" when his guitar is at the same level but the distortion level has changed. JM: Yes. He's always being told to turn down, but he never really does. PL: Were there any cuts between the three segments of this song? JM: No, we did them all in the same take. We said, "We could add them, but that's kind of cheating," so all the tempo changes were done live like this. PL: Do you remember who's on bass here? JM: Keith, I think. PL: Why did the guitarists play so much --- The Orban/Parasound Parametric Equalizer, Model 621 costs just $299/channel in the two-channel format. Yet it offers important features which its more expensive competitors lack. Up to 16dB boost is available, and the cut goes all the way to minus infinity. This, in addition to the availability of four totally non-interacting bands, means that the same equalizer can be used for simultaneous broadband equalization and notch filtering in recording, cinema, broadcast, or sound reinforcement. We have chosen to make our equalization curves "constant Q" rather than reciprocal. This way, extremes of equalization stay musically useful instead of becoming intolerably peaky and ringy. Like the competition, we provide continuously variable tuning and equalization controls for each band. But unlike some others, we also provide continuously variable bandwidth control. And each band's tuning range of 4-2 octaves with constant bandwidth yields broad overlaps between bands to further increase versatility. Add low noise and distortion, front panel gain control, click-free in/out switching, peak-stretching overload light, and extensive human engineering, and you've got the most cost-effective professional equalizer available today—one that offers almost limitless freedom and control over sonic timbre. The Orban/Parasound 621 Parametric gives you the power to get things really right. Also inquire about our Spring Reverb, Dynamic Sibilance Controller, and Stereo Synthesizer. For further information, contact Orban/Parasound 680 Beach St., San Francisco, Ca. 94109 (415) 776-2808 or your local Orban/Parasound distributor. bass on this album? JM: Bill was a few days late to Jamaica — a couple of the tracks he's not on are because of this. Also, occasionally Keith will sometimes almost write something with a bass, like "Live With Me," and say, "I'd like to play bass on this one because I know exactly what I'm after." Billy (Preston) was a great help on this album. He picks up so quickly on things — you know, Mick'll play him a song one time and he'll go over to the piano or the clavinet and have it all figured out. His time, his groove is always so good. "COMING DOWN AGAIN" JM: That's me on scraper. PL: What's that instrument really called? JM: A guida? Gouda? I've also heard it called an oard. We used it in "Gimme Shelter" too. PL: That piano is all over. Do you have a lot of delays going? JM: Yes, I'm sure we do. Still, the real problem was that we were picking up so much guitar and drums over the piano mikes. We had the lid down as far as it could go, with the mikes stuck inside. PL: Do you do your delays at the time of recording? JM: Usually all types of echo are done afterwards. We may do it for monitoring, but it's not on the tape. Once it's on tape, you can never take it away if you change your mind. PL: When you're cutting a basic track, does Keith sing live? JM: No, because he's trying to concentrate on his playing. Lots of times Mick will sing for the cans even though Keith will be doing the final vocal. PL: After years of resisting, I've really come to love Keith's singing. JM: Me too. There's a funny story behind how he started singing lead. Mick was in Australia making "Ned Kelly," and I was finishing mixing "Let It Bleed" with Glyn (Johns). We wanted to backward echo a bottleneck guitar track — you do this by turning the tape over and recording your echo on an open track. When you play the tape right-side-up, the echo is backwards. Glyn forgot that when you turn the tape upside down, the track order is reversed, and accidentally erased Mick's lead vocal. As Mick couldn't get away, Keith went in and sang it. The song was "You Got The Silver" — it worked out great in the end, really a very fortunate accident. PL: Aren't the saxes here at (placement) points 2 and 4? JM: They could very well be. With the Stones, we rarely send something to one side only. They don't like a real stereo stereo — they like more of a wall of sound without the holes. So many of their things actually sound better in mono. PL: Charlie's really good here. A funny thing about him — he's nowhere near the best technically, but at times he sounds like the best drummer in the world. He's got a definite power, which is more than the sum total of his time and his riffs and his concepts. JM: It's true. I've worked with a lot of drummers — a lot of great drummers — but no one is better for the Stones than Charlie. I just can't see them with anyone else. He's got a very distinctive style. Some of his breaks are so funny because he almost doesn't make it. Somehow though, he does. He just can't believe he's where he is. If he had more confidence in himself . . . then he wouldn't really be Charlie, I guess. "DOO DOO DOO DOO DOO (HEARTBREAKER)" PL: One of the amazing things about this tune, something I've really only heard on Stones' records, is that you manage to give the brass a demonic, scary sound. JM: That goes for "Bitch" also. PL: What effects did Mick Taylor use for the solo? JM: I think we did that in the mix, really. Maybe a bit of phasing. PL: About how many backing vocals are here? JM: Mick and Keith probably overdubbed three or four times — maybe eight voices in all. PL: In the last two albums, they seem to favor what I call the "angry mob" approach with the backing vocals. They don't make it sound like individual voices as much as a group of people standing around a microphone. "Sweet Virginia" had this too. "ANGIE" JM: This was originally Keith's song, believe it or not. It was "Anita, I need ya." Mick's voice was sped up a little on this track. DISCOGRAPHY BLIND FAITH BLIND FAITH (Atco SD 33-304), Jimmy Miller, July 1969 Do What You Like (Ginger Baker) Had To Cry Today (Steve Winwood) Presence Of The Lord (Eric Clapton) Sea Of Joy (Steve Winwood) THE ROLLING STONES AFTERMATH (London PS 476), Andrew Loog Oldham, May 1966 Lady Jane (Mick Jagger; Keith Richard) BEGGARS BANQUET (London PS 539), Jimmy Miller, November 1968 Street Fighting Man (Mick Jagger; Keith Richard) Sympathy For The Devil (Mick Jagger; Keith Richard) EXILE ON MAIN ST. (Rolling Stones COC 2-2900), Jimmy Miller, May 1972 Casino Boogie (Mick Jagger; Keith Richard) Happy (Mick Jagger; Keith Richard) Sweet Black Angel (Mick Jagger; Keith Richard) Sweet Virginia (Mick Jagger; Keith Richard) Tumbling Dice (Mick Jagger; Keith Richard) LET IT BLEED (London NPS 4), Jimmy Miller, November 1969 Gimme Shelter (Mick Jagger; Keith Richard) Live With Me (Mick Jagger; Keith Richard) Monkey Man (Mick Jagger; Keith Richard) You Can't Always Get What You Want (Mick Jagger; Keith Richard) You Got The Silver (Mick Jagger; Keith Richard) STICKY FINGERS (Rolling Stones COC 59100), Jimmy Miller, April 1971 Bitch (Mick Jagger; Keith Richard) Sister Morphine (Mick Jagger; Keith Richard) Sway (Mick Jagger; Keith Richard) You Got To Move (Fred McDowell) THEIR SATANIC MAJESTIES REQUEST (London NPS 2), The Rolling Stones, December 1967 THROUGH THE PAST, DARKLY (BIG HITS VOL. 2) (London NPS 3), Andrew Loog Oldham, Jimmy Miller, and The Rolling Stones, August 1969 Honky Tonk Women (Mick Jagger; Keith Richard) Jumpin' Jack Flash (Mick Jagger; Keith Richard) TRAFFIC MR. FANTASY (United Artists UAS 6651), Jimmy Miller, March 1968 Hole In My Shoe (Dave Mason) ARTIST ALBUM (Label and Code Number), Producer, American Release Date Song (Author) I said, "How about Mick Taylor?" and Mick said, "Oh, he's terrible!" . . . It turned out to be a completely different Mick Taylor! PL: Was that due to your slowing the track down so Mick could hit some of the high notes? JM: The key was a little high, yeah. PL: Why didn't you tune the guitars and bass down and have Mick sing to it in a slightly lower key? Then you could have VSO'ed it up to overdub the piano, and Mick's voice would have its normal timbre. JM: Because we didn't realize any of this until the track was finished and we got around ot the vocal. Also, maybe because Keith was originally going to sing it, and it would have been all right for him. PL: I really like these strings — the way they creep in and out. Another interesting thing is that you heightened the emotional pitch by using a low instead of a high string part. Generally, how are the string part created — does Mick call up Paul Buckmaster or Nicky Harrison and say, "Write me an arrangement for this song," or does he try to work a specific idea out with them? JM: Closer to the latter. He likes to get together with them and hum or sing some lines that he can hear the strings doing. For some parts though, he'll say, "Do whatever you feel" — he gives them some leeway as well. PL: Who's on bass here? JM: I think it's Bill but I'm not sure. Often, one of the guitarists will play the bass live, and Bill will come in later and re-do it. To further complicate things, he'll occasionally pick up on some of the riffs that Keith or Mick Taylor played, so the bass track is often a real "group effort." "SLIVER TRAIN" JM: This tune was written originally for Johnny Winter, as Mick promised him a song. They cut a rough demo for him, which turned out so good that they decided to do the song on their own album. As a matter of fact, this is that demo. PL: Offhand, I can't think of any artist who's had a bigger hit with a Jagger/Richard tune than the Stones. "HIDE YOUR LOVE" JM: This was the one track that wasn't done in Jamaica — it was done at Olympic. continued on page 25 from acoustic design to downbeat... recording studios by Westlake Audio "The Gold Record People" PL: I noticed that in a couple of other places — “100 Years Ago” and “Angie.” When and how were the strings done? JM: We did them back in England, at Olympic. I think there were eight violins, four cellos, and two violas — something like that. Each part was doubled, for a total of about 28 actual instruments. “CAN YOU HEAR THE MUSIC” JM: Mick brought in that bit of tape, that “jungle music,” which we later faded into the song during the mixdown. PL: I was hoping that the Stones would have embraced a little more of the local influences than they did on this album. JM: I think it was because they had the songs ready this time. If it had been more like France, that probably would have happened. PL: Did you get a chance to hear much of the local music? JM: Not a whole lot, because we spent so much time in the studio. We’d usually go in twice a day. We’d get up around five in the afternoon, eat, go into the studio, come back before the kitchen closed at 11:00 to have dinner, and then go back in for more recording. That organ is Leslie’d. We used a lot of VSO’ing on those background voices — up and down. PL: To what per cent were they varied? JM: Quite a bit, almost to the Mickey Mouse point on the high ones. PL: At what point does it become “Mickey Mouse”? JM: Well, it depends on the tempo of the song to begin with. Generally though, I’d say at around a step-and-a-half up. “STAR STAR” JM: After “Goats Head Soup” was finished, the label pulled an old London Records trick on us and said that they didn’t want to use this song, whose real title is “Starfucker.” They finally said that we could use it if we changed the title and remixed it and kept the voice down. We wanted to remix it anyway, because we weren’t especially pleased with the original mix, but there was no real effort to put the voice any lower. It was taken back in and they said, “Oh, that’s better.” PL: Was this vocal done live? JM: No. Mick always does a vocal live for reference — for the cans — but this particular vocal track was re-dubbed. He doesn’t like to use a booth — he prefers to be right out with the band using a hand-held mike. That’s how come you can sometimes hear the leakage from the original vocal. PL: Is this Bill Wyman on bass? JM: Yeah. He plays great Chuck Berry. The solo is Keith playing through a fuzz, with heavy limiting. PL: What happens to the song right here? It sounds like a locomotive is driving through? JM: A lot of sounds you hear, a lot of those weird things that happen are accidental. You can sometimes trace them to the echoes you’re using — we often have quite a lot of tape loops running when we’re doing a final mix. I really can’t describe it too well, but it happens when you’re feeding a bit too much and the signal starts ganging up on the repeater. PL: Is this what happened on “Had To Cry Today”? JM: Very possibly. I must tell you though, I was brought in at the 11th hour on that album (“Blind Faith”). Originally, they wanted to produce it all themselves. One day, Chris Blackwell called me up and said, “The album is just about finished, but the boys really feel now that they’d like to have somebody independent come in.” It turned out that the album had to go to New York in something like four days, because it had to be out to coincide with the tour and all that. PL: So you spent four days without sleeping. JM: Right. I went down to Olympic to hear what they’d done, and they brought up something like 38 boxes of tape, most of which was jams! Anyway, we quickly re-did a couple of things — “Presence Of The Lord,” “Sea of Joy,” “Do What You Like” — and did extensive editing on the rest. With two nights left, it was still unmixed. I mixed all of side one one night and all of side two the next night. After that ordeal, I was really numb. When I got a pressing, I remember putting it on the turntable, playing about 30 seconds and thinking it was just horrible. I was very embarrassed about it, never played it in my home, and generally did my best to forget about the whole thing. A few months later, I got the biggest royalty check I had ever gotten! Still, I really don’t like doing something this way. I was down on the “Blind Faith” record because I felt, knowing what was in the group, that I could have done a much better job had I been involved since the beginning. It was great to work with Eric, though — I always loved his playing. Even when everybody was raving about Hendrix, I always felt that Eric was really the better player. Under any circumstances, it’s good to see him re-emerge. He’s one of those people who seems to be doing about 1/10 of what you wish he was doing, or what you’ve always felt he had the ability to do. Steve (Winwood) is another one. PL: He’s certainly not short on talent. JM: When he was 15 — when I first met him — I imagined he would be one of the all-time musical geniuses. He’s gone through his share of changes though, like everyone else. With Traffic, there were always fights with Dave (Mason). Dave’s philosophy was that when you’re in the studio, you should utilize it, while Steve never wanted to do in the studio what he couldn’t go out and play onstage — two very different schools of thought. Being a studio person myself, I’m inclined to agree with Dave. Still, I never wanted to take sides, but rather tried to let each understand the other’s thinking. The compromise was usually that Dave would have final say with his tunes, and Steve with his. PL: Getting back to the Stones, I’ve always felt that they’ve had some of the best and most diverse drum sounds ever recorded. Generally speaking, how do you set-up and mike the drumkit? JM: Well first of all, we use a D-40 for the bass drum. Because it gets such a good bottom response, you can use it on all kinds of bass-y instruments like bass guitar or African drums. African drums tend to be kind of toppy, but there’s also a bottom there if you can get it — that dead skin sound. Overhead we use a stereo U-67 — it gives a nice even stereo pan. For the rest, we usually use M-160s or sometimes an AKG directional whose number escapes me at the moment. PL: Do you dub the kit down after it’s on tape, or do you record it as you’ll be using it in the final mix? JM: We usually have a track for the bass drum, and then left and right sides, so we’ve got our stereo at the time of recording. Occasionally, we’ll take a high hat or a snare separately if we think we’ll want to play with them later. ... Continued Series 70 Recorder/Reproducers When you've got more talent than money TASCAM Series 70 recorder/reproducers were designed for people who've outgrown high-end consumer audio products but can't afford full professional studio gear. Whether you need single, two or four channels, you define the Series 70...it doesn't define you. Your choices are expanded instead of restricted without paying a performance penalty. The versatile Series 70 electronics come in two versions, one for direct recording and one for use with a mixing console like our Model 10. Either way you'll find uncommon quality and reliability. Series 70 recorder/reproducers. When you've got more talent than money. TASCAM CORPORATION 5440 McConnell Avenue Los Angeles, Calif. 90066 a whole new way to look at things. PL: What kind of EQ do you use? JM: A lot of midrange. PL: What about baffling? JM: We usually screen Charlie on three sides. Sometimes though, we take away the back baffle if the sound’s too “closed.” PL: Let’s talk about “Honky Tonk Women.” It’s the song I always think of when the subject of drum sounds comes up. JM: I was playing cowbell on that one, so a lot of the sound in this case was Glyn. PL: Was the cowbell done live? I’ve always wondered about that, ‘cause Charlie kind of “falls” into that first drum hit — I’ve never been able to figure out how you two got together. JM: Neither could we! It was one of those fluky things. That’s what we were talking about earlier — that’s Charlie. I started playing that figure, and when he came in I thought “That’s wrong — he’s got the time turned around completely,” yet somehow it came together. I remember that night in particular — we just happened upon a great drum sound. I think we may have used a bit of compression too. PL: Do the guitarists play through small amps in the studio? JM: Yeah, they do usually. Sometimes Keith will even use something as small as a Champ. PL: How about the bass? JM: We usually take it amp and direct, each on a separate track. Bass sounds are funny. It seems to be the instrument whose sound is the least consistent in the studio. You can go in one night and have a great bass sound, and the next night — you haven’t touched the set-up — it just isn’t there. Then you’ve got to really work on it. Problems aside, you’ll often need two channels of bass. Maybe with one you’ll be getting a good bottom end but not much “punch,” and vice versa with the other. Then you can combine them to get the best sound. PL: Also, you should know how that particular instrument will sound direct — some just sound too rinky-dink without an amplified channel. JM: Yeah. Sometimes we don’t use the direct channel at all. PL: How do you mike the piano? JM: Lately we’ve been using M-160’s. They’re good because they’re very directional — you can get just one side without picking up much of the other. Occasionally though, they’ll make the sound too “small.” When this happens, we switch to U-67s — big condenser mikes. They’re primarily vocal mikes, but they get a nice rich sound with piano. They’re not as directional as the M-160's — you can turn them all around and still get a pretty good sound. There were a couple of things on "Goats Head Soup" where we even ran the piano through an amp. The one track I can think of offhand where we did this was one we didn't use on the album — it was a calypso kind of thing. PL: How closely do you work with the engineer? JM: Very. I think it's important to have a good working relationship with your engineers. One of the reasons I'm not more of a technically-oriented producer than I am is because I've always had the good fortune to work with such good engineers. Glyn had worked with the Stones long before I got involved. I often just leave the "sound" aspect up to him because he's got it so down. This is why I can't answer all your questions as to exactly what we did — you know, Glyn or Andy will come up with a good sound and I'll say, "Great, don't change anything!" without ever having really looked at the settings. This frees me to concentrate on the performance aspect. Because we do have such a good relationship, when I want something special, they'll really break their asses to make me happy. With Andy, it's reached the point where he says that I'm the only producer he can work with. PL: Let's talk about the "Rolling Stones Sound," assuming there is such a thing. JM: Okay. A lot of technical people might say that the Stones have a really bad sound. It's strange, but they wouldn't sound good if they had what is usually thought of as a "good" sound. Certainly, people who never let the needle touch the red could never really record the Stones properly. Andy and I have talked about this often. His general feeling is that with a rock and roll band, you should try to get as much level onto the tape as possible. Of course, you don't want to get too far into distort, 'cause then the sound starts going the other way — it starts getting thin again. You want your sound fat! Like drums for example. Sometimes, when you can't get a decent drum sound, if you take the main mike gain knob (which at Olympic is in steps of 10dB) and move it one notch over till the drums are just... about breaking up, it can make all the difference in the world. PL:* Do you use a lot of limiting? JM: English engineers do use a lot of limiting. They’ll automatically limit guitars, bass, piano — I’m always asking Andy not to limit the piano quite so much, so it doesn’t sound so “boxy.” I think possibly this is an outgrowth of the acoustics of many British studios. With an American studio, the group goes out, sets up and starts playing, and when you lift the faders you’ve got quite a decent sound. In England, they’ll buy an old church or a pub — something that in the beginning had nothing to do with acoustical work — and then spend a lot of money on the electronics. With this kind of studio, when you lift the faders, the sound will be just horrible, in which case you really have to work on it. As a result, they’ve come to rely a lot more on EQ, compressors, and limiters to “create” the sound. In America, engineers will use a limiter on request. In England they do it as a matter of course. PL: Do you have any pet limiters, or a certain brand that you favor? JM: Well no, not per se. There was one though, that I really loved — we used it on a lot of Traffic records. It was a small Pye limiter that lived in the desk at Olympic. It was so great because it was broken — when you really wound it up it would suck so much that you’d swear it was backward tape. PL: Can you think of a particular tune you used it on? JM: “Hole In My Shoe” — the bass drum. One day, I went into the studio and there was a big hole where the limiter used to be. “Oh we’re finally getting it fixed. Wait till you hear it — you won’t be able to hear it working at all.” Hah! And they were right — you couldn’t hear it working at all. It was totally useless after that. As a normal working limiter, it was nowhere near as good as a Universal, for example. When it was broken it was great — not as a “limiter” but as a “device.” You know, there was a lot of creativity coming out of Olympic around then. For example, George Chkiantz did a really incredible thing. He was working on the second Family album, and phoned me at 5:00 in the morning — got me out of bed — to come down and listen to something he had done. He had mixed a song where, at a certain point, the sound went to the outside, kept coming, went behind your head for a couple of bars, and then went back into the speakers. It did happen — it honestly did — a quad motion in stereo, probably from some phasing aberration. It drove him mad, because he could never cut it! He tried it every which way — over the same speakers — but could never get an acetate to do the same thing. PL: Do you ever do any “studio miking” — just take a couple channels of room ambience? JM: I have on a few odd occasions, like with Spooky Tooth, but I can’t think of any Stones tracks where we did that. PL: I remember reading somewhere that the basic track of “Street Fighting Man” was done on a cassette. JM: It’s true. Charlie played a toy kit of drums, and Keith acoustic guitar. We recorded it on a normal Phillips cassette at 1 7/8 ips, and then transferred it to the 4-track. PL: Jimmy, how did you come to play the drums on “You Can’t Always Get What You Want”? JM: Mick felt that Charlie wasn’t playing the right kind of thing on it, and asked me if I heard anything there. I heard what I thought would be a good drum part, but couldn’t get Charlie to play it — you know, he just couldn’t feel it. When you don’t feel something, you can have someone explain it to you all night long and you still won’t get it. Finally, out of frustration, Charlie handed me the sticks and said, “Here, you play it.” By then, feeling that our getting the track depended on getting that drum part, I was very willing to take the sticks and play it myself. The funny thing is that the next night, Charlie came in and said, “Hey, Jimmy — look!” and played the part. PL: Were you “out of shape” as far as your drumming went? JM: If you’re talking about practicing, I guess I’m always “out of shape.” I never in my life even owned a drum set! Even when I was in college, working gigs on weekends to earn a little extra bread, I would go and rent a drumkit. Even without practice, I always seemed to be able to play reasonably well, as long as I kept it simple. PL: How many takes with you drumming did it take to get the basic track down? JM: As everyone else had been ready, once I started playing, it was just a matter of two or three takes as I remember. ... Continued What 'GENUINE' Swiss Performance really is... 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Charlie played a toy kit of drums, and Keith — an acoustic guitar! PL: How about "Happy"? JM: We did that one afternoon — Charlie wasn't even there. Bobby and I had gone over to Keith's house for lunch, and Keith said, "Shall we go down and play a little bit?" It was me on drums, Keith on bass, and Bobby on sax for the basic track. Then Keith overdubbed the guitars and the vocal. I think maybe we tried recording that song the previous night, but it didn't come off and Keith was trying to iron the bugs out before the others got there for the evening's recording. PL: Are you guys real meticulous about tuning? JM: Fairly meticulous, yeah. We always have a big tune-up at the beginning, but as the takes go along the instruments start to slip out of tune. It happens so slowly that there's never one point where suddenly you realize that you're clearly out. Sometimes you'll be into a groove and you won't want to stop to check your tuning, but when you hear that take the next day, you'll say, "Boy, that guitar is really out of tune." PL: Knowing the Rolling Stones, you'd think there'd be lots of places on their records where they'd be out of tune. JM: Well, you know, it sometimes just doesn't sound right if everyone's perfectly in tune. With the Stones especially this is true — that slight out-of-tuneness contributes to the "spread" of the sound. Then there's that other kind of "out of tune," the kind that is annoying to the ear. When this happens, you've got to redo that instrument. For some reason, the bass being out of tune is what bothers me the most. Bill sometimes plays a fretless bass, in which case it's his placement rather than the actual tuning which makes it a bit off. PL: Especially if he's playing high up on the neck — the "frets" are smaller, which magnifies any placement error. JM: He's got such little hands anyway. Sometimes I think it must be terribly difficult to hold down those strings. PL: I've always felt that an important part of the Stones' sound was Bill on bass — a very solid bass line. As good as Mick Taylor is, I think he's often flashier than a bass player should be. JM: Yeah, most guitar players are that way. Keith's not — he usually plays something very tasty. As a rule, though, almost all guitar players play a bass that leans towards guitar. PL: What was the most aggravating tune that you ever worked on? JM: Oh God. I guess that would have to be "Tumbling Dice." We mixed it about a dozen different times at maybe six different studios. I remember one mix in particular. It was done at Sunset Sound, and afterwards we had them cut an acetate for us. At about 2:00 in the morning, Marshall Chess took us by one of the local FM stations — he knew the night jock — and asked if he would give it a play so we could hear what it sounded like over the radio. We then retired to the Cadillac in the parking lot to listen. When it came on, I was thinking, "Yeah, it sounds good." When it was over, Mick said, "Aw, it sounds awful!" Then we started re-overdubbing and remixing — it got to where everyone was sick of it. PL: Was there anything in particular that made it hard to mix? JM: I'd say there were a number of problems with "Tumbling Dice." First of all, it was done in that basement, so sound-wise it really couldn't compare with the best Stones tracks. And, it wasn't a real clear single selection. The best singles are the ones where you knew right from the beginning that it was single material, like "Jumpin' Jack Flash" or "Honky Tonk Women." I just think it didn't come off — that's the only way I can say it. You know, if you look at something as an album cut, that's one thing, but when you look at it and say, "This is going to be our single," you can't help but become very critical. Mick especially is very aware of this. People are waiting for the new Rolling Stones' single, and with only one (or at most two) a year, it should be well worth the wait. He doesn't want them to be disappointed. PL: How long generally does it take to get a basic track? Do you shoot for one a night? JM: Yeah, we're very happy if we can get one basic a night. It's hard to say just how many takes we go through because we roll the tape while the band is still working the song out. After about a dozen real takes, we start over with "retake No. 1," because psychologically it can get you down to hear, "Okay, take 32." If we're going to catch that song fresh the next night, it'll probably happen within four or five takes. Still, I can recall a few cases where we've really slugged it out and gotten it after 15 takes. PL: With the Stones, do you find there's a point after which you won't get that master take? JM: I haven't found that as much as reaching the point where you really don't know if they're getting better or worse. Often you'll be surprised to hear how good some of those earlier takes were — ones you did maybe three hours ago. One of the reasons it's hard to evaluate just how you're doing after a lot of takes is that whatever has happened has happened so slowly. You'll begin to think, "Maybe there's nothing really wrong with these takes, maybe they're perfectly all right." What you mean when you say this is that the magic didn't happen, where everybody's jumping around saying, "That's the one, that's it!" This is what you're really looking for. PL: On what songs did that happen? JM: "Honky Tonk Women," "Sympathy," "Monkey Man" . . . PL: There are two songs of yours in particular that have always stood out in my mind as being the zenith in dynamic record production. How did you create the effects you did on "Sister Morphine" and "Gimme Shelter"? JM: "Sister Morphine" all happened in the mix — it was really pretty modest till then. Glyn and I did it when no one else was around, and I must say we really made it happen. That was the one time I ever played a mix for Mick where I wasn't worrying whether or not he'd like it. I was proud as could be, knowing he would love it. It was really a pleasant surprise, because nobody was really that keen on it — we almost weren't going to use it at all! We made a real "sound trip" out of it, with all that backward echo and the way we rode the piano. We had one fader for just the echo of the piano. We started out with just the echo on its own, gradually mixing in the piano itself. Every verse was done differently — one was just straight piano, another almost all echo. As far as "Gimme Shelter" goes, that intro happened pretty much by accident. Out of all the takes, it was the only one that built like that — everybody came in at exactly the right time. A lot of the song's sound has to do with the fact that Keith was playing through a split lead. The left and right guitars are in fact the same guitar taken through two different amps. PL: Didn't you use tremelo on them? JM: On one, not on the other. Even though it was just one signal, we treated each "guitar" so differently that it sounds double-tracked. You know, I've been asked many times what my favorite Stones track is. I usually end up by cheating a little and naming three or four, but I always include "Gimme Shelter." Its imagery is so powerful. 61 CHANGES LATER SON OF 36 GRAND STILL LOOKS THE SAME. Son-of-a-gun! We're forever making our products better, better in all kinds of ways that affect overall sound reproduction and performance. Not to mention value and economy. At Auditronics we're never satisfied with something just merely good. Grandson, not quite a year old, is undergoing this same evolution. Auditronics PEQ-82 Program Equalizer, still looks the same, but inside there's more performance and value. Auditronics products are the work of perpetual progress. Shouldn't you have this working for you? Call or write today. auditronics, inc. P.O. Box 12637 · Memphis, Tenn. 38112 · (901) 276-6338 Circle No. 120 In miking a drum set or other instruments for which greater separation is required, the C-414 has a hyper-cardioid pattern (in addition to switchable cardioid, omni or figure-eight). For a close range vocalist, brasses or other sources generating high sound pressure levels, the C-414 is capable of handling 124 dB SPL with less than 1% distortion (THD of complete system, including capsule; whereas others specify preamp. only) and if all else fails, the C-414 has a switchable 10 dB pad to prevent overload of its own preamplifier and your inputs. And to help you cope with dynamic range, the C-414's equivalent noise level is 21 dB (DIN 45405). You can power it directly from your console (standard 24 v. B+). It doesn't require a special card. It's also fully compatible with the popular AKG C-451E. Both were designed to make you happy. The C-414 will live up to your standards. Contact your professional equipment supplier or write directly to us. AKG MICROPHONES • HEADPHONES Distributed by NORTH AMERICAN PHILIPS CORPORATION 100 E. 42nd St., N.Y., N.Y. 10017 The AKG C-414 It's all a matter of professional judgment. BACKGROUND NOISE REDUCTION Practical aspects and some alternatives by Stan Polinsky An audio purist might validly say that the signal-to-noise ratio of any recording system is primarily established by the initial gain stages in the system; microphone or tape-level pre-amps, for example. Assuming, as we have every right to expect as a function of our professionalism, that the mike pads are properly set according to program level, and the console faders, the sub-master and master controls are all set for design point attenuation, then the electronic recording system should produce the highest signal-to-noise ratio. Or said another way, will yield maximum headroom throughout the system... with minimum internal system noise at the output. Assuming this condition to be true in any system, practically speaking, most noise (and low level coloration) in recorded material is then the result of the additive effects of multi channel tape bias. With the proliferation of recording tracks, the suppression of unwanted background noise has become a matter of critical concern to the recording industry. However, efforts to reduce or otherwise control background noise have traditionally and basically involved the use of only one or the other of two types of noise reduction systems. COMPLEMENTARY noise reduction (Burwen, DBX, Dolby) has in recent years somewhat overshadowed the application of other devices of the NON-COMPLEMENTARY type. The purpose of this discussion is to review the basics of both systems to provide an understanding of why and how the tandem use of more than one kind of noise reduction system (per channel) has enabled some studios to realize significantly wider dynamic ranges and thus a greater degree of noise reduction. COMPLEMENTARY NOISE REDUCTION As you know, a noise reduction system of the complementary type basically operates in the following manner: (Refer to Figure 1). All of these devices are designed on the theory that recording noise (hiss, hum, bias noise, etc.) only becomes audible during low level passages and is masked by the sound at higher levels of program. Using the masking effect as a basis, if one desires to eliminate the recording noise while not changing the dynamics of the program, one direction to take would be to make all low sound louder by a specific amount (during the recording), and leave the loud sound unchanged. Because this results in less dynamic range this process is called compression. During the playback the dynamics of the original program are restored by use of an expander whose gain controlling information is an almost exact reciprocal of the gain controlling information used to compress the signal during the recording process. The net result of this complementary system is a reduction of noise introduced by the recording process by an amount equal to the gain variation during the compression or expansion stages. This kind of noise reduction is easy to understand if you think of the expander section as a device that not only restores program dynamics very close to the original, but by virtue of its gain reducing characteristics, simultaneously attenuates noise by a variable amount, determined by program level and amount of expansion below threshold. It therefore becomes clear that if noise reduction systems of the complementary type are to be used with maximum effect, they will be of far greater value if they are used at downbeat of the first session — rather than adding noise reduction later during dubbing, sweetening and other post production operations. There are those who claim they can hear when noise reduction is or isn't used — that they hear phase shift, breathing or pumping or whatever. But it should be remembered that, most likely, they are hearing it on a wide range monitor system, through a sophisticated console, in a near perfect listening situation and probably 20dB louder than 99% of the locations where home playback systems are used which cost probably two tenths of one percent of what that studio initially cost. If the recording industry can offer the record-buying public anywhere from 10 to 35dB of wider range/less noise than what they had before, isn't that quite a gain? Noise reduction systems based upon the masking theory as described are certainly not new concepts; compandors have been tried for many years but because of poor tracking they have never been popular. What is new is the remarkable way the reciprocal control voltages track the program envelopes in the newer systems. This accurate tracking results in dynamic range restoration usually within 1/2dB — providing of course the recording channel and its associated equipment has been properly maintained and proper line up procedure for each device has been followed. The use of low level (masking effect) noise reduction started back in the very early thirties in the motion picture industry during photographic sound recording with the use of the "squeeze track" which expanded the dynamic range capabilities of the motion picture sound track by using shutters to vary the width of the variable density sound track. The shutters were controlled by a manually operated foot pedal used by the mixer. One could write a whole book (and many have) on photographic sound recording and the various methods used to improve it. With the new fast acting solid state devices now available it might be an interesting project someday to re-examine some of these methods to see if they might now apply in some modified manner. NON-COMPLEMENTARY NOISE REDUCTION The application of non-complementary noise reduction devices such as noise gates and expanders is slightly different in that the program and noise are treated after they are mixed together on the recording. An expander basically operates just like a compressor only opposite in function. As a matter of fact, a compressor can be changed into an expander merely by reversing the direction of the gain controlling voltage (VCA "bias" if you will) so that instead of the gain being reduced during the loud program above a pre-determined level (or "threshold") the gain is reduced when gain falls below the pre-determined threshold. The adjustment of the threshold control allows the engineer to choose how much or how little expansion (and therefore low level background noise reduction) he desires. When using an expander with an expansion ratio of 2:1 the background is reduced in a very soft, gentle way because the action of the expander is the opposite of a "soft" compressor. Even though this action is gentle to the ear the amount of noise reduction is still under the engineer's control by variance of the "threshold" control. The proof of the pudding in using an expander instead of a noise gate for noise reduction is the fact that four dubbing stages at The Burbank Studios have a Dolby 361 installed in each console which is used for noise reduction (in the playback or expander mode only) in the dialogue channels. The mixers usually have to put back some presence with a graphic equalizer, boosting 2 or 3dB at 1600 and 3 or 4dB at 3200Hz after the Dolby, because of the band splits and de-emphasis. Once the presence is recovered, the Dolby reduces the background noise in a velvet smooth sort of way that is uncanny — considering that it was designed for another purpose. In addition to the smooth and gentle way the Dolby sounds used like this, the mixers have the added bonus of automatic threshold control which allows for hands off operation. When using noise gates it is sometimes necessary to manually ride the threshold control in order to avoid choppy effects. With the Dolby the action is smoother by virtue of the four separate expander sections which operate on different frequency ranges. Look For The Winning Sound Everyone knows the sound you produce is the most important criteria of your product. Until now you've had to rely on a subjective listening evaluation of sound. Now you can see the characteristics of your sound on an objective, calibrated basis, make changes and see the effects of these changes. Whether you're a studio mixer looking for a particular guitar sound or a certain type of mix or you're a broadcaster looking for a particular on air sound the Amber 4550 Audio Spectrum Display can help. Check the results of equalization or compression or different microphone placement. Or compare monitor system and listening environment acoustics. The 4550 will show you the spectral content of an audio signal on a real time basis. And it incorporates two digital memories to let you store "before" and "after" information. The 4550 has numerous uses — from equipment maintenance to general production tool. Ask for a demo today. In stock at: - Audiotechniques, Stamford, Connecticut (203) 359 2312 - Chromacord, Montreal, Canada (514) 636 8183 - Harvey Radio, New York (212) 575 5000 - Milam Audio, South Pekin, Illinois (309) 348 3112 - Studio Supply, Nashville, Tennessee (615) 327 3075 - Westlake Audio, Los Angeles, California (213) 655 0303 Amber Electro Design Ltd. 613-100 François Montréal Canada H3E 1G2 (514) 769 2739 Circle No. 122 Each section has a gain reduction threshold at about 20dB below system 100%. (See Figure 2B) If one were to add a bit of gain after the Dolby along with a ganged pot at the input and output which lowers the signal going in and raises the signal back coming out or vice-versa, the threshold of noise reduction could be varied for more or less effect. What happens is that the Dolby is fooled into thinking it should be expanding a low level signal when in reality it expands a medium level signal. The importance of the above unorthodox use of the Dolby cannot be emphasized enough, because expanders don't seem to be used quite as much as they could be, considering what an effective tool they are for smooth noise reduction. Noise gates on the other hand are a most effective tool for cleaning out a track, completely sterilizing a track, or for special effects like modulating voices, etc. Noise gates can also be used to reduce leakage, cross-talk, or reverberation in certain types of tracks. In other types however, the gates are unusable because of the audible gate triggering. Noise gates operate something like a sound operated switch, where the switch controls the passage of sound through an attenuator, the sensitivity of the switch is adjusted by a "threshold" control which can be set for a specific level, above which the switch is actuated. As long as the program level is above threshold, the switch passes the audio with no loss, but when the program drops below threshold the switch opens and the audio is attenuated. (See Figure 3) One problem area that occurs with all noise gates is during low level passages below threshold. If this low level audio contains energy that has peak excursions which go above the threshold, the noise gate will switch each time threshold is crossed, causing an effect like relay chatter. As a matter of fact, that's what the description of the sound is during this condition. One solution to "chatter" is a capacitor-resistor combination across the coil which would provide voltage to hold the relay when coil voltage is varying above and below threshold. This same solution may be applied to our noise gate relay by adding a variable time constant which allows the relay to delay its return from unity gain to the attenuated condition. Unfortunately, when the time constant (which we call release time) is lengthened it holds the gate in the unity gain state, reducing the effectiveness of the gate. So the solution to one problem (chatter) makes the gate ineffective to other conditions for which it was designed unless very minimal amounts of gating attenuation are selected — typically a maximum of 9dB, and release times of at least 1/2 second or more. (See Figure 4) These limitations impose restraint in applications such as background noise reduction in dialogue or vocal tracks. This is not to say that the noise gates are useless — for on the contrary, devices like Kepex and the Quad Eight Noise Gate are excellent tools that do things to sounds of certain types which has never been done before. They also can take a bite out of unwanted noise by as much as 60dB. So gates must be placed in our toolbox (or "bag of tricks" if you are one of the miracle men of sound) along with expanders, graphic equalizers and other tools of the trade which are used to fix or modify sound. Keep in mind however, that good sound starts at the beginning of the project with proper microphone selection and placement and good recording techniques. The tools of the audio trade are pulled out of the tool box to fix or modify the sound for acoustic enhancement at the monitor — while remembering that in theory the best audio path from microphone to speaker is a straight wire with gain. Considering the switching or chattering of noise gates in certain applications points out why the Dolby 361 used only in play mode (expansion) is so successful for background noise reduction. In view of this, insertion of an expander with variable threshold, variable release and variable expansion ratios from 1:1 (linear amplification), through 2:1 (soft expansion) to 10:1 (hard expansion or gate effects), into a record circuit or mix bus output, could, if handled with discretion improve the dynamic range of your recording by perhaps 10 or 20dB beyond what you now have — including the use of your complementary noise reduction systems. The important point to remember is to be sure to monitor the device. That is to insert it somewhere in front of where the feed to the monitor appears. The reason for this is that different types of program can use more or less expansion (noise reduction) than others. Therefore, each channel of your dub down should have its threshold set individually. The gate is normally set for unity gain and inserted into the channel at a high level patch point typically +4dBm. As long as the gate is set for unity gain it can be placed in a lower level area, but, as the average signal level insertion point becomes lower, the internal noise generated by the gate comes more and more into the picture. The reason for this is that if the noise gate has an internal noise figure of -80dBm and is placed into a +4dBm patch point which has an overall noise figure of -73dBm, the added device would not add any of its own noise to the circuit. If the device were placed in a lower level patch point of the circuit say at -20dBm for example, then the equivalent internal noise figure of the device would be -56dBm (80dBm minus 24dBm of amplification to get back to +4dBm line level) which is certainly audible. The application of a gate in this type of console is not out of the question however, for there is a way to use most unity gain devices in a lower operating level patch point if that is the only point of insertion available. (See Figure 5.) continued on page 43 You never lose a hemidemisemiquaver with Audio Designs Consoles and Components ADM NRC SERIES CONSOLES hit a high note in Quality . . . Versatility . . . Performance Full-featured 8-16-24 Channel models at amazingly low prices No one gives you more for your money than ADM. All ADM NRC Series Consoles are professionally engineered with such precise controls that you never miss or mess up a note. Yet we have held prices down through use of trouble-free "Mother Board" construction that eliminates literally miles of costly wiring... without sacrifice of quality, performance or "state-of-the-art" specifications. You get high reliability features that ADM engineers into its custom consoles, including Slidex, Audex, four Cue Busses, two Solo Systems, complete Sync System, complete Tip, Ring and Sleeve Patching, Full Quadraphonic Capabilities including four Joy Sticks. And you get the flexibility and convenience of interchangeable plug-in modules, which make it easy to expand your console for future needs. Chances are that one of our NRC models will meet your needs nicely. If not, we will be glad to work with you to integrate our components into your existing system, or in designing a custom console to your exact requirements. Interchangeable Plug-in Modules for complete flexibility SLIDEX Unique, noise-free attenuator uses static elements. No contacts to clean. Even spilled coffee won't cause noise problems. Guaranteed free from noise or other defects for five years. INPUT MODULES Versatile input strip features op-amp circuitry and four-section equalization. Input overload light and Solo button are also included. Everything required at an input is in one convenient plug-in module. AUDEX Ultra-reliable switching system uses magnetic reeds governed by this compact control panel. Switch modules, mounted above inputs, include illuminated readouts for instant reference. ADM VUE-SCAN Sweet music for frustrated "head swivelers" Replaces up to 28 VU meters with an easy-to-read bar graph monitor ADM's new Vue-Scan solves one of the most troublesome and annoying problems of multi-channel recording... visual monitoring of the recording channels. Vue-Scan takes up to 28 channels of audio information, and displays each channel as an easy-to-read bar graph on a TV monitor screen. Each illuminated bar represents one analog channel. The vertical bars are always present as a background hue—the lower two-thirds in blue and the upper one-third in red. As the level of a channel increases, the bars representing that channel increase in height and intensity—making it almost impossible to overlook an overloaded channel. Vue-Scan is standard on all NRC Series Consoles, replacing VU meters, and is also available as an option on Custom Consoles. In addition, it can be used as a self-contained accessory with any AEM or competitive console. More sound ideas from ADM MODEL 201A OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER CARD An audio operational amplifier designed on a 2.5" x 7.5" plug-in card, which can serve as a pre-amp, line amp or booster amp. Feedback stabilization is provided by "state-of-the-art" feedforward technique, providing the fastest possible response, and extending the frequency at which maximum feedback is available. Specially designed for low noise, and includes short circuit protection in the output stage. MODEL 1500/1501 EQUALIZER A unity gain equalizer, designed to provide EQ anywhere in an audio system. Features ADM's exclusive four band equalizer, providing reciprocal EQ functions in low frequency (LF), low mid frequency (LMF), high mid frequency (HMF), and high frequency (HF) bands. Four bands and reciprocal functions provide absolute control over the entire frequency spectrum. Model 1500 is designed for vertical mounting in a console; the 1501 mounts horizontally in the CH15 Frame. MODEL 301 NOISE SUPPRESSOR A new, fast gain expander that puts silence where previously there was noise. It will turn on from dead silence with a cymbal crash and not miss a single cycle of sound. Because it is a true gain expander, with a continuously varying gain, there are no threshold clicks, nor is the ear aware of the threshold. Extremely fast attack time, and smooth operational characteristics. Packaged on a 4" x 7½" card. COMPONENTS & CONSOLES for audio control AUDIO DESIGNS and Manufacturing, Inc. 16005 Sturgeon Roseville (Detroit), Michigan 48066 Phone: (313) 778-8400 For example, to patch our hypothetical noise gate between a master set for 15dB of loss and an output amp set for 19dB of gain, in order to maintain a high-signal-to-noise ratio an amplifier with 19dB of gain should be added directly in front of the new device and a 19dB pad added to the output of the device. This brings the signal level up to normal operating level going into the added device. The pad then drops the signal back down to re-insertion point operating level while attenuating the device's internal noise level below -80dB. Of course if the noise gate is inserted into a circuit which has a buss level of +8dBm nothing will change except a loss in headroom of 4dB. Actually, it could be used at even higher levels, all the way to +24, but a limiter must be inserted in front to hold the maximum input levels down below +24. A device which could aid immeasurably in the application of noise gates and expanders, would be a black box containing a high pass, a low pass, and perhaps several band pass filters with patch points where expanders, gates, or other devices can be inserted. Add a combining amp with some gains and some loss with slide pots to the filter sections, and you have a very special purpose electronic filter system. (See Figure 6) The separate patch points, each with its own expander or gate to operate on that band of noise only, would prevent envelope modulation which is common when using a gate on a wide band channel. Other types of devices could also be added to any band as well. One example of this would be to add a limiter to the 2000Hz to 6000Hz band (in Figure 6) in tandem. with the expander. This would give you a high quality "de-esser" (sibilance controller) as well as the tape hiss noise reduction which is prevalent in that band. A low cost, dependable expander which can be built for less than $50 per channel (less power supply) is shown in Figure 7. Suggested by Opamp Laboratories, it is extremely simple and uses an opamp to sample the signal level which is rectified and illuminates a light emitting diode. The LED is encapsulated with a light dependent resistor through which the audio passes. As the audio level varies, the rectified signal varies the light from the LED which in turn causes the LDR to change resistance accordingly. The varying resistance of the LDR causes the audio level passing through it to vary also, in an inverse manner. When the program level falls below threshold, the LED goes dark, and LDR resistance becomes very high, and the audio level at the output is reduced (expanded). Another direction that this writer has considered to reduce noise at the source, has been to kill the bias for each channel when no audio is passing through. (See Figure 8) What is required for this is a very wide range voltage controlled amplifier, Paul Buif's (ALLISON) VCA1, for example, with low distortion, fast attack time and a bandwidth wide enough to pass bias with no adverse effects. Also a high gain pre amp and a fast schmitt trigger with adjustable threshold would be required as shown in Figure 8. The action of this device would be to gate the program and bias to the record head only when the audio is above threshold. As with the expander in each channel of a multi-track dub, each threshold of this system should be individually set, 6-12dB or so above tape noise. When trying out new ideas and circuits, the important thing to remember is no matter how the picture looks on a scope, or how low the distortion reads on an analyzer, how does it sound? Does it really work? Does it make the producer happy? If he is convinced he is leaving your studio with the best possible sound track, then you and your equipment have really done your job. One of the most successful applications of the noise gate this writer has used to date was to place three Quad 8 noise gates in the output busses of a tube type motion picture dubbing console of 1957 vintage. The project was a pseudo-stereo picture with David Carradine entitled "Country Mile." In recording a 3 channel stereo picture the mono dialogue is put through a special cinema pan pot. This is a pan pot with one input and three outputs, and an auxiliary "divergence" control which introduces controlled amounts of leakage. The dialogue is usually placed in the center with perhaps a minimal amount of panning during the dub. Sound effects are also placed through a pan pot, with background effects spread to 3 channels with the divergence control. Music is placed in stereo as it was recorded or dubbed down. Thus, with a handful of pan pots, lots of inputs and 3 outputs, a mono picture becomes a stereo picture in almost no time at all. Usually dubbing in stereo means adding more amplifiers and devices into the recording than would be used in dubbing a mono picture. This is necessary to make up for losses in the pan-divergence systems and the extra combining networks. The noise level of a console built in the mid fifties tends to build up a bit of steam when used in stereo. This is in addition to the 2nd or 3rd generation tape noise which is usually prevalent in cinema dubbing. The Quad 8 gates were placed in the left, center, and right recording busses, just before the monitor feeds and the recording machine. The gates in the left and right channels were set for 12dB of attenuation and a release time of about 1/4 second. These gates were not equipped with the modification that softens the attenuation decay rate; the Quad 8 gate normally just switches from on to off (unity gain to expansion) after the duration of the release time. However, the gate used in the center channel was modified to yield a slow decay rate. The operation of the left or right gate was distinctly audible when the other channels were muted because of the gate action, but by setting the center channel gate for only 4dB of attenuation, maximum threshold sensitivity and 3/4 seconds of decay time, the left and right gates and their action were rendered inaudible - thanks to the masking effect of the center channel, which contained most of the sound anyway. Until another form of recording is perfected and implemented, non-complementary noise reduction systems are a valuable tool to the recording engineer, providing they are used conservatively. This article was an attempt to offer some alternate methods of noise reduction which could be used in conjunction with some of the more commonly used complementary systems throughout the world. No attempt was made to discredit the value of certain types of noise reduction systems in lieu of others. Quite to the contrary, all of the systems now in use have great value to the engineer who is fighting to maintain high quality control of the final product while simultaneously creating his own kind of art and applying his own personal touch and taste to the recording. END The Model 10 Mixing Console When you’ve got more talent than money Any mixing console is simply a creative tool. Getting the most out of it calls for imaginative insight into music and skill in the practical application of sound. If you’ve got the talent but you don’t have the money, you’re exactly who we built this board for. The basic 8-in, 4-out board starts at just $1890. From there you can go to 24-in, with options and accessories enough to fill a studio. The TASCAM Model 10. It gets your inside outside. TASCAM CORPORATION 5440 McConnell Avenue Los Angeles, Calif. 90066 Circle No. 125 Scully Shows You How To Be Perfect Without Paying The Price. As a professional, you want the finest in a professional recorder. The best sound reproduction possible. Simplicity of operation. Reliability coupled with ease of maintenance. And, you don’t want to pay a fortune to get it. In short, you want perfection at a perfect price. You want the new 280-B Recorder/Reproducer. Unmatched Performance. By designing the 280-B electronics around the new high-energy tapes. The S/N ratio is perhaps the best available in any recorder at a comparable price. Up to 72 dB on full track .25” tape at mastering speed. A sharp 68 dB on two-track .25” and four track .50”. The 280-B also features more head room and an increased record level for maximum signal utilizing the high output tapes. And band widths are a very flat ± 2dB, 30Hz to 18 KHz. It all adds up to greater performance than you’ve ever been used to. Quick, Simple Operation. The more sophisticated we’ve made the 280-B, the simpler we’ve made it for you to operate. Our new Optac™ motion sensing system gets a new standard of efficiency in tape motion control. Now you can go from one transport mode to another without touching the Stop button. And enter and leave Record while the transports in Play. Optac™ and the 280-B’s new logic circuitry make the exact moves for you at the right time. Easy Maintenance. New solid state circuitry and mother-daughter board architecture give the 280-B a greater reliability factor. They also make testing, repair and replacement easier. All signal electronics are in slide-out drawers. No more bending down and reaching around. Individual channel modules go in and out easily, too. If the 280-B sounds too good to be true, wait till you hear it. And wait till you find out the price. We’ve made it very easy for you to get the best. For more detailed information and prices on the 280-B, call or write: Scully/Metrotech, 475 Ellis Street, Mountain View, California 94040. (415) 968-8389. TLX 345524. Scully\|Metrotech Recording Divisions of Dictaphone Scully/Metrotech and Optac are registered trademarks of Dictaphone Corporation, New York, U.S.A. Many independent record producers and mixers have, publicly and privately, expressed a genuine lack of enthusiasm for Quadraphonic sound. In fact, predictions of the early demise of Quad have been made by some who have had particularly bad experiences. Perhaps a re-enactment of a mixdown session will show how some of these feelings originate: MIXER: "I hear we're doing a Quad dubdown today." PRODUCER: "Yeah, one of the big distributors in the East tells Beasley he can really peddle a Quad mix of the 'Raging Inferno'." MIXER: "I thought they went up in smoke at their last holocaust in Chicago." PRODUCER: "They did but now Beasley thinks we should do a Quad mix while they're still hot." MIXER: "Oh, my God." PRODUCER: "What the hell are all those patch cords in the jack field?" MIXER: "Well, I've got the echo patched for the negative slap effect and the digital delays are . . ." PRODUCER: "Don't give me that 'engineer's talk' crap — pull all those patches and I'll tell you what to do." MIXER: "Okay. What's the first tune?" PRODUCER: "'Downhill' is the first tune on Roll One — give me the five drum tracks panned across the rear; bass front center, the guitars left and right front, brass left front, vocal group left side, and vocal solo front center." MIXER: "You've really given this a lot of thought, haven't you?" --- Magnetic Reference Laboratory Whether you're using low noise or high output tape, with or without Dolby, from 1/4" to 2", 3 3/4 to 30 ips, you'll choose MRL... because only MRL guarantees every test tape they manufacture. Their dependability and accuracy have made MRL the world wide choice of most major recorder manufacturers... and, after all, they would know what test tape is best for their recorders, they're the people who design and build them. Distributed exclusively through B.W. Associates, 415 W. Fullerton Pkwy. Chicago, Illinois 60614 (312) 935-4900 Exclusive Export Agent: Gotham Export Corp., New York, N.Y. PRODUCER: "Certainly." MIXER: "Then what do I do with the echo?" PRODUCER: "Okay, smartass, I'm ahead of you there. I've decided to appease the ambience freaks and center all the echo return panpost." MIXER: "Here comes the mix." PRODUCER: "More bass." MIXER: "I'll have to center him on all four channels." PRODUCER: "Good. Try centering the soloist." MIXER: "Now the strings and brass sound puny." PRODUCER: "Okay, center them too. What do you think?" MIXER: "Except for the drums, it's all mono." PRODUCER: "Put the patch cords back in and we'll try it your way." It is well we leave the control room at this point because several tortured hours later the mixer, in a desperate effort to save the day, springs an automated Quad spinning panner of his own design. The greenish cast of the two men scarcely hides their dejection as they exit the control room. The old saw, "A little knowledge is a dangerous thing" could be the reason our two characters went astray as well as explain the fairly high percentage of questionable Quad mixes on the market. Unfortunately the best mixers and producers are in great demand and thus may have little time to do their own research of acoustics, psychoacoustics, and the theory of hearing. It is our opinion that a review of these principles as they relate to Quad mixing would help the creative processes of those involved. One of the most difficult concepts to convey is how our hearing system deals with the spatial world around us. Analogies between sight and sound may be tempting but are often misleading because the speed of light is some 900,000 times that of sound. Since it takes sound about .001 seconds to travel one foot, it takes about .0005 seconds for it to travel between the average pair of eardrums. Also, sound moves through space by pushing around air molecules, so that it loses intensity as it travels. Therefore, except for those sounds orig... inating in a plane midway between our ears, there are small time and intensity differences between our two ears which enable the brain to tell direction. In the scientific world there is still a lot of speculation on exactly how this process works, but even less understood and more important is how our brain deals with reverberation. These are the reflections that occur from the walls, floor and ceiling of a room after a sound has occurred; there may be several thousand in the first second! Figure One-A shows the beginning of this process which goes on and on, producing reflections from every conceivable direction and in every conceivable phase. Fortunately, all of these are integrated by the brain into one continuous sound, unless by some freak of acoustics a couple of them are separated in time by 30 ms or so. This gap is outside the integration time of the brain and an echo will be heard. If there is no such gap, the brain will interpret the direct sound as the source, will get a room-size impression from the early reflections, and judge the room liveness from the later reflections. Figure 1A Direct and first 3 Reflected Sound Rays from Source to Listener Figure 1B Reflection Growth Pattern of Figure 1A Perhaps the most critical design problem facing any manufacturer is to clearly define the needs to be met by a new product. Not only must performance goals be carefully considered, but also such aspects as appearance, size, weight, and price must be examined in terms of the user and his application of the product. An example of how these factors affect the product can be seen in two closely related monitor speaker systems now being produced by Electro-Voice. The initial design project was to create a high-efficiency, high-level utility monitor for studio, theatre, and sound reinforcement applications. It was to provide improvements in dispersion, uniformity of total acoustic output, flatness of response, and extended frequency response over previous designs. The result was the E-V Sentry IVA system. Proof that the Sentry IVA meets its design goals is evident in the broad acceptance of the product in the field. The emphasis on high efficiency, however, resulted in an all-horn-loaded system that is relatively bulky to achieve a low-frequency limit of 50 Hz (3 dB down point). While this exactly suits many applications, a need was also expressed for a system that would offer more extended low frequency response. The Sentry III was designed to meet this modified goal. Both systems use identical high frequency and mid-range sectoral horns and drivers to achieve good dispersion and uniform total acoustic output. But while the Sentry IVA employs two 12-inch woofers in a folded horn enclosure for maximum efficiency, the Sentry III uses a single 15-inch woofer in a direct radiator vented cabinet tuned for fourth order Butterworth response characteristics. Response is extended to 40 Hz while output is just 4 dB less than the Sentry IVA at 50 watts input. The overall height of the system is reduced about 1/3 and a furniture cabinet permits use in home environments as well as in the studio. The Sentry III bridges the gap between high-efficient studio monitors and wide-range home speaker systems. For instance, most acoustic suspension speakers have insufficient efficiency and output level to satisfactorily reproduce either symphonic or popular music at levels equal to a live performance. But with an output of 113 dB at 4' on axis with 50 watts input, the Sentry III generates useful sound levels from modest amplifier power, and with substantially less danger of amplifier clipping than is possible with typical home-oriented wide range systems. While there are many applications where either the Sentry IVA or the Sentry III might be used interchangeably, each can provide unique benefits depending on the application. And each responds to specific needs of professional sound engineers in studio and sound reinforcement as expressed in field surveys and on-site testing. For reprints of other discussions in this series or technical data on any E-V product write: ELECTRO-VOICE, INC., Dept. 104RP 674 Cecil St., Buchanan, Michigan 49107 If, however, we substitute a microphone for our two ears, strange things begin to happen. For example, you will have no difficulty listening to someone talk to you from the other side of a live room, but if you hold up a microphone and record what you hear, on playback that talking will be barely intelligible. Although this situation and how to deal with it are old hat to audio people, an understanding of why it occurs perhaps is not. Figure One-B shows what a typical reverberation pattern looks like; first the direct sound followed by a few early wall reflections, then getting denser with time, as the sound bounces from surface to surface. An experiment will show in a simplified way what happens when this sound is "collected" by that single microphone. Feed an oscillator as in Figure 2 to both a delay unit and a mixer; then feed the output of the delay into the same mixer. This is equivalent to the direct sound and one reflection. Now vary the oscillator frequency and note the wide variations in level as the tones cancel and add in phase. This is a comb filter because the frequency response looks like a comb. This represents only the first reflection: adding more delays (reflections) to the mixer, of course, makes things worse. If you lower the level of the delayed sound, the variations diminish telling us what we already know; that moving the microphone closer to the sound source alleviates this problem. Also, as the delay gets longer the teeth of the comb get closer, reducing the filter effect. If, however, we feed the direct sound to one speaker and the first delay to another, the tones do not electrically superimpose: there is only a small amount mixing in the air, thus there is little comb filter effect. What this tells us is that in monaural, reflected sound is the villain, especially the early, louder reflections. In real life, however, these reflections enhance the sound, supporting the loudness and character of it. To put it in a mechanistic way, our brain contains some sort of scanning computer which continuously monitors the acoustic field that surrounds us; "sorting it out," you might say. This acoustic field can be divided into two parts; the direct field, where the direct sound predominates, and the reverberant field, where the reflected sound is greater. With our two ears, except in very live rooms like a big church, we can scarcely tell the difference. A single microphone, as explained, has no such powers — so in monaural we must take the only way out — stay in the direct field or lose intelligibility, definition, etc. Directional microphones are a help, but all these tools only reduce the reverberant field, not reproduce it. It is worth noting that only Quadraphonic has dared to put microphones well into the reverberant field in order to reproduce the entire acoustic field. Obviously neither a mono or even a stereo reproduction system can provide our ears with this acoustic field so that our brain can "sort it out." Quadraphonic can, if properly recorded, much more nearly give our two ears what they get in real life than any other system in use today. To see why so few Quad recordings have realized this potential, we must go back a few years. In the early days of electrical recording, when it was no longer necessary to shout into an acoustical horn, someone discovered that you had to speak within a foot or so of the microphone or the results were terrible. For pop music, because it is impossible to get one or two microphones within a few feet of a string section and still get a balance, acoustically dead studios were the solution to the problem of too many reflections. Generally these and other techniques were developed to a very high art through the '20's and '30's. In the '40's someone remembered the spooky sounds radio producers got with an echo chamber and decided to try it with music to "restore" some of the life lost in the dead recording studios. Then came high fidelity with condenser microphones, the LP record, and a host of other developments which enabled the mixer to improve his art still further. In the early '50's, some thought the millenium had arrived with the advent of the binaural recorder. Now it was possible to put two microphones in a dummy head arrangement, and record exactly what a person heard in real life. In playback over earphones all the original spatial relationships were supposedly preserved so that the microphones could be located any place that sounded good to a listener. Microphone placement and the art of mixing, it seemed at the time, would become unnecessary. Actually the true binaural experience is a unique phenomenon, but for many reasons, some social and some unexplained, it has never become popular. It does, however, help point out that even with all the technical and artistic advances through the years, mono and stereo are attempts to convey an impression of the acoustic field and not the field itself. A clue to the ineffectiveness of some Quad releases is revealed by drawing a parallel between the emergence of stereo and that of Quad. All of the mono studio techniques we have alluded to were brought to bear against stereo in the early days and the result was, of course, two excellent channels of mono recording. As time passed, more and more mixers became aware of the potential of stereo and began to spread the instruments as well as the reverb between the two speakers. In the case of Quad, some mixers have returned to the four channel mono concept, and some have treated it as four stereo pairs. In any case we probably can expect the same slow emergence of Quad techniques as we had with stereo. In the hope of speeding up this process by the interchange of information, we would like to offer some practical suggestions arrived at from our research and experimentation. There are two general areas to consider which are, incidentally, quite complexly interrelated. They are image placement and reverberation. At the present time, image placement can be accomplished by two methods; a Quad pan pot, or by placing a sound source somewhere between four microphones. The latter method is usually impractical for studio recording, although under ideal conditions it can provide not only good image placement but a realistic acoustic field. The Quad pan pot, unfortunately, only provides precise localization of the four corners, and since it depends on only intensity differences, phantom sources between channels are rather vague, especially the side pairs. Also, as in stereo, there is an intensity fight; that is, a soloist will usually be centered to gain a level advantage rather than reduce the accompaniment level, and lose signal to noise ratio. Another pan pot dilemma is encountered by the listener who moves out of the center position — he can radically upset the balance so carefully arrived at by the mixer. Once we have examined how to use that other area of interest, reverberation, we should see a way out of the preceding difficulties. Keeping in mind that reverberation in real life comes from all directions, it is obvious that a way must be found to synthesize this from the usual 16 channels of noise reduction in seven inches of rack space. The system improves headroom by 10dB and delivers 30dB of noise reduction. Simultaneous code, decode and bypass functions can be selected at the panel or by remote control. Price, including a spare 310D module, is $8,200. Available from professional audio dealers or direct from dbx, Incorporated, 296 Newton Street, Waltham, Massachusetts 02154. monaural studio echo chamber. Fortunately, this is quite easy, and it can be attained in several ways. A mono chamber, for instance, can be fed into a one-in, four-out delay unit — thus magically, although expensively, converting it into a Quad chamber. Less expensive methods might be to put four microphones in a live chamber, four pickups on a plate unit, or split feed two matched stereo chambers. Figure 3 shows the reverberation patterns two spaced microphones in a room would produce and helps explain how these methods work. Because they are different (incoherent) both in time and intensity, the first left and right pair of reflections produce a solid phantom image of one reflection somewhere between two reproducing loud speakers. Since all successive ones are random the reverberation "spreads" between the speakers. In Quad, four speakers make six pairs of channels and spread the reverberation 360°, simulating the real situation. In the case of a delay unit, the same reverberation pattern for the other channel is merely slid in time; now, since they no longer match, incoherence is produced. There is a problem in the reverberation pattern produced by a typical studio chamber, be it a live one or a plate. Because it is equivalent to a small room, there are no sparse early reflections such as in Figure 1-B. In Quad, the ear will instantly detect this and the effect is to clutter rather than support the direct sound. In as much as we are attempting to simulate the real situation, we can, as we shall see, supply these early reflections with delayed sound. We mentioned previously that reverberation was a way out of the pan pot dilemma, although this probably sounds absurd to any good mono-thinking mixer who has always thought of it as seasoning — to be used sparingly. But if we remember that the reason we can hear the pin drop in the Mormon Tabernacle in Salt Lake City is solely because of the intensity support it gets from reflected sound, we may look at it differently. For example, in a Quad dub down, suppose we place a soloist on the left front channel, then feed delayed signals from this track of say 5, 10, 15 ms, to the other three channels (each at a progressively lower level than the preceeding one). This track is also fed to the Quad chamber after a delay of at least 30 ms and the returns from the chamber are set at the proper level. The soloist stays firmly in the left front channel for a wide range of listener positions while the delays add body and fullness to the sound and the chamber provides acoustic environment. It is interesting to note that a much greater level of return can be used from a good Quad chamber than a mono one returned to all four channels. As we have mentioned, this is also true of the returns. from the delay unit. If mono compatibility is essential, some compromise must, unfortunately, be made in the Quad mix. Although most consoles are not equipped to do Quad mixing according to the principles outlined, conversion of them should not be difficult. Many consoles in use today have four echo mixing busses assignable separately from the main mixing busses. One possibility of how these can be put to good use is suggested by Figure 4. The static assignment of instruments can be accomplished through the main buss switches (or pan pots, if available) and the echo busses used for delay unit assignment, Quad echo chamber, and a Quad joystick for motion panning. These devices can then be fed through trimpots to four active combining networks which are then routed to the usual four echo return pots. Beware of the Quad pan pots on the echo return of some consoles; they are not only useless, but can monoize your Quad chamber. Another use for a delay unit in a mixdown is to process any stereo tracks such as strings which have some studio "liveness." This is done by assigning the stereo tracks to, say, the front channels and two delayed channels derived from each of these to the rear channels. The delays should be criss-crossed to avoid any comb filter effects on the compatible stereo product. The reversion will spread out, in the manner described previously while direct sound will stay up front. While these methods, and others in use now, are admittedly crude, we feel at our studio they have been successful in carrying sound recording into new and unexplored areas. On the horizon are many new developments which should be available as studio hardware. These are totally electronic Quad reverberation units with far more flexibility than anything in use today$^2$, a Quad panpot capable of producing precise phantom images horizontally as well as vertically$^3$, and a motion panner which uses doppler, intensity, and direct to reverberation ratio effects$^4$. No attempt has been made to write a compendium on Quad mixing, instead some theoretical thoughts and a few suggestions have been presented here in the hope of directing the enormous creative energy of the American record industry into this new medium. REFERENCES 1. H. Hass “The Influence of a Single Echo on the Audibility of Speech” JAES March, 1972. 2. M. Gerzon “What’s Wrong with Quadraphonics” Studio Sound, May, 1974. 3. M. Gerzon “Synthetic Stereo Reverberation” Studio Sound, December, 1971, January, 1972. 4. J. Chowning “The Simulation of Moving Sources” JAES, January, 1971. Figure 4 Using Echo Assignment Switching for Quad Listen to the Sound of Freshness Test tapes deteriorate, for a variety of reasons...including use, magnetized heads and the presence of random magnetic fields. High frequencies are the first to go and, before you know it, you are in an area of distortion all your own...completely at odds with the rest of the industry. If your test tapes are a year old or older, get your system back in order with precision STL test tapes... internationally acclaimed. All audio widths from 150 mil. to 2-inch. Prompt delivery insures freshness. For the distributor in your area—Call or write: TABER Manufacturing & Engineering Company 2081 Edison Ave. • San Leandro, Ca. 94577 • (415) 635-3831 Stamford distributor: Audio techniques, Inc. Neve manufactures a complete line of standard consoles for world wide distribution. Listed below is a selection of models, a limited number of which are scheduled to be available within the next three months. Select your console and call us for further details. Customizing can be arranged. 8048 — 32 inputs, 16 buses, 24 or 32 track monitor • 8036 — 24 inputs, 8 buses, 16 track monitor • 8034 — 20 inputs, 4 buses, 16 track monitor for budget studio • 8024 — 24 inputs, 24 outputs, 24 track monitor for budget studio • 8014 — 16 inputs, 4 buses, 8 track monitor • 5302 — 12 inputs, 2 buses, table mounted, compact dimensions • 8301 — 10 inputs, 2 buses, transportable • BCM — 10 inputs, 2 buses, production broadcast • Rupert Neve Incorporated, Berkshire Industrial Park, Bethel, Connecticut 06801 Tel: (203) 744-8230. Telex: 989638 Rupert Neve Incorporated, Suite 616, 1900 N. Highland Ave., Hollywood, California 90028 Tel: (213) 465-4822 Rupert Neve of Canada, Ltd., 2717 Rena Road, Malton, Ontario L4T 3K1, Canada Tel: (416) 677-6811 Rupert Neve & Company Ltd., Cambridge House, Melbourne, Royston, Hertfordshire, SG8 6AU England. Tel: (0763) 60776 Since 1924 station WSM in Nashville has been broadcasting the GRAND OLE OPRY...the original and genuine radio show of American country music. The name of the show has changed, and its location has been moved from time to time from one building to another, but the OPRY itself has remained true and steadfast to its listeners, always endeavoring to produce and broadcast country music like it really is. In 1941 the OPRY moved into Ryman Auditorium, in downtown Nashville, where it remained for the longest period in its history. During the years of its stay at Ryman, the Opry, and country music in general, gained national and international popularity...really earning the status of an American institution. Now, 50 years after its inception in studio "A," at WSM, the Opry has at last moved into its permanent new home, the NEW GRAND OLD OPRY HOUSE in OPRYLAND, U.S.A., just south of Nashville. GRAND OLE OPRY Owned by National Life and Accident Insurance Company through its broadcast and television affiliate WSM, Inc., OPRYLAND is a 369 acre recreation-entertainment-broadcasting-convention center, including the 110 acre Disneyland-like attraction...the central, and overriding theme of which is MUSIC. The renowned architectural firm of Welton Beckett and Associates (Beverly Hills, CA) was commissioned to design and develop the Opry House around this theme. The centerpiece of the total complex is the NEW GRAND OLE OPRY HOUSE, a superb building; architecturally the functional and decorative extension of what country music seems to be all about...pristine, yes, but also an expression of today and the future. The building houses 1) the magnificent 4,400 seat air-conditioned auditorium/theatre. 2) A separate 250 seat, full color television production facility. 3) A 25 foot by 45 foot recording studio. Taken all together the New Grand Ole Opry House represents some 15 million dollars worth of entertainment production facilities, a significant portion of that total being the management's commitment to investment in the most advanced and complete array of audio systems and equipment. THE AUDITORIUM The Auditorium is, in a word, a masterpiece. It is spacious and comfortable, with a completely unobstructed view of the 110 by 68 foot stage from every seat in the house. The decor is simple, nothing ostentatious or glamorous, but cleanly and elegantly finished with total attention to audience comfort and manageability. A sufficiency of leg room is left between rows of seats, the aisles are wide enough for an easy flow of people, and the space between the front row of seats and the stage was purposely left extra wide so that throngs of fans can crowd up to the foot of the stage and get close looks and snapshots of their favorite country stars. The seats are a modern version of the wooden pews Opry audiences became accustomed to in Ryman Auditorium. These in the new building are upholstered with padded carpeting which lends not only a warm bright look to the auditorium, but makes them a magnitude more comfortable to sit on. Interestingly, from an audio point of view the upholstered seating is an important function in stabilizing the acoustics of the house, causing it to sound about the same whether or not it is full of people. On occasions when the stage is too small, the first rows of seating are removable and the floor underneath them can be hydraulically raised up to the stage level, increasing the stage depth by another 25 feet. Apart from doing the Grand Ole Opry show, the auditorium is used for shows connected with the Park, as well as special television shows. The stage is ideally suited to doing big bands, with plenty of room for a full concert arrangement, and the tremendous house cavity for the sound to decay in. This was one of the prime objectives in creating this facility, to provide a complete audio and video recording capability, plus live audience show capability for the largest and most complicated big, big shows. Located in the back of the auditorium, tucked away under the balcony are 3 control rooms: A lighting control room which commands an incredible 1.8 million watts of dimmable lighting power, a projection booth for films, and an audio recording and broadcast control room which houses an awesome 40 input Neve console with enough buttons and knobs to mollify the most demanding producer. At the present time the feeling is that the audio control room is slightly cramped and unfinished. The detailing and final arrangements are still being worked out with the probability in mind that the room will be further enlarged to accommodate the variety of simultaneous production requirements it ultimately is expected to handle. Aside from handling the broadcast mix of the stage performance along with pre-recorded announcements for the broadcast program, this room is primarily used for simultaneous 16 track recording and mixdowns. In addition to the Neve and the full complement of recorders headed by the MM1100 16 track machine the room also houses a smaller 16 input Spectra Sonics console used to mix the stage monitors. The activity in the room can get pretty heavy. THE SOUND REINFORCEMENT SYSTEM The sound reinforcement system for the auditorium is essentially the product of senior audio systems designer Richard Negus of Purcell and Noppe Associates, Chatsworth, CA., the acoustical consultants for the entire Opry House facility. The primary design objective, as stated by Mr. Negus, "was to achieve a natural concert hall feel, in keeping with the traditions of the Opry, but, and this was the challenge, to use the sound reinforcement system as the prime sound source, rather than relying on direct sound from the stage. Thus, everything is amplified. The end result is a clean well defined sound, still retaining natural large hall ambience, emanating from a central overhead speaker cluster. Keeping in mind the various production requirements of the hall it is a unique design approach for an auditorium this size. Muddiness is avoided by special directional tuning of the central overhead speaker cluster." The central speaker cluster consists of a circular array of JBL 2130 bass and low mid-range speakers in columns, and a rather complicated array of Dukane multicellular horns mounted on JBL 2420's for the upper mid-range and highs. The speaker cluster is hung from the space-frame grid work in the ceiling, 33 feet above and in front of the center of the stage. The cluster is, in effect, a single sound source, and is in direct line of sight to every seat in the house except for the last 8 rows under the balcony. Being essentially suspended directly above the performer location on stage, the sound appears to come from the stage and does not shift from side to side depending on listener location, as so often happens when the sound reinforcement The acoustical design of the auditorium was aided by a novel interdisciplinary technique developed by Purcell and Noppe. A 1/4-inch to the foot scale model of the auditorium was constructed and at the speaker cluster position an optical diverging lens system was substituted, which dispersed the light from a laser apparatus in much the same manner as the sound would subsequently be radiated from the speaker cluster. Then by optical measuring techniques it was possible to locate acoustical hot spots, as well as attempting various means of effectively dispersing the sound coverage more uniformly. Using this technique potential echo trouble areas were located at the upper sides of the ceiling. Those areas were appropriately treated with special sound absorptive material. There was an additional possible echo problem discovered in the balcony and an acoustically treated wall was constructed along the cross aisles to counter it. A truly dedicated effort was made to keep the sound levels evenly distributed throughout the house. With the primary sound source being centrally located this goal might appear difficult to achieve. Through a tantalizing bit of audio engineering Mr. Negus made it possible: In effect the vertical directionality of the speaker cluster is controlled by electronic frequency crossover networks! THE CENTRAL SPEAKER CLUSTER Here's how it works. The bass and midrange speakers (JBL 2130's) are arranged in 12 columns of 4 speakers each, the columns mounted side by side and around forming a cylinder. The directivity in the vertical direction of each column is dependent on the energy fed to each individual loudspeaker in the column. And, given equal energy in each speaker, as the frequency is raised, the polar response of each speaker changes from essentially omnidirectional (at frequencies where the wavelength is longer than the length of the column) to highly directional (at frequencies where the wavelength is short compared to the length of the column). The object then was to maintain a designed polar response from the columns at all frequencies in their range. To do this the length of the column is effectively reduced as the frequency is raised. This is accomplished by rolling off the response of the signal fed to certain speakers in the columns, with different break points for different speakers. The speakers in row B get the full frequency range assigned to the bass and midrange section; rows A and C are rolled off above 500Hz, and row D is rolled off above 300Hz. This combination seems to yield the desired results, directing most of the energy towards the balcony, and somewhat excluding the energy from the floor. Two smaller curved columns direct the required Better Sound Sound. That's what the tape business is really all about. Sound sells tape! And Gauss machines produce the world's best sounding duplicates, no matter which brand of tape you use. The reason is Gauss' exclusive, patented "Focused Gap"™ recording system. No other system can match it for high-fidelity, low-noise reproduction. It works because: The Gauss "Focused Gap"™ recording head, using a conducting element in the gap, focuses the bias field into a narrow beam with intensity unmatched by any conventional head. 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As we previously mentioned, the last 8 rows of the main floor under the balcony are out of the line of sight, and do not receive upper midrange and highs from the cluster. The lower frequencies, being omnidirectional, carry back to the last rows, but the higher frequencies are reinforced by two rows of Dukane 5A401 speakers which are delayed by 110 and 130 milliseconds respectively through Industrial Research digital time delays. The net result is even sound coverage throughout the auditorium, varying only about ±2dB from the loudest part of the house in the front balcony to the quietest part in the rear under the balcony. Typical sound levels during an Opry show are on the order of 83 to 85dB SPL. The stage monitors, or performer fold-back system, is located in the same cluster as the house reinforcement system. This central overhead portion is not only favorable for radiating sound into the audience, but it is a very suitable location for stage monitoring, being out of the way and virtually invisible. The stage monitor section of the cluster consists of two more JBL 2130's and one additional 2420 with horn, radiating down and rearward onto the stage. For the Opry, and most country shows this arrangement is sufficient, but occasionally with very loud acts additional stage monitors are necessary, which are set up on either side of the stage. Extra amplifiers have been installed for just that purpose. All power amplifiers for the house are custom built by Dukane and develop a total of 2500 watts of audio power. Each amplifier is direct coupled to a pair of speakers in the cluster that have been carefully selected to present optimum loading on the amplifier. The power amplifiers are equipped with a limiter at their inputs, so that it is impossible to drive the outputs into clipping. Sometimes it gets pretty loud, with the levels occasionally climbing to 100dB SPL up at the mixer's position. The console used to mix the stage performance for the audience (as contrasted to the Neve board used for the broadcast) is located just behind the cross aisle in the balcony. It is a fully equipped 20 input Spectra Sonics board similar in most aspects to those found in a well equipped recording studio. There are times when this board will be called upon to send down a stage monitor mix as well, using an auxiliary mixing buss (echo send). As mentioned previously the monitor mix is ordinarily handled by the Spectra Sonics board in the booth downstairs in the broadcast control room. This typifies the completely flexible manner in which all of the systems in the building may be interfed. Underneath the stage, behind the hydraulic mechanism used for lifting and lowering the front of the stage, is another item of interest which further illustrates system versatility; the microphone distribution amplifier system. 40 microphone pre-amplifiers are mounted in a rack available for connection to any of the 72 mike inputs on the Opry stage, or to any of the 30 inputs in the recording studio, or any of the 120 inputs in the TV production. The outputs from these distribution amplifiers appear in 4 separate locations; the Neve console patch bay, the Spectra Sonics stage monitor mixer, the Spectra Sonics audience mix board, the Cetec / Electrodyne TV studio console patch bay. This distribution amplifier system, designed by electronic systems consultant Dean Jensen, provides the capability for nearly any mike in the entire building to be controlled simultaneously and separately by any of the major control centers. Each amplifier in the distribution system is strapped for about 20dB of gain, which raises the level on the mike lines to -30dBm and makes them less susceptible to hum and noise pick-up from the SCR light dimming systems and RF from a nearby radio transmitter. To further guard against noise pick-up, all mike lines have been fabricated with Star Quad cable, which has 4 conductors instead of two; two twisted pairs, twisted out of phase with each other. The audio is applied in phase, and the RF is picked up out of phase and cancels out at the input transformer. The cable has a foil shield, plus a wrapped wire shield. The result is the absence of all noise pick-up problems. Mechanical noise from air conditioning and other machinery in the building was another potential problem area in the acoustical design. Every piece of equipment that generates noise or mechanical vibration is mounted on vibration absorbing supports. The acoustic power level associated with every fan and motor, the sound transmission through the duct work and diffusers, and the sound absorption characteristics of the room itself were all calculated and correlated to produce a noise criterion of 25, or an absolute noise level of 25dB SPL, which borders on inaudibility. Opry tradition, however, still rules the house and in keeping with the style of Ryman Auditorium, popcorn machines were installed around the perimeter of the hall, which pop away during the Opry shows, a curious exemption from the rigorous efforts to maintain state-of-the-art audio purity. In spite of the tremendous technological innovations incorporated in the facility, the Grand Ole Opry still adheres to traditional country sim- A 120 Watt power amplifier, a four channel mic mixer with three position EQ, a two-way electronic crossover, and pre-amplifier for electric instruments—all in rugged extruded cases that will stand the most demanding service. 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Even a suggestion to put a grand piano on the stage was rejected in favor of keeping an old open upright piano. Only after a long period of time and after a sizeable number of real country musicians have used it can a "Gimmick" like an electric guitar become accepted on the Opry stage. It is definitely not Opry policy to be progressive in its musical presentations, but the New Grand Ole Opry will certainly not be caught short as new ideas catch on and become part of country music. THE T.V./PRODUCTION FACILITY Purcell and Noppe were also responsible for the acoustical design of the TV studio facilities, and, of course, the approach was somewhat different from the auditorium. Here the desired qualities were more like those on a Hollywood sound stage. The reverberant characteristics of the room were kept relatively uniform with respect to frequency, rather than allowing an increase in decay time with decreasing frequency as in the case in a concert hall. Special attention was also given to exterior noise sources. As the facility is used more or less continuously in video recording and production work, the isolation from overhead aircraft noise was particularly critical, as well as isolation from the mechanical noise generated by the building service systems located adjacent to the TV studio. Double roof construction was used, the concrete floor is floating, the walls are faced with heavy sound traps (besides being very thick), and even the sliding door to the loading dock is a 12 inch thick slab of concrete. According to David Hall, director of technical operations for the entire Opryland complex, the producers and directors of TV shows are becoming more conscious of sound quality in their product, and this requires that the monitor facilities in the video production room be the same as in the TV audio control booth as well as the broadcast control room out in the Opry House; JBL 4320's driven by Crown amplifiers. Further, all the rooms are tuned to match each other as closely as possible. The control rooms are still being modified and rearranged as is natural for any facility less than 6 months old, and for the time being the effort has not been to preserve the frequency response of the rooms at the extreme top and bottom, but more to keep the midrange flat, and in general keep out peaks and nodes anywhere in the audio range. The TV stage is 75 by 75 feet with a 35 foot ceiling and provides excellent space for big orchestras; more than one at a time on occasion. Many of the regular shows that are produced at Opryland have a permanent band associated with them, and sometimes in addition to that there are bands that come in with the guest performers. There's plenty of room to put them all off to the side, of course, but still on the stage. For the TV productions, following the typical country music formula, nearly all the audio recording is done live, with very little overdubbing done. Usually the audio is mixed down to mono and recorded directly onto the audio track of the video machine. Generally, the same program is recorded in 16 track also, so that if the mono mix is not just right, they do have the ability to come back and lock up the 16 track to the video machine, remix the audio and re-record it onto the video tape. Aside from making possible a better audio product, it's economically advantageous to be able to do the rework later on the 16 track tape and not tie up a video crew while working on the audio track. It may be simply a matter of remixing, or it may be sweetening and overdubbing, in any case, once the original tracks are in sync with the video tape, then development can continue on the audio tracks independently of the video. In conjunction with this is another nifty piece of technical wizardry, the CMX computerized video production programmer. It's not too far removed from "automated mixdown" for multi-track audio, and in fact it's not unreasonable to suppose that the long awaited automated audio technique will eventually be included in the system. The CMX system provides programmed control of video editing, automating functions such as cross fades, A and B roll positioning and timing; and special effects programming. Typical editing of a commercial TV spot would involve making a time code synced duplicate of the unedited video tapes, then putting the original and duplicate on A and B roll reproducers. Instructions are then typed into the CMX computer, telling it to start the A roll at point X, for instance, and to fade out at point Y, and for the next scene to fade in at point Z on roll B and continue for a predetermined length of time, eventually to cut back to another point on roll A. The computer also controls a third video machine which re-records the mix of A and B rolls, as well as controlling the special video effects board, the slow motion machine, the graphics projection machines, and the 16 track audio machine. The audio in the TV studio is handled on a 24 input Cetec console, which can be patched as we have mentioned, to any microphone position in the entire building. It can also be fed a mix from any other console in the building, and can feed a mix back to any console. On a large show, for instance, that is televised from the Opry stage, the band may be located on the TV stage and mixed through the Cetec board which feeds the mix to the Neve console out front which combines that material with the performers on the Opry stage for broadcast. Meanwhile the house mixer up in the balcony is getting the same mix from the Cetec Electrodyne board and mixing it with the performers on stage for the audience in the theatre. At the same time, a 16 track recording may be made from auxiliary busses on the Neve. Very simultaneous. The band room, or recording studio, is not yet in operation, and will be completed in the future as budget considerations permit. At the present time it is simply a 25 by 45 foot room with a sloping ceiling. Eventually it will be properly treated for acoustical control, and will be equipped like most of the Nashville recording studios. In charge of all audio operations at Opryland is veteran Nashville soundman Hugh Hickerson, who points out, "the entire facility was designed to be much more than just the sum of its individual parts; the usefulness and flexibility of each of the production areas is magnified by its connection to its neighbor. Besides the intricate interconnection of primary audio channels throughout the building there is an equally intricate secondary intercommunication network for paging, control room talkback, special cue systems and general intercom." What hasn't been mentioned so far is the other audio realm at Opryland; the audio facilities in the 110 acre Opryland park, the mixing booths and systems for the three outdoor shows, a separate full theatre with an audio system for musical stage productions, paging and background music system for each of the separate areas in the park. These, perhaps, are worthy of a separate description, at another time. The Grand Ole Opry has a new home. Otari's new Mini-Pro Recorder is everything its name says it is — a compact professional recorder. Most important, it's not a warmed over hi-fi recorder with a few semi-professional features tacked on to wow the audiophile. Instead, it's a true professional recorder scaled down in size but not in performance or features. Who did we design the Mini-Pro for? A whole host of professional users, like the small recording studio, the A/V facility, or the broadcast station that's really beginning to get into production. Or the large studio that needs a compact recorder for its own small studios or its many outside assignments where no-compromise quality is still a requirement. Or for broadcast automation systems where the calculated MTBF of 2000 hours continuous operation can make the difference between success or failure? How professional is the MX-5050? Check these features: Synchronous reproduce, front panel edit control and mode, two or four channel versions, IC digital control system with motion sensing, optional DC capstan servo system, 15 and 7 1/2 or 7 1/2 and 3 3/4 ips tape speeds, front adjustable bias, record lockout, built-in test and cue oscillator, head lifters with adjustable-tension cueing feature, plug-in balanced line transformers, built-in mic preamps, Cannon connectors for line input and 600-ohm (-4 dB) output, optional swing-out rack mounting panel, standard reference level calibrate position, and four heads. Want to know more about this mini with the maxi performance? Or about its MX-7000 big brother, the three-speed machine with built-in test oscillator and some of the best flutter and frequency response specs in the industry? Contact Otari or your nearest Otari Professional Dealer. Otari Corporation 981 Industrial Road, San Carlos, California 94070 (415) 593-1648 TWX: 910-376-4890 In Canada: Noresco Manufacturing, Toronto NEW PRODUCTS COMPACT LOW-COST SYNCHRONIZER FOR UNDER $2000 ANNOUNCED BY AUTOMATED PROCESSES A new electronic synchronizer developed by Automated Processes, Inc., is described by the company as "the lowest-priced and smallest professional-quality synchronizer on the market today." Called the MINIMAG®, it measures only 19" wide x 1¾" high x 12" deep, and sells for under $2000. Comparable competitive units, it is said, sell for approximately $12,000! The MINIMAG provides all essential functions required for the synchronization of mag tapes. It will interlock any two tape machines, video, multi-channel, sprocketed or unsprocketed audio, and two or more MINIMAGS can be used to synchronize additional tape machines. Typical applications for MINIMAG include: connecting two 16-track audio tape recorders (ATR) to make them function as a single 30-track machine; providing variable or fixed delay effects; keeping an ATR in perfect sync with a VTR for audio "sweetening"; synchronizing for TV and FM stereo simulcasts; recording remote overdub tracks, etc. The MINIMAG synchronizer is supplied as a complete unit, with built-in code generator. It has a capture range of ±50 seconds and will maintain sync, or variable offset for any length of time regardless of tape stretch or shrinkage. If tapes are within 50 seconds of sync, it will adjust motor control voltage automatically until they are in perfect sync, with or without offset. Designed for convenient rack mounting, MINIMAG can be installed within 15 minutes. It plugs into any 115/230 volt, 50/60Hz power source, and power consumption is only 2 watts, plus 100 watts for the optional motor drive amplifier required for synchronous motors only. AUTOMATED PROCESSES, INC., 80 MARCUS DR., MELVILLE, N.Y. 11746. Circle No. 143 NEW CARDIOID DYNAMIC STUDIO MICROPHONE FROM AKG CAN HANDLE EXTREME SOUND PRESSURE LEVELS WITH LOW DISTORTION Designated the AKG D-140E the new microphone was designed with the specific and unique on-stage requirements of today's performers in mind. It will comfortably handle high sound pressure levels (128dB with less than 1% distortion). The D-140E has uniform off-axis response and exceptionally well-maintained directional pattern over the entire response range. Considerable improvements of the small dimension dynamic microphone element is said to have resulted in increased sensitivity and extension of the overall response range. The Microphone System is internally suspended and encapsulated by an improved, highly-effective wire mesh windscreen, lined with polyurethane foam. The D-140E is equipped with a -10dB bass attenuation switch. User net: $150.00. AKG, 100 EAST 42 STREET, N.Y., N.Y. 10017. Circle No. 144 NEW COMPACT PROFESSIONAL RECORDER FROM OTARI A new compact professional tape recorder, said to be less than one-half the size and one-third the weight of larger, more expensive professional recorders, has been announced by Otari Corporation, Japan's leading supplier of professional tape recorders and duplicators. Designated the MX-5050 MINI-PRO, the new machine is believed to contain many professional features not found in this price range, while maintaining performance specifications comparable to full size professional recorders. Among its many professional features are synchronous reproduce, front panel edit control (which allows both spilling and rocking), IC digital control system with motion sensing, adjustable cueing control for audible monitoring in fast forward and rewind, optional DC capstan servo system, 15 and 7½ ips tape speeds (easily convertible to 7½ and 3¼), front adjustable bias, record lockout, capstan location on non-oxide side of tape, built in test and cue oscillator, optional swing-out rack mounting panel, Cannon type connectors for input and 600 ohm (+4dB) output, standard reference level calibrate position, separate line and mike input level controls for each channel, versions for two or four channels, four heads, plug-in balanced line transformers, mic preamps, and easy-carry handles. Price of the two channel Otari MX-5050 MINI-PRO is $1345. OTARI CORPORATION, 981 INDUSTRIAL RD., SAN CARLOS, CA 94070. Circle No. 145 NAKAMICHI 500 A SECOND GENERATION TWO-HEAD CASSETTE SYSTEM The NAKAMICHI 500 utilizes a specially constructed crystal permalloy record/playback head whose gap is focused at 1.5 microns mechanically and magnetically, thus ensuring an ideal high frequency response. The Dolby noise reduction system is calibrated to the real 0dB level, not the usual +2 or +3dB level, to maximize signal to noise ratio. As in all the NAKAMICHI professional decks, there are three microphone inputs, a stereo pair and a blend mic, each with its own level control. For on-location recording, where levels are difficult to ascertain prior to the performance, NAKAMICHI includes its proven peak limiting device. A memory rewind switch makes it easy to return to any given spot on the tape. The three position selector properly biases and equalizes the deck for the new ferric tapes that have an extended high frequency response, as well as the usual low noise/high output ferric tapes, and the quiet chromium dioxide tapes. A DC servomotor provides constant tape speed, despite line voltage variations and the deck automatically disengages both the heads and the pinch roller at the end of the tape. Specifications are: power supply – 100, 117, 220, 240V 50/60Hz; power consumption – 40W Max.; tape speed is 1-7/8 ips. Wow and flutter is less than 0.08% WRMS. Frequency response – 40-17,000Hz ±3dB (EX Tape), 40-16,000Hz ±3dB (Cr02 Tape), 40-15,000Hz ±3dB (Low Noise Tape). Signal to noise ratio better than 58dB (Cr02 Tape), better than 55dB (EX, Low Noise Tape) (WRMS, CCIR, at 400Hz and 3% distortion with Dolby in). Total harmonic distortion less than 2% (at 1kHz 0dB, EX Tape). Erasure better than 60dB (at 1kHz 0dB, Saturation level). Channel separation better than 35dB (at 1kHz 0dB); cross talk better than 60dB (at 1kHz 0dB); bias frequency 105kHz. Input: mic input 600 ohm 0.2mV, blend mic 600 ohm 0.2mV, line 150kohm 70mV, DIN 25kohm 13mV. Output: line 1.0V (max.) variable, headphones 8 ohm 1mW (0dB). 15"W x 4½"H x 10"D and weighs 15½ lbs. Price: $399.00 Circle No. 146 NAKAMICHI 550 PORTABLE DOLBY CASSETTE SYSTEM (Soon to be released) The Model 550 is essentially the portable version of the ‘500’! The DC servomotor provides accurate speed control despite the source, whether it is battery, car jack or 117 volt line current. The built-in high quality monitor speaker facilitates critical on location monitoring. NAKAMICHI RESEARCH (U.S.A.) INC., 220 WESTBURY AVE., CARLE PLACE, N.Y. 11514 Circle No. 147 NEW CROWN M-600 AMPLIFIER MEETS THE DEMANDS OF HIGH POWER AMPLIFICATION APPLICATIONS Crown International has added a new amplifier, the M-600, to their full line of high quality units. The M-600 is a monaural, single-channel amplifier that has been specially designed to meet the demands of high power amplification applications. Unit provides continuous operation at rated power, at any rated frequency and is fully protected from shorts, open circuits, mismatch, RF burnout and thermal overload. The Crown M-600 amplifies signals from DC to 20kHz and provides 70 volt unbalanced line output at 600 watts of continuous power into 8 ohms and 1000 watts into 4 ohms, indefinitely. Built for durability and trouble-free operation, the M-600 includes built-in cooling which permits continuous full power operation. A two-speed fan shifts to high speed if heat sinks exceed 140ºF.; amplifier shuts down to standby mode if sink temperature exceeds 160º F. and then automatically re-activates when temperature drops down below 160º F. M-600 also contains a changeable, plug-in input board which enables the unit to drive any type input load, even a pure reactance without adverse effects. Modifications to the basic plug-in board can be used to add filtering, preamplification, mixing, and constant current sensing. The M-600 also employs a newly patented output bridge circuit which permits extremely high power levels to be safely sustained. For ultra high power applications, the coupling of two M-600’s together through a socket at the back of each amplifier produces a 140 volt balanced output, and a new unit – the Crown M-2000. This configuration produces 2 kilowatts into an 8 ohm load. CROWN INTERNATIONAL, 1718 WEST MISHAWAKA ROAD, ELKHART, IND. 46514. Circle No. 148 TWO-CHANNEL REVERB UNIT BY CLOVER SYSTEMS Suitable for professional recording, P.A., and broadcast applications, the new CLOVER R-500 twin channel reverb unit is now available. Featuring four special alloy transmission lines per channel, the R-500 is said to produce a clean and quiet reverberation comparable to existing systems costing three times as much. The R-500 is also the first commercially available reverb system to come equipped with both high and low impedance connections, making the unit compatible with standard +4dBm levels as well as the low level high Z systems. Other unique features include L.E.D. level indicators on both channels and a S/N of 75dB. Frequency response: 100Hz to 6,000Hz. Decay time: 1.8 sec. Hum and noise: 75dB below maximum output. Maximum output level: +18dBm. Input impedance (unbalanced): High level – Low level 50,000 ohms. Output impedance (unbalanced): High level – 50 ohms, Low level – 5,000 ohms. Nominal input/output levels: High level – +4dBm, Low level – 100 mV (-20dBm). Connectors: High level – barrier strip, Low level – RCA jacks. Dimensions: 19”x3¾”x10¾”. Power requirements: 110 volts, 50/60Hz, 10 watts max. $500.00. CLOVER SYSTEMS, 6232 SANTA MONICA BL., HOLLYWOOD, CA 90038. Circle No. 149 ORBAN/PARASOUND MODELS 621A/621B PARAMETRIC EQUALIZERS ORBAN/PARASOUND announces the availability of the new models 621A/621B Parametric Equalizers. The models 621A/621B offer four cascaded equalization sections, each with non-interacting, continuously adjustable center frequency, bandwidth, and amount of boost or cut controls. Each section provides up to 16dB peak and can dip to minus infinity, permitting use as a notch filter to eliminate hum and other fixed-frequency interference. Each section tunes over a 20:1 frequency range, with broadly overlapping coverage for maximum flexibility. Bandwidth is continuously adjustable from approximately 1/4 octave to 3 octaves. An overload light is provided which monitors each section and indicates the presence of peak clipping in any part of the equalizer. The light is driven by a peak-stretching circuit so that very short overloads will light the lamp long enough to be easily seen. Overloads can be instantly corrected with the integral gain control. Up to 12dB gain is available so that the equalizer can be used at either line or intermediate-level patch points. Typical 1kHz harmonic distortion is 0.06% at +20dBm out, and unweighted noise in a 26kHz noise bandwidth is typically -80dBm with equalizer controls flat. Slew rate exceeds 2.5 v/microsecond. The Parametric Equalizer is initially offered in single and two channel configurations on a 3.5" x 19" rack panel. The toggle EQ IN/OUT switches are mounted so that equalizers in multiple installations can be switched in or out with a single sweep of the hand. Each equalizer requires plus and minus 15 volts DC at 60 ma per side. Price: $419.00 – single channel (Model 621A), $598.00 – two channels (Model 621B). PARASOUND, INC., 680 BEACH ST., SAN FRANCISCO, CA 94109. Circle No. 150 GREATER DYNAMIC RANGE OFFERED IN NEW SCOTCH BRAND ‘250’ STUDIO MASTERING TAPE A new high-performance studio mastering tape, Scotch brand 250, has been announced by 3M Company, St. Paul, Minn. With a wider dynamic range than any previous Scotch brand tape, it is said to “out perform all others.” According to 3M’s Magnetic Audio/Video Products division, the improved oxide coating of the new tape has these principal features: - Reduction of tape noise, combined with higher output, to effect a signal-to-noise ratio 4dB beyond that of conventional tape on the market. - Improved shape of oxide particles and improved binder, to produce a higher-density coating with a smoother surface. The smoother recording surface provides better high-frequency saturation levels, improved head-to-tape contact, and reduced side-band “fuzziness” around each tone. - Improved high-strength binder system to stand up to extensive overdubbing, shuttling and multiple retakes without oxide shedding or powdering. Greater NEW PRODUCTS... continued - wearability enhances performance in high speed bin loop mastering operations for duplication. The textured backing eliminates high-speed wind scatter and prevents cinching during handling or shipment. This back treatment is also electrically conductive to reduce static attraction of dropout reducing dust and dirt. The bandcenter frequency sweep ranges for the five sections are 20-100Hz, 100-600Hz, 600-3kHz, 3k-6kHz, and 6k-20kHz. With the addition of these new frequency ranges the device, it is said by the company, will produce the kind of operating flexibility found previously only when a graphic equalizer or a parametric equalizer was used individually. All circuitry is operational amplifier, and used no transformers or inductors. Available in a standard 3½" x 19" rack mount package. Price: $450.00. MULTI-TRACK, P. O. BOX 3187, HOLLYWOOD, CA 90028 Circle No. 153 MODEL 750 LABORATORY POWER AMPLIFIER A new low cost high power amplifier said to be capable of delivering over 700 watts into an 8 ohm load is now available from BGW Systems. The BGW 750 can be operated in either Mono (bridge connected) or Stereo Mode with the flip of a switch. This unit features forced air cooling, SCR crow bar protection, front panel mounted circuit breaker and as much as 900 watts total output power. 3000 watts of output power transistors provide a tremendous safe operating area. Power Output (average continuous power): Stereo Mode — both channels driven; 440 watts into 8 ohms (220 watts/channel), 700 watts into 4 ohms (350 watts/channel), 900 watts into 2 ohms (450 watts/channel). Stereo Mode — One channel driven: 230 watts into 8 ohms, 400 watts into 4 ohms, 600 watts into 2 ohms. Mono Model (Bridge connected operation): 425 watts into 16 ohms, 700 watts into 8 ohms, 840 watts into 6 ohms, 860 watts into 4 ohms. Frequency response: ±.3dB 20Hz to 20kHz; ±.3dB 5Hz to 60kHz. Harmonic or IM distortion, less than 0.2% at 200 watts per channel or less into 8 ohms. Hum and noise, (20Hz - 20kHz) 105dB below 200 watts into 8 ohms. Input sensitivity; 2 volts ±2% for 40 volts out (200 watts, 8 ohms stereo operation) or 2 volts for 80 volts out mono operation. Size: 7" x 19" Rack Mount x 1¼" deep, 1/8" steel front panel, black finish with aluminum handles. Weighs less than 50 lbs. and available 4 weeks ARO. Price: $899 BGW SYSTEMS, POST OFFICE BOX 3742, BEVERLY HILLS, CA 90212. Circle No. 154 NEW SPHERE 900 GRAPHIC EQUALIZER Sphere Electronics, the Console Company, announces the availability of the new Sphere 900 Graphic Equalizer. The new unit is designed for ease of operation and for installation in new or older consoles where compactness and dense packaging is either necessary or desired. Nine specific frequencies have been selected for optimum flexibility in music and speech equalization. By using frequencies in octaves, shaping of the audio spectrum for the particular effect desired is accomplished with minimum phase shift and related distortion. An unusual feature of the equalizer is the provision for shifting the 6400Hz frequency as desired up to 8000Hz, or down to 5000Hz, thus permitting the most precise control of the important "presence" frequencies. Boost or cut of all frequencies in eleven steps from -15dB to +12dB. An equalizer in-out switch with an LED indicator is also provided. The unit can be strapped for either bipolar or unipolar power supply. Price is $325.00. SPHERE ELECTRONICS, 20211 G PRAIRIE, CHATSWORTH, CA 91311. Circle No. 155 TENTROL ENSURES STEADY TAPE SPEED Accurate control of tape tension for steady speed is provided by TENTROL, just introduced by Inovonics, Inc., of Campbell, California. TENTROL provides constant tension from beginning to end of any size tape reel by controlling the torque of the supply-reel motor. The unit consists of a reel speed sensor and control circuitry and can be installed easily in the field. TENTROL eliminates tape speed changes, and thus changes in pitch, with tape reels as large as 14 inches. This allows duplicators to use larger reels on slaves without loss of quality. TENTROL also extends head life by eliminating excessive tension, and improves high-frequency performance by reducing azimuth and head contact variation. An additional TENTROL unit can be installed on the takeup motor to provide constant takeup tension as well. Two units can provide fast starts at 30 ips and eliminate capstan creep. TENTROL units are available for nearly all Ampex tape recorders and for many other popular machines. INOVONICS, INC., 1630 DELL AVE., CAMPBELL, CA 96008. Circle No. 156 HARMAN / KARDON ANNOUNCES NEW CD-4 DEMODULATOR ADAPTOR A new CD-4 demodulator adaptor demodulator adaptor designed for use with existing four-channel receivers which lack CD-4 circuitry has been developed by Harman/Kardon. Called the "44+," the unit provides the impedance characteristics required by the special cartridges necessary for discrete disc playback, and feeds the high level inputs on existing quad receivers. The function switch's three positions allow for: CD-4/AUTO, which actuates the CD-4 circuitry when the carrier frequency impressed in the groove walls of all CD-4 discs is present; STEREO, which defeats the CD-4 circuitry completely, and BYPASS, which directs the signal from the turntable or record changer immediately into the amplifier or receiver. "Design variations have been employed with a view to improving performance; simplifying circuitry, construction, and operation, and improving reliability. "The benefits are expressed in reduced CD-4 circuitry size and the absence of superfluous controls such as a carrier level adjustment." "The interior layout of the '44+' allows for easy servicing, should it be needed, and isolates critical circuit areas from hum and noise producing components. Suggested retail price of the Harman/Kardon "44+" is $119.95. HARMAN INTERNATIONAL, 55 AMES CT., PLAINVIEW, N.Y. 11803 Circle No. 157 VERSATILITY KEY TO NEW LIMITER A versatile new limiter that, it is said by the company, will fill any limiting or compression need has been announced by Inovonics, Inc. The Model 201 Average and Peak Responding Limiter is designed for studio recording, mastering, broadcast, film, sound reinforcement, and other audio applications. The average level and peak limiting functions operate simultaneously and independently. Front-panel controls are provided for all functions, including variable attack/release time and response action. The Model 201 provides smooth, "effortless" sound with its unique openloop control approach and distortion-reducing circuitry. Price: $480.00. INOVONICS, INC., 1630 DELL AVE., CAMPBELL, CA 95008. Circle No. 158 PROFESSIONAL CASSETTE EQUIPMENT INTRODUCES NEW CASSETTE LOADER The Model 300 Cassette Loader is Cut it in half Half the cost, time, and worry, at Dick McGrew Recording Service in Dallas. Dick beats the competition with record master costs like $30 per side for stereo 12 inch 33$\frac{1}{3}$ rpm, and $10 per side for 45's. The day he receives your tape, he'll groove your master with the Neumann SX 68 cutter, the ultimate in cutting machines. Dick'll give it the individual and expert attention of a man who does a lot of producing himself. For no extra charge, Dick will provide equalization, reverberation, or other special services at your request. And he's used to giving attention to problem tapes. Interested in album pressing or singles? Dick's got a competitive price list for these services, too. Let us hear you! Dick McGrew recording service 707 TWIN HILLS AVE. • DALLAS 75231 • 214-691-5107 Still The Two Limiter Leaders No. 1 in performance and No. 1 in popularity. - The versatile Universal Audio 1176 LN peak limiter has ultra-fast attack time, push button selection of compression ratios for every program requirement, and adjustable attack and release times. - The LA 3A Leveing Amplifier is a no fuss RMS limiter/compressor with a patented electro-optical attenuator. Just set it and forget it. Half rack size, 3-1/2 inches high. They're still offering a bonus of no increase in price! The 1176 LN is under $500.00 and the LA 3A under $400.00. UREI quality, of course. Available through your UREI dealer. "Instrumental in Audio" 11922 Valerio Street, No. Hollywood, California 91605 (213) 764-1500 Exclusive export agent: Gotham Export Corporation, New York LOW-COST PROFESSIONAL-QUALITY EQUALIZER FROM AUTOMATED PROCESSES, INC. A new low-cost modular equalizer developed by Automated Processes, Inc., has been announced. The Model 553 Equalizer is suitable for a wide variety of applications in broadcasting, recording, film mixing, and sound reinforcement installations. The shelving type low and high frequency families of curves produce overall balance changes in the musical spectrum, while the 3kHz mid-frequency peaking curves specifically affect the "presence" range of the music and dialogue. The high, mid, and low frequency controls are continuously variable with up to 15dBm of boost or cut. There is a silent In/Out switch with LED indicator, and transformer isolated output to a maximum of +24dBm. Power requirement is $ \pm 15 $ VDC @ 30 mA, and the dimensions (1$\frac{1}{2}$" x 5$\frac{1}{4}$" x 6" deep) permit interchangeability with other equalizers in the Automated Processes line. Price of Equalizer Model 553 is $105. AUTOMATED PROCESSES, INC., 80 MARCUS DR., MELVILLE,N.Y. 11746. Circle No. 163 Classified CLASSIFIED ADVERTISING RATES Prepaid * with submitted copy: One column inch (1" x 2$\frac{3}{4}\")) ... $20.00 \( \frac{1}{2} $ column inch (\( \frac{1}{2} \") x 2\(\frac{3}{4}\")) ..... 14.00 (If billing is required add 20%.) SERVICES LOCATION RECORDING: up to 16 tr. 300' mike lines; Video/talkback & Stereo playback systems. Separate Quad wet monitoring w/4310 JBL's. MCI 16 tr or 8 tr; Tascam boards. CALL: LEE HAZEN, (615) 824-2311, OR WRITE TO RT 2, HENDERSONVILLE, TN. 37075. Recording and duplicating services for radio commercials, live recording, on location recording, studio and equipment rentals and demos. WESTFIELD STUDIOS, 780 WESTFIELD AVE., BRIDGEPORT, CT. 06606, (203) 371-0151. Advanced Recording Technology Precision professional recording studio service and maintenance. MICHAEL FRASER 876-4544 6770 Milner / P.O. Box 264 Hollywood, CA 90028 EQUIPMENT ONE STOP FOR ALL YOUR PROFESSIONAL AUDIO REPAIRS BOTTOM LINE ORIENTED. F. T. C. BREWER COMPANY P.O. Box 3057, Pensacola, Florida, 32505 SPICE FASTER, BETTER BY SHEARING REPLACES RAZOR. Has attached splicing tape dispenser. Professional quality. Specify 1/4 inch or cassette groove. Price: $24.95 plus $1.00 for handling. Distributors wanted. Details: NRPR, BOX 289, MCLEAN, VA. 22101 Send for FREE Catalog and Audio Applications OPAMP LABS 1033 No. Sycamore Ave. Los Angeles, CA 90038 (213) 934-3566 Circle No. 164 Scully 280 Electronics, $350; Scully 4-Channel Playback Electronics, $575; Altec Graphic EQ, $295; Spectra Sonics 22-in/8-out remix console, $3,950. SOUND 80, INC. MINNEAPOLIS, MN (612) 721-6341 10½" Reel Specialists: Boxed 10½" NAB ¼" reels $3.00@ flanges $1.25@. 10½" Precision reels $6.50@ flanges $2.25@ Heavy duty or .Tapered. Wanted: used ¼" NAB & Precision hubs. SOUND INVESTMENT CO., POB 88338, ATLANTA, GA. 30338. High Intensity tuned sound reinforcement systems, including narrow band (5Hz) feedback suppression, detailed regenerative response room equalization ±1dB, <15% articulation loss of consonants. 1000's of customized professional products, all shipped prepaid/insured. Music & Sound Ltd., 11½ Old York Rd., Willow Grove, PA 19090 (215) 659-9251 Inventors / Engineers MULTI-TRACK ★ SERIES "B" MIXING CONSOLE ★ VARI-BAND 5 SECTION PARAMETERIC EQUALIZER ★ DUAL EQUALIZED REVERB ★ LONG & SHORT THROW SLIDE FADERS ★ HIGH BALLISTIC VU METER P.O. BOX 3187 HOLLYWOOD, CA 90028 (213) 467-7890 Circle No. 165 One Way Noise Reduction (10-14dB) for cutting rooms / tape copies; + monitor equalizers at $75/channel; + free room equalization with purchase of 1/3 octave filters; + 1000's of state of the art studio products, customized - aligned - calibrated - biased, etc. Music & Sound Ltd., 11½ Old York Rd., Willow Grove, PA 19090. (215) 659-9251. All Shipped Prepaid/Insured FOR SALE: New 14" NAB Ampex aluminum flanges have never been removed from original box. Package of 10 - $8.00 prepaid. SOUND INVESTMENT CO., POB 338, DUNWOODY, GA. 30338. NEW YORK'S LEADING PRO AUDIO/VIDEO DISTRIBUTOR FOR AUDIO, VIDEO, BROADCAST, PUBLIC ADDRESS & HI-FI STEREO SYSTEMS. Representing over 130 audio/video manufacturers, featuring such names as: AMPLEX SCULLY, TASCAM, SONY, J.B. LANSING, NEUMANN, ALTEC, McINTOSH, AKG, DYNAIR, T.V. MICROTIME, UREI, 3M and other major brands. * The largest "in stock" inventory of equipment, accessories and parts. * Competitive discount prices. Write for FREE CATALOG! factory authorized SALES - SERVICE - PARTS SYSTEMS DESIGN - INSTALLATION MARTIN AUDIO/VIDEO CORP. 320 WEST 46 STREET NEW YORK, N.Y. 10036 (212) 541-5900 GO 24 TRACK! Buy this 24-16-8 track machine and don't spend the big bucks. With one machine you can offer all 3 configurations for what you'd expect to pay for a 16 track alone. This is the original MCI with individual meter modules. Complete with autolocator, digital timer & Kendun modifications to eliminate punch-in/out clicks and reduce hum. Reason for sale - going to a machine with film-lock. Price $22,000. Many extra cards, motors, other spares available. A real bargain for a one machine studio. Maintained in A-One condition by Kendun Recorders/Kent Duncan (213) 843-8096. All major lines of Pro, Music and PA audio equipment, equipment rentals and professional audio services. ALTEL SOUND SYSTEMS, 780 WESTFIELD AVE., BRIDGEPORT, CT. 06606, (203) 371-0152. AN ALTEC LANSING ACOUSTA-VOICE SOUND CONTRACTOR. FOR SALE: 16 like new ITI Parametric Equalizers, free power supplies & custom formica equipment cabinet with purchase of all sixteen. Also available, one MCI JH-16 16-track recorder with auto-locator, mint condition. Contact: ALAN KUBICKA, P.O. BOX 556, MEDINAH, IL. 60157, PHONE: (312) 529-1001. FOR SALE, USED RECORDING EQUIPMENT BARGAINS FROM AUDIOTECHNIQUES, INC. Mostly trade-ins on new MCI recorders and consoles, offered in "as is" condition, with some of hits remaining for the taking. 122—16 ... MCI JH-8 16-track record/reproduce with auto-locator, in daily use at major label studio, lots of hits recorded and mixed on this oldie but goodie ... only $8.6K 124—2 ... Scully 284-8 8-track with Syncmaster, the most popular 8 track of them all, in good operating condition ... $7,550. 124-3 ... 12 track Scully with 2 transports (one inch and half inch), extra 8 & 4 track heads, in good condition, use as separate 8- and 4-track machines, or together as 12-track, one console mount houses both transports, 12 track syncmaster, original cost over $22K ... $9.8K (pick up an extra 2 track head and you've got it all!) 124—6 ... 12 track Scully with 8 & 4 track heads, remote and sort of a Syncmaster, rough, but it runs, is fairly quiet and you can't beat the price ... $6.7K. (This is what the real estate folks would call a "handy man" special) 124—8 ... Scully 282-4 4-track in console, manual lifters, old style, but still meets all specs ... $2,700. 124—9 ... Scully 100 with every extra available. 16-track with extra 8 track heads, extra remote panel, now in regular operation for rock, a real bargain ... $11K. 124—11 ... Scully 288-16 Big Scully 16 track that's still the favorite of many major studios (ask A&M), originally sold with Syncmaster for over $24K, this one's in regular service and a real bargain for only $12K. 128—3 ... Audio Design 12 input 4 output console used in well known 8 track studio, all the standard Audio Design built in quality and performance, good looking board, only 2 years old, cost nearly $20K ... $10,500. 129—4 ... 18 input 16 output custom built console, with compressors, pan pots, lots of goodies, patch bay, now in use in well known 16-track studio, cost over $22K... $7,100. 129—8 ... 16 input 12 output console (plus 4 outboard outputs! Audio Design faders and line amps, patch bay, loaded with extras, needs some work, but the components alone are worth over $11K ... only $3,700. Several more 12 track, 8 track and 2-track Scully's offered at great bargain prices - call us for your needs and see what we have at the time. All these units offered subject to prior sale, 10% deposit holds for two weeks inspection, deposit refundable if you can't get together with us or the owners. AUDIOTECHNIQUES, INC. 142 Hamilton Ave. Stamford, Conn. 06902 Tel: (203) 359-2312 R/e/p 71 Used sound and lighting equipment in excellent condition: 22 Bozak CM 209 column speakers; 4 Bozak CM199-4 Bass supplement speakers; 8 Altec 1567-A mixer preamp, complete; 8 Altec 1567-A mixer preamp, no audio transformers; 1 Van Buren Sweet Sixteen Dimmer Board with memory control, 32 x 3 KW SCR dimmers with 2 outlets each, 1—16 preset electronic console and auto fader, 200 foot control cable; 1 Van Buren Sweet Sixteen Dimmer Board with memory control, 32 x 3 KW SCR dimmers with 2 outlets each, 2—16 preset electronic consoles and 2 auto faders, 200 foot control cable. CONTACT: Paul Johnson, Technical Director UP WITH PEOPLE 3103 N. Campbell Avenue Tucson, AZ 85719 (602) 327-7351 DYMA builds custom studio consoles, desks, enclosures, studio furniture. DYMA builds roll-around consoles for any reel-to-reel tape recorder. DYMA ENGINEERING, INC. Route 1, Box 51 Taos, New Mexico 87571 (505) 758-2686 Recording Engineer for AM/FM broadcasting station. Must be experienced in all phases of music and commercial production for automated and non-automated systems. FCC license not necessary. Call 201-472-0930 An equal opportunity employer. UNITED AUDIO RECORDING, the audio marketplace. Sales and Service for Scully/Metrotech, and Neuman, EMT, Electro-Voice, Shure, Quad Eight, Spectra Sonics, DBX, Interface Electronics, MicMix Masterroom Chambers and others. (512)684-4000, 5310 JACKWOOD, SAN ANTONIO, TX. 78238. FOR SALE: Infonics stereo tape duplicating system RR-2, RS-2 for reel-to-reel tapes up to 7" dia. Makes 7 copies. 30 ips, ½ trk. Used, very good condition. $1800. OUTREACH PRODUCTIONS, Box 50, Glendale, CA 91209 Tel: 213-395-2242 or 360-6826 eves. NEW MODELS: AMPEX AG440C 2-track; servo capstan motor; SCULLY 280B; immediate delivery from stock. Used AG440B's. Malaco Recording, Jackson, Miss. (601) 982-4522 SYNTHESIZERS — The finest in the world all available in one place. EMS, MOOG, ARP, Eu SYSTEMS, 360 SYSTEMS & OBERHEIM ELECTRONICS. ELECTRONIC MUSIC STUDIOS OF AMERICA, INC. 460 West St., Amherst, Mass. 01002 (413) 256-8591 Call or write for sales and service. PRESTO 8D Lathe w/Vacuum table, Vari pitch; Amps, Prokit mixer, misc. items. Write to: GRAVES RECORDING SERVICE P.O. Box 5145 Eugene, Oregon 97405 FOR SALE 1 Ampex 440-4 includes two track stereo head block IN CONSOLE 7½-15 ips $2950.00 1 Ampex 300 – top plate MCI electronics – two track IN CONSOLE 7½-15 ips $1950.00 1 Ampex 351 – top plate MCI electronics – two track IN CONSOLE 7½-15 ips $1850.00 1 Ampex 351 – top plate MCI electronics in Scully portable cases two track stereo 7½-15 ips $1750.00 1 MCI 16 track tape machine with matching 8 track heads and guides – autolocator – IN CONSOLE 15-30 ips $12,500.00 CRITERIA RECORDING STUDIOS 1755 NE 149 St. Miami, Florida 33161 (305) 947-5611 $1.00 SOME INFORMATION ON THE MUSIC INDUSTRY AND HOW IT WORKS Seven Arts Press, Inc. Dept. REP 6605 Hollywood Blvd. Hollywood, CA 90028 continued from page 11 EASTERN OFFICE OPENED BY CHICAGO'S LASALLE AUDIO Cindy Guzzo, General Manager of La-Salle Audio announces the opening of a branch office in Teaneck, New Jersey. This office will be under the management of Irv Joel, formerly of A & R Recording. Mr. Howard Lieberman, also formerly of A & R, has been appointed Sales-Engineer for the New Jersey office. The LaSalle Audio office in Teaneck, New Jersey will service the northeastern states, The Greater New York, New Jersey Metropolitan area and will carry the same product, consultation and service as the office in Chicago. LASALLE can be contacted at P.O. BOX 373, TEANECK, NEW JERSEY 07666. PHONE: (201) 692-0010. La Salle Audio provides professional audio design, consultation, sales, installation and service for the convenience of the broadcast and recording engineer 740 N. Rush Street Chicago, Ill. 60611 Phone: 312-266-7500 P.O. Box 373 Teaneck, N.J. 07666 Phone: 201-692-0010 Would you let these guys fix your studio? Studio Supply Company’s enviable reputation as turn-key recording studio builders and designers is well-known and respected, so we won’t tell you about something you know about. Let’s talk about something that most studio builders make you ask about—what happens after you’ve got your studio and we’ve got your money. SERVICE! Studio Supply Company unconditionally warrants any turn-key studio installed by us - total system and individual pieces of equipment - parts, labor and travel expenses for a period of 90 days from completion, over and above any manufacturer’s warranty This isn’t new—it’s been that way since Day One. When manufacturers parts and labor warranties exceed this, we back them to the hilt. Of the two major turn-key studio builders in the United States, only Studio Supply Company has complete service staff, spares, and full in-house bench and field support for every item we sell. We have even been asked (and are glad to) fix gear the other guys have sold. From the day we take our first look at a new product, to determine its performance, suitability and reliability, our service guys are reading the manuals, talking with the designers, and intimately learning all circuits and systems to insure that from the first piece installed, service is timely and competent. Our people have more experience, knowledge, and expertise in the service of our systems and the gear we sell than any similar organization. Each prime field service man has over 150 hours of intensive classroom training, and our guys collectively have well over 100 years of professional service experience. The reason we accept long term service responsibility for the studios we build is... WE DO IT RIGHT THE FIRST TIME STUDIO SUPPLY HAS ACCESS TO MANY LEASING PLANS AND OTHER SOURCES... WHY NOT CALL US TODAY... (615) 327-3075 studio SUPPLY COMPANY P.O. BOX 280 NASHVILLE, TENN. 37202 In the world of the professional sound engineer, advance follows advance, and new product follows new product. Bring yourself up-to-date with the Shure Professional Products Catalog, 24 pages of Shure products to make your job easier: the SM61 Microphone, beautiful to look at and virtually immune to noise in hand-held applications . . . the SM7 Microphone, with built-in, visually monitored, response tailoring . . . the ultra-versatile SM53 Microphone, with its own system of accessories . . . the SE30 Gated Compressor/Mixer, for “hands-free” gain riding . . . the SC35C Phono Cartridge, the first cartridge optimized in design especially for on-the-air playback . . . and the incomparable V-15 Type III Phono Cartridge! For your own copy of the catalog No. AL 312, write: Shure Brothers Inc. 222 Hartrey Ave., Evanston, Ill. 60204 In Canada: A. C. Simmonds & Sons, Limited Circle No. 168
RADIO moves with a going America Lightning fast play! And just as fast as it happens, millions of Radio listeners hear it. Only Radio reaches sports-loving Americans at home, at work and on the road—wherever they are, whatever they may be doing. And Spot Radio lets you choose the time and place to reach them. These great stations will sell them your product. Radio Division Edward Petry & Co., Inc. The Original Station Representative KOB Albuquerque WTAR Norfolk-Newport News WSB Atlanta KFAB Omaha WGR Buffalo KPOJ Portland WGN Chicago WRNL Richmond WDOK Cleveland WROC Rochester WFAA Dallas-Ft. Worth KCRA Sacramento KBTR Denver KALL Salt Lake City KDAL Duluth-Superior WOAI San Antonio KPRC Houston KFMB San Diego WDAF Kansas City KYA San Francisco KARK Little Rock KMA Shenandoah KLAC Los Angeles KREM Spokane WINZ Miami WGTO Tampa-Lakeland-Orlando KSTP Minneapolis-St. Paul KVOO Tulsa Intermountain Network NEW YORK • CHICAGO • ATLANTA • BOSTON • DALLAS • DETROIT • LOS ANGELES • SAN FRANCISCO • ST. LOUIS IN THE INDIANAPOLIS MARKET WXLW Moppets inspect 'cookie baker' as Richard Elliotts, "Typical WXLW Family," scout new range. ... PROVIDES YOU WITH THE ESSENTIAL INGREDIENT FOR ASSURED GREATER SALES IMPACT—"A PROFILED ADULT AUDIENCE." When you buy WXLW in Indianapolis you know in advance that your sales message will be more effective for the products you have to sell. Why? Because we are the first radio station in the market to use creative research in-person interviews* to profile the WXLW audience. Now we know where and how our listeners live . . . what they eat . . . what they wear and what they're going to buy! In this Market the WXLW audience is your best sales target! To reach and influence this above average adult listening audience . . . who control 27.9% of the Total Consumer Spendable Income in Indiana†—buy WXLW in Indianapolis. † (1960 U.S. CENSUS REPORT) WXLW 5000 Watts 950 Kilocycles Indianapolis, Indiana Ask your Robert East/ man for "the typical WXLW family" profile. WE DIDN'T EXPECT 15,000 LETTERS! ...that's what we got! MISS AMERICA 1961 Nancy Ann Fleming, currently a student at Michigan State, happily scrambles answers to WJIM-TV Spell-A-Vision Contest WJIM-TV’s recent SPELLAVISION contest consisted of unscrambling 30-words from letters superimposed on our screen . . . once hourly, one word daily, for thirty days. Results . . . 15,000 answers . . . 5,000 contestants tied for first prize with 30 correct words. Great proof of concentrated viewing and WJIM-TV’s dominance in mid-Michigan. WJIM-TV LANSING...FLINT...JACKSON When you buy Wisconsin's 2nd Retail Trade Zone... TAILOR YOUR DOLLAR TO THE MARKET! You can get a lot more penetration for considerably fewer dollars in the Madison/South Central Wisconsin market—if you direct your coverage to the actual 8-county market. And not to "added" counties where you're already covered. Buy WKOW-TV to make sure that you're paying solely for audience within this actual market. WKOW-TV brings your commercial into 90 per cent of tv homes, bright and clear and unduplicated. You display your product more frequently, more efficiently. Ask your Young TV rep to prove this to you! Tony Mac, Exec. Vice-Pres. & Gen. Mgr. Larry Bentson, Pres. Joe Floyd, Vice-Pres. Ben Hovel, Gen. Sales Mgr. Represented by YOUNG TV MIDCO Midcontinent Broadcasting Group WKOW-AM and TV Madison • KELO-LAND TV and RADIO Sioux Falls, S. D. • WLOL-AM, FM Mpls.-St. Paul • KSO Des Moines KEY STORIES NEW SPONSOR LURES IN SYNDICATION / Major syndicators are diversifying their catalogues. Majority are counting more heavily on help from station reps. More commercial minutes now sold. P. 31 HOW TO PUT OOMPH INTO RADIO / All-day seminar of radio and agency people explore means of stimulating more interest in radio. WBC is sponsor of this event. P. 35 TIMEBUYERS: WANT TO RELOCATE? / Studies show salaries and job opportunities vary widely from city to city, with best salaries in the Northeast and best opportunities for women in the South. P. 36 WHAT IS A RADIO SALESMAN? / An account executive offers his tribute to the radio salesman, a curious creature who knows more about your business than you do. His likes and dislikes are revealed. P. 38 A PEEK AT TV'S COMMERCIAL MONITORS / Four New York firms discuss their business of photographing tv commercials off-the-air for advertisers and advertising agencies. P. 40 PUREX'S UNIQUE APPROACH TO WOMEN / Purex's specials which appealed to female viewers, were first to treat widespread—and often delicate—problems faced by women in today's society. P. 42 SPOT SCOPE / Developments in tv/radio spot P. 71 TIMEBUYER'S CORNER / Inside the agencies P. 48 WASHINGTON WEEK / FCC, FTC and Congress P. 55 SPONSOR HEARS / Trade trends and talk P. 56 DEPARTMENTS 555 Fifth p. 6 / 4-Week Calendar p. 6 / Radio/TV Newsmakers p. 66 / Buyer's Viewpoint p. 69 SPONSOR PUBLICATIONS INC. Combined with TV 'N' U.S. Radio 'N' U.S.FM. Executive Editorial, Circulation, and Advertising Offices: 555 Fifth Ave., New York 17, 212 MURray 3H-7-sun. Midwest Office: 612 N. Michigan Ave., Chicago II, 312-694-1100. Southern Office: 341 E. Kincaid Ave., Ste. 800, Birmingham, Ala. West Coast Office: 601 California Ave., San Francisco 11, Tel. FUT 7-9122. Los Angeles phone: 213-461-sun. Eastern Office: 3110 Elgin Ave., Baltimore 11, Md. Subscriptions: U.S. $8 a year. Canada $9 a year. Other countries $11 a year. Single copies 10c. Printed U.S.A. Published weekly. Second class postage paid at Baltimore, Md. © 1962 SPONSOR Publications Inc. Comedy from 20th-Century Fox in: BELLES ON THEIR TOES — starring Jeanne Crain, Debra Paget, and Myrna Loy LET'S MAKE IT LEGAL — starring Claudette Colbert, MacDonald Carey, and Marilyn Monroe DOWN AMONG THE SHELTERING PALMS — starring William Lundigan, Jack Paar, and Mitzi Gaynor — and many more top comedies all contained in Volume 4's 40 great "Films of the 50's". Comedy from Warner Bros. in: TOP SECRET AFFAIR — starring Susan Hayward, Kirk Douglas, and Jim Backus ONIONHEAD — starring Andy Griffith, Walter Matthau and Joey Bishop THE GIRL HE LEFT BEHIND — starring Natalie Wood, Tab Hunter, and James Garner — and many more top comedies all contained in Volume 5's 53 great "Films of the 50's". AND...SUSPENSE... BROADWAY...SCIENCE FICTION...ACTION... DRAMA... Seven Arts Volumes 4 & 5 have everything — everything to please your audiences — top stars — top stories — top directors — they're all in Seven Arts' "Films of the 50's", "Money Makers of the 60's" Volumes 4 & 5 now available from Seven Arts. A SUBSIDIARY OF SEVEN ARTS PRODUCTIONS LTD NEW YORK 270 Park Avenue CHICAGO: 8920 N. La Crosse (P.O. Box 613) Shure III ORchard 4-5105 DALLAS 5641 Charleston Drive ADams 9-2855 L.A. 3562 Royal Woods Dr., Sherman Oaks, Cal. State 6-8276 TORONTO, ONTARIO 11 Ashburde St West Empire 4-7193 For list of TV Stations programming Seven Arts' "Films of the 50's" see Trans Cover SRDS (Spot TV Rates and Data) Individual feature prices upon request. What’s in volumes 4 and 5 of Seven Arts’ “Films of the 50’s”? COSMETIC SALES Our client, the Alberto-Culver Company, requests permission to reprint the 17 September article "Cosmetic Sales Zoom with Tv Spot." Many thanks for your cooperation.—ALEX M. OSTFELD, Compton Advertising, Chicago. TV SPECIALS I have just finished reading the article, "Tv Specials—Some Big Changes" (24 September). It is both interesting and accurate. It was of course, developed to its fullest potential, and I'm sure you'll have good reader reaction to it. MICHAEL DANN, vice president, CBS TV Network. INSURANCE AND RADIO In this office we are entranced by the article, "Insurance: Why Radio Can Help," special industry report No. 2 (1 October). Could you send us 20 copies as soon as possible? We would also like to take this opportunity to thank you for printing such an informative article. JAMES R. HENDERSON, program director, KBHS, Hot Springs, Arkansas. SOAP OPERA REVIVAL In SponsorScope of the 24 September issue, you had an item calling attention to the possible reviving of soap operas by some Midwestern station managers. I have been looking for this type of program for four years, but to no avail. My purpose in writing is to find out whether or not you have some sources for these shows, and if so, I wish you would let me know who they are. I, too, believe there is a need and a demand for this type of programming in radio, and I am most interested in finding sources for material.—BEN HOBERMAN, vice president and general manager, KABC, Los Angeles. • One Chicago syndicator has a quantity of such program transcriptions on hand, and other producers in the Chicago area are considering producing new ones. UNSCRUPULOUS PROMOTORS I read with considerable interest Seller's Viewpoint (13 August) by Arthur Hamell, general manager of Commercial Producers. Have your ever given thought to creating some form of policing method or blacklist for unscrupulous promoters? We have had in our office several instances of chicanery. In one case the radio and television station advertised a product, the owner of the product paid the producer, but the producer never paid the station. Another instance: the producers put on a sales program for the station itself, committed the station to exorbitant prizes, took the money to pay for them, and never actually performed. In addition, money was collected from several of the sponsors involved and the money was never turned over to the stations. Of course, in both instances, proper safeguards could have been taken by the stations to protect themselves. However, it is not the normal and expected way to do business without any prior warning as to the producers' capability or reliability. In my opinion, these unscrupulous individuals are a blot upon the industry and have created the public image of all such sales initiative programs as being cheap and dishonest. If you would take it upon yourself, as part of your editorial policy, to publicize these instances, it is our opinion that all legitimate facets will be better protected and able to serve the public better and as a result, all could make more honest money.—HERBERT J. BLISS, Egan and Bliss, attorneys, New York. 4-WEEK CALENDAR OCTOBER Advertising Federation of America seventh district meeting: 14-16, Hermitage, Nashville, Tenn. National Association of Broadcasters fall conferences: 15-16, Dinkler-Plaza Hotel, Atlanta, Georgia; 18-19, Biltmore Hotel, New York; 22-23, Edgewater Beach Hotel, Chicago; 25-26, Statler-Hilton, Washington, D. C. American Association of Advertising Agencies central regional meeting: 17-18, Hotel Ambassador West, Chicago; 20-25 western region convention, Hilton Hawaiian Village, Honolulu, Hawaii. NAB-International Radio & Television Society joint luncheon featuring NAB president LeRoy Collins as speaker: 18, Biltmore Hotel, New York. Mutual Advertising Agency Network final meeting for 1962: 18-20, Palmer House, Chicago. National Educational Tv & Radio Center fall meeting of station managers of affiliated tv stations: 18-20, Park-Sheraton, New York. National Assn. of Educational Broadcasters 1962 annual convention: 21-25, Hotel Benjamin Franklin, Philadelphia. American Women in Radio and Television west central area conference: 26-28, New Center for Continuing Education, University of Nebraska, Lincoln. Broadcasters' Promotion Association annual convention: 28-30, Holiday Inn Central, Dallas. International Radio and Television Society time buying and selling seminar: begins 30, CBS Radio, New York. NOVEMBER American Assn. of Advertising Agencies east central regional meeting: 1, Statler-Hilton, Detroit; eastern annual conference: 13-14, Americana Hotel, New York. National Association of Broadcasters fall conference: 8-9, Sheraton-Dallas Hotel, Dallas; 12-13, Muchlebach Hotel, Kansas City, Mo.; 15-16, Brown Palace Hotel, Denver. Association of National Advertisers annual meeting: 8-10, Homestead, Hot Springs, Va. Television Bureau of Advertising annual meeting: 14-16, Waldorf Astoria Hotel, New York. MORE LISTENERS IN CINCINNATI THAN ANY OTHER STATION CALL robert e. eastman & co., inc. He'll prove it to you with the latest Pulse and Hooper Figures! MORE Adult Men 18 to 49 MORE Adult Women 18 to 49 MORE Teenagers and Children JUPITER BROADCASTING wsai Radio in cincinnati Richard E. Nelson, Pres. Lee C. Hanson, Gen'l Sales Mgr. FOUR STAR TELEVISION Proudly Announces THE FORMATION OF ITS NEW COMPANY FOUR STAR DISTRIBUTION CORP. 600 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK 20 FOR THE RELEASE OF ITS NETWORK SHOWS FOR INDIVIDUAL MARKET PROGRAMMING LEN FIRESTONE VICE-PRESIDENT AND GENERAL MANAGER PHONE: LT 1-8530 RSVP ENCORE! HOURS: ★ TARGET: CORRUPTORS ★ THE DETECTIVES ★ STAGECOACH WEST HALF-HOURS: ★ DICK POWELL'S ZANE GREY THEATRE ★ THE DETECTIVES ★ LAW AND MR. JONES Climaxing a decade of superior showmanship, Four Star now offers a selected number of off-network series for individual market programming. Networks, sponsors and viewers alike have consistently acclaimed the premium entertainment proudly bearing the Four Star name. These programs have demonstrated their power to attract audiences and have established a fine record of results for advertisers. Your station will inherit this legacy of "proven-programming" with these Four Star series. Here is quality that will add prestige to your station... rating histories that will ease your spot selling job and enough variety to fit anywhere in your schedule. These and more, the reasons for an encore. THERE IS ALWAYS A LEADER, and WGAL-TV in its coverage area is pre-eminent. This Channel 8 station reaches not one community, but hundreds—including four important metropolitan markets. Channel 8 delivers the greatest share of audience throughout its wide coverage area. For effective sales results, buy WGAL-TV—the one station that is outstanding. WGAL-TV Channel 8 Lancaster, Pa. NBC and CBS STEINMAN STATION Clair McCollough, Pres. Representative: The MEEKER Company, Inc. • New York • Chicago • Los Angeles • San Francisco SPONSOR/15 OCTOBER 1962 JWT ADDS PHILLIPS PETROLEUM: $16 MILLION GAIN THIS YEAR As anticipated, the Phillips Petroleum account worth about $8 million, with Lambert & Feasley for over 25 years, has joined JWT. Several people are being brought over from L&F, notably media, but Don Thorburn will be the account's managing supervisor. It's a gain of around $16 million on new business for JWT. Note: Phillips will spend from $4 million a year in spot. SIG LARMON IS STEPPING DOWN AS Y&R CHAIRMAN After 33 years with the agency, 20 as chief executive officer, Sigurd Larmon will retire as chairman of the board of Young & Rubicam at the end of this year. The grooming of George H. Gribbin, president, as chief executive officer, was begun back in 1958. No successor to Larmon as chairman has been named. GEORGIA PACIFIC PLYWOOD JOINS DOUGLAS FIR ON NBC TV NBC TV last week proved again that in tv, if you scratch an offbeat field, you can virtually count on a competitive account to make it a parade. Latest case is Georgia Pacific Plywood. It's spending about $400,000 for two one-minute participations a week in NBC TV's 13-week series, International Sports with Bud Palmer, plus quarter sponsorships in the Sugar and Senior Bowls. The International series starts 12 January. Douglas Fir Plywood is in its second season as sponsor of the David Brinkley Journal with an expenditure of about $2 million in time and talent over 39 weeks. CBS TV AND ABC-TV RAISE DAYTIME RATES Reflecting booming daytime business at the tv networks, CBS TV and ABC TV both came out with anticipated rate hikes last week. Only the morning strip is affected by the CBS TV boost, but ABC TV's rate increase involves the entire day. (For details on this see SPONSOR-SCOPE, page 21.) SOFT DRINKS SKYROCKET TV BILLINGS Continuing the trend started last year when tv's share of soft drink billings topped the 50% level, that category has upped its tv expenditure in the January-June period by 48.3%. Tvb reported gross time tv billings were $15,733,348 this first 1962 half, with spot getting $11,409,030 of the total. Leading the others in the field was Coca Cola, with first half billings of $7,333,863 over $3,834,477 in the first 1961 half. WBC SEMINAR PROBES RADIO PROGRAMING PROBLEMS Radio practitioners and lay spokesmen gathered at New York's Hotel Americana for an in-depth look at the medium's programing future and some thorough soul-searching on current problems. (See story on page 35.) ABC TV MOVES ERNIE FORD TO LATER PERIOD ABC TV is putting its daytime schedule through another shuffle 19 November. Tennessee Ernie Ford and Jane Wyman repeats switch periods. Jane Wyman will occupy the 11-11:30 slot and Ford moves ahead to 12-12:30. Father Knows Best replaces Camouflage in the 12:30-1 niche. NBC TV POSTS SRO ON ELECTIONS COVERAGE NBC TV is the first network to reach the finish line on the sale of the 1962 elections. Libby, McNeil & Libby (JWT) last week picked up the last remaining one-sixth of the 6 November package, already sold to Purex, Lincoln-Mercury, Lipton Tea, Block Drug and Carter Products. DCS&S PICKS UP OVER $2 MILLION IN BILLINGS It was a banner week for Dougherty, Clifford, Steers & Shenfield. The agency brought into the house the heavy air media portion of the Grove Laboratories Division of Bristol-Myers and the Airwick line of household products. Together, 4-Way Cold Tablets, Nasal Spray and Decongel (in test markets) spend a little over a million dollars. DCS&S already has Grove’s Ammens, Minit Rub and Defencin. The other million comes from the Airkem account. It follows the takeover of Airwick marketing by Airkem from Lever Bros. FCC ISSUES ITS INTERPRETATION OF SEC. 315 There's some question whether broadcasters and political hopefuls will have time to plow through the 28-page Public Notice in the few short weeks left before election day. But there can be no question as to the FCC position on the use of broadcast facilities by candidates for public office. The Commission's comprehensive new compilation of interpretive rulings under section 315 supercedes all prior Public Notices issued on the topic. NBC RADIO RESHUFFLES SALES ORGANIZATION As a result of the recent departure of general manager George Graham, Jr., from the radio network to NBC Enterprises division, NBC Radio has put through five personnel changes. They are: Howard G. Gardner becomes director, sales administration and development; Robert C. Hitchens, director, sales planning; Joseph Kelly, manager, sales development; Jack Bernstein, manager, sales presentations; Herbert Brotz, manager, business affairs. BLAIR CONSOLIDATES TWO TV SALES ARMS John Blair & Co. last week went through a major transition. The steps in this change were these: (1) Blair-TV and Blair Television Associates were consolidated into a single setup under the name of Blair Television; (2). Dave Lundy, formerly executive v.p. of Blair Television Associates, becomes president and operating head of Blair Television, and Frank Martin, formerly Blair-TV's New York sales manager, becomes executive v.p. of this merged operation; (3) Ed Schurick, the executive v.p. of Blair-TV, has left the company and will henceforth devote all his time to his cattle-breeding business and other enterprises. Jim Theiss remains v.p. and sales manager of Blair's marketing division stations. How the jeweler charmed Cleveland with Nighttime Radio This is the story of the J.B. Robinson Jewelry Co. and how WHK RADIO scored a sparkling success for this company. In the words of owner Larry Robinson, "When fourteen months ago we tried WHK Nighttime Radio, the response was instantaneous and overwhelming." Since then, we haven't skipped a day of WHK broadcasting. The moral of this story is: Put your money on the station with the largest following (Number One for over 2 years); and the most local billing (50% in a competitive eight-station market). Fill your "horn of plenty" with WHK RADIO. METROPOLITAN BROADCASTING RADIO. REPRESENTED BY METRO BROADCAST SALES TRUESDELL PAINTS BULLISH BUSINESS PROSPECT FOR '63 Next year should prove a banner one for the consumer electronics industry, that is if 1962 is any indication. So opined Zenith Sales president Leonard Truesdell, who did some crystal-ball gazing for the Illinois State Chamber of Commerce. This year's tv sales have out-distanced 1961 in 30 out of the 38 weeks through 22 September and radio sales have exceeded 1961 in seven out of nine months of this year. The expectation is that color tv sales will have a 100% increase in 1963. FTC READY TO MOVE ON RATINGS Imminent Federal Trade Commission action against rating services isn't expected to cut very deep. It will probably aim more at the way results are used to promote one network or station against another than at the systems used. One indication of probable leniency is findings of both Senate and House Commerce Committees. A House study gave national ratings a clean bill of health and Senate hearings came to no conclusions, except that the FTC should become active in the field. TUCKER WAYNE TAKES OVER S.S.S. TONIC ACCOUNT The seventh oldest drug company in the country, S.S.S. Tonic, will switch its $1 million in billings to Tucker Wayne, Atlanta, the first of the year. The agency plans to expand its staff to handle the account, which has been spending about $200,000 of its total budget in spot tv. TIME, INC. CROSSES BORDER—BUYS INTO PROARTEL Time, Inc. branches out in the broadcast field, with the acquisition of an interest in Producciones Argentinas De Television, S.A. (Proartel). The Spanish-language tv production outfit was founded two years ago by Goar Mestre and CBS. Based in Buenos Aires, Proartel supplies programing to all Spanish-speaking countries. NBC NEWS REVEALS SECRET UNDERGROUND MISSION NBC news has taken the security wraps off information carefully guarded by a handful of its executives since early last summer. William R. McAndrew, executive vice president, revealed that, at the invitation of group of West Berlin students, a film crew from the News division covered the four-month-long, top secret, and perilous construction of an escape tunnel out of East Berlin. The results of the operation will be televised on NBC TV 31 October as a special 90-minute documentary called "The Tunnel." INDUSTRY-GOVERNMENT TO INVESTIGATE IMPACT OF ADS Under the auspices of the Commerce Department, an industry-government committee will delve into the impact of advertising on economic growth. Primary aims: (1) the relationship between advertising expenditures and gross national product; and (2) the relationship between advertising outlays and business cycles. Don't forget to keep an eye on your supply of short subjects. They add spice and interest to any schedule—fill out uneven spots—create fresh formats and new audiences. Flexibility at low cost.* Take a long look at these interesting short subjects from MGM Television: The Passing Parade Pete Smith Specialities Crime Does Not Pay Our Gang Comedies MGM Cartoons Billy Bang Bang Movies for details and availabilities in your market call MGM-TV today NEW YORK: 1540 BROADWAY, JU 2-2000 • CHICAGO: PRUDENTIAL PLAZA, 467-5756 • CULVER CITY: MGM STUDIOS, UP D-3311 METROPOLITAN BROADCASTING TELEVISION WNEW-TV New York WTTG Washington, D.C. KMBC-TV Kansas City, Mo. KOVR Sac.-Stockton, Calif. WTVI Peoria, Illinois WTVP Decatur, Illinois METROPOLITAN BROADCASTING RADIO WNEW New York WIP Philadelphia, Pa. WJW Cleveland, Ohio KMBC Kansas City, Mo. FISHING AND FLY-FISHING OUTDOOR ADVERTISING Offices in California, Washington and Oregon METROBROADCAST SALES Station Representatives WORLDWIDE BROADCASTING WRUL Radio, New York International accord These six world-famous figures reached agreement on at least one subject: Each has appeared on "Open End," television's finest discussion program, for an extended two-hour conversation with host David Susskind. Produced by Metropolitan Broadcasting Television, "Open End" is one of many features on national, foreign and local issues presented each week on Metromedia's Television, Radio and International Broadcasting Stations. Our Foster and Kleiser Outdoor Division, turns to its community responsibilities in similar fashion by providing an extensive number of poster panels and painted bulletins each year for vital public service campaigns throughout California, Washington and Oregon. Metromedia, a diversified communications company, dedicated to a "quality operations" philosophy, presents the finest in entertainment, information and education to people living in an area covering two-thirds of the world. METROMEDIA WPIX-11 is looking more like a network...more...and more...and more! Keep your network look with WPIX-11. You do just that when you supplement your network shows in New York with a schedule on WPIX-11. Your commercial is surrounded by big shows and stars like Lee Marvin, Steve McQueen, Hugh O'Brian, Anthony George and many more—all on WPIX-11. Minute commercials in prime time in a "network atmosphere" of top shows and national advertisers is what you get every night on WPIX-11, New York's Prestige Independent. WHERE ARE YOUR 60-SECOND COMMERCIALS IN NEW YORK? Tv rep salesmen are rooting furiously for Colgate to get its spot control system at Bates operating smoothly and on all cylinders as quickly as possible. The wish accrues from what they describe as a lack of coordination among Colgate agencies in informing one another on what spots they are releasing. According to rep salesmen, the lack of cross-intelligence adds much to their service time and paperwork as a result of their scurrying around for spots for a Colgate agency which could have been picked up from another Colgate agency the day before. The airing of the situation is being done more out of hope than criticism. The salesmen realize that it takes time to get the administration of master contracts—Colgate adopted this device only last year—functioning properly, but they're wondering whether Bates, which is the control agency for these franchises, is getting all-out cooperation from the other Colgate agencies. Snags in a system, they observe, can often be overcome by a will to coordinate. Did you know that the news division of NBC TV as a unit is the biggest manufacturer, if you prefer, producer, of tv programing in the world? The division this season will be responsible for the delivery of at least 698 hours of programing, and this does not include fastbreaking events like space orbits, election returns, "instant news" series and whatnot. Breakdown of the 698 hours, as calculated by SPONSOR-SCOPE: \| PROGRAMING \| NO. TELECASTS \| TOTAL NO. HOURS \| \|-----------------------------\|---------------\|-----------------\| \| Today \| 260 \| 520 \| \| Huntley-Brinkley Report \| 260 \| 78 \| \| Scheduled specials \| 55 \| 60 \| \| David Brinkley's Journal \| 40 \| 20 \| \| Chet Huntley Reporting \| 40 \| 20 \| \| GRAND TOTAL \| 655 \| 698 \| Thirteen telecasts became eligible for membership in the 20 Million Club during the past year, as compiled from the Nielsen Tv Index for SPONSOR-SCOPE. Included in this batch were specials of various types and even one regular series. The 20-millioners by program and date and total audience: \| PROGRAMING \| DATE \| TOTAL AUDIENCE \| \|-----------------------------\|------------\|------------------\| \| Miss America Pageant \| 9/3/62 \| 25,846,000 \| \| Rose Bowl \| 1/1/62 \| 23,618,000 \| \| Project Mercury \| 2/20/62 \| 23,618,000 \| \| Motion Picture Academy Awards\| 4/9/62 \| 23,471,000 \| \| World Series \| 10/3/61 \| 21,949,000 \| \| Wizard of Oz \| 12/10/61 \| 21,902,000 \| \| Flight of Aurora 7 \| 5/24/62 \| 21,462,000 \| \| Miss Universe Pageant \| 7/14/62 \| 20,874,000 \| \| American in Orbit \| 2/20/62 \| 20,629,000 \| \| Project Mercury \| 5/24/62 \| 20,286,000 \| \| Bob Hope's Christmas Show \| 1/24/62 \| 20,041,000 \| \| Wagon Train \| 2/7/62 \| 20,041,000 \| \| World Series \| 10/7/61 \| 20,011,000 \| Even though the new TV season has just got underway, P&G started to plan last week on the wherefors and the wherefofs of network programming for the 1962-63 season. Initial session on the subject brought out to Cincinnati a sort of agency program masterminding committee consisting of Lee Rich, of Benton & Bowles, chairman; Lewis Titterton, of Compton and William McIlvain, of Leo Burnett. Burnett got the nod by virtue, in large measure, of its having brought Car 54 into the P&G sponsorship fold. TV reps last week were faced with the unusual spectacle of two agencies asking for availabilities on the same products. The agencies: Reach McClinton and Lynn Baker. The products: Isodine and Isodette. The requests came three days apart. Similar availabilities were provided each agency and the reps are now waiting to see which issues the order. Timebuyers at Bates were reminded last week that there's a house policy about TV spots preempted by stations for political broadcasts. That policy is this: we take credits in such cases, not makegoods. Some stations think the agency is too perfunctory about the policy. It would be logical to taboo makegoods in cases where Bates spots were preempted for political spots, but not so logical, the stations hold, when the Bates spots are preempted by a half-hour or quarter-hour political program. Spot TV advertisers might as well reconcile themselves to a three-months limitation of protection against rate increases. It's fast becoming the norm for the business, even though a goodly percentage of stations are still inclined to adhere for a while to the six month arrangement. Incidentally, rate increasing, as some sellers point out, has become an art in itself. Rates can be increased without appearing to increase them. Like changing the rate for time periods, reducing the protection period, revising classifications and truncating the rateholder. Spot TV may find it to its interest to feel out package goods marketers on this question: does the application of the electronic computer to media selection favor the use of local advertising. SPONSOR-SCOPE last week put the query to several such experts and came away with the impression that the furtherance of sale and media information properly processed by the computer will add much to local media's stake in advertising expenditures. In their view the data emerging from the computer can't help but bolster the trend toward more and more localization of advertising, or what might be termed the selective approach. The ace in the hole is this: the computer will arrange information in such a way as to make it understandable to corporate top management. Incidentally, Y&R last week put on for media sellers a presentation on how its new computer model works in the selection of media buying. The anticipated is taking place at CBS TV and ABC TV: a raise in daytime rates. CBS TV is confining the hike to the morning strip, with the increase pegged at $300 per commercial minute. Effective date: 1 January. The jump at ABC TV, when it's finally wrapped up, will affect the day's entire schedule excepting Ernie Ford and Discovery. Top minute rate at ABC TV is $2,800 in the winter and $2,600 in the summer. The expectation is that $2,800 will become the minimum rate. Agencies have a hunch that when CBS TV issues a hike on afternoon fare it will be strictly applied to programming. It's one kind of hike the network wouldn't have to share with its affiliated stations. It all reflects a fat, bustling daytime market. NBC TV did its daytime rate "adjusting" several months back. The earlybird prognosticators who see CBS TV doing a runaway this season from the viewpoint of nighttime composite ratings could find themselves out on a limb a few reports hence. The three network competition could still turn out a fairly tight horserace, and the real index on this score will come with Nielsen's or ARB's initial November report. One trade figure who has over the years developed quite a knack for projecting ratings from the various services at hand is of the opinion that when the composite (seven nights) ratings shake down they'll stack up something like this: ABC TV, 16; CBS TV, 19; NBC TV, 18. And with No. 1 place by night shaping up approximately thuswise: Monday, CBS TV; Tuesday, CBS TV; Wednesday, ABC TV; Thursday, NBC TV; Friday, ABC TV; Saturday, CBS TV; Sunday, NBC TV. He also sees ABC TV a definite third Thursday, Saturday and Sunday; CBS TV, Wednesday and Friday and NBC TV, Monday. These newcomers look like pronounced hits: The Lucy Show; Beverly Hillbillies; I'm Dickens, He's Fenster; Jackie Gleason. Good probabilities: the Jetsons, Gallant Men. On the rocky side: It's a Man's World, Loretta Young, Lloyd Bridges. The wrangle between American Tobacco and ABC TV over the disposition of the Cheyenne series has been settled. Come 7 January the title Cheyenne vanishes from the Monday 7:30-8:30 niche and in its place will be another Warner Bros. western, the Dakotas, and American Tobacco's participations in Cheyenne will be transferred to other areas in the ABC TV schedule. In the meantime the network will run off the 13 Clint Walker originals still in the can plus two of his reruns. It seems that ABC TV was disposed to continue the Cheyenne title but with different stars, but American Tobacco demurred. P&G on the other hand offered no objection. The talent end of the Dakotas package: $114,000 for originals and $30,000 for reruns. The prices are net. The risk can over balance assets when a tv network undertakes to sell its programming on a regional basis. The favorable side: because the dollar volume per regional advertiser is negligible the network can save for itself as much as 25% in discount. The risky side: to make a profit the network must have virtually all areas sold, especially the west coast which in itself figures 13% of the nationwide billings. For NBC TV daytime that 1-5 October week of special events (Mississippi U riots, Schirra orbit and baseball) turned out not only a record week in hectic activity but a record loss in revenue. What made the preemptions tougher than in the past is that the tight sellout schedule eliminated the possibility of makegoods. All the network could do with the dispossessed advertisers was to give them credits. About $1 million was derived from the day-by-day sale of minutes in the Dodgers-Giants playoff, but the time portion of this didn't cover half the volume of preempted billings. Don't be surprised if the drug division of International Latex acquires a couple more products, the latest being Thorexin (North) from Gillette. It's an axiom in the drug trade that a company needs at least five products to break even as far as maintaining a field sales force is concerned. In the opinion of drug marketers the division, which goes under the name of Isodine, will find it necessary to have as many as three or four more, since the three in the house, Isodine, Isodettes and Thorexin, are all cold remedies, hence offering the sales force and druggists a strictly seasonal relationship. The Isodine division will be spending substantially over $1 million for tv this season. Last year Thorexin billed about $1 million by itself. From a random contact of radio reps last week SPONSOR-SCOPE came up with this consensus: spot billings for October and November should easily match those of last year. The complexion of spot radio keeps leaning more and more in the direction of regional buys. In other words, the addition of regional accounts more than make up for the diminution of national spreads. In a way the regionals have become the hidden seven-eighths of the spot radio iceberg. An oddity worth noting on the New York rating front: the ability of the syndicated Mickey Mouse Club to run ahead of the Huntley-Brinkley Report. What's happened: sets in use for the quarter hour have gone up over a year ago but there are enough kids in command of the dial to make NBC TV's news stars sandwiched in rating-wise between rerun cartoons and rerun features. ARB's 24-28 September summary for the 6:45-7 p.m. period: Mickey Mouse (WNEW-TV), 11.7; Huntley-Brinkley (WNBC-TV), 11.1; Early Show (WCBS-TV), 12.3. Spot advertisers may find this disturbing news, but they shouldn't be surprised if after the November local rating reports are issued a quantity of important tv stations promulgate rate increases. The source of this prospect are reps. Their prediction is percentage of increase will be relatively small. The basic motivation for the hikes is two-fold: (1) the mounting expense of station operation; (2) the cuts in station compensation by CBS TV and NBC TV, with ABC TV, it is said, waiting for its prime time affiliate list to match the competition before getting on this bandwagon. First in Hoosier Hearts Auto pioneer Elwood Haynes built first horseless carriage in Kokomo, 10 years before this 1904 Haynes Model. First in Hoosier Homes September 22, 1962—A great Hoosier heritage was recaptured as the 4th Annual WFBM-TV Antique Auto Tour... sputtering but determined... rolled through the Hoosier countryside from Indianapolis to Terre Haute and back. The reception hadn't changed much from the first appearances of the "Haynes" back in 1894. Heads turned. Kids laughed. People all along the way cheered (an estimated 150,000 spectators) as some 125 famous-make vintage and antique automobiles brought a touch of automotive history "Back Home Again in Indiana." WFBM-TV keeps in close touch with viewers in rich satellite markets surrounding Indianapolis. Let us show you why this makes Indianapolis different from other TV markets. Ask your Katz man! America's 13th TV Market with the only basic NBC coverage of 760,000 TV set owning families. ARB Nov., 1961. Nationwide Sweep. The range of WCBS-TV programming is vast. Examples: the narcotics problem, children in need of help, people who feel society has bypassed them. New York Spectrum There’s really no city in the world like New York. Its charm, its variety, its vitality are boundless. So are its problems. It takes a television station of extraordinary stature to mirror a community this big...to serve the needs of its complex, often troubled society. And that’s CBS Owned WCBS-TV, New York’s most-viewed station month after month, year after year. Originating a broad, comprehensive array of local community service activities, Channel 2 produces prime-time specials and regularly-scheduled series which cover the entire spectrum of life in the nation’s most dynamic metropolis...from the problems of drug addiction to Shakespeare in Central Park. Last month, the Chock Full O’Nuts Corporation, an advertiser closely identified with New York and its people, signed a 52-week contract for sponsorship of multiple WCBS-TV public affairs programming — the weekly “Eye on New York” broadcasts, twelve prime-time half-hour documentaries and four hour-long special programs, and the entire Election night local coverage. The largest sale of its kind ever made in New York television, this contract provides uniquely tangible recognition of Channel 2’s leadership in—and service to—its community. WCBS-TV Channel 2, New York Seasoned showmen use same ingredients Having caught the new Alfred Hitchcock show, Fair Exchange, McKeever and the Colonel, Ensign O'Toole, the first Jack Benny show (with young Frank Sinatra, Jr.), the new Perry Mason show, The Nurses, I'm Dickens and He's Fenster, the first Jack Paar show in prime time, and the first three Johnny Carson shows, not to mention a half dozen specials on the doings at Ole Miss, Walter Schirra's six spins around the earth in outer space, the three Little League games represented by the Giant-Dodger playoff, and (at this writing) the first game of the World Series, I am prepared to make a few remarks about current television programming. It is varied, to say the least. There is almost no kind of show you can't get. Maybe there is still an overabundance of Westerns, but there is certainly also an increasing and ever more effective presentation of major public service specials, documentaries, and the like. Of the new shows I have seen thus far in the season, I believe that The Nurses, Fair Exchange, the new Paar show, and the Carson show have the best chances of becoming outstanding commercial winners. I was particularly interested in the new Paar hour and the Tonight show with Carson starring. To me they represented on the part of their stars, their producers and directors, and indeed their sponsors and agencies, a most fascinating problem in showmanship and salesmanship. Paar, of course, had built the most overwhelmingly successful live late-night program in the history of the medium. The question he and his advisors and colleagues faced was: How different shall we make the new hour in prime time? And Carson and his co-workers faced the even more difficult decision: To what degree do we tamper with a format which has built and held an audience so effectively, over as great a period of time as the Paar show? Paar's winning combination Both Paar and Carson, I am happy to report, decided to stay substantially with the winning ingredients tried and tested by Paar over the period of time he was King of the small hours. The new show which Jack presented 21 September (10 to 11 p.m. on NBC) is still the same shrewd combination of genuine 100% proof schmaltz, showmanship and salesmanship as was his version of the Tonight show. Sponsors Kent and Ronson have themselves a solid buy. As on Tonight, Paar opened with his standup monologue, and tossed in his rap at one of the newspaper people with whom he has been feuding: "I can just see Winchell out there," he said, "making note with his crayon." He then offered Robert Goulet, the handsome and talented young man from Camelot. And again he gave it the Paar touch, by talking about small, intimate non-pro sidelights concerning the singer, and showing silent movies of his Pound Ridge, N.Y., home, his little daughter Nicolet playing with Paar's daughter Randy, etc. This type of thing tends, of course, to humanize the performers Paar offers in a manner which makes their on-stage work doubly effective. (Please turn to page 52) the only sacred cow at Young & Rubicam Who else but Elsie! We've been using her in Borden advertising for 25 years. УЧИСЬ КАК УЧИЛСЯ Lesson for Americans You’re looking at sixth graders at work in a Moscow classroom. They were photographed by five ABC-TV men who went to the Soviet Union to film a report on Soviet education for the much-praised Bell & Howell Close-Up! series. They were the first American television crew to film this key aspect of Soviet society. And they returned with a superb television story—Meet Comrade Student. The program, presented on ABC Television, September 28th, was called by the New York Herald Tribune “an unprecedented service in acquainting us with the challenge evident in the Soviet drive for mass education.” A challenge it is. And a lesson. And clearly a triumph for American television in the crucial area of public affairs. Meet Comrade Student advances most notably Bell & Howell’s responsibility as a corporate citizen in a democracy. A responsibility well served by such previous Close-Up! programs as Cast the First Stone and Walk in My Shoes. Meet Comrade Student is also very much in keeping with ABC’s bold, honest approach to reporting the great issues of the day. Such programs as Editor’s Choice, Adlai Stevenson Reports, Issues & Answers soundly document the merits of this approach. Here then is a forthrightness, a new creative ferment characteristic of ABC’s total communications effort. In entertainment, in enlightenment. In hard news, in soft music. In comedy, in commentary. People like it. And advertisers—being people—likewise. ABC Television Network CHECK OUR FACTS, THEN BUY: TERRE HAUTE WITH Indianapolis WTHI-TV in combination with Indianapolis stations offers more additional unduplicated TV homes than even the most extensive use of Indianapolis alone. More than 25% of consumer sales credited to Indianapolis comes from the area served by WTHI-TV, Terre Haute. More than 25% of the TV homes in the combined Indianapolis-Terre Haute television area are served by WTHI-TV. This unique situation revealed here definitely suggests the importance of re-evaluating your basic Indiana TV effort... The supporting facts and figures (yours for the asking) will show how you gain, at no increase in cost.... 1. Greatly expanded Indiana reach 2. Effective and complete coverage of Indiana's two top TV markets 3. Greatly improved overall cost efficiency So, let an Edward Petry man document the foregoing with authoritative distribution and TV audience data. WTHI-TV CHANNEL 10 TERRE HAUTE, INDIANA WTHI-TV delivers more homes per average quarter hour than any Indiana station* (March 1962 ARB) except Indianapolis The shape of vidpix syndication is changing considerably. But the alterations under way augur better opportunities for advertisers at national, regional, and local levels. A sponsor editor last week interviewed a number of key executives in the field of syndication. Not all were optimistic about its future but many were indeed bullish about the business and predicted steadily climbing sales in the year ahead. Examining the current syndication problems as they affect sponsors, ad agencies and stations, observers spotted these significant trends: - Diversification is today's magic word in a tightened film syndication sphere. - The selling techniques have changed drastically and syndicators have more traffic with station reps. - More commercial minutes than ever are now purchased in syndicated feature film. - Opportunities for overseas sales with new advertisers are expanding. - A wave of public affairs and high grade musical features is descending on the market. - Major emphasis, however, remains on feature film and children's programs. Vogue in spot buying. Participation or spot buying is the vogue today, in most instances, in syndication product, Richard A. Harper, director of syndication and world wide sales, MGM-TV, pointed out. On the other hand, there's a tendency on the part of some clients to buy single sponsorship of feature films in certain markets. He cited Drewrys Beer, Schaefer Beer, Colgate-Palmolive, Cornbelt Power and Light and Yellow Pages as single sponsors of feature film. Over the past several years the sponsor situation on syndicated shows, in Harper's opinion, has continued to shrink from the market it once was. "Today's market, however, is good business for the producer-director who sells within its frame-work and plans for the changing market ahead," he declared. "At MGM-TV our sales force has recently expanded to provide greater liaison between broadcasters and advertisers, both here and overseas. True, sponsorship of syndicated shows by local and regional advertisers is perhaps at its lowest ebb, for various reasons: the lack of specially produced products; the off-network hours which (even as on the network) are too costly for single sponsorship; the continuing lack of prime time availabilities for syndication product which many advertisers want and can get only with spot adjacencies. But a news sponsorship trend is on the way." Harper explained that advertisers were turning to sponsorship of feature films on both a regular basis and as "specials." More and more sales are being made in this area by stations and with the help of the syndication salesman, Harper maintained. Topical feature films and smash hits from the post-'48 releases are being sponsored by advertisers ranging from utility companies to banks, beer, and soaps, he pointed out. Harper revealed that on the international scene "we are dealing with a whole new area of program sponsorship. This is the increasing interest of major advertisers and agencies with large overseas sales who are planning to buy U.S. programs for sponsorship on tv in foreign countries," Harper said. "When you have inherently sound properties at honest prices there is bound to be a market. The good salesman does as much as anyone to create and develop the market in tempo with the times." That more and more spot dollars are being poured into syndicated feature film was clearly shown in a recent survey in a dozen three-station markets. The survey, according to Keith A. Culverhouse, director of sales promotion and advertising, MGM-TV, showed that post-'48 features draw more spot business than the pre-'48 pictures. Average post-'48 features in the dozen markets, carried 22% more spots than the older films. Further, the more post-'48 films run in the market, the better business for all the features, Culverhouse pointed out. More national clients. Len Firestone, v.p. and general manager of Four Star Distribution Corp., said there were more participations than ever in syndicated product and that in the top 60 markets most of the advertisers were national. He estimated that 85% of today's business consisted of national clients and the rest divided among local and regional sponsors. Five years ago, he noted, 80% of the business was spent between local and regional and the rest was national. Firestone contended there was greater demand than ever for shows which have proven themselves on the network before being made available for market by market selling. "Networks have this year made more local station time available than last year and, in addition, many stations are pre-empting network shows in order to enhance their income with quality network-proven series. Many network sponsors are disturbed this season with the problem of time clearances." Hour shows, Firestone maintained, will become increasing important because the whole network trend has gone toward this time length due to the popularity of 'spot' buys. "And when the network starts a trend, the local stations usually pick it up," Firestone asserted. Advertisers are buying circulation and sponsor identification is considerably subordinated today. This is true in the latter case because of spiralling costs in production, he noted, adding that "buying today is less emotional and more mathematical — which puts the onus on the station to buy the best properties they can obtain from the distributors." Like a number of other companies in the business, Four Star is conscious of the growing importance of station reps in landing advertisers for syndicated product. The station rep, in Firestone's judgment, is more important than he has ever been. "The station reps are the ones who are charged by their clients—the stations—with selling the national advertisers," Firestone continued. "Therefore, the more proven the product, the easier the rep selling job. As a result, the reps today have a strong voice in the selection of shows by the station." Get full sales kits. Consequently, to help them, the Four Star executive said, his organization would see to it that all major reps receive complete sales kits so that they will have all the sales ammunition at their disposal to enable them to tell the complete sales story of Four Star's shows to the national advertiser through the ad agencies. "Our sales department is at the complete disposal of the reps and we at all times will welcome their requests for any help we can give them," Firestone said. Firestone also said his firm planned an unprecedented advertising approach involving the use of consumer publications to promote the Four Star product. Starting this month, Four Star was planning to buy space in Time, The New York Times* and The Wall Street Journal. "In addition to selling station management, pre-selling national timebuyers and re-selling potential advertisers, we Banks, among others, cash in on symphony Banks are among numerous sponsors of Seven Arts' series of Boston Symphony Orchestra (above) concert specials. Storer Programs reports sales success with Communism: R.M.E. (below) in many markets, in move to high grade features. believe that these publications will build viewer identification with Four Star as producers of quality TV fare," Leo A. Gutman, advertising director of Four Star Distribution Corp., said recently. Since diversification is of vital concern in film syndication, Four Star also plans some new features. Meanwhile, Four Star reports that a flock of its properties including Robert Taylors' Detectives, Dick Powell's Zane Grey Theatre, Target, The Corruptors, The Law and Mr. Jones and Stage Coach West, are racking up impressive sales. "In the old days," Firestone said recently, "films produced for syndication had a ready and waiting market as there was not much proven network programming available for subsequent runs and there were no feature motion pictures on the market. In addition, there were new stations opening up all of the time ready to gobble up the inferior films that came out of the Hollywood assembly line. Today, the situation has changed. There is a ready market for proven quality programming that had high network ratings during the first run and, consequently, films made solely for syndication have to go abegging. In every industry, as the competition grows, quality becomes more important." Pre-empting going on. Bob Rich, v.p. and general sales manager of Seven Arts, also saw much evidence of stations pre-empting network programs to play syndicated feature film with minute spots. He also saw considerable evidence of regional and local sponsors picking up the full tab for feature films. He cited among others, Katz Druggists on KSD-TV, St. Louis; Schaefer Beer on WCBS-TV, N.Y., and Fairmont Hotel on KLRJ-TV, Las Vegas, as single sponsors of feature film. Both Rich and his colleague, Don Klauber, v.p. and national sales manager, were pleased with missionary work being done on the station rep level. Since its inception two years ago, Seven Arts, after considerable thought, decided there was an area of importance in station selling which was neglected—the station reps were not being told the Seven Arts story. Consequently the post of director of station representative sales was formed with Leonard E. Hammer as head. It marked the first time, reportedly, that a syndicator of motion picture for TV was dedicating his full time to sales efforts with station reps. The mechanics of this adjunct to station selling, according to Hammer, are relatively simple. The object is to have station reps recommend Seven Arts product, "Films of the 50's" to their clients, who in turn make the purchases. "This is accomplished with the understanding that reps give recommendations only when they are asked by their station, coupled with the fact that in many cases stations and reps work very closely together on programming in relation to Film syndicator makes his presentation at agency level James Victory (second from r) v.p., domestic sales, CBS Films, makes sales pitch on Burr Tillstrom's Kukla and Ollie to executives of Hicks & Griest, who are (l to r) Theodore Grunwald, senior v.p.; C.V. Skoog, Jr., pres.; and V.J. Daraio, v.p. for radio/TV. Standing is William Stynes, CBS Films account executive. Firm has recently found strip programming in demand. ratings and commercial return," Hammer told sponsor. "In essence, a station manager says to his rep: 'If I purchase and program Seven Arts pictures, can you sell the minute spots to national advertisers?'" Search for new shows. After better product, some syndicators (Seven Arts, Storer Programs, to mention two) are offering high-grade musical and documentary features. In the case of Seven Arts, it is presenting 13 one-hour TV concert specials featuring the Boston Symphony. The series, to date, has been sold in over 30 markets. Banks appear to be the most popular sponsors of the Boston Symphony. Also rated a potential hit, insofar as advertisers are concerned, is the upcoming Emmett Kelly Show, a series of 39 half-hour children's programs. Production was completed last week. The series is now being edited and will be ready for sale the first of January. The show marks Kelly's debut in a TV series. In addition to many new routines, Kelly will do a series of "I'll be back" acts. Preceding the commercials in the show, these will advise the audience that the clown "will be right back after a word from his sponsor." Each of these "routines" was originated by the clown. Continuing to diversify, Seven Arts last week also announced production of a new series The World's Amateur Boxing Championships. Les Keiter, sportscaster and sports director of WFIL (AM & TV), Philadelphia, will be host and ring announcer. Robert B. Morin, v.p. and general sales manager of Allied Artists Television Corp., told sponsor that its sales staffers work closely with stations in signing up advertisers. In the major markets, particularly, he go all out, working with station managers, to land advertisers," Morin declared. "We also spend time with station reps, but it isn't enough. We have made many sales through station reps and we're convinced that we will have to concentrate more on this branch of the (Please turn to page 53) Discuss hold of business on radio programming Panelists at seminar, hosted by WBC. (L-r): Wilmer Losee, pres., AM Radio Sales; Carl Schuele, pres., BTS; Miles David, v.p., RAB; Daniel Whitney, v.p., Riedle & Freed; Leslie Dunier, v.p., MW&S; Clark Sutton, dir., advtg., First Federal S&L WBC session explores need for radio interest Event called 'search for tomorrow's programming' Westinghouse Broadcasting last week sponsored an all-day trade session at which radio practitioners and others sought to explore possible ways of stimulating a greater degree of multi-sided interest in the medium. The sponsors of this event, staged at the Americana hotel, New York, described it as a "search for tomorrow's programming." But before the seminar discussed the constructive there was much soul-searching: why was it that the lay press was not giving radio the attention that it felt it merited and why weren't admen giving more of their creative talents and chequebook to its support. The answer might be summed up by this key phrase: lack of continuing excitement and novelty. This question was raised: why then weren't the advertisers buying radio dramatic shows and documentaries? The poser brought an affirmative response from Clark Sutton, ad director of the First National Savings & Loan Co., of Pittsburgh. Sutton, who sponsors regularly a mass of special events and documentaries on KDKA, Pittsburgh, did not obviously agree with those other admen present whose lack of buying response to radio was founded on the premise that it didn't offer the mass audience appeal of say, a medium like TV. His was a mass service and radio had done a successful job for it. During the constructive side of the session much emphasis was put on radio as a force in segmented programming. Among other things, it was pointed out that radio had potential for capturing the younger brackets, from five to 10, and that certain types of custom-made shows might attract the American housewife, who, after all, is the bulwark of packaged goods sales. Timebuyers: want to relocate? - Salaries are reported highest in the Northeast - Opportunities for women open in South - San Francisco no paradise for timebuyers The question of how much a man is worth is impossible to answer, and the question of his value in a particular place is difficult, but for a man fitted for a particular job in a particular place a significant answer can be given. Naturally the value of a timebuyer in Tahiahiahoo where the only medium is a walkie-talkie is worth considerably less than a timebuyer on New York's Madison Avenue where total agency billings frequently top $40 million. The primary factor considered here is the job climate in 10 top timebuying cities, with cognizance of the number of agencies in the city, salary brackets, billings, the timebuying job market, and the agency attitude toward men and women specifically. Sponsor studied these differences and came up with the following conclusions: 1) salaries are higher in the Northeast, 2) computer knowledge helps—and will help more in the future—timebuyers seeking higher positions in media, 3) women's opportunities are good in South, 4) San Francisco salaries, opportunities are poor, 5) smaller cities train their own timebuyers, women often coming up from secretaries and men from numerous jobs, including estimating, and 6) many agencies in cities outside of New York want media buyers—not just time or space buyers. Eastern money belt. All studies done by or looked into by Sponsor show clearly that the closer to the Northeast and the larger the agency billings, the higher the salary. According to a survey made among 250 timebuyers by SRDS Data, Inc., the midwestern salary index is 16% higher than for western agencies, and the index for agencies in the East is 22% higher than for western agencies. The findings show that agencies with billings of $5 million to $19 million pay approximately 18% more to media executives than do agencies billing under $5 million. And agencies billing $50 million or more pay 47% higher than do the agencies in the smallest size group. In another study, unavailable for publication, among 47 national agencies billing $10 million or over, 23 were in New York, four in other eastern cities, 18 in the Midwest, and two in the Far West. Since almost half of the 47 studied were in New York and almost half billed over $40 million, this would indicate that (assuming as above, the salaries increase with agency billings) New York, rough and rocky as it may be, is the most fertile soil for high-paying timebuying positions. Atlanta. If we can update an old saying and apply it to timebuyers it would be "Go South, women timebuyers." Not only are there jobs in the South, timebuyers say, but the climate is favorable to women. This contrasts sharply with Chicago and New York, where the pay is high but few women are currently getting jobs, and the West Coast where the pay is low and nobody is getting a job. In the South timebuying is essentially a female function (Sponsor, 19 March 1962). Reports indicate that any women with a yearnin' for timebuying, a full measure of market facts, courage to go beyond the ratings, and good common sense, has a good chance of going places. Salaries are not very high, but for women they are almost always lower. The study by SRDS showed that throughout the country, without taking any other factors into consideration, agency men are paid 38% more than women. At any rate, the chances for advancement for women timebuyers in Atlanta are good and the cost of living low. Timebuying salaries for women are $3,300 to $4,200 for assistants and $4,200 to $7,000 for timebuyers. "The opportunities are improving as Atlanta continues to grow as the advertising center of the South," one timebuyer wrote in. Chicago. The timebuying situation in Chicago is extremely flexible right now, both from the standpoint of salaries and opportunities, timebuyers report. Buyers feel there is very little standardization on salaries, with wide variance from agency to agency, as well as within agencies. Over the past few months more than average opportunities have existed for agency timebuying positions. There have been two distinct trends in the timebuyer market: men buyers have the edge, and more and more agencies are seeking all-media buyers, rather than those with just timebuying experience. "The agencies can afford to be selective and get the people with the most experience, as there are always many people looking for jobs in this area," a Chicago observer indicates. Previously women were in great abundance and still two ad agencies (Foote, Cone & Belding and LWR&R) have only women timebuyers. "Outside of Leo Burnett there are not many male timebuyers," one Chicago timebuyer said. The bulk of the positions open are at assistant levels where the salary range for men is $4,000 to $6,000. For women it's about $4,000 to $5,000. For a full-fledged professional buyer with anywhere from eight to 10 years experience, the scale is higher. At the top level, salary for men is from $6,000 to $12,000 and for women $6,000 to $10,000. Without exception the interviews indicated buyers are being --- ### Salaries, job opportunities vary widely from city to city \| City \| Number of agencies buying time \| Job opportunities for men \| Job opportunities for women \| Annual salaries for assistant timebuyers (in dollars) \| Salaries for timebuyers (in dollars) \| \|---------------\|---------------------------------\|---------------------------\|-----------------------------\|------------------------------------------------------\|-------------------------------------\| \| ATLANTA \| 19 \| poor \| good \| 3,300-4,200 \| to 7,000 \| \| CHICAGO \| 73 \| poor \| fair \| 4,000-6,000 \| to 12,000 \| \| DETROIT \| 18 \| good \| good \| 5,000-9,000 \| to 14,000 \| \| LOS ANGELES \| 56 \| fair \| fair \| 4,800-7,200 \| to 10,000 \| \| MINNEAPOLIS \| 32 \| poor \| poor \| 4,000-7,000 \| to 10,000 \| \| NEW YORK \| 141 \| fair \| poor \| 5,000-8,000 \| to 14,000 \| \| PHILADELPHIA \| 28 \| poor \| poor \| 5,500-7,800 \| to 14,000 \| \| PITTSBURGH \| 12 \| poor \| poor \| 5,000-7,000 \| to 9,000 \| \| ST. LOUIS \| 15 \| good \| good \| 4,000-7,000 \| to 11,000 \| \| SAN FRANCISCO \| 28 \| poor \| poor \| 3,600-4,800 \| to 10,000 \| selected from the trainee ranks more than before and are being instructed in the wide range of possibilities of using computers and electronic installations to implement their work. Chicago buyers have no desire to relocate because of more desirable buying practices elsewhere. For salary, a few indicated they would go to New York if they were to get a good offer. But for personal reasons—mostly because of climate and manner of living—the buyers say they would like to work on the West Coast, particularly San Francisco. However, some have tried the West Coast and had bad luck. Detroit. Timebuying opportunities in Detroit look “good” according to survey respondents. There is a great deal of timebuying to be done there for automobiles and related products, as well as for other big clients. Reportedly there are quite a few more men timebuyers but no discrimination on job opportunities; “it just happens that way.” The average salary brackets go thus: assistant male timebuyer $5,000 to $9,000; assistant woman timebuyer $5,000 to $8,000; women timebuyers $7,000 to $10,000, and men timebuyers $8,000 to $14,000. Los Angeles. “At present, jobs in any category could not be more scarce on the West Coast,” says an agency v.p. who hires and trains timebuyers. “Timebuying in Los Angeles is no exception.” Timebuyers replied opportunities were no better than fair, at best (gen- --- What is a radio salesman? - He’s a curious creature of assorted sizes - Likes ad managers, account supers, heavy soles - Knows more about your business than you do Radio salesmen are each of a different breed, says our contributor, but each has the same creed—sign the contract. Moved by the qualities of his fellow salesman, Peter P. They, account executive, Mutual Broadcasting Co., wrote these lines of tribute below, which take a very view of his own vocation. Formerly executive vice president of Broadcast Time Sales, New York, They began his career in sales with Bartell Family Radio, where he was one time a top air personality. Between the innocence of the Four Seasons and the Top of the Sixes, we find a curious creature called a—Radio Salesman. Salesmen come in assorted sizes, weights, and heights, but all salesmen have the same creed—SIGN THE CONTRACT! Salesmen aren’t found everywhere. Only—on top of, underneath, inside of, climbing on, swinging from, running around—a piano, and the music is the sound of sales. He likes ad managers, account supers, blonde receptionists, his telephone, heavy soled shoes, his crushed hat, the bar car and that really big one he’ll sell tomorrow and tomorrow and tomorrow. He’s not much for—indecision, competitors, procrastinators, the numbers game, slow cabs, train schedules, wet martinis, typos and sales meetings during cocktail time. Details bug him, secretaries love him and mothers just shake their heads. The glint in his eye is only matched by the dream in his heart and the wings on his feet. He’s fearless, dauntless, timeless and too often penniless. His commission checks seldom see the bank and his wife seldom sees him. One crummy sandwich. Nobody is so late to the office—or so early on the street. Nobody else gets so much pleasure out of making things happen and so quick to move on to something new when it does. Nobody is so vital to democracy, yet so maligned in the book stalls. Nobody else can cram into one attache case—18 Nielsens, 17 Pulses, 16 Hoopers, 15 radio stations, 14 availabilities, 13 coverage maps, 12 visual aids and one crummy sandwich to eat on the run. erally fair for women and poor for men). The manager of Francis Lee Employment Agency, in Los Angeles, which specializes in agency people, concurs that "jobs are hard to get. And anyone who is lucky enough to get a job has to work for much less than people are paid in the East for the same work." Right now men are considerably outnumbered by their female counterparts, who received a heavy majority of votes from reps as top timebuyers in the West for sponsor's study of 1 January, 1962. Reps even felt that women there had a particular flair for the business. Salaries for women range from $4,500 to $6,000 as assistant timebuyers, and $5,400 to $8,000 as buyers. For men $4,800 to $7,200 as assistants and $6,000 to $10,000 as buyers. Minneapolis. "There is a lot of timebuying going on here, but there are very few positions open," timebuyers agree. "The reason is we take our timebuyers from our own training grounds," one media exec states. "Often a timebuyer here is a space buyer, an account executive, and a research man all rolled into one. We'd rather break them in to our way, taking potentials right out of college for training." How are the opportunities for timebuyers from other cities wishing to relocate in Minneapolis? Poor, timebuyers answer. "Salaries vary tremendously," one timebuyer said, and other respondents indicated. For women (Please turn to page 58) A salesman is a whirling dervish — You can lock him out of your home, but you can't keep him out of your office. He is your next brainstorm, your sales conscience and the P in your P and L statement. An idea a minute, an outspoken, compassionate fighter who knows more about your business than you do and admits it every chance he gets. Filling America's larder. But, lest you judge him quickly, please remember, when next you swing down Park or Fifth with contentment in your heart and a car in your garage that one scant block away peddles the malcontent who put them there. Relax with the knowledge that — while they're the rarest of bread, the most difficult to find—the few you meet head on will more than make up for every one of life's dull moments; will more than fill the larder of America's household. For he's our professional friend, forever shaking up and uplifting our industrial economy with—"tell you what I'm goin' to do..." A peek at tv’s commercial monitors ▶ Four N. Y. firms provide off-air storyboards ▶ Average cost for 60-sec. report is $10 ▶ Conversions on kines to photo reports grow In the stone towers of Manhattan and in a one-story professional building on Long Island, four groups of people daily sit in darkened rooms before as many as seven operating tv sets from 7 a.m. to midnight (or to sign off in some cases) seven days a week. They are at work and this is their job—monitoring tv commercials. Constantly alert, the monitors watch quietly amid the whir and hum and click of tv sets, electronic equipment, recorders, cameras, small motors, and push buttons, until a new or on-order commercial begins—then they take it. Generically, they are a close-mouthed breed, not only regarding the “how to” of monitoring, but also in respect to any information concerning clients (who they are, what they’ve ordered). This is understandable, they say, because a great deal of money is involved, especially when a big account shift, for example, is in the wind. These organizations (in alphabetical order) are: Longstreet Photo Reports, Elmont, N. Y., Marie C. Longstreet, owner. Radio-TV Reports, Inc., N.Y.C. David Fins, president. Storyboard Reports, N.Y.C. Allan Black, general manager. U.S. Tele-Service Corp., N.Y.C. Henry L. Sondheim, president. In Cleveland, Jack T. Sharp is president of Guardian Monitor Service, which is adding photo reports to its service. The basic steps. Much of the special monitoring equipment has been specially designed and engineered by the firms and is not openly discussed. Basically, how- A tv commercial monitor at work on the firing line Entering data on log sheet is Roy Fast, daytime shooting room supervisor, U. S. Tele-Service Corp. Correct time (Naval Observatory clock), channel number, remarks, and systemized information to pair up audio and video is taken down Sequential frames of an off-the-air photo report The above photo-script (U. S. Tele-Service Corp. trademark name for photo reports) is taken from a 15-frame report on Lilt Milk Wave home permanent. Some monitoring firms run audio copy alongside pictures instead of beneath them as here. However, the steps taken in producing an off-the-air photo report of a TV commercial are as follows: 1) photograph at least 15 frames of a minute commercial while simultaneously recording the audio; 2) develop the film; 3) coordinate film frames and audio of commercial, and 4) paste up. Handling a conversion is a similar operation. A client sends in a film or kinescope of a commercial, which is put through a special projector. The finished product resembles a photo report. However, frames in a conversion are square, whereas photo reports show the TV-set arcs at all corners. Thematic coverage. Mrs. Longstreet contends the photo reports business is the more sophisticated TV follow-up of her RadioScription Service (verbatim radio transcripts) which she pioneered in 1929 while still a secretary in an advertising agency. Most orders are handled on a "theme" basis, she said. For instance, there might be a standing order from a shampoo manufacturer or advertising agency for a peanut butter firm to cover everything being done by competitors. Or perhaps one giant corporation wants to know all activities of its giant rival. One third of her work is conversions, she said, which began about three years ago. If a commercial is missed, Mrs. Longstreet said, "there is no guarantee that you'll find it again same time, same station," because so many advertisers are participating in six or eight shows, or else the messages are on a rotating basis. It is also impractical to call up a station or network, she said, to find out when a commercial is scheduled, because they can't afford to waste the time and manpower on such queries. A recognized pro, Mrs. Longstreet also likes to "allow time for living" which includes gardening, bird watching and visiting her Massachusetts farm with her husband. Detective work. Radio-TV Reports has photo facilities in New York, Los Angeles, Washington, and New Orleans. It also has offices in Los Angeles, San Francisco, Detroit, Chicago, Washington, and New England through its Boston sales operation. David Fins, president, said the firm has over 50,000 commercials in its library—from 10 secs. to 60 secs.—going back to 1957. (Please turn to page 60) Six actresses who portrayed problems of women in Purex specials These women developed roles in series of Purex Specials for Women: (top, l-r) Barbara Baxley as "The Single Woman"; Sylvia Sidney in "Change of Life", Kim Hunter in "The Cold Woman"; (bottom) Leona Dana as "The Working Mother"; Patricia Neal in "Mother and Daughter"; Phyllis Thaxter as "The Trapped Housewife." New series is now in the making. Purex's unique approach to women - Appeals to female viewer via her problems - Specials were first to treat delicate topics - Established impact and brand identity A major dimension in public acceptance and approval was achieved this month by the Purex Corp. for sponsorship of its unprecedented public service series, when national distribution began of Avon Book's recently published "Special for Women." The book is a paperback containing eight of the 12 original television dramas comprising the Purex Specials for Women. Series this summer completed its second cycle on NBC TV. Scheduled over the past two years, Purex Specials for Women began in daytime tv on 14 October 1960 with "The Cold Woman," first of the documented explorations into widepread—and often delicate—problems faced by women in today's complex society. For and about women, Purex's venture, a distinct departure in tv programing, was lauded by tv critics and the public as unusually compelling, particularly for daytime fare, according to Leslie C. Bruce, Jr., director of advertising. for the corporation. Edward H. Weiss and Co., Chicago-based agency for Purex, originated the Specials for Women concept, Bruce says. "The idea initially was to produce a television vehicle which would strongly reflect the nature of Purex products and provide strong sponsor identification. "Because of the corporate slogan, 'You'll find the Woman's Touch in every Purex product,' a show for and about women seemed ideally suited to our needs," he says. Original but expensive. "Undertaking the Specials for Women was an expensive as well as an original move for Purex," says Nathan Pinsof, v.p. and media director for the Weiss agency. "Costs were about twice those of the average daytime show." (Sponsor estimates a total of approximately $100,000 for each show, including time and talent.) The underlying concept of the specials, Pinsof explains, represents both the advertising philosophy and the marketing strategy of Purex: 1) to provide advertising impact that would help combat some of the giant competition in the field of household cleansers and toilet soaps and 2) to establish Purex brands even more substantially and, at the same time, offer programming of service and quality. Another marketing factor facing Purex prior to launching the specials, according to Bruce, was need for a method to register heavily with the grocery trade. Grocery products. The products involved (divided between Weiss in Chicago and Foote, Cone & Belding's Los Angeles office) are chiefly of Purex's grocery products division: Dutch Cleanser; Little Bo-Peep Ammonia; Blu White and Beads-O-Bleach; Fleecy White and Purex liquid bleaches; dry and liquid Trend detergent; and Sweet-Heart toilet soap. Since the homemaker is Purex's chief consumer, Bruce points out, the Specials for Women seemed ideally suited to the company's purposes. The project was turned over to NBC TV for production under the guidance of Irving Gitlin, executive producer, and George Leelents, writer-producer of the specials. "At first we were somewhat wary about the subject matter," Bruce recalls. "The topics probed were new to the tv medium—some of them of a very personal nature, which, if not handled expertly and with finesse, could have been offensive to many of the viewers." Among the 12 problems covered in the specials were such subjective topics as: sexual frigidity, "The Cold Woman"; emotional problems of homemakers, in "The Trapped Housewife"; myths surrounding the menopause, in "Change of Life"; and marriage un-fulfillment, in "What's Wrong with Men?" "We maintained a hands-off policy, however," Bruce explains, --- Products Purex impresses on tv “special” viewers Heavy impact to meet the competition Five Purex products above were among those rotated in commercials during two-year television series. Marketing strategy demanded that these products get heavy sponsor identification impact to meet competitors such as P&G, Lever Bros. "and did not interfere in any way with the writing or production of the episodes." The 12 programs were scheduled in the daytime during the past two winter seasons and repeated at night each summer. Moderated by Pauline Frederick, they were documented, authoritative, and contained commentary by noted physicians and psychiatrists. Positive playback. Based on the response, says Bruce, Purex feels that the series was tremendously successful. "Tv critics all over the country, as well as individual viewers, were very encouraging in their comments praising the shows for the manner in which subjects were handled." According to Bruce, an avalanche of letters, telegrams, and phone calls was received by Purex and NBC TV after each show, requesting they be rescheduled at night so that a wider audience—particularly husbands—could see them. "Response came from every level of society," says Pinsof, "and from all age groups. Comment was also received from professional people—doctors, attorneys, and even the clergy—on the understanding and insight imparted via the specials." In addition to public acclaim, the Purex Specials for Women received many industry accolades for excellence, including the National Media award, "Media's Finest Hour." Enthusiasm for the series has carried over to demand for the Avon paperback, as well, says Bruce. Prior to national release this month, the book was a Purex premium during August and September—for 25 cents and any Purex label. The bulk of Purex's advertising budget is now allocated to television, according to Fred McCormack, media supervisor for the account at Weiss. He says that tv is now the client's major medium, with ROP newspaper, and a heavy concentration in grocery trade journals getting the remainder. Purex devotes approximately 65% of its advertising budget to tv, sponsor estimates. But the Purex Corp. is no newcomer to television, Pinsof emphasizes, having entered the medium about six years ago as an original alternate sponsor of Perry Mason. For two years it maintained alternate sponsorship of The Big Surprise, and co-sponsored other significant network shows through the years, such as the two-part Project 20. In addition, this advertiser schedules extensive daytime participations in network tv on such shows as Loretta Young, Dr. Malone, and Jan Murray; and at the same time conducts tv spot activity. Even with such diversified participation in the medium, Pinsof says, Purex favors total sponsorship, and has some very strong convictions about the value of sponsor identification. "Too much program sharing dilutes sponsor identification impact which is important to Purex. Because it is not the biggest company of its kind, Purex is interested in a unique approach to television to distinguish its line from similar products in the field. The company has always maintained an open, flexible approach to television, willing and eager to do the exciting and dramatic whenever such fare is available." Pinsof cites this example: Purex had scheduled The World of Benny Goodman for 29 October, but learned that 1/3 of the election night coverage on CBS TV was available early in November. They bought this segment, featuring Huntley-Brinkley, and rescheduled the Goodman show for later in the year. Service preferred. Flexibility such as this is desirable for marketing strategy according to both the client and the agency. "While not yet having the largest product sales story in its field," says Pinsof, "Purex would like to maintain its already established leadership and corporate stature gained by identification with programs of quality, newness, and impact, with a preference for those of a service nature." Last year, in addition to Specials for Women, Purex sponsored some significant network programing via the World Of series. These shows, scheduled as specials, were a combination of entertainment and education, examining the worlds of (Please turn to page 61) 5 REASONS WHY IT PAYS TO BUY CHANNEL 5! 1—Local-level merchandising support. 2—Top FM coverage in All Eastern Michigan. 3—Every commercial gets full-page, front-page exposure. 4—Eastern Michigan's only TV station telecasting color daily. 5—Nearing 10 years of one-ownership service to all Eastern Michigan. WNEM-TV SERVING THE ONE BIG TOP 40 MARKET OF FLINT • SAGINAW • BAY CITY AND ALL EASTERN MICHIGAN WNEM-TV Affiliated with WNEM FM, 102 5 MC, Bay City and WABJ CBS in Adrian WHN MUTUAL MUTUAL WHN WHN JOINS MUTUAL! WHN has moved to Mutual, bringing a brand new, brand-conscious audience in 7 key Eastern states! It's an adult, affluent audience, attracted by enlightened radio programming. Only WHN presents Total Information News — complete coverage of local and world events with comment by such outstanding personalities in their field as: Fulton Lewis Jr., Bill Stern, George Hamilton Combs, Whitney Bolton, Leo Durocher, Tony Marvin and more. As well as Mutual's award-winning program "The World Today"! And WHN plays The Sound of Music your audience likes to hear. Only the most listenable music presented by Bob and Ray, Dick Shepard, Hans Andersen, Lonny Starr and Dean Hunter. So remember WHN — all 50,000 watts of it. Your station to be on the best of New York City and beyond. Remember Mutual, too. It's the largest radio network in the world. It's your road to Main Street, U.S.A. The deal made between ex-Hicks & Greist buyer, Mort Reiner, and Public Affairs Projects, Inc. early last month, seems to have fizzled out. Mort, who joined PAP to handle the New York State Democratic politicos, is reported to be looking around for another buying job. Bud Pfaff, one of the featured "players" in sponsor's story, "The Only Brother Act in Timebuying?", 10 September issue, leaves Manoff this week for Bates to be assistant buyer on Standard Brands. The situation is somehow equated since Manoff wooed Tom Hollingshead away from Dancer-Fitzgerald-Sample and made him media supervisor last week. Aside from the addition of former Lynn Baker buyer, Mary Meehan (reported here last week), a flurry of move-em-up activity has been going on at Fuller & Smith & Ross, New York. Those involved: Frank Delaney who supervised all media for Lehn & Fink products and Dorothy Shahinian, executive assistant to media director, Don Leonard, moved up to associate media directors; and estimator (on Lehn & Fink) Lucille Giorelli, made a media buyer. The activity, of course, was motivated by the recent Lestoil acquisition. Exchanging a bit of farm talk Among those who talked farming during recent Nat'l. Assn. of Tv/Radio Farm Directors luncheon in N. Y. were these Wildrick & Miller, N. Y. people (l-r): chief buyer Maria Stier, pres. Stanley Wildrick, a.e. Herb Hands, v.p. Donald Wildrick. Far right: CBS Radio Spot Sales a.e. Ray Kremer Agency hopping dept.: James J. Egan left Al Paul Lefton, Philadelphia, to join N. W. Ayer, that city, as buyer on Sealtest; Richard Bower, who bought broadcast on BBDO's Campbell Soup account, joined Colgate-Palmolive as assistant product manager in the new products division. It's still vacation time for Dancer-Fitzgerald-Sample's Dorothy Medanic who is spending it in Europe. (Please turn to page 50) If you lived in San Francisco... ...you'd be sold on KRON-TV Foote, Cone & Belding's newly-wed Martha Sykes is honeymooning in Puerto Rico. Can't help wondering: How name-alikes Marion Monahan of McCann-Erickson, San Francisco, and Marianne Monahan of Needham, Louis & Biorby, Chicago, feel about the confusion this same-name situation triggers? The Corner pays its respects this week to McCann-Erickson's (New York) John Kilian. John, who has been with McCann-Erickson for more than four years now, is radio-tv buyer on the Nabisco bread account. He was one of the first buyers to receive Broadcast Time Sales' recently inaugurated "Timebuyer of the Week" award. A native of Saginaw, Mich., and a graduate of City College of Chicago, John started his advertising career in the accounting department at McCann-Erickson after a stint with the U.S. Army. Gradually he moved into media buying and for a time handled some of the buying chores on the Dorothy Gray account. John, who is married, is an avid sports enthusiast and whenever time permits, he hies himself off to indulge in his favorite sports—tennis and skiing. "Timebuyer of the Week" award McCann Erickson's John Kilian (r) receiving "Timebuyer of the Week" award from Broadcast Time Sales v.p. Ben McLaughlin. He was one of the first recipients to cap the award which honors skill in radio buying Good news dept.: Bill Murphy, media director at Paperit, Koenig & Lois, is out of the hospital and recuperating at home after a successful battle with pneumonia. Not so good news dept.: Mishap experienced by Don O'Toole, assistant media director at Buchen, Chicago. Returning from a Nassau honeymoon a couple of weeks ago, Don wasn't back on the job one day when he was hit by shattered glass on the Illinois Central railroad en route to his home. Don spent the night in the hospital and both bride and Buchen were happy to have him back the next day. PEOPLE AP-PEEL...a basic concept of person-to-person radio! SWANCO STATIONS program for the whole family, appealingly, entertainingly...and, productively for advertisers. Friendly, family radio with "people appeal"...people who listen, like it...people who buy it, love it!! SWANCO HAS P.A. PEOPLE AP-PEEL THE JOHN BLAIR 6 STATION KRMG TULSA, OKLAHOMA KIOA DES MOINES, IOWA KQEO ALBUQUERQUE, NEW MEXICO KLEO WICHITA, KANSAS robert e. eastman & co., inc. He also used the silent movies he and his crew filmed, to fill out most of the rest of the show with a pictorial presentation, narrated by him, of the PT 109 episode. It is the strongest kind of tribute to Paar's capacity to make a story interesting, suspenseful and exciting that he could take an incident like President Kennedy's wartime adventure, which has had so vast an amount of coverage, and by running a batch of silent film footage (largely of a travelog nature) still make it absorbing, prime time tv. Paar's plus, of course, was having Reg Evans the brave and wiry Australian scout, who saved Kennedy and other members of the group, as well as practically all the still living participants in the adventure on the show in person. These techniques, of course, were originated and refined in the course of the Tonight show. The how-many-successive-spots-make-sense point on the Paar opener came, of course, at the midway mark (10:30) with seven plugs in a row: Ronson, Sam Benedict house pitch, TV Guide spot, Food Fair, Contac, Prestone, and Mogen David wine. Prince Carson's debut For my money NBC could hardly have made a better choice to follow Paar than Johnny Carson. Carson is a seasoned comic emcee, who has handled them all from little old ladies on daytime television to lecherous old fellow comics at Friars' testimonial luncheons. On the opening show he remarked that someone had called him the "new king." He put in a disclaimer to this title, affably developed by his predecessor. "I'm no king," he said. "Prince, maybe, yes, but king, no." At running the show, based on the first three outings, he's at least a Prince. He's got a warm, humorous, ingratiating and sometimes pixieish personality, which wears well. He knows how to handle guests, celebrities and others. He's got a quick and curious mind. And, as I noted up front, he and producer Perry Cross, both being smart showmen, have retained many of the ingredients which were so successful during Paar's time. Having guest Ann Corio teach him the stripper's walk, and stripping to the waist with muscle man Bruce Randall, Mr. Universe, for a riotously funny study in contrasts were right out of the standard Paar approach. Guests on the first three shows included Rudy Vallee, Joan Crawford, Mel Brooks, Tallulah Bankhead, Shelly Berman, Artie Shaw, and Bobby Darin. Carson manages, too, to get the "shockers" and the mildly naughty comment from his guests wherever natural, and/or desirable from the viewpoint of showmanship. Vallee, for example, told about how the producers of "How to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying," Ernie Martin and Cy Feuer, tried to drop him before the show opened; Bobby Darin expressed his candid opinion that most of the fan magazines represented a form of mass degeneracy; and Miss Crawford, during a visit to her apartment by Carson, had asked her poodles whether they wanted to tinkle before she left. Carson thought she was asking him. The Tonight show with Johnny is just about sold out, and my guess is not only that it will stay that way, but that these sponsors are getting themselves a buy. All except those in the six-successive-spots stretch, which on opening night came at midnight: Philco, Chemical Bank of New York, Breakstone Whipped Cream Cheese, Vicks Vapo-rub and Jamaica Days. How many messages can a viewer absorb at one time? business in the future." Morin agreed with his counterparts in the syndication field that there was a good deal of pre-empting of network shows today in favor of syndicated feature film. Now major syndicator. Allied Artists Television Corp. is the successor to the old International TV and in its one year of existence has become a major syndicator. Five big packages have been put together in the past nine months. They include 40 Cavalcade of the 60's Group I features; 32 Cavalcade of the 60's, Group II features; 22 Science Fiction features; 13 Bomba the Jungle Boy features and 48 Bowery Boys features. Morin said these packages, new on tv, have been grabbing top ratings in such key markets as New York, Los Angeles, Chicago, San Francisco and other cities. He stressed the promotability of the AATV packages. "Allocating your dollars properly between paying for the films and promotion is the key to a station's success," Morin declared. AATV is packaging each property with in-depth promotion kits. Peter Jaeger is national program manager of AATV. Also, like others in the field, Morin is thinking of diversifying his catalogue. One of the new projects he has in mind is the production of a series on finance. He thinks the public is ready for such a series. "It could almost be turned into an adventure story," he mused the other day, "It has so much drama and rich meaning to most people." Returning to the subject station reps, Morin observed that stations have too long allowed the importance of their sales reps to be overlooked in regard to programming. "Recently, the wiser station managers have become aware of programming knowledge that the rep possesses from being in continuous contact with timebuyers, stations throughout the country and the more progressive film distributors," Morin reported. "The more astute station owner is finally taking advantage of this knowledge—and a rapport between rep, station and (Please turn to page 57) The wondrous bee does plan and plan the filling of the comb Your advertising planning can be greatly simplified by using BEE-LINE RADIO. You reach all of Inland California and Western Nevada with the five McClatchy stations. In fact, the McClatchy stations reach more radio homes than any other combination of stations at the lowest c/M. (Nielsen Coverage Service Report #2, SR&D) McClatchy Broadcasting Company delivers more for the money in Inland California-Western Nevada PAUL H. RAYMER CO. - NATIONAL REPRESENTATIVE KOH RENO • KFBK SACRAMENTO • KBEE MODESTO • KMJ FRESNO • KERN BAKERSFIELD YOU MAY NEVER SEE SUCH JUMPS— BUT... WKZO-TV Can Make Your Sales Grow by Leaps and Bounds in Greater Western Michigan! If you want the greatest area coverage in Michigan outside Detroit, WKZO-TV will head your list. NCS '61 tells why. Daily, nightly, weekly, WKZO-TV reaches more homes than any other Michigan station outside Detroit. 456,320 homes, to be exact, in 30 Western Michigan and Northern Indiana counties. It's a market SRDS credits with annual retail sales of over two and one-half billion dollars. Avery-Knodel has all the dope. And if you want all the rest of outstate Michigan worth having, add WWTV, Cadillac/WWUP-TV, Sault Ste. Marie to your WKZO-TV schedule. Kangaroos can cover 42 feet at a bound, clear heights of 10½ feet. Suburban Broadcasters lost their bid for Supreme Court certiorari in their appeal against FCC denial of their application for an fm station on the grounds no attempt had been made to ascertain community programing needs. Denial of certiorari does not amount to a Supreme Court precedent, but this will still be a landmark case in broadcasting. The application was for an fm outlet in Elizabeth, N. J. Metropolitan Broadcasting opposed on grounds of interference with WNEW-FM, New York. Later, Metropolitan also charged that Suburban's proposed programing was in fact identical with actual programing by the firm's Illinois and California fm's. FCC turned down Suburban purely on these grounds—that no effort had been made to find out what type of programing Elizabeth needs—setting up a perfect test case. Suburban argued that in cases where a facility is available and there is only one applicant, the outer limits of FCC power are to question whether the applicant's character is up to par, whether he has the necessary finances, etc. FCC argued it has a right to look into programing. The Appeals Court agreed with the FCC, and Suburban thereupon asked the Supreme Court to review that decision. If the Supreme Court had agreed to hear the case, if arguments had been held and decisions rendered, the precedent would have been clear-cut. Refusal to hear a case, as was done this time, merely means the lower court decision is permitted to stand. There is a further complication in that the Supreme Court doesn't explain why it refuses to disturb lower court decisions, and there can be many reasons. However, as a practical matter, those who contend the FCC has broad powers to set out programing standards will feel that this particular refusal of certiorari buttresses their case. There is no doubt that members of the FCC who feel this way will be much encouraged about their legal position. Coming at a time when the FCC appears to be trending toward more critical looks at programing when licenses are up for renewal, the Supreme Court refusal to hear this case probably means the FCC will get even tougher. The Supreme Court also dashed the hopes of opponents of subscription television: It refused certiorari to a group of theatre owners seeking review of the Appeals Court decision that the FCC was within its powers when it approved the RKO-General Hartford experiment. This again merely permits the Appeals Court verdict to stand, without constituting a Supreme Court expression on the subject. But it removes the last legal danger to the Hartford experiment, which is already under way. The motion picture people can ask for reconsideration as, indeed, Suburban Broadcasters also can do. However, this maneuver works so seldom that very often losing litigants don't even bother to try it. On the other hand, the Denver pay-tv trial just approved by the FCC could be in for a rougher legal experience. FCC approved without hearings, and the Appeals Court has slapped a good many cases back at the FCC because those on the losing side hadn't been given a chance to plead their cases. It was for this reason that the FCC had been expected to hold hearings before giving its approval to the Denver pay-tv trial. There was also a strong dissent in the Denver case by Commissioner Robert Bartley, who doubted that the applicant had proven financial ability to carry out the test. Bartley also noted that an intention to sell the station involved to Bill Daniels had been stated, and that CATV operator Daniels had a record of interests in construction permits for three TV stations which were never built. You can pretty well tell whose electronic computer an agency will wind up with by scanning its client list. Here's a roster of agencies whose clients are in the business of making computers: - BBD&O - Benton & Bowles - Compton - J. Walter Thompson - Young & Rubicam Minneapolis Honeywell International Business Machine Sperry Rand* (Remington typewriter) RCA Sperry Rand (Remington shaver) Turns out the Univac and other models. There could be a certain key to the success that J. Walter Thompson has been having of recent years in hauling in one choice account after another. That certain key: the fact that the head of new business also presides over the agency's tv affairs (around $150 million), namely, Dan Seymour. In other words, prospective accounts with substantial stakes in what is now the prime medium are inclined to bend a partial ear to one who talks with authority about tv. Judging from feelers being quietly made of prospects around the trade, one of the western radio group ownerships is interested in selling out. A provision of the deal: the president of the group, who is also the operator, be retained and on a multi-yeared contract. These thoughts may have occurred to you as you've read the prints this fall on the reactions to the new nighttime series being unveiled on the tv networks: 1) Virtually the same tv columnists who in the past flogged the medium for its violence and touches of sex are now complaining about the mildness of tv fare. 2) Is there anybody taking the time and effort to rack up the batting average of those ivorytower prognosticators of the click vs. failure prospects of the coming season's programs? The Chase & Sanborn division of Standard Brands last week pooh-poohed the report circulating on Madison Avenue that is was considering taking on another agency. The bulk of the Standard Brands account is now split between J. Walter Thompson and Bates, which has the margarines. A Fifth Avenue agency has been having quite a turnover in timebuyers mostly because of frustration stemming from the fact that the top jobs in the media department are held by men in their 30's or lower 40's. The migrants have been pretty much of topflight quality and it's been their feeling that under the circumstances all they could look forward to is a yearly $10 raise. Hence they look around for a shop where the age brackets of the media executives are not so low, which would open the way for not so distant promotion. TV FILMS FOR ADVERTISERS (Continued from page 53) film distributor is beginning to take shape to the advantage of all concerned." The market for both feature and kid programming continues to flourish like the hardy aspidistra plant, according to Robert Seidelman, v.p. in charge of syndication for Screen Gems, tv subsidiary of Columbia Pictures. Seidelman said his company was maintaining its position as one of the top suppliers of feature films in the industry. "We're in the programming business basically and not in the advertising business," he said in answer to a question about how much syndicator sales staff assistance was involved in search of advertisers. "We've given up calling on agencies," he declared. "I don't think we're in default, in this instance. It is in the nature of the business." He thought a small percentage of syndicate product was sold directly to sponsors today whereas it was the other way around in the early days of syndication. He also thought the networks had "stolen away a lot of the regional sponsors who had bought syndication on local stations in the old days." This has hurt the syndication business considerably, he observed. Last year marked the first release to tv of a group of Columbia Pictures' post-48s that included such blockbusters as The Caine Mutiny, All The King's Men, Born Yesterday and Death of a Salesman. Recently, Screen Gems sold four CBS o&o stations on a long-term licensing arrangement covering the telecast by the stations of 73 post-'50 Columbia Pictures. This was only a small portion of the studio's output during the '50's. Post-'50 features include From Here to Eternity, The Eddy Duchin Story, The Key, The Last Angry Man and Operation Mad Ball. Kid shows booming. Commenting on the need for diversification, Seidelman said he, too, was thinking of prepping a series of documentaries. "But I would like to do something of a public service documentary nature that the networks can't do," he said. Kid programs are also booming today, he said. "We're doing a fan- Chicago’s most favorable location for the communications and advertising industry JOHN BLAIR BUILDING 645 N. Michigan Avenue Chicago 11, Ill. For rental information contact Scribner & Co. 38 S. Dearborn Street Chicago 3, Ill. Central 6-4204 tastic business with The Three Stooges," he exclaimed. "There is a new audience for these clowns all the time. And the kids love repeats. There's a deluge of money to be made in the kid market. Just take a look at all the major markets available today for children's shows." Nor is Screen Gems having the slightest difficulty disposing of its cartoons by Hanna-Barbera. Seidelman asserted. Ed Justin, director of merchandising for Screen Gems, has made numerous tie-ups in behalf of local sponsors from coast to coast backing Huckleberry Hound, Quick Draw McGraw, Yogi Bear* and other Screen Gems cartoon features. Although the trend for the past few years in tv, both network and local, has been for sponsors to buy minute participations in programs, the inherent value of program identification with either full or alternate sponsorship, is as important today as it has ever been, James T. Victory, v.p., domestic sales, CBS Films, told SPONSOR. The program sponsor, according to Victory, has the advantage of associating himself with a program that is compatible with his type of product or service. Among other virtues, he has the advantage of syndication's flexibility and local impact, Victory observed, and he can build an ad and merchandising campaign geared to his own markets and sales distribution area. Like his boss, Sam Cook Digges, administrative v.p., Victory feels that today's successful syndicator must include in his catalogue such products as public affairs documentaries, full hour dramas, cartoons (in six-minute and half-hour form), music programs, westerns, comedy series, five-minute shows for daily stripping and, of course, true action-adventure." Both Digges and Victory also see the need to be on top in merchandising and licensing operation. More recently, CBS Films has been having notable success with strip programming. CBS Films points out that a client need not be a national account to capitalize on the ad values inherent in strip programming. "Tv today, Victory says, offers many top programs aired locally on a strip basis. He cites success stories scored with Whirlybirds, Amos 'n' Andy, December Bride and others which are strip programs. Documentary series. Jacques Liebenguth, general sales manager, Storer Programs, agrees with Digges, Victory and others that alert-minded syndicators need public service shows as well as action-adventure, if they are to succeed. Last week Liebenguth reported "very good sales and excellent acceptance" of Communism: R.M.E., the first tv series of its kind, relating the basic differences between communism and the free world. "Communism has been a subject of great interest, of controversy," Liebenguth said. "Yet the endless machinery that grinds out tv programs has never created a series explaining and clarifying the basics of communism. A sponsor or advertiser gets exclusivity with this unique series which has positive promotional and merchandising values." Host and narrator of Communism: R.M.E. (26, 30-minute programs), is Art Linkletter. He also was pleased with Divorce Court, the tv hour-long courtroom drama now sold in some 60 major markets with many blue chip clients backing the series. Also on the Storer Programs list is B'Wana Don, an entertainment and educational series produced for children's viewing. The idea of picking up a top flight re-run and sponsoring it for a regional buy can be a most appealing one, William P. Breen, v.p. sales, NBC Films, told SPONSOR. Breen last week cited a good example in Hennessey which has caught on with such advertisers as California Oil Co., through White and Shuford Advertising in Denver; Bowman Biscuit Co. through Durey Ranck Advertising in Denver and Foremost Dairies through Guild, Bascom and Bonfigli in San Francisco. They have bought a total of 71 markets among them for the Hennessey series. Twentieth Century-Fox Tv executives have announced recently that Century I, their first major group of films, is now ready for local sale. The Century I package includes 30 major films made at the Twentieth Century-Fox Film studios. --- TIMEBUYERS JOB MARKET (Continued from page 39) assistants, $3,000 to $7,000 and for men assistant timebuyers $4,000 to $7,000. Timebuyers from $6,000 to $10,000. New York. This city was described as "the mecca of the ad world" by one timebuyer and previous discussion bears this out. The city probably has more agencies, clients, billings, radio and tv stations, and money than any other city, and often two cities combined. Every timebuyer in the Empire City has something to say about opportunities there. About salary. "I've never been screened so hard for such a low-paying job." "The job competition is rough, and so is the pay." "Any buyer will do better in a long run in New York." "New York is the only place where a guy can stand on his feet. Women cut the hell out of salaries in other cities." "Most women got in during the war, but their opportunities are down now." "Only the smaller shops take women — when they can't afford men." "New York is the only city for timebuyers, regardless of sex." "Women start as estimators in New York, and usually stop there." "Woman's chances of advancing are better in print." "Shouldn't be a double standard for men and women, but there is." "80% of agencies in New York won't hire girls for timebuyers." About social life. "Social life of a timebuyer is tops." "One of the more attractive parts of being a timebuyer here." "Boat rides and trips are lots of fun." Timebuying climate. "I'm gambling on my knowledge of computers for a big boost in the future." "The hub of sophisticated media buying." "The muscle of the industry." "Strangers in New York have a rough time." "In New York they don't forget mistakes. In Chicago you're a human being first." Salary in New York varies, but is tops in the industry. For women, as assistant timebuyers $5,900 to $6,000, as buyers up to $10,000. For men $5,000 to $8,000 as assistants and up to $11-14,000 as buyers. Philadelphia. Reports to sponsor say that there are few jobs in timebuying here and they are held tenaciously. There is very little switching from agency to agency, or to other cities. The pay scale is lower than New York, mainly because the cost of living is lower. "Station people are interested in moving to New York, but agency people no," says one Philadelphia timebuyer. "It's too rough and competitive in New York. Here we get accounts, we keep them, and we keep our jobs. On the other hand, timebuyers from New York don't come looking for jobs here, but it doesn't bother us. We have a close knit friendly group." Salaries range from $1,600 to $5,200 for assistant women timebuyers and $5,500 to $7,800 for assistant male timebuyers. Women timebuyers get $6,500 to $10,500 and male timebuyers $7,800 to $14,000. Pittsburgh. Opportunities are poor to fair in this large industrial market, timebuyers indicate. "There are very few jobs for timebuyers available here. There are not over five full-time buyers in the city," one buyer reports. Salary brackets reported are $5,000 to $7,000 for assistant man timebuyer and $7,000 to $9,000 as a timebuyer. For women $1,000 to $6,000 as assistant timebuyers and $5,000 to $7,000 as buyers. St. Louis. Media men say there is a lack of capable experienced timebuyers in St. Louis, able to buy broadcast on a national level—and there's a lot of national work to be done. Both major agencies, and concurring smaller agencies, agree that timebuyers are more valuable to them if they are trained from scratch within their own agency. Young graduates are taken into the agencies from college and brought up in either research or estimating. Women often work their way up from secretaries. However, agencies did take some experienced people from other cities. Opportunities are reported as good for both men and women. "We have some damn good women out here," one major agency executive responded. In our agency we prefer to have women. We feel they are more permanent and will not jump to other cities or other agencies for more money after we've trained them." Salaries range from $4,000 to $7,000 for assistant timebuyers and up to $11,000 for senior timebuyers. "If the buyer is good, he is appreciated," one top executive said, "and we pay them as much or more than in New York." San Francisco. Although San Francisco racks up $140 million a year in radio/tv billings, jobs are scarce. When asked if there were many timebuying jobs available, answers were "virtually none," "no," "none," right down the line. The most optimistic reply was "women have a better chance when there are jobs, but there are too few openings too infrequently to count." The general consensus is "it may be a wonderful city, but not for timebuyers." Even the lucky ones who have jobs report salaries are low, but love Frisco and do not want to leave. Timebuyers from other cities admit "I'd rather work in San Francisco myself, but." A pretty and intelligent timebuyer from a major ad agency in Chicago went out to seek a timebuying job, and waited a year with no results. "Very discouraged" she returned to Chicago. Others came from Chicago, Los Angeles and other cities while she was there, but left after two weeks without even a hope. "It was obvious jobs just weren't," she said. A noted timebuyer from New York waited almost a year, before returning to the East. Salaries for timebuyers for assistant men and women range from $3,600 to $4,800. For women buyers $5,000 to $8,000, and men buyers $5,000 to $10,000. Working with monsters. In the larger agencies in New York and Chicago, it appears that timebuyers with some knowledge of the computer and its possibilities may have a slight jump on their associates when it comes to higher executive positions where media planning is concerned. "Contrary to many people's thinking, the computer is not going to put any timebuyer out of work—only change his position," says a large New York agency associate media director. "There may even be more work with more responsibility. "In the large agencies using the monsters, it will put the buyer in a more important role. When the computers used are of the decision-making type (such as Young & Rubicam claims), and not just linear, the timebuyer will have to know damn well what he is putting into the thing, as the decision made by collating the figures will be almost irrevocable. Everyone will believe it." Another associate media director at another large agency agrees. "When more and more agencies stop 'looking' and begin 'using' computers, it will become increasingly important for buyers to understand their function. Slowly, the idea and value of computers are growing on agencies, and the timebuyer who knows their role in the overall concept of media buying and planning will make a more valuable man." Thus far, sponsor finds serious computer talk is limited to New York and Chicago, although the electronic installations are used in other cities. Also, the importance of a buyer's computer savvy varies among agency executives. It's a matter of depth, one agency man said. "A timebuyer who just knows numbers and doesn't care about computers, media planning, and profile, is no better than an editor who just knows punctuation. Good decision-making involves a great deal of knowledge." Thus, in the end, computer knowledge may separate the big city buyers from other buyers. --- TV COMMERCIAL MONITORS (Continued from page 41) He said the job of listening and watching for a client is "a lot of long, hard work. We provide a lot of service and people rely on us." He added that sometimes "we have to do detective work" to trace a commercial for a client who "thought" he saw such and such someplace. Once he said a customer told them he saw a commercial on Laramie, which they didn't have. After a few days it was discovered the client had been traveling and what he saw was a local cut in for the commercial somewhere in the Midwest. Radio Reports began operations in 1936 when it caught recorded radio programs and messages on 16-inch Presto aluminum discs. Some of the discs, which since have been sold almost for nothing to a junk dealer, were Amos 'n' Andy, Easy Aces, H. V. Kaltenborn, etc. Agency man at the top. Storyboard Reports, which has been operating for 4½ years, refers to its photo reports as storyboard reports, according to Allan Black, general manager, who for 10 years was an advertising agency writer and producer. Black emphasized (as did Mrs. Longstreet) that his firm does not restrict its shooting to a frame automatically every four seconds. "We take as many pictures as necessary to include every scene or super—sometimes 40 or 45 times a minute, but never below 15." Again, as did Mrs. Longstreet, Black stressed that his firm uses original photos and does not run off copies from one master. Conversions are about 25% of his business today, he said, but growing. 65,000 commercials. U.S. Tele-Service Corp. has just released a catalogue of over 65,000 tv commercials going back to 1938—in-indexed alphabetically by product category—which it has available in its library in photo-script form (photo-script is a registered trademark for the firm's photo reports). Company president Henry L. Sondheim said the basic business is supplying off-the-air photo-scripts. However, among other services, the firm also handles conversions and merchandising sheets. The latter are photo offset copies of photo-scripts, with additional promotional and explanatory material added. The printed reproductions are often used by advertisers, Sondheim said, to merchandise their campaigns to their sales organizations, distributors, and retailers. Tele-Service has 400 monitors in 250 cities, Sondheim continued, and a sales and servicing staff of four in New York, two in Chicago, and one in Los Angeles. The firm also arranges for kinescopes in 100 cities outside New York in addition to its kine operation in Gotham. Its library of "thousands of kines," which goes back three years, is expected to be catalogued by product category by 15 November. Available in color. A process to produce a four-color photo-script for photo offset reproduction at "a very low price" has recently been developed by Tele-Service and already is being used. The firm also has been producing foreign language (Spanish, German, French) and bilingual photo-scripts for some time. Perhaps the most infernal device in the Tele-Service plant—to be introduced 30 November—is the newly engineered multiplex system for shooting images from seven tv monitors with one camera. This electronic marvel unravels the pictures later by a key system. As in other Tele-Service cameras, the multiplex system will be set to shoot every four seconds, but will have the potential of shooting as much as three times a second if desired, as do the other cameras. Cleveland operation. In Cleveland, Jack T. Sharp, president of Guardian Monitor Service, said his firm offers monitoring service in all big and small markets throughout the country. Presently, however, the reports are typewritten reports, concerned mainly with message scheduling, quality, and commercial company. But the firm will be giving off-the-air photo reports in the near future, Sharp said. Uses and costs. The uses and advantages of photo reports and conversions are well known in the industry, and therefore, only a few of the main ones will be mentioned here. (Tele-Service lists 39 uses.) 1) Quick reference; eliminates time spent in projection room. Very portable and may be perused on the 5:29 to Cos Cob. 2) Seeking new account; libraries provide background on what has been done for product and its competitors. 3) Keep check on competition. 4) Check stations; are messages being aired on schedule? what is their quality? what commercials came before, after? The cost of a one-minute commercial photo report varies from $7.50 to $12.50. Prices are reduced for quantity purchases, and each firm offers forms of quality-plus-price inducements for their various services. --- PUREX TV SPECIALS (Continued from page 44) such luminaries as Bob Hope, Billy Graham, Jimmy Doolittle, and Sophia Loren. This season, more World Of episodes are scheduled under Purex aegis, beginning with The World of Jackie Kennedy on 30 November. Meanwhile, Purex has not forsaken the Specials for Women. For some time work has been in progress on new subject matter to present within this format. "We want to do more of them," Bruce says, "but we reached a point where all of us involved—the agency, network, and Purex—felt we may have exhausted subject matter for the original series. New ideas are now being explored for continuing the specials, however." One of the possibilities under investigation, Bruce says, is a two-part episode on love and marriage. Because of the response to the book offer this summer—far exceeded our expectations, Bruce reports—the company feels there is a continuing need for examining contemporary personal problems. Bruce indicates that the specials worked out very well for Purex. "The positive response from the public, as well as the ratings which were good, lead us to believe that we accomplished our prime purposes," he says. However, he points out, it is impossible to pin down specific sales results from any one campaign, because there are so many variables. He admits one accomplishment directly attributable to the series: "We gained new distribution for our products resulting from distributor admiration of the Specials for Women sponsorship." Search ends for Cutest Little Squirt WKBW, Buffalo, had a lively climax at a local family inn for its colorful Little Squirt Pageant, sponsored by Squirt Bottling Co. On hand were d.j. Dan Neaberteth and Miss Binnie of Romper Room to fete winner two-year-old Mark Munzer. The Third Dimension George Arkedis (l) CBS Radio v.p., discusses sales presentation with William A. Schroeder (c), Best Foods exec. v.p., and adv. v.p. Albert Brown Check construction progress Mark L. Wodlinger (l), v.p. and gen. mgr. of WHM-TV, Grand Rapids, checks with chief engr. Dale Wolters on progress of tower for new station New Frontiers in Pittsburgh WTAE's Frances Smith perches on Indian pinto, part of traveling team in Pittsburgh, to tell viewers "Wagon Train" is now shown on the station Agencies The charge that the creative talents of agencies are not being utilized in the development of radio and tv programing was leveled by Edward H. Weiss last week. In an address before the Broadcast Advertising Club of Chicago, Weiss cited such agency-created programs as the Purex Specials for Women and urged that more agency talent be put to work in the program area. Leonard Levin, president of Chicago's Alberto-Culver will be the guest speaker for the 13 November meeting of BAC. Appointments: Johnson & Johnson to Cummins MacFail & Nutry for a major new product . . . Phillips Roxand Laboratories to Robert A. Becker for a new product . . . Air Force Recruiting Advertising for fiscal 1963 to MacManus, John & Adams, New York . . . Schine Hotels to Grant Advertising . . . Johnny Londoff Chevrolet Co., Florissant, Mo. to Richard C. Lynch Advertising . . . E. J. Korvette Department Stores to Metlis & Lebow for the Shop-At-Home Department . . . KTVT, Dallas-Ft. Worth, to Jack T. Holmes & Associates . . . Metrecal to Kenyon & Eckhardt Do Brasil. New quarters: With the recent acquisition of all space on the 23rd floor of the Merchandise Mart, the Chicago headquarters office of Clinton E. Frank has all of its departments together within the top three floors of the Tower of the city's famed business landmark. Top brass: W. R. Hillenbrand leaves his post of executive vice president and director of Lambert & Feasley to join JWT as a management supervisor. New v.p.'s: William H. Weber at Richard C. Lynch, St. Louis . . . Robert H. Blend at Mogul Williams & Saylor . . . Jay B. Beneman and Lester J. Harmon at Werman & Schorr, Philadelphia . . . Daniel E. Welch at Foote, Cone & Belding, Chicago. PEOPLE ON THE MOVE: Harry F. Renton to television coordinator on the Corn Products account at Lennsen & Newell, a new post . . . John E. Woods to account executive on the Lestoil account at Fuller & Smith & Ross . . . Charles Schiappacasse to copywriter at Needham, Louis & Biorby . . . Frederic D. Bell to the copy department, James J. Egan to time buyer at N. W. Ayer . . . Ted Pearson to media director of Compton, San Francisco . . . John E. Rowan to the creative department of Street & Finney, to work on Colgate-Palmolive . . . Francis P. Delaney and Dorothy Shahinian to associate media directors and Lucille Giorelli and Mary Meahan to media buyers at Fuller & Smith & Ross, New York . . . Sylvia Simmons to assistant to Edward L. Bond, Jr., executive vice president and general manager of Young & Rubicam . . . Si Bloom to the radio and tv staff of Fuller & Smith & Ross, Pittsburgh . . . Tom Scott to account executive at Smock, Debnam & Waddell, Los Angeles . . . Betsy Brown, Vivian Koenigsberg and Peter Greeman, copy group heads at Norman, Craig & Kummel, to assistant vice presidents . . . Richard C. Larko and Stuart Shryer to merchandising supervisors at Foote, Cone & Belding, Chicago . . . Robert P. Leonhard to supervisor and Walter H. Zippler to account executive at Y&R, Detroit. Retirement: Ward H. Olmsted as an officer of MacManus, John & Adams, effective 31 December. He'll be replaced by William B. Everson, vice president, as manager of the Twin Cities office. Advertisers Campaigns: J. P. Stevens & Co. introduces its new men's wool-worsted suits and slacks created from a new fabric, with double runs of a 30-minute documentary called "Universe" on tv stations in New York, Chicago, and Detroit. Agency is Fletcher, Richards, Calkins & Holden . . . Max Factor will schedule one of the most comprehensive promotional campaigns in its history to introduce "Fine Line Lipstick." Scheduled to break early --- Six pretty sponsors say happy birthday The Rheingold girls gathered in Boston to help WBZ general manager Paul G. O'Friel celebrate the radio station's 41st birthday. After the ceremony, the cake was shared with children from the New England Home for Little Wanderers. --- Unveils new facilities Discussing WSIX, Nashville, expansion into stereo broadcasting (l-r): PGW a.e Vic Piano, station pres. Louis Draughon, former Tennessee Gov. Frank Clement, station manager Paul Ruhle --- CBS newsmen gather A breakfast meeting of CBS newsmen at Nat'l Radio-Tv News Directors Assn. conference brought together (l-r): Bill Leonard, Jules Dundes, Walter Cronkite, Don Mosley, Blair Clark --- Congratulations to future broadcaster Maryland-D.C. Broadcasters Assn. awarded $500 scholarship to U. of Md. student. L-r: Dr. George F. Batka (Md. U.); Ralph Phillips (WFBR, Baltimore); Roland Shumate (winner); Virginia Pate (WASA, Havre De Grace), assn.'s advc. chmn. All about time... in 12 hours Involved in time buying? Broadcast sales? Traffic? Work in New York for a rep, network, agency or advertiser? Chances are you've got problems. We've got answers—in the 1962-'63 Time Buying and Selling Seminar. The new TB & SS is "all about time." It's a one-of-its-kind, 12-hour course in the business side of broadcasting, designed to help make your work easier and provide the know-how that can mean faster advancement. - Curriculum: Covers everything from the basics to the nuances of time buying and selling. - Sessions: Eight, 5:30 to 7:00 p.m., every Tuesday starting October 30. - Instructors: Industry executives representing advertiser, rep, agency and network operations. - Enrollment is limited to 75. So use the coupon below today to reserve your place. (The check you send is tax-deductible. But then it's probably also a step toward a higher tax bracket.) - If you prefer to first see a program listing the Seminar subjects, call Claude Barrere, International Radio and Television Society, PL 8-2450. --- Enroll me immediately in the 1962-'63 IRTS Time Buying and Selling Seminar (Fee: $15) Name______________________________________________________Firm__________________________________________ Address_______________________________________________________________________________________________ Check enclosed □ Please bill me □ TIME BUYING AND SELLING SEMINAR • INTERNATIONAL RADIO AND TELEVISION SOCIETY • 444 MADISON AVENUE, NEW YORK 22, N.Y. November, the campaign will get support from network and spot tv. PEOPLE ON THE MOVE: Albert M. Coleman to vice president—sales, Albert G. Hodor to vice president—product management, and James A. Dodge to vice president—marketing services of Pet Milk Company, St. Louis. --- Associations Val Linder, program director of WCCO, Minneapolis-St. Paul, told Minnesota broadcasters they have the choice of being “a wireless juke box or a full-size radio station.” Addressing the Minnesota Broadcasters Assn., Linder advocated “full-size, complete radio programming” and challenged his audience to “use the full dimension of modern radio, taking advantage of the limitless mobility of receivers and microphones.” The IRTS is borrowing a line from the trading stamp people to promote its Christmas party. The gimmick: all those buying three book of tickets for the big prize giveaway, by 15 October, get one book of tickets free. Proceeds of the party go to the Veteran’s Hospital Radio and Television Guild. Kudos: Robert Hyland, president of the St. Louis Ad Club, has named 42 civic and business leaders as “V.I.P. Program Chairman,” each for a single meeting of the 1962-63 season. --- Tv Stations U. S. tv viewing set all-time records this past summer, according to TvB. The average tv home spent four hours and 20 minutes per day watching tv during the June-August period, topping 1961’s four hours and 17 minutes. Network tv billings also hit an all-time summer high, reaching $192,357,400 and network c-p-m declined to $2.30. The estimate on spot tv billings, still being compiled, is that the medium will also reach new highs. The tv station salesman has had to assume the function of the ad agency in working with local retailers. Howard P. Abrahams, local sales vice president of TvB said this has happened by default, because agencies get no commission from local newspaper advertising and thus are not interested in local clients. Abrahams pointed out the often ignored fact that, despite the above, television is commissionable and affords agencies an opportunity for increased earnings. KTVU, San Francisco-Oakland, is involved in a cultural exchange all its own. The station has set up “sister” relationships with Fukuoka and Osaka and sent a unit to Japan to film the way of life in the two cities. KTVU has prepared, in exchange, a half-hour film of life in California. Ideas at work: - The publicity department of WTHI, Terre Haute, has established a speakers Bureau available to clubs and organizations in the area free of charge. Several speech topics are available in tv and radio and special lectures will be designed on three weeks notice. - KSL-TV, Salt Lake City, set out to prove that, compared to other media tv is not over-commercialized, as often charged. The station measured and marked the total amount of space in a local newspaper devoted to advertising and found, in one issue, that it amounted to 69.1%. KSL-TV’s total broadcast day on that date contained only 17.5% of commercial time. PEOPLE ON THE MOVE: James H. Burgess to vice president of Crosley Broadcasting and general manager of WLWT, Cincinnati . . . Ted Froming to chief engineer at KEYT, Santa Barbara . . . Marvin Shapiro to account executive for WABC-TV, New York . . . Charles Kelly, station manager of WCKT, Miami, to vice president of Biscayne Television Corp. . . . Tony Arnone returns to KHJ-TV, Los Angeles, as director of public relations and exploitation . . . Sheldon Fisher to publicity director for the WTHI stations, Terre Haute . . . C. George Henderson to vice president and general manager of WSOC-TV, Charlotte, replacing Larry Walker. Kudos: Franklin C. Snyder, general manager of WTAE, has been elected to the Board of Directors of the Pittsburgh Symphony Society . . . Carl J. Meyers, vice president and manager of engineering and operations at WGN, Inc., Chicago, was honored at a surprise luncheon by the staff for his 38 years with the company and his contribution to the industry during 50 years in the field. --- Radio Stations John M. Couric, manager of public relations for the NAB, urged the nation’s motel and hotel operators to furnish radio receivers in all their rooms as one of their hospitality services. Making the pitch to the Eastern States Motel-Hotel & Restaurant Show in West Springfield, Mass., Couric pointed out that radio is becoming increasingly attuned to the automobile audience and is the best medium for furnishing up-to-the-minute weather, traffic and other tourist information. Ideas at work: - Write 100 Words and Win a Jalopy were magic words in Jacksonville for more than 2,200 boys and girls in the WAPE area, part of a U. S. Department of Labor Stay-in-School campaign. - KFJZ, Fort Worth, served as the exclusive advertising outlet for the old-fashioned country fair, a city tradition. The station this year originated the “Swap Day” format of the event. - Local talent was uncovered by WGMS, Washington, D. C., during the “Cover Contest” open to the thousands of subscribers to the station’s program magazine. The station has bought some of the art work submitted. - WHDH, Boston, is involved in an extensive promotion which kicked off last month with dinner and fireworks. Theme is "Boston Wonderful Town; WHDH Wonderful Radio." - "Theatre Workshop," a series of locally-produced dramatic radio programs presented in cooperation with area colleges and universities, begins on KMOX, St. Louis, on 28 October. The project will be the first broadcast drama series in St. Louis in over a decade. - WKMI, Kalamazoo, has made the hit parade. A new record introduced by the station called "Kalamazoo, My Home Town," and used as a promotion vehicle for both station and town, has grown to a number one hit in the juke boxes. Lyrics are by Howard Steere, general manager and owner of WKMI. - WIBG, Philadelphia, staged a 24-hour Hometown Spectacular with over 80 artists in the popular music field who are "home town" products being featured. Financial report: KNX, Los Angeles hit a high the week of 24 September, with total billings in excess of $125,000. New subscribers: WABB, Mobile, and WBVP, Beaver Falls, have signed for the Radio Press International service. Sports notes: General Cigar has renewed for Corina co-sponsorship of the Chicago White Sox broadcasts on WCFL, Chicago... Baseball talk will fill the air in Pittsburgh during the national past-time's off-season Sunday afternoons on KDKA. Knights Life Insurance Co. (Sykes) has renewed the "Joe L. Brown Show" featuring the general manager of the Pittsburgh Pirates and KDKA sports director Tom Bender... WERE, Cleveland, is broadcasting this season's Ohio State football games. PEOPLE ON THE MOVE: Nat Asch to special projects director in the program department of WNEW, New York... Lee Savage to account executive at WINZ, Miami Beach... Barbara A. Militello to assistant director of public relations for WMCA, New York... James Keough to director of merchandising for the Knight Quality Stations in New England... Kenneth L. Ross to account executive at KSDO, San Diego... James J. Kilian to the sales staff at WCAO, Baltimore... Bill Ellis, formerly of WSNW, S. C., to vice president of the Central Savannah Area Broadcasting Corp... Robinson B. Brown to assistant program director of WCCO, Minneapolis-St. Paul... Duncan Mounsey to vice president and general manager of Rand Broadcasting of Tampa and Martin Ross to assistant manager. Kudos: Bob Van Camp of WSB has been named board chairman for the Atlanta Pops Orchestra's 1962-63 season. He's music director and announcer at the station... WBBF, Rochester, received the U. S. Army certificate of appreciation for recruiting assistance given by the station over the past four years. Newsmakers in tv/radio advertising John T. Murphy has been elected executive vice president of Crosley Broadcasting. He joined the company in 1949 as general manager of WLWD, Dayton. In recent years he's served as a vice president in charge of tv. Murphy's experience in the industry goes back for many years, including service with NBC prior to Crosley. Robert M. Dooley, newly-named general manager of WNHC, New Haven, has been a senior account executive in CBS Radio Spot Sales. His other posts: sales development manager of special projects at CBS Radio Spot Sales; general sales manager of Blair-Tv; general sales manager of WOW-TV and radio, and general sales mgr. of KFAB, Omaha. Tom E. Paro has taken over as station manager for WRC-TV, Washington, D.C. He's been with the station as director of sales since 1960. He started in the sales promotion department of Mutual Broadcasting, moving to network radio sales in 1950. After the Korean War he rejoined the company, and in 1955 he joined NBC TV Spot Sales. Gene Litt started last week as general sales manager of WCAU, Philadelphia. He's been an account executive with CBS Radio Spot Sales in New York since July 1955. Previously Litt was with another national rep firm, and was a timebuyer with Kenyon & Eckhardt and Newell-Emmett. He started out with the Biow Company. The San Francisco Bay Area FM Broadcasters Assn. has elected new officers. President is Pat Henry of KJAZ. Newly-elected secretary-treasurer is James Gabbert of KPEN. Current projects for the Assn. include an all-industry Pulse survey for the Bay Area to be taken in the near future, and special fm promotions for both agencies and listeners. KMBC (FM), Kansas City, began broadcasting 7 October. Music will be in the modern vein. Sales: WUFM, Utica, signed Mohawk Airlines and Goodyear for co-sponsorship of the Boston Symphony concert series for 13 weeks. Networks New affiliates: WFMM, Baltimore's only independent fm station, has joined the QXR fm network . . . WBRC, Birmingham, has become an affiliate of the Mutual Broadcasting System. PEOPLE ON THE MOVE: Marion Stephenson, director of business affairs for the NBC Radio Network since 1959, has been elected the first woman vice president in the history of NBC. Her post is vice president, administration, NBC Radio. Kudos: CBS Radio president Arthur Hull Hayes revealed an unknown talent when he won the "Delta Citation" from Rockwell Manufacturing for exceptional proficiency and competence in the home workshop field . . . James C. Hagerty, ABC vice president in charge of news, special events and public affairs, will receive the annual award in the field of broadcast news at the 1962 Achievement Awards banquet of the University of Southern California School of Journalism Alumni Assn. . . . For a "distinguished record of serving the nation with news and information," CBS received the 1962 Citation of Merit of the American Society of Journalism School Administrators. Reps J. A. Lucas Company has launched two California radio selling groups. One, Jalco/No-Cal includes: KDAN, Eureka, KONG, Visalia-Tulare, KTOB, Petaluma, KQMS, Redding, KAGR-Yuba City, KPER, Gilroy-Hollister, KIBS, Bishop. Jalco/So-Cal includes: KGEE, Bakersfield, KBUC, Corona-Riverside, KSMJ, Palm Springs, KKAR, Pomona, KGUD, Santa Barbara, KRCK, Ridgecrest. Both groups offer a one-contract, one-billings buy and are repped nationally by Lucas. Appointments: KEWB, San Francisco, to H-R Representatives . . . WSJA-TV, Binghamton, to Pearson National Representatives . . . WVOX, New Rochelle, to Mort Bassett . . . Trinidad and Tobago Television to Intercontinental Services, Ltd. PEOPLE ON THE MOVE: Calvin P. Copsey to account executive in the San Francisco office of NBC Radio Spot Sales . . . Robert E. Kerrigan to tv account executive in the New York office of Peters, Griffin, Woodward. Kudos: Al Carrell was elected to the Board of Directors of Robert E. Eastman. Carrell is manager of the Dallas office. Film Westinghouse Broadcasting's "Legacy of Light," a tv series relating classic fiction to the Ten Commandments, debuted last week. Produced by WBC in association with the Union of American Hebrew Congregations, the 10 video tape productions are part of a continuing WBC project in the area of religious programming. Sales: Storer Programs, Inc. has sold "Divorce Court" in 56 markets to date . . . Within 48 hours of its release, MCA-TV's newest off-network half hour, "Bachelor Father" sold to six stations. They are: KNBC-TV, New York; KRCA, Los Angeles; WANE-TV, Ft. Wayne; WMAL-TV, Washington, D. C.; WBRE-TV, Wilkes Barre; and WNBQ, Chicago. New properties: A half-hour tv film documentary about Sonny Liston, new heavyweight boxing champion of the world, has been produced by East End Productions. It contains never-before-seen footage on Liston's controversial past . . . Association Telefilms is offering a package of space and related films. Prints are available on a free-loan basis . . . Official Films will release, in December, a 30-minute tv actuality special called "The Marilyn Monroe Story," produced by Art Lieberman . . . MGM-TV has purchased the rights to the Sheperd Mead book, "The Four Window Girl, or How to Make More Money than Men," to be produced by Norman Felton as a new half-hour comedy series . . . Seven Arts continues to diversify into production of new tv programming by producing "The World's Amateur Boxing Championships," a series of half-hour programs supervised by the Amateur Athletic Union of the U. S. PEOPLE ON THE MOVE: Shirley Hartman to administrative head of Animation, Inc. studio . . . Lew Grade, deputy managing director of Associated Television Ltd., to managing director. Obit: Henry J. Zittau, 70, senior vice president and treasurer of United Artists Associated, died 5 October after a brief illness. Public Service Several New York City tv stations are donating time for a public service campaign against venereal disease. The spots, 20- and 10-seconds, were prepared for the New York City Department of Health by Grey Advertising. The Department queried the stations, which agreed to accept the spots if they were done tastefully. Participating stations are WCBS-TV, WNBC-TV, WABC-TV, WNEW-TV, and WUHN, the city's uhf channel. Medical shows on Chicago radio continue to proliferate, with the latest entry coming from WBBM. Entitled "Doctor's House Call," the new show presents authoritative information for laymen on a wide variety of medical subjects. It's produced in cooperation with the AMA. Like the TV networks, all major radio stations in Chicago now have shows of this variety. Public service in action: - WNBC-TV, New York, and New York U. are presenting "Science Age," a new weekly series offering scientific information in lay language to junior high school and high school students. - In cooperation with the United Churches of Lackawanna County, WEJL, Scranton, recently recorded a series of prayers by 12 area ministers for use at sign-on and sign-off each day. - WWDC, Washington, D.C., starts 17 October with a series of face-to-face debates between principal candidates for office in the upcoming election. Other news from the station: during the entire month of October WWDC is using its Satellite Studio on wheels to broadcast live from shopping centers on behalf of the United Givers Fund campaign. - There's a new policy of scheduling public affairs shows during peak daytime hours at WINS, New York. A 30-part program, "Around the World," with Mike Wallace, will be integrated into the full range of programs on a rotating basis seven days a week. All station personalities will take part in the effort, introducing the show during his regular broadcast time. - WABC, New York, in an effort to recruit new policemen, is playing tapes of its own personalities taking the New York City's patrolman's pistol test. Listeners will attempt to guess the scores with the station putting up a dollar for every point scored. The contest spot is combined with a transcribed police recruiting spot. Kudos: Special notice is due TV and radio newsmen who, with their print media counterparts, braved personal physical dangers to report the rioting at the University of Mississippi... WMCA, New York, was awarded a meritorious public service citation by The Federation of The Handicapped for outstanding leadership in the field of radio broadcasting. The Federation credited the station with from one-third to one-half of its vocational replacements for the handicapped. Rating success: "Profile: Detroit Police Department," an hour-long local public affairs program presented in prime time by WWJ-TV outrated its network competition, according to a special ARB report. The 26 September show got an 18 rating, compared to a 16 by its closest runner-up. Equipment Two reports from industry leaders this past week indicate good prospects for the TV manufacturing industry's future. Ward Quaal, executive vice president and general manager of WGN, Chicago, told a meeting of the Indiana Broadcasters that black and white TV transmission will be virtually a thing of the past within the next 10 years, with even portable sets available in color in the near future. In a talk before the Business Conditions Clinic of the Illinois State Chamber of Commerce, Leonard C. Truesdell, president of Zenith, said that TV unit sales for 1962 will be better than any of the past six years. Radio sales, predicted Truesdell, will also hit heights. Financial report: RCA reported profits for the first nine months rose 44% to $34,300,000 from $23,800,000 in the first three quarters of 1961. This was achieved on record sales of $1,265,500,000, up 16% from the $1,090,100,000 in the comparable period a year ago. Earnings per common share were $1.88 for the initial nine months of 1962, compared with $1.29 last year. Kudos: Harry C. Dolan, marketing manager of Microlab, has been elected a vice president and director of Electronic Sales Marketing Assn., a group of sales and marketing executives formed 18 months ago to advance the stature of the electronic sales management profession. Station Transactions Not due on the air until November, the new TV station in Grand Rapids-Kalamazoo has already undergone a call-letter change. Previously referred to as WIIM-TV, the station is now WZZM-TV. The voluntary change was made after the station learned that WJIM-TV, Lansing, has protested to the FCC the use of the WIIM-TV call letters as a "cause of viewer confusion." we give facts a thorough airing Media transactions present a risk as well as an opportunity to both buyer and seller. But the risks are considerably narrowed when all of the facts are available through our penetrating knowledge of the ever-changing market. BLACKBURN & Company, Inc. RADIO • TV • NEWSPAPER BROKERS NEGOTIATIONS • FINANCING • APPRAISALS WASHINGTON, D.C. CHICAGO ATLANTA BEVERLY HILLS James W. Blackburn H. W. Cassill Clifford B. Marshall Colin M. Selph Jack V. Harvey William D. Ryan Stanley Whitaker G. Bennett Larson Joseph M. Sitrick Hubert J. Kuehn John G. McLaughlin Bank of America Bldg. RCA Building 333 N. Michigan Ave. 1102 Healey Bldg. 9465 Wilshire Blvd. Federal 5-9270 Financial 6-6460 Jackson 5-1576 Beverly Hills, Calif. CRestview 4-8151 How good are your commercials? Even in the marvelous age of mechanization, women have plenty to keep them busy around their homes. They make the beds, dust and vacuum, feed the little ones, and peck away at a dozen odd jobs. Often, their television sets are on. The sets are in use, but are they being watched? Too many daytime commercials are concerned with video technique, rather than examining the effectiveness of their word-stories. Today, daytime programs (and even evening fare) are being used as a form of radio, with occasional glances at the pictures. Something is needed to "hook" the viewer. Whatever the device, a jingle, an immediately-recognizable theme, or a familiar copy line, the hard fact is that today's "wandering viewer" must be intrigued into spending a minute with the sponsor's story. If too much emphasis is placed on video, intricate matting, and involved design panels, the viewer may never get it. Home television reception isn't ideal and the commercial picture may be quite different from the one seen in an agency screening room. It seems as though the odds are stacked against successful reception of commercials, but many problem areas are overcome every day by successful examples. Too many commercials try to say too much. One minute is plenty brief, so you must hit fast and hard. A viewer won't remember everything, but he may recall a single idea repeated enough times. This idea can be handled in different ways: by copy, or the use of music, or the visual expression of a symbol. Marlboro does all three, gently, without screaming, and yet the viewer is left with the feeling that "you get a lot to like in a Marlboro." Anacin also uses the "unique selling proposition" dwelling on a single copy point. The cold fact is that people are no longer hypnotized by their set. Its glow may light up a corner of the room, but its programs are watched intermittently. The viewer has conditioned himself to doing other things at the same time. Letters are written during Cheyenne; newspapers are skimmed while Huntley and Brinkley talk to each other; Mom does her nails and Dad shines his shoes right smack in the middle of a Dick Powell adventure. Clients and account men shiver at this thought, and with reason. Even buying a high-rated time slot doesn't insure a buying audience, not if the commercials don't do their end of the job. How many top programs haven't sold their products? Maybe the show was wrong for the individual product but, likely, the commercials weren't strong enough to hold their audience—even for one minute. Let's examine a checklist for improving the commercial message: 1. Make it brief. Confine your message to one or two copy points. 2. Repeat your message. Make sure the viewer gets it. 3. Study your audience before searching for approaches. Use words and pictures that will alien and captivate. Your non-broadcast competition is formidable. 4. Examine uncomplicated symbols. Will they help your story? 5. Think of music and jingles. A familiar tune will often do the work of many words with a lot less strain on the viewer. Remember, make it as easy as possible for your audience. 6. Make sure your pictures are clear. Don't load-up on tricky effects that require perfect reception. 7. Does your commercial tell its product story? Don't be arny for the joy of being creative. Your job is to sell, not to win awards. 8. Look for different ways to tell an old story. The viewer appreciates something new. It will grab his attention—and that's half the battle. 9. Wear a dozen different hats when constructing a commercial. Be a writer, a researcher, an account man, your client and the consumer. The latter is most important. A writer who isn't interested in people can't be good. 10. And finally, appraise other commercials. Why are so few outstanding? What makes them good? Commercials are the heart and guts of the television business, and from top management on down, they deserve more skilled attention. Tony Wainwright, currently copywriter for Illinois Bell Telephone at N. W. Ayer & Son, Chicago, has also worked in the creative departments of Leo Burnett and McCann-Erickson agencies. In this article, he states 10 rules for creating good television copy, explaining how their use will best provoke a response in the viewer, and overcome household competition. Why it pays to advertise your station in a broadcast book BECAUSE THE TIMEBUYER IS KING There's nobody better qualified to advise you how and where to invest your national advertising dollars than your own national representative. He'll tell you that the time-buying system really works. Which means that at any of the top 50 (or top 100) advertising agencies placing national spot business the recognized timebuyer, backed up by his supervisors, decides which stations get the nod. Sure, there are exceptions to the rule. Of course there are some account executives and ad managers that exert a heavy influence. But, by and large, the timebuyer is king. Reaching the timebuyer, and the other men and women who strongly influence a spot buy, is a job for a specialist. That's why the several thousand timebuyers (by job title and job function) who buy national spot read the broadcast books. Moreover, they rely on them. They rely on one or two favorites almost to the exclusion of all others. Buy broadcast books to give your national campaign impact where it will do the most good . . . at least cost. a service of SPONSOR Some important buying was done in Chicago last week, with the biggest surprise in spot tv centered on Miles Laboratories (Wade). The account is buying adjacencies to teen-age appeal shows a la American Bandstand and high school sports reports. The surprise element: about a month ago, Wade asked around among the reps about the possibility of such adjacencies, and the buy was made on the basis of those verbal submissions. Product involved is One-A-Day Vitamins.* Chun King is the cause of glad tidings in spot radio circles. A buy, out of Campbell-Mithun, Minneapolis for 33 markets (Blair group plan) gets rolling today for four weeks. The complete canned line of chinese foods will be promoted. Chun King's re-entry into radio is a hopeful sign for the medium, with indications that the account may go even heavier, extending this buy and adding markets. Ben Leighton is the buyer. For details of last week's spot activity see items below. SPOT TV BUYS Grove Laboratories is putting out feelers for daytime and fringe minutes and 10's. Campaign is for 4-Way Nasal Spray. Schedules will start 5 November and run for eight weeks. The agency: Donahue & Coe. Buyer: Joe Barker. Thomas J. Lipton is buying for its Golden Ladle Spaghetti Sauce. The request is for day and fringe minutes to run from 21 October to 10 November and from 25 November to 15 December. Agency: SSC&B. Buyer: Chuck Woodruff. Old London Foods is aiming primarily at a women's audience but also wants kid time for its upcoming campaign. The search is for minutes and 20's to start 22 October and continue for eight to 10 weeks. Agency: Richard K. Manoff. The buyer is Len Ziegel. Mogen David Wines is back in spot tv this season, after an absence of a few years. Its re-entry, based on successful experimental runs in six or seven markets last year, begins this week in an extensive list of markets, using nighttime minutes and 20's. Agency: Edward H. Weiss. Buyer: Bruce Galler. Schlitz is buying I.D.'s only in about 25 major markets for a four-week run, two weeks in October and two weeks in November. Agency is Leo Burnett and the buyers are Don Love and Mike Myles. Eastman Kodak kicks off on 25 November with minutes and 20's in San Francisco, Detroit, and Chicago. The campaign will continue until 2 December. The agency is J. Walter Thompson and Joan Ashley is the buyer. --- SPONSOR'S 5-CITY TV/RADIO DIRECTORY 1961 Edition New York Chicago Detroit Los Angeles San Francisco 50c ... just about every 'phone number you need in these five big cities is in SPONSOR'S 5-CITY TV / RADIO DIRECTORY. Networks, groups, reps, agencies, advertisers. Film, tape, music and news services. Research and promotion. Trade associations (and even trade publications). All in the convenient pocket-size. for only $.50 per copy; 10 copies, $.35 each; 50 copies, $.25 each. SPONSOR SERVICES 555 Fifth Avenue, N.Y. 17 Remington Shavers is looking for prime 20's for a campaign to start 12 November and continue for six weeks. The buying's being done out of Young & Rubicam by Gary Bell. Fisher Body division of General Motors is now involved in a spot campaign in about 20 markets to run through early December. The drive is to boost introduction of new GM cars. Kudner is the agency and Maria Carayas the buyer. Warner Lambert is buying now for a 5 November kick off. The product involved is Centrex Cough Tablets, handled by Ted Bates. The request is for nighttime minutes with an adult audience and the campaign is scheduled for 24 weeks. The buyer at Bates is Chet Flaybaugh. Candygram Co. will promote the idea of sending candy by wire with spot tv. Launch date is 14 November and schedules will run for seven weeks. Time segments: minutes Wednesday through Sunday only. Art Fischer is the buyer at Cole Fischer Rogow. Charles Gulden Mustard is going into several selected markets on 5 November with schedules of night and day I.D.'s. The buy is out of Richard K. Manoff and Len Ziegel is the contract. Chock Full O'Nuts starts today, 15 October, with minutes, chainbreaks and I.D.'s in both prime and fringe time. Schedules will run from four-six weeks, depending on the market. Agency: Peerless Advertising. Buyer: Joyce Lane. R. J. Reynolds will promote various products starting next week, 22 October. Schedules of minutes, chain breaks and I.D.'s, prime and fringe, will continue for eight weeks. Agency is William Esty. Buyer: John Phelan. SPOT RADIO BUYS Contadina Foods kicks off today, 15 October, with schedules on 61 stations in 31 cities. Campaign is on behalf of Tomato Paste and will again center on the Stan Freberg jingle "eight great tomatoes in the little bitty can." Schedules will run for eight weeks and will be repeated in March and April. Agency: Cunningham & Walsh, San Francisco. Mentholatum Deep Heating Rub starts today, 15 October, a campaign to get its message across to a mature, adult audience. An estimated 50 markets are involved in the buy. Minutes and 30's are being used during drive-time and mid-day periods. The push is scheduled to run 20 weeks, through the so-called cold season. Agency is J. Walter Thompson. Colgate Palmolive has a test campaign going in three markets for its Fab detergent. Minutes are being used throughout the campaign which is scheduled to run for 18 weeks. Starting date was 4 October and schedules will continue until 22 December. After that the flight will take a holiday hiatus, and the campaign will pick up again 1 January and run until 16 February. The agency is Ted Bates. Jack Flynn is doing the buying. 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Effects of an Invasive Plant Species, Celastrus orbiculatus, on Soil Composition and Processes STACEY A. LEICHT-YOUNG,¹ HILLARY O’DONNELL, ANDREW M. LATIMER² AND JOHN A. SILANDER, JR. Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Connecticut, Storrs 06269 ABSTRACT.—Celastrus orbiculatus is a non-native, invasive liana that was introduced to the United States in the 1860s and has spread rapidly throughout the Northeast. Several attributes contribute to the invasiveness of C. orbiculatus, including tolerance to a wide range of light levels and habitat types. We compared soil characteristics in seven sets of adjacent, paired plots, spanning a range of habitats and soil types, with and without C. orbiculatus. The paired plots were similar other than the presence or absence of Celastrus. Plots with C. orbiculatus had significantly higher soil pH, potassium, calcium and magnesium levels. Furthermore, nitrogen mineralization and litter decomposition rates were higher in plots with C. orbiculatus. Phosphorus levels were not significantly different between the paired plots. The results of this study contribute to the growing body of research of the effects of invasive species on ecosystem processes. INTRODUCTION Exotic invasive plant species threaten biodiversity and ecosystem processes and can change community compositions and abundance of native species (Ehrenfeld, 2003; Wolfe and Klironomos, 2005; Callaway and Maron, 2006). Almost every type of ecosystem in North America has been affected by invasive exotic species (Ehrenfeld, 1997). Invasiveness of exotic species has most often been attributed to reproductive and life-history characteristics, as well as physical attributes of the exotic, such as aboveground biomass and specific leaf area (Baruch and Goldstein, 1999; Ehrenfeld et al., 2001; Gerlach and Rice, 2003). Most research has focused on the characteristics that make an invasive species successful and the varying susceptibility of different plant communities to invasion (Ehrenfeld and Scott, 2001). However, the effects of exotic plant species on soil composition and ecosystem processes have been studied less commonly and observations have not been consistent across species (Ehrenfeld, 2003; Vanderhoeven et al., 2005; Wolfe and Klironomos, 2005). Some studies have shown that exotic species can enhance their invasiveness by increasing local nutrient availability, producing nutrient-rich sites (Ehrenfeld, 2003; Wolfe and Klironomos, 2005). Various traits of exotics may cause soil-based ecosystem changes that result in positive feedback processes, further enhancing the exotic’s spread (Ehrenfeld et al., 2001; Heneghan et al., 2006; Kulmatiski et al., 2006; Reinhart and Callaway, 2006). Traits such as high growth rates often correlate to leaves with high specific leaf area (SLA) and low construction costs that can lead to faster decomposition (Reich et al., 1997; Baruch and Goldstein, 1999; Ehrenfeld et al., 2001; Ehrenfeld, 2003). In the Northeastern United States, there have been few studies relating soil attributes to invasions. Some of these studies have examined possible effects of soil characteristics in an indirect manner by comparing environmental attributes of sites not containing exotic ¹Corresponding author present address: U.S. Geological Survey, 1100 N. Mineral Springs Road, Porter, Indiana 46304; Telephone: (219) 926-8336 x426; FAX: (219) 929-5792; email: email@example.com ²Present address: University of California, Davis Campus, Department of Plant Sciences, Davis 95616 species to sites containing exotic species (Howard et al., 2004; Ashton et al., 2005). Other studies have focused on specific species, including Berberis thunbergii (Japanese barberry) and Microstegium vimineum (Japanese stilt grass). Significant differences in soil properties were found in plots with these exotics, including higher pH values and higher nitrification and litter decomposition rates (Ehrenfeld et al., 2001). There are many other invasive species in the Northeastern U.S. that negatively affect composition and function of Northeastern forests, but which have not been examined for possible effects on soil ecosystem process. One prominent problem invasive in New England is Celastrus orbiculatus (Oriental bittersweet), an invasive liana that was introduced from East Asia into the northeastern United States in the 1860s (Patterson, 1974). Celastrus orbiculatus can grow taller than 30 m, with a stem exceeding 18 cm in diameter. It can damage trees by girdling (Lutz, 1943), increasing tree susceptibility to ice damage (Sperry et al., 1987), or interfering with forest regeneration by shading out smaller native seedlings and saplings. Currently, its distribution in North America is from the east coast of the U.S. north to Quebec and Ontario, south to Georgia and west to Wisconsin (Ma and Moore, 2004; USDA NRCS, 2008). Dispersal by birds, mammals and humans (it is used in ornamental horticulture and in cut flower displays) probably accounts for its rapid expansion (Dreyer et al., 1987; LaFleur et al., 2007). Celastrus orbiculatus can grow in a variety of habitats including forests, open fields and sandy areas. This adaptability of C. orbiculatus can partly be attributed to its ability to withstand a range of light levels, including heavy shade (Dreyer et al., 1987; Leicht and Silander, 2006; Leicht-Young et al., 2007b). The objective of this study was to determine how Celastrus orbiculatus might affect soil chemical and biological properties and processes. Prior studies of the effect of invasives on soil properties have focused on soil nitrogen, pH, or phosphorus; here, we included soil cations (calcium and magnesium) plus litter decomposition processes. This is the first detailed study of the effects of a temperate invasive liana on soil properties and processes. To examine the effects of C. orbiculatus on soil and litter decomposition, we selected adjacent plots that were similar except for the presence or absence of C. orbiculatus. These paired plots spanned a broad range of soil and habitat conditions in the landscape where C. orbiculatus occurs. We hypothesized, based on previous work on temperate exotic species, that plots containing C. orbiculatus would have increased nutrient availability (Blank and Young, 2002; Vanderhoeven et al., 2005), mineralization rates (Ehrenfeld et al., 2001; Ehrenfeld, 2003), and litter decomposition rates (Grout et al., 1997; Kourtev et al., 1998; Ehrenfeld, 2003; Ashton et al., 2005; Heneghan et al., 2007). Methods To investigate soil responses to the presence and absence of the invasive species Celastrus orbiculatus, seven paired plots (3 × 3 m) were selected across Mansfield, Connecticut (in the vicinity of 41°48′30″N, 72°15′00″W). The seven paired plots were chosen to span a range of possible soil and environmental conditions in the areas in which C. orbiculatus occurs and which is representative of much of southern New England (Leicht-Young et al., 2007b). Site conditions varied from coarse-textured xeric soils to gravelly, sandy, excessively well-drained loams, (classified as typic Udorthents and Dystrochrepts) over coarse parent material (esker or kame deposits) to fine, sandy, more mesic loams (moderately well-drained to well-drained—typically over thin glacial till, and classified mostly as typic Dystrochrepts, but also aquic or oxyaquic Dystrochrepts and one fluventic Dystrudept). Some sites had never been cultivated for agriculture; other sites had some evidence of long past agriculture, and one site had recent (10–15 y ago) agricultural activities. Sites also varied in openness and community composition. Each of the paired plots consisted of one plot with one or more C. orbiculatus plants present and an adjacent plot without the invasive. Each of the paired plots were otherwise selected to be similar in soil and other environmental attributes and were separated by an average distance of 11.3 m. In addition, to control for multi-species effects, none of the plots had any other invasive plant species present. Four soil samples were randomly taken from each of the paired plots. A spade was used to collect the A plus B (or Ap) mineral horizons of the soil to a depth of about 10 cm; organic horizons were discarded. The soil samples were sealed in bags, placed in a cooler on ice to minimize further microbial activity on the soil, and transported to the University of Connecticut Soil Testing Lab for analysis. At the end of the day’s collections, approximately half of each soil sample was spread thinly on sheets of paper to dry overnight at room temperature. The rest of the sample was left to incubate in a controlled environment (22 C) in a sealed bag for 28 d. The dried portion of the soil was then sieved prior to pH, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium and magnesium analyses. Soil pH was measured from an equal-mixture slurry of soil and distilled water using an Accumet Model 50 pH meter. A Modified Morgan extraction technique (McIntosh, 1969) was used to assay the macronutrient (P, K, Ca, Mg) content of the soils. We placed 4 g of the air-dried, sieved soil into 50 mL extraction flasks. Next, 20 mL of Modified Morgan extractant (0.62 N NH$_4$OH + 1.25 N CH$_3$COOH) was added to each flask. The flasks were allowed to shake at 180 oscillations per minute for 15 min on a reciprocating shaker. The solutions were then filtered through Whatman No. 2 filter paper. Potassium, calcium and magnesium content were all analyzed by an Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectrometry (ICP-OES) machine (Spectro Ciros Vision model). Phosphorus and nitrate concentrations were analyzed colorimetrically using a Technicon Autoanalyzer II and a Scientific AC 200 colorimeter, respectively. To extract soil nitrogen, a 2 M KCl solution was used. Nitrate content of both field-collected and incubated soils was determined. Nitrification rates were calculated as: $$N_{\text{nitrification}} = \frac{(\text{Nitrate}_{\text{final}} - \text{Nitrate}_0)}{T_{\text{days}}}$$ (Robertson et al., 1999). The procedure used for litter decomposition measurements followed that outlined by Gartner and Cardon (2004, 2006). Fresh leaves of both Quercus rubra (red oak) and Celastrus orbiculatus were collected in August from one site. The objective was to mimic the mixed species litter conditions that prevail in forests with native species canopies and invasive lianas present. The leaves were placed in a leaf press, dried for 5 d, and finally dried in an oven to ensure constant initial weight. In a 15 cm × 15 cm fiberglass mesh litterbag, 1.5 g of C. orbiculatus litter was placed below 1.5 g of Q. rubra litter. The bags were sealed with staples. A second set of litterbags were filled with three sheets of 110 mm Whatman filter paper, for a combined weight of approximately 3 g. These filter paper bags were used as a control. Three bags containing the leaf litter and three bags containing the filter paper were placed randomly on the soil mineral surface at each plot in mid-August 2005. The bags were fastened flat to the soil surface with wire. After 90 d, the litter and filter paper bags were retrieved from the sites, and the leaves and filter paper were dried and reweighed (after carefully removing any adhering soil mineral material). The decomposition index was calculated by subtracting the initial weight of the leaves or filter paper from the final weight of the leaves or filter paper, and dividing by 90 d. To compare the general chemical composition of the leaves used in the litter bags, we took three samples of undecomposed leaves of each species (C. orbiculatus and Q. rubra) and had them analyzed for percentage of potassium, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, nitrogen, C:N and pH (A & L Great Lakes Laboratories Inc., Fort Wayne, Indiana). A detailed description of each site containing the paired plots (10 m radius plots) was recorded using the field protocol established by the Invasive Plant Atlas of New England (IPANE) project (Mehrhoff et al., 2003). Celastrus orbiculatus, abundance, distribution and percent cover were recorded. The distribution of C. orbiculatus was recorded as a single plant, evenly sparse, a single patch, multiple patches or dense throughout. The abundance and percent cover of C. orbiculatus were obtained, respectively, by counting or visual estimation of the number of C. orbiculatus individuals in the plot (scale: 1, <20, 20–99, 100–999, >1000) and estimating the percentage of ground shaded by C. orbiculatus (scale: <1%, 1–5%, 6–25%, 26–50%, 51–75%, 76–100%). Habitat/community type was characterized by the dominant vegetation type at the site. Canopy closure was reported as an ocular estimate of the percentage of sky covered by foliage within a given site. Slope aspect was determined by GPS, and soil moisture was categorized by visual inspection of the soils or underlying surficial geology to be either xeric (e.g., coarse sands, or esker/kame deposits), mesic (e.g., fine sandy loams), or intermediate; no wetland sites were sampled, as C. orbiculatus does not occur in wetlands. To determine if the amount of soil pH, potassium, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, nitrogen mineralization, as well as if litter and filter paper decomposition differed in plots with and without Celastrus orbiculatus present, we analyzed our data using a linear mixed effects model in S-Plus (Insightful Corporation, 2003). We chose this model because both fixed and random effects were studied (Pinheiro and Bates, 2000). These models also allow for grouped data (i.e., the four soil samples in each plot) to be analyzed taking into account correlations between observations within the same group (Pinheiro and Bates, 2000). Presence or absence of C. orbiculatus was treated as a fixed-effect, explanatory variable. Plot number was treated as a random effect explanatory variable because each site was considered to be a random sample from the population of habitat types and Celastrus locations. The response variables, pH, potassium, calcium, magnesium, phosphorous, nitrogen mineralization, litter and filter paper decomposition were then dependent (response) fixed effects. Since the eight response variables being quantified using the linear mixed models cannot be considered completely independent of one another, the analyses could be subject to Type I errors. To correct for this, we used a Benjamini-Hochberg correction (Benjamini and Hochberg, 1995) to adjust the P-values. We examined whether the addition of the site random effect significantly improved the model using a likelihood ratio test that compared the model with and without the random effect. Additionally we analyzed the specific locations to see if there were any that were significantly different from the others for each response variable. Calcium and magnesium were log-transformed to normalize the data. Numerous nulls (non-detectable levels) were present in the phosphorus data; therefore, all data that were below the detection limit of 0.04 mg/kg of phosphorus were censored to equal the detection limit. A Box-Cox transformation was used to find the best transformation of the phosphorus data in terms of normality and homogeneity of variance. To compare the initial leaf chemistry measures of Celastrus orbiculatus and Quercus rubra used in the decomposition experiment, we used independent samples t-tests followed by the same Benjamini-Hochberg correction to correct for the seven response variables (see methods above) that were quantified. Results The most common habitat type we observed was northern hardwood forest, which comprised four out of the seven sites. Other habitat types included a field/forest edge, an Table 1.—Site description data for the seven plot pairs. a) general habitat information about the plots. b) abundance, distribution and percent cover for the plot pairs with Celastrus orbiculatus \| Site pair \| Habitat/community type \| Canopy closure \| Aspect \| Soil moisture \| \|-----------\|---------------------------------\|----------------\|----------\|---------------\| \| 1 \| Field/forest edge \| 26–50% \| Flat \| Xeric \| \| 2 \| Open field \| 0–25% \| Flat \| Mesic \| \| 3 \| N. hardwood \| 76–100% \| NE \| Mesic \| \| 4 \| N. hardwood \| 51–75% \| Flat \| Mesic \| \| 5 \| N. hardwood \| 51–75% \| Flat \| Mesic \| \| 6 \| White pine \| 51–75% \| Flat \| Xeric-Mesic \| \| 7 \| N. hardwood \| 76–100% \| SE \| Xeric-Mesic \| \| Site pair \| Abundance \| Distribution \| Percent cover \| \|-----------\|-----------\|-------------------------\|---------------\| \| 1 \| 20–99 \| Multiple patches \| 26–50% \| \| 2 \| 100–999 \| Single patch \| 76–100% \| \| 3 \| 20–99 \| Evenly sparse \| 26–50% \| \| 4 \| 1 \| Single patch \| 51–75% \| \| 5 \| 20–99 \| Multiple patches \| 51–75% \| \| 6 \| 20–99 \| Evenly sparse \| 26–50% \| \| 7 \| 20–99 \| Dense throughout \| 51–75% \| open field and white pine forest. The most frequent canopy closure category was 76–100%, occurring in three out of the seven sites. The slope of five out of the seven pairs of sites was flat. Soil moisture in most of the sites was mesic and ranged to xeric (Table 1a). The abundance and dispersion of Celastrus orbiculatus was variable among plots. It was present as a single patch, multiple patches, evenly sparse or dense throughout in at least one of the seven sites. The percent cover of C. orbiculatus was most commonly 26–50% to 51–75% (Table 1b). Overall, plots with Celastrus orbiculatus are significantly different in soil attributes than sites without C. orbiculatus. Only filter paper (as litter) decomposition and phosphorus concentrations were not statistically different among sites (Table 2). Positive coefficient values were determined for all other variables, indicating a positive trend: sites with C. orbiculatus are more likely to have higher nutrient values or decomposition rates than sites without. We also found that the addition of the site random variable significantly improved the model except for the leaf and filter paper decomposition responses (Table 3). In terms of the individual sites, there were very few that had significant random effects. However, there were three exceptions. Plot pair one was significantly different in terms of soil magnesium ($P = 0.001$), plot pair six for soil pH ($P = 0.003$) and plot pair two for phosphorous ($P = 0.043$, although overall, the amount of phosphorous was not significantly related to presence of C. orbiculatus). In nearly all of the paired sites, potassium, calcium and magnesium were significantly greater in plots with Celastrus orbiculatus than without (Figs. 1A–C). Phosphorus, however, was quite variable among the seven sites and individual plots, with no detectable trend among them (Fig. 1D). pH values were always greater in C. orbiculatus plots than in plots without C. orbiculatus (Fig. 1E). Mean nitrogen mineralization values were always higher in plots with C. orbiculatus than without, except at site 4 (Fig. 1F). The standard error bars at sites 1 and 6 (Fig. 1F) reflect negative nitrogen mineralization values for some plots without Table 2.—Linear mixed effects models of pH, potassium, $\log_{10}$(calcium), $\log_{10}$(magnesium), phosphorus$^{-0.5}$, nitrogen mineralization rate, and litter and filter paper decomposition as a function of Celastrus orbiculatus presence and plot number \| Term \| Coefficient \| Std. error \| df \| $T$ \| $P$ \| \|-----------------------------\|-------------\|------------\|------\|---------\|--------\| \| Potassium \| Intercept \| 55.9055 \| 48 \| 9.8209 \| <0.0001\| \| \| Celastrus \| 17.0031 \| 48 \| 3.8090 \| 0.0004 \| \| log$_{10}$(calcium) \| Intercept \| 2.2154 \| 48 \| 14.2759 \| <0.0001\| \| \| Celastrus \| 0.2734 \| 48 \| 3.9475 \| 0.0003 \| \| log$_{10}$(magnesium) \| Intercept \| 1.4445 \| 48 \| 11.0873 \| <0.0001\| \| \| Celastrus \| 0.2090 \| 48 \| 4.4220 \| 0.0001 \| \| Phosphorus$^{-0.5}$ \| Intercept \| 3.4364 \| 48 \| 6.4189 \| <0.0001\| \| \| Celastrus \| −0.0374 \| 48 \| −0.1322 \| 0.8954 \| \| pH \| Intercept \| 5.0286 \| 48 \| 32.9111 \| <0.0001\| \| \| Celastrus \| 0.3253 \| 48 \| 6.3430 \| <0.0001\| \| Nitrogen mineralization \| Intercept \| 0.2134 \| 48 \| 2.8715 \| 0.0061 \| \| \| Celastrus \| 0.1786 \| 48 \| 3.9201 \| 0.0003 \| \| Litter decomposition \| Intercept \| 0.0144 \| 33 \| 13.0263 \| <0.0001\| \| \| Celastrus \| 0.0027 \| 33 \| 3.3979 \| 0.0018 \| \| Filter paper decomposition \| Intercept \| 0.0055 \| 28 \| 3.6872 \| 0.0010 \| \| \| Celastrus \| 0.0028 \| 28 \| 1.5782 \| 0.1258 \| C. orbiculatus. Decomposition rates (especially filter paper decomposition) were more variable than other effects tested, except for phosphorus. However, overall, litter decomposition was significantly greater in plots with C. orbiculatus (Figs. 1G–H). Leaf litter of Celastrus orbiculatus had significantly greater levels of potassium and calcium, while Quercus rubra had greater C:N. There was no difference in percentage of magnesium, phosphorus and nitrogen (Table 4). The pH of the leaves of C. orbiculatus was clearly higher than that of Q. rubra. However, since there was no variability in the three leaf replicates of both species (all were identical), statistical significance could not be specifically determined (Table 4). DISCUSSION Our results indicate that many of the soil attributes that were measured between adjacent plots were significantly different from each other across a spectrum of soil types. Although Table 3.—Likelihood ratio tests of linear mixed effects models with and without the random site effect included of pH, potassium, $\log_{10}$(calcium), $\log_{10}$(magnesium), phosphorus$^{-0.5}$, nitrogen mineralization rate, and litter and filter paper decomposition as a function of Celastrus orbiculatus presence and plot number \| Term \| df \| AIC \| Likelihood ratio \| Pvalue \| \|-----------------------------\|----\|-------\|------------------\|--------\| \| Potassium \| 4, 6 \| 483, 501 \| 13.93 \| 0.0009 \| \| log$_{10}$(calcium) \| 4, 6 \| 41, 91 \| 46.17 \| <0.0001\| \| log$_{10}$(magnesium) \| 4, 6 \| 2, 68 \| 61.57 \| <0.0001\| \| Phosphorus$^{-0.5}$ \| 4, 6 \| 229, 263 \| 29.42 \| <0.0001\| \| pH \| 4, 6 \| 12, 84 \| 67.71 \| <0.0001\| \| Nitrogen mineralization \| 4, 6 \| −8, 22 \| 25.98 \| <0.0001\| \| Litter decomposition \| 4, 6 \| −313, −306 \| 2.62 \| 0.2701 \| \| Filter paper decomposition \| 4, 6 \| −283, −277 \| 1.74 \| 0.4197 \| Fig. 1.—Mean values of (A) potassium, (B) $\log_{10}$magnesium, (C) $\log_{10}$calcium and (D) phosphorus (E) pH, (F) nitrogen mineralization, (G) litter decomposition and (H) filter paper decomposition for the seven paired plots. Untransformed values of phosphorus are shown for ease of interpretation. Gray bars are plots with Celastrus orbiculatus present and white bars are plots without. Error bars represent the standard error of the mean. Table 4.—Leaf chemistry results for Celastrus orbiculatus and Quercus rubra. Values are mean ± se. Different letters indicate significant differences at the $\alpha = 0.05$ level. For pH there was no variability in the three replicates so statistical tests could not be performed. \| \| Celastrus orbiculatus \| Quercus rubra \| \|----------------------\|-------------------------\|-----------------\| \| % potassium \| $2.517 \pm 0.102^a$ \| $0.997 \pm 0.038^b$ \| \| % calcium \| $3.84 \pm 0.068^a$ \| $1.273 \pm 0.033^b$ \| \| % magnesium \| $0.51 \pm 0.01^a$ \| $0.477 \pm 0.009^a$ \| \| % phosphorus \| $0.193 \pm 0.003^a$ \| $0.197 \pm 0.003^a$ \| \| % nitrogen \| $2.733 \pm 0.052^a$ \| $2.643 \pm 0.015^a$ \| \| C:N \| $18.270 \pm 0.354^a$ \| $20.809 \pm 0.146^b$ \| \| pH \| $5.6$ \| $5.3$ \| we cannot say definitively that Celastrus orbiculatus is causing these differences, the presence or absence of the plant was the major difference between these plots. Thus, it is likely that C. orbiculatus, similar to other invasive species, can appreciably influence the local soil environment. We found that the inclusion of a random site effect significantly improved our model. This random site effect took into account soil and other local environmental differences. Despite these differences in the sites themselves, the same differences in soil chemistry and decomposition were observed in the plots containing Celastrus orbiculatus compared to those without. We also determined that some site random effects in particular were significant for specific soil chemistry measures. Plot pair one had a significant negative random effect in the model for soil magnesium, most likely because the plot without C. orbiculatus had very low magnesium. Plot pair six, with a significant negative random effect in the pH model, had the least amount of variability and was the only site in which white pine was the dominant overstory species. Finally, plot pair two had a significant positive effect in the model for phosphorous, most likely because it was located in an open, abandoned field that had been farmed in the past and that has finely textured soils (J. Silander, pers. obs.). Compared across plots, those with Celastrus orbiculatus had significantly higher nitrogen mineralization rates than those without. Similar results have been found among other invasive plant species (Ehrenfeld et al., 2001; Hawkes et al., 2005; Heneghan et al., 2006). In a review of studies encompassing 56 invasive plant species worldwide, Ehrenfeld (2003) found that nitrogen mineralization and nitrification rates were more commonly higher where invasive species were present. Changes in microbial communities associated with the introduction of invasive species can account for higher nitrification rates (Hawkes et al., 2005). Ehrenfeld et al. (2001) and Kourtev et al. (2002, 2003) for example, showed that plots with Berberis thunbergii and Microstegium vimineum compared to adjacent plots with native species each had structurally and functionally distinct soil microbial communities. Sites 1 and 6 show that some nitrogen mineralization values were negative in plots lacking C. orbiculatus. This could be a result of microbial uptake and immobilization of ammonium and nitrate. Indeed, this mechanism was implicated in a study that showed that increased nitrification rates of M. vimineum were associated with decreases in the concentration of available nitrate (Kourtev et al., 2003). The quantities of three cations, potassium, calcium and magnesium, were also measured and found to be greater in plots with Celastrus orbiculatus. In the case of plot 1, the difference in magnesium was so great that it resulted in a significant plot effect. Rarely are soil cations measured in species-specific studies (but see Vanderhoeven et al. 2005, 2006). Unlike nitrogen, which is mostly obtained from organic matter, these nutrients tend to be derived from the mineral soil fraction (Thompson and Troeh, 1993). Similar results were shown with increased potassium, calcium and magnesium with Lepidium latifolium (perennial pepperweed) (Blank and Young, 2002), increased potassium and magnesium with Fallopia japonica (Japanese knotweed), increased potassium with Heracleum mantegazzianum (giant hogweed) and increased calcium with Prunus serotina (Vanderhoeven et al., 2005). Uplift of minerals from deep soil or parent material by deep-rooted plants (Jobbagy and Jackson, 2004) could explain these patterns. This seems unlikely at our sites because this system contains deep-rooted native species on shallow glacial till covering ancient, nutrient poor gneisses and schists. Besides these cations, we also measured phosphorus which was the only element that was not greater in the plots with Celastrus orbiculatus. There was great variation in the values of phosphorus within and among plots (Fig. 1D). This is in contrast to studies by Vanderhoeven et al. (2005, 2006) and Chapuis-Lardy et al. (2006) who showed an increase in phosphorus under Solidago gigantea (giant goldenrod). The review by Ehrenfeld (2003) showed that, in the few studies that examined phosphorus, concentrations of this element are quite variable, showing both increases and decreases in the presence of invasive. Plots containing Celastrus orbiculatus had significantly greater pH than those without. Soil pH can be used to predict the availability of essential nutrients (Carter, 1993). pH influences the rate of nutrient release by weathering, the solubility of all materials in the soil, and the amounts of nutrients stored on cation-exchange sites. The effect of other invasive plants on pH has been examined in several different systems (Ehrenfeld, 2003). Kourtev et al. (1998) found that pH was significantly higher at sites with Berberis thunbergii and Microstegium vimineum adjacent to plots without the invasives. The same has been shown for Rhamnus cathartica (European buckthorn) in Midwestern forests (Heneghan et al., 2006) and Prunus serotina (black cherry) in European sites (Vanderhoeven et al., 2005). Changes in the pH of the soil are especially concerning because these effects can potentially be long-term, promoting a continuous invasion of these and other exotic species (Kourtev et al., 2003). The mechanisms for the increase in pH with invasive species present remain unclear, although several potential mechanisms have been proposed. One possibility is that increased nitrification and the preferential uptake of nitrate over ammonium to support the typically larger biomass of invasive species can increase pH (Ehrenfeld et al., 2001). Finzi et al. (1998) have suggested several ways that the native tree Acer saccharum (sugar maple) may increase pH. First, leaf chemical attributes can feedback directly on soil mineral composition through leaf decomposition processes. Second, species take up cations differently and allocate them to biomass with different turnover times (cf., Reich et al. 2005). Finally, the parent material that the plant is growing in can differ in mineral content (Finizi et al., 1998). Celastrus orbiculatus and other exotic species could act on the soil by any one, or a combination of these mechanisms, thus altering the local soil pH and nutrients. It seems unlikely that differences in parent material among seven pairs of closely adjacent sites could be responsible for the differences we observed. However, this possibility cannot be ruled out. The litter of C. orbiculatus had more than three times the percentage of calcium (3.8% versus 1.3%) in its leaves compared to Quercus rubra, as well as a higher pH. The greater percentage of calcium may have led to higher soil pH in plots with C. orbiculatus present. In another study, the leaves of A. saccharum similarly has a high percentage (~1.35%) of calcium in their leaves, which likely resulted in higher pH under the canopy of this species (Finizi et al., 1998). Plant litter decomposition is an indicator of the rate and timing of nutrient release in forms available for uptake by plants and soil biota. Despite large differences among sites, litter decomposition rates were significantly higher in all Celastrus orbiculatus plots relative to control plots (cf. Fig. 1G). This has also been shown to be the case for areas invaded by Berberis thunbergii (Kourtev et al., 1998), as well as in other invaded forest sites in the Northeast (Ashton et al., 2005). Decomposition rates can increase with an increased density of earthworms and other soil fauna (Kourtev et al., 1998; Kourtev et al., 2002, 2003; Hawkes et al., 2005; Heneghan et al., 2007). It is possible that the high levels of calcium in the leaves of C. orbiculatus had a positive influence on earthworm densities (Reich et al., 2005). Changes in soil fauna alone may not only increase decomposition, but differences in litter quality, productivity and rooting depth can also influence decomposition rates (Scowcroft, 1997; Jobbagy and Jackson, 2004; Vanderhoeven et al., 2006). For instance, high growth rates, such as those found for C. orbiculatus (Leicht, 2005), high specific leaf area (Leicht, 2005; Leicht and Silander, 2006) and low carbon-to-nitrogen ratio (Scowcroft, 1997) can equal lower construction costs (Baruch and Goldstein, 1999) and faster leaf litter decomposition. An important concept to consider when measuring the soil composition and processes associated in sites with Celastrus orbiculatus is whether the invasive has caused the changes or simply grows preferentially where soil composition is ideal. A field study of Berberis thunbergii and Microstegium vimineum in adjacent plots of close proximity (10–20 m) to plots with native flora showed that there were significant differences in microbes, nitrogen mineralization and litter decomposition across all three conditions. This is especially remarkable because the plots had the same land-use history and a uniform tree canopy (Kourtev et al., 2002). These same exotics were also tested under greenhouse conditions. Differences in soil processes and microbes were once again found to be significant (Kourtev et al., 2003). The experimental conditions had identical soils; therefore, any changes in the soil must have been due to the plants and their associated microbial communities. In our study, it is possible that prior conditions, such as agricultural histories, could have an influence on current invasive species distributions (Kulmatiski et al., 2006; DeGasperis and Motzkin, 2007). However, C. orbiculatus is known to grow in a very wide range of habitats both with and without agricultural histories, ranging from sand dunes (Leicht-Young et al., 2007a) to wet and dry forests and is fairly ubiquitous on the New England landscape (Leicht-Young et al., 2007b). Thus, based on paired plot proximity and previous greenhouse experiments with other exotics, it is most parsimonious to conclude that soil alterations were caused by the presence of C. orbiculatus (cf. Vanderhoeven et al. 2005, 2006). However, further manipulative studies would be needed to prove this definitively. Quantifying how Celastrus orbiculatus changes soil composition and processes is an important step in the management and restoration of native ecosystems. The changes observed in this study could have an impact on the re-introduction of native plants to areas that previously contained C. orbiculatus (Heneghan et al., 2006). Further research is still needed in understanding the mechanisms by which this species and other invasives alter soil ecosystems processes. Additional research on the structure and function of microbial communities that accompany C. orbiculatus is also necessary. Finally, the effects of C. orbiculatus abundance, particularly threshold effects that result in significant ecosystem-level changes, need to be examined. Acknowledgments.—We thank Dawn Pettinelli for her assistance with the soil analysis, and Nava Tabak for advice at various points in this project. We thank G. P. Robertson, N. B. Pavlovic, R. Grundel, Y. Choi, D. Wilcox and two anonymous reviewers for important comments on the manuscript. This project was part of a B. S. Honors thesis by the second author in the Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology at the University of Connecticut. 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This thesis has been submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for a postgraduate degree (e.g. PhD, MPhil, DClinPsychol) at the University of Edinburgh. Please note the following terms and conditions of use: This work is protected by copyright and other intellectual property rights, which are retained by the thesis author, unless otherwise stated. A copy can be downloaded for personal non-commercial research or study, without prior permission or charge. This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the author. The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the author. When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given. Data Cleaning with Variational Autoencoders Simão Fernandes Lopes Marques Eduardo Doctor of Philosophy Institute for Adaptive and Neural Computation School of Informatics The University of Edinburgh 2022 Abstract A typical data science or machine learning pipeline starts with data exploration; then data engineering (wrangling, cleaning); then moves towards modelling (model selection, learning, validation); and finally model visualization or deployment. Most of the datasets used in industry are either structured or text based. Two relevant instances of structured datasets are: graph data (e.g. knowledge graphs), and tabular data (e.g. excel sheets, databases). However, image datasets are increasingly used in industry and have similar pipeline steps. This thesis explores the data cleaning problem, where two of its main steps are outlier detection and subsequent data repair. This work focuses on outliers that result from corruption processes that are applied to a subset of instances belonging to an original clean dataset. The remaining instances unaffected by corruption, or before corruption, are called inliers. The outlier detection step finds which data instances have been corrupted. The repair step either replaces the entire instance with a clean version, or imputes the values of specific features in that instance that are deemed corrupted. In both cases, an ideal repair process restores the underlying inlier instance, before having been corrupted by errors. The main goal is to devise machine learning (ML) models that automate both outlier detection and data repair, with minimal supervision by the end-user. In particular, we focus on solutions based on variational autoencoders (VAEs), because these are flexible generative models capable of providing repairs as samples or reconstructions. Moreover, the reconstruction provided by VAEs also allow for the detection of corrupted feature values, unlike classic outlier detection methods. Since the training dataset is corrupted by outliers, the key aspect to good performance in detection and repair is model robustness to data corruption, which prevents overfitting to errors. If the model overfits to errors, then it is difficult to distinguish inliers from outliers, therefore degrading performance. In this thesis two novel generative models are proposed for this task, to be used in different contexts. The two most common types of errors are either of random or systematic nature. Random errors corrupt each instance independently using an unknown distribution, exhibiting no clear anomalous pattern across outlier instances. Systematic errors result from nearly deterministic transformations that occur repeatedly in the data, exhibiting a clear pattern across outliers. Overall, this means high capacity models like VAEs more easily overfit to systematic errors, which compromises outlier detection and repair performance. This thesis focuses on point outliers as they are the most commonly found by practitioners. Point outliers are those that can be identified by only evaluating said instance individually, without the context of other instances (e.g. space, time, graphs). The first model proposal devises a novel unsupervised VAE that is robust to random errors for mixed-type (e.g. categorical, continuous) tabular data. This first model is called the Robust Variational Autoencoder (RVAE). We introduce this robustness by designing a decoder architecture that downweighs the contribution of corrupted feature values (cells) during training. Unlike traditional methods, besides providing which instances are outliers, the novel model provides which cells have been corrupted improving model interpretability. It is shown experimentally that the novel model performs better than baselines in cell outlier detection and repair, and is robust against initial hyper-parameter selection. In the second model proposal the focus is on detection and repair in datasets corrupted by systematic errors. This second model is called the Clean Subspace Variational Autoencoder (CLSVAE). The nature of systematic errors makes them easy to learn, and thus easy to overfit to. This means that if they are numerous in a dataset, then unsupervised methods will have difficulty distinguishing between inliers and outliers. A novel semi-supervised VAE is proposed that only requires a small labelled set of inliers and outliers, thus minimizing end-user intervention. The main idea is to learn separate latent representations for inliers and systematic errors, and only use the inlier representation for data repair. The novel model is shown to be robust to systematic errors, and it registers state-of-the-art repair in image datasets. Compared to the baselines, the novel model does better in challenging scenarios, where corruption level is higher or the labelled set is very small. Lay summary Data science and machine learning practitioners leverage data from companies and universities to build useful models that can make predictions. These predictions can then be used for the benefit of analytics, decision making, smart consumer electronics, banking, online advertisements and even social networks feeds. These models build upon years of knowledge in the fields of statistics, algebra, calculus and other fields of mathematics. However, often these practitioners deal with data that is of poor quality. The data can be messy in its format and not conform well to the software used to develop and deploy such models. These issues have to be resolved so that the data can be used by the modelling software; but also so that the data can be stored in existing databases for later. Moreover, the data may also have been corrupted with data examples that do not reflect what the actual untainted data would be like. Those corrupting data examples are called outliers; whilst inliers are those that are normal and do not have that effect. These outliers can have a negative impact on the prediction power of the aforementioned models, which can lead to poor analytics and decision making. In practice data corruption issues may also need to be resolved before data storage. In this work we focus on outliers that were caused by previous inliers having been compromised by corrupting errors. These errors have diverse origins, e.g. typos, mislabelling of categories, noise in scientific instruments, unwanted image watermarks, camera sensors being broken, human error in data entry. As a result, for this type of outliers it is often possible to revert back and restore the underlying inlier. This task is called data repair. The process of resolving either data format messiness or data corruption is called data cleaning. In this thesis we focus on resolving the data corruption issue, which entails detecting the outliers and then repairing them. Generally this has been done manually by the practitioner, often with substantial effort. In the real world, it is common for data scientists to spend much more of their time in data cleaning tasks compared to model development. In this thesis we propose two novel models that can automate the process of data cleaning for the data corruption issue, i.e. outlier detection and subsequent data repair. By using these proposed models the burden on the practitioner is lessened with automation, and only a monitoring effort is needed. The family of models that were chosen for this task are deep generative models. The reason was that these are very powerful at generating new data examples that can be used as repairs. These models use a deep learning approach, which is a set of math building blocks for modelling. In the last few years deep learning has been the dominating paradigm in machine learning, producing outstanding predictions and results. The first model proposal is more hands off, i.e. unsupervised. It only requires the user to set a few initial values to define model behavior in terms of data cleaning. This model is great for unexpected errors that do not repeat constantly throughout the data. The second model requires more effort by the practitioner, but also allows more control over the data cleaning process. The user is required to provide a few data examples of what types of outliers it wants to repair, i.e. semi-supervised. This model is great for errors that affect large parts of the data and repeat constantly throughout. These types of errors produce outliers that tend to be more difficult to remove with solutions like the first model proposal. Acknowledgements I would like to thank my supervisor Dr. Charles Sutton, who was fundamental in all of this work. His patience and willingness to support me was pivotal, and my discussions with him were always very insightful. I would also like to thank Dr. Chris Williams, my second supervisor, who helped me quite a bit by providing different perspectives with a keen eye for detail. Dr. Alfredo Nazabal and Dr. Kai Xu were my co-authors and research partners, I’ve learnt a lot from them. Both were always supportive, keen to help me and with many good suggestions. I would also like to thank my family, my parents and especially my younger brother Afonso. They were always there with great advice, and were my bedrock when I was going through difficult times. Finally, I would like to thank everyone I’ve met at the University of Edinburgh, especially my colleagues at the CUP research group. I would also like to thank my friends and colleagues at the Center for Doctoral Training in Data Science for all the great memories. This work was supported in part by the EPSRC Centre for Doctoral Training in Data Science, funded by the UK Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (grant EP/L016427/1) and the University of Edinburgh. Declaration I declare that this thesis was composed by myself, that the work contained herein is my own except where explicitly stated otherwise in the text, and that this work has not been submitted for any other degree or professional qualification except as specified. (Simão Fernandes Lopes Marques Eduardo) # Table of Contents 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Motivation 1 1.2 Problem Setting 4 1.3 Solving the Problem 6 1.3.1 Why Variational Autoencoders? 8 1.3.2 Thesis Contributions 8 2 Background 12 2.1 Problem Setting: Notation and Definitions 12 2.2 Outlier Detection Task 13 2.2.1 Types of Outliers in Data 17 2.2.2 Problem Definition for Outlier Detection 21 2.2.3 Classic Methods: Machine Learning and Data Mining 22 2.2.4 Database Systems Methods 29 2.2.5 Deep Learning Methods 32 2.3 Data Repair Task 34 2.3.1 Problem Definition for Data Repair 34 2.3.2 Database Systems Methods 36 2.3.3 Statistical and Machine Learning Methods 37 2.4 Deep Generative Models 41 2.4.1 Deep Generative Models for Mixed-Type Tabular Data 48 2.5 Deep Generative Modelling with Variational Autoencoders 49 2.5.1 Standard Variational Autoencoders (VAEs) 50 2.5.2 Unsupervised AEs: Regularization or Data Reweighting 55 2.5.3 Supervised and Semi-supervised VAEs 63 2.5.4 Latent Space Disentanglement in VAEs 71 3 Robust VAEs for Outlier Detection and Repair of Mixed-Type Data 79 3.1 Motivation: How does it fit into the thesis? 79 3.2 Introduction 80 3.3 Related Work 81 3.4 Problem Setting 83 3.5 Proposal: Robust Variational Autoencoder (RVAE) 83 3.5.1 Outlier Model 85 3.5.2 Inference 87 3.5.3 Anomaly Scores for Outlier Detection 89 3.5.4 Repair Process for Dirty Cells 90 3.6 Experiments 90 3.6.1 Corruption Process 91 3.6.2 Evaluation Metrics 92 3.6.3 Competing Methods 93 3.6.4 Hyperparameter Selection for Competing Methods 95 3.6.5 Outlier Detection Results 96 3.6.6 Data Repair Results 98 3.6.7 Robustness to Noising Processes 98 3.6.8 Robustness to Hyperparameter Values 100 3.7 Additional Notes 100 3.7.1 Dataset details 101 3.7.2 Derivation of Coordinate Step for Weights 101 3.7.3 Additional details for RVAE and Competing Methods 102 3.8 Additional Results 106 3.8.1 Outlier detection additional details 106 3.8.2 Repair additional details 110 3.8.3 RVAE-CVI vs RVAE-AVI 110 3.8.4 Different noise processes additional details 112 3.8.5 Error Bars per Noise Level 114 3.8.6 Different Outlier Detection Task: RVAE vs ABDA 115 3.8.7 Different Inference Method 116 3.9 Concluding Remarks 119 3.9.1 Advantages and Disadvantages 120 3.9.2 Comparing to a Recent Model: Picket 123 4 Repairing Systematic Outliers via Clean Subspace VAEs 125 4.1 Motivation: How does it fit into the thesis? 125 4.2 Introduction 126 4.3 Related Work 128 4.4 Problem Definition 131 4.5 Proposal: Clean Subspace VAE (CLSVAE) 132 4.5.1 Generative Model 133 4.5.2 Variational Model 135 4.5.3 Training Loss 136 4.5.4 Distance Correlation Penalty 138 4.5.5 Outlier Detection and Repair Process 140 4.6 Experiments 141 4.6.1 Evaluation 142 4.6.2 Datasets and Corruption Process 142 4.6.3 Comparative Models 145 4.6.4 Discussion of Results 153 4.6.5 Additional Results 157 4.7 Concluding Remarks 173 4.7.1 Advantages and Disadvantages 174 4.7.2 Potential Real-World Applications 178 5 Conclusion and Future Work 179 5.1 Using RVAE and CLSVAE in Practice 180 5.2 Data Benchmarks and Frameworks 183 5.3 Going Forward on Robust Generative Models 184 5.4 An Outlook of the Problem in 2022 186 Bibliography 191 Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1 Motivation In the real world, machine learning (ML) and data science practitioners often have to deal with corrupt or messy datasets when developing or deploying models. Moreover, it is common for datasets that have been designated for storage or merging with existing databases to have corruption issues. Besides data corruption other issues affecting datasets might be: units of measure issues, row or column header name issues, file format issues, instance duplication, data is split across several files, imputing known missing entries, removing irrelevant features or data, or even feature transformation. In general, the machine learning pipeline (Hapke & Nelson, 2020; Xin et al., 2021; Ilyas & Rekatsinas, 2020; Orr et al., 2021) can be described as having several different stages: - Data Exploration is where data is explored using visualization tools, like OpenRefine or Trifacta, and other exploratory data analysis methods (e.g. Q-Q plots, boxplots, scatter plots, histograms, dimensionality reduction). It allows the practitioner to detect any problematic issues in the data, make some early choices about potential models to develop, and even label part of the data if needed. - Data Engineering is where data is modified and transformed in order to conform with subsequent stages, in particular for model training. This is also where any issues with the data are sorted. We can define two types of data modification steps: 1. Data Wrangling this can be seen as the process of translating or mapping data from one raw format to another, and preparing the data to be accessed for model development or for later stages. This can include feature transformation, merging of different data files, and even data loading scripts for compute clusters. 2. Data Cleaning this is the process of detecting and addressing data quality issues and inconsistencies. Some typical issues include: data de-duplication, data imputation, fixing units of measure issues, outlier detection and subsequent data repair if needed. These issues may need to be fixed so as to not affect model training, and subsequent deployment on real world data. - Model Development is where the practitioner chooses between different types of models, and tries a range of different hyperparameter values for each model. This can be seen as trial-and-error process, or a continuous improvement of modelling assumptions by the practitioner. Broadly, it encompasses the following steps: model selection, model training, and model validation. - Model Visualization is where test set predictions by the chosen model are visualized, and additional metrics are taken into account. Here a final decision about the model is made. Otherwise, another round of model development might take place. - Model Deployment is where the model is finally deployed into a production environment. Scalability issues become a concern, and the model is continuously monitored to make sure performance is acceptable. We will be focusing on the data cleaning step of the data engineering stage. Our focus is on the cleaning of datasets that have been corrupted by outliers, and thus have to be repaired before being usable. These outlier instances have a diverse provenance, and they can be of different types (Section 2.2.1). In this work we will tackle outliers that result from a data instance having its feature values altered (errors) by some corruption process. There are other causes for outliers besides corruption, even so corruption-based outliers are quite common in practice. Hence, they have recently become relevant for both the ML and database research communities (Krishnan et al., 2016; Chu et al., 2016; Ruff et al., 2021; Liu et al., 2020; Hendrycks & Dietterich, 2019). Furthermore, we focus on point outliers as they are the most common in practice (Section 2.2.1). Point outliers are those that can be identified by themselves, without the context of other instances. This thesis will focus on the task of automating the data cleaning step, particularly for outlier detection and the subsequent data repair. To that effect, we will propose novel solutions based on machine learning. Few models in literature provide an end-to-end solution, i.e. combining outlier detection and data repair, which is one of the main aspects of this work. In fact, most models focus on either outlier detection or data repair. However, this ignores the fact that a practitioner often wants to repair the corrupt dataset after outlier detection has taken place. Data repair is often necessary when there is a need to store new data into existing databases. This can be critical data than needs to be kept, or because it will be used later on for downstream tasks. For instance, banking transactions, client or product data in a company database, or even citizen health records. This has been one of the focuses of the database research community (Fan, 2015), where data repair procedures are used to maintain data quality in existing databases. In some cases it can make sense to just remove or ignore the outliers without the burden of data repair. In fact, this is the only option if the outliers are not due to having some of their features corrupted. In this case there is no repair possible. Further, in some cases the fraction of outliers in the data is so small that removing them will have little impact on the training of an ML model. In fact, ignoring outliers has been explored for adversarial outliers and systematic outliers (see Section 184.108.40.206), this has been called data sanitization. Nonetheless, in several cases the amount of corruption present in a dataset can be substantial. Thus ignoring the outliers would result in large parts of the dataset not being used, which will impact negatively the diversity of data available to train an ML model. This could also mean that more powerful ML models that require significant amounts of data cannot be trained properly, e.g. deep learning. In addition, some authors (Krishnan et al., 2016; Liu et al., 2021) have shown that data repair can have a positive impact on the performance of ML models in downstream applications. However, in other cases the outlier instance is just too corrupted and does not have a recognizable repair. In this case, it is impossible to produce a repair. If the purpose of a data repair process is a downstream task, then it should be assessed first if outlier removal suffices. Sometimes direct removal of outliers results in little to no negative impact on the downstream task. If this is the case, then effort can be spared trying to repair the data. The typical example is when very large datasets are available, such that removing a small portion of the data has little impact on ML model generalization. Even so, in several cases data repair may yield better results for downstream tasks. For instance, if in the presence of imbalanced datasets, sometimes outlier removal may affect disproportionately a particular minority data class. In this case, it is possible downstream model generalization may be affected and give rise to unwanted biases. Additionally, in those cases where the dataset is already small, then outlier removal may seriously impair training and lead to poor downstream model generalization. Another case is when different future downstream tasks may be expected to use the same cleansed dataset. Here one may not be able to measure the impact right away of outlier removal, as different ML models may present different sensitivities to that process. Further, as stated before, cases where corruption affects most of the data would lead to a very small training dataset for the downstream model. Hence possibly negatively affecting model generalization. Lastly, at test time some ML models may also need to repair data instances before making a prediction. Indeed, sometimes corruption can mangle the data instances to a point where data repair is needed for the predictor to be able to recognize it. It can lead to low confidence predictions, and sometimes to completely wrong predictions with high confidence. This sensitivity is often both model and corruption dependent, and would need analysis before a decision could be made on using data repair. Alternatively, a downstream predictor may rather have a rejection option, where a prediction on some test data instance is not made if its below a certain confidence level. 1.2 Problem Setting We assume a tabular or image dataset has been corrupted by noise, and a machine learning practitioner (or user) needs to cleanse the dataset. The cells of a tabular dataset, or pixels of an image dataset, are potentially corrupted with arbitrary noising processes appropriate for each feature type. Note that the instances in tabular dataset are rows, whilst for image datasets they are images. The first objective in this work is the detection of anomalous instances that have been corrupted, i.e. outliers or row outliers for tabular data. This task is known as outlier detection or anomaly detection. Then, in some cases, we also want to detect which cells (or pixels) have been specifically corrupted by errors. This has the advantage of allowing the user to know why that instance is an outlier, thus improving the interpretability of the outlier detection process. We call this cell outlier detection. Moreover, we make the assumption that most of the instances are inliers, as this conforms to most cases in practice (Ruff et al., 2021; Chandola et al., 2009). In this thesis we only explore point outliers (see Section 2.2.1), which means an instance can be considered an inlier or outlier by itself. In other words, there is no need to inspect other data instances within some context (e.g. space proximity, time-series, connections in a graph). Point outliers are the most common type of outlier in literature and in practice. In fact, most traditional outlier detection methods focus on this type of outlier. The second objective in this work is to repair the corrupted cells (or pixels) in each outlier instance, such that the end result is a clean dataset unaffected by corruption. This is called data repair. This is done by either generating new values for the corrupt cells only, or reconstructing the instance altogether (i.e. all cells). Either option is valid depending on the context, but repairing the corrupt cells only tends to be the most applicable. This is akin to data imputation, but in our case the model for this task is trained on a corrupted dataset. So these new cell values need to be close enough to the underlying ground-truth for data repair to be good, as measured by some metric or evaluated qualitatively. Furthermore, one might need to estimate which cells have been corrupted by errors before we can repair them. Interestingly, this is the task of cell outlier detection. Though in some rare cases the corrupt cells mask may already be known. Having said that, the overall goal of this thesis is to devise models that perform outlier detection (OD) and data repair, with little or no user intervention. Often, we will refer to this as automatic detection and repair. Moreover, sometimes repair needs substantial user intervention, if little to none is used we refer to this as automated repair. Generally, some intervention may still be needed in the model, for such things as hyper-parameter selection (e.g. learning rates, neural network architectures) or even setting a threshold for outlier detection (user may want to control this aspect directly). In some cases, it may be useful to use a small labelled subset of the data to supervise the model. In this case, user intervention may also be needed to build this labelled set if not obtained otherwise. Obtaining a labelled set can be done during the data exploration stage of the ML pipeline. In this work, we explore two types of corruption that are quite relevant in practice, which are random errors and systematic errors (see Section 2.2.1). Random errors affect an instance by corrupting the cells independently, and using an unknown distribution. For continuous features, a common example of this type of error are those well-modelled by additive noise with zero-mean. Systematic errors result from a nearly deterministic corruption of the cells, which has been applied repeatedly throughout the data instances. Examples include watermarks or deterministic pixel corruption (e.g. artifacts) in images; additive offsets or replacement by default values (e.g. NaN) in sensor data and tabular data. Consequently, random errors and systematic errors have different impacts on machine learning models, and thus may require different data cleaning solutions. Machine learning models can overfit to either of these errors if they are not made robust to them. If a model overfits to corruption then its ability to perform outlier detection or data repair becomes compromised. This is because it may not be able to distinguish between inliers and outliers. Systematic errors are quite problematic in this sense, because unlike random errors they are far more easily learnt by a model. ### 1.3 Solving the Problem Classic models for outlier detection only focus on finding outlier instances, often forgetting to identify which cells are to blame. The latter is not only important in terms of interpretability, but also since detecting outlier cells may be needed for data repair. These classic outlier detection models have been mostly proposed by the statistics, ML and data mining communities (Section 2.2.3). These models tend to be shallow, i.e. lack of modelling capacity, and thus have difficulty modelling complex data distributions. This is the case for a lot of unstructured data like image or text data; but also in the case of tabular data where nonlinear dependencies between features are not properly modelled by shallow methods. In general, these models also have scalability issues when applied to large datasets, though some have specific versions to tackle this. Furthermore, little thought is given to the subsequent step of data repair by most ML methods that are proposed for outlier detection. The database research community has also proposed several methods for data cleaning (Sections 2.2.4 and 2.3.2), and some are capable of both outlier detection and data repair. However, these typically rely on the use of either logic rules or user-defined programs (e.g. scripts) to define data quality constraints. These can either describe what constitutes a clean dataset, or the actual errors corrupting the data. One issue with this type of solution is that it requires substantial effort on the part of the practitioner, since this data quality knowledge need to be codified into logic rules or programs. This can be very time consuming, and it requires the practitioner to be skilled in the type of logic used (e.g. first-order logic) or a programming language. Alternatively, these logic rules can be distilled from a master dataset that is clean by using rule mining software. But in most cases in the real world a clean or master dataset is not available to the practitioner. Another issue is one of scalability, since in practice it is quite difficult to fully describe the clean patterns of a large dataset by just using logic rules. Data imputation (Section 2.3.3) models proposed in statistics and machine learning research also have difficulty being applied here. These models rely on some other method having been trained to perform cell outlier detection, as they need the mask of cells to be imputed. The outlier detection method would have to be trained on corrupt data, and it is possible some corrupted cells would be missed. This could endanger the training of the data imputation model later on if the same data were to be used, as these models are not robust to corruption. Further, even if all corrupt cells are identified, not a lot of clean data instances may be left for proper training of the data imputation model. In addition, a lot of data imputation models assume large amounts of clean data are available for training. Similar arguments can be made about image inpainting models (Section 220.127.116.11), which suffer from similar issues. 1.3.1 Why Variational Autoencoders? A potential solution for our task should be an ML model that is flexible enough to fit complex data distributions; and be applicable to different types of data, e.g. image data or tabular data. In fact, tabular datasets often encompass features with different data types, e.g. continuous and categorical, which is often referred to as mixed-type data. This is an important requirement since we aim to provide good fidelity in terms of data repair estimates. Deep learning models fit this requirement as they have shown their potential as very powerful function approximators in the last few years. Moreover, recently deep learning has started to gain traction for outlier detection (Ruff et al., 2021). Given our task of combined outlier detection and data repair, deep generative models seem to be quite appropriate as a solution. Broadly, a generative model is an ML model that is trained to fit a data distribution. Deep generative models use neural networks as function approximators, and thus they are extremely flexible. They were chosen for their ability to reconstruct and sample data, which is necessary for data repair. However, because of their high capacity they can easily overfit to corrupting errors. Hence, it is very important to make sure that our deep generative model is robust to the type of corruption found in the data. In this thesis we focused on Variational Autoencoders (VAEs). These were preferred for their simplicity in terms of implementation, and stable training regimes. Other models like Generative Adversarial Networks (GANs) are more complicated in terms of implementation, and often have very unstable training regimes. Hence, VAEs were chosen as a first incursion into robust deep generative models for the task of automating outlier detection and repair. Moreover, since VAEs are reconstruction-based models (Section 18.104.22.168) they allow for the granularity of cell outlier detection. 1.3.2 Thesis Contributions Having decided on the type of model for our task of automated data cleaning, this thesis introduces two novel VAEs that are robust to data corruption. The first model proposal focuses on data cleaning for random errors. The second proposal focuses on systematic errors. All models explored in this thesis apply to point outliers, as defined in Section 2.2.1. In more detail, the contributions of this thesis are the following: - In Chapter 3, the novel Robust Variational Autoencoder (RVAE) is proposed. This unsupervised VAE model is designed to perform combined outlier detection and data repair in the presence of random error corruption. One of the novelties is the exploration of the cell outlier detection task, which can be important for subsequent data repair or for interpretability. When the model was first published, to our knowledge it was the only robust deep VAE model for mixed-type tabular data. This deep generative model learns a distribution of the underlying inlier data, whilst isolating the outlier cells, and thus downweighting their contribution to the training loss. RVAE learns the probability of each cell being an outlier, which allows the balancing of different likelihood models (e.g. categorical and continuous) in the instance anomaly score. This makes RVAE much more suitable for outlier detection in mixed-type data. RVAE outperformed or matched competitor model performance in outlier detection (cell and row) and in data repair. Experiments were carried out using several tabular datasets from UCI ML database, with different corruption levels and error types. The model was also shown to be robust against initial value choices for its main hyperparameter $\alpha$, for moderate corruption amounts. - In Chapter 4, the novel Clean Subspace Variational Autoencoder (CLSVAE) is proposed. This semi-supervised VAE is designed to perform data cleaning in the presence of systematic error corruption. Systematic errors result from nearly deterministic transformations (plus potentially some noise) that occur repeatedly in the data, e.g. specific image pixels being set to default values or watermarks. Consequently, models with enough capacity easily overfit to these errors, making outlier detection and repair difficult. Since it is difficult to isolate these types of outliers using unsupervised models, we propose using user interaction in the form of semi-supervision. In order to make it easier to the user, we limit supervision to only a few labelled examples, particularly the type of outliers (systematic errors) the user wishes to repair. This is far more practical than using logic rules or programs, since these require expert knowledge and much more effort by the user. Seeing as a systematic outlier is a combination of patterns of a clean instance with patterns of a systematic error, the main insight is that inliers can be modelled by a smaller representation (subspace) in a model compared to outliers. So, the main idea behind CLSVAE is to partition the latent space and model inlier and outlier patterns separately. Experiments provided use three image datasets in scenarios with different levels of corruption and labelled set sizes. CLSVAE is effective with much less labelled data compared to previous related models (two of them state-of-the-art VAEs), often with less than 2% of the data. In fact, for data repair with just 0.25% of labelled data CLSVAE registers a relative error decrease of 58% compared to the closest baseline. Work Disclosure Here we disclose the work split between authors for each content chapter. - Disclosure for Chapter 3 (RVAE). This chapter is based on the paper Robust Variational Autoencoders for Outlier Detection and Repair of Mixed-Type Data published in AISTATS 2020 (Eduardo et al., 2020). This is joint work with Dr. Alfredo Nazabal, Dr. Christopher K. I. Williams and Dr. Charles Sutton, where I was first author. My contribution to this work was the generative model; part of the inference scheme (RVAE-CVI); outlier detection and repair procedures; vast majority of coding for RVAE and baselines; code for most of the experiments; writing significant part of the paper. Dr Alfredo Nazabal partly developed the inference scheme (RVAE-CVI); code for experiments on standard OC-SVM and ABDA models; general code review; helped in repair metrics coding; helped in writing the paper; and steadfast supervision. Dr. Christopher Williams and Dr. Charles Sutton provided much needed supervision, and guidance in all things. - Disclosure for Chapter 4 (CLSVAE). This chapter is based on a pre-print called Repairing Systematic Outliers by Learning Clean Subspaces in VAEs, and is available online on OpenReview$^1$ and arXiv$^2$. This is joint work with Dr. Kai Xu, Dr. Alfredo Nazabal, and Dr. Charles Sutton, where I was first author. The co-authors provided helpful guidance and supervision, and helped write the pre-print. My contribution was proposing the generative model, though helpful suggestions were made by co-authors; the inference $^1$https://openreview.net/forum?id=kHNKTQ2sYH $^2$https://arxiv.org/abs/2207.08050 procedure; coding for CLSVAE and all baselines; all the experiments; writing most of the pre-print. Chapter 2 Background 2.1 Problem Setting: Notation and Definitions Consider a tabular or image dataset $\mathcal{X}$ that has been corrupted by noise. This dataset, or most of it, will be used as a training set for a model that performs both outlier detection (OD) and data repair. The instances in this corrupted dataset $\mathcal{X}$ are numbered using $n \in \{1, \cdots, N\}$, and we can define it as $\mathcal{X} = \{\boldsymbol{x}_n\}_{n=1}^N$. Further, each instance $\boldsymbol{x}_n$ is comprised of several features (or pixel positions) numbered using $d \in \{1, \cdots, D\}$. Each cell (or pixel) $x_{nd}$ in the dataset can be continuous (real) $x_{nd} \in \mathbb{R}$, or categorical $x_{nd} \in \{1, \ldots, C_d\}$ with $C_d$ the number of unique categories of feature $d$. Usually, in an image dataset all the features will have the same feature type, i.e. all continuous or all categorical. If no more information is given, e.g. labelled data, then this is called an unsupervised setting. In some cases we might have access to a small labelled set, i.e. a trusted set, which is a subset of the overall dataset $\mathcal{X}$. In essence, we have the labelled part of the data $\mathcal{X}_l$, and the unlabelled part $\mathcal{X}_u$. We can write the overall dataset as $\mathcal{X} = \mathcal{X}_u \cup \mathcal{X}_l$, where we have $\mathcal{X}_u = \{\boldsymbol{x}_n\}_{n=1}^{N_u}$ and $\mathcal{X}_l = \{\boldsymbol{x}_n\}_{n=1+N_u}^{N_l+N_u}$. Hence, the overall size of the dataset is $N = N_l + N_u$. In this case, each $\boldsymbol{x}_n \in \mathcal{X}_l$ is associated with a label $y_n \in \{0, 1\}$, which indicates whether $\boldsymbol{x}_n$ is an inlier ($y_n = 1$) or an outlier ($y_n = 0$). We define the set of labels as $\mathcal{Y}_l = \{y_n\}_{n=1+N_u}^{N_l+N_u}$ and thus the trusted set is formally defined by $(\mathcal{X}_l, \mathcal{Y}_l)$. This scenario is called a semi-supervised setting. Often we leave out the subscript $n$ to simplify notation, for example, an instance in the dataset (e.g., a row, or an image) may be represented as: $ \mathbf{x} $ is $ \mathbf{x}_n $; or $ \mathbf{z} $ is $ \mathbf{z}_n $; or $ y $ is $ y_n $. Further, a cell (or pixel) of an instance can also be represented as: $ x_{nd} $ is $ x_d $. As such, we can define an instance as a vector with $ D $ features as follows: $ \mathbf{x}_n = [x_{n1} \ldots x_{nd} \ldots x_{nD}] $ is $ \mathbf{x} = [x_1 \ldots x_d \ldots x_D] $. Our problem assumes that corruption is due to errors that change the ground-truth values of cells (or pixels). These errors may originate from several different processes, and they may be either random or systematic in nature (see Section 2.2.1). Those instances that have been affected by corruption in its cells (or pixels) are called outliers; whilst those left unchanged are called inliers. Typically, a corrupted dataset tends to have more inliers than outliers, but the amount of outlier instances can range from small to large. Note that these type of outliers fall within the scope of point outliers (see Section 2.2.1), which is the main focus of this thesis. We can model an arbitrary corruption process through a general transformation $ f_{cr} $, which represents the corruption applied to the cells of a clean instance. Assuming the clean ground-truth of an instance is $ \tilde{\mathbf{x}} \in \tilde{\mathcal{X}} $, then $ \mathbf{x} \in \mathcal{X} $ is defined by: if an inlier ($ y = 1 $) then $ \mathbf{x} = \tilde{\mathbf{x}} $; otherwise, if an outlier ($ y = 0 $) then $ \mathbf{x} = f_{cr}(\tilde{\mathbf{x}}) $. Further, in case of an outlier then $ f_{cr} $ will only change a subset of cells, such that for some feature $ d $: for clean cells we have $ x_d = \tilde{x}_d $; and for dirty cells we have $ x_d = [f_{cr}(\tilde{\mathbf{x}})]_d $. Note that $ [\cdot]_d $ is just to make it clear we mean the $ d^{th} $ element of the resulting vector, i.e. select the $ d^{th} $ cell. Lastly, we will often call a dataset with only inlier instances an inlier dataset, or clean dataset. Likewise, we call a dataset that has been corrupted with outliers a corrupt dataset, or dirty dataset. ### 2.2 Outlier Detection Task In this section, we discuss the outlier detection task in more detail. We define it formally and review prior literature on the topic. Traditional outlier detection (OD), also called anomaly detection, focuses on finding which data instances from a test set do not belong to normal data. In this context, normal data is just all the patterns that are expressed by inliers. Outliers are those that do not fit within the diversity seen in normal data. As seen in Hawkins (1980), an outlier is an observation that deviates so much from the other observations as to arouse suspicion that a different mechanism generated it. As such, this assumes normal data is generated by a process (mechanism) different from that which generated the outlier. In practice, sometimes user intervention is needed to help identify the normal data. Note that normal data and clean data are the same thing, though in traditional outlier detection the term normal data is more popular. In our problem notation inliers are assumed to be the majority in the data, which is a common assumption amongst classic OD methods (Emmott et al., 2015). Indeed, several OD methods tend to assume outliers are those exhibiting rare patterns (Chandola et al., 2009; Ruff et al., 2021). Yet, sometimes outliers are numerous and this assumption does not hold. In this case, methods should be tailored to the type of outliers seen, or use some kind supervision to overcome this. More generally, in the recent survey Ruff et al. (2021) the authors specify that an outlier is an observation that deviates considerably from some concept of normality. This concept of normality can be expressed by some distribution $p^+(\mathbf{x})$ where $\mathbf{x} \in \mathcal{X}$ such that it absolutely models the ground-truth law of normal behavior. This law of normal behavior is inherently subjective and specific to each application or context. For instance, the biases of a practitioner or a downstream task can constrain what is normal. Therefore, according to Ruff et al. (2021), an outlier is a data instance $\mathbf{x} \in \mathcal{X}$ that lies in a low probability region under $p^+(\mathbf{x})$. In other words, we can say that an outlier is an instance that is sampled from a generative process that is not considered normal. The fact that a particular instance is rare or unusual does not make it automatically an outlier, as it can still abide the law of normal behavior. For instance, in a data exploration setting the practitioner is responsible for defining what is normal. In this case an instance can be flagged as unusual, but the practitioner can still decide it to be normal. Indeed, the variability within normal data (inliers) can be quite large in some applications (e.g. biometric data, image data), and the deviation to other normal instances larger than to some outlier instances. Besides, in image data a corruption process (e.g. compression artifacts) can be quite frequent, and still not abide to the law of normal behavior. In this case all instances affected by corruption should be flagged as outliers despite being frequent. Alternatively, in the context of out-of-distribution outliers (see Section 2.2.1), it is assumed only the diversity seen during training abides to the law of normal behavior. Thus no assumption on rarity makes sense in this context. Another inductive bias that can decide whether an instance might be an outlier is the impact that instance may have on the performance of a downstream task model. Indeed, here the law of normal behavior is constrained by the downstream application the dataset will have. Once more, here nothing is assumed about the rarity of an instance. Still, for a lot of cases in outlier detection (Chandola et al., 2009; Ruff et al., 2021) the rarity assumption seems useful and practical, even if only as a starting point. A different perspective for characterizing an instance as an outlier is to observe the impact it has on model learning. Specifically, we can say the data instance has high influence on the ML model if removing said instance from the train set (leave-one-out retraining) would yield clearly different model parameter values. Conversely, low influence instances are those that have little impact on parameter values if removed from training. Generally instances indicating high influence can be either outliers or just rare (high leverage). If dealing with predictor models, then outliers are those that the model cannot predict with confidence if removed from the train set. Otherwise, rare (high leverage) instances are those that when removed from the train set, and despite qualitatively diverging from the majority of other instances, the model can predict the instance with some confidence. Therefore, just obtaining the high influence instances from a dataset is not enough for properly detecting an outlier. Thus further filtering would be needed to account for false positives – e.g. like user inspection. For most practical cases, when measuring influence through leave-one-out retraining it becomes too computationally expensive. Fortunately, a famous proxy for the leave-one-out strategy is the influence function (Cook & Weisberg, 1980), which has been explored in robust statistics (Huber, 2004) for simple convex models. Moreover, this has been recently extended to non-convex models like deep neural networks (Koh & Liang, 2017; Hara et al., 2019). This resolved some tractability issues, though estimation of data instance influence is still computationally intensive. Once more, an influential instance is not necessarily an outlier. Another similar approach is to use the concept of memorization by the model, which is particularly relevant in deep neural networks (Arpit et al., 2017). The main idea is that the only way for outliers and rare instances to be predicted by the model is to be memorized (or overfitted) rather than learnt through model generalization. This can be observed through a leave-one-out strategy, where one can measure if there is a difference in prediction when said data instance is in instead of out of the train set. If there is a marked difference in prediction confidence, then the instance is said to be memorized. Since measuring this through a leave-one-out strategy is computationally intractable in most cases, recent literature has focused on tractable estimators for memorization metrics (Arpit et al., 2017; Feldman & Zhang, 2020). Again, a memorized instance is not necessarily an outlier, since it can be just atypical. Several different assumptions can be made about the dataset setup. In our problem we assume that outlier instances are due to corruption (Ruff et al., 2021; Liu et al., 2020), but other processes may generate outliers – e.g. merging of two different datasets from different sources, or in banking data a set of transactions that are deemed fraud or atypical. Another assumption is whether a curated training dataset made only of normal data is available. Some OD methods only perform well if this is guaranteed, for instance a Standard Variational Autoencoder (Kingma & Welling, 2014; An & Cho, 2015) or One-Class Support Vector Machines (OC-SVM) (Schölkopf et al., 1999). Though OC-SVMs can have their hyperparameters adjusted to deal with this, by using a labelled validation set. Still, generally One-Class Classification (OCC) methods (Moya & Hush, 1996) like OC-SVM should be trained using only normal data. If methods are trained in this way, then literature often refers to it as novelty detection. We note that some literature (Villa-Pérez et al., 2021) defines the methods that train on normal data only as semi-supervised learning. In our work, we take the perspective that semi-supervision includes labelled outliers – e.g. (Ruff et al., 2019). A different assumption is whether any supervision is provided for training, i.e. labelled inliers and outliers. If labels are provided for all the instances, then this becomes a standard classification problem. Standard methods like support vector machines (SVMs) (Cortes & Vapnik, 1995) or logistic regression can be applied. More advanced methods like deep learning classification (Litjens et al., 2017) can be applied, specially for unstructured datasets (e.g. medical imaging). Though class imbalance issues need to be taken into account, since typically outliers are the minority class. If only a few labels exist, then semi-supervised methods can be applied. One option could be semi-supervised Variational Autoencoders (see Section 22.214.171.124), or the deep autoencoder in Ruff et al. (2019). For classic (non-deep learning) semi-supervised OD methods see Görnitz et al. (2013); Liu & Still, most of the OD methods are unsupervised (Aggarwal 2016). Several good surveys exist for traditional outlier detection methods. In Hellerstein (2008) statistical methods and robust estimators are explored for numerical only data. In Emmott et al. (2015) a survey and meta-analysis is provided on typical outlier detection from the machine learning and data mining communities. It describes proper benchmarking methodologies and provides an ontology for outlier detection contexts. An earlier and influential survey about outlier detection and outlier types can be seen in Chandola et al. (2009). More recently Ruff et al. (2021) compares classic (shallow) outlier detection models with deep learning ones, and best practices on when to apply each type. It also provides an empirical comparison on several methods on a few datasets. Lastly, the book Aggarwal (2016) gives an overall good overview of the field of outlier detection. ### 2.2.1 Types of Outliers in Data Here we present a possible characterization of outlier types that are commonly found in data. In this thesis we mainly focus on tabular and image data. However, outliers are also present in other types of data like natural language, time-series, or sensor data. Given the typical taxonomy found in several surveys (Ruff et al., 2021; Chandola et al., 2009), we can define the following general categorization for outliers: - Point Outliers (Krishnan et al., 2016; Hendrycks & Dietterich, 2019) Data instances are considered outliers if by themselves they do not fit what is defined as clean or normal data. This class of outliers is the most common in outlier detection literature. The typical corruption-based outliers explored in this thesis tend to fit this class. The traditional outlier detection method here is only concerned about evaluating each instance on its own. - Context Outliers Data instances are only considered outliers depending on a specific context such as time (Gupta et al., 2013), space (Zheng et al., 2017), or connections on a graph (Akoglu et al., 2015). For example, an individual instance in a time-series can be considered an outlier if it deviates substantially from previous inlier instances in that series. Likewise, a node in a graph is an outlier instance if it deviates substantially from its inlier neighbors. Here outlier detection methods evaluate the instance in question and its neighborhood (instances) to make an assessment about the outlierness of the instance. - Group Outliers (Chalapathy et al., 2018b; Muandet & Schölkopf, 2013; Kasieczka et al., 2021) Data instances are considered outliers as a set or group, and not individually like point outliers or context outliers. In fact, instances by themselves may be considered inliers, but taken as a group they are outliers. For instance, in a banking dataset a set of transactions might look suspicious (outliers) when seen as a whole. Yet, alone each transaction would seem quite normal. Outlier detection methods here evaluate instances in groups, either already given or inferred later, and the decision about outlierness is made for the entire set. The most explored type of outliers from a traditional perspective are the point outliers. Generally, literature tends to explore outliers that are not due to error corruption, and thus have no underlying inlier (repair). For instance, these can be a result of a merge between a normal data source and an outlier data source from web crawling. These can be of two types: random outliers have no obvious pattern across the outliers in the data; structured or systematic outliers (Diakonikolas et al., 2018; Ruff et al., 2019) have a specific pattern that repeats across the outliers in the data. The latter outliers are more difficult to handle for both outlier detection and data repair. This is due to structured outliers being much easier to overfit to. Some examples of systematic outliers that are not due to corruption are: specific data classes from a merged data source that are undesirable (e.g. pictures of dogs in an all cat dataset); transactions in a banking dataset that have a specific pattern considered anomalous or fraudulent; intrusion detection in a dataset of computer network connections, where “bad” connections (outliers) can be of several specific types (e.g. KDD CUP 99$^1$); or even out-of-distribution outliers in a test dataset (see definition below in the section). Corruption-based Outliers (Liu et al., 2020; Ruff et al., 2021; Hendrycks & Dietterich, 2019) This thesis focuses on outliers due to corruption, which are less explored in literature. By and large these are point outliers, and our focus will be on these. These type of outliers are due to the corruption of a subset of data instances, which were previously considered clean or inliers. This means that it $^1$https://kdd.ics.uci.edu/databases/kddcup99/kddcup99.html is possible to find a process that reverses this corruption, and thus restores the underlying inlier. This reverse process is called repair. Usually, for each instance, only some cells in a row (or pixels in an image) are corrupted, whilst the reminder cells are left intact. Different types of corruption exist, in this thesis we focus on two types: random errors or systematic errors. These can be due to storage or transmission issues; data-entry issues; improper loading or transformation of databases; crowdsourcing of data; or merging two different sources of data, e.g. different data formats; and others. Broadly we can define the following error corruption types: - Random Errors (Liu et al., 2020; Khademi et al., 2021; Krishman et al., 2016; Hendrycks & Dietterich, 2019) Outliers are created by a corruption transformation affecting each instance independently using an unknown distribution. Typically the cells (or pixels) corrupted are selected independently at random as well. A simple example is Additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN). This type of error exhibits no clear anomalous pattern across the outlier instances. Hence the errors cannot be properly predicted by an ideal model, though a very flexible model can overfit the errors. These outliers can be repaired via regularization or data-reweighting, see Section 2.5.2 and model proposal in Chapter 3 for model examples. For a more in-depth discussion on the impact of these errors in generative models please see Sections 2.5 and 126.96.36.199. Some examples: additive noise with zero mean (e.g. AWGN), due to sensor or measurement error; impulse noise in images (e.g. salt-and-pepper noise); shot noise in images; Poisson-Gaussian noise in medical imaging; random category change due to mislabelling (in categorical feature). - Systematic Errors (Liu et al., 2020; Krishman et al., 2016; Lew et al., 2021; Broaddus et al., 2020; Aigrain et al., 2017) (Boyat & Joshi, 2015, section 2.10) Outliers result from a nearly deterministic transformation (plus potentially some noise) applied repeatedly to a subset of instances in the data. Further, typically the same cells (or pixels) are affected, but not always as there can be some positional randomness. This also fits the classic definition of systematic error as seen in measurement errors of scientific instruments in physics (Taylor, 1997). A simple example is a specific typo in a categorical feature that is repeated across several instances. Another example is the occlusion or missingness of patches of pixels in the same position across several images in a dataset. As we can see, this type of error exhibits a specific anomalous pattern common to several outlier instances. Hence these errors could be predicted by an ideal model. If these outliers are frequent in the data, then this may cause some outlier detection methods to more easily overfit and learn the errors. This is problematic for the performance of both outlier detection and data repair processes. These outliers can be repaired via semi-supervised latent disentanglement models, see Section 2.5.4 and model proposal in Chapter 4. Once more Sections 2.5 and 188.8.131.52 discuss the impact of errors in models. Some examples: watermarks; position-based artifacts on images (e.g. errors due to camera sensors, or medical imaging sensors); replacement by default values in data transformation processes (e.g. NaN’s) or sensor data (e.g. 0’s); mislabelling due to deterministic change of categories (e.g. a format issue, or data-entry issues). More generally The definition above covers a major portion of point outliers that are originated by systematic error corruption (Liu et al., 2020; Krishnan et al., 2016; Aigrain et al., 2017). Hence in this thesis the focus was on this type of systematic error. However, there can still be outliers due to systematic errors that do not conform to this definition. For example, systematic errors that corrupt every single feature (cell or pixel) in a data instance are not covered. This can be the case for images that are blurred in all pixels by some systematic pattern. Another example are systematic errors that result from the combination of several underlying inlier instances from the original dataset. This can be the case when transmission errors occur in video images and there is an overlap between several frames. Lastly, as discussed before, we note to the reader that systematic outliers can also be due to different processes other than error corruption (and thus have no repair). - Adversarial Errors (Diakonikolas et al., 2018; Liu et al., 2020) This corruption is due to an attacker corrupting data instances with the goal of fooling a machine learning model – e.g. wrong classification decisions. This is done with malicious intent, in order to exploit the model at a later date. Out-of-Distribution Outliers (Yang et al., 2021; Ren et al., 2019) These outliers have become more important recently in the field of deep learning reliability and safety. Data instances are outliers if they belong to a different type of dataset than the one the model was trained on. In fact, these outliers express patterns that are not found in the original training dataset. These outliers are also point outliers. Once more, this thesis will be focusing on outliers that are due to corruption. In particular both random errors and systematic errors are explored. In fact, all models and scenarios explored in this thesis focus on point outliers. 2.2.2 Problem Definition for Outlier Detection Given the notation in Section 2.1, the task of traditional outlier detection (OD) on dataset $\mathcal{X}$ is that of finding the ground-truth labels $y \in \mathcal{Y}$, for each instance $\boldsymbol{x} \in \mathcal{X}$. Assume there exists some ideal model $g_r^\theta$ that has been trained using $\mathcal{X}$, where $\theta$ expresses the parameters of the model. Then this ideal model is robust to corruption for this task if it is able to obtain the labels $y$ of set $\mathcal{Y}$ correctly. In reality this may not be possible, hence a model should strive to detect the majority of outliers in $\mathcal{X}$, i.e. instances with ground-truth $y = 0$. In practice, the model $g_r^\theta$ should be able to produce a score $A^\theta$, which will be used to rank instances. Again, $\theta$ reflects the dependency on model parameters. Usually $A^\theta(\boldsymbol{x})$ is termed an anomaly score for $\boldsymbol{x}$. A higher (scalar) value for $A^\theta(\boldsymbol{x})$ means that instance $\boldsymbol{x}$ is more likely to be an outlier. Accordingly, we can formally define the outlier detection process as $$y = \begin{cases} 0, & \text{if } A^\theta(\boldsymbol{x}) \geq \gamma \\ 1, & \text{if } A^\theta(\boldsymbol{x}) < \gamma \end{cases} \quad (2.1)$$ and as such we can define the set of outlier instances as $\mathcal{O} = \{\boldsymbol{x} \in \mathcal{X} \| A^\theta(\boldsymbol{x}) \geq \gamma\}$. In an ideal setting, score $A^\theta$ and threshold $\gamma$ are jointly optimized such that all outliers are captured in $\mathcal{O}$. In reality, score $A^\theta$ has limited flexibility due to the underlying model $g_r^\theta$ in practice. Further, we often see in practice $\gamma$ being user-defined as to control OD performance. The setting of $\gamma$ will often represent a tradeoff between precision and recall as represented by a point in the precision-recall curve; though a good score $A^\theta$ will be able to mitigate this aspect. Now for the task of cell outlier detection, we need to obtain a score that allows us to rank cells of an instance in terms of being corrupt, i.e. cell outliers. We can define a different score $\mathcal{A}_d^\theta$ for each feature $d$, which allows us to decide if a cell $x_d$ of instance $\boldsymbol{x}$ is indeed a cell outlier. Once again, this score is derived from the same underlying model $g_\theta^\theta$, which has been trained on a corrupted dataset. Like before, a higher (scalar) value for $\mathcal{A}_d^\theta(\boldsymbol{x})$ means that $x_d$ is more likely to be a cell outlier. Note that this score depends on the entire instance $\boldsymbol{x}$, instead of just on cell $x_d$. The reasoning is that the context provided by the other cells in the instance may be needed to provide a good decision, i.e. a score. Therefore, for some outlier instance $\boldsymbol{x} \in \mathcal{O}$, we can define the set of cell outliers therein as $$\mathcal{C} = \{ d \in \{1, \cdots, D\} \mid \mathcal{A}_d^\theta(\boldsymbol{x}) \geq \gamma_d \},$$ where $\gamma_d$ can be tuned for each feature $d$. The vast majority of literature focuses on just finding the outlier data instances. Nonetheless, by neglecting cell outlier detection a method fails to provide which cells are to blame for the anomalous behavior. This can be useful for interpretability, but also later in data repair. Moreover, we note that all anomaly scores defined here and used throughout this thesis only apply to the task of detecting point outliers (see Section 2.2.1). ### 2.2.3 Classic Methods: Machine Learning and Data Mining In this section, we discuss classic outlier detection methods from the statistics, machine learning (ML) and data mining (DM) communities. A more in-depth discussion can be found in Aggarwal (2016) or Ruff et al. (2021). The vast majority of these methods can only be applied to point outliers (see Section 2.2.1), though in some cases modifications can be made. #### 184.108.40.206 Statistical Methods Most of the early work in outlier detection was done by statisticians. The main idea behind this approach is that in a probability distribution representing normal data the outlier instances should be in the low probability regions. Respectively inlier instances should be in high probability regions. Therefore, after a probability distribution is fitted to the training dataset, an inference test decides whether some instance belongs to the distribution. If not, then the instance is an outlier. These techniques assume inliers are generated by a process that is modelled... by a probability distribution $p$ with parameters $\theta$. Typically, the parameters of these models are estimated via \textit{maximum likelihood estimation} (MLE). A technique is considered parametric if it makes strong assumptions about the data distribution. Contrarily, the technique is considered non-parametric if the probability distribution is chiefly determined by the training data. Lastly, we note that some simple statistical methods can be used for the practitioner visually detecting outliers. For instance, a histogram may be used to detect bins that are anomalous, and their points marked as outliers. Further, box-plots and Q-Q (quantile-quantile) plots can aid in detecting outliers visually. However, this requires manual intervention by the user, and may become problematic for large datasets. \textbf{\textit{Statistical Tests and Distances}} These techniques usually pick a specific distribution to model normal data, and then either evaluate a distance or perform a statistical test. The most simple example of this type of technique is using a Gaussian distribution as a model for the generative process of normal data. In this case mean $\mu$ and variance $\sigma$ are estimated via MLE estimators. The anomaly score is then given by the distance between the unseen instance $x$ and the mean $\mu$. This number can be reported as the number of standard deviations $\sigma$, as expressed by the \textit{z-score}. If the distance is bigger than $3\sigma$ then the instance is marked as an anomaly. The reasoning is that most of the probability mass is within the region $\mu \pm 3\sigma$, i.e. around 99%. On the other hand, for multivariate data the \textit{Mahalanobis distance} can similarly be used to measure the distance of instance $x$ to its mean $\mu$, but correct for volume and direction using the covariance matrix $\Sigma$. However in high dimensions this anomaly score may become meaningless when it comes to outlier detection, due to it revolving around a single value. This is due to the probability mass of a high dimensional Gaussian distribution being concentrated in “shell” surrounding the mean. More sophisticated options include the \textit{Grubb’s Outlier Test} (Tietjen & Moore, 1972) for univariate data, or \textit{Dixon’s Q Test} (Dean & Dixon, 1951) in case some prior knowledge about outliers is known. Both these statistical tests assume normal data is generated by a Gaussian distribution. For both a sample statistic is computed, and then according to confidence level a threshold defines if the instance is an outlier or not. Lastly, if trying to detect multiple outliers, then Rosner’s Test (Rosner, 1983) may be used instead. Likelihood or Density Estimation These type of techniques usually learn a probability distribution on the training data, using either parametric or non-parametric models. Then an anomaly score for some test instance is given by the negative log of the probability distribution $p_\theta(x)$, i.e. the negative log-likelihood (NLL). A good example of a non-parametric method is kernel density estimation (KDE), and then using an NLL score for the test instance. However, this method works best if the training data as few or no outliers. Otherwise, these can contaminate the density estimation process and assign probability mass where none should exist (outlier regions). A robust KDE (RKDE) method (Kim & Scott, 2012) was developed with this in mind, thus providing a KDE that is less sensitive to outliers in the training data. Another popular approach is to use a Gaussian Mixture Model (GMM) for density estimation, and again use the NLL score. This is a parametric approach, where the Gaussian component parameters and membership probabilities need to be learnt. If outliers are present in the training data then some caution should be taken if they are numerous. If the outliers can be represented by a cluster (if it can be identified) then that GMM component should be excluded from the NLL score. This can happen with structured outliers. In this case, cluster membership probability can also be used, using its negative log. However, for dispersed outliers in the training set, other strategies should considered if they are numerous. For instance, an ensemble of GMMs (eGMM) is proposed in Emmott et al. (2015) where the authors fit several GMM models with varying number of components. Then they average across GMMs models to obtain the final distribution, like in other ensemble methods. This averaged distribution is used by the NLL anomaly score. A different option which can be quite practical is to use histogram-based density estimation. This is a very simple non-parametric approach. If the histogram is obtained by using uncorrupted training data, then we should see if a test instance falls within the boundaries of any bins. If not, then the instance is an outlier. Alternatively, if training on corrupted data, then the small size of some bins may determine whether those instances are outliers. Moreover, in the field of robust statistics (Huber, 2004; Barron, 2019) authors have proposed different heavy-tailed distributions in order to make training parametric models less sensitive to outliers. This is important when a significant amount of outliers are present, or in the case of structured outliers (e.g. due to systematic errors). In this case, heavy-tailed distributions may allow for better density estimation of the normal data, and thus a better NLL anomaly score. For more details, we discuss this further in the context of generative modelling using VAEs, see Section 2.5.2. Statistical Depth These types of methods organize the data instances into convex hull layers, where outliers are instances in the outer most layers. In essence, outlier instances are at the border of the (training) data space. These methods exploit the concept of statistical depth (Mosler, 2013) from non-parametric statistics, where the most central region serves as a median for the data. Some good examples of such models are Kwok & Ng (1998); Fernández-Francos et al. (2017); Staerman et al. (2020). 220.127.116.11 Spatial Proximity Methods These algorithms have been developed mostly by the data mining community. The main idea is that the outlierness of some test instance depends principally on the instances in its neighborhood (proximity). Particularly, it assumes that inliers have dense neighborhoods, with several data instances in its proximity. Contrarily, outliers are far apart from their neighbors. In order to produce an anomaly score, mainly two different ways exist to account for instances in the proximity. These are either distance-based or density-based. Given their nature, these are considered non-parametric methods. This strategy may not work well in the case of structured outliers, since these may cluster together. Distance-based These models judge a test instance based on the distance to its neighbors. For instance, one can use the $k$-nearest neighbors (KNN) distance to obtain an anomaly score for a test instance. In this case, the top $h$ data instances are those whose distance to their $k^{th}$ nearest neighbor is greatest. However, the average of all $k$ nearest neighbors could also be used. A good scalable example of this type of model is Ghoting et al. (2008), which uses a KNN-type distance. An older model can be seen here Bay & Schwabacher (2003). However, KNN distance can perform badly in datasets where data clusters may have large variation in density. Density-based These models were created to correct the above issue with varying density of clusters in distance-based models. Instead of using an anomaly score based on distance, they use a relative concept of density. No actual density estimation is needed, for instance a surrogate like euclidean distance can be used. The idea here is to compare the density of a test instance to the density of its local neighbors. The ratio of these two will define the anomaly score for a test instance. The main assumption is that inliers and the instances in its neighborhood will have similar densities. Conversely, the density for an outlier is considerably different compared to its neighbors. Some examples of this type of model are the Local Outlier Factor (LOF) (Breunig et al., 2000), LOCI (Papadimitriou et al., 2003) and DBSCAN (Schubert et al., 2017). ### 18.104.22.168 Clustering Methods The main idea is to use a clustering method to segment the dataset into clusters, according to some similarity or distance measure. The assumption is that similar data instances will group to the same clusters. Hence, clusters of inlier data should be separable from outliers. After clustering the data, the centroids representing the normal data should be chosen. Either manually, or using some labelled data (e.g. semi-supervision). Otherwise, one can also train the clustering method using normal data only if available. The anomaly score is thus the average distance of the test instance to the chosen centroids. An example of an hard-clustering option can be seen here (K-means) Chawla & Gionis (2013), and a soft-clustering option can be found here (GMM) (Kuusela et al., 2012). ### 22.214.171.124 Kernel Methods These methods have mostly been developed by the machine learning community. Methods in this category rely on the kernel trick, which maps each instance to a high-dimensional feature space, i.e. kernel space. These methods are based on SVMs (Support Vector Machines), and so they learn a decision boundary in kernel space that separates normal data from potential outliers. Accordingly, data instances that are outside of the decision boundary will have positive residuals, whilst interior instances will have negative residuals. Anomaly scores are defined by the residuals after each test instance is projected onto the decision boundary. Usually the user needs to pick a kernel to be used, and a typical one is the Radial Basis Function (RBF). Two models are the most prominent, those being the One-Class Support Vector Machine (OC-SVM) and the Support Vector Data Description (SVDD). Note that both of these models are often trained in an OCC setting, where only normal data is used. In this case literature often refers to this as novelty detection. Though the term outlier detection still applies generally. OC-SVM (Schölkopf et al., 1999) This method uses an SVM type architecture to learn a decision boundary in kernel space that separates the training data from the origin. This decision boundary is given by an hyper-plane. The fraction of data instances that are allowed to violate this boundary is controlled by an hyperparameter associated with the slack variables of OC-SVM. In fact, these instances are the outliers. Therefore, making OC-SVM robust to the presence of outliers in the training dataset. SVDD (Tax & Duin, 2004) This method also uses an SVM type architecture to learn the smallest hyper-sphere (decision boundary) in kernel space that encapsulates the normal data. This model is usually used in an OCC setting, where only normal data is provided for learning. Therefore it assumes training data is clean, without corruption. Of course this is not true in most cases. So there is an hyperparameter to allow a fraction of the training data to be ignored when learning the decision boundary. Moreover, if the kernel used by SVDD is the RBF then essentially this becomes a version of OC-SVM. ### 126.96.36.199 Projection-based Methods These algorithms rely on random projections of the dataset in order to compute the anomaly score. They are mostly prominent in the data mining and machine learning communities. Two algorithms are discussed: Isolation Forests (IF) (Liu et al., 2008), and the Lightweight Online Detector of Anomalies (LODA) (Pevný, 2016). Isolation Forests (Liu et al., 2008) The main assumption here is that outlier instances are rare and quite different from normal data. IFs determine if instances are outliers if they can be readily isolated by random axis-parallel splits. These random splits are carried out in an isolation tree. Like Random Forests, IFs is an ensemble of several isolation trees, each a highly random decision tree. The decision points for the random decision trees are chosen by selecting a feature uniformly at random, and then choosing splitting thresholds uniformly at random in the feature value range. Since outliers are easily isolated by IFs, then outliers should have substantially shorter paths in the tree (from root node). Hence, the anomaly score is defined as the average depth of each data instance across trees in the ensemble. Isolation Forests have proven to be one of the most effective outlier detection methods (Emmott et al., 2015). They are great off-the-shelf with few hyperparameters, and have great scalability. LODA (Pevný, 2016) This is a recently proposed model that relies on projecting the data onto several random Gaussian noise vectors. This is done through the inner product of each data instance and a random noise vector. The main idea is to produce several weak outlier detection models via density estimation (histograms), one for each random projection of the dataset. Note that technically other density estimation methods can also be used. The anomaly score is just the average NLL across the ensemble of weak density estimators. Random projections here not only make cheaper the cost of density estimation in high dimensions, but also make density estimation more robust to outliers when used in ensembles. ### 188.8.131.52 Reconstruction-based Methods These methods perform dimensionality reduction on the training dataset, and aim to reconstruct back the same data. They may use a training loss that enforces this identity mapping from data instance to data reconstruction, or use some kind of matrix factorization technique. Since these models usually learn to reconstruct normal data well, they can be used to detect outliers by failing to properly reconstruct them under the learnt model. The anomaly score typically used is the reconstruction error, which measures the distance between the original instance and the reconstructed one. A higher distance means that instance might be an outlier. These models unlike the other classic methods in this section allow for cell outlier detection. In other words, it is possible to discover which feature(s) have caused the instance to be an outlier. Classic methods include Principal Component Analysis (PCA) (Jolliffe & Cadima, and any of its variants like probabilistic PCA (PPCA) (Tipping & Bishop, 1999) or kernel PCA (KPCA) (Mika et al., 1998). The classic PCA is a linear model, whilst KPCA allows for non-linearity through the kernel trick. A robust PCA (RPCA) (Candès et al., 2011) has also been proposed, and it provides robustness to the presence of outliers in the training dataset. Unlike other PCA methods, which typically will need to train on normal data only to work well. We address RPCA and related models in more detail in Section 184.108.40.206, and a deep learning variant in Section 220.127.116.11. Autoencoders (Goodfellow et al., 2016) are also in this model category, offering a non-linear version of PCA through the application of neural-networks (deep learning). In fact, an autoencoder with a linear encoder and decoder will mimic the behavior of classic PCA. Further, in a similar way, VAE (Kingma & Welling, 2014) is the non-linear version of PPCA. ### 2.2.4 Database Systems Methods The database research community has also considered the problem of outlier detection, specifically for tabular data and relational databases. The community has not only focused on the problem of traditional outlier detection, i.e. finding outlier instances, but also on the issue of cell outlier detection. The community has also had more focus than the ML community on outliers that are due to corruption of a clean dataset. In this case, outlier detection is often called error detection. Most of the work has focused on logic rules type methods as applied to outlier detection, or even data repair. A good survey about the field can be found in Ilyas & Chu (2015), and a shorter one in Chu et al. (2016). Generally two types of methods have been explored: rules-based and pattern-based. Though in last few years the community has also been incorporating machine learning into to their solutions. Rules-based These models rely on logic-based data quality rules that are either supplied by the user, or obtained by using some software (a rule miner) to distill them from clean data. These rules in literature are often called integrity constraints (ICs), and tend to be a subset of first-order logic. These rules specify constraints on feature values that only hold for inliers. They can capture errors such as instance duplication, missing values and inconsistencies in feature values (cell outliers). Most often a program is written that enforces these rules on a tabular dataset. This program then finds a violation of the rule by a set of instances, and potentially may highlight the outlier cells that do not conform to the rule. Still inferring which cells are to blame is a complex problem, and the rule set may not be specific enough to provide that level of detail. Popular examples include functional dependencies (FDs) (Kolahli & Lakshmanan, 2009), conditional functional dependencies (CFDs) (Fan et al., 2008) and denial constraints (DCs) (Chu et al., 2013b). All of these represent a subset of first-order logic, where the most flexible one are DCs. Both FDs and CFDs express a “if-then” relationship (dependence) between features of a dataset. CFDs are more specific since they only apply when certain feature values appear in the data instance. A well rounded survey on just integrity constraints for data cleaning can be found in Fan (2015), where both instance and cell outliers are explored. Examples of rule miners can be found in (Fan et al., 2010) for CFDs, and in (Chu et al., 2013a; Pena et al., 2019) for DCs. The main advantages of the rules-based approach are: - Interpretability If the user is a subject-matter expert then the violated rules can potentially explain why the instance is an outlier. For instance, in the case of a CFD it can be seen as a violation of a dependence relationship between features. - Specificity Rule-based approaches allow the description of what constitutes an outlier in specific detail, which allows for guarantees that if a violation exists then the outlier will be reported. Machine learning methods for outlier detection usually do not allow for such guarantees, even in the case of training data with a large amount of labelled examples. - Summarization These methods often operate by having a set rules that describe the normal data, thus summarizing all its defining patterns. Alternatively, the rule set may only summarize the outlier detection process. Nonetheless, there are practical issues when trying to use rule-based systems. The more pressing issues are: - Sourcing the Rules Obtaining the rules can be difficult, and either one is a subject-matter expert that can write first-order logic to define the rules; or instead, a rule miner is used on some uncorrupted training data to obtain these rules. This uncorrupted data is often called a clean master database. - What cell to blame? Assume the outlier process is due to corruption, and one wishes to perform cell outlier detection given a set of rules. It is not always possible to specify which cell(s) are to blame once an outlier instance is found to violate the rules. This is because several different combinations of cells being corrupted may have originated the rule violation. We may never know which without manual inspection, if that. However, when several rules are applicable to the outlier instance, then it may be possible to identify the corrupt cell(s) through logical inference. Pattern-based These methods rely on user-defined transformation, which can be defined in a scripting language or some domain specific language (DSL). These transformations are in essence programs that provide a way to detect outliers, either by defining what is an outlier or instead an inlier. Sometimes the user may also define how to transform an outlier into a inlier – i.e. data repair. As such, they are far more broad in their coverage than integrity constraints. These can define semantic, statistical or even logic patterns to be applied to the dataset. They can be used in interactive fashion to let the user explore the dataset and perform manual data cleaning – i.e. data wrangling task. Typical use cases would be a script in a DSL that defines: the correct format for a categorical feature; a change in date-time format in column for tabular data; an upper or lower bound in a continuous feature; a check on whether continuous feature is in correct scale unit; a check on whether missing value entries are present. A great example of this type of method is the Data Wrangler (Kandel et al., 2011). Another examples is Google’s OpenRefine (Verborgh & De Wilde, 2013). KATARA (Chu et al., 2015) offers an automated framework for data cleaning with semantic patterns instead of traditional rules. In this case, semantic patterns are obtained from DBpedia. NADEEF Dallachiesa et al. (2013) also allows for user-defined transformations. Frameworks-based (Holistic) There is also a tradition of work on end-to-end frameworks, or software, that focuses on combining different existing outlier detection methods to provide a novel solution, which can be superior to just a single model. These can combine machine learning, data quality rules and pattern-based approaches together. This contrasts with machine learning research which mostly focus on novel model approaches. Often in framework papers, practical considerations like deployment and computational complexity are taken more seriously. Moreover, in the same spirit of end-to-end frameworks, some works also tackle the problem of outlier detection and data repair together. Some examples of these types of frameworks are DBoost (Mariet et al., 2016), which integrates several classic ML outlier detection methods; NADEEF (Dallachiesa et al., 2013) integrates different types of rules (e.g. CFDs) and user defined transformations for cell outlier detection and data repair; BoostClean (Krishnan et al., 2017) proposes an ensemble of methods via statistical boosting for cell outlier detection, and for repair using user-defined functions. ### 2.2.5 Deep Learning Methods Outlier detection can prove quite challenging when nonlinear or hierarchical dependencies between features are present in the dataset. An example is the dependencies between pixels in an image, and how groups of pixels are arranged. For instance, an image of a human face has specific dependencies between pixels. High dimensional data is also challenging, since scalability of the method becomes important and learning abstractions is often needed for classification, e.g. outlier detection. Further, in high dimensions typical statistical distances start to be ineffective, e.g. Mahalanobis distance. All of these are problems for classic ML methods in outlier detection. Unsurprisingly, Isolation Forests which is a nonlinear method tends to outperform a lot of other classic methods. It also scales quite well in high dimensions and size of the dataset. The reality is that most classic outlier detection methods are linear, or lack the ability to capture hierarchical dependencies between features. This makes classic methods not as competitive for high dimensional tabular or image data, more details in Zimek et al. (2012). A good discussion about classic methods (shallow) and deep models is found in Ruff et al. (2021). Relatively recent surveys about deep learning for outlier detection are found in Ruff et al. (2021); Pang et al. (2021); Chalapathy & Chawla (2019). One effective way to learn hierarchical or nonlinear relationships between features is to use neural networks, i.e. deep learning. Another aspect is that deep learning is quite flexible and can be applied to different types of data. Examples of deep learning models exist from tabular data, to images, to speech, to natural language, and even music data. General surveys about deep learning and its applications are Dong et al. (2021), and Pouyanfar et al. (2018). A great book on the topic is Goodfellow et al. (2016). Deep learning for tabular data is discussed in Borisov et al. (2021), where pros and cons are presented. The survey also discusses which tabular data tasks are better modelled by deep learning. As discussed early on (in Section 2.2) supervised, semi-supervised, and unsupervised scenarios are possible. The latter two being the most common. For the supervised scenario, a deep learning classifier should be used. In the semi-supervised scenario often this means an autoencoder model combined with some classifier or classic outlier detection method. For instance, in Ruff et al. (2019) a semi-supervised model relies on autoencoder pre-training, and then reuses the encoder network for the actual method. In the unsupervised scenario an autoencoder model has typically been used, which may or may not be combined with a classic method. The autoencoder (AE) (Goodfellow et al., 2016) is a popular and effective deep learning method for nonlinear dimensionality reduction, or representation learning. A probabilistic version is the variational autoencoder (VAE) (Kingma & Welling, 2014). A significant amount of recent outlier detection methods rely on using the latent space of an AE, or VAE, as input to a classic outlier detection method. This works well if the inliers and outliers are somewhat separable in latent space. If these methods are trained end-to-end they are usually called hybrid methods, where the AE is seen as a feature extractor. Some unsupervised examples include combining a GMM with an AE latent space in DAGMM (Zong et al., 2018a); combining One-Class SVM with an AE latent space in AE-OCSVM (Nguyen & Vien, 2018b); and combining robust subspace recovery (RSR) in AE latent space in RSRAE (Lai et al., 2019). In these hybrid models the anomaly score can be defined by the chosen classic method. However, most autoencoder models use the reconstruction error, or likelihood in VAEs, as the anomaly score. For instance, Dehaene et al. (2019); An & Cho (2015); Wang et al. (2017b) use a reconstruction-type score. Deep One-Class Classification (OCC) models have also been developed. These can be trained on corrupted data, as long as corruption level is low enough. Though ideally normal data (inliers only) should be used if available. These methods learn a discriminative decision boundary, like their classic counterparts. Although, these use neural networks to learn very flexible feature maps, which are ideal for capturing nonlinear or hierarchical dependencies. Unlike their classic counterparts, where the kernel feature map is shallow and fixed before training. For instance, Ruff et al. (2018) learns a data enclosing hyper-sphere in feature space like SVDD; and Chalapathy et al. (2018a) learns a hyper-plane in feature space like OC-SVM. Lastly, deep learning models have been developed for outlier detection in the presence of systematic error corruption. As an example, recently the Transformer based model in Liu et al. (2020) was proposed. This model can also tackle adversarial outliers, which are the result of corruption meant to fool the model. That said, the field of adversarial attacks is out of scope for this thesis. ### 2.3 Data Repair Task In this section, we discuss the data repair task in more detail. We define it formally and review prior literature on the topic. Literature from database, statistics, and machine learning communities is explored. An issue with several of these models is the reliance on either encoding prior knowledge in the model, or substantial labelled data or a clean dataset to train on. Some examples of prior knowledge are: data-specific or corruption-specific prior distributions or architectures; logic rules or data schemas; scripts that define data transformations. The novel models proposed in this thesis have integrated outlier detection and data repair. Further, they do not require large curated datasets for training or encoding complex prior knowledge. #### 2.3.1 Problem Definition for Data Repair Given the notation in Section 2.1, the task of data repair is that of finding the ground-truth inlier $\hat{x}$ for some outlier instance $x \in O$. This assumes the outlier detection task has been carried out, and thus the set of outliers $O$ has been found. In practice, finding the ground-truth $\hat{x}$ is generally not possible. Instead, the repair task tries to provide an estimate that is close enough, i.e. $\hat{x} \approx \hat{x}$. The outlier instance is the result of the application of a corruption transformation, i.e. $ \hat{x} = f_{cr}(\tilde{x}) $. Hence, the model $ g_r^\theta $ will learn how to reverse such transformation and provide an estimate $ \hat{x} $. Here we say reverse since the corruption transformation $ f_{cr} $ may not itself be invertible. Generally, taking the above into account, we can define the repair transformation as $ \hat{x} = g_r^\theta(x) $. In practice, the models $ g_r^\theta $ that are used to estimate an instance repair $ \hat{x} $ tend to have an associated loss function (e.g. deep generative models). After all, this may be the same loss function used to train the model. Therefore, after model training, repair estimates are usually produced by optimizing this loss function given outlier $ x $. This process will produce a point-wise estimate for $ \hat{x} $, however other inference strategies could be used – e.g. MCMC methods like pseudo-Gibbs sampling as described in (Rezende et al., 2014), and used in Section 3.8.7 of Chapter 3; or instead (Mattei & Frellsen, 2019). Assuming $ F_\theta $ is the loss function, for some ideal model $ g_r^\theta $ we can define the repair transformation as \[ \hat{x} = g_r^\theta(x) = \arg \min_{x'} F_\theta(x'; x), \] (2.2) where a lower loss function value corresponds to a more plausible repair estimate under the trained model. This plausibility relates to both how clean the repair instance is, but also how realistic it might be according to other inlier data instances. Again, note that the loss $ F_\theta $ depends explicitly on model parameters $ \theta $. That said, one very important point is that $ g_r^\theta $ must be robust to the corrupted training dataset. After training, this is reflected in $ F_\theta $ where small loss values should be seen for inliers, and large loss values for outliers. In other words, this means that $ g_r^\theta $ places more importance in modelling inlier data than on outlier data. Similarly, we can express this repair transformation under a probabilistic model framework. In fact, here a point-wise estimate corresponds to either maximum likelihood (MLE) or a maximum a posterior (MAP) estimate. In this case, we can define $ F_\theta(x'; x) = -\log p_\theta(x'\|x) $ and thus the repair transformation is given as \[ \hat{x} = g_r^\theta(x) = \arg \max_{x'} \log p_\theta(x'\|x), \] (2.3) where inliers have high likelihood values under distribution $ p_\theta(x'\|x) $, and outliers have low likelihood. 2.3.2 Database Systems Methods Quite a few works from the database community take an end-to-end approach to data cleaning, and present a solution for both outlier detection and repair. This is motivated by wanting to provide a real solution to the problem of corrupted data in practice, which includes both outlier detection and repair. A good survey is Ilyas & Chu (2015), and more detailed book on the topic is Ilyas & Chu (2019). Most methods fall in the framework (holistic) category, see Section 2.2.4, where several approaches are combined: logic rules, transformations by a user or another source, machine learning or statistical methods. This is important to point out, since generally logic-based rules (integrity constraints) by themselves are not able to provide a repair proposal for a corrupt cell. Instead, they use other user-defined transformations, statistical measures, or even a uncorrupted master dataset to copy from. Having said that, the biggest advantage is that any proposed cell repair needs to be logically consistent with the integrity constraints in place. It is important to point out that almost no method here can be applied directly to our problem setting (see Section 2.1). In this thesis, we assume a corrupt training dataset is either given as is, or with a small labelled set of inliers and outliers. This is because we aim to minimize required user know-how and intervention for method usage. In addition, we aim to develop models that can be applied generally, not just tabular datasets. Therefore, obtaining rules or scripts for use in data cleaning is not practical in our setup. Particularly, most of these rules can only be obtained by substantial user interaction, or access to (clean) master datasets. These frameworks usually consider three types of repair operations (Fan, 2015): exclude from dataset; delete and replace by a similar instance from the dataset, or from a master dataset; use a cost-function to measure how different the repaired instances are from the corrupted ones. The latter has become much more common recently (Fan, 2015; Ilyas & Chu, 2019), and provides a way to enforce a total cost budget. This allows the user to cap how much change the corrupted dataset undergoes during repair. The cost-functions can be similarity measures, string edit distances, or even statistical distance measures. Relevant Frameworks Now we briefly discuss a few relevant works. ERACER (Mayfield et al., 2010) is a data-driven approach for missing value imputation, using a Bayesian Network to represent the clean data. NADEEF (Dallachiesa et al., 2013) performs repair through user-defined transformations, and repairs are logically consistent with data quality rules. LLUNATIC (Geerts et al., 2013) is a data cleaning framework that considers different kinds of integrity constraints, uses database schemas, and applies a cost-function based approach to repair. SCARE (Yakout et al., 2013) proposes cell value repairs via a Dependency Network (graphical model) (Heckerman et al., 2000) learnt using clean master data. The proposed cell repairs maximize the log-likelihood of the graphical model, and the user can define a budget for the entire repair process. BoostClean (Krishnan et al., 2017) is a framework that provides repair by using ensembles of common ML models and user-defined transformations. These ensembles are learnt via boosting (machine learning). It requires a validation dataset that is considered clean (uncorrupted) by the user. This validation set is then used to improve the performance of the ensemble in the data repair task. In essence, each weak model will propose a cell repair, after which a decision is made. HoloClean (Rekatsinas et al., 2017) proposes a probabilistic model for data repair that incorporates several signals. These signals range from integrity constraints, dictionaries, knowledge bases, descriptive statistics, user-defined transformations, and others. Emphasis was given to denial constraints and descriptive statistics, which need to be sourced by the user. This probabilistic model is similar to Markov Logic Networks (Richardson & Domingos, 2006), a type of graphical model that incorporates first-order logic. HoloClean has become a popular framework for data repair, and until recently registered top performance compared to other frameworks. ### 2.3.3 Statistical and Machine Learning Methods Data repair as defined in Section 2.3.1, where the model is learnt on corrupt data, has not been explored that much. Most existing machine learning models able to repair data either assume: 1. Complex prior assumptions or model architectures that only apply to certain types of corruption, or in certain types of data. For instance, prior distributions for specific types of corruption in images; or data descriptions (schemas, logic, etc) for tabular data. 2. Require large amounts of labelled data (inliers vs outliers). 3. Require clean data (without corruption) to train on. ### 18.104.22.168 Specific to Tabular Data Particularly, very few works in machine learning have focused on data repair for tabular data, where the training data is corrupted. Recently, some works have focused on melding probabilistic models with either logic rules or user-written programmatic descriptions of clean data. For instance, HoloClean (Rekatsinas et al., 2017) is an example of probabilistic relational models for data repair, after erroneous cells have been detected. On the other hand, PClean Lew et al. (2021) defines a probabilistic programming language and inference for repair of already detected erroneous cells. In fact, in PClean the program written by the user defines a probabilistic relational model (Friedman et al., 1999), such that the dataset schema is encoded. From a different perspective, if the erroneous cells have been detected and the majority of data is uncorrupted, then data imputation methods can be used. Note that this is generally not possible without some method to detect said corrupt cells. Furthermore, this outlier detection method would need to be trained on corrupted data. Having said that, over the years several works have focused on the problem of imputing missing values for tabular data. Classic work includes Dempster et al. (1977) that defines the Expectation Maximization algorithm for missing data at random. Another classic example is the use of Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) for the same purpose (Gilks et al., 1995). Recent papers on more traditional probabilistic methods include Su et al. (2011); Kropko et al. (2014). In terms of deep learning techniques, we point the reader towards Section 2.4 where examples of generative models for data imputation are provided. 22.214.171.124 Specific to Image Data For image data, several tasks are related to data repair. Two of the most relevant are image denoising and image inpainting. The SOTA in these two tasks is currently dominated by deep learning models. Often the recently proposed machine learning models can tackle both of these tasks, but often rely on large amounts of labelled data or training on clean data. A good example is the recent model for image denoising in Wan et al. (2020), which relies on the availability of a large curated dataset. One way to bypass the above lack of data is to make strong assumptions about the type of noise to repair. For instance, assuming the noise is Poisson-Gaussian distributed (Khademi et al., 2021) (medical imaging). Another example is to assume the image noise is mostly limited to high frequency signals (Bao et al., 2013), and thus a low-pass filter is applied. However, the proposed models in this thesis aim to be broadly applicable, and thus do not make this specific type of assumptions about noise. The task of image denoising is to remove the noise from an image at test time, and generate a new image with the correct pixel values. This new image should conform to what is considered normal or clean data. A survey about the topic is Tian et al. (2020). The task of image inpaiting is similar in spirit with that of data imputation for tabular data. Here the missingness mask is usually known apriori, and the task is to impute missing pixels such that the overall generated image conforms with clean data. A survey about the topic is Jam et al. (2021). 126.96.36.199 Regularization and Data-Reweighting These types of models either use strong regularization of model parameters, or use data reweighting for the training dataset. In general these tend to be unsupervised generative models, and most of the current ones are deep learning models. The data-reweighting methods usually control the importance of an instance towards the training loss or likelihood. In other words, potential outliers should be downweighted in the training loss. Both regularization and data reweighting try to mitigate the effects of corruption in the learning procedure, and thus avoid overfitting to outliers. A good example of regularization is the $\ell_2$ norm penalty (Golub et al., 1999) for model parameters. For data-rewriting, a classic example is the RPCA Candès et al. (2011); Zhao et al. (2014) family of models. A more detailed discussion about these models is seen in Section 2.5.2, although specific for AE / VAE models. The novel model proposed in Chapter 3 can be seen as part of this family of models. A related method is to use the RANSAC (Fischler & Bolles, 1981) algorithm to continuously isolate outliers, and then retrain the underlying model. Every iteration outlier detection is performed, and outliers removed from the training dataset. Therefore, with successive iterations of RANSAC, the underlying model would only learn from inliers. Hence, in the end model parameters are unaffected by outliers or corruption. This type of approach can be very expensive computationally, as the model needs to be retrained several times for the dataset. This is particularly problematic for deep generative models, which often take a long time to train. Therefore, this has not been explored that much in deep learning. ### 188.8.131.52 Data Sanitization A different option that has been explored is to just remove the outlier instance from the dataset. Like in the database systems research (see Section 2.3.2), in some cases this is acceptable or even the right decision. In literature this is often called data sanitization. For instance, outliers caused by adversarial attacks often need to be removed from the training data. Otherwise the model will overfit to the corruption, and thus make it vulnerable to malicious intent. This technique has also been used to remove instances affected by systematic errors. RANSAC (Fischler & Bolles, 1981) can be seen as an example of this technique if no repairs are generated by the final model. Instead, the outliers are removed and the process terminated. Other model examples which are far superior in terms of robustness to outliers can be found in Koh et al. (2018); Diakonikolas et al. (2018); Liu et al. (2020). ### 184.108.40.206 Conditional Generative Models If labels for inliers and outliers are available, then conditional deep generative models can be used for data repair. Usually, labelled data is limited and thus semi-supervised models are more realistic than supervised ones. A discussion on semi-supervised generative models can be found here Ouali et al. (2020). After a conditional model has been trained, the repair process would reconstruct the outlier without any corruption patterns by using label information. This is done by flipping the label value to inlier. In Section 2.5.3 we discuss in detail conditional VAEs, which are a type of conditional deep generative models, for both semi-supervised and supervised settings. ### 220.127.116.11 Latent Disentanglement Models and ICA Generative models like VAEs learn a latent representation of the data. In theory, in latent space the attributes of an instance can be manipulated before reconstruction by a decoder (generator). This would allow to repair an outlier instance by removing any corruption patterns. This is difficult to do without knowing which latent variables to manipulate and what their effect on the reconstruction is. Disentanglement models learn a latent space where each variable, or set of variables, is assigned a particular attribute of the data. To guarantee that latent variables (or set of) model different data attributes these models often try to guarantee that the variables are statistically independent. Therefore, it should be possible to separate in the latent space of a VAE the variables controlling if corruption is present and its type, and the variables controlling the attributes of clean data (inliers). Hence, the repair process through latent variable manipulation can be more easily obtained. In Section 2.5.4 we discuss these models in more detail, and present a SOTA baseline to be used in this thesis. The novel model proposed in Chapter 4 can be seen as part of this family of models. Classically, in signal processing or time-series data these models have been used to isolate and remove noise sources. However, this usually requires a lot of labelled data or prior knowledge about the clean data or the corruption process. The ICA (Independent Component Analysis) (Hyvarinen & Morioka, 2016) model has been used for these tasks in the past. ### 2.4 Deep Generative Models Before moving to specify in more detail VAE models for our task, we briefly discuss different types of deep generative models. We remark that most of the research about deep generative models has been for image, text and speech data. Still, relatively few works have focused on mixed-type tabular datasets. Note that mixed-type datasets are those where different feature types co-exist, e.g. continuous and categorical tabular dataset (from csv files, excel sheets, or relational databases). Deep generative models are neural networks with many hidden layers trained to approximate complicated, high-dimensional data distributions. One type of deep generative models are the variational autoencoders (VAEs). The choice to use and develop upon VAEs (Kingma & Welling, 2014) for our task (i.e. outlier detection and data repair) is due to these being ubiquitous, generally easy to understand and to implement. Thus as a first effort into robust generative models for automatic data repair it makes sense to start simple, but also to provide an extension onto an already popular and extensively deployed model. In fact, recently VAEs have proved competitive against more sophisticated generative models, producing diverse high quality samples and reconstructions. Some examples of these state-of-the-art (SOTA) VAE models are VQVAE-2 (Razavi et al., 2019b), VDVAE (Child, 2020), VQGAN (Esser et al., 2021), MUSE (Chang et al., 2023). Broadly, one can identify five types of deep generative models: 1. Variational Autoencoders (VAE) (Kingma & Welling, 2014, 2019); generally these models offer good sample diversity and sample speed. The sample quality in general tends to be inferior to other SOTA generative models, but recent VAE models are quite competitive. Quality tends to be related to how good the samples are as it relates to true data samples; usually measured by FID scores or by human evaluation of the samples. Diversity tends to be measured by the negative log-likelihood (NLL), and is a measure of how different are the samples produced by the model. Speed is related to the time / compute complexity of synthesizing a sample. The VAE uses amortized variational inference, where neural encoders parameterize variational distributions, in conjunction with neural decoders that express generative model of the VAE. Training is generally quite stable, however posterior collapse (latent space) (Dai et al., 2020) may be a problem, restricting sample diversity and representation learning. This tends to happen especially with powerful decoders, e.g. autoregressive PixelCNN (Van den Oord et al., 2016). That said it can be avoided by using some strategies, e.g. KL annealing (Fu et al., 2019) or others like Razavi et al. (2019a); Mathieu et al. (2019); Alemi et al. (2018). One common criticism about standard VAEs is that their samples can be blurry, often lacking sharpness or detail. Although this can be vastly mitigated in modern architectures, the recent work in (Bredell et al., 2022) proposes a more universal approach. The authors improve sample quality of VAEs by incorporating a de-blurring convolution operation in the decoder output – i.e. in the covariance of decoder distribution. VAEs are still the subject of many research papers, and some recent SOTA models are quite popular. VQVAE-2 (Razavi et al., 2019b) uses stacked discrete latent space codebooks (like K-means) that are optimized during training, which leads to better diversity with quite good sample quality at test time (though post-processing is needed). The sampling speed tends to be slower as compared to other VAE or GAN models. VDVAE (Child, 2020) uses a sparse Transformer (Vaswani et al., 2017) in the decoder to sequentially combine latent embeddings producing high quality samples. Note that the VDVAE is a type of Hierarchical VAE (Zhao et al., 2017b), where each layer of the encoder / decoder is modelled as a latent variable in a top-down inference architecture. Unlike VQVAE-2 the latent bottleneck is not discrete, and thus the sampling is quite fast. It performs as well as other SOTA autoregressive models. More recently, Efficient VDVAE (Hazami et al., 2022) was proposed registering a speed up in training convergence of about 2.6 fold with improved stability, and saving up to 20 times in memory load. VQGAN (Esser et al., 2021) is better than the aforementioned models, combining VQVAE with Transformer neural architectures, plus it uses a discriminator like GANs (realism constraint) to improve on sample quality. The sample quality is as good as the model BigGAN (Brock et al., 2018), one of the best GAN models. Recently MUSE (Chang et al., 2023) has been proposed for the task of text-to-image generation. This model leverages two key concepts: i) masked image modelling with Transformers; ii) VQGAN encoder and decoder architectures are used for both semantic tokenization and high-resolution image generation. MUSE registers performance very close to SOTA performance in terms of image generation. Further, MUSE appears to be significantly faster at sampling than diffusion models (e.g. Latent Diffusion Models, Imagen) and traditional autoregressive models. 2. Generative Adversarial Networks (GAN) (Goodfellow et al., 2014; Jabbar et al., 2022); generally these offer great sample quality with high sample speed, but poor sample diversity. In fact, training is complex and inherently unstable and can be computationally expensive (Brock et al., 2018). GANs tend to be very flexible models, as no explicit likelihood is needed. The model defines a generator network that produces synthetic samples; in a way that it fools a discriminator network trying to find which samples are from the dataset, and which are synthetic. Accordingly, this translates to a min-max optimization problem that defines an adversarial training procedure. This adversarial procedure is the source of high quality samples, but also training instability. Further, many times it leads to mode collapse or lack of convergence (in training). The issue of mode collapse in GANs translates to lack of sample diversity. Examples of models with overall great sample quality can be seen in StyleGAN v2 (Choi et al., 2020), StyleGAN v3 (Karras et al., 2021), InfinityGAN (Lin et al., 2021), and BigGAN (Brock et al., 2018). Yet typically in these models the sample diversity is not on par with SOTA VAE models – e.g. see (Esser et al., 2021). The authors in (Karras et al., 2020) develop a technique termed adaptive discriminator augmentation that stabilizes training of GANs in limited data regimes, whilst still offering great sample quality. This approach can be applied to both BigGAN and StyleGAN models. More recently, StyleGAN-XL (Sauer et al., 2022) sets a new SOTA for GANs by improving the modelling, but mostly by improving the training strategy for StyleGANs. Showcasing great performance in high-resolution image synthesis for large diverse datasets. 3. Autoregressive Models (AutoReg) (Van Oord et al., 2016; Germain et al., 2015); generally these models offer good sample quality and diversity (NLL), though sampling speed is quite slow. These models are characterized by sequentially generating each pixel (feature) when producing a sample. For each feature, the model conditions on the ones already generated. Moreover, the joint distribution for (exact) likelihood-based training is given by the product of conditional probability distributions (for each feature), as in Germain et al. (2015); Uria et al. (2016); Papamakarios et al. (2017) these can be parametrized by neural networks. Nowadays, many other models incorporate AutoReg architectures into their neural architectures or even VAE priors, e.g. based on PixelCNN (Van den Oord et al., 2016). On a related note, Transformers have since started to be used (see VQGAN (Esser which allow for non-sequential processing of features (pixels). This can make training more parallelizable and allow for better modelling of long dependencies between features. Transformers rely on multi-head self-attention layers, which in practice provide increased performance on sample diversity and improved speed, see Sparse Transformer with DistAug (Jun et al., 2020) and MaskGIT Chang et al. (2022). The former model (Jun et al., 2020) takes a Sparse Transformer (Child et al., 2019) and applies transformation functions for more aggressive (in its distortion) data augmentation, registering quite good FID scores. Note that the Sparse Transformer was especially designed for long sequence generation. The more recent MaskGIT model is better at image generation than Sparse Transformer with DistAug. MaskGIT learns to predict randomly masked tokens by attending to tokens in all directions. At inference time, MaskGIT begins with generating all tokens of an image simultaneously, and then refines the image iteratively from the previous image generation. This type of masked image modelling has been used in other model types, like the SOTA VAE model MUSE (Chang et al., 2023) already discussed. 4. Energy-based Models (EBM) (LeCun et al., 2006; Song & Kingma, 2021); generally these offer good sampling quality and diversity, with slow sampling speed. The model training is stable compared to VAEs and especially GANs, but computationally expensive. EBMs are typically trained via maximum likelihood estimation (MLE), through gradient-based optimization. The model is defined by the unnormalized probability distribution (energy), which provides significant model flexibility compared to VAEs. However, it also means the partition function needs to be approximated through sampling, or at least a few fantasy samples need to be synthesized from the energy. This makes training computationally expensive and difficult to scale, as sampling relies on Markov Chain Monte-Carlo (MCMC), and chain mixing issues become a concern. Contrastive Divergence (Carreira-Perpinan & Hinton, 2005) tries to mitigate this. Some of these issues seem to have been improved dramatically recently by using Langevin dynamics MCMC (Du & Mordatch, 2019; Du et al., 2020), especially in high dimensional datasets (e.g. images). Recently VAEBM (Xiao et al., 2020) composes a hierarchical VAE with an EBM model for image generation. The EBM modelling part helps to exclude non-data like regions (realism constraint), and helps refine image samples for increased quality. On the other hand, the VAE model part helps speed up the MCMC updates by reparametrizing them in a pre-trained VAE latent space. Other authors have proposed score matching training methodologies for EBMs (Song & Kingma, 2021), further improving on all aspects (quality, speed and diversity). 5. Normalizing Flows (NF) (Papamakarios et al., 2021; Rezende & Mohamed, 2015); generally these offer good sample quality and diversity, but sampling speed is slow. Further, usually training is not very scalable to high dimensional datasets, e.g. high resolution images. Flow-based models restrict their architectures to invertible neural networks, i.e. have a reversible transform. This is necessary so as to apply the change of variable trick to the data probability distribution in a computationally tractable fashion – i.e. determinant of Jacobian being constant or cheaply computed. In turn, this allows for exact MLE training via gradient-descent methods, by using the probability distribution of the latent variables in the log-likelihood. Some recent SOTA flow-based models can be found in Ho et al. (2019); Kingma & Dhariwal (2018); Durkan et al. (2019); Chen et al. (2019); Mahajan et al. (2020). However, given current advancements in other generative model families, and how computationally expensive flow-based models still are, the development has been slower for the image generation task. 6. Diffusion or Score-based Models (DiffM) (Ho et al., 2020; Song & Ermon, 2019); generally these offer the best sample quality and sample diversity, though sampling speed is slower than GANs and VAEs. Although, recent works have significantly improved sampling and training speed of diffusion models. Recently, these models have become a topic of interest, and are an active research topic. Diffusion models are inspired by non-equilibrium thermodynamics, as they define a Markov chain of diffusion steps that slowly add random noise to data. The reverse of this diffusion (probabilistic) process, which is learnt by a neural network (decoder), synthesizes any desired samples from noise (latent space). The latent space unlike VAEs has the same dimensionality as the original data. Thus it is not an ideal model for representation learning. Recently, a connection between diffusion models and EBMs trained via score matching has been made in (Song & Kingma, 2021; Song & Ermon, 2019). So these can also be called score-based models. Using score matching for inference greatly improves speed of training and sampling. The model DDPM v2 (Nichol & Dhariwal, 2021) represented a big jump in performance in terms of sample quality and diversity. Though sampling was still quite slow compared to models like StyleGAN. But still faster than typical EBMs or AutoReg models. More recently, Latent Diffusion Models (LDMs) (Rombach et al., 2022) proposed using a pre-trained autoencoder to perform the diffusion process in latent space, thus improving on sample quality and speed (training and inference). Alternatively, another option is to use Subspace Diffusion (Jing et al., 2022) models for training and sampling speed-up. LDMs are currently the best SOTA model for sample quality and diversity for image generation and related tasks (e.g. text-to-image). A popular version of LDMs for the text-to-image task is Stable Diffusion. However, sampling and training speed is still quite expensive compared to models like SOTA VAEs (e.g. MUSE (Chang et al., 2023)). Still, there is a lot of work trying to speed up sampling and training in LDM type models. For instance, Distilled Stable Diffusion (Meng et al., 2022) presents a 20 times speed-up compared to regular Stable Diffusion in sampling time, and is able to generate quality samples in 2 to 4 denoising steps. Essentially, one can rearrange the above models into two classes: 1. Likelihood-based Generative Models: VAE, AutoReg, NF, EBM, DiffM. These models learn the probability distribution function directly through (approximate) maximum likelihood. These include autoregressive models and normalizing flows that allow for exact evaluation and maximization of the likelihood function. It also includes VAEs that evaluate and maximize a surrogate of the likelihood function, i.e. a lower-bound of the log-likelihood. 2. Implicit Generative Models: GAN. These models are those where the probability distribution is implicitly expressed by a model of its sampling process. In this case, the most well-known example are models of the GAN family, where samples from the data distribution are constructed by transforming random Gaussian noise via a neural network (generator). A discriminator network is used to help in training the model. 2.4.1 Deep Generative Models for Mixed-Type Tabular Data Although most generative model types above can be adapted for mixed-type tabular data; in reality, few papers have explored this type of structured dataset thoroughly. Most models focus on unstructured datasets like image, speech, or natural language data. Here we showcase some relevant generative models specific for (mixed-type) tabular data. Some papers have focused on the task of tabular data synthesis, where it seems GAN architectures have been most successful. One of the earliest works was Xu et al. (2019) proposing two models TVAE and CTGAN, where the former is a VAE and the latter a GAN. The authors found that CTGAN outperformed all other alternatives in terms of sample quality; including TVAE and traditional (i.e. non-deep learning) Bayesian models. The same research group has recently developed a framework to compare performance generative models for tabular data synthesis (see SDGym repository$^2$). From the database community Table-GAN (Park et al., 2018) was proposed for tabular data synthesis with privacy concerns in mind. The goal is to generate tabular data samples that does not leak sensitive or private information from individuals, i.e. differential privacy. PATE-GAN (Jordon et al., 2018) was also proposed as a GAN for tabular data synthesis with differential privacy in mind. Similarly, CTAB-GAN (Zhao et al., 2021) proposes a conditional GAN that improves on certain typical problems in tabular datasets, e.g. data imbalances and long tail issues. Privacy concerns were also evaluated in the paper. DTGAN (Kunar et al., 2021) improves upon CTAB-GAN by proposing a conditional Wasserstein GAN with superior data synthesis (sample quality) whilst enforcing differential privacy constraints. From another perspective, some papers have focused on devising generative models for data imputation in mixed-type tabular datasets. These works are obviously more related to our task of data repair. However, these models have the enormous advantage of training on clean datasets, which are without corruption. Further, the missing entries (or cells) are properly identified before training happens. A good example of an earlier VAE model for imputation is HI-VAE (Nazabal et al., 2020), where the pattern of missingness is assumed to be at random. Another perspective $^2$https://github.com/sdv-dev/SDGym is the model GAIN (Yoon et al., 2018), which proposes a GAN for tabular data imputation when cell values are missing at random. The model MIWAE (Mattei & Frellsen, 2019) proposes a VAE that improves upon HI-VAE by using tighter lower-bound to the data likelihood. This is inspired by the importance-weighted autoencoder (IWAE) estimator in Burda et al. (2016). The result is superior data imputation (or sample) quality. Recently Not-MIWAE (Ipsen et al., 2020) improves on the previous work by assuming that cell missingness patterns may not be at random, and that there is benefit in overtly modelling the missingness pattern as well. GINA (Ma & Zhang, 2021) introduces a VAE model that improves on Not-MIWAE for the same task, also learning the missingness pattern. However, it provides a data imputation process that is less biased (due to missingness pattern); and finally provides guarantees on the identifiability of the true data generating process. ### 2.5 Deep Generative Modelling with Variational Autoencoders Here we present in detail a class of deep generative models that have become ubiquitous in machine learning, and are powerful enough for our task of automatic outlier detection (OD) and data repair. This class of models is the variational autoencoder (VAE) (Kingma & Welling, 2014) and its subvariants. A good overview of representation learning using deep VAEs is found in Tschannen et al. (2018), and a more recent survey in Kingma & Welling (2019). Once more, all the models and anomaly scores as presented here only apply to detection and repair of point outliers (see Section 2.2.1). Besides the standard VAE, we introduce unsupervised and supervised / semi-supervised versions relevant to our task. We briefly discuss latent space disentanglement VAEs (Locatello et al., 2019a) and their applicability to this task, and present a semi-supervised state-of-the-art (SOTA) model. Although not quite a VAE, we also discuss an unsupervised deep autoencoder (AE) that extends the robust PCA model (Candès et al., 2011), i.e. robust principal component analysis (RPCA). In fact, RPCA has been used in literature for both outlier detection and data repair (Zhao et al., 2014; Wang et al., 2017b), where the training data is corrupted. Further, the purpose of RPCA is to provide a PCA model that has reduced sensitivity to outliers in the training set, i.e. a model robust to dataset corruption. Likewise, the novel models developed in this thesis, as well as several explored baselines, have the objective of providing a model robust to corrupted data. However, not all baselines will be able to perform outlier detection and repair, sometimes only detection is possible. Nonetheless, all the AE models in this section will be able to do both detection and repair, but not all will be robust to corrupted data (e.g. standard VAE). For the models here that are robust, there are two major ways to accomplish this: i) using strong enough regularization or data reweighting in the model, such that it focuses on modelling inlier data and mostly ignores outliers – e.g. RPCA or Akrami et al. (2019a) or Chapter 3 (RVAE); ii) using supervision / semi-supervision by labelling inliers and outliers, such that the model learns to distinguish them and models the inlier data well – e.g. Kingma & Welling (2014); Joy et al. (2020) or Chapter 4 (CLSVAE). Typically, option i) is fine for random error corruption in reasonable amounts, whilst ii) is preferred when systematic errors are present. This is because systematic errors exhibit specific patterns that are repeated across the dataset, and thus are easier to overfit to by unsupervised models. Though models using supervision are not necessarily immune. There is another option, specially if the amount of outliers is low, which is to apply a RANSAC (Fischler & Bolles, 1981) type algorithm to a VAE. However, like we discussed in Section 2.3.3, methodologies like RANSAC can be computationally expensive due to model retraining; but also standard deep generative models can easily overfit to outliers, which makes RANSAC fail due to poor outlier detection by the model. Therefore, a RANSAC approach is generally not explored. For the models in this section we use the notation in Section 2.1. The problem definition for outlier detection is found in Section 2.2.2, and the one for data repair is in Section 2.3.1. Once more, we omit the subscript $n$ for convenience. ### 2.5.1 Standard Variational Autoencoders (VAEs) A common approach to unsupervised outlier detection is to build a generative model $p(\mathbf{x})$ that models the distribution of clean data (inliers only). A powerful class of deep generative models are variational autoencoders (VAEs) (Kingma & which model $p(\mathbf{x})$ as $$p(\mathbf{x}) = \int d\mathbf{z} \ p(\mathbf{z}) p_\theta(\mathbf{x}\|\mathbf{z}), \tag{2.4}$$ where $p_\theta(\mathbf{x}\|\mathbf{z}) = \prod_{d=1}^{D} p_\theta(x_d\|\mathbf{z})$ and $p_\theta(x_d\|\mathbf{z})$ is the conditional likelihood of feature $d$, $\mathbf{z} \in \mathbb{R}^K$ is the latent representation of instance $\mathbf{x}$, and $p(\mathbf{z}) = \mathcal{N}(\mathbf{z}\|\mathbf{0}, \mathbf{I})$ is an isotropic multivariate Gaussian prior. To handle mixed-type data, e.g. tabular datasets, one can use a conditional likelihood $p_\theta(x_d\|\mathbf{z})$ that is different for each feature type. For real features $p_\theta(x_d\|\mathbf{z}) = \mathcal{N}(x_d\|m_d(\mathbf{z}), \sigma_d)$, where each $\sigma_d$ represents the standard deviation of feature $d$ and these are parameters learnt during model training. For categorical features $p_\theta(x_d\|\mathbf{z}) = f(a_d(\mathbf{z}))$, where $a_d(\mathbf{z})$ is an unnormalized vector of probabilities for each category and $f$ is the softmax function. All $m_d(\mathbf{z})$ and $a_d(\mathbf{z})$ are parametrized by feed-forward neural networks. Otherwise, for image datasets, if the pixel values are continuous then usually we can model these using $p_\theta(\mathbf{x}\|\mathbf{z}) = \mathcal{N}(\mathbf{x}\|\mu_\theta(\mathbf{z}), \sigma_x^2 \mathbf{I})$ where $\sigma_x$ is a scalar parameter that is learnt. If the pixels are categorical variables, then pixel values have a set number of categories, e.g. a black-and-white image has two categories. In this case each pixel $d$ is modelled by $p_\theta(x_d\|\mathbf{z}) = f(a_d(\mathbf{z}))$ as seen above. Since exact inference for $p_\theta(\mathbf{z}\|\mathbf{x})$ is generally intractable, a variational posterior $q_\phi(\mathbf{z}\|\mathbf{x})$ is used; in VAEs this is also known as the encoder. It is modelled by a Gaussian distribution like so $$q_\phi(\mathbf{z}\|\mathbf{x}) = \mathcal{N}(\mathbf{z}\|\mu_\phi(\mathbf{x}), \Sigma_\phi(\mathbf{x})), \tag{2.5}$$ where $\mu_\phi(\mathbf{x})$ and $\Sigma_\phi(\mathbf{x})$ are feed-forward neural networks, and $\Sigma_\phi(\mathbf{x})$ defines a diagonal covariance matrix. VAEs are trained by maximizing the lower bound on the marginal log-likelihood called the evidence lower bound (ELBO), given by $$\log p(\mathbf{x}) \geq \mathcal{L}_{\theta,\phi}(\mathbf{x}) = \mathbb{E}_{q_\phi(\mathbf{z}\|\mathbf{x})} \left[ \frac{p_\theta(\mathbf{x}\|\mathbf{z})p(\mathbf{z})}{q_\phi(\mathbf{z}\|\mathbf{x})} \right], \tag{2.6}$$ $$= \mathbb{E}_{q_\phi(\mathbf{z}\|\mathbf{x})} [\log p_\theta(x\|\mathbf{z})] - D_{KL}(q_\phi(\mathbf{z}\|\mathbf{x})\|\|p(\mathbf{z})),$$ $$= \sum_{d=1}^{D} \mathbb{E}_{q_\phi(\mathbf{z}\|\mathbf{x})} [\log p_\theta(x_d\|\mathbf{z})] - D_{KL}(q_\phi(\mathbf{z}\|\mathbf{x})\|\|p(\mathbf{z})),$$ where the neural network parameters of the decoder $\theta$ and encoder $\phi$ are learnt with a gradient-based optimizer (e.g. Adam (Kingma & Ba, 2014)). Accordingly, the optimization problem defining model training is thus given by \[ \min_{\theta, \phi} -\frac{1}{N} \sum_{x \in X} L_{\theta, \phi}(x). \] (2.7) In practice, it is common to use a modified version of the ELBO. This version introduces a coefficient $\eta$ that controls the contribution of the $D_{KL}$ term to the ELBO loss. This is expressed as \[ L_{\theta, \phi}(x) = \sum_{d=1}^{D} E_{q_\phi(z\|x)} [\log p_\theta(x_d\|z)] - \eta D_{KL}(q_\phi(z\|x)\|\|p(z)), \] (2.8) where for $\eta = 1$ we obtain the standard ELBO in eq. (2.6). This version can be used for latent space disentanglement like in $\beta$-VAE (Burgess et al., 2018), where $\eta$ is fixed to some value (different than 1) during training. Alternatively, it can be used for annealing of the $D_{KL}$ term (Fu et al., 2019), where $\eta$ changes its value at each epoch during training, usually monotonically increasing. The annealing procedure can help in preventing posterior collapse, and obtaining better latent representations. It can sometimes also improve reconstruction quality. Outlier Detection and Repair Process A typical anomaly score for VAEs, see outlier detection task definition (section 2.2.2), is to use the reconstruction loss (negative log-likelihood) of the autoencoder (Dehaene et al., 2019; An & Cho, 2015; Wang et al., 2017b). This is quite common as an anomaly score for point outliers, which is the main focus of this thesis. As such, we can define the anomaly score as \[ A^\theta(x) = -\sum_{d}^{D} \log p_\theta(x_d\|\mu_\phi(x)) \quad x \in X, \] (2.9) and thus the outlier set of instances is $O = \{x \in X \| A^\theta(x) \geq \gamma\}$, where $\gamma$ is given by the user or tuned using a validation set. In the case of cell outlier detection a different score needs to be used, following Section 2.2.2, for VAEs a cell anomaly score using the reconstruction is defined as \[ A^\theta_d(x) = -\log p_\theta(x_d\|\mu_\phi(x)) \quad x \in X, \] (2.10) and so the cell (pixel) $x_d$ is considered an outlier if $A^\theta_d(x) \geq \gamma_d$, where $\gamma_d$ is either tuned via validation set or given by the user. In terms of the repair task, following Section 2.2.2, we need to define the repair transform that allows to clean the instance. Accordingly, for VAEs we can define a point-wise estimate (MAP) from the VAE decoder as follows \[ \hat{\bm{x}} = g_r^\theta(\bm{x}) = \arg\max_{\bm{x}'} \log p_\theta(\bm{x}' \| \bm{\mu}_\phi(\bm{x})) \quad \bm{x} \in \mathcal{O}, \] (2.11) Indeed, this is just the standard autoencoder reconstruction, where for continuous features this corresponds to $ m_d(\bm{\mu}_\phi(\bm{x})) $; and for categorical features this is just the category with higher probability from $ f(\bm{\alpha}_d(\bm{\mu}_\phi(\bm{x}))) $. Note that when repairing $ \bm{x} $ we can replace the entire instance by $ \hat{\bm{x}} $; conversely, we can just repair the cells in $ \bm{x} $ that are outliers (i.e. $ x_d $ where $ d \in \mathcal{C} $, in Section 2.2.2) replacing them by the appropriate cells $ \hat{x}_d $. If dealing with image datasets, then we can simplify the repair transformation as follows \[ \hat{\bm{x}} = \bm{\mu}_\theta(\bm{\mu}_\phi(\bm{x})) \quad \bm{x} \in \mathcal{O}. \] (2.12) ### 18.104.22.168 Clarifying the Repair Process Formulation Now we show how to obtain the formulation for the repair estimate in eq. (2.11). This is an optional section for the reader, and some may think it is already clear enough. That said, this is included here for the sake of being thorough. The VAE is a probabilistic model, we can obtain a point-wise estimate for $ \hat{\bm{x}} $ by following eq. (2.3) in Section 2.3.1. Accordingly, we can specify $ \log p(\bm{x}' \| \bm{x}) $ from eq. (2.3) and further simplify it as follows \[ \log p_\theta(\bm{x}' \| \bm{x}) = \log \mathbb{E}_{p_\theta(\bm{z} \| \bm{x})} [p_\theta(\bm{x}' \| \bm{z})] \geq^a \mathbb{E}_{p_\theta(\bm{z} \| \bm{x})} [\log p_\theta(\bm{x}' \| \bm{z})] \] \[ \approx^b \mathbb{E}_{q_\phi(\bm{z} \| \bm{x})} [\log p_\theta(\bm{x}' \| \bm{z})] \propto^c \log p_\theta(\bm{x}' \| \bm{\mu}_\phi(\bm{x})) \] (2.13) where $(a)$ uses the property of Jensen’s inequality; $(b)$ is obtained by approximating intractable distribution $ p_\theta(\bm{z} \| \bm{x}) $ by the variational analogue $ q_\phi(\bm{z} \| \bm{x}) $; and $(c)$ uses $ q_\phi(\bm{z} \| \bm{x}) = \delta\{\bm{z} = \bm{\mu}_\phi(\bm{x})\} $ for tractability. Note that $ \delta\{\cdot\} $ is the Dirac delta distribution. Therefore, we can use the simplification from above to obtain the repair estimate \[ \hat{\bm{x}} = g_r^\theta(\bm{x}) = \arg\max_{\bm{x}'} \log p_\theta(\bm{x}' \| \bm{x}) \approx \arg\max_{\bm{x}'} \log p_\theta(\bm{x}' \| \bm{\mu}_\phi(\bm{x})), \] (2.14) which is thus used in eq. (2.11) as the MAP estimate. 22.214.171.124 Standard VAE not Robust to Corrupt Data One issue with the standard VAE model is that it has no means to downweigh the importance of outlier instances on the training loss (in this case the negative ELBO). The end result is that for a high capacity VAE, as seen by a bigger amount of layers or units in the encoder / decoder neural networks, the model will easily overfit to the outliers; and thus learning the errors as if they were clean patterns of an inlier instance. Therefore, since both inlier and outlier instances may end up having the same reconstruction loss values, distinguishing them becomes harder, and thus outlier detection is compromised. This is worsened when the outliers in the corrupted dataset are more frequent, which means there is greater gain for the training loss to learn the dirty patterns (errors) that constitute outliers. Moreover, since the VAE has overfitted to the outliers, then its repair process is also compromised. The VAE model, as reflected by the training loss, will assume outliers are indeed part of the clean subset of the data. Accordingly, the decoder (generator) will reconstruct back the outlier instance with very little changes. This results in a poor quality repair, where the errors are still present. 126.96.36.199 Using the Likelihood as Anomaly Score Generally, it is common to see the likelihood (or negative log-likelihood) of the data being used as an anomaly score. Indeed, several models tackling the problem of traditional outlier detection have used it successfully in the past (Ruff et al., 2021). Nonetheless, it should be noted that using the likelihood as an anomaly score has some known issues, mostly seen under unsupervised generative models. One case is that of out-of-distribution outliers (see Section 2.2.1), where it can present very poor performance. This issue with out-of-distribution outliers was first properly shown in Nalisnick et al. (2018) for deep generative models that rely on maximum likelihood estimation either exactly (e.g. Normalizing Flows, Autoregressive) or through surrogates losses (e.g. VAEs). The authors believe that this is a fundamental limitation of high-dimensional likelihoods as scores, such as the ones used in some image datasets. The models tested seemed to be focusing on low-level statistics rather than high-level semantics when trying to score an outlier instance. Another known issue is with outlier instances that cluster together (e.g. group outliers, see Section 2.2.1). In Koh et al. (2018) the authors discuss how loss-based (e.g. log-likelihood) can overfit to these outliers, as it would decrease the average negative log-likelihood loss significantly during training. Hence, the anomaly score produced could be compromised if proper steps are not taken, like regularization or data sanitization techniques. More recently, the authors in Lan & Dinh (2020) presented a theoretical framework showcasing through the lens of reparameterization several issues with the likelihood as an anomaly score. The paper focuses on several adversarial or failure cases for this type of anomaly score. The authors remark that outlier detection can be an ill-posed problem, and without proper inductive biases (e.g. supervision) some of these failure modes can happen. Furthermore, the authors suggest that density ratio scores that compare estimated inlier and outlier distributions to be more robust, and can mitigate several of the issues. Interestingly, the unsupervised RVAE model (see Chapter 3) proposes a ratio score like this with good performance in cell outlier detection. ### 2.5.2 Unsupervised AEs: Regularization or Data Reweighting In this section we present two unsupervised autoencoder (AE) models. Each one represents an example of a type of unsupervised autoencoder that can be used in our task. Three assumptions are typically made when using these models: inliers are more frequent in the dataset relative to outliers, so regularization or data reweighting focuses model learning on more general patterns like those of inliers; corruption is random and has no specific pattern that repeats throughout the dataset, i.e. random errors; if corruption has a specific repeatable pattern and not random, i.e. systematic errors, then the amount of corruption in the dataset should be low (few outliers). #### Regularization The first modelling option is to use an autoencoder where strong regularization is applied to make the model robust against corruption. Generally regularization is applied to the model parameters, e.g. neural network weights, which hopefully forces the modelling efforts to focus on inlier data. One of the most popular approaches is to apply weight decay to the autoencoder neural networks, i.e. Tikhonov regularization (Golub et al., 1999) or $\ell_2$ norm penalty on the weights. We explore this option in more detail in Section 188.8.131.52 under the name VAE-$L_2$. Several other interesting approaches to regularized autoencoders exist in literature. Deterministic autoencoders (Ghosh et al., 2019) generalize VAEs and introduce a penalty term based on $\ell_2$ norm of the gradient of the decoder w.r.t its input. Contractive autoencoders (Rifai et al., 2011), use a penalty term based on $\ell_2$ norm of the Jacobian (second order derivative) of the encoder activations, tough one could apply it to the decoder instead as well (see Ghosh et al. (2019)). Sparse (variational) autoencoders (Ng et al., 2011) use a penalty term that enforces sparsity on the activations of the hidden layers, either activating or deactivating hidden unit contributions. Denoising (variational) autoencoders (Vincent et al., 2010) start by injecting corruption to inlier instances, and thus generating synthetic outliers. Then during training the autoencoder learns to reconstruct the inlier using the synthetic outlier. In addition, injecting noise to the hidden layers in an autoencoder has also been explored as means for regularization (Poole et al., 2014). Concrete (variational) autoencoders (Abid et al., 2019) learn a discrete number of latent features (patterns) that are combined by the decoder to reconstruct a data instance. As such, a feature selector layer picks which latent features are used by the decoder. The number of features is an hyperparameter, which can be small enough to enforce regularization. In (Shu et al., 2018) regularization is applied to VAEs by restricting the capacity of the encoder. One of the methods proposed therein is a weight-normalization technique, defining a family of amortized inference functions for the encoder. A theoretical connection between this proposal and denoising variational autoencoders is provided. Nonetheless, a simpler way to restrict capacity in VAEs is to just decrease the latent space dimensionality. Data Reweighting The second modelling option is to use data reweighting so as to isolate the contribution of the outliers towards autoencoder training. These models typically introduce robustness to corruption by modifying the loss function, or likelihood of a generative model, such that outliers are down-weighted in importance (or ignored) and inliers up-weighted. This means the model focuses on learning inlier data, however models have different ways to down-weight or isolate outliers from inlier modelling. Generally, three options exist for data reweighting. One option is to use the training loss to rank instances, and isolate the outliers by removing them from subsequent model training epochs. Those instances with high training loss get removed, usually a fraction of the entire dataset (hyperparameter). This then avoids overfitting to outliers. The Transformer model (deep learning) in Liu et al. (2020) is a good example, where outliers are removed from training early on in the first few epochs. Theoretically a RANSAC (Fischler & Bolles, 1981) version of a VAE would fit here, however as stated before, there are several practical complications that have precluded this for deep autoencoders (see intro. of Section 2.5). A second option is to use an adjacent model or variable to account for outlier contributions, this means the principal model focuses on modelling inlier data. For instance, RPCA type models that are autoencoders fit this type quite well. The Deep RPCA (Zhou & Paffenroth, 2017) which defines an additional variable to model corruption is a good example. We explore Deep RPCA in detail in Section 184.108.40.206, since we use it as a baseline. The model we propose in Chapter 3 (RVAE) is an example of a VAE where its generative model has a specific model component for outliers. Moreover, very recently a probabilistic version of Deep RPCA was proposed in Aizenbud et al. (2021), the problem of outlier detection was explored. A third option is to use a training loss that is less sensitive to outliers. These loss functions tend to attenuate or truncate contributions from large deviations relative to where most of the data is located. Since we assume most of the data are inliers, then these large deviations are relative to inlier data. In this context, large deviations are caused by outliers. As a result, this type of loss helps the model avoid overfitting to outliers during training. A relevant example is the absolute error (MAE) loss that can attenuate larger deviations. MAE is used instead of the problematic squared error (MSE) loss, which is typically used in autoencoder reconstruction, since MSE loss is dominated value-wise by large deviations (outliers) resulting in overfitting. A synthesis between these two error losses (MSE and MAE) is given by the Huber loss (Huber, 1992) for robust regression, which is effectively less sensitive to outliers. Classically, in robust statistics (Huber, 2004), another way is to use heavy-tailed distributions to attenuate outlier contributions – e.g. $t$-Student or Laplace or Cauchy distributions. However, these can only be applied to continuous feature datasets. Similar to MAE, heavy-tailed distributions when used in the negative log-likelihood loss will make large deviations from inlier data have a lower loss value than typical distributions (i.e. Gaussian). This means gradients (of the loss) are less affected by outliers, and hence gradient-descent like training is less sensitive to outliers. The exploration of heavy-tailed distributions to a wide variety of tasks was explored in Barron (2019), where it was also applied to image synthesis using VAEs. In Akrami et al. (2019a) a VAE is proposed that uses a $\beta$-divergence measure to define a reconstruction loss that attenuates outliers. The $\beta$-divergence Regli & Silva (2018b) is a general class of robust divergences that can be used in variational learning when outliers are present. The model in Wang et al. (2017b) uses a VAE as a recurrent unit (like recurrent neural network) to produce successive reconstructions, until the image is denoised. It does so by iteratively decreasing the variance of the Gaussian likelihood. In essence, outliers are represented by a Gaussian with a larger variance compared to inliers, in a way similar to a heavy-tailed distribution. ### 220.127.116.11 VAE-$L_2$ Here we present a regularized version of the standard unsupervised VAE (Kingma & Welling, 2014) that uses the common $\ell_2$ regularization (weight decay). Since this is an unsupervised model, a practitioner applying this model cannot easily provide any type of supervision to help the model distinguish between outliers and inliers. The main assumption is that by applying regularization this will have enough of an effect to have the VAE mostly focus on modelling the inlier data. In fact, if we assume a VAE with enough network capacity, then without regularization the model will surely overfit to the errors present in the outliers from the training set. To that end, the practitioner must increase the strength of the regularization enough to constrain the weights of the autoencoder network weights. For this model, this is done by increasing the weight of the regularization term, which is given by the hyperparameter $\lambda_{\ell_2}$. However, this hyperparameter has to be tuned carefully: too little strength leads to the model still overfitting to the errors; too much strength leads to a poor quality repair since detail might be lost in the decoder reconstruction. This latter issue is due to constraining the neural network weights to a point where the model collapses to mean behavior. In this model, we regularize both the encoder and decoder weights via $\ell_2$ regularization term. This is a standard approach for VAEs using weight decay. Hence, we can write the modified ELBO as $$\mathcal{L}(x) = \mathbb{E}_{q_\phi(z\|x)}[p_\theta(x\|z)] - \eta D_{KL}(q_\phi(z\|x)\|\|p(z)) + \lambda_{\ell_2} \sum_{w_i \in W_{\text{AE}}} \|\|w_i\|\|^2,$$ (2.15) where $\theta$ and $\phi$ are the parameters for the decoder and encoder respectively, and $\eta$ is used for $D_{KL}$ annealing. The $w_i$ are the parameters for a layer indexed by $i$, belonging to the set of all VAE layer parameters $W_{\text{AE}}$. We use this baseline in Chapters 3 and 4. Note that $\lambda_{\ell_2}$ is tuned by using a small validation set, where inliers and outlier instances are known (i.e. $y$ labels). Mostly, the user is looking towards optimizing outlier detection performance (AVPR, Average-Precision), but can also take into account repair metrics (SMSE, Standardized Mean Square Error). Getting a large enough value for $\lambda_{\ell_2}$ is important, however too much regularization can degrade the quality of the repair, which is why checking repair performance is important. However ground-truth values $\tilde{x}$ are generally not available as part of the problem setting (see Section 2.1), making this difficult to evaluate besides qualitatively. In Chapters 3 and 4, the hyperparameter $\lambda_{\ell_2}$ was tuned using a small labelled set, where repair performance was also taken into account. This was critical for good performance. Outlier Detection and Repair Process In terms of the outlier detection process, the VAE-$L_2$ model uses the same anomaly scores as defined for the standard VAE (see Section 2.5.1). Specifically, the anomaly scores defined in eq. (2.9) and eq. (2.10). In terms of the repair process, again this model uses the same repair transformation as defined for the standard VAE (see Section 2.5.1). The reader should see eq. (2.11) and eq. (2.12) for this. 18.104.22.168 Deep RPCA (or Robust Deep Autoencoder) Now we explain in more detail the Deep RPCA (Zhou & Paffenroth, 2017), which is a type of robust unsupervised deep AE. Here we use the name Deep RPCA as it reflects its nature in terms of modelling, though its authors named it Robust Deep Autoencoder. This model extends the RPCA (robust principal component analysis) by incorporating an autoencoder for the modelling the clean data (inliers). Otherwise, the core idea remains the same, which is to learn a combined model of the underlying inlier (repair estimate) and an error contribution if the instance is an outlier. In fact, RPCA models the error explicitly in order to downweigh outlier instance contribution to the modelling of the repair estimate, i.e. data reweighting. Deep RPCA is used in Chapter 3 (RVAE) as a baseline. Classic RPCA (Candès et al., 2011) is a model that expresses the corrupted data as the addition of a low-rank matrix representing the inlier data (repair term), and a sparse matrix representing additive noise (error term). This however tends to work best for continuous features, and not so much for categorical ones (see Chapter 3). Accordingly, this is commonly written as $ \mathbf{x} = \hat{\mathbf{x}} + \mathbf{s} $ where $ \mathbf{x} \in \mathcal{X} $ is the potentially corrupt data instance; $ \hat{\mathbf{x}} $ is the repair term, as we have seen before; and $ \mathbf{s} $ is the error term, which is a nearly zero vector if $ \mathbf{x} $ is an inlier, or clearly non-zero if an outlier. We see that RPCA uses $ \mathbf{s} $ to isolate any error deviation to the repair estimate $ \hat{\mathbf{x}} $, and hence the repair estimate should be close to the ground-truth inlier, i.e. $ \hat{\mathbf{x}} \approx \tilde{\mathbf{x}} $. Like in many applications, it is useful to use a matricial notation for RPCA. The instance vectors $ \mathbf{x} \in \mathcal{X} $ are stacked vertically to form a data matrix $ \mathbf{X} $. Similarly, we have for error term $ \mathbf{s} $ the matrix $ \mathbf{S} $, and for repair term $ \hat{\mathbf{x}} $ the matrix $ \hat{\mathbf{X}} $. Hence, one can express the dataset modelling as $ \mathbf{X} = \hat{\mathbf{X}} + \mathbf{S} $. Using a non-zero vector for $ \mathbf{s} $ tends to be penalized in RPCA, which reflects the assumption that outliers are less common than inliers. In essence, this corresponds to constraining $ \mathbf{S} $ to be a sparse matrix in terms of its rows. Moreover $ \hat{\mathbf{X}} $ is modelled by a low-rank matrix, like in standard PCA, which defines a lower dimension approximation of the data. A common formulation (Candès et al., 2011) for the learning procedure (optimization problem) for RPCA is \begin{align} \min_{X, S} & \quad \\|X\\|_* + \lambda \\|S\\|_1, \\ \text{s.t.} & \quad \\|X - \hat{X} - S\\|_F^2 = 0 \end{align} where $\\|\cdot\\|_1$ is the $\ell_1$ norm applied to the matrix element-wise, which is used to control how sparse $S$ is through $\lambda$; $\\|\cdot\\|_$ is the nuclear norm, i.e. sum of the singular values of the matrix, which is used to obtain a low-rank matrix much like PCA data reconstruction; $\\|\cdot\\|_F$ is the Frobenius norm, which is used to enforce the constraint that $X = \hat{X} + S$. In Deep RPCA (Zhou & Paffenroth, 2017) the data repair matrix $\hat{X}$ (or $x$) is actually modelled via an autoencoder. Therefore, the learning procedure (optimization problem) for Deep RPCA is now defined as \begin{align} \min_{\theta, \phi, S, X} & \quad \\|\hat{X} - D_\theta(E_\phi(\hat{X}))\\|_2 + \lambda R(S), \\ \text{s.t.} & \quad X - \hat{X} - S = 0 \end{align} where $E_\phi(.)$ and $D_\theta(.)$ are respectively the encoder and decoder neural networks of the autoencoder, and $\phi$ and $\theta$ their parameters to be learnt; further, $R(S)$ is the regularization loss for the error term, which has its strength controlled by the scalar hyperparameter $\lambda$. The value of $\lambda$ controls the level of sparsity of matrix $S$, which is tuned or user-defined according to the amount of corruption present in the dataset. A large value for $\lambda$ assumes the dataset $X$ has a low amount of corruption, i.e. few outliers, increasing the penalty incurred for using $S$. Likewise, the reverse is true, a smaller value for $\lambda$ should be used when large amounts of corruption are present. For proper tuning of $\lambda$ one should use a small labelled set of outliers / inliers, which is used to gauge outlier detection performance. The type of regularization loss $R(S)$ used will dictate how outlier detection is performed, and it should be adjusted to the type of corruption in the data. Firstly, note that $S_{nd}$ is an element of matrix $S$, and $S_n$ or $s$ is a row of $S$. The set of all rows of matrix $S$ is defined as $S^r = \{s \mid s \text{ is a row of } S\}$. The set of all elements (entries) of matrix $S$ is defined as $S^e = \{S_{nd} \mid S_{nd} \text{ is an entry of } S\}$. In Deep RPCA two types of regularizers are used, the first is defined by \begin{equation} R(S) = \\|S\\|_1 = \sum_{n=1}^{N} \sum_{d=1}^{D} \|S_{nd}\|, \end{equation} which should be used when the corruption affecting cells (pixels) is distributed with no particular pattern. This is also the standard regularizer used in classic RPCA, see eq. (2.16). Another and more interesting regularizer is defined by \[ R(S) = \\|S\\|_{2,1} = \sum_{n=1}^{N} \sqrt{\sum_{d=1}^{D} \|S_{nd}\|^2}, \] (2.19) and its most useful when data corruption is due to the presence of outlier instances, which means that dirty cells are concentrated in specific data instances. Further, it assumes most instances are inliers, and thus made up of clean cells. This second regularizer is more relevant for the problem setting we are trying to solve in this thesis (see Section 2.1). Training the Model* The optimization algorithm used to train Deep RPCA (Zhou & Paffenroth, 2017) is an hybrid version of the original Alternating Direction Method of Multipliers algorithm (ADMM). The classic ADMM (Boyd et al., 2011) is proximal optimization method, ideally used when parts of the training loss are non-smooth functions (e.g. $ \ell_1 $ regularizer). It alternates between a typical gradient descent update to the solution, and one or more updates using proximal operators. In the case of Deep RPCA the proximal operators reflect the type of regularizers used, e.g. those in eq. (2.18) and eq. (2.19). The gradient descent step updates the autoencoder parameters $ \phi $ and $ \theta $; and the proximal operators update $ \tilde{X} $ and $ S $. Outlier Detection and Repair Process In terms of outlier detection, one must define an anomaly score for cells and another for instances. According to Zhou & Paffenroth (2017), and assuming $ R(S) $ is given by 2.19, the cell anomaly score is \[ A_d^\theta(s) = \|S_{nd}\|^2 \quad S_{nd} \in S^c, \] (2.20) where according to (Deep) RPCA formulation for each $ x $ we have an associated $ s $. On the other hand, for traditional outlier detection, we need an anomaly score for instances. In Deep RPCA, assuming $ R(S) $ is given by 2.19, the instance or row anomaly score is given by \[ A^n(s) = \sqrt{\sum_{d=1}^{D} \|S_{nd}\|^2} \quad S_n \in S^r. \] (2.21) The repair estimate $\hat{\mathbf{x}}$ is obtained directly by solving the optimization process in eq. (2.17). Thus the optimization problem in eq. (2.17) is the repair process, where $\hat{\mathbf{x}}$ is just a row of matrix $\hat{\mathbf{X}}$. ### 2.5.3 Supervised and Semi-supervised VAEs In this section, VAE models that have at least some supervision are discussed. The model can either be fully supervised, where all labels $y \in \mathcal{Y}$ are known for the entire training set instances $\mathbf{x} \in \mathcal{X}$. Alternatively, only a smaller labelled set is provided, i.e. a trusted set. In our problem setting, this trusted set is a subset of the overall training set $\mathcal{X}$. Our problem setting only allows for small labelled sets, as to consider little user intervention, though supervised models can be useful as baselines. An instance in this small trusted set is given as $(\mathbf{x}, y) \in \mathcal{X}_l \times \mathcal{Y}_l$, where inlier ($y = 1$) and outlier ($y = 0$) instances are labelled. The main idea behind using these models is to exploit any labels $y$ provided for the dataset by the user. This supervision should help the model recognize outliers, learn the patterns of the errors, and distinguish them from inlier instances. This should allow not only for outlier detection, but also a repair process where changing the label to $y = 1$ in the model should generate a repair estimate. This is particularly relevant when outliers are difficult to detect, e.g. systematic errors which unsupervised generative models can more easily overfit to. Using semi-supervision improves outlier detection and data repair significantly in this case, which is explored in Chapter 4. In fact, unsupervised robust generative models still are at a clearly increased risk to overfitting to systematic errors. This is because systematic errors result from nearly deterministic transformations (plus potentially some noise) that occur repeatedly in data, unlike random errors. As a reminder, the reader should take a look at the problem setting notation in Section 2.1. Finally, some models may always need a small labelled set, e.g. validation set, for hyperparameter tuning model. #### 22.214.171.124 CVAE (Supervised) The CVAE (Conditional VAE) model (Kingma et al., 2014; Sohn et al., 2015) simply concatenates the label $y$ to both the input of the encoder network, and the input of the decoder. This models needs the entire training set to be labelled, i.e. The CVAE provides a valuable supervised baseline, where the ground-truth for $ y $ is observed for all instances $ x $. However, this is typically not possible, as the user would have to label or otherwise provide $ y $ for each $ x $ for a potentially large dataset. This means this model is not very practical, i.e. little user intervention in our problem setting. Once more, our problem setting (Section 2.1.) only allows for small trusted sets. The ELBO for the CVAE model is given by \[ \log p(x, y) \geq L(x, y) = E_{q_\phi(z\|x,y)}[p_\theta(x\|z,y)] - \eta D_{KL}(q_\phi(z\|x,y)\|\|p_\sigma(z)), \] where $ \theta $ and $ \phi $ are the decoder and encoder parameters, and $ \eta $ can be used for $ D_{KL} $ annealing. Note that we have $ q_\phi(z\|x,y) = N(z\|\mu_\phi(x,y),\Sigma_\phi(x,y)) $; and the decoder has the same type of distribution as the standard VAE (Section 2.5.1.), apart from conditioning on $ y $. Furthermore, in a standard CVAE we usually have $ p(z) = N(z\|0,I) $. However, we found empirically that stronger regularization for the encoder was needed for CVAE to do well in repair. Otherwise, it would often overfit to errors in outliers (of the systematic type), see Chapter 4. Hence, we use a modified prior $ p_\sigma(z) = N(z\|0,\sigma^2I) $ where $ \sigma \in [0.1,0.8] $, thus enforcing stronger regularization (lower message capacity) on latent code $ z $. Theoretically, one might think that the encoder / decoder weights may scale in order to cancel out any change in the variance $ \sigma $. Thus, the optimum model after training on the ELBO loss would always be the same. In practice, this is not the case. For further discussion into this please see Section 126.96.36.199. Even though it is not standard, we also tried modifying the encoder $ q_\phi(z\|x) $ to not depend on $ y $, but always ended up with worse performance than $ q_\phi(z\|x,y) $ in data repair. Therefore, the training loss for the CVAE is defined by \[ \min_{\theta, \phi} -\frac{1}{N} \sum_{(x,y) \in X \times Y} L(x, y). \] Outlier Detection and Repair Process In terms of outlier detection, once again an anomaly score based on the reconstruction (negative log-likelihood) of CVAE is used. Hence, for traditional outlier detection we have \[ A^\theta(x) = -\sum_d \log p_\theta(x_d\|\mu_\phi(x,y=1),y=1) \quad x \in X, \] where the outlier set of instances is $ \mathcal{O} = \{ x \in \mathcal{X} \| A^\theta(x) \geq \gamma \} $, where $ \gamma $ is given by the user or tuned using a validation set. Again, note that $ y = 1 $ is the inlier label, which is selected for this likelihood-based score. The idea here is that outliers $ x $ should have low likelihood if one conditions the reconstruction distribution to $ y = 1 $ (inliers). As a result, the anomaly score of an outlier should be high in that case. Similarly, we can define the anomaly score for cell outlier detection. For some feature $ d $ in instance $ x $ the score for each cell (or pixel) is \[ A^\theta_d(x) = -\log p_\theta(x_d \| \mu_\phi(x, y = 1), y = 1) \quad x \in \mathcal{X}, \] and so the cell $ x_d $ is considered an outlier if $ A^\theta_d(x) \geq \gamma_d $, where $ \gamma_d $ is either tuned via validation set or given by the user. Now one must define the repair process using this model. We follow the CVAE attribute manipulation strategy from (Klys et al., 2018), and thus provide a repair estimate for an outlier ($ y = 0 $). This will produce a point-wise estimate (MAP) for $ \hat{x} $. Conceptually, we have the following steps: one encodes $ x $ using the original label ($ y = 0 $); then one switches the label in the latent space ($ y = 1 $); finally one used the decoder to generate the repair. In other words, the repair estimate is given by \[ \hat{x} = g_r^\theta(x) = \arg \max_{x'} \log p_\theta(x' \| \mu_\phi(x, y = 0), y = 1) \quad x \in \mathcal{O}, \] which can be simplified in the case of an image dataset with continuous features as follows \[ \hat{x} = \mu_\theta(\mu_\phi(x, y = 0), y = 1) \quad x \in \mathcal{O}. \] ### 188.8.131.52 M2 Model: Standard Semi-Supervised VAE The classic version of the semi-supervised VAE (Kingma et al., 2014) assumes a labelled subset of the training data is available. Hence in the training data we have a trusted set $ \mathcal{X}_l \times \mathcal{Y}_l $, and an unlabelled set $ \mathcal{X}_u $ that tends to encompass the vast majority of data instances. This model is often referred to as the M2 model, since that is the original name from the authors. The M2 model shares several characteristics with the CVAE, and can be seen as its semi-supervised version. For this reason often CVAE will register the same or better performance than the M2 model. The ELBO of the semi-supervised VAE is given by two terms, which account for the semi-supervised setting. The first term $\mathcal{L}(\boldsymbol{x})$ is the ELBO for the unlabelled part of the data, corresponding to $p(\boldsymbol{x})$ where $\boldsymbol{x} \in \mathcal{X}_u$. The second term $\mathcal{L}(\boldsymbol{x}, y)$ is the ELBO for the trusted set, corresponding to $p(\boldsymbol{x}, y)$ where $(\boldsymbol{x}, y) \in \mathcal{X}_l \times \mathcal{Y}_l$. The generative model for the semi-supervised VAE (M2 model, (Kingma et al., 2014)) is $p_\theta(\boldsymbol{x}\|\boldsymbol{z}, y)p(\boldsymbol{z})p(y)$. Note that $p(y) = \text{Bernoulli}(y\|\alpha)$ is just the prior distribution of the labels, which defines a prior belief on how corrupt the training dataset is. Specifically, $\alpha$ reflects the fraction of instances in the training set believed to be inliers. For instance, an $\alpha$ close to 1 means that the dataset is mostly without outliers. Further, just like in standard VAE we have $p(\boldsymbol{z}) = \mathcal{N}(\boldsymbol{z}\|\mathbf{0}, \mathbf{I})$. The decoder $p_\theta(\boldsymbol{x}\|\boldsymbol{z}, y)$ has the same definition as in Section 2.5.1, apart from being conditioned on $y$. The typical variational model used for this VAE model is $q_\phi(\boldsymbol{z}\|\boldsymbol{x}, y)q_\phi(y\|\boldsymbol{x})$, where $q_\phi(\boldsymbol{z}\|\boldsymbol{x}, y) = \mathcal{N}(\boldsymbol{z}\|\mu_\phi(\boldsymbol{x}, y), \Sigma_\phi(\boldsymbol{x}, y))$ and $q_\phi(y\|\boldsymbol{x}) = \text{Bernoulli}(y\|\pi_\phi(\boldsymbol{x}))$. According to Kingma et al. (2014), the labelled term of the ELBO is $$\mathcal{L}(\boldsymbol{x}, y) = \mathbb{E}_{q_\phi(\boldsymbol{z}\|\boldsymbol{x}, y)}[p_\theta(\boldsymbol{x}\|\boldsymbol{z}, y)] - \eta D_{KL}(q_\phi(\boldsymbol{z}\|\boldsymbol{x}, y)\|\|p(\boldsymbol{z})) + \eta \log p(y), \quad (2.28)$$ where once more note that $\theta$ and $\phi$ are decoder and encoder neural network parameters. The unlabelled term of the ELBO is $$\mathcal{L}(\boldsymbol{x}) = \mathbb{E}_{q_\phi(y\|\boldsymbol{x})q_\phi(\boldsymbol{z}\|\boldsymbol{x}, y)}[p_\theta(\boldsymbol{x}\|\boldsymbol{z}, y)] \quad (2.29)$$ $$- \eta \mathbb{E}_{q_\phi(y\|\boldsymbol{x})}[D_{KL}(q_\phi(\boldsymbol{z}\|\boldsymbol{x}, y)\|\|p(\boldsymbol{z}))] - \eta D_{KL}(q_\phi(y\|\boldsymbol{x})\|\|p(y)).$$ Combining the two terms the overall negative ELBO is obtained as follows $$\mathcal{I}_{-\text{ELBO}}^{\phi, \theta} = -\frac{1}{N} \left[ \sum_{\boldsymbol{x} \in \mathcal{X}_u} \mathcal{L}(\boldsymbol{x}) + \sum_{(\boldsymbol{x}, y) \in \mathcal{X}_l \times \mathcal{Y}_l} \mathcal{L}(\boldsymbol{x}, y) \right]. \quad (2.30)$$ However, if we look at the overall negative ELBO we notice that the variational distribution $q_\phi(y\|\boldsymbol{x})$, also known as classifier, is not being encouraged to predict the labels $y$ given by the trusted set. Thus the overall negative ELBO should not be used alone as a training loss. As a result, in Kingma et al. (2014) an additional loss term to train the classifier on the trusted set labels is proposed. This term is the cross-entropy loss between the true labels $y \in \mathcal{Y}_l$ and $q_\phi(y\|\boldsymbol{x})$. This loss term is defined as $$\mathcal{I}_{\text{CE}}^\phi = -\frac{1}{N_l} \sum_{(\boldsymbol{x}, y) \in \mathcal{X}_l \times \mathcal{Y}_l} y \log q_\phi(y=1\|\boldsymbol{x}) + (1-y) \log (1-q_\phi(y=1\|\boldsymbol{x})). \quad (2.31)$$ Therefore, combining all loss terms together for the training loss, we define the optimization problem as \[ \min_{\phi, \theta} \mathcal{I}_{\text{ELBO}}^{\phi, \theta} + \beta \mathcal{I}_{\text{CE}}^{\phi}, \] (2.32) where the scalar hyperparameter $\beta$ controls the amount of up-sampling or importance relative to the ELBO terms. In the case of quite small trusted sets, which is the case for our problem setting, $\beta$ tends to be moderately large. Outlier Detection and Repair Process The outlier detection anomaly scores defined for CVAE in Section 184.108.40.206 can be used here as well. Specifically, we have the anomaly score for cells in eq. (2.25), and the one for instances in eq. (2.24). However, since a classifier $q_\phi(y\|x)$ is available we can use it to define an alternative anomaly score for instance $x$. If the classifier is found to be calibrated and the VAE training successful, then it should be strongly considered. In practice, if available we found this type of score to be superior in performance to one based on the decoder likelihood (e.g. like in eq. (2.24)). This type of score is defined simply as \[ A^\phi(x) = -\log q_\phi(y=1\|x) \quad x \in \mathcal{X}, \] (2.33) representing the negative log probability of the instance $x$ being an inlier ($y=1$). Like previous anomaly scores, a higher value means instance $x$ is more likely to be an outlier. Again the set of outlier instances is given by $\mathcal{O} = \{x \in \mathcal{X} \| A^\phi(x) \geq \gamma\}$. Assuming the classifier is calibrated, we can use $\gamma = -\log(0.5)$ instead of tuning it or having the user define it. In terms of the data repair process, this is the same exact procedure as defined for CVAE, in Section 220.127.116.11. Particularly, one should look at formulations in eq. (2.26) or (2.27). 18.104.22.168 VAEGMM: Alternative to M2 Model (Sparse Semi-Supervised) This formulation is based on Willetts et al. (2020), specifically the GM-DGM (Gaussian Mixture Deep Generative Model) presented therein. The authors focused on the problem of applying a semi-supervised VAE in severe cases of sparse semi-supervision (e.g. some classes do not even have labels). The sparseness refers to how small the labelled set is, just like in our problem setting with quite small trusted sets. In sparse semi-supervision, this formulation is relevant since posterior collapse of $q_\phi(y\|x)$ can occur for the original M2 model (Kingma et al., 2014). This in turn leads to poor performance in classification and clustering tasks. Hence, one can think of Willetts et al. (2020) as an improvement on M2 model for the issue above. Below we present the version of GM-DGM from Willetts et al. (2020) applied to our problem setting, which we refer to as VAEGMM. The name VAEGMM reflects the nature of its modelling more explicitly. Generative Model The generative model is defined as $$p(x, z, y) = p_\theta(x\|z) \cdot p_\tau(z\|y) \cdot p_\alpha(y),$$ where $$p_\alpha(y) = \text{Bernoulli}(y\|\alpha),$$ $$p_\tau(z\|y) = y \cdot \mathcal{N}(z\|0, \sigma_{y=1}^2 I) + (1 - y) \cdot \mathcal{N}(z\|0, \sigma_{y=0}^2 I),$$ and decoder $p_\theta(x\|z)$ is the same as in standard VAE (see Section 2.5.1). This model defines a 2-component Gaussian Mixture Model w.r.t. $z$, and $\tau = \{\sigma_{y=1}, \sigma_{y=0}\}$ and $\sigma_{y=1} < \sigma_{y=0}$. A sensible range for $\tau$ is: $\sigma_{y=1} = [0.2, 1]$; $\sigma_{y=1} = [2, 8]$. This prior defines a 2-component Richter distribution (Gales & Olsen, 1999a; Quinn et al., 2008), expressing a type of heavy-tailed distribution on $z$. In the context of robust statistics Huber (2004), this type of distribution can be used as a means to robustify (regularize) Barron (2019) the parameters of a model to outliers. The main idea here is that inliers $z\|y=1$ will be regularized more strongly compared to outliers $z\|y=0$, as reflected by $\sigma_{y=1} < \sigma_{y=0}$. In our experiments, we initially tried learning the parameters of the Gaussian components for $z$, as suggested in Willetts et al. (2020). However we obtained much better results by fixing their parameters, i.e. mean vector and covariance matrix, particularly when it came to outlier detection in small trusted sets. Like in CVAE, see Section 22.214.171.124, one might think that changing the variances of the prior for $z$ has limited or no impact. Since the encoder / decoder weights may scale in order to cancel the changes in $\sigma_{y=1}$ or $\sigma_{y=0}$. In practice, this is not the case, and we registered good performance by scaling these. For further discussion into variance scaling (of $z$ prior) and its impact please see Section 126.96.36.199. Lastly, once again $\alpha$ reflects the initial belief on the fraction of clean data. Variational Model The variational model uses the standard formulation provided in Willetts et al. (2020), which is the same as in the original M2 model (Kingma et al., 2014). Accordingly, the encoders $$q(z, y\|x) = q_\phi(z\|x, y) \ q_\phi(y\|x), \quad (2.37)$$ where $$q_\phi(y\|x) = \text{Bernoulli}(y\|\pi_\phi(x)), \quad (2.38)$$ $$q_\phi(z\|x, y) = \mathcal{N}(z\|\mu_\phi(x, y), \Sigma_\phi(x, y)), \quad (2.39)$$ such that $\pi_\phi(x)$, $\mu_\phi(x, y)$ and $\Sigma_\phi(x, y)$ are neural networks. Training Loss The ELBO (Evidence Lower Bound) for the unlabelled part of the dataset $X_u$ is $$\mathcal{L}(x) = \mathbb{E}_{q_\phi(y\|x)q_\phi(z\|x, y)} [\log p_\theta(x\|z)] - \eta \mathbb{E}_{q_\phi(y\|x)} [D_{KL}(q_\phi(z\|x, y)\|\|p_r(z\|y))] - \eta D_{KL}(q_\phi(y\|x)\|\|p_\alpha(y)), \quad (2.40)$$ which can be rewritten in a different fashion as $$\mathcal{L}(x) = \pi_{\phi(x)} \mathcal{G}(x, y = 1) + (1 - \pi_{\phi(x)}) \mathcal{G}(x, y = 0) - D_{KL}(q_\phi(y\|x)\|\|p_\alpha(y)), \quad (2.41)$$ where $$\mathcal{G}(x, y) = \mathbb{E}_{q_\phi(z\|x, y)} [\log p_\theta(x\|z)] - \eta D_{KL}(q_\phi(z\|x, y)\|\|p_r(z\|y)), \quad (2.42)$$ and $\pi_{\phi(x)} = q_\phi(y = 1\|x)$ is the probability a data instance is clean. Accordingly, the ELBO for the labelled part of the dataset (trusted set) $X_l \times Y_l$ is as follows $$\log p(x, y) \geq \mathcal{L}(x, y) = \mathcal{G}(x, y) + \eta \log p_\alpha(y). \quad (2.43)$$ Taking the above formulations for the ELBOs of the unlabelled and labelled (trusted set) subsets, then these can be used to form the dataset ELBO. The negative ELBO loss for the M2 model also applies here (see eq. (2.30)). Further, like for M2 model we need to encourage $q_\phi(y\|x)$ to predict the labels of the trusted set. Thus a cross-entropy loss like eq. (2.31) is needed. Lastly, putting it all together the overall training loss is exactly the one for M2 model, as defined in eq. (2.32). Outlier Detection and Repair Process After training the model, we can then proceed with the outlier detection and data repair processes. Like before we need an anomaly score for cells and another for instances. As usual, we can define likelihood-based scores using the decoder of this VAE model. The anomaly score for a cell of instance $x$ is defined by $$A_d^\theta(x) = -\log p_\theta(x_d \mid \mu_\phi(x; y = 1)) \quad x \in X,$$ whilst the anomaly score for the whole instance is $$A^\theta(x) = -\sum_{d}^{D} \log p_\theta(x_d \mid \mu_\phi(x; y = 1)) \quad x \in X,$$ where the set of outlier instances is $\mathcal{O} = \{x \in X \mid A^\theta(x) \geq \gamma\}$, and cell $x_d$ from $x \in \mathcal{O}$ is dirty if $A_d^\theta(x) \geq \gamma_d$. However, since this is a semi-supervised model we have access to classifier $q_\phi(y\|x)$, which when used as a score tends to obtain better detection performance. Therefore, the anomaly for the whole distance using the classifier is $$A^\phi(x) = -\log q_\phi(y = 1 \mid x) \quad x \in X,$$ just like in the case of the M2 model. Once more, assuming the classifier is well calibrated we can use $\gamma \approx -\log(0.5)$, instead of tuning it or manually setting it. Moving on the repair process, we need to provide a point-wise estimate for the repair. For this model, this simply means conditioning on $y = 1$ as we want to generate a inlier like instance. As such, we generally have that $$\hat{x} = g_\theta^\theta(x) = \arg \max_{x'} \log p_\theta(x' \mid \mu_\phi(x; y = 1)) \quad x \in \mathcal{O},$$ and for the case of images with continuous pixels we can just simplify to $$\hat{x} = \mu_\theta(\mu_\phi(x; y = 1)) \quad x \in \mathcal{O}.$$ 2.5.4 Latent Space Disentanglement in VAEs A class of VAE models that have garnered some attention in the last few years are those that try to disentangle the latent space. The idea is that a latent variable, or a set of them, will map to a particular attribute (or characteristic, or factor) of the instance. Equally as important, these latent variables (or set of) should be statistically independent, thus guaranteeing the modelling of different data attributes. If this happens, then the VAE has its latent space disentangled, or has a disentangled representation. A good overview of disentanglement methods in the context of VAEs is found in Locatello et al. (2019a) and Tschannen et al. (2018), though more recent surveys may exist. In Locatello et al. (2019b) the authors give a complementary overview for semi-supervised disentangled VAEs. What is a Disentangled Representation? The essential task of disentanglement (in VAEs) is to learn statistically independent non-linear latent features (i.e. variables) that together completely describe the data generation process. In practice, it is also common to relax the independence aspect to cover sets or groups of independent latent variables, instead of just individual variables. In our context, an instance is composed by several attributes, where each attribute can result in different feature (or pixel) values depending on its latent label. For instance, consider an image dataset of human faces, an instance is made of several attributes like eyes, mustache, nose type, hair, etc. Each attribute may have different latent labels, e.g. hair may have the labels [blonde, brunette, black]; or mustache may have the labels [yes, no]. One can relax this concept and allow the latent label to be continuous instead of discrete, allowing for much more detailed control of the image attribute. Note that an attribute is also known as factor or characteristic in literature. Modelling the attributes through specific latent variables allows the user to have detailed control of the generative process, or reconstruction process. Because the latent variables are disentangled, this means a change on a particular attribute should not change other attributes when generating samples (or reconstruction), if we assume other latent variables retain their values. In our example above, this means we can modify the hair label changing a specific latent variable value without modifying other attribute labels like mustache or eyes. Once more, this is due to the property of statistical independence between latent variables, which disentanglement models in VAEs try to guarantee (Lopez et al., 2018; Khemakhem et al., 2020). Relevance to Data Repair Theoretically, for the problem of data repair, a VAE with a disentangled representation would model attributes related to errors in a specific set of latent variables. Therefore, after encoding the outlier instance into latent space, the values of latent variables related to errors can be modified such that upon reconstruction it produces a repair. This means that error attributes have been set to be disabled or off, by choosing appropriate values for those latent variables. Further, all other attributes not related to the presence of errors are maintained, and so the instance is reconstructed without errors (repair). Moreover, by checking which values are in the error related latent variables after encoding, a model can potentially classify the instance as an outlier or inlier. In other words, perform outlier detection. Generally, this latent space disentanglement perspective about outlier detection and data repair has not been explored in literature. In Chapter 4 we explore this topic in depth, and propose our own solution (Clean Subspace VAE, CLSVAE). Specifically, we show the effectiveness of our solution on dataset corruption by systematic errors. This makes sense since systematic errors have specific repeatable patterns, which should theoretically be encoded well in a set of latent variables. Models from Literature According to Bengio et al. (2013); Higgins et al. (2016) disentanglement is an important part of representation learning, which can be useful for downstream tasks – e.g. regression, classification, clustering. In Locatello et al. (2019a) the authors present theoretical results that put into question the abilities of existing methods to actually disentangle the latent space successfully. However, counterarguments to these theoretical results have also appeared in literature, such as in Mathieu et al. (2019) and the recent works on identifiable deep generative models (Hälvä et al., 2021; Khemakhem et al., 2020; Moran et al., 2022). The authors in Locatello et al. (2019a) argue that one of the main practical objectives of unsupervised VAE disentanglement should be interpretability and fairness. Further, the authors suggest that inductive biases and labelled data (e.g. semi-supervision) play an important role in maximizing the usefulness of disentanglement. The authors in Hälvä et al. (2021); Khemakhem et al. (2020) also suggest that inductive biases or labelled data are often necessary if we are to obtain an identifiable model – i.e. able to disentangle and obtain the true latent factors of the generative process. Moreover, in Moran et al. (2022) the concepts of anchor features and sparsity used jointly are seen as sufficient to guarantee model identifiability. Most of the earlier VAE disentanglement models focused on unsupervised approaches. The $\beta$-VAE (Higgins et al., 2016) was one of the first models, where the coefficient $\beta$ controls weight of the $D_{KL}$ term relative to the reconstruction term. The idea is that $\beta$ as an hyperparameter can adjust VAE disentanglement, specifically for $\beta \geq 1$. The work in Burgess et al. (2018) provides further study of $\beta$-VAE within an information bottleneck framework. It explains the tradeoff between reconstruction quality and a disentangled representation, and the role of $\beta$ in adjusting it. It proposes a way to anneal $\beta$ in a way that progressively increases the bottleneck capacity so that the encoder focuses on learning one attribute at a time. A generalization of $\beta$-VAE is proposed in Mathieu et al. (2019), where the aim is to make disentanglement more principled and study the impact of hyperparameters. Nonetheless, many of the unsupervised models have focused on augmenting the ELBO of the VAE (see eq. 2.6) with regularizers encouraging disentanglement of the latent variables. Some methods propose a regularizer based on the decomposition of the typical $D_{KL}$ found in the ELBO of a VAE. This $D_{KL}$ can be decomposed in two terms: mutual information (MI) between $\boldsymbol{x}$ and $\boldsymbol{z}$; and the $D_{KL}$ divergence between the aggregate posterior $q_\phi(\boldsymbol{z})$ and the standard prior $p(\boldsymbol{z})$. For instance, such models include InfoVAE (Zhao et al., 2017a), $\beta$-TCVAE and FactorVAE (Kim & Mnih, 2018) (Total Correlation as surrogate for MI penalty), DIP-VAE (Kumar et al., 2017) (matching the moments of aggregate posterior and prior). Another class of methods introduces regularizers to the ELBO that promote independence between sets of latent variables. This is in contrast with most methods that focus on independence between individual latent variables. Some examples are HSIC-VAE (Lopez et al., 2018) and HF-VAE (Esmaeili et al., 2019). A different perspective is to change the VAE prior structure of $\boldsymbol{z}$ to induce disentanglement; for instance, Tonolini et al. (2019) proposes a prior on the latent variables based on sparsity (i.e. Spike and Slab distribution). More recently some works (iVAE) Khemakhem et al. (2020); Hälvå et al. (2021) focus on melding nonlinear ICA (Independent Component Analysis) (Bach & Jordan, 2002; Hyvarinen & Morioka, 2016) with VAEs. The original ICA is a linear model that focuses on the separation of a mixture of signals into their independent and separate sources. Indeed, this is related to VAE disentanglement since the aim is to find statistically independent attributes. These works also reinforce the fact that inductive biases (e.g. neural architectures, weak-supervision) or semi-supervision (i.e. a few labelled instances) are needed for effective latent disentanglement, just like in ICA; otherwise, the problem might be intractable. The importance of inductive biases or explicit supervision is also discussed in Locatello et al. (2019a). Having said that, inductive biases have been explored in literature for the purpose of disentanglement. These explore things like relational information, cause-effect of the variation between attributes, grouping information, amongst others. Some examples can be found in Bouchacourt et al. (2018); Li & Mandt (2018); Ruiz et al. (2019); Hsu et al. (2017). Most of the semi-supervised VAE models in literature focus on disentangling a few latent variables (attributes) that are partly observed (few labels), whilst the remaining variables (attributes) remain entangled. More recent examples can be seen in CCVAE (Joy et al., 2020) and DIVA (Ilse et al., 2020), and older models seen in Paige et al. (2017); Lopez et al. (2018); Bouchacourt et al. (2018). Further, fully supervised models can be found in CSVAE (Klys et al., 2018) and Fader Networks (Lample et al., 2017). From another perspective, a fully supervised GAN (Generative Adversarial Network) version is seen in StarGAN v2 (Choi et al., 2020). On the other hand, some models assume all ground-truth attributes (latent variables) are labelled, e.g. the semi-supervised version in Locatello et al. (2019b). The type of VAE disentanglement models most useful for our problem, specially when a trusted set (some labelled data) is available, is the semi-supervised kind. Those particularly important are the models that can handle only using very few labelled instances, i.e. sparse semi-supervision. This exact scenario is explored in Chapter 4. For this reason we pick CCVAE (Joy et al., 2020) as a SOTA baseline for our problem of outlier detection and data repair. We explain CCVAE in detail below, within the context of our problem. 188.8.131.52 CCVAE (Semi-Supervised Latent Disentanglement) Here we present a recent semi-supervised latent disentanglement VAE, the CCVAE (Joy et al., 2020), which provides reasonable performance at outlier detection and data repair. This model was explored in the context of systematic error repair as a baseline, see Chapter 4 for details. Moreover, Joy et al. (2020) compares CCVAE to M2 model in several tasks, with CCVAE clearly performing much better at classification and conditional generation. In Joy et al. (2020) the latent space $z$ is split into two subspaces: the style (or agnostic) part $z_v$ that is meant to model unlabelled patterns present in the instance; the characteristics part $z_c$ that is meant to model the labelled attributes (also called characteristics). Formally we have $z = [z_c ; z_v]$ where $[ ; ]$ is the concatenation operation. An attribute in the context of latent disentanglement models could be for instance mustache vs. no mustache in a human face, color of hair, skin color, or even inlier vs. outlier. Therefore, changing the value of $z_c$ when reconstructing an existing data instance at test time is usually called attribute manipulation, since this changes how the attribute is reflected in the reconstruction of the instance. Following Joy et al. (2020) and its implementation, our problem is modelled by defining $z_c$ as a single variable associated with binary label $y$. Basically, $z_c$ can be seen as a latent representation or embedding encoding whether the data instance has been corrupted or not. In this context, if $y = 1$ that means $z_c$ should have a value that reflects the absence of errors when generating $x$, i.e. an inlier; if $y = 0$, then that means $z_c$ should have a value that reflects the presence of errors when generating $x$, i.e. an outlier. Generative Model From Joy et al. (2020), and using a similar notation, we have \begin{align} p(\mathbf{x}, \mathbf{z}, y) &= p_\theta(\mathbf{x} \| \mathbf{z}) \ p_\psi(\mathbf{z}_c \| y) \ p(\mathbf{z}_{\setminus c}) \ p(y), \\ p(y) &= \text{Bernoulli}(y \| \alpha), \\ p(\mathbf{z}_{\setminus c}) &= \mathcal{N}(\mathbf{z}_{\setminus c} \| 0, \mathbf{I}), \\ p_\psi(\mathbf{z}_c \| y) &= \mathcal{N}(\mathbf{z}_c \| \boldsymbol{\mu}_\psi(y), \boldsymbol{\sigma}_\psi^2(y)), \end{align} where $p_\theta(\mathbf{x} \| \mathbf{z})$ is a neural network decoder, like in Section 2.5.1, and $\theta$ are its parameters. Once more, $\alpha$ expresses the prior belief about the fraction of inliers in the dataset. The above generative model expresses a two-component mixture model on $\mathbf{z}_c$ with $y$ as gating variable, see eq. (2.52). In fact, we have a mean and variance for each $y$ value as it pertains to $\mathbf{z}_c$ where: $\boldsymbol{\mu}_\psi(y = 1)$ and $\boldsymbol{\sigma}_\psi(y = 1)$ for inliers; and similar for outliers ($y = 0$). Variational Model The variational distribution is factorized as \begin{align} q(y, \mathbf{z} \| \mathbf{x}) &= q_{\varphi, \phi}(y \| \mathbf{x}) \ q_{\varphi, \phi}(\mathbf{z} \| \mathbf{x}, y), \\ q_\varphi(y \| \mathbf{z}_c) &= \text{Bernoulli}(y \| \pi_\varphi(\mathbf{z}_c)), \\ q_\phi(\mathbf{z} \| \mathbf{x}) &= \mathcal{N}(\mathbf{z} \| \boldsymbol{\mu}_\phi(\mathbf{x}), \boldsymbol{\sigma}_\phi^2(\mathbf{x})), \\ q_{\varphi, \phi}(y \| \mathbf{x}) &= \int q_\varphi(y \| \mathbf{z}_c) q_\phi(\mathbf{z} \| \mathbf{x}) d\mathbf{z}, \\ q_{\varphi, \phi}(\mathbf{z} \| \mathbf{x}, y) &= \frac{q_\varphi(y \| \mathbf{z}_c) q_\phi(\mathbf{z} \| \mathbf{x})}{q_{\varphi, \phi}(y \| \mathbf{x})}, \end{align} where $q_\varphi(y \| \mathbf{z}_c)$ and $q_\phi(\mathbf{z} \| \mathbf{x})$ are neural network based encoders, with $\varphi$ and $\phi$ as neural network parameters. Training Loss The training loss in Joy et al. (2020) for CCVAE is based on the ELBO, with one term for the labelled part of data (trusted set), and a second term for the unlabelled part. Below we quickly present the ELBO loss and the optimization problem, for a detailed description please see the original paper (Joy et al., 2020). The labelled part of the ELBO is \[ L_{CCVAE}(x, y) = \mathbb{E}_{q_\phi(z\|x)} \left[ q_\varphi(y\|z_c) \log \left( \frac{p_\theta(x\|z) \ p_\psi(z_c\|y) \ p(z_{\setminus c})}{q_\varphi(y\|z_c) \ q_\phi(z\|x)} \right) \right] + \beta \ \log q_\varphi(y\|x) + \log p(y), \] where $\beta$ is the hyperparameter controlling amount of up-sampling and importance relative to other terms, like in M2 model (section 184.108.40.206). In Joy et al. (2020), for their application, they found that setting $\beta = 1$ brought good results and found no need to tune it further. In our problem setting, we found that we obtained better performance by using larger values for $\beta$. This is probably because our application is different, i.e. outlier detection and subsequent repair, and since the trusted sets (labelled sets) used in our problem setup are quite small. An important point about CCVAE is that the term that encourages the classifier $q_\varphi(y\|z_c)$ to learn the labels of the trusted set emerges naturally from the labelled ELBO – see eq. (2.58). As a result, one does not need to add a cross-entropy term like in M2 model (section 220.127.116.11). The unlabelled part of the ELBO is \[ L_{CCVAE}(x) = \mathbb{E}_{q_\phi(z\|x)q_\varphi(y\|z_c)} \left[ \log \left( \frac{p_\theta(x\|z) \ p_\psi(z_c\|y) \ p(z_{\setminus c}) \ p(y)}{q_\varphi(y\|z_c) \ q_\phi(z\|x)} \right) \right]. \] Lastly, the training procedure is defined by \[ \min_{\theta, \phi, \varphi, \psi} \sum_{x \in X_u} L_{CCVAE}(x) + \sum_{(x, y) \in X_t \times Y_t} L_{CCVAE}(x, y). \] Outlier Detection and Repair Process After training, we proceed to outlier detection and data repair. We need to define a score for use in detection, and for that we use the classifier given by the variational model. The same was done in Joy et al. (2020) for classification tasks, but one could use a decoder likelihood-based score. The former tends to have better performance, if available. Hence, for instance outlier detection, we have the score \[ A^{\varphi, \phi}(x) = -\log \mathbb{E}_{q_\phi(z\|x)} [q_\varphi(y=1\|z_c)] \quad x \in X, \] which is the approximate negative log-probability of an instance being an inlier. The user may define the threshold $\gamma$ or tune it. However, assuming the classifier is somewhat calibrated, then one can use the a $\gamma \approx -\log(0.5)$. If one needs to detect cell outliers, one can use a decoder based anomaly score like in other VAEs. For CCVAE, this can be defined for some feature $d$ as $$A^{\theta, \psi}(\mathbf{x}) = -\log p_\theta(x_d \mid [\mu_\psi(y=1); \mu_\phi(\mathbf{x})_{\setminus c}]) \quad \mathbf{x} \in \mathcal{X},$$ \hspace{1cm} (2.62) where the mean for $\mathbf{z}_c$ corresponding to an inlier ($y=1$) is used, i.e. $\mu_\psi(y=1)$. The encoding from non-labelled instance characteristics is reused, i.e. $\mu_\phi(\mathbf{x})_{\setminus c}$. From the perspective of CCVAE, the repair of an outlier instance is just attribute manipulation via $\mathbf{z}_c$ subspace. Once the appropriate $\mathbf{z}_c$ is found, then one uses the decoder for reconstruction obtaining a repair. Under our problem definition, automated repair is very much like conditional generation as seen in Joy et al. (2020), where samples for $\mathbf{z}_c$ are drawn from the conditional prior whilst reusing $\mathbf{z}_{\setminus c}$ obtained from encoding the outlier instance. Specifically, we have $\mathbf{z} = [\mathbf{z}_c \sim p_\psi(\mathbf{z}_c \mid y) ; \mathbf{z}_{\setminus c}]$, where depending on the $y$ value it forces the generated samples to have, or not have, the presence of the attribute (e.g. inlier / outlier). In our case, we are interested in automated repair, and thus limiting human interaction apart from building the trusted set. That means that exploring $\mathbf{z}_c$ with user interaction to pick the best repair (reconstruction) for each outlier instance is not realistic. So we wish to obtain the most likely reconstruction under $y=1$, i.e. the maximum a posteriori, thus defining an automated repair for the outlier instance. Therefore, the repair for an image instance with continuous features is given by $$\hat{\mathbf{x}} = \mu_\theta([\mu_\psi(y=1) ; \mu_\phi(\mathbf{x})_{\setminus c}]) \quad \mathbf{x} \in \mathcal{O},$$ \hspace{1cm} (2.63) where $\mu_\psi(y=1)$ is the mean for the inlier component of $p_\psi(\mathbf{z}_c \mid y)$, and $\mu_\phi(\mathbf{x})_{\setminus c}$ is the mean of $q_\phi(\mathbf{z}_{\setminus c} \mid \mathbf{x})$, which excludes the characteristic (labelled) latent subspace. Similarly, for mixed-type datasets a repair procedure that uses a MAP estimate of the decoder can be easily defined – as seen in eq. (2.47). Chapter 3 Robust VAEs for Outlier Detection and Repair of Mixed-Type Data 3.1 Motivation: How does it fit into the thesis? The main motivation behind this model proposal was dealing with random error corruption in data cleaning. The main goal was to develop a model that is unsupervised and requires as little user intervention. The focus is on the problem of unsupervised cell outlier detection and repair in mixed-type tabular data, for the case of point outliers (Section 2.2.1). Traditional methods are concerned only with detecting which rows in the dataset are outliers. However, identifying which cells are corrupted in a specific row is an important problem in practice, and the very first step towards repairing them. The Robust Variational Autoencoder (RVAE) is introduced as a deep generative model that learns the joint distribution of the clean data while identifying the outlier cells, allowing for their repair later on. RVAE explicitly learns the probability of each cell being an outlier, balancing different likelihood models in the row outlier score, making the method suitable for outlier detection in mixed-type datasets. Experimentally it is shown that not only RVAE performs better than several SOTA methods in cell outlier detection and repair for tabular data, but also that is robust against the initial hyperparameter selection. 3.2 Introduction The existence of outliers in real world data is a problem data scientists face daily, so outlier detection (OD) has been extensively studied in the literature (Chandola et al., 2009; Emmott et al., 2015; Hodge & Austin, 2004). The task is often unsupervised, meaning that we do not have annotations indicating whether individual cells in the data table are clean or anomalous. Although supervised OD algorithms have been proposed (Lee et al., 2018; An & Cho, 2015; Schlegl et al., 2017), annotations of anomalous cells are often not readily available in practice. Instead, unsupervised OD attempts to infer the underlying clean distribution, and explains outliers as instances that deviate from that distribution. It is important to focus on the joint distribution over features, because although some outliers can be easily identified as anomalous by considering only the marginal distribution of the feature itself, many others are only detectable within the context of the other features (Chandola et al., 2009, section 2.2). Recently deep models have outperformed traditional ones for tabular data tasks (Klambauer et al., 2017), capturing their underlying structure better. They are an attractive choice for outlier detection, since they have the flexibility to model a wide variety of clean distributions. However, outlier detection work has mostly focused on image datasets, repairing dirty pixels instead of cells in tabular data (Wang et al., 2017b; Zhou & Paffenroth, 2017; Akrami et al., 2019b). Outliers present unique challenges to deep generative models. First, most work focuses on detecting anomalous data rows, without detecting which specific cells in a row are problematic (Redyuk et al., 2019; Schelter et al., 2018). However, not enough care is given to cell granularity, which means it is often difficult to properly repair the dirty cells, e.g. if there are a large number of columns or when the data scientist is not a domain expert. Work on cell-level detection and repair often focuses on real-valued features, e.g. images (Zhou & Paffenroth, 2017; Wang et al., 2017b; Schlegl et al., 2017), or does not provide a principled way to detect anomalous cells (Nguyen & Vien, 2018a). Second, tabular data is often mixed-type, including both continuous and categorical columns. Although modelling mixed-type data has been explored before (Nazabal et al., 2020; Vergari et al., 2019), difficulty arises when handling outliers. Standard anomaly scores are based on the probability that the model assigns to a cell, but these values are not comparable between likelihood models, performing poorly for mixed-type data. Finally, the effect of outliers in unsupervised learning can be insidious. Since deep generative models are highly flexible, they are not always robust against outliers (Hendrycks & Dietterich, 2019), overfitting to anomalous cells. When the model overfits, it cannot identify these cells as outliers, because it has modelled them as part of the clean distribution, and consequently, most repair proposals are skewed towards the dirty values, and not the underlying clean ones. The main contributions of this chapter are: (i) Robust Variational Autoencoder (RVAE), a novel fully unsupervised deep generative model for cell-level OD and repair for mixed-type tabular data, for the case of point outliers (see Section 2.2.1). It uses a two-component mixture model for each feature, with one component for clean data, and the other component that robustifies the model by isolating outliers. (ii) RVAE models the underlying clean data distribution by down-weighting the impact of anomalous cells, providing a competitive anomaly score for cells and a superior estimate of cell repairs. (iii) A hybrid inference scheme for optimizing the model parameters, combining amortized and exact variational updates, which proves superior to standard amortized inference. (iv) RVAE allows to present an anomaly score that is commensurate across mixed-type data. (v) RVAE is robust to the selection of its hyperparameters, while other outlier detection methods suffer from the need to tune their parameters to each specific dataset. 3.3 Related Work There is relevant prior work in the field of outlier detection and robust inference in the presence of outliers, a good meta-analysis study presented in Emmott et al. (2015). Most prior models apply to point outliers (see Section 2.2.1) as this is the most common type of outlier, and the type we explore in this thesis. Different deep models have been applied to this task, including autoencoders (Zong et al., 2018b; Nguyen & Vien, 2018a; Zhou & Paffenroth, 2017), VAEs (An & Cho, 2015; Wang et al., 2017b) and generative adversarial networks (Schlegl et al., 2017; Lee et al., 2018). In Nalisnick et al. (2018) the authors show that deep models trained on a dataset assign high likelihoods to instances of different datasets, which is problematic in outlier detection. We identify outliers during training rather than from a fully-trained model, down-weighting their effect on parameter learning. Earlier in training, the model had less chance to overfit, so it should be easier to detect outliers. Most closely related to our model are methods based on robust PCA (RPCA) and autoencoders. They focus on unsupervised learning in the presence of outliers, even though most methods need labelled data for hyperparameter tuning (Candès et al., 2011; Zhou & Paffenroth, 2017; Zong et al., 2018b; Nguyen & Vien, 2018a; Xu et al., 2018; Akrami et al., 2019b). RPCA-based alternatives often assume that the features are real-valued, and model the noise as additive with a Laplacian prior. A problem in RPCA-type models is that often the hyperparameter that controls the outlier mechanism is dataset dependent and difficult to interpret and tune. In Wang et al. (2017b), the authors proposed using a VAE as a recurrent unit, iteratively denoising the images. This iterative approach is reminiscent of the solvers used for RPCA. However, their work is not easily extended to mixed likelihood models and suffers from the same problems as VAEs when computing row scores (Section 3.5.3). Robust Variational Inference. Several methods explore robust divergences for variational learning in the presence of outliers applied to supervised tasks (Regli & Silva, 2018a; Futami et al., 2018). These divergences have hyperparameters which are dataset dependent, and can be difficult to tune in unsupervised outlier detection; in contrast, the $\alpha$ hyperparameter used in RVAE is arguably more interpretable, and experimentally robust to misspecification. Recently a VAE model using one of these divergences in the decoder was proposed for down-weighting outliers (Akrami et al., 2019b). However, in contrast to our model, they focused on image datasets and are not concerned with cell outliers. The same hyperparameter tuning problem arises, and it is not clear out to properly extend to categorical features. Bayesian Data Reweighting. Wang et al. (2017a) propose an approach that raises the likelihood of each observation by some weights and then infer both the latent variables and the weights from corrupted data. Unlike RVAE, these weights are only defined for each instance, so the method cannot detect cell-level outliers. Also, the parameters of the model are trained via MCMC instead of variational inference, making them more difficult to apply in deep generative models. Classifier Confidence. Several methods explore adding regularization to improve neural network classifier robustness to outliers (Lee et al., 2018; Hendrycks et al., Neural network based classifiers tend to be over-confident, and can overfit to spurious patterns. Regularization can come in form of adding uniform noise over the categories of target labels (label tempering); or even adding an entropy-based term to the cross-entropy cost in order to avoid over-confidence. However, the regularization hyperparameters are not interpretable and often require a validation dataset to tune them. Other works like Hendrycks & Gimpel (2017), use the confidence of the predicted distribution as a measure of outlier detection. ### 3.4 Problem Setting The work in this chapter assumes an unsupervised training setting where one only has access to dataset $\mathcal{X}$, where a data instance is given by $\boldsymbol{x} \in \mathcal{X}$. Notation for the unsupervised problem setting is found in Section 2.1. The problem definition for the outlier detection task is in Section 2.2.2, and the definition for the data repair task is in Section 2.3.1. We only consider outliers that are corruption-based of the random error kind, which fit within the scope of point outliers (see Section 2.2.1). Note that if possible we simplify the notation by removing the instance index $n$. For instance, $w_{nd}$ is same as $w_n$, or $x_d$ is same as $x_{nd}$, or $\boldsymbol{x}_n$ is same as $\boldsymbol{x}$. Cells in the dataset are potentially corrupted with an unknown noising process appropriate for the feature type. The objective in this work is not only detecting the anomalous instances in the dataset, termed row outliers, but also determining the specific subset of cells that are anomalous, termed cell outliers, proposing potential repair values for them. In this chapter we aim to improve the standard VAE model to be robust to corruption, and perform well at point outlier detection and repair. The Standard VAE model definition for mixed-type data can be found in Section 2.5.1 in the Background chapter. ### 3.5 Proposal: Robust Variational Autoencoder (RVAE) To improve VAEs for outlier detection and repair, we want to make them more robust by automatically identifying potential outliers during training, so they are down-weighted when training the generative model. We also want a cell-level anomaly score which is comparable across continuous and categorical attributes. We can achieve both goals by modifying the generative model of the VAE. Here we define the novel robust variational autoencoder (RVAE), a deep generative model based on a two-component mixture model likelihood (decoder) per feature, which isolates the outliers during training. RVAE is composed of a clean component $p_\theta(x_d\|z)$ for each feature $d$, explaining the clean cells, and an outlier component $p_0(x_d)$, explaining the outlier cells. A mixing variable $w_d \in \{0, 1\}$ acts as a gate to determine whether cell $x_d$ should be modelled by the clean component ($w_d = 1$) or the outlier component ($w_d = 0$). We define the marginal likelihood of the mixture model under for $\mathbf{x} \in \mathcal{X}$ as\footnote{Mixture models can also be written in product form using mixing variables $w_d$ (Bishop, 2006, Section 9, page 431), as we adopt here.} $$p(\mathbf{x}) = \sum_{\mathbf{w}} \int d\mathbf{z} \ p(\mathbf{z}) \ p(\mathbf{w}) \ p(\mathbf{x}\|\mathbf{z}, \mathbf{w}), \quad (3.1)$$ $$p(\mathbf{x}\|\mathbf{z}, \mathbf{w}) = \prod_{d=1}^{D} p_\theta(x_d\|\mathbf{z})^{w_d} \ p_0(x_d)^{1-w_d}, \quad (3.2)$$ where $\mathbf{w} \in \{0, 1\}^D$ is modelled by a Bernoulli distribution $$p(\mathbf{w}) = \prod_{d=1}^{D} \text{Bernoulli}(w_d\|\alpha), \quad (3.3)$$ and $\alpha \in [0, 1]$ is a parameter that reflects our belief about the cleanliness of the data. To approximate the posterior distribution $p(\mathbf{z}, \mathbf{w}\|\mathbf{x})$, we introduce the variational distribution $$q_{\phi,\pi}(\mathbf{w}, \mathbf{z}\|\mathbf{x}) = q_\phi(\mathbf{z}\|\mathbf{x}) \prod_{d=1}^{D} q_\pi(w_d\|\mathbf{x}), \quad (3.4)$$ with $q_\phi(\mathbf{z}\|\mathbf{x})$ defined in equation 2.5 and $q_\pi(w_d\|\mathbf{x}) = \text{Bernoulli}(w_d\|\pi_d(\mathbf{x}))$. The probability $\pi_d(\mathbf{x})$ can be interpreted as the predicted probability of cell $x_d$ being clean. This approximation uses the mean-field assumption that $\mathbf{w}$ and $\mathbf{z}$ are conditionally independent given $\mathbf{x}$. Furthermore, a similar mean-field assumption is made about the dimensions of $\mathbf{w}$ being conditionally independent given $\mathbf{x}$. Finally, the ELBO for the RVAE model can be written as $$\mathcal{L}(\mathbf{x}) = \sum_{d=1}^{D} \mathbb{E}_{q_\phi(\mathbf{z}\|\mathbf{x})} [\pi_d(\mathbf{x}) \log p_\theta(x_d\|\mathbf{z}) + (1 - \pi_d(\mathbf{x})) \log p_0(x_d)]$$ $$- D_{KL}(q_\phi(\mathbf{z}\|\mathbf{x})\|\|p(\mathbf{z})) - D_{KL}(q_\pi(\mathbf{w}\|\mathbf{x})\|\|p(\mathbf{w})), \quad (3.5)$$ where the overall training loss to minimize is \[ \mathcal{I} = - \frac{1}{N} \sum_{x \in X} L(x). \] (3.6) Examining the gradients of equation 3.6 helps to understand the robustness property of the RVAE. The gradient of $\mathcal{I}$ with respect to the model parameters $\theta$ is given by \[ \nabla_\theta \mathcal{I} = - \frac{1}{N} \sum_{n=1}^{N} \sum_{d=1}^{D} \pi_d(x) \mathbb{E}_{q_\phi(z\|x)} [\nabla_\theta \log p_\theta(x_d\|z)]. \] (3.7) We see that $\pi_d(x)$ acts as a weight on the gradient. Cells that are predicted as clean will have higher values of $\pi_d(x)$, and so their gradients are weighted more highly, and have more impact on the model parameters. Conversely, cell outliers with low values of $\pi_d(x)$ will have their gradient contribution down-weighted. A similar formulation can be obtained for the encoder parameters $\phi$. Lastly, we note that the mean-field assumption on $w$ (in equation 3.4) is inspired by the random error setting on the outliers. Indeed, this is the problem setting explored in this chapter. Random errors corrupt cells independently, and hence there is no need to model correlations between different cell (feature) errors. Therefore, one can make the assumption that $w$ can be modelled by a factorized distribution on its $D$ features. However, if the errors were of systematic or structured nature, then modelling correlations between different dimensions of $w$ would be relevant and appropriate. Still, the modelling of correlations between cells errors can perhaps be better achieved through a subspace in $z$. Specifically, as it comes to modelling efficiency. In fact, in Chapter 4 we explore a possible solution (CLSVAE) to the problem of systematic errors through latent modelling in $z$ space. ### 3.5.1 Outlier Model The purpose of the outlier distribution $p_0(x_d)$ is to explain the outlier cells in the dataset, removing their effect in the optimization of the parameters of clean component $p_\theta$. For categorical features, we propose using the uniform distribution \[ p_0(x_d) = \frac{1}{C_d}. \] (3.8) Such a uniform distribution assumption has been used in multiple object modelling (Williams & Titsias, 2003) as a way to factor in pixel occlusion. In Chemudugunta et al. (2006) a similar approach for background words is proposed. For real features, we standardize the features to have mean 0 and standard deviation 1. We use an outlier model based on a broad Gaussian distribution\footnote{This is standard (Quinn et al., 2009; Gales & Olsen, 1999b)} \begin{equation} p_0(x_d) = \mathcal{N}(x_d \mid 0, S), \end{equation} with $S > 1$. Outlier cells modelled by the outlier component will be further apart from $m_d(z)$ relative to clean ones. Although more complex distributions can be used for $p_0(x_d)$, we show empirically that these simple distributions are enough to detect outliers from a range of noise levels (Section 3.6). Furthermore, RVAE can easily be extended to handle other types of features (Nazabal et al., 2020): for count features we can use a Poisson likelihood, where the outlier component $p_0$ would be a Poisson distribution with a large rate; for ordinal features we could have an ordinal logit likelihood, where $p_0$ can be a uniform categorical distribution. ### 18.104.22.168 Assumptions and Prior Work on Outlier Model Broad distributions and robust statistics. In this chapter, it is assumed we are dealing with random error corruption as a source of dirty cells, and thus the outliers. The corruption is moderate or low, and therefore most of the instances are inliers and their cells are clean. Under these circumstances, it is common in classic robust statistics (Barron, 2019) to use heavy-tailed distributions to mitigate the contributions of these outliers to the training of parametric models. Some examples of heavy-tailed distributions are $t$-Student, Laplace, Cauchy, or Richter (Gales & Olsen, 1999b). The reasoning is that outlier values (i.e. dirty cells) will deviate from the more common inliers, and thus outliers will be modelled by the tail-end of the distribution. Indeed, the negative log-likelihood loss using a heavy-tailed distribution will make larger deviations of outlier cells have a lower loss value than typical distributions (e.g. Gaussian). Hence, the likelihood is now less sensitive to outliers, and consequently the model parameters are as well. In fact, in gradient-based training the outliers will have a much smaller magnitude compared to inliers, and thus contribute less to parameter training. However, these assumptions may not work for systematic error corruption (see Chapter 4). In the case of RVAE, we used a heavy-tailed distribution based on a 2-component Richter distribution (Gales & Olsen, 1999b), where the objective is to mitigate outlier contribution to the training of $p_\theta(x\|z)$. In this case, the heavy-tail behavior is modelled by $p_0(x_d)$ where the outliers are captured. Indeed, the Richter distribution has been used for capturing rare or outlier instances in speech recognition in its broader Gaussian components (Gales & Olsen, 1999b). In (Quinn et al., 2009) a similar 2-component Richter distribution is defined for time-series data, where novelty instances are captured by a broader component. Outlier model dependency on x. Given the current assumptions on the outliers (i.e. random errors), it is possible for RVAE to use a $p_0(x_d)$ where its parameters are not dependent on the original $x$ for simplification purposes. In fact, for continuous features the mean parameter of $p_0(x_d)$ can be 0 since the data is standardized – i.e. mean of the original feature is subtracted. For a categorical feature no notion of a mean parameter exists, so a broad distribution can be modelled by a uniform across categories. In both cases this yielded good results for us in the experiments. However, in cases where continuous feature standardization does not work as well, it is possible to set the mean of $p_0(x_d)$ to the mean of $p_\theta(x\|z)$ and hence obtain a proper Richter distribution. In this case, the dependency of $p_0(x_d)$ parameters on $x$ becomes obvious. Moreover, using a stop-gradient operator for reusing the decoder mean might be useful to prevent gradients of dirty cells to affect the AE parameters ($\theta$ and $\phi$). Outlier model dependency on z. Since the assumption is that random errors are corrupting cells independently in the data, there should not be any correlation of the cell errors between multiple data features. Hence, there is no need to make $p_0(x_d)$ dependent on $z$ as error modelling between different features is not relevant here. On the other hand, for systematic error corruption (see Chapter 4) cell errors affecting multiple features will be correlated, and therefore modelling that correlation through $z$ can be quite important for outlier detection and repair. In fact, the CLSVAE model in Chapter 4 takes that assumption. ### 3.5.2 Inference We use a hybrid procedure to train the parameters of RVAE that alternates amortized variational inference using stochastic gradient descent for $\phi$ and $\theta$, and coordinate ascent over $\pi$. When we do not amortize $\pi$, but rather treat each $\pi_d(\mathbf{x}) \in [0, 1]$ as an independent parameter of the optimization problem, then an exact solution for $\pi_d(\mathbf{x})$ is possible when $\phi$ and $\theta$ are fixed. Optimizing the ELBO equation 3.5 w.r.t. $\pi_d(\mathbf{x})$, we obtain an exact expression for the optimum\footnote{The derivation of equation equation 3.10 is provided in the Additional Notes (Section 3.7.2).} $$\hat{\pi}_d(\mathbf{x}) = g \left( r + \log \frac{\alpha}{1 - \alpha} \right), \quad (3.10)$$ where $$r = \mathbb{E}_{q_\phi(\mathbf{z}\|\mathbf{x})} \left[ \log \frac{p_\theta(x_d\|\mathbf{z})}{p_0(x_d)} \right], \quad (3.11)$$ where $g$ is the sigmoid function. The first term in equation 3.10 represents the density ratio $r$ between the clean component $p_\theta(x_d\|\mathbf{z})$ and the outlier component $p_0(x_d)$. When $r > 0$ it will bias the decision towards assuming the cell being clean, conversely $r < 0$ it will bias the decision towards the cell being dirty. Such a ratio $r$ has arisen in the literature (Hido et al., 2011; Yamada et al., 2017), usually between a distribution trained on clean (or labelled) data and the test-set distribution, where one is performing outlier detection. The second term in equation 3.10 represents our prior belief about cell cleanliness, defined by $\alpha \in [0, 1]$. Higher values of $\alpha$ will skew the decision boundary towards a higher $\hat{\pi}_d(\mathbf{x})$, and vice-versa. This coordinate ascent strategy is common in variational inference for conjugate exponential family distributions (see e.g. Jordan et al. 1999). We term this model RVAE-CVI (Coordinate ascent Variational Inference) below. Alternatively, $\pi_d(\mathbf{x})$ can be obtained using amortized variational inference. However, two problems arise in the process. First, an inference gap is introduced by amortization, leading to slower convergence to the optimal solution. Second, there might not be enough outliers in the data to properly train a neural network to recognize the decision boundary between clean and dirty cells. We term this model RVAE-AVI (Amortized Variational Inference). RVAE inference is summarized in Algorithm 1, for both the coordinate ascent version (RVAE-CVI) and the amortized version (RVAE-AVI). We used Adam (Kingma & Ba, 2014) as the gradient-based optimizer (line 15). Note that in line 14 of Algorithm 1 for RVAE-CVI it is important to clarify that no gradients of $\theta$ are being passed through the estimate of $\hat{\pi}_{md}$. Indeed, if using RVAE-CVI the $\hat{\pi}_{md}$ estimate step in line 13 always uses the stop-gradient operation for all gradients of $\theta$ and $\phi$. This is by design, as a coordinate ascent step for $\hat{\pi}_{md}$ should assume $\theta$ and $\phi$ are static parameters during inference, and vice-versa. Thus $\hat{\pi}_{md}$ should not allow for gradients being passed through when applying (stochastic) gradient descent on $\theta$ and $\phi$. Empirically, we tried both the option of having gradients pass through, and the current one of stopping them. Generally, from a repair performance perspective, the best option was to use stop-gradient. In fact, in higher corruption scenarios this was more obvious has letting the gradients through would lead to RVAE-CVI more easily overfit to errors. Algorithm 1 RVAE Inference 1: procedure RVAE($\eta$ learning rate, $M$ batch size, $T$ number epochs, $\alpha$ prior value) 2: \hspace{1em} if RVAE-AVI = True then 3: \hspace{2em} Define NN parameters: $\Psi = \{\phi, \theta, \tau\}$; 4: \hspace{1em} else if RVAE-CVI = True then 5: \hspace{2em} Define NN parameters: $\Psi = \{\phi, \theta\}$; 6: \hspace{1em} Initialize $\Psi$; 7: \hspace{1em} for 1,...,$T$ do 8: \hspace{2em} Sample mini-batches $\{\mathbf{x}_m\}_{m=1}^M \sim p(\mathbf{x})$; 9: \hspace{2em} Evaluate $p_\theta(x_{md}\|\mathbf{z}_m)$ and $p_0(x_{md}) \forall m, d$; 10: \hspace{2em} if RVAE-AVI = True then 11: \hspace{3em} Evaluate encoder $\pi_\tau(\mathbf{x}_m)$; 12: \hspace{2em} else if RVAE-CVI = True then 13: \hspace{3em} Infer $\hat{\pi}_{md}, \forall m, d$ using eq. equation 3.10 14: \hspace{3em} $g_\Psi \leftarrow \nabla_\Psi I(\Psi, \pi(\mathbf{x}_m), \alpha)$ using eq. equation 3.6; 15: \hspace{2em} $\Psi \leftarrow \text{Optimizer}(\Psi, g_\Psi, \eta)$; 3.5.3 Anomaly Scores for Outlier Detection A natural approach to determine which cells are outliers in the data is computing the likelihood of the cells under the trained model. In a VAE, the scores for row and cell outliers would be $$\text{Cell: } -\mathbb{E}_{q_\phi(z\|x)} [\log p_\theta(x_d\|z)], \quad \text{Row: } -\sum_{d=1}^{D} \mathbb{E}_{q_\phi(z\|x)} [\log p_\theta(x_d\|z)], \tag{3.12}$$ where a higher score means a higher outlier probability. However, likelihood-based anomaly scores present several problems, specifically for row scores. In mixed-type datasets categorical features and real features are modelled by probability and density distributions respectively, which have different ranges. Often this leads to continuous features dominating over categorical ones. With the RVAE we propose an alternative anomaly score based on the mixture probabilities $\hat{\pi}_d(\boldsymbol{x})$ \begin{equation} \textbf{Cell:} \quad -\log \hat{\pi}_d(\boldsymbol{x}), \quad \textbf{Row:} \quad -\sum_{d=1}^{D} \log \hat{\pi}_d(\boldsymbol{x}), \end{equation} where again a higher score means a higher outlier probability. Notice that the row score is just the negative log-probability of the row being clean, given by $\hat{\pi} = \prod_{d=1}^{D} \hat{\pi}_d(\boldsymbol{x})$. These mixture-based scores are more robust against some features or likelihood models dominating the row anomaly score, making them more suitable for mixed-type datasets. ### 3.5.4 Repair Process for Dirty Cells Cell repair is related to missing data imputation. However, this is a much harder task, since the positions of anomalous cells are not given, and need to be inferred. After the anomalous cells are identified, a robust generative model allows to impute them given the dirty row directly. In general, repair under VAE-like models can be obtained via maximum a posteriori (MAP) inference, \begin{equation} \hat{x}_d = \arg \max_{x_d} p_\theta(x_d \| \boldsymbol{\mu}_\phi(\boldsymbol{x})), \end{equation} where $\hat{x}_d$ is the proposed repair for cell $d$ of some dirty instance $\boldsymbol{x}$. Note that the underlying inlier value, or ground-truth value, for the cell is given by $\tilde{x}_d$. In the case of RVAE, $p_\theta(x_d \| \boldsymbol{z})$ is the clean component responsible for modelling the underlying clean data, see equation 3.2. This reconstruction is akin to robust PCA’s clean component. In practice, for real features $\hat{x}_d = m_d(\boldsymbol{z})$, the mean of the Gaussian likelihood, and for categorical features $\hat{x}_d = \arg \max_c f(a_{dc}(\boldsymbol{z}))$, the highest probability category. Note that index $c \in \{1, ..., C_d\}$ refers to a unique class for categorical feature $d$; where the total number of categories is $C_d$. Other repair strategies are discussed in the Additional Results (Section 3.8.7). ### 3.6 Experiments We showcase the performance of RVAE and baseline methods, for both the task of identifying row and cell outliers and repairing the corrupted cells in the data\footnote{https://github.com/sfme/RVAE\_MixedTypes/}. Four different datasets from the UCI repository (Lichman, 2013), with a mix of real and categorical features, were selected for the evaluation (see Additional Notes, Section 3.7.1). We compare RVAE with ABDA (Vergari et al., 2019) on a different outlier detection task in the Additional Results (Section 3.8.6). ### 3.6.1 Corruption Process All datasets were artificially corrupted in both training and validation sets. This is a standard practice in outlier detection (Futami et al., 2018; Redyuk et al., 2019; Krishnan et al., 2016; Natarajan et al., 2013), and a necessity in our setting, due to the scarcity of available datasets with labelled cell outliers. No previous knowledge about corrupted cell position, or dataset corruption proportion is assumed. For each dataset, a subset of cells are randomly selected for corruption, following a two-step procedure: a) a percentage of rows in the data are selected at random to be corrupted; b) for each of those selected rows, 20% of features are corrupted at random, with different sets of features being corrupted in each select row. For instance, a 5%-20% scenario means that 5% of the rows in the data are randomly selected to contain outliers, and for each of these rows, 20% of the features are randomly corrupted, leading to 1% of cells corrupted overall in the dataset. We will consider for the experiments five different levels of row corruption, \{1\%, 5\%, 10\%, 20\%, 50\%\}, leading to five different levels of cells corrupted across the data, \{0.2\%, 1\%, 2\%, 4\%, 10\%\}. We repeat this process five times, and provide in the next sections the results for the aggregate of all datasets for one of those experiments. The full disclosure of the results per dataset can be found in the Additional Results (Section 3.8), including results with error bars (Section 3.8.5). Real features: Additive noise is used as a noising process, with dirty cell values obtained as $ x_d = \tilde{x}_d + \zeta $, with $ \zeta \sim p_{noise}(\mu, \eta) $. Note that the noising process is performed before standardizing the data. Four different noise distributions $ p_{noise} $ are explored: Gaussian noise ($ \mu = 0, \eta = 5\hat{\sigma}_d $), with $ \hat{\sigma}_d $ the statistical standard deviation of feature $ d $; Laplace noise ($ \mu = 0, \eta = \{4\hat{\sigma}_d, 8\hat{\sigma}_d\} $); Log-Normal noise ($ \mu = 0, \eta = 0.75\hat{\sigma}_d $); and a Mixture of two Gaussian noise components ($ \mu_1 = -0.5, \eta_1 = 3\hat{\sigma}_d $, with probability 0.6 and $ \mu_2 = 0.5, \eta_2 = 3\hat{\sigma}_d $ with probability 0.4). Categorical features: The noising process is based on the underlying marginal (discrete) distribution. We replace the cell value by a dirty one by sampling from a tempered categorical distribution$^5$ (and excluding the current clean category): \[ x_{dc} \sim \frac{p_c(\tilde{x}_d)^\beta}{\sum_{c=1}^{C_d} p_c(\tilde{x}_d)^\beta}, \] with the range $ \beta = [0, 0.5, 0.8] $. Notice that, when $ \beta = 0 $, the noise process reduces to the uniform distribution, while when $ \beta = 1 $, the noising process follows the marginal distribution. ### 3.6.2 Evaluation Metrics In the anomaly detection experiments, we use Average Precision (AVPR) (Salton & McGill, 1986; Everingham et al., 2014), computed according to the anomaly scores for each method. AVPR is a measure of area under the precision-recall curve, so higher is better. For cell outliers we report the macro average of the AVPR for each feature in the dataset$^6$. In the repair experiments, different metrics are necessary depending on the feature types. For real features, we compute the Standardized Mean Square Error (SMSE) between the estimated values $ \hat{x}_{nd} $ and the original ground truth in the dirty cells $ \tilde{x}_{nd} $, normalized by the empirical variance of the ground truth values: \[ SMSE_d = \frac{\sum_{n=1}^{N_d} (\tilde{x}_{nd} - \hat{x}_{nd})^2}{\sum_{n=1}^{N_c} (\tilde{x}_{nd} - \overline{x}_d)^2}, \] where $ \overline{x}_d $ is the statistical mean of feature $ d $ (across all instances $ n \in N $) and $ N_d $ is the number of corrupted cells for that feature$^7$. For categorical features, we compute the Brier Score between the one-hot representation of the ground truth $ \tilde{x}_{nd} $ and the probability simplex estimated for each category in the feature: \[ Brier_d = \frac{1}{2N_c} \sum_{n=1}^{N_d} \sum_{c=1}^{C} (\tilde{x}_{ndc} - p_c(x_{nd}))^2, \] where $ p_c(x_{nd}) $ is the probability of category $ c $ for feature $ d $, $ \tilde{x}_{ndc} $ the one-hot true value for category $ c $, and $ C $ the number of unique categories in the feature. We used the coefficient $ \frac{1}{2} $ in the Brier score to limit the range to $[0, 1]$. We name both metrics as SMSE below for simplicity, but the correct metric is always used for each type. --- $^5$Also known as power heuristic in importance sampling. $^6$The AVPR macro average is defined as the average of the AVPR for all the features in a dataset. $^7$In our experiments $ \overline{x}_d = 0 $ in practice, since the data has been standardized before using any method. 3.6.3 Competing Methods We compare to several standard outlier detection algorithms. Most methods are only concerned about row outlier detection, whilst only a few can be used for cell outlier detection. For more details on hyperparameter selection and network settings for RVAE and competitor methods, see the Additional Notes (Section 3.7.3). In addition, the outlier detection and repair process for VAEs and Deep RPCA is described in the Background chapter, in Section 2.5.1 and Section 22.214.171.124 respectively. The VAE-$\ell_2$ model in particular is described in Section 126.96.36.199. All models are trained once using all the data instances (rows), once the hyperparameter setting has been selected. Exclusively row outlier detection. We consider Isolation Forest (IF) (Liu et al., 2008), an outlier detection algorithm based on decision trees, which performed quite well in the extensive comparison of Emmott et al. (2015); and One Class Support Vector Machines (OC-SVM) (Schölkopf et al., 1999) using a radial basis function kernel. These traditional methods were discussed in Section 2.2.3 of Background chapter. Row and cell outlier detection. We compare to - $(i)$ estimating the Marginal Distribution for each feature and using the negative log-likelihood as the anomaly score. For real features we fit a Gaussian mixture model with the number of components chosen with the Bayesian Information Criterion. The maximum number of components is set at 40. For categorical features, the discrete distribution is given by the normalized category frequency. - $(ii)$ a combination of OC-SVM and Marginal Distribution for each feature. We use Platt scaling to transform the anomaly score of OC-SVM for each row (to obtain log-probability), and then combine it with marginal log-likelihood of each feature. This score, a combined log-likelihood, is then used for cell outlier detection. - $(iii)$ VAEs with $\ell_2$ regularization and anomaly scores given by equation 3.12, additional details in the Background chapter (Section 188.8.131.52). - $(iv)$ DeepRPCA (Zhou & Paffenroth, 2017), an unsupervised model inspired by robust PCA. The data $X$ is divided in two parts $X = \hat{X} + S$, where $\hat{X}$ is a deep autoencoder reconstruction of the clean data, and $S$ is a sparse matrix containing the estimated outlier values. Anomaly scores for rows are given by the Euclidean norm $\sqrt{\sum_{d=1}^{D} \|S_{nd}\|^2}$, whilst cell scores are given by $\|S_{nd}\|^2$, where $S_{nd} \in S^c$. For more details on DeepRPCA and its outlier detection or repair process please see Section 184.108.40.206 in Background chapter. For implementation details please see Additional Notes, in Section 3.7.3, where the handling of categorical is also discussed. - $(v)$ a set of Conditional Predictors ($CondPred$), where a neural network parametrizing $p_\theta(x_n)$ is employed for each feature in the data given the rest. This can be seen as a pseudo-likelihood model given by $p_\theta(x_n) \approx \prod_d p_\theta(x_{nd}\|x_{n\setminus d})$. A deep version was found to work better than linear in all metrics. However, $\ell_2$ regularization is necessary to prevent overfitting, and the model is overall much slower to train than VAE. Repair: We compare to VAE, DeepRPCA, Marginal Distribution method and Conditional Predictor ($CondPred$) method for repairing dirty cells (same model parameters as in outlier detection). We use equation 3.14 for all VAE-based methods. For DeepRPCA the estimate $\hat{X}$ is used. For CondPred the estimate is $\hat{x}_{nd} = \arg \max_{x_{nd}} p_\theta(x_{nd}\|x_{n\setminus d})$, with $x_{n\setminus d}$ meaning all features in $x_n$ except $x_{nd}$. The Marginal Distribution method takes $x_{nd}$ and uses as estimate the mean of the closest GMM component in the real line. For RVAE, results using a different inference strategy (pseudo-Gibbs sampling, (Rezende et al., 2014)) are provided in Additional Results (Section 3.8.7). Additional Details We note that a leave-one-out retraining could have been applied to the CondPred baseline. This is a strategy that can be used in predictor type models (i.e. regression or classification) for outlier detection. However, in practice we trained CondPred on all instances (rows) together just once. This leave-one-out retraining would exclude each instance (row) in the dataset from training one at a time, and then that trained model would try and predict said instance. In this case, if the instance could not be predicted with confidence, then it would be considered an outlier. Note that we would have to retrain the model once for each instance. The main idea behind this is that the concept of an inlier would have been learnt by the model during training using the remainder data. Hence, the model should be able to reliably predict inliers at test time. This strategy can be readily applied cell-wise for a row, where a predictor $ p_\theta(x_{nd} \| x_{n \setminus d}) $ is used to predict a particular cell. Nevertheless, in practice CondPred used the negative log-likelihood of the predictor to measure the outlierness of a cell, which is a common anomaly score. Since we heavily regularized each predictor, the effect of outliers on the training of the models is mitigated (Arpit et al., 2017), which in our experiments yielded good outlier detection performance. In fact, the purpose of RVAE is also to mitigate the contribution of outliers to model parameters (Section 3.5). Although a leave-one-out retraining would most likely lead to a better performing baseline in terms of outlier detection, it is not clear it would perform better at repair. For instance, the predictor being called upon to repair the cell could have low confidence in proposing a cell value. Moreover, the cost of training several deep or even linear models for each row in a moderately sized dataset is very costly in practice. Once more, we would have to train a predictor for each feature in the dataset, which makes it even more intractable. Note that CondPred is already the most computationally expensive model in the experiments. However, in smaller datasets and using shallower models this type of leave-one-out strategy could be considered as a possibility. In fact, all models that present a log-likelihood for each cell could in theory apply this leave-one-out strategy for outlier detection (e.g. VAEs). ### 3.6.4 Hyperparameter Selection for Competing Methods In order to tune the hyperparameters for the competing methods, we reserved a validation set with known inlier / outlier labels and ground truth values. This validation set was not used by the RVAE method. Thus the performance obtained by the competitor methods is an optimistic estimate of their performance in practice. In contrast, RVAE method had no access to the validation set. Note also that RVAE-CVI is robust to the selection of its parameter $ \alpha $ in equation 3.10, as we will show in Section 3.6.8. In Figure 3.1 we compare the performance of the conditional predictor method and VAE, with respect to RVAE-CVI when $ \ell_2 $ regularization is not used, and when the best $ \ell_2 $ regularization value is used for each dataset. We term RVAE-CVI-nll our model with anomaly score as defined in equation 3.12 and RVAE-CVI-pi our model with anomaly score as defined in equation 3.13. We can observe clearly that a significant gap exists in the performance of these competitor methods when not fine-tuned, making explicit the reliance of these methods on a labelled validation set. In the rest of the experiments we will use the best possible version of each competitor method. ### 3.6.5 Outlier Detection Results We compare the performance of the difference methods in outlier detection, both at row and cell levels. We focus on Gaussian noise ($\mu = 0, \eta = 5\sigma_d$) for real features and uniform categorical noise, i.e. $\beta = 0$ in equation 3.15, relegating results on other noise processes scenarios to Section 3.6.7. In Figure 3.2 we show the average outlier detection performance across all datasets for all outlier detection models in terms of both row (left figure) and cell outlier detection (right figure). We relegate RVAE-AVI results to the Additional Results (Section 3.8.3), since RVAE-AVI is worse than RVAE-CVI in general. More results on the outlier detection for each dataset are also available in the Additional Results (Section 3.8.1 and Section 3.8.5). In the right figure, we observe that RVAE-CVI is performing similar to the conditional predictor method on cell outlier detection while being consistently better than the other methods. Additionally, it performs comparatively well in row outlier detection, being similar to the conditional predictor at higher noise levels. We remind the reader that RVAE-CVI does not need a validation set to select its parameters. This means that RVAE-CVI is directly applicable for datasets where no ground truth is available, providing a comparable performance to other methods where parameter tuning for each dataset is necessary. Figure 3.2 Figure 3.2: Row and cell outlier detection scores for the average of the four datasets in 5 different cells corruption levels. Left: AVPR at row level. Right: AVPR at cell level. Figure 3.3: Average AVPR over all the features in the four datasets partitioned by type. Left: AVPR for real features. Right: AVPR for categorical features (left figure) also confirms our hypothesis (Section 3.5.3) on the proper score to compute row outliers. We can see in the upper figure that RVAE-CVI using scores based on estimate $\hat{\pi}_d(x)$, as per score equation 3.13, are better for row outlier detection compared to averaging different feature log-likelihoods equation 3.12. Further analysis of the outlier detection performance of each model for the different feature types is shown in Figure 3.3. While the model based on estimating the marginal distribution works well for real features, it performs poorly on categorical features. Similarly the method combining OCSVM and the marginal estimator detects outliers better than the other methods in real features and low noise levels, but performs poorly for categorical features. In contrast, RVAE performs comparatively better across different types than the other models, with comparable performance to the conditional predictor. ### 3.6.6 Data Repair Results In this section, we compare the ability of the different models to repair the corrupted values in the data. We use the same noise injection process as in Section 3.6.5. Figure 3.4 shows the average SMSE repair performance across datasets for all models when repairing the dirty cells in the data (more details in the Additional Results, Sections 3.8.2 and 3.8.5). We can observe that RVAE-CVI outperforms the other models for all the different cell corruption scenarios, being of particularly significance in lower cell corruption regimes. This is significantly important since all the comparator methods required hyperparameter selection and still performed worse than RVAE-CVI. Also, in Figure 3.5 we can see the repair performance of different models according to the types of features in the data. Notice that RVAE-CVI is consistently better than the other models across real features while being slightly worse on categorical features. ### 3.6.7 Robustness to Noising Processes Figure 3.6 shows the performance of the different models across different combinations of noise processes for all datasets and noise corruption levels (three other noise processes are covered in the Additional Results, Section 3.8.4). We Figure 3.5: Average SMSE over all the features in the four datasets according to their type. Left: AVPR for real features. Right: AVPR for categorical features Figure 3.6: Effect of three different noising processes. Upper figures: average cell outlier detection across datasets. Lower figures: average SMSE on the dirty cells notice that all the models perform consistently across different types of noise. RVAE-CVI performs better in repair for low-level noise corruption, while providing competitive performance in outlier detection. Also, our choice of outlier models on Section 3.5.1 does not have a negative effect on the ability of RVAE to detect outliers and repair them. Different noise processes define what is feasible to detect and repair. ### 3.6.8 Robustness to Hyperparameter Values In this section, we examine the robustness of RVAE inference to the choice $\alpha$, and study its effect in both outlier detection and repair of dirty cells. We have analyzed values of $\alpha$ in the set \{0.2, 0.5, 0.8, 0.9, 0.99\} and evaluated RVAE-CVI in all datasets under all levels of cell corruption and the noising process of Sections 3.6.5 and 3.6.6. Figure 3.7 shows the performance of RVAE-CVI in both outlier detection (left figure) and repair (right figure) across different values of $\alpha$. Larger values of $\alpha$ lead in general to a better outlier detection performance, with a slight degradation when we approach $\alpha = 1$. Repair performance is consistent across different choices of $\alpha$, but values closer to 0 or 1 lead to a degradation when repairing dirty cells. ### 3.7 Additional Notes In this section we provide additional details and notes about the datasets and implementation details of the models used in the experiments (Section 3.6). We also discuss hyperparameter selection and data pre-processing. The derivation of the coordinate step update for $\hat{\pi}_d(\mathbf{x})$ in eq. (3.10) is also found here. ### 3.7.1 Dataset details \| Dataset \| Rows \| Real features \| Categorical features \| \|------------------\|--------\|---------------\|----------------------\| \| Wine \| 6497 \| 12 \| 1 \| \| Adult \| 32561 \| 5 \| 10 \| \| Credit Default \| 30000 \| 14 \| 10 \| \| Letter \| 20000 \| 0 \| 17 \| Table 3.1: Properties of the tabular datasets employed in the experiments. ### 3.7.2 Derivation of Coordinate Step for Weights Here we derive eq. 3.10, which is the exact expression for $\hat{\pi}_d(\mathbf{x})$ to be used in coordinate ascent optimization. Given eq. (3.5) and eq. (3.6), we can write the bound $I$ on $\sum_{\mathbf{x} \in \mathcal{X}} \log p(\mathbf{x})$ with respect to $\pi_d(\mathbf{x})$ as $$I \propto \sum_{\mathbf{x} \in \mathcal{X}} \sum_{d=1}^{D} \pi_d(\mathbf{x}) \mathbb{E}_{q_\phi(z\|\mathbf{x})}[\log p_\theta(x_d\|z)] + \sum_{\mathbf{x} \in \mathcal{X}} \sum_{d=1}^{D} (1 - \pi_d(\mathbf{x})) \mathbb{E}_{q_\phi(z\|\mathbf{x})}[\log p_0(x_d)] - \pi_d(\mathbf{x}) \log \frac{\pi_d(\mathbf{x})}{\alpha} - (1 - \pi_d(\mathbf{x})) \log \frac{1 - \pi_d(\mathbf{x})}{1 - \alpha}$$ The derivative of this bound w.r.t. $\pi_d(\mathbf{x})$ can be easily computed: $$\frac{\partial I}{\partial \pi_d(\mathbf{x})} = \mathbb{E}_{q_\phi(z\|\mathbf{x})}[\log p_\theta(x_d\|z)] - \mathbb{E}_{q_\phi(z\|\mathbf{x})}[\log p_0(x_d)] - \log \frac{\pi_d(\mathbf{x})}{\alpha} + \log \frac{1 - \pi_d(\mathbf{x})}{1 - \alpha}$$ Evaluating $\frac{\partial \mathcal{L}}{\partial \pi_d(\mathbf{x})} = 0$ and solving for $\pi_d(\mathbf{x})$, we obtain the coordinate update for the weights: $$\hat{\pi}_d(\mathbf{x}) = \frac{1}{1 + \exp \left( - \left( \mathbb{E}_{q_{\phi_d}(\mathbf{z}\|\mathbf{x})} [\log \frac{p_\theta(x_d\|\mathbf{z})}{p_0(x_d)}] + \log \frac{\alpha}{1-\alpha} \right) \right)},$$ which is the sigmoid function applied to the expected log density ratio between the clean model and the outlier model plus the logit of the prior probability. ### 3.7.3 Additional details for RVAE and Competing Methods - Data Pre-Processing: For all models and competitor methods the real features were standardized, i.e. subtracting by the empirical mean and dividing by standard deviation. One-hot encoding for categorical features was used depending on the method, as defined below. - Validation Set: 10% of each dataset was separated from the rest of the data to be employed as a validation set, with known ground truth of the corrupted cells, for hyperparameter selection on all baselines. Our RVAE model does not use this validation set in any of the experiments. - Hyperparameter Selection: The criterion used for hyperparameter selection on all baselines was the AVPR in the outlier detection task registered in the validation set. The exception is the Marginals Distribution baseline, where the number of components is chosen via BIC score. #### 220.127.116.11 RVAE, VAE, DeepRPCA and Conditional Predictor methods - Architecture: For VAE, RVAE and DeepRPCA, we used an intermediate hidden layer in both encoder and decoder, size 400. The latent space dimension was chosen to be size 20. In the CondPred baseline, we found that a deep version of the base conditional predictor was superior than a linear one in both outlier and repair metrics. Two inner layers of dimension 200 and 50 for each predictor were employed, which made this model substantially slower than all autoencoder baselines. The non-linear activation used throughout was ReLU (Rectified Linear Unit). - Optimization: We used the Adam optimizer as provided in Pytorch to train the encoder and decoder parameters, for all VAE-based models. In the case of RVAE, VAE and CondPred models we minimized their respective negative losses. In CondPred, each conditional predictor had its own Adam optimizer, we found this to work better. The initial learning rate used in experiments was 0.001. All models ran for 100 epochs on all datasets, noise levels and noise processes. Since access to a validation set is impossible in a unsupervised learning setting, no standard early stopping can be defined. In the case of DeepRPCA, we use Adam to train the encoder and decoder parameters, as in the original paper. The optimization process used to obtain data matrix $\hat{\mathbf{X}}$, and noise matrix $\mathbf{S}$, was carried out using ADMM (Alternating Method of Multipliers). We use row structured $\ell_{2,1}$ version of DeepRPCA for outlier detection as it performed better. In order for the ADMM optimization procedure to work, in terms of categorical reconstruction loss we follow the work in (Udell et al., 2016) (Section 6, Categorical PCA), using cross-entropy loss to aggregate the different one-hot dimensions. This yielded better experimental results than one-vs-all type aggregation. All models ran for 20 ADMM iterations, each using 10 intermediate epochs of Adam to train the autoencoder component $\hat{\mathbf{X}}$. All the above are in accordance to DeepRPCA paper (Zhou & Paffenroth, 2017). It should be noted that, in our experiments, running more ADMM iterations eventually led to performance degradation, even after an extensive hyperparameter search and optimizer tuning. - $\ell_2$ Regularization (Weight Decay): We used the weight decay option of the Adam optimizer in Pytorch. We performed a grid search over the values $\lambda_{\ell_2} = [0, 0.1, 1, 5, 10, 100]$, each run for 100 epochs, and chose the best on the validation set. The search was performed for each dataset in Table 1. For VAE, the best performance was obtained with $\lambda_{\ell_2} = 0.1$ in the Letter dataset, $\lambda_{\ell_2} = 1$ in the Adult dataset and $\lambda_{\ell_2} = 10$ in the Wine and Credit Default datasets. For the conditional predictors, the best performance was obtained for $\lambda_{\ell_2} = 1$ in Adult, Credit default and Letter datasets, and $\lambda_{\ell_2} = 5$ in the Wine dataset. For RVAE-CVI and RVAE-AVI no regularization was needed. - Categorical Encoding: VAE, RVAE and CondPred models we used categorical embedding matrices to codify the categorical features at the input level of the encoder. The dimensionality used in all experiments was size 50, as it provided generally good results. For CondPred, embeddings were not shared between individual feature predictors. In the case of DeepRPCA we had to use one-hot encoding, as this was the only way to make the ADMM procedure to work properly, given the projection step (using proximity operator). This relies on subtracting the noise matrix $S$ from the data matrix $X$, which is non-trivial using embedding representations. One-hot encoding is standard in PCA-type models when dealing with categorical features. - DeepRPCA hyperparameter: The coefficient that regulates how many of the data-points (cells) will be represented by sparse matrix $S$ was chosen from the range $\lambda = [0.001, 0.01, 0.1, 1]$. The best outlier detection performance was obtained for 0.01 in Wine and Adult datasets and 0.1 in Credit Default and Letter datasets. - RVAE (hyperparameters): The value for the prior probability $\alpha$ was set to 0.95 throughout (it is fair to assume in general that most of the data is clean). A full evaluation on its effect on the performance of the model was conducted in the main text. In the case of the hyperparameter $S$ of the outlier model for real features, we used 2 throughout, with good results. This was the setting used for all RVAE-based models in the experiment section, and the validation set was not employed at any time while selecting parameters. - Encoder of the weights for RVAE-AVI: We used a feed-forward neural network with the same architecture as the one specified above for the encoder of VAE, which parameterizes the variational distribution of the latent space. In this case the $\pi_{\tau,d}(x)$’s are parameterized directly by a neural network, where $\tau$ defines the neural network parameters (see Algorithm 1). An intermediate hidden layer of size 400 was used. Hence, no coordinate optimization procedure was performed. ### 18.104.22.168 OC-SVM We use a scikit-learn implementation, with RBF (radial basis function) kernel. We conducted an hyperparameter search on both $\nu$ and $\gamma$, from 0 to 1 in intervals of 0.1. The best performance for all the datasets was obtained with $\nu = 0.2$ and $\gamma = 0.1$, on the validation set. 22.214.171.124 Marginal Method The Marginal method has no hyperparameters to tune, apart from the maximum number of Gaussian Mixture Model components that can be selected by BIC score. We found a maximum of 40 components to be sufficient. 126.96.36.199 OCSVM + Marginals Method We employed a combination of both the OCSVM and Marginals implementations described above. The parameters were selected based on the previous details ($\nu = 0.2, \gamma = 0.1$ and maximum number of components of the GMM set to 40). 188.8.131.52 Isolation Forest We use scikit-learn implementation. A maximum number of samples of 50% of the size of the datasets, and a contamination parameter of 0.2 seemed to work best for all the scenarios. Again, these parameters were selected using the validation set. 184.108.40.206 Timing Information on Models The linear models (OCSVM, Marginals) and Isolation Forest in this chapter have a computing time in terms of a few minutes in a desktop CPU (3 GHz) with 8GB of memory. For instance, Isolation Forest or OCSVM can take about 3-8 minutes depending on the size of the dataset, and usually Isolation Forest takes more time. The model OCSVM + Marginals usually takes a couple more minutes than the other simpler models, since both linear models have to be trained, and then include Platt scaling for the OCSVM score. The deep learning models take significantly longer than the standard models above-mentioned. The VAE and RVAE models take an order of magnitude more than the standard ones. Using a desktop CPU with 8 GHz it can take about 40 minutes for RVAE, which can be longer depending on the size of the dataset. Using a GPU (GeForce TITAN X) we can reach a lower computing time of about 10-20 minutes. DeepRPCA will take longer when using a GPU at about 35 minutes, since the ADMM procedure overall is costly. The most expensive model in terms of computation time is CondPred and is strongly dependent on the dimensionality of the dataset (number of features), since for each feature an additional neural network model is trained. For the experiments carried out, CondPred can easily Figure 3.8: Row and cell outlier detection scores on Wine dataset in 5 different cells corruption levels. Upper figure shows the AVPR at row level. Lower figure shows the AVPR at cell level. take two times as long as VAE and RVAE models. Generally, it can take up to an hour sometimes when using a GPU. ### 3.8 Additional Results The purpose of this section is to provide a complement of results to the main results sections (Sections 3.6.5 and 3.6.6) and show the reader the complete set of experiments. As such, we present additional figures for the experiments carried out in this chapter. #### 3.8.1 Outlier detection additional details In this section, we present the full disclosure of all the models in both row and cell outlier detection in each of the datasets of the experiments, in Figures 3.8-3.11. Notice that RVAE-CVI is stable across datasets and noise corruption levels, Figure 3.9: Row and cell outlier detection scores on Adult dataset in 5 different cells corruption levels. Upper figure shows the AVPR at row level. Lower figure shows the AVPR at cell level. Figure 3.10: Row and cell outlier detection scores on Credit default dataset in 5 different cells corruption levels. Upper figure shows the AVPR at row level. Lower figure shows the AVPR at cell level. Figure 3.11: Row and cell outlier detection scores on Letter dataset in 5 different cells corruption levels. Upper figure shows the AVPR at row level. Lower figure shows the AVPR at cell level. while other models suffer in some specific datasets for either row or cell outlier detection. ### 3.8.2 Repair additional details In this section, we present the full disclosure of all the models in while repairing dirty cells in each of the datasets of the experiments, in Figure 3.12. RVAE-CVI performs better than the other methods for low level corruption, except for the adult dataset where RVAE-CVI and the conditional predictor are equivalent and the Letter dataset, where the conditional predictor does slightly better. ### 3.8.3 RVAE-CVI vs RVAE-AVI We present here the AVPR evolution of RVAE-CVI and RVAE-AVI for each dataset and all noise corruption levels. RVAE-CVI outperforms RVAE-AVI in all datasets in both cell and row outlier detection, obtaining a similar performance only for the Letter dataset. Additionally, in Figure 3.14 we show the difference in repair performance of the dirty cells for both models. We can observe that RVAE-CVI performs better than RVAE-AVI for all datasets and noise corruption levels. Figure 3.13: Comparison between RVAE-CVI and RVAE-AVI for each dataset in row outlier detection (left figures) and cell outlier detection (right figures) Figure 3.14: Comparison between RVAE-CVI and RVAE-AVI for each dataset in repair of dirty cells. The lower SMSE the better. ### 3.8.4 Different noise processes additional details In this section we present all the results in row and cell outlier detection and repair for all six combinations of noise processes, which are: - Gaussian noise $(\mu = 0, \eta = 5\hat{\sigma}_d)$, Tempered Categorical $(\beta = 0)$ - Laplace noise $(\mu = 0, \eta = 4\hat{\sigma}_d)$, Tempered Categorical $(\beta = 0.5)$ - Laplace noise $(\mu = 0, \eta = 4\hat{\sigma}_d)$, Tempered Categorical $(\beta = 0.8)$ - Laplace noise $(\mu = 0, \eta = 8\hat{\sigma}_d)$, Tempered Categorical $(\beta = 0.8)$ - Log normal noise $(\mu = 0, \eta = 0.75\hat{\sigma}_d)$, Tempered Categorical $(\beta = 0)$ - Mixture of two Gaussian noise components $(\mu_1 = -0.5, \eta_1 = 3\hat{\sigma}_d$ with probability 0.6 and $\mu_2 = 0.5, \eta_2 = 3\hat{\sigma}_d$ with probability 0.4\), Tempered Categorical $(\beta = 0)$ Figures 3.15-3.17 show a disclosure of the full results on all noise processes across the different models for both row and cell outlier detection and repair. Figure 3.15: Row outlier detection across all models and noise processes, averaging all datasets Figure 3.16: Cell outlier detection across all models and noise processes, averaging all datasets 3.8.5 Error Bars per Noise Level Here, we show results for VAE, RVAE and CondPred with error bars provided for each noise level. The error bars were obtained by generating five independent instances of corruption – randomly corrupting different cells in the dataset each time. The corruption process is the same as in Section 3.6.5. The inference mechanism for repair is MAP like in Section 3.6.6. We report the results both for outlier detection and repair (Figure 3.18). In lower noise levels, the standard deviation tends to be higher, more significantly in repair (last row, Figure 3.18). Since fewer cells are affected at lower noise levels, this leads to more diverse behaviours in repair and outlier detection, and thus to larger error bar. We can see that the main conclusions about the "ranking" of our method against baselines still holds in either outlier detection or repair. Further, in repair, in the two lowest noise levels RVAE (MAP) seems to less dependent on the corrupted cells (see Adult and Credit Default figures, in Figure 3.18). To further complete this analysis, we provide in Table 3.2 the p-values computed from an independent t-test between RVAE, VAE and CondPred. These were averaged across datasets and noise levels. \| \| avg. p-values RVAE vs CondPred \| avg. p-values RVAE vs VAE \| \|------------------\|---------------------------------\|----------------------------\| \| Cell AVPR \| 0.121 \| 0.070 \| \| Row AVPR \| 0.040 \| 0.227 \| \| Repair SMSE \| 0.025 \| 0.013 \| Table 3.2: Independent t-test between RVAE, VAE and CondPred. If p-values in range 0.05–0.10 assume that models have different performance. ### 3.8.6 Different Outlier Detection Task: RVAE vs ABDA In this section we compare RVAE to ABDA (Vergari et al., 2019), a recent algorithm employed both in outlier detection and missing data imputation. We followed the details in the outlier detection section of the ABDA paper and compare RVAE with ABDA in terms of row AUC ROC as used therein (we use the results reported by the ABDA authors). Table 3.3 shows that we perform \| Dataset \| AUC RVAE \| AUC ABDA \| \|-----------\|-----------\|----------\| \| Letter \| 0.8359\| 0.7036 \| \| Breast \| 0.9815 \| 0.9836\| \| Pen Global\| 0.9316\| 0.8987 \| \| Pen Local \| 0.9053 \| 0.9086\| \| Satellite \| 0.9460\| 0.9455 \| \| Thyroid \| 0.8211 \| 0.8488\| \| Shuttle \| 0.9985\| 0.7861 \| \| Aloi \| 0.5515\| 0.4720 \| \| Speech \| 0.5584\| 0.4696 \| \| KDD \| 0.9993\| 0.9979 \| \| Average \| 0.8529\| 0.8014 \| Table 3.3: Comparison between RVAE and ABDA in row AUC ROC for 10 different datasets. better in average than ABDA, with 7 out 10 cases being better in outlier detection. Notice that, the noising scenarios for these datasets (described in (Goldstein & Uchida, 2016)) are based of standard row outlier detection, where one or some classes are considered normal while another class or classes are considered outliers. This scenario is completely different to the scenarios described in this chapter. In our work, we assume that some cells in the data corrupt several rows in a tabular dataset, and we need to detect and correct them. These experiments showcase the robustness of RVAE to a different outlier detection process. ### 3.8.7 Different Inference Method In this section, we compare the MAP inference (reconstruction, eq. 3.14) for VAEs employed throughout the chapter with more powerful inference methods (Figure 3.19). In particular, we provide results for pseudo-Gibbs sampling, (see Rezende et al., 2014, section F), applying it on a trained RVAE at evaluation time. The final repair estimate was provided after running the MCMC procedure for $T = 5$ iterations (samples), since larger values of $T$ provided marginal improvements. We used the same scenarios of Sections 3.6.5 and 3.6.6. A mask removing anomalous entries needs to be either defined, or inferred. We Figure 3.19: Comparison between MAP, OneStage, TwoStage inference methods in terms of both row / cell outlier detection, and repair. Figure 3.20: Comparison between MAP, OneStage, TwoStage, CondPred inference methods in terms of both row / cell outlier detection, and repair. Results for each dataset. provide two options to do this automatically: - OneStage (Algorithm 2): Treat all cells in a row as anomalous and perform pseudo-Gibbs, for $T$ iterations. Final repair value is line 6 of Algorithm 2, and outlier detection is line 8. - TwoStage (Algorithm 3): Use OneStage, obtaining a more stable estimate of $\pi_d$, then sample mask $w_d$ using it to perform pseudo-Gibbs (as described in (Rezende et al., 2014)). The assumed clean cells (i.e. $w_d = 1$) have their value $x_d$ fixed throughout the MCMC chain (of $T$ iterations). Meanwhile cells that are dirty are initialized with mean behaviour imputation, i.e. $\hat{x}_d$ (Algorithm 3, line 4). For continuous features since our data is standardized ($\hat{\mu}_d = 0$), so we use 0. For categorical features, given our VAE models use normalized (word) embeddings, we use vectors of the same dimension with zeros – such strategy has been applied for imputation when using embeddings. Final repair value is line 8 of Algorithm 3, and outlier detection is in line 2 (i.e. $\hat{\pi}$ from OneStage). Note that in the OneStage method the mask $w$ is not inferred, while in TwoStage it is. In addition, we remind the reader that $x$ is the observed row, which can be clean or dirty. Figure 3.19 shows that there were gains on average in outlier detection and repair using TwoStage, particularly for repair at low noise levels. These are still close to MAP, specifically in the case of higher noising levels. For completion, we disclose in Figure 3.20 the comparison across the inference methods per dataset. In general, we can see that TwoStage has better repair performance (last row of Figure 3.20), particularly in low level noise. Lastly, other methods like (Mattei & Frellsen, 2019) could also have been used to improve repair. However, more powerful inference schemes can sometimes lead to overfitting to noise. On the other hand, inference schemes like MCMC (vs MAP) can provide more stable solutions (lower error bars), particularly in lower noise levels or in smaller datasets (number of rows). Algorithm 2 OneStage: pseudo-Gibbs sampling 1: procedure OneStage($T$, fixed $\{\phi, \theta\}$) 2: \hspace{1em} $x^{(1)} = x$ 3: \hspace{1em} for 1, ..., $T$ do 4: \hspace{2em} $z^{(t+1)} \sim q_\phi(z\|x^{(t)})$ 5: \hspace{2em} $\hat{x}^{(t+1)} \sim p_\theta(x\|z^{(t+1)})$ 6: \hspace{2em} $\hat{x} = \hat{x}^{(T+1)}$ \hspace{1em} \triangleright for repair 7: \hspace{2em} $\hat{z} = z^{(T+1)}$ 8: \hspace{2em} $\hat{\pi}_d = g(r(x_d, \hat{z}) + \log \frac{\alpha}{1-\alpha})$ \hspace{1em} \triangleright eq. (3.10), outlier detection 9: \hspace{1em} return $(\hat{x}, \hat{z}, \hat{\pi})$ Algorithm 3 TwoStage: pseudo-Gibbs sampling 1: procedure TwoStage($T$, fixed $\{\phi, \theta\}$) 2: \hspace{1em} $(\hat{x}, \hat{z}, \hat{\pi}) \leftarrow$ OneStage($T$, $\{\phi, \theta\}$) 3: \hspace{1em} $\hat{w}_d \sim q_{\theta,d}(w_d)$ 4: \hspace{1em} $x^{(1)}_d = \hat{w}_d \times x_d + (1 - \hat{w}_d) \times \bar{x}_d$ 5: \hspace{1em} for 1, ..., $T$ do 6: \hspace{2em} $z^{(t+1)} \sim q_\phi(z\|x^{(t)})$ 7: \hspace{2em} $\hat{x}^{(t+1)} \sim p_\theta(x\|z^{(t+1)})$ 8: \hspace{2em} $\hat{x}_d = \hat{w}_d \times x_d + (1 - \hat{w}_d) \times \hat{x}^{(T+1)}_d$ 9: \hspace{2em} $\hat{z} = z^{(T+1)}$ 10: \hspace{1em} return $(\hat{x}, \hat{z}, \hat{\pi})$ 3.9 Concluding Remarks In this chapter RVAE has been presented, a deep unsupervised model for cell outlier detection and repair in mixed-type tabular data. RVAE allows robust identification of outliers during training, reducing their contribution to parameter learning. Furthermore, a novel row outlier score for mixed-type features was introduced. RVAE outperforms or matches competing models for outlier detection and dirty cell repair, even though they heavily rely on fine-tuning of hyperparameters by using a labelled validation set. 3.9.1 Advantages and Disadvantages In summary, a list of advantages related to this chapter and the proposed model (RVAE) is given below: - Simple and tractable. RVAE uses gradient-based training in mini-batches, which is tractable for large datasets. The model can be easily implemented in any differentiable programming framework used in deep learning, only decoder structure is different compared to standard VAEs. In fact, different neural network architectures (e.g. convolutional NNs, self-attention, capsules) can be combined with RVAE. It can be used off-the-shelf in initial data exploration without substantial user intervention. - Robust to hyperparameter fine-tuning, for moderate corruption. If the model is faced with corruption up to a moderate amount then hyperparameter tuning on $\alpha$ is not needed, unlike competitor methods. Though in higher levels of corruption, or when systematic errors are present, the hyperparameter $\alpha$ can be tuned. - Interpretable outlier detection The RVAE allows the user to use the outlier scores for each cell to perform detection, but also to interpret why that instance is an outlier. This is particularly useful in higher dimension dataset. Few models provide a way to highlight the cells that are to blame for outlierness. - End-to-end data cleaning RVAE provides a practical solution to the problem of cleaning a dataset that has been corrupted. It provides both outlier detection and data repair in one model, and thus the user does not have to resort or train additional methods. It is an end-to-end solution to data cleaning. - Representation learning for clean data RVAE like any other VAE during training learns a smaller latent representation that encodes the characteristics of the entire dataset. Looking at the RVAE formulation (see Section 3.5) only the clean component is modelled by an autoencoder neural network. Indeed, the AE model parameters $\theta$ (decoder) and $\phi$ (encoder) are only part of the clean component; being that the outlier component is a static distribution. If RVAE is successful then the AE neural network learns to map an outlier instance to a repaired (or underlying inlier) instance at reconstruction – i.e. the repair process in eq. 3.14. Moreover, as discussed in Section 3.5 (near equation 3.7) the gradients of an outlier will be down-weighted in the dirty cells in order to minimize its influence during AE training. In fact, as stated before, due to the gradient backpropagation rule if the gradients of $\theta$ (decoder) are down-weighted, so will be the gradients of $\phi$ (encoder) with respect to the ELBO loss. Even though the encoder sees both inlier and outlier instances, its parameters are mostly affected by clean cells if RVAE is successfully trained. Therefore, much like a Denoising AE (DAE) (Vincent et al., 2010) the RVAE model will map outlier instances to repaired (inlier) instances. However, a DAE will need paired inlier and outlier samples for training, whilst RVAE does not. Typically, a DAE will map both outlier and underlying inlier instances to the same neighborhood in the latent space (Shen et al., 2019). Thus learning an idealized latent representation of the underlying clean data. If a trained RVAE can repair the dataset properly, then it is possible that it may learn this idealized latent representation as well. This latent representation could then be used in downstream tasks for the dataset in question, which we leave for future work. Some relevant disadvantages are listed below: - Threshold setting for row and cell scores. In this chapter, by using a metric like AVPR for outlier detection evaluation, it was proven that RVAE anomaly scores have great performance. However, like the vast majority of outlier detection models thresholds have to be set in order to detect corrupt cells or instances in practice. This can be accomplished by using a small labelled validation set, or much more commonly by the user directly setting it. - Traditional outlier detection only. If the task is just traditional outlier detection, and a labelled validation set is given, then other methods might be more relevant than RVAE as a first try. Other methods may have faster training times, and are easier to deploy (e.g. standard software packages). Though, one of the advantages of RVAE is that validation sets are not needed for most scenarios. Most outlier detection methods lack cell level interpretability like RVAE, but that may not always be necessary if the user is subject-matter expert and data is not high-dimensional. Moreover, it is possible other recent SOTA methods for traditional outlier detection may have better performance. - Complexity of deep architectures. Deep learning models unlike classic outlier detection methods need to search for the most appropriate neural architecture for the task. In this case, deep learning may add another layer of complexity, which the user may need to consider. This also applies to RVAE, and other deep VAE models. - Corruption by systematic errors. The RVAE model was mainly designed to handle random errors, and may handle a low amount of systematic errors. In fact, the noise process given by a mixture of two Gaussian components (see Section 3.8.4) does introduce a systematic error corruption, and RVAE still has good performance. However, early exploration into the issue indicated that systematic errors in higher amounts lead to overfitting to corruption much more easily. Tackling high corruption by systematic errors is virtually impossible without supervision, or some other prior knowledge embedded into the model. The only option here is to increase the strength of data reweighting, or regularization, hence diminishing the contribution of potential outliers to the modelling of inliers. In RVAE this corresponds to decreasing the value of hyperparameter $\alpha$, meaning that we now assume the dataset is more corrupt. This will increase outlier detection performance to a point, but at substantial cost for data repair performance with loss of detail for repairs. Indeed, the model starts to collapse to mean behavior, e.g. blurred image reconstructions. - Outlier component model for other types of categorical features. In this work the outlier component $p_0$ of the RVAE for categorical features was defined as a uniform distribution. Although this seems to work quite well in our experiments, for ordinal features this is probably not optimal. Note that ordinal features are a sub-type of categorical features, where a clear ordering of the categories exists. Count data features is a good example, where a Poisson likelihood could have been used. Other likelihoods could also be specified for the case where a hierarchical dependency exists between the categories of the feature. - Exploring RVAE in Image Data. One thing unexplored in this work was image data, which is left as future work. It is possible the outlier component $p_0$ may need some slight change or improvement, but overall the $p_0$ in eq. (3.9) should be a good starting point. ### 3.9.2 Comparing to a Recent Model: Picket After RVAE was released to the public, the recent work in Liu et al. (2020) (Picket) has used our model as a baseline in random, systematic, and adversarial error settings. The task was that of traditional outlier detection, i.e. detecting corrupt rows. The RVAE did not do well with adversarial errors generally. It did decently well as far as random errors are concerned. For moderate to high corruption with systematic errors, the RVAE clearly registered worse performance than the proposed model therein. However, for small to moderate corruption with systematic errors RVAE actually did surprisingly good (seen in the appendix). However, note that in Liu et al. (2020) the authors did not actually tune $\alpha$, and just used the proposed value of 0.95 from this chapter. This was meant for random errors and up to moderate corruption levels. As hinted above when dealing with systematic errors, and very high corruption, there is a benefit to decreasing the value $\alpha$. This probably would have improved RVAE performance for systematic error detection. Interestingly in Picket (Liu et al., 2020) some real-world examples of corruption in data are used in the experiments where RVAE is a baseline. In one case datasets (i.e. Titanic, Restaurant) are injected with real-world common examples of error corruption. On the other hand, Food is a real-world example of a dataset that already presents error corruption, and where the ground-truth (outliers) is known. Hence, no corruption injection is needed. In Figure 8 of Liu et al. (2020) the performance of all models is measured on the task of traditional outlier detection. In this particular case, RVAE performs well in Restaurant dataset and close to the Picket model, which is better. In the Titanic dataset RVAE performance is erratic, presenting large error bounds. Lastly, all models have mediocre performance in the Food dataset. In Table 22 of Liu et al. (2020) the performance of all models including RVAE is measured on the ability to filter out outliers, with the purpose of improving the training of a downstream task. It is shown in the experiments that removing the outliers from the training dataset has indeed a positive impact on the downstream task accuracy. In Table 22 the RVAE model registers good overall performance and close to Picket. In fact, in the Titanic dataset it is the best performing model. Chapter 4 Repairing Systematic Outliers via Clean Subspace VAEs 4.1 Motivation: How does it fit into the thesis? The main motivation behind this model proposal was dealing with systematic errors in data cleaning. These are corruption-based outliers, and exist within the scope of point outliers (see Section 2.2.1). These errors are notoriously difficult to deal with because they can easily be learnt as clean data. Unlike random errors they present a clear repeatable structure throughout the dataset, since they result from nearly deterministic corruption transformations (plus potentially some noise). Consequently, models with enough capacity easily overfit to these errors, making both outlier detection and data repair difficult. Having said that, our goal is to define a generative model that performs outlier detection and data repair with very little user intervention (automating as much as possible). Since the model needs to provide high quality data repair, the choice was to develop a novel generative model (a VAE) for the purpose. Since it is difficult to isolate these types of outliers using unsupervised models, we propose some user interaction in the form of semi-supervision. Given we want to limit this we focus on the user only labelling a few examples, particularly those types of outliers (systematic errors) that needs to be repaired. We feel this is far more practical than using rule-based or pattern-based approaches, since these often require expert knowledge or some external source. Seeing as a systematic outlier is a combination of patterns of a clean instance and systematic error patterns, our main insight is that inliers can be modelled by a smaller representation (subspace) in a model than outliers. By exploiting this, we propose the Clean Subspace Variational Autoencoder (CLSVAE), a novel semi-supervised model for detection and automated repair of systematic errors. The main idea is to partition the latent space and model inlier and outlier patterns separately. CLSVAE is effective with much less labelled data compared to previous related models, often with less than 2% of the data. We provide experiments using three image datasets in scenarios with different levels of corruption and labelled set sizes, comparing to relevant baselines. CLSVAE provides superior repairs without human intervention, e.g. with just 0.25% of labelled data we see a relative error decrease of 58% compared to the closest baseline. 4.2 Introduction Often practitioners have to deal with dirty datasets before they can start applying machine learning (ML) models. We focus on datasets where some instances have been corrupted by noise, producing outliers. The corresponding clean instances prior to corruption are called inliers, as well as any other instances that have not been corrupted. Because the presence of outliers can degrade the performance of ML methods (Krishnan et al., 2016; Liu et al., 2020), a standard option is to resort to a data cleaning pipeline before applying any model. This pipeline includes two key tasks: i) outlier detection (Ruff et al., 2021), detecting all outliers; ii) repair those outlier instances (Neutatz et al., 2021; Wan et al., 2020), recovering the underlying inlier instance. Ultimately, the goal is to propose a method that performs these steps automatically, i.e. automatic detection and repair. Generally, we can consider two types of errors present in an outlier: random or systematic (Taylor, 1997; Liu et al., 2020). Both in industry and in practice these type of outliers are most commonly within the scope of point outliers (see Section 2.2.1). This means we can evaluate whether an instance is an outlier on its own, without context from other instances (e.g. space proximity, time-series, connections in a graph). Random errors corrupt each instance independently, and feature value changes are sampled from an unknown distribution. This noising cannot be replicated in a repeatable manner. For continuous features, a common example of this type of error are those well-modelled by additive noise with zero-mean. Systematic errors result from deterministic, or nearly deterministic (potentially with some noise), transformations that occur repeatedly in the data. Examples of systematic errors include watermarks or deterministic pixel corruption (e.g. artifacts) in images; additive offsets or replacement by default values (e.g. NaN) in sensor data; deterministic change of categories (mislabelling) or of name formats in categorical features in tabular data. Usually, the same features are affected, but not always. In most cases, this noising can be replicated. These two types of errors have a different impact when it comes to models performing detection or repair. Random errors do not show a distinct pattern across outliers and thus are not predictable. As a result, unsupervised models using regularization or data reweighting (Zhou & Paffenroth, 2017; Akrami et al., 2019a; Eduardo et al., 2020) can avoid overfitting to random errors. On the contrary, a systematic error shows a pattern across outliers, as a result of the (nearly) deterministic transformation, making them predictable (Liu et al., 2020). This property makes higher capacity models (e.g. deep learning) prone to overfitting to these errors, even in the presence of regularization. As a result, models for outlier detection and repair in the presence of systematic errors more easily conflate outliers with inliers. In this work we study how to develop a model for data cleaning robust to the effect of systematic errors. One solution is to provide some supervision, so the model can distinguish between inliers and outliers with systematic errors. This supervision can be provided in different forms, such as logic rules (Rekatsinas et al., 2017) or programs (Lew et al., 2021) describing the underlying clean data. However, these may require expert knowledge or substantial effort to formalize. Hence, it is easier and less time consuming for the practitioner to simply provide a trusted set as form of supervision. A trusted set is a small labelled subset of the data, which can be used to train a method for detection and repair. The user labels the instances either inlier or outlier, providing a few examples (e.g. 10 instances) per type of systematic error to repair. Overall, this might correspond to less than 2% of the entire dataset (sparse semi-supervision). Equally important, labelling does not require the user to manually repair the instances in the trusted set. Deep generative models (DGM) have high capacity (flexible) and thus can easily overfit to systematic errors. This motivates us to propose a method for detection and repair of such errors based on a semi-supervised DGM, which to the best of our knowledge has not been explored. We postulate that inlier data needs a smaller representation relative to outlier data when being represented by DGMs, since an outlier has more information to model (i.e. underlying inlier and systematic error). In addition, we claim that outliers are a combination of a representation describing the inlier portion of an instance, and a representation describing the type of systematic error. Given these insights, we propose Clean Subspace Variational Autoencoder (CLSVAE), a novel semi-supervised model for detection and automated repair of systematic errors. This model deviates from a standard VAE (Kingma & Welling, 2014), in two ways. First, the latent representation is partitioned into two subspaces: one that describes the data if it were an inlier (clean subspace), and the other that describes what systematic error (if any) has been applied (dirty subspace). The model is encouraged to learn a disentangled representation using a simple yet effective approach: for outliers the decoder will use a clean subspace concatenated with the dirty subspace; in turn, for inliers the decoder will reuse the same clean subspace but concatenated with random noise. Then, at repair time the decoder will only need the clean subspace to reconstruct the underlying inlier. Secondly, we introduce semi-supervision through a trusted set, in so helping the model distinguish between inliers and outliers with systematic errors. Additionally, to encourage the clean subspace to represent inlier data, and the dirty subspace to represent systematic errors, we introduce a novel penalty term minimizing their mutual information (MI). This penalty is based on the distance correlation (DC) (Székely et al., 2007), and it improves model performance (stability) and repair quality. Compared to baselines we provide superior repairs, particularly, we show significant advantage in smaller trusted sets or when more of the dataset is corrupted. ### 4.3 Related Work For random errors, several works have explored detection (Akrami et al., 2019a; Ruff et al., 2019; Liu et al., 2020; Lai et al., 2019). Some have proposed methods for detection and automated repair of random errors (Eduardo et al., 2020; Zhou A few works have explored outlier detection for systematic outliers, both semi-supervised (Ruff et al., 2019) and unsupervised (Liu et al., 2020; Lai et al., 2020), but these works do not consider automated repair. In all these works, the main focus has been point outliers (Section 2.2.1) as this is the most common type in practice. For tabular data, methods have been proposed that can do repair after detection has been performed; for an overview, see (Ilyas & Chu, 2019; Chu et al., 2016). These use probabilistic models melded with logic rules, i.e. probabilistic relational models (Rekatsinas et al., 2017), or user-written programmatic descriptions of the data, e.g. in a probabilistic programming language (Lew et al., 2021). They have the potential to capture systematic errors. However, these require the user to provide rules or programs that characterize clean data, which requires manual effort and expertise. In contrast, labelling a few inlier and outlier instances to build a trusted set may be more user-friendly. The idea of using unsupervised models for outlier detection is not new (Schölkopf et al., 1999; Liu et al., 2008). Unsupervised removal from a dataset of a small fraction of instances suspected of being outliers has been explored in Koh et al. (2018); Diakonikolas et al. (2018); Liu et al. (2020), when used against adversarial errors it is called data sanitization (Koh et al., 2018). However, if one wants to repair existing dirty data, a common unsupervised approach for moderate corruption is to apply enough regularization or data reweighting to an autoencoder (Eduardo et al., 2020; Zhou & Paffenroth, 2017; Akrami et al., 2019a), hopefully repairing the errors at reconstruction. This has proven successful for random errors, though as we show, this is less effective for systematic errors. Often regularization is too strong leading to bad repair quality, since reconstruction is collapsing to mean behaviour – e.g. blurry image samples, missing details. Attribute manipulation models (Klys et al., 2018; Choi et al., 2020) usually rely on extensive labelled data, usually fully supervised. Data cleaning can be seen as an attribute manipulation problem with one attribute: either the instance is an inlier or outlier. Some models like CVAE (Sohn et al., 2015) may use discrete latent variables, instead of continuous, to model attributes. These may lack the capacity to capture diversity in the same attribute (Joy et al., 2020), e.g. distinct types of systematic errors in the data, and thus offer a poor fit to the data. Later, this may result in poor repair. Disentanglement models, unsupervised (Locatello et al., 2019b; Tonolini et al., 2019) and semi-supervised (Ilse et al., 2020; Locatello et al., 2019b; Joy et al., 2020), encourage individual (or set of) continuous latent variables to capture different attributes of the data instances. More in-depth discussion about these models can be found in Section 2.5.4. In theory, a disentanglement model could isolate the inlier / outlier attribute into a latent variable, then after training one could find a value for this variable that repairs the outlier. In practice, this is much simpler with semi-supervised models, since we know which variable (or set of) corresponds the attribute, but these tend to use more labelled data than we consider. In either case, these models usually need additional processing, often requiring human in the loop to explore the latent variable and find the best repair. Conversely, once our model is trained, further human intervention is not needed, so that repair is automated. More specifically, there have been (semi-)supervised disentanglement models (Klys et al., 2018; Ilse et al., 2020; Joy et al., 2020; Locatello et al., 2019b) that segregate the latent space in order to model particular attributes. Once more, further discussion on these is found in Section 2.5.4, where a SOTA model of this type (CCVAE, (Joy et al., 2020)) is discussed in detail (see Section 220.127.116.11). Generally, these models use the same latent subspace to model some attribute $y$. In this case both inliers ($y = 1$) and the systematic error patterns of outliers ($y = 0$). The remainder of the latent space is left to model unlabelled attributes of the data. This type of modelling is usually geared toward general disentanglement of data attributes, and not data instance repair. The proposed CLSVAE model also segregates the latent space. However, unlike the other models, it expresses an inductive bias related to the problem of corrupted data, which improves the disentanglement in latent space of (underlying) inlier and error patterns. The CLSVAE splits the latent space in two: one subspace models inlier patterns ($y = 1$); and the other subspace models systematic error patterns ($y = 0$). Furthermore, CLSVAE defines a specific neural network encoder for each subspace, such that inlier and error patterns do not share network parameters. We found this to lead to better repair performance. On the other hand, other disentanglement models typically share the same neural encoder. CLSVAE exploits the fact that inliers are numerous and appear in the dataset uncorrupted; and thus these can be directly modelled by one subspace during training. This architectural bias can improve disentanglement, since for the less common outliers an additional subspace is used for error information. Seeing this is not always stable with very small trusted sets, a penalty loss based on distance correlation is used to minimize mutual information between subspaces. Conversely, the other models always assume every instance needs to be disentangled (inliers from errors); and thus do not exploit the fact inliers are frequent and appear without errors. We believe this issue is further compounded in other models by the use of the same subspace for inliers and errors, and the sharing of encoder neural network. Although with a large enough trusted set some of these models can have good performance, in this chapter we focus on very small trusted sets. Therefore such inductive biases as provided by CLSVAE for this problem are quite important for performance. ### 4.4 Problem Definition We assume the user knows that systematic errors have corrupted dataset $\mathcal{X}$, and thus outliers exist therein, but the inliers are still the majority. The user also has an idea of what patterns constitute systematic errors, and is able to recognize them. Intuitively, we think of inlier data being characterized by a set of patterns, which we call clean patterns, and those that constitute (systematic) errors, called dirty patterns. An outlier is an instance that has been corrupted by systematic errors, where prior to that would be constituted by clean patterns only. Formally, for $\tilde{\mathbf{x}}$ an underlying inlier instance, an outlier is defined by $\mathbf{x} = f_{cr}(\tilde{\mathbf{x}})$. We define $f_{cr}$ as a general transformation that corrupts the inlier instance with systematic errors, and not necessarily invertible. Each type of systematic error usually affects specific features of $\tilde{\mathbf{x}}$ in the same predictable way, repeatedly in the dataset. This is unlike random errors, which both the feature and changed values are at random throughout instances. The type of outliers described here are point outliers (see Section 2.2.1), and that is the focus of this thesis. The user builds a small trusted set by labelling a few of the inliers and outliers in the train set $\mathcal{X}$, forming the labelled subset $\mathcal{X}_l = \{\mathbf{x}_n\}_{n=1}^{N_l}$. So we have the dirty dataset $\mathcal{X} = \mathcal{X}_l \cup \mathcal{X}_u$, where $\mathcal{X}_u = \{\mathbf{x}_n\}_{n=1}^{N_u}$ is the unlabelled part. The overall size of the train set is $N = N_l + N_u$. Each $\mathbf{x}_n \in \mathcal{X}_l$ is associated with a label $y_n \in \{0, 1\}$, which indicates whether $x_n$ is an inlier ($y_n = 1$) or an outlier $(y_n = 0)$. We write $\mathcal{Y}_l = \{y_n\}_{n=1}^{N_l}$, and thus the trusted set is formally defined by $(\mathcal{X}_l, \mathcal{Y}_l)$. The trusted set should be representative of the inliers and outliers in the data. Note that there is a set of different corrupting transformations, i.e. systematic error types, each applied to several instances. Hence, the trusted set should provide at least a few labelled samples per type of systematic error. This is important so as to help the model distinguish between inliers and outliers. In our problem, the labelled portion of the dataset $\mathcal{X}_l$ (trusted set) is significantly smaller than the unlabelled portion $\mathcal{X}_u$, e.g. $0.5\%$ of $N_u$. Given how small the trusted set is, we refer to this as sparse semi-supervision. In this work, the main task is to first perform outlier detection on $\mathcal{X}$, in order to discover $y$ for each instance $x$. The second task is repair those instances that are considered to be outliers ($y = 0$). Specifically, the model needs to provide a repair transformation $g_r$ such that $\hat{x} = g_r(x)$ where $\hat{x} \approx x$ (i.e. repair is close enough to the underlying inlier instance). Thus, we want a model that performs these two steps automatically, i.e. without a human in the loop. ### 4.5 Proposal: Clean Subspace VAE (CLSVAE) In this section, we introduce the generative and variational models for our proposal. Our Variational Autoencoder (VAE) model is motivated by three observations: - Outliers are systematic. Outlier instances can be described by a number of predictable recurring patterns, some of which are considered dirty (e.g. black patch on an image). Our assumption is that the latter patterns can be well represented by a DGM. - Subspace hypothesis. Outliers are composed of the underlying inlier and the transformation (error) that made it an outlier. Since we are trying to capture more information in our representation for outliers, a larger latent space in a DGM is needed. Conversely, the inlier data can thus be modelled using a subspace of the overall latent space. - Outliers are a combination of clean and dirty patterns. Because clean and dirty patterns produce different visible effects in the instance, the effects of clean and dirty patterns can be modelled separately. Hence, this DGM only requires the parameters (or variables) of the clean patterns to generate a repair. Note that this assumption is valid for corruption-based outliers, in particular for systematic errors. We call our model the sparse semi-supervised Clean Subspace VAE (CLSVAE). This reflects the fact that our model has a partitioned latent space: a subspace for clean patterns, and a subspace for dirty patterns. Thus at test time only the subspace for clean patterns is used to generate a repair. A standard VAE (Kingma & Welling, 2014), with weight decay, is provided in section 18.104.22.168 for readers unfamiliar with this type of model. Additional Details We note to our reader that the above assumption on outliers being a combination of clean and dirty patterns only applies to corruption-based outliers (see Section 2.2.1, some examples are presented). Specifically, we consider systematic error corruption where the anomalous pattern can be learnt or predicted (Liu et al., 2020; Krishnan et al., 2016; Lew et al., 2021). This means that in a DGM potentially the errors can be modelled separately from the patterns that constitute the underlying inlier of that instance. However, there are many outliers that present a structured or systematic behavior, and are not a combination of clean and dirty patterns. For instance, all outliers that are structured but are not originated by error corruption affecting part of the data features. Some examples of these outliers can be found in out-of-distribution outliers Yang et al. (2021), and in anomalous data classes that sometimes populate datasets (Ruff et al., 2019; Diakonikolas et al., 2018). Further discussion on outlier types can be found in Section 2.2.1. ### 4.5.1 Generative Model The main idea is that inlier samples ($y = 1$) will have a smaller representation relative to outliers ($y = 0$), since outliers need an extra representation to model errors. This follows from the observations made earlier in Section 4.5. In our model, $z_c$ will represent inliers, $z_d$ will represent the error pattern for outliers, and $z_r$ is random noise. The overall latent code is $z = [z_c; y z_c + (1 - y) z_d]$, where $[ ; ]$ defines vector concatenation, leading to a latent space that is partitioned into two subspaces. If generating an inlier ($y = 1$) then $z_c \in \mathbb{R}^q$ is by itself responsible for modelling all the clean patterns present in an instance, encouraging a lower dimensional manifold for inlier data. This is due to $z_r$ being a random noise vector. of the same dimension as $ \mathbf{z}_d \in \mathbb{R}^p $, devoid of additional information. If generating an outlier ($ y = 0 $) both $ \mathbf{z}_c $ and $ \mathbf{z}_d $ are used, where $ \mathbf{z}_d $ models the different types of dirty patterns that can be detected in an instance. In fact, using $ \mathbf{z}_c $ during inlier generation encourages $ \mathbf{z}_d $ to model dirty patterns only, encouraging a higher dimensional manifold for outlier data. Our generative model is therefore defined by the joint distribution between $ y $ and latent subspaces $ \mathbf{z}_c $ and $ \mathbf{z}_d $. The main idea expressed above can be written as a two component mixture model for the decoder, see eq. (4.4), where $ y $ is the gating variable. Hence we have \[ p_\theta(\mathbf{x}, \mathbf{z}_c, \mathbf{z}_d, \mathbf{z}_e, y) = p_\theta(\mathbf{x} \| \mathbf{z}_c, \mathbf{z}_d, \mathbf{z}_e, y)p_{\sigma_c}(\mathbf{z}_c)p_{\sigma_d}(\mathbf{z}_d)p_{\sigma_e}(\mathbf{z}_e)p_\alpha(y), \] where \[ p_\alpha(y) = \text{Bernoulli}(y\|\alpha), \] \[ p_{\sigma_c}(\mathbf{z}_c) = \mathcal{N}(\mathbf{z}_c\|0, \sigma_c^2 \mathbf{I}), \quad p_{\sigma_d}(\mathbf{z}_d) = \mathcal{N}(\mathbf{z}_d\|0, \sigma_d^2 \mathbf{I}), \quad p_{\sigma_e}(\mathbf{z}_e) = \mathcal{N}(\mathbf{z}_e\|0, \sigma_e^2 \mathbf{I}), \] \[ p_\theta(\mathbf{x} \| \mathbf{z}_c, \mathbf{z}_d, \mathbf{z}_e, y) = p_\theta(\mathbf{x} \| [\mathbf{z}_c; \mathbf{z}_e])^y p_\theta(\mathbf{x} \| [\mathbf{z}_c; \mathbf{z}_d])^{(1-y)}, \] where the density $ p_\theta(\mathbf{x} \| [\cdot; \cdot]) $ is parameterized by a neural network. We assume inlier data has a smaller variance as whole than outlier data, so we use a $ \sigma_c $ that is smaller than $ \sigma_d $, e.g. smaller by an order of magnitude. Further, $ \mathbf{z}_e $ is just low level Gaussian random noise with an order of magnitude similar to $ \sigma_c $. Hence, after training, the region around $ \mathbf{0} $ (zero mean) for this latent subspace encourages $ p_\theta(\mathbf{x} \| [\cdot; \cdot]) $ to only use $ \mathbf{z}_c $ for reconstruction, obtaining a repaired instance. The parameter $ \alpha $ reflects the prior belief on the fraction of clean data. Smaller values for $ \alpha $ means more data points are rejected when modelling $ \mathbf{z}_c $, which offers more robustness. So we have $ \sigma_c, \sigma_e, \sigma_d $ and $ \alpha $ as hyper-parameters. Additional Details One final note should be added about the definition of $ \mathbf{z}_e $. We tried setting $ \mathbf{z}_e = \mathbf{0} $ at training, however this did not work as well as setting $ \mathbf{z}_e $ to random noise. One hypothesis is that using random noise centered at $ \mathbf{0} $ (zero mean) allows to create a margin (separation) between the neighborhood around $ \mathbf{z}_d = \mathbf{0} $, and the $ \mathbf{z}_d $ space that encodes different types of noise present in an instance. As a result, this lead to a better distinction by the decoder (generator) between inlier and outlier representations in $ z_d = 0 $. This in turn allows for better automatic repair performance by the model. Lastly, further discussion on why changing prior variance values (i.e. $ \sigma_c $ and $ \sigma_d $) has an impact on the fully trained model is presented in section 22.214.171.124. We theorize that stochastic gradient optimization makes degenerate solutions unlikely, i.e. where $ \sigma_c $ and $ \sigma_d $ value changes might be scaled out (made irrelevant) by the encoder or decoder network weights. Secondly, in section 126.96.36.199, we provide empirical evidence using a standard VAE that corrupted data has larger variance than clean data. This means that there is more information to model with corrupted data (with outliers) than clean data (inliers only). Indeed, we see that clean data can be better modelled by a standard VAE using a smaller latent space than corrupted data. ### 4.5.2 Variational Model We consider separate encoders for $ z_c $ and $ z_d $, and make $ y $ depend on $ z_c $ and $ z_d $. The idea is that parameters of each encoder focus on different aspects, i.e. clean or dirty patterns respectively. The model factorizes as \[ q(z_c, z_d, z_e, y \| x) = q_{\phi_y}(y\|z_c, z_d)q_{\phi_c}(z_c\|x)q_{\phi_d}(z_d\|x)q_{\sigma_e}(z_e), \] (4.5) and \[ q_{\phi_c}(z_c\|x) = \mathcal{N}(z_c\|\mu_{\phi_c}(x), \sigma^2_{\phi_c}(x)), \quad q_{\phi_d}(z_d\|x) = \mathcal{N}(z_d\|\mu_{\phi_d}(x), \sigma^2_{\phi_d}(x)), \] (4.6) \[ q_{\phi_y}(y\|z_c, z_d) = \text{Bernoulli}(y\|\pi_{\phi_y}([z_c; z_d])), \quad q_{\sigma_e}(z_e) = p_{\sigma_e}(z_e), \] (4.7) where for distributions in eq. (4.6): $ \{\mu_{\phi_c}(.), \sigma_{\phi_c}(.)\} $ is a neural network with parameters $ \phi_c $; similarly for $ \{\mu_{\phi_d}(.), \sigma_{\phi_d}(.)\} $ with $ \phi_d $. We have $ \sigma_{\phi_c}(x) $ and $ \sigma_{\phi_d}(x) $ being diagonal covariance matrices. The distribution for random noise $ z_e $ in eq. (4.7) is the same as in the generative model, see eq. (4.3). Further, in eq. (4.7), the $ \pi_{\phi_y}(.) $ parametrizes the Bernoulli distribution $ q_{\phi_y}(y\|z_c, z_d) $, and is a neural network with parameters $ \phi_y $. #### Additional Details We found that using $ q_{\phi_y}(y\|z_c, z_d) $ – rather than $ q_{\phi_y}(y\|z_d) $ or $ q_{\phi_y}(y\|x) $ – yielded better performance in more challenging scenarios, e.g. smaller trusted set or when higher data corruption is present. One could have used $q_{\phi_y}(y\|z_d)$, which works, but it is still worse than our proposal. This is because $z_c$ provides important context on the clean patterns present in the instance, which in turn allows for $z_d$ to contain less information about clean patterns. Hence, $z_d$ is able to focus better on modelling the dirty patterns, and so the mutual information (MI) between $z_c$ and $z_d$ will be lower. Moreover, $q_{\phi_y}(y\|z_c, z_d)$ allows for the cross-entropy loss used for the trusted set to directly bias the latent space. Unlike when using $q_{\phi_y}(y\|x)$ directly as a neural network. Other works have tried biasing the latent space in the same fashion as this work, e.g. (Locatello et al., 2019b; Ilse et al., 2020; Joy et al., 2020). In practice, in order to stabilize the optimization procedure in some cases, we used $\pi_{\phi_y}([\text{sg}(z_c); z_d])$ in eq. (4.7), i.e. $q_{\phi_y}(y\|z_c, z_d) = \text{Bernoulli}(y\|\pi_{\phi_y}([\text{sg}(z_c); z_d]))$. Note that sg($z_c$) stands for stop gradient operator applied to $z_c$; and this prevents $z_c$ from being updated with dirty pattern information early on in the training. By using sg($z_c$), when executing back-propagation, we prevent the gradients from $q_{\phi_y}(y\|z_c, z_d)$ to influence the learning of parameters $\phi_c$. As such, $\phi_c$ will only be affected by gradients stemming from the reconstruction of inlier instances, and not the decision on $y$. In the implementation code of CLSVAE we always used the stop-gradient operator on $z_c$ as it proved to be able to stabilize the convergence of the training procedure in harsh conditions. These harsh conditions are usually a combination of i) small trusted sets and ii) high corruption. In all other cases this was not seen as too necessary, as the benefits to training convergence were marginal. Hence, it was decided to always use the stop-gradient operator on $z_c$ for all experiments of CLSVAE presented in this chapter. ### 4.5.3 Training Loss Our model is trained to maximize an objective function with three terms, which accounts for our semi-supervised setting. The first term $\mathcal{L}(x)$ is the evidence lower bound (ELBO) for the unlabelled part of the data. The second term $\mathcal{L}(x, y)$ is the ELBO for the trusted set. The third term is based on the negative $\mathcal{C}_{\text{WCE}}(x, y)$, where $\mathcal{C}_{\text{WCE}}(x, y)$ is the weighted cross-entropy loss which ensures that $q_{\phi_y}(y\|z_c, z_d)$ correctly predicts the trusted set labels $y$. The ELBO for the unlabelled (unsupervised) part is \[ \mathcal{L}(\boldsymbol{x}) = \mathbb{E}_{q_{\phi_y}}(y\|\boldsymbol{z}_c, \boldsymbol{z}_d) q_{\phi_c}(\boldsymbol{z}_c\|\boldsymbol{x}) q_{\phi_d}(\boldsymbol{z}_d\|\boldsymbol{x}) p_{\sigma_c}(\boldsymbol{z}_c) \left[ \log \frac{p_{\theta}(\boldsymbol{x}\|\boldsymbol{z}_c, \boldsymbol{z}_d, \boldsymbol{z}_c, y) p_{\alpha_c}(\boldsymbol{z}_c) p_{\sigma_d}(\boldsymbol{z}_d) p_{\psi}(y)}{q_{\phi_y}(y\|\boldsymbol{z}_c, \boldsymbol{z}_d) q_{\phi_c}(\boldsymbol{z}_c\|\boldsymbol{x}) q_{\phi_d}(\boldsymbol{z}_d\|\boldsymbol{x})} \right], \] which can be rewritten as \[ \mathcal{L}(\boldsymbol{x}) = \mathbb{E}_{q_{\phi_c}(\boldsymbol{z}_c\|\boldsymbol{x}) q_{\phi_d}(\boldsymbol{z}_d\|\boldsymbol{x}) p_{\sigma_c}(\boldsymbol{z}_c)} \left[ \pi_{\phi_y}([\boldsymbol{z}_c; \boldsymbol{z}_d]) \log p_{\theta}(\boldsymbol{x}\|\boldsymbol{z}_c; \boldsymbol{z}_d) \right. \\ + (1 - \pi_{\phi_y}([\boldsymbol{z}_c; \boldsymbol{z}_d])) \log p_{\theta}(\boldsymbol{x}\|\boldsymbol{z}_c; \boldsymbol{z}_d) - D_{KL}(q_{\phi_y}(y\|\boldsymbol{z}_c, \boldsymbol{z}_d)\|\|p_{\alpha}(y)) \\ - D_{KL}(q_{\phi_c}(\boldsymbol{z}_c\|\boldsymbol{x})\|\|p_{\sigma_c}(\boldsymbol{z}_c)) - D_{KL}(q_{\phi_d}(\boldsymbol{z}_d\|\boldsymbol{x})\|\|p_{\sigma_d}(\boldsymbol{z}_d)), \] where $ q_{\sigma_c}(\boldsymbol{z}_c) = p_{\sigma_c}(\boldsymbol{z}_c) $ and so they cancel each other. The expectations are obtained via Monte-Carlo (MC) estimation via reparameterization trick (Kingma & Welling, 2014; Rezende et al., 2014). For the trusted set (supervised) part the ELBO is \[ \mathcal{L}(\boldsymbol{x}, y) = \mathbb{E}_{q_{\phi_c}(\boldsymbol{z}_c\|\boldsymbol{x}) q_{\phi_d}(\boldsymbol{z}_d\|\boldsymbol{x}) p_{\sigma_c}(\boldsymbol{z}_c)} \left[ y \log p_{\theta}(\boldsymbol{x}\|\boldsymbol{z}_c; \boldsymbol{z}_d) + (1 - y) \log p_{\theta}(\boldsymbol{x}\|\boldsymbol{z}_c; \boldsymbol{z}_d) \right] \\ + \log p_{\alpha}(y) - D_{KL}(q_{\phi_c}(\boldsymbol{z}_c\|\boldsymbol{x})\|\|p_{\sigma_c}(\boldsymbol{z}_c)) - D_{KL}(q_{\phi_d}(\boldsymbol{z}_d\|\boldsymbol{x})\|\|p_{\sigma_d}(\boldsymbol{z}_d)). \] Lastly, we need to define the weighted cross-entropy $ \mathcal{C}_{WCE}(\boldsymbol{x}, y) $, which is \[ \mathcal{C}_{WCE}(\boldsymbol{x}, y) = -y \log q(y = 1\|\boldsymbol{x}) - \omega_{imb}.(1 - y). \log (1 - q(y = 1\|\boldsymbol{x})) \] where \[ \omega_{imb} = \max \left\{ 1, \frac{N_{l_1}}{N_{l_0}} \right\}, \quad N_{l_1} = \sum_{i=1}^{N_1} y_i, \quad N_{l_0} = N_l - N_{l_1}, \] and $ \omega_{imb} $ compensates for trusted set class imbalance.$^1$ However, we do not have access to $ q(y = 1\|\boldsymbol{x}) $ and thus we cannot estimate $ \mathcal{C}_{WCE}(\boldsymbol{x}, y) $ directly. Still, we can minimize an upper-bound \[ \mathcal{C}_{WCE}(\boldsymbol{x}, y) \leq \tilde{\mathcal{C}}_{WCE}(\boldsymbol{x}, y) = \mathbb{E}_{q_{\phi_c}(\boldsymbol{z}_c\|\boldsymbol{x}) q_{\phi_d}(\boldsymbol{z}_d\|\boldsymbol{x})} \left[ -y \log q(y = 1\|\boldsymbol{z}_c, \boldsymbol{z}_d) \right. \\ - \omega_{imb}.(1 - y). \log (1 - q(y = 1\|\boldsymbol{z}_c, \boldsymbol{z}_d)) \bigg], \] which is obtained by applying Jensen’s inequality. Combining the three terms defined above, we minimize the overall loss \[ \mathcal{I} = -\frac{1}{N} \left[ \sum_{\boldsymbol{x} \in X_u} \mathcal{L}(\boldsymbol{x}) + \sum_{(\boldsymbol{x}, y) \in X_t \times Y_t} \mathcal{L}(\boldsymbol{x}, y) \right] + \beta \frac{1}{N_l} \sum_{(\boldsymbol{x}, y) \in X_l \times Y_l} \tilde{\mathcal{C}}_{WCE}(\boldsymbol{x}, y) \] $^1$Useful when the number of labeled outliers outnumbers the inliers. Such a case does not reflect the common dataset composition, i.e. the number of inliers is larger than outliers. with respect to the generative and variational parameters. We note that the above loss minimization will maximize the ELBO of the data, and minimize the weighted cross-entropy loss. The hyperparameter $\beta$ value controls the amount of up-sampling and importance relative to the other terms, which tends to be moderately high due to how small the trusted set is. ### 4.5.4 Distance Correlation Penalty In this chapter, we assume that inlier and (systematic) error patterns have generative processes that are statistically independent. This is true for a significant portion of systematic errors, which also fit the description in our problem setting (see Section 4.4). Some examples and related literature can be found in the Background chapter (see Section 2.2.1) and in the Introduction of this chapter (see Section 4.2). As such, we can make the assumption that the latent variables $z_c$ and $z_d$ should be close to independent, and their marginal distributions $q(z_c)$ and $q(z_d)$ should reflect that. One way to enforce independence between $z_c$ and $z_d$ is to have zero (or low) marginal mutual information (MI). Still, in some cases systematic errors may depend on the data classes $t \in T$ of $\mathcal{X}$. In this case, the inlier and error generative processes should be conditionally independent given the data label $t$ – i.e. $q(z_c\|t)$ and $q(z_d\|t)$. Thus $z_c$ and $z_d$ should have zero (or low) conditional mutual information given $t$. We leave this type of systematic errors to be explored as future work, as they are less common than the former. In CLSVAE, ideally $z_c$ captures clean patterns only, whilst $z_d$ captures dirty patterns. However, in more challenging scenarios, e.g. small trusted set or higher dataset corruption, obtaining this solution may not be guaranteed. Enforcing a constraint encouraging low marginal MI between $z_c$ and $z_d$ will lead to better model performance and stability in challenging scenarios, improving repair quality. We would like to introduce a constraint that minimizes marginal MI between $z_c$ and $z_d$. However, approximating MI properly can be complex. Instead, we use distance correlation (DC) as a surrogate for MI (Székely et al., 2007), which is easier to compute and can measure non-linear dependencies between vector variables. Other works have used DC as a surrogate for MI, e.g. (Chen et al., 2021). Further, DC can also measure dependence between vector variables of different dimensions, which is often the case with $ \mathbf{z}_c $ and $ \mathbf{z}_d $. For the data batch $(\mathbf{z}_c, \mathbf{z}_d) \in (\mathbf{Z}_c, \mathbf{Z}_d)$ where $ \mathbf{Z}_c \in \mathbb{R}^{N \times q} $ and $ \mathbf{Z}_d \in \mathbb{R}^{N \times p} $, we can define the empirical estimate of DC as $ dCorr_N(\mathbf{Z}_c, \mathbf{Z}_d) $. Essentially, DC is the standard correlation between the elements of the double centered pairwise distance matrices of each data batch $ \mathbf{Z}_c $ and $ \mathbf{Z}_d $. The range is $ 0 \leq dCorr_N(\mathbf{Z}_c, \mathbf{Z}_d) \leq 1 $, where 0 means variables are independent, and 1 implies that $ \mathbf{z}_c $ and $ \mathbf{z}_d $ are strongly correlated. The definition of estimator $ dCorr_N(\mathbf{Z}_c, \mathbf{Z}_d) $ is provided below. Then, we show how to modify the training loss in order to integrate this constraint. Empirical Distance Correlation For a random data batch of $ n $ samples, such as $(\mathbf{Z}, \mathbf{Z}') = \{(\mathbf{z}_k, \mathbf{z}'_k) : k = 1, ..., n\}$, one can define the empirical estimate for the distance correlation between multivariate random variables $ \mathbf{z} \in \mathbb{R}^q $ and $ \mathbf{z}' \in \mathbb{R}^p $. Note that $ q $ and $ p $ can be of different dimensions, i.e. $ q \neq p $. Given this data batch, using the definition from (Székely et al., 2007), we first define $ A_{kl} $ and $ B_{kl} $ as \[ a_{kl} = \|\|\mathbf{z}_k - \mathbf{z}_l\|\|_2, \] \[ \bar{a}_k = \frac{1}{n} \sum_{l=1}^{n} a_{kl}, \quad \bar{a}_l = \frac{1}{n} \sum_{k=1}^{n} a_{kl}, \quad \bar{a}_{..} = \frac{1}{n^2} \sum_{k,l=1}^{n} a_{kl}, \] \[ A_{kl} = a_{kl} - \bar{a}_k, - \bar{a}_l + \bar{a}_{..}, \] and similarly, using $ b_{kl} = \|\|\mathbf{z}'_k - \mathbf{z}'_l\|\|_2 $ we define \[ B_{kl} = b_{kl} - \bar{b}_k, - \bar{b}_l + \bar{b}_{..}. \] Now we are ready to define the empirical distance covariance as \[ dCov_n(\mathbf{Z}, \mathbf{Z}') = \frac{1}{n^2} \sum_{k,l=1}^{n} A_{kl}B_{kl}, \] and the following empirical distance variances for each random variable as \[ dVar_n(\mathbf{Z}) = \frac{1}{n^2} \sum_{k,l=1}^{n} A_{kl}^2, \quad dVar_n(\mathbf{Z}') = \frac{1}{n^2} \sum_{k,l=1}^{n} B_{kl}^2. \] Finally, combining the above measures we can write the distance correlation as \[ dCorr_n(\mathbf{Z}, \mathbf{Z}') = \frac{dCov_n(\mathbf{Z}, \mathbf{Z}')}{\sqrt{dVar_n(\mathbf{Z}) \ dVar_n(\mathbf{Z}')}}, \] where $0 \leq dCorr_n(Z, Z') \leq 1$. Note that if $dCorr_n(Z, Z') = 0$ then $z$ and $z'$ are statistically independent random variables. Otherwise, if $dCorr_n(Z, Z') = 1$ then they are strongly correlated. The distance correlation measure can capture non-linear dependencies, whilst the more common Pearson correlation can only capture linear dependencies. Further, a value of 0 for Pearson correlation does not imply independence, unlike in distance correlation which it does. Constraining the Optimization Procedure Enforcing this constraint based on the distance correlation means adding a penalty to the training loss. Therefore, reusing the loss defined in eq. (4.13) we now have $$\min_{\phi_c, \phi_d, \phi_y, g} I + \lambda_t \ dCorr_N(Z_c, Z_d),$$ (4.14) where $\lambda_t$ increases every epoch from 0 until it reaches a maximum value $\lambda_T$, which is then maintained. The rate of increase of $\lambda_t$ and $\lambda_T$ are hyper-parameters. This strategy is a type of penalty method as used in constrained optimization. ### 4.5.5 Outlier Detection and Repair Process After training, we proceed with outlier detection and automated repair, as in section 4.4. The detection task is to discover the ground-truth labels $y$ for each $x \in X$, using inferred labels $\hat{y}$. A score $A(x)$ and threshold $\gamma \geq 0$ are used to get the set of outliers $O = \{x \in X \| A(x) \geq \gamma\}$, where a higher $A(x)$ means the more likely $x$ is an outlier. The inferred label $\hat{y}$ is obtained as: (inlier) $\hat{y} = 1$ if $x \notin O$; (outlier) $\hat{y} = 0$ if $x \in O$. For our model, we use a score based on the negative log probability of inlier given the latent subspaces, which is $$A(x) = -\log \pi_{\phi_y}([\mu_{\phi_c}(x); \mu_{\phi_d}(x)]), \quad x \in X.$$ (4.15) The threshold $\gamma$ can be chosen as $\gamma \approx -\log(0.5)$ assuming $q_{\phi_y}(y = 1 \| .) = \pi_{\phi_y}(.)$ is near calibrated, or it can be user-defined. The repair task is to obtain an inferred reconstruction $\hat{x}$ from the outlier $x \in O$ such that it is close to the inlier ground-truth $\tilde{x}$. The repair is generated using the most likely reconstruction under our model for $y = 1$ (inliers), which means only the clean subspace $z_c$ is used. This is the maximum a posteriori estimate for a VAE, where one approximates $p_\theta(z_c \| x)$ by $q_\phi(z_c \| x)$, and then uses the means of $q_\phi(z_c \| x)$, $q_\epsilon(z_c)$ and $p_\theta(x \| [z_c; z_c])$ in the estimate. Hence, we have $$\hat{x} = \mu_\theta([\mu_{\phi_c}(x); 0]), \quad x \in O.$$ Additional Details One should note that the formulation in eq. (4.16) is similar to the maximum a posteriori (MAP) estimate derived for the standard VAE in Section 188.8.131.52. Moreover, this type of MAP repair (or attribute manipulation) is commonly used for conditional VAEs, as seen in Klys et al. (2018) (see Section 184.108.40.206). Such a MAP repair strategy can be applied to CLSVAE and other types VAE models (see Section 2.5). The reader should also note that the $\mathbf{0}$ in eq. (4.16) corresponds to the mean of noise distribution $q_{\sigma_e}(\mathbf{z}_e)$ used during training. Just like $\mu_{\phi_e}(\mathbf{x})$ corresponds to $q_{\phi}(\mathbf{z}_e\|\mathbf{x})$, and $\mu_{\theta}(. )$ to the decoder $p_{\theta}(\mathbf{x} \| . )$. As stated in Section 4.5.1 (in Additional Details), we initially tried the dirac distribution $q(\mathbf{z}_e) = \delta\{\mathbf{z}_e = \mathbf{0}\}$, which sometimes still had performance issues at repair time. However, better repair performance was obtained when using $q(\mathbf{z}_e)$ defined as zero-mean Gaussian noise, and at repair time still using $\mu_e = \mathbf{0}$ as input to the decoder. During hyper-parameter search $\sigma_e$ was kept as small as possible, as performance was evaluated using the trusted set (like other models). Empirically, we did not see an improvement when sampling from $q(\mathbf{z}_e)$ to obtain a repaired instance, for the same $\mu_{\phi_e}(\mathbf{x})$. In fact, in some few cases we noticed a drop in performance. Therefore we opted to maintain the MAP solution which uses $\mathbf{0}$. Further, as stated in Section 4.5.1 (Additional Details), we believe that using $\mathbf{z}_e$ at train time allows to create a margin between the neighborhood around $\mathbf{z}_d = 0$, and the $\mathbf{z}_d$ space that encodes different types of errors. Indeed, the authors in Ghosh et al. (2019) state that noise injection is a standard trick in VAEs to smooth out the latent space around a particular neighborhood – e.g. around $\mathbf{0}$. 4.6 Experiments We evaluate two tasks: outlier detection, and automated repair. Our experiments use three image datasets: Frey-Faces\footnote{http://www.cs.nyu.edu/~rowell/data/frey_rawface.mat}, Fashion-MNIST (Xiao et al., 2017), Synthetic-Shapes. Synthetic-Shapes is a synthetic dataset built around four different shapes (classes): a circle, a rectangle, an ellipse and a triangle. These are colored white and set in a black background. We corrupt datasets with synthetic systematic errors, since public real-world datasets with ground-truth repairs and respective labels are difficult to find, as seen in Eduardo et al. (2020); Krishnan \| Dataset \| Data Type \| No. Data Classes \| No. Error Classes \| Error Types \| \|------------------\|----------------------------\|------------------\|-------------------\|-------------------\| \| Synthetic-Shapes \| $28 \times 28$ binary \| 4 \| 4 \| 4 lines \| \| \| (black / white) \| \| \| \| \| Fashion-MNIST \| $28 \times 28$ continuous \| 10 \| 8 \| 4 lines & 4 squares \| \| \| (grey-scale) \| \| \| \| \| Frey-Faces \| $28 \times 20$ continuous \| 1 \| 4 \| 4 squares \| \| \| (grey-scale) \| \| \| \| Table 4.1: Description of dataset and its corruption. et al. (2016); Liu et al. (2020). We compare our model (CLSVAE) with baselines ranging from completely supervised to unsupervised. ### 4.6.1 Evaluation For outlier detection we use AVPR (Average Precision) (Everingham et al., 2015) to measure detection quality, which is a surrogate for the area under the precision-recall curve (Hendrycks & Gimpel, 2016). This metric is preferred since it is insensitive to label imbalance, typical in outlier detection. AVPR score is between $[0, 1]$ and higher means better. For automated repair we want to quantify the quality of the repair, for outlier instances. We report the standardized mean squared error (SMSE) between pixels of the ground-truth (inlier) instance and that of the proposed repair. We report SMSE separately for the dirty pixels (those affected by the systematic error) and for the clean pixels (those unaffected). The first measures repair performance, while the latter measures distortion that the repair process causes to clean pixels. In both cases, a lower SMSE means better. Note in the case of binary pixels, the SMSE is just the Brier score, and thus is in $[0, 1]$. ### 4.6.2 Datasets and Corruption Process In our experiments we take an uncorrupted dataset and inject it with systematic errors. These systematic errors are synthetic, designed to seem like reasonable image corruptions, e.g. occlusion or failing of a camera sensor. The types of systematic errors used across datasets are either lines or squares. Lines (two diagonal, one vertical, and one horizontal) cross the image from side to side, and may have their color set at random (black / white). These lines always affect the same pixels, and have thickness of one pixel. Squares are randomly uniformly placed, so is their fill-in color, with size $6 \times 6$ pixels. We use different noise levels so we can study their impact, we use $[15\%, 25\%, 35\%, 45\%]$ of dataset. The systematic error corruption process is done by picking uniformly at random an instance, and then applying that systematic error. We use a range of trusted set sizes by defining the number of instances labelled per systematic error class (type) and per data class. The latter is the underlying classes in the dataset, e.g. item labels in Fashion-MNIST. For each class, either systematic error or data class, we provide label $y$ for a few instances at random obtaining a trusted set. We use the range $\text{TS}_{\text{size}} = [5, 10, 25, 50]$ labelled samples per class, which results in different trusted set sizes depending on number of classes. Particularly, we have the trusted set ranges: Synthetic-Shapes with $[40, 80, 200, 400]$ total samples; Frey-Faces with $[25, 50, 125, 250]$ total samples; Fashion-MNIST with $[90, 180, 450, 900]$ total samples. We create five examples (different random seeds) per noise level and per trusted set size, and train the models on them. The results are then averaged. Table 4.1 gives a summary of the datasets and their corruption (error types), number of systematic errors and data classes. Regarding this experimental setup, a more detailed description is provided below. Detailed Description Here we have a detailed description of the datasets and their corruption. For each noise level corruption in $\text{NL}_{\text{size}} = [15\%, 25\%, 35\%, 45\%]$, we instantiate five different examples of the same dataset using different random seeds. For each of those examples we build several trusted sets using the sizes in $\text{TS}_{\text{size}} = [5, 10, 25, 50]$, where labelled instances of smaller trusted sets are reused in bigger ones. The models are run on each example, for each trusted set, and results are then averaged. Synthetic-Shapes This is a synthetic image dataset. It is meant to test the models in a simpler setting as it relates to the clean dataset. We treat the pixel values as a Bernoulli variable. The underlying clean dataset is composed of four different shapes (classes): a circle, a rectangle, an ellipse and a triangle. The shapes are filled by white pixels and the background is black. For each instance, the shape is placed uniformly at random inside the $28 \times 28$ black background. The systematic errors have four types, all are white lines that cross the square image from one side to another side. We have 4 fixed-in-place lines (two diagonal, one vertical, and one horizontal), affecting the same pixels, and sometimes intersecting with the shapes. Hence, we have a total of eight underlying classes for trusted set constitution, i.e. four data and four systematic error classes. The size of the images is $28 \times 28$, and the pixel values are binary $\{0, 1\}$, i.e. black and white. Overall, we have a dataset size of $N = 5000$, with the following split: train (80%), validation (10%), test (10%). Given the eight underlying classes, the size dataset $N$, and TS$_{\text{size}}$, we have the trusted set range: $[40, 80, 200, 400]$ total number of labelled instances, which corresponds to $[0.8\%, 1.6\%, 4\%, 8\%]$ of the entire dataset. Frey-Faces This is a gray-scale image dataset consisting of the same person with different facial expressions. We treat pixel values as continuous. In terms of data classes, we only have one (monolithic), since no labels for the expressions are provided. We have four systematic error classes, which consist of four randomly uniformly placed squares of $6 \times 6$ pixels. The place and color of these squares is defined by the random seed, when the corruption example is created. After that, always the same features are affected. Hence, in total we have five underlying classes for trusted set constitution, i.e. one data and four systematic error classes. The size of images is $28 \times 20$, and the pixel values range from $[0, 256]$, i.e. gray-scale. The size of the entire dataset is $N = 1965$, with the following split: train (80%), validation (10%), test (10%). Given the above and TS$_{\text{size}}$, the trusted set range is: $[25, 50, 125, 250]$ total number of labelled instances, which corresponds to $[1.3\%, 2.5\%, 6.4\%, 12.7\%]$ of the entire dataset. Fashion-MNIST This is a gray-scale image dataset, which consists of images of different types of clothing and accessories from an online merchant. There are 10 existing data classes, provided with the dataset. We have 4 fixed-in-place lines (two diagonal, one vertical, and one horizontal) where the color (black or white) for each depends on the random seed. Then we have 4 squares of size $6 \times 6$ placed randomly uniformly with random color, dependent on random seed. Hence, we have a total of 18 underlying classes for trusted set constitution, i.e. 10 data and 8 systematic error classes. The size of the images is $28 \times 28$, and the pixel values are continuous with range $[0, 1]$, i.e. gray-scale. The original train set is of size 60000 instances, which we split for our actual train set of 54000 (90%) and validation set of 6000 (10%). We use the same test set of 10000 instances, so $N = 70000$. Given TS$_{\text{size}}$ and the train set size $N$, the trusted set range is: $[90, 180, 450, 900]$ total number of labelled instances, which corresponds to $[0.12\%, 0.25\%, 0.64\%, 1.28\%]$ of the entire dataset. ### 4.6.3 Comparative Models Our baselines are VAEs since most of the relevant work in sparse semi-supervision is of this type (Ilse et al., 2020; Joy et al., 2020), and the task of repair is related with that of manipulating the reconstruction. We have four baselines: VAE-L2, CVAE, VAEGMM, CCVAE. For details on model architecture, hyperparameter selection and training see below in section 220.127.116.11. The VAE-L2 model is an unsupervised method tackling the issue of corruption by applying strong regularization ($\ell_2$ regularization on weights). VAE-L2 uses the reconstruction likelihood for detection, more details in section 18.104.22.168. CVAE is the supervised version of the semi-supervised M2 model (Kingma et al., 2014), and should have better repair quality than M2. CVAE uses the reconstruction likelihood as an detection score. We found a smaller variance for $p(z)$ to be beneficial, for details see section 22.214.171.124. VAEGMM, based on (Willetts et al., 2020), is an improved version of M2 for the sparse semi-supervision setting. In this setting the M2 model tends to have posterior collapse issues with $q(y\|x)$, picking one class over others. VAEGMM overcomes this issue, improving clustering and classification performance. Hence, we expect competitive detection performance from VAEGMM, for details see section 126.96.36.199. The CCVAE (Joy et al., 2020) is a state-of-the-art (SotA) semi-supervised VAE disentanglement model, allowing attribute manipulation in semi-supervised settings. For repair, we follow the automatic attribute manipulation procedure proposed by (Joy et al., 2020), for details see section 188.8.131.52. We adapted their code to our pipeline. Contrary to Joy et al. (2020), we found performance was superior when using a large up-sampling coefficient for the classifier, i.e. like $\beta$ in CLSVAE. More details on the choice of $\beta$ value for CCVAE are given in section 184.108.40.206 (see Hyperparameter Selection). We provide two versions of our model, with and without distance correlation penalty in section 4.5.4. So for CLSVAE-NODC use eq. (4.13) as training loss, whilst for CLSVAE use eq. (4.14). 220.127.116.11 Effects on Training: Scaling VAE latent prior variances whilst using SGD methods In this section, we discuss the impact of scaling the variances of the $z$ prior in the generative model, i.e. the hyperparameters $\sigma_e$ and $\sigma_d$ (see section 4.5.1). This discussion also applies to other VAE models where changing variance values can also positively impact detection and repair performance, e.g. VAEGMM (section 18.104.22.168) or CVAE (section 22.214.171.124). Note that all these VAE models use some type of stochastic gradient descent (SGD) optimization for training, e.g. Adam (Kingma & Ba, 2014) or AdaGrad (Duchi et al., 2011). Theoretically, for the generative model in eq. (4.3) changing the variance of the Gaussian priors for $z$ should not change the mathematical optimum of the ELBO loss – eq. (4.13). This is because the weights of both the encoder and decoder neural networks could be scaled together, thus nullifying the variance scaling effect – i.e. scaled out. However, empirically we see that when the model is trained using an optimization algorithm like SGD the change of variance does impact model performance. Unlike what is theoretically suggested above. This is likely due to a regularization effect of SGD (Sekhari et al., 2021) that conditions network weights, making it harder to arbitrarily scale them. Note that SGD uses noisy gradients during training, which likely justifies this effect. Hence, if the weights are conditioned, then varying the variance of the prior of $z$ will have an impact on the trained model. It should be noted that other papers on autoencoders (Rivera et al., 2020; Ruff et al., 2019; Pol et al., 2019) have also assumed that latent representations of outliers tend to lay at the tail end of the (data) distribution. This can mean assuming larger variances when modelling outliers in latent space, e.g. (Rivera et al., 2020; Ruff et al., 2019) and our CLSVAE. Or instead, like in Pol et al. (2019), assume that outliers will cause a larger KL divergence between posterior and prior distributions of $z$. In this case, this basically means outlier instances will have more information to encode, which relates to a larger variance for outliers. Once more, all these AE models have been trained using SGD type optimization like CLSVAE. Lastly, we point the reader to section 126.96.36.199, where an additional experiment is provided showing that data corrupted with outliers has larger variance than inlier data alone. This was carried out using a standard VAE (Kingma & Welling, 2014), so the discussion is broadly applicable. ### 188.8.131.52 Model Architectures, Hyperparameters and Training In this section, we provide a detailed description on how the models introduced above were setup for the experiments. Specifically, we describe hyperparameter value selection, neural network architectures, and training procedure (e.g. optimization algorithm). #### Hyperparameter Selection In our experiments, we tuned model hyperparameters according to outlier detection performance, which means highest AVPR (average precision). This was evaluated on the trusted set, the only labelled part of the dataset. Often, we would look at the repairs (reconstructions) offered by each model for the trusted set. This way we confirm that the repair process is reasonable enough, and no adjustment is needed on the hyperparameters side. In the case of VAE-L2 we had to not just account for AVPR in the trusted set, but also check repair performance via SMSE (standardized mean squared error). This is because strong regularization, higher $\ell_2$ coefficient, often leads to better outlier detection performance, but that comes at the cost of repair quality due to the VAE collapsing to mean behaviour. For each model, the hyperparameter search was carried out for each dataset at a noise level of 35%, and with 25 samples per class. - VAE-L2 In Synthetic-Shapes: 200 epochs; KL divergence annealing used; $\ell_2$ coefficient is 35.0. In Frey-Faces: 300 epochs; KL divergence annealing used; $\ell_2$ coefficient is 100.0. In Fashion-MNIST: 100 epochs; KL divergence annealing used; $\ell_2$ coefficient is 100.0. - VAEGMM In Synthetic-Shapes: 200 epochs; KL divergence annealing used; fraction of clean data $\alpha = 0.6$; (trusted set) up-sampling coefficient $\beta = 1000$; $\sigma_{y=1} = 0.9$ and $\sigma_{y=0} = 5.0$. In Frey-Faces: 300 epochs; KL divergence annealing used; fraction of clean data $\alpha = 0.6$; (trusted set) up-sampling coefficient $\beta = 1000$; $\sigma_{y=1} = 0.6$ and $\sigma_{y=0} = 5.0$. In Fashion-MNIST: 100 epochs; KL divergence annealing used; fraction of clean data $\alpha = 0.6$; (trusted set) up-sampling coefficient $\beta = 100$; $\sigma_{y=1} = 0.5$ and $\sigma_{y=0} = 5.0$. • CVAE In Synthetic-Shapes: 200 epochs; KL divergence annealing used; $\sigma = 0.5$. In Frey-Faces: 300 epochs; KL divergence annealing used; $\sigma = 0.2$. In Fashion-MNIST: 100 epochs; KL divergence annealing used; $\sigma = 0.5$. • CCVAE In Synthetic-Shapes: 200 epochs; fraction of clean data $\alpha = 0.6$; (trusted set) up-sampling coefficient $\beta = 50000.0$. In Frey-Faces: 300 epochs; fraction of clean data $\alpha = 0.6$; (trusted set) up-sampling coefficient $\beta = 10000.0$. In Fashion-MNIST: 100 epochs; fraction of clean data $\alpha = 0.6$; (trusted set) up-sampling coefficient $\beta = 250000.0$. • CLSVAE In Synthetic-Shapes: 200 epochs; fraction of clean data $\alpha = 0.6$; KL divergence annealing used; (trusted set) up-sampling coefficient $\beta = 1000.0$. $\sigma_\epsilon = 0.5$; $\sigma_c = 0.5$; $\sigma_d = 5.0$; distance correlation (DC) penalty used; $\lambda_t$ annealing ratio of 0.5 (DC penalty); $\lambda_T$ maximum value of 100.0 (DC penalty). In Frey-Faces: 300 epochs; fraction of clean data $\alpha = 0.6$; KL divergence annealing used; (trusted set) up-sampling coefficient $\beta = 1000.0$. $\sigma_\epsilon = 0.6$; $\sigma_c = 0.2$; $\sigma_d = 5.0$; distance correlation (DC) penalty used; $\lambda_t$ annealing ratio of 0.5 (DC penalty); $\lambda_T$ maximum value of 1000.0 (DC penalty). In Fashion-MNIST: 100 epochs; fraction of clean data $\alpha = 0.6$; KL divergence annealing used; (trusted set) up-sampling coefficient $\beta = 100.0$. $\sigma_\epsilon = 0.1$; $\sigma_c = 0.2$; $\sigma_d = 5.0$; distance correlation (DC) penalty used; $\lambda_t$ annealing ratio of 0.5 (DC penalty); $\lambda_T$ maximum value of 1000.0 (DC penalty). • CLSVAE-NODC Same hyperparameter options as CLSVAE but without the distance correlation penalty. Note the annealing ratio above for the KL divergence and for the DC penalty is inspired by Fu et al. (2019). We use only one cycle (monotonic), and the $R$ (or ratio) is the proportion used to increase the penalty coefficient (or KL term coefficient), for instance a value of 0.5. Now we discuss in more detail how the $\beta$ value was chosen for the CCVAE model. In our experiments, the $\beta$ in CCVAE was set to higher values so it could compensate for the very small trusted set sizes used herein. Empirically, at first we tried setting $\beta$ to small values, or even $\beta = 1$ as suggested in Joy et al. (2020). However, CCVAE when using a small $\beta$ was not able to disentangle properly the clean and dirty patterns, specifically in smaller trusted sets. This was noticeable when we used CCVAE for repairing the data instance, where it was common to find part of the error pattern still present. As a result, the CCVAE model had poor detection and repair performance. On the other hand, empirically we found that higher $\beta$ values resulted in properly disentangled clean and dirty error patterns when repairing data instances. In this case, CCVAE had good outlier detection and data repair performance. We hypothesize that the original application of CCVAE assumed larger labelled sets, and probably better balanced as well (labels of data attributes). Note that outliers are often smaller portions of the entire dataset, unlike the labelled attributes of the applications in Joy et al. (2020). This means that there is a class imbalance problem in typical outlier detection tasks. We believe that a higher $\beta$ allows to virtually up-sample the importance of the small trusted set when training the CCVAE and other models, particularly outlier examples. It is probably the case that smaller values of $\beta$ are not enough to bias the latent space $z_c$ to properly disentangle clean and dirty patterns. As a result, the data repair performance of CCVAE and other models suffers. Optimization We used the PyTorch framework to code all our models, and trained on a GeForce TITAN X GPU. All models were trained using the Adam optimizer (Kingma & Ba, 2014), with an initial learning rate of 0.001. Model Architectures For continuous type data, i.e. Fashion-MNIST and Frey-Faces, we used the Gaussian distribution as the likelihood of each pixel in the reconstruction loss. The variance of the Gaussian distribution is shared amongst all the pixels in the image, and it is learnt as a parameter of the model. This was done for all models. For binary type data, i.e. Synthetic-Shapes, we treated each pixel as a Bernoulli variable, and used the log-likelihood of this distribution for each pixel in the reconstruction loss. This was done for all models. We used very similar encoder and decoder architectures for all models, so as to be fair and the results comparable. In the case of CLSVAE we used two encoders, one for the clean subspace $z_c$, and the other for the dirty subspace $z_d$. This architecture yielded better results for us in terms of repair in the trusted set. \| Encoder \| Decoder \| \|-------------------------------\|------------------------------\| \| (img_size, 200) → \| (15, 50) → \| \| → ReLU → \| → ReLU → \| \| → (200, 100) → \| → (50, 100) → \| \| → ReLU → \| → ReLU → \| \| → (100, 50) → \| → (100, 200) → \| \| → ReLU → \| → ReLU → \| \| → $2 \times (50, 15)$ \| → (200, img_size) \| Table 4.2: Architecture of encoder and decoder for VAE and VAEGMM. Further, for binary pixels the decoder will use a Sigmoid non-linearity at the end. \| Encoder \| Decoder \| \|-------------------------------\|------------------------------\| \| (img_size, 200) → \| (16, 50) → \| \| → ReLU → \| → ReLU → \| \| → (200, 100) → \| → (50, 100) → \| \| → ReLU → \| → ReLU → \| \| → (100, 50) → \| → (100, 200) → \| \| → ReLU → \| → ReLU → \| \| → $2 \times (50, 15)$ \| → (200, img_size) \| Table 4.3: Architecture of encoder and decoder for CVAE. Further, for binary pixels the decoder will use a Sigmoid non-linearity at the end. CLSVAE architecture can be seen in Table 4.5 for the encoders and decoder, and the classifier can be seen in Table 4.7. In Table 4.2, we see the neural architecture for the encoder and decoder of VAE and VAEGMM. The classifier architecture for the VAEGMM can be seen in Table 4.6. In Table 4.3, we find the architecture for the encoder and decoder of CVAE. In Table 4.4, we find the architecture for the encoder and decoder of CCVAE. The classifier architecture of CCVAE is just $z_c$ multiplied by a weight parameter plus a bias parameter, and then a sigmoid non-linearity is applied – like in Joy et al. (2020). \| Encoder \| Decoder \| \|---------\|---------\| \| (img_size, 200) → \| → (16, 50) → \| \| → ReLU → \| → ReLU → \| \| → (200, 100) → \| → (50, 100) → \| \| → ReLU → \| → ReLU → \| \| → (100, 50) → \| → (100, 200) → \| \| → ReLU → \| → ReLU → \| \| → 2 × (50, 16) \| → (200, img_size) \| Table 4.4: Architecture of encoder and decoder for CCVAE. Further, for binary pixels the decoder will use a Sigmoid non-linearity at the end. \| Encoder $z_c$ \| Encoder $z_d$ \| Decoder \| \|---------------\|---------------\|---------\| \| (img_size, 200) → \| (img_size, 200) → \| → (15, 50) → \| \| → ReLU → \| → ReLU → \| → ReLU → \| \| → (200, 100) → \| → (200, 100) → \| → (50, 100) → \| \| → ReLU → \| → ReLU → \| → ReLU → \| \| → (100, 50) → \| → (100, 50) → \| → (100, 200) → \| \| → ReLU → \| → ReLU → \| → ReLU → \| \| → 2 × (50, 10) \| → 2 × (50, 5) \| → (200, img_size) \| Table 4.5: Architecture of encoder and decoder for CLSVAE. Note for CLSVAE latent space of size 15 is split: 10 for $z_c$ and 5 for $z_d$. Further, for binary pixels the decoder will use a Sigmoid non-linearity at the end. \| Classifier \| \|------------\| \| (img_size, 200) → ReLU → (200, 100) → ReLU → (100, 50) → ReLU → (50, 1) Sigmoid \| Table 4.6: Architecture of classifier VAEGMM. \| Classifier \| \|------------\| \| (15, 7) → ReLU → (7, 5) → ReLU → (5, 1) Sigmoid \| Table 4.7: Architecture of classifier CLSVAE, input is $z$. 4.6.4 Discussion of Results In Figure 4.2(a) we show performance as a function of the size of the trusted set, i.e. sweep of trusted set sizes, for a 35% noise level. Similar performance is seen for other datasets (see section 184.108.40.206). Table 4.2(b) shows the results for all datasets for a 35% noise level and trusted set size of 10 labelled samples per class. Results for all trusted set sizes and noise levels are found in section 220.127.116.11, with similar analysis on performance. Additional examples of repairs are seen in section 18.104.22.168, including inlier instances, 45% noise level, and 5 samples per class (trusted set size) for Synthetic-Shapes since its an easier dataset. Outlier Detection Looking at Figure 4.2, we see that on average both CLSVAE (our model) and CLSVAE-NODC have the highest AVPR, registering the best detection performance, with similar scores. We see that CCVAE, the previous SotA, has similar detection performance as CLSVAE. VAEGMM, also semi-supervised, lags behind both likely because its designed for slightly larger trusted sets. All semi-supervised models (CLSVAE, CLSVAE-NODC, CCVAE, VAEGMM) improve their detection performance as the trusted set grows larger. CVAE and VAE-L2 do not use a trusted set, and thus have the same performance throughout all the trusted set range in Figure 4.2(a). These two observations about the trusted set range are also seen, for all datasets and noise levels, in section 22.214.171.124. CVAE is supervised, still it shows poor performance, this may be due to: issues linked to (decoder) likelihood-based scores (Eduardo et al., 2020; Lan & Dinh, 2020); poor fitting to the data, thus impacting negatively the score. VAE-L2 uses a likelihood score, and is unsupervised, so poorer detection performance is understandable. This highlights semi-supervision as being important in systematic error detection. VAE-L2 registering good performance in Synthetic-Shapes (see Figure 4.2(b)) is likely due to this dataset being easier. Lastly, we note that CLSVAE tends to have better detection performance in higher noise levels relative to other methods (see section 126.96.36.199). Therein, CCVAE has close to or similar detection performance as CLSVAE. Automated Repair In Figure 4.2, we see that on average CLSVAE (our model) is best at automated repair (lowest SMSE on dirty pixels). We also see that distortion (repair clean pixels, SMSE) is relatively low, but not the lowest. This results in CLSVAE overall being the best repair method, not only replacing pixel values of the systematic error, but also inferring correctly the structure of the Figure 4.1: Images for model repair (reconstruction), outlier (corrupted) and inlier (uncorrupted): (a) Original (Outlier); (b) Ground-Truth (Inlier); (c) VAE-L2; (d) VAEGMM; (e) CVAE; (f) CCVAE; (g) CLSVAE-NODC; (h) CLSVAE. Figure 4.2: Outlier detection uses AVPR score where highest is best. Repair for dirty pixels, and for clean pixels (distortion), uses SMSE where lowest is best. (a) Trusted set range sweep for Fashion-MNIST where [0.12, 0.25, 0.64, 1.28] % of the dataset, at 35% noise level. (b) Table for results at 35% noise level, and 10 labelled samples per class for the trusted set. Boldface corresponds to the best performances within a standard error, and green color to best mean performance overall. Standard error in brackets. ground-truth repair (both clean and dirty pixels). This is confirmed in Figure 4.1, where reconstructions (repairs) by CLSVAE show the best quality: replacing the error values of affected pixels and recovering the underlying ground-truth, whilst preserving the uncorrupted image portion (i.e. low distortion). CLSVAE has slightly better repair than CLSVAE-NODC on average, but most importantly, it has better performance stability than CLSVAE-NODC, which can be seen in section 188.8.131.52 for repair (dirty pixels). Further, in section 184.108.40.206, repair with CLSVAE is more advantageous relative to other models at higher noise levels. As expected, semi-supervised models (CLSVAE, CLSVAE-NODC, CCVAE) improve their repair of dirty pixels as the trusted set increases (see Figure 4.2(a)). Both VAE-L2 and CVAE do not use a trusted set, so performance is static. CCVAE has the ability to perform good repair, registering the second best repair for dirty pixels after CLSVAE, but often with higher distortion. CCVAE suffers from two issues that account for its worse performance relative to CLSVAE. For one, looking at Figure 4.1, CCVAE can sometimes fail to replace the pixel values from systematic errors. Secondly, and more often, it can fail to recover the underlying ground-truth even when replacing erroneous pixel values. Similarly, it has difficulty preserving the uncorrupted image portion (higher distortion). So some information about inlier appearance is being lost. This is explained by the fact that CCVAE latent space is not disentangled regarding the clean and dirty patterns. CVAE can repair some outliers well, but it fails to deal with other systematic errors, which leads to an overall poor repair performance. This is maybe due to the binary latent variable used for $y$ making it harder to model multiple systematic errors, for more discussion see Joy et al. (2020). VAE-L2 is able to repair some errors, but overall has worse repair than CLSVAE. Its strong regularization, optimized mostly for detection, leads to higher distortion and loss of detail (see Figure 4.1). Its higher standard error (erratic repairs) is due to not being able to distinguish between clean and dirty patterns. VAEGMM does not do well in repair. This is likely due to it being better suited for classification or clustering tasks. ### 220.127.116.11 Timing Information on Models All the models explored in this chapter are VAEs with similar architectures in terms of their neural networks, however some differences exist in terms of inference time. For all models a GPU (GeForce TITAN X) was used for training, and generally models use the same order of magnitude in terms of computation time. The models that take less time are VAE-L2 and CVAE since they have simple architectures and inference procedures. Taking a bit more time we have VAEGMM, since an additional classifier neural network has to be trained. The models CCVAE and CLSVAE have similar computation times, and are the most expensive to train. As an example, for Fashion-MNIST the training time for VAE-L2 and CVAE is about 35 minutes, whilst for VAEGMM is an additional 5 minutes totalling 40 minutes. Meanwhile for CLSVAE we register about 40 minutes of compute time, and for CCVAE we register about 50 minutes overall. Note that the Fashion-MNIST dataset is the largest dataset in our experiments, and thus it is the most expensive in terms of computation time. ### 4.6.5 Additional Results The purpose of this section is to provide a complement of results to the main results section (Section 4.6.4), and show the reader the complete set of experiments. As such, we present additional figures for the experiments carried out in this chapter. These figures show the entirety of the experimental scenarios as defined in section 4.6.2. In section 18.104.22.168, results are shown for outlier detection (AVPR) and data repair (SMSE) for all noise levels and trust sets sizes. The main conclusions made in the discussion section 4.6.4 also apply to these results. In addition, in section 22.214.171.124, supplementary examples of outlier instances being repaired by the different models are shown, where different trusted set sizes and noise levels are explored. Reconstructions of inlier instances are also shown so as to check if clean data is being correctly modelled. Lastly, in section 126.96.36.199, we present a simple experiment providing additional evidence to the claim that corrupted datasets (with outliers) have larger variance (entropy) when modelled than clean datasets. This means that there is more information to be modelled by the VAE in corrupted datasets (with outliers), compared to less information to be modelled in clean datasets (inliers only). We also show that clean data (inliers) can be modelled by smaller latent space in VAEs when compared to dirty data. Both these assumptions are tied to the fact that corrupted datasets have more diversity due to added errors, and hence more information to model. Note that these assumptions were made in the generative model of CLSVAE, in section 4.5.1, which helped discern inliers from outliers and thus improve model performance. ### 188.8.131.52 Results for all Noise Levels and Trusted Set Sizes (Sweep) ![Graph showing outlier detection (AVPR) for different noise levels and trusted set sizes.](image) Figure 4.3: Synthetic-Shapes. Outlier detection (AVPR) where higher is better. Trusted set range sweep where $TS_{size} = [5, 10, 25, 50]$ samples per class, i.e. $[0.8\%, 1.6\%, 4\%, 8\%]$ of the entire dataset. Figure 4.4: Synthetic-Shapes. Repair of dirty pixels in outliers (SMSE), where lower is better. Trusted set range sweep where $TS_{size} = [5, 10, 25, 50]$ samples per class, i.e. $[0.8\%, 1.6\%, 4\%, 8\%]$ of the entire dataset. Figure 4.5: Synthetic-Shapes. Repair of clean pixels in outliers (SMSE), i.e. distortion, where lower is better. Trusted set range sweep where $TS_{size} = [5, 10, 25, 50]$ samples per class, i.e. $[0.8\%, 1.6\%, 4\%, 8\%]$ of the entire dataset. Figure 4.6: Frey-Faces. Outlier detection (AVPR) where higher is better. Trusted set range sweep where $TS_{size} = [5, 10, 25, 50]$ samples per class, i.e. $[1.3\%, 2.5\%, 6.4\%, 12.7\%]$ of the entire dataset. Figure 4.7: Frey-Faces. Repair of dirty pixels in outliers (SMSE), where lower is better. Trusted set range sweep where $TS_{size} = [5, 10, 25, 50]$ samples per class, i.e. $[1.3\%, 2.5\%, 6.4\%, 12.7\%]$ of the entire dataset. Figure 4.8: Frey-Faces. Repair of clean pixels in outliers (SMSE), i.e. distortion, where lower is better. Trusted set range sweep where $TS_{size} = [5, 10, 25, 50]$ samples per class, i.e. $[1.3\%, 2.5\%, 6.4\%, 12.7\%]$ of the entire dataset. Figure 4.9: Fashion-MNIST. Outlier detection (AVPR) where higher is better. Trusted set range sweep where $TS_{size} = [5, 10, 25, 50]$ samples per class, i.e. $[0.12\%, 0.25\%, 0.64\%, 1.28\%]$ of the entire dataset. Figure 4.10: Fashion-MNIST. Repair of dirty pixels in outliers (SMSE), where lower is better. Trusted set range sweep where $TS_{size} = [5, 10, 25, 50]$ samples per class, i.e. $[0.12\%, 0.25\%, 0.64\%, 1.28\%]$ of the entire dataset. Figure 4.11: Fashion-MNIST. Repair of clean pixels in outliers (SMSE), i.e. distortion, where lower is better. Trusted set range sweep where $TS_{size} = [5, 10, 25, 50]$ samples per class, i.e. $[0.12\%, 0.25\%, 0.64\%, 1.28\%]$ of the entire dataset. 184.108.40.206 Additional Reconstructions (Repairs) for all Datasets Synthetic-Shapes Figure 4.12: Images for model repair (reconstruction), outlier (corrupted) and inlier (uncorrupted): (a) Original (Outlier); (b) Ground-Truth (Inlier); (c) VAE-L2; (d) VAEGMM; (e) CVAE; (f) CCVAE; (g) CLSVAE-NODC; (h) CLSVAE. The first two rows are inlier examples, the others being outliers. Synthetic-Shapes: 35% noise, 5 labels per class (0.8% of dataset). Figure 4.13: Images for model repair (reconstruction), outlier (corrupted) and inlier (uncorrupted): (a) Original (Outlier); (b) Ground-Truth (Inlier); (c) VAE-L2; (d) VAEGMM; (e) CVAE; (f) CCVAE; (g) CLSVAE-NODC; (h) CLSVAE. The first two rows are inlier examples, the others being outliers. Synthetic-Shapes: 35% noise, 50 labels per class (8% of dataset). Figure 4.14: Images for model repair (reconstruction), outlier (corrupted) and inlier (uncorrupted): (a) Original (Outlier); (b) Ground-Truth (Inlier); (c) VAE-L2; (d) VAEGMM; (e) CVAE; (f) CCVAE; (g) CLSVAE-NODC; (h) CLSVAE. The first two rows are inlier examples, the others being outliers. Synthetic-Shapes: 45% noise, 5 labels per class (0.8% of dataset). Frey-Faces Figure 4.15: Images for model repair (reconstruction), outlier (corrupted) and inlier (uncorrupted): (a) Original (Outlier); (b) Ground-Truth (Inlier); (c) VAE-L2; (d) VAEGMM; (e) CVAE; (f) CCVAE; (g) CLSVAE-NODC; (h) CLSVAE. The first two rows are inlier examples, the others being outliers. Frey-Faces: 35% noise, 10 labels per class (2.5% of dataset). Figure 4.16: Images for model repair (reconstruction), outlier (corrupted) and inlier (uncorrupted): (a) Original (Outlier); (b) Ground-Truth (Inlier); (c) VAE-L2; (d) VAEGMM; (e) CVAE; (f) CCVAE; (g) CLSVAE-NODC; (h) CLSVAE. The first two rows are inlier examples, the others being outliers. Frey-Faces: 35% noise, 50 labels per class (12.7% of dataset). Figure 4.17: Images for model repair (reconstruction), outlier (corrupted) and inlier (uncorrupted): (a) Original (Outlier); (b) Ground-Truth (Inlier); (c) VAE-L2; (d) VAEGMM; (e) CVAE; (f) CCVAE; (g) CLSVAE-NODC; (h) CLSVAE. The first two rows are inlier examples, the others being outliers. Frey-Faces: 45% noise, 10 labels per class (2.5% of dataset). Fashion-MNIST Figure 4.18: Images for model repair (reconstruction), outlier (corrupted) and inlier (uncorrupted): (a) Original (Outlier); (b) Ground-Truth (Inlier); (c) VAE-L2; (d) VAEGMM; (e) CVAE; (f) CCVAE; (g) CLSVAE-NODC; (h) CLSVAE. The first two rows are inlier examples, the others being outliers. Fashion-MNIST: 35% noise, 10 labels per class (0.25% of dataset). Figure 4.19: Images for model repair (reconstruction), outlier (corrupted) and inlier (uncorrupted): (a) Original (Outlier); (b) Ground-Truth (Inlier); (c) VAE-L2; (d) VAEGMM; (e) CVAE; (f) CCVAE; (g) CLSVAE-NODC; (h) CLSVAE. The first two rows are inlier examples, the others being outliers. Fashion-MNIST: 35% noise, 50 labels per class (1.28% of dataset). Figure 4.20: Images for model repair (reconstruction), outlier (corrupted) and inlier (uncorrupted): (a) Original (Outlier); (b) Ground-Truth (Inlier); (c) VAE-L2; (d) VAEGMM; (e) CVAE; (f) CCVAE; (g) CLSVAE-NODC; (h) CLSVAE. The first two rows are inlier examples, the others being outliers. Fashion-MNIST: 45% noise, 10 labels per class (0.25% of dataset). 220.127.116.11 Testing Standard VAE: Entropy of Clean vs. Corrupted Data Figure 4.21: Entropy of ground-truth training data (clean: without corruption) vs the entropy of corrupted training data (as in Table 4.1). Entropy estimation via IWAE (Burda et al., 2016), using a standard VAE (not regularized). VAE uses same architecture of section 18.104.22.168, except dimension of $z$ (latent space) now has the range $[2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 15, 20, 25, 35, 50]$ ($x$-axis). Frey-Faces training data, with 35% noise level for corrupted dataset. In this section, we experimentally compare the entropy of clean (without corruption) training data, and the entropy of corrupted training data. A larger entropy means that a dataset has larger variance overall. Note that in the setup of our problem, i.e. repairing systematic errors (see section 4.4), only corrupted data is used for training. In Figure 4.21, for Frey-Faces, we compare the estimated entropy of clean training data against one that has been corrupted (35% noise, corruption as in Table 4.1). We estimate the entropy by first training a standard VAE model on the dataset (clean or corrupted), and then after training, we compute a tight bound on the marginal log-likelihood of that dataset. We compute this tight bound via IWAE estimator (Importance Weighted Autoencoders, (Burda et al., 2016)), where we use $K = 250$ samples. Note that entropy is $\mathcal{H}(x) = -\mathbb{E}_{p_{\theta}(x)}[\log p_{\theta}(x)]$, and hence marginal log-likelihood is just $-\mathcal{H}(x)$. We vary the dimension of VAE latent space ($z$) in order to see how well the model can learn the training data. For this experiment, the VAE is not regularized. The main idea is to see whether corrupted data (with outliers) has larger variance than clean data (inliers only). Once more, larger entropy equates to larger data variance. A dataset with larger variance is a dataset with more diversity in terms of the patterns it contains, and hence it has more information to be modelled. Therefore corrupted data has more information to be modelled by the latent space of a VAE compared to clean data. Our claim, supported in literature (Eduardo et al., 2020; Ruff et al., 2019), is that a dataset that has been corrupted has larger variance (entropy) because the added outliers (e.g. systematic errors) increase data pattern diversity. Looking at Figure 4.21, we see that overall the entropy of corrupted data is larger than clean data, for all sizes of $ z $. Hence, corrupted data has larger variance than clean data. For the smaller dimensions of $ z $, in range [2, 10] units, we see that the VAE has less trouble learning the clean data compared to the corrupted data. This is also evidenced by how more quickly the entropy decreases for clean data relative to corrupt data, as we increase the latent space size in [2, 10]. We conclude that a VAE only needs a smaller latent space (subspace) to model clean data (inliers), and that corrupted data needs a larger latent space to be modelled properly. ### 4.7 Concluding Remarks We have proposed a novel semi-supervised VAE (CLSVAE) for outlier detection and automated repair, in the presence of systematic errors. Our model exploits the fact that systematic errors are predictable by high capacity models, unlike random errors. Thus, CLSVAE partitions the latent space into two subspaces: one for clean patterns, and another for dirty ones. Inliers are only modelled by the clean pattern subspace, whilst outliers use both subspaces. We encourage low mutual information between these subspaces through a penalty, improving performance stability. Empirically this encourages higher fidelity repairs by the model, without human in the loop or other post-processing. We show CLSVAE only needs a small trusted set, requiring the user to label less data. We show that unsupervised models may not be able to distinguish between clean patterns and systematic errors, and strong regularization leads to a lower quality repair. Experimentally, CLSVAE showed superior repair quality and performance compared to other supervised and semi-supervised models, including a state-of-the-art VAE latent disentanglement model. Note that some of these baseline models were specially designed to handle small labelled sets. Further, we notice that CLSVAE is able to repair more instances affected by systematic errors compared to baseline models. Experiments were carried out on image data, and in the future, we would like to explore other types of systematic errors and data types (tabular, sensor, natural language). 4.7.1 Advantages and Disadvantages In summary, a list of advantages related to this chapter and the proposed model (CLSVAE) is given below: - Labels are easier to obtain and more broadly applicable. In terms of effort by the user encoding prior knowledge into the model using labels is far easier than using scripts or logic rules. Scripts require the user to know how to computer program. Similar with logic rules as these are often defined using first-order logic, thus require skill. Moreover, labelling inliers and outliers should be applicable to all kinds of data – e.g. image, tabular, or even time-series data. In CLSVAE the user only needs to be able to label all type of errors it wants removed, and a few inliers. - Less labelled data is needed for good data repair. It was shown that CLSVAE compared to other semi-supervised generative models needed less labelled inliers and outliers for similar data repair performance. This is important because user intervention, even in the form of labelling data instances, still takes time and effort. - Semi-supervision allows for precise detection and repair. Models using semi-supervision like CLSVAE allow for the detection and repair of only those types of outliers that the user wants fixed. Since unsupervised models cannot easily encode this information given by the user, there is no guarantee those types of outliers will be fixed. Furthermore, increasing the strength of regularization in order to detect these outliers may lead to poor repair performance later on. This is a drawback that semi-supervised models can avoid far more easily. - Deep learning provides flexibility. CLSVAE is a deep autoencoder, and thus the neural architectures of the encoders and decoders can be adapted to tackle different data types, e.g. image or tabular data. Further, different architectures like convolutional neural networks, or Transformer layers could be explored. - Representation learning for clean data. The CLSVAE model learns a latent subspace that only encodes information about the clean patterns present in data instances. This latent representation could be used later on for downstream tasks (e.g. classification, clustering). The main advantage is that this latent representation will not be corrupted by errors. Therefore, it will not taint the downstream task model training. - Thresholds for traditional outlier detection easier to set. An advantage of the semi-supervised formulation of CLSVAE, like other semi-supervised VAEs, is that outlier detection is done using a classifier – e.g. $q_\phi(y\|x)$. Generally, deep classifiers are more or less calibrated and thus threshold setting by the user should be easier. Hence a good starting point is about $\gamma \approx -\log(0.5)$. Some relevant disadvantages are listed below: - Complexity of deep learning architectures. Deep learning models offer flexibility and increased performance in many tasks. However, one issue about deep learning models like CLSVAE is that one needs to find the correct neural architecture and tune several hyperparameters. This means time and effort on the part of the user. - Exploring tabular datasets. Given time constrains on this project only image datasets were explored. For future work tabular data is left as a goal. We believe that CLSVAE should be able to be applied for tabular data. Given the experience with RVAE (Chapter 3), we believe that similar datasets with synthetic systematic errors are reasonable experiments. The RVAE neural architecture for the encoder and decoder is also a good start; and we believe it should work with the current CLSVAE formulation and training loss. If that is not good enough, then we can start looking into self-attention layers for tabular data, where only a partition of the cells are selected. This would work like masks such that for the clean subspace $z_c$, the encoder looks at the clean cells. Concurrently, for the dirty pattern subspace $z_d$ attends to the dirty cells. Other neural architectures are also possible, and we can borrow from other deep generative models for tabular data (see Section 2.4.1). • Downsides of repair using just the latent space. In this chapter, the repair process for CLSVAE produced a repair for the entire repaired image (all pixels). This is seen in the qualitative examples presented. It should be noted that for the repair results using the SMSE metric, we partitioned the results into clean pixels and dirty pixels. The repair process in CLSVAE relies on a latent space representation, i.e. clean subspace $z_c$. There is the possibility that small changes to the latent space may affect all pixels (features), even if only a few are dirty. Therefore, in practice, we can use CLSVAE to predict a mask of pixels that are considered dirty (outliers). One can use the anomaly score defined in eq. (2.10) for standard VAEs to obtain a mask. Then only the dirty pixels need to be repaired by CLSVAE, whilst the rest remain unchanged. • Testing on more complex errors and real-world data. As pointed out in Section 4.6, often prior research on data repair, or machine learning robust to corruption, has been carried out using synthetic error injection (Liu et al., 2020; Krishnan et al., 2016). For instance, in (Krishnan et al., 2016; Wang et al., 2017b) use similar corruptions (masking out pixels), but not for systematic error repair. The main reason for this is precisely the lack of easily accessible public datasets for the data repair task, where for proper evaluation one needs the following targets: (a) labelling of all errors, either anomalous pixels or instances; (b) the ground-truth repairs, i.e. underlying inliers. This is especially frustrating given that data cleaning (outlier detection and repair) is quite common in machine learning pipelines. Though these errors are synthetic, we believe them to be as hard to repair as several real examples. Particularly given that baseline models seem to have struggled in these scenarios, and some of them are SOTA models. Similarly, we can look at the related task of blind-inpainting in images (Elharrouss et al., 2020; Jam et al., 2021). The goal of blind-inpainting is to estimate which pixels are corrupted, or missing, and then infer the value of those pixels. However, unlike our setup of systematic errors, almost all of the models for blind-inpainting are trained using clean (uncorrupted) datasets (Elharrouss et al., 2020; Jam et al., 2021; Dehaene et al., 2019), a very important difference. It is very common to have experiments mostly consisting of synthetic errors (Elharrouss et al., 2020; Jam et al., 2021), likely due to the lack of curated datasets for research. Specifically, we see that corruption related to: 1) image coding or transmission often involves errors as square blocks; 2) image restoration often involves inserting lines to emulate scratches, camera sensors failing, or watermarks; 3) other mask shapes can also be used to emulate object removal or occlusion, where often lines and geometric shapes are used. Having said that, a valid criticism is that more complex systematic errors could have been tried, or that real-world examples could have been found. Unfortunately there was not enough time to pursue this in this chapter, hence we leave it as future work. Some examples of more complex systematic errors are: inserting patches of blurred pixels in images in the same location; scramble patches of pixels in the same exact way for several instances; add text on top of the images (e.g. watermarks); take a patch of an image and insert it in the same position for several images in the dataset. In terms of real-world examples, we can try and curate data from medical imaging where systematic errors seem to be a problem; or image datasets with real-world watermarks. In section 4.7.2 we briefly discuss some application scenarios as well. - Not all systematic errors may be repaired by CLSVAE. In order to repair dirty pixels CLSVAE relies on the context given by clean pixels in a corrupted image. This means a portion of the pixels needs to be clean or recognizable enough such that CLSVAE can infer the underlying inlier structure of the image. However, some systematic errors may affect the entire image and distort all pixels in an image. In this case it is quite possible that CLSVAE may struggle to repair the data instance. If this happens, then one solution might to modify CLSVAE to use a different type of supervision. For instance, one can use paired data instances of the underlying inlier and corresponding outlier image. It is also possible to modify the generative prior distributions to cater to specifically difficult systematic errors. Generally, it will be hard to find one model that without tailoring it will repair all kinds of systematic errors, for all types of data (e.g. image, tabular, time-series, natural language). 4.7.2 Potential Real-World Applications Medical imaging distortions (e.g. MRI, RX), restoration of images, or resolving issues related to bad image coding and transmission are possible applications. For instance, in medical imaging it is not uncommon to find corruptions that are: 1) similar to occlusion (by objects) as a result of dental or metal implants; 2) imaging sensor corruption (e.g. lines or objects) due to artifacts or sensor failure. We also believe that our model can be extended to tackle tabular data, where systematic errors often appear as data entry issues; data format or unit of measurement issues from data source merging; or problems with data transmission. Chapter 5 Conclusion and Future Work In this thesis, the problem of data cleaning was tackled from the point of view of combining the steps of outlier detection and data repair. The main reason being that in a lot of applications the practitioner that is using outlier detection methods also would want to repair the data later on. In this case, outliers are a result of corruption that may have its origin in a variety of different processes. Further, it is often the case that the practitioner needs help identifying the dirty pixels or cells that make the instance an outlier – i.e. interpretability. Deep generative models were chosen for their ability to reconstruct and sample data, which is necessary for data repair. Deep generative models make use of neural networks as function approximators making them extremely flexible in terms of capturing complex data distributions. Moreover, they can be quickly adapted to several data types, such as image data or tabular data. Recently deep learning models have started to make their way into outlier detection, often registering SOTA performance. VAE models were preferred for their simplicity in terms of implementation and ease of training. VAEs and GANs are very popular both in academia and industry. However, GANs can be quite unstable in terms of their training and performance. Therefore, VAEs were picked for this work as a first incursion into deep generative models that are robust to corruption in the data. Furthermore, the VAE is a reconstruction-based model and thus it allows for the granularity of cell anomaly scores. So VAEs can be used to find which dirty cells are to blame for the outlier. We have tackled the problem of combined outlier detection and data repair for two important types of corruption found in real-world data: random errors and systematic errors. The impact these errors have on generative models is also different, and thus different strategies of error robustness were devised. Unsupervised models using data reweighting can handle random error corruption up to moderate amounts without overfitting to these. This thesis has proposed a novel data reweighting VAE for mixed-type tabular data, the Robust Variational Autoencoder (RVAE). The model outperformed or matched baseline model performance in outlier detection (cell and row) and in data repair. On the other hand, this unsupervised paradigm is not enough to guarantee good performance in the case of systematic errors. Systematic errors are a result of nearly deterministic transformations (plus potentially some noise) that repeatedly corrupt data instances. The result is a type of corruption that in enough amounts is very easy to overfit to even for unsupervised robust models. This thesis therefore presents a novel semi-supervised VAE that learns separate latent codes for clean patterns and the systematic errors. Only the clean patterns are needed when reconstructing the underlying inlier (repair). This model is the Clean Subspace Variational Autoencoder (CLSVAE). The model showed superior performance compared to baselines, particularly when the labelled set provided is very small. ### 5.1 Using RVAE and CLSVAE in Practice In practice, when using either RVAE or CLSVAE, the user needs to have the needed computational resources at hand. These are deep generative models and thus they are more computationally demanding compared to classic methods. This probably includes GPUs, or even servers of these when searching for architectures or hyperparameters. The user also needs to have some intuition or know already that the dataset is corrupted and needs to be repaired. This is something that can be discovered through initial data exploration, using frameworks for that purpose like OpenRefine, Trifacta or simple Jupyter notebooks with data visualization packages. At this point the user already has an idea on what type of corruption is found therein. If it is mostly random errors than RVAE should be selected. Otherwise, if the user only wants to repair a few systematic errors found during data exploration, then CLSVAE should be used. In this case, the user needs to have collected a small labelled set (trusted set) of inliers and more importantly examples of systematic errors. This can be done during the data visualization and exploration phase. Alternatively, the user can choose to always apply RVAE first to repair general random error corruption. Then by inspection, or using a labelled set for validation, conclude whether the repair process was successful. If it failed, then adjust the model hyperparameters. If it was successful, then one can now focus on repairing the remaining systematic errors using CLSVAE, and then rechecking the quality of the repair. Throughout the process of cleaning the data thresholds have to be set for each anomaly score used. This is important for the outlier detection process, as it determines which instances are considered outliers. In the case of CLSVAE, if using the classifier therein, it is always good to start with a threshold around $\gamma \approx -\log(0.5)$ and then make necessary adjustments. This is because the neural classifier tends to be more or less calibrated. For RVAE when setting thresholds for cell outlier detection a similar approach should be taken, and tuning can be done independently for each feature. Threshold setting is always made easier if a labelled set of inliers and outliers is available. These can be smaller than typical validation sets, and can be obtained during data exploration. Sometimes the goal of data cleaning is to use the repaired data for downstream tasks. Since RVAE and CLSVAE learn latent representations of clean data, then downstream task methods could use these for training. This may lead to better performance than using the repaired data directly. Alternatively, it is also possible to jointly train the RVAE or CLSVAE and the downstream task model. This could lead to improved performance not only on the downstream task itself, but also for the data repair task as well. Since the downstream task can function as an inductive bias for the data repair process provided by RVAE or CLSVAE. More specifically, the most typical case is a downstream task that is defined by a supervised machine learning problem. This means that there is a predictor model that needs to be learnt on the corrupted dataset to predict some label $t$. Most applications are classification or regression problems. Typically, joint training of a predictor model and a generative model (e.g. RVAE or CLSVAE) is done by: - $i)$ adding to the current generative model training loss an extra training loss for the downstream predictor model; - $ii)$ chain together the generative model and the predictor model, either by reusing the latent representation $z$ or sampling repaired $\mathbf{x}$ from the generative model as input to the predictor to estimate $t$. Since these models are trained using automatic differentiation frameworks the gradients of the predictor model will impact the parameters of generative model. This assumes that one can differentiate through $\mathbf{x}$ or $\mathbf{z}$, as defined in ii), and thus backpropagation obtains the gradients of the predictor loss w.r.t generative model parameters. In literature, this type of end-to-end training of the models is commonly designated as an hybrid model (Nalisnick et al., 2019). It is thus evident that the downstream model will influence how CLSVAE or RVAE does data repair. Still, some improvements can be made to the hybrid model above. For instance, in some cases the label $t$ is also corrupted in the dataset. For classification tasks, one option is to apply label smoothing (Müller et al., 2019) to the predictor loss. This introduces noise or uncertainty to the labels used for training, which will downweight the contribution of dirty labels. Another option is to estimate the probability of $t$ being clean, and downweight its contribution if dirty. This can be done in a similar fashion to how RVAE downweighs dirty cell contributions, e.g. use a $\pi_t$ and an outlier model for $t$. On the other hand, including the label $t$ in the encoder and/or decoder model may also help in capturing outlier information. For instance, one could concatenate label $t$ to the latent code of CLSVAE at the decoder input, since the labels could present systematic errors as well. In terms of reusing the latent space of CLSVAE, typically if the predictor model requires a clean dataset for training, then $\mathbf{z}_c$ should be used. Although, using the entire latent space ($\mathbf{z}_c$ and $\mathbf{z}_d$) can provide the predictor with more information in case label $t$ is corrupted. Additionally, it may allow for the predictor model to better capture uncertainty about the instance being predicted. Note that in CLSVAE the code $\mathbf{z}_c$ captures inlier information, whilst $\mathbf{z}_d$ captures error information. Moreover, the RVAE decoder defined by the generative model in eq. (3.2) should be able to be used in more complex VAEs. It should not matter if these architectures are based on Transformers (Vaswani et al., 2017) or ResNets (He et al., 2016), or have more complex inference schemes like VQVAEs (Razavi et al., 2019b), since the ELBO of a VAE should always have a reconstruction loss. Further, the coordinate ascent optimization scheme of RVAE should be applicable as well. It is possible that the outlier model would need to be adapted in some applications, or for some data types like counts – e.g. Poisson distribution. Lastly, the CLSVAE approach should be able to be applied to more complex VAE architectures as well. This should be viable as long as it is possible to segregate the latent space. However, use of more complex inference schemes should always be aware of the distance correlation penalty as an optimization constrain (see eq. 4.14). For instance, one could potentially apply the latent segregation of CLSVAE – i.e. clean and dirty subspaces, see eq. (4.4) – to each latent layer of an Hierarchical VAE (Zhao et al., 2017b). This would allow more control on the level of feature abstraction in terms of error patterns one would want to remove. Particularly, we would find simpler error patterns at lower layers, and more complex errors at higher layers. Alternatively, we can just apply at higher abstraction layers near the VAE bottleneck, if computation complexity is an issue. ### 5.2 Data Benchmarks and Frameworks In the data science pipeline the data cleaning process is quite important. It is often a necessary step so that machine learning models can be trained and deployed correctly, but also so that the data can be stored for further applications. Two steps often applied together in the data cleaning process are outlier detection, followed by data repair. The problem combined outlier detection and data repair is thus an important one. One issue we have had during the work in this thesis is the lack of frameworks and dataset benchmarks. Most outlier detection benchmark datasets only focus on labelled instances, and never cells or pixels – e.g. (McHugh, 2000, KDD 99), (Keller et al., 2012, Thyroid), (Liu et al., 2008, Satellite), (Ruff et al., 2021, see Table III), benchmark framework (Emmott et al., 2015), and benchmark repository (Rayana, 2016). This is important since quite a few outliers are due to corruption, and thus outliers are caused by specific features being affected. On the other hand, from a data repair perspective, very few datasets provide the actual ground-truth inlier corresponding to an outlier. Most often published works rely on synthetic corruption processes, often specific for that paper in question. This makes model benchmarking more difficult across literature. The machine learning and database communities should therefore come together and define a set of agreed upon dataset benchmarks that can be used for model development. Alternatively, the communities could promote and jointly develop a software framework for synthetic dataset corruption. Frameworks for data synthesis in tabular or image data already exist, so that could be a starting point for one focusing on corrupt data. This will help researchers in the field greatly, and in the end benefit the practitioner with new and improved models. 5.3 Going Forward on Robust Generative Models There are a few potential paths forward for novel robust deep generative models. Here a few of these options are discussed more abstractly. One way is leveraging multi-modal data in novel generative models capable of outlier detection and repair. The idea is that one modality of the data can help in repairing the other, and vice-versa. As an example, many real-world datasets include instances that have a part being a row from a table and then an image of an object. Two use cases seem relevant: electronic retailer (e.g. Amazon, eBay) database with product descriptions in a table, and then images of said products; secondly, in healthcare datasets often include medical imaging and other medical tests in tables for each patient. In this thesis we focused on using labelled data when tackling systematic errors. This is because it is easier during data exploration to obtain a few labelled instances, than to obtain logic rules or data cleaning scripts. Having said that, sometimes rules or some other templates could be sourced together with the data, or perhaps by the use of paid subject-matter experts. In this scenario, it makes sense to have a deep generative model that can encode this information into the model as prior knowledge. This inductive bias would then be used to make the model robust to outliers during training. An interesting starting point could be to combine either RVAE or CLSVAE with differentiable relaxations of first-order logic, which would express the data quality constraints. We mainly focused on MAP estimation of repairs using VAEs. Although in Chapter 3 we provided an alternative using pseudo-Gibbs sampling (MCMC) for RVAE, where we only saw very marginal improvements. It is quite possible that other types of inference methods or generative models (e.g. GANs, normalizing flows) could prove superior. For instance semi-amortized VAEs (Kim et al., 2018) could potentially enhance the quality of the inferred repair for VAEs. Energy-based models tend to use MCMC sampling during training and inference, and are capable of high-fidelity image inpainting (Du & Mordatch, 2019; Dehaene et al., 2019). Nowadays the success of diffusion models is apparent in the field of deep generative models – see Section 2.4 for more details. Although most works have focused on image data, more recently tabular data has also been explored (Kotelnikov et al., 2022). There might be a more clear extension of diffusion models for outlier detection and data repair in the case of systematic error corruption. Since the impact of random errors is yet to be properly evaluated in diffusion models. For instance, one could define a conditional diffusion model that uses a trusted set for systematic error repair – like CLSVAE in Chapter 4. One option is to use a classifier guided diffusion model (Dhariwal & Nichol, 2021), where a classifier is first trained on the trusted set (noised with the forward diffusion process) to learn to distinguish inliers from outliers. We also assume one has access to a diffusion model trained on the corrupted dataset. The diffusion sampling process of the model will explicitly include gradient information from the classifier in order to condition on $y$. Therefore, at repair time, the outlier instances can be repaired by setting $y = 1$ (inlier) in the sampling process, after the forward diffusion process has been applied to the instance. Alternatively, and perhaps a better performing solution, is to use classifier-free guidance (GLIDE) (Nichol et al., 2021) as the conditional diffusion model. In this case labels $y$ are used during training of the diffusion model. Though GLIDE is a supervised model, perhaps modifications can be made to make it semi-supervised for use with a trusted set. One could use a contrastive learning approach (Chen et al., 2020; Zbontar et al., 2021) for outlier detection and data repair. Contrastive learning has gained popularity recently due to being quite effective in representation learning. For instance, it can be used if there is a dataset of paired inliers and outliers already; or perhaps if the corruption process can be accessed (e.g. simulated, data augmentation) to get these pairs. One use case could be datasets corrupted with systematic errors. In this case, then one can use contrastive learning to learn a representation in an embedding space where underlying inliers and their corrupted versions (outliers) are close together. If the task is data repair, then these learned representations can be reused to train a generative model like a VAE. In this case, the pre-trained encoder from the contrastive learning model would be used to train an additional generator (decoder) network that repairs the data. In terms of outlier detection, one could potentially use the aforementioned generator to get an anomaly score. On the other hand, these learned representations can also be directly reused to train a downstream task model that requires repaired data (or embeddings). Inspired by Ren et al., one could also use contrastive learning directly to learn a generative model that disentangles in the latent space inliers from error patterns (outliers). Like CLSVAE, this model could then be used for both outlier detection and repair. 5.4 An Outlook of the Problem in 2022 In this section a short discussion is provided about tackling the thesis problem in 2022. Once more, in this thesis we have focused on specific data cleaning tasks. In particular, outlier detection and subsequent data repair. Still, we will also try to give a broader outlook on machine learning (ML) for data cleaning. If one were to start in 2022, given existing work, then one should first focus on promoting with other researchers (or industry) a common benchmark or framework for evaluation. As previously discussed, it is often difficult to compare models for outlier detection or data repair since they use different synthetic corruption processes, or even datasets. Standardizing evaluation metrics would also be important. Additionally, interpretability for outlier detection and cell outlier detection are still quite relevant today. Further, much work is still needed on improving generative models for outlier detection and subsequent data repair. Interesting directions are perhaps other model types like diffusion models, or new inference schemes in VAE models for better repair quality. Now we discuss some specific ongoing opportunities or research directions in machine learning for data cleaning. - Robust Generative Modelling for Data Cleaning Recently diffusion models have been registering state-of-the-art performance in image datasets (see Section 2.4). Moreover, there are ongoing efforts to extend these to tabular data (Dhariwal & Nichol, 2021). Thus interesting directions would be diffusion models that are robust to outliers. Alternatively, there are still opportunities to improve inference schemes in robust VAEs for tabular data. Particularly, new inference schemes going beyond MAP estimation of data repair. For instance, extending or modifying MCMC methods for VAEs that are robust to outliers. A recent example in the related field of data imputation (Peis et al.) is using Hamiltonian Monte Carlo (HMC) in Hierarchical VAEs for tabular data. This strategy could be adapted for robust VAEs. Transformer (Vaswani et al., 2017) based architectures for tabular data have become more relevant, even in outlier detection (Liu et al., 2020). There is space for improvement still. Moreover, generative models that take advantage of concepts like data instance memorization (in neural networks) (Arpit et al., 2017; Feldman & Zhang, 2020), or data instance influence on model parameters (Koh & Liang, 2017; Hara et al., 2019) are also good research directions. Particularly, it can prove useful in outlier detection, and in downweighting said outliers during training, thus providing robustness. More discussion about these concepts (memorization and influence) can be seen in Section 2.2. - ML for Multi-modal Data Cleaning Quite a few datasets in the real-world are a combination of structured data (e.g. tabular data) with unstructured data (e.g. images, text). These types of datasets are often called multi-modal, since they combine different modes of data. The example used in Section 5.3 was that of an online retailer with a product catalogue. But there are many other examples in industry. Therefore, a trend that will continue to grow is deep learning models (e.g. Transformers (Vaswani et al., 2017)) that perform data cleaning in multi-modal datasets. For instance, extending current robust generative models to handle both tabular data and text. - Data Cleaning for Downstream Tasks There should be continued interest in ML models that adapt outlier detection or data repair processes to downstream tasks of interest. For instance, generative models for data repair that are jointly trained with the downstream task model – i.e. hybrid models (Nalisnick et al., 2019). Often data cleaning can be quite specific depending on the machine learning model being trained down the line. Further, the downstream task can bias the data cleaning procedure in order to improve its performance. This makes sense as practitioners often work on entire machine learning pipelines, and usually there is some dependency between the different pipeline steps. Going a step further, it is possible that automated machine learning (AutoML) (Karmaker et al., 2021, Table 1.) for data cleaning that takes into consideration downstream task performance is a better solution. The AutoML model would combine typical data cleaning procedures and user defined ones, e.g. (Krishnan et al., 2016). Therefore, this joint perspective should continue to grow in importance. - Weak-Supervision or User Interaction for Data Cleaning In machine learning, often labelled datasets are expensive or impractical to obtain, even if tools like crowdsourcing are available. This is particularly true for outlier detection, but also other steps in data cleaning. The data cleaning step is often a very bespoke process that takes into consideration particular datasets or applications. As such, user input or interaction is often a must. Semi-supervised models that handle small trusted sets are one option, however in some cases this might not be enough to get good performance. Another option is to estimate which instances are most relevant and ask user feedback, i.e. active learning (Ren et al., 2021). For instance, this can be a way to make robust generative models more adaptable to user needs. On the other hand, one can use predefined programs or patterns to label several instances before training an outlier detection / data repair model, i.e. weak-supervision (Ratner et al., 2017; Zhang et al., 2022; Shin et al., 2021). Further, one could embed such prior knowledge directly in the model (Rekatsinas et al., 2017; Rühling Cachay et al., 2021; Lew et al., 2021). Examples of weak-supervision are heuristics, logic rules, scripts, ontologies and even other simpler models. There should be continued interest in novel machine learning models for data cleaning that take direct user feedback. - Frameworks for Evaluating Data Cleaning Once more, as mentioned in Section 5.2, developing new software frameworks for benchmarking data cleaning algorithms should be a focus of the research community. This will prove particularly useful in outlier detection and in data repair tasks. But perhaps can be extended to other data cleaning tasks, e.g. data imputation or de-duplication. However, it is not clear whether the community will actually converge on this, despite a clear opportunity and need. For instance, similar efforts have been carried out for tabular data synthesis, e.g. SDGym$^1$. SDGym framework defines datasets, synthesizers (i.e. generative model baselines), and evaluation (e.g. data quality metrics, privacy metrics, $^1$https://github.com/sdv-dev/SDGym computation time). Another example is \textit{Cleanlab}\footnote{\url{https://github.com/cleanlab/cleanlab}} a software framework for cleaning noisy labels, where some support is given to benchmarking and standardization of synthetic noise injection for labels. The framework also provides a strong baseline, and curates a database of known noisy labels in machine learning datasets – \textit{Label Errors in ML Test Sets}\footnote{\url{https://labelerrors.com/}}. Alternatively, one can use existing online frameworks like \textit{OpenML}\footnote{\url{https://www.openml.org/}} to share benchmarks, datasets, models and metrics for data cleaning tasks. Perhaps the aforementioned frameworks could serve as inspiration for the ML for data cleaning community. \begin{itemize} \item \textbf{Data Cleaning under Privacy Constraints} In the last few years data privacy has become quite important in machine learning, both in terms of model training and model deployment. For example, the field of \textit{differential privacy} (Dwork et al., 2014) in machine learning has grown spectacularly. However, the same privacy constraints still exist in the data cleaning step of the machine learning pipeline. One option is to generate synthetic data that is considered safe, i.e. complies with privacy constraints, and then data cleaning tasks are applied. For instance, synthetic data can be obtained by sampling a generative model (Zhang et al., 2017; Jordon et al., 2019) that complies with the definition of differential privacy. But this might not be an ideal arrangement, and may result in loss of data quality for downstream tasks. Another option is to develop a generative model that adheres to privacy constraints, and performs the much needed data repair. So there should be ample opportunities for researchers in this space. \item \textbf{Data Cleaning in Graph Datasets} Until recently, the most popular type of structured dataset in industry was tabular data. However, graph structured datasets have become common in many companies like online retailers, social networks, pharmaceuticals or even in financial data. Moreover, there has been considerable research in the last few years in machine learning models for graph datasets (Xia et al., 2021). Particularly in deep learning (Gilmer et al., 2017; Waleffe et al., 2022). Still, very few works have explored ML for data cleaning in the presence of graph datasets (Heidari et al., 2020). Therefore, there should be ample interest and opportunities in this line of research. - Fairness in Data Cleaning Machine learning fairness (Caton & Haas, 2020) is concerned with correcting or mitigating algorithmic biases (e.g., nationality, gender, disability) in machine learning models. It is quite possible that the current data repair models may produce repairs that are unfair, since they might be based on data features considered sensitive by society. This analysis can be further extended to both outlier detection, and the related field of data imputation. Hence, there are clear opportunities to study fairness in the field of data cleaning. Firstly, researchers should assess if current models produce biased repairs, and which biases need to be corrected. 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Dendritic ribbon of controlled thickness provides dice for 600 MADT transistors a minute with no waste. Growth and etching process has made possible complete use of germanium ingot. See p 98 TESTED waveguide and coaxial equipment ### 752 Multi-Hole Coupler Precision directional couplers, 3 models, coupling factors 3, 10 and 20 db. Coupling accuracy ± 0.4 db or 0.7 db. Directivity better than 40 db full range, SWR less than 1.1 (752A), 1.05 (752C/D). S through R bands, 2.6 to 40.0 KMC. $100.00 to $375.00. ### 372 Precision Attenuators Rugged, broadband fixed attenuators retaining precise calibration regardless of humidity, temperature or time. Invariant attenuation assured by permanent, "multi-hole coupler" joining of two waveguides. 10 and 20 db models for S, G, J, H, X and P bands, 2.6 to 18.0 KMC. $100.00 to $375.00. ### 764D-767D Dual Directional Couplers High directivity dual coaxial couplers make reflectometer measurements practical in vhf and uhf coax systems. Flat response, high power capacity, low insertion loss. Four models, covering 215 to 4,000 MC collectively. 764D/765D $160.00. 766D/767D $150.00. ### 375A Variable Flap Attenuators Simple, convenient for adjusting waveguide power or isolating source and load. Max. SWR less than 1.15 full range; attenuation variable up to 20 db, dissipates average powers up to 0.5 or 1 watt. S through R bands, 2.6 to 40.0 KMC. $90.00 to $180.00. ### 870A Slide Screw Tuners For flattening waveguide systems, matching, etc. Probe position, penetration adjusts to set up reflection canceling existing reflection. Precision lead screw or micrometer varies probe insertion; vernier adjusts probe position. Corrects SWRs of 20 with accuracy of 1.02 SWR. For S, G, J, H, X, M, P, K, R bands. 2.6 to 40.0 KMC. $125.00 to $300.00. ### 362A Low Pass Filter Compact models increase SWR measurement accuracy by suppressing harmonics; feature, low insertion loss, broad stop band; M, N Band models, each $125.00. ### WR75 Components—10 to 15 KMC An increasing number of precision waveguide instruments shown here are available in the M-band, recently allocated for private microwave communications. See your HP catalog for general description, call your HP rep for prices, details. ### 476A, 477B Detector Mounts - 476A Universal Bolometer Mount, for rf power measurement 10 to 1,000 MC; no tuning, SWR less than 1.5. $75.00. - 477B Coaxial Thermistor Mount (shown) for rf power measurement 10 MC to 10 KMC; no tuning. SWR less than 1.5. $75.00. ### 485 Detector Mounts Three basic series offered: S485A for S band (no tuning, 1.35 SWR, 82 element); 485B, for G, J, H, X bands (tunable, uses 1N23, IN4182 element, 1.25 SWR using barretter); 485D for S, G, J bands (factory-installed 821 barretter). $75.00 to $170.00. ### 487B Thermistor Mounts Each covers full range of its waveguide. No tuning, SWR 1.5 or 2.0 max. Max. power 10 mw. Rugged construction, negative temperature coefficient thermistors virtually eliminate cold spot. G through R bands, 3.95 to 40.0 KMC. $75.00 to $225.00. ### 416A Ratio Meter Displays ratio between two signals, irrespective of common amplitude variations. Ideal with directional couplers and swept frequency sources for swept frequency measurement of VSWR, reflection coefficient, gain, insertion loss and other microwave parameters. Calibrated in VSWR, % reflection, db. Oscilloscope, recorder output. $475.00 (cabinet) $460.00 (rack mount) ### 810/815B Slotted Sections - 810B Slotted Sections 810B, for 809B carriage, flanged, waveguide section with accurately machined slot. Slot tapered at ends to minimize reflection. Available in 6 waveguide bands (including M-band), 3.95 through 18.0 KMC. $90.00 to $110.00. - 810A Complete slotted section assembly including probe carriage. In 2.6 to 3.95 KMC (S-band) size only. $450.00. - 815B Slotted Sections For mounting in 814B carriage. Available in K and R bands, 18.0 to 40.0 KMC. Accurately machined; easy interchange, precise positioning. $265. - 806B Coaxial Slotted Section 3 to 12 KMC, mounts in 809B, has Type N connectors. $200.00. ### 805A/B Slotted Lines Utmost mechanical rigidity, less leakage, greater accuracy, SWR 1.02 or 1.04. Range 500 MC to 4 KMC, reads in cm and mm to 0.1 mm. 805A, for 50 ohm Type N, 805B, for 46.3 ohm RG 44/U. 805A/B, $450.00. --- HEWLETT-PACKARD COMPANY 1032A Page Mill Road Cable “HEWPACK” Palo Alto, California, U.S.A. DAvenport 6-7000 Field representatives in all principal areas HEWLETT-PACKARD S.A., Rue du Vieux Billard No. 1, Geneva, Switzerland Cable “HEWPACKSA” Tel. No. (022) 26. 43. 36 presenting 182 high quality FULL-RANGE TESTED microwave measuring instruments Your HP representative offers two very important advantages - the world's most complete (and rapidly expanding) microwave line - complete assurance that the equipment will perform precisely as specified HP makes sure you get what you pay for by rigid quality control plus 100% electrical testing using HP developed methods including reflectometer and swept frequency techniques. HP knows when a parameter is out of spec; never gambles your money and time that 3 or 4 sample measurements taken across an instrument's range truly indicate its full-range performance. See your HP rep now for FULL-RANGE TESTED microwave equipment...get what you pay for. FREE TEST METHOD DESCRIPTION Interested in swept frequency testing? Ask your rep, or write direct for "Application Note 42" on 416A Ratio Meter, describing reflectometer systems and HP swept frequency measuring techniques. NEW HP NOISE MEASURING EQUIPMENT HP 344A Noise Figure Meter Quickly, accurately measures noise figure of operating radar sets. Automatic operation; simple front panel calibration. Military sized, transistorized, reliable in extreme environments, minimum size and weight. Continuous noise figure presentation on most radar receivers. Extremely high sensitivity permits decoupling noise source up to 20 db from main transmitter line to minimize system degradation. Provision for automatic alarm, remote noise figure monitoring, modulating. Meter scale/excess noise options; 25 or 30 MC input frequency, 1 MC bandwidth, 75 ohms input impedance. Approx. $1,600.00 (depending on options and modifications selected). HP 340B/342A Noise Figure Meters General-purpose instruments making possible, in minutes, receiver and component alignment jobs that once took hours. Simplifies accurate alignment; encourages better maintenance; better performance. HP 340B automatically measures, continuously displays IF or receiver noise figure at 30 or 60 MC; other freq. on order. $715.00 (cabinet) $700.00 (rack). HP 342A, similar, operates on 30, 60, 70, 105, 200 MC. 30 MC and 4 other frequencies between 38 and 200 MC on order. $815.00 (cabinet) $800.00 (rack). (Note: Models 340B and 342A available only in the U.S.A. and Canada) HP 343A vhf Noise Source, temperature limited diode broadband source, 10 to 600 MC, 5.2 db excess noise, $100.00. HP 345B IF Noise Source, 30 or 60 MC (others to order); 4 impedances, 5.2 db excess noise. $75.00. HP 347A Waveguide Noise Source, Argon gas discharge tubes in waveguide section; for bands S, G, J, H, X, P, 2.6 to 18.0 KMC, 15.2 db excess noise. $190.00 to $250.00. Basic test, power and impedance measuring equipment World's largest line of FULL-RANGE BASIC TEST EQUIPMENT - 382A Precision Attenuators Popular 382A series precision attenuators now include in "K" and "R" bands, 18.0 to 40.0 KMC. "K", "R" band attenuators are of new, space-saving design (see photo). Direct reading, one-control setting, high power handling capacity. Attenuation 0 to 50 db full range, independent of frequency. Phase shift constant with attenuation. G, J, H, X, M, P, K, R bands, $275.00 to $500.00. - 532 Waveguide Frequency Meters New design for G, H, J, M, P, K, R bands. Wide band, direct reading, no interpolation charts. Has a high Q resonant cavity tuned by choke plunger; no sliding contacts. Transmits almost full power at resonance; resonance indicated by 1.5 db dip in output. Similar model for X-band. $150.00 to $275.00. - 914 Moving Loads Waveguide section containing sliding, tapered, low-reflection load. Plunger controls load position, travels ½ wavelength at lowest frequency to reverse phase of residual load reflection. Models for S, G, J, H, X, M, P, K, R bands, 2.6 to 40.0 KMC. $55.00 to $250.00. - 421A, 420A/B Crystal Detectors 421A (shown), silicon crystal detector of rf signals in waveguide systems. High sensitivity. Ior H, X, M, P bands, 7.05—18 KMC. 421A, $75.00 to $185.00 @ 420A, similar but for Type N coax lines, 10 MC to 12.5 KMC. $50.00 each. Also 420B, same in matched pairs, $150.00 pair. - P932A/934A Harmonic Mixers Mixer for wide band beat detecting, beat frequency mixer for stabilizing a signal source. P932A 12.4 to 18.0 KMC; 934A (coaxial) covers 2 to 12.4 KMC. Both models: max. input power 100 mw. P932A, $250.00 @ 934A, $150.00. POWER MEASURING EQUIPMENT - 434A Calorimetric Power Meter Connect and read powers 10 mw to 10 watts, dc to 12.4 KMC. No barretter, thermistor needed, no external terminations or plumbing. Measures CW or pulsed power. Two simple controls. Direct read impedance 50 ohms approx.; input SWR less than 1.7 full range, less than 1.3 to 5 KMC. Accuracy within 5% full scale. $1,400.00 (cabinet) $1,385.00 (rack mount). - 430C Microwave Power Meter No computations! Provides instantaneous, automatic power readings direct in dbm or mw at all frequencies for which there are suitable bolometer mounts. For CW measurements, uses either 1/100 amp fuses or Sperry 821 barretter. Also measures CW or pulse power with negative coefficient thermistors. Provides up to 16 ma bias current. Operates with 475, 476, 477, 485, 487 mounts. Range 0.01 to 10 mw, $250.00 (cabinet) $255.00 (rack mount). IMPEDANCE MEASURING EQUIPMENT - 809B/814B Universal Probe Carriages Models 809B and 814B are precision built mechanical assemblies operating, respectively, with 810B and 815B series slotted sections. Combination of the 809B carriage and 810 slotted sections covers 2.6 to 18.0 KMC. Combination of 814B carriage and 815B series sections covers 18.0 to 40.0 KMC. On either carriage, waveguides can be interchanged in seconds. Only one probe (for each carriage) covers full frequency range. Manufacture is of highest quality, assures positive mechanical positioning of interchangeable waveguides and precise installation of mating probes. 809B has vernier scale reading to 0.1 mm, is equipped for dial gauge mounting. 814B has dial read directly to 0.1 mm. 809B, $160.00, 814B, $200.00. - 444A/446B Untuned Probes 444A (shown) is modified crystal (1N76 or 1N26) plus small antenna in convenient housing. Probe penetration easily variable; locks in position. No tuning: sensitivity superior to elaborate single, double tuned probes. Range 3.0 to 18 KMC; fits ¾" bore. New 446B for 814 Probe Carriage, similar but covers K and R band 18.0 to 40.0. 444A, $40.00, 446B, $45.00. Also offers model 440A, for barretter or crystal, Type N coaxial, $85.00. BUSINESS Fort Huachuca: Arbiter of Army Electronics. Visit to center 38 Electronic Organ Sales Surge, Tempt New Companies. 40 Soviet Nuclear Icebreaker Uses Helicopter Tv. Photo story 43 Epitaxial Techniques Lure Device Designers. New 'glamor' field? 44 AF Blueprints Key Role for New England. Hanscom grows 46 Twin Cities Echoes Call for Research. Urges more investments 50 So Much to Read—So Little Time to Read It 132 Crosstalk 4 25 Most Active Stocks 21 Comment 6 Marketing 24 Electronics Newsletter 11 Current Figures 25 Washington Outlook 14 Meetings Ahead 52 Financial Roundup 20 ENGINEERING Engineer at Philco checks dendritic ribbon emerging from a pull furnace. See p 98 COVER New Memory Devices Highlight Research Trends. Preview of NEREM meeting By T. Maguire 73 Using Digital Techniques in L-F Spectrum Analysis. New analyzer handles transient inputs. By B. Grand, L. Packer and J. L. West 78 Atomic Clock Accuracy for Crystal Oscillators. Locking to radio broadcast gives low-cost standard. By K. Nygaard 82 Telemetering Radiation Data By Frequency Variation. Equipment includes both radiation monitor and transmitter. By H. K. Richards 84 Tracking Missiles at Night by Light Flashes. Operates up to 400 miles. By A. Finlay, R. E. Demuth and W. D. Hall 88 How to Extend Operational Amplifier Response. Plug-in analog computer units. By H. Koerner 90 Nomograph Gives Receiver Noise Figure. Graph facilitates calculation of microwave receiver noise. By M. Engelson 93 DEPARTMENTS Research and Development. Rockets Study D-Layer Density 95 Components and Materials. Dendritic Growth Techniques 98 Production Techniques. Turntable Motor Grinds Own Pulley 102 New On the Market 106 People and Plants 120 Literature of the Week 118 Index to Advertisers 130 Your most effective dollars may be life insurance dollars! Chances are the dollars you are now putting into life insurance can be stretched further with no increase in cost to you! The Aetna Life Estate Control Plan coordinates your life insurance with all the assets that go into your estate. Then it develops the plan that uses everything to maximum advantage. You'll find your life insurance dollars are more effective dollars. The Estate Control Plan is exclusive with Aetna Life, a pioneer in family programming. It is available to you through your local Aetna Life representative. Aetna Life's Estate Control Plan works for you! - Assures maximum effectiveness from your present life insurance - Coordinates all your assets - Balances need with income - Gives you complete private record AETNA LIFE INSURANCE COMPANY Hartford 15, Connecticut Affiliates: Aetna Casualty and Surety Company Standard Fire Insurance Company This large family of precision resistors offers you flexibility for varied applications and traditional Ohmite quality for the most exacting requirements. Many of these styles are stocked in a wide range of values by the factory and Electronics Distributors throughout the country. 1. METAL FILM (SERIES 77) Units consist of metal film on glass substrate, hermetically sealed in high temperature resin. They possess long load and shelf life, low noise level, excellent high-frequency characteristics, and exceed military specifications. Rated at 125°C and 150°C. Resistances from 25 ohms to 2.5 megohms. Wattages from ¼ to 2 watts. Cylindrical, semicylindrical, or flat-sided shapes with radial or axial leads. Tolerances are 0.1%, 0.25%, 0.5%, and 1%. Bulletin 155. 2. MOLDED WIRE-WOUND (Power Type) These resistors utilize a single-layer winding on a ceramic core, welded connections throughout, and a molded silicone ceramic jacket. Uniform physical size in each rating. Supplied in 1, 3, 5, 7, and 10-watt sizes; resistances to approximately 50,000 ohms. Units meet MIL-R-26C specifications. Tolerances are 0.1%, 0.25%, 0.5%, 1.0%, and 3.0% (at 25°C). Bulletin 153. 3. ENCAPSULATED (SERIES 85 AND 86) Resistance wire, pie-wound on a steatite bobbin, is enveloped in an epoxy type resin. Welded connections throughout. Units meet and surpass military specifications. Series 85 has axial leads; Series 86, lug-type terminals. Designed to meet the requirements of MIL-R-93B. Resistance values to 3.1 megohms. Tolerances are 0.1%, 0.25%, 0.5%, and 1%. 4. VARNISH IMPREGNATED (SERIES 83, 84) Enamelled wire is pie-wound or non-hygrosopic ceramic bobbin, and entire unit is vacuum impregnated. Radial wire lead, or radial lug terminals. Made to order only. Resistances from 0.1 ohm to approximately 5 megohms; ½ and 1-watt sizes. Tolerances are 0.1%, 0.25%, 0.5%, and 1%. 5. VITREOUS ENAMELED (POWER TYPE) Most Ohmite power resistors can be provided to close tolerances when precision as well as high wattage is desired. Depending on the requirements, the units are generally derated (often to 10% of free air watts) to minimize the effect of TC and maintain the best stability. CROSSTALK WE DERIVE considerable satisfaction from a trend detected in recent company-union negotiation, in this industry and others. In offers to bargaining units, management is taking its first step toward solving the difficult problem of negotiating smooth transition to more automated plants. It is clear that U.S. companies must use more automatic controls and equipment to increase productivity in order to compete effectively in world markets and even at home. It has not been so clear that management also has a responsibility to prevent mass dislocations in the labor market. We note, however, that some new contract proposals contain programs for retraining and reassigning workers displaced by the introduction of labor-saving equipment. The electronics industry has an enormous stake in this area, professionally, economically and personally. Professionally, the industry's engineers are responsible for many of the more sophisticated controls and systems. Economically, the industry stands to profit handsomely from widespread automation. Personally—well, it's safe to say that most of us would sooner see our inventions used for the betterment of our fellows than see them cause more hardship. Electronics industrialists, then, have good reason to take the lead in showing industry in general how to make automation work to the advantage of the whole community. Automatic controls and mechanized production can bring about a better life for everyone if their fruits are equitably distributed. If they are exploited for the sole good of capital, then labor can be expected to exert pressure on government to stop or control the introduction of labor-saving equipment. Perhaps the most important thing each company can do is to help its own workers find new niches in the world of automation. Retraining them into higher skills is one way. Unions, too, have a responsibility to cooperate in finding ways to ease the changeover. If a union is truly interested in protecting the long-term welfare of its members it will help management intelligently introduce labor-saving machinery; a healthier company is better for worker and shareholder alike. It will encourage its members to retrain themselves for the higher orders of responsibility that automated plants will require. It will actively participate in retraining programs. When unions try to stop the course of progress by featherbedding or other unrealistic practices they succeed merely in pricing American goods out of world markets, and so ultimately put many of their own members out of work. NEREM HIGHLIGHTS. Northeast Electronics Research and Engineering Meeting in Boston next week will feature nearly 400 exhibits and 40 technical sessions at which more than 300 papers will be presented. Thus visitors, as well as those unable to attend, should find this issue's two-part conference preview by New England Editor Maguire helpful. His story on p 46 takes a look at business implications. And in the engineering section, his article (p 73) gives a penetrating analysis of technical developments and spotlights several significant papers. Coming In Our November 18 Issue STEREO. Report on six proposed systems for compatible f-m stereo broadcasting was filed recently with the FCC by the field-test panel of the National Stereophonic Radio Committee. In our next issue, panel chairman A. P. Walker summarizes the engineering performance of the six systems. Walker, who is director of engineering for the National Association of Broadcasters, presents data relevant to frequency response, distortion, separation, crosstalk and spectrum utilization. RAYTHEON WELD-PAK CIRCUIT MODULES will help guide POLARIS to its target Investigate the many advantages of custom or standard Weld-Pak high density circuit modules for your equipment design. Based on an MIT Instrumentation Laboratory packaging concept, Raytheon Weld-Pak modules provide exceptionally high reliability. For information please write Raytheon Company, Industrial Components Division, 55 Chapel St., Newton 58, Mass. RAYTHEON COMPANY INDUSTRIAL COMPONENTS DIVISION COMMENT Ions, Music and Health Since it's a pretty well established fact that free ions in the air affect one's mood (see "Ions Affect Health, Behavior," p 45, Feb. 26, and subsequent Comment), the next logical step in the development of that Ionovac speaker ("Hi-Fi Ions Impress Chicago Crowds, p 53, Oct. 14) is a circulating and filter system whereby one can select the polarity of the ions given off to match his mood to that of the material to which he is listening. I suggest that safeguards be included, however, to negate the possibility of being exposed to high degrees of ionization and extremes of mood music at the same time. It is conceivable that large amounts of positive ions plus Valse Triste could lead to wrist-slashing, while a teenager exposed to a rock-and-roll beat and negative ions could find himself in such a state of euphoria that the walls couldn't contain him. GUY C. RAUER WEJL RADIO SCRANTON, PENNA. The euphoria of the teenager we don't doubt; but positive ions might, if we interpret the evidence correctly, nullify rather than amplify the effect of a moody piece. The effect is to slow up the system, decrease the sensitivity to emotional stimuli of other than a thalamic type; one might be irritable, cross, prone to anger, quick to fight—but would probably not be extremely sad. We hope that all the ions produced by the Ionovac are negative; not only do we regard euphoria as preferable to depression, but we also remember that negative ionization favorably affects health as well as behavior. Upgrading Tv In your Crosstalk ("Upgrading the Consumer," p 4, Oct. 21) it seems to me that you did not mention the main issue. You discuss upgrading the consumer to appreciate better technical quality of tv reception. What is really needed is an upgrading of television programs in this country. I spent four years in England myself, and the reason why travelers come back singing the praises of British television is not because of its technical performance but because of the high quality of its programs. After all, why bother to include d-c restoration, 4.5-Mc bandwidth, and so forth in order to see the same poor show? I think the basic mistake which the radio and television producers make is underestimating the intelligence of the American public. There are of course many fine programs on the air, but what is needed is upgrading the tv industry rather than upgrading the consumer. C. V. NELSON GORHAM, ME. Although broadcasters may—it is a moot point—operate at the low end of the curve, they do follow a kind of free-market process in arriving at programs; they do, as they must, give the viewer what he seems to want. As far as we're concerned, this argument is of only personal interest. Our professional interest, as we indicated in our Crosstalk, is in the technological improvement of broadcasting. Comlognet In your Oct. 21 issue is an article on the USAF Comlognet ("USAF to Get Fast Data Link Net," p 37). In this article is the statement "The switching centers, in conjunction with the station terminals, will handle digital information of any type including digitalized voice for graphics." What is the meaning of the word graphics as used here? What is "digitalized voice for graphics"? WILLIAM W. DEAN GENERAL ELECTRIC SYRACUSE, N. Y. It was a typo; the statement should have read "... digitalized voice or graphics." Graphics, of course, are graphical data in any form—pictures, charts, graphs and so forth. Need high capacity, heavy duty electrolytics? ...see Mallory! Premium performance without premium price... is what you get with Mallory HC (high capacity) and NP (non-polarized) plastic-case electrolytic capacitors. Developed especially for heavy duty industrial applications, they offer you design features developed during 28 years of Mallory leadership in capacitor engineering. leak-proof seal... new silicone vent protects against explosion due to overloads or accidental reverse polarity, yet maintains correct electrolyte level. Optional epoxy end seal gives greatest protection and life. cool operation... Rated for high ripple currents, HC and NP capacitors run 5 to 10 degrees cooler than aluminum case, cardboard sleeve capacitors under identical conditions. compact size... fit standard mounting arrangements, interchangeable with other style capacitors of same ratings. self-insulated... needs no further external insulation, not sensitive to moisture. high stability... proved by tests to 30,000 hours. For complete information, write to Mallory. For prompt delivery, call the nearest distributor listed in the column at right. Maximum capacity available in each case size at indicated voltage rating (additional voltage ratings available as required): \| Case Size \| HC Type \| NP Type \| \|-----------\|---------\|---------\| \| \| 3 V \| 15 V \| 150 V \| 450 V \| 3 V \| 15 V \| 150 V \| 450 V \| \| 1 7/8 x 2 5/8 \| 6,700 \| 2,720 \| 322 \| 46 \| 3,200 \| 1,190 \| 128 \| 19 \| \| 1 7/8 x 3 3/8 \| 8,700 \| 3,550 \| 418 \| 60 \| 4,150 \| 1,550 \| 166 \| 25 \| \| 1 7/8 x 4 3/8 \| 11,800 \| 4,780 \| 568 \| 82 \| 5,700 \| 2,080 \| 225 \| 34 \| \| 1 13/16 x 3 3/8 \| 15,900 \| 6,500 \| 760 \| 110 \| 7,700 \| 2,860 \| 308 \| 46 \| \| 1 13/16 x 4 3/8 \| 21,800 \| 8,820 \| 1,030 \| 150 \| 10,400 \| 3,900 \| 415 \| 62 \| \| 2 1/4 x 3 3/8 \| 22,500 \| 9,050 \| 1,060 \| 154 \| 10,750 \| 4,000 \| 430 \| 65 \| \| 2 1/4 x 4 3/8 \| 30,500 \| 12,300 \| 1,430 \| 208 \| 14,500 \| 5,400 \| 580 \| 88 \| Popular and standard values available on the shelf. Other values available on special order. MALLORY HC and NP capacitors are stocked by these distributors: Baltimore, Md. D & H Distributing Co. Binghamton, N. Y. Federal Electronics, Inc. Boston, Mass. Cramer Electronics DeMambro Radio Supply Lafayette Radio Buffalo, N. Y. Wehle Electronics Camden, N. J. General Radio Supply Chicago, Ill. Allied Radio Corp. Newark Electric Cleveland, Ohio Pioneer Electronics Supply Co. Clifton, N. J. Eastern Radio Dallas, Texas Engineering Supply Denver, Colo. Denver Electronic Parts Houston, Tex. Harrison Equipment Lenert Co. Indianapolis, Ind. Granville Electronics Inglewood, Calif. Newark Electric Jamaica, N. Y. Peerless Radio Distributors Kansas City, Mo. Burstein-Applebee Walters Radio Supply Los Angeles, Calif. California Electronic Supply Federated Purchaser, Inc. Kieruff Electronics Radio Product Sales Miami, Fla. Electronic Equipment Mountainside, N. J. Federated Purchaser, Inc. Newark, N. J. Lafayette Radio New York, N. Y. Bruno-New York Electronic Center Harrison Radio Harvey Radio Hudson Radio Lafayette Radio Electronics Milo Electronics Terminal Electronics Oakland, Calif. Brill Electronics Elmar Electronics Oak Park, Ill. Melvin Electronics Orlando, Fla. East Coast Radio Palo Alto, Calif. Zotz Radio Paramount, Calif. Elwyn W. Ley Pasadena, Calif. Electronic Supply Perth Amboy, N. J. Atlas Electronics Philadelphia, Pa. Almo Radio Philadelphia Electronics Radio Electric Service Co. Pittsburgh, Pa. Radio Parts Co. Reading, Pa. Geo. D. Barbey Co. Syracuse, N. Y. Morris Electronics Washington, D. C. Capitol Radio Electronic Industrial Sales Whippany, N. J. State Electronics CANNON PLUGS . . . WORLD STANDARD FOR RELIABILITY For almost half a century Cannon products have been accepted as the highest standard of performance in the industry. From the first plug design for "talking pictures" to the latest highly specialized equipment for space-age projects, our prime objective has been to meet or exceed the ever changing needs of our customers. We are dedicated to maintaining the reputation that has made Cannon Plugs synonymous with quality and reliability. For information on Cannon Plugs—for any application—write to: CANNON ELECTRIC COMPANY, 3208 Humboldt Street, Los Angeles 31, California November 11, 1960 NEW VHF-UHF POWER SOURCES FULL-RANGE STABILITY 50 WATTS OUTPUT 25 to 1,000 MC! Available in four off-the-shelf models covering the frequency range 25 to 1,000 MC, the new Sierra Electronic Corporation Model 215 Series VHF-UHF Power Sources provide extremely stable output to 50 watts. This unusual stability insures high repeatability for both routine check-out and precision laboratory work. The instruments are continuously tunable over their respective ranges, offer high frequency stability and dependable operational stability under line voltage variation. Output power is adjustable 20% to 100% of rating. A plate current meter is provided for coupling adjustment, and a front-panel jack permits frequency monitoring with an external counter. Sierra 215 Series Power Sources are easy to operate, completely self-contained and housed in sturdy bench cabinets. Rack mountable models also are available. They are ideal for accurate calibration of bi-directional power monitors and termination wattmeters, as well as for work in antenna design or other applications involving high attenuation of input signals. For complete details, see your Sierra Representative or write direct. SIERRA ELECTRONIC CORPORATION A Division of Philco Corporation 6755A BOHANNON DRIVE • DAVENPORT 6-2060 • MENLO PARK, CALIF., U.S.A. Sales representatives in all principal areas. Canada: Atlas Instrument Corporation, Ltd., Montreal, Ottawa, Toronto, Vancouver. Export: Frazar & Hansen, Ltd., San Francisco, Los Angeles B-70 Reinstatement Means Big Business REINSTATEMENT of a significant part of the B-70 Mach 3 Valkyrie bomber program means about $85 million in business for electronics subcontractors. Prototype program had called for expenditure of $110 million; this figure has now been boosted to $265 million to account for building a dozen planes. North American Aviation, prime contractor on the program, estimates that electronics firms will get 32 percent of the contract funds. Main electronics subcontractors are IBM for the bomb-navigation system, Westinghouse Electric for the defensive subsystem including counter measures, and Motorola for the mission and traffic control system including identification, operational communications, and flight navigation equipment. First B-70 is scheduled to fly late in 1962. Besides its major role in air defense as a bomber, the B-70 eventually will provide a launching platform for the air-launched ballistic missile. Planes will carry long range search and fire-control radar. Improved Tunnel Diodes Quintuple Trigger Speeds GREATLY IMPROVED tunnel diodes have resulted from research programs in controlled production techniques at IBM. Developmental units announced last week switch at speeds faster than 0.4 nanosecond, permit operation of binary trigger circuits at speeds 5 to 10 times faster than presently possible. IBM spokesmen say the new diode also requires less power. Key to the design advances is a new fabrication method involving an electronically monitored and controlled etch. The germanium is etched away under servo control to a junction diameter of 0.4 mil, reproducible to a tolerance of ± 1 percent. Peak current from the unit is 5 ma. Binary trigger circuits using the improved tunnel diodes have been operated at repetition rates as high as 300 Mc. Resistance cutoff frequency is 23 Gc. Air Agency Tower Rule Rouses Broadcaster Ire NATIONAL ASSOCIATION of Broadcasters has filed a statement with Federal Aviation Agency stating that FAA's claim of jurisdiction over antenna towers is "contrary to law, precedent and the public interest." The air agency has proposed a new rule (see ELECTRONICS Crosstalk, p. 4, Oct. 14) which would require broadcasters to get FAA approval for antenna constructions, on the grounds that high antennas might constitute a hazard to air navigation. NAB claims that Federal Communications Commission alone has the authority to rule on antenna locations and heights. Nickel-Cadmium Battery Will Last Ten Years RECHARGEABLE nickel-cadmium battery designed for use in spacecraft will be announced this week by Gulton Industries. On accelerated life test, the battery showed a lifetime of ten years, according to Gulton spokesmen. It can be charged and discharged 20,000 times. The battery is hermetically sealed, operates at low pressure to prevent bursting or leakage. It can withstand continuous overcharge at high rates. The design features claimed for the new battery include a ceramic-to-metal case seal which forms a molecular bond, porous synthetic plate separators, and a novel method of assembly. Battery can be recharged in space by solar cells, can also be used to supply power in remote locations on the earth. Image Intensifier Sharpens Balloon-Borne Telescope PHOTOELECTRIC image intensifier used with balloon-borne telescope is expected to make the 12½-in. telescope the equivalent of a 125-in. unit, says J. A. Hynek, chairman of Northwestern University's astronomy department. Researching image conversion and balloon astronomy under two Air Force contracts, Hynek reports photoelectric intensifier has increased image brightness 30 times. Project is aimed at 100-fold brightness improvement. Early next year Hynek plans to send two men and a small telescope 19 miles up in a sealed gondola. The experiment will use MIT-developed instrumentation to cancel balloon motion and permit tracking of a star. Height will eliminate atmospheric twinkle, add to precision of sighting. Tests in the infrared region may even show whether Mars' atmosphere contains water vapor. Tracking Radar Planned for Thule DEFENSE DEPARTMENT has decided to install RCA's tracking radar AN/FPS-49 at the ballistic-missile early-warning system site at Thule, Greenland (ELECTRONICS, p 47, Mar. 18). Up until now, BMEWS plans called for three RCA tracking radars at the Flyingdales site in England, but none at Thule or Clear, Alaska. Thule and Clear are equipped with GE's stationary surveillance radar systems AN/FPS-50. Whether Clear will get both systems, as Thule will, has not been announced. The 84-ft-dish tracking radar costs $15 million. Institute Studies Rare-Earth Cathodes IMPROVED CATHODE design is being sought for tube applications requiring high resistance to sparking and high emission density. Under contract with AF Cambridge Research Labs, Batelle Memorial Institute is evaluating thermal electron emission of rare-earth oxides, particularly gadolinium and neodymium oxides and mixtures of these. The oxides are being put on refractory metal wires by electrophoresis. BMI is looking for a process to keep the particles from forming large agglomerates, so as to realize a dense and smooth coating. Study includes emission behavior of rare-earth oxide mixtures on refractory-metal bases, particularly rhenium, molybdenum, tungsten and tantalum. (Continued on page 12) Illinois Bell to Dedicate Electronic Central Office ELECTRONIC CENTRAL OFFICE will be dedicated by Illinois Bell Telephone Co. in the little town of Morris, Ill., next Thursday afternoon. The new concept in telephone switching uses no moving parts, functions in microseconds. System is the product of a massive research and development program, perhaps one of the largest ever sponsored by commercial enterprise, tracing back to Bell Labs' development of transistor. Electronic Probes Test Body's Thermostat ELECTRODES radiating a 3.7-Mc signal into the brain are helping Dr. Madelaine Fusco, physiology instructor at University of Michigan's Medical Center, study the thermostat controls in the nervous systems of all higher animals, including man. Hypothalamus, deep inside the brain, maintains body temperatures within close tolerances. Hollow needle electrodes implanted in the hypothalamus of dogs short-circuit the usual nerve network that reports changes in internal and surface temperatures. One-watt radiation from transmitter warms the dog, making him pant. Cold signal from circulating cool water causes shivering. Information gathered in Dr. Fusco's experiment may help doctors interpret and control fever and other temperature abnormalities that are symptoms of disease. New Device Attacks Wrong-Number Problem AUTOMATIC dialing systems for interstate and nationwide long-distance telephone calls magnifies the problems of dialing errors. In the Netherlands, where the error rate for automatic long-distance calls is 14 percent, the Dutch firm of Reumhelm Electronics has developed an automatic system that prevents wrong connections. Reumhelm spokesmen say their attachment can be used with telephone exchanges or individual telephones. The device is said to prevent a connection when the caller dials the wrong digit, when he erroneously makes a transposition of two adjoining digits, or when other common dialing errors are made. Resonant-Reed Relay Locks and Latches SELF-HOLDING resonant-reed relay for remote switching is under development by Mallory Electromagnetic division of P. R. Mallory. One model has four reeds tuned to 75, 95, 115 and 135 cps with bandwidth of ±3 cps. However, reeds tuned to any nonharmonically related frequencies between 50 and 400 cps can be used. A small permanent magnet locks the relay out until a signal is received. After 0.5 sec, the coil holds the reed firmly until excitation current is removed. The relay coil is rated at 75 to 225 mw; contacts are designed for 2 amperes, 110-v, 60-cps resistive load. Enclosure is roughly $2 \times 2 \times 1$ in. Japanese Disclose Infrared Microscope COUPLING AN INFRARED projector to an electron microscope permits study of displacement lines in silicon. Developed by Nippon Electric, ITT affiliate, the unit measures 70 by 40 by 18 cm, weighs 20 Kg. Its first applications will be in production of high-purity silicon. Wide use in medical and biological sciences also is predicted. The company plans to couple a television system to the microscope. Reveal Cable Connectors To Withstand 1,700 F SOME REENTRY PROBLEMS of such projects as Dynasoar may be solved by a coaxial cable and connector combination to be marketed by Technicraft division of Electronic Specialty Co. The cable is made by McGraw-Edison. Cable is now rated at 1,000 F, is expected to take 1,700 F. It comes in 0.170 and 0.270-in. outside diameters, can carry signals up to 5 Gc. Inner and outer conductors are copper. Dielectric is of the mineral type. Outer conductor is the outside of the cable. Connectors use a glass dielectric, are made from Invar. Special Computer Quotes Stock Prices INSTALLED in the new offices of Los Angeles broker Waltston & Co. is the Quotron, a special-purpose digital computer made by Scantlin Electronics. Computer's magnetic-drum memory hooks into ticker-tape circuits, stores daily stock-exchange transactions. Interrogation and readout units complete the system. Desired information is received on paper tape. Large • small • any size between— ALITE is geared to meet your requirements for CERAMIC-TO-METAL SEALS Alite offers completely integrated facilities and expert engineering assistance for producing high quality, vacuum-tight, ceramic-metal components for all your mechanical and electrical requirements. Hermetic seals and bushings embodying Alite—the high-alumina ceramic developed by U. S. Stoneware—have the ability to withstand severe physical and thermal shock without leaks or cracking. Produced to precision tolerances, Alite units have high impact and tensile strengths for gruelling environmental conditions. They maintain excellent electrical and mechanical characteristics over a wide range of frequency and temperature. The extra-smooth, hard, high-fired glaze gives superior surface resistivity. Every manufacturing step is closely supervised in our own plant. Positive quality control assures strict adherence to specifications, absolute uniformity and reliability of completed components. At no obligation to you, send us your drawings for recommendations or quotation. FREE Technical Data For complete technical data on Alite and Alite Ceramic-to-Metal Seals, write for Bulletins A-7R and A-40. ALITE DIVISION U. S. STONEWARE BOX 119 ORRVILLE, OHIO New York Office 60 East 42nd St. November 11, 1960 WASHINGTON OUTLOOK THE COMMERCE DEPT. reports a 40 percent increase in Japanese electronics production during January-June 1960 as compared to the previous six-month period. Total output was valued at $565 million, of which $320 million covered consumer products. Television receiver production in first-half 1960 rose 36 percent over the same period last year, radio receivers with three or more transistors increased 80 percent, radio-phonographs 139 percent. Japanese production of electron tubes in January-June 1960 amounted to $90.4 million, 63 percent over last year. Output of semiconductors was valued at $37.2 million, a gain of 48 percent. Relaying information from the U.S. embassy in Tokyo, the Department also reveals a sharp upward revision in estimated Japanese production over the next five years. Output of $1.3 billion is envisaged in 1964, 30 percent over 1959 production. U.S. trade experts predict a big boost in exports to this country of Japanese stereo phonograph consoles, color television sets and tv sets using transistors. THE POST OFFICE DEPT. has begun testing high-speed facsimile mail transmission between Washington, Chicago and Battle Creek, Mich. The speed-mail system is seen as a forerunner of a nationwide network of facsimile mail transmission linking 74 major cities, with trunklines to hundreds of smaller areas. The project's major contractors: ITT's Intelex Systems, Inc., which has a development contract to design and build 14 high-speed facsimile printers and eight mail scanners; General Dynamics' Stromberg-Carlson Div., which is developing high-speed scanners capable of reading and transmitting a standard letter-size page every four seconds by commercial coaxial cables or microwave links; Haloid Xerox and Pitney-Bowes. STILL MORE PRESSURE to consolidate military procurement comes from a new Congressional report on economic aspects for military procurement and supply. The report was made by a joint economic subcommittee headed by Sen. Paul Douglas (D., Ill.), which investigated military contracting policies earlier in the year. Says the report: "If common supply and service activities were properly consolidated and organized under existing legislation" there would be vast savings in defense buying. The report comes in the midst of a Defense Dept. study on the advisability of consolidating military procurement of many types of electronic end-items, components, spares and replacement parts. The study is due to be finished by the end of the year and covers an estimated $2 billion worth of annual electronics procurement. U.S. MANUFACTURERS—including electronics firms—are still boosting capital outlays in production facilities abroad, especially in Europe. For all manufacturers, overseas spending on production facilities now averages 14 percent of the amounts invested at home. There's no specific breakdown on electronics, however. The industry is lumped under electrical machinery manufacturing. This category shows $129 million worth of plant and equipment spending abroad in 1960, compared to $88 million last year. EIA HAS STARTED a survey to determine the number of scientists and engineers in the electronics industry. Results will be turned over to the Pentagon to help determine possible adverse effects which major shifts in defense programs could have on the reservoir of professional electronics manpower. Preliminary Pentagon estimates show about 140,000 electronics engineers and scientists in the U.S. Of the total, 110,000 are believed to work for private industry and from 80 to 90 percent in defense-related work. A cross-section of disciplines directed toward Space Technology Leadership The technical staff at Space Technology Laboratories is the free world's most experienced group devoted exclusively to advances in the civilian and military applications of space technology. • Among STL's strengths is a versatile capability created by a cross-section of the scientific and engineering disciplines. This enables the technical staff to anticipate and solve new problems in every area of space technology from fundamental research to complex hardware design and fabrication. • Today, STL's growth and diversification are opening up exceptional opportunities for outstanding scientists and engineers. Their talents and training will bring strength to, and gain strength from, an organization devoted to a single purpose: constant advancement of the state-of-the-art in the exploration and understanding of space. • STL invites the outstanding scientist and engineer to investigate the dynamics of a career in this atmosphere of Space Technology Leadership. Resumes and inquiries will receive meticulous attention. SPACE TECHNOLOGY LABORATORIES, INC. P.O. BOX 95005J, LOS ANGELES 45, CALIFORNIA a subsidiary of Thompson Ramo Wooldridge Inc. Los Angeles • Santa Maria • Edwards Rocket Base • Cheyenne • Cape Canaveral • Manchester, England • Singapore • Hawaii "All Washington's just across the river from our new lab!" Locating your laboratory or light, technical industry in Northern Virginia pays double dividends. For it puts you close to both the matchless research facilities and the rich cultural life of the Nation’s Capital, with its colleges, universities, technical schools, museums, concert auditoriums and theaters. Next door, too, are the great Potomac rail yards, the Alexandria deep-water steamship channel, and the new Dulles International Airport that will soon give you the key to the jet age. Without cost or obligation, let VEPCO do a bit of confidential plant site scouting for you in or near some of Northern Virginia’s many pleasant communities. Write, wire or phone VEPCO today. VIRGINIA ELECTRIC and POWER COMPANY Clark P. Spellman, Manager—Area Development, Electric Building, Richmond 9, Virginia • MILton 9-1411 SERVING THE TOP-OF-THE-SOUTH WITH 1,990,000 KILOWATTS — DUE TO REACH 2,580,000 KILOWATTS BY 1962 in multi-channel recording systems there is nothing newer It’s no wonder this recorder has been chosen for today’s most advanced telemetry and computer systems. Providing the highest precision and proven reliability, Brush’s newest oscillograph instantaneously displays eight 40mm channels of analog data, plus two event markers. Sharp, easy-to-read traces on rectilinear coordinates. Accurate resolution of all signals and positive interpretation of amplitude is assured with 13 electrically controlled, precise chart speeds. All functions are operated by pushbutton and may be remotely controlled if desired. Unique auto-load system locks unit in any position for greatly simplified chart changing... without disturbing the styli. Take advantage of industry’s most advanced techniques in this space-saving vertical panel oscillograph. Get all the facts. Call, write or wire. brush INSTRUMENTS DIVISION OF CLEVITE CORPORATION CLEVELAND 14, OHIO only Brush fills all requirements for multi-channel, multi-purpose recorders If it’s precise, instantaneous data acquisition in writing . . . Brush versatile recording systems provide the answer. Whether your requirements call for this “pull-out”, horizontal model for convenient annotation and reading . . . or the newest in vertical panel recorders . . . you’ll find all of the known refinements in the art of recording by direct writing. Rectilinear presentation gives clear, uniform, reproducible traces for precise readout. Up to 16 chart speeds are selected by pushbutton; jam-proof transmission provides quick response. Interchangeable “plug-in” signal conditioners permit four vital functions in addition to amplification—high input impedance, zero suppression, attenuation and calibration. Event markers, internal timers, remote control and chart take-up are some of the available accessories. Check these advanced recording systems for yourself and you’ll see why no one is as qualified as Brush. Write for complete details. brush INSTRUMENTS DIVISION OF CLEVITE CORPORATION 37TH AND PERKINS CLEVELAND 14, OHIO Did you know that your 1960 electronics BUYERS' GUIDE includes... Missiles in Production—p. R5, List of Military Procurement Locations and Personnel—p. R7, Characteristics of Plastics—p. R34, Characteristics of Laminates—p. R36, Wire, Tape and Foam Specifications—p. R38, Symbols Dictionary—p. R42, List of Industry Organizations, Services and Standards—p. R47, Military Standards—p. R50, Military Nomenclature—p. R58. The only directory in the electronics industry with a Reference Section. It contains Market Data, Materials for Components, Specifications and Services, Design Data. First choice of all 4! Each amplifier measures only $1\frac{1}{4}$" wide, $3\frac{9}{16}$" high, and $4\frac{9}{16}$" long. WRITE for full information... including the complete line of amplifiers and power supplies for ground and airborne use. NEFF instrument corporation 1088 E. Hamilton Road, Duarte, Calif. Offering a complete line of airborne and ground amplifiers and power supplies. New Mergers Announced GENERAL INSTRUMENT CORP., Newark, N. J., has announced acquisition of a 30-percent ownership in Materials Research Corporation. The Yonkers, N. Y., firm is engaged in both basic research in metallurgy and electronics, and manufacture of scientific instruments. Cash obtained from the purchase of 42,857 of MRC's outstanding 142,857 shares will be used to expand the research company's laboratory and production facilities. Houston-Fearless Corp., Los Angeles, announces acquisition of 100 percent of the stock and all assets of four companies in electronics and related industries. The expansions move HF into the fields of gyroscope design and manufacture, nuclear instrumentation, ground support systems and digital data systems for military and industrial use. The four companies are, Uniconn Inc., Plymouth, Conn., gyroscope manufacturer; Nuclear Research Instruments, Berkeley, Calif.; Parabam, Inc., Hawthorne, Calif., (digital data systems) and Allen Research and Development, Buena Park, Calif. The acquisitions were made by stock and cash transfers. Gulton Industries, Metuchen, N. J., has acquired the electronics business interests of Electric Machinery Manufacturing Company's Mullenbach division in Los Angeles. Electric Machinery is a subsidiary of Worthington Corp. The newly-acquired group manufactures thin ceramic sheet material used in switches, subminiature capacitors and relays. Gulton, in a similar field of manufacture, acquired Systems Research Group Inc., Mineola, N. Y., last July. Hermetite Corp., Boston, and Accurate Specialties, New York, report they are holding exploratory talks on merger possibility. Hermetite manufactures glass-to-metal and ceramic seals for the electronics industries. Accurate Specialties manufactures high-purity metals and ceramics. Spectrol Electronics Corp., San Gabriel, Calif., a wholly-owned subsidiary of Carrier Corp., announces purchase of the assets of Bamford Corp., Santa Monica, Calif. The newly-acquired company produces miniature trimmer potentiometers. Spectrol manufactures a variety of components, including solid-state converters. The acquired facilities will be moved to San Gabriel and integrated with Spectrol's operation. Megadyne Electronics, Inc. and CWS Waveguide Corp. will hold shareowner meetings next week in Wilmington, Del., to vote on the proposed merger of the companies into Megawave Electronics Corp. The managements and directors of both companies have already approved the combination. Megadyne, situated in Port Chester, N. Y., manufactures magnetic amplifiers, saturable reactors, power supplies and other items. CWS, of Lindenhurst, Long Island, N. Y., manufactures microwave components for radar and communications applications. National Cash Register Co., Dayton, O., for the third quarter of 1960 reports sales of $109,990,886, a rise of six percent over the same period of 1959. Net income for this year's third quarter was $4,591,504, up three percent over last year's third-quarter earnings of $4,475,345. For the first nine months of 1960, sales totaled $315,768,220, compared with $298,953,356 for the same portion of 1959. Siegler Corporation, Los Angeles, reports earnings for the quarter ended Sept. 30, were $746,531 on sales of $20,218,288, a decline of eight percent from earnings of $815,616 on sales of $21,189,245 for the similar period last year. Per-share earnings for this year's first quarter were 40 cents on 1,872,466 shares outstanding as of Sept. 30, 1960. A year ago, the figure was 50 cents on 1,634,026 shares. The increase in shares this year is due to a four-percent stock dividend, conversion of outstanding debentures and issuance of common shares following the merger of Magnetic Amplifiers, Inc., with Siegler. Decline in earnings is partially attributed to a falling off of the company's heater business. Standard Kollsman, Melrose Park, Ill., reports substantial increase in sales and earnings for the nine months ended Sept. 30. Consolidated net sales were $71,815,551, compared with $54,227,527 in a similar 1959 period. Net income for the nine months was $2,203,580, equal to $1.10 per share as against $1,039,497, or 52 cents a share, in the year preceding. Burnell and Co., Pelham Manor, N. Y., reports record highs during the first six months of the current fiscal year ended Sept. 30, in both sales and income. Sales were $1,805,610, up 24 percent over last year. Income of $80,678 was up 41 percent over 1959 and was equal to 12 cents a share. ### 25 MOST ACTIVE STOCKS \| WEEK ENDING OCTOBER 28, 1960 \| SHARES (IN 100'S) \| HIGH \| LOW \| CLOSE \| \|-----------------------------\|------------------\|------\|-----\|-------\| \| Gen Tel & Elec \| 2,884 \| 257½ \| 23¾ \| 25¼ \| \| Avco Corp \| 1,291 \| 137½ \| 12¼ \| 13¾ \| \| Texas Inst \| 1,006 \| 165¼ \| 148¼\| 160¼ \| \| RCA \| 959 \| 50¾ \| 46¼ \| 50¼ \| \| Gen Electric \| 922 \| 73¾ \| 70¾ \| 73 \| \| Sperry Rand \| 890 \| 19¾ \| 18¼ \| 18¾ \| \| Amer Tel & Tel \| 868 \| 91½ \| 89¾ \| 91¾ \| \| Litton Ind \| 753 \| 75¼ \| 68¾ \| 72¼ \| \| Int'l Tel & Tel \| 751 \| 37¾ \| 36¾ \| 37¾ \| \| Gen Inst \| 659 \| 34¾ \| 30¾ \| 32¾ \| \| Varian Assoc \| 655 \| 42 \| 38¾ \| 40¾ \| \| Elec & Mus Ind \| 641 \| 61¼ \| 5¾ \| 6 \| \| Beckman Inst \| 546 \| 80¾ \| 75¼ \| 78 \| \| Western Union \| 533 \| 43¼ \| 40¼ \| 40¼ \| \| Bell & Howell \| 524 \| 41¾ \| 38 \| 40¼ \| \| Fairchild Camera \| 522 \| 162 \| 145¼\| 151¼ \| \| Univ Controls \| 506 \| 15¾ \| 14¾ \| 14¾ \| \| Polarad Elec \| 502 \| 21 \| 17 \| 19¾ \| \| Raytheon \| 490 \| 32¾ \| 30¼ \| 31¾ \| \| Dyn Corp of Amer \| 461 \| 7¾ \| 6½ \| 7¾ \| \| Collins Radio \| 455 \| 45¼ \| 41¾ \| 43¾ \| \| Gen Dynamics \| 394 \| 37¼ \| 35¾ \| 36¾ \| \| Barnes Engin \| 357 \| 30¾ \| 25 \| 29¾ \| \| Telectro Ind \| 341 \| 14 \| 11¾ \| 12¾ \| \| Cubic Corp \| 338 \| 53 \| 39¾ \| 42¾ \| The above figures represent sales of electronics stocks on the New York and American Stock Exchanges. Lists are prepared exclusively for ELECTRONICS by Ira Haupp & Co., investment bankers. --- AIRPAX EXPANDED-SCALE FREQUENCY METERS TYPE 5907 for use on 400 CPS supply sources TYPE 5908 used on 60 CPS power source These highly accurate, dependable Frequency Meters by Airpax, are completely self-contained. Connection is simple. Two meter terminals protruding from back of case connect directly across 100 - 130 volt source. Airpax MAGMETER® frequency sensing circuit is insensitive to voltage variations, responding only to frequency changes. The 4½ inch meter, with mirror scale and combination pointer permits "quick look" indication at a distance and precise "close up" readings. Extension behind panel is approximately 2½ inches. Power consumption is less than 5 watts. Overall accuracy of frequency reading is 0.1% or .4 cycle in the 400 CPS model. Ask for Bulletin F-06 AIRPAX ELECTRONICS INCORPORATED SEMINOLE DIVISION • FORT LAUDERDALE, FLA. CIRCLE 21 ON READER SERVICE CARD 21 Microwave equipment for the X and Q band Measuring bench for 8.2-12.4 kMc s PHILIPS electronic measuring Sold and serviced by Philips Organizations all over the world Further information will gladly be supplied by: N.V. Philips' Gloeilampenfabrieken, EMA-Department, Eindhoven, the Netherlands For Canada: Philips Electronics Ind. Ltd., Leaside, Toronto 17, Ont. \| TYPE \| DESCRIPTION \| MAX. VSWR. \| \|----------\|------------------------------------\|------------\| \| PP 4020 \| Straight Waveguide Section \| — \| \| PP 4025 \| E-plane Bend \| 1.07 \| \| PP 4030 \| H-plane Bend \| 1.07 \| \| PP 4035 \| Twist \| 1.10 \| \| PP 4040 \| Shunt Tee \| — \| \| PP 4045 \| Series Tee \| — \| \| PP 4050 \| Hybrid Tee \| — \| \| PP 4070 \| Waveguide/Coaxial Adapter \| 1.50 \| \| PP 4080 \| Horn \| 1.25 \| \| PP 4090 \| Multi-hole Directional Coupler \| 1.05 \| \| PP 4095 \| Cross-guide Directional Coupler \| — \| \| PP 4110 \| Fixed Attenuator \| 1.10 \| \| PP 4130 \| Variable Flap Attenuator \| 1.15 \| \| PP 4140 \| Variable Rotary Attenuator \| 1.15 \| \| PP 4170 \| Low-power Matched Load \| 1.05 \| \| PP 4200 \| Klystron Mount \| — \| \| PP 4220 \| Adjustable X-tal Mount \| 1.10 \| \| PP 4225 \| Broadband X-tal Mount \| 1.50 \| \| PP 4245 \| Tunable Thermistor Mount \| 1.10 \| \| PP 4260 \| Calibrated Short Circuit \| >100 \| \| PP 4280 \| Sliding Screw Tuner \| from 20 to 1.02 \| \| PP 4290 \| Direct Reading Wavemeter \| — \| \| PP 4300 \| Broadband Wavemeter \| 1.10 \| \| PP 4360 \| Measuring Cavity \| — \| \| PP 4380 \| Standing Wave Detector \| 1.05 \| \| PP 4385 \| High Precision Standing Wave Detector \| — \| \| PP 4421 \| Ferrite Isolator \| 1.15 \| \| PP 4422 \| Ferrite Isolator \| 1.20 \| \| PP 4500 \| 3 cm Noise Generator \| >1.20 \| Length 10, 20, and 40 cm Radius of curvature 29 mm Radius of curvature 29 mm Length 187 mm Length 80 mm Length 80 mm Decoupling > 40dB 50 Ω N-connector Directivity: E-plane 20°, H-plane 25° Directivity: > 40dB, coupling factor 10dB or 20dB (± 0.2dB) Directivity: 20dB, coupling factor 26dB (+ 0.5dB) Attenuation 6, 10 or 20dB (± 0.2dB), max. peak power 1 kW Max. attenuation > 20dB Max. mean power 1 W, max. attenuation 50dB, accuracy ± 2 % Max. peak power 2 W When using klystron 2K25 the output power is > 20 mW Sensitivity: 1 mV D.C. for 0.1 μW, 50 Ω N-connector Sensitivity: 1 mV D.C. for 10 μW, 50 Ω BNC-connector Freq. range 8.2-11 kMc's, 50 Ω BNC-connector Accuracy of the displacement 0.02 mm Insertion loss for a VSWR of 20 is > 2 dB Freq. range 8.5-9.8 kMc s, absolute accuracy ± 2 Mc/s, loaded Q 10,000 Relative accuracy 3.10⁻⁴, loaded Q > 3,000 Freq. range 8.65-8.95 kMc/s, loaded Q > 3,000, magnetic field for electron resonance 3,300 gauss Accuracy of the probe displacement 0.01 mm, 50 Ω BNC-connector Measurable VSWR between 1.005-2.000, accuracy probe displacement 2 μ, probe penetration 0-3 mm Freq. range 8.5-9.6 kMc/s, forward att. < 0.8dB, reverse att. > 13dB, max. peak power 50 kW Freq. range 8.5-9.6 kMc/s, forward att. < 0.5dB, reverse att. > 20dB, max. mean power 1 W Noise factor 18.7dB (K50A), attenuation 0-13dB Additional Instruments: D.C. Microvoltmeter, type GM 6020 - Klystron Supply, type GM 4561 - Bolometer Bridge, type GM 4460 \| TYPE \| DESCRIPTION \| MAX. VSWR. \| \|----------\|------------------------------------\|------------\| \| PP 4020 \| Straight Waveguide Section \| — \| \| PP 4025 \| E-plane Bend \| 1.07 \| \| PP 4030 \| H-plane Bend \| 1.07 \| \| PP 4035 \| Twist \| 1.07 \| \| PP 4050 \| Hybrid Tee \| — \| \| PP 4080 \| Horn \| 1.15 \| \| PP 4130 \| Variable Flap Attenuator \| 1.15 \| \| PP 4150 \| Variable Rotary Attenuator \| 1.15 \| \| PP 4170 \| Low-power Matched Load \| 1.05 \| \| PP 4200 \| Klystron Mount \| — \| \| PP 4222 \| Adjustable X-tal Mount \| 1.25 \| \| PP 4225 \| Broadband X-tal Mount \| 50 \| \| PP 4260 \| Calibrated Short Circuit \| from 10 to 1.03 \| \| PP 4270 \| Sliding Screw Tuner \| 1.20 \| \| PP 4300 \| Broadband Wavemeter \| 1.03 \| \| PP 4382 \| Standing Wave Detector \| 1.15 \| \| PP 4420 \| Ferrite Isolator \| 1.15 \| Length 5, 10 or 20 cm Radius of curvature 35 mm Radius of curvature 37 mm Length 50 mm Decoupling > 35dB Directivity: E-plane 15°, H-plane 16° Max. attenuation > 20dB max. mean power 200 mW Max. attenuation 50dB, accuracy ± 3 % Max. mean power 1 W When using klystron 55,335 the output power is 100 mW 50 Ω BNC-connector Accuracy of the displacement 0.02 mm Insertion loss for a VSWR of 20 is > 2 dB Relative accuracy 5.10⁻⁴ loaded Q > 3000 Accuracy of the displacement 0.01 mm max. probe penetration 1 mm, 50 Ω BNC-connector Freq. range 33-36 kMc/s, forward att.< 1 dB reverse att. 13-26dB, max. mean power 200 mW Additional Instruments: Klystron Supply, type 4485 - D.C. Microvoltmeter, type GM 6020 instruments: quality tools for industry and research PHILIPS Impact of Technology on Marketing By BRUCE HENDERSON, Vice President, Arthur D. Little, Inc. CRITICAL IMPORTANCE of marketing today is due to the impact of technology. If it were not for technology, marketing could settle down into a well-known established pattern in which only the skill of the salesman was really important. But technology is introducing ever more rapid change—change in products—change in the production cycle—change in risk—change in consumer behavior—change in physical distribution—change in competitor's capability—and perhaps most important of all—change on our insight into the relations between these complex forces in the marketing equation. Fortunately, technology not only creates marketing problems by introducing change, but in turn, it provides the tools to deal with the problem. Let's catalogue some of the impact: First, new products—The birth rate of new products from new technologies like electronics was never higher and the variety was never greater. The introduction and the customer recognition of the values and the rapid obsolescence of the many old products becomes a marketing problem. For the last 10 years industry has been pouring into R&D sums that increased each year. In 1953-54, this amounted to some $2,240,000,000, and six years later it is estimated at $4,426,000,000. Since from three to eight years elapse before the effects of R&D investment are felt, we shall see new products and the resultant obsolescence growing rapidly. The food industry, aided by electronic & nucleonic techniques, offers examples with astounding changes. For example, yesterday taking a visitor through one of our labs, I ate some raspberries and some strawberries that looked fresh, smelled fresh, tasted fresh and felt fresh, but had been stored over a year at room temperature. Second, technology is generating more complex and more sophisticated products at an increasing rate. Some of these are more complex in nature for industrial application, particularly electronics. Some are far more sophisticated for discriminating consumers. Third, longer development cycles and greater capital commitment to the production facility are the natural result of the increased complexity both of products and of more highly automated production. Balancing the resulting increase in risk and inflexibility against the potential rewards becomes a marketing problem. Fourth, since change is large but uneven, consumer behavior and values must change too. With the greater choice and complexity of products, the consumer becomes less the "economic man" seeking to satisfy his elementary needs and becomes more the "social man" striving for maximum satisfaction of cultural, psychological and social motivation. Marketing must identify these even more subtle motivations and convert them into marketing plans, recognizing the greater cyclical vulnerability of some types of non-elementary needs. Russell Lynes has pointed out the problems created for marketing men by the "taste-makers." Their whims and desire to be individual become tomorrow's fashion—whether it be vodka, martinis, sports cars or grey flannel suits. Because technology makes possible an almost infinite variety of products, consumer wants are not always easily interpreted, measured and forecast. They change for no apparent reason, requiring a high degree of sensitivity and flexibility in the marketing profession. Fifth, the logistics of physical distribution are being changed. Personal services are becoming more expensive. Automatic pre-planned data processing and handling equipment are becoming more effective. Alternative transport methods become more numerous and competitive (air—rail—barge—truck). Both the costs and the rules of the game are changing for the marketing man who would optimize the marketing process. All of these things mean that marketing today is faced with ever more complex, ever more sophisticated, ever more rapidly changing problems. Solution by "feel" or by intuitive insight becomes less and less reliable except as checked and modified by intensive, fact-based analysis. While past experience is a valuable guide to the future, it is not sufficient to deal with change of this magnitude. FIGURES OF THE WEEK \| Thousands of Units \| Production Week of 10-21 \| SOURCE: EIA \| \|--------------------\|--------------------------\|-------------\| \| 450 \| \| \| \| 400 \| \| \| \| 350 \| \| \| \| 300 \| \| \| \| 250 \| \| \| \| 200 \| \| \| \| 150 \| \| \| \| 100 \| \| \| \| 50 \| \| \| \| 0 \| \| \| Radio Sets Total TV Sets Auto Sets O N D J F M A M J J A S OCT 1959 1960 RF LOAD RESISTORS COVER THE RANGE: TO 6000 WATTS AND 3000 MCS. MicroMatch RF Load Resistors provide the virtually reflectionless terminations needed for accurate RF power measurement. They serve many useful purposes as non-radiating RF power absorbers, particularly in lieu of antenna systems during the measurement and alignment phase of transmitter operation. Other useful functions are in conjunction with feed-through wattmeters to form excellent absorption-type wattmeters, and as a load for side-band elimination filters or high power directional couplers. \| MODEL NO. \| FREQUENCY RANGE (mcs) \| RF POWER DISSIPATION (watts) \| RF CONNECTORS \| \|-----------\|-----------------------\|------------------------------\|---------------\| \| 601 \| 0-3000 \| 5 \| N, C or BNC \| \| 603 \| 0-3000 \| 20 \| N, C or BNC \| \| 633 \| 0-3000 \| 50 \| N, C or HN \| \| 634 \| 0-3000 \| 150 \| N, C or HN \| \| 635 \| 0-3000 \| 200 \| N, C or HN \| \| 636 \| 0-3000 \| 600 \| N, C or HN \| \| 638 \| 0-2000 \| 6000 \| 3 1/4" flange \| Many other special models have been designed and manufactured to meet your particular space and input connection requirements. For more information on RF Loads, Directional Couplers, Tuners, and RF Wattmeters, write: M. C. JONES ELECTRONICS CO., INC. 185 N. MAIN STREET, BRISTOL, CONN. SUBSIDIARY OF THE Bendix CORPORATION November 11, 1960 Smallest and lightest for its power on the market Sperry Klystron Power Packages are offered in two sizes to meet any laboratory requirements. Model 62A1 Universal Klystron Power Supply delivers -200 to -4,000 volts from 0 to 150 ma. Extremely compact: 12¾" high, 19¼" wide, 17¾" deep. Weighs only 125 lbs. Model 62A3, is today's most versatile 700 volt Klystron Power Supply. It is the smallest and lightest package of its power on the market. Delivers up to 70 ma. Ideal for average laboratory use—and at a moderate price. Weighs only 32 lbs. and measures 8"x 12" x 16". Both units designed for ready adaptability to accessory connections. Excellent regulation, low ripple, stable operation. Write for detailed information and applications of these packed-with-power units for general laboratory use. POWER! SPERRY Microline® KLYSTRON POWER SUPPLY MODEL 62A3 -200 to -700 volts Continuously adjustable 0.70 ma. ± 1 volt line regulation 5 mv. max. ripple 0-1000 volts 0.1% regulation 5 mv. max. ripple 6.3 volts @ 0-2 amp. 2% accuracy 0-150 v., peak to peak, all waveforms Sawtooth: 40-400 cps. Square Wave: 200-2000 cps. Sine Wave: line frequency External Modulation: direct or amplified 8" x 12" x 16" 32 lbs. $550 MODEL 62A1 BEAM -200 to -4000 volts Continuously adjustable 0-150 ma. ± 1 volt line regulation 3 mv. max. ripple REFLECTOR 0 to -1000 volts .01% regulation 3 mv. max. ripple FILAMENT 6.3 volts @ 4 amp., with provision for external filament supply METERING 2% accuracy MODULATION 0-250 v., peak to peak, all waveforms Sawtooth: 40-400 cps. Square Wave: 200-2000 cps. Sine Wave: line frequency External Modulation: direct or amplified DIMENSIONS 12 3/4" x 19 1/2" x 17 3/4" WEIGHT 125 lbs. PRICE $1300 SPERRY MICROWAVE ELECTRONICS COMPANY, CLEARWATER, FLORIDA • DIVISION OF SPERRY RAND CORPORATION November 11, 1960 CIRCLE 27 ON READER SERVICE CARD 27 the strong case for Centricores® When you're considering magnetic cores it pays to get down to cases. The sturdy aluminum case for Centricores assumes special importance where impact, vibration, heat or mechanical pressure could cause trouble in a control loop you're designing, or where you want to miniaturize an inductive component. The case is ruggedly rigid, so that you can apply your circuit windings without danger of distorting the core's magnetic properties. And the case is absolutely leakproof. You can vacuum-impregnate Centricores without danger of their damping oil leaking out or foreign matter leaking in. The tightly sealed case also guards against leakage in applications where high ambient temperatures are present, or where Centricores are used in rotating equipment. Here's a tip on miniaturization. The rugged design of the Centricore case permits use of a thinner gage aluminum that shaves fractions of an inch off their size—fractions that can add up to precious inches where you want to scale down component dimensions. Centricores are the slimmest magnetic cores on the market. Centricores are the most uniform. They give the exact performance you want, from core to core and lot to lot. Their remarkable consistency in insulation, dimensions, squareness, thermal stability and gain is the product of unique quality controls that begin with the very selection of raw materials and extend through final testing. Write for complete data. Centricores are available from stock from our East and West Coast plants in all standard sizes and magnetic qualities, and in both aluminum and phenolic cases. We will match them within 5 per cent over the entire voltage-current loop, in sets, units or in multiples up to twelve. Write for detailed specifications today. Magnetic Metals Company Hayes Avenue at 21st Street, Camden 1, N.J. 853 Production Place, Newport Beach, California transformer laminations • motor laminations • tape-wound cores powdered molybdenum permalloy cores • electromagnetic shields Three stories high...the FPS-26 tells a story of Avco/Nashville radar capability Now in production at Aveo/Nashville is a huge reflector for the Air Force's FPS-26 height-finder radar. Researched and developed by Avco's Electronics and Ordnance Division, the entire FPS-26 stands three stories high. The reflector, made of high-rigidity, low-weight honeycomb sandwich construction, is housed in a radome 50 feet in diameter. In contrast is another radar reflector also made by Avco/Nashville. It is a small, highly developed, carefully finished reflector for Mach 3 military aircraft. It is made of Arocomb stainless steel honeycomb. These two reflectors indicate the range and scope of Avco/Nashville's capabilities in the field of radar reflectors as well as other structures with high-strength, lightweight materials. In its large plant in Nashville, Tennessee, Avco/Nashville has specialists experienced in the design, tooling, and construction of radar antennas or reflectors. It also has facilities for producing pedestals for large radars. Conventional radar antennas and those of sandwich construction are all within the demonstrated engineering and production capability of Avco/Nashville. Inquiries about radar structures are invited from prime contractors. Write to: General Marketing Manager, Nashville Division, Avco Corp., Nashville, Tenn. UNUSUAL CAREER OPPORTUNITIES FOR QUALIFIED SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS...WRITE AVCO/NASHVILLE TODAY. Avco Nashville CIRCLE 29 ON READER SERVICE CARD NEW SANGAMO RESIN-COATED SILVERED-MICA CAPACITORS... are significantly smaller...operate to +150° C...exceed proposed dipped-mica capacitor military specifications Sangamo experience with mica capacitors and years of engineering know-how and quality development underline two new Type D Resin-Coated Silvered-Mica Capacitors. Designed for operation at temperatures of +125° C and +150° C, both offer the advantages of radial leads, small size, full rated working voltage without derating, and a clean, moisture-sealed protective resin coating. Physical and electrical features of the Type D capacitor are ideal for etched circuits, high component-density equipments, missiles, computers, and instrumentation devices. Type D capacitors are available with characteristics C, D, E, or F, in nearly all capacitance values. Test these new Sangamo Type D Resin-Coated Silvered-Mica Capacitors — they more than meet proposed military specifications. Try them in your own circuits — they will fulfill all expectations of today's most critical applications. Those who know capacitors choose Sangamo for outstanding performance and long life. ...Type D Resin-Coated Silvered-Mica Capacitors are an important part of the transistorized circuitry of this Sangamo Type 460 Tape Transport System. Their small size, high-temperature performance, and reliability contribute materially to the transport's recording uniformity and play-back accuracy — SANGAMO ELECTRIC COMPANY, Springfield, Illinois — designing toward the promise of tomorrow What constitutes a superior dipped-mica capacitor? Silvered-mica capacitors have achieved a reputation over many years of use for high stability and high reliability. Mica's inherent low power factor, high dielectric strength, low dielectric absorption and high insulation resistance have made mica capacitors most desirable in electronic circuits where good stability with respect to temperature, frequency, and aging are required. But refinements of mechanical features were required for today's high component-density equipment utilizing etched-circuit construction. Some of the requirements that led to development of the dipped mica capacitor were: 1. A protective covering, that is thermally and mechanically rugged, impervious to moisture, and non inflammable. 2. Radial leads for rapid assembly, rigid mounting, and cool operation. 3. Small size and dimensional uniformity for more compact and standardized assemblies. 4. A glossy surface to which dirt does not adhere and which also enhances appearance. 5. Lower cost through improved automated manufacturing techniques. Considering these requirements, Sangamo has designed two new Type D resin-coated, silvered-mica capacitors. They have a better coating resulting from finer materials used in the dipping process, and also possess the excellent performance characteristics previously established by other types of Sangamo silvered-mica capacitors. MECHANICAL DESCRIPTION: The mica is carefully selected for electrical excellence and dimensional uniformity. The silver is screened on the mica and fired to effect a positive bond. A positive low-resistance connection is assured by clips and leads of tinned brass pressure clamped to the section. Good thermal shock characteristics, moisture resistance, and a glossy surface are provided by five separate resin coatings that do not appreciably alter the electrical characteristics of the silvered-mica section. OPERATIONAL PERFORMANCE: Type D capacitors are available in two maximum temperature ratings, +125° C or +150° C. Both can be operated at rated voltage without derating. The insulation resistance for capacitance values is shown in Figure I for +25° C, +125° C, and +150° C. These capacitors are available in C, D, E, or F characteristics over the temperature range of −55° C to +125° C or +150° C as shown in the following table: \| Characteristic \| Temperature Coefficient ppm/°C \| Capacitance Drift Per Cent \| Availability of Characteristic \| \|----------------\|---------------------------------\|----------------------------\|-------------------------------\| \| C \| ±200 \| ±0.5 \| All Values \| \| D \| ±100 \| ±0.3 \| All Values \| \| E \| −20 to +100 \| ±(0.1 + 0.1 pf.) \| Above 20 pf. \| \| F \| 0 to +70 \| ±(0.05 + 0.1 pf.) \| Above 50 pf. \| The moisture resistance is given as an insulation resistance greater than 10,000 megohms after a ten day cycle outlined in Method 106A, Figure 106-1 of Mil-Std-202B. Thermal and immersion cycling is given as an insulation resistance greater than 10,000 megohms when subjected to temperatures between −55° C and +125° C or +150° C as outlined in Method 102A, test condition D and Method 104A, test condition B of Mil-Std-202B. These capacitors will withstand a constant acceleration of 20 G's in accordance with Mil-Std-202B, Method 204A, test condition D. Values of Q at various frequencies are shown in Figure II. Type D capacitors can be stored at −55° C without injury. Case insulation strength is 200 per cent of rated voltage. They will have an insulation resistance of 10,000 megohms at +25° C after an accelerated life test of 2,000 hours duration at 150 per cent of rated voltage, at high ambient test temperatures of +125° C or +150° C. Acceptable Quality Levels (AQL) of completed units are fully met using the sampling plan set forth in Mil-Std-105A. This limits visual and mechanical AQL to 1.5%; Electrical AQL to 0.65%; and environmental AQL to 2.5%. Sangamo also supplies the Type D as a non-standard capacitor in accordance with special requirements. Where maximum dimensions are critical and military humidity specifications do not apply, Type D capacitors are available with fewer resin coats. If circuit design requires a lower temperature coefficient, it can be provided when specified. Where improved reliability is an important factor, Type D capacitors can be 100 per cent short-term, accelerated life tested. In addition to straight lead design, Type D is also available with crimped leads which provide a positive stop when capacitors are mounted on etched-circuit boards. Use KOVAR® Alloy to solve problems in sealing to ceramics KOVAR, the original 29% nickel, 17% cobalt, 54% iron alloy, was developed for sealing to low expansion glass, but is now being used extensively for making pressure and vacuum tight seals with metallized ceramics of the low expansion type. The curves at right show the expansion of KOVAR compared with a representative high alumina ceramic body. The expansivity match up to 500 C is very close, and the difference in expansion at higher temperatures is closer than with most common metals and alloys. The fact that KOVAR is slightly higher in expansion at elevated temperatures is an actual advantage when the ceramic is on the inside of the unit since the resulting joint is placed in compression. The degree of compression is slight compared with that resulting from the use of a metal of higher expansion. While a considerable difference in expansivity can sometimes be tolerated with the metal on the outside of thick sections of ceramic, this is not the case when the ceramic section is thin. Closer compatibility of expansivity, such as is obtained with KOVAR, is also required when the metal is on the inside of the ceramic or for sandwich or end type seals where both tensional and shear stresses must be kept to a minimum. KOVAR alloy is stocked in a variety of sizes of rod, wire, tubing, sheet, cups and eyelets. Your inquiries are invited for prices, technical information and recommendations on specific problems. Write Dept. E-100 Latrobe Plant, Refractories Division, The Carborundum Company, Latrobe, Pa. For permanent vacuum and pressure-tight sealing...count on CARBORUNDUM® Most moisture-resistant coat ever achieved... withstands 30 cycles of MIL moisture! IRC precision film resistors with M Coat take 30 cycles of moisture, 300% of the MIL-R-10509C Characteristic B requirement, tested in accordance with MIL standard 202. M Coat adds greater protection for the resistance element, eliminates handling and assembly damage. Insulation resistance after 30 cycles of moisture is over 100 megohms. Rating: ½ watt at 70°C ambient. Standard tolerance: ±1%. Range: 10 ohms to 2.49 megohms. Maximum continuous working voltage: 350. Write for Bulletin AE-15, International Resistance Co., 401 N. Broad St., Philadelphia 8, Pa. Trademark exclusive IRC moisture-proof coating Leading supplier to manufacturers of electronic equipment Highly Reliable HITACHI "SEMI-CONDUCTORS" For Industrial Use Switching Transistors and Diodes Hitachi semi-conductors provide the basis for the excellent capacity of the Hitachi Electronic Computer HITAC 103. Back of HITAC 103. Telonic Industries presents the new, compact TAB-50 RF signal attenuator for operation from DC to 1250 mc with an attenuation range of 0 to 59 db in 1 db increments. TAB-50 DC to 1250 mc RF Attenuator* The new Model TAB-50 is a precision-built unit that fills the electronic design engineer’s need for the universal RF attenuator. It can be used unmounted as a laboratory unit, or panel mounted as a component in instruments or systems. Performance is unique — it exhibits low VSWR ratios, low insertion loss at the 0 db position, and high accuracy across its entire operating range. SPECIFICATIONS \| Specification \| Details \| \|------------------------\|-------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Attenuator steps \| 0 to 59 db (in 1 db steps through a dual, concentric knob and dial arrangement) \| \| Impedance \| 50 ohms \| \| Frequency range \| DC to 900 mc (reduced accuracy to 1250 mc) \| \| Accuracy \| 0 to 10 db \| \| \| ±0.2 db to 200 mc \| \| \| ±0.3 db at 400 mc \| \| \| ±0.5 db at 900 mc \| \| \| 11 to 59 db \| \| \| ±2% ±0.2 db to 200 mc \| \| \| ±3% ±0.3 db at 400 mc \| \| \| ±5% ±0.3 db at 900 mc \| \| VSWR \| 1.2:1 to 300 mc \| \| \| 1.35:1 to 900 mc \| \| Insertion loss \| 0.1 db to 300 mc \| \| \| 0.2 db to 500 mc \| \| \| 0.4 db to 900 mc \| \| Power rating \| 1 watt \| \| Dimensions \| Case Diameter: 3" \| \| \| Case Length: 4¾" \| \| Weight \| 44 ounces \| \| Price \| $225.00 \| Telonic also manufactures other RF turret attenuators for various applications. Two typical units are the TA-50 and the TB-50 shown below. Model TA-50 Attenuator steps: 0, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 db Price $65.00 Model TB-50 Attenuator steps: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 db—Price $95.00 FOR COMPLETE DATA ON TELONIC TURRET ATTENUATORS OR OTHER RF COMPONENTS AND TEST EQUIPMENT FILL OUT THE REPLY CARD AND DROP IT IN THE MAIL. In RF Circuit Testing the ultimate quality check is frequency response — — and Telonic Sweep Generators, featuring regulated, flat output and accurate attenuation, provide rapid, precision measurement of response over an entire frequency range at a single glance. Tedious point-to-point testing techniques are completely eliminated. The model HD-1A shown here is typical of Telonic Sweep Generators available for both development and quality control applications. This unit has a center frequency range of 1 to 900 mc and a sweep width adjustable from 200 kc to 200 mc. RF output of the instrument is .75 volts, peak to peak, in the low band, and 2.0 volts, peak to peak, in the high band — all voltages adjustable by the panel-mounted turret attenuator. Toggle switches on the front panel introduce birdy markers into the scope trace, and up to eight plug-in single frequency or harmonic markers may be used. Price — $995.00 Telonic Industries provides a complete line of sweep generators for use in the laboratory or on the production line. These instruments may be used for rapid frequency response testing of filters, tuners, mixers, amplifiers and all other types of RF equipment. The following chart shows some of the other models available. \| Model \| Center Frequency \| Sweep Width \| Range \| Attenuation (db) (T) Turret (S) Toggle Switch \| Output (into 50 ohms) \| Remarks \| Bulletin Number \| Price List \| \|---------\|------------------\|-----------------\|----------------\|-----------------------------------------------\|-----------------------\|------------------------------------------------------------------------\|----------------\|------------\| \| HD-3 \| 1-200 mc \| 200kc-200 mc \| 1-300 mc \| T-0, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 \| .75, p to p \| Heterodyne type — wide sweep width and tunable center frequency \| T-210 \| 835.00 \| \| HD-4 \| 10kc-10 mc \| 25kc-10 mc \| 10kc-15 mc \| S-20, 20, 20, 10, 6, 3 \| 1V, p to p \| Video sweep — wide or narrow applications \| T-213 \| 695.00 \| \| HD-7 \| 100kc-75 mc \| 250kc-50 mc \| 100kc-100 mc \| S-20, 20, 20, 10, 6, 3 \| 1V, p to p \| Video and IF frequencies Higher video and IF frequencies \| \| \| \| LD-5 \| 20-75 mc \| .05-40% of CF \| 16-90 mc \| S-20, 20, 20, 20, 20, 10, 5, 3, 2, 1 \| 1uV-1V, RMS \| Electronically swept • Fundamental frequency type • Wide range of output levels • Exceptionally stable, flat and free from spurious content \| T-214 \| 695.00 \| \| SD-2 \| 215-450 mc \| .02-10% of CF \| 200-460 mc \| T-0, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 \| .75V, RMS \| Capacitive sweep Center frequency tuning Exceptionally flat VHF and UHF — low microwave applications \| T-207 \| 745.00 \| \| SD-3 \| 440-920 mc \| .01-6% of CF \| 425-930 mc \| T-0, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 \| .75V, RMS \| \| \| \| \| ED-1A \| 1000-1700 mc \| .25-100 mc \| 975-1515 mc \| Vernier 0-10db \| .25VRMS \| Output is result of 2nd harmonic generation and filtering, and thus these ranges are obtained from the highly reliable SD type of oscillator \| T-216 \| 1495.00 \| \| ED-4A \| 1700-2500 mc \| .25-100 mc \| 1675-2320 mc \| \| \| \| \| \| Complete information on sweep generators, accessories and other RF equipment made by Telonic is available on request; use the reply card below. Telonic Industries, Inc. Beech Grove, Indiana Please send complete data on the following: - [ ] RF Turret Attenuators - [ ] RF Detectors - [ ] Sweep Generators - [ ] RF Toggle Switch Attenuators - [ ] Model No. - [ ] RF Filters Name ____________________________ Title or Dept. ____________________________ Company ____________________________ Address ____________________________ City ____________________________ State ____________________________ Q: Do you know the important differences between DVSTs (Direct View Storage Tubes) and conventional CRTs (Cathode Ray Tubes)? A: The obvious answer concerns construction differences in the DVST (flood gun, various front-end meshes, etc.). But, more important is the new range of applications available to DVST users. These new applications result from DVST's high brightness, controllable persistence, storage capability, integrating properties—and the human factors compatibility which accompanies all of these advantages. Q: Are all DVSTs alike? A: Where storage time and brightness characteristics are concerned, most DVSTs are fundamentally similar. Significant differences exist, however, in other important criteria. Q: What criteria should you look for in a DVST? A: It depends, of course, on your particular application—but there are at least three important qualities you should check: 1. Half-tone rendition: When operating in the storage mode, DVSTs differ greatly in their ability to produce enough half-tones for photographic-quality detail. 2. Resolution: This important factor (together with half-tone rendition) is a measure of a DVST's ability to display a detailed, accurate picture. As a function of writing gun spot size, proper resolution depends on advanced developments in the field of high-performance electron guns. 3. Uniformity of writing, storage and erasure: DVSTs must present displays free from unwanted highlights—displays which will erase evenly and completely. Most important in influencing this capability is collimation (ability to arrange flood electrons in parallel array and then to strike the target assembly at a 90° angle). Q: What does Hughes offer in the DVST line? A: Everything you could ask for. (Warning! This is the commercial): 1. Outstanding half-tone rendition with DVSTs which store up to 7 shades of gray. (More than any competitive DVST!) They produce detail unmatched by any other storage tube. 2. Higher resolution resulting from advancements in electron gun design perfected by the famed Hughes Research Laboratories. 3. Exact collimation for uniformity of writing and erasure through the use of an advanced, Hughes-developed electronic lens system. This system features a precision machined metal lens integrated with the target assembly. 4. Brightness and storage time—more than competitive with any other DVST on the market today. 5. World's most complete line of DVSTs. Sizes: 3", 4", 5", 7", 10", 21"; electrostatic or electromagnetic deflection. Available with 1, 2 or 3 write guns. Our engineers will be happy to assist you with specific applications. Telephone, wire or write today for information: HUGHES, Vacuum Tube Products Division, 2020 Short St., Oceanside, Calif. For export information, please write: Hughes International, Culver City, California. HUGHES Creating a new world with Electronics VACUUM TUBE PRODUCTS DIVISION HUGHES AIRCRAFT COMPANY Fort Huachuca: Arbiter of Army Electronics By JOHN F. MASON, Associate Editor FORT HUACHUCA, ARIZ.—The 250 miles of desert wasteland stretching west from here is a gigantic proving ground for hundreds of millions of dollars worth of electronic equipment for the U.S. Army. Army's mission here is to create an entirely compatible array of battlefield electronic equipment. This job is being tackled in three steps. First, engineering tests are run on Signal Corps equipment to evaluate performance, reliability and maintainability. Equipment may go back to the manufacturer as a rejection or for modification. If the equipment answers Signal Corps' needs, it goes on to testing within the battlefield environment for electromagnetic compatibility with other devices. The final responsibility at Huachuca is to develop and propose complete command control systems for the modern army. Fort Huachuca, which was established in 1877 to thwart the plans of the Apache chief Geronimo, is an ideal location for the U.S. Army Electronic Proving Ground (USAEPG). In spite of the impressive sunsets, the dry plains and rock mountains have still not attracted many settlers. As a result, the Army walked into a 75,000-acre, open-air laboratory, relatively free of manmade radiation. Called the Electromagnetic Environmental Test Facility (EETF), the laboratory is in three parts: The Electromagnetic Environment area (EME), located near Gila Bend, Ariz. at the north-west end of the installation, will investigate radio frequency interference. The Drone Test Facility (DTF) runs the 250-mile stretch from Fort Huachuca westward to Yuma. Drones are tracked by Sperry's N/USD-1 radar out to 60 mi The Common Test Facility (CTF), at Fort Huachuca, provides communication and test facilities for the entire complex. Pan American World Airways is prime contractor for engineering, installing equipment and operating the facility (EETF) under the supervision of the Proving Ground's commander, Major General F. F. Uhrhane. As major subcontractor, Bell Aerosystems is responsible for the EME area where radio interference is studied. Pan Am's two-year contract began in March and amounts to $18.8 million. Operating cost for the first five years is expected to total $90 million. Not included in this cost is the prototype gear being tested. This equipment, which includes almost every electronic device used by a modern army, is channeled into five departments: The Combat Surveillance and Avionics dept. tests, evaluates and integrates all equipment to acquire combat intelligence. The payload is sensory equipment. Associated gear includes vehicles to put the sensors in the right place to spy on the enemy and equipment to record information and get it back home. Army has four types of drones, ranging in readiness from operational to developmental. Sensors used in drones and in manned aircraft—fixed and rotary wing—may include: tv, infrared, magnetic mine detectors, radiation smellers, sidelooking radar, and radio-controlled cameras—still and movie—with automatic transmission back to the ground (for Fairchild Camera and Instrument's camera now undergoing tests, see ELECTRONICS, p 47, June 5, 1959). Related airborne equipment includes navigation and communication systems, flight instrumentation and stabilization devices, data processing and ecm. Ground equipment for aerial surveillance vehicles includes radio, data processing and reduction gear, magnetic recorders, display units, communications network, radar and theodolites. The surveillance department is testing three types of point-to-point hypersensitive surveillance radar that pick up enemy vehicles and even troops, the AN/TPS-33, AN/TPS-25 and AN/PPS-4 (the last two are described in ELECTRONICS, p 33, Aug. 14, 1959). The Signal Communications dept. will soon field test its new Automatic Electronic Switching system. Mounted on a 2½-ton truck, the system will replace the manual system that required several large vans. Equipment in this system, Army says, includes: a transistorized telephone (TA-341) developed by Stromberg-Carlson—a 4-wire local battery unit on which the conventional dial is replaced by key-set dialing; a lower echelon automatic telephone central (AN/TTC-14) developed by Kellogg Switchboard and Supply—a transistorized 20-line local switchboard expandable to 60 lines; automatic electronic telephone central (AN/TTC-13) developed by Stromberg-Carlson—transistorized, used for trunk switching only; and an automatic electronic telephone central (AN/TTC-12) by Stromberg-Carlson that serves 200 local subscribers and provides 50 trunks to other local switchboards and 30 trunks to the long-distance switching system. The communications dept. is also testing other equipment: Radio relay terminal set, AN/MRC-69, provides facilities for one or two 12-channel carrier telephone systems or a radio relay repeater. Major components are two f-m radio sets (AN/TRC-24) and two 12-channel telephone terminals (AN/TCC-7). Another radio relay repeater (AN/MRC-54) that will use the TRC-24 radio is also being tested. The antenna for the TRC-24 was developed at Huachuca's model shop and is now in operation in Germany. After formal acceptance of the equipment by the Continental Army Command the antenna will be farmed out to industry for large-scale production. Weight of the antenna is about 40 lb. It consists of a folding-mast assembly carried on the roof of the equipment shelter and a lightweight broadband antenna array. The structure was erected at a demonstration here (see photo) in one minute and 53 sec. Each antenna consists of a logarithmically periodic structure comprised of a series of dipole elements cantilevered from a common boom. The antenna has a medium gain of 6 db over the 100 to 600-Mc band. Huachuca has awarded an initial production contract to Motorola for about $11 million for a vhf, multiplexed ssb communications central, AN/MRC-66. The central is on a 3-ton truck. Subscriber stations are mounted in jeeps. The system transmits voice, facsimile and teletypewritten messages. Huachuca-developed troposcatter equipment (AN/TRC-80) provides 24 voice channels up to 150 miles and operates on a frequency of 1,700-2,400 Mc. The Meteorology dept. studies the highly variable weather conditions from ground up to 2,500 ft. Instruments study energy balance, turbulence and movement of heat and moisture at the earth's surface. The Huachuca station works with 12 other micrometeorology stations in the northern half of the Western Hemisphere. Findings will affect missile operation and design. The Automatic Data Processing dept.'s objective is to provide the field army with completely automatic data processing facilities. Realization of this goal will be delivery of the Army's Fieldata family of computers (ELECTRONICS, p 37, Apr. 3, 1959). The family will include small computers for the lower echelons, the Basicpac for more complex applications, and the large Mobidic, a general-purpose, completely transistorized computer. Huachuca now simulates battle problems with an IBM 709. Ramo-Wooldridge supplies technical assistance. The Electronic Warfare dept. (EWD) is developing a family of multipurpose ecm sets in three basic configurations: 3-ton truck, armored personnel carrier and the Otter aircraft. In addition, a series of air-deliverable, expandable ecm devices is being developed and tested. Ultimately these will be delivered by manned aircraft, drones and artillery. Army also has a classified miniaturized self-contained Manpack ecm transceiver for front-line troops. The Electromagnetic Environmental Test Ficility, run by Pan Am and Bell Aerosystems, tests all electronic equipment in a battlefield environment for compatibility. The new army estimates a preponderance of 75,000 emitters in a 100-mile square area as opposed to 23,000 during World War II. The test facility's task is to reveal incompatibilities, suggest modifications, provide realistic standards for new equipment, test Army frequency assignment plans, and test all electronic-communication gear prior to acceptance by the Army. Ultimately it is hoped to evolve a mathematical model to predict interference. The model will be a storehouse of equipment characteristics and propagation phenomena and will contain the equations that interrelate them. As testing continues the battlefield complexity will be increased. Eventually Army would like to test systems in an Army, Navy and USAF environment. Interference testing is now a manual operation. For example, a man-carried transceiver might be tested with radar, telemetry, ecm gear and troposcatter equipment. In case of interference, environmental equipment is turned off one by one until the culprit is found. In some cases two or more transmitters may be heterodyning. The recommendation may be modification of the equipment, a change of frequency, recommendation to use intermittently, or to simply live with the situation. The latter is especially true of equipment soon to be phased out. Incompatibility tests will soon be accomplished by punched-card and computer automation. The Army foresees a continuing need for the work going on at Huachuca. Results obtained here will benefit both military and civilian users of electronic equipment. Pan Am will award a number of subcontracts as the program continues. They will be for gear such as: radar, microwave, telemetry, command control, recording, communications and data processing. Electronic Organ Sales Surge, Tempt New Companies Manufacturers of electronic organs feel that 1960 will wind up as an outstanding year for sales. Market saturation to date is only a few percent. According to several industry marketing experts, retail sales for 1959 were $140 million. And profit margins are generous. Several companies are looking the field over and most manufacturers have design innovations in the works. Many new model organs use transistors. Tunnel diodes are being considered, based on their harmonic generation properties. There are many reasons for the popularity of electronic organs. Tone and note sustention qualities make music played by an amateur sound more professional than with other instruments. The organs are easy to play; keyboard learning techniques help the beginner. Several large electronics firms have been watching organ sales. The Magnavox Company, Fort Wayne, Ind., states it plans to produce a line of instruments. Westinghouse admits an interest in the field, gives no details. AMF gave the electronic organ market a look three years ago, built a model, has decided against entering the field. Two electronics giants and a motion-picture company have been linked with the organ market. Here's what typical firms now in the business are doing: The final assembly line at Thomas Organ. Instruments are tuned with electronic stroboscopes in five minutes by factory workers Hammond Organ Company, Chicago, maintains a full line of instruments. They employ a mechanical tone-wheel system, which produces the magnetic variation needed for the original note, which is then amplified. Baldwin Piano Company, Cincinnati, O. uses tuned-grid vacuum-tube oscillators and frequency-division blocking oscillators for producing tones beyond the basic twelve notes. Its line includes spinets and consoles. Firm experimented with a transistor model as early as 1952, still is active evaluating solid-state techniques. The Lowery Organ Company, Chicago, produces a full line of organs, from spinet through church models. Firm's latest is the Holiday Duo. It has two full 44-note manuals and a 13-note pedalboard, at $995. The three largest models have two 61-note manuals, a 25-note pedalboard and keyboard control of the organ stereo effect, whereby any manual or the pedalboard can be switched to a remote tone cabinet. Conn Organ Corp., Elkhart, Ind., has recently introduced transistor keying in their line of instruments. The tones are generated by a vacuum tube, normally one for each note. In some models, a sharing system is employed, wherein a diode assures keying preference when several adjacent keys are pressed down. An accessory instrument by the Wurlitzer Company, DeKalb, Ill., who also manufactures electronic organs, is known as the Side Man. It is a self-contained unit that provides a constant rhythm section sound effect for accompaniment in any of several patterns, including cha cha, tango, western, waltz and others. The tempo can be set by the user and rhythm patterns not built in may be created with a bank of ten push buttons, usable with the automatic patterns or independently. Thomas Organ Company, a division of Pacific Mercury Electronics, Sepulveda, Calif., has announced three new transistor organs, using vacuum tubes only in the power amplifier. A recent slimline model priced at $1,495 includes a built-in Leslie speaker, stereo organ sound system, and controlled attack percussion which can be applied to one or all families of voices, and sustain to hold the note after it is keyed. The firm also produces an organ-phonograph combination. Stereo operation of either instrument, or one channel for each allows the use of a recorded lesson plan for training beginners. Kinsman Electronic Organs, Laconia, N. H., has brought out two new models this year, one featuring two full 61-note manuals (keyboards), below the $2,000 figure. The firm is among those employing printed circuits, and features modular electronic construction. Their design uses vacuum-type tone oscillators and neon dividers. Modular construction of Kinsman organ facilities assembly and service The Allen Organ Company, Macungie, Pa., has been producing solid-state designs for 18 months. Its production includes many large custom organs. Toroids are used in the tank circuit of each tone oscillator, to assure frequency stability down to 16 cps. A separate transistor oscillator generates each note. The firm also employs a rotating speaker system. The speed of rotation is controlled by the performer to introduce activity into the distribution of sound, as occurs normally in a pipe organ. Electro-voice, Buchanan, Mich., a recent newcomer, announced a two-manual spinet this year, in the $500 range. It uses neon divider chains following vacuum-tube tone generators. A full organ line is planned. The W. W. Kimball Co., Melrose Park, Ill. produces a line of large organs that obtain their basic tone from optical recordings of a pipe organ, and reproduces them with a lamp for each key, a scanning system and photocells. They have also introduced a line of home organs featuring transistor circuits. Organ kits are finding a receptive market. Electronic Organ Arts Corporation, Los Angeles, Calif., puts out a full line of kit organs. An independent Hartley vacuum-tube oscillator, stable to 0.08 percent in frequency, is used for every key, with an independent preamp for every stop. An external hi-fi system can thus be hooked into any preamp or any number tied together to separate channels allowing organ stereo operation. Schober Organ Corp., New York, N. Y., plans to add a spinet organ kit in the $300 range sometime in the future, with vacuum-tube oscillators and neon divider chains. They have recently come out with an inexpensive strobe-disk tuner, available built, or as a kit. It is accurate to 1/100 semitone. National Sonic Corporation, Sunnyvale, Calif., produces a kit spinet with two 44 note manuals. The keyboards are supplied wired, cables preformed, the printed circuit boards are left unfinished. Their circuit format employs vacuum-tube-oscillators and dividers, with a photoelectric system for the expression pedal control element to reduce wear. FOR THOSE SEEKING PURE WAVE FORM, the Behlman INVERTRON® provides, among many other things, the best. Harmonic distortion remains an absolute minimum throughout the frequency range despite wide variations of line and load. Behlman provides exceptionally stable sources of AC power from 20va to 100,000va in 1, 2, and 3 phase outputs—from 1 cycle to 100KC with less than 1% distortion and frequency accuracies up to 0.00001%. For those "at sea" about AC power sources, Behlman will send a free copy of its new guide, "AC Power Supplies." BEHLMAN ENGINEERING COMPANY • 2911 Winona Avenue, Burbank, Calif. A subsidiary of Electronic Energy Conversion Corporation CIRCLE 41 ON READER SERVICE CARD IF YOU WANT TO TAKE A CHANCE ON FALLING IN LOVE WITH A COMPUTER When we designed Recomp we had just two people in mind: the man who would use it and the man who would approve the investment. We told our design engineers we wanted Recomp to 1) have a large capacity, 2) be versatile, and 3) be easy to program. Then we urged our cost engineers to see to it that Recomp stayed in the lower price range. Quite honestly, this posed some problems. On occasion a designer would plead for his brainchild while the cost analyzers demurred. No coins were tossed to settle such disagreements. If the designer could prove his idea made Recomp a better computer it was incorporated. That's how Recomp came to be the first solid-state digital computer on the market. And also why it was (and still is) the only compact computer with built-in floating-point arithmetic. Fortunately when we were all through we found Recomp would sell at a sensible price. So, due to this strict attention to the computer's capability and cost, we're truly able to say Recomp is the very best computer in the low-cost computer field. While they were at it, our engineers had some rather original ideas on how to present Recomp to you. "No gobbledygook," they said, "just give them the facts." So we painstakingly winnowed down a mass of superlatives to these plain facts: 1] Exclusive built-in floating point arithmetic. 2] Easy to program, 3] Efficient programming; 49 basic instructions expandable to 72. 4] Fast access time due to high-speed loops. 5] Magnetic disk memory with large capacity—up to 8192 instructions. 6] Large word length of 40 binary bits. 7] Each word contains two instructions. 8] Solid-state reliability. 9] Built-in square root command. 10] Large sub-routine and program library. 11] Active users group. 12] Built-in automatic conversion from decimal to binary. 13] Visual display of any word in memory. 14] Simple correction of errors. 15] Easily installed anywhere. 16] Can use conventional teletype equipment. 17] Low cost per computation. 18] High-speed input and output. 19] Programming training provided. 20] Large program exchange. 21] Coast-to-coast sales & service. With all respect to our engineers, facts are fine but they can hardly do full justice to Recomp. For example, it's only fair to mention Recomp's appearance. Its soft color and modern shape bespeaks quiet efficiency; blends in the finest of surroundings. In this case you can tell the book by the cover. Recomp is truly a masterpiece of design (both in function and form). It's built to look as good as it is; a genuine pleasure to have around. By the way, many of the points we listed above can be claimed by some other compact computers—but Recomp is the only one that can claim them all, and as standard equipment. You're never hemmed in on a problem by a lack of equipment. True, you can get a computer that does more than Recomp, but this should only be if the size of the job justifies a much larger investment (and Recomp does have features you won't find in computers costing three times as much). Naturally, you can always find a computer that costs less. But if you want a low-cost compact computer that performs favorably with the giants in size and cost, you should make a date to see Recomp. However, it's only fair to warn you, unless you want to take a chance on falling in love with a computer, don't write AUTONETICS INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTS, Dept. 115, 3400 East 70th Street, Long Beach, California. The Autonetics Division of North American Aviation, Inc. THE SOVIET icebreaker Lenin, powered by a 44,000-horsepower atomic-steam plant, is in regular service in the arctic. Power is developed in three reactors, with one normally on standby. The ship can operate on six-foot ice, with a maximum thrust of 330 tons. Steam and a metal ram are employed for difficult ice formations. The crew and equipment spend long periods at sea, when the ship is on duty maintaining navigable shipping channels in the arctic. Refueling of the reactors is accomplished every two years. Accompanying photos show the use of closed-circuit television aboard ship, the checking of radiation, and a section of the control room. Epitaxial Techniques Lure Device Designers WASHINGTON—Epitaxially grown semiconductor devices have replaced tunnel diodes as the glamour field of solid-state electronics. So it seemed at the 1960 Electron Devices Meeting here late last month; 1,200 attended. In 1959 tunnel diodes were the major topic at this meeting; this year only two of 18 papers in the semiconductor category dealt with tunnel diodes. Meanwhile, a complete session devoted to epitaxial devices was well attended and marked by spirited questioning of speakers. Most of the papers in this category dealt with technique for growing films of germanium and silicon epitaxially on substrates of these materials. Intensive work is being carried on in this field. Speakers from Bell Labs, IBM, Fairchild Semiconductors, Motorola and Pacific Semiconductors represented a broad industry cross section and other semiconductor manufacturers were represented in the audience. Majority of companies use variations of the vapor-deposition technique using hydrogen reduction of tetrachlorides of silicon and germanium. A. P. Hale told of experiments at Fairchild where evaporation techniques are being tried in a search for a simpler, more economical method. Although devices have been built, the advantages of evaporation remain to be proved, Hale said. Most speakers held back detailed results obtained with epitaxial devices. However, George Russell of Motorola announced the availability of a germanium epitaxial transistor type 2N828, designed to replace the type 2N705 high-speed mesa switching transistor. In another solid-state area, a new type of parametric amplifier was introduced by K. K. N. Chang and D. L. Cuccia of RCA. It uses a helix as a slow-wave structure, has variable capacitance diodes connected at intervals between the helix turns. Proper spacing of the diodes causes the helix to act as a filter with pass and stop bands that provide resonances at signal, idler and pump frequencies. Small and lightweight (less than 6 ounces), the new amplifier is simply constructed, needs no moving parts like stubs or slides. The amplifier is stable. Its developers claim it cannot be made to oscillate. Gain of 15 db across a 10-percent bandwidth has been achieved with noise figures from 4.5 to 6 db. Advances in devices other than solid-state were also described. Improvements in the Zenith electron-beam parametric amplifier have boosted performance into the L-band region. As reported by C. B. Crumley and R. L. Cohoon of Zenith, noise figures of 1.3 to 1.6 db with 40-Mc bandwidth have been obtained at 1,300 Mc with substantial gain. Crumley says it seems feasible to operate tubes like this in the X-band region or even higher. Bell Laboratories introduced a new beam deflection tube for their pulse-code-modulated digital television system. The new encoding tube converts the amplitude of an analog voltage into an 8-digit binary signal at sampling rates up to 10 Mc. M. H. Crowell, who described the tube, showed typical off-the-air pictures of color TV transmissions encoded into 7-digit signals. The pictures showed no degradation of the signal after digital transmission. Tech Manpower Shortage To Continue for Decades TECHNICAL MANPOWER will continue to be in short supply, perhaps for centuries, says J. R. Weir of California Institute Technology. Speaking at a symposium on management planning at the Fall meeting of American Institute of Electrical Engineers in Chicago recently, Weir said "the demand for technical know-how must inevitably increase for many decades . . . probably at a geometric rate." Worldwide living standards will depend on the number and quality of trained technologists. If populations continue to explode, only increased productivity and higher orders of production efficiency can keep pace—and the broadest possible application of all technologies will be necessary, Weir says. Evaluator Missile Records Launches Standard configuration of Falcon missile developed by Hughes contains signal recorder to check armament control and missile guidance systems Choose ALLEN-BRADLEY QUALITY POTENTIOMETERS for your critical circuits Exclusive one-piece hot molded element assures long life, quiet operation improving with age! With this solid molded resistance element, control is always smooth—there are never any abrupt changes. This also assures low "noise" even after long use. The sectional view of the Type "J" shows how the terminals, resistance element, faceplate, and threaded bushing are all molded together into one integral structure. For the ultimate in performance, select from the Allen-Bradley family of quality potentiometers. THE ALLEN-BRADLEY FAMILY OF POTENTIOMETERS TYPE J—rated 2 watts at 70°C. Total resistances to 5 megohms. Single, dual, and triple units. Many RV-4 types in stock for overnight shipment of prototype quantities. Send for list. TYPE K—like Type J, but rated 1 watt at 125°C, 2 watts at 100°C, and 3 watts at 70°C. Can be used to 150°C under "no load." TYPE G—rated ½ watt at 70°C. Total resistances to 5 megohms. Wide selection of styles and various optional features including switch. Many RV-4 types in stock for overnight shipment of prototype quantities. Send for list. TYPE L—similar to Type G, but rated at ½ watt at 100°C. Can be used to 150°C under "no load." TYPE R—adjustable fixed resistor. Rated ¼ watt at 70°C. Total resistance ranges from 100 ohms to 2.5 megohms. Self-locking features hold settings under extremes of shock. TYPE F—rated ¼ watt at 70°C. For printed wiring boards. Has screwdriver adjustment. TYPE T—rated ¼ watt at 70°C. Extremely thin; plastic cover serves as actuator. TYPE H—rated 5 watts at 40°C, with a maximum continuous voltage of 750 volts. Designed for industrial applications. Total resistances to 2.5 megohms. Allen-Bradley Co., 110 W. Greenfield Ave. Milwaukee 4, Wis. • In Canada: Allen-Bradley Canada Ltd., Galt, Ont. ALLEN-BRADLEY Quality Electronic Components November 11, 1960 AF Blueprints Key Role for Mushrooming Hanscom Complex quickens regional growth; national pay rate ruling poses threat BOSTON—The Northeast Electronics Research and Engineering Meeting (NEREM) will be held Tuesday through Thursday next week in an atmosphere charged with extraordinary promise—and a threat. Focal point of the New England area's continued ascendancy in electronics is "The Hanscom Complex", the Air Force installation off Route 128 in Bedford, some 20 miles from Boston. On the threshold of becoming the design-development management center for military automation, the Hanscom Complex will control allocation of $1.5 billion in fiscal '61, notably for the "I" systems. The grand design of aerospace command-control systems of the '60s and '70s will be blueprinted at Bedford, if a proposal now before the AF general staff is approved. Impact of the mushrooming of the Hanscom Complex is being increasingly felt in Greater Boston and New England as electronics firms rooted in other sections of the U.S. set up research labs and technical offices close to Hanscom. The threat aimed at the N.E. electronics industry flows from the U.S. Labor Department's tentative decision to set nationwide minimum-pay rates for electron tube and semiconductor workers under the Walsh-Healey Act (Electronics, p 14, Oct. 14). With a traditionally skilled labor force and lower wage rates than on the West Coast and other sections, New England has some of the fastest-growing semiconductor plants in the U.S. And components production is counted on for a big share of the projected $2 billion factory sales for N.E. electronics by 1970 (Electronics, p 45, Apr. 22). Individually and through the EIA, New England producers are Radars Guide Tartar Missiles Raytheon-produced radars on guided missile destroyer can also be used as part of ship's overall fire control system New England fighting for regional rather than national minimum rates. On the brighter side of the regional picture, the Hanscom Complex now has a staff of 6,000, and this level rises monthly. Headquartered there are such electronic systems management organizations as ARDC's Command and Control Development Division, AMC's Electronic Systems Center and ADC's Command and Control Defense Systems Office which embraces user commands like SAC and TAC. The complex includes the Space Surveillance and Control Center, U.S. clearing house for identification and tracking of all orbiting objects. Also members of the complex are AF Cambridge Research Laboratories, MIT Lincoln Laboratory and Mitre Corp., engineering systems adviser. In addition, Rome Air Development Center, although geographically removed, is part of the complex and is its primary development agency for sub-systems and components. Rounding out the command-control team are representatives from industry, from the Army, Navy, FAA and other government agencies and from the Royal Canadian Air Force. One of the new jobs being proposed for the complex is training the Air Force officers of the future in electronics, data processing and command-control technology, the tools of military automation. A companion trend in N.E. electronics in recent years is an increasing emphasis on R&D in automatic controls—industrial automation. Two of the NEREM sessions next week will be devoted to electro-hydraulic and electro-pneumatic controls. "The mechanical engineers are more and more invading the electronics field," comments an MIT professor. The N.E. which has seen abandoned textile plants refurbished for the new industrial giant of electronics is now witnessing another development: advent of jewelry pro- (Continued on p 49) PULSE-FORMING NETWORKS FROM WATTS to MEGAWATTS ...and everything in between! When it comes to pulse capacitors and pulse-forming networks, many complexities in parameters and design factors must be considered. These specialized units must be designed and manufactured by a specialized organization. And because Sprague maintains a highly-technical special engineering section devoted exclusively to pulse capacitors and networks, it has been, from the very beginning, a major supplier of these complex units for radar equipment (ground, marine, aircraft, missile), tube testing, and similar pulse circuit applications. This special engineering section performs four important functions: One group designs custom units in accordance with required parameters. Another group builds pulse capacitors and networks to these precise specifications. In another area, a group of specially-trained field engineers provides application assistance wherever needed. And yet another independent group works toward the future developing new materials, new design concepts, and new techniques for manufacture. This concentration on pulse capacitors and pulse-forming networks has enabled Sprague to introduce product improvements such as heliarc sealing of cases, rugged alumina bushing assemblies, Fabmika® dielectric, and improved hermetic sealing of closures. Save time and money by working with Sprague from the start. Write for Engineering Bulletin No. 10,001 to Technical Literature Section, Sprague Electric Company, 35 Marshall St., North Adams, Massachusetts. Raytheon Distributors Serving Key Markets Include: Alabama Birmingham Forbes Distributing Company AL 2-104 MKG Electrical Equipment Company Fairfax 2-0449 Mobile Forbes Electronic Distributors, Inc. HE 2-7661 Arizona Phoenix Radio Specialties & Appl. Corp. AL 8-6121 Tucson Standard Radio Parts, Inc. MA 3-4326 California Burbank Vance Electronic Supply Co. Victoria 9-3944 Glendale R. V. Weatherford Co. Victoria 9-2471 Hollywood Hollywood Radio Supply, Inc. HO 4-8321 Inglewood Newport Electronics Company Orchard 7-1127 Los Angeles Graybar Electric Company Alhambra 5-7282 Kieruff Electronics, Inc. Richmond 8-2444 Oxnard Brill Electronics Torrance 6-1600 Elma Electronics TEMPiar 4-3311 Pasadena Zeta Electronics DA 6-5432 San Diego Radio Parts Company BE 9-9361 San Francisco Foster Electronics UN 1-2434 Santa Monica Santa Monica Radio Parts Corp. EXbrook 3-8231 Colorado Denver World Terry Company AMherst 6-3181 Connecticut East Haven J. A. Electronics HObart 9-1310 District of Columbia Electrical Industrial Sales, Inc. HUDson 3-5200 Kenyon Electronic Supply Company Dexter 2-5800 Florida Miami East Coast Radio & Television Co. Franklin 1-6356 Electronic Equipment Co., Inc. NEWton 5-0421 West Palm Beach Goddard Distributors, Inc. TEMPle 3-5701 Illinois Chicago Allied Radio Corporation HAYmarket 1-6800 Newark Electronics Corp. STATe 2-2944 Indiana Indianapolis Graham Electronics Supply Inc. MEIrose 4-8486 Maryland Baltimore Wholesale Radio Parts Co., Inc. MULberry 5-2134 Massachusetts Boston Cramer Electronics, Inc. COpley 7-4700 DeMambro Radio Supply Co., Inc. AL 4-0000 E. W. Taylor Electric Co. HUBbard 2-9320 Lafayette Radio Corp. of Mass. WUkon 2-7890 Cambridge Electrical Supply Corporation University 4-6300 Michigan Ann Arbor Wedemeyer Electronic Supply Co., WELdendy 2-4457 Detroit Ferguson Electronics, Inc. VIN 3-7000 Minnesota Minneapolis Electronic Expeditors, Inc. Federal 8-7597 RAYTHEON SEMICONDUCTORS At Factory Prices With Complete Technical Data Available From These Raytheon Distributors In Your Area. RAYTHEON COMPANY DISTRIBUTOR PRODUCTS DIVISION New England . . . (Continued from p 47) duction companies into electronics, particularly in southern Massachusetts and Rhode Island. And the growth of the industry continues to spread into northern N.E., especially New Hampshire. NEREM 1960 has been planned as more of a national technical meeting than a show, although there will be nearly 400 exhibits at Commonwealth Armory in Boston. The technical program at the armory will feature papers of an application nature. The research-type reports will be delivered at the Sheraton-Plaza Hotel, a short distance from the armory. The NEREM committee, comprising IRE members of the Boston, Connecticut and Western Massachusetts sections, has planned a bus shuttle service between the armory and the hotel. "Sales promotion papers" have been excluded, says the committee, and the technical program has been shaped to reflect the research and advanced development emphasis of the industry in N.E. Keynote address at the formal opening of NEREM Tuesday will be delivered by Jerome B. Wiesner, director of the MIT Research Laboratory for Electronics. Evening speaker will be Rear Adm. Rawson Bennett, chief of Naval research. For the first time in the history of NEREM, a digest of papers will be available when the conference opens. The booklet will be less than a proceedings, but more than a collection of abstracts. Authors have submitted 800-word summaries which preserve technical content. No employment recruitment will be permitted within the confines of NEREM, the committee says. "Help Wanted" ads will not be permitted on message boards, nor will solicitation be allowed at the booths—the committee thus hopefully restricting recruitment activity to hotel suites and advertising. Report Breakthrough In Thermoelectricity RESEARCH BREAKTHROUGH in the field of thermoelectric conversion was reported by Naval Research Laboratories last week at the IRE Electron Devices Meeting in Washington. Breakthrough was announced by NRL on behalf of its contractor Nuclear Corp., whose research chemical division developed the new device. The thermoelectric converter uses gadolinium selenide elements for direct conversion of heat energy to electricity. Figure of merit for the new device is said to be $45 \times 10^{-9}$ compared with conventional figure of merit of about $0.8 \times 10^{-4}$. The gadolinium selenide converter combines high voltage output with high conductivity. Although NRL spokesmen think that the ultimate figure of merit for production units will be less than that given for the laboratory device, they are strong in the belief that results so far indicate a significant breakthrough. In a report on other developments in thermoelectricity, P. H. Egli of NRL told of experiments in the conversion of the excess heat of jet aircraft engines to electric power, for use with electronic equipment. Courier Recorder Device, developed by Consolidated Electrodynamics, uses 3-M's tape resistant to -40 to 250 F changes Twin Cities Echoes Call for Research ST. PAUL—Newest midwestern demand for additional investments in research came out of University of Minnesota's latest meeting of Institute of Radio Engineers. Ronald McFarlan, IRE president, stressed need for dynamic leaders like Charles Kimball, director of Midwest Research Institute at Kansas City. Pointing with pride to Twin Cities area's tremendous growth in technical fields during past 10 years, Byron Smith, president of St. Paul's Telex, Inc., said data processing is really about the only technical area where Twin Cities are in the lead. "We have far too many small companies making power supplies," he said. "We are doing very little or nothing in microwave, cryogenics, masers and the solid-state fields." Smith concluded with hope that the governor's committee to expand the electronics industry, headed by the university's Neal Amundson, can provide leadership for setting up needed research facilities. Setmaker Training Men For Transistor Television To get ready for predicted increase in number of transistorized television sets reaching the market, some hundred TV service specialists are currently taking two-day courses in eight cities around the country. Motorola field engineers are giving the courses. The Chicago firm introduced an all-transistor TV with large screen last May, is now predicting that "within four to five years" the majority of TV sets coming off U.S. assembly lines will be transistorized. Reads Badges, Job-Data Cards Factory data-collection system designed by IBM is used for reporting job location and status for centralized production control. This production-floor station reads regular punch card containing job data, also reads man's number, department number off badge into which these data are permanently punched. Keyless "keyboard" at right enters other variable data. DON'T INVEST IN TEST EQUIPMENT 'TIL YOU COMPARE FEATURES WITH THE NEW Simpson LABORATORY LINE PULSE GENERATOR . . . model 2620 No Other Unit Offers Such Accuracy, Versatility, and Set-Up Speed Within This Price Range Twin meters read pulse repetition frequency and pulse duration simultaneously. Rise time is 0.02 microseconds; decay time, 0.03 microseconds. Pulse duration, continuously variable from 0.1 to 1000 microseconds. Jitter, less than 0.005 microseconds. Pulse repetition rate, continuously variable from 10 to 100,000 pps in four ranges. Price $625 WRITE FOR COMPLETE SPECIFICATIONS WIDE-BAND OSCILLOSCOPE . . . model 2610 For the 1001 Jobs Where You Don't Need an Expensive Specialized Scope Here's a high-gain scope that makes your test equipment appropriation go farther. Vertical sensitivity, 6 mv RMS. Vertical calibration accuracy, ± 3%. Response (linear position): DC to 5.0 mc/sec, ± 0.5 db; DC to 8.0 mc/sec, ± 1.5 db. Response (transient position): DC to 3.5 mc/sec, -3 db, and -6 db at 5.0 mc/sec. Triggered and recurrent sweeps. Precalibrated sweep positions of 5, 50, 500, 5000 microseconds. Price $575 WRITE FOR COMPLETE SPECIFICATIONS LABORATORY STANDARD VOLT-OHM-MILLIAMMETER . . . model 2600 A Self-Powered Calibrator for Electrical Instrument Maintenance and High Accuracy Testing Two terminal connections cover all 49 ranges for unusually fast operation. DC accuracy is ± 0.5% F.S.; AC, ± 0.75% F.S. (at 77°F, 25°C). Separate meters (self shielded movements) for DC and AC readings. Price $1620 WRITE FOR COMPLETE SPECIFICATIONS AVAILABLE FROM MANY INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONIC DISTRIBUTORS COAST-TO-COAST Write to Factory for Details Manufacturers of Electronic Test Equipment for Over 50 Years Simpson ELECTRIC COMPANY 5203 West Kinzie St., Chicago 44, Illinois • Telephone: ESTebrook 9-1121 In Canada: Bach-Simpson Ltd., London, Ontario November 11, 1960 It costs less to RENT AN ELECTRONICS LABORATORY than to buy one You can save costly investment in laboratory equipment and staff...and still get top-quality R/D services...by using the complete product testing and evaluation facilities of United States Testing Company. Since 1880 thousands of clients in all industries have used our services to get: Improved Product-Design Through Testing Our test engineers will set up an evaluation program that "locks in" with each step of your product development from design to prototype to finished product. An Independent Laboratory We present a completely objective, unbiased approach to your design evaluation problems. All reports to clients are impartial, factual and confidential. Economical Handling of Peak Loads We are equipped to take over your peak loads immediately at a fraction of what it would cost your company to maintain a staff of the necessary calibre. Product Qualification Tests run by United States Testing Company are recognized by military and government procurement agencies in placing a product on the Qualified Product list. Facilities and Services Electronic Laboratory—evaluates electronic components and systems in communications and industrial fields; includes automated facilities for low-cost collection of reliability data. Environmental Laboratory—simulates high-low temperatures, humidity, altitude, immersion, salt spray, sand and dust, rain, fungus, vibration, shock, acceleration, etc. Materials Testing Laboratory—conducts tension, compression and fatigue tests on metals, ceramics, plastics, rubber and wood materials; spectrographic analysis and X-ray also available. Mechanical Laboratory—evaluates mechanical, electro-mechanical hydraulic and pneumatic devices. Chemical Laboratory—covers all fields including physical and biological chemistry; also infrared spectrophotometry. Send for your free copy of bulletin 5801 describing our complete services and facilities. United States Testing Co., Inc. 1415 Park Avenue, Hoboken, N. J. Branch Laboratories \| BOSTON • BROWNSVILLE • DALLAS • DENVER LOS ANGELES • MEMPHIS • NEW YORK PHILADELPHIA • TULSA The World's Most Diversified Independent Laboratory. MEETINGS AHEAD Nov. 14-17: Magnetism & Magnetic Materials, AIEE, AIP, ONR, IRE, AIME; Hotel New Yorker, New York City. Nov. 15-16: Mid-American Elect. Convention, MAECON; Hotel Muehlebach, Kansas City, Mo. Nov. 15: Product Engineering & Production, PGPEP of IRE; Contact D. Ehrenpreis, 325 Spring Street, New York City. Nov. 15-17: Northeast Electronics Research & Engineering Meeting, (NEREM), IRE; and PGPT National Conference; Commonwealth Armory and Sheraton-Plaza Hotel, Boston. Nov. 15-16: Engineering Application of Probability & Random Function Theory, PGIT of IRE; Purdue Univ., Lafayette, Ind. Nov. 20-21: Electro-Optical & Radiation Devices, PGED of IRE, AIEE; Stanford Research Inst., Menlo Park, Calif. Nov. 28-29: National Association of Broadcasters, Fall Conference; Biltmore Hotel, New York City. Nov. 30-Dec. 2: Electronics Exposition, Long Island Electronics Manufacturers Council; Roosevelt Raceway Exhibit Hall, Westbury, Long Island, N. Y. Dec. 1-2: Vehicular Communication, Annual Meeting, PGVC of IRE; Sheraton Hotel, Phila. Dec. 5-7: Electronic Equipment Maintenance, EIA; Hilton Hotel, San Antonio, Texas. Dec. 5-8: Electrical Insulation, National Conf., AIEE, NEMA; Conrad Hilton Hotel, Chicago. Dec. 12-14: USA National Committee, URSI, Fall Meeting; National Bureau of Standards, Boulder, Colo. Dec. 13-15: Eastern Joint Computer Conf., PGEC of IRE, AIEE, ACM; New Yorker Hotel, New York City. When you must wind fast, tight, and meet high temperatures, too, SPECIFY NYLAC SOLDERABLE MAGNET WIRE The faster you wind and the tighter your space factor—the more you should consider the advantages offered you by Anaconda Nylac Magnet Wire. For Nylac is Anaconda Analac with a tough, Nylon film outer covering. The Nylon provides outstanding slipperiness and abrasion resistance—these tight-winding characteristics enable you to make compact, easily shaped, uniform coils. Yet Nylac incorporates many features of Analac. For example, it gives you easy, fast solderability without stripping. It also has excellent moisture resistance. In addition, Nylac offers you high dielectric strength, high thermoplastic flow temperatures, excellent flexibility, resistance to hot varnishes and potting compounds. And—it meets all 130°C (AIEE Class B) requirements. So by combining Nylon, an old and industry-accepted insulation, with a newer but thoroughly proven film covering—Analac—Anaconda’s Nylac is a new solderable Class B Magnet Wire especially designed to overcome the strains of today’s high-speed winding equipment and tight space factors. The next time you face these and other winding problems, contact your nearest Anaconda Wire & Cable Sales Office. Our technical staff and Research and Development Laboratory facilities are available to give you every assistance possible. See the Man from Anaconda. Or write: Anaconda Wire & Cable Company, 25 Broadway, New York 4, N. Y. Ask the man from ANACONDA® about NYLAC MAGNET WIRE Anaconda® Nylac film-coated magnet wire has a Nylon enamel outer surface over a film of Anaconda Analac (polyurethane) insulation. Nylac is a solderable wire that meets 130°C (AIEE Class B) thermal test requirements. It has outstanding windability and varnishability for severe process conditions, and exhibits excellent heat shock characteristics. TECHNICAL PROPERTIES ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES Nylac has high dielectric strength. It has excellent electrical properties for all applications except high “Q” coils where dissipation factor should be as low as possible. DIELECTRIC STRENGTH \| Moisture environment of sample \| Volts per mil of insulation \| \|-------------------------------\|-----------------------------\| \| Dry \| 3580 \| \| Room Conditions \| 2560 \| \| Six hours at 100% relative humidity at 100°F \| 1310 \| DIELECTRIC CONSTANT AND DISSIPATION FACTOR (Measured with capacitance bridge) \| Frequency Cycles Per Second \| Dielectric Constant \| Dissipation Factor \| \|-----------------------------\|---------------------\|--------------------\| \| \| 35°C \| 100°C \| 25°C \| 100°C \| \| $10^2$ \| 3.5 \| 10.7 \| 2.4 \| 11.4 \| \| $10^3$ \| 3.4 \| 8.9 \| 2.2 \| 21 \| \| $10^4$ \| 3.5 \| 6.2 \| 2.8 \| 18 \| \| $10^5$ \| 3.3 \| 4.8 \| 2.8 \| 6 \| MECHANICAL PROPERTIES Nylac is a strong flexible insulation. It adheres well to the conductor. Nylac wire survives severe abrasion, stretch and flexing in high-speed, high-tension winding operations due to the tough Nylon overcoat. The wire will take short radius corner bends without cracking. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES Nylac has outstanding resistance to chemical attack. It will withstand 24 hours’ immersion at room temperature in solvents including naphtha, Xylof, ethyl alcohol, chloroethene, methanol, and in 5% sulfuric acid and 1% potassium hydroxide. THERMAL PROPERTIES THERMAL STABILITY Nylac meets the 130°C (AIEE Class B) requirement. Graph 1 indicates 20,000 hours’ life at 135°C for unvarnished samples. Varnished sample data, available on request, indicates over 30,000 hours at 130°C. Nylac is not recommended for use where severe thermal overloads may be encountered. HEAT SHOCK 1 HR. AT 155°C \| Mandrel Diameter (Multiple of Wire Diam.) \| Prestretch \| 1x \| 3x \| 5x \| 10x \| \|------------------------------------------\|------------\|----\|----\|----\|-----\| \| 0% \| pass \| pass \| pass \| pass \| pass \| \| 10% \| pass \| pass \| pass \| pass \| pass \| \| 15% \| pass \| pass \| pass \| pass \| pass \| \| 20% \| pass \| pass \| pass \| pass \| pass \| \| 25% \| pass \| pass \| pass \| pass \| pass \| Thermoplastic flow temperature 265°C using 5°C per minute rate of rise SOLDERABILITY Nylac wires solder without pre-stripping at practical solder temperatures. \| Wire Size \| Time-Seconds \| Solder Temperature \| Sample \| \|-----------\|--------------\|--------------------\|-----------------\| \| 15—18 \| 15 \| 360°C \| Twisted \| \| 19—25 \| 10 \| 360°C \| Pair \| \| 26—30 \| 4 \| 360°C \| Wrap on \| \| 31—46 \| 4 \| 360°C \| 20 gage mandrel \| New Nylac Booklet—yours for the asking. Latest information—full technical data. Mail coupon for your copy. ANACONDA WIRE & CABLE COMPANY 25 Broadway, New York 4, N. Y. I am interested in learning more about the excellent properties of Nylac Magnet Wire. Please send me your new technical booklet DM5928. NAME & TITLE ............................................................... COMPANY ............................................................................ ADDRESS ............................................................................ CITY .................................................. ZONE .... STATE ........... Measure transistor characteristics— Alpha ($h_{fb}$) Beta ($h_{fe}$) Input Resistance ($h_{ib}$) —with the new BRC Type 275-A Transistor Test Set The BRC Type 275-A is an exceedingly flexible and efficient instrument for the precise measurement of basic transistor parameters over an extended range of operating conditions. It can also be used to measure the characteristics of diodes and other semi-conductor devices. Direct readout of the following parameters — - Alpha ($h_{fb}$) - Beta ($h_{fe}$) - Input Resistance ($h_{ib}$) is presented on a large, easy-to-read dial without correction or interpolation. Two built-in, fully regulated, low ripple power supplies furnish completely variable emitter current and collector voltage. SPECIFICATIONS Alpha Measurement ($h_{fb}$): - RANGE: (a) 0.100 to 0.999 (b) 0.9001 to 0.9999 - ACCURACY: (a) ± (0.1 – 0.09) %* (b) ± 0.2 % when $f_{\alpha} \geq 500$ Kc. Beta Measurement ($h_{fe}$):* - RANGE: 7 to 200 - ACCURACY: ± (0.6 + $\frac{30}{h_{fe}}$) % when $f_{\alpha} \geq 500$ Kc. Input Resistance Measurement ($h_{ib}$):* - RANGE: (a) 0.30 to 30 ohms (b) 3.0 to 300 ohms (c) 30.0 to 3000 ohms - ACCURACY: (a) ± 1% * (b) ± 3% * above 30 ohms (c) ± 3% * for linear impedances Collector Voltage Supply: - RANGES: Internal: 0 to 100 V.D.C. External: 0 to 100 V.D.C. - METERING: Range: 0 to 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100 volts Accuracy: ± 1.5% full scale Emitter Current Supply: - RANGE: Internal: 0 to 100 ma D.C. External: 0 to 5 amp. D.C.* h_{fb} only; I_{C} > 100 ma D.C. I_{B} and I_{C} metered externally - METERING: Ranges: 0 to 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100 ma. Accuracy: ± 1.5% full scale Exclusive BRC features—* - Unique null-type measuring circuit completely unaffected by signal level fluctuations - Reads Alpha to three significant figures - Accurately measures at extremely low emitter currents — plus - Permanent Calibration - Direct Readout of Alpha, Beta, and Input Resistance on large easy-to-read dial - Built-in adjustable, metered collector and emitter power supplies - Handles up to 5 amperes emitter current - Measures both NPN and PNP transistors - Special test circuit guards against transistor burnout Precision Electronic Instruments since 1934 BOONTON RADIO CORPORATION BOONTON • NEW JERSEY • U.S.A. DELCO RADIO—THE LEADER IN POWER TRANSISTORS For top performance in a wide, wide range of applications, specify Delco Radio's 2N174. ■ This multi-purpose PNP germanium transistor is designed for general use with 28-volt power supplies, and for use with 12-volt power supplies where high reliability is desired despite the presence of voltage transients. ■ It has a high maximum emitter current of 15 amperes, a maximum collector diode rating of 80 volts and a thermal resistance below .8°C per watt. The maximum power dissipation at 71°C mounting base temperature is 30 watts. Low saturation resistance gives high efficiency in switching operations. ■ The 2N174 is versatile, rugged, reliable, stable and low priced. For more details or applications assistance on the 2N174 or other highly reliable Delco transistors, contact your nearest Delco Radio sales office. Newark, New Jersey 1180 Raymond Blvd., Mitchell 2-6165 Santa Monica, California 728 Santa Monica Blvd., UPTon 0-8807 Chicago, Illinois 5750 West 51st Street, POrtsmouth 7-3500 Detroit, Michigan 57 Harper Avenue, TRinity 3-6560 Division of General Motors • Kokomo, Indiana CIRCLE 56 ON READER SERVICE CARD CIRCLE 57 ON READER SERVICE CARD SURGICALLY CLEAN IS NOT CLEAN ENOUGH... FOR the fabrication of Saratoga Semiconductors, we use: Cleansing solvents, so pure that one drop of water in 55 gallons would reject them; processing acids of hyper-pure reagent grade or specifically developed semiconductor grade; purest water refined to 20 megohms resistivity. Temperature and humidity in the air locked fabrication room are controlled to a plus or minus 2%; air with 99.3% of impurities as fine as 1/10 micron removed floods the work area. These are reasons why Saratoga Semiconductors are rated Thoroughbreds. They outdistance all others for reliability, ruggedness and performance. Send for our new catalogue SS-2001 outlining details, specifications, and applications of Saratoga silicon zener regulators* and silicon power rectifiers.* SARATOGA SEMICONDUCTOR DIVISION, Saratoga Springs, N.Y. ESPEY MFG. & ELECTRONICS CORP. * Meet all requirements of MIL S-19500B SUPRAMICA® 560 ceramoplastic from the family of the world's most nearly perfect insulation helps to maintain peak gyro efficiency Leading gyro producers design parts made of precision-molded SUPRAMICA 560 ceramoplastic, an exclusive formulation of MYCALEX CORPORATION OF AMERICA capable of retaining absolute dimensional stability at a maximum temperature endurance up to +932°F (unstressed) . . . in complex but lightweight designs. These small parts function as vital components of miniature gyros . . . critical applications where the highest standards for precision accuracy must be met. SUPRAMICA 560 ceramoplastic having the same thermal expansion coefficient of many insert metals, can tightly bond and permanently anchor gold leads, stainless steel contacts and stainless steel threaded inserts . . . in parts with wall thicknesses of only .010". SUPRAMICA 560 ceramoplastic offers premium insulating properties with excellent economy in production scale runs. SUPRAMICA 560 ceramoplastic is but one of a family of versatile electrical and electronic insulating materials produced by MYCALEX CORPORATION OF AMERICA . . . - MYCALEX® glass-bonded mica, maximum temperature endurance (unstressed)—up to +700°F heat distortion temperature * —up to +850°F - SUPRAMICA® ceramoplastic, maximum temperature endurance (unstressed)—up to +1550°F heat distortion temperature * —up to +1360°F - SYNTHAMICA® synthetic mica, maximum temperature endurance (unstressed)—up to +2000°F * ASTM test method D 648 (modified) at stress of 264 psi. Write for technical information today. General Offices and Plant: 120 Clifton Blvd., Clifton, N. J. Executive Offices: 30 Rockefeller Plaza, New York 20, N. Y. World's largest manufacturer of glass-bonded mica, ceramoplastic and synthetic mica products NEW from MELABS - seasoned microwave designers and builders Model SGO-2, common power supply Model SGL-2, 1-2 KMC Model SGS-2, 2-4 KMC Model SGC-2, 4-8 KMC Model SGX-2, 8-12 KMC Model SGK-2, 12-18 KMC Swept Signal Generators offering Constant Power Output over Entire Band A common power and sweep supply can be used with any of the new Melabs electronically tuned signal generators covering, respectively, L, S, C, X and K band frequencies. All five units are compatible with Melabs' radiometer and panoramic display unit. Addition of a receiver box creates a swept receiver or panoramic analyzer. TWT amplifiers with power outputs up to 1 watt can be supplied. SPECIFICATIONS Model SGS-2, S Band, with SGO-2 Power Supply Power output: Regulated, 10 mw ± 1 db; unregulated, 10 mw at 2 KMC, rising to 300 mw at 4 KMC; manual adjustment range, 30 db. Internal modulation: For regulated power, pulse, 1-10 μsec; square wave. Rep rate, 100-5000 cps. External modulation: Any type, unregulated only. Sweep: 0.3 to 30 cps; cw through 100% of band. Price: Model SGS-2, $1,000.00; Model SGL-2, $1,900.00; Model SGS-2, $2,600.00; Model SGC-2, $2,400.00; Specifications similar / Model SGX-2, $2,600.00; Model SGK-2, $4,500.00. Data subject to change without notice. Prices f.o.b. factory. Employment opportunities at Melabs are exceptional for ambitious engineers and physicists; write in confidence. (pronounced MEL-LABS) • Dept. M7, 3300 Hillview Ave. Palo Alto, California • D'Avenport 6-9500 November 11, 1960 CIRCLE 59 ON READER SERVICE CARD 59 MOSELEY AUTOGRAF INSTRUMENTS X-Y Recorders Most complete line available 14 different models including portable 8½" x 11" or 11" x 17" Rack or table mounting 2-pen designs Automatic chart advance All needed versatility features Strip-Chart Recorders 3 different models ¼-second full-scale response 6 push-button chart speeds Program Controllers Optical line followers Electromagnetic curve followers Function Generators Servo Voltmeters Drive digitizers, printers High accuracy Analog Converters Log converters, 60 db range AC/DC converters Digital to Analog Translators Convert data from punched cards, perforated tape, magnetic tape by transistor switching Digital and Analog Accessories Keyboards Character printers, 3 models Time bases Systems Magnetic tape digital data plotting Transmissibility plotting Strain, temperature plotting KNOWN FOR QUALITY AROUND THE WORLD Write today for data sheets and application information AUTOGRAF recorders F. L. MOSELEY CO. Dept. A-11, 409 N. Fair Oaks Avenue, Pasadena, California Murray 1-0208 TWX PASA CAL 7687, Cable MOCOPAS Field representatives in all principal areas THE BIG A LEADS THE WAY TO INTEGRATED COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS SATellite RELAY SYSTEM — A reliable, worldwide network for telegraphy and teletype communications will be realized through PROJECT COURIER of the Advanced Research Projects Agency and U.S. Army Research & Development Laboratories. Each of the Courier's air-ground transportable stations duplex transmit and receive 15 million bits of stored information in the 4-minute contact with the satellite. As subcontractor to ITT Laboratories, ADLER is responsible for design, manufacture and equipment installation of the ground station trailers of this earth-satellite relay system. TRANSPORTABLE TROPOSPHERIC SCATTER SYSTEM A new concept in continent-spanning tropospheric scatter communications soon will be available to the U.S. Air Force. For the first time, the full multichannel capability and reliability of a large, fixed installation will be provided in a compact, air-ground transportable package. The all-environment, 10KW, AN/MRC-85 is being designed, system integrated and manufactured by Adler under subcontract to Page Communications. SPECTRUM-STRETCHING COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEM Through Adler pioneering in heterodyne repeating, a wide range of UHF channels have been opened to the U.S. Army for NIKE Missile field communications. The Adler "F-Head" unit permits the basic AN/TRC-24 VHF system to be used for UHF relaying in areas where VHF spectrum congestion is a problem. Designed for plug-in use, the "F-Head" heterodynes the VHF output of the AN/TRC-24 to the usable UHF range. Adler heterodyne techniques are finding an ever-growing place in military, industrial and commercial communications. Write for all the facts on how Adler experience can help solve your communications problems. ADLER ELECTRONICS, INC. New Rochelle, N.Y. Engineering opportunities available at all levels. Write to Personnel Manager. NEW BENDIX® MICROWAVE FERRITE DEVICES.* 1 The Electrically Variable Phase Shifter, TFP-1, can produce phase shifts in excess of 90° over a minimum bandwidth of 10%. Chief uses are as phase modulator, fast shift, and in a wide variety of r-f direction finding devices. 2 The Y-Circulator, TFC-1, offers at least 20 db isolation with less than 0.4 db insertion over bandwidth exceeding 20%. Ideal for use with masers, and parametric amplifiers. 3 The Electrically Variable Attenuator, TFA-1, has a range exceeding 25 db over a minimum bandwidth of 15%. Useful in fast AGC circuits and remote level control applications. Write today. PAT. PENDING ELECTRON TUBE PRODUCTS Red Bank Division EATONTOWN, NEW JERSEY SPECIAL JANUARY ISSUE Proceedings of the IRE Electronic computers are the "time machines" of today — they bring to man the precious gift of time. They think, relate, evaluate and solve fantastic problems in millionths of a second. Each operation they perform releases you, the radio-electronics engineer, the mathematician, the physicist, the chemist — for work that calls for the human mind and heart. Obviously, you should know about computers. Computers, today, are more compact, more complex, and about 50,000 times faster than those made just a few years ago. Progress such as this means constant and dramatic changes. It would take precious hours each day to keep abreast of all developments. You can, however, learn about computers far more easily — by reserving your copy now, of this special January issue of Proceedings. In it you will find the sum of all that's new in computers. You get 360 pages of brilliant research and authoritative writing (of course at engineering levels), made up of some 40 separate papers; 12 of these specially-invited. Like other special issues of Proceedings, the computer issue promises to remain definitive for years to come. If you're not already an IRE member, make sure you get a copy of the Proceedings Special Computer Issue by sending in the coupon below. INVITED PAPERS FOR COMPUTER ISSUE INCLUDE: Adaptive Control — Present and Future J. G. Truxall (Poly. Inst. of Brooklyn) State of the Art of Perceptron Machines J. R. Hawkins (Aeronutronic Systems) Survey of Artificial Intelligence Marion Minsky (MIT Lincoln Lab.) Organization of Arithmetic and Control Sections of Computers W. L. Lawless, Jr. (IBM) Survey of Storage Devices Jan Rajchman (RCA) Automatic Programming W. Orchard-Hays (Corp. for Economic Industrial Research) State of the Art of Digital Communication J. M. Wier (Bell Telephone Labs.) Computer Developments in Europe Isaac Auerbach (Auerbach Electronics) New Applications of Computers W. F. Bauer (Ramo-Wooldridge) State of the Art of Display Equipment Roger Sisson (Aeronutronic Systems) Proceedings of the IRE 1 East 79th St., New York 21 Enclosed is $3.00 Enclosed is company purchase order for the January, 1961, issue on Computers 1961. Name_____________________________________________________ Company___________________________________________________ Address____________________________________________________ City & State_______________________________________________ All IRE members will receive this January issue as usual. Extra copies to members, $1.25 each (only one to a member). THE INSTITUTE OF RADIO ENGINEERS 1 East 79th Street, New York 21, New York Vitramon® Capacitors adapt easily to the printed circuit boards used in VERDAN. Note how square configuration and axial-radial design of capacitors permits flush mounting and easy insertion. Solid-state construction — fine silver electrodes molecularly fused with dense porcelain dielectric — give Vitramon® Capacitors outstanding stability, extremely low loss, and high pulse rate. Autonetics' air-borne VERDAN is an extremely high speed computer with relatively high capacity, great flexibility of application, and extensive input-output provisions. Occupying less than 1½ cubic feet of space, VERDAN is designed with a general purpose section and a digital differential section, both of which share a common magnetic disk memory and have complete intercommunication. VERDAN was developed by Autonetics for its air-to-ground "Hound Dog" guidance control and REINS nav-bomb systems. a division of North American Aviation, Inc. VITRAMON INCORPORATED BOX 544 • BRIDGEPORT 1, CONN. In Arctic cold... General Electric Silicone Fluids offer reliability from -65°F to 400°F as liquid dielectrics and heat transfer media in aircraft, missiles and ground installations. Excellent dielectric properties are virtually unchanged over wide ranges of temperature and frequency. or missile heat... G-E Silicone Rubber Insulation is used in missiles and space vehicles because of its excellent insulating properties, resistance to temperature extremes, moisture and ozone and its long-time stability in storage. G-E silicone insulations do the job! RTV* Liquid Silicone Rubber comes in a wide range of viscosities for potting, encapsulating, impregnating and sealing. RTV resists heat, cold, ozone, moisture; protects against high-altitude arc-over. Room Temperature Vulcanizing G-E Silicone Varnishes provide excellent protection against moisture and high operating temperatures. Applications include conformal protective coatings for printed circuits, resistor coatings, transformer impregnation, etc. New varnishes cure at low temperatures. New Silicone Dielectric Greases maintain physical and electrical properties from -65°F to 400°F, offer protection against moisture and oxidation. Used as corrosion inhibitors, lubricants, heat transfer media and release agents. Silicone Rubber Wire Insulation withstands soldering heat without damage; matches or exceeds vital properties of insulation costing three times as much. Provides long service life at 500°F; momentarily withstands temperatures up to 5500°F. Flexible as low as -150°F, it resists moisture, ozone, nuclear radiation. Send for technical data, "Silicones-for-Insulation." Section N1131, Silicone Products Department, Waterford, New York. GENERAL ELECTRIC November 11, 1960 CIRCLE 65 ON READER SERVICE CARD KEL-F® Brand Plastic wire coating—tough skin for problem environments Rattling vibration...shattering cold...water immersion—even problem environments like these are overcome by electrical wiring and cable utilizing KEL-F Brand Plastic as the coating. The Surprenant Mfg. Co., Clinton, Massachusetts, has been using KEL-F Plastic as a wire coating for the past 10 years. The reason? It meets their own high quality standards and rigid requirements, as well as military specifications. They have developed cable jacketing and wire coating of KEL-F Plastic with resistance to extreme vibration, acceleration, shock and cut-through, even at temperatures as low as -69.5°F. This non-flammable insulation exhibits good dielectric qualities and has a low dissipation factor, with zero moisture absorption and excellent compressive strength with resultant resistance to cold flow. In areas where space is at a premium, Surprenant Mfg. Co. has found that it is easy to achieve excellent concentricity, even at very thin extrusions, using KEL-F Plastic. It extrudes at 475-625°F, and is melt-processible. The plastic may be custom-colored too, and Surprenant coatings and jackets are available in 9 stock colors (including white), and transparent. If environment is a problem for your electrical wiring, a skin of KEL-F Plastic may well be the answer. For complete performance data, write today to: 3M Chemical Division, Dept KAX-100, St. Paul 6, Minnesota. "KEL-F" is a Reg. T.M. of 3M Co. CHEMICAL DIVISION MINNESOTA MINING AND MANUFACTURING COMPANY ...WHERE RESEARCH IS THE KEY TO TOMORROW Advancing the Science of Communications through Electronic R & D at Lockheed The science of communications is vast as the universe itself. Fresh areas in this science are being explored at Lockheed. These cover the spectrum of communications problems—on and under water to tracking missiles and satellites—from components to complete systems. An essential phase in the electronics communications R & D program is the development of antennas and supporting equipment to receive telemetered, tracking and relay data. Each is designed to meet a specific need. This program is vital to our sophisticated spacecraft projects—now and in the future. Areas under investigation in electronics and other fields stir the creative mind: Design and development of data processing equipment; V/STOL design and development; electromagnetic research in corona and high-altitude breakdown studies, surface wave generation, antenna vehicle interaction, millimeter wave radiometry; electrical instrumentation; infrared and solid state physics; biophysics research (on radiation hazards coincident with space flight); solid state electronics; aerothermodynamics; dynamics; auto-controls; and servosystems. Scientists and Engineers: If you are experienced in any of the areas mentioned above; if you are interested in joining a company that looks far into the future, you are invited to investigate the opportunities offered. Write today to: Mr. E. W. Des Lauriers, Manager Professional Placement Staff, Dept. 1511, 2408 No. Hollywood Way, Burbank, California, LOCKHEED / CALIFORNIA DIVISION BENDIX-PACIFIC in Southern California needs ENGINEERS with DOCTORS'-MASTERS'-BACHELORS' DEGREES for electrical and systems work in fields of Missile Guidance—Instrumentation—Telemetry Anti-Submarine Detection Systems/Operations Research Advanced positions are open in our "Eagle" Missile Program in Electrical Engineering for the design of transistor circuits, servomechanisms, microwave electronics and data links. Please send resume to W. C. WALKER ENGINEERING EMPLOYMENT MANAGER Other High-Level Electronic Engineering Positions Available Bendix-Pacific Division NORTH HOLLYWOOD, CALIF. CIRCLE 377 ON READER SERVICE CARD PEAK POWER A NEW KIND OF PRECISION ULTRASONIC CLEANING The new L & R Ultra-Cleen '320' has an electronic circuit that transmits peak power directly to the transducerized tank. The transducerized cleaning tank and the rinse tank are 5½" wide by 16" deep. Just set the electrical timer to blast away all dirt, grease, foreign particles—get components microscopically clean... Unconditionally guaranteed for 1 year. Write today for complete data on the '320' and other ultrasonic cleaning equipment $187.50 Second tank transducerized (at factory), $74.50. L & R MANUFACTURING COMPANY 588 Elm Street, Kearny (Arlington), New Jersey 29 EAST MADISON STREET, CHICAGO 2, ILLINOIS 406 SOUTH MAIN STREET, LOS ANGELES 13, CALIFORNIA CIRCLE 68 ON READER SERVICE CARD I have a feeling in the pit of my photocell that you are open to this page. Why not have a look at these data while you are here. CdS-Photoconductive CELLS Capable of dissipating especially high power up to one watt. • RUGGED • ECONOMICAL Various standard types with different electrical and physical characteristics available to meet your specifications. WRITE: NATIONAL SEMICONDUCTORS LTD. 230 AUTHIER ST. Montreal 9, P. Q. Phone: RI: 4-2946 CIRCLE 200 ON READER SERVICE CARD Avco environmental test fixtures offer repeatable test results at lower cost Avco’s multipurpose environmental test fixtures were developed for vibration, shock and acceleration testing. These rugged, T-type fixtures can benefit your test results in two ways: They provide a standardized fixture environment that does not vary from month to month or year to year. And by minimizing your design and setup time, they reduce the cost of obtaining test results. The Avco TF-006 fixture is designed for use as an integral part of such environmental test equipment as vibration exciters, shock machines and centrifuges. It permits simultaneous testing of components in each of three mutually perpendicular planes. Relocation of the test specimen to change axes is easily accomplished. Avco test fixture TF-006 offers these important advantages:* - Insures flat vibration response in the 0-2000 frequency range. - Eliminates need for fixture equalization runs and improves test efficiency as a result of its flat response. - Saves valuable engineering time previously spent in designing new fixtures for conventional tests. Avco test fixtures are available in two sizes—the TF-006 and the larger TF-025—in both magnesium and beryllium. Avco offers you a 30-day free trial of the TF-006 fixture, with no obligation. For more information, contact your nearest representative. Offices are located throughout the continental United States and the world. Or write: Industrial Products Subdivision, Research and Advanced Development Division, Avco Corporation, Wilmington, Mass. TRUE DIFFERENTIAL DC TO 20 KC AMPLIFIER A true differential 4-terminal amplifier by our AMPLIFIER-ISOLATOR combination, both input to output isolation and circuitry to ground isolation. Amplifies DC to 20 kc signals from strain gages; thermocouples; resistive transducers and similar data acquisition systems. Input impedance: 100,000Ω. CMR 130 db to 100 cps. Low noise: 10 µv to 20 kc. Gain: 10 to 1,000 continuously adjustable. Output ±5 v at ±30 ma or ±10 v at ±20 ma. Two-in-one value! Converts to DC to 40 kc floating amplifier with ±50 V ±50 ma by a simple disconnect. COMPUTER ENGINEERING ASSOCIATES, INC. 350 North Halstead • Pasadena, California Elgin 5-7121 Write today for our Bulletin SCE-1 CIRCLE 203 ON READER SERVICE CARD Reliable products depend on reliable parts The worldwide success of Japan's transistor radios is a tribute to their highly efficient yet minute components, of which the ultra-small Mitsumi FT Poly-vari-con is typical. With other superb Mitsumi parts, it is being extensively used by leading radio manufacturers. For Transistor Radio Parts IFT Intermediate Frequency Transformer POLY-VARI-CON Variable Capacitor Mitsumi Parts MITSUMI ELECTRIC CO., LTD. 1056-1, Kaadachi, Komae-cho, Kitatama-gun, Tokyo, Japan TEL: (416) 2619 2692 2219 GREEN PANTOGRAPH ENGRAVERS • ELIMINATE DELAYS! • KEEP YOUR OPERATING COSTS WHERE THEY SHOULD BE! PORTABLE 40-POUND BENCH MODEL 106 Here is a speedy, economical 2 or 3-dimensional engraver used by thousands of dollar-conscious companies. It features: 5 positive, accurate pantographic ratios; ball bearing spindle with 3 speeds up to 14,000 rpm. Is supplied with one copy carrier that accepts all standard master plates and can actually work up to 18" in any width. Height of bench and position of cutter are continuously adjustable. MODEL D-2 HEAVY-DUTY 2-DIMENSIONAL Pantograph for milling, drilling and engraving. Vertical adjustment of copy table automatic with Pantograph. Features: unobstructed on 3 sides to permit large work, microadjustment for depth of cut; ball bearing construction throughout; spindle speeds up to 26,000 rpm for engraving or machining, vertical range on 10"; ratios 2 to 1 to infinity; master copy area 26" x 10" NEW MODEL D2-201 PNEUMATIC ATTACHMENT for use with Model D2 Pantograph Engraver to rapidly drill holes in printed circuits by tracing templates. Drills as many as 100 holes per minute. Equipped with foot switch, spindle air cylinder; regulating valve and pressure gauge; filter and oiler. It's ready to use as soon as it's attached to an air compressor. Write or call for full details and prices. GREEN INSTRUMENT COMPANY, INC. Dept. 363, 295 Vassar St., Cambridge 39, Mass. Tel. Eliot 4-2989 CIRCLE 202 ON READER SERVICE CARD At 00^h00^m01^s GMT, November 1, 1960, Martin logged its 724,620,000th mile of space flight. Air Force-Martin Titan, giant American ICBM, has been chosen for a key role in space exploration. One of its first missions will be to launch USAF Dyna-Soar — manned aerospace craft. are you using North Electric's Workhorse "E" relay? Expanded production facilities and increased efficiency in manufacturing methods have enabled North Electric to step up production of "E" relays to provide prompt delivery (at a new low cost, too) to an ever-growing list of steady customers. If you need a relay that incorporates the inherent proven dependability of a telephone-type relay with minimal spatial requirements, this "little workhorse" from North can be your answer! GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS: Light Weight (2½ ozs.) Compact (Length 2¼"; Width 1¾"; Height 1¾" max. with 10 springs in either pile-up) Long Life (over 100 million operations) SPECIFICATIONS: Coil Voltages: Up to 250V DC Contacts: Independent action twin contact springs Contact Materials: Palladium, Gold, Platinum Forms: A to C Speed: 3 ms. minimum Residual: Lock Screw (adjustable)—Fixed (nylon flap type) Time Delay: Available for both operate and release Coil: Single or Double wound Mountings: 2 #6-32 Screws on ¾" spacing Accessories: Dust Cover and Hold Down Bracket ELECTRONETICS DIVISION NORTH ELECTRIC COMPANY 6411 S. Market St. Galion, Ohio New Memory Devices Highlight Research Trends NEREM papers spotlight recent progress in space and ocean electronics, information technology and microminiaturization By THOMAS MAGUIRE, New England Editor SOME 15,000 VISITORS to Boston next week will get a panoramic view of the vanguard of electronics industry transformations both here and in Western Europe. The Northeast Electronics Research and Engineering Meeting (NEREM), third largest electronics show in the U.S., will highlight fast-evolving theories and techniques in information technology, new energy sources, exploration of the oceans and of space, military command and control systems, very high microwave power and the emergence of interdisciplinary technologies in: materials, microwave-optical phenomena, electro-hydraulic and electro-pneumatic developments. Engineers visiting NEREM will hear a report on information technology in Western Europe today. At IBM in Zurich, for example, where metallurgical methods for depositing and heat-treating ferromagnetic thin films are being studied, experiments on nanosecond switching of film 1,000 angstroms thick and 1 cm² have yielded output signals of up to 1 volt. In England, International Computers and Tabulators Ltd. uses a new alloy which can be deposited by vacuum evaporation onto an aluminum substrate, for improved signal-to-noise ratio and reduced drive impedance. A fixed-rod memory developed by T. Kilburn of the University of Manchester in England has been laboratory-operated at 0.3-microsecond cycle time, is expected to operate in the MUSE computer with 0.4-microsecond cycle, 0.2-microsecond access time. The memory is constructed from a woven mesh of copFIG. 2—Double-break cryosar is formed by placing two bistable cryosars with different prebreakdown conductivities in series (A); device can be used in a coincident-voltage memory (B) and is fabricated as shown in (C) per wire mounted over a soft plastic, as shown in Fig. 1A. Ferrite rods 1-mm in diameter and 5-mm long are placed in the interstices of the mesh wherever a ONE is to be stored. The mesh is formed into loops by cutting one horizontal and one vertical edge of the screen. A ferrite rod inserted within both a horizontal and vertical loop provides coupling to the loops for detection. To provide a flux return path for the magnetic field, identical rods are inserted in all non-coupled loops. An acoustic memory developed by Elliott Brothers in England uses non-destructive nickel delay line storage. A bit is stored in the nickel wire by discharging a capacitor through the wire at a fixed point, applying a permanently stored circular magnetization to the wire. Passing a current pulse through the wire sets up an acoustic wave from each bit stored so that an acoustic coil transformer mounted on the wire past the current output receives the sequence of signals corresponding to stored discharges. Also at IBM Zurich, hydraulic logic is under development. Laboratory models of hydraulic multivibrators have been operated at 300 cps. The devices use spool valves, shown in Fig. 1B. In this simple building block, three inputs $(A, M$ and $N)$ and one output $(X)$ are provided. Logical signals in the form of high and low pressure are applied to the inputs. A static medium pressure is applied to $M$. Pressure at $A$ determines the position of the valve which in turn defines, together with the input at $M$ or $N$, the pressure at $X$. By providing a feedback path from $X$ to $A$, a bistable element is created. Among U.S. computer developments which will be discussed at NEREM is a random-access cryosar memory at MIT Lincoln Laboratory. The device reportedly gives promise of good yields and ease of mass fabrication, competitive speed and relatively large, noise-free, non-destructive pulses. But work to date indicates the difficulty of circuit development with liquid helium temperatures. The cryosar is a negative-resistance, two-terminal device using impact ionization of impurities (a bulk effect) in germanium at liquid helium temperatures. These elements have a large resistance until a critical field is reached, after which the current increases by many orders of magnitude. If compensated Ge is used, a negative resistance occurs between the high- and low-resistance states, permitting bistable operation. For a coincident voltage memory, a resistor is provided in series with each cryosar to decrease sneak path noise. The desired V-I characteristic is obtained at present by adding two cryosars in series as shown schematically in Fig. 2A. The resultant "double-break" cryosar then may be used in a coincident-voltage memory as shown in Fig. 2B. This is a word-organized memory in which a negative pulse on a word line clears the entire word, then the coincidence of a positive pulse on the word line and positive pulses on the desired digit lines write "ones" into the desired digits. The entire word is read at once nondestructively by a positive pulse on the word line. The complete system envisioned is shown in Fig. 3. The memory matrix is composed of double-break cryosars and the decoder matrix passes pulses of both polarities. Latter cryosars are of the simple, no-negative-resistance type with a one-volt breakdown voltage. All the word lines but two are clamped by cryosars leading to opposite polarities. One line is able to pass a positive pulse while the other (its address complement) is able to pass a negative pulse. Present experimental double-break cryosars are made as indicated in Fig. 2C. The low-resistivity pillbox is cut from a wafer ultrasonically and soldered on. Figure 4 shows a matrix of 25 cryosars. made in this manner. Progress on microminiaturization using thin film technology will be presented at NEREM. Fabrication of circuit networks by multi-layered vacuum evaporation has yielded significant size reductions, circuit performance comparable to existing methods and a high degree of reproducibility for individual circuit functions. Microminiaturization experiments using thin films in a three-dimensional structure encompass switching and communications applications. Six circuit types have been fabricated employing multi-layered films as the resistive, capacitive and inductive networks. Nichrome was chosen for resistors, silicon monoxide for insulation and dielectric use, aluminum for conductors. A thin glass plate serves as the substrate. Experimentation showed that use of three evaporators, one for each material, is superior to other methods. The substrates are manually changed from one evaporator to the other. Eight substrates are handled in each evaporator, and only one evaporation is performed for each pumpdown. For dynamic evaluation of the film network, unencapsulated transistors have been attached to the wafers by thermo-compression bonds. Future use of deposited active elements is envisioned, also multi-layered film interconnections. Use of optical Doppler for navigation in the midcourse phase of space flight is under investigation at Franklin Institute and will be outlined at NEREM. Researchers conclude that natural radiation in optical frequencies shows promise because of the excellent detectors available in this range and the relatively small size and weight of optical equipment. Major problem is low signal level. In one method of velocity determination, two balanced detectors are placed on the sides of a spectrum line. A change in the position of the line such as would be caused by the Doppler effect results in an imbalance of the detectors. Use of template spectroscopy simultaneously would be required when light is very weak, as is the case for the majority of the stars. A template consisting of an appropriate negative placed in the focal plane of the spectrograph is matched with the spectrum of the star at zero velocity. Any shift of the lines due to motion of the observer is detected by a change in the light transmitted by the template. Propagation phenomena induced by very high microwave radar power will be discussed at NEREM by a Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory researcher. There is reason to believe that the signal-to-noise ratio of microwave radar systems cannot be indefinitely improved merely by increasing the power level. At some level, for a given receiver sensitivity, a point will be reached at which the energy backscattered from the ionosphere becomes the limiting noise. The receiver used in the experiments employs a parametric amplifier input, and adjustable bandwidth to optimize the system for the ionospheric clutter—instead of for target return. Project HIGH POWER is seeking techniques for radiating very high microwave radar power, in addition to investigating limits to the concept of amplitude discrimination of a target in or beyond the ionosphere. Such limits may occur when the radar cross-section of the target approaches the background clutter of the medium. Two known sources of such clutter are: auroras, and incoherent backscattering from free electrons, both of which need to be taken into account for effective defense systems. Auroral returns are important in the case of targets approaching from the polar regions. The absolute magnitude of backscatter at microwave frequencies remains to be determined. The HIGH POWER experiments are studying these effects for the radar case. A new transmitter for the program is capable of 50 Mw peak power, 50 Kw average. Pulse repetition rate is adjustable from 50 to 250 pulses a second, pulse length from 1 to 8 microseconds. Transmitter operates at 2.850 ±10 Mc. Figure 5 shows radar site at Newstead, N. Y. Eight parallel VA 820 klystrons are used in the output amplifier. The inputs are fed in phase, and their outputs are combined by means of a special output combiner system so as to produce a single power output that is equivalent to the summation of the individual sources. Each VA 820 klystron is operated at 6.25 Mw peak power and 6.25 Kw average. The transmitter is used in conjunction with a 60-foot parabolic antenna, which provides a 3-degree beam at the operating frequency. Telemetering ocean buoys provide a relatively inexpensive tool for measuring currents, temperature at many depths and other parameters of the ocean. Emphasis has been given to the precise measurement of temperature and salinity, since from these variables can be calculated density as a function of depth. And density is perhaps the most significant parameter for understanding oceanic circulation. Temperature must be measured to 0.01 C and salinity to 0.01 part of salt per 1,000, an accuracy which has been obtained in the laboratory and aboard ship. Strides are being made toward measurement with this accuracy from unattended buoys. In one experiment, a thermistor 15 feet below the surface controlled the frequency of a resistance-controlled oscillator, modulating a buoy transmitter. Instrumental accuracy was ±0.2 C. Results better than 0.1 C have been obtained by using servo balancing methods and digitizing the data before transmission. Telemetering buoys have been used as long-life anchored sonobuoys in a radio acoustic ranging system shown in Fig. 6. Detailed topography studies are possible using the buoys as navigational controls. Buoys also measure ocean waves. One type uses an insulated mast, extending above and below the surface of the water. The aluminum mast acts as one plate of a capacitor while the sea water is the other. The resulting capacitance variation varies the frequency of a subcarrier oscillator modulating a transmitter. FIG. 6—In radio acoustic ranging system, sound impulses from hydrophone towed by the ship are received by the ship directly and by bottom reflection. In addition, sound energy is picked up by buoys and telemetered to ship. Another approach has been taken recently. A stainless steel wire is held in suspension vertically through the surface of the water. Waves rising and falling around the wire change its effective resistance due to the shunting effect of the sea water. The buoys are set adrift by ships and located by direction-finding techniques from long-range aircraft. Retiming with a local clock has proven effective in removing virtually all jitter from pulse signals in a digital transmission system.$^7$ Causes of jitter in digital systems include thermal noise, cross-talk, multipath transmission in radio links, and pattern effects in regenerative repeaters. System is shown in Fig. 7A. The jitter may exceed one pulse interval, so a digital memory with a capacity of four bits is used as a buffer. As bits come in from the signal, they are written cyclically into the memory locations. The address of the write operation is controlled by a counter working from a timing signal derived from the input. The data is read out of the memory at demand of a local clock signal in the same order as it was written. The address of the read operation is controlled by another counter, driven by the clock signal. The buffer memory circuit, with the write address selector, is shown in Fig. 7B. The outputs of the write counter control the resistor diode logic chain to hold all outputs of the selector at ground, except one. If the digital signal is ONE, the driver signal will go negative, causing the selected storage capacitor to be charged negatively. This capacitor will hold its charge until it is selected by the read circuit. Read and write functions are independent, so the delay between input and output can be any value, as long as the same capacitor is not selected simultaneously by both. Range of the delay is between $ \frac{1}{2} $ and $ 3\frac{1}{2} $ pulse intervals. To avoid exceeding the memory capacity, it is necessary that the local clock be synchronous with the long time frequency of the input. Figure 7A indicates how the clock can be synchronized to the input signal by a phase controlled loop with a long response time. Automatic transistor tester developed in England carries out 18 checks in two seconds.$^8$ An additional second is allowed to carry the transistor into the test station, thus giving a rate of 20 transistors a minute. Magazines, each holding 25 transistors, are fed into the input storage mechanism and then proceed through the machine automatically. At the first test station, noise measurements are carried out; at the second, all other d-c and a-c measurements are performed. The machine analyzes results obtained on each transistor, grades them and conveys them pneumatically through one of a number of electrically-operated flaps to the appropriate output bin. Results of selected tests can be displayed on electromechanical counters, so that immediate information can be obtained regarding the spread of selected parameters. If necessary, information can be fed back to the production line to correct any adverse trends in the parameter values. Also, results can be recorded in digital form on punched paper tape. Rapid switching necessary to set up and complete all tests within two seconds is carried out by dry-reed relays controlled by logic switching circuits. REFERENCES All papers prepared for the 1960 Northeast Electronics Research and Engineering Meeting in Boston. (1) I. L. Auerbach, Auerbach Electronics Corp., "The Current State of Western European Information Technology." (2) R. C. Johnston, MIT Lincoln Laboratory, "A Random-Access Cryosar Memory." (3) W. N. Carroll and F. F. Jenny, IBM, "Microminiaturization Utilizing Thin Film Technology." (4) R. G. Franklin and D. L. Birx, Franklin Institute Laboratories, Optical Doppler and Ship Navigation. (5) R. C. Beltz, Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory, High Power Microwave Radar Research. (6) R. G. Walden, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Data Acquisition from Unmanned Buoys. (7) J. J. Byrne, M. Karnaugh and J. V. Scattaglia, Bell Telephone Laboratories, "Retiming of Digital Signals With A Local Clock." (8) H. F. L. Cameron, British Telecommunications Research Ltd. and P. M. Tippie, Associated Transistors Ltd., "An Automatic Transistor Tester." Analyzer determines frequency spectrum of nonperiodic as well as periodic inputs. Digital circuits use speed-up process in modifying input wave for analysis By BERNARD GRAND LERoy PACKER JAMES L. WEST General Applied Science Laboratories, Inc., Westbury, N. Y. THE PRIMARY function of this instrument is to analyze spectra in the sub-audio and audio frequency region. Its readout method is fast and simple, unlike those of other l-f analysis instruments. Its ability to analyze l-f components of the transient as well as harmonic content of a waveform record should extend the use of spectrum analysis in the study of heart beats, brain waves and seismic waves. The analyzer is shown in Fig. 1. Before the heterodyne-analyzer block determines the frequency spectra of the input signal, other circuit blocks convert the analog input to a digital signal, which is stepped up in frequency, reconverted to an analog signal, and delivered to the heterodyne analyzer block. The analyzer operates on a change-of-time-scale principle; at the lowest operating range (0.0025-cps to 1-cps) the input frequency is multiplied by 100,000. The multiplication process is accomplished with extreme accuracy both in amplitude and frequency. Spurious signals generated by the speed-up process are attenuated at least 60 db. The multiplied signal allows the use of conventional heterodyne frequency analysis methods, using scanning rates 1,000 times faster than those required without the speed-up process to obtain equivalent resolutions. The system analyzes the spectrum of signals over the range 0.0025-cps to 1,000-cps in seven scales. Each scale has a resolving power of 0.25 percent of the full-scale frequency and the dynamic range in amplitude is 48 db. The input signal is amplified in a variable-gain amplifier having a bandwidth from d-c to 1 Kc. Amplifier gain is adjusted to obtain a peak-to-peak signal of approximately 40 v. The amplified input is fed to the appropriate low-pass filter for each frequency range. These filters attenuate all frequencies above the frequency range of interest, reducing the amplitude of frequency components in the input signal in the vicinity of the sampling frequency. This procedure eliminates errors in the power spectrum which would otherwise be objectionable. The bandwidth-limited output of the low-pass filter is fed to a feedback-type analog-to-digital converter. The difference amplifier compares the input analog voltage to a feedback analog voltage which is proportional to the binary number in the binary register. The parallel binary number at the register output is sampled at a rate determined by the sampling-rate generator. The sampled binary number is fed to the main memory which consists of eight 4,000-$\mu$sec magnetostrictive delay lines. Timing of the sample rate pulses is such that digital data enters the magnetostrictive storage delay lines sequentially. Output of the memory is read at a 500-Kc rate. The binary number is fed to a digital-to-analog converter which activates binary-weighted constant-current sources. The resulting currents are fed to a single resistor. The voltage developed across the resistor is an analog signal proportional to the digital numbers read out of the memory unit. This signal goes to a low-pass filter which attenuates the unwanted output sampling frequency of 500 Kc. Frequencies of interest vary from 250 cps to 100 Kc. Figure 2A is the logic diagram of the analog-to-digital converter which converts the input signal to an 8-bit word. The analog input goes to a sample and hold circuit. During the sample time a capacitor in this circuit is charged; when a sample rate pulse occurs, the sample gate is turned off. The capacitor is now charged to a d-c voltage equal to the amplitude of the input signal at the sample time. Gating signal $SHG$ controls the turn-on and turn-off time of the sample and hold circuit. The output d-c of the sample-and-hold amplifier goes to a decoder d-c amplifier which compares the sampled analog input voltage and the 8 binary-weighted bits $(AD_1$ to $AD_8)$. The result of this comparison... in L-F Spectrum Analysis FIG. 2—Outputs AD1 to AD8 of analog-to-digital converter (A) go to memory (B). Timing diagram of operation is shown in (C) is to set binary register CD₁ to CD₈ to a digital number which is accurate to ±0.4 percent of the input voltage at every sample time. Immediately after the sampling-rate pulse is generated, the strobe pulses (DG of Fig. 2B) gate the 8-bit digital word (AD₁ to AD₈) of the previous analog-to-digital conversion into the main memory. Figure 2C, the timing diagram of Figs. 2A and 2B, indicates the operating sequence. The ring-counter (CR₁ to CR₈) and binary register (CD₁ to CD₈) are reset by CMR. The sample rate pulse sets sample-and-hold flip-flop CSH to the HOLD state. A delayed sample-rate pulse is fed to an AND gate (not shown) at a 25-Kc pulse rate to generate CST, the ring counter stepping pulses. The first CST pulse triggers CSP which in turn sets CR₁, the first stage of the ring counter, ON. The first stage of the binary register, CD₁, representing the most significant digit, is set by CR₁. At this time the actual conversion begins. Output AD₁, which goes to the decoder, switches in the most-significant binary digit of the analog-to-digital conversion. This digit has a weight of one-half the total possible analog input signal. Depending upon the magnitude of the analog input signal, the output of the decoder d-c amplifier is above or below zero, signifying that the analog input signal is larger than or less than the first significant digit. The decoder output is fed to a clipper d-c amplifier whose output either inhibits or passes a delayed stepping pulse (DST), which forms CCT, the binary-register digit reset. If the analog input is less than the weight of the most significant digit, CCT resets CD₁ via AND gate No. 1. If the analog signal is greater than the first decoded digit, CCT fails to develop and digit-control flip-flop CD₁ remains ON. Several microseconds after the first digit-control flip-flop is sampled for resetting, the ring counter is stepped to the next position, that is, CR₁ is turned OFF and CR₂ is turned ON. As CR₂ is turned ON, $CD_2$ is turned ON. Output $AD_2$ turns on the second digit, which has a weight of one quarter the maximum analog voltage. The process for resetting and stepping continues in the manner outlined above, thus determining the remaining digits. Each $DST$ pulse samples the next least-significant digit of the digital conversion and either generates $CCT$ to then reset the appropriate digit control flip-flop or allows it to remain in the ON state. As the last ring counter stage ($CR_n$) is turned OFF, an output of $CR_n$ is fed to $CSH$, resetting this flip-flop to the SAMPLE state. The sample and hold gate goes ON and remains ON until the next sample-rate pulse turns $CSH$ OFF. Until the next register-reset pulse ($CMR$) is generated, the binary register holds the digital number representing the analog voltage of the last conversion. The digital word held in the binary register is fed to the main memory in a parallel form synchronous with the generation of every sample pulse. Figure 2B shows one of the eight identical sections of the memory. The main memory contains eight magnetostrictive delay lines ($D_1$ to $D_8$) each of which is 4,000-$\mu$sec long. The bit rate is 500-Kc, yielding a storage capability of 2,000 eight-bit words. The main memory access at sample rates above 250 cps is made possible by the use of eight auxiliary memory storage units ($AM_1$ to $AM_8$), each with a storage capability of 20 bits. Pulse $DG$ strobes the binary register outputs ($AD_1$ to $AD_8$). Output $AD_1$, a d-c voltage defining the state of $CD_1$, and $DG$ are fed to an AND gate. If $CD_1$ is ON, a ONE is entered in $AM_1$. At the time that a digit is being entered $DG$ (NOT $DG$) is fed to the recirculation input of $AM_1$, thus erasing the oldest bit in storage. Since $AM_1$ has a 20-digit storage capacity, the enter and erase gating cause $AM_1$ to hold the last 20 most-significant digits. Auxiliary memories $AM_2$ through $AM_8$ successfully store the last 20 lesser-significant digits. The result of the last analog-to-digital conversion is represented by the last digits entered into $AM_1$ through $AM_8$. The main memory units $MM_1$ through $MM_8$ are gated by entry and erase gates $EG$ and $\overline{EG}$. The logic applied here is similar to that employed in the auxiliary storage. Entry gate $EG$ is generated once for every 20 $DG$ pulses, at sample rates above 250 cps. Hence, for a sampling rate of 5,000 cps, the main memory receives new information every 4,000-$\mu$sec. At sampling rates of 1,000 cps and 500 cps, new data enters the main memory at a rate of 20 words every 20 and 40 millisec, respectively. At sample rates of 250 cps and lower, the auxiliary memory is not used; appropriate logic strobes the analog-to-digital binary register directly into the main memory storage. The output of the main-memory storage is a parallel digital representation of the analog input signal. As an example, consider a 100-cps input c-w signal. Using the appropriate 500-cps sample rate (see table in Fig. 1) for the 0.25-cps to 100-cps range of spectrum components, five samples are taken of each cycle of the input 100-cps signal. These five samples occupy $(5/2,000) \times 4,000$ or 10-$\mu$sec in the main memory (word capacity of the storage is 2,000 and the storage line is 4,000-$\mu$sec long). This is equivalent to a 100-Kc signal, thereby effecting a speed-up of 100 Kc/100 cps = 1,000. The parallel digital output of the main memory is fed to a digital-to-analog converter (Fig. 3). The converter feeds into a summing junction, current directly proportional to the digital word being converted. The envelope of voltage generated at the summing junction is the sped-up input signal. The summing junction feeds a low-pass filter which suppresses all frequencies above 200 Kc by at least 60 db, thereby eliminating the 500 Kc carrier of the storage. The 500-Kc carrier component is caused by the 2-$\mu$sec spacing between successive sample bits. Figure 4A shows the sample process and resultant frequency multiplication. A sine wave of period $T_s$ is sampled with a minimum of five samples for every cycle of the input. Referring to the example outlined above, the digital summation of the main-memory storage consists of sample voltages corresponding to the levels of the input wave at the sample time, and occurring at 2-$\mu$sec intervals. The output filter yields the sped-up envelope of the input with a period equal to $T_s$. The analog signal goes to the heterodyne spectrum analyzer, which is conventional. In the speed-up process, signals are represented in the time interval determined by the magnetostrictive storage access time. The heterodyne-frequency analyzer receiving the decoded and demodulated output of the magnetostrictive storage perceives it to be a succession of samples of the signal in duration of time equal to the access time of the delay lines, as shown in Fig. 4B. Consequently, the spectrum of the transformed signal appears as a line spectrum, each line being a multiple of the frequency corresponding to the storage access time. Due to the 4,000-$\mu$sec delay line, this frequency is 250 cps. Since all transformed signals lie in the range 250 cps to 100,000 cps, spectral lines are separated by 1/400 full scale. It can be shown that an input sine wave (to the speed-up section) of a frequency, $f_s$, which lies exactly between spectral lines, produces an output from the frequency-multiplying section with a spectrum of the form $\sin x/x$. By weighting the samples in the magnetostrictive storage, these signals can cause the display shown in Fig. 5A. The latter weighting is a cosine function weighting, producing a selectivity curve such that adjacent spectral lines (0.25-percent of full scale) for a sine-wave input are down 6 db. As representative numbers, on the 1,000-cps scale the selectivity curve is 3.75-cps wide at the 3-db points and 19-cps wide at the 40-db points. The display of two signals 2.5-cps apart near 1,000 cps with cosine weighting is shown in Fig. 5B. Other types of weighting, including triangular, may be employed. The selectivity discussed previously for the speed-up section is determined by the type of weighting used in the magnetostrictive storage and by the length of the information held in storage. The heterodyne spectrum analyzer (Fig. 6) which receives information from the speed-up section utilizes a filter bandwidth of 150 cps to obtain the maximum available resolving power. The 3-db bandwidth is 5 cps for the 1,000-cps maximum-frequency scale. Since the speed-up for the scale is 100, the 3-db bandwidth for the frequencies at the output of the speed-up device is 500 cps. Therefore, an i-f bandwidth in the spectrum analyzer portion of the system of 150 cps provides adequate resolution. The narrowest filter bandwidth is 150 cps at the 3-db points and the scan time for this i-f bandwidth can be set to a minimum time of 1.6 seconds. Other i-f filter bandwidths provided are 1,000 cps and 5,000 cps with respective scanning times of 0.1 sec and 0.05 sec for the full 100,000 cps band. Incoming signals in the range 100 cps to 100,000 are mixed with a local oscillator and heterodyned to the frequency range 850 to 950 Kc. The band-pass filter eliminates unwanted side bands. The resulting signal is mixed with a sweep-frequency oscillator and filtered in the i-f strip at 210 Kc. Output of the i-f stage is detected and amplified. This output may be fed to a cro and/or recorder. Sampling of a signal may be interrupted at any time and the contents of the storage repeatedly analyzed. The contents of the storage may also be emptied at any time for replacement by fresh data. Figure 7A shows a complex test signal composed of a mixture of a 1.5-cps square wave and a 6-cps sine wave. In Fig. 8A a ½ cycle sample of a 5-cps c-w signal was gated into the analyzer. Figure 8B shows the spectrum resulting from a 4-cycle sample of a 5-cps c-w input. Here the scale was set to 5 cps; 3-db resolution was 1/80 cps. Atomic Clock Accuracy Crystal oscillators can be locked to atomic clock-controlled ALTHOUGH the precisely controlled signals from transmitters such as WWV or WWVH are influenced by doppler variations and suffer interruptions, the transmissions can be used to control crystal clocks to obtain an accuracy almost as high as that of the transmitted signal. As at least one of these high-accuracy standard frequencies can be received any place in the world, a frequency standard controlled to one part in $10^8$ is available at low cost to those who require it. The system can be applied to existing crystal clocks. The principle of the system is simply explained if it is assumed that the frequency of the crystal oscillator being controlled is the same as the standard frequency being received, although in practice this assumption is not necessary. A block diagram of the circuit is shown in the figure. Frequency $f_r$ from the crystal oscillator is mixed with the received frequency $f_n$. The receiver has a narrow bandwidth so that only the standard frequency is received. The mixer, known as a Nygaard discriminator (Fig. 1B), delivers two outputs, each equal to the difference frequency $f_c - f_r$ but 90 degrees apart in phase. After amplification the signals drive a small synchronous motor. Motor speed is thus dependent on the difference frequency, including the sign. The motor drives the trimmer capacitor of the crystal oscillator in a typical servo loop to bring the difference frequency to zero. Time needed for error correction depends on the gear ratio. Short term errors, doppler variations, in the received frequency have only small influence on the oscillator frequency if error correction time is much longer than the time in which the errors occur. Interruptions in the received frequency have no influence on oscillator frequency because the motor is motionless without both signals present. Let the received frequency be defined by $$f_r = f_n + \Delta f_n$$ \hspace{1cm} (1) where $f_n$ is the nominal transmitted frequency and $\Delta f_n$ is the error caused by doppler variation. Doppler effects depend chiefly on variations in the ionosphere, and mainly in the E-layer and F-layer, from which the radio wave is reflected. Magnitude of Doppler shift is given by $$\Delta f_n = -(f_n/c)(ds/dt)$$ \hspace{1cm} (2) where $c$ is the velocity of light, $s$ is distance signal has traveled and $t$ is time. The difference between the longest and shortest possible signal path is termed $S$ and thus $$\left\| \int_{t_1}^{t_2} \Delta f_n \, dt \right\| \leq \frac{f_n S}{c}$$ \hspace{1cm} (3) for all values of $t_1$ and $t_2$. The quantity $S/c$, for high frequency signals close to the transmitter, can be as large as $10^{-8}$ sec. The crystal is assumed to be resonant approximately at $f_n$, and to have an ageing rate $g(t)$. Oscillator frequency is varied with a trimmer capacitor and frequency deviation per turn of the trimmer axis is $-\alpha f_n$. The number of turns of the trimmer axis counted from zero is called $m$. Crystal frequency $f_n$ then is determined by $$df_n/dt = g(t) - \alpha f_n dm/dt$$ \hspace{1cm} (4) Received frequency $f_n + \Delta f_n$ is mixed with crystal frequency $f_c$ in the Nygaard discriminator. Both discriminator outputs deliver the same frequency, $f_c - f_n - \Delta f_n$, but the two voltages are 90 degrees out of phase. After amplification the two voltages are fed to a synchronous motor, the rotational speed of which is thus equal to the difference frequency providing the motor has only two poles. If the motor has more than 1 pair of poles, motor speed will be reduced accordingly. Motor speed is equal to the difference frequency for all frequencies lower than cutoff, since there is an upper limit for motor speed depending on electrical and mechanical details. The upper limit is usually not significant, since the motor operates at low speed. The motor drives the trimmer capacitor through step down gear ratio $r$, giving the equation $$dm/dt = (f_r - f_n - \Delta f_n) r$$ \hspace{1cm} (5) Equations 4 and 5 together give an equation for crystal frequency $f_n$ $$df_n/dt = g(t) - (f_r - f_n - \Delta f_n)\alpha f_n/r$$ \hspace{1cm} (6) Defining the time constant as $$T = r/\alpha f_n$$ \hspace{1cm} (7) the solution of Eq. 6 becomes $$(f_r - f_n)/f_n = A + B + C$$ \hspace{1cm} (8) where $A$, $B$, and $C$ are defined as $$A = \frac{1}{Tf_n} \exp \left( -\frac{t}{T} \right) \int_0^t \Delta f_n \exp \left( -\frac{t'}{T} \right) dt$$ \hspace{1cm} (9) $$B = \frac{1}{f_n} \exp \left( -\frac{t}{T} \right) \int_0^t g(t) \exp \left( -\frac{t'}{T} \right) dt$$ \hspace{1cm} (10) $$C = k \exp (-t/T)$$ \hspace{1cm} (11) where $k$ is a constant equal to the initial error. The last term $C$, may be disregarded as it tends to zero. Equation 3 together with 9 shows that $\|A\|$ cannot exceed $S/cT$. If $G$, without regard to its sign, is the highest aging rate within the time interval of interest, $\|B\|$ cannot exceed $TG/f_n$ and thus $$\|(f_r - f_n)/f_n\| \leq TG/f_n + S/cT$$ \hspace{1cm} (12) assuming $C$ is zero. Equation 12 then gives the maximum value for the deviation between crystal frequency and nominal transmitted standard frequency. This maximum value is as small as possible if $$T = \sqrt{f_n S/cG}$$ \hspace{1cm} (13) Then Eq. 12 becomes $$\|(f_r - f_n)/f_n\| = 2 \sqrt{GS/cf_n}$$ \hspace{1cm} (14) For Crystal Oscillators By K. NYGAARD, Bruel & Kjaer A/S, Naerum, Denmark radio stations to produce high-accuracy, low-cost frequency standard For a fairly good oscillator $G/f_n$ may be $10^{-14}$; assuming $S/c = 10^{-3}$ the worst conditions of doppler variations are covered. For the assumed values of $G$ and $S/c$, maximum deviation of crystal frequency from nominal transmitted frequency is $6.3 \times 10^{-9}$ and the time constant $T$ is $3 \times 10^5$ sec or 3.7 days. The figures are computed under the assumption that there are no interruptions in reception. With reception only 50 percent of the time this system cannot ensure an accuracy higher than approximately one part in $10^6$. Frequency errors in the crystal depend only on short term accuracies, as can be seen by examining the quantities $A$ and $B$, or rather, the maximum values $S/cT$ and $TG/f_n$. By connecting the motor to the trimmer as shown in Fig. 1C, $A$ can be set equal to zero; then a small time constant will keep $TG/f_n$ small. If crystal aging rate $G$ is zero and $f_c = f_n$, only the Doppler effect is effective in causing motor rotation; motor speed is $-\Delta f_n$. Taking speed reduction into account, $$dN/dt = -\Delta f_n f_r$$ \hspace{1cm} (15) where $N$ is the number of turns of the output shaft of the motor-gear reducer combination. From Eq. 2 and 15 $$dN/dt = (f_n/cr) ds/dt$$ \hspace{1cm} (16) Equation 16 is integrated to give $$N = f_n S/cT + N_0$$ \hspace{1cm} (17) where $N_0$ is a constant. Since the maximum difference in transmission distance is $S$, $N_0$ can be selected to give $$0 \leq N \leq f_n S/cr$$ \hspace{1cm} (18) The arrangement shown keeps Doppler variations from affecting crystal frequency as long as other errors are not present. But if $f_c$ shifts away from $f_n$, the motor will turn through the dead zone and make the correction. To make the correction time small, $T$ is made small. To maintain stability, one revolution of the motor should not change crystal frequency by more than about $10^{-10}$. Thus $a/r \leq 10^{10}$; which gives $T \geq 10^4/f_n$. With $f_n = 10$ Mc, $S/c = 10^{-3}$ sec., $G/f_n = 10^{-14}$ sec. and $T = 10^4$ sec., the following figures, based on 50-percent reception, are obtained for $(f_c - f_n)/f_n$: one part in $10^7$ is reached in 3 hours, one part in $10^8$ in 1 day, one part in $10^9$ in 10 days; with 80 percent reception, one part in $10^{10}$ is reached in three months. Accuracy of the crystal frequency is easily measured by a revolution counter connected to the motor shaft. Speed of the motor shaft $dM/dt$, is given by $$dM/dt = f_c - f_n - \Delta f_n$$ \hspace{1cm} (21) and $$M = \left( \int_0^t f_c - f_n dt - \frac{s}{c} \right) f_n + \text{constant}$$ \hspace{1cm} (22) From Eq. 22, time delay $M/f_n$ can be calculated. For the example used, one revolution of the motor indicates that the time delay has changed 0.1 $\mu$sec, or that $s$ has changed by 30 meters. ![Diagram](image-url) Telemetering Radiation Data By Three types of radiation monitor are discussed, with information about their relative THE METHODS described have two major objectives: the first is detection of ionizing radiation, the second is the transmission of the resulting information by radio frequency to the monitoring station. Both requirements are satisfied by the same operation and equipment. The first requirement can be fulfilled in many ways: with an electrometer, an ion chamber, extrapolation chamber, a Geiger counter or a crystal detector. These instruments when connected with the proper electronic, optical or acoustical instrumentation give information readout. The methods described in the following pages use the ionization currents of ion chambers, or the pulses from Geiger counters, to vary the reactance of a frequency determining network of a high frequency oscillator. In accordance with signal strength the reactance variation will produce a frequency modulation. If the oscillator is connected to an antenna, the information is transmitted directly. At the receiver end, the information can be recovered by beating the incoming signal with a crystal controlled local oscillator, or alternatively, the transmitter itself can produce the reference and signal frequencies simultaneously. The last method is preferable, since the frequency difference between the center frequency and the reference can be kept nearly constant by suitable methods. During the experiments described, the audio signal was detected as a beat frequency, using a quartz crystal oscillator, and was displayed on an oscilloscope by means of an interpolation oscillator. The following features are desirable for detection and telemetering of ionizing radiation: The center frequency must not drift appreciably through temperature variations; the signal must be large enough to be easily observable; low power consumption is essential if located at remote positions or in space; stability against mechanical vibrations is required; minimum volume and weight is necessary for space applications. The first detection method to be discussed is the reactance variation of a movable-vane electrometer; its readings are susceptible to vibration, whereas the following ones are not. An ionization chamber (Fig. 1) includes an electrometer section with a movable vane suspended by a silverplated quartz fiber. The capacitance between the electrode pairs is maximum when the vane position is in the direction of the electrode pairs. The frequency is determined by the inductance $L$, the capacitances $C_1$ and $C_2$, and the capacitance of the electrometer system. If the vane is charged electrically and ionizing radiation enters the chamber, the vane loses its charge and turns out of the space between the two electrode pairs. (This is because the air between the plates becomes ionized and so loses its insulating properties.) Change of vane position decreases the effective vane capacitance and increases the frequency of the oscillator. When the ionization chamber is connected as shown in Fig. 1B the capacitances of the first electrode pair, vane and second electrode pair are in series for the rf circuit (see the r-f equivalent circuit) electrostatically, however, the two capacitances are in parallel since both electrodes are at ground potential. The resultant rf capacitance is about 1 pf, the electrostatic capacitance being 4 to 5 pf. If the vane is just outside of the space between the electrode pairs, and a voltage is applied to it, while the electrodes are electrostatically grounded, the vane will resist the torsion of the quartz fiber and turn into the space between the two electrode pairs, thereby increasing the capacitance of the system. The maximum capacitances between the vane and each electrode pair is about 2 picofarad. Figure 1B circuit provides high stability, since the parallel capacitance between grid and cathode is approximately 1,000 pf thus eliminating the effect of grid-cathode capacitance fluctuations. The increase of capacitance through vane movement produces a frequency increase $\Delta F = \Delta C f_s / 2 C_r$, where $f_s$ is the operating frequency and $C_r$ the total frequency-controlling capacitance. For an optimum condition, $C_r$ should remain as small as possible. The total range of frequency variation at a center frequency of 2.3 Mc is about 10,000 to 20,000 cycles. By measuring the third harmonic this range can be tripled, but mechanical conditions impose a practical limit to the sensitivity. In a test, the aluminum ion chamber contained about 100 cm$^3$ of air under normal pressure, a 25-cm$^2$ window of 0.001 inch copper-foil permitted practically all gamma radiation and hard beta particles to enter the chamber, and the vane system was charged to about 300 v. A radiation dose rate of 1.58 mr/hr produced a frequency variation of 35 cps during an exposure of one minute. Saturation current is about $1.75 \times 10^{-11}$ amp for 100 cm$^3$ of air at this gamma ray dose rate. The operation requires a minimum leakage of the charge when not exposed to radiation. The use of polyethylene or teflon for suspension of the quartz fiber and moving vane reduces the leakage so that the frequency drift amounts to only a few cycles/second an hour. In a later model, a crystal-controlled oscillator was used for better frequency stabilization. The fundamental frequency was 5 Mc (Fig. 1C) but the frequency was multiplied to 15 Mc in the plate circuit of tube $V_1$. The frequency can be varied within a range determined by the ratio of the electro-mechanical equivalent capacitance $C$ to the parallel capacitance $C_r$, both shown in the equivalent quartz Frequency Variation By HANS KOHN RICHARDS Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, Illinois advantages and the way in which they are connected to the telemetry transmitters FIG. 1—Ion chamber with movable-vane electrometer (A) is coupled to the basic oscillator circuit (B) to vary its frequency in proportion to vane rotation and thus in proportion to the incident radiation. Circuit of (C) uses a crystal for oscillator stability and (D) is the equivalent circuit of (C) FIG. 2—Graph shows that linear range of voltage dependent capacitor lies in 300 to 600-v region (A); ion chamber construction using barium titanate capacitors (B), and the final circuit with wind drift compensating oscillators (C) FIG. 3—Circuit (A) provides a pulsed change in transmitted frequency for every Geiger tube discharge; circuit (B) integrates the effects of the Geiger tube discharges to give reading proportional to dose-rate; circuit (C) uses a buffer amplifier between counter-tube and the oscillator; final circuit of (D) incorporates a second oscillator to compensate for frequency drift, while the graph (E) is the telemeter characteristic before drift compensation. crystal circuit, Fig. 1D. By adding an inductance in series with the quartz crystal, this range can be extended, but some control is sacrificed. The second detection method uses voltage variable capacitors instead of the movable vanes. Moving parts are eliminated by replacing the electrometer section with a nonlinear capacitance. Nonlinear capacitances can be made from ferroelectric materials having high dielectric constants that are functions of the applied electrical field. Barium titanate was used in all the designs described below. This material has a dielectric constant of about 6,000 at 25 degrees C. A major disadvantage is the dependence of the dielectric constant on temperature, necessitating a thermostatic control if the ambient temperature varies. Later developments have produced combinations of barium-titanate with calcium-titanate and other compounds that give nearly a zero temperature coefficient over certain temperature ranges. A compensation method to overcome the temperature variation of the material is discussed later. A disk barium titanate about 1.2 cm diameter and $ \frac{1}{4} $ mm thickness was silverplated on both sides by evaporation in vacuum. The disk was afterwards broken into small pieces, and those pieces with freshly broken sides were used as ferroelectric capacitances after tests for leakage resistance. On removal of the test voltage source, the decay of capacitor voltage was observed with a low-capacitance electroscope. For capacitances of 15 to 20 pf, the voltage decay time was several hours. Leakage resistance is of major importance in this application since it determines the minimum dose-rate that can be measured. The voltage-variable capacitors are mounted between metal springs and coated with ceresin wax. The dielectric characteristic of the material was measured by applying voltages from zero to 900 v. As shown in Fig. 2A, there is a section of the curve from 300 to 600 v with an approximately linear voltage-capacitance characteristic. The ferroelectric capacitance is placed in an ionization chamber as shown in Fig. 2B. Capacitor $ C_1 $ is the ferroelectric capacitance, $ C_2 $ is either a common capacitance of the same magnitude as $ C_1 $ or another ferroelectric capacitance. Together, $ C_1 $ and $ C_2 $ have capacitances of 15 to 20 pf and the resulting series r-f capacitance is therefore 7.5 to 10 pf. One electrode of each capacitance ($ C_1 $ and $ C_2 $) is connected to the central electrode of the ion chamber, the remaining electrode of $ C_1 $ being grounded while that of the other capacitance $ C_2 $ is connected to an element of the oscillator circuit. As Fig. 2B shows, $ C_1 $ and $ C_2 $ are electrostatically connected in parallel, since (Fig. 2C) the side connected to the r-f circuit is grounded through a 10-megohm resistance. The control electrode is charged during the operation to about 300 volts positive, resulting in a capacitance reduction of about 8 percent. Fig. 2C shows the modified Clapp circuit with quartz crystal frequency control. Tubes used are subminiature types. Since $C_1$ and $C_2$ are about 100 pf each, and the series capacitance of $C_3$ and $C_4$ amounts to about 8-10 pf, the frequency is determined essentially by $C_1$ and $C_2$, as far as the crystal control permits. Capacitor $C$ is in parallel with the resultant control capacitance and serves for the exact adjustment of frequency; it can be varied from about 3 to 20 pf. A voltage applied to the center electrode of the ion chamber reduced the controlling capacitance and, therefore, increased the frequency. The quartz crystal frequency is about 2 Mc, and the resonant plate circuit is tuned to 6 Mc, the 3rd harmonic. To eliminate or reduce the effect of temperature variation on the ferroelectric material, as well as the capacitance variation due to charge leakage, a second oscillator of the same design is added, as shown in Fig. 2C. The two oscillators have approximately the same drift through charge leakage or temperature variation and this drift can be made the same in each by adjustment of capacitance $C$. Since the second oscillator is not connected to any ionization chamber, its frequency is not affected by radiation. Each oscillator transmits a frequency of approximately 2 Mc or 6 Mc. These two frequencies differ by some few hundred or thousand cycles sec depending upon the radiation received. The second oscillator serves as a reference. As long as no radiation enters the chamber, the difference of frequency between oscillators appears after detection as a constant audio tone or an ellipse on the screen of an oscilloscope. If ionizing radiation discharges the ferroelectric capacitances connected to the center electrode of the ionization chamber, the two oscillator frequencies drift apart in proportion to the radiation dose-rate. Use of this second oscillator eliminates need for a secondary standard at the receiver. Temperature variations can be eliminated by thermostatic control of the ferroelectric material, the small volume of this material needing little power and space. A further improvement can be obtained by reduction of the ferroelectric capacitances. The sensitivity would be increased by using a large-volume chamber or a pressure chamber. As pointed out, the chamber has to be recharged after some few hours. This is done automatically by a clock controlled relay. The disadvantage of the methods so far discussed is the dependence on high grade insulation to combat electrostatic leakage. It should be emphasized, however, that at large dose rates, one r/hr and higher, this disadvantage disappears and an improvement of insulation will extend the usefulness to lower dose rates. There is no limit for high dose rates since the sensitivity can be reduced by capacitances electrostatically coupled to the ferroelectric capacitance. A Geiger counter provides radiation detection in the third method. The disadvantage of electrostatic leakage disappears completely by replacement of the ionization chamber by a Geiger counter. Insulation problems are eliminated even for ferroelectric materials with a resistance of 1,000 megohms and less. This improvement is due to the fact that the counter discharge produces a dynamic characteristic and the electrostatic charges required for the polarization of the ferroelectric capacitances become negligible quantities. It should be noted, however, that the Geiger counter serves as a detector of radiation only, and does not measure dose rate directly. The design, shown in Fig. 3, can be separated into counter and oscillator circuits. These circuits are coupled electrostatically, but are separated for r-f. A counter operated at about 900 v is connected by $R_1$ to the supply battery. Resistor $R_2$ decouples the counter from the r-f circuit. Capacitor $C_F$ is the ferroelectric capacitance of about 30-60 pf. The rest of the oscillator is the modified Clapp circuit as described previously. As shown in Fig. 3A $C_F$ is connected to $C_2$ and grounded for r-f by $C_5$. When no counter discharge occurs, the polarization voltage applied to $C_F$ is 300 volts. Any discharge through the counter and $R_1$ will lower the voltage across $C_F$. With $C_5$ disconnected, each current pulse will vary the capacitance of $C_F$ and hence the frequency of the oscillator. On the screen of an oscilloscope at the receiver end the ellipse will disappear with every pulse due to the frequency change. Thus, a count of the number of discharges of the Geiger tube is provided. The time constant of the pulse circuit depends primarily on the resistance $R_1$ and the combined capacitance of $C_F$ and those in parallel with it. This total capacitance is of the order of 100 pf. Time constant $C_F R_1$ is therefore about $10^{-2}$ seconds. For high intensities the observation of single counts can be replaced by integration. A capacitance $C_1$ (Fig. 3B) is connected in parallel to $R_1$, and any frequency change represents the average of many counts. Figure 3C shows the application of an intermediate amplifier stage between the counter and transmitter circuit. The low coupling capacitance $C_1$ reduces the time constant for the single counts and the amplified pulses may be integrated by the network $R_1$ and $C_2$. The voltage through $R_1$ will vary in accordance with the amplified pulses. The transmitter circuit is identical with those described previously. Figure 3D shows the transmitter with drift compensation incorporated to establish the reference frequency. An antenna is coupled with the 3rd harmonic circuit as seen in Fig. 3D. Figure 3E shows the frequency deviation against incident radiation characteristic. BIBLIOGRAPHY H. K. Richards, Measurements of Ionizing Radiation by High Frequency Variation, ORNL Health Physics Division, Semiannual Report for Period Ending July 31, 1953. H. K. Richards, Measurement of Ionizing Radiation by Frequency Variation Using Ferroelectric Effect, ORNL Health Physics Division, Semiannual Report for Period Ending Jan. 31, 1954. H. K. Richards, Detection of Ionizing Radiation by Frequency Variation with the Use of the Ferroelectric Effect, ORNL Health Physics Division, Semiannual Report for Period Ending Jan. 31, 1955. H. K. Richards, Phys. Rev., 89, 937 A, 1953. E. D. Denmar, Radiation Measurements by Frequency Variation, M. S. Thesis, Vanderbilt University, 1954-5. H. K. Richards, Measurement of Ionizing Radiation by Frequency Variation Using Ferroelectric Material, Am. Phys. Soc., Chicago Nov. 25, 1954. P. A. Bordon and W. M. Wells, "Telemetering Systems," Reinhold Publishing Co., New York, 1958. H. K. Richards, Detection and Telemetering of Ionizing Radiation by Frequency Variation, ORNL CF-55-9-122. H. K. Richards, Radiation Detection and Telemetering System, Pat No. 2,917,633, Dec. 15, 1953. OPTICAL TRACKING BEACONS can be used to track missiles launched at night. If a light of high intensity is flashed from a missile at a precisely controlled repetition rate, the flight of the missile can be recorded as a series of dots on a photographic plate. From the plate, the trajectory of the missile can be determined. The stringent requirements for a compact, lightweight optical tracking beacon dictate the use of solid-state devices that can be assembled into a small unit. The optical beacon flashes a high-intensity light twice a second for 25 seconds. The flash duration does not exceed 100 μsec as measured at the 30 percent power points. The required accuracy of the flash rate is ±0.001 second. The radiated light emitted by the flash tube is produced by a minimum electrical input of 150 watt-seconds per flash to the flash tube. The unit is powered by a 28-volt battery. The battery is a three ampere-hour unit that has a terminal voltage ranging from 45 to 22 v from no-load to full-load conditions. This large variation in supply voltage is compensated for by Zener diodes that regulate the voltage applied to critical sections. In addition to these operating requirements of the optical beacon, special test circuits are provided for measuring the operating parameters. These circuits include a photodiode detector, flash-rate detector for telemetering, and flashtube ignition pulse test circuit. High-intensity light is obtained by discharging instantaneously a high-voltage charge from a capacitor into a flashtube. In the design, as shown the figure, a 4,000-v charge from a 21-μf capacitor is delivered to a flashtube. The energy input to the lamp is represented by the equation $J = \frac{1}{2} CV^2$ wattseconds. At 4,000 v and 21 μf, $J = 168$ wattseconds, which is the average energy delivered. The capacitor is charged through a 5,000-ohm resistor from a d-c to d-c converter. This converter changes the nominal 28-v from the battery to 4,000 by a static inverter and high-voltage rectifier. The inverter is driven by an amplifier controlled by a relaxation oscillator and multivibrator circuit. The multivibrator operates at 400 cps, the operating frequency of the inverter stage. The multivibrator is turned on by a low-level signal and does not require mechanical relays. The entire system is static in operation. All switching devices are semiconductors, which are necessary to keep radio interference at a low level and to assure high system reliability. To control the point at which the capacitor stops charging, a voltage feedback system turns off the multivibrator when the capacitor is charged to 4,000 v. This stops the operation of the converter circuit and the charging of the capacitor. The flashtube timing circuit obtains its pulses from a tuning-fork oscillator. The oscillator circuit and countdown stages produce a two-pulse-per-second flash repetition rate. The initiating stage turns on the optical beacon when energized with a radio-controlled d-c voltage of 4.5 to 5.5 v. The beacon operates continuously as long as the initiating signal is present. The converter is driven by a low-power square-wave signal generator (bistable multivibrator), which controls the converter. The advantage of this method is that the initiating stage controls a low-power circuit, in this case about 600 mw. A relaxation oscillator drives a standard bistable multivibrator, that feeds the amplifier; the amplifier in turn, drives the d-c to d-c power converter. This circuit assures symmetry in the signal driving the converter. Such symmetry is vital to insure proper transformer operation. The amplifier circuit consists of two direct-connected push-pull stages. The first stage consists of two 2N656 npn silicon transistors, the bases of which are direct-coupled to the output of the multivibrator. Emitter resistors of 8.2 ohms provide a small amount of bias at the bases of the transistors to keep them cut off when no signal is present. Voltage dividers between the Missiles at Night by Light Flashes Precisely timed, high intensity light flashes from beacon in missile permit trajectories to be determined from distances to 400 miles Two stages of the amplifier permit the first stage to be saturated when the signal from the multivibrator is at its maximum value. The second stage of the amplifier consists of two 2N1100 pnp germanium transistors, also in push-pull. The collectors are connected to the primary of a driver transformer, with d-c fed to the transistors through the centertap. In normal operation the transistors are alternately driven from cut-off to saturation, which effectively supplies a square wave to the driver transformer. Two diodes are connected across each side of the output stage of the amplifier. One is a Zener diode to provide voltage limiting and the other is an ordinary diode for current blocking. These diodes suppress spikes in the transformer primary circuit to a voltage level that will not damage the 2N1100 transistors. The spikes appear on the trailing edge of the square wave when the transistor collector current is suddenly switched off. The magnitude of the spike will vary from one unit to another, depending largely on the amount of leakage reactance in the power transformer. The Zener diodes limit the peak of the spikes to approximately the same value in all units and well below the maximum permissible value for the transistors. The converter stage changes d-c from the 28-v battery supply to a-c. The battery voltage can then be stepped up through a transformer to a much higher voltage. The basic circuit of the converter uses two transistors in push-pull so that they are alternately driven from saturation to cut-off. The operation of this circuit is similar to the operation of the second stage of the amplifier. To control enough power to give the output, four push-pull stages are connected in parallel, so that a total of eight 2N1100 transistors is used in the converter stage. Series resistors of 0.1 ohm in the emitter circuit of each transistor equalize the currents in the transistors on each side of the converter. This is necessary because the collector-to-emitter voltage drop at saturation varies from transistor to transistor and there would be a tendency for the transistor with the lowest voltage drop to carry the largest current. The output transformer provides a step-up from 20 to about 4,500 v. The d-c input to the converter at the start of each charging cycle is about 70 amp. The high-voltage circuit consists of a full-wave bridge rectifier, a series resistor, and an energy storage capacitor. It rectifies the high-voltage output from the converter stage and stores the energy in the capacitor until enough is available to operate the flashtube. The bridge rectifier consists of four sections, each of which contains 16 IN444B diodes. It will withstand inverse voltages greater than 7,000 v and will handle currents up to 500 ma. The storage capacitor, specially constructed of laminated Mylar film, has a nominal capacitance of 21 μF, and an operating voltage of 4,000 v. Energy furnished by the converter and the rectifier is stored until it is desired to operate the photo flashtube, which is then connected directly across the capacitor. The 5,000-ohm charging resistor limits the current drawn by the converter stage when the capacitor is recharging. A voltage divider consisting of a five megohm fixed resistor and a variable resistor having a maximum resistance of 50,000 ohms are connected across the energy storage capacitor. The divider provides a reference voltage that turns off the multivibrator and ultimately the converter when the capacitor has been charged to the desired voltage. The variable resistor is adjusted so that the multivibrator cuts off when the desired charging voltage is reached on the capacitor. The flashtube used on the optical beacon is a specially designed tube similar to those used in photography. The flashtube, a highly efficient photographic light source, is a quartz arc-tube with an electrode sealed into each end. Quartz is used because high levels of energy are dissipated at each flash. The arc chamber is a flash coil about 3½ inches in diameter. It is filled with xenon and has a trigger electrode on the external wall. The flashtube is triggered by applying a high-voltage pulse to the trigger electrode that ionizes the gas and makes it conductive. The main storage capacitor then discharges its energy into the flashtube. The energy levels at which the flashtube is operating are about 7,500 lumenseconds at a peak of 82 megalumens. The overall system of the optical beacon meets an estimated reliability of 0.998. The static semiconductor elements insure accurate, stable operation. The high-powered d-c to d-c transistorized converter is larger than most developed to date. The precisely timed flash repetition rate is accurate to within several microseconds, which is far superior to that required for useful data. The unit is compact and relatively light; the production model weighs 33 pounds and measures 27 inches long by 8 inches square. Smaller and more powerful systems will be feasible with transistors capable of handling higher power than those used in this design. In a paper written in 1956 on a miniaturized airborne optical beacon, a system is envisioned that has characteristics similar to this unit. With the optical and electronic system developed during this program, it is believed that a satisfactory optical beacon is now available for tracking missiles. How to Extend Operational By HENRY KOERNER, Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona THE DEVELOPMENT of a series of simple, plug-in operational amplifiers having extended high-frequency response and high output current capabilities was recently undertaken for use in high-speed switching circuits or as operational amplifiers in a repetitive computer installation. This development has resulted in the design of two amplifiers which may be used separately or operated in tandem combination to provide higher loop gain. Both models feature differential inputs and may be used with an external chopper-stabilizing amplifier. In each case, two tubes are mounted on a turret structure which plugs into an octal socket through which all signal and power supply connections are made. Circuit diagrams of the two amplifiers with their gain-frequency response characteristics are shown in Fig. 1. The two models differ both in their open-loop gain characteristics and in their output current capabilities. Both amplifiers use a triode-pentode tube $(V_1, V_2)$ as a dissimilar difference amplifier. For analysis purposes it is convenient to regard this stage as a triode cathode follower direct-coupled to a grounded-grid pentode amplifier. The gain from triode grid to pentode plate is approximately 30 db. In model 1, the signal from the input stage is fed to $V_{2a}$ through a resistance divider network which establishes the proper operating bias at the control grid of $V_{2a}$. This pentode is used as a voltage amplifier to provide up to 140 v peak signals at the grid of $V_{2b}$ connected as an output cathode follower. Coupling from the plate of $V_{1A}$ to the grid of $V_{1B}$ is through three neon lamps connected in series. The constant voltage drop across these lamps maintains the correct d-c operating voltages without loss of signal level. The signal gain through the driver and output stages is approximately 30 db. A drop of radioactive paint ensures ionization. An optional capacitor $C_1$ connected from the amplifier output to the control grid of pentode $V_{2a}$ provides high-frequency attenuation so that the amplifier open-loop gain and phase characteristics yield stable operation at any closed-loop gain setting with resistive feedback ratios between zero and unity. For stability at unity gain this capacitor should be 10 pf, and for best recovery time in high-speed switching circuits it may be as low as 1.8 pf. Regeneration from the plate of $V_{2a}$ to the screen grid of $V_{1B}$ increases the low-frequency gain without affecting high-frequency performance. In model 2, signals from the plate... Simple plug-in units designed for fast time-scale analog computers, feature increased high-frequency response and higher output current capabilities. FIG. 2—Unity-gain frequency response (A) of model 1 amplifier connected as shown in (C). Open-loop amplifier is shown at (B). Unity-gain frequency response of model 2 amplifier (D) obtained when connected as shown in (C), tandem connection open-loop response and amplifier (E) Amplifier Response of $V_{\text{gs}}$ are coupled to the control grid of $V_a$, connected as a dynamically-loaded cathode follower, through neon lamps that (as in model 1) maintain correct operating voltages without producing signal loss. Open-loop gain of this model is low enough that no additional phase correction is needed to assure stability under closed-loop conditions. Maximum d-c output current is 5 ma with a 47 K booster resistor. Maximum frequency of model 1 amplifier (Fig. 2B) at which $\pm 100$ v (no load) can be developed is 16 Kc with optional compensation and 50 Kc without compensation. The open-loop phase shift (without regeneration) reaches 5 degrees at 630 cps for the uncompensated amplifier. The closed-loop characteristics of the circuit shown in Fig. 2C are shown in Fig. 2A. Here, maximum shunt capacitance from the output to ground (for stability) is > 0.01 pf when $R_1 = R_o = 1$ megohm and 1,500 pf when $R_1 = R_o = 100,000$ ohms. Square-wave response at unity gain with $R_1 = R_o = 100,000$ ohms and a 10,000-ohm load with either a large signal ($\pm 80$ v, 0 v) or a small signal ($\pm 20$ v, 0 v) shows both positive and negative rise times of 2 $\mu$sec. The performance characteristics of a tandem (feed forward) combination of these amplifiers (with no internal compensation in model 1) shows an open-loop gain > 100 db at d-c without chopper stabilization, maximum output voltage of $\pm 100$ v into a 10,000-ohm load and a maximum output current of +30 and -10 ma. Open-loop response is shown in Fig. 2E. The cascaded combination makes a very fast and reasonably powerful operational amplifier for modern multipurpose analog computers incorporating repetitive operation and storage. The new amplifiers were developed in the course of a repetitive analog computer project directed by G. A. Korn. Acknowledgement is due the Electrical Engineering Dept. of the University of Arizona and Dr. P. E. Russell for continuing support of this work. Link Division of General Precision, Inc. specified ITT capacitors for this vital portion of its Tracer Identification and Control System, which demands utmost reliability and long life expectancy from every component. TOTAL PROCESS CONTROL AND DISCIPLINED PRODUCTION DELIVER HIGH-RELIABILITY WET-ANODE TANTALUM CAPACITORS FROM ITT ITT wet-anode tantalum capacitors meet MIL-C-3965B—a fact proved by independent laboratory qualifications tests on ITT capacitors. The reliability and long life expectancy of these competitively-priced capacitors are direct results of ITT's total process control and disciplined production procedures, above and beyond testing standards more stringent than normal industry practice—and backed by ITT's world-wide facilities and experience. IN STOCK AT ITT DISTRIBUTORS: - TWO TYPES—M-Type and P-Type, for applications from 55 to 85 and 125 C, respectively - 29 VALUES—from 1.75 to 330 mfd over a working voltage range to 125 VDC and maximum surge voltages to 140 VDC - COMPACT AND RUGGED—sintered tantalum slug in fine-silver cases for 2000-hour life at maximum temperature and working voltage - GUARANTEED to 80,000 ft. and accelerations of 20 G's with a 0.1 in. excursion in 50-2000 cps range - LONG STORAGE LIFE—tantalum-oxide dielectric is completely stable; assures trouble-free operation COMPLETE SPECIFICATIONS ON ITT wet- and solid-anode tantalum capacitors are available on request. Write on your letterhead, please, to the address below. ENGINEERS: Your ITT representative has a complete set of qualifications and quality control tests for your inspection. Nomograph Gives Receiver Noise Figure By MORRIS ENGELSON, Polarad Electronics Corp., Long Island City, N.Y. In designing microwave receivers it is often necessary to determine front-end noise figure before a unit is available for measurement. Such a computation can be based on the expected i-f noise figure ($NF_{i-f}$) and the crystal parameters, temperature noise ratio $N_r$ and conversion loss $CL$. The graph expedites calculations by presenting a graphical solution to the equation $$NF = CL \left[ N_r + (NF_{i-f} - 1) \right]$$ First go to the proper I-F Noise Figure line (heavy lines) numbered 1 to 10. Move along this line to the given temperature noise ratio (vertical $N_r$ axis). Here switch to a light line marked $NF_{i-f}, N_r$ constant. Move along this line to the given conversion loss (vertical scale) and read receiver noise figure on horizontal scale. Example: Given $CL = 16$ db, $N_r = 2$, $NF_{i-f} = 7$ db. Start at $NF_{i-f} = 7$ (point A), go to $N_r = 2$ (point B), then to $CL = 16$ (point C) and read $NF$ as 23.8 db on the horizontal scale. The quantities in the equation are ratios while noise figure and conversion loss are usually in db. Therefore, when using the equation, the conversion loss and i-f noise figure have to be converted from db to power ratios, then combined with the crystal noise temperature ratio, and the resulting receiver noise figure then must be reconverted to db. The graphical solution presented here saves time by eliminating these conversions. BUT, SIR ISAAC, WE'RE NOT GUIDING APPLES! Until a ballistic missile is in free fall, our inertial guidance systems must be able to account for both rocket thrust and gravity. Making them this smart is a tough job, but we hit the mark so well on Thor that all of this country's long range missiles will soon be guided inertially. If you would like to help us keep pioneering new guidance systems, and have a BS, MS or PhD in Physics or Math, or an ME or EE, please contact Mr. B. C. Allen, Director of Scientific and Professional Employment, 7929 S. Howell Ave., Milwaukee 1, Wisconsin. AC SPARK PLUG THE ELECTRONICS DIVISION OF GENERAL MOTORS Rockets Study Night-to-Day D-Layer Density DECREASE in ion density in the D layer of the ionosphere going from day to night is apparently much less than had been expected. The limited day-to-night difference is particularly noteworthy compared to that of the E and F regions. This condition was inferred from data gathered in two Nike-Asp rocket flights on June 7. Detailed analyses of the data are now being carried out. Information obtained in the flights is also being used to study recombination of charged particles at these altitudes. Knowledge of upper atmospheric ionization has usually been obtained from propagation measurements, which provide integrated rather than local values. Techniques developed previously at the Photochemistry Laboratory, Air Force Office of Scientific Research, for investigation of ion densities at lower altitudes have now been adapted for the upper atmosphere. A spherical ion counter similar to the Russian ion trap' has been developed and flown successfully in ICBM's and in-house research vehicles. It consists of two concentric spheres mounted on an arm that keeps the counter well outside the electrically charged sheath around the vehicle. The outer sphere is perforated so that the ratio of open to surface area is high. It is kept at vehicle potential except during periodic application of a sawtooth sweep voltage. The highly insulated inner sphere is kept at a high negative potential with respect to the vehicle. Therefore all positive ions entering the outer sphere are collected by the inner sphere. The resulting current is measured using a highly stable logarithmic d-c amplifier operating through a current range of $10^{-11}$ to $10^{-6}$ amp. To find ion densities from current, vehicle potential with respect to its surroundings must be known. This value was calculated by applying Langmuir probe theory to the current-voltage curves obtained when the sawtooth voltage was applied to the outer sphere. Ion temperatures and energy distribution are also determined by periodically sweeping potential of the inner-outer sphere with the sawtooth voltage and studying its Langmuir characteristics. Depending on instrument time constant in relation to vehicle velocity, the counter thus directly indicates positive ion density and indirectly indicates vehicle potential, ion temperature and energy distribution. Purpose of the two rocket firings was to study day-to-night variations in these quantities at altitudes from 50 to 200 Km. The first shot made at ion density maximum reached 125 statute miles altitude; the second at ion density minimum attained 108 miles altitude. Rough estimates made from the data gathered indicate a peak density on both day and night flights at an altitude of 65 Km, a reduction factor of only about 10 from day to night. Above this peak, daytime ion density decreased slightly to a minimum at 85 Km. It then increased steadily to 200 Km except for a sudden increase at 100 Km on entering the E region. Above this altitude, it decreased so that at 125 Km ion density was reduced by a factor of 20 to 30 from the peak value in this region. REFERENCE (1) V. I. Krassovsky. Examination of the Upper Atmosphere with the Help of the Third Soviet Sputnik, Proc IRE, 47, Feb. 1959. High-Speed Shock-Wave Collision Impact of two shock waves, each traveling at Mach 80, illuminates Boeing hydromagnetic shock tube. High-temperature gas experiments may aid development of effective ion propulsion system. Induction Plasma Torch May Provide New Devices INDUCTION plasma torch that generates extremely high temperatures is expected to have a wide variety of applications in the production of electronic devices. It will also permit research in the area of solid-state materials that could result in new electronic components. The new torch, invented at MIT Lincoln Laboratory by T. B. Reed, was described at the Gaseous Electronics Conference, Monterey, Calif., at the U. S. Navy Postgraduate School. The meeting was sponsored jointly by the school, the Division of Electronic Physics of the American Physical Society and Temperatures up to 19,000 K have been produced by the torch using only 3 Kw of electrical power. As much as 57 percent of the total energy was transferred to the plasma. Generation of temperatures approaching 100,000 K seems feasible without excessive power requirements if a method can be developed for containing the plasma. The basic plasma torch in the diagram is a quartz tube open at one end with gas supplied to the other end. An r-f coil of a few turns around the tube provides power. A commercially available 4-Mc power supply of the type used for r-f heating was used. Although maximum rated output is 10 Kw, temperatures produced by more than 3 Kw melt the quartz tube. As little power as 500 watts can maintain the plasma. The more recent model of the plasma torch shown in the photograph uses a flat pancake coil. No combustion occurs in the inductively coupled plasma torch. A variety of gases and gas mixtures can be used, and the high-temperature region is not contaminated by combustion products. This high-temperature region is not just a Artificial sapphire is produced by melting end of aluminum oxide rod point focus but extends throughout an appreciable working space. It is completely accessible for introduction or manipulation of materials to be heated. The primary value of generating and maintaining high temperatures to electronics is in research and production of solid state materials. Crystals of germanium and silicon can be produced economically in crucibles at temperatures below 2,000 K, which is one reason for their widespread use. Artificially grown sapphire or ruby for phonograph styli and masers, rutile and other crystals cannot be produced in crucibles. The crucibles would melt or contaminate the crystal material. Crystals of some of these materials can be produced with the Verneuil method in which the material itself acts as the crucible. A torch melts a puddle at the center of a large piece of the material or a drop at the end of the material. Even with this method, few combinations of combustible gases exist that do not contaminate the material. Also, gas flow velocity must be rather high to maintain the high temperature, which can stir up or splatter the material. Electric arcs and d-c plasma torches are free from some of these limitations but the electrodes produce contamination. The induction plasma torch does not have these disadvantages, is simple in construction and requires only a reasonable amount of power for high temperatures. NEW LOW PRICES! ON CHARACTRON® SHAPED BEAM TUBES Economies made possible by increased production now permit drastic price reductions on almost all types of CHARACTRON Shaped Beam Tubes. These unusual cathode ray tubes have the spot writing capabilities of conventional tubes and also have a unique capability for high speed display of exceptionally clear characters. Some typical CHARACTRON Shaped Beam Tubes are shown below. Write today for complete list of tubes and new low prices. Stromberg-Carlson-San Diego, Department A-70, P.O. Box 2449, San Diego 10, California. C19R 19-INCH Used for situation display applications. Features the highest character quality. Type G3049 is similar to the C19R, but uses fewer external components for faster setup, easier maintenance. C21Q 21-INCH Used for situation display applications. Character size may be dynamically changed by varying a single tube voltage. This same voltage also produces a focused spot for spot writing. C7F11 7-INCH For data recording. Capable of displaying more than 10,000 characters within a 4½ inch square on its screen. Adjustable character size. Low voltage Type C7D11 also available. C5G 5-INCH For data recording. Designed for minimum size and ease of operation, this tube requires only one external component and is only 15" long. STROMBERG-CARLSON-SAN DIEGO A DIVISION OF GENERAL DYNAMICS CORPORATION November 11, 1960 GERMANIUM MICRO ALLOY Diffused-Base Transistors (MADT's) prepared by special dendritic growth techniques developed at Philco's Lansdale Division demonstrate performance comparable with conventionally manufactured military-type devices. This performance level has been achieved despite the inherent defects in dendritic material, as a result of a simple and economical precision-etch fabrication process. In conventional manufacture, semiconductor material is prepared in the form of a monocrystalline bar, or ingot, approximately one-inch diam. and 12-in. long. The ingot is sliced into 0.015-in thick wafers. The wafers are lapped and etched to a thickness of 0.008 in., and scribed into dice measuring $0.072 \times 0.005$ in. The material is then ready for diffusion, if required, and transistor fabrication. Philco's dendritic growth process eliminates most of the operations associated with this conventional crystal growth. Essentially, dendritic growth is a method of preparing a continuous ribbon of semiconductor material to a thickness required for device fabrication. As in standard crystal growth, lumps of high purity, polycrystalline material are melted, and dopant added in controlled amounts. However, in dendritic growth, the temperature of the melt is reduced until it is considerably supercooled. A seed crystal is introduced, then withdrawn at an extremely rapid rate. The supercooled liquid surrounding the seed solidifies, and as the seed is removed, a thin dendrite of semiconductor is formed. Using this technique, dendrite ribbons 0.060-in. wide, 0.005-in. thick, and up to 12-ft long have been grown. Lengths are limited only by height of the pulling apparatus. Recently, improved growth techniques have made possible smooth dendrites without surface irregularities or edge facets. This has been achieved by having the growth process more nearly approach a true steady state equilibrium process. A significant aspect of Philco's production technique is that the dendrites grown do not need modification before being employed for transistor fabrication. The dendritic growth technique has two advantages over conventional growth processes: speed and economy. The over-all process of dendritic growth is many times faster than the standard pull furnace technique. Dendritic withdrawal, measured in inches per minute, eliminates the elaborate sawing, slicing, lapping, etching, and scrubbing operations necessary when conventional growth techniques are used. It is simply necessary to scribe the 0.005-in. wide dendrite into dice of desired lengths, and briefly etch the dice to the desired thickness. Great wastes of material are obviated as the dendritic process makes possible 100 per cent usage of the original germanium ingot. Unfortunately, defects in the quality of dendritic material are sufficient to make the material impractical for many uses. In cross-section, undiffused conventionally-prepared dice are homogenous; dopant is distributed evenly throughout the single-crystal mateA NEW CONCEPT IN SCAN CONVERSION from GEC Now a low cost completely transistorized Scan Conversion unit is available which is capable of: - TRANSLATION of video information from one scanning mode to another; - STORAGE and INTEGRATION of video information; - Expansion or reduction of bandwidth through TIME—COORDINATE TRANSFORMATION. This completely transistorized, versatile system can be readily tailored to your specific needs through its plug-in printed circuits. For more information about conversion of radar PPI to TV, TV standards conversion or conversion of slow scan narrow band systems to standard TV or vice versa, contact GEC today. ...advanced electronics at work GENERAL ELECTRODYNAMICS CORPORATION 4430 FOREST LANE • GARLAND, TEXAS • BROADWAY 6-1161 November 11, 1960 HST MAGNETIC MODULATOR furnishes stable signal amplification THEORY & APPLICATION: Since certain control and instrumentation systems require amplification of DC signals, it is desirable to employ a static signal converter. Magnitude of these available DC signals is so small that instability of DC amplifying systems results when signal is brought to usable level. Therefore a stable AC amplifier is required to convert low level DC to AC. A magnetic modulator serves this function with the added advantage that a "polarity reversible" DC input is converted to a "phase reversible" output. The output can be rectified to a "polarity reversible" pulsating DC or can be applied to a phase sensitive indicating device. Input impedance is relatively high while the output impedance is inherently low. SPECIFICATIONS: Model MM-0027 ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS: Maximum Output > .4 Vrms @ Is 100μA Minimum Output < .05 Vrms @ Is 0μA Voltage Unbalance < 35% DC Resistance 1-2 7.3Ω ±10% 3-4 500Ω ±20% 5-6 1200Ω ±20% 7-8 60Ω ±20% Frequency 400 cycles MECHANICAL CHARACTERISTICS: Diameter 1.13" maximum Height .68" maximum Lead Length 2.00" minimum Mounting .125" clearance hole ENVIRONMENT CONDITIONS: Storage Temperature -65° to +100°C Operating Temperature -40° to +70°C Vibration .060" total excursion 10-5cps Shock 15 g's Altitude 50,000 feet Humidity 95% relative Prices on request. Quotations without obligation on your other special components. Engineer holds spool of 200 feet of germanium dendritic ribbon used to make MADT's However, fabrication of MADT transistors can circumvent this situation. A precision etch technique is used to etch depressions into specific carefully chosen areas in the semiconductor materials. Electrodes are deposited in depression (Fig. 1B) to form emitter and collector. This surface region generally comprises high-quality material. The regions of high crystal dislocation, twinning, and high impurity are avoided. The remaining material that forms the base region of the transistor is located close to one surface so that uniformity in the semiconductor material is required only in the one area. The result of the large-scale use of dendritic material can easily be Dendritic MADT's show performance characteristics similar to those made by standard growth techniques; i.e. TYPICAL - Collector voltage, $V_{CE}$: 10 v - Emitter voltage, $V_{EE}$: 2 v - Collector current, $I_{CBO}$: < 4 $\mu$A - Cutoff frequency, $F_T$: > 500 mc - Power gain (200 mc): 14 dB Predicted. Because of the relative simplicity of the etching technique, semiconductor devices can be made and sold more cheaply. In addition, the technique is well suited to automatic production. Dendrites can be fed into a high-speed automatic production line, and emerge as completed transistors. Introduction of these preparation techniques is expected to result in a major contribution in the form of economy and productivity. Zener Diodes for Voltage Regulation "Developments in the semiconductor art have made the reverse breakdown characteristic of silicon diodes extremely useful for close tolerance voltage regulation," according to J. S. McGee, vice president in charge of Hoffman's Zener diode production facilities, Evanston, Illinois. "In particular, the techniques employed in solid state diffusion have enabled these Zener devices to provide stable voltage over wide variations in current and temperature. This makes possible, simplified, reliable circuitry." Hoffman Electronics now has added nine EIA types to its 250-milliwatt regulator series, 36 types each to the 500-mw and 1-w series, and 37 types to the 10-w regulator line. The company has also extended its line of 400-mw subminiature "glass" Zener reference diodes by the addition of two types—1N823 and 1N824—to the recently introduced types 1N821 and 1N822. Addition of the 120 new types brings to 2137 the total number of Zener diodes offered by Hoffman. All of the new regular types have a standard voltage tolerance of plus or minus 10 percent with plus or minus 5 percent types available. Operating temperature is from minus 65 C to plus 175 C. --- COUCH ROTARY RELAYS Start with a unique and simple design — manufacture within a narrow range of tolerances — specify performance on the conservative side — this is how Couch solves the problem of supplying relays that meet the present and future needs of our aircraft and missile programs. The record shows that this technique is successful: many thousands of Couch CVE type rotary relays are providing consistent flight insurance in complex systems under the most severe environmental conditions. IMPORTANT SPECIFICATIONS - Contacts: 4PDT (dry circuit to 10 amps) - Size: 1½" D x 1½" H - Weight: 3.2 oz. max. - Pull-in power: ½ watt - Ambient temperature: −65° to +125°C - Vibration resistance: 20G’s, 5 to 2000 cps - Shock resistance: 75G’s operating, 200G’s non-operating Write for complete specifications. REVOLVING TURNTABLE parts must be round and concentric to avoid rumble and wow in the record player. The effect of slight eccentricities is magnified when the parts revolve against each other in the operating assembly. A basic solution is precision machining to insure that parts have the same centerlines as their shafts. Several machining techniques following this principle are employed by Rek-O-Kut Company, Inc., Corona, N. Y., in preparing motor drive pulleys, idler wheels and turntables used in their record players. Drive pulleys are mated to motor shaft bearings by using each motor as an individual pulley lathe. Motors with an original shaft eccentricity within 0.0005 inch are selected, run-in and balanced. Pulleys with oversized outside diameters are press-fitted onto the shafts. Each motor is fastened in a fixture which allows the shaft to turn under its own power. The fixture is on a cylindrical grinder. The motor is turned on and the grinder used to make a cut on a portion of the pulley not used as a bearing surface. The cut portion is measured at each end with a micrometer. A taper would cause a speed variation in the drive (tapered pulleys are used in one of the firm's variable speed record players, but are not desirable in single-, two- and three-speed models). Taper is corrected by pivoting the fixture. A pin type feeler gage fixed on the bed of the grinder so it contacts the fixture guides the machinist in making this adjustment. When the cuts are no longer producing a taper, the bearing surfaces are ground to size. This method assures concentricity of the pulley surfaces with the motor shaft bearings despite any slight eccentricity or bow in the shaft. The same method is used for pulleys of belt-driven turntables. Idler wheels of rim-driven turntables are also trued by grinding, using their center hole as a reference. The wheel is placed on a pin which is held in the grinder. The pin is precision ground on the same grinder at the start of a production run. It is discarded at the end of the run, since rechucking the pin could be a cause of eccentricity. Turntables are machined from aluminum castings. Finish machining follows normalizing after rough machining. The turntables are fastened to the headstock of a turret lathe with several bolts placed halfway between the shaft hole and rim. Cuts are made simultaneously on the rim and in the hole. Light cuts are used since tool "give" caused by heavy cuts could produce out-of-roundness. The turntable bearing shaft is a hardened and ground rod with a spiral oil groove. The shaft well is prepared with an inside diameter about 0.0005 inch undersize. The SIEGLER: ...outstanding performance through a family of talents Convair-Astronautics Division of General Dynamics and the U.S. Air Force have selected Siegler for production of the automatic electronic launch control system of the mighty Atlas. Production is now in progress under a major multi-division contract awarded The Siegler Corporation. The Siegler team in this top-priority project includes Siegler's Hallamore, Hufford, and Magnetic Amplifiers divisions. Selection of Siegler for this vital defense requirement demonstrates recognition of Siegler's superior performance...outstanding performance deriving from divisional coordination under the dynamic Siegler basic corporate concept: Progressive management of diverse activities with outstanding military, industrial, commercial and consumer capabilities—in order to bring to each of these fields the strengths of the others. For information concerning Siegler's capabilities in your field, address The Siegler Corporation, at address below. CAREER OPPORTUNITIES are available for engineers and scientists. Write for complete information. THE SIEGLER CORPORATION 610 South Harvard Boulevard, Los Angeles 5, California PLANT LOCATIONS: HALLAMORE ELECTRONICS DIVISION, ANAHEIM, CALIFORNIA • HUFFORD DIVISION, EL SEGUNDO, CALIFORNIA • OLYMPIC RADIO AND TELEVISION DIVISION, LONG ISLAND CITY, NEW YORK • MAGNETIC AMPLIFIERS DIVISION, NEW YORK, NEW YORK • BOGEN-PRESTO DIVISION, PARAMUS, NEW JERSEY • SIEGLER HEATER DIVISION, CENTRALIA, ILLINOIS • HOLLY-GENERAL DIVISION, PASADENA AND BURBANK, CALIFORNIA • VAC-U-LIFT DIVISION, SALEM, ILLINOIS • COMET MANUFACTURING DIVISION, LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA • COMMUNITY ANTENNA CO., INC., RENO, NEVADA November 11, 1960 CIRCLE 103 ON READER SERVICE CARD 103 Looking for capacitors? Well, we're proud as a peacock of our JM capacitors! Choose from 49 EIA values. All have these characteristics: - Working voltage: 500 VDC - Insulation Resistance: 50,000 megohms minimum (500 VDC test) - Q Value: 100 minimum Body Dimensions: - 0.1 to 10.0 mmf. 160 ± .005 dia. x .400 max. L - 10.0 to 18.0 mmf. 187 ± .005 dia. x .230 max. L Leads: No. 20 AWG Copper, heavily tinned to insure good solderability. 1½ ± ¼ long Tolerance Color Code: - Under 10.0 mmf: 20% None, 10% Silver, 5% Gold - 10.0 mmf and Over: 20% Black, 10% White, 5% Green Capacitance in mmfd Standard Values in 20% 10% 5% Color Bands Max. Body Length 1st 2nd 3rd Brown Black Gray .400 Brown Red Gray .400 Brown Green Gray .350 Brown Gray Gray .281 Red Red Black Gray .281 Red Red Gray .281 Red Yellow Gray .281 Red Violet Gray .281 Orange Black Gray .281 Orange Orange Gray .281 Orange Blue Gray .281 Orange White Gray .281 Yellow Orange Gray .281 Yellow Violet Gray .281 Green Brown Gray .281 Green Blue Gray .281 Blue Red Gray .281 Blue Gray Gray .281 Gray Black Gray .281 Gray Red Gray .281 White Brown Gray .281 White Black Gray .281 White Red Gray .281 White Orange Gray .281 Capacitance in mmfd Standard Values in 20% 10% 5% Color Bands Max. Body Length 1st 2nd 3rd Brown Green White .281 Brown Blue White .281 Brown Gray White .281 Red Black White .281 Red Red White .281 Red Yellow White .281 Red Violet White .281 Orange Black White .281 Orange Orange White .281 Orange Blue White .281 Orange White White .281 Yellow Orange White .281 Yellow Violet White .281 Green Brown White .281 Green Blue White .281 Blue Red White .281 Blue Gray White .281 Gray Black White .281 Gray Red White .281 White Brown White .281 White Black White .281 White Red White .281 White Green White .281 White Gray White .281 Jeffers Fixed Composition JM Capacitors are ideal for a broad range of circuit applications. They offer operating stability, moderate Q—and those other two indispensable characteristics, dependability and economy! Use them as coupling capacitors between RF amplifiers, AVC circuits, oscillators, IF stages—and in many other circuits where low capacitance is a requirement. The insulated JM body consists of a moulded thermosetting resin with a ceramic dielectric material dispersed throughout. The firmly embedded lead wires serve as electrodes. For all the facts about the Jeffers line of JM Capacitors, write today! JEFFERS ELECTRONICS DIVISION Speer Carbon Company Du Bois, Pennsylvania Leakage Tester Range Is 0.1 to $10^{12}$ Ohms LEAKAGE TESTS on oil and paper capacitors can be made at very high resistance levels with a voltmeter by the test set pictured in Fig. 1. The test set is used by Ballantine Laboratories, Inc., Boonton, N. J., to test components for high resistance circuit performance. The indicating instrument is a Ballantine Model 300 vacuum tube voltmeter. The meter scale, which is logarithmic, is inverted so that it will read in ohms from right to left. Voltmeter scale is inverted to read in megohms Bench setup includes capacitance meter at right instead of volts from left to right. The range of the scale is 1 to 10 megohms. Through the selector switch, resistances of 0.1 to a million megohms may be made. The power supply provides 200 v d-c, ± 1 percent. A Ballantine Model 700 inverter with a 1:100 range is placed in front of the vtvm. A 10-megohm resistor rather than a 5-megohm resistor is used in the higher range since the parallel input resistance of the inverter is also 10 megohms. The test fixture is designed so it can be rapidly loaded and unloaded by hand. The operator holds the capacitor by its body and places the leads as shown in Fig. 2. The hand levers are pulled to close the contacts, placing the capacitor in the measuring circuit. When the levers are in the unlocked position indicated in Fig. 1, the capacitor is discharged through a kilohm resistor. In Fig. 1, A is a guard which prevents leakage current in the jig from flowing between terminals B and C. This 12-page booklet explains how the electrical or electronic product you make can be marked — at production speeds — with clear imprints that hold. Are you looking for a way to mark odd shapes — a practical short-run marking method — an ink that will hold on an unusual surface, or withstand temperature, handling, moisture or other conditions? This catalog describes machines, printing elements and inks that will meet your requirements in the marking of products ranging from subminiature components to panels and chassis. There are special sections with practical answers to color banding, Underwriters' Laboratories manifest label legend marking, tape and label printing, wire and tube marking, efficient "in-line" marking. For your copy of the Markem Electrical Catalog, write Markem Machine Co., Electrical Division, Keene 5, New Hampshire. MARKEM EVERYTHING INDUSTRY NEEDS... FOR PROFITABLE MARKING... SINCE 1911 Laboratory Tool MEASURES ULTRA-LOW PRESSURES A LABORATORY TOOL for measurement of pressures less than one-thousandth of one-billionth of atmospheric pressure at the earth's surface has been announced by Westinghouse research laboratories, Pittsburgh, Pa. The device, known as a photomultiplier ion gage, was developed for the U. S. Atomic Energy Commission's Project Sherwood, a long-range research program aimed at controlled nuclear fusion. Conventionally, the instruments which measure extremely low pressures do so by placing electrical charges upon the gas particles remaining in a vacuum system and counting the rate at which these charged particles, or ions, form. Usually, these charges come from electrons that are boiled off the surface of a hot tungsten filament located inside the vacuum system and in contact with the gas being measured. However, gas interactions with the hot filament surface contaminate the gas and upset such experiments. The new pressure-measuring device does away with the heated filament. To produce the required ionization of the gas, it uses a beam of ultraviolet light. The light is beamed onto a metal surface which releases electrons under ultraviolet. These electrons are guided onto a series of similar surfaces (photomultiplier) which multiply the electrons in speed and number. These electrons then are used to form the ions that are collected and counted in the usual fashion. The photomultiplier ion gage will be useful in key ultrahigh vacuum research experiments, being ideally suited to low-pressure studies of hot filament-gas interactions such as those encountered in ordinary fluorescent lamps, in electronic tubes and in thermionic energy converters. The gage is linear with pressure over the range from one-thousandth $(10^{-3})$ to one-tenth of one-billionth $(10^{-9})$ millimeter of mercury, equivalent to distances between 50 and 650 miles above the surface of the earth. CIRCLE 301 ON READER SERVICE CARD Airborne Oscillator ELIMINATES SEPARATE AMPLIFIER A NEW APPROACH to the transmission of research data from an aircraft or missile (or any other remote location) to the control point is represented by an airborne voltage-controlled oscillator, Model AOV-10, which has been introduced by Data-Control Systems, Inc., 39 Rose St., Danbury, Conn. Low level output of strain gages, thermocouples, or other low level transducers is directly converted to a frequency-modulated subcarrier signal (standard approach is to amplify the signal derived from the strain gages or thermocouples, then use it to modulate the carrier frequency). A true floating input is provided, which makes it possible to use a common bridge supply for many strain gage channels, eliminating the effects of potential differences that may exist in an airframe. The AOV-10 can be used with a low level mechanical commutator. It is a rugged transistorized unit (silicon transistors) which can be used at ambient temperatures up to 100 deg C. Circuits in the AOV-10 include a multivibrator controlled by a square-loop core, and a feedback amplifier-modulator. Performance specifications: For modulation index of 5 or greater, the intelligence frequency response is within 0.2 db of the d-c response, and is down less than 1 db at a modulation index of 1. Input voltage is plus or minus 10 millivolts for full deviation. Common mode rejection is 100 db at d-c and 94 db at 400 cps. Grounding one side of open input produces a frequency change of less than 2 percent of full bandwidth. Linearity is plus or minus 0.25 maximum deviation from best straight line. Continuous operation may be obtained in ambient temperatures up to 100 deg C. Power requirements are plus 18 or plus 28 volts d-c plus or minus 10 percent for stated specifications at 25 ma. The unit measures 1.87 x 1.44 x 1.63 inches high, and weighs 5.5 ounces. CIRCLE 302 ON READER SERVICE CARD Ka-Band Mixer Diodes FOR HIGH ALTITUDE A MATCHED PAIR of high altitude silicon microwave mixer diodes designed for ultrasonic aircraft and missile applications is available from Sylvania Electric Products, 64-IN-1 ELECTROMETER You can measure dc voltage, current, and resistance over 64 ranges with the Keithley 610A Electrometer. Some examples of its extreme versatility are voltage measurements of piezo-electric crystals and charged capacitors; currents in ion chambers, photocells, and semi-conductors; and resistance measurements of insulation. The input resistance of the 610A can be selected from one ohm to over $10^{14}$ ohms; it checks its own resistance standards and is a stable dc preamplifier. Brief specifications are: - 9 voltage ranges from 0.01 to 100 v full scale, 2% accuracy all ranges. - current ranges from 3 amperes to $1 \times 10^{-13}$ ampere full scale with 2 ranges per decade. - resistance ranges from 10 ohms to $10^{14}$ ohms full scale on linear scales. - gains to 1000 as a preamplifier, dc to 500 cps bandwidth, 10 volts and one milliamper e outputs. - accessory probes and test shield facilitate measurements and extend upper voltage range to 30 kv. - price, $480.00. Write for complete details KEITHLEY INSTRUMENTS 12415 EUCLID AVENUE CLEVELAND 6, OHIO CIRCLE 204 ON READER SERVICE CARD November 11 1960 FIRST CHOICE OF ALL 4! Because it is organized and edited to serve all four segments of the industry. It contains more advertisers than any other industry guide... gives more information. No wonder it is the accepted buying book of the industry. gives more to all 4! electronics BUYERS' GUIDE and REFERENCE ISSUE Most Adaptable and Effective For COMPUTERS, DATA PROCESSING, AUTOMATION, INSTRUMENTATION and MINIATURIZATION DATALITES® FOR USE AS SINGLE INDICATOR LIGHTS, OR GROUPED AS A DATA STRIP® OR DATA MATRIX® DATALITES by DIALCO are ultra-miniature Indicator Lights, made in 2 basic styles: Lampholders with DIALCO's own replaceable Lamp Cartridges; or integrated DATALITES with Built-in Neon Lamps* ... Mount in $\frac{3}{8}$" clearance hole... LAMPS USED: T-1$\frac{3}{4}$ Incandescent; also Neon NE-2E or NE-2H. DATA STRIP No. DSV-7538-10 Vertical - Complete with ten No. 39-6-1475 Lamp Cartridges. Other configurations to order. Shown actual size. Left to right: Lamp Cartridges—Nos. 39-6-1471, 39-6-1531, 38-931. Lampholder No. 7538-10. Also No. 39-7538-931 with built-in Neon Lamp and resistor.* Write for Brochure L-160B. DIALCO PILOT LIGHTS "The Eyes of Your Equipment" DIALIGHT CORPORATION Foremost Manufacturer of Pilot Lights 58 Stewart Avenue, Brooklyn 37, N. Y. • Hyacinth 7-7600 CIRCLE 107 ON READER SERVICE CARD Inc., a subsidiary of General Telephone & Electronics Corp., Woburn, Mass. These hermetically sealed diodes (Type 1N53D and its reversed polarity version 1N53RD) are Ka-band (34,000 Mc) units with maximum operating temperature of 150 C, overall noise figure of 9 db, and an amplifier noise figure of 1.5 db. Both feature vswr maximum (to a 65 ohm holder) of 1.5 at 34,860 Mc, and 2.5 maximum at ±6 percent. Use of the matched pair is said to eliminate local oscillator noise. In quantities of 1-99, Type 1N53D is priced at $75, Type 1N53RD at $110. Sample and production quantities are available. CIRCLE 303 ON READER SERVICE CARD Miniaturized Delay Line FOR PRINTED CIRCUITS A MINIATURIZED compact delay line with a special locking device for printed circuit applications has been developed by Columbia Technical Corporation, 24-30 Brooklyn-Queens Expressway West, Woodside 77, N. Y. The unit is continuously variable from 0 to 0.5 microsecond. Designated type V887, the delay line is hermetically sealed, and has a specially designed locking device that prevents delay changes under vibration without affecting the initially set delay. It has a characteristic impedance of 1,000 ohms. Rise time is 0.08 microsecond, attenuation 0.3 db, resolution of 0.001, and a temperature coefficient of better than 150 ppm. CIRCLE 304 ON READER SERVICE CARD Frequency-Shift Converter TELEPRINTER SERVICE A FREQUENCY-SHIFT converter introduced by the Western Division of Collins Radio Company, Burbank, Calif., makes possible teletype service from radio-equipped aircraft, ships, submarines, trains, motor vehicles or fixed stations. The unit (designated the 700B-1) provides a single channel of half-duplex teletype communications at speeds up to 100 words-per-minute via any single sideband or a-m radio circuit. The converter can be used in airborne data systems for transmitting digital information at up to 75 bits-per-second. For airborne applications, the converter accommodates a doppler shift for speeds up to 600 knots. In fixed station operation, the typewriter can be located up to one mile from the converter. The all-solid-state 700B-1 is a commercial version of a unit now in production for a military jeep-transportable communications system. Features include electronic keyer and built-in loop-current power supply. CIRCLE 305 ON READER SERVICE CARD Magnetic Tape Cleaner AUTOMATIC TYPE AN AUTOMATIC TYPE cleaner of magnetic recording tape has been introduced by Computer-Measurements Company, 12970 Bradley Ave., Sylmar, California. Operation is completely automatic. Once the tape is in place and the solvent tank filled, the cleaner completes all operations. Dirt, lint, oil, fingerprints and wax are removed without disturbing information on the tape. Cleaners are available for ¾ inch, 1 in. and 2 in. tape. Speed is adjustable from 0-300 feet per minute, with automatic shut-off that leaves the machine threaded with leader for continuous operation. The unit uses non-inflammable, non-explosive solvents. Model T-7070 for 2 in. tape is priced at $6,575. CIRCLE 306 ON READER SERVICE CARD Pulse-Control Relay FOR CLOSE-PULSE WORK A NEW ratchet relay provides the designer of pulse-operated control circuits with a device for counting, absorbing, or controlling the pulses This select line fits the broadest variety of applications. Each unit delivers across-the-board versatility and directly replaces many existing types. Tung-Sol silicon rectifiers were designed to serve with unqualified dependability in the most exacting military and commercial applications. They're precision engineered to assure the utmost in top-performance uniformity and stability ... and to function at maximum capacity even under the most severe environmental and electrical overload conditions. Write for the new Tung-Sol silicon rectifier interchangeability chart and complete technical information. Tung-Sol Electric Inc., Newark 4, New Jersey. Standard JEDEC configurations and with Tung-Sol's unsurpassed Standard and reliability. --- Diffused Junction and Alloy Junction \| Type \| Peak Reverse Voltage (Volts) \| Average Forward Current \| Maximum Reverse Current* \| Max. Full Load Voltage Drop (Volts) \| Surge Current† (Amps) \| \|----------\|------------------------------\|-------------------------\|--------------------------\|-------------------------------------\|-----------------------\| \| IN538 \| 200 \| 750 mAdc @ 50°C \| 250 μAdc \| 0.5 \| \| \| IN540 \| 400 \| 750 mAdc @ 150°C \| 250 μAdc \| 0.5 \| \| \| IN547 \| 600 \| 750 mAdc @ 50°C \| 250 μAdc \| 0.5 \| \| \| IN253 \| 100 \| 1.0 Adc \| 100 μAdc \| — \| \| \| IN254 \| 200 \| 0.4 Adc \| 100 μAdc \| — \| \| \| IN255 \| 400 \| 0.4 Adc \| 150 μAdc \| — \| \| \| IN256 \| 600 \| 0.2 Adc \| 250 μAdc \| 1.0 ▲ \| \| \| IN1191 \| 50 \| 20 Adc \| 5 mAdc \| .55 full cycle \| 250 \| \| IN1192 \| 100 \| 20 Adc \| 5 mAdc \| .55 avg. \| 250 \| \| IN1193 \| 150 \| 20 Adc \| 5 mAdc \| .55 avg. \| 250 \| \| IN1194 \| 200 \| 20 Adc \| 5 mAdc \| .55 150°C \| 250 \| \| IN1195 \| 300 \| 20 Adc \| 5 mAdc \| .55 case \| 250 \| \| IN1196 \| 400 \| 20 Adc \| 5 mAdc \| .55 temp. \| 250 \| \| IN1197 \| 500 \| 20 Adc \| 5 mAdc \| .55 temp. \| 250 \| \| IN1198 \| 600 \| 20 Adc \| 5 mAdc \| .55 temp. \| 250 \| \| CS-120Z \| 50 \| 25 Adc \| 5 mAdc \| .55 full cycle \| 350 \| \| CS-120A \| 100 \| 25 Adc \| 5 mAdc \| .55 full cycle \| 350 \| \| CS-120B \| 200 \| 25 Adc \| 5 mAdc \| .55 avg. \| 350 \| \| CS-120C \| 300 \| 25 Adc \| 5 mAdc \| .55 avg. \| 350 \| \| CS-120D \| 400 \| 25 Adc \| 5 mAdc \| .55 150°C \| 350 \| \| CS-120E \| 500 \| 25 Adc \| 5 mAdc \| .55 case \| 350 \| \| CS-120F \| 600 \| 25 Adc \| 5 mAdc \| .55 temp. \| 350 \| \| IN1183 \| 50 \| 35 Adc \| 10 mAdc \| 0.6 full \| 500 \| \| IN1184 \| 100 \| 35 Adc \| 10 mAdc \| 0.6 full \| 500 \| \| IN1185 \| 150 \| 35 Adc \| 10 mAdc \| 0.6 cycle \| 500 \| \| IN1186 \| 200 \| 35 Adc \| 10 mAdc \| 0.6 avg. \| 500 \| \| IN1187 \| 300 \| 35 Adc \| 10 mAdc \| 0.6 150°C \| 500 \| \| IN1188 \| 400 \| 35 Adc \| 10 mAdc \| 0.6 case \| 500 \| \| IN1189 \| 500 \| 35 Adc \| 10 mAdc \| 0.6 temp. \| 500 \| \| IN1190 \| 600 \| 35 Adc \| 10 mAdc \| 0.6 temp. \| 500 \| --- Peak Reverse Voltage (Volts) \| Type \| Peak Reverse Voltage (Volts) \| Average Forward Current \| Maximum Reverse Current* \| Fwd. Voltage Drop‡ (Volts) \| Surge Current† (Amps) \| \|----------\|------------------------------\|-------------------------\|--------------------------\|----------------------------\|-----------------------\| \| CH116Z \| 50 \| 50 Adc \| 20 mAdc \| 1.1 \| 500 \| \| CH116A \| 100 \| 50 Adc \| 20 mAdc \| 1.1 \| 500 \| \| CH116B \| 200 \| 50 Adc \| 20 mAdc \| 1.1 \| 500 \| \| CH116D \| 400 \| 50 Adc \| 20 mAdc \| 1.1 \| 500 \| \| CH116F \| 600 \| 50 Adc \| 20 mAdc \| 1.1 \| 500 \| \| IN1396 \| 50 \| 70 Adc \| 15 mAdc \| 1.3 \| 1500 \| \| IN1397 \| 100 \| 70 Adc \| 15 mAdc \| 1.3 \| 1500 \| \| IN1398 \| 150 \| 70 Adc \| 15 mAdc \| 1.3 \| 1500 \| \| IN1399 \| 200 \| 70 Adc \| 15 mAdc \| 1.3 \| 1500 \| \| IN1400 \| 300 \| 70 Adc \| 15 mAdc \| 1.3 \| 1500 \| \| IN1401 \| 400 \| 70 Adc \| 15 mAdc \| 1.3 \| 1500 \| \| IN1402 \| 500 \| 70 Adc \| 15 mAdc \| 1.3 \| 1500 \| \| CH109Z \| 50 \| 70 Adc \| 30 mAdc \| 1.3 \| 1500 \| \| CH109A \| 100 \| 70 Adc \| 30 mAdc \| 1.3 \| 1500 \| \| CH109B \| 200 \| 70 Adc \| 30 mAdc \| 1.3 \| 1500 \| \| CH109C \| 300 \| 70 Adc \| 30 mAdc \| 1.3 \| 1500 \| \| CH109D \| 400 \| 70 Adc \| 30 mAdc \| 1.3 \| 1500 \| \| CH109E \| 500 \| 70 Adc \| 30 mAdc \| 1.3 \| 1500 \| \| IN1291 \| 50 \| 80 Adc \| 30 mAdc \| 1.3 \| 1500 \| \| IN1292 \| 100 \| 80 Adc \| 30 mAdc \| 1.3 \| 1500 \| \| IN1293 \| 200 \| 80 Adc \| 30 mAdc \| 1.3 \| 1500 \| \| IN1294 \| 400 \| 80 Adc \| 30 mAdc \| 1.3 \| 1500 \| ▲ Max. fwd. voltage drop @ 0.5 amp., 25°C case temperature * Full cycle voltage drop for rectifier operated into inductive or resistive load at rated current and voltage ‡ 50 cycle units @ 100 amps D.C. and 25°C 70 and 80 amp units @ 150 amps D.C. and 25°C † Max. half sine wave peak current for one cycle @ 60 cps Storage temperature range for all types... -65°C to 200°C as required. Called Genalex ratchet relay, the unit is made by General Electric Co., Ltd. of England, is available in the U.S. from IMTRA Corp., 11 University Rd., Cambridge 38, Mass. Designed for application in automatic telephone systems, recording of aircraft instruments, control components in data processing systems, and the like, the relay is about $4\frac{1}{2}$ in. x $2\frac{1}{2}$ in. x $1\frac{1}{4}$ in. and weighs $10\frac{1}{2}$ ounces. The relay is a cam-and-ratchet type with an operating coil consumption ranging from 150-200 milliamperes at 50 volts depending on the springset loads. Magnet coil power is restricted to 10 watts to avoid overheating. The relay contains two separate springsets (operated by separate cams), each accommodating up to six contact springs in any combination of makes, breaks, or changeovers. Auxiliary armature springs are fitted to allow the relay to return to its home position by self-interruption or self-cycling. Most service adjustments are possible without removing the relay from its mounting. CIRCLE 307 ON READER SERVICE CARD Inertia Switch ONE MOVING PART A MINIATURE inertia switch that is accurately preset to respond to acceleration forces up to 250 g within a tolerance of plus or minus 15 percent of setting is now available from Inertia Switch, Inc., 311 West 43 Street, New York 36, N. Y. The switch, designated 6UO-200 (Milli-Mite), is designed with only one moving part, a precision-ground steel ball held against a solid base by a uniform magnetic field. When the opposing force of acceleration exceeds the magnetic force, the ball moves to close a normally open electrical contact. The switch automatically resets itself when acceleration is removed. Response time is 0.015 sec; electrical rating is 2 amps at 28 v d-c resistive. Switch is 0.75 in. in length, 0.25 in. in diameter. The switch meets all environmental specifications of MIL-E-5272, including an operation range of minus 65 deg F to plus 200 deg F. Miniature switches of this type can be used for control or limiting applications when actuated by acceleration, deceleration, impact and/or shock. CIRCLE 308 ON READER SERVICE CARD D-C Blower VANEAXIAL GLOBE INDUSTRIES, INC., 1784 Stanley Ave., Dayton 4, Ohio. New VAX-3-BD vaneaxial blowers operate from direct current to produce an optimum output of 90 cfm at 1 in. H₂O back pressure. A 28-v d-c maximum current is 1.7 amperes at free air delivery; motor windings may be provided for 4 to 115 v d-c operation. Precision aluminum castings are black anodized and designed to provide adequate environmental protection to meet pertinent MIL specifications. Mounting is made by clamping to servo flange on either end. Life exceeds 500 hours. Dimensions: 3 in. diameter by 3.7 in. maximum length. Weight: 16 oz. CIRCLE 309 ON READER SERVICE CARD Acceleration Switch SMALL AND LIGHT EASTERN TECHNICAL ASSOCIATES, INC., Main St., North Acton, Mass. Model AS-4 switch is responsive to acceleration in one direction along a single axis. Resetting is by means of high acceleration in the opposite direction or manual reset. The design is rugged and simple consisting of only one moving unit within the switch housing. The housing is constructed of aluminum and interior construction can be of non-magnetic materials resulting in a completely nonmagnetic component. Accuracy of the switch is under 0.2 g; response time less than 50 milliseconds; range, 0.2 g to 1000+ g. Unit is suited for commercial, industrial and military applications where acceleration sensitive switching is desired. CIRCLE 310 ON READER SERVICE CARD Power Supply ULTRA-PRECISION VIDEO INSTRUMENTS CO., INC., 3002 Pennsylvania Ave., Santa Monica, Calif. Model SR-200EP features 0.01 percent regulation for line volt- COMPLETE CIRCUITRY FACILITIES from artwork to finished boards... on both inexpensive commercial etched-copper circuitry through the most sophisticated "plated through hole" (mil. spec.) type boards. ENGINEERING AND DESIGN assistance in the development of printed circuit artwork. ASSEMBLY OF COMPONENTS of all types — commercial, miniature and sub-miniature, using either hand soldering, automatic flow soldering, or welding techniques. MAXIMUM QUALITY CONTROL is maintained in every phase of operation with individual inspectors specializing in artwork, photography, plating and etching, fabrication and assembly. For further information regarding your printed circuitry requirements write Marketing Department, Lockheed Electronics Company, Avionics and Industrial Products Division, 6201 E. Randolph Street, Los Angeles, California. LOCKHEED ELECTRONICS COMPANY CIRCLE 111 ON READER SERVICE CARD 772,000 Shares Electro-Science Investors, Inc. (A Federal Licensee Under the Small Business Investment Act of 1958) Common Stock (Par Value $1) Price $11 per Share Copies of the Prospectus may be obtained in any State in which this announcement is circulated from only such of the underwriters, including the undersigned, as may lawfully offer these securities in such State. Kidder, Peabody & Co. Lee Higginson Corporation Bache & Co. Francis I. duPont & Co. Goodbody & Co. J. A. Hogle & Co. Peters, Writer & Christensen, Inc. Rauscher, Pierce & Co., Inc. Paine, Webber, Jackson & Curtis Equitable Securities Corporation Shearson, Hammill & Co. Walston & Co., Inc. Parker, Ford and Company, Inc. Warner, Jennings, Mandel & Longstreth October 27, 1960. Battery Holder COMPACT DEVICE AUGAT BROS., INC., 33 Perry Ave., Attleboro, Mass. New battery holder, designed for use with Eveready E91, Mallory RM-502, and Burgess CD-6 size batteries, fills the need for a compact, dependable holder in portable equipment. Made of either cadmium plated steel, or beryllium copper, the holder features silver plated contacts pressed into nylon insulators. With both contacts insulated, the battery is completely insulated from the holder and chassis. CIRCLE 317 ON READER SERVICE CARD Vibration Calibrator BATTERY-OPERATED GENERAL RADIO CO., West Concord, Mass. Type 1557-A vibration calibrator is a small compact instrument for the calibration of a variety of accelerometers, from the small 3-4 gram high-frequency type to linear, limited-response, 300-gram models. It is also possible to obtain 1 g at 100 cps with this calibrator, via a pair of pill-boxed-shaped 50- gram disks, that are at opposite sides of the instrument. Both velocity and displacement-type pickups can be calibrated, as well as the acceleration types. Mercury cells, with 100-hr life, are used. CIRCLE 318 ON READER SERVICE CARD Coax Connectors POSITIVE CLAMPING GENERAL RF FITTINGS, INC., 702 Beacon St., Boston 15, Mass., announces a new series of TNC Coaxitube (semi-rigid) connectors. They feature Collett clamp construction—an extremely reliable method of positive cable clamping so cables cannot turn or pull out. The connectors are also available in TM series—miniatu- rized versions of TNC—for use where size and weight are critical considerations. Weatherproof, the metal parts of all Coaxitube connectors are silver plated; contacts have gold plate over silver plate. All are immediately available from stock. Specifications include impedance matched, 50 ohms; operating temperatures —65 F to + 260 F; voltage: 1500 v rms, 60 cycles (TNC), and 500 v rms, 60 cycles (TM). CIRCLE 319 ON READER SERVICE CARD Scatter Antenna MEETS MIL SPECS ANTENNA SYSTEMS, INC., Hingham Industrial Center, Hingham, Mass., has designed a new 60-ft scatter antenna which features low cost. It is fabricated out of galvanized steel to minimize maintenance and the overall design stresses maximum interchangeability and standardization of the various members. It is easy to erect, is an all-bolted construction, and meets the necessary military specifications. A complete line of r-f components is available for the antenna. CIRCLE 320 ON READER SERVICE CARD IN LESS THAN 4 SECONDS FROM THIS TO THIS OR THIS WITH THE REVOLUTIONARY PRODUCTION AID TOOL! "PIG-TAILOR"® Foot operated No accessories 3 minute set up $125.00 "PIG-TAILERING" a revolutionary new mechanical process for higher production at lower costs. Fastest PREPARATION and ASSEMBLY of Resistors, Capacitors, Diodes and all other axial lead components for TERMINAL BOARDS, PRINTED CIRCUITS and MINIATURIZED ASSEMBLIES. PIG-TAILERING eliminates: - Diagonal cutters - Long nose pliers - Operator judgment - 90% operator training time - Broken components - Broken leads - Short circuits from clippings - 65% chassis handling - Excessive lead tautness - Haphazard assembly methods. PIG-TAILERING provides: - Uniform component position - Uniform crimping pressure - Miniaturization spacing control - "S" leads for terminals - "U" leads for printed circuits - Individual cut and bend lengths - Better time/rate analysis - Closer cost control - Invaluable labor saving - Immediate cost recovery. Pays for itself in 2 weeks "SPIN-PIN"® Close-up views of "SPIN-PIN" illustrate fast assembly of tailed-lead wire to terminal. - No Training - No Pliers - No Clippings - Uniform Crimps - 22 Sizes PAYS FOR ITSELF THE FIRST DAY! $5.00 EACH Write for illustrated book to Dept. E-12 BRUNO-NEW YORK INDUSTRIES CORP. DESIGNERS & MANUFACTURERS OF ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT 460 WEST 34th STREET • NEW YORK 1, N.Y. Colorado ...CENSUS-PROVEN OUTSTANDING NEW INDUSTRIAL MARKET Census-proven one of the fastest growing states in the nation . . . survey-proven one of the outstanding new industrial markets. Colorado offers new industry profits with Pleasant Living. Discover the new markets and opportunities awaiting your company in Colorado. "Site-See" Industrial Colorado now...right at your desk. Send for Free Executive Portfolio "INDUSTRIAL COLORADO" Newly revised 9-booklet portfolio with up-to-the-minute data on Colorado's industrial sites, assets, opportunities and its many vacation wonderlands. All inquiries held confidential. COLORADO DEPT. OF DEVELOPMENT 20 STATE CAPITOL • DENVER 2, COLO Mixer-Preamplifier LOW NOISE LEL, INC., Akron St., Copiague, N.Y. This latest addition to the series of matched microwave-mixer amplifier units further extends the range of the company's microwave receiver front ends to include coverage of the 34,000 to 36,000 Mc band. The MMK-2 combines a Kₐ band waveguide mixer with a matched preamplifier and provides an overall gain of 25 db, an i-f bandwidth of 8 Mc and a noise figure of 10 db maximum. CIRCLE 333 ON READER SERVICE CARD Subcarrier Oscillator FOR F-M TELEMETERING DORSETT ELECTRONICS LABORATORIES INC., 119 West Boyd, Norman, Okla. Excellent data stability for f-m telemetering applications ranging from -55 C to +125 C is possible with the model 0-20 voltage controlled subcarrier oscillator. Utilizing silicon semiconductors, it is packaged in a die cast aluminum configuration that features a unique captive screw hold down and removal device. The package measures 2.25 in. high by 1.875 in. wide by 0.875 in. deep. The 0-20 is designed to meet a wide range of missile, satellite, aircraft, land line and industrial applications. Adjustment controls for centering, deviation sensitivity, and output are utilized, with accessibility provided at the top of the unit. Model 0-20 is available in all standard IRIG channels with inputs of either 0 to 5 v, or $-2\frac{1}{2}$ v to $+2\frac{1}{2}$ v. Priced at less than $300 in quantity, normal delivery is 30 to 60 days. CIRCLE 334 ON READER SERVICE CARD Vibration Exciter HIGH FORCE OUTPUT VIBRASONICS INC., 10 High St., Boston, Mass. The VS-10 vibration exciter has been used extensively for the production vibration testing of vacuum tubes and other small components. Unit is supplied with a permanent magnet which makes it convenient for portable use, or can be supplied with an electro-magnet on special order where precision of repeatability is desired. The unique spider suspension virtually eliminates all motions other than the axis of excitation. The armature eliminates multiple resonances and supplies virtually a point source of vibration. A specially designed h-f accelerometer can be built into the vibration platform on special order which, when used with a feedback controlling system, will give a constant ($\pm 1$ db) frequency response from 20 cps in excess of 20,000 cps. CIRCLE 335 ON READER SERVICE CARD Frequency Standard TRANSISTORIZED MANSON LABORATORIES, INC., 375 Fairfield Ave., Stamford, Conn., has introduced a transistorized, low-cost frequency standard, model RD-180, which provides highly stable output frequencies of 5 Mc, 1 Mc and 100 Kc for use in frequency control systems. The design objective in this new, ultrastable timing device was to construct a precision-engineered unit with uncompromised reliability and performance. It offers a stability of $\pm 5$ parts in $10^{10}$ per day. Included is an emergency battery source to provide continuous operation with automatic switchover in the event of line failure. CIRCLE 336 ON READER SERVICE CARD AC RATIO MEASUREMENTS? THERE'S A NORTH ATLANTIC INSTRUMENT TO MEET YOUR REQUIREMENTS, TOO... Now—from North Atlantic—you get the complete answer to AC ratio instrumentation problems—in the laboratory, on the production line, in the field. Specialists in ratiometry, North Atlantic offers a complete line of precision instruments to handle any ratio measurement task. All are designed to meet the most demanding requirements of missile age electronics—provide high accuracy, flexibility, component compatibility and service-proven performance. Some are shown above. If your project demands total solution to ratio measurement problems, write for Data File No. 10V. It provides complete specifications and application data and shows how North Atlantic's unparalleled experience in ratiometry can help you. \| 1. RATIO BOXES \| Both laboratory standards and general duty models. Ratio accuracies to 0.0001%. Operation from 25 cps to 10 kc. \| \|----------------\|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| 2. COMPLEX VOLTAGE RATIOIMETERS \| Integrated, single-unit systems for applications where phase relations are critical. Accuracies to 0.0001% unaffected by load variation. Three frequency operations. Direct reading of phase shift in milliradians or degrees. \| \| 3. PHASE ANGLE VOLTMETERS \| Versatile readout system for all ratiometry applications, providing direct reading of phase, null, quadrature, in-phase and total ratio in broadband-, single-, or multiple-frequency operation. \| \| 4. RATIO TEST SETS \| Ratio reference and readout in one convenient package for production line and similar applications. Can be equipped with any desired combination of ratio box and phase angle voltmeter. \| NORTH ATLANTIC INDUSTRIES, INC. TERMINAL DRIVE, PLAINVIEW, L.I., N.Y. • OVerbrook 1-8600 CIRCLE 117 ON READER SERVICE CARD Mighty Useful EA Recording DC MILLIAMMETERS DC MICROAMMETERS For a thousand and one uses in every field of research and production of which the following are typical: - Performance tests - Life tests - Tracer element studies - Photronic measurements - Medical electronics - Quality control in production On some of the above, the recorder is used direct. On others it operates in conjunction with additional equipment. \| DC Range \| Approximate Input Resistance \| Response \| \|----------------\|------------------------------\|----------\| \| 0-50 (A) Microamperes \| 200 ohms \| 1 sec. \| \| 0-1 Milliamperes \| 1400 ohms \| ¼ sec. (B) \| (A) Power required: 120 volts, 60 cycles. (B) With 50,000 ohms in external circuit. Here's a versatile team of direct writing instruments that combines extreme sensitivity with simplicity of design and ruggedness of construction for long, trouble-free life. The simple, direct-writing movement eliminates maintenance associated with servo or linkage driven systems. Like all E-A recording meters, E-A Milliammeters and E-A Microammeters are guaranteed for two years. Send for Catalog Sections 41 and 42 The ESTERLINE-ANGUS Company No. 1 in fine Recording Instruments for more than 50 years. DEPT. E, BOX 596, INDIANAPOLIS 6, INDIANA Literature of the Week TUNING FORK OSCILLATOR Industrial Test Equipment Co., 55 E. 11th St., New York 3, N. Y. Description and specifications for the model JF400 tuning fork oscillator are given in a recent bulletin. Unit described consists of an electronically driven tuning fork and output filter. CIRCLE 321 ON READER SERVICE CARD MICROWAVE TEST INSTRUMENTS PRD Electronics, Inc., 202 Tillary St., Brooklyn 1, N. Y. Four-page, two-color bulletin 400 categorizes hundreds of PRD products by frequency range, waveguide size, and price. CIRCLE 322 ON READER SERVICE CARD VIBRATION TESTING MB Electronics, 781 Whalley Ave., New Haven 8, Conn. A new 16-page brochure describing the complete line of products manufactured by the company to excite, measure and control vibration is now available. CIRCLE 323 ON READER SERVICE CARD P-C BOARD Elgin Laboratories, Inc., Waterford, Pa. "Econo-Grip", a stock, paper base epoxy, printed circuit board is discussed in a newly published catalog sheet. Applications, technical description, stock sizes available, and prices are given. CIRCLE 324 ON READER SERVICE CARD R-F CHOKES Cinema Engineering, division of Aerovox Corp., 1100 Chestnut St., Burbank, Calif., has released a new data sheet, catalog 22CA, on custom quality encapsulated radio-frequency chokes. CIRCLE 325 ON READER SERVICE CARD MASS SPECTROMETER Consolidated Electrodynamics Corp., 360 Sierra Madre Villa, Pasadena, Calif. An eight-page, illustrated bulletin describes in detail the specifications and applications of the type 21-110 mass spectrometer. CIRCLE 326 ON READER SERVICE CARD INDUSTRIAL DIGITAL VOLTMETER Non-Linear Systems, Inc., Del Mar, Calif. A two-color, four page bulletin explains how the model 484 industrial digital voltmeter can be used with plug-in accessories to build low cost, reliable and highly accurate measuring and data logging systems. CIRCLE 327 ON READER SERVICE CARD BASIC SWITCH Micro Switch, Freeport, Ill. Data sheet No. 181 contains two pages of information on the type E basic switch which feature a steady state current rating of 25 amperes without sacrificing accurate repeatability and precision performance. CIRCLE 328 ON READER SERVICE CARD DELAY LINE COIL FORMS Corning Electronic Components, Bradford, Pa. Delay line coil forms made of low expansion, low loss glass are described in Engineering Reference File CE-7.00. The sheet should be requested under company letterhead. SINUSOIDAL OSCILLATOR Solid State Electronics Co., 15321 Rayen St., Sepulveda, Calif., has published a bulletin describing the model S-200 silicon transistor sinusoidal oscillator, an epoxy encapsulated unit designed to create a sine wave signal source. CIRCLE 329 ON READER SERVICE CARD CAPACITORS Marshall Industries, 430 North Halstead St., Pasadena, Calif., has available two new engineering data sheets giving complete performance characteristics, specifications, illustrations and order information about metallized Mylar capacitors. CIRCLE 330 ON READER SERVICE CARD TRIODE OSCILLATOR John Gombos Co., Inc., Webro Road, Clifton, N. J. A technical data sheet illustrates and describes model 151C miniature C-band triode oscillator which covers from 4,200 Mc to 6,000 Mc in 50 Mc steps. CIRCLE 331 ON READER SERVICE CARD SPECIAL PURPOSE COMPUTERS Lockheed Electronics Co., U. S. Highway 1, Metuchen, N. J. Advantages of special purpose computers in terms of low initial investment and minimum upkeep are described in a 4-page brochure. CIRCLE 332 ON READER SERVICE CARD Lepel HIGH FREQUENCY INDUCTION HEATING EQUIPMENT For Hardening • Annealing • Soldering Brazing • Zone Refining • Crystal Growing ELECTRONIC TUBE GENERATORS: 1 kw; 2½ kw; 5 kw; 10 kw; 20 kw; 30 kw; 50 kw; 75 kw; 100 kw. SPARK GAP CONVERTERS: 2 kw; 4 kw; 7½ kw; 15 kw; 30 kw. WRITE FOR THE NEW LEPEL CATALOG 36 illustrated pages of valuable information. Lepel HIGH FREQUENCY LABORATORIES, INC. 55th ST. & 37th AVE., WOODSIDE 77, N.Y. CIRCLE 210 ON READER SERVICE CARD ALL DIGITS CAN BE READ FROM ANY ANGLE IN-LINE DIGITAL READOUT featuring ONE-PLANE PRESENTATION Series 10000 The IEE digital readout puts the digit right up front, visible from any angle. Readability is unlimited by stacked characters and sharp, clear-white digits provide high-contrast, error-proof reading. Use of words, color, and multiple projections offer utmost versatility. Binary-To-Decimal Decoders Available. Representatives in Principal Cities PRICE $18.00 COMPLETE QUANTITY PRICES ON REQUEST WRITE TODAY FOR COMPLETE SPECIFICATIONS. INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONIC ENGINEERS, INC. Engineers and Manufacturers of Fully Automatic Systems and Digital Readouts 5528 Vineland Avenue, North Hollywood, California CIRCLE 211 ON READER SERVICE CARD digital simulation Realistic Tests . . . mean Reliable Results Solid State PCM Simulator ESS-500 by Telemetrics Realistic preliminary checkout of PCM telemetry ground stations assures reliable results in performance. The Electronic Signal Simulator ESS-500 by Telemetrics, Inc. gives this assurance. . . simulates the digital output of an airborne or ground multiplexer and digitizer for both calibration and checkout . . . presents serial input data . . . applicable also in research and development of pulse coded systems. Versatile Signal Simulator provides for word length selection, master sync code, 0-to-full scale coding, and 11 special data codes . . . through use of plug-in units, can generate binary, binary-coded-decimal, excess three, biquinary, or any other digital code. NRZ and RZ output signals are provided at +20 volts and —10 volts for full scale; with zero volts for zero scale. Completely transistorized unit occupies only 5⅛-inch panel space in standard 19-inch relay rack. Telemetrics, Inc. 12927 S. Budlong Avenue, Gardena, California CIRCLE 119 ON READER SERVICE CARD Bomac Erecting New Laboratory BOMAC LABORATORIES, INC., Beverly, Mass., has under construction a new building to house the research division, which will be under the direction of Wellesley J. Dodds, vice president, engineering. This new addition, the seventh for Bomac since 1951, will be situated on Route 128, adjacent to the present facilities. It will be a 20,000 sq ft, U-shaped, one story, brick building, and is scheduled for completion late in the fall. With this addition, Bomac's facilities will total over 135,000 sq ft. Bomac became a subsidiary of Varian Associates of Palo Alto, Calif., in March, 1959. Besides Bomac, Varian's present corporate structure includes Varian of Canada Ltd. in Georgetown, Ontario; S-F-D Laboratories, Union, N. J.; Semicon Associates, Inc. in Lexington, Ky., and Watsonville, Calif.; and Varian A. G. in Zurich and Zug, Switzerland. Harold C. Booth, Bomac's executive vice president and board member of Varian Associates, says: "Under Varian's policy of broadening and strengthening its product lines and fields of interest by sponsoring research programs, Bomac will also enter into programs of basic research. Research has been the most important factor in putting Varian where it is today, and this addition at Bomac is only part of the overall company research program. Plans were recently approved by Varian's board of directors for 225,000 sq ft of new space to be constructed in the next year at the Palo Alto facilities. S-F-D Laboratories is also expanding to undertake further research programs." Edward L. Ginzton, board chairman of Varian, had the following to say on the new Bomac division: "It has always been Varian's policy to carry on an R&D program far more extensive than necessary for immediate manufacturing purposes. The value of this policy has been demonstrated by the company's rapid growth during the 12 years since its founding. We believe that this policy must be applied at each of Varian's affiliated companies. Bomac's location in the Boston electronics community should facilitate rapid expansion in research and development." Stewart-Warner Corp. Elects Vice President DONALD A. POTTER, general manager of the electronics division of Stewart-Warner Corp., Chicago, Ill., was recently elected a vice president. He has been with Stewart-Warner since 1947. Prior to becoming head of Stewart-Warner Electronics in January, 1959, Potter was an executive of S-W's South Wind division at Indianapolis, Ind. Raytheon Opens New Canada Plant RAYTHEON CANADA LTD., Waterloo, Ontario, which started business there in 1956 with three employees and now has 190, has opened a new $400,000 plant. John R. Cann, executive vice president and general manager, said the 25-acre site on which the new plant is built provides room for substantial expansion. By 1963 the firm plans to have 270 employees and a $1 million annual payroll. Dunbar Will Direct Electronic Research THE CONVAIR (SAN DIEGO) DIVISION of General Dynamics Corp. recently named A. S. Dunbar chief of electronic research. He formerly was manager of electromagnetics research at Lockheed missile and space division. EIA Renames Borth Committee Chairman REAPPOINTMENT of Robert T. Borth, General Electric Co., Washington, as chairman of the Electronic Industries Association's Congressional Information Committee has been announced. The committee is responsible for SQUARE-LOOP TAPE CORES TO MEET YOUR TOUGHEST SPECIFICATIONS Speed your specs to Dynacor when you want square-loop tape cores to exact requirements—fast! Here you'll find a dependable combination of personnel, experience and facilities—the know-how to deliver parameters to your very tightest tolerance requirements for switching time, flux, and noise. Dynacor Square-Loop Tape Cores are manufactured with the high permeability alloys—Grain-Oriented 50-50 Nickel Iron, 4-79 Molybdenum Permalloy, and Grain-Oriented 3% Silicon Iron...with fully guaranteed uniformity...under rigid standards of control and inspection. Look to Dynacor for reliable production and swift delivery of your tape core requirements. For your convenience a full line of standard units are stocked for immediate off-the-shelf delivery—Send for bulletins DN 2000, DN 2001, DN 2002. KROHN-HITE CORPORATION 580 Massachusetts Avenue • Cambridge 39, Mass. Pioneering in Quality Electronic Instruments CIRCLE 121 ON READER SERVICE CARD FOR MAXIMUM RELIABILITY INCREASE TRANSISTOR EFFICIENCY 25% - 27% and prevent thermal runaway THERE'S A BIRTCHER RADIATOR FOR MOST TRANSISTORS! Birtcher transistor radiators for most sizes of transistors permit you to get up to 25% to 27% better output efficiency. You can now either increase your input wattage up to 27%, or eliminate up to 27% of the heat with Birtcher radiators. and thermal runaway is prevented! To assure circuitry reliability... specify Birtcher radiators. Birtcher qualification tests conducted under MIL standards prove these performance results. FOR CATALOG and TEST REPORTS write: THE BIRTCHER CORPORATION industrial division 745 S. Monterey Pass Rd. Monterey Park, Calif. ANGelus 8-8584 Sales engineering representatives in principal cities. CIRCLE 214 ON READER SERVICE CARD INERTIAL SYSTEM TEST Can you measure a movement several thousand times slower than the hour hand of your watch? With the skills of an expert organization behind you, could you design and develop your own test methods, equipments, and procedures? These would be for the evaluation of servo, gyro, and accelerometer performance and early prototype inertial systems, and would include precision voltage analog measurements. Write to Mr. S. L. Hirsch. LITTON SYSTEMS, INC. Electronic Equipments Division Beverly Hills, California Lagerstrom Joins Eitel-McCullough RICHARD P. LAGERSTROM has joined Eitel-McCullough, Inc., San Carlos, Calif., as a senior scientist in the company's research division. As a research assistant and associate with Stanford University's Electronics Research Laboratories since 1951, and with Hughes Aircraft Co. from 1946 to 1951, Lagerstrom has worked on the development of various new techniques and methods in the field of twt's and microwave devices. Adler Electronics Adds New Plant ADLER ELECTRONICS, INC., New Rochelle, N. Y., has more than doubled its production capacity with the addition of a new 55,000 sq ft plant in Pelham, N. Y. This facility, which recently opened with a pilot force of 150 employees, houses a major portion of the company's manufacturing operations. Adler produces transportable communications systems, missile ground support systems, and low power tv transmitters and repeaters. Holtzman Takes Post Of R&D Director APPOINTMENT of Sidny M. Holtzman to director of research and development for Fidelity Electronic Corp., Riverside, N. J., is announced. He has been directing research and development activities for the firm since July, and will now keep EIA members informed on major questions before Congress affecting the electronics industry. take part also in production and marketing activities. Holtzman has been associated with Trylon Radio Labs, Inc., and RCA in product engineering. Industro Transistor Appoints E. S. Davis EDWIN S. DAVIS was recently named device design engineer by Industro Transistor Corp., Long Island City, N. Y. Previous to joining Industro, he was supervisor of pilot engineering for CBS Electronics, Lowell, Mass., supervising project engineers in germanium power transistor device design. CMC Names Manager Of Manufacturing JAY SCHWALBE has been appointed manager of manufacturing of Computer Measurements Co., Sylmar, Calif. Prior to joining CMC, he was plant and production manager of Electric Cords and Supply Co., a division of ITT. Frederick Joins Epsco, Inc. ARDEN H. FREDERICK has recently joined the instruments division of Epsco, Inc., Cambridge, Mass. He was formerly director of engineering at Production Research Corp., subsidiary of Radio Condenser Co. Sperry Products Appoints Main ROBERT C. MAIN has joined Sperry Products Co., a division of Howe Sound Co., Danbury, Conn., to assume the duties and responsibilities of manager of engineering, a newly created position. He was formerly with United Aircraft as engineering manager of the missiles and space systems division. Wise Becomes ITA Board Chairman BERNARD WISE has been elected to the chairmanship of the board of directors of Industrial Transmitters & Antennas, Inc., Lansdown, Pa. He will also continue in his capacity as president. Wise has been associated with RCA in its broadcast marketing and engineering divisions. Rogers Takes Over Newly-Created Post APPOINTMENT of Gordon F. Rogers as manager of advanced development for RCA communications equipment is announced. In the newly-created position, he will head an advanced development group at RCA's David Sarnoff Research Center at Princeton, N. J. Rogers, who joined RCA thirteen years ago, has served in RCA activities at New York, Hollywood, Chicago and Camden. Aero Geo Astro Hires Peeler GEORGE D. M. PEELER has been named senior laboratory director of the Aero Geo Astro Corp., Alexandria, Va. Prior to this appointment he had been manager of the microwave development department, missile systems division of the Raytheon Company in Bedford, Mass. Shockley Adds Ewing To Research Staff RICHARD E. EWING recently joined the senior research staff of Shockley Transistor Unit of Clevite Transistor, Palo Alto, Calif. Before joining this research team, Ewing was working in the field of nuclear fuels with General Electric in Richland, Wash. Hartman Moves Up At Philco Corp. LAWTON M. HARTMAN was recently appointed associate director of research—operations at Philco Corp., Philadelphia, Pa. With the research division since 1958 when he joined Philco as a consultant and member of the technical systems planning group, Hartman has recently been responsible for directing one of Philco's important space communications programs. ENGINEERS: A NEW CONCEPT IN PROFESSIONAL JOB SELECTION BY GENERAL ELECTRIC'S LIGHT MILITARY ELECTRONICS DEPARTMENT If you've been thinking of changing your job some day—or in the near future—but have hesitated because of the many uncertainties involved, Light Military's new concept in professional job selection will be of paramount interest to you. What is it? The new concept is based on a series of technical tests developed and pre-tested by Light Military engineers. They are designed to be taken, scored and evaluated by the individual engineer, all in the privacy of his own home. And, because the sole purpose is to provide you with a novel, objective means for self-appraisal, your score need not be divulged to us at any time. Here's how it works: First, fill out the coupon below and check off the tests which apply to your training and professional experience. Forward the completed coupon to us and in a few days you will receive the tests, a sealed answer sheet and explanatory material. During a convenient hour at home, take the test and score it with the answer sheet provided. Then, compare your performance with the criterion group composed of Light Military engineers at all levels who took the same test. In most cases you will be able to relate your score to years of experience, from 2 to more than 10. What it measures: If your adjusted score is equal to, or more than the years of experience you possess, the probability is excellent that a significant community of technical interest exists between you and The Light Military Department. In addition, a valid assumption can be made that a high probability for success awaits you here. And remember, your score need not be divulged to us at any time; it is for your own guidance exclusively! CURRENT AREAS OF ACTIVITY AT THE LIGHT MILITARY DEPT. - SPACE COMMUNICATIONS & TELEMETRY - MISSILE & SATELLITE COMPUTERS - SPACE VEHICLE GUIDANCE - UNDERSEA WEAPONS SYSTEMS - MASS MEDIA STORAGE - SPACE DETECTION & SURVEILLANCE - COMMAND GUIDANCE & INSTRUMENTATION - INFRARED MISSILE APPLICATIONS MAIL THIS COUPON FOR YOUR TESTS Mr. R. Bach Light Military Electronics Dept. General Electric Company, French Road, Utica, New York Please send me tests (limited to 2 subjects per individual) answer and self-evaluation sheets covering the areas checked: ☐ RADAR ☐ MICROWAVE ☐ ELECTRONIC PACKAGING (ME) ☐ COMMUNICATIONS ☐ ADMINISTRATIVE ENGINEERING NAME _______________________________________________________ HOME ADDRESS_______________________________________________ HOME PHONE ___________________________ ZONE ______ STATE ____________ CITY _______________________________________________________ DEGREE(S) _________________________________________________ YEAR(S) RECEIVED _________________________________________ LMED LIGHT MILITARY ELECTRONICS DEPARTMENT GENERAL ELECTRIC EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES The advertisements in this section include all employment opportunities—executive, management, technical, selling, office, skilled, manual, etc. Positions Vacant Civil Service Opportunities Employment Agencies Positions Wanted Selling Opportunities Wanted Employment Services Part Time Work Selling Opportunities Offered Labor Bureaus DISPLAYED The advertising rate is $24.33 per inch for all advertising agencies and $25.00 per inch for a contract basis. (Rates on rates quoted on request.) An advertising inch is measured 7/8" vertically on a column—3 columns—20 inches to a page. Subject to Agency Commission. Send NEW AOS to CLASSIFIED ADV. DIV. of ELECTRONICS, P.O. Box 12, N.Y. 36, N.Y. UNDISPLAYED $2.40 per line, minimum 3 lines. To figure advance payment count 5 average words as a line. Box Numberments as 1 line. Discount on 100. If full payment is made in advance for 4 consecutive months. Not subject to Agency Commission. Electronics Reliability Engineer Republic Aviation has an exceptional opening for an Electronics Reliability Engineer. He will be responsible for analyzing electronic circuits and predicting the theoretical reliability of electronic equipment. He will also perform failure effect analysis, review proper parts application, and recommend piece part utilization. An EE degree and 5-10 years experience in electronics with at least 2-3 years in reliability required. Forward replies in complete confidence to Mr. James Hunter Technical Employment Supervisor REPUBLIC AVIATION Farmingdale, Long Island, N.Y. (Less than 1 hour from New York City) CIRCLE 383 ON READER SERVICE CARD ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS An unusual opportunity awaits a qualified engineer who will assume an important area of responsibility in a well established electronic equipment manufacturing firm. Minimum requirements: Bachelor Degree in Electrical Engineering plus experience in the development of electronic equipment. Salary to be commensurate with qualifications. G.L.A. is located in a pleasant mid-state New York community. Send resume or wire: MR. R. E. POWERS GENERAL LABORATORY ASSOCIATES, INC. 1 Lee Avenue Norwich, New York CIRCLE 385 ON READER SERVICE CARD Creative Advertising Man who knows TECHNICAL ELECTRONICS Stimulating responsibilities as Creative-Contact Executive in Gardner's exclusive Creative-Contact Department: • discovering and developing advertising opportunities for nationally-famous clients. • writing and visualizing complete campaigns on electronic/electrical products. • working and growing with outstanding creative and account men. If you have a solid background in technical electronics, at least 2 years of experience in advertising and writing, and a deep ambition to advance yourself, this is an opportunity you should investigate immediately. Write P. R. SMITH, Personnel Director GARDNER ADVERTISING CO. 915 Olive Street St. Louis 1, Missouri CIRCLE 384 ON READER SERVICE CARD PROFESSIONAL SERVICES OFFICE OF JOSEPH R. PERNICE ELECTRONIC and INDUSTRIAL CONSULTANTS Specializing in electronics, military and aviation industries in Europe and United Kingdom. Consultations on military, professional and commercial problems. Specialized services are concerned on technical, industrial and sales matters and on contractual negotiations. We make recommendations on manufacturing possibilities, licensing grants, acquisition of plants and financial industrial interests. Expertise on all development possibilities. Recommendations on marketing and promotion of new products and engineering projects; Organizing and implementing sales promotion programs, market surveys, demonstration and training. Set-up of dealers and sales representatives in Europe. 15 rue de la Faisanderie Paris (16) France Phone: POIncare 3274 EUGENE MITTELMANN, E.E., Ph.D. Consulting Engineer, Physicist ELECTRONICS FOR INDUSTRY Analysis, Research and Development 549 West Washington Boulevard Chicago 6, Illinois Central 6-2983 ERCO RADIO LABORATORIES, INC. Radio Communications Equipment Engineering - Design - Development - Production Our 36th Year in Air to Ground Communication and Radio Intercoms Garden City • Long Island • New York TELECHROME MFG. CORP. Electronic Design Specialists COLOR TELEVISION EQUIPMENT Flying Spot Cameras, Color Systems, Keyers, Monitors, Oscilloscopes and Related Apparatus Televisioning for Guided Missiles. J. J. Pankin-Curman, Pres. & Dir. of Eng. 28 Rancho Dr. Amityville, L. I., N. Y. WHEN TIME IS SHORT.... put the solution of your problems up to a specialized Consultant. Hisbroad experience may save you months of costly experimentation. SEARCHLIGHT SECTION (Classified Advertising) BUSINESS OPPORTUNITIES EQUIPMENT - USED or RESALE DISPLAYED — RATES $2.40 a line, minimum 3 lines. To figure advertising other than on a contract basis, add one column, 3 cols.—30 inches to a page. UNDISPLAYED BOX NUMBERS count as one line additional. DISCOUNT OF 10% if full payment is made in advance for four consecutive insertions. Send NEW ADVERTISEMENTS or Inquiries to Classified Adv. Div. of Electronics, P. O. Box 12, N. Y. C. The publisher cannot accept advertising in the Searchlight Section, which lists the names of the manufacturers of resistors, capacitors, rheostats, and potentiometers or other names designed to describe such products. --- SPECIAL PURPOSE TUBES \| Part No. \| Description \| Price \| \|----------\|-------------\|-------\| \| OA2 \| 80 4X150A \| $12.50 \| \| OA3 \| .85 4X250B \| $30.00 \| \| OB1 \| .50 4X250C \| $30.00 \| \| OB2 \| .75 SC2 \| $15.00 \| \| OC3 \| .50 SCPIA \| $9.50 \| \| OD1 \| .30 SCPIA \| $17.50 \| \| OD4 \| 1.12 SR4G7 \| $9.00 \| \| 1B24A \| 10.00 SR4WG \| $5.00 \| \| 1B35A \| 4.00 SR4Y \| $10.00 \| \| 1B36A \| 35.00 SR5PA \| $1.15 \| \| 1B59 \| 9.00 SY3WGT \| $1.15 \| \| 1B63A \| 12.50 SAG \| $7.50 \| \| 1CA \| 4.00 SAGY \| $7.50 \| \| 1P21 \| 25.00 6AKSW \| $1.00 \| \| 1P25 \| 10.00 6ANWA \| $1.00 \| \| 1T1C \| 15.00 6AT7O \| $2.00 \| \| 2AP1A \| 3.50 6BG4 \| $2.50 \| \| 2B1A \| 6.00 6BL6 \| $3.00 \| \| 2C39 \| 3.50 6BM6A \| $30.00 \| \| 2C39A \| 7.50 6BM6A \| $30.00 \| \| 2C40 \| 6.50 6C21 \| $10.00 \| \| 2C41 \| 15.00 6C46A \| $1.00 \| \| 2C50 \| 4.00 6JAWA \| $1.25 \| \| 2C51 \| 1.50 6JAY \| $6.00 \| \| 2C52 \| 1.50 6JAY \| $6.00 \| \| 2D21 \| 1.50 6LW6GB \| $1.75 \| \| 2D21W \| 2.00 6Q50 \| $2.50 \| \| 2E26 \| 2.50 6L7WGT \| $1.25 \| \| 2E26 \| 2.50 6L7WGT \| $1.25 \| \| 2E30 \| 1.85 6N3WGT \| $5.00 \| \| 2E30 \| 3.50 6N3WGT \| $5.00 \| \| 2F11 \| 75.00 6X4W \| $7.50 \| \| 2F25 \| 8.50 6X3WT \| $1.00 \| \| 2F25 \| 12.50 6X3WT \| $1.00 \| \| 2F29 \| 25.00 10KP7 \| $20.00 \| \| 2F30 \| 7.50 10KCTWA\| $1.00 \| \| 2K34 \| 100.00 10KCTWA \| $1.00 \| \| 2K41 \| 25.00 26Z5W \| $2.50 \| \| 2K42 \| 125.00 26Z5W \| $2.50 \| \| 2K42 \| 125.00 35TG \| $2.50 \| \| 2K44 \| 125.00 FG-105 \| $17.50 \| \| 2K44 \| 125.00 FG-112 \| $17.50 \| \| 2K50 \| 4.50 212E \| $25.00 \| \| 2X2A \| 1.00 244A \| $2.50 \| \| 2X2A \| 7.50 244A \| $2.50 \| \| 3B24W \| 1.50 249B \| $1.00 \| \| 3B25 \| 3.00 249C \| $5.00 \| \| 3B28 \| 4.00 252A \| $7.50 \| \| 3B28A \| 4.00 252A \| $7.50 \| \| 3C22 \| 30.00 254A \| $2.00 \| \| 3C23 \| 5.00 254A \| $2.00 \| \| 3C23 \| 5.00 259A \| $3.50 \| \| 3C24/24G \| 3.00 262B \| $3.50 \| \| 3D22 \| 8.00 267A \| $10.00 \| \| 3D22 \| 10.00 267A \| $10.00 \| \| 3J21 \| 35.00 27A \| $4.00 \| \| 3J31 \| 35.00 27A \| $4.00 \| \| 3J31 \| 125.00 275A \| $4.00 \| \| 3K22 \| 125.00 283A \| $3.50 \| \| 3K23 \| 125.00 293A \| $4.50 \| \| 3K23 \| 125.00 293A \| $4.50 \| \| 3K30 \| 50.00 300B \| $5.00 \| \| 3K30 \| 50.00 300B \| $5.00 \| \| 3K30 \| 100.00 300A3 \| $140.00 \| \| 3K31 \| 8.85 304A \| $3.00 \| \| 3K31 \| 30.00 304A \| $3.00 \| \| 3K31 \| 30.00 304A \| $3.00 \| \| 4-65A \| 9.50 310A \| $3.50 \| \| 4-125A \| 20.00 311A \| $2.50 \| \| 4-125A \| 30.00 311A \| $2.50 \| \| 4-400A \| 32.50 323A \| $6.50 \| \| 1000A \| 90.00 327A \| $15.00 \| \| 4A10 \| 11.00 329A \| $3.50 \| \| 4B31 \| 13.00 336A \| $2.50 \| \| 4C35 \| 13.00 337A \| $3.00 \| \| 4E27 \| 12.50 340A \| $2.00 \| \| 4J22 \| 25.00 347A \| $1.50 \| --- ALL TUBES ARE NEW, INDIVIDUALLY CARTONED, FULLY GUARANTEED Orders for less than $10 cannot be processed --- ELK GROVE, CALIFORNIA SUPPLIERS OF ELECTRON TUBES SINCE 1932 CIRCLE 466 ON READER SERVICE CARD 127 So Much to Read – So Little Time to Read It NO LONGER is it sufficient for a business magazine to demonstrate editorial superiority. To that superiority must be added the ingredient of readability. Toward that end, ELECTRONICS began early this year a series of typography and format changes. Improvement is a continuing program with us, not an experiment or an all-at-once change to another static dimension. We’re making the magazine faster and easier to read—no mean chore, considering the scope and depth of the editorial content. Your reading habits must be selective. That’s why we intend not only to warrant your reading time, but to conserve it as far as possible. After all, we have little choice. ELECTRONICS is bringing you more than twice the number of feature articles, and 73 percent more editorial pages than you received in 1956, a short four years ago. This increase was necessary to keep you fully informed concerning our rapidly expanding electronics technology. You can, by the way, help us to help you. Just how good are your reading habits? How fast do you read and absorb a written page? Want to know some simple procedures which can cut your reading time in half? Send for the booklet “How to Cut Your Reading Time.” Circle number 259 on our reader service card. No charge, of course. The Publisher, upon written request from any subscriber to our New York Office, agrees to refund that part of the subscription price applying to copies not yet mailed. The future... from your point of view A good day's growth for a hard day's work. A position to suit your talents, experience and ambition. Opportunity to exercise full initiative in Research, Radar, Doppler Navigational Systems, Magnetic Memory Systems, Microwave and Computers. PLUS Management awareness encouraging exploration beyond the range of present knowledge. 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Fitzgerald Laboratory For Electronics 1079 Commonwealth Avenue Boston 15, Massachusetts Laboratory For Electronics ## INDEX TO ADVERTISERS ### Audited Paid Circulation \| Company \| Page \| \|----------------------------------------------\|------\| \| AC Electronics \| 94 \| \| Adler Electronics, Inc. \| 61 \| \| Aetna Life Insurance Co. \| 2 \| \| Airpax Electronics, Inc. \| 21 \| \| Allen-Bradley Co. \| 45 \| \| Amphenol-Borg Electronics Corporation \| 96 \| \| Anaconda Wire & Cable Co. \| 53, 54 \| \| Autonetics, A Division of North American Aviation, Inc. \| 42 \| \| Avco Corp. \| 69 \| \| Avco Corp., Nashville Division \| 29 \| \| Barnstead Still & Sterilizer Co. \| 14 \| \| Behlman Engineering Co. \| 41 \| \| Bendix Corporation \| 68 \| \| Bendix-Pacific Division \| \| \| Red Bank Division \| 62 \| \| Bendix Systems Division \| 115 \| \| Birtcher Corporation, The \| 122 \| \| Boonton Radio Corp. \| 58 \| \| Bruno-New York Industries Corp. \| 116 \| \| Brush Instruments Division of Clevite Corp. \| 17, 18 \| \| Cannon Electric Co. \| 8, 9 \| \| Carborundum Company, The \| 32 \| \| Colorado Dept. of Development \| 116 \| \| Computer Engineering Associates, Inc. \| 70 \| \| Couch Ordnance, Inc. \| 101 \| \| Delco Radio \| 56 \| \| Dialight Corporation \| 107 \| \| Dynacor Inc., A Subsidiary of Sprague Electric Co. \| 121 \| \| Edco Corporation \| 116 \| \| Espey Mfg. and Electronics Corp. \| 57 \| \| Esterline-Angus Company, Inc. \| 118 \| \| FXR Inc. \| 6 \| \| Freed Transformer Co., Inc. \| 130 \| \| General Electric Co. \| 65 \| \| General Electrodynamics Corporation \| 99 \| \| Green Instrument Co., Inc. \| 70 \| \| Hermetic Seal Transformer Co. \| 100 \| \| Hewlett-Packard Company \| Fold-Out Cover \| \| Hitachi, Ltd. \| 34 \| \| Hughes Aircraft Co. \| 37 \| \| Industrial Electronic Engineers, Inc. \| 119 \| \| Institute of Radio Engineers \| 63 \| \| International Resistance Co. \| 33 \| \| International Telephone and Telegraph Corp., Components Div. \| 92 \| \| Jones Division, Clinch Mfg. Co., Howard B. \| 115 \| \| Jones Electronics Co., Inc., M. C. \| 25 \| \| Keithley Instruments, Inc. \| 107 \| \| Kidder, Peabody & Co. \| 112 \| \| Kintel, A Division of Cohu Electronics Inc. \| 3rd Cover \| \| Krohn-Hite Corp. \| 121 \| \| Kyoritsu Electrical Instruments, Works, Ltd. \| 19 \| \| L & R Manufacturing Company \| 68 \| \| Laboratory for Electronics Inc. \| 131 \| \| Lepel High Frequency Laboratories, Inc. \| 119 \| \| Litton Industries \| 122 \| \| Lockheed Electronics Company \| 67, 110 \| \| Magnetic Metals Co. \| 28 \| \| Mallory and Co., Inc., P. R. \| 7 \| \| Markem Machine Co. \| 105 \| \| Martin Co. \| 71 \| \| Melabs \| 59 \| \| Mercury Electronic Company \| 123 \| \| Mico Instrument Co. \| 115 \| \| Minnesota Mining & Mfg. Co., Chemical Division \| 66 \| \| Mitsumi Electric Co., Ltd. \| 70 \| \| Moseley Co., F. L. \| 60 \| \| Mycalex Corp. of America \| 58 \| \| National Semiconductor, Ltd. \| 68 \| \| Neff Instrument Corporation \| 19 \| \| New Hermes Engraving Machine Corp. \| 112 \| \| North Atlantic Industries, Inc. \| 117 \| \| North Electric Co. \| 72 \| * See Advertisement in the July 20, 1960 issue of Electronics Buyers' Guide for complete line of products or services. --- PARTIAL LISTING ONLY Send for NEW large transformer catalog. Also ask for complete laboratory test equipment catalog. FREED-TRANSFORMER CO., INC. 1799 Waldorf St. Rochester 15 (Suburban) 77 N.Y. CIRCLE 130 ON READER SERVICE CARD If you measure the output of thermocouples, and the thermocouples are bonded to a rocket engine or almost any other grounded object, and the distance between thermocouples and amplifiers is more than a few feet, you should consider the above illustration carefully. While we'll admit your thermocouples probably aren't producing square waves, nine chances out of ten you do have a problem with 60-cycle common-mode noise. Nearly everybody does. What can be done about it? Well, KIN TEL differential amplifiers reject ruinous 60-cycle common-mode hum and noise by a factor of 3,000,000 to 1 with any unbalance up to 1000 ohms in series with either side of the input, 1,000,000 to 1 with 10,000 ohms unbalance. Rejection for DC is practically infinite. Input on both input and output can be floated up to ±300 volts DC or peak AC. The secret of this exceptionally high common-mode rejection in the presence of high input unbalance is isolation. Input signal terminals are isolated from chassis ground by 10,000,000 megohms and 0.6 micromicrofarads. Input and output signal terminals are completely isolated from each other. Output signal terminals are isolated from ground to almost the same extent as the input. With this virtually perfect isolation, you can rescue microvolt level signals from volts of common-mode noise, regardless of whether load and transducer are floating or grounded, balanced or unbalanced. Specifications other than common-mode rejection are equally impressive. Linearity is 0.01% of full scale (10 volt) output for either polarity, 0.02% of full scale for peak-to-peak or 0.04% minus-to-plus polarities. Equivalent input drift is less than 2μv; noise at full amplifier bandwidth is less than 6μv. Input impedance is 30 megohms, output impedance less than 0.25 ohms. Standard bandwidth is less than 3 db down at 80 cps, and the amplifier settles to within 99.9% of final value within 50 milliseconds for an output change of 5 volts. Plug-in input and output filters allow bandwidth options from 3 cps to 120 cps, transient response as good as 25 milliseconds. Gain is 10 to 1000 in 5 steps. A front panel vernier control provides 1 to greater than 3.3 times continuous adjustment of each gain step. Gain stability is ±0.05%. Output capability is 10 volts at 10 milliamps. Amplifiers have integral power supplies. Enclosures include six-amplifier and single-amplifier 19-inch rack modules, and portable single amplifier cabinets. To meet your exact requirements at minimum cost, two models are now available: the 114A at $775, and the 114C (described) at $875. Delivery on both models is currently from stock. Write for detailed technical data or a demonstration. Engineering representatives in all major cities. KINTEL A DIVISION OF COHU ELECTRONICS, INC. 5725 Kearny Villa Road, San Diego 11, California Phone: BRowning 7-6700 Unequalled Light Sensitivity and Low Lag New RCA photoconductor utilized in world's most sensitive vidicons Now, an RCA exceptionally sensitive photosurface ushers in a new family of advanced vidicons unequalled anywhere for their light sensitivity and closely-controlled characteristics. The RCA-7735-A—double the sensitivity of the 7735—provides good pictures at lower light levels with less lag than previously possible! This sensitivity and the tube's lower "lag" make the 7735-A ideal for industrial use. Two short-length vidicon types featuring the same sensitivity as the 7735-A are offered for use in compact transistorized cameras. RCA-7262-A is intended for normal outdoor-indoor environments. RCA-7263-A is especially designed for military or other applications involving shock, vibration, humidity, and altitude. Both types operate at 30% less heater power than any other commercially available type of vidicon. All three of these advanced camera tubes feature a resolution capability of 600 to 900 lines, broad spectral response, and the high tube-to-tube uniformity that has become identified with RCA vidicons. For complete information about these RCA vidicons—the most sensitive in the world—get in touch with: Marketing Manager, Industrial Tube Products, RCA, Lancaster, Pa. For a technical bulletin on any of these types, write Commercial Engineering, Section K-19-Q-2, RCA, Harrison, N.J.
Kinetics and Intermediates of Marginal Band Reformation: Evidence for Peripheral Determinants of Microtubule Organization MOLLY MILLER and FRANK SOLOMON Department of Biology and Center for Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139 ABSTRACT The microtubules of the mature erythrocyte of the chicken are confined to a band at the periphery. Whole-mount electron microscopy after extraction reveals that the number of microtubules in each cell is almost the same. All the microtubules can be depolymerized by incubation in the cold, and the marginal band can be quantitatively and qualitatively reformed by return to 39°C. These properties allow the reformation of the marginal band to be treated as an in vivo microtubule assembly reaction. The kinetics of this reaction and the intermediates detected during reformation suggest a mechanism of microtubule organization that is distinct from that observed in other cell types. Apparently only one or two growing microtubule ends are available for assembly—assembly is only detected at the cell periphery, even at early times—and there is no evidence of the participation of a microtubule-organizing center. The participation of microtubules in the assumption and maintenance of cell polarity and morphology has been deduced largely from the results of drug-interference experiments. These functions can also be inferred by comparing microtubule configurations with the morphologies of the disparate structures of which they are part—for example, the mitotic spindle, the polygonal cytoplasm of the interphase fibroblast, and the processes extended by neuronal cells. We are interested in understanding how microtubules of essentially identical ultrastructure and sharing a major component, tubulin, which is among the most highly conserved of all proteins, can end up in such different configurations. One explanation proffered is that the determinant of microtubule organization, and of cellular asymmetry itself, lies in a microtubule-organizing center. In this view, such centers would have the capacity not only to nucleate microtubule assembly but also to specify microtubule shape, number, length, and trajectory. Another possibility is that lateral interactions with other microtubules and other cell structures are responsible for microtubule organization. In this view, the determinants of microtubule shape are separable from sites of nucleating activity (1). We have studied the origins of the detailed morphology, and, therefore, of microtubule arrangement, in individual cells. The cells in a neuroblastoma culture exhibit a very broad range of neurite morphologies, but we found that these morphologies are not arrived at randomly. Cells that are mitotically related are also strikingly morphologically related (2, 3). Even after the cytoskeleton is disrupted by microtubule-depolymerizing drugs, causing the neurites to retract, the original morphology of the cell can be restored when the drug is removed (4). These results suggest the existence of determinants of the shape of individual cells. In the work presented in this paper, we have turned to a normal cell type that contains an extraordinary microtubule organelle. The marginal band of the chicken red blood cell apparently contains all the cell's microtubules in a ribbon at the periphery and in one plane (5). There is morphological evidence that this band interacts with the very periphery of the cell (6). The band is quantitatively indistinguishable in the individual cells in a population from mature chickens (7), making quantitative study of its formation after cold-induced depolymerization possible. Our experiments reveal a novel in vivo microtubule assembly reaction that does not rely upon a central microtubule-organizing center. MATERIALS AND METHODS Extraction of Chicken Erythrocytes: Blood from one white Cornish chicken (Gallus domesticus), weighing 2 kg, was collected into 200 ml of phosphate-buffered saline (PBS)\textsuperscript{1} containing 0.1 mg of heparin per milliliter (Na salt, Grade I, Sigma Chemical Co., St. Louis, MO). The cells were centrifuged at 2,000 rpm (5 min, 37°C). The supernatant and buffy coat were removed by aspiration, and the cells were resuspended and centrifuged two more times in PBS containing 0.025 M glucose. The cells in the final resuspension were incubated at 0° or 39°C and then plated onto grid-coverslip assemblies (see below). After the cell suspension had been in contact with the grids 30–45 s, the excess fluid was removed by blotting. The coverslip was dipped gently at a 45° angle into a beaker of PBS at the incubation temperature, then blotted on edge. This process was repeated until no red color was visible. The coverslip was then rinsed in PM2G extraction buffer (0.1 M piperezine-$N,N'$-bisethanesulfonic acid; $2 \times 10^{-3}$ M magnesium sulfate; $2 \times 10^{-3}$ M ethylene glycol bis($\beta$-aminoethyl ether)-$N,N'$-tetraetic acid, 2 M glycerol, pH 6.9), placed in a petri dish, and immediately covered with PM2G plus 0.1% NB-40. Taxol (5 $\mu$g/ml) was included to enhance microtubule preservation (8). Present only in the extraction buffer, taxol does not recruit tubulin into \textit{de novo} microtubule assembly. In addition, the extraction buffer included the protease inhibitors aprotinin and PMSF. After 12 min, the coverslips were rinsed with PM2G and fixed in PM2G containing 3.7% formaldehyde and 0.5% glutaraldehyde at room temperature for 30 min. \textit{Grid-Coverslip Assemblies:} Four or five 300-mesh Athene copper grids (Polysciences, Inc., Warrington, PA) were sealed onto glass coverslips (No. 1, 18 mm) with a film cast from an anhydrous 0.7% (wt/vol) Formvar-dichloethane solution. The Formvar coat was sealed on all four sides by attaching a second coverslip to the back of the first with cyanoacrylate adhesive. \textit{Preparation of Samples for Electron Microscopy:} The coverslips were rinsed free of their first fixation medium with PBS, and the cells were fixed in 2.5% electron microscopy grade glutaraldehyde and 0.2% tannic acid in PBS for 20–60 min at room temperature, rinsed four times, and incubated in 1% OsO\textsubscript{4} for 10 min in the dark. They were rinsed free of osmium, dehydrated through a series of ethanol washes (35, 50, 70, and 95%, and 100% three times, all at 4°C). The grids were then removed from the coverslips and dried by the critical-point method. A final carbon coat was applied to reduce beam damage, and samples were examined at 100 kV with an 18-$\mu$m gold foil objective aperture. \textit{Scoring Samples:} Whole mounts of the extracted erythrocytes were photographed, usually at $\times 7,000$. The negatives were printed at a further 2.5-fold enlargement. The thickness of the microtubules made them easily distinguishable from other elements in these cells. Each print was inspected for microtubule profiles by each of the authors independently using a magnifying lens. The number of microtubules was determined at three or more randomly selected sites at the periphery, and the rest of the cell was carefully scanned. The viewers’ counts usually agreed with one another, and never differed by more than one profile. \section{RESULTS} \textit{Reversible Depolymerization of Marginal Band Microtubules} Gentle extraction of chicken erythrocytes with nonionic detergents in the presence of microtubule stabilization buffer, as described in Materials and Methods, permits visualization of each of the individual microtubules in the marginal band (Fig. 1a). Their shape is not noticeably distorted compared with that of unextracted cells. Throughout most of the perimeter, individual microtubules can be distinguished either by using a magnifying lens or at high magnification, so that the number of microtubules can be counted easily, even in complete bands (Fig. 2). Erythrocytes extracted in solution do not adhere well to grids and are typically torn and bent by the time they can be observed. Incubation of the cells at 0°C for 60 min before extraction causes apparent complete depolymerization of the microtubules in the marginal band; every cell observed after this treatment looks like the one shown in Fig. 1b. The microtubules returned upon incubation at 39°C for 30–60 min (Fig. 1c). The marginal bands in the control cells and in the chilled and rewarmed cells were essentially the same. The average number of microtubule profiles per cell was 10.3 in the marginal bands of the control and 10.6 in those of the rewarmed sample. That number agrees well with values obtained by other methods (7). The distribution of microtubule number per cell in the two populations was virtually identical (Fig. 3a). In both cases, the microtubule profiles usually were uninterrupted. We occasionally saw ends, but these may have been due to breakage (see below). Similar values were obtained from thin sections of fixed cells that had not been extracted, except that an occasional band with 15 or 16 microtubules was seen. The quantitation of microtubules after chilling and rewarming was supported by biochemical measurements. Using detergent-extraction procedures that we have applied to the analysis of microtubule structure in cells (9), we demonstrated that <1% of the normal assembled tubulin in these cells remain after incubation in the cold, as assayed by staining of \textsuperscript{1}Abbreviations used in this paper: PBS, phosphate-buffered saline; MTOC, microtubule-organizing center. almost all of the cells survived the experimental handling; those that were grossly distorted or occluded by other cells were not counted. Regrowth of the marginal band was asynchronous, so that after 5 min cells with complete, partial, or no marginal bands were seen (Fig. 4). Nevertheless, the reformation of the marginal band was clearly time dependent. Fig. 3b shows the proportion of cells displaying one or more microtubule profiles all of the way around the perimeter in cells held at 39°C (+), cells shifted down to 0°C (−), and at 2, 5, 10 and 60 min after shift up to 39°C. That proportion rose rapidly for 2–5 min after shift up and reached the level of the control cells 30–60 min later. The number of individual microtubule profiles found in these circumferential structures also increased with time (Fig. 3c). In particular, we saw cells with a complete marginal band but with only one or a few microtubule profiles (Fig. 5). Observations from many cells show that the number of microtubule profiles in a cell rarely rose above two until a circumferential marginal band was complete (Fig. 6). Occasionally, examples of partial bands containing multiple microtubules were found at late times of reformation. However, they were also seen in untreated controls (Fig. 6). Almost always, the appearance of these cells suggested that such partial bands were produced by shearing during experimental preparation and probably did not represent true intermediates of regrowth. Kinetics of Marginal Band Reformation* Fig. 7 shows a plot of total microtubule length achieved per cell as a function of time of regrowth. The contour length of the microtubules in each cell was determined with a planimeter. The average value at each time point is indicated. For the three time points studied before there was significant accumulation of completed structures—2, 5, and 10 min—those averages fall on a straight line that extrapolates through zero. The slope of the line does not increase with time, suggesting that the number of ends available for microtubule Figure 2 High magnification view of individual microtubules in the marginal band. Figure 3 (A) Microtubule profiles visualized in whole-mount views of extracted cells. Two populations were scored: cells incubated at 39°C for 120 min (+, broken line) and cells incubated at 0°C for 60 min then shifted up to 39°C for 60 min (+′, solid line). (B) Fraction of cells containing one or more microtubule profiles in a complete circumferential structure in cells incubated at 39°C (+), 0°C (−), or incubated at 0°C and then shifted up for 2, 5, 10, or 60 min before extraction. (C) Number of microtubules in a complete circumferential structure. Categories are the same as those described under B. SDS gels. The amount of tubulin in control samples and in chilled and rewarmed samples was identical (data not shown). Intermediates in Marginal Band Reformation To follow the time-course of marginal band reformation, cells that had been incubated for 90 min at 0°C were returned to a 39°C water bath. At various times, they were extracted and prepared for whole-mount electron microscopy. Fig. 4 shows a low-magnification view of a field of cells extracted 5 min after shift up. It was from fields like this one that the data in this study were drawn. The typical morphology of Figure 4 Low-power view of a field of cells extracted 5 min after shift up. Most cells show normal form. The extent of reformation of the marginal band is variable. Figure 5 High-power view of cells extracted 5 min after shift up, all showing complete marginal bands but with only one or a few microtubule profiles. Elongation does not increase as reformation proceeds. In addition, although there is considerable scatter in the values found, the microtubule lengths in those cells that have complete bands but less than a full complement of microtubule number, such as those shown in Fig. 4, fall close to the average values. These results suggest that those early intermediates do not represent aberrant forms but rather lie on the main kinetic pathway of marginal band reformation. From these data, and from other observations, it is possible to estimate the number of sites available for elongation during reformation of the marginal band. That number is a function of the observed rate of growth divided by the pseudo-first-order constant for microtubule assembly in vivo. The observed rate of growth is derived from the slope of the line through the average values shown in Fig. 7: 15.4 μm/min. The concentration of tubulin in the cell was calculated from estimates of tubulin on SDS polyacrylamide gels stained with Coomassie blue and compared with known standards and from calculations of the volume of the cytoplasm of these cells obtained by comparing the volume of unextracted and extracted cells. These manipulations produced a value of 6.0 mg/ml (J. A. Swan, unpublished results). Of course, the rate constant for assembly in vivo has not been measured. However, the second-order rate constant in an in vitro reaction using axonemal fragments to nucleate linear microtubule growth is 7.0 μm/min/mg/ml (10). From these considerations, the pseudo-first-order rate constant in vivo would be 12 μm/min, so the number of growing ends available per cell is 1.3, or between one and two per cell. Obviously, this number is not precisely arrived at. The value for tubulin concentration could be too high: Murphy and Wallis (11), who used different extraction techniques and different assays, arrived at 2.4 mg/ml as the correct value. Were this the case, the number of growing ends would have to be about three per cell to account for the observed rate. On the other hand, it is possible that the conditions in vivo are more favorable for microtubule assembly than those of in vitro assays and that the value of the second-order rate constant is too low. In that case the number of growing ends could be lower. The conclusion reached by the kinetic analysis fits well with the structure of the isolated intermediates available for reformation. DISCUSSION Workers in other laboratories have studied the mode of microtubule formation in various cell types after reversible depolymerization. In cultured fibroblasts and neuronal cells, reformation involves apparent regrowth of multiple microtubules from one or two sites, usually near the nucleus (12). In some cell types, multiple centers are seen, but each is capable of giving rise to many microtubules (13). By a combination of immunofluorescent and electron microscopy, the coincidence of these microtubule-organizing centers (MTOCs) with centrioles and associated dense material has been demonstrated (14). In experiments in our laboratory, neuroblastoma cells with multiple neurites have been found to have only one or two MTOCs, and their distribution in the cells bears no apparent relationship to the position of the neurites. A similar mechanism may be involved in the reformation of the blood clam erythrocyte. These cells contain a centriole pair at the periphery, and during regrowth several microtubules extending part way around the cell can be seen (Fig. 9 in reference 15). Were such a scheme to pertain in the chicken erythrocyte, we also would have detected partial marginal bands with many microtubules, perhaps the normal complement or half that number. However, such intermediates were not detected in our studies. On the contrary, more than two microtubule profiles in a cell are rarely observed until a complete band is formed. On this basis, the results are not consistent with involvement of a typical MTOC in the reformation of the band. One could argue instead that an atypical MTOC is involved—one that nucleates microtubule assembly from just one or two points along its surface. Such spatially restricted assembly has been observed for special MTOCs, such as basal bodies, but those in animal cell cytoplasm generally give rise to a radially or spherically symmetrical pattern. In addition, we have been unable to find any evidence of a structural or functional MTOC in these cells. No centrioles have been visualized at the cell periphery or at the nucleus by whole-mount microscopy or by sectioning of unextracted, partially extracted, or completely extracted cells. Antisera that are known to detect centrosomes in other cell types gave no clear signal when applied to chicken erythrocytes (data not shown). Finally, only occasional microtubule profiles were found in regions of the cell not normally occupied by the marginal band. No obvious relationship exists between the positions of these fragments and the symmetry axes of the cell. It is possible that the fragments were artifacts produced during sample preparation, since similar structures could be found lying on the grid between cells. Unlike other cells, then, the microtubules of the chicken erythrocyte appear to originate only at the periphery and do not associate with a formal MTOC at any place in the cell. Our findings are consistent with the spontaneous assembly of microtubules at the periphery. In an extreme version of this model, a single microtubule begins to assemble and then elongates at both ends until steady state is reached. The predictions of this scheme are met by the intermediates observed and by the predictions for the number of available growth sites calculated from the kinetics. However, that calculation is not sufficiently firm to rule out the participation of more than one microtubule fragment, each providing ends for elongation. A previous study of the in vitro assembly of microtubules from these cells produced relatively long microtubules, and led to the suggestion that few assembly sites were present (11). Previous work performed in our laboratory and in that of Albrecht-Buehler (16) has provided evidence that individual cells contain determinants of their detailed asymmetry that result in their unique patterns of shape and movement. These studies, however, left unresolved the question of where in the cell the determinants lie. They also did not deal with a related problem: how does the information in different types of cell differ, so that neurons are distinguished from, for example, fibroblasts? In the present study, we found no evidence of the participation of an MTOC in the arrangement of cytoplasmic microtubules. Rather, we conclude that determinants of a particular microtubule organelle—the marginal band—can lie at the periphery of the cell and specify the orientation of the microtubules. The structural and molecular nature of these determinants is under study. We thank S. Brenner and B. R. Brinkley (Baylor University), and T. Mitchison and M. Kirschner (University of California, San Francisco) for providing antibodies against centrosomes; F. Lindon and B. Stein for their help in preparing the figures; and R. Black for preparing the manuscript. This work was supported by grants from the National Cancer Institute and the National Institute of General Medical Sciences to F. Solomon. REFERENCES 1. Solomon, F. 1983. Organizing the cytoplasm for motility. Cold Spring Harbor Symp. Quant. Biol. 47:17–25. 2. Solomon, F. 1979. Detailed neurite morphologies of sister neuroblastoma cells are related. Cell 16:165–169. 3. Solomon, F. Specification of cell morphology by endogenous determinants. J. Cell Biol. 90:547–556. 4. Solomon, F. 1980. Neuroblastoma cells recapitulate their detailed neurite morphologies after reversible microtubule disassembly. Cell 21:333–338. 5. Barrett, L. A., and R. B. Dawson. 1974. Avian erythrocyte development: microtubules and the formation of the disk shape. Dev. Biol. 36:72–81. 6. Granger, B. L., and E. Lazarides. 1982. Structural associations of synemin and vimentin filaments in avian erythrocytes revealed by immunoelectron microscopy. Cell 30:263–275. 7. Gomakowska-Witalinska, L., and W. Witalinski. 1976. Evidence for a correlation between the number of marginal band microtubules and the size of vertebrate erythrocytes. J. Cell Sci. 22:397–401. 8. Zieve, G., and F. Solomon. 1982. Proteins specifically associated with the microtubules of the mammalian mitotic spindle. Cell. 28:233–242. 9. Solomon, F., M. Magendanz, and A. Salzman. 1979. Identification with cellular microtubules of one of the co-assembling microtubule-associated proteins. Cell. 18:431–436. 10. Bergen, L., and G. Borisy. 1980. Head-to-tail polymerization of microtubules in vitro. J. Cell Biol. 84:141–150. 11. Murphy, D. B., and K. T. Wallis. 1983. Isolation of microtubule protein from chicken erythrocytes and determination of the critical concentration for tubulin polymerization in vitro and in vivo. J. Biol. Chem. 258:8357–8364. 12. Osborn, M., and K. Weber. 1976. Cytoplasmic microtubules in tissue culture cells appear to grow from an organizing structure towards the plasma membrane. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 73:867–871. 13. Spiegelman, B., M. Lopata, and M. Kirschner. 1979. Aggregation of microtubule initiating sites preceding neurite outgrowth in mouse neuroblastoma cells. Cell 16:253–265. 14. Marchisio, P. C., K. Weber, and M. Osborn. 1979. Identification of multiple microtubule initiating sites in mouse neuroblastoma cells. Eur. J. Cell Biol. 20:45–50. 15. Nemhauser, I. R., J. Joseph-Silverstein, and W. D. Cohen. 1983. Centrioles as microtubule-organizing centers for marginal bands of molluscan erythrocytes. J. Cell Biol. 96:979–989. 16. Albrecht-Buehler, G. 1977. Daughter 3T cells: are they mirror images of each other. J. Cell Biol. 72:595–603.
August 10, 2020 Site Plan Review DECISION Project: 259-267 Main Street Applicant: Stonegate Construction Corp. Owner: 259-267 Main Street LLC To the Town Clerk: This is to certify that, at a public hearing of the Community Planning and Development Commission opened on January 13th, 2020 and closed on August 10, 2020 by a motion duly made and seconded, it was voted: “We, the Reading Community Planning and Development Commission, upon request from Stonegate Construction Corp., under the provision of Sections 4.3 and 4.6 of the Zoning Bylaws of the Town of Reading, to consider the contemplated site plan for 259-267 Main Street (Assessors Map 12, Lots 39 and 40) – as shown on the Site Development Plans prepared by Hancock Associates Inc., dated December 2, 2019 and most recently revised June 15, 2020, and architectural plans prepared by Lowe Associates Architects, dated December 2, 2019 and most recently revised May 12, 2020 – do hereby vote 4-0-0, to approve the said plans, subject to the Findings and Conditions below.” Materials Submitted: The following materials were submitted into the public record: a) Site Plan Review Application, Narrative, Property Deed and Filing Fee, received 12/2/19. b) Certified List of Abutters, dated 11/20/19. c) Email from Staff Planner to Applicant stating submission was Substantially Complete, dated 12/9/19, including a list of minor revisions for the next plan submission. d) Legal Notice published in the Daily Times Chronicle on 12/24/19 and 12/31/19. e) Special Permit Decision from ZBA for parking in S-15 Zoning District, dated 10/2/19. f) Site Plan, 259& 267 Main Street, Reading, MA 02180 for Stonegate Construction Corp., prepared by Hancock Associates, including the following: a. Sheet C1: Title Sheet, dated 10/8/19, and most recently revised 6/15/2020. b. Sheet C2: Existing Conditions Plan of Land, dated 6/26/19, and most recently revised 10/1/19. c. Sheet C3: Layout and Materials Plan, dated 10/8/19, and most recently revised 6/15/2020. d) Sheet C4: Grading, Drainage and Utilities Plan, dated 10/8/19, and most recently revised 6/15/2020. e) Sheet C5: Wetland Restoration and Replication Plan, dated 10/8/19, and most recently revised 6/15/2020. f) Sheet C6: Wetland Restoration and Replication Notes, dated 10/8/19, and most recently revised 6/15/2020. g) Sheet C7: Landscape Plan, dated 10/8/19, and most recently revised 6/15/2020. h) Sheet C8: Landscape Details, dated 10/8/19, and most recently revised 6/15/2020. i) Sheet C9: Details, dated 10/8/19, and most recently revised 6/15/2020. j) Sheet C10: Details, dated 10/8/19, and most recently revised 6/15/2020. k) Sheet C11: Details, dated 10/8/19, and most recently revised 6/15/2020. l) Sheet C11: Details, dated 10/8/19, and most recently revised 6/15/2020. m) Sheet C13: Emergency Access Plan, dated 10/8/19, and most recently revised 6/15/2020. n) Sheet C14: Site Photometric Plan - Main Street Reading 02, prepared by PEMCO Lighting Products, dated 10/8/19, and most recently revised 6/15/2020. o) Lighting Spec Sheet - Main Street Reading 01, prepared by PEMCO Lighting Products, dated 10/8/19, and most recently revised 6/15/2020 g) Architectural Plans for Condominium Project at 259 & 267 Main Street, Reading, MA, prepared by Lowe Associates Architects, Inc., dated 5/12/2020. a) Sheet A-1: Garage Plan, dated 5/12/2020, most recently revised 8/4/2020. b) Sheet A-2: First Floor Plan, dated 5/12/2020, most recently revised 8/4/2020. c) Sheet A-3: Second Floor Plan, dated 1/29/2020, most recently revised 8/4/2020. d) Sheet A-4: Third Floor Plan, dated 1/29/2020, most recently revised 8/4/2020. e) Sheet A-5: Fourth Floor Plan, dated 8/4/2020. f) Sheet A-5: Exterior Elevations, Right Side Elevation and Front Elevation dated 5/12/2020. g) Sheet A-6: Exterior Elevations, Left Side Elevation and Rear Elevation (Main Street Elevation) dated 5/12/2020. h) Sheet A-7: Roof Plan, dated 1/29/2020, most recently revised 8/4/2020. h) Stormwater Report in support of 259 & 67 Main Street, Reading, MA, prepared by Hancock Associates, prepared for Stonegate Construction Corp., dated 12/2/19, and most recently revised 5/1/2020. i) 259-267 Main Street, Submittal Documents, dated 1/29/2020: a) Response to Engineering Department Review Letter b) Response to CPDC comments c) Response to Conservation Commission comments d) MassDEP Comment Letter e) Economic Alternatives Analysis f) Retaining Wall Product Specification Sheet g) 259-267 Main Street Exterior Operations and Maintenance Plan j) Memo from Town Engineer to Community Development Director, dated 1/9/2020. k) Memo from Town Engineer to Community Development Director, dated 2/5/2020. l) MassDEP Notification Letter, dated 1/8/2020. m) Special Permit Decision from ZBA for parking in S-15 Zoning District, dated 7/15/2020. n) Summary of Changes, dated 2/10/2020. o) Memo from Senior Civil Engineer to Community Development Director, dated 8/5/20. p) Memo from Conservation Administrator to Community Development Director, dated 8/5/20. q) Draft Decision, dated 8/10/2020. Findings: 1) Overview: The existing site is comprised of two abutting lots (‘site’) under common ownership that total approximately 4.3 acres of land. The rear of the site is characterized by woods, vegetated wetlands with a jurisdictional 100-foot buffer area extending to Main Street, and riparian areas associated with a perennial stream on the eastern property line. A Town-owned 10” sewer line and related easement of varying width run along the northern and eastern property lines coincident with the perennial stream. The current proposal is to construct a 4-story, 24-unit apartment building. Each unit will consist of two bedrooms, for a total of 48 bedrooms. A parking garage containing 26 spaces will be located below-grade, and 22 surface parking spaces will be located at the rear of the site, for a total of 48 parking spaces. The site will be accessed through a 26’ wide curb cut along Main Street at the northwest corner of the property. Main access into the building is to be provided at the rear of the building and not along the Main Street facade. Site work will include re-grading, re-paving, retaining walls, stormwater improvements, landscaping and wetland replication. A 5’ walkway running along the northern and eastern property lines is proposed to connect to the existing drain sewer easement. A structural engineered retaining wall, over 4’ in height, is proposed around the surface parking area and building. 2) Former Use: The site is currently vacant and is in a degraded condition. It was formerly occupied by a single-family home and a legal non-conforming commercial fuel oil facility for which storage and transportation were the primary services. The site included associated informal commercial parking. The Applicant has indicated that the site does not have an Activity & Use Limitation (AUL), and that the soil is not dirty or hazardous and has provided the Phase I and Phase II Environmental Reports for such. 3) Zoning: The site is split-zoned between the Apartment A-40 Zoning District along Main Street and the Single-Family S-15 Zoning District at the rear. A tiny sliver of the property is also within the Business A Zoning District. Multi-family housing is permitted within the A-40 Zoning District. The proposed multi-family housing development will be contained entirely within the A-40 portion of the site, while a surface parking area is proposed within the S-15 Residential Zoning District. The Zoning Board of Appeals granted a special permit on July 15, 2020 to allow a surface parking lot of up to 21 spaces within the S-15 Zoning District. 4) Parking and Loading: The proposed development will exceed the requirement for 1.5 spaces per unit by including 48 total parking spaces, or 2 spaces per unit. Twenty-six (26) spaces, measuring 8.5’ x 17’, will be located in the heated and secured parking garage underneath the building, one of which will be signed and striped handicap accessible. Twenty-two (22) surface spaces, at 9’ x 18’, have been proposed, one of which will also be striped and signed as handicap accessible. On July 15, 2020 the Reading Zoning Board of Appeals granted the Applicants a Special Permit to allow up to 21 surface parking spaces within the S-15 Zoning District. The Site Plan appears to comply with the Special Permit as one of the proposed 22 surface spaces is located within the A-40 Zoning District. In efforts to comply with the Complete Streets Policy of the Town of Reading, an outdoor bike rack has been proposed at the rear (front entrance) of the building. An electric car charging station has also been proposed in the surface area lot. 5) Interior Space: The proposed building will comprise 59,820 square feet of gross floor area across four floors. Each of the four floors will contain six 2-bedroom, averaging 1,712 square feet, for a total of 24 units and 48 bedrooms. Each unit on the upper floors will be provided with a 5’ x 10’ balcony that will not infringe on zoning setbacks. The below-grade parking garage will include 26 parking spaces, twenty-two storage areas, an elevator shaft and elevator room, an electrical room, a trash room, and two stairwells. 6) Building Height: The building is proposed to be 46’-6” at its highest point. It complies with the 40’ maximum height allowed in the A-40 Zoning District due to the fact that the tower elements on the roof will not be habitable thus according to Table 6.3, Footnote 2 of the Reading Zoning Bylaw the structures are exempt from the maximum height requirements. The habitable portion of the building is proposed to be 40’ at its highest point. 6.3 Table of Dimensional Controls, Footnote 2: Maximum height limits shall not apply to appurtenances such as: chimneys, elevators, poles, spires, tanks, towers or similar structures not intended to be used for human occupancy. 7) Lighting: Six light poles are proposed in the surface parking area, each along the pedestrian accessible side of the drive aisle. Building lighting will consist of balcony lighting and egress lighting. 8) Utilities: Water service is proposed to be provided through an existing 8” water service off of Main Street. A 1” high pressure gas service also exists on Main Street and is proposed to be extended to the new building location. There is an existing utility easement that runs adjacent to the on-site stream and contains a 10” sewer line; the Applicant is proposing to connect to this sewer line through a new connection to the main at the north side of the property. Electric and telecommunications are proposed to connect to an existing utility pole located near the southwest corner of the property. All connections shall meet Town standards. A transformer and emergency power generator have been proposed to the north of the site across from the buildings garage entrance. 9) Drainage/Stormwater: The proposed development will result in an increase of approximately 23,200 SF of impervious area. Stormwater treatment will be captured via a series of deep sump catch basins and trench drains. Run-off from the new impervious areas will be directed towards two on-site subsurface infiltration system; one under the surface parking area in the eastern/rear portion of the site (6 rows) and one within the drive aisle accessing said parking area (5 rows). Overflow is proposed to discharge into the existing wetland area. A Stormwater Operation and Maintenance Plan was submitted within the Stormwater Report detailing cleaning and inspection requirements. 10) Landscaping/Screening: Landscaping is proposed around the building and surface parking areas. A total of 280 plantings have been proposed; 22 of which shall be 4” caliper size trees. The Applicant shall minimize the removal of mature trees and a minimum of 4” caliper trees shall be provided, along with a series of shrubs, grasses and perennials. 11) Resource Area Plantings/Wetland Replication: The Applicant is proposing to impact a total of 4,922 SF of Bordering Vegetated Wetlands. As mitigation, the Applicant is proposing to provide 23,076 SF of wetland replication within the same wetland system, as well as pockets of wetland restoration throughout the site, and stream bank stabilization in the Riverfront Area. In addition, the Applicant has proposed a 5’ wide public access easement, that will contain a trail and boardwalk and will connect to the existing sewer easement that runs along the northern and eastern property boundaries. The Applicant received an Order of Resource Area Delineation (ORAD) from the Conservation Commission on August 29, 2019. A Notice of Intent was filed with the Conservation Commission in October 2019, and an Order of Conditions will be issued on August 26, 2020. 12) Public Safety: Reading Fire Department will need to be able to access the entirety of the site. The Applicant has revised the plan to show a circular turn-around area in the surface parking area constructed with the ability to bear the load of an emergency vehicle driving over it, including a standard fire truck. Flush concrete pavers and vertical granite curbing have been proposed within the landscape island. Gas meters have been proposed on the exterior of the rear (front entrance) of the building for proper access by the Reading Fire Department. 13) Design / Building Materials: The proposed building is long and rectangular with recessed portions and towers that help articulate and break up the massing of the façade. The roof will be partially flat and partially sloped, giving the perception of a flat roof from the street. The Applicant is proposing to use a mix of building materials and textures such as vinyl impressions to mimic clapboard in the recessed portions of the building, manufactured stone on the central tower, and cedar impressions on the other towers. The building façade facing Main Street shall have the same treatments as the ‘front entrance’ of the building so as to appear welcoming from Main Street. The fourth-floor level shall be a vinyl shingle material that differs slightly in color from the floors below in order to help alleviate the appearance of the building’s massing from the sidewalk. 14) South Main Street Design Best Practices: The Applicant was advised to adhere to the Best Practices whenever possible including the provision of a building step-back at the fourth-floor level, which has not been provided. 15) Pedestrian Access: A pedestrian path is proposed through the site as follows: a 5’ concrete walkway will extend from the public sidewalk on Main Street into the site along the southern side of the site entrance drive and follow the drive aisle all the way to the back of the site where it will meet up with pedestrian paths to main entrance of the building. In addition, before the drive aisle turns south toward the back of the site, the path will connect with a trail and boardwalk that will run north until it meets the sewer easement, and then northeast and south within the sewer easement until the property boundary. The Conservation Administrator is working with the neighboring properties to have the trail continue within the easement across their sites out to Cross Street. A public access easement will need to be established for the areas of the path leading from Main Street to the existing sewer easement. 16) Signage: No building signage has been proposed or is approved herein. Should the Applicant desire site signage, the Applicant shall submit a Sign Permit Application for the project. A series of ‘wayfinding’ signage is proposed along the boardwalk path. 17) Dumpster: A series of recyclable containers and dumpsters is proposed within the garage area with rollout bins for street pickup. The containers shall be emptied by a third-party service 3 times per week and removed off-site. Trash and litter throughout the site shall be removed routinely to ensure no debris falls into wetland areas. 18) Snow Storage and Removal: Snow Storage locations have been depicted at the end of the surface parking area and along the Riverfront Area to ensure clean runoff into the wetland system. Waivers: 1) Traffic Study: The Applicant has requested a waiver from the full traffic study requirement of the Site Plan Review Application. The Applicant believes there will be minimal impact to existing traffic volumes on Main Street. 2) Loading Zone: The Applicant has requested a waiver from the requirement of providing two (2) loading zones for the 24-unit multi-family project. The Applicant has provided one 12’ loading zone along the surface parking area. The CPDC voted 4-0-0 to approve the requested waivers. Conditions: General: 1) Public Health, Safety and Welfare: If, at any time, the site becomes a nuisance to public health, safety or welfare (i.e., traffic spillover onto Route 28, excessive noise, unreasonable site illumination beyond the hours of operation, etc.) – as shall be evidenced by substantiated complaints to the Police Department or Public Services Office – the Applicant/Owner shall agree to work with staff to rectify the problem. Should the situation warrant it, an additional Site Plan Review by the CPDC may be required. 2) Utilities: All utilities, structures, frames and covers shall meet the Town of Reading standards. The electric utility plan is subject to approval by the Reading Municipal Light Department (RMLD). 3) Order of Conditions: At all times throughout construction of the project and occupancy of the site, the Applicant and/or future owners shall comply with all provisions of the Order of Conditions issued for the project by the Reading Conservation Commission on 8/26/20. 4) Site Plan Decision: The Site Plan Decision herein does not include approval for any future uses or site renovations that may – on their own merits and design – trigger the requirements of site plan review and/or require a special permit. All future proposed uses requiring a site plan review or a special permit shall obtain such approval(s) prior to occupancy of any tenant space. 5) Signage: No site signage has been approved herein. The Applicant shall submit a Sign Permit Application to the Community Development Director for review and approval prior to the installation of any signage. 6) Sidewalk Improvement: The Applicant will need an access permit from MassDOT to modify the curb cut. As part of this permit, the Applicant shall seek permission to repair any damage to the sidewalk along their property frontage in compliance with the Engineering Division and MassDOT standards. Prior to the Commencement of Site Work: 7) Engineering Concerns: The Applicant shall work with Engineering staff to address the concerns delineated in the memo from the Town Engineer to the Community Development Director dated 8/5/2020. 8) Conservation Concerns: The Applicant shall work with the Conservation Administrator to satisfy the Order of Conditions issued on 8/26/2020. Prior to the Issuance of Building Permits and Prior to the Start of Construction: 9) Retaining Wall Detail: A detail regarding the proposed engineered retaining walls shall be provided to both the Building and Planning Divisions for approval. 10) Screening / Siding: A detail on the transformer screening shall be provided to the Building and Planning Divisions for approval. 11) Lot Consolidation: An 81X Plan shall be provided for consolidation of the lots. 12) Other Permits: The Owner/Applicant is responsible for obtaining all other requirements and permits including but not limited to, utility connections, sewer, water, curb cut, street opening and Jackie’s Law excavation permits from the Engineering Department (prior to excavation), and Board of Health approvals. 13) Pre-construction Meeting: The Owner/Applicant and contractors shall coordinate with the Community Development Director to schedule a pre-construction meeting with Town staff prior to applying for building permits, in order to review these conditions and any and all final construction sequencing, details and plans for this project. 14) Site Plan Revisions: The Applicant shall revise the Site Plan pursuant to any conditions imposed herein and submit 2 full-size (24x36) copies of the revised plans to the Community Development Director for review and approval prior to the issuance of a Building Permit. Revisions include but are not limited to: a. Update rendering to depict changes to 4th floor materials & colors b. Correct the zip code in the ‘Prepared For’ box of the site plan set to 01867 15) Rooftop Mechanicals: The Applicant shall ensure the shielding of rooftop mechanical units so they are not visible from the street, and to mitigate the visual and audible impact of the units. 16) Transformer: The Applicant shall provide a dimensioned detail of the proposed transformer so that the Building Commissioner can determine whether property setbacks are met. 17) Electric Utility: The electric utility plan, including the locations of light poles, transformers, etc. shall be approved by the Reading Municipal Light Department (RMLD). 18) ADA/MAAB: Certification shall be furnished to the Community Development Director that the proposal is in conformance with the provisions of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) and the Massachusetts Architectural Access Board (AAB). 19) Stormwater: A Stormwater Operation and Maintenance Plan shall be submitted for review and approval by the Engineering Department prior to the start of construction. The Plan shall be developed for construction and post construction procedures and shall be provided in a report separate from the construction plans. 20) Construction Schedule: A construction schedule shall be submitted to the Community Development Director, Town Engineer, Conservation Commission and Building Inspector prior to the start of construction. 21) Construction Drawings: Full construction documents must be submitted and approved by the Fire Department. A building permit shall not be issued until the Fire Department has approved the plans. 22) I/I Fee: The project will be subject to an Inflow/Infiltration Fee if it is determined that the new sewer flow is greater than historical usage. During Construction: 23) Construction Hours: Construction shall be limited to the hours stated in Section 8.9.8 “Construction Hours” of the Reading General Bylaws and said hours shall be posted in a conspicuous place at the entrance prior to any work on the site. 24) Construction Activities: Construction activities shall be conducted in a workmanlike manner at all times. Blowing dust or debris shall be controlled by the Applicant through stabilization, wetting down, and proper storage and disposal methods, subject to the approval of the Health Agent or designee. The Applicant shall ensure that the abutting local streets are kept clear of dirt and debris, which may accumulate as a result of construction activities for the Project. Documentation shall be provided demonstrating ongoing pest management control, subject to the approval of and administration by the Health Division. 25) Site Inspections: Town staff or their designee shall have reasonable access to inspect the site to determine compliance with this Decision. 26) Coordination with Town Officials: The Applicant and/or its contractor shall provide – during construction – complete, full coordination with local officials on making alterations to existing utilities, future utilities on site shall be installed underground, subject to local utility approval. 27) Water Services: All water services and connections shall be in accordance with the Town of Reading’s Water Division standards. 28) Plan Changes: Any changes to the site layout or utility design during site work or construction shall be submitted to the Engineering Division and Community Development Director for review and approval prior to the construction of the change in design. 29) Bond: The Applicant/Owner shall furnish a bond for the final As-Built plans prior to the issuance of the final certificate of occupancy. The bond amount shall be determined by the Town Engineer. The bond shall be returned once the requirements of this condition are met. Prior to the Issuance of a Certificate of Occupancy: 30) Compliance Review: The Applicant shall schedule a meeting with the Building Inspector and Community Development Director before a request for a Certificate of Occupancy to review compliance with this decision and any other applicable permits. 31) Handicap Parking: The handicap parking spaces shall be properly posted in the locations depicted on the approved Plans. 32) Operation and Maintenance Plan: An O&M Plan shall be prepared for the catch basins; infiltration basins and stormwater management infrastructure. 33) Conveyance of Easements: The Applicant shall execute a Conveyance of Easements and Utilities transferring to the Town valid, unencumbered title to appurtenances thereto constructed and installed. All easements, as reviewed by the Town Engineer and Town Counsel, shall be properly written and recorded. 34) Property Management Agreement: A Property Management Agreement shall be submitted to the Community Development Director detailing the management of trash and recycling procedures; snow management; loading and unloading by moving trucks, vans, delivery vehicles, etc.; emergency vehicle access and maintenance of landscaping. 35) Rooftop Mechanicals: Any proposed or future rooftop mechanicals, or exterior building equipment, shall be screened with sound control devices or construction that mitigates the equipment noise. The equipment shall be set back from building facades so that it is not visible from street views or the abutting residential neighborhood, or screened from view behind parapets enclosed within architectural elements that integrate it into the building design. 36) Architecture: The building façade on each elevation (north, south, east, west) shall be substantially as indicated on the approved architectural plans and elevations. 37) Landscaping: The landscaping shall be installed as indicated on the final approved landscape plans. In the event that weather conditions prevent completion of the proposed landscaping prior to the desired date of occupancy, the Applicant shall submit a bond to cover the cost of installation of the remaining landscaping features. 38) As-Built Plans: Two full size paper copies and electronic AutoCAD final As-Built plans showing the building footprint, drainage systems and utility connections shall be submitted to the Community Development Director and Town Engineer to ensure compliance with this decision and other applicable Town standards. The bond held for this requirement will be returned to the Applicant once this condition has been fulfilled. Conditions for Ongoing Maintenance after Occupancy: 39) Lighting: All exterior building and site lighting shall comply with the dark sky initiatives (light shall shine down only) with the light source being fully shielded (with cutoff shields) so that any spillage onto abutting properties shall be limited to 0.1-foot candles. 40) Landscaping: The landscaping as depicted on the approved plan shall be maintained in a healthy condition in perpetuity. In the event that landscaping is damaged during snow removal operations, the property owner shall replace such landscaping during the next growing season. 41) Off-Street Loading and Delivery: No delivery trucks shall queue on Main Street or within the on-site circulation aisles in a manner that impedes traffic flow through the parking lot. Delivery by tractor trailer shall be prohibited. 42) Snow Removal: Snow shall be stored in the areas identified on the plan, in accordance with the approved snow management plan, and shall not impact the landscaping, pedestrian pathways or parking areas. Snow shall be removed from the site by the Applicant and/or its designee if the accumulated snow exceeds the capacity of the snow storage area or impedes pedestrian pathways or the parking lot. 43) Trash Removal: All trash collection and disposal is the responsibility of the future owner. The owner shall ensure daily that exterior areas of the site remain clear of debris, trash and any equipment used in connection with any commercial activities on site. Trash pick-up shall be contained on-site and shall not impede access into the site. If site access is impeded, trash pick-up shall be done utilizing the loading zone. 44) Storm Water Operations & Maintenance: Annual O&M reports shall be delivered to the Town Engineer by January 15th of each year. 45) Public Access Easement – Trail & Boardwalk: As specified in the Order of Conditions dated 8/26/20, ongoing maintenance of the public access easement, including the trail and boardwalk, shall be the responsibility of the future owner. --- Modifications/Revisions - Plan Changes after Approval by the Approving Authority: Contemplated future changes to the plan approved herein shall be presented to the Community Development Director and the Zoning Enforcement Officer/Building Inspector, or other relevant Town staff, for review prior to implementation of proposed changes. 1. Minor Modification: Changes that do not substantially alter the concept of the approved Plan in terms of the specific location, the proposed land use, the design of building form and approved building details and materials, site grading or egress points. These include but are not limited to small changes in site layout, topography, architectural plans, landscaping plan, traffic circulation, parking, lighting, signage, open space or other criteria set forth in Section 18.104.22.168. Requests for approval under a minor modification for future renovations/alterations to the approved site plan or for future tenant changes shall be reviewed by the Community Development Director to determine if the proposed work qualifies for review through the Minor Site Plan Review process of Section 4.6.3 of the Reading Zoning Bylaw. If the work is eligible for review under Minor Site Plan review, the Community Development Director may review and grant approval of the proposed work by administrative approval of the Minor Modification. At the determination of the Community Development Director, the Applicant may be required to present the proposed project at a public meeting of the CPDC. 2. Major Modification: Substantial additions, deletions or deviations from the approved plan, including but not limited to changes in site layout, topography, architectural plan, landscaping plans, traffic circulation, parking, lighting plan, signage, open space or other criteria set forth in Section 22.214.171.124 of the Reading Zoning Bylaw. (Note: Approval of the major modification shall be grounds for reconsideration of the Site Plan application. Denial of proposed major modifications shall not invalidate the Site Plan in conformance with the previously approved Plan). Signed as to the accuracy of the vote as reflected in the minutes Julie D. Mercier, Community Development Director Date: 8/24/20 Cc: Applicant, Town Clerk, DRT Staff, planning file
PLAINSBORO TOWNSHIP PLANNING BOARD JULY 18, 2022 MINUTES MEETING HELD: July 18, 2022 virtually PLANNING BOARD MEMBER ATTENDANCE: Peter Cantu, Arthur Lehrhaupt, Richard Keevey, Cary Spiegel, Joseph Greer, Sanjana Raturi, and Sanjeev Agarwal were present. Ed Yates, Jetal Doshi and Ramesh Rajagopal were absent. TOWNSHIP/CONSULTANT ATTENDANCE: Les Varga, Director of Planning and Zoning; Ron Yake, Township Planner/Zoning Officer; Lou Ploskonka, CME Associates; Trishka Cecil, Planning Board Attorney and Josi Easter, Board Secretary. MEMBERS OF THE PUBLIC: There was 19 members of the public on line including the applicant. MEETING CALLED TO ORDER: Chairman Lehrhaupt called the meeting to order at 6:00 p.m. and read the certification of meeting notice. Chairman Lehrhaupt introduced a Proclamation in recognition of Greta Kiernan’s service to the Township. It was MOVED by KEEVEY and seconded by RATURI to approve the Proclamation. ROLL CALL: \| Name \| Vote \| \|------------\|------\| \| Cantu \| yes \| \| Yates \| absent \| \| Lehrhaupt \| yes \| \| Keevey \| yes \| \| Spiegel \| yes \| \| Raturi \| yes \| \| Doshi \| absent \| \| Agarwal \| yes \| \| Greer \| yes \| \| Rajagopal \| absent \| It was MOVED by GREER and seconded by KEEVEY to approve the January 18, 2022 meeting Minutes as submitted. Via voice vote the January 18, 2022 Planning Board Minutes were approved. Trishka Cecil, Board Attorney swore in the Board Professionals as follows: - Les Varga, AICP/PP, Director of Planning and Zoning - Ron Yake, AICP/PP, Township Planner and Zoning Officer - Lou Ploskonka, PE, CME Associates, Board Engineer P22-03 K. Hovnanian Serenity Walk at Plainsboro Urban Renewal, LLC., Preliminary and Final Subdivision and Site Plan, Block 1304, Lots 1.03 and 1.03 Frank J. Petrino from Eckert Seamans Cherin & Mellott, LLC. representing the applicant stated that the application is for 52-54 Dey Road, Block 1304, Lots 1.02 and 1.03 and is approximately 20.35 acres. The applicant is the contract purchaser and designated developer of the property. They are seeking Preliminary and Final Major Subdivision and Site Plan approval to divide the premises into 52 lots to construct 52 single family detached homes with two- and three-bedrooms and a two-car garage and one open space lot. It will include a recreation center building, outdoor pool, pickleball court, a dog park and other site improvements including stormwater management facilities, lighting, landscaping, open space and thirteen surface parking spaces on the street. Mr. Petrino stated that they are carving out part of lot 1.02 and conveying to the owner of lot 1.01. The applicant is also seeking variances or deviation from the Redevelopment Plan. One deviation is from the strict compliance with standards associated with a split boulevard configuration. Another deviation is for parking along certain roadways which the design for that parking is consistent with RSIS standards for a community of single-family homes. An additional deviation is for a twenty-two-foot buffer from the existing PSEG right of way to the lot lines of the residential lots where thirty feet is required and a deviation for a minimum floor area of the recreation center that will be 2,019 square feet, whereas 2,500 square feet is required. Mr. Petrino indicated that they have begun the process of approvals for several applications with outside agencies. The Middlesex County Planning Board application is pending, the Freehold Soil Conservation District application for certification of soil erosion and sediment control plan is pending, and the DNR Canal Commission is pending. Mr. Petrino stated that there are four experts in attendance. Dave Fisher; Brian Perry, Tom Stearns and Karl Pehnke, which Trishka Cecil swore in. Mr. Petrino introduced Mr. David Fisher, PP, AICP, Vice President-Government Affairs for K. Hovnanian NJ Operations. LLC. who stated that he was a fact witness and his role in the company is with land acquisitions and development to determine which projects are feasible and provide expert advice in terms of how to fashion the development plans and move forward with the entitlements and approvals they need for a development such as this. Mr. Fisher indicated that the developer finalized the purchasing sales agreement and executed a redevelopment agreement. It is a unique agreement, called a three-party agreement between the applicant, the Township and Community Investment Strategies Inc., to resolve an easement issue on lot 1.02 that at one time was contemplated for the expansion of The Place at Plainsboro. Mr. Fisher stated that one of the reasons why they are dedicating part of their property to The Place at Plainsboro is to accommodate for some improvements and to allow them to remain in place while at the same time truncating some utility services that were extended onto lot 1.02 that are not needed for this development. Mr. Fisher indicated that Exhibit A1 is an areal view of the project site showing The Place at Plainsboro to the west and south; the Village Center is further to the west; Dey Road traveling east and west; Cranbury is to the east; the PSEG substation to the east and a residential development across the street along Woodland Drive and a few homes along Dey Road that are in front of the property. Mr. Fisher stated that the 20.35 acres have been designed to create a community of age restricted housing for 55 and older in accordance with the Dey Road Redevelopment Plan which permits single family housing as well as multifamily and twin homes. They decided to develop a community of lower density single family detached homes rather than maximize the density. The Redevelopment Plan allows up to 110 homes and the project is 52 homes. Mr. Fisher indicated that Exhibit A-2 is the site plan and subdivision layout with its main entrance off of Dey Road opposite Woodland Drive. The main entrance drive leads into a cross street that ends into two cul-de-sacs, one to west and one to the east and a shorter cul-de-sac in the center of the project. To the west is the location of the proposed Recreation Center and it includes: an enclosed space, covered space, meeting room, pool equipment storage, outdoor pool with fencing and a pickle ball court with parking. In accordance with the Redevelopment Plan to the east of the main entrance there will be a dog park. Mr. Fisher stated that there is a landscaped continuous six-foot-wide pathway for walking and jogging that moves around the perimeter of the community and connects the amenities to the street and cul-de-sacs. Mr. Fisher indicated that they are proposing three different model type homes that range from 1,900 square feet to 2,700 square feet with some having an option for a 2nd story loft but the majority will be ground floor living with the master bedroom on the 1st floor. Mrs. Fisher stated that Exhibit A-3 is a rendering of a Farm House style front elevation and a Craftsman style elevation shown side by side. Not included is the option for a more Traditional Style elevation. Each will have two and three bedrooms with a two-car garage and a two-car wide driveway. There will be on street parking allowed on one side. The homes will be built slab on grade with no basement foundation being proposed. Mr. Fisher indicated that Exhibit A-4 are photographs of a similar building already built in a similar community of the proposed Recreation Center. The building is open in part to the elements with an enclosed space for a meeting room, bathrooms and storage space for pool equipment that will have heating and air conditioning year-round and will be approximately 2,000 square feet. Mr. Fisher stated that Exhibit A-2 is a depiction of a proposed temporary sales trailer that will be three lots in on the right and a model home, five lots on the right. Once the model home is complete they will move the sales office into the garage of the model home. Mr. Fisher indicated that a Home Owners Association will be set up to manage all the common areas within the community. A public offering statement will be prepared along with a Declaration of Restrictions and Covenants and By Laws so the community can operate in a way that is adequate to manage and create reserves for things that will need to be repaired and replaced over time. Examples of features that will be maintained and operated by the HOA will include the recreation building, pool, any of the recreational amenities, the walking path, all the storm water features, storm water basins within the development, the entry and the streets. Mr. Fisher stated that there are new requirements to install electric vehicle charging stations based on the number of parking spaces. They purpose to install two which is more than they need. They plan on installing the service connections that will accommodate the charging system and will offer homeowners the charging station as an option. Mr. Petrino asked Mr. Fisher to speak on the issue relating to the fence separating the community from the adjacent community. Mr. Fisher stated that they are conveying a 10-foot-wide piece of land to the adjacent property known as The Place at Plainsboro development. As part of their agreement with the Township and CIS, they will be installing a 6-foot-high privacy fence along the common property line. Mr. Petrino offered Mr. Brian Perry of Van Note Harvey, the engineer for this project who gave a background on his qualifications as an expert witness. Without objection Mr. Perry was deemed acceptable as an expert by Chairman Lehrhaupt. Mr. Perry confirmed that he prepared the preliminary and final major subdivision and site plan, the engineering report, environmental impact assessment, stormwater management measures, maintenance plan and field manual for Serenity Walk dated March 28, 2022 last revised June 15, 2022. Mr. Perry stated that Exhibit A-1 is an aerial view showing the project site which is located in the central portion of Plainsboro along Dey Road and about one mile east of the Village Center. The project is bounded by Dey Road and four single family lots to the north, the PSEG substation to the east, the Plainsboro Crossing to the south and the Place at Plainsboro to the west. The site falls under the Dey Road Redevelopment Plan in terms of bulk requirements. The shape of the lot is mostly rectangle with the exception of the notch along Dey Road where the four existing single family lots are located. The size is 20.35 acres in total with lot 1.02 being 3.02 acres and lot 1.03 being 17.33 acres. The site generally slopes in a downward direction in a north westerly direction from a high elevation of 89 to the south easterly section of the site to a low elevation to 79 towards Dey Road. Average surface slope is 1% on the site. There aren’t any environmental constraints on the site such as wetlands, flood hazard areas or riparian zones. Mr. Perry indicated that Exhibit A-2 is a rendering of the Landscape Plan. The subdivision is for 53 lots of which 52 are single family homes and one open space lot. The 52 lots have a minimum lot size required per the Redevelopment Plan of 4,250 square feet, but they are proposing a minimum lot size of 6,265 square feet. The minimum lot dimensions requirements are 45 feet by 90 feet but they are proposing 54 feet by 110 feet. The open space lot is a large continuous lot surrounding the single-family lots. It is 8.86 acres making up 43% of the overall tract. There is a 50-foot-wide private roadway and utility easement consisting of internal roadways on the site that are private roads. There is a 10-foot-wide strip along the western boundary which is conveyed to lot 1.01 for sidewalks, light posts and walking path constructed in support of The Place at Plainsboro. The remaining project area is a total of 20.1 acres. The exhibit shows a footprint for the large home model with a two-car garage and a paved driveway that can accommodate two cars and a minimum dimension of 20 feet by 20 feet. Mr. Perry stated that the recreation building is 2,019 square feet and is one of the deviations being requested as 2,500 square feet is required. The street and roadway classification are a residential access street with an entrance off of Dey Road that has a 50 foot right of way and a 28 feet paved cart way with parallel parking on one side of the road. However, because of the single egress of the development, the internal street system operates more like a cul-de-sac which has a maximum daily average traffic count of 250 before needing a secondary means of access. Looking at peak rates for average daily traffic for senior housing they come in at 192 which is less than the 250 required before they hit that threshold for a cul-de-sac. Mr. Perry indicated that another deviation being requested is a split boulevard where there is a split entrance but is not a boulevard that continues down the entire length of the street because they have single family homes lining on either side of the roadway. It is also consistent with the roadway configuration around the municipality. Mr. Perry stated that an analysis determined that a traffic signal at the intersection is not warranted, but they are proposing to install a rapid repetitive flashing beacon on the marked crosswalk across Dey Road subject to County approval. Mr. Perry indicated that they will have off street parking, each home will have a two-car garage and a wide driveway to accommodate two cars. For on street parking they propose 27 spaces available on one side of the road for parallel parking where 26 spaces are required, which is a deviation being requested. At the recreation building there will be 15 spaces available, one handicap space and two electrical vehicles charging stations. Mr. Perry stated that the site amenities include outdoor pool, dog park, pickle ball court and the 6-foot-wide circulation trail around the perimeter of the community. There are five locations for fences around the community. One is a 6-foot-high privacy fence on the western part of the property line; a 4-foot-high safety fence surrounding three large water basins, a 4-foot-high fence around the dog park, a 4-foot-high fence around the pool and a 10-foot-high fence around the pickleball court. Mr. Perry stated that the setbacks to the adjacent properties is 66 feet from the nearest property line to the outbound property line, in particular from the single family lots of the outbound properties to the north. To the east property line is 47 feet to the PSEG substation. To the south, the property line setback is 115 feet to the Plainsboro Crossing development and to the west it is 39 feet to the Place at Plainsboro. According to the Redevelopment Plan the requirement is for 30 feet to the PSEG powerline easement and they have 22 feet, but when measured to the nearest house it is 50 feet, which is another deviation being requested. Mr. Perry indicated that for utilities serving the site, they have Veolia North America formally known as SUEZ Princeton Meadows for sanitary sewer, which they will have a will serve letter with a commitment of 25,000 gallons per day for this project based on an earlier projection, where it is now 16,000 gallons per day. Portable water and fire protection will be served by NJAW and a will serve letter has been received with a similar projection of 16,000 gallons per day for the site. Gas and electric will be served by PSEG and a will serve letter has been requested and Telecom will be provided by Verizon and a will serve letter has been received. Mr. Perry stated that for stormwater management for the site, they are providing a series of fire retention basins also known as rain gardens. They will have 13 distributed around the site, which are being designed consistent with the stormwater rules at the NJ Administrative Code 7.8. Ultimately the site will discharge to an already existing sewer system within the right of way on Dey Road. This is the same sewer system that the Place at Plainsboro discharges into downstream of their own basin. They expect that with the county’s review, there will be no impact to the county system as a result of this project. The outside agency approvals to the Middlesex County, Freehold Soil Conservation District and the Delaware and Raritan Canal Commission applications have been prepared or submitted and are pending. Mr. Fisher introduced Tom Stearns from Stearns Associates LLC. who gave an overview of his qualifications as a witness and without objection he was accepted by Chairman Lehrhaupt. Mr. Stearns stated that he prepared the landscape plan which is Exhibit A-2 and it shows all the screen trees, landscaping of the common areas, buffer plantings, foundation plantings and landscape plans for the recreation area, temporary sales trailer and the dog park which staff reviewed and generally approved. On the Lighting they have 20 traditional street light fixtures that are 16 feet high, black and LED. They have 30-inch-high bollards in the recreation area. For the sign lights they have medium flood light that are two feet long on each side. Mr. Stearns indicated that the development substantially complies with the Dey Road Redevelopment Plan. The community is age restricted, detached single family housing. They requested several deviations which is recognized as being equivalent to a C-type variance under the New Jersey Municipal Land Use Law. Mr. Stearns stated that the first deviation is a buffer deviation that is along the PSEG right of way on the southern part of the site. A minimum 30 feet is required but they are proposing 22 feet wide measured from the edge of the PSEG right of way to the rear of the closest residential lots. The rational is while the buffer proposed is 22 feet wide if you include the required 20 feet rear yard setbacks of the adjoining lots the buffer is 42 feet or 50 feet if you measure to the rear of the proposed homes. Mr. Stearns indicated that the recreation deviation is that the clubhouse has a minimum floor area requirement of 2,500 square feet, but 2,019 square feet is being proposed. The rational is that while the recreation building is smaller than the minimum required by the plan, the plan permits a residential density twice that of what the applicant is proposing. The original Redevelopment Plan allowed for 110 units where they are proposing 52. Therefore, the proposed recreation building will be more than adequate to serve the community. Mr. Stearns stated that another deviation is for the split boulevard entry drive. What is required is a split boulevard with two 15 feet wide lanes and an 8 feet island between. The applicant’s plan deviates from the standard, in that the plan shows a 60-foot-long U-drive shaped median starting at the point where the entrance drive meets Dey Road. Beyond the median, the entrance becomes a two-way undivided 28-foot-wide roadway. The Redevelopment Plan does not give guidance as to the length. It makes further reference to circulation of roads with a conventional cartway. The entrance drive, as proposed does provide the 15-foot-wide lanes on either side of the island with a minimum width of 8 feet is provided. The medium configuration provided is similar to that of other developments in the Township. Mr. Stearns indicated that another deviation has to do with parallel parking. What is required is that no parking be allowed on internal roadways with 28 feet wide roadway with 5 feet wide walk on one side. What they are providing is a 28-foot-wide roadway with parking on one side and sidewalks on both sides as per RSIS standards. This provides a conventional street arrangement for a single-family development that will allow for visitors to park on the street. The street standards of the plan are for multifamily and did not address single family developments. As for the roadway widths the requirement is for roadway widths of 24 feet wide with 5 feet wide sidewalks and what they are proposing is the RSIS standard of 28 feet. This provides for a conventional and more realistic street arrangement for a single-family development that will allow for visitors to park on street and complies and is permitted by RSIS. Mr. Stearns stated that staff supports the deviations as being substantially consistent with the purpose and intent of the plan and will not result in any adverse conditions and the Planning Board may grant deviations from the regulations contained within the Redevelopment Plan, essentially like C Variances. There are five prongs for C-2 Variances; that they relate to a specific piece of property, that the purposes of the Redevelopment be advanced by this deviation; the deviation be granted without substantial detriment to the public good; the benefits of the deviation out way any detriment; and the deviation will not substantially impair the intent of the Redevelopment Plan. Mr. Stearns indicated that as for prong one, the deviations in question relate to this site in the Redevelopment Area. For prong two, the MLUL will be advanced by the deviation of the zoning requirement. As far as prong three - the character will be improved by the development and there are no negative property value effects, in essence there is no negative effects on surrounding properties. Prong four - they don’t see any detriments because the proposed deviations meet the criteria for the exceptions of the Redevelopment Plan and prong five – it is consistent with the purpose of the zone and the Redevelopment Plan. Mr. Fisher stated that Mr. Mr. Pehnke is available to answer any questions having to do with the Traffic Impact Study or any of the proposed on-site or off-site road improvements associated with this development. Ron Yake stated that the required notice was satisfied. The review memo is dated June 30, 2022. The applicant has submitted the required preliminary and final subdivision and site plan check list. They have requested eleven subdivision waivers and 10 site plan check list waivers. They provided a brief description and justification for each of the waivers. The DRC and staff have reviewed the requested waivers and are of the opinion that such waivers are reasonable, justified and recommend that they be granted. Mr. Yake indicated that the proposed development complies with the adopted Dey Redevelopment Plan. The applicant has requested a number of deviations. The applicant’s plan identifies three separate streets labeled A, B and C. Staff will work with the applicant to consider the naming of the proposed streets based on the Township’s current policy for naming streets. Mr. Yake stated that the applicant has provided a table on the plan demonstrating compliance with the New Jersey residential site improvement standards and no exceptions are being requested from those standards. Mr. Yake indicated that as far as the Redevelopment Plan staff believes that the proposed development fully complies with site standards related to pedestrian circulation as well as with lighting and landscaping. Mr. Yake stated that the DRC and staff are of the opinion that all the site and building improvements proposed comply with the design standards in the Redevelopment Plan. However, the DRC and staff recommend that prior to the release of the final site plan, the applicant show documents in compliance with each such standard for staff review and acceptance. Chairman Lehrhaupt opened the meeting up for comments or questions from the Board. Joe Greer asked if the dog park was available to the general public or is it for residents only. Mr. Fisher replied that the dog park was limited to residents and their guests only. Mr. Greer asked Mr. Pehnke when was the traffic study completed. Mr. Pehnke replied that the traffic study used a couple of data points because of COVID. They did some counts during COVID, one in September of 2021 and then in March of 2022, but because it was suspect they went back to 2019 data. The 2019 data is pre-COVID data that NJDOT had and that data is higher than where we are as of March 2022. So that is the data they worked with in evaluating the operations. Rich Keevey asked Mr. Yake to confirm that if there isn’t anything that can slow the project down, since they are in conformity with the comments that he made, and Mr. Yake replied yes. Arthur Lehrhaupt asked what is the impact of the PSEG facility to the development? Brian Perry stated that they looked at The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS) and the National Institute of Health, which is part of the U.S. Department of Health & Human Services, who have done several studies on Electromagnetic Frequency (EMFs) that are coming off the PSEG power lines. Mr. Perry indicated that EMFs can be put into two categories, ionizing and non-ionizing. Ionizing EMFs are the ones that exhibit high levels of radiation which has the potential for DNA damage and it includes ultra violet lights, X-rays and Gamma rays. That is not the EMF that is being emitted from the PSEG power lines. Power lines are non-ionizing EMFs which exhibit low levels of radiation. Mr. Perry stated that in the studies that NIEHS and NIH have performed not only power lines but also microwave ovens, computers, cell phones, Wi-Fi networks MRIs, house energy smart meters all fall into the category of non-ionizing EMFs. In addition, the institutes have done research mostly involving children, on the effects of EMF radiation on humans and concluded that at best that the EMF radiation is carcinogenic. However, the studies that they have done on adults show that there is no evidence that link between EMF exposure and adult health problems. Bottom line is that power transmission lines produce extremely low frequency EMFs and carry very low energy and have no ionizing or thermal effects. Mr. Perry indicated that there are only six states that have set standards for transmission lines in electric fields and NJ is one of them. NJ has set standards that limits the electric field strength at the edge of the power line, the right of way line. For most outcomes there is no evidence that EMF exposure has adverse effects on humans. Mr. Lehrhaupt asked Mr. Perry if this meets the NJ standards which Mr. Perry replied that to his understanding yes, PSEG would have been held to that standard. Rich Keevey indicated that they should have something in writing for potential homeowners showing that there is no issue. Cary Spiegel asked at what point will a signal be required, as he is concerned about the high-level of traffic along Dey Road and issues with making a left turn onto Woodland Drive. Karl Pehnke stated that with regard to the left turn onto Woodland, that condition will be improved by the fact that along the frontage as required by Middlesex County, they will be widening to extend the shoulder that was recently built in front of The Place at Plainsboro. That provides the ability to bypass a left turning vehicle. That is in accordance with their approvals with Middlesex County. With regard to signalization of the intersection, it is unrelated to increasing volume on Dey Road. It has more to do with the side street volume. They would have to have sustained volumes over extended periods of times of close to 100 vehicles per hour. The project will not add that kind of traffic to the intersection. The volumes that are exiting in this kind of community, are 5 – 10 vehicles per hour. Which is very low volume, so it doesn’t rise to the level of meeting the types of volume and flow demands that are required for traffic signalization. Joe Greer asked will any of the underground utility connect with The Place? Brian Perry stated that all utilities will be underground and that the sanitary sewer will be conveyed through The Place and served by Veolia. There being no further questions or comments from the Board or members of the public, it was moved by KEEVEY and seconded by GREER and unanimously passed to close the public hearing. Trishka Cecil stated that as with all the Boards resolutions they are divided into three sections. One section lays out the information identified in the plans and reports and what constitutes the record that was in front of the Board for its consideration. Then there is the section that contains the Board’s findings which is the description of what the applicant is proposing, diving into detail and then matching up with lighting, landscaping and stormwater management as to compliance with State requirements and local Township requirements. Ms. Cecil indicated that within the findings she purposes to add is the question about the dog park, whether it is open to the public. She believes it is relevant and should be included in the findings that the dog park is only for the residents of the community and their guests. Ms. Cecil stated that the resolution doesn’t speak very much about the subdivision itself and she would like to add an overview of the subdivision verses the overall plan and development. Ms. Cecil indicated that in the resolution there is a finding regarding the electric vehicle charging station and as originally drafted and included in the conditions that the applicant was going to equip each of the homes with a charging station. The applicant has corrected that consistent with the State model ordinance. What the applicant is doing is providing the wiring and supply for electric vehicles but not the actual charging stations. Ms. Cecil stated that the last section of the resolution are the conditions themselves. This is everything the applicant will need to do as part of the approval in addition to what is shown in the plans. These included standards in terms of improvements on Dey Road, subject to County approval, recording of the operations and maintenance manual for stormwater, hot boxes, utilities and generators. Ms. Cecil indicated that another condition that needs to be added to the resolution is that the applicant is required to submit a construction hauling and staging plan. It was MOVED by KEEVEY and seconded by GREER to accept the resolution with the changes that Ms. Cecil has indicated and approved via roll call. ROLL CALL: \| Name \| Status \| \|---------------\|--------\| \| Cantu \| yes \| \| Yates \| absent \| \| Lehrhaupt \| yes \| \| Keevey \| yes \| \| Spiegel \| yes \| \| Raturi \| yes \| \| Doshi \| absent \| \| Agarwal \| yes \| \| Greer \| yes \| \| Rajagopal \| absent \| Les Varga introduced Claire Jaffee to give an overview on the public participation part of the Master Plan project. Ms. Jaffe stated that she would speak to the community engagement survey that they conducted as part of the Master Plan Reexamination. The online survey was done through a platform called Metro Quest and it was live for 2 ½ months from March 14 to June 3rd. There were 241 total responses and the different forms of outreach included local contacts as distribution points, social media and website promotion, emails sent through schools and YouTube interviews with Bob Melvin talking about the Master Plan process. This information was used to inform the SOPAPS and the Land Use Element. Ms. Jaffe indicated that there were three opportunities for people to give feedback. The first was, respondents could rank their priorities for the future from nine different categories: easy and safe transportation; parks and recreation; shopping and entertainment; Township character; environmental protection; walking and biking; schools and community facilities; range of housing choices and economic development. Second was, a place where they could write in their Vision Statement for Plainsboro and last was a mapping exercise where they could indicate on a map their issues and the opportunities they see related to six different categories: transportation; land use; walking/biking; parks/recreation; flooding and other, which was a place to leave comments. Ms. Jaffe stated that in terms of the top priorities for the future, there were four; environmental protection; schools and community facilities; range of housing choices and walking and biking. Ms. Jaffe indicated that as far as the vision statements there were 120 submitted. The comments were generally very positive and some common themes were: safety; cleanliness; downtown as a destination; maintaining diversity; environmental protection and connection; maintaining open space and improving and encouraging shopping. Ms. Jaffe stated that for the mapping exercise they used Map Marker which gave people the opportunity to drop pins. The respondent would grab an icon which were: transportation; land use; walking/biking; parks/recreation; flooding and other, then put it on the map and say if it is an issue or an opportunity and what it was related to. The respondents could drop as many pins as they wanted and there were 461 individual markers dropped mostly in the central area of the Township. Ms. Jaffe indicated that in conclusion the survey respondents enjoy living in Plainsboro and generally agree on the top priorities for the community. Other key themes are support for a central downtown space for gathering, preserving open space as well as growing economic development and addressing environmental resiliency and flooding concerns. Matt Wannamaker stated that SOPAPS is the Township’s statement of objectives, principals, assumptions, policies and standards and that it is the portion of the Master Plan they are putting together based on the information from the survey. The key themes are in a memo that will be reviewed by the Master Plan Subcommittee and will be a part of the Master Plan Reexamination report. Mr. Wannamaker indicated that the DRAFT Land Use Element portion of the Master Plan is in progress and will be informed by SOPAPS and the public engagement process. It will also include a hazard vulnerability assessment which is a new state requirement. Stan Slachetka stated that there is more to come related to the climate change hazard vulnerability assessment that is now required under the municipal land use law to be part of the Land Use Plan Element of the Master Plan. Les Varga indicated that the survey was a great tool in the face of COVID to garner public participation. In addition, he, Matt Wannamaker, Bob Melvin interviewed the Police Emergency Services, Public Works Director, Recreation Director, the schools Superintendent, the Mayor, Ed Yates and the Township Administrator. It is a comprehensive picture and look at everything in the Township that will be used to update the Land Use Element and the SOPAPS. The target is to bring the comprehensive first two chapters to the Planning Board in October. Joe Greer asked if there was a target number and if 241 response is good response rate? Ms. Jaffe replied that it is a good response rate and they did not have target number. Chairman Lehrhaupt discussed whether the Board was agreeable to continue using the virtual meeting format. It was agreed that the meetings will continue virtually and at 6pm. Les Varga indicated that there aren’t any projects in the works and that there won’t be an August meeting. He also stated that he will be retiring on December 1st and best wishes were offered by everyone. There being no further business, the meeting was adjourned at 7:51 p.m. Respectfully submitted, Jos Easter Board Secretary Unless signed above, these minutes have not been approved.
Now I want to move to a subject of huge importance for the Renewal of the Church. I do not think it was a coincidence that the new teaching on the Jewish people formed part of a Council called for the renewal of the Church. This teaching on the Jews cannot be treated as other agenda not related to Church renewal, and it cannot be rightly understood as a marginal issue in Catholic doctrine. OK, the Council said something about the Jews, but let’s focus on the central issues like Jesus Christ, salvation, the Church, missiology; we cannot say this because the teaching on the Jews has direct implications for all these key topics. So that is what I want to address in this second talk. In this talk, I will sometimes speak about Israel: I use this term theologically to refer to the whole reality of the chosen people. In the post-Vatican Two teaching, the Jews are still the people of the covenant. This was expressed in the prayer of John Paul II at the Western Wall in March 2000. Here is a first point of challenge to our received ideas! When we thought God had rejected the Jews, the relationship between the two covenants was clear: the New has replaced the Old. But now that we recognize that the Jews are still the people of the covenant, we have a new theological question: what is the relationship between the Old and the New? One theological position being pushed by some theologians, often those involved in the dialogue with the rabbis, is that there are now two separate covenants: the Mosaic through which the Jews come to salvation; and the New Covenant, through which the Gentiles come to salvation. Obviously in this view, there is no place for evangelisation of the Jews. This position is not supported by Benedict XVI, and is clearly in opposition to many key texts in the New Testament: e.g. Rom. 1: 16; 1 Tim. 2: 6. The Pope has not commented on this question yet as Pope, but as Cardinal he wrote a book in which he presented the New Covenant as a renewal of the one covenant. We should note here that in the famous prophecy in Jeremiah 31 about the new covenant, the Lord promises that He will make a new covenant “with the house of Israel and with the house of Judah” (vv. 31, 33). In fact, the first talk already touched on the implication of this teaching for our understanding of the Church. “The Jewish religion is not “extrinsic” to us, but in a certain way is “intrinsic” to our own religion.” (John Paul II). In other words, you cannot understand Christianity rightly apart from the Jewish people and their faith. The Church is inherently connected to Israel. This is graphically presented by Paul in the image of the olive branches in Romans 11, that John Paul II referred to in 1982, when he spoke of Israel as “the pure olive on which were grafted the branches of the wild olive which are the gentiles”. As Nostra Aetate recognized, the first generation Church was totally Jewish: Jesus, Mary, the Twelve, Paul, Stephen, Barnabas, etc. In Romans 11, Paul sees the Jews who did not believe in Jesus as branches cut off from the natural olive tree. The Gentile believers are like branches of a wild olive tree that are grafted on to the natural olive tree, which is believing Israel, centred on Jesus. This is the vision of the Church presented in Ephesians 2 and 3. Here we have a vision of the Church as essentially composed of Jews and Gentiles, reconciled through the blood of the cross. In fact, it presents the opposite view to what we have often thought, namely that the Jews had to be brought into the Church. The teaching of Ephesians is that the Gentiles are brought into the household of Israel. “The salvation he brings through his paschal mystery is offered first to the Israelites. As foreseen by the Old Testament, this salvation has universal repercussions as well. It is also offered to the Gentiles. Moreover, it is accepted by many of them, to the extent that they have become the great majority of Christ’s disciples. But Christians from the nations profit from salvation only by being introduced, by their faith in Israel’s Messiah, into the posterity of Abraham (Gal. 3: 7, 29). Many Christians from the ‘nations’ are not aware that they are by nature ‘wild olives’ and that their faith in Christ has grafted them onto the olive tree chosen by God (Rom. 11: 17 – 18).” Our Understanding of God Replacement teaching has been very dangerous for our understanding of God. For it means that God made many promises to Israel, and then changed his mind. RT thus has the tendency to undermine our trust in the total fidelity of God, and our reliance on his promises. Is. 41: 8 – 11. “I said: You are my servant; I have chosen you, and have not rejected you.” (41: 9b). Post-exile. God’s enormous love for Israel, and his patience with Israel despite constant rebellion and sin. Hosea 11: 8 – 9. The great promises of the Messiah and the coming Messianic age, that we will hear in Advent, were mostly given at the time of catastrophe and suffering following sin. I think this shows up in our often weak awareness of God the Father. Tom Smail: The Forgotten Father. Easy for widespread ideas of a vengeful God, of a distant God – not the God of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob. It makes it hard for us to understand the relationship of Jesus to the Father (see also below). Our Understanding of Jesus Of course, one of the deepest challenges is to our understanding of Jesus. Most of our presentations of Christian faith, also in our evangelization, present Jesus as a kind of generic man. God created man; man sinned; so God needed to send a Redeemer, so He sends His Son, Jesus, who becomes “man”. In this view, all that matters is that the Son of God took on human nature. In this view too, the story from Genesis 4 to Malachi has no essential connection with the plan of salvation. But in fact, “man” in general is an abstraction. There is no such thing as a generic man. Every human person belongs to a people, has parents and relatives, belongs to a culture and speaks a particular language or languages. So it is highly significant that the New Testament begins with this description of Jesus: “A record of the genealogy of Jesus Christ the son of David, the son of Abraham.” (Matt. 1: 1). As John Paul II said to the Jewish community in Mainz in November 1980: “In der „Erklärung über das Verhältnis der Kirche zum Judentum“ vom April dieses Jahres haben die Bischöfe der Bundesrepublik Deutschland den Satz an den Anfang gestellt: ”Wer Jesus Christus begegnet, begegnet dem Judentum“. Dieses Wort möchte auch ich mir zu eigen machen. Der Glaube der Kirche an Jesus Christus, den Sohn Davids und den Sohn Abrahams, enthält in der Tat, was die Bischöfe in jener Erklärung “das --- 1 The Jewish People and their Sacred Scriptures in the Christian Bible (Vatican City: Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 2002), para. 85, p. 194. Once we start from the fact that the Son of God became a Jew, then we have a new theological question: is there a difference between Jesus’ relationship to Israel, his own people, and his relationship to the people of the nations? We may want to protest loudly that there is no difference. He loves us all equally. He died for us all. Yes, but these points do not fully answer this question. Here again we need to look carefully at the data of the New Testament. 1. The mission of Jesus from the Father. “I was sent only to the lost sheep of Israel.” (Matt. 15: 24). This saying of Jesus fits with his instructions to the Twelve: “Do not go among the Gentiles or enter any town of the Samaritans. Go rather to the lost sheep of Israel.” (Matt. 10: 5 – 6). In other words, Jesus is only sending the Twelve where He has been sent. 2. The baptism of Jesus. Jesus, who is without sin, accepts the baptism of repentance from John the Baptist. But John’s baptism is only for the people of Israel. “the reason I came baptizing with water was that he might be revealed to Israel” (John 1: 31). In his baptism, Jesus is identifying himself totally with his own people (a key theological point), including their sinfulness.$^2$ See also Isaiah 53: 8; John 11: 50 – 51 and Gal. 4: 4 – 5. “C’est à ce rite que Jésus s’est soumis pour être l’Israel obéissant à Dieu.”$^3$ 3. Israel as Priestly People. We have to understand the total identification of Jesus with his own people in the context of important Old Testament principles: (a) the leader who embodies the whole people (as father, as king); and (b) the calling of Israel to be a priestly people through whom all the nations of the earth will be blessed (see the promises to Abraham: Gen. 12: 3b; 22: 18). See also Exodus 19: 6 “Although the whole earth is mine, you will be for me a kingdom of priests and a holy nation.” As priestly nation, Israel is called to serve the “nations”, not themselves. That is to say, Jesus is called first to be the Messiah of Israel. Through his obedience as Messiah of Israel, he fulfils Israel’s calling as a priestly people, and so becomes the Saviour of the world. In other words, we as Gentiles are saved not by Jesus bypassing Israel or ignoring the chosenness of his own people, but precisely through his total obedience to his particular call. God always arrives at the universal through the particular. Jesus embodies in his person Israel, the first-born son of God (Ex. 4: 22), becoming the only-begotten Son of the Father. In the election of Jesus, the election of Israel is fully expressed and realized. “Ne pas reconnaître son Élection, c’est ne pas reconnaître l’Élection du Christ.”$^4$ It is wrong to think --- $^2$ “Dans ce conflit, la figure qui nous est donnée du Fils et du Messie résume la totalité d’Israel. ... La figure du Messie est en même temps la figure d’Israël; la figure de Jésus est en même temps celle des siens, de son Eglise et celle d’Israel. ... Bien des choses ne sont compréhensibles que par cette solidarité de Jésus, du Messie avec son peuple.” Jean-Marie Lustiger, La Promesse (Paris: Editions Parole et Silence, 2002), p. 57. $^3$ Lustiger, op. cit., p. 131. $^4$ Lustiger, op. cit., p. 156. that God demoted Israel as first-born son in favour of Jesus: rather Jesus enters into his unique calling precisely through the unique calling of his own people. When does this opening up from the particularity of Israel to the universality of all peoples take place in the ministry of Jesus? It happens with his death and resurrection. It is only after the resurrection that Jesus says to the apostles: “Therefore go and make disciples of all nations” (Matt. 28: 19). It is perhaps significant that in Acts 4: 27, the prayer of the Church in Jerusalem brings together the Gentiles and the Jews as conspiring against Jesus: “Indeed Herod and Pontius Pilate met together with the Gentiles and the people of Israel in this city to conspire against your holy servant Jesus, whom you anointed.” Our Understanding of Mary Similarly, we need to understand Mary in her totally Jewish context. The replacement teaching had the effect of separating Mary from her own people. The Holy Father wrote an excellent small book on Mary when he was Cardinal with the title Tochter Zion [Daughter Zion]. While Lumen Gentium sought to prepare a biblically-based ecclesiology, and its chapter on Mary is much more biblical than pre-conciliar teaching, it really does not root Mary in the history of her people. It uses the Old Testament to present Mary as the “new Eve”, the mother of all the living in Christ. Cardinal Ratzinger’s book goes much further than this. David Rudolph: Messianic Jews love to teach on the great women of the Old Testament, such as Sarah, Rebekah, and Rachel. But he said, we never speak about the greatest Jewish woman believer of all time, Myriam. Various elements in a biblical presentation of Mary in the context of Israel: - she is the mother of faith, as Abraham is the father of faith. - Mary is someone who represents the whole people of Israel, as did Abraham, Moses, David and the suffering servant. She represents them in their calling to bring the Messiah into the world. - Notice the Messianic character of the angel’s message to Mary: “The Lord God will give him the throne of his father David, and he will reign over the house of Jacob forever; his kingdom will never end.” (Luke 1: 32 – 33). - Notice how Simeon’s prophetic song, the Nunc Dimittis (Luke 2: 29 – 32), sung each day in Night Prayer, echoes Is. 42: 6 and 49: 6. - Notice how the prophecy of Simeon about her son given to Mary (alone) relates to Israel: “This child is destined to cause the falling and rising of many in Israel, and to be a sign that will be spoken against.” (Luke 2: 34). His final words, “And a sword will pierce your own soul too.” (Luke 2: 35) must be connected with the prophecy about her son. Mary’s suffering is connected with the division in Israel provoked by her son. - Revelation 12 moves from the woman “clothed with the sun” (v. 1), who gives birth to the “male child, who will rule all the nations” (v. 5), to the woman who is given refuge in the desert (v. 14), whose offspring are “those who obey God’s commandments and hold to the testimony of Jesus” (v. 17). This woman is Israel that becomes Church in Mary. Our Understanding of the Apostles Because we had forgotten the Jewish origins, we have just assumed that Jesus chose the Twelve, without any special reference to their being Jews, and then sent the Twelve out into the whole world. This overlooks the significance throughout the Bible of the distinction and relationship between Israel and the nations. It is in line with this that in the New Testament Paul is called to be the “apostle to the nations”. The rediscovered awareness of the Jewish roots means that we discover again the significance of the Twelve being Jewish. What does this involve? • It is evident that Jesus chose twelve apostles because there were twelve tribes of Israel. They are only sent out during Jesus’ earthly ministry to the Jews (see Matt. 10: 5-6). In John’s vision of the heavenly Jerusalem in the book of Revelation, the names of the twelve tribes of Israel were written on the twelve gates, and the names of the “twelve apostles of the Lamb” were written on the foundations of the walls. • The Twelve have a special relationship to Israel that will continue even in the final judgment. “I tell you the truth, at the renewal of all things, when the Son of Man sits on his glorious throne, you who have followed me will also sit on twelve thrones, judging the twelve tribes of Israel.” (Matt. 19: 28). In his book La Promesse, Cardinal Lustiger notes the difference between the judgment of Israel and the Church on the one hand, and the nations on the other. The former is addressed in the parable of the talents (Matt. 25: 14 – 30), and the latter in the imagery of the sheep and the goats (Matt. 25: 31 – 46). • In Galatians, Peter is described as “an apostle to the Jews” and Paul as “an apostle to the Gentiles” (Gal. 2: 8). There are signs in 1 Peter of Peter’s focus on the Jewish believers in Jesus: (1) “Peter, an apostle of Jesus Christ to the chosen exiles of the diaspora [eklektos parepidemois diasporas Pontou, Galatias, Kappadokias, Asias kai Bithunias]” (1 Pet. 1: 1). (2) “She who is in Babylon, chosen together with you, sends you her greetings” (1 Pet. 5: 13). Babylon as centre of persecuting Empire, and place of exile for the Jews. • New light on the significance of Church of Rome being founded on the witness of the two apostles, Peter and Paul. One feast (June 29), both mentioned in formulae of blessing, of indulgences, etc. Our Understanding of the Eucharist Link with Passover. Covenant sacrifice. Jewish understanding of memory: “Do this in memory of me.” Messianic promise and expectation. “I will not eat it again with you until …” Relationship to the coming Kingdom.
2010 continued to be a difficult year for CIM from the financial point of view. However, it succeeded to pursue new initiatives in collaboration with the associates and to contribute to keep in Portugal a forum for national and international cooperation among mathematicians and other scientists. In spite of the impossibility of using the facilities of the Observatório Astronómico of the University of Coimbra and the current financial crisis in the country, that do not offer optimistic perspectives of a significant change in the next years within the present framework, CIM has been supporting and organizing events in all the country in collaboration with its associates, in particular the Portuguese Mathematical Society (SPM). In particular, CIM has continued to promote and to organize national and international initiatives in the Mathematical Sciences, namely, hosting Maxim Kontsevich that delivered the second Pedro Nunes Lectures at the Universities of Porto and Lisbon, organizing the international conference on “Educational Interfaces between Mathematics and Industry” of the ICMI/ICIAM international study, which proceedings are available online at the CIM website http://www.cim.pt/files/proceedings_eimi_2010.pdf, offering support to the creation of the Portuguese Digital Mathematical Library within the Portuguese coordination of the ongoing EuDML project, promoting the first Portugal-Spain MatCampus (Acampamento Matemático) for high school students, held in Braga and Santiago de Compostela during 18-31 July 2010 and co-organizing the workshop on the Raising Public Awareness in Mathematics, held in Óbidos, in collaboration with the EMS-RPA committee, where the new art and mathematics film on elliptic curves and cryptography LPD-UHW, sponsored by Ciência Viva, was first presented the 26 September 2010 during a joint session with the SPM open to the public. Contents 01 Editorial 03 Featured Article Spectra in Mathematics and in Physics: From the dispersion of light to nonlinear eigenvalues by Jean Mawhin 17 MathCampus—a Completely new experience by Paula Mendes Martins and Victoria Otero-Espinar 23 An Interview with Sir Michael Atiyah by Ana Cristina Ferreira 27 The workshop on “Raising the Public Awareness of Mathematics” in Óbidos (Portugal) 28 LPDJLQH D VHFUHW A film of art and mathematics on elliptic curves and cryptography by José Francisco Rodrigues 30 Looking forward EuDML—The European Digital Mathematics Library by André de Oliveira Gomes The CIM Scientific Council, in its meeting held in Lisbon the 25th September 2010, has recognised that CIM has the potential input from the whole national mathematical community through its associates, good international relations, through ERCOM, and should obtain recognition from the Portuguese Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia through seed money to carry out its activities in better conditions. At that meeting it was stressed the CIM character as an umbrella organization, whose associates are research centers, mathematical departments and Societies, as well as its added value of being the unique ERCOM member from Portugal. It was also recognised that CIM does not compete, nor is a threat, to the existing research centers in Portugal, that CIM’s mission does not overlap with the centers’ projects and activities, but are complementary and, by promoting the cooperation and links among them, CIM has an important actual value to the mathematical community in Portugal. However, the current situation is untenable for long time and the direction, in order to provoke a change and to facilitate the associates to find a renewed solution for 2012 and beyond, has decided to anticipate the end of its mandate by one year, after securing another limited budget programme for 2011 that you may find in http://www.cim.pt/?q=events and in the pages of this Bulletin. This programme includes, among other activities in association with the CIM associates, the continuation of the Pedro Nunes Lectures, in collaboration with the SPM, the organisation of the Summer School on Dynamical Models in Life Sciences in the historical city of Évora, a joint event with the European Mathematical Society and the European Society for Mathematical and Theoretical Biology, the participation at the initiatives of the UTexas/Austin-Portugal programme in Mathematics, the organization of the international conference on Groups and Semigroups: Interactions and Computations, in Lisbon, and pursuing with a second initiative that aims to contribute to the IMU/ICMI Klein Project http://www.mathunion.org/index.php?id=805 with the conference on Elementary Geometry from an Advanced point of View, at the University of Aveiro. Mathematics of Planet Earth 2013 The initiative consists of holding a year of activities in 2013 under the theme Mathematics of Planet Earth (MPE) www.mpe2013.org This program will be a great opportunity to showcase the essential relevance of mathematics in planetary issues. We are optimistic that this highly visible activity can create opportunities for additional sponsorship and that, by pooling together resources, a significant level of impact can be achieved. In this initiative, the project is to hold scientific activities and activities for the public, the media and the schools. International collaboration is encouraged. The initiative was first launched by the North American Mathematical Sciences institutes (US and Canada). On their side, the plan is to develop a joint thematic program with the institutes hosting scientific workshops and organizing public lectures. A joint (North American) Scientific Committee chaired by Christiane Rousseau has been formed to encourage joint multi-institutes activities. The invitation is starting to be sent to societies to join and several societies are just waiting for the approval of their board to become official partners. Spectra in Mathematics and in Physics: from the Dispersion of Light to Nonlinear Eigenvalues Jean Mawhin Université Catholique de Louvain 1 Introduction This lecture deals with the concept of spectrum in various epochs, with various meanings and for various disciplines. Its content can be motivated by a quotation of L.A. Steen [53]: Not least because such different objects as atoms, operators and algebras all possess spectra, the evolution of spectral theory is one of the most informative chapters in the history of contemporary mathematics. [...] In 1928 and 1930 Norbert Wiener developed a theory of spectral analysis for functions in an attempt to analyze mathematically the spectrum of the white light, while twenty years later Arne Beurling inaugurated the complementary study of spectral synthesis. and a quotation of N. Wiener [60]: The author sees no compelling reason to avoid a physical terminology in pure mathematics when a mathematical concept corresponds closely to a concept already familiar in physics. [...] The “spectrum” of this book merely amounts to rendering precise the notion familiar to the physicist, and may as well be known by the same name. We shall return soon to the origin of the use of the word “spectrum” in physics and in mathematics. The mathematical spectrum is partly made of “eigenvalues”, a strange word which has not been immediately adopted, as observed by S.H. Gould in [17]: The concept of an eigenvalue is of great importance in both pure and applied mathematics. [...] The German word eigen means characteristic and the hybrid work eigenvalue is used for characteristic numbers in order to avoid confusion with the many other uses in English of the word characteristic. [...] There can be no doubt that eigenvalue will soon find its way into the standard dictionaries. [...] The English language has many such hybrids: for example liverwurst. Previous work has already been devoted to the development of spectral theory in mathematics, and the reader can find further information and remarks in [28, 31, 36, 59, 61]. 2 Light and Colours: the Chemical Unity of the Universe The first occurrence of the word “spectrum” in science seems to be found in a letter of Isaac Newton to the Royal Society, in 1672, where he uses the word to denote the oblong colored image, with the colors of a rainbow, produced on a white paper by a beam of Sun light dispersed by a glass prism. The expression is repeated in his book Opticks (London, 1704), and, in no case, Newton makes any comment on the choice of the word. “Spectrum” means “vision” in Latin, and comes from “spectare”, to look at. Little progress is made in Newton’s experiment in the eighteenth century, except Melvill’s observation in 1752 that a flame of salted alcohol only gives a yellow spectrum. The beginning of the nineteenth century sees the discovery of the infrared and ultra-violet extensions of the spectrum, respectively by William Herschel and Ritter, the crucial discovery by Wollaston of seven dark lines in the solar spectrum, and the association of the color to the frequency in Young’s ondulatory theory of light. In 1814, the Bavarian optician Fraunhofer constructs the first spectroscope. This allows him to establish the first map of the Solar spectrum, and to identify the position of one of its dark lines with the bright Natrium D-line. After some pioneering work of John Herschell, Talbot, Foucault, Kelvin, Stokes and Angström, the mathematical physicist Kirchhoff, associated to the chemist Bunsen, discovers in 1859 the fundamental laws of spectral analysis: each line of a spectrum is due to the presence of a given element and conversely, the appearance of a line spectrum can be used as an analytical test for the presence of an element. Furthermore, a substance traversed by a source of light with continuous spectrum gives rise to dark lines having the same position. Consequently, the dark lines in the Solar spectrum reveal the composition of its atmosphere: astrophysics is born and stellar spectroscopy, with the pioneering work of men like Huggins, Miller and Secchi, reveals a fact of fundamental philosophical importance: the chemical unity of the Universe, some two hundred years after Newton’s gravitation had shown its physical unity. Let us quote, in this respect, Poincaré [46]: Auguste Comte has said, I do not remember where, that it would be vain to try to find the composition of the Sun, because this knowledge would not be useful to Sociology. How could he be so short-sighted? [...] First, one has recognized the nature of the Sun, that the founder of positivism wanted to forbid us, and one has found there substances which exist on the Earth and had remained unnoticed; for example Helium [...]. This was already for Comte a first flat contradiction. But we owe to spectroscopy a much more precious lesson [...]. We know now [...] that the laws of our chemistry are general laws of Nature, and do not follow from the chance which has made us born on the Earth. Through the red-shift and the Döppler-Fizeau effect, galaxy spectra have also revealed to expansion of our Universe. But the importance of spectroscopy is not less in the infinitely small, as spectra appear like signatures of atoms and molecules. After Angström classifies in 1853 the lines of the emission spectrum of Hydrogen in series, and after some pioneering work of Mascart, the Swiss teacher Balmer finds heuristically, in 1885, a formula giving the wave numbers $(\nu = 1/\lambda = cv', \nu'$ the frequency) of one of those series: \[ \nu = R \left( \frac{1}{2^2} - \frac{1}{m^2} \right), \quad (m = 3, 4, ...), \] where $R = 109.677,7 \text{ cm}^{-1}$ is the Rydberg’s constant. The lines accumulate near the limit wave number $\nu_l = R/4$, corresponding to the limit wave length $\lambda_l = 3645,6 \text{ Å}$. In 1908, Ritz states his combination principle: for each type of atom, it is possible to find a sequence of numbers, the spectral terms, such that the frequency of any spectral line of this atom is equal to the difference of two of those spectral terms. For example, the Hydrogen atom is characterized by the spectral terms $R/n^2, (n = 1, 2, ...)$. This principle implies the generalized Balmer formula \[ \nu = R \left( \frac{1}{n^2} - \frac{1}{m^2} \right), \quad (m = n + 1, n + 2, ..., n = 1, 2, ...), \] suggesting the existence of Hydrogen lines with new wave numbers, later observed by Paschen, Brackett, and Pfund in the infra-red, and by Lyman in the ultraviolet. The reader can consult [55] for the historical development of spectroscopy and its influence on chemistry and astrophysics. In 1913, Bohr proposes his quantified planetary model for the Hydrogen atom, from which he deduces mathematically the generalized Balmer formula with $R = 2\pi^2\mu e^4/eh^3$. Here $\mu$ is the mass of the electron, $e$ its charge, $c$ the speed of light, $h$ is Planck’s constant, and the computation gives a value very close to Rydberg’s constant. However Bohr’s model is based on some contradictory assumptions, and we may leave again to Poincaré [47] some prophetic conclusion: Following the work of Balmer, Runge, Kaiser, Rydberg, those lines are distributed in series, and, in each series, follow simple laws. The first idea is to relate those laws to those of harmonics. In the same way as a vibrating string has infinitely many degrees of freedom, allowing it to produce an infinity of sounds whose frequencies are multiple of the fundamental frequency, [...] could the atom produce, for identical reasons, infinitely many different lights? You know that this so simple idea has failed, because, according to the laws of spectroscopy, it is the frequency and not its square which has a simple expression; because the frequency does not become infinite for the harmonics of infinitely high rank. The idea must be modified or must be abandoned. It is time to have a look at those vibrating strings to which Poincaré refers. ### 3 Music and harmonics: the paradigm of the wave equation The relation between vibrating strings and mathematics can be traced at least to the Pythagorian tradition, but the development of musical theory at the Renaissance has led to physical discussions of the frequency of a vibrating string. Galileo and Mersenne, around 1640, study the dependence of the fundamental frequency of vibration with respect to the length, the tension and the mass of the string. At the end of the seventeenth century, Wallis, Robartes and Sauveur describe the connection between the number of nodes and the overtones of a vibrating string. See [11, 50] for details and references. In 1714, Taylor assumes the isochronism of the oscillations for all the points of the string, and their simultaneous passage through the horizontal equilibrium position. He shows analytically that the fundamental frequency is $\nu = (1/2l)(\sqrt{T/\sigma})$, ($T$ is the tension, $l$ the length, and $\sigma$ the linear density) and the shape of the string is $y = A\sin(\pi x/l)$. In 1732, Jean Bernoulli determines the fundamental frequency of a discrete string made of six masses. None of them mentions the higher modes, which are considered in 1738 by Daniel Bernoulli for an oscillating suspended string, both in the discrete and in the continuous case (anticipating Bessel functions). Modeling the propagation of sound in the air, Euler obtains in 1750, the characteristic frequencies and the general solution (as a sum of simple harmonic modes) \[ y_k = \sum_{r=1}^{n} A_r \sin \frac{rk\pi}{n+1} \cos \left(2 \sqrt{\frac{K}{M}} \frac{\sin(\pi r/2)}{n+1} t\right), \] of the discrete model of a horizontal string \[ M\ddot{y}_k = K(y_{k+1} - 2y_k + y_{k-1}), \quad (k = 1, 2, \ldots, n), \] already written by Jean Bernoulli in 1727. Through a limit process, d’Alembert deduces from it, in 1746, the one-dimensional wave equation \[ \frac{\partial^2 y(t,x)}{\partial t^2} = a^2 \frac{\partial^2 y(t,x)}{\partial x^2}, \] where $a^2 = T/\sigma$. He determines the solutions, satisfying the boundary conditions \[ y(t,\infty) = \circ, \quad y(t,l) = \circ, \quad (t \in \mathbb{R}), \] through the change of independent variables still used today. In 1752, he introduces the method of separation of variables. In 1749, Euler mentions that all possible motions of the vibrating string are periodic with the period of the fundamental mode, and that individual modes whose period is half, third, … of the fundamental one can occur. He writes those particular solutions in the form \[ y(t,x) = \sum_{n=1}^{\infty} a_n \sin \frac{n\pi x}{l} \cos \frac{n\pi at}{l} \] for the initial configuration \[ y(\circ,x) = \sum_{n=1}^{\infty} a_n \sin \frac{n\pi x}{l}, \] without precising if the sum is finite or not. After reading the papers of d’Alembert and Euler on wave equation, Daniel Bernoulli claims in 1755 that there are enough free constants $a_n$ to represent all the possible initial shapes as \[ f(x) = \sum_{n=1}^{\infty} a_n \sin \frac{n\pi x}{l}, \] and that all the subsequent motions are given by \[ y(t,x) = \sum_{n=1}^{\infty} a_n \sin \frac{n\pi x}{l} \cos \frac{n\pi at}{l}. \] Those conclusions are refuted by Euler and d’Alembert for different reasons, and the warm quarrel between those three giants lasts for some ten years, without conclusion, despite some deep comments of Lagrange in 1759 (see [50]). For references to the original sources and historical development, see [4, 8, 29, 56, 57]. 4 Heat and potential: the irresistible ascent of Fourier series Fourier modelizes the conduction of heat in a memoir submitted to the Académie des Sciences de Paris in 1807, rejected by the referees Lagrange, Laplace and Legendre, revised in 1811, awarded the Grand Prix de Mathématiques de l’Académie in 1812, and only published in 1824–26 in its Mémoires, after Fourier has become its permanent secretary. In the meantime, Fourier has published a variant as a book, the famous Théorie mathématique de la chaleur (Paris, 1822). Fourier establishes that the temperature $T(x,y,z,t)$ in a point $(x,y,z)$ of a homogeneous and isotropic body satisfies the heat equation \[ \frac{\partial^2 T}{\partial x^2} + \frac{\partial^2 T}{\partial y^2} + \frac{\partial^2 T}{\partial z^2} = k^2 \frac{\partial T}{\partial t}, \] where the constant $k^2$ depends upon the material. He studies several special cases by separation of variables, raising again the question of representing an arbitrary function by a trigonometric series, and obtaining, in a complicated way, the formula relating the coefficients of the series to the function. For references on Fourier’s work, see [9, 18, 32]. Fourier’s results motivate Sturm and Liouville [34, 35, 54] to study in 1836–37 the general problem of eigenvalues and eigenfunctions for an arbitrary second order ordinary linear differential equation \[ \frac{d}{dx} \left[ p(x) \frac{dy}{dx} \right] + \lambda \rho(x)y = \circ, \quad (p(x) > \circ, \ \rho(x) > \circ), \] with the boundary conditions \[ y'(a) - h_1 y(a) = \circ, \ y'(b) + h_2 y(b) = \circ, \] where $h_1 \geq \circ, h_2 \geq \circ$ and $a < b$. They prove that the problem has a nontrivial solution only when $\lambda$ takes one of the values of an increasing sequence of positive numbers $\lambda_n$ tending to infinity (eigenvalues), that the solutions $v_n$ corresponding to the eigenvalue $\lambda_n$ (eigenfunctions) are orthogonal in the sense $$\int_a^b v_m(x)v_n(x)\rho(x)\,dx = 0, \quad (m \neq n),$$ and that each $C^2$ function satisfying the boundary conditions can be developed into a uniformly convergent series $f(x) = \sum_{n=1}^{\infty} c_n v_n(x)$, where the generalized Fourier coefficients $c_n = \int_a^b f(x)v_n(x)\rho(x)\,dx$ satisfy the Parseval equality $$\int_a^b f^2(x)\rho(x)\,dx = \sum_{n=1}^{\infty} c_n^2.$$ For the first time, general results are obtained which do not depend upon some explicit form of the solution of the differential equation. For studies of the work of Sturm and Liouville, see [2, 39, 46]. The Sturm-Liouville theory motivates of course the obtention of similar conclusions for the simplest partial differential equation case, namely the eigenvalue problem for the Laplacian on a general planar or spatial domain $\Omega$ (excluding the use of separation of variables) $$\Delta u + \lambda u = 0 \quad \text{in} \quad \Omega, \quad u = 0 \quad \text{on} \quad \partial\Omega.$$ Schwarz [52] proves in 1885 the existence of the first eigenvalue and eigenfunction, and shows that a smaller $\Omega$ gives a larger $\lambda_1$. Picard [43] obtains in 1893 the existence of the second eigenvalue, and Poincaré [45] proves in 1894 the existence and the essential properties of all the eigenvalues and eigenfunctions, by showing that the solution of $$\Delta u + \lambda u = f \quad \text{in} \quad \Omega, \quad u = 0 \quad \text{on} \quad \partial\Omega,$$ can be expressed as a meromorphic function of $\lambda$, whose poles are real and are the eigenvalues. Physically, $f$ can be considered as a force applied to the vibrating membrane or body, and its free oscillations are those for which the forced oscillations become infinite. See [10, 41] for more details. Motivated by Poincaré's work, Fredholm [15] publishes in 1903 a systematic study of the integral equations of second type $$u(x) + \int_0^1 K(x, \xi)u(\xi)\,d\xi = f(x).$$ Following an idea of Volterra, he approximates the integral equation by the finite algebraic linear system $$u_n\left(\frac{i}{n}\right) + \sum_{j=1}^{n} K\left(\frac{i}{n}, \frac{j}{n}\right) u_n\left(\frac{j}{n}\right) \frac{j}{n} = f\left(\frac{i}{n}\right), \quad (i = 1, 2, \ldots, n).$$ Using finite-dimensional linear algebra and a limit process, he obtains the necessary and sufficient conditions of solvability, but does not emphasize the corresponding eigenvalue problem $$u(x) + \lambda \int_0^1 K(x, \xi)u(\xi)\,d\xi = 0.$$ This will be done by Hilbert, as we shall see later. This finite-dimensional linear algebra has been developed in the nineteenth century, to answer some questions raised by analytical and celestial mechanics in the eighteenth century. 5 Stability of the Solar System: The Origin of the Secular Equation Motivated by elasticity problems, Euler announces in 1743 the resolution of the linear ordinary differential equations with constant coefficients $$Ay + B\frac{dy}{dx} + C\frac{d^2y}{dx^2} + D\frac{d^3y}{dx^3} + \ldots + L\frac{d^n y}{dx^n} = 0.$$ Functions of the form $y(x) = e^{rx}$ are solutions if and only if $r$ is a solution of the characteristic or indicial or auxiliary equation $$A + Br + Cr^2 + \ldots + Lr^n = 0,$$ and the general solution is obtained as a linear combination of the $n$ special solutions associated to its roots. D'Alembert, in his Traité de dynamique (Paris, 1743), studies second order systems of the form $$y_i'' + \sum_{k=1}^{n} A_{ik}y_k = 0, \quad (i = 1, 2, \ldots, n),$$ with $n = 2, 3$ and, for $n = 3$, special values of the coefficients $A_{ik}$, and, in 1750, first order systems of the type $$x' + ax + by + cz = 0,$$ $$y' + ex + fy + gz = 0,$$ $$z' + hx + my + nz = 0,$$ but he obtains only partial results. In 1766 Lagrange considers the general second order system above, and, through the substitution $y_i = x_i e^{i\Omega t}, \ (i = 1, 2, \ldots, n)$, shows that $$x = (x_1, x_2, \ldots, x_n)$$ must verify the linear system (in modern matrix notations, with $A = (A_{ik}), A^T = (A_{ki})$) $$\rho^2 x + A^T x = \circ.$$ The elimination of the $x_i$ in this system implies that $\rho^2$ must verify an algebraic equation of degree $n$. Lagrange is interested in modeling situations where the equilibrium $x = \circ$ is stable, and concludes from this a priori physical stability and from the form of the solutions that the roots $\rho^2$ must be real, negative, and simple! In 1778, Lagrange obtains, in linearizing some equations of celestial mechanics, the first order system $$h'_i + \sum_k A_{ik} l_k = \circ, \quad l'_i - \sum_k A_{ik} h_k = \circ, \quad (i = 1, 2, \ldots, n),$$ where $h_i^2 + l_i^2 = e_i^2$, the square of the eccentricity of the orbit, and uses the same approach, ending with the same physical “proof” for the properties of the roots of the corresponding algebraic equation, he calls secular equation [30]: One must notice that although we have supposed the roots [...] of the [secular] equation [...] real and distinct, it can happen that imaginary [=complex] ones exist; [...] we only observe that the quantities will increase with $t$; consequently, the above solution will stop to be exact after some time; but happily those case do not seem to occur in the system of the world. Laplace is convinced that a mathematical proof of the properties of the secular roots should be preferred. In 1787, he deduces the a priori boundedness of the solutions from a first integral, first obtained in an approximate way, but rigorously proved two years later. Laplace’s arguments are used by Lagrange, in his Mécanique analytique (Paris, 1788), for the study of small motions around an equilibrium, using this time the well known energy integral. In his Leçons sur les applications du calcul infinitésimal à la géométrie (Cours de l’Ecole polytechnique, Paris, 1826), Cauchy associates the reduction of a quadric to its axes to an eigenvalue problem and its characteristic equation, invariant for any orthogonal change of coordinates, and proves rigorously that all eigenvalues are real. Sturm uses in 1829 his theorem of the number of real zeros of a real polynomial to prove the reality of the roots of the secular equations introduced by Lagrange and Laplace. The same year, Cauchy [5] gives another proof, shows the analogy of the problem of characteristic values in problems of analytic geometry, differential equations, solid and celestial mechanics, introduces the term characteristic polynomial or equation, which will finally overcome earlier or even later terminologies like S-equation, determining, secular or latent equation. In the second half of the XIXth century, the study of this equation becomes a topics of pure algebra, considered in the language of matrices or forms. For example, Hermite [25] gives in 1854 the standard proof of the reality of the characteristic roots of a Hermitian form. All this is carefully described in [19, 20, 21, 22, 29], with references to the original papers. ### 6 Algebra and geometry in infinite dimensional space: the birth of functional analysis Motivated by Fredholm’s theory, Hilbert publishes, between 1904 and 1910, a series of six articles, later reproduced in book form, under the title Grunzüge einer allgemeinen Theorie der linearen Integralgleichungen (Leipzig, 1912). He first follows essentially Fredholm’s approach but considers an integral equation containing explicitly the complex parameter $\lambda$ $$u(x) - \lambda \int_0^1 K(x, y) u(y) \, dy = \circ.$$ Hilbert supposes then $K(s, t)$ symmetrical ($K(s, t) = K(t, s)$), and uses the theory of finite quadratic forms to prove the reality of the eigenvalues and the orthogonality of the eigenfunctions. He generalizes to this setting the theorem of principal axes of analytical geometry, the variational characterization of eigenvalues due to Liouville-Weber-Poincaré that we shall consider later, and proves the Hilbert-Schmidt expansion theorem. In his own words: The method [...] consists in starting from an algebraic problem, namely the problem of the orthogonal transformation of quadratic forms in $n$ variables in a sum of squares, and, through a rigorous limit process for $n = \infty$, to succeed in solving the considered transcendental problem. Hilbert then forgets the initial motivation by integral equations and considers directly the infinite bilinear form in the sequences $x = (x_j), y = (y_k)$ $$B(x, y) = \sum_{p,q=1}^\infty k_{pq} x_p y_q,$$ when $\sum_{j=1}^n \|x_j\|^2$ et $\sum_{j=1}^n \|y_j\|^2$ converge, and $B$ is bounded on the corresponding unit ball. He again generalizes the theorem of principal axes. For this, he must introduce, in addition to the discrete spectrum make of the eigenvalues, a continuous or band spectrum, a word first used in a mathematical setting by Wirtzinger [62] in 1897, by analogy with spectra of molecules, in his discovery of band spectra for Hill’s equation. Let us quote Dieudonné [10]: We now return to the most original part of Hilbert’s 1906 paper, in which he discovered the entirely new phenomenon of the “continuous spectrum”. [...] In 1897 Wirtzinger developed similar ideas for Hill’s equation \[ y' + \lambda q(x)y = 0. \] [...] The similarity with the optical spectra of molecules leads him to speak of the “Bandesspectrum” of Hill’s equation. [...] Although Hilbert does not mention Wirtzinger’s paper, it is probable that he had read it (it is quoted by several of his pupils), and it may be that the name “Spectrum” which he used came from it. To eliminate the continuous spectrum, Hilbert defines the concept of completely continuous quadratic forms. He applies his results to integral equations, introducing explicitly the notion of complete orthogonal system of functions. Hilbert’s work is simplified and geometrized by Ehrard Schmidt in 1907, who introduces the concept of orthogonal projector; the same year F. Riesz extends Hilbert theory to $ L^2(\mathcal{O}, 1) $ and shows its isomorphism with $ l^2 $. In 1908, H. Weyl considers singular integral equations \[ u(x) + \lambda \int_I K(x, y)u(y) \, dy = 0, \] where integration is made on an unbounded interval $ I $, and shows the existence of band spectra. His work is generalized by Carleman in 1923. The famous two volumes monograph Methoden der mathematischen Physik (Berlin, 1924) of Courant–Hilbert describes the state of the art of the mathematical tools of classical physics, before becoming the bible for the new physics. As noticed by C. Reid [48]: The Courant-Hilbert book on mathematical methods of physics, which had appeared at the end of 1924, before both Heisenberg’s and Schrödinger’s work, instead of being outdated by the new discoveries, seemed to have been written expressly for the physicists who now had to deal with them. Excellent surveys of the development of Hilbert’s ideas can be found in [1, 23, 24, 42, 49]. 7 Quantum mechanics: unifying the physical and mathematical spectra In 1923, L. de Broglie recovers Bohr’s formula for hydrogen atom by associating to each particle a wave of some frequency and identifying the stationary states of the electron to the stationary character of the wave. As the observable lines of an atomic spectrum can be represented by the infinite matrix $ (\nu_{nm} = T_n - T_m) $ of the differences between the spectral terms, Heisenberg proposes in 1925 to replace the position $ q $ of an electron by an infinite matrix $ q_{nm} e^{i\pi i \nu_{nm} t} $, and similarly for its momentum $ p $. The diagonal elements of the corresponding Hermitian infinite matrices correspond to a stationary state and the other ones to corresponding transitions. The matrices $ q $ and $ p $ satisfy the Born-Jordan non-commutativity condition $ pq - qp = \frac{\hbar}{2\pi i} I $ and Hamilton-type canonical equations of motion. In 1926, Pauli deduces the Bohr formula for Hydrogen atom from matrix mechanics. Independently and the same year, Schrödinger proposes to express the Bohr’s quantification conditions as an eigenvalue problem [51]: In this communication I wish first to show in the simplest case of the Hydrogen atome (nonrelativistic and undistorted) that the usual rules for quantization can be replaced by another requirement, in which mention of ‘whole numbers’ no longer occur. Instead the integers occur in the same natural way as the integers specifying the number of nodes in a vibrating string. The new conception can be generalized, and I believe it touches the deepest meaning of the quantum rules. [...] The equation contains a “proper value parameter” $ E $, which corresponds to the mechanical energy in macroscopic problems [...]. In general the wave or vibration equation possesses no solutions, which together with their derivatives are one-valued, finite and continuous throughout the configuration space, except for certain special values of $ E $, the proper values. These values form the “proper value spectrum” which frequently includes continuous parts (the “band spectrum”, not expressly considered in most formulae [...]) as well as discrete points (the “line spectrum”). The proper values either turn out to be identical with the “energy levels” [...] of the quantum theory as hitherto developed, or differ from them in a manner which is confirmed by experience. Starting from Hamilton-Jacobi equation \[ H\left( q, \frac{\partial S}{\partial q} \right) = E, \] Schrödinger sets $ S = K \log \psi $ ($ K $ is an action) and obtains \[ H\left( q, \frac{K}{\psi} \frac{\partial \psi}{\partial q} \right) = E. \] For the electron of the Hydrogen atom this equation is \[ \left( \frac{\partial \psi}{\partial x} \right)^2 + \left( \frac{\partial \psi}{\partial y} \right)^2 + \left( \frac{\partial \psi}{\partial z} \right)^2 - \frac{2\mu}{K^2} \left( E + \frac{e^2}{r} \right) \psi^2 = 0, \] where $ r^2 = x^2 + y^2 + z^2 $. Schrödinger introduces the problem of finding an extremum of \[ \int_{\mathbb{R}^3} \left[ \left( \frac{\partial \psi}{\partial x} \right)^2 + \left( \frac{\partial \psi}{\partial y} \right)^2 + \left( \frac{\partial \psi}{\partial z} \right)^2 - \frac{2\mu}{K^2} \left( E + \frac{e^2}{r} \right) \psi^2 \right] dx \, dy \, dz, \] among all sufficiently smooth functions $\psi$ tending zero at infinity. The corresponding Euler–Lagrange equation $$\Delta \psi + \frac{2\mu}{K^2} \left( E + \frac{e^2}{r} \right) \psi = 0,$$ is Schrödinger’s equation. Using spherical coordinates and separation of variables ($\psi(r, \theta, \varphi) = u(r)v(\theta)w(\varphi)$), Schrödinger reduces the problem to finding nontrivial solutions tending to 0 when $r \to \infty$ for the ordinary differential equations $$\frac{d^2 u}{dr^2} + \frac{2}{r} \frac{du}{dr} + \left( \frac{2\mu E}{K^2} + \frac{2\mu e^2}{K^2 r} - \frac{n(n+1)}{r^2} \right) u = 0,$$ where $n = 0, 1, 2, ...$. With the help of Weyl, Schrödinger shows that this equation has solutions with the required asymptotic properties if and only if $E > 0$ or $$E < 0 \text{ and } \frac{\mu e^2}{K \sqrt{-2\mu E}} = j, \quad (j = n+1, n+2, ...).$$ For $n = 0$, those conditions become $$E_j = -\frac{\mu e^4}{2K^{3/2}}, \quad (j = 1, 2, ...),$$ and reduce to Bohr’s ones by taking $K = h/2\pi$. Schrödinger has reduced the problem of finding the energy spectrum of the Hydrogen atom to an eigenvalue problem on $\mathbb{R}^3$ $$L\psi + \frac{2\mu}{K^2} E\psi = 0,$$ for some differential operator $L$. Its mathematical spectrum exactly corresponds to the physical spectrum. Poincaré’s program is realized. Schrödinger gives later the now classical derivation of his equation, based upon the analogy between mechanics and optics, and closer to de Broglie’s ideas. He also develops a perturbation method, inspired by the work of Rayleigh in acoustics, gives the time-dependent Schrödinger’s equation $$\frac{4\pi i}{h} \frac{\partial \psi}{\partial t} = \Delta \psi - \frac{8\pi^2}{h^2} V(t, x, y, z)\psi,$$ and proves the equivalence between his wave mechanics and Heisenberg’s matrix mechanics. Mathematically, this fact is linked to the isomorphism between $l^2$ and $L^2$. Indeed, as observed by Condon [6], physicists could have saved some time and energy if they had taken Hilbert more seriously: I remember that David Hilbert was lecturing on quantum theory that fall [1926], although he was in very poor health at the time. [...] Hilbert was having a great laugh on Born and Heisenberg and the Göttingen theoretical physicists because when they first discovered matrix mechanics they [...] had gone to Hilbert for help and Hilbert said the only time he had ever had anything to do with matrices was when they came up as a sort of by-product of the eigenvalues of the boundary-value problem for a differential equation. So if you look for the differential equation which has these matrices you can probably do more with that. They had thought it was a goofy idea and that Hilbert didn’t know what he was talking about. So he was having a lot of fun pointing out to them that they could have discovered Schrödinger’s wave mechanics six months earlier if they had paid a little more attention to him. See [26, 27] for the development of quantum mechanics. Quantum theory gives in return a huge impetus to the mathematical development of spectral theory for unbounded linear operators. According to L.A. Steen [53]: The mathematical machinery of quantum mechanics became that of spectral analysis and the renewed activity precipitated the publication by Aurel Wintner of the first book devoted to spectral theory in 1929. In 1927, von Neumann defines axiomatically the concept of abstract Hilbert space and develops, between 1927 and 1929, a spectral theory for unbounded self-adjoint operators in a Hilbert space. He synthesizes his approach in the epoch-making book Mathematische Grundlagen der Quantenmechanik (Berlin, 1932), and, the same year, Stone publishes his Linear Transformations in Hilbert Spaces (Providence, 1932), the first systematic treatise on the spectral theory of unbounded linear operators. 8 Variational characterization of eigenvalues: the way to a nonlinear spectral theory Using Lagrange multipliers, Lagrange and Cauchy (1829–30) are already well aware that the smallest and the largest eigenvalue of a symmetric quadratic form $$Q(u) = \sum_{j,k=1}^{n} a_{jk} u_j u_k, \quad (a_{jk} = a_{kj}),$$ can be obtained by minimizing and maximizing it on the unit sphere $\sum_{j=1}^{n} u_j^2 = 1$. If the corresponding extremum is reached at $u^$, then $u^$ is an associated eigenvector, an approach later developed by Rayleigh. In the setting of integral or partial differential equations, Liouville, in unpublished papers written around 1850, H. Weber [58] in 1869, and Poincaré [44] in 1890, independently propose a recursive variational method to determine all eigenvalues $\lambda_1 \leq \lambda_2 \leq \cdots \leq \lambda_n$ of a symmetric quadratic form $Q$ on the unit sphere $\sum_{j=1}^{n} u_j^2 = 1$. ... ≤ λₙ and corresponding eigenvectors $ u^1, u^2, ..., u^n $ of Q: \[ λ_1 = \min_{\|\|u\|\|=1} Q(u) \quad (= Q(u^1)), \] \[ λ_j = \min_{\|\|u\|\|=1, (u,u^i)=0, i=1,...,(u,u^{j-1})=0} Q(u) \quad (= Q(u^j)), \quad (j = 2, ..., n). \] Further considerations of Poincaré lead to a non-recursive minimum-maximum principle explicitly given by Fischer [13] in 1905: \[ λ_j = \min_{[X' \subset \mathbb{R}^n : \text{dim} X' = j]} \max_{\|\|u\|\|=1} Q(u). \] Weyl introduces in 1912 a maximum-minimum principle: \[ λ_j = \max_{[p_1, ..., p_{j-1} \in \mathbb{R}^n]} \min_{\|\|u\|\|=1, (u,p_i)=0, 1 \leq i \leq j-1} Q(u), \] and Courant widely uses those principles in various existence and approximation questions of mathematical physics (see the survey [7]). The principles are easily extended to the abstract setting of symmetric bilinear forms in Hilbert spaces. In 1930, Lusternik and Schnirel'mann [37, 38] extend this theory by replacing Q by an differentiable function f and the unit sphere by a finite dimensional compact differentiable manifold M. To replace the dimension of vector spaces, they introduce the concept of category $ \text{cat}_X(A) $ of a closed set A in a topological space X, namely the least integer k such that A can be written as $ \bigcup_{j=1}^k A_j $, with closed subsets $ A_j $ contractible in X. Lusternik and Schnirel'mann prove that the number of critical points of f on M is at least $ \text{cat}_M(M) $, and that the corresponding values of f at the critical points (critical values) are given by \[ c_k = \inf_{A \in A_k} \sup_{u \in A} f(u), \] where $ A_k = \{ A \subset M : A \text{ closed}, \text{cat}_M(A) \geq k \} $ for $ k = 1, 2, ... $. Of course one has to check that $ A_k $ is non empty, which requires topological considerations. In particular they prove that if $ F : \mathbb{R}^n \to \mathbb{R} $ is of class $ C^1 $ and even, then the system \[ F'(u) = λu \] has at least n pairs of solutions $(λ, u), (λ, -u)$ with $ \|\|u\|\| = 1 $. A version of this result is given in 1939 by Lusternik when $ \mathbb{R}^n $ is replaced by a real infinite-dimensional separable Hilbert space, $ F' $ is compact and satisfies some other conditions. In the fifties and the sixties, further extensions of Lusternik-Schnirel'mann theory to some infinite-dimensional problems are given by Krasnosel'skii, J.T. Schwartz and Palais (see references in [63]). F. Browder [3] refines and extends them to study nonlinear spectral problems in a Hilbert or a suitable reflexive Banach space X, which are of the form \[ F'(u) = λG'(u), \] where $ F, G : X \to \mathbb{R} $ are suitable sufficiently smooth even nonlinear functionals. He finds conditions upon F and G which insure the existence of infinitely many critical levels. The special case of $ X = W^{1,p}_0(\Omega), p > 1, \Omega $ a bounded domain of $ \mathbb{R}^N $, $ F(u) = \int_\Omega \|\nabla u(x)\|^p \, dx $ and $ G(u) = \int_\Omega \|u(x)\|^p \, dx $ leads to the eigenvalue problem for the so-called p-Laplacian operator $ Δ_p $, defined by \[ Δ_p u(x) := \text{div} \left( \|\nabla u(x)\|^{p-2} \nabla u(x) \right), \] with the Dirichlet boundary conditions \[ u = 0 \text{ on } ∂Ω. \] An eigenvalue for $ -Δ_p $ with the Dirichlet boundary conditions is a $ λ $ such that the problem \[ -Δ_p u = λ\|u\|^{p-2} u \text{ in } Ω, \quad u = 0 \text{ on } ∂Ω, \] has a nontrivial solution. The Lusternik-Schnirel'mann technique implies the existence of a sequence of eigenvalues given by a minimax characterization. When $ N = 1 $, it follows from direct computations that this sequence constitutes the whole spectrum, but the problem remains open for $ N \geq 2 $. For the corresponding ordinary vector p-Laplacian $ u \mapsto \left( \|\|u'\|\|^{p-2} u' \right)' $ where $ u : [0, 1] \to \mathbb{R}^m, m \geq 2 $, the spectrum is completely known in the case of Dirichlet conditions $ u(0) = u(1) = 0 $, but not in the case of periodic boundary condition $ u(0) - u(1) = u'(0) - u'(1) = 0 $. The corresponding forced problem is always solvable (although not uniquely) when $ λ $ is not an eigenvalue, but solvability conditions at an eigenvalue remain almost terra incognita. 9 Spectra for asymmetric nonlinear operators: a possible tool for suspension bridges The above extensions preserve the $ \mathbb{Z}_2 $-symmetry of the linear situation. Motivated by some asymmetric asymptotically linear boundary value problems, Fučik and Dancer have independently introduced in 1976 the study of problems of the form \[-\Delta u = \mu u^+ - \nu u^- \text{ in } \Omega, \quad u = \circ \text{ on } \partial \Omega,\] where $u^+ = \max(u, \circ), u^- = \max(-u, \circ)$. An eigenvalue of this problem is now a couple $(\mu, \nu)$ of reals such that the above problem has a nontrivial solution, and the set of eigenvalues is usually called the Fučik or the Dancer-Fučik spectrum of the corresponding Dirichlet problem. Abstract extensions in suitable ordered Banach spaces exist as well. Lazer and McKenna have emphasized the possible interest of those problems in modeling suspension bridges and explaining their possible instability (see [33]). In the ordinary differential case $(N = 1$ and $\Omega = ]0, 1[$), the Fučik spectrum is completely determined and made of the family of hyperbolic type curves \[\frac{m}{\sqrt{\mu}} + \frac{n}{\sqrt{\nu}} = \frac{1}{\pi}, \quad (m, n = \circ, 1, 2, ...),\] whose intersection with the diagonal reproduces of course the standard spectrum \[\{k^2 \pi^2 : k = 1, 2, ...\}.\] Very little is know in contrast when $N \geq 2$, except some properties for the first non trivial curve, some information on the shape near the diagonal points $(\lambda_k, \lambda_k)$ associated to the classical eigenvalues, and some generic results about the structure in curves of the spectrum. Here again the solvability of the forced problem is rather well understood when $(\mu, \nu)$ is not in the Fučik spectrum, but much remains to be done in finding solvability conditions when $(\mu, \nu)$ belongs to the spectrum. Needless to say that the situation is still less developed in the study of the Fučik spectrum of the p-Laplacian \[-\Delta_p u = \mu \|u\|^{p-2} u^+ - \nu \|u\|^{p-2} u^- = \circ \text{ in } \Omega, \quad u = \circ \text{ on } \partial \Omega.\] References can be found in the monographs [14, 12]. 10 Conclusion Many other modern aspects of spectral theory could have been discussed here, like bifurcation theory, Gelfand C-algebras, the spectrum of Riemannian manifolds, inverse spectral problems, perturbation theory or the relation between the spectrum of Schrödinger equations and the solution of some nonlinear partial differential equations. This would have taken the lecture beyond its time schedule, and the author beyond his abilities. I hope that the story above has revealed the immensely creative power of unplanned research, as well as its unavoidable tortuous development. According to the Chinese tradition, only devils follow straight lines. The conclusion will be left, like the Introduction, to some quotations, one from the middle, and one from the end of this century. They may convey some changes in mentalities in the fifty years period. The first one is due to R. Godement [16]: We believe that the human mind is “a meteor” in the same way as the rainbow – a natural phenomenon; and that Hilbert realizing the “spectral decomposition” of linear operators, Perrin analyzing the blue color of the sky, Monet, Debussy and Proust recreating, for our wonder, the scintillation of the light on the sea, all worked for the same aim, which will also be that of the future: the knowledge of the whole Universe. The second one is due to M. Zworski [64]: Eigenvalues of self-adjoint operators describe, among other things, the energies of bound states, states that exist forever if unperturbed. These do exist in real life [...]. In most situation however, states do not exist for ever, and a more accurate model is given by a decaying state that oscillates at some rate. [...] Eigenvalues are yet another expression of humanity’s narcissic desire for immortality. References [1] M. Bernkopf, The development of function spaces with particular reference to their origins in integral equation theory, Arch. Hist. Exact Sci. 3 (1966), 1–96 [2] M. Bocher, Leçons sur les méthodes de Sturm, Gauthier-Villars, Paris, 1917 [3] F.E. Browder, Infinite-dimensional manifolds and nonlinear elliptic eigenvalue problems, Annals of Math. (2) 82 (1965), 459-477 [4] J.T. Cannon and S. Dostrovsky, The evolution of dynamics. Vibration theory from 1687 to 1742, Springer, New York, 1981 [5] A. Cauchy, Sur l’équation à l’aide de laquelle on détermine les inégalités séculaires des mouvements des planètes, Exercices de math. 4 1829 (Oeuvres (2), IX, 174-195) [6] E.U. 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III, Springer, New York, 1985 M. Zworski, Resonance in physics and geometry, Notices Amer. Math. Soc. 46 (1999), 319–328 Coming Events Pedro Nunes Lectures — 2011 Open questions leading to a global perspective dynamics by Jacob Palis Pedro Nunes Lectures is an initiative of Centro Internacional de Matemática (CIM) in cooperation with Sociedade Portuguesa de Matemática (SPM), with the support of the Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian, to promote visits of notable mathematicians to Portugal. Each visitor is invited to give two or three lectures in Portuguese Universities on the recent developments in mathematics, their applications and cultural impact. Pedro Nunes Lectures are aimed to a vast audience, with wide mathematical interests, especially PhD students and youth researchers. Jacob Palis (IMPA) February 23, 2011 (15:00) Universidade do Porto. March 02, 2011 (16:30) Universidade de Lisboa. OPEN QUESTIONS LEADING TO A GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE IN DYNAMICS Abstract.—We will address one of the most challenging and central problems in dynamical systems, meaning flows, diffeomorphisms or, more generally, transformations, defined on a closed manifold (compact, without boundary or an interval on the real line): can we describe the behavior in the long run of typical trajectories for typical systems? Poincaré was probably the first to point in this direction and stress its importance. We shall consider finite-dimensional parameterized families of dynamics and typical will be taken in terms of Lebesgue probability both in parameter and phase spaces. We will discuss a conjecture stating that for a typical dynamical system, almost all trajectories have only finitely many choices, of (transitive) attractors, where to accumulate upon in the future. Interrelated conjectures will also be discussed. The purpose of this meeting is to focus the attention on the many and varied opportunities to promote applications of mathematics to industrial problems. Its major objectives are: Development and encouragement of industrial and academic collaboration, facilitating contacts between academic, industrial, business and finance users of mathematics. Through “bridging the industrial/academic barrier” these meetings will provide opportunities to present successful collaborations and to elaborate elements such as technology transfer, differing vocabularies and goals, nurturing of contacts and resolution of issues. To attract undergraduate students to distinctive and relevant formation profiles, motivate them during their study, and advance their personal training in Mathematics and its Applications to Industry, Finance, etc. The meeting will be focused on short courses, of three one-hour lectures each, given by invited distinguished researchers, which are supplemented by contributed short talks by other participants and posters of case studies. The meeting will be followed by the 81th European Study Group that will take place in Lisbon between the 23th and the 27th of May 2011. Summer Course and Workshop on Optimization in Machine Learning, Austin, Texas, USA, May 31 - June 7, 2011 The Summer Course on Optimization in Machine Learning (May 31 - June 4, 2011) will introduce a range of machine learning models and optimization tools that are used to apply these models in practice. For the students with some Machine Learning background the course will introduce what lies behind the optimization tools often used as a black box as well as an understanding of the trade-offs of numerical accuracy and theoretical and empirical complexity. For the students with some Optimization background this course will introduce a variety of applications arising in Machine Learning and Statistics as well as novel optimization methods targeting these applications. This course will be followed by the Workshop on Optimization in Machine Learning (June 6-7, 2011) which will bring a number of experts in the area and further present the state-of-art. CoLab Mathematics Summer School and Workshop, Instituto Superior Técnico, June 13-24, 2011 The CoLab Mathematics Summer School and Workshop is a yearly event, organized by the UTAAustin\|Portugal Program that aims at bringing together Ph.D. students and junior faculty with well known experts in the several areas of mathematics. This event will be held in the Mathematics Department of Instituto Superior Técnico in Lisbon, from June 13–24, 2011. The school will be between June 13–17, 2011, and this year main topic is Aubry Mather Theory and Optimal Transport. The faculty for this school (L. Ambrosio, P. Bernard, Y. Brenier, and A. Figalli) are internationally known experts in these fields. We believe that their courses will be extremely useful for Ph.D. students, postdocs and established researchers who wish to broaden their knowledge in this very active area of research. The Nonlinear PDEs workshop aims at bringing together researchers in several areas of nonlinear partial differential equations and its applications, and will be held in the week of June 20–24. This event is also part of the program of the Portuguese International Center for Mathematics (CIM). The aim of this summer school is to bring together specialists and students in mathematics, biology, physics and engineering with a common goal: the better understanding of the mathematics behind life sciences and the better understanding of life sciences using a deeper knowledge of mathematics. This will be a joint event of the Portuguese Centro Internacional de Matemática, the European Society for Mathematical and Theoretical Biology and the European Mathematical Society in the historical city of Evora, Portugal, providing the perfect environment for the interaction between senior scientists in the field and students. It will consist of 7 mini-courses aimed to Ph.D. students and junior post-docs, in mathematics, biology and related areas. Optimization 2011, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, July 24-27, 2011 Optimization 2011 aims to bring together researchers and practitioners from different areas and with distinct backgrounds, but with common interests in optimization. This meeting has international recognition as an important forum of discussion and exchange of ideas. It is the seventh edition of a series of international conferences in optimization organized in Portugal under the auspices of APDIO (the Portuguese Operations Research Society). In this edition, we are happy to announce a special session celebrating the 60th anniversary of our dear colleague Joaquim João Júdice, the founder of the Optimization series and a well-known researcher in the field of Optimization. Groups and Semigroups: Interactions and Computations, University of Lisbon, July, 25-29, 2011 The aim of this conference is to deepen the existing interactions between group theory and semigroup theory. The main themes that the conference cover include, not exclusively, the application of permutation group theory in the theory of transformation semigroups; computational techniques in group theory and semigroup theory; and combinatorial methods in group theory and semigroup theory. Elementary Geometry from an Advanced Point of View, University of Aveiro, September 1-2, 2011 The aim of this conference (http://egapv2011.glocos.org) is to present several contemporary perspectives on Geometry including, among others, talks on visualization, applications and surveys, both at elementary and more advanced levels. The goal of this meeting, promoted by CIM in collaboration with CIDMA/Univ. Aveiro, CMA/Univ. Minho and CMAF/Univ. Lisboa, is to contribute to the current international reflection on the ICMI/IMU Klein Project concerning central topics on Geometry, its contents, interdisciplinary connections and approaches for the teaching of this mathematics discipline at senior secondary school and first years at University level. Organisers—Ana Breda (U Aveiro)—Chair, Ana Pereira do Vale (U Minho), Tomas Recio (U Cantabria), Eugénio Rocha (U Aveiro), José Francisco Rodrigues (U Lisboa) The European Science Foundation published the report “Forward Look Mathematics and Industry”. The document can be accessed via the link http://www.esf.org/publications.html. We reproduce here the conclusion of the report: “The basic message of this report is that if Europe is to achieve its goal of becoming the leading knowledge-based economy in the world, mathematics has a vital role to play. In many industrial sectors the value of mathematics is already proven, in others its potential contribution to competitiveness is becoming apparent. The benefits resulting from a dynamic mathematics community interacting actively with industry and commerce are considerable and certainly far outweigh the rather modest costs required to support such a community. Nevertheless, such benefits will not be realised unless action is taken to develop mathematics and a coordinated community of industrial and applied mathematicians needed for the future success and global competitiveness of the European economy and prosperity.” —Forward Look Mathematics and Industry, p. 5 MatCampus2010 — A completely new experience by Paula Mendes Martins and Victoria Otero-Espinar I The meeting If you had visited the University of Minho and the University of Santiago de Compostela last July, you would find a different environment. Forty teenagers from Portugal and Galiza, together with four high school teachers participated in the meeting MatCampus 2010 — a mathematical camp between Portugal and Spain, from the 18th to the 31st of July. MatCampus 2010 was an initiative of the International Mathematical Centre (CIM) and was jointly organized by CIM, the Faculty of Mathematics at the University of Santiago de Compostela (USC) and the Department of Mathematics and Applications at the University of Minho (UM). The main objective of this meeting was to give galician and portuguese 17 year old students the opportunity to gain hands-on experience and to discuss mathematics. This initiative, pioneered in Europe, has developed a unique environment for cultural exchange. The institutions involved are recognized for their high quality research in mathematics, with well qualified teachers with previous experience in the out-reach activities of mathematics in different contexts. These include Math Olympiad, the project ESTALMAT to stimulate mathematical talent and the National Championship of Mathematical Games. Several aims were proposed for this activity. These included • to encourage positive attitudes and special capabilities of the participants in the field of mathematics; • to broaden the mathematical background of the participants on issues that are motivating and not part of the school curriculum; • to deepen the knowledge and use of new technologies (graphing calculators, mathematics software, internet, ...) as a source of information, updating and as a learning environment; • to consolidate and increase the stimulation of curiosity, the formulation of interesting questions, knowledge and practice of methods, techniques and work processes specific to mathematics; • to provide a more humane vision of mathematics through reports, readings and other activities; • to provide tools and enhance personal resources to continuous learning, self-oriented study and through teamwork. All these purposes were achieved. With in MatCampus 2010, the organizers also wanted to establish an international collaboration that may serve as a reference for mathematical european campus for youth. The organizers hope that this event may be continued and be repeated in other European countries or regions, thereby enhancing the image of Portugal and Galicia in European landscape of mathematics education. In this sense, the activities undertaken in 2010 were recorded on the MatCampus own website.\footnote{http://www.matcampus2010.org} The event had the scientific support of the Real Sociedad Matemática Española (RSME), of the Sociedad de Estadística e Investigación Operativa (SEIO), of the Sociedad Española de Matemática Aplicada (SEMA) and of the Sociedade Galega para a Promoción da Estatística e a Investigación de Operacións (SGAPEIO) and members from many different universities were involved. \section{2 The activities} MatCampus 2010 was a two week event. The first week took place in Braga and the second one in Santiago de Compostela. The main idea was to combine scientific and pedagogical activities with leisure ones. The mathematical sessions took place in the Department of Mathematics and Applications of UM and in the Faculty of Mathematics of USC, which provide all the facilities necessary to carry out the proposed activities. In Braga, the participants stayed in the headquarters of the Regimento de Cavalaria n\textsuperscript{o} 6 and had their meals in the university canteen. In Santiago de Compostela, they slept and had their meals in the university residence Monte de la Condesa, near the faculty building. The participants were never left without supervision. Alexandre Cortés Ayaso and Rafael Fernández Casado, from Galiza and members of the Organising Committee of MatCampus, Paula Gomes and João Paulo Gonçalves, from Portugal, are four high school teachers that accompanied the forty students during the two weeks. These four teachers were fundamental for the success of MatCampus 2010. \subsection{2.1 in Braga} Day 1.—The first activity was led by the project Atractor, coordinated by Professor Arala Chaves, from University of Porto. This activity, focused on the dvd “Symmetries” recently launched by Atractor, presented to students, in a playful and attractive way, the seventeen plane symmetry groups and seven frieze patterns. In the afternoon, the students went to Campus of Azurém, in Guimarães, which is the second campus of UM. There, they were able to observe the work developed in the area of robotics by scientists of UM, from the Departments of Industrial Electronics and of Mathematics and Applications. This trip to Guimarães finished with a visit to the town castle, the so-called birth place of Portugal. Day 2.—On Tuesday morning, a session on Mathematical Computation was presented by two members of the Mathematics and Applications Department of UM, Joana Torres and Ricardo Severino. In this course some computationally simple mathematical models were explored that show how you can lose the ability to predict temporal evolution. The concepts of fractal and deterministic chaos were presented. After lunch, the participants worked with the software Surfer in an activity organised by Stephan Klaus, from the Mathematische Forschungsinstitut Oberwolfach, connected with the project Imaginary 2008 (http://www.imaginary2008.de/). In the evening, the students participated in a Photopaper at the town center, which allowed them to have a different view of Braga. Day 3.—The morning of day 3 was dedicated to astronomy, with a talk presented by Cacilda Moura, from Physics Department of UM, and Mathematical Logic, with a working session. In this session, coordinated by three members of the Organising Committee of MarCampus, Paula Mendes Martins, Cláudia Mendes Araújo and Suzana Mendes Gonçalves, all from UM, the participants were invited to answer some intriguing problems, using the concepts of Mathematical Logic first introduced. The afternoon was dedicated to a visit to Museu D. Diogo de Sousa and a boat ride on Rio Cávado. Day 4.—The participants had the opportunity to relate mathematics and music. The musical activities were streamlined by Ana Pereira do Vale (University of Minho) and Maria Helena Albuquerque (University of Coimbra). Using mathematical concepts, the students were able to compare styles of music, and conclude that the mathematical structure behind every style of music is the same. To complete the schedule in the morning, António Machiavelo, from University of Porto, gave a talk about cryptography. The officer in charge of the headquarters where the students stayed during the first week kindly offered the participants a pleasant afternoon, showing them the facilities, along with some military exercises and allowing each student to have a ride on their magnificent horses. Day 5.—This was the last day at the University of Minho. The morning began with a working session on graph theory, led by Assis Azevedo, from UM, CIM and also a member of the Organising Committee. The software Grin was the tool used for the entire session. Isabel Leite, a high school teacher from Escola Secundária de Vila Verde and also a member of the Organising Committee, led the following session, based on sensors. Although some Portuguese students had worked with this kind of material in their schools (the high school mathematics plan encourages the use of sensors as much as possible), this was new for the Spanish students. The day ended with mathematical games. Games such as chess, hex, traffic lights, slime trail and oware kept the participants thinking throughout the afternoon. Some puzzles including Rubik cube and Rubik cube revenge were also explored. During the first week, the students had the opportunity to visit an interactive exhibition on Recreational Mathematics, which included 15 different activities (such as squaring polygons and soma cube) to give school students the opportunity to gain hands-on experience and to discuss mathematics. Some of the students used every break during the activities in Braga to visit and re-visit the exhibition. On the 24th, the group went to Ponte da Barca for an orienteering event, organised by the .COM – Clube de Orientação do Minho. The day ended with a dinner in a town restaurant. And the participants said goodbye to Braga. 2.2 IN SANTIAGO DE COMPOSTELA On the 25th of July all was ready to welcome the participants in Santiago. Victoria Otero Espinar, Dean of the Faculty of Mathematics, and Rosa Crujeiras Casais, members of the Organising Committee, were waiting for the students in the University Residence. Other members of the welcoming committee, tutors that permanently accompanied the students during their stay in Santiago, also participated: Carmela Rodríguez Alvarez, Rosalia Rodriguez Couceiro, Cibrán Santos Bouza and Jose Luis Villarino Barja. After the break and lunch all participants visited the city. Day 1.—The week started with a welcoming ceremony in the Aula Magna of the Faculty of Mathematics, with the participation of academic authorities, sponsors and many of the professors of the Faculty. After an obligatory visit to the Faculty’s facilities, the students went to Caixa Galicia CIEF Center to attend the Lecture given by the well-known geneticist Angel Carracedo, Director of the Institute of Legal Medicine of USC. In this talk, they were able to check the interdisciplinary nature of the sciences and the necessity of mathematical knowledge in the development of sciences. The genetic laws of Mendel introduced mathematical models based on the observation of biologic experiments. Today, genetics is a science in its own right, whose results are directly related to improvements in stochastic modeling. To complete the topic, a session on Mathematics of genetics was presented by two members of the Department of Statistics and Operational Research of USC, Manuel Magariños and Rosa Crujeiras Casais. In this course, using genetical basis, some simple mathematical models that show population evolution were explored. Day 3.—Wednesday morning was dedicated to visiting Science museums in the city of A Coruña. The students were introduced to scientific novelties in the Casa das Ciencias, and in an interactive journey through the human body in DOMUS. Taking advantage of the proximity of the sea, the participants enjoyed a pleasant afternoon on the beach. Day 4.—In the session dedicated to calendars, the mathematician José María Barja, Rector of the University of A Coruña, showed how the history of calendars is strongly linked to the history of mathematics. In this activity, various ways of measuring time throughout history were reviewed and exercises on calculations related to calendars were carried out. To complete the schedule in the morning, the Delegate to Galicia of the Olympic Committee of the Real Sociedad Matemática Española, Felipe Gago Couso, member of the Faculty of Mathematics of the USC, gave a talk about working skills for problem solving: strategies, techniques for simplification, generalization and analysis of problem formulation. In the afternoon, there was a mathematical tour of Santiago de Compostela, coordinated by a member of the Organising Committee of MatCampus, Pilar García Agra. What is a mathematical tour? Do you need to know a lot of maths to follow a route through the streets and squares of Santiago de Compostela? No, in this walk, participants had the opportunity to discover the elements and mathematical properties where least expected, in addition to the many attractions of the city. They realized the beauty that can be generated with appropriate use of shapes and geometric properties, and the students were able to train their eyes to capture the mathematical relationships that are sometimes hidden in the most unexpected objects. This was shown subsequently in photographs that the participants took for a Mathematical Photograph Competition, organised by three members of the Organising Committee of MatCampus, Elena Vazquez Abal, Rosa Crujeiras Casais and Victoria Otero Espinar. Day 5.—The whole morning was occupied by a working session on Origami, led by Teresa Otero Suárez and Miguel A. Vidal Martín, high school teachers. In this activity, origami was used as a didactic resource in mathematics. The students used modular origami to allow a physical representation and to test properties of polyhedra. The mathematical camp MatCampus 2010 ended on Friday with a closing ceremony that took place in the Aula Magna of the Faculty of Mathematics. The program of activities of these last two weeks ended with a play, “Inúmeros Números”, by César Goldi and Vicente de Souza. 3 Was it worthwhile? When an event like MatCampus 2010 comes to an end, the obvious question arises: was it Worthwhile? In the case of MatCampus 2010, the answer is also obvious: Yes, it was. When, by suggestion of José Francisco Rodrigues, the Organising Committee (Paula Mendes Martins, Assis Azevedo, Cláudia Mendes Araújo, Suzana Mendes Gonçalves, Isabel Leite, María Victoria Otero Espinar, María Elena Vázquez Abal, Rosa María Crujeiras Casais, Pila García Agra, Rafael Fernández Casado and Alexandre Cortés Ayaso) began to prepare MatCampus 2010, the organisers could not imagine how successful this mathematical camp was going to be. At the end of the two weeks, the forty participants were unanimous in affirming that they were very lucky to be chosen to take part of MatCampus 2010. Everyone asked for MatCampus new edition in 2011 because they were willing to repeat the experience. This was a completely new experience that should be repeated for many years and by as many universities as possible. EIMI 2010 Proceedings In partnership with COMAP, on behalf of CIM, A. Araújo, A. Fernandes, A. Azevedo and J. F. Rodrigues have edited the EIMI PROCEEDINGS of the international conference on “Educational Interfaces between Mathematics and Industry” of the ICMI/ICIAM international study, which are available online at the CIM website http://www.cim.pt/files/proceedings_eimi_2010.pdf and were available for the associates in book form at the CIM annual general assembly in May. Sir Michael Atiyah is one of the most well-known and important mathematicians of the past century. He has had a long and distinguished career, receiving both the Fields Medal in 1966 and the Abel Prize in 2004. Some of his most significant contributions include the Atiyah-Singer Index Theorem and topological K-theory, and he remains active in mathematical research to this day. His planned visit to Portugal to deliver the Pedro Nunes lectures was disrupted by the Icelandic volcano eruption last spring and is now rescheduled for the period between 27 March and 7 April 2011. You have once said that your father thought you’d be a mathematician when he realized you were making money out of exchanging foreign currency. How/when would you say you first become interested in pursuing mathematics as a career? I seriously focused on mathematics at the age of 16. When we moved to England in 1945 we selected the school (Manchester Grammar School) that had the reputation as the best in the country for Mathematics. Could you tell us a bit about your undergraduate/PhD experience, and what some of the difficulties you encountered were? I had no difficulties as an undergraduate, coming out top of the university in my first year. As a graduate student I had a bad period at the beginning of my second year, and I took to attending classes in other subjects (architecture and archaeology). But then I got a prize and things improved. Many years later Serre told me he had a similar experience and almost decided to give up mathematics. Graduate students You had graduate students who became very well-known mathematicians, for example, Simon Donaldson, Nigel Hitchin and Graeme Segal. Do the benefits to a researcher of taking on PhD students outweigh the costs? The best research students cause least work and are the most rewarding, but others cause much work and there is certainly a limit on how many students one should take on at a time. What advice would you give to people who are doing a PhD now or planning to do one in the near future? My advice is that one should not start research in mathematics unless one is dedicated to the subject. One has to have a passion for it in order to surmount the difficulties and disappointments that always arise. Collaborators and other mathematicians You have had some notable collaborators such as Hirzebruch, Singer, and most recently Vafa and Witten. Can you tell us a bit about these collaborations, and how important they were/are to your work? Do you they really help you peer around the corner? I find collaboration natural and very useful. Another person has a different point of view and usually a different background. Moreover collaboration often develops into friendship and makes research a less solitary undertaking. Which mathematicians do you most admire/respect, and why? Among past mathematicians Hermann Weyl is the one I admire most. The breadth of his interests and the elegance of his style have been my model. The index theorem The Atiyah-Singer index theorem is a landmark of the 20th century mathematics. Could you tell us a bit about how it all begun? With Gelfand’s conjecture that the index of an elliptic operator expressed as topological invariants or with the proof of the integrability of the Ā-genus? What made you think that the Ā-genus of a spin manifold was the index of a Dirac operator? The story of the index theorem is one I have recounted often and I recommend you read the introduction to my collected works volume 3. There are at least three different proofs of the index theorem, one involving K-theory, one involving the cobordism theory and the other using heat kernels. Why was it so important to the mathematical community to have different proofs? Do they give more insight on the theory? Different proofs have different merits. They lead to different generalizations and they connect up with other subjects in different ways. One could say that the number of different proofs of a theorem is one measure of its significance. Gauss is said to have had 8 proofs of the law of quadratic reciprocity. Awards You were awarded the Fields Medal in 1966. How do you think receiving this award affected your career? Could you also tell us about the Abel prize and other awards? What kind of impact did these have in your research? Awards provide encouragement, but are not the motivation of mathematicians. The Fields Medal, coming when one is young (under 40) has the most effect. Others, such as the Abel Prize, come later in life, are gratifying and compensate for the passage of youth! A bit of controversy People often wonder what goes on inside a brilliant mind. Do you agree with the sentence “genius is 1% inspiration and 99% perspiration?” Brilliant ideas are rather rare and have to be backed up by detailed work, but the ratio of 99 to 1 sounds excessive. It depends on what measure one is using. It also depends on the individual and the style of mathematics. Do you still have to wear a bulletproof vest because of your comment on the classification of finite simple groups? I am not afraid to speak my mind, though I may not always be diplomatic. You are still a very active mathematician. Would you disagree with Hardy’s famous quote that “mathematics is a young man’s game”? I agree with Hardy that the main advances and innovations in mathematics are made when people are young, but they can continue to produce worthwhile mathematics into later life. Interactions with different areas of Mathematics, Physics and other Sciences You once said you were a jack of all trades. Would you say the future of mathematics lies in finding bridges between different areas or is mathematics getting so specialized that it will eventually be fragmented? My personal interest has always been in the interactions between different areas of mathematics (and also physics). This also helps to keep mathematics together. But others have a different style and concentrate on one field. We need all types. Could you tell us a bit more about your recent work in physics and its interactions with mathematics? Was the time ripe for topological quantum field theory? The new interaction between topology and quantum physics came as something of a surprise. In retrospect the time seems to have been auspicious, but this is hindsight. What would you say has been the impact of String theory on Mathematics? The impact of physics on mathematics has been unexpectedly wide. Almost all branches have been dramatically affected. In fact it can be seen as a revolution. Is physics the lifeblood of mathematics or is it that physics just happens to be written in the language of mathematics? Can one exist without the other? Physics and mathematics have a long history in common, and have affected each other. It is not possible to do modern physics without the language and techniques of mathematics. The converse is not true. Have you ever done any research in other sciences, like Biology or Engineering for example? If so, how did it affect your outlook on Mathematics? I have a modest interest in neurophysiology (and have been part author of a paper in the field). I have also published papers on historical or philosophical themes. Positions held You had different positions in several universities around the world. How do you see the duality between a Professor’s duties as a teacher and as a researcher? Do you think that teaching just “gets in the way” or do you find that there is something to be gained by teaching undergraduate students? My undergraduate teaching career was limited to my early years, but I taught graduate courses for longer and I regard supervision of graduate students as teaching. Too much teaching can wear one down but some teaching is a good discipline and contact with students is essential. You were involved in the creation of the Isaac Newton Institute for Mathematical Sciences in Cambridge and you were its first director. Are you happy with its development? I was involved in setting the Newton Institute on its path and in determining its general policy of taking a very wide view of mathematical science. I think it has been a success and has influenced similar institutes in other countries. You had other administration positions, such as Master of Trinity College. Could you tell us about that experience? My other main administrative positions have been as Master of Trinity College, President of the Royal Society (of London) and more recently President of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. At a suitable age I felt it was my duty to take on such positions, so as to contribute to society, in return for the privilege I have had of a life mainly devoted to research. They have all been interesting and have widened my experience. You also contributed to the Foundation of the European Mathematical Society. How important was it for Europe to have a Mathematical Society and how do you think it helps promoting the exchange between mathematicians? The European Mathematical Society had a slow start but eventually took off at an opportune time, when Europe was getting together. It is now finding its own feet and developing in new directions. You were also Savilian Professor of Geometry at Oxford. How do you compare Oxford to Cambridge? To an outsider Oxford and Cambridge seem identical. They have a similar history and are unique establishments in many ways. However they do differ significantly in detail. Cambridge has always been stronger in mathematics and science, with Oxford focusing more on the humanities. But they have converged and these differences are now less marked. Visit to Portugal It was very unfortunate that you couldn’t deliver the Pedro Nunes lectures in April due to the incident with the volcanic ash cloud. Would this have been your first visit to Portugal? If not, what did you think of the country in your previous visits? 40 years ago I had a family holiday in Portugal, including Lisbon and the Azores, so I was disappointed that the volcano prevented my trip this spring. When can we expect your visit to be rescheduled? It will now be rescheduled for next spring. The workshop on “Raising the Public Awareness of Mathematics” in Óbidos (Portugal) This year Óbidos hosted again an international workshop: “Raising the Public Awareness of Mathematics” (organizers: E. Behrends, Berlin; N. Crato, Lisbon; J.F. Rodrigues, Lisbon; see http://c2.glocos.org/index.php/RPAM/rpam2010). The opening was on September 26, 2010, it took place in connection with a “mathematical afternoon” organized by the Portuguese Mathematical Society (SPM) in cooperation with the town of Óbidos. At this event mathematical films and lectures for a general public were presented. One of these lectures was given by G.-M. Greuel, the current president of ERCOM (the EMS committee of the European Research Centres on Mathematics), the other by H. Leitão about mathematics in the Age of Discoveries. Later, one could participate in a reception for an itinerant mathematical exhibition (“Medir o Tempo, o Mundo, o Mar”) on the use of geometry to measure the universe and help astronomical navigation, jointly organised by the SPM and the Museum of Science of the University of Lisbon. The exhibition and a reception took place at a local art gallery. Also, at the occasion of this public awareness event, the website www.mathematics-in-europe.eu of the EMS was “officially” launched. And the fact that many members of the EMS/RPA committee were present in Óbidos was used to discuss in a separate meeting the next steps in connection with the realization of this website. “Raising the Public Awareness of Mathematics” was a joint initiative of CIM (Centro Internacional de Matemática, Portugal) and the rpa (“raising publishing awareness”) committee of the EMS. About 40 participants from Europe and the USA attended this workshop. In more than 30 lectures information concerning various rpa activities was presented. Four aspects were of particular importance: 1. National experiences 2. Exhibitions / Mathematical Museums 3. Popularization activities 4. Popularization: why and how? A number of talks was of a more “fundamental” character. It should be noted that the results of this workshop will be published as a book: “Raising Public Awareness of Mathematics” (Springer, 2011). Everyone who wants to realize rpa projects in the future is invited to profit from the experience of the experts who met in Óbidos. LPDJLQH D VHFUHW A FILM OF ART AND MATHEMATICS ON ELLIPTIC CURVES AND CRYPTOGRAPHY by José Francisco Rodrigues Pythagorean triples such as (3, 4, 5) or (4961, 6480, 8161) were well known by ancient Babylonians around 1600 B.C. They were also aware of their correspondence to right triangles with integer sides and to the problem of splitting a given square number into two squares. Although such triples have been studied in detail since the time of Euclid, around 300 B.C., it was only in the middle of the XVII century that Pierre de Fermat stated the famous observation: “No cube can be split into two cubes, nor any biquadrate into two biquadrates, nor generally any power beyond the second into two of the same kind”. This became the famous “Fermat’s Last Theorem”, stating that the equation $A^N + B^N = C^N$ has no nonzero integer solutions when $N$ is greater than 2. It was completely proven in 1994, about three and a half centuries later, using the XX century theory of elliptic curves! Elliptic curves have deep and beautiful properties. They are plane curves of the type $$y^2 = x^3 + ax + b$$ that have been studied since the XIX century. That equation in the affine plane corresponds to the homogeneous equation $$y^2z = x^3 + axz^2 + bz^3,$$ which describes in space a family of algebraic surfaces with two parameters $a$ and $b$. The computational variation of these equations generates beautiful animations that stimulate our imagination and evoke our mathematical creativity. Cryptography refers to secure methods to transmit and safeguard secret and valuable information. Since 1977 the RSA public key system has been widely used. It is based on prime number theory and on the difficulty of factoring very large integers. With The present article intends to give some information about EuDML project, an European project that aims to “deliver a truly open, sustainable and innovative framework for access and exploitation of Europe’s rich heritage of mathematics”, and stress the importance of building an emerging PtDML (Portuguese Digital Mathematics Library) in this context of change [1]. EuDML is funded by the ICT Policy support Programme of the European Commission, coordinated by a research team of the Computer Science Department of IST (Instituto Superior Técnico) at the Technical University of Lisbon, led by José Luís Borbinha, the project scientific coordinator. 1. A Dream of a Unified Digital Mathematics Library “Les mathématiciens se content de mettre leur production à la disposition de tous comme sur des étagères où l’on peut venir se servir.” —Jean-Pierre Serre The Digital Era, the emergence of the internet, the webmail, the new ways of communicate and the new channels of communication, changed the ways that researchers and scientists produce, publish and disseminate their scientific work. The birth of the electronic communication at the end of the 20th century has opened new opportunities for easier, faster dissemination, and more powerful discovery of scientific new results [2]. Mathematics is a basic science for a wide range of other branches of human knowledge, which needs quantitative though, with a huge variety of applications in all other sciences and technologies. So, building a central data service of mathematical knowledge has not only importance for the mathematical community, but also for all users of that knowledge. The main goal of a DML (Digital Mathematics Library) is to provide all the possible mathematical literature online and easily available through a central service or repository to anyone who has an internet connection in an electronic device, such as computer, cell phone of new generations or other type of machines [3]. The dream and vision were scripted long time ago [4]: “In light of mathematicians’ reliance on their discipline’s rich published heritage and the key role of mathematics in enabling other scientific disciplines, the Digital Mathematics Library strives to make the entirety of past mathematics scholarship available online, at reasonable cost, in the form of an authoritative and enduring digital collection, developed and curated by a network of institutions.” —NSF DML project, Cornell 2002, CEIC 2004, IMU 2006 The benefits of building EuDML as part of a whole DML are unquestionable. EuDML is going to make the European heritage easily available from everywhere, since the laboratory of a mathematician is composed almost by its library and its richness is weighted by the availability of the mathematical knowledge required by its owner. This was previously emphasized by several workshops [5]. 2. Previous work A lot of work has already been done to transfer the past and current mathematical content into digital files (retro digitization process). Much of the current literature born in a digital way, i.e., created electronically and available online since its publication. Mathematics scope and the dimension of its scientific corpus are huge with all of its branches and interlinked areas in theoretical and applied subjects, so following all the mathematics is impossible for a single individual. Mathematicians find themselves navigating the literature, moving from one article or book to another, pursuing results and proofs and relying on references in order to link to the next item. The linking process has become more important with the literature growth and it is one of the reasons why electronic publication has great potential benefit for mathematical research. The stress nowadays should be on integrating this dispersed content into one distributed electronically virtual library of mathematics. Before the beginning of the EuDML project, several individual and satellite projects built their “mini-DML’s” and central repositories or central data services, such as (see [6]) - NUMDAM (NUMérisation des Documents Anciens Mathematiques) [7],[8]; - Project Euclid [9]; - EMIS (European Mathematical Information Service) [10]; - CZ-DML (Czech DML) [11]; - E-DML (Biblioteca Digital Española de Matemáticas) [12]; - Ulf Rehmann’s Collection (Bielefeld University) [13]; - JSTOR [14]; But alone, these single projects don’t have the global scope or the empowered efforts that EuDML can achieve. 3. Presenting EuDML [1] “The EuDML strives to make the significant corpus of mathematics scholarships published in Europe available online, in the form of an authoritative and enduring digital collection, whether a researcher needs to follow a subtle pyramid of reasoning through a chain of related articles, an engineer needs to find results related to a particular concept, or a scholar project studies the history of a specific mathematical issue, there is a common need for an integrated interconnected gateway to the body of preserved mathematical literature.” —EuDML Document of Work [15] The project, partially funded with the EC funds, through its “Competitiveness and Innovation Programme”, started on 1 February 2010, and will last for three years, until 31 January 2013 and intends to design and build a collaborative digital library service, through a network of academic libraries, aggregating a central metadata repository and endowing each item and a pointer to the associated full text and bibliographical databases [15]. EuDML will help the long term preservation of digital mathematical literature and will put the European Mathematical Community at the leading edge of the global drive towards a World Digital Mathematics Library, helping to maintain Europe’s foremost position in mathematical research. Bringing together the dispersed heritage of digital mathematical literature, EuDML will provide explicit support, using the latest technologies for visually impaired users as well as automatic language translation support, in order to overcome language barriers, using the multilingual mathematical knowledge already developed by the institutional partners. Targets The foremost target (see Fig. 1) users are students and scholars, whose studies depend on the validity and the availability of previous and original mathematical literature. Working mathematicians have a prominent place among the target, since their production and the validation of their knowledge and of new results depends often on pre-existing literature. But not only mathematicians are part of the target users. Since mathematics has ramifications and interconnections with all other scientific disciplines, all the users of quantitative methods and logic-deductive reasoning are among this group of possible users. EuDML Body Responsible for achieving sustainability and success in the end of the project, the EuDML consortium, is composed by 14 institutional partners, which include mathematicians, librarians, digital library experts, publishers, professional information service and document engineering specialists, and computer scientists, under the supervision of an external multidisciplinary scientific advisory board, formed under the auspices of the EMS (European Mathematical Society). The partners of the Consortium are: - IST/UTL(Instituto Superior Técnico): Computer Science and Engineering Department (Portugal) - UJF/CMD Université Joseph Fourier, Grenoble 1 (France) - UB University of Birmingham (United Kingdom) - FIZ Fachinformationszentrum (FIZ) Karlsruhe (Germany) - MU Masarykova Univerzita (Czech Republic) - ICM University of Warsaw, ICM (Poland) - CSIC Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas ES (Spain) - EDPS Edition Diffusion Presse Sciences (France) - USC Universidade de Santiago de Compostela: Instituto de Matemáticas ES (Spain) - IMI-BAS Institute of Mathematics and Informatics, BAS BG (Bulgaria) - IMAS Matematický ústav AV ČR, v. v. i. (Czech Republic) - IU Ionian University (Greece) - MML Made Media (United Kingdom) - CNRS/CMD Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (France) Content providers EuDML is designed to eventually integrate all of the DML projects from every country in Europe, encouraging additional countries to embrace the project, creating a global DML in the future, and pursuing European publishers to cooperate with the library, with policies of cooperation designed properly (open-access, moving wall...). In the lifetime of the project there will be organized some workshops in order to introduce EuDML to the community of data providers that could be interested in the project. Actually the group of the content providers is spatially configured in the European territory such as the picture shows (see Fig. 2). Website [1] At this moment there is not yet much information in the website, but at the time the project evolves there will be available more information, such as public deliverables and documents of the project and information concerning activities, such as workshops and public demo services (Fig. 3). EuDML is alive and is evolving and making itself known by the community. In the October 15, 2010, the partners UJF/CMD and IMAS organized a workshop with content providers, held at the Institute of Mathematics of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, in Prague. Besides project partners, it was attended by representatives of content providers, Ulf Rehman from IMU (International Mathematical Union), Ari Laptev, president of EMS (European Mathematical Society), publishers and further stakeholders, by librarians, such as Springer Services+Business Media representatives, mathematicians, the London Mathematical Society representatives, and public authorities. The goals of the workshop (see [16]) were the presentation of the project and its purposes, a brief summary of the policies regarding content selection, archiving and access; plans for system architecture and releases schedule and the promotion of the dialogue between the participants, ending with an open panel discussion. The program committee was formed by some partners of the project: - Thierry Bouche (UJF/CMD chair) - Jiri Rákosnik (IMAS/ local organizer) - Enrique Macias Virgós (USC) - Marie Louise Chaix (EDPS) Representatives of the IMU (Ulf Rehman), the EMS (Ari Laptev), Universitäts Bibliothek Göttingen, and the Serbian Academy of Sciences presented their views and contributions to the global DML effort, and more specifically their suggestions to the EuDML project. The final discussion was conducted by the questions of publishing and the power in the future of EuDML project in the definition of commercial policies of publishing of big companies, such as Springer or Elsevier, defining policies and agreements of open access, moving wall or some kind of individual users contributions, stressing not only the importance of contacting the important commercial publishers, but also how the EuDML objectives could help the strengthen of small and medium publishers, democratizing therefore the access to the mathematical publications. Another EuDML workshop with data providers will be scheduled in next July, presenting EuDML to a broader audience and showing the goals achieved at the time. 4. It’s time for the Portuguese DML (PtDML) Meanwhile EuDML is growing and preparing its place as the main delivery service of a “truly open, sustainable and innovative framework for access and exploitation of Europe’s rich heritage of mathematics” ([17], [18]), it was formed a Portuguese Committee on Electronic Information and Communication (CEIC-Pt) in a previous meeting in the University of Minho (April 9, 2010), composed by Eugénio Rocha (Universidade de Aveiro), José Luís Borbinha (IST/UTLisboa), José Francisco Rodrigues (CMAF/Universidade de Lisboa), Pedro J. Freitas (ULisboa and SPM-Portuguese Mathematical Society), Pedro Quaresma (Universidade de Coimbra) and Pedro Patricio (Universidade do Minho) with the mission to develop a portal that may congregate all the Portuguese mathematical heritage and all the publications of all the Portuguese mathematicians, linking it with EuDML in the future. This is an important issue not only to study of the History of Portuguese Mathematics, but also to the current Portuguese mathematicians, which works will be accessible through a single and central place, in order to facilitate the search and the access. There are several important publications and works of the past that are not yet collected digitally and it will be important to give access in a reference site such as PtDML may be in the future. For example, the Pedro Nunes works, the “História das Matemáticas em Portugal”, of Francisco Gomes Teixeira (available in a personal website [19]), the mathematical works of José Anastácio da Cunha, Daniel da Silva, Gomes Teixeira, J. Vicente Gonçalves, Mira Fernandes, Ruy Luís Gomes and J. Sebastião e Silva, among others, which are dispersed by the several libraries, such as the National Library, the libraries of the University of Coimbra, Lisbon and Porto, the Library of the Academy of Sciences of Lisbon and several private collections. The electronic availability of these works is very important to the divulgation of the Portuguese mathematical heritage. One important source of interesting works of the mathematicians of the Portuguese past is the “Memoirs” ([20], [21]) of Academy of Sciences of Lisbon. The histoical interest of the “Memoirs” is important since it contains a few important texts of Portuguese mathematicians. But not only should the past be the focus of attention. It is important to have easy access to the current publications of the Portuguese mathematical community. Articles, papers, books, chapters in proceedings are different types of written mathematical data and content, but should not be the only one to be considered. In the Digital Era, the multimedia content shouldn’t be neglected; for instance it is relevant to make better known the Pedro Nunes Lectures held by the initiative of CIM (accessible through [22]). In what concerns journals and periodicals, the first journal digitized and currently available in the webpage of the SPM (Portuguese Mathematical Society) is “Portugaliae Mathematica” [23], the research journal of this society. But other periodicals should also be accessible in digital format, like the “Boletim” [24] and the “Gazeta da Matemática” [25], both of the SPM, or the “Boletim” [26] of the SPE (Statistical Portuguese Society). At this time the initiative is still in a first stage, collecting data for cataloging and planning what and how to congregate the information, but it aims to construct a website that hopefully will collect and connect all the available content [27]. REFERENCES [1] EuDML website http://www.eudml.eu/ [2] J. Borbinha, Digital Libraries and the Rebirth of Printed Journals, in pp 97–110, of [28]. [3] John Ewing, Twenty Centuries of Mathematics: Digitizing and Disseminating the Past Mathematical Literature, Notices of the AMS, August 2000, volume 49, 771–779 [4] The Digital Mathematics Library, Notices of the AMS, volume 50, number 8, 918–923 [5] European Science Foundation Workshop on the European Virtual Library in Mathematics: http://www.usc.es/~esfmaths [6] World Digital Mathematics Library: http://www.mathunion.org/WDML/ [7] The mini-DML: http://www.numdam.org/minidml/ [8] NUMDAM: http://www.numdam.org [9] Project Euclid: http://projecteuclid.org [10] The European Mathematical Information Service (EMIS): http://www.emis.de/ [11] Czech DML: http://dml.cz/ [12] “Biblioteca Digital Española de Matematicas”: http://dmlc.cindoc.csic.es/ [13] Ulf Rehmann’s Collection: http://www.math.uni-bielefeld.de/~rehmann/DML/dml_links.html [14] JSTOR: http://www.jstor.org/ [15] EuDML technical documents and Document of work [16] Deliverable 3.3. EuDML, Thierry Bouche; Jiri Rákosník (soon available in EuDML website) [17] E.M. Rocha, J.F. Rodrigues, Disseminating and Preserving Mathematical Knowledge, Communicating Mathematics in Digital Era, in 5–23, [28] and also in Bol. Soc. Port. Mat. 53 (2005), 1–21. [18] T. Bouche, Towards a Digital Mathematical Library, Communicating Mathematics in Digital Era, in 47–74, [28] [19] http://www.mac.uc.pt/~jaimecs/livrogr/livrogr.html [20] F. Gomes Teixeira, História das Matemáticas em Portugal, Academia das Ciências, Lisboa, 1934. [21] J.F.Rodrigues, Portuguese Mathematical Journals. Some aspects of (almost) periodical research publications, in pp. 601–627, The Practice of Mathematics in Portugal. Acta Universitatis Conimbricensis Coimbra,(2004); (Eds. Luís Saraiva, Henrique Leitão) and also in Bol. Soc. Port. Mat. 50 (2004). [22] CIM website: http://www.cim.pt [23] Portugaliae Mathematica at the Portuguese National Library http://purl.pt/index/pmath/vol/PT/index.html [24] Bulletin of the Portuguese Mathematical Society: http://nautilus.fis.uc.pt/bspm/ [25] Gazeta of the Portuguese Mathematical Society: http://www.mat.uc.pt/~gazeta/GazetaOnline/online.php [26] SPE webpage: http://www.spesstatistica.pt [27] Assis Azevedo, J.L. Borbinha, Pedro J. Freitas, Eugénio Rocha, The Challenges of the Pt-DML, pp. 2–5, CIM Bulletin #27, January 2010 [28] J. Borwein, E.M. Rocha, J.F. Rodrigues (Eds.) Communicating Mathematics in Digital Era, A K Peters, Wellesley MA, 2008. Jacob Palis is a Brazilian mathematician and professor. He obtained a degree in Engineering at the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro and a Ph.D in Mathematics at the University of California, Berkeley. Since 1973 he has held a permanent position as professor at the Instituto Nacional de Matemática Pura e Aplicada (IMPA) in Rio de Janeiro, from which he was director between 1993 and 2003. He is the President of the Academy of Sciences for the Developing World since 2007. He is also a foreign member of several academies of sciences, including the American and French academies and he is currently the President of the Academia Brasileira de Ciências. He was also president of the International Mathematical Union from 1999 to 2002. Palis has received numerous medals and prizes. He has 42 Ph.D students, including several current professors of the Universities of Lisbon and Porto, and he was recently elected foreign member of the Academia de Ciências de Lisboa. In 2010 he was awarded the Balzan Prize for his fundamental contributions in the mathematical theory of dynamical systems that has been the basis for many applications in various scientific disciplines (such as in the study of oscillations). His research interests are mainly dynamical systems and differential equations. Some themes are: global stability and hyperbolicity, bifurcations, attractors and chaotic systems. DYNAMICAL MODELS IN LIFE SCIENCES University of Évora . Portugal . July 24-30 . 2011 Colégio Luis António Verney Mini-courses Dynamical models of Cancer David Dingli (Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Rochester, USA) Adaptive dynamics and the evolution of pathogens Eva Kisdi (University of Helsinki, Finland) Modelling spatio-temporal phenomena in Biology Philip Maini (University of Oxford, UK) Modelling Meso-evolution: adaptive dynamics and beyond Hans Metz (University of Leiden, The Netherlands) Stochastic and Deterministic Processes in Spatial Population Dynamics Sergei Petrovskii (University of Leicester, UK) Mathematical Models in Hemodynamics Adelia Sequeira (Technical University of Lisbon, Portugal) Ecology and Eco-epidemiology Ezio Venturino (University of Torino, Italy) Scientific Organizing Committee Fernando Carapau (Universidade de Évora) Fabio Chalub (Universidade Nova de Lisboa) Francisco Santos (Universidade Nova de Lisboa) Nico Stollenwerk (Universidade de Lisboa) EMS-ESMTB-CIM Summer School www.cim.pt/ssmtb2011
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RCA RADIO TUBES RCA MANUFACTURING CO., INC., Camden, N. J., an RCA Subsidiary For the First Time—Universal Application! Now...69 MALLORY REPLACEMENT CONDENSERS service 100% of all radio sets Mallory Condensers are manufactured under U.S. Patents 1718673, 1714191, et al. For the first time, the service man is offered a practical universal mounting feature for carton type condensers. For the first time, the service man has available a practical universal mounting feature for round can condensers. For the first time, the necessity for splicing leads has been eliminated. For the first time, absolute protection against humidity is afforded. Here are but four of many constructional features of the new Mallory line. But, over and above constructional features, is a fifth feature—for the first time—the New Mallory Condenser Service and Replacement Manual, which gives in detail the universal application of these condensers in everyday service work. It is the most valuable condenser help a service man can have—the detailed analysis of problems submitted by over 29,000 service men. Have you received your copy? If not, write us today, on your business letterhead. Cellophane separators—Etched anodes—Stitched anode leads—of course, all important improvements pioneered or developed by Mallory are incorporated in Mallory Condensers wherever they add to quality. P. R. MALLORY & CO., Inc. INDIANAPOLIS INDIANA Cable Address—Pelmallo CONTENTS February, 1936 Vol. 21 No. 2 If Replacement Tubes Go Metal . . . By Ray V. Sutliffe 11 Why the Public Buys New Sets . . . By W. MacDonald 12 News and Views ........................................... 14 Second-Hand Stores Springing Up ......................... 16 How Star Salesman Moves Radios, Refrigerators ........ 20 Replacement Parts Demand Charted by Months .......... 24 A Window Any Dealer Can Install . By Ernest A. Dench 26 The Inside on Outside Selling . . . By Milton Samuels 28 Candid Camera Shots from 3 Conventions ............... 31 Public Address as Package Merchandise .................. 33 Musical Hits Boom Record Sales . . . By Richard Gilbert 36 Battery Charges to the Fore ............................. 39 News of the Month ........................................ 40 News of Broadcasting .................................... 44 The Appliance Business ................................... 47 New Merchandise .......................................... 48 SERVICE Circuits of the Month .................................... 57 Shop Shortcuts ........................................... 59 McGRAW-HILL PUBLISHING COMPANY, INC. 330 West 42d Street, New York, N. Y. JAMES H. McGRaW, JR. JAMES H. McGRaW Chairman President Honorary Chairman MALCOLM MUIR Vice-President B. R. PURINTON D. C. McGUIAW Treasurer Secretary RADIO RETAILING, February, 1936. Published monthly, price 25c. copy. Subscription rates—United States, Canada and Central and South American countries, $2 a year. All other countries, $3 a year or $25 for five years. Entered as second-class matter April 11, 1924, at the Post Office at New York, N. Y., under the Act of March 3, 1879. Printed in U. S. A. Cable address "McGrawhill," New York. Member of A.R.P. Member of A.A.C. Copyright 1936 by McGraw Hill Publishing Co., Inc., 330 West 42d Street, New York, N. Y. Printed by The Schreuder Press, N. Y. THE ACOUSTICAL LABYRINTH has the most forceful selling appeal in radio today. Experts hail it as the greatest acoustical engineering feat since radio began. It is a feature whose value a customer can hear and which he can see and understand. No wonder the Stromberg-Carlson with the exclusive "Labyrinth" is gaining in sales faster than any other radio line. "There is Nothing Finer Than a Stromberg-Carlson." There are 21 Stromberg-Carlson models, priced from $59.50 to $985. All-Wave Antenna Kit, $7.00. (Slightly higher Texas, Rockies and West). Liberal retail finance plan available to all dealers. STROMBERG-CARLSON TELEPHONE MFG. CO., ROCHESTER, N.Y. Radio’s Most Attractive Mantel Set The BELMONT Model 778-A Sales appeal—the initial eye catching, attention compelling factors which capture and hold a prospect's interest, is a beautiful dial and exquisite cabinet work—exemplified in the Belmont 778-A. This receiver lives up to the fine expectations created by its appearance. Its three channel broadcast and short-wave chassis uses the latest tubes to achieve compactness, power, and simplicity. A seven-watt amplifier circuit feeds a full 8" dynamic speaker. The fidelity curves indicate the exceptionally fine tone. In addition to the unique indirectly illuminated exclusive Belmont dial there are optional band expansion for high fidelity, automatic tone compensation, tone control, band spreading dial, A. V. C., suppressor injection oscillator coupling, 6K7, 6C5, 6J7, 6K7, 6Q7, 6F6, and 5Z4 tubes. The satin finished cabinet is $21\frac{1}{2}" \times 12" \times 10\frac{1}{2}"$ deep. BELMONT RADIO CORPORATION 1257 Fullerton Ave., Chicago, Illinois Cable Address, Belrad TUNG-SOL is the line that provides all NINE BASIC QUALIFICATIONS essential in the "plus profit" retailing of radio tubes. Ask the Tung-Sol wholesaler about these essentials NOW. There are still desirable locations where independent radio retailers and service organizations could qualify as Tung-Sol retail agents. TUNG-SOL Tone-flow radio Tubes TUNG-SOL LAMP WORKS, INC. Radio Tube Division SALES OFFICES: Atlanta, Boston, Charlotte, Cleveland, Chicago, Dallas, Detroit, Kansas City, Los Angeles, New York General Office: Newark, N. J. The INSIDE STORY OF FADA RADIO The Fada Metal Tube Chassis Is Famous For Its Service-Free Performance IT is the wise radio buyer who gets the all important "inside story" first. He knows that there is a world of difference between printed specifications and actual performance. The inside story of every Fada radio is one of unmatched trouble-free performance, achieved by a method of controlled production unique in present day radio manufacture. The "outside story" of every Fada model will instill that all important desire to buy... but it's the exceptional "inside story" service-free performance that keeps every Fada sold... the surest road to added consumer acceptance and greater profits. We invite every dealer to get the all important "inside story" of Fada. Fada prices range from $19.99 to $144.50... From Compact to Hi-Fidelity console... Straight AC, AC-DC... Storage Battery World-wide receivers and 32 Volt receivers for Farm and Marine Power plants. 1920 FADA Radio 1936 Famous Since Broadcasting Began FADA RADIO and ELECTRIC COMPANY Long Island City, N.Y. Cable Address "Fadaradio" SPRING SALES AMMUNITION! New FEATURES! New MERCHANDISING! New DRAMATIC ADVERTISING! Watch ATWATER KENT boom your business in 1936! IT'S A BIG ATWATER KENT YEAR! New powerful advertising, vigorous, effective! New Atwater Kent features, eye-appealing, sales-clinching. And a 1936 line of radios that match dollar for dollar, tone for tone, any radio on the market. Right now, millions of people are asking to see Atwater Kent's Arrow-Light Tuning and new Rainbow Dial. Millions are waiting to hear Atwater Kent's new tone realism—Control-Room Reception! It's your chance! Show them the radio that sells and stays sold! ATWATER KENT MANUFACTURING COMPANY A. Atwater Kent, President Philadelphia, Pa. NEW ARROW-LIGHT TUNING—NEW RAINBOW DIAL—are among the new Atwater Kent features! Adds beauty and eye-appeal. Simplifies tuning. Just follow the arrow to the station you want. Now Listen To A Broadcast Have You Ever Listened To A Program In The Control Room? If you had, you would never be satisfied with an ordinary radio. Here's why: New Zealand Girl - New Arrival Light Toning ATWATER KENT The Radio With Control Room Reception MORE HARD-HITTING FOLLOW-UP SMASHES! At Last...a Radio that Passes You Through this Forbidden Door How Atwater Kent brings the marvel of Control Room Reception to your fingertips! ATWATER KENT RADIO WITH Control Room Reception DOUBLE-BARRELED BLAST IN THE SATURDAY EVENING POST FOR YOU—counter cards, window displays, direct mail helps, newspaper mats for local advertising—ask your Atwater Kent distributor. WE TELL THEM . . YOU SELL THEM DEALERS! Sell PIONEER FARM RADIO CHARGING GENERATOR $49.95 LIST WITH A REAL PROFIT FOR YOU OPERATES 25 WATT ELECTRIC LIGHTS! CHARGES RADIO AND AUTO BATTERIES! STARTS WITH THE PRESS OF A BUTTON! DRIVES FARM POWER SAWS! OPERATES A PUMP! PIONEER GEN-E-MOTOR CORP. 466 WEST SUPERIOR STREET, CHICAGO, U.S.A. CABLE ADDRESS: SIMONTRICE, NEW YORK MAIL THIS COUPON Pioneer Gen-E-Motor Corp. 466 W. Superior St., Chicago, U.S.A. Rush details PIONEER G-Volt Gas-Engine Generator. Company ............................................................... Address ........................................................................ By .............................................................................. Out of a clear sky comes an entirely new car radio! the AMERICAN-BOSCH Skylark METAL TUBES...DOUBLE-WINGED CHASSIS Everything You Need to Get the Business! In home radio, the American-Bosch CentrOmatic Radio principle is the outstanding engineering contribution. Now, in the new double-winged Skylark chassis, another great achievement has been introduced in car radio. New performance, less wiring, fewer soldered connections, metal tubes—the finest example of engineering design and construction you will see this year. With this engineering achievement goes the best merchandising opportunity of the year. The line has: 5 tube, 6 tube and 7 tube types; glass tube and metal tube models; three types of speakers; new finishes, and custom-styling in panels and mountings to enable you to dominate your territory. If you want a new selling idea—if you want volume with a profit—if you want to lead in car radio sales, write or wire for the complete story. MODEL 736—$59.95. Other models from $39.95 to $67.95 ✓ 7 Metal Tubes ✓ Double-Winged Chassis ✓ Custom Stylized Panels ✓ Bulkhead, Headrest or Bulkhead Speaker models ✓ Exclusive etched glass dial with red tuning beacon UNITED AMERICAN BOSCH CORPORATION SPRINGFIELD, MASSACHUSETTS NEW YORK CHICAGO DETROIT MAYBE YOUR CUSTOMERS WANT A FINE 6-Glass Tube Set WITH Overhead Speaker and Matching Panel Control ... or Maybe THEY WANT IT WITH In-the-Set or Separate Case Speaker WITH Steering Column or Matching Panel Control ... or Maybe THEY WANT A Powerful DeLuxe 6-Metal Tube Superheterodyne WITH Overhead, Separate Case, or In-the-Set Speaker ....... Steering Column or Matching Panel Control UNIVERSAL MODELS To fit perfectly in all makes and models of cars—with in-the-set or separate case speaker and airplane type steering column control. Standard Model 18FW ... a fine 6-tube superheterodyne . . . . . . . . $39.95 Master Model 28DM ... an extra powerful 6-tube superheterodyne with full-tone control super-power supply system and streamline steering column control . . . . $49.50 DeLuxe Model 33DM ... a powerful 6-metal-tube superheterodyne with all the features of model 28DM plus a specially developed super-circle system . . . . $54.90 Three other models with separate case speakers at small extra cost. OVERHEAD SPEAKER MODELS With matching panel controls for most 1936 cars and many 1935 cars as low as.. $44.85 NEW Tailor-Fit SERIES ARVIN Car Radios FIT EVERY CAR FIT EVERY PURSE AND PERSONAL DESIRE • Arvin gives you everything in car radio ... beautiful modern designs and finishes to match the new cars and harmonize perfectly with older cars ... sturdy, dependable construction that assures lasting service. Powerful metal or glass-tube superheterodynes featuring the newest improvements in car radio—increased selectivity and sensitivity with matched antennae tuning system using high gain iron core antennae coils—built-in filter-loc motor noise suppression system and many other Arvin developments. All the many different chassis-speaker and matching panel control combinations you need to satisfy customer's desires. See your jobber at once for full information. NOBLITT-SPARKS INDUSTRIES, Inc., COLUMBUS, INDIANA Also makers of Arvin Radios for the home—and Arvin Car Heaters ARVIN HAS EVERYTHING THAT MOST ANYONE COULD WANT IN CAR RADIO For New 1936 Cars For 1935 Cars For Older Cars IF Replacement Tubes Go METAL ONCE UPON A TIME tubes were nice and simple with standard bases and revealing glass envelopes. Then appeared a black cloaked stranger—who at once was accepted by most of our best families. He had a new kind of underpinning and a metallic mein. His actions were shielded. But the "G" men soon got his number. A shot gun wedding was engineered with these results. Now comes another blessed (?) event—an offspring with the old glass tube characteristics and adapted for old set use but, in looks, a spittin' image of his daddy. GOING from the picturesque to the practical, what would be the effect of such a new type upon the replacement market? "Not an honest tube . . . Would deceive the public—who would expect superior performance which could not be forthcoming because operating characteristics must be the same as the older types they are designed to replace . . . More money for same performance . . . Would slow up the sale of 1936 metal tube receivers . . . God help the poor tube makers, who are about crazy now with production problems." These are the reactions of the opponents of such an idea. Possibly a majority group. But how about the other side? We quote one of the best known tube jobbers in the country: "The new 'metal' replacement tubes could be priced at a profit level—the only solution I can see to the present hopeless state of the replacement tube business. "Set owners are asking, 'Can I get metal tubes to replace my glass ones?' They'll pay more, gladly, and get more. "Would popularize the original metal tube and the new metal tubed sets." And from a tube maker: "Tests show that this tube, in old sets, increases their sensitivity. Dealer survey reveals large majority favoring such a type." Here is an important and highly controversial subject. Before yet another brain child makes her debut, all counties should be heard from. Ray V. Sutcliffe EDITOR Why They Buy 41% ... 39% ... 37% ... 18% ... 12% ... 11% ... 10% ... 2% ... 2% ... 149 People Tell RADIO RETAILING What Really Induced Them BECOME CONVINCED THAT THEIR OLD SET IS OBSOLETE HAVE TROUBLE WHICH INVOLVES HEAVY REPAIR EXPENSE WANT TO TUNE IN ON FOREIGN SHORTWAVE PROGRAMS CAN'T BREAK THROUGH STRONG LOCAL STATIONS GET TIRED OF POOR CABINETS AND SMALL TABLE MODELS CRAVE MORE NATURAL AND REALISTIC TONE QUALITY NEED MORE SENSITIVITY TO REACH DISTANT CHAINS GET MARRIED AND BUY A RADIO FOR THE NEW HOME RECOGNIZE THE CONVENIENCE OF A SECOND RECEIVER By W. MacDonald interested in radio than any other gadget it owns and likes to talk about it. And if our tabulation isn't the swellest piece of sales ammunition the industry has seen for many a moon we've spent our postage-money foolishly. Most people had more than just one reason for buying but in order to classify "bait" in order of importance we've picked the major reasons given in each reply. How To Sell To know why people buy is to know how to sell. If 41 per cent of all set buyers spend their money primarily because they become convinced that their old receiver is obsolete then the thing to do is to increase advertising designed to encourage this feeling. If as much as 39 per cent of our business comes from people whose old sets have gone on the blink then selling through service calls is unquestionably of major importance. If 37 per cent of all new customers fall because they want shortwave reception then this feature is still the best single sales feature the industry possesses. And if 18 per cent have sets so old that they won't tune out locals it is evident that we are missing a good bet. For few salesmen mention selectivity today. Figures prove that 12 per cent trade up from old consoles and dinky little midgets simply because they don't like the looks of the things. The furniture appeal is again becoming a factor. We thought tone quality would show up high on the list but 11 per cent return indicates that tone has yet to be sold. And the fact that 10 per cent buy because their old models will not reach out for dx should induce us to resurrect sensitivity as a selling point. Just 2 per cent of the business came from people who had no sets to trade. Ours is a replacement market. And 2 per cent resulted from a craving for more than one set. Make this trend grow. This is just a sample of the "meat" found so far in consumer letters. Watch coming issues for further breakdowns. One farmer writes: "Bought a new set because the hired man spilled some glue on the old one." Another says: "Instruction sheets told me to turn two controls clockwise until I got the tone I wanted. Set sounded awful so turned 'em counter-clockwise and the music comes out grand." And what others tell us about features they like as well as those they don't like is a veritable munition plant of fodder for the sales guns. Who Spend Money for New Radios in December and January Radio Retailing, February, 1936 FROM AN AUTHENTIC SOURCE we learn that one of the largest general mail order houses in the country proposes to franchise radio, appliance and hardware merchants in towns not now served by the former's stores. These selected dealers will advertise and sell electrical appliances bearing the trade name of this nationally known house and at its catalog prices. Such a policy would affect profoundly the policies and fortunes of many set manufacturers, jobbers and retailers. It's an open secret that Sears, MW and others of this type have refrigerators, washers—and radios—whose appearance, performance and price leave little to be desired. Between the big four in refrigeration and these catalog firms competition in 1935 was fierce and bitter; with the latter getting their full share of the spoils. This latest move for piercing deep into the territory of the independents, with experienced local representatives, will call for the application of every defensive and offensive tactic known to the trade. ROSENTHAL AGAINST THE WORLD. This seems to be a fitting caption for the news item regarding the San Francisco cut-price grocer contemplating a constitutional test of California's much-discussed unfair practices act, described in the January issue of Radio Retailing. Challenging the power of the legislature to forbid selling at less than cost, selling by chains at different prices in different sections of the city, paying of secret rebates or allowances, Rosenthal bucks the California Retail Grocers & Merchants Association. Upon the outcome of the test, which will probably take months to complete, depends the success or failure of the West Coast act affecting radio as well as other commodities. Of greater importance will be the effect on similar legislation contemplated by other states. NBC COMMERCIAL Continuity Acceptance Department is a year old. Last week heard its capable head, Janet MacRorie, tell how National has raised the standard of sponsor's ad blurbs. No hard and fast rules; simply a firm insistence on "common sense and good taste." Look for further sugar coating of the publicity pills. Sat next to NBC's new head, Lenox Lohr—the man whose keen insight and practical management made the Chicago Fair the big success it was. Mr. Lohr most assuredly will put new life into NBC's broadcasting policies. "I view Radio as an invited guest into the home. As such it should, and will, conduct itself," he told us. A grand basic principle. Expect great things from the chains this year. This forceful executive, with a new perspective, will be a constructive factor. NEWSPAPERS HAVE CRIED "WOLF" so often about television that we suspect they will be caught with their trousers at half-mast when it actually does break. Latest reportorial jewel was a front-page blurb predicting announcement of a $200 receiver for the general public within the year. This blossomed forth on a Tuesday. And on Wednesday RCA came out with a point-blank denial. Said R. R. Beal of Camden: "We are still engaged in the preliminary phase of our proj- A STATIC REDUCING CIRCUIT designed to squelch much of the electrical noise picked up by receivers, particularly those of the shortwave variety, is being ballyhooed by the American Radio Relay League. Using two auxiliary tubes, applicable to certain existing circuits and practically all new sets, this new development will be used by at least one maker of communication receivers before spring. An engineer who has heard it informs us that the thing cuts out racket generated by a spark-plug tester operating fifteen feet away and appears to have possibilities. TRADE SHOW REVIVAL, urged by many dealers, still meets with firm opposition from at least four of the largest set manufacturers who feel that present policy of each concern running its own convention, showing new sets when and where it pleases, meets the practical considerations of the set manufacturer better. Until these leaders change their minds the chances of another radio trade show with all the old-fashioned fixings are mighty slim. WHEN YOUR DOCTOR subjects the manly torso to the peering curiosity of his Fluoroscope... meters dance, lights flash and transformers hum... you expect to pay more and do. For the thorough once-over with a modern medical troubleshooting instrument is worth more than old-fashioned muscle-prodding examinations. Why, for gossakes, don't more radio men pull the same stunt with classy, impressive new portable analyzers and tube checkers? We know one man who permitted an instrument company representative to nick his bankroll for nearly a hundred bucks in a weak moment, paid for the new gadget and then some, in extra service fees, within four months. NOW CANARIES do their own pet shop ballyhoo, since a loud speaking system has been applied to bird merchandising in Bloomfield, N. J. W. N. Murphy, Radio & Television Sales Corp., of this city, conceived the idea, and made a $50 installation that includes a trolley type mike which the proprietor may place before his choice warblers at will. A little boy heard a $12 German Roller a block away and persuaded Grandma to buy it for him. The proprietor of Bill's Petland says it pays to advertise with sound effects. A BILL TO OUTLAW AUTORADIO in St. Louis, introduced by Alderman John J. O'Connor and endorsed by Major Albert Bond Lambert of the police, to whom we award a set of hand-painted leather medals, has been properly squelched. The Automobile Club, Electrical Board of Trade and the RMA spoke against it. Defending orators were conspicuous by their absence. Said Bond Geddes, representing set makers: "Not one highway commissioner or highway engineer in 44 states has been able to cite a single accident caused by radio." MID-SEASON MODEL announcements have been frequent this year. This practice, however, is not universally condoned. "We have not changed a single model since we announced our line in June and we do not intend to until we bring out our new line for the coming season. Nothing, to my mind, would be more disastrous than to have new lines introduced in December or January," writes a large Chicago set maker. CERTAIN DISTRIBUTORS who kicked over the applecart a year or two ago by selling compact sets of a well-known make to jewellers interested in radio as a loss-leader only have repented and quit the practice. The game is no longer worth the candle. For the watch-and-ring men shoot the skids from beneath legitimate dealers and put the kibosh on more business than their cash-on-the-nail patronage is worth. Jewelers continue to use radio as a football but buy from loft-artists. A WHITE ELEPHANT AUCTION was staged by the Cleveland Chapter, IRSM late in January. Servicemen were invited to bring in radio parts and testing equipment, received 50 per cent of the amount the stuff went for. GAZING INTO THE CRYSTAL BALL, we predict that servicemen of the future will adjust and line up more receivers, install new parts in fewer jobs. New sets now going into homes are larger, more expensive and better-built. Components will not fail as rapidly as in the depression-price midgets. On the other hand, high-fidelity models will have to be tuned up "right on the nose" to render good quality. This presages better business for test instrument makers. NEWSPAPER ADVERTISING is the reason given by Abram Davega for the growth of Davega-City Radio over the past ten years. This chain of 29 stores leased large space in the Port Authority Building, New York, last month to house the entire contents of its warehouse. "DOWNSTAIRS DISTRIBUTION" • Old furniture dealers feature big consoles • Carpet-baggers handle business from homes • Specializing shops stock only trade-ins • Several chains open branches in bargain districts George H. Berger's second-hand furniture emporium in Little Rock, Arkansas, one of many outlets of this type now featuring used radios purchased from local dealers REPORTED from many sections of the country is the birth of many new outlets specializing in the sale of used sets. Purchasing trade-ins from established stores, selling to people who can afford only a few dollars for a receiver and even to small merchants in suburban towns, such shops already exist in sufficient number to affect the market. Undecided is the trade concerning the economic wisdom of this newest merchandising move. Say most: "It's a good idea and will enable us to concentrate on new sets." Say some: "It will hurt the sale of cheap table models." Say a few: "We'd rather sell our own." From random points come the following typical reports: PITTSBURGH—Signs appearing over doorways of used furniture stores all over city reading: "Radio $5." BIRMINGHAM—J. M. Law, proprietor of the Radio Bargain House, selling nothing but used sets, informs correspondent that his business is geared for small profit and rapid turnover. He will take as little as $2 profit on a set, figuring that he can always buy more sets than he can sell. Operating very much as used car lots operate, Law buys mostly from the trade, paying cash and selling for cash. Bookkeeping expense and credit losses are thus avoided. All sets are put in operating condition before sale but no guarantee is given, with consequent elimination of service worries. All this permits him to operate on a small margin. Some 300 sets are now carried in stock and sales run about 100 per month. Customers are mostly farmers and others with small pocketbooks who are willing to forego the advantages of allwave reception and the last word in tonal quality in order to get music, political and sports broadcasts at low cost. LITTLE ROCK—This city, located in the foothills of the Ozarks and with a trade territory that reaches far into untenanted America, sells a lot of second-hand radios for a town of 81,679. Like old automobiles, old radios seem to work west and south. West Seventh Street has more second-hand outlets than you can shake a stick at and most of them are now ballyhooing radio. George H. Berger, trading under the name of the Holloway Company, operates a typical outlet. His source of supply is primary radio stores. Every week his truck goes out to fetch in used merchandise. All he demands is a set that will play, caring little about the finish. Models can be six or seven years old and still be acceptable. They are preferably, however, consoles of the Radio Store Trend GROWS larger type as Berger finds size is easier to sell than quality. He is, in a sense, a wholesaler. For not only are his sets sold direct to the consumer but also to small town dealers who frequently come in from points a hundred miles away for a truckload of used stock. Prices average $8. Berger buys for an average of $6, making $2 per deal. Back to the tiny towns go these used sets, where advertising of new models does not readily penetrate. Second-hand set operators, we are told, usually have a purchaser in mind before they buy. The Holloway Company's clientele is largely among the negro shanties, cabins of poor whites. For as little as a quarter, fifty cents or a dollar down such people may buy sets priced at $16 to $25. For cash these same models sell at about half the time-price so the business might be said to combine somewhat the activities of the loan shark with the industry of a salesman. Berger moved over 100 sets in 1935. CHICAGO—This city hasn't got its downstairs distribution of radio fully working yet. There are plenty of dealers who would welcome good second-hand outlets. Levinson's, radio chain, has started a store to handle its own trade-ins. Vest-pocket merchants with a vague address dominate the second-hand market, such as it is. Every few weeks some one drops in to see Frank Fuller, Jr., head of the radio department at Commonwealth Edison. "I don't even know the names of these men," he told Radio Retailing. "We don't sell them. We hold trades 30 to 60 days—to see if new set sales will stick—then slick up the good ones and put them off in a corner. We've never had enough trades to advertise them, as the salesman always works them off on somebody who has little dough." Freddie Poncer of the Harrison Radio Store at 555 South State St., declares that at least one dealer, to his knowledge, is buying trades. "He pays from $1.75 to $2 for them, sells them for from $3 to $4. Some are resold to other dealers in the negro and west side districts and are popped into the windows as bargains. A slick looking cabinet is the main requirement." Marshall Field & Company has large numbers of trade-ins coming in all the time, but those that are good enough to sell are usually repaired and sold to the large body of employees, A. O. Casey, head of the retail department, declares. "Inquiries come in constantly for these old radios," he said. "The market seems to be in centers from 200 to 300 miles from Chicago. For a while there was a trucker who took back from six to eight old sets on his empty truck each week to somewhere up in Wisconsin." E. Dunke, 1618 Howard Street, Chicago, a dealer in a silk stocking district, is clearing his floor regularly by selling his trade-ins. "I can't give you the fellow's name, for there would be a lot of dealers unloading on him if I did. I get from $1.50 to $5 per set, and about $100 worth is taken away each time. Some are torn down for parts, some are very good buys. There is a long profit in this type of merchandise, and a second-hand dealer can easily stretch a $100 shipment into $1,000 in sales." Superior Radio Performance starts in the factory which specifies ALADDIN Polyiron Core Coils for auto and home receivers Type "C" Greater Selectivity and Optional High Fidelity for Home Radios The advantage of Polyiron in the cores of ALADDIN coils for r-f and i-f transformers is due to the magnetic properties of Polyiron. Less wire and lower resistance are notable differences in ALADDIN Polyiron products. Band expansion for high fidelity reception is obtained through overcoupling. Special ALADDIN coils are made for this purpose, by which band widths of 10, 15, or 20 kilocycles are optional. Receivers using ALADDIN coils have substantially greater selectivity and sensitivity for a given number of tubes than receivers using air core coils. Let us send you, free, some important facts and technical information for your Service Department at no obligation. WRITE TODAY! ALADDIN Polyiron core transformers are the most important development in modern radio. Genuine ALADDIN Polyiron will not melt, crumble or oxidize when subjected to the hot soldering iron test shown above. It is a thoroughly stable magnetic material. ALADDIN Polyiron products are characterized by accurate engineering and quality manufacturing. These devices are manufactured under one or more of the following U.S. Letters Patents: 1887380, 1978599, 1982690, 1940228, 1978600, 1997453, 1978568, 1982689, 2005203, 2002500, 2018626. Other patents pending in U.S.A. and foreign countries. Aladdin Radio Industries, Inc. 466 West Superior Street, Chicago, Illinois Licencee of Johnson Laboratories, Inc. Increased Radio Sales start when radio dealers offer ALADDIN Polyiron Performance in place of ordinary reception Uniform, high gain in-r-f Polyiron core coils assures maximum sensitivity for radios in turret top cars. Increased Sensitivity and Compact Size for Auto Radios Modern turret top cars with an aerial counterpoise under the chassis require extreme sensitivity for distant reception. This is obtainable with an ALADDIN Polyiron core antenna coupler followed by compact ALADDIN Midget Type "C" i-f Polyiron core transformers. From 30 to 50% saving in space is secured through the use of these components in conjunction with metal tubes. Compare an ALADDIN Polyiron transformer's exceptional performance on any oscilloscope with present air core transformers. The higher curves in the illustration show the advantage in gain and selectivity offered by type "C" transformers over air core coils in larger shields. If the radio you are now selling does not use ALADDIN Polyiron transformers, ask your supplier to provide you with a set factory equipped and judge for yourself! Aladdin Radio Industries, Inc. 466 West Superior Street, Chicago, Illinois Licencee of Johnson Laboratories, Inc. Manufacturers, give your men a chance to increase their sales! Accurate and progressive engineering together with quality manufacturing characterize ALADDIN Polyiron products which merit a trial in your receivers. What if they do cost 10 to 50c more per transformer—they are worth it from a performance as well as sales standpoint. INVESTIGATE TODAY! Star Appliance Salesman Earns $90 Weekly Does his own advertising, owns a truck, demonstrates evenings and Sundays KANSAS CITY—Winner of a national competition, "high-man" locally, Al Bell, of Mace-Ryer, takes his place in the front rank of retail salesmen, averaged $90 weekly in commissions throughout the depression. Selling since 1928, Bell has personally placed 4,000 radios in his territory, following up in many cases with electric refrigerators, washers and other appliances. Interviewed by Radio Retailing, Bell attributes his record primarily to his willingness to demonstrate from 6 p.m. to 11 p.m. weekdays and any time on Sundays. Sunday, when people are home, is his best day. Leads are obtained from old customers and from inexpensive classified newspaper ads paid for out of his own pocket. (One is reproduced on this page.) He advertises "radio rentals," converts inquiries into new set sales by stressing the slight difference between a 75 cent weekly rental charge and his firm's $1 per week sales plan. Sunday specials listing bargains for demonstration on this day only pull especially well. Bell pays a telephone answering service (Nurses Registry) a flat sum of $1.50 weekly to relay such calls immediately to his home. A set of inexpensive dishes or some similar premium is sometimes offered to Sunday buyers. This salesman owns his own coach-body truck, takes a variety of merchandise along with him for demonstration. The store, one might say, is no farther away than the curb in front of the customer's home. The truck accommodates about 15 radio models, practically the entire Mace-Ryer line. So complete is the selection that it is possible to demonstrate several sets if necessary before leaving. Receivers are, therefore, never left in homes on trial. Bell trades in his truck regularly every 18 months, eliminating engine trouble, tire failure and other delays that cost him valuable selling time. He thinks this is true economy, and cheaper in the long run. Two callbacks after a sale is his inflexible rule. This keeps customers satisfied and also enables him to sell additional merchandise. Customers are informed that Bell works on straight commission. He finds them more ready to "donate" leads for new business than they would be if he was a salaried worker. This, he tells us, is not theory. He has proven it. A gift of some kind valued at about $2 retail is given to customers who forward leads later resulting in business. The store itself adds $2 in cash. Telephone canvassing has been tried. This salesman leaves no stone unturned in his search for new business. But it has not been found profitable. He prefers to spend free time calling back on old customers, contends that this produces more sales. Directly quoting him: "In my opinion, the cold-canvass method of selling radios is a thing of the past. Even if leads are produced in sufficient number to justify the time required to develop them, our credit department usually turns the prospects down." Checking over the high-spots of our interview we immediately reach the conclusion that much of the credit for Bell's success must be given to his employer. For Bell, except for the fact that he does not buy and finance merchandise, is practically in his own business, developing his own prospects, maintaining his own truck, doing his own advertising and calling back on a close circle of customers to sell additional equipment. Only near-perfect relations between store and salesman permit such a relationship. Visible Shop Makes Good Window Repair bench seen from street through glass swells traffic, improves light BIRMINGHAM — Chain drugstores have increased prescription business by installing these lucrative departments up front. Popular restaurants create confidence in their foods by cooking right in the window. And Dick Thomas of the Radio Service Company has boosted service business, increased efficiency of his repairmen by following suit, moving his repair shop forward. At a cost of $100 for materials (servicemen did most of the actual work in spare time) Thomas shifted his repair department from a dark back corner of his store to the front, installed windows through which people passing on the street might watch. Result: Increased store traffic and better service work. To prevent customers from talking to workers the window-shop was partitioned off from the rest of the store. The attention of the men is not distracted by traffic, according to this dealer, who says that the novelty of watching people and cars go by wears off rapidly and the men soon ignore it completely. When it is necessary for a customer to talk to a repairman about a set, the repairman is right up front. No longer is it necessary for the customer to walk to the back into a dark, scarcely impressive corner of the store nor for the serviceman to be called from this remote point. "The position of the shop is now my best advertisement," says Thomas, who sends in the photos reproduced above. --- 8-Day Sale Moves 165 Trades* "Sets free if you buy the tubes" used as bait DENVER—Le Moines, local outlet, staged an eight-day sale of used radios last month, which was sufficiently successful to warrant reporting nationally the methods used. One hundred and sixty-five trade-ins were cleared out during the drive. One advertising stunt to which much of the interest in the drive is attributed was the offer of 10 used sets free if purchasers would buy the tubes at Le Moines. Other receivers were offered at prices calculated to bring in business without jeopardizing profit and some brought as much as $47.50. Radios advertised were plainly marked with price-tags. All were guaranteed for 30 days against mechanical or electrical defects. Special finance rules were laid down for the drive. A payment as low as 50 cents would hold any set, 50 cents additional permit delivery where consumer credit was established. All sets under $10 went for cash or were subject to the concern's regular layaway plan. In this case no carrying charge was added to the price. All used sets were divided into two classes, those under three years old and refinished and those older and sold "as is" except for mechanical checking. Refinishing cost the firm an average of $2 per set requiring it. "Some of our competitors thought we were hurting the sale of our new sets by putting out so much used merchandise," says Everett Harding. "We found that the sale actually increased our new set business by bringing in prospects. We further estimate that each person who came to the store actually intending to buy, paid twice as much for a receiver as he had originally intended to spend." --- GLASS CABINET STOPS 'EM... A twin-speaker receiver, removed from its original cabinet and installed in one made of plate glass held by welded, chromium-plated steel posts, makes a good display for Wholesale Radio, New York. Solves Midget Display Space Problem Wall-rack accommodates 100 sets, permits rapid choice of table models by customer KENOSHA—Pigeonhole type wall-racks for the display of midget receivers are known to most big-city dealers but many retailers in smaller towns have not seen these effective and space-saving displays. The rack used by Zabel-Martin is a good example. According to Martin, it not only conserves floor space and permits rapid selection by the consumer but also tends to create the impression, by grouping many small sets closely together, that the store considers them rather unimportant "package merchandise." This paves the way for sell-up work in behalf of the larger consoles. In order to dramatize consoles, to make them stand out by comparison with the grouped midgets, each console is placed on a raised platform. The extra consideration given better sets by the store is at once obvious to many people originally interested in table models and thus puts them in the correct frame of mind to listen to a console sales talk without balking. DX Confirmation Ads Sell Shortwaves Sales jumped 25 per cent following appearance of letters from customers TUCSON—The best small-space ads used by Tidmarsh Engineering, of this city, in the past five years, according to M. D. Schuster, are reproductions of letters from all wave set buyers telling the firm what distant stations they receive. Schuster simply prints letter after letter in the newspaper, giving the user's name, address and trademark of the set purchased. Sales of allwave equipment have increased 25 per cent as a direct result. "Our small-space ads have made the whole town DX conscious all over again," says this dealer. Cultivates Caretakers for Sales Finds chauffeurs also know needs of rich GENEVA, WIS.—Bob Leonard, of Lake Geneva Radio Service, informs Radio Retailing's correspondent that it pays to make the acquaintance of caretakers on the big resort homes in his territory. In most instances, says Bob, these caretakers are entrusted with the care of all appliances and the owner depends upon them to see that equipment is kept in repair. Regular contact of such men nets business. For when a new radio or electrical appliance is needed the caretaker's recommendation carries much weight. Chauffeurs employed by rich people are also worth cultivating, we are further told. They, like the caretakers, frequently know when new equipment is needed. Leonard contacts them regularly, without spending time or money specifically to do so, by calling when in their neighborhood on other business. Announces KADETTE MODERN TO THE MINUTE A New Powerful All World Tube Long and Short Wave SUPER At only $26.95 A real radio thoroughbred that brings an instant consciousness of charming originality...the clean flowing beauty and smartness of all things new and modern are superbly reflected in this exquisitely fashioned model. The cabinet, in striking new design, is of beautiful sliced American walnut with wide band inlay of genuine Burl walnut. Highly polished knobs and base are in gleaming black ebony finish. Has two distinct tuning bands; 550 to 1600 Kilocycles and 5.5 to 15.5 Megacycles covering complete Standard Broadcast, Foreign and Domestic Short Wave. Sharply selective with full, rich thrilling tone. Has extra large convex crystal enclosed and illuminated airplane dial with vernier drive and powerful Electro-Dynamic speaker. Dial face is particularly attractive with calibrations for short wave lighted in neon green and regular broadcast in white lighted reverse figures. Size 12½" high, 11¾" wide and 6¼" deep. Weight 10 lbs. And still breaking all sales records "RADIO'S FINEST VALUE" 6 TUBE AC-DC SUPERHETERODYNE TUNES ALL POLICE...AIRPLANE AMATEUR...STANDARD BROADCAST $19.95 KADETTE Sixty Six Dealers - Distributors...Write for open territory. THE INTERNATIONAL RADIO CORPORATION, Ann Arbor, Michigan Wholesaler gives rules for Efficient Parts Distribution ELMIRA—One and one-half years ago Fred C. Harrison, then operating a retail service shop, decided to distribute replacement parts. With Harold F. Jenkins at the helm as salesmanager, this concern has since built up a following over a 200-mile radius, now boasts 400 active accounts. Rapid growth is attributed primarily to anticipation of the serviceman's needs and seasonal stock expansion in advance of retail orders. Throughout its years of repairing for the local consumer, Harrison's kept a careful record of fluctuation in standard component demand, utilized this record to set up stock when entering the jobbing business. The charts on the opposite page show how purchases of four important replacement parts vary from month to month. Demand is shown over a three-year period and a composite curve of all three years indicates still more clearly the average month-by-month requirements. Purchasing may vary with location, of course, but Elmira is considered a fairly typical city hence this original data prepared exclusively for Radio Retailing will be useful to retail servicemen and parts distributors alike. While demand for all four parts graphed appears to reach its maximum in either October or November, electrolytic condenser stocks obviously must be strengthened as July approaches, resistors begin climbing three months earlier, in April, volume control requirements start up the scale in June and vibrators reach a peak in May, holding relatively level until cold weather sets in late in the fall. The sharp rise in October, 1935, vibrator sales was due, in this particular case, to opening up of a new retail account in a university town where students swell business as they return to school and the 1934 curve is therefore considered a more accurate norm. Similar allowance should be made for the abnormal jump in electrolytic sales during August, 1935. Elmira was in the heart of upstate New York's serious flood and moisture as well as actual water-damage caused many premature capacitor deaths. Second in importance only to stock control, according to this wholesaler, is regularity of salesmen's calls on all accounts. Men are required to contact each account once every three weeks, arranging their schedules so that these calls may be made on the same date each month and, if possible, at the same hour. This allows shops to estimate their needs in advance and depend upon salesmen showing up on schedule. It further encourages customers to resume regular purchasing, with obvious advantages to both the retailer and the wholesaler over the depression practice of ordering hand-to-mouth, with its rapid service difficulties. Emergency shipments are, of course, handled, but planned purchasing is encouraged. Keeping the business open until midnight brings many long-distance orders at low evening phone rates. The shipping department operates under the inflexible rule that all orders for parts carried in stock must be filled, packed and on their way within one hour of receipt. Says Jenkins: "We wholesale only to legitimate service-men and licensed amateurs. New dealers must give references from others known to us, or show membership in some service organization or trade school. Business cards or letterheads are not considered good credentials. The local chapter of the IRSM has helped us greatly in preventing the sale of merchandise to parties not entitled to discounts by periodically checking our wholesale listings. "We believe that in protecting those seriously engaged in earning a living by radio servicing we are building a more solid foundation for future business." Retail Repair Component Demand Prepared from the records of FRED C. HARRISON, Elmira, N. Y. ELECTROLYTICS VIBRATORS 3 YEAR AVERAGE VOLUME CONTROLS RESISTORS 3 YEAR AVERAGE Radio Retailing, February, 1936 HERE is a window any dealer can install. Its principal "prop" is an ordinary ladder and its chief virtue the fact that it appeals to lowbrow, highbrow and middleman all in one crack. For the window is of neither the "trading-up" or the "trading-down" type. It is neutral on price, gives the facts about sets in the various price classes, dramatizes as far as inexpensive visualization will permit. The display is intended to be the opening wedge for a demonstration inside the store, for tone and other comparisons. No window display alone ever sold a radio. But this one will stop them, bring many in. LAYOUT Highlight is an ordinary ladder. This is placed at the physical center of the trim, slanted so that it extends from below the front glass to the upper background. Against the lowest rung station the largest checkbook your bank can supply. Fold back the outside cover and on the exposed open pages (three checks deep) boldly print the following words: "Up, Midway or Down the Ladder—Radios Priced to Fit Family Finances." Skip every three or four steps up the ladder and at evenly spaced rungs thumbtack a single row of personal checks, each made out for an amount which will tally with advertised models in each particular price range. I suggest three ladder-rungs working for you, high first, midway next and low last of all, extending from the top to the bottom of the ladder in this order. From each row of checks run stock ticker tape to the correspondingly priced radios on display. Group the low priced models at the front sides, medium priced range at the center sides and the more elaborate models at the rear sides. See that each set has its own individual price tag, a personal check made out for the correct amount. VARIATION If terms are to be featured retain the ladder in the same position, but amend the check book announcement to read: "Up, Midway or Down the Ladder—Radios Sold On Terms to Fit Family Finances." At positions three or four rungs apart place a sheaf or fan-spread of personal checks, each made out for the exact amount of the required monthly installment. The number of checks will be regulated by the amount of each monthly installment. Use ticker tape as before. Restrict model presentation to one each of the three price ranges. SPACE This layout will be most effective in a long but not necessarily deep window. If two windows are available duplicate the ladder theme in each. In one display low-priced radios and in the other place medium-priced models. Place one or more high-priced models with the medium-price display. The check book announcement in each window should carry this additional sentence: "See Companion Window For Continuation of Price Range." No display layout planned for all types of radio retailers can be worked out to the last detail. Here are the basic ideas—embroider to suit your own specific needs. But by all means see that the ladder's lower end rests against the front window and that its top slants back toward the top rear. This creates an illusion of depth. TO HELP YOU SELL MORE Hotpoint MANUFACTURED BY GENERAL ELECTRIC ELECTRIC REFRIGERATORS IN 1936! THE biggest advertising and sales promotional campaign in Hotpoint Refrigerator history is being launched now! There will be full pages in The Saturday Evening Post... expanded plan of co-operative newspaper advertising... outdoor posters... radio announcements... window displays... store identification signs... recipe booklets... full line folders... envelope stuffers... pass-out pieces... slide films... retail sales manuals... customer savings bank plan. In addition, there's the new Hotpoint "Visualizer" and new Hotpoint "Featurizer"—which help dealer and salesman demonstrate the quality, features and advantages of the new 1936 Hotpoint line. Hotpoint pre-sells the prospect... and makes 101 sales tools available to help you get the names on the dotted line! With its greatly augmented promotional campaign... new dealer display finance plan enabling you to stock at low cash outlay... and a new line of refrigerators, Hotpoint makes it easy to sell more. Write today for complete details. Hotpoint Refrigerator Division, Section RR 2, Nela Park, Cleveland, Ohio. Perhaps You Can Sweep It Under the Rug . . . By Milton Samuels They're at it again! I mean those merchandising magicians who gaze into the crystal ball each year and conjure up figures, graphs and charts proving (so they say) that outside selling is the complete answer to a maiden's prayer . . . neglecting to mention that it can also knock an inexperienced retailer's pocketbook for a loop and generally does. Certain are two things. Some dealers apparently never learn how to handle a crew, a fine art requiring control of men working on their own most of the time. And even those dealers possessing the necessary insight into the complicated workings of a pavement-pounder's mind flop unless they are wise to the major pitfalls. Entering upon a plan of outside solicitation the retailer is confronted by these difficult problems: 1. Correct selection, training and control of personnel. 2. Holding down the trade-in allowance. 3. Minimizing of free-home demonstration periods. 4. Avoidance of poor credit risks. 5. Price maintenance when soliciting business. All but the first are common to store selling as well as outside selling but control is much more important when working in the field because outside selling is forced selling. The cost of mistakes can and will be much more severe when it is necessary to beard the lion in his own den rather than in the store, where he comes only when more or less intending to buy. There are good men in the outside selling game but they are about as scarce as hens' teeth. For every good man there are at least ten "clucks" who have failed in salaried positions requiring them to do a job every day under close observation of a superior. Such men are generally long-winded, fast-talking individuals who at every opportunity boast about their sensational sales record while with Buller Brushes or Blub Aluminum. As a general rule they seem primarily interested in securing a drawing account against commission and can be identified by their yearning for cash in advance. If no drawing account is forthcoming they lose interest in a job with surprising rapidity. The furnishing of "live leads" is part of every outside selling campaign and to obtain them dealers insert coupons in newspaper ads, compile a list of people who come into the store, add the names of people buying service and shake well. These names are then placed in the hands of the outside crew, classified by neighborhoods, and the fun begins. For it is to the advantage of every outside salesman to make live leads into hot prospects. The longer a live lead can be kept looking hot the longer the opportunity of maintaining a drawing account continues. So frequently men exaggerate (to put it mildly) the attitude of the prospect toward the firm, its merchandise and the salesman's pleasing personality in particular. Here are four actual reports: First Report: Interviewed Mr. J. . . . and interested him in B . . . radio. Arranged for free demo. Sure sale. Second Report: Exchange radio. Arrived defective. It's a shame that a radio should be delivered in such poor condition. Almost cost me sale. Third Report: Ready to close deal. Demands $75 trade for his old W . . . set. Offered him $25, but think he'll accept $35. See him tomorrow. Fourth Report: Customer demands $50. Will try to convert sale into cash. ... and so on day after day until the salesman has run out of excuses and the prospect is definitely marked "deceased." The tombstone, may we point out, has been pretty expensive. Statisticians can readily produce charts by the wastebasketful to show that almost all radio prospects are ready, nay anxious, to trade-in their old sets for new models. But they neglect to mention that most people demand more for their old equipment, even if it has zero re-sale value, than the margin on a new receiver will stand. Every outside salesman will testify that nine out of ten prospects point with pride to their ancient and awful old set, contending that "none of the new sets can beat my old Zilch Special for tone quality." In reality the thing should probably be abolished by law. The free home demonstration angle will give the average inexperienced dealer plenty of trouble. And you can even cross out the word "inexperienced." There is no limit to the promises made by many outside salesmen in their effort to close sales and if the dealer does not watch his step he will quickly find himself with a whale of a floating inventory. Not only is this dangerous financially, tying up money in stock, but it gives overhead inflammatory rheumatism. The cost of delivery, installation, pickup and damage due to handling generally swamps out profits unless the salesmen turn in plenty of business and hold free demos down to the absolute minimum. I know one dealer who adventured into the great unknown and quickly found himself with 100 sets in the field. Fourteen of them were sold. Try and make money on this percentage! Credit risks are nothing to write home about. I doubt if any experienced salesmanager will challenge my statement when I say that names turned in by the average outside crew constitute a pretty good list, as a rule, of people whom the firm ought not to sell. Outside men are rarely if ever over-conscientious when submitting credit information. Guarantees and concessions are frequently inserted in contracts without the credit manager's knowledge. This is done by the simple but questionable process of omitting just a few short words on the duplicate. Trouble inevitably develops before the final payment is made and then it is too late... the salesman has already departed for greener fields with the commission. Friction between inside and outside sales forces is not uncommon and is a troublesome feature of any high-pressure business. Inside men almost invariably attempt to secure full credit for prospects attracted to the store by the work of outside men. They will also frequently refrain from handing in the names of shoppers who enter the store but do not buy, intending to make the outside follow-up call themselves and depriving the outside men of needed leads. Days later, if the sale is not closed, it is turned over to the outside crew—too late for Herpicide. It is not uncommon to find a store manager who encourages such tactics, if he secures a commission just on store business. Diogenes, looking for an honest man with a lantern, could scarcely find one with an anti-aircraft searchlight in the ranks of many outside-selling crews. These are the trouble-spots for men contemplating selling outside the store by the usual crew methods. It takes a smart man to avoid them and the average inexperienced dealer can't make the grade. But it has been done. If any set of rules could be laid down to avoid unpleasant experiences in the search for volume out in the cold, cruel world I would select these as the highspots: 1. Start small. Go after profitable business rather than volume. 2. Arrange to have outside salesmen spend a portion of their time on the floor so that they will be encouraged to arrange store demonstrations in place of home demonstrations. 3. Limit the number of sets allowed on free home demonstration. Don't allow any set to remain in a home more than 48 hours unless a down-payment has been made. Allow the customer an exchange privilege within 30 days but no refunds. 4. Do not allow outside men to deliver accepted contracts. Mail them with a letter of confirmation, plainly stating all terms. 5. Furnish outside men with every possible sales aid. If you feature a special in the store give them an opportunity to feature it also. 6. Don't imagine that most people know your store. Advertise to help the outside men. 7. Instruct salesmen never to leave a prospect's home without leaving some reminder of the visit. 8. Do not let any salesman retain the name of a prospect longer than ten days. Establish an interchange-of-names system between men. 9. Treat outside men with the same consideration as inside men. 10. Avoid mass pep talks as a means of stimulating a crew. Work with the men individually. —And don't blame me if your first venture into Never-Never Land removes some of the pigment from your hair. Outside selling produces volume but even experts frequently stub their toes. NO REFRIGERATOR EVER OFFERED HOUSEWIVES So Much BEFORE! 1/3 MORE "Front" Shelf Space—New and Provable Current Economy—Utterly New Convenience—All Make STEWART-WARNER Your Best Bet for 1936 Amazing SAV-A-STEP, SLID-A-TRAY and many other new hits give you what it takes to OUT-DEMONSTRATE and OUTSELL your competition—AT A PROFIT! • The biggest "edge" over competition you'll see this season is yours with these beautiful new Stewart-Warners! From top to bottom, they're built to make plenty of sense to your prospects—and therefore make sales and profits for you. They have eye appeal galore. They're the handiest, roomiest refrigerators ever made. With SAV-A-STEP, SLID-A-TRAY, TILT-A-SHELF and other improvements, the housewife can arrange foods to suit herself—and still have everything at her fingertips. Because there's actually 30% more 'front' shelf space in these Stewart-Warners. Best of all, your profits stick! The famous Slo-Cycle twin-cylinder compressor has amazed Stewart-Warner dealers with its exceptional freedom from service losses—and turned owners into boosters by its extreme economy, quietness and ample reserve cooling capacity. There's amazingly good news for you in every word of the Stewart-Warner story. Hear it all without obligation before you go into your big season. Phone or wire your Stewart-Warner distributor now. STEWART-WARNER CORPORATION, 1828 Liversey Parkway, Chicago STEWART WARNER 3 Conventions....No Boats Candid Camera clicks ashore at Radio and Refrigeration unveilings RCA-Victor . . . at ATLANTIC CITY THE WALK IN BOARD-TALK . . . Wyatt and Godfrey, of Richmond Crump Co., and Card, of Paul's, from Norfolk in Ole Virginia JUST PASSING BY . . . Glazer of Boston's Store, Ansonia, Conn., Hanson of Heims, Danbury, Conn., and Yurt, Supreme Radio, Brighton, Mass. PLUTOCRATS AT PLAY . . . Wirtz, assistant convention manager (left), Savantes of Haynes-Griffin, N. Y., and Huntington of The Corporation ONE MAN ON A HORSE . . . Erb, of Erb Supply, Woodcliff, N. J., rides the beach on a hired nag between convention sessions Stewart-Warner . . . at CHICAGO MERRYMAKERS FROM MEMPHIS . . . Saunders, Wilson and Cook of Wilson's compare notes and tell a story after the shouting's o'er SET FOR A QUICK ONE . . . Schumacher finds two takers in Leven of Tarbell Walters, and Talbor of Talbor-Brooks-Ayer THE FINGER POINTS . . . Lytle, of Southern Minnesota Supply, Winters and Calcum, of Scranton's Anthracite Sales, compare convention ties FROM PARIS? (Left to right) Dunn, of Engine Souther, district manager of Advance Appliances, and Hieb of Des Moir Crosley . . . at CINCINNATI SAD ON WATER . . . Schlitz of Toledo, Balsch, Hamburg of Pittsburgh, Kay and Steinling investigate jug containing pale, insipid liquid DITZELL MITS DISTRIBUTOR . . . Salesmanager (back to birdie) shakes with Saltzman of Wholesale Radio while Eriandson looks on WHO IS CRIBBING FROM WHO? . . . Kenedy, Stautz and Rubloff of Chicago hark back to school days, look over each other's shoulder SATISFACTION ON THE SIDELINES . . . Chairman of the Board Knowlson (left) and President Otis watch proceedings from the door We've got the range for '36 OPEN FIRE! FRIGIDAIRE GOES INTO ACTION WITH THE OPENING GUN OF ITS GIGANTIC CAMPAIGN FOR 1936 In 38 dramatic conventions now going on from coast to coast, Frigidaire is presenting to its 20,000 dealers and salesmen the sensational Frigidaire for 1936—a product utterly new, stunningly beautiful, crammed full of powerful sales appeal in every respect. New campaign strategies are being introduced—dynamic, forceful new plans for action that overlook nothing to insure your biggest Frigidaire year! The men who have seen these spectacular new products and the powerful, compelling sales program are confident of sweeping victory. They agree that the challenge "You'll do Better with Frigidaire in '36" is no idle boast!...Frigidaire is going into action, and its greatest record-breaking year lies ahead! FRIGIDAIRE CORPORATION, DAYTON, OHIO You'll do better with Frigidaire in 1936! Page Missing From Original (probably a tear-out page) VICTOR RECORDS ROLLING UP NEW TRIUMPHS! Definitely, this is the time to push your record business See this amazing fact: — Victor Record sales were larger in January of this year than they were in December of last year! That smashes all precedent, for December heretofore always has been the big record month. January 6th brought Victor Records more orders than any other single day in the past 8 years! That was in spite of the fact that December 30 and 31 were the biggest two consecutive days during the previous 5 years! No matter how you look at them, those figures prove just one thing: Victor Records are going big. The sales curve is shooting up. It's been rising for nearly three years now. Dealers who saw the boom coming have been making plenty of money with Victor. There's still no sign of a slackening pace. This is the time to give your record department an extra boost for extra profits. If you haven't a record department, get one, in a hurry. We'll tell you how to get going. These figures show how sales of Victor Records continue to increase. The R-93 Mighty Little Record Player This is selling faster and faster. Every sale means a new record buyer. Breaking Records with The Broken Record Victor always has the hits. "The Broken Record" by Guy Lombardo and His Royal Canadians (Victor Record 25210) is breaking all sales figures, rolling up bigger profits to dealers. VICTOR RECORDS RCA MFG. CO., Inc., Camden, N. J. · A Service of the RADIO CORPORATION of AMERICA ANNOUNCING THE 1936 NORGE... "The Greatest Norge of All Time" ROLLATOR REFRIGERATION Norge has pioneered many of the most important improvements in electric refrigeration. This process of development has been careful, surefooted, and painstaking. Every step has been thoughtfully engineered. Every slightest change has been super-tested—at the factory, in experimental laboratories, in homes. American housewives expect great things of Norge. They look to Norge to be the first to pioneer new developments of proven merit. But in all pioneering, Norge wants proof—indisputable proof. Year after year, Norge goes to the women of America for facts—facts which will enable Norge to build the finest possible refrigerator, to best serve the American home. In the light of these facts, the 1936 Norge Rollator Refrigerator was designed, built, offered to the public—the greatest Norge of all time. Again, Norge has done the "impossible." The Norge that has been proved by every kind of scientific and practical test—the Norge that has been approved by hundreds of thousands of enthusiastic users—is now still further improved. The 1936 Norge Rollator Refrigerator, in design, efficiency, convenience features, flexibility of interior arrangement, economy of operation, is by far the greatest Norge of all time. Write for complete and specific information about the new Norge Rollator Refrigerator—or any other of the distinctive Norge home appliances. Learn about the big profit opportunity in "going Norge." NORGE DIVISION Borg-Warner Corporation 606-670 E. Woodbridge St., Detroit, Michigan THE ROLLATOR COMPRESSOR... smooth easy, rolling power, instead of burried back-and-forth action. Result—more cold for the current used, and a mechanism which is almost everlasting. Norge Concentrator Gas Range for better cooking results. Norge Autobuilt Washer for long years of dependable service. Norge Quality Ironer, easy to learn to use, fast and efficient. Norge Whirlator Oil Burner for maximum heating efficiency. DOMESTIC AND COMMERCIAL REFRIGERATION • GAS AND ELECTRIC RANGES • WASHERS AND IRONERS • WHIRLATOR OIL BURNERS • FINE-AIR FURNACES • AIR CONDITIONING • CIRCULATOR ROOM HEATERS BATTERY CHARGERS WILL BOOM FARM SALES New Developments in Wind and Gas Driven Generators also Will Put Small Lighting Units in Lap of Radio Dealer "HERE'S power in the wind above the trees." This, the new slogan of the Wincharger Corporation, Sioux City, Iowa, is being backed up by the experience of many dealers who recently have sold a new type of 60 foot steel mast, 400 ampere accumulators and the "DeLuxe" dynamo for lighting purposes. Writes J. M. Chicoine, Skelgas Radio Service, Jefferson, South Dakota, "After a personal, factory investigation of this new proposition for farmers I rolled up my sleeves and went to work making farm-to-farm calls. I preached the gospel of superior-to-city reception and at no operating cost. After several installations the telephone calls from neighbors kept me busy. Soon found that the big generator could keep quite a few lights going as well, thus doubling my billings—and profits. "Just yesterday, following a telephone inquiry, drove out in the country and returned with a $175 order. Not bad in the middle of January. Am busier now than before Christmas." Says L. E. Wallace, Cushing, Iowa: "The three 25-watt lights (smaller unit job) has been my best talking point. A great closer." Height is the prime essential for successful wind charging performance for big plants but for radio batteries the short standard masts or barn-top installations invariably are sufficient, as thousands of users have demonstrated. Simply place it where it will get full wind sweep. Stimulated by the quick acceptance of wind-powered battery sets and in response to set owners in locations where the air bloweth not or where more current is desired, a number of concerns are coming out with small gas engines directly connected to the armature shaft of the generator. Pioneer's Gen-E-Motor (Chicago) plants come in 150 and 250-watt capacities and are designed to charge 6, 12 and 32-volt batteries or for 110-volt direct application. The small unit lists for $49.95, the larger at $59.95. May be used to charge automobile and tractor batteries as well as for radio and lights. Also for portable requirements, pumps, etc. An auxiliary pulley is provided for driving small machinery. At present Dave Bright, president of Pioneer, is calling on all radio manufacturers in the interest of his new development. Another leader in this field is the Sentinel Radio Corporation, also of Chicago. Retailing for $49.95, Sentinel's product develops 3 h.p.—18 amps. at six volts, at 1,800 r.p.m. Will run for six hours on one filling of the tank. A touch of a button or pull of a rope starts it. One hour's charging gives eight hours of radio set operation. A larger model soon will be announced. Commenting on the practical consideration of the operation maintenance of charging devices by the dealer, Herbert Hieb, Iowa distributor for Crosley, points out that regardless of the low cost purchase plan, such gear is still demanded. Mr. Hieb declares that there should be a gross margin, for the retailer, of at least $14 to cover his sales and service costs. He, therefore, favors the long established plan of distribution for this accessory. Two-Pint Size . . . But Oh My! S. C. Schulman, Commonwealth Utilities Co., (right) Atwater Kent distributor for Chicago, gives Pioneer's new gas-powered generator the once over. Dave Bright, president of Gen-E-Motor, views the scene with approval. This South Dakota farm is wired for 14 outlets. An insulated guy wire serves as an ideal aerial. Zenith's "Homepower" The purchaser of any Zenith battery set can get the new DeLuxe Zenith "Homepower" for $44.95 (lists at $64.95) or a Utility model for $39.95 (reg. price, $59.95). Purposes and outputs similar to other makes described on this page. BOSTON, MASS.—Automatic Radio Manufacturing Company, Inc. (manufacturers of Tom Thumb radios) has moved from 112 Canal Street to 122 Brookline Avenue, Boston. METAL TUBE PRICES TUMBLE RCA Announces 15 Per Cent Reduction January 15— Sylvania Follows Suit Seven Days Later Per predictions, prices on metal tubes took a tumble last month. January 15, RCA cut its original pricings approximately 15 per cent. A week later Hygrade Sylvania matched this move. As the situation now stands both quote $1.60 on the 5Z4 (was $2) and $1.25 on the 6F5 (originally $1.75). The $1.50 numbers drop to $1.25. 6G7 and 6X5 remain as before, at $2 and $1.75 respectively. Majority opinion holds that no further reductions may be expected for some time to come. This move was the natural result of lowered manufacturing costs and is calculated to place mt. receivers on a close competitive price basis with the glass tubed sets. New Arcturus Tube Prices NEWARK, N. J.—Effective Jan. 20, the Arcturus Radio Tube Co., this city, priced its new line of "Coronet metal tubes" at lists ranging from $.25 (for types 6C5, 6F5 and 6H6) to $2 for types 6N7 and 6O7. New lists also established on its "G" line (glass with octal base) of from $1 to $2. Hygrade Expands Plant SALEM, MASS. — Hygrade Sylvania Corporation has announced plans for the immediate erection of an additional factory building in this city, for the manufacture of tubes. The building will be ready for occupancy by early summer. "The present factory at Salem has been outgrown," said Walter E. Poor, vice-president in charge of engineering and manufacturing. "It was designed for the manufacture of incandescent lamps, and our available space has been over-taxed to provide the necessary accommodation for the manufacture of radio tubes, which we started nine years ago. The outlook for the future is so promising, that we have decided to erect a radio tube plant that will be the last word in manufacturing convenience and efficiency." This new factory will have a floor area of 91,500 square feet. It comprises a main building two stories high, with a third story at the front and a large wing. Its completion will bring the total floor space of the corporation to more than twelve acres. OWENSBORO, KY. — Since the recent appointment of Henry C. Groun as Ken-Rad representative in New England, Ken-Rad tube sales have shown a marked increase throughout the New England area, states sales manager C. C. Mathews. Ross Siragusa Heads Continental Radio CHICAGO—Ross D. Siragusa, founder and former president of the Transformer Corporation of America, maker of Clarion radios, is now general manager and director of sales with the Continental Radio and Television Corp., Chicago. Others now with this new firm are: John Hunsria, general sales manager; Kenneth Turner, chief engineer and Z. L. Ross, credit manager. B. E. Freund is in charge of advertising and assisting with sales. For the past two years Continental Radio and Television Corporation has made most of its output on a private label basis, but the popularity of its Admiral brand led this firm to jobber channels during 1935. Sylvania Changes R. P. Almy, formerly head of the sales department in the Sylvania Emporium, Pa., plant, has moved to Chicago as sales supervisor of the Middle West territory. Paul S. Ellison, in addition to his present work as advertising manager, becomes sales supervisor of the Eastern Division. He will retain headquarters in the New York office of the company. NEW YORK—Ross Turner has been placed in charge of sales in Texas and Louisiana for the National Union Radio Corporation. Will headquarter at the Medical Arts Building, Fort Worth, Texas. CHICAGO—John Million, of Million Radio and Television Laboratories, announces the appointment of the following representatives to handle this company's line of service and test equipment: Louis & Schle, 220 Fifth Ave., New York City and J. J. Perlmutt, 220 E. Picot St., Los Angeles. Good Copy Frequent use of small space ads is considered better policy than an occasional splurge especially if your one column "spot" has a new idea behind it. The above fills the bill excellently. Colen-Gruhn to Handle Zenith in New York NEW YORK—To serve Zenith dealers in this and surrounding territories, the appointment of Colen-Gruhn Co., Inc., 387 Fourth Avenue, is announced by E. A. Tracey, sales manager of the Zenith Radio Corp., Chicago. Representing Zenith in Syracuse will be the Onondaga Auto Supply Company. FRENCH radio manufacturers have a slogan that merits consideration over here: "No radio is complete without a turntable." Audak Offers $100 Prize NEW YORK — Having perfected what is stated to be a revolutionary new system of pick-up reproduction, the Audak Co., 500 Fifth Ave., is telling the world about it in current newspaper ads. A first prize of $100 has been hung up for the best name for this invention. Features of the new pick-up will be the elimination of moving mass, previously a handicap to perfect reproduction. The vibrating armature, formerly a barrier to wide range performance, has been made stationary. The new Audak catalog covers the story thoroughly. Free for the asking. "METAL TUBE" REPLACEMENT LINE MADE BY ARCTURUS CO. NEWARK—Thirteen "Coronet metal tubes" that directly interchange with the corresponding types of original glass tubes have been developed and are being marketed by the Arcturus Radio Tube Co. As a bonus, the types 24, 27, 28 (6S), 55, 56, 57, 58, 75, 77, 78, 80, 82 and 2A6 are being built with metal shell exteriors. The tubes have the regular octal 8-prong base but to permit their interchange with the older glass tubes, "modernizers" have been developed by Arcturus. These are made with 5 or 6 prong connections for adapting the old socket to an eight-prong socket to accommodate the metal tube case. "This development permits millions of set owners to modernize their receivers and secure all the advantages of the latest achievement in radio tubes," claims Jack Gearhart, sales promotion manager. "Preliminary investigation reveals innumerable set owners, who have become 'radio enthusiasts' and have been anxiously awaiting just such a development. It is but natural that they would want to protect their radio investment and incorporate the latest thing in radio, particularly when it can be done simply at a nominal cost. "Besides this angle, this development should prove a boon to dealers and servicemen in opening up to them an immediate new sales market and increasing not only their total tube sales but their profit per tube sold." Here's the new Leonard! The Sensational Refrigerator of 1936 It has Everything! FIVE-YEAR PROTECTION PLAN—Proof of dependability TEMPERATURE INDICATOR—To show interior cabinet temperatures TEMPERATURE CONTROL—Thirteen different freezing speeds RUBBER GRIDS IN EVERY FREEZING TRAY—for easy removal of ice cubes LEN-A-DRAWER—for storing vegetables not needing refrigeration CONVENIENCE BASKET—for holding small articles SLIDING SHELF—a great convenience feature SERVICE SHELF—on inside of door CRISPER—moist storage for keeping green vegetables fresh and crisp LEN-A-DOOR—Door-opening foot pedal PORCELAIN INTERIOR • CHROME FINISHED HARDWARE This sensational new Leonard holds tremendous sales and profit opportunities for dealers in 1936. It's the refrigerator that every prospective purchaser will want to see. It will be backed up by a smashing national advertising campaign, bigger than ever before—plus sales promotion and local advertising that will produce results. Leonard's going places in 1936. There's still time for you to go along if you act at once. Leonard Refrigerator Co., Detroit, Mich. LEONARD The "Hot Line" for 1936! W. R. G. Baker Chief Radio Engineer for GE BRIDGEPORT—W. R. G. Baker has been appointed managing engineer of the General Electric Company's radio receiver section, with responsibility for both the engineering and the manufacture of its products. Closely associated with GE's initial radio development activities, Mr. Baker for the past few years has been with the RCA Victor Company. He started his career in 1917 in the laboratories of the GE Company in Schenectady. In 1926 he was given complete charge of radio development, design and production. On the formation of the RCA-Victor Corporation, Mr. Baker went to Camden to head its radio engineering activities. He later became general manager of the RCA-Victor plant. Last December, Mr. Baker resumed his association with General Electric. A leading authority on television, he was, until recently, chairman of the television committee of RCA. Hotpoint Names Eight District Managers CLEVELAND, O.—Eight district representatives have been named by the Hotpoint Refrigerator Division of General Electric Company to assist the sales organization, Harry C. Mealey, div. mgr., announces. The appointments and their headquarters are: F. L. Sacha, Atlanta, Ga.; W. L. Sayre, New England district; E. F. Morford, Cleveland; E. G. Wilder, Philadelphia; E. H. Bryant, Chicago; Lee McLeod, Dallas; S. C. Griswold, Kansas City, Mo., and A. A. Nerling, Pacific district with headquarters at San Francisco. With a total of twelve domestic models for 1936, Hotpoint announces plans for an intensive promotional campaign during the year. Extensive advertising and a wide assortment of effective sales promotional literature are on its schedule. Mallory Appointments INDIANAPOLIS—Last month the following changes in personnel assignments were effected by the Radio Division of P. R. Mallory & Co. Company. Manager of Philadelphia office, Arnold Braun; Harry Gardner, former Philly and New England Yaxley-Mallory manager, goes to the home office. Ralph Clawson will represent both lines in the Boston territory. New York State, Pennsylvania, West Virginia and Maryland will be handled by J. V. Costello, working out of the Buffalo office. En Route with RVS There are just about 1,500 radio sets in Mozambique—Portuguese East Africa—a bit of vital gossip we did not pick up on last month's little journey. Before establishing its new line of ebony-finished receivers, E. F. McDonald, Jr., president of Zenith, ascertained from Mason & Hamlin piano makers, that 40 per cent of the public preference in pianos is for this ebony finish. For that fussy trade that insists on restoring inoperative radios to original factory status, including precisely matched replacements, there now exists a wide assortment of new duplicate electrolytic condensers covering the needs of every standard set. The latest Aerovox catalog (70 Washington Street, Brooklyn, N. Y.) lists four pages of replacement electrolytics, arranged according to name of set, manufacturer's part number, capacity, voltage, dimensions and list price. Modern sets should be made in modern buildings, observed Arthur Murray, president of United American Bosch, as we wended our way over the vast acreage of his new daylight factory. Increased business also may have had something to do with this expansion program. Over 200 hotels in this country are now equipped with complete radio-room service, according to Philco's latest computation. Radio is now regarded by many businesses as a real aid to increased profits. Dedicated to Enlightenment BOSTON—"Dedicated to enlightenment" is the motto of shortwave station W1XAI, Boston, Mass. This station operates on frequencies of 6040 and 11790 kc. Its output is given as 10,000 watts. A review of its latest program sheet reveals a great number of intensely interesting subjects. For any customer who is culturally inclined we recommend giving this station a whirl. May be heard Tuesday and Thursday evenings from 7:15 to 9:30. Automatic Tuning EMPORIUM, PA.—S. W. Seeley, RCA License Laboratory, addressed the Emporium Section of the Institute of Radio Engineers Jan. 16. Mr. Seeley discussed the new circuit development known as automatic frequency control which is applied to superheterodyne circuits to hold the oscillator system exactly in tune. This arrangement makes possible refinements in receiver construction not heretofore possible and assures automatic tuning. Protest Committee BROOKLYN, N. Y.—A committee to go to Washington to insure the continuation of FHA financing of major electrical appliances was selected at the January meeting of the Electrical Appliances Dealers Association of Brooklyn. Herman L. Carpenter, FHA Chairman of the Brooklyn district, has consented to be one of the committee. Percy Peters and Louis LeWinter left for Washington with Mr. Carpenter during the week of Jan. 27. A K Advances Jack Helliwell, Floyd Reid PHILADELPHIA—Atwater Kent announces the addition of H. J. ("Jack") Helliwell to its field sales staff. He will cover Iowa, Minnesota, Nebraska and the Dakotas. Floyd Reid has been advanced to the post of divisional manager in charge of the Pittsburgh and central New York territory. Crosley Activities CINCINNATI — A veritable flood of local dealer meetings is reported by the Crosley Radio Corp. During the past 30 days the following conventions took place: At Cleveland, Ohio, auspices of the Frankelite Company; at Houston, Texas, 500 retailers attended Reader's Wholesale Distributors' party; Herdon Thomas reports a most successful meeting together under the auspices of Beck & Green Hdw. Co., Atlanta, Ga.; Perfection Mattress & Spring Co. entertained 150 dealers at Birmingham, Ala., Jan. 21; Braving intense cold, 100 Crosley dealers attended the Pollard-Hasselbach rally at Omaha, Jan. 15—and Buffalo, N. Y. crashes through with a two-day affair conducted by the Ontario Electric Co., reports George Eckel. Grunow Men Hold Meeting ST. LOUIS—Dealers had their first glimpse of the new line of Grunow refrigerators at a sectional meeting held here Jan. 22. Although a blizzard raged, at 2 below, 350 retailers turned out. Sales manager H. J. Shartle outlined production and sales plans. Then the new line of De Luxe and Super De Luxe refrigerators was displayed. F. A. Wiebe, v.p. of the Brown Supply Company, presided. Captain Brown, president of this well known jobbing house, echoed the enthusiasm of the dealers when, at the luncheon, he predicted greater sales during 1936. Smithers Joins Reinhard Bros. MINNEAPOLIS — H. B. Smithers, formerly with the Atwater Kent Co. and for the past three years with W. M. Dutton & Sons, Omaha and Hastings, Neb., as general sales manager, has resigned to affiliate himself with "Ned" Vestal and Reinhard Bros. Company, this city distributor of Norge and Zenith products. Big things have happened at Kelvinator! A Built-in Thermometer tells you exactly how cold it is. Today there is more choice in refrigerators, and for all sizes and price ranges, you have seen — and may be buying already — a refrigerator that does what most of the others don’t: gives you years of dependable service, as well as more of the cold that you want, with none that is entirely being wasted. Scientists and engineers have studied in a constant effort to improve the efficiency of refrigeration. For this reason alone, Kelvinator stands out from a single — or dozens — of rivals on the market today. The 1936 Kelvinator is the only refrigerator that offers all these advantages: - A built-in thermometer - A new, high standard of product performance - A new, high standard of product appearance - A new, high standard of product dependability With one feature in common among all these improvements, the new Kelvinator is the only refrigerator that has been built to meet the demands of the new Kelvinator home design before it was introduced. Kelvinator dealers are anxious to give you the facts about the new Kelvinator. They know that you will be interested in the new Kelvinator plans for 1936, too. The Kelvinator idea has won world recognition. Concentrate on Kelvinator in 1936! FCC ON THE GRILL Congressmen, Mixing in Station Matters, Embarrass Commission with Many Investigations— May Change Present Broadcasting Structure WASHINGTON, D. C.—The sweeping Congressional inquiry into the activities of the Federal Communications Commission, demanded by Representative William P. Connelly (Massachusetts Dem.) here, Jan. 15, is the latest of many hecklings of FCC by political interests. Many months ago Radio Retailing predicted that the control set-up of the Radio Commission, subject to the whims of Congress, would lead inevitably to inept interference by a host of self-seeking Congressmen. This following page develops recent Department of Justice agents' new inquiry into FCC affairs with particular attention to the handling of the applications of station WNBF, Binghamton, N. Y., and the Knox Broadcasting Co., Schenectady. A rumor that political intervention might also cause the commissioners to reverse their decision to cancel the license of KFVR, Bismarck, N. D. The publication of a letter sent Commissioner Prall by Representative Richard A. Wiglesworth, and Prall's reply, in which the Congressman asks many pointed questions about radio control policies. It is rumored that a majority of the members of the Communication Commission did not agree with Chairman Prall's reply. The appointment of a committee to investigate the allotment of greater time for non-profit programs. The investigation by the Department of Justice of the circumstances surrounding the claims of WNBF and the Knox Broadcasting Company for the right to use the 1,240 kc. channel. Ugly rumors of bribery of a Commissioner besmirch this situation. The controversy, headed by Henry P. Fletcher (Republican National Committee Chairman) for equal time on the air to combat the New Deal propaganda. Partisan Control Charged Supplementing Fletcher's demands for Republican rebuttal time, E. H. Harris, a member of the National Radio Commission of the American Newspaper Publishers Association, in a speech at Harrisburg, Pa., Jan. 24, declared that radio is under a "very definite and partisan control." FCC is under the "power of fear," he charged, applied by the party in control at Washington to further its own ends. He pointed out that the existing short term station license clause places all stations in jeopardy giving government a powerful weapon to wield against the press. But Chairman Anning S. Prall (FCC) defends this practice stoutly on the grounds that this club is needed to wave over the heads of the many stations who run objectionable programs and advertising claims by sponsors, or who are operating "poor" transmission and otherwise causing technical trouble on the air waves. At present the Commission is pursuing 300 charges against over 100 stations. As if this were not enough, the intense rivalry between NBC and Columbia reaches fever heights with the publication of each succeeding promotional piece wherein each claims dominance in this or that field of broadcasting activities. Insull Radio Chain CHICAGO—Plans for a new mid-west network have virtually been completed by Samuel Insull, one-time head of the vast Insull utilities empire. This new chain of low watters will be known as the Affiliated Broadcasting Company—and if approved by the Federal authorities. Fourteen stations, in Illinois, Indiana and Wisconsin, will be involved. ROCHESTER, N. Y.—Effective Jan. 20, Stromberg-Carlson raised slightly the list prices on its models 61-H (table) and its No. 84 console. Increased taxes and material costs, the reason. Radolek Salesmen Get Oscillograph Dope First Hand Still a source of mystery to many, the oscillograph is no longer an unknown quantity to Radolek salesmen. The entire force visited the Clough-Brenkle factory to get first hand working knowledge of this instrument that is proving such a tremendous improvement over the old neutralizing tools. This group of Radoleks are being initiated into the mysteries of the oscillograph by Ken Clough himself. IRSM Show Scheduled for March 27, Chicago CHICAGO—Elaborate preparations are being made for the 1936 Radio Parts Show and International Convention of the Institute of Radio Service Men at the Hotel Sherman, March 27 to 29. The convention graduates from the first floor to the Exhibition Hall and Grand Ball Room. The first announcement of this show went to exhibitors the last day of the year. Before the close of Jan. 2 more than 15 per cent of the exhibition space had been sold. 29,789 Service Men INDIANAPOLIS — They sent P. R. Mallory & Co. their condenser problems. Boiled down, in a 96-page booklet, their questions are answered. The Yaxley-Mallory Condenser Service and Replacement Manual is the most complete treatise on this subject we've seen in many a moon. Includes a general catalog section and installation instructions for every set on the market. Write this concern at Indianapolis, Ind., for your copy. New Job for Fred Lester CHICAGO—Fred Lester, for six years with Wells Gardner Co., is the new factory superintendent for the Meissner Mfg. Co. Incidentally this firm moves to Mt. Carmel, Ill., the first of February. Salesmanager George Rockey will operate from this new address although a sales office will be maintained in Chicago. S-C Centralizes Parts Stock ROCHESTER — Stromberg-Carlson has inaugurated a centralized control of repair parts. Warehousing operations on these items are being closed out and the resulting savings in overhead being applied to better service and representation. Orders of repair parts are now being shipped from the factory on the same day they are received. O. G. Ayer Honored NEW YORK—at the annual meeting of the New York Chapter, Institute of Radio Service Men, held Jan. 13, the following officers were elected: O. G. Ayer, chairman; E. E. Manderville, vice-chairman; David Davidson, secretary; Harold Olson, treasurer and L. Shine, press relations. CONTINENTAL MOTORS Announces PERM-O-FLUX The Most Important Development in the Radio Field Since the Dynamic Speaker. A new magnetic material, developed and perfected in the Laboratories of Continental Motors Corporation, has proved to be the most powerful yet known to metallurgical science for radio speaker applications. This material is used as a source of magnetic energy in the motor assembly of the new, patented PERM-O-FLUX Dynamic Speaker. The Continental PERM-O-FLUX is lighter than the average electro-dynamic speaker but has equal or better sensitivity. Due to the unusually high flux density in the gap, the tone quality is lifelike and without distortion. A special, unique design of the voice coil and suspension insures continuous and trouble-free operation. The PERM-O-FLUX speaker has a permanent flux density in the gap requiring no outside energy for field excitation thereby reducing battery drain—a very important item on all automobile and farm sets. Other decided advantages of the Continental PERM-O-FLUX are: 1. No heat dissipation to distort voice coil or cones. 2. No hot leads carrying power for field excitation, which eliminates fire hazard. 3. Simplified Installation. 4. Shielding of speaker is unnecessary, in the case of automobile installation. This means that more consideration can be given to acoustical conditions, and enclosures can be obtained other than metal enclosures. 5. Vibrator noise is eliminated, in auto sets, due to absence of couplings between voice coil and field coils. Advantages too numerous to mention are offered for other types of installation such as sound systems, hotel room installation, ship state rooms, call systems or wherever true reproduction is required and power consumption is a factor. Particulars gladly furnished on request. Continental Motors Corporation Radio Speaker Division DETROIT, MICH. "Radio will elect the next President" CARRY ON WITH RAYTHEON! The Raytheon Line is complete...4-Pillar Glass, "G" Type and All-Metal Tubes...Raytheon's 1936 Sales Campaign will help you sell tubes...at a PROFIT! Visit with Raytheon at Booth 15, in the 4th Annual National Convention and Radio Trade Show, Hotel Sherman, Chicago, Ill., March 27, 28 & 29. TECHNICAL DATA CHART Raytheon has distributed hundreds of thousands of the previous 8 editions. The NEW NINTH EDITION will be off the press soon! This chart gives all the important characteristics of types formerly listed; includes information on all the new tubes and other valuable reference data—it's NEW! It's UP-TO-DATE! It's FREE! Headquarters for Tube Information RAYTHEON PRODUCTION CORP. 30 EAST 42nd STREET . . . . . . . . . NEW YORK, N. Y. 55 CHAPEL STREET . . . . . . . . . . . NEWTON, MASS. 445 LAKE SHORE DRIVE . . . . . . . . . CHICAGO, ILL. 555 HOWARD STREET . . . . . . . . . . SAN FRANCISCO, CAL. 415 PEACHTREE STREET, N. E. . . . ATLANTA, GA. RAYTHEON PRODUCTION CORP. Dept. A-2, 30 East 42nd St., New York, N.Y. Please send NEW 9th Edition Tube Chart, FREE! Name ............................................ PLEASE PRINT Address ........................................... City .............................................. INCREASE YOUR SALES WITH Factory-Type Service An outstanding service department, equipped with the latest and best apparatus, can be used to build prestige, increase sales of new sets as well as get more repairs from old customers. People prefer to go where they can get factory-type service. The RCA Oscillograph, with RCA Test Oscillator and RCA Frequency Modulator, duplicates factory practice with great ease, accuracy, swiftness, peaking I.F. transformers, checking distortion, etc. Ask to see it at your RCA Parts Distributors. RCA Cathode Ray Oscillograph—accurate, scientific, simple to use, impressive to customers. $84.50 net, complete RCA OSCILLOGRAPH RCA Parts Division, RCA Mfg. Co., Inc. Camden, New Jersey. A service of the RADIO CORPORATION OF AMERICA THE MICROVOX A COLOR-TONE PRODUCT A Combination Volume and Tone Control Device for Use With Crystal Microphones. Gives complete control of the sound reproduction directly from the microphone, instead of from the amplifier. Provides the Only Efficient Means of Eliminating Feedback Interference. The MICROVOX may be purchased either with or without microphone. Fully licensed for recording, broadcasting, and all public address operation. Dealers and Jobbers write for full information COLOR-TONE, INC. STURGIS, MICHIGAN A BRAND NEW IDEA IN COMPACT SETS by Freed-Eisemann A new 5 tube Superheterodyne midget built like a big set. Two pre-sets for tuning with two independent tubes for dynamic speaker amplitude dial for either AC or DC current—185 to 1000 cycles. One volume and distinct tone control—in hard rubber, solid Walnut, Maple or Mahogany cabinets. Exclusive cabinet designs and bright colors make these sets a complete export line for foreign use. Send for full information on the styles shown in the Brass and FREED-EISEMANN Radio sets. FREED MANUFACTURING CO., INC. 44 West 18th Street NEW YORK, N. Y. REFRIGERATOR MAKERS HIT NEW SEASON IN FULL STRIDE WITH LIVELY CONVENTIONS Norge, Frigidaire, General Electric, Leonard, Kelvinator, Gibson, Crosley, Stewart-Warner, Sparton Display New Models of Innovational Design and Striking Appearance to Enthusiastic Sales Representatives GANGING up on trains, boats and planes, distributors, dealers and salesmen hied forth in January to many a manufacturing center to be dined, wined (stet!) and told what refrigerator makers had up their sleeve for 1936. Excitement and anticipation was heightened by the thumping return of confidence in business generally and the biggest year in refrigeration safely inscribed in many a sales ledger. To Cleveland went General Electric men, listened to optimistic speeches by vice president C. E. Wilson, and manager Paul Zimmermann. Three lines were exposed for inspection, the Monitor Top, Flatop and Lifttop. Absent was any significant change in price structures. Monitor Top models had new modern-design control for defrosting. In Detroit, nearly a thousand delegates at the Players Club and the Detroit-Leland Hotel to be greeted by scholarly Howard Blood, Norge president and hard-hitting John H. Knapp, vice president in charge of sales. To speeches outlining the growing importance of Norge in the industry sandwiched between amusing skits, written and directed by versatile Jim Sterling, Norge ad-director, the distributors poured through rooms lavish with displays of refrigerators, ranges, washers, water heaters. Indicative of the live dealing job being conducted by Fairbanks Morse was the presentation by Charlie Turneck at Milwaukee. Over 150 dealers were thoroughly sold on this line of new type refrigerators, aided and abetted by inspiring speeches from the lips of W. Paul Jones, W. R. Cooley, of the home office, and divisional manager Bob Anderson. Frigidaire follows its national conclave with 38 dramatic district meetings to bring home to the small town and city dealer its new refrigerators—"stunningly beautiful." Leonard, at its big convention stressed a new five-year protection plan and, from the product end, its temperature indicator. By the way, thermometers are getting the call, internally fastened, on a number of the 1936 boxes. Kelvinator is another to play up this feature. That Crosley's "new styling" has made a hit is seen in the wave of new—and substantial—distributors recently appointed. For example: Morris Distributing Co., Binghamton, N. Y. (branch at Albany); Maurer Greusel Co., Milwaukee; Motor Power Equip. Co., St. Paul and Minneapolis, and for Denver, the Moer-Bird Company. "The biggest ad campaign in Hotpoint history" was the convention claim of this contender for top honors in the forthcoming refrigeration battle for business. It will sell the story of the "Visualizer" and "Flaturizer." Other sales gags (100 in all) handed the Hotpoint dealer this year will be the new customer savings bank plan. JACKSON, MICH.—The Smas-Withington Co., held a highly successful convention here Jan. 13-14. Seven new items in the Sparton line of electric refrigerators were acclaimed by the 130 wholesalers present as "tops" as far as their observations were concerned. Captain William Sparks opened the first session in his customary genial vein. Others on the program were Harry G. Sparks, general manager, E. T. H. Hutchinson, Arthur Haugh and Guy Core. DETROIT—Setting new standards for design, performance, and operating economy, Kelvinator Corporation's new 1936 models of electric refrigerators, electric ranges, electric water heaters, and gas ranges were presented to 1,000 distributors, members of their selling organizations, and representatives of major utility companies from every section of the country at the Kelvinator national convention, held here January 8-10. George Kiley Joins Gibson GREENVILLE—George H. Kiley, formerly eastern district sales manager for Grunow, is now in charge of sales for the New England states and the northern New York district for the Gibson Electric Refrigerator Corp. Two new distributors have joined the ranks of live Gibson representatives in Pennsylvania. M. A. Hartley and Co., Gettysburg, will cover four counties in Pa., and three in Maryland, while Knerr, Inc., of Harrisburg, gets central Pennsylvania. Crosley Adds Washers and An Ironer to Line CINCINNATI—The outstanding event of the Mid-winter convention of Crosley distributors at the plant of the Crosley Radio Corporation, held Jan. 10, was the announcement that this concern had entered the washing machine and ironer field. To be known as the "Savamaid," the new products will be handled by the existing sales organization. An outstanding value in a spinmer type of electric washer was tagged at $99.50. Innovational in the five new radio sets introduced was the "auto-expressionator" and base compensator. CHICAGO—New Year's gifts of wage increases and vacations on full pay for factory employees were announced by Edward N. Hurley, Jr., president of the Electrical Household Utilities Corporation, maker of Thor washers and ironers. Continental "Admiral" Radios "The Step-up Line" of 1936 Admiral models is being introduced by the Continental Radio and Television Corp., 325 W. Huron St., Chicago. There are 18 models, all with the tube type, a metal tube auto-radio. Six volt battery sets are also included. All sets for a.c. operation, except the lowest priced one, are equipped with metal tubes. The auto-radio has 2 metal tubes. Eight inch domes with built-in automobile speakers are used on the 40 in consoles. The list prices range from $27.50 to $39.50. One of the new models is the "Lo Boy", Model M169, a compact table model (see cut). It is a 6 tube set of metal tubes. Zone index tuning, a new feature of the Admiral line, is offered in every model. It provides a dial arrangement that makes reference tuning of popular stations possible without consulting the frequency or wave-length of the station. —Radio Retailing, February, 1936. Jensen Speakers The Jensen Radio Mfg. Co., 601 S. Laramie Ave., Chicago, has just released a complete new line of powerful, efficient electro-dynamic speakers in 6, 8, 10 and 12 inch sizes. The principal feature is the use of a newly discovered alloy used in the magnetic structure. This permits very substantial improvement in performance. Batteries and radio receivers for an automobile or home may now be equipped with electro-dynamic speakers comparable to the energized type used in a.c. receivers. For p.a. work and other general applications several models are offered in all variations needed for the purpose.—Radio Retailing, February, 1936. Westinghouse Table Sets Westinghouse Electric Supply Co., 150 Varick St., New York City, announces two "Golden Jubilee" sets, both table models—the Truonic, WR-207, and the Jubilee, WR-208. The cabinets have been created by a novel design. Instead of the conventional center position, the dial has been moved to the right, with the speaker controls to the left. Easy reading for fast tuning is achieved by a large illuminated clock face white dial. Popularly priced.—Radio Retailing, February, 1936. AK Model 725 The new and distinctive "Arrow Light" is the improved version of the Model 725 table set just brought out by the Atwater Kent Mfg. Co., Philadelphia, Pa. A new feature of this set is pointing out the stations so they may be tuned in easily and accurately. This is also seen in the new rainbow dial on which the tuning scales are illuminated in an unusual way through the edge of the glass. The colors are printed on the glass by a special process and stamped into a soft glow like a semi-lighted etching. This set covers the standard broadcast band as well as stations up to 18,000 kc. Uses metal tubes. Radio Retailing, February, 1936. Solar Dual Type "Little Giants" The ultra-compact midget dry electrolytics introduced by the Solar Mfg. Corp., 50 Broadway, New York City, some months ago can now be had in the dual type. This series affords the same space-saving economy and offers lower cost than buying two singles with increased commonness through flange mounting. They are made with separate sections, each with leads from each section. Four types are available.—Radio Retailing, February, 1936. Fada Radios The new Model 163 of the Fada Radio & Electric Co., 30-29 Thomson Ave., Long Island City, N. Y., is a 7 tube ac-dc, three band world-wave superhet with frequency range of from 147-349 kc, 515-1530 kc, and 5.75 to 15.8 mc. It includes the weather band. Ten tuned circuits, 8 tube performance. $49.95. Model 167 is a 7 tube ac-dc set with frequency range of from 530-1530 kc, and 5.75 to 15.8 mc. Contains many of the features as Model 163 and comes in the same cabinet. $44.95.—Radio Retailing, February, 1936. Crosley Barkentine Crosley Radios The "Auto-Expressionator," a radically new development, makes its initial appearance in the 1936 De Luxe line of sets of the Crosley Radio Corp., Cincinnati. It is designed to give expression range of radio programs just as they are played at the studio—being transmitted by the station engineer—the announcement reads. What occurs is this. The heavy volume that has been compressed, so to speak, by the control man is restored to its entire fullness. Likewise, light passages that have been increased in volume are automatically restored to the softness from which they were rendered by the orchestra. The Auto Expressionator is a device that diverts paths through which the electric current may flow. The speaker is connected in the direct path, one of these paths and the Auto-Expressionator bulbs are in the other path. At low volume the signal flows equally between the two paths. As the volume increases, the Auto-Expressionator bulb path becomes more and more restricted causing more and more electric current to be diverted and flow through the speaker. The set may be operated with or without this device by means of a switch on the front. Other features are an Automatic Bass Control, a newly developed variable static suppressor board and curvilinear speaker cone. Dialing is made easier by the new multiple band logging is possible with this dial. As usual, the Crosley line covers a wide variety of sets ranging from the Travo, a 4 tube ac-d-c set, $25, to the 11 tube console $19.95. Both metal and glass tube models are offered as well as a most attractive series of new battery operated radios. To go with the latter, Crosley offers the "Wincharger" to keep the set charged, storage battery charged.—Radio Retailing, February, 1936. Kadette Model 77 An all-world 7 tube ac-dc radio, Model 77, has just been placed on the market by the International Radio Corp., Ann Arbor, Mich. It covers the two tuning bands—350-1600 kc. and 5.5-15.8 mc. with extra large airplane dial. The set is enclosed and illuminated in two colors. Tubes used are: 6AZ, 76, 43, 6D6, 43, 25, and 606A. In appearance and styling it is a companion model to the Model 66, $26.95.—Radio Retailing, February, 1936. Taco Master Antenna System As many as 25 sets may be operated on a single aerial and downlead with the new master antenna system of the Technical Maintenance Corp., 160 West St., New York City. Equally effective for short wave and broadcast reception. This system is available in any combination of components for any kind and size of installation. Also available for concealed wiring in new buildings and expanded wiring in old buildings.—Radio Retailing, February, 1936. Everyone Wants a World Globe! Formerly expensive, globes were regarded as a luxury or "high-brow" item. Now, with short wave and world news through radio, newspapers and magazines, everyone needs a globe. Alert dealers cash in on globe demand to sell radios. Model pictured is our Illuminated Radio Globe, "The World Aglow." Sizes, styles and prices of globes to meet any premium or promotional desire The George F. Cram Company Globes—Atlases—Maps—Since 1867 Indianapolis Indiana Complete Electric Plants ONAN ALTERNATING CURRENT PLANTS supply electricity for Cabin Lighting, Power Boats, Camping Purposes and places where current is not supplied by power companies. Operate Radio, Water System, Refrigerator, all Household Appliances as well as Public Address and Sound Car Equipment. Sizes to Suit Every Purpose 110 volt, 60 cycle, A.C.—32 volt, D.C. Capacities 350 watts and up, prices $110 and up available from stock. Complete, ready to run. Gasoline, Gas, or Oil Burning types in larger sizes. Write for details. D. W. ONAN & SONS 431 Royalston Ave., Minneapolis, Minn. HEADSETS! There's a constant market for headsets—for sick-room use, deaf persons, short-wave tuning, to cut out loud speakers when occasion demands. Every dealer should have a supply of good headsets—Cannon, Cannon-Ball sets—that perform right because they're made right. Write for bulletin and price list. C. F. CANNON COMPANY SPRINGWATER, N. Y. SYLVANIA NEVER LETS YOU DOWN! SYLVANIA COOPERATES... NO RED TAPE... AND AN EXTRA PROFIT ON EVERY TUBE I SELL! And that's why more and more dealers and distributors are stocking Sylvania Radio Tubes. They know that Sylvania always backs them up... always plays good clean ball with its dealers. We believe you'd like the way Sylvania does business, too... that you'd like to deal with a company that sees your side of the question... that never lets you down. Find out about the Sylvania guarantee... about the sound policies that make selling Sylvania tubes so much easier. It may mean money to you. Write today for more details about Sylvanias. They're as good a tube as money can buy... they're made by a company you can depend on... and remember, you get that extra margin of profit that rings the bell on your cash register. SYLVANIA THE SET-TESTED RADIO TUBE DC-AC New 1936 ATR INVERTERS For Producing A.C. CURRENT ANYWHERE In Cars . . . On Farms . . . in D.C. Districts. Featuring - Interference Free All-Wave radio operation - New Improved Long Life Vibrators - Four Point Voltage Regulators PROVEN—DEPENDABLE GUARANTEED - For operating STANDARD A.C. RADIOS, PUBLIC ADDRESS SYSTEMS, TESTING EQUIPMENT, fans, electric cleaners, mixers, hair dryers, curling irons, medical appliances and all other similar A.C. equipment. \| Type \| D.C. Input \| A.C. Output \| \|------\|------------\|-------------\| \| 6 \| 6 volts \| 110 V 50-60 cycles \| \| 12 \| 12 volts \| 110 V 50-60 cycles \| \| 32 \| 32 volts \| 110 V 50-60 cycles \| \| 110 \| 110 volts \| 110 V 50-60 cycles \| Inverters for various D.C. input voltages from 6 to 110 volts and D.C. and A.C. outputs of both 110 and 220 volts are also available. WRITE OR WIRE FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION Sold by Leading Jobbers Everywhere. AMERICAN TELEVISION & RADIO CO. St. Paul, Minnesota, U.S.A. --- Emerson Model 116 A new upright table set, Model 116, is the latest addition to the line of Emerson Radio & Phonograph Corp., 111 Eighth Ave., New York City. It is a 4-tube, 5 tubes a.c.-d.c. superheterodyne with "Micro-Selector" tuning principle.—Radio Retailing, February, 1936. --- RCA-Victor C-11-3 New RCA-Victor Sets Three table sets and three consoles have just been brought out by the RCA Mfg. Co., Camden, N.J. The table sets are: Model T8-18, 8 tubes, $40-18,000 kc., Magic Eye and Brain, $89.50; T8-7, 6 tubes, $40-18,000 kc., ac-dc, $49.95; T8-10, 9 tubes, $40-18,000 kc., Magic Eye and Brain, $99.95; and C6-S, low priced instrument for ac-dc, 6 tubes, $79.95. All sets use metal tubes and all but Models T8-10 and C11-3 incorporate a new elimination of long-wave interference.—Radio Retailing, February, 1936. --- Garod Grand The illustrated console made by the Garod Radio Corp., 116 4th Ave., New York City, is a 20-tube high fidelity, five band receiver with metal tubes. The set has Master Control, Vision Master automatic signal indicator and poly-chromatic dial.—Radio Retailing, February, 1936. --- Argus Candid Camera Strikingly similar in appearance to the well known Leica camera, the new Argus Candid camera being made by the International Research Corp., Ann Arbor, Mich., a division of the International Radio Corp., maker of the Kudette radio. The camera will list for the low price of $12.50. Besides the special action lens, 1 to 36 exposures, new rapid shutter, visible automatic exposure control, automatic exposure optical eye level view finder, camera functions as principal part of enlarger and super-microscope. It comes in a modern bakelite case, black and chromium, gray and sun metal, black and gold. (5 x 2½ in.) The latter is $13.50. Enlargements of small prints can be made up to 8 x 10 without loss of fidelity and detail.—Radio Retailing, February, 1936. --- Ken-Rad Radio Tubes The Ken-Rad name means finest engineering, highest quality, perfect performance. Write for our complete dealer sales plan to learn how to increase radio tube business. The Ken-Rad Corporation, Inc., Owensboro, Ky. Division of The Ken-Rad Tube and Lamp Corporation Also Mfrs. of Ken-Rad Incandescent Electric Lamps --- Hickok Tube Tester Model A.C. 49 dynamic mutual conductance tube tester of the Hickok Electrical Instrument Co., Cleveland, Ohio, has long scale edgewise meter and direct reading vacuum tube conductance scale. The English resistance scale is combined with actual micro-meters. This tester has double range from 0-5,000 to 0-6,000 microhorns, indicating any value from 10 microhorns to 6,000 microhorns. Uses metal shield tubes.—Radio Retailing, February, 1936. --- Superior “Radio-Cellarette” Taco Resonance Indicator Of outstanding usefulness to service men and laboratory workers is the new resonance indicator offered by the Technical Appliance Corp., 17 E. 16th St., New York City. Making use of the 6E5 electron-eye tube, this compact metal-cased device indicates degree of resonance for accurate tuning of sets, individual r.f. and i.f. circuits, and for aligning stages, may be used as output meter checks for open or short in transformers, coils and circuits, permits of matching condensers and indicates capacitance values. It checks radio fidelity and as a bridge indicator, it places a guard against it eliminating danger of burnout yet provides critical visual indication. It employs two 6H6 metal tubes in conjunction with 6E5 electron-eye tube.—Radio Retailing, February, 1936. McMurdo Silver R9+ Tuned Antenna The installation of the new R9+ tuned antenna will increase short wave signal volume from the present short wave receiver by from three to six times on weak signals, maintains the McMurdo Silver Corp., 3384 N. Franklin St., Chicago, Ill. In this connection, claims improved reception equal to one to two stages of rf amplification ahead of the receiver in noise and increased selectivity. The price is $8.85 net, fully assembled, and the antenna ready to put up in half an hour.—Radio Retailing, February, 1936. "Acarest" Amplifier The new 15-watt de luxe amplifier just brought out by Federated Purchaser, Inc., 23 Park Place, New York City, is designed for universal application. Briefly some of the high spots are: 8 tubes in Class A; choice of 2 about choices; fully shielded low hum; all-metal tubes and fittings; 3-way volume controls; 2 tone compensators.—Radio Retailing, February, 1936. Lynch Giant-Killer Cable Manufacture of its type EO-1 cable as well as its Super Giant-Killer cable has been discontinued by Arthur H. Lynch, Inc., 227 Fulton St., New York. These cables will be replaced with its new Improved Giant-Killer cable which will also be used in all factory assembled antenna kits at no extra cost in price.—Radio Retailing, February, 1936. Mallory Replacement Condensers An unusual new line of replacement condensers incorporating practical features, which make them easy to handle and obtain, make universal application an actuality as now ready at the plant of J. F. Mallory & Co. Inc., Indianapolis, Ind. The new units are smaller but of right size to fit all applications. This feature, together with unique mounting flange for round can types, and flanges for round can types, permit only 69 condensers to service all sets using electrolytics.—Radio Retailing, February, 1936. Supreme Model 491 Analyzer Model 491, theater, p.a. and radio analyzer, announced by the Supreme Instrument Corp., Greenwood, Miss., to supersede its Model 480. Heavy switches, completely internal resistance measuring power supplies, push point-to-point and selective analysis (socket) testing methods, multi-range meter (including 6 d.b. ranges) all combine to make this instrument particularly useful to p.a. engineers.—Radio Retailing, February, 1936. Clough-Brengle Audio Oscillator For the radio and public address field, Clough-Brengle Co., 112 W. Austin Ave., Chicago, has brought out Model 73 beat-note audio oscillator. This instrument generates a pure fundamental audio frequency variable from 0 to 10,000 cycles per second, with checking for gain and wave shape distortion in the audio system of sets, p.a. amplifiers and radio-phone transmitters. A radio receiver employing it is used to measure test oscillators over the entire audio spectrum. Net price, with tubes, $35.00. Clough Brengle has also brought out a synchronous conductor unit, Model 81, which converts any standard oscillator into a frequency modulated unit suitable for operation with a cathode-ray oscillograph. Net price, complete with tubes and case in wooden box, $24.25.—Radio Retailing, February, 1936. CONVERSION RESISTOR PLUG Converts 2-volt dry battery sets into "Air Cell" Receivers TWO-VOLT receivers equipped with ballast tubes for dry "A" battery operation now can be converted into "Air Cell" Receivers by means of a simple, inexpensive conversion resistor plug. Simply remove the ballast tube, plug in the conversion resistor plug in the ballast tube socket, and the receiver is ready for Evercadry Air Cell Battery operation. Unlike the ballast tube which it replaces, the conversion resistor plug is inexpensive and it does not wear out. On a 2-volt dry battery set drawing 6/10 ampere "A" current, the cheapest dry "A" pack will give about 320 hours of service for a cost of $3.20, or 1c per hour. On the same receiver, with a conversion resistor plug, the Air Cell Battery will give at least 1000 hours of service, over three times as much, for a cost of only $5.95, or less than 6/10c per hour. In the life of one Air Cell Battery costing $5.95, three dry "A" packs, costing $9.60 would be used. Changing to Air Cell Battery operation not only saves money, it does away with the bother of frequent "A" battery purchases, and it eliminates the weakening reception which takes place as the dry "A" pack's voltage runs down. Conversion resistor plugs are made and sold by most resistor manufacturers. Only seven types required to convert over 50 different makes and models of ballast tube receivers. Send the coupon for data sheet giving complete information. SEND FOR FREE DATA SHEET NATIONAL CARBON CO., INC., P. O. Box 600, Grand Central Station, New York, N. Y. Please send me the Conversion Resistor Plug Data Sheet. Name__________________________ Street_________________________ City__________________________ State_____________ R.R. _____ Radio Retailing, February, 1936 NEW REFRIGERATORS AND OTHER APPLIANCES Grunow Refrigerators The one-piece, rounded-top construction and flowing streamlines of the new Grunow refrigerators are an important feature. The General Household Utilities Co., 2633 N. Crawford Ave., Chicago, will appeal to both the man of the house and the housewife. Doors open at the touch of a finger and an interior light automatically, shelves are tip-proof and speed freeze gives an abundance of ice—these are but a few of some 49 conveniences of the new Grunow. These units have a simplicity of mechanism, Grunow states made possible by the refrigerant Carrene which is a liquid, not a gas under ordinary conditions. A 1-year written guarantee on the sealed mechanism may be obtained for $5 and there is a standard 2-year warranty on the entire refrigerator. A set of accessories—20 qt. sliding fruit and vegetable crisper, five glass covered dishes on revolving base, glass rolling pin, 1/2 qt. water bottle, automatic feed egg rack and 2 quick-out rubber ice trays—are standard equipment on the Super De Luxe models and may be had for a small charge on the De Luxe models.—Radio Retailing, February, 1936. Crosley 1936 Shelvadors Striking in their streamline design, the 1936 line of Shelvador refrigerators of the Crosley Radio Corp., Cincinnati, will add a number of features to those already incorporated. A shift in the door holds a set of square glass jars for keeping. "G-E Speedster" Range Priced to sell to the mass market, a new electric range has been introduced by the General Electric Co., Cleveland, Ohio. It is named the "G-E Speedster" and boasts a new "Tri-Glo." This range has Super-Speed pastry oven and Super-Fast broiler. Other features include sliding oven shelves with safety stop at rear, 1000-watt Calrod cooking units, automatic temperature control with pilot light, appliance cutouts and a new type storage compartment.—Radio Retailing, February, 1936. Westinghouse Refrigerators A new line of "Golden Jubilee" refrigerators is announced by the Westinghouse Elec. & Mfg. Co., Mansfield, Ohio. Streamline design, new adjustable shelf to make plenty of room for big roasts and extra shelf space for small things, triple food saver set mounted so all are instantly available, built-in deep-freezer for meats and vegetables, built-in utility basket, improved eight-cubic ice tray, over-size freezer and a seven-point temperature selector are some of the features. The EDF or Golden Jubilee models consist of five Dulux finish refrigerators ranging in size from three up to and including seven cubic feet food compartments. Two economy models, a chest type and two extra large models complete the line.—Radio Retailing, February, 1936. ANNOUNCING! The new line of FAIRBANKS-MORSE Conservador Refrigerators —and a sales formula that works— ● "Demonstrating the new Fairbanks-Morse Conservador and the other 14 star points to a prospect means a sale—nine times out of ten!" That's not what we say. It's what several hundred Fairbanks-Morse dealers said at a sales meeting in Chicago a few days ago. The "Conservador" gives you an exclusive, plus-feature that your prospect can see and feel—and that you can easily sell on the basis of its true ECONOMY and CONVENIENCE merits. It gives you the sales advantage you have been looking for because the Conservador enables you to make the most convincing demonstration of time—and labor-saving convenience—plus meter-beating economy—of any refrigerator on today's market. CASH IN ON THE FIELD'S "BEST BET" If the Fairbanks-Morse franchise is open in your territory, it is a great opportunity too good to pass up. Write or wire now for details. Fairbanks-Morse Home Appliances, Inc., 430 So. Green St., Chicago. Norge 1936 Line With no fundamental change in the cabinet design but with notable refinements in line, contour, features and construction, the 1936 line of Norge "Roller Motor" refrigerators has been placed on the market by the Norge Corp., Detroit, Mich. The interior of the food compartment has been completely improved. The units now have a sliding combination bottle and dairy rack, a large utensil basket and a small circular track holding covered glass containers. Norge has also introduced new models to its line of "Autobullet" washers and the present models have been redesigned and improved. Improvements have also been made in the line of nine Concen- trator gas ranges. There are now six models in the new line. Production of the line was first marketed in 1935. New models have been added for 1936, with further improvements in design and construction.—Radio Retailing, February, 1936. Gibson Refrigerators A "sales engineered" line of household refrigerators consisting of six models is ready for the 1936 season according to a release from the Gibson Electric Refrigerator Co., Greenville, Mich. There are three models in the conservatively priced standard line and three in the custom built line. The latter is called the Magic Freezer Shelf. A better distribution of storage space is possible because of this freezer shelf so that the 6 cu.ft. model has more than 12 cu.ft. of fresh area. The Gibson Freezer Shelf also increases the ice cube capacity, makes for faster freezing and prevents melting foods, the bulletin reads. A new feature of the 1936 models is the Gibson Guardian, a hot wire type of relay, externally mounted which furnishes an automatic overload protection for the motor which will stop the motor directly if the current becomes greater than normal and recloses the circuit after a brief interval, said officials and illustrated with the Gibson Hermelic Monomot.—Radio Retailing, February, 1936. Kelvinator Line Presentation of a radically improved line of Kelvinator electric refrigerators, including models in every price range, was recently announced by the Kelvinator Corp., Detroit, Mich. In addition to new designs, added conveniences and improved construction, the new refrigerators have for the first time, built-in thermoster control and a new inspection panel providing for free replacement by the factory of any necessary parts in the compressor mechanism. Kelvinator presents nine new electric models. A new development in high speed units for both surface and oven cooking eliminates the necessity of gas heating. There are five standard and four special models. Five electric water heaters, a new field for Kelvinator, are also announced. They are designed to minimize maintenance costs and repairs. Only three principal parts—the element, the element holder and the thermostat, all built into one solid unit. Another new product field into which Kelvinator has entered is that of the gas range, with the presentation of two new models.—Radio Retailing, February, 1936. Cord Set National Electric Appliance Co., Providence, R.I., offers its "Endura" 11 ft. cord set in a special display box of ten sets, one of which is visible, being hooked in a tree-trunk container. This cord set is covered by an insurance policy insuring it against repair or replacement costs within one year. Instructions are included.—Radio Retailing, February, 1936. Norge "Fine-Air" Heating and Conditioning Unit Fully enclosed in an enamel and chrome cabinet, the new "Fine-Air" heating and conditioning unit of the Norge Corp., Chicago, will heat a 12 to 15 room house sufficiently in the coldest weather. The manufacturer claims that it will deliver 75 to 200 per cent more heat from the same amount of gas used in furnaces and boilers. Six times every hour this unit clears the air of dust, pollen, smoke, floating dusts, germs etc., furnishing complete air conditioning. During the winter months this unit stimulates air circulation and is so constructed that it can be used with cold water, dehumidifying coils or mechanical refrigeration accessories. In addition, an adjustable hot water heater, which is part of the equipment, provides more than sufficient hot water for all family needs.—Radio Retailing, February, 1936. Mr. Dealer: when the excitement is over you will find that these three points will sell refrigerators Outstanding size and price value Hermetically Sealed Unit The freezer shelf...the only new and practical innovation in Refrigeration SO what? SO Gibson deserves your first consideration before you decide on any line. See your Gibson Distributor today or write us for complete information on the Gibson 1936 Dealer Proposition. GIBSON GIBSON ELECTRIC REFRIGERATOR CORPORATION GREENVILLE MICHIGAN Sprague "Tiny-Mike" Condenser An unusually small dry electrolytic condenser of full capacity and 450 v. working voltage has just been placed on the market by Sprague Products Co., North Adams, Mass., and called the "Tiny Mike" Type TM. The manufacturer claims that this new condenser takes up one-half the space occupied by standard condensers of similar capacity. Where economy is a factor, "Tiny Mike" may be used to replace larger electrolytic units and where exceptionally high capacity is wanted two or more TM units may be combined in parallel.—Radio Retailing, February, 1936. Radio Silencer A small device to enable the listener to silence at will his radio set from a remote point, called the "Ballyhoo Squelcher," may be obtained from Sprague Products Corp., 3000 N. Howard St., Philadelphia, Pa. It is easily attached to any receiver and fits in the palm of the hand. Attractive finish in baked enamel and nickel. Supplied with 16 ft. of cord. Price $1.50.—Radio Retailing, February, 1936. Janette Rotary Converter A comprehensive line of rotary converters to convert direct current to alternating current is offered by the Janette Mfg. Co., 556 W. Monroe St., Chicago. These converters are designed and built especially for the type of apparatus they are to operate. There are models for radio receivers, electric phonographs, power amplifiers, public address systems, picture projectors, testing equipment, electric shavers, automobile machines, gaseous electric signs and radios in airplanes. Janette converters supplied for use with radios are equipped with filters designed for wavelengths from 10 to 517 meters.—Radio Retailing, February, 1936. Weston 682-R Tube Checker A limited number of the Model 682 "Tube Tester" of the Weston Electrical Instrument Corp., Newark, N. J., have been converted into modern-day tube checkers by replacing the spare socket with sockets to accommodate the new "press-in" type and metal tubes. Several additional features have been included and the commercial tube can be tested on this instrument. $24.50 net.—Radio Retailing, February, 1936. RCA RK-40 Antenna A scientific all-wave antenna system for receivers of all types and price facings, complete and ready to install, has recently been brought out by the RCA Mfg. Co., Camden, N. J. No assembling or parts required for installation. Consists of a special bracket, telescoping transmission line, antenna junction box and receiver coupling unit. $25.00.—Radio Retailing, February, 1936. Hoyt Square Meter The latest addition to the Hoyt meter line expresses the modern trend for an indicating instrument in an attractive case of compact design. The unusual effect of the circular scale and the large well-lighted opening give particularly good visibility and make the large divisions easily readable. The semi-flush case of bakelite measures 4½ in. square on the front while the rear is circular, fitting the standard 1½ in. diameter mounting hole in the wall. This Type 573 is made in all standard sizes of ammeter, wattmeter, ammeter and voltmeter. It may be obtained from the Hartford Agency, 115 Boylston St., Boston, Mass.—Radio Retailing, February, 1936. Controlled Rectifiers Ward Leonard Electric Co., Mount Vernon, N. Y., announces the development of controlled rectifiers to supply dc output from a commercially constant, single phase, 110 volt a.c. line. The output voltage regulation is maintained from approximately 1/10 to full load.—Radio Retailing, February, 1936. Muter Adjustable Decade Resistance An adjustable decade resistance unit that is accurate enough for general laboratory purposes but rugged enough to withstand hard usage in the shop has just been introduced by the Muter Co., 1226 S. Michigan Ave., Chicago. In designing this unit the Muter engineers have endeavored to provide the utmost in convenience by building 4 boxes, each of different resistance values. By using a combination of two of these boxes it is possible to obtain any resistance from 1 ohm through 1000 ohms in multiples of 1 ohm.—Radio Retailing, February, 1936. Onan Electric Generating Plants A new light-weight, 110-volt, 60-cycle alternating current generating plant has just been announced by D. W. Onan & Sons, 1500 N. Wells St., Milwaukee, in standard and a light weight type for portable use. The plant is furnished complete and has a capacity of 350 watts, sufficient for ten to twelve lights or two to three radio receivers. Specially adaptable for operating sounders and p.a. or radio communication systems. Other Onan o.a.c. generating plants are offered in sizes up to 3,000 watts and there are more than ten sizes and fifteen models.—Radio Retailing, February, 1936. Power Level Indicator A new power level indicator or decibel meter, Model 421, to be used for measuring power levels in lines carrying audio frequency current may now be obtained from the Radio Craft Products Co., 88 Park Place, New York City. It also serves as a general indicator for the efficient monitoring of circuits in broadcasting studios, theatres and other applications. Outstanding features are: 10,000 ohm resistance attenuator; 500 microvolt sensitivity range, minus 12 to plus 43 decibels; four voltmeter ranges, and uniform linear scale. The net price is $25.88. In kit form, for those who desire to assemble their own panels, the price is $27.—Radio Retailing, February, 1936. Amphenol Microphone Connector A microphone plug embodying the latest developments of the Amphenol Corp. and manufactured by Bakelite has been brought out by the American Phenolic Corp., 506 S. Dearborn St., Chicago. The heavy brass outer shell is locked together with the plated brass collar that holds the connections tight. This shell may be walked on without danger of breaking or noise. Not affected by snow, rain or slush. $2.50.—Radio Retailing, February, 1936. "Constructrad" Shortwave Kits Attractively packed with full instructions, the Constructrad Inc., 61 Park Pl., New York City, offers three tube kits in the following types: one tube battery, one tube electric a.c.-d.c., two tube battery, two tube electric a.c.-d.c. and three tube electric a.c.-d.c. They range in price from $10.50 for the one tube battery kit to $21.25 for the three tube electric a.c.-d.c. kit.—Radio Retailing, February, 1936. Clarostat Volume Control Replacement Kit Volume control replacements for the bulk of the more popular radio tubes can now be had handy and inexpensive, kit made by the Clarostat Mfg. Co., Inc., 245 N. 6th St., Newark, N. J. This kit is offered in two types: one, made up of composition volume controls; the other, comprising wire-wound volume controls. Each kit has five volume controls, three power switches and five 1-watt flexible resistors used as external biasing resistances.—Radio Retailing, February, 1936. Multiple Section Midget Electrolytics Extreme compactness and utility are combined in double- and triple-section midget electrolytic condensers recently made available by the Mergen Corp., 70 Washington St., Brooklyn, N. Y. Such units provide entirely separate and individual terminals in a single cardboard container with individual positive and negative flexible leads for each section. The double-section units are available in 150 and 300 volt peak ratings, in combinations of 4-4 to 8-16 mfd. A single 8-3-8 mfd. triple-section unit is offered.—Radio Retailing, February, 1936. Radio Extra! 'CORONET'—THE PERFECTED METAL TUBES—FOR GLASS TUBE SETS! New Arcturus Scoop Increases Your Sales and Profits ARCTURUS 'CORONET'—THE PERFECTED METAL TUBES TO REPLACE GLASS TUBES IN OLD SETS! If that isn't a "natural" in the way of a sales-booster—well, just ask the first glass-tube set owner you meet! Think of all the sales pressure behind the Metal Tubes and figure out how the man with the old set feels. He thinks that if he can't afford a new set he's out of luck. And there are hundreds of old-set owners right in your vicinity... over 20,000,000 in the country... anxious to modernize their receivers. ARCTURUS—and ARCTURUS ONLY—gives them the chance to modernize. Be the first to show and offer these sensational Arcturus 'Coronet' Tubes in your territory and watch your sales and profits jump. If your distributor can't supply you at once, wire, phone or mail the coupon. ARCTURUS RADIO TUBE CO. NEWARK, N. J. ARCTURUS 'CORONET' METAL TUBES For new metal-tube sets, use 'CORONETS'—the perfected METAL TUBES. ARCTURUS RADIO TUBE CO. 720 Frelinghuysen Ave., Newark, N. J. We're interested. Rush full details on the 'CORONET' replacement line. NAME STREET CITY My jobber is: "WESTON Instruments put more money in my pocket" "My '665' Analyzer has served me for almost three years (since it was first introduced) and it's good for years to come. I don't have to buy a new analyzer for the metal tubes. That saves me a good sum. And it's the most dependable instrument. Look how WESTON designs and builds." The above statement from a WESTON owner merely confirms the reports from users everywhere. WESTON Instruments cost far less because they are built to serve for years. They don't have to be replaced for every tube or circuit change. And they maintain their dependability through years of steady, profitable service. One sure way to save more and earn more is to use WESTON'S for every need. Send for the WESTON Radio Bulletin . . . Weston Electrical Instrument Corporation, 581 Frelinghuysen Ave., Newark, N. J. WESTON Radio Instruments WESTON ELECTRICAL INSTRUMENT CORPORATION 581 Frelinghuysen Avenue, Newark, N. J. Send bulletin on WESTON Radio Instruments. Name_____________________________________ Address___________________________________ City________________________State__________ Flexible Testing Device Uses 6E5 Predicted in our column "AUDIO FREQUENCY" last November, followed up by Waller and Richards' exclusive Radio Retailing story in December, testing devices utilizing the 6E5 combination triode amplifier and miniature cathode-ray tube are now appearing commercially. The first to make the market is Technical Appliance's new "Resonance Indicator," a vacuum-tube voltmeter comprising a 6H6 linear detector, 6E5 amplifier and indicator and 6H6 voltage-doubling rectifier, diagrammed here-with. Loading measured circuits little, this device has a multitude of uses. Hooked to an antenna lead it makes an extremely sensitive indicator, facilitating alignment. Connected across an oscillator's tuned-lead, measurement of developed bias tells whether or not an oscillator is operating. Connected across a voice-coil, or from audio output plate to ground (0.1 condenser in series with indicator's input, 1 meg. resistor in parallel) usual output indications are obtained. Other suggested tests not ordinarily possible unless the shop possesses delicate and expensive instruments are as follows: Fig. 1—Test for antenna effectiveness. Connect a tuned circuit between antenna and Indicator as shown. Tune in a station and note effect of signal on 6E5. Calibrate on antenna known to be good and compare. Disconnect ground from antenna coil. If no variation is noted ground is obviously poor. Fig. 2—Test for antenna-to-ground leakage. Connect battery as shown. If electron-eye closes at once this indicates low resistance between antenna and ground. Fig. 3—Test for noisy volume-control. Connect as shown. Noisiness will be indicated by erratic operation of the 6E5 when control is varied. Fig. 4—Test of resistors above or below value handled by ohm-meter. $R_1$ is of known value, about the same as the unit to be checked. $R$ is an ordinary high-value potentiometer. Adjust $R$ until voltmeter reads 10 volts. Adjust control knob on Indicator until electron-eye just closes. Insert the unknown resistor at $X$ and readjust $R$ until the electron-eye just closes. Read voltmeter. Value of $R_x$ is: $$R_x = \frac{(E - 10) R}{10}$$ Fig. 5—Test for open, shorted or leaking condensers. Set voltage of power supply at value normal for condenser rating. If unit is open electron-eye will not change. A good condenser will cause the pattern to close. For those slowly opening or closing at low values it may be desirable to use a resistor larger than 1 megohm across the Indicator.) A perfect condenser will permit the eye to return to its original condition after closing. If the switch or key connected as shown, when closed, permits the electron-eye to change this indicates leakage. Fig. 6—Test for condenser capacity. Connect a standard condenser at $C_1$. A 1 mike unit is ok. Set the voltage divider $R$ so that the meter reads 10 volts. Adjust the Indicator control so that the eye just closes. Insert the unknown value in place of $C_1$ and place $C_2$ at $X$. Readjust $X$ until the eye just closes and read the voltage. Capacity of the unknown is then: $$C_x = \frac{(E - 10) C_1}{10}$$ Fig. 7—Test for small mica condenser values. Use coil and condenser combination as at Fig. 1. Set tuning condenser at maximum value, adjust signal generator to just close the 6E5. Connect unknown capacitor in parallel with tuning unit and decrease setting of tuning condenser until eye closes as before. Unknown capacity $C_x$ is equal to the capacity difference between the two settings of $C_1$ and $C_2$. Fig. 8—Test for peak value of current flowing in first filter condenser of a pack. $R$ is a decade resistance box or a calibrated rheostat. By means of a circuit such as that of Fig. 4 adjust the Indicator so that the eye closes at 10 volts. Without changing this setting connect the Indicator as shown and adjust $R$ until the eye closes again. The value of current is: $$\frac{10}{1} = \frac{1}{R}$$ Other uses will suggest themselves. Mixer, Oscillator Coupling On broadcast and between 1.7 and 3.5 mc. Howard's chassis 99T and 9C use straight inductive coupling between r.f. Before It's Too Late A P R I L 1 s t . 1 9 3 6 Equip Now with New LABORATORY MODELS SUPREME INSTRUMENTS thru an F.H.A. LOAN 12 Small Monthly Payments Buy Any One Instrument 18 Small Monthly Payments Buy Any Two or More Instruments Radiomen by the thousands are grasping this opportunity to modernize their equipment with the financial help of Uncle Sam. Supreme Jobbers are overwhelmed with orders! Banks welcoming the business! It's YOUR big chance, Mr. Serviceman, to enjoy the prestige and profit of radio's most up-to-the-minute testing instruments on the easiest possible purchase plan. FHA MAY NOT BE EXTENDED! EXPIRES APRIL 1st! Up to now there has been no definite report from Washington that the FHA Act will be extended at expiration April 1st. Don't gamble with chance—see your jobber NOW while you know Uncle Sam will assist you to pay for one instrument over a period of 12 months, and 2 or more, 18 months—at the government's low interest rate. Write Supreme direct for any information with which your jobber cannot supply you. Supreme Instruments Corp., Greenwood, Miss., U.S.A. - Export Dept., Associated Exporters Co., 145 West 45th St., New York City, N.Y. Cable Address, LOPREH, N.Y. - stage plate coil and 6A8 oscillator-mixer's input coil. Mixing is accomplished solely by electron coupling. But when the set is switched to the 5.5 to 18 mc. range two changes take place. The mixer input coil's trimmer also tunes the r.f. plate coil to some extent and provides some capacitive coupling as well. And, as shown in the diagram (switching omitted), electron coupling of oscillator output to mixer is aided by feeding back some r.f. from the oscillator grid to the mixer plate through a twisted-wire type, or "gimmick" capacitor. This gives the job more "sock" on extreme shortwaves. Hi-Lo Tone Booster Stewart-Warner high-fidelity Models 1381 to 1389 have double-tuned resonator between first and second a.f. stages, one section tuned to boost low frequencies and the other adjusted to bring up highs. Each section is equipped with its own individual tone control, the bass control permitting the resonant point of the lower, shunt-tuned inductance to be shifted and the treble control simply bypassing more or less of the developed signal to the detector. If static, station hiss or station noise makes it seem desirable to cut down highs more than the treble control variation permits connect a .1, 400-volt condenser from the plate of the 6J7 first a.f. tube to the grid of the 6C3 second a.f. and shunt the high frequency tone control .015 condenser with a 600-volt .02. In these models, incidentally, part of the resistance in the cathode circuits of the r.f. and second i.f. stages is cut out by the band-switch when tuning on shortwaves to raise sensitivity. A shunt resistor is simultaneously cut in parallel with the tuning meter to keep it on scale. 6N7 Class-B Amplifier First announcement of the type 6N7 Class-B complete output tube (similar in characteristics to the older 6A6) with octal base and metal shell comes from Arcturus. The tube can also be used as a Class-A driver. Simple Crystal Pickup Connection Here's the beautifully simple crystal pickup connection used in Ansley's Model U-10 phono-radio combination. Obviously, the position of the pickup would have little effect on radio reception as the detector's input circuit is untuned and essentially fairly broad. Radio volume control is accomplished in the cathode circuit of the oscillator-mixer. Crystal Calibrator A quartz crystal may be readily ground so that it will oscillate at more than one frequency. It is, in fact, extremely difficult to make one that oscillates at one and only one point. If crystals designed for one specific frequency are wired in the grid circuit of a tube and the plate circuit of that tube tuned over a wide range oscillation will almost invariably occur at at least one other point, even though weakly. RCA's TMV-133A crystal calibrator uses a piezo-electric crystal deliberately ground so that it will oscillate at 100 and at 1,000 kc. if the plate circuit of the tube in which it is included is tuned to resonance at either of these points. Thus these two fundamental frequencies and prolific harmonics of each one are available. The 10th harmonic of 100 kc. is, of course, 1,000 kc. but by making the crystal oscillate on a fundamental at this higher frequency output is greater and higher harmonics are similarly stronger. The variable trimmer shown is factory-adjusted to obtain plate circuit resonance and oscillation. It is not to be varied by the user unless the instrument requires repair. An auto-transformer is used to light the tube and also supply high voltage to the acorn's plate when the instrument is used on a.c., in which case the tube self-rectifies its own plate current. For d.e. use the link is removed and 90 volts of B-battery included in its place. Quiet Tuning Switch Quiet tuning switches in a.v.c.-equipped receivers take many forms and --- Auto Radio Vibrator and Pack Tester Radiart (Cleveland) is responsible for this diagram of a "build-it-yourself" auto-radio vibrator and power pack tester. All parts with the exception of a special universal vibrator transformer (used externally) are shown. Operating instructions are necessarily long and we suggest that they be obtained direct from Radiart, together with construction details. TRY THIS TESTER AT YOUR JOBBERS MODEL 710-A DEALERS NET PRICE Only $16.50 This popular three meter set tester checks all parts of radio tube circuits by plugging directly into the receiving set sockets. D.C. Voltmeter Scale 20-60-300-600 D.C. Milliammeter Scale 15-150 A.C. Voltmeter Scale 10-140-700 Model 710-A, in Black Leatherette Case complete with all necessary connections. Dealer Net Price..........................$16.50 Model 712-A Same as 710-A but having Triplett moving coil Model 223 2" D.C. Voltmeter (1,000 ohms per volt). Dealer Net Price..........................$22.20 OTHER READRITE PRODUCTS Readrite also manufactures all types of testers used for servicing radio sets, including: Set Testers, Tube Testers, Oscillators, Resistance, Continuity and Capacity Testers, Point-to-Point Testers and inexpensive Indicating Meters. MAIL THIS COUPON Readrite Meter Works 220 College St., Bluffton, Ohio Please send me more information on Model 710-A ............Model 712-A New Catalogue Name ........................................... Address .......................................... City ............................................. State .......................... AMPLIFIER DESIGN CONTEST Extended to April 30th! PRIZES INCREASED 20% Design an Amplifier using CONTINENTAL CARBON INC. Resistors and Condensers Over $70 in Cash Prizes! To accommodate the men who wished to try out their designs and perfect the details of their drawings, this contest has been extended to April 30, 1936. Remember you have only to submit an ink diagram and list of parts as described in the rules to be eligible for a prize. Secure an entry blank and rules of the contest from your distributor or directly from CONTINENTAL Carbon Inc. Secure the latest resistor and condenser Bulletins 103 and 104. CONTINENTAL CARBON Inc. 13902 LORAIN AVENUE CLEVELAND, OHIO INTERFERENCE CAN BE ELIMINATED WITH THE MASTER INTERFERENCE DETECTOR PUTS a quick end to the interference bugaboos. A completely equipped, self-contained unit that finds the right seat of the trouble. All local, household and appliance disturbances are quickly located and eliminated. For home and auto radios—for any type of interference. THE SERVICEMAN'S FRIEND A boon to the man who likes time and temper. Fully guaranteed. Send for details—catalog 47-R. LIST PRICE $9.50—FROM YOUR DEALER CONSOLIDATED WIRE AND CABLE CORPORATIONS Chicago CHECK THESE MANY FEATURES • Detects Interference • Operates in all radios • Completely self-contained • Shows capacity of correcting filter • Locates source of interference • Fully guaranteed. THE PEER OF THEM ALL ELECTRONIC REPLACEMENT VIBRATORS FOR 1936 THEY AGAIN LEAD THE FIELD, IN QUALITY—PRICE—AND CONSUMER SATISFACTION Made by the World's Largest Exclusive Manufacturer of Vibrators and Vibrator Power Supplies. Ask your jobber for a copy of the new 1936 Electronic Catalog. If he cannot supply you write direct ELECTRONIC LABORATORIES, INC., Indianapolis, Ind. THREE Big Clough-Brengle ANNOUNCEMENTS 1 New Easy Payment Plan You can now completely equip your laboratory with the latest CLOUGH-BRENGLE instruments for a small down payment—and pay the balance over six months. The extra income produced by this fine equipment will pay the monthly installments and leave you money ahead. For instance, you can buy complete Cathode-Ray Equipment, including the MODEL CRA Oscillograph and MODEL OM Frequency Modulated Oscillator, for a down payment of $49.00 and monthly payments of $17.15. Ask your jobber or write for full information. 2 Complete "Service Laboratories" —approved by F. H. A. CLOUGH-BRENGLE engineers have just completed a new line of "Service Laboratories"—which offer every essential servicing facility in impressive display cabinets. These meet the Federal Housing Administration requirements for their attractive time payment plan. See your jobber or write for new descriptive bulletin. 3 New Spring Catalog Here is complete information on the most complete and the most popular series of precision radio service instruments ever offered. Cathode-Ray Oscilloscopes, R-F Signal Generators, Set Analyzers, Audio Oscillators, Power Level Indicators—all with the C-B reputation for unequalled performance and value. Get your copy today. See coupon below The CLOUGH-BRENGLE CO. 1130-C W. Austin Ave., Chicago, U.S.A. Cable Address—CEBECO, Chicago Get the Full Story—TODAY Please send at once the following new CLOUGH-BRENGLE Spring announcements: ☐ New Easy Payment Plan ☐ F. H. A. Approved "Service Laboratories" ☐ New Complete CLOUGH-BRENGLE Catalog Name ........................................... Address .......................................... City ............................................ State .............. My Jobber is .................................... Clip and Mail Now despite the fact that they almost universally control i.f. and r.f. sensitivity are frequently difficult to figure out for this reason. In the Patterson 85AW i.f. and r.f. stages operate "wide open" between stations when the quiet switch diagrammed is open, volume control being accomplished in the first audio input circuit. If the switch is closed, however, a negative feed back from the main voltage divider is applied to these stages in an amount dependent upon the setting of the 1,000 ohm potentiometer, which might be called a "voltage divider across a voltage divider." Separate H.F. Audio Channel The Deico Model 1110 uses a pair of 45's in push-pull, transformer driven by a 6CS, to push a large dynamic. A 6FS pentode resistance coupled to the same driver operates a high-frequency boosting cone. Lows are kept out of the pentode by a .0005 condenser and 200,000 ohm resistor filter in the input. Use of a .25 cathode resistor by-pass in this circuit further discriminates against lows. Non-Uniform Diodes Where tunable hum or excessive circuit noise is experienced in receivers using twin diode detectors—delayed a.v.c. tubes don't rely on your checker for the 75, 85 or 6H6 test. Substitute other tubes before suspecting circuit parts. Inherent diode-to-cathode bias (contact potential) varies from tube to tube and from make to make sufficiently, we understand, to upset design in certain auto-radios and home receivers. Wind-Driven Charger Operates Lights By Roger H. Hertel Wind-driven charger and associated radio sales, profitable in themselves, can be built up into something materially larger. These new generators will operate a few lights, charge automobile and marine batteries, if installed correctly. And for best results (with extra profit) batteries, fusing, meters, relay, switches should be placed on a wood and insulated panel stand rigidly mounted and raised from the ground to prevent flooding. Factors to keep in mind when installing a wind-driven charger are as follows: Locate the charger in the clear away from all buildings, trees and other obstructions. Installation on a small, low outbuilding almost cut off from prevailing winds spells grief. Mounted on the home itself noise from both mechanical vibration and wind whining past the propeller is frequently objectionable. I build a 20-foot tower of wood, tapering it so that it follows the pitch of the stub-tower supplied with the machine. This tower is erected as close to the house as possible without sacrificing wind. Number 6 wire is carried from charger to storage battery. And I never sacrifice breeze to save wire expense. A bench (preferably in the basement) is made to carry the ammeter and relay and this has a raised shelf for the battery. Regular car battery terminals are used instead of clips to reduce resistance. Use of clips on the battery in early installations caused a few tube burnouts. All panel connections are made with No. 6 wire. Figure 1 shows an installation of this kind intended solely for radio operations. Most generators should be oiled with No. 10 oil, about two drops in each bearing weekly. Too much oil frequently spills over and shorts the generator commutators of some machines. Not enough oil causes premature wear. If a house is to be wired for lights I run the main leads from storage battery to point nearest each light location with No. 6. Fuses are installed. From No. 6 to the lamps themselves No. 14 ROMAX not longer than 15 feet is used if No. 6 cannot be carried all the way. Longer leads produce dim lights. When light installations are intended, as in Figures 2 and 3, two storage batteries are used. The best batteries obtainable are none too good for such jobs and 114 ampere-hour types are used here. Three of them are frequently used. More than three is not advisable. I never try to get by with just one. Wire used from ceiling rosettes to sockets is good lamp cord. Length must be limited to a maximum of 10 feet. Six-volt lamps in 15, 25 and 50-watt sizes are available. The best size to use is the 25-watt. A fixture using two lights should be equipped with two 15's. Now, about the maximum safe load: Assume the batteries are well up, no wind to run the generator. Care must be exercised with the load. If two batteries are used in parallel the maximum load should not exceed one radio and two 25-watt lamps. However, it is preferable to have only one 25-watt lamp in operation. Two 15-watt sizes and the radio are ok. One or two additional lights may be turned on if they are only to remain lighted for a few minutes. When the charger is delivering 10 amperes or more use up to four or five. Customers using two batteries and two lights frequently turn the charger off to avoid over-charging. Instruct every customer to check his batteries often and see that they have sufficient water. Use Ohm's Law when calculating installation costs and making wiring recommendations. Sell fixtures for lights later. Figure 3 shows how job-expansion is easily possible. The ammeters at each battery indicate individual rate of charge and discharge. The provision for charging an external battery is proving extremely popular here. Sell Finer Performance with a WEBBER Oscillator ALL WITH FULL VISION direct reading DIALS Three popular models—all the finest of instruments yet priced to suit your needs. WEBBER 1936 MODEL 20. Accuracy ½ to 1%. Full vision direct reading dials—no charts necessary. Cast aluminum case. (Model 11—same if anywhere) $29.95 NET MODEL 40. Accuracy ½ of 1%. Art metal finished steel case. Portable. $24.95 NET MODEL 40A. Accuracy 3%. Best in its price field. Same construction as Model 40 above. $19.50 Only. NET Demand from both dealers and service men want and use Webber quality instruments. Use them for free technical bulletins or see at your jobbers. EARL WEBBER COMPANY 1221 W. Washington Blvd. Chicago, Ill. CLAROSTAT VOLUME CONTROL Replacement GUIDE Most extensive compilation yet made available. Engineers spent months gathering data. Checked and rechecked. Positively dependable. - Covers all sizes . . . alphabetically listed . . . right up to the minute. - Specifies composition-element and wire-wound controls, impartially. Best type for each service job. - Also general data on controls and amplification . . . typical circuits . . . taper resistance curves . . . formulae. Send for Your Copy Just write name and address on top of CLAROSTAT Volume Control carton, or write on your business letterhead. Because of cost, distribution is limited to radio service men and their jobbers. CLAROSTAT MANUFACTURING CO., Inc. 285-7 N. SIXTH ST. :: BROOKLYN, N. Y. Here’s that DATA you’ve been waiting for! UTAH FLASH URPC 820 TWS—CHICAGO ILL WHEN OLD VIBRATORS STOP STOP USING INFERIOR EQUIPMENT STOP REPLACE WITH UTAH STOP FREE GUIDE NOW READY UTAH RADIO PRODUCTS CO TEAR OUT THIS AD—PIN TO YOUR LETTERHEAD AND MAIL TO DEPT. R. R. FOR FREE CATALOG The Streamline AUTO ANTENNA NEW 1936 MODEL FOR ALL CARS Even Greater Distance—NOW—Clearer Reception ABSOLUTELY WEATHER PROOF No Flat Surface To Accumulate Mud and Water Which Would Decrease Efficiency PROVEN ROAD TEST—ALL CLIMATIC CONDITIONS Simple, Neat Installation Adjustable Brackets Retail $2.75 Free Sample JOBBERS—Write For Profitable Deal DEALERS—Send $1.75 For Sample Frepaid Include Jobber’s Name. VICTORY MANUFACTURING & DISTRIBUTING CO. New Address 2021 MICHIGAN AVE., CHICAGO, ILL. CARLIE “VICOR” THE new ALL-ALUMINUM PARABOLIC DEFLECTOR BAFFLE with Weather-proof Speaker Housing HOPE PARABOLIC DEFLECTOR BAFFLES assure effective sound distribution and minimize feedback. Constructed of extra heavy gauge spun aluminum, reinforced, and beautifully finished with special protective lacquer. The baffles can be quickly mounted in housing, making the assembly ready for immediate operation. MODEL 100 (Illustrated)—Depth of housing 10"; Speaker opening, 10" diameter; Length of horn, 10"; Bell opening, 17" diameter; Overall outside dimensions, 27" x 27". This model is suitable for all 10, 11 and 12" cone speakers. Write Dept. 10 for Illustrated Literature on HOPE Harvex Transmuts and Microphone Stands. A complete line at attractively low prices. HOPE MANUFACTURING CO. 36 Park Place New York, N. Y. JOBBERS Sales territory available, Write for our selling plan and prices. A.C. CURRENT—ANYWHERE! WITH Kato Light Plants A little gas and a kato AC plant enables you to run radios, amplifiers, refrigerators and other appliances. 100 watts and up. Write for interesting descriptive literature on A.C. and DC Kato Light Plants. Accepts 3 and 5 KW Diesel driven. All models self starting. One battery cranks 340 and 450 watt sizes. KATO ENGINEERING CO., Mankato, Minn., U.S.A. Replacing Air-Core I.F.'s With Iron Types By Harry D. Hooton The tendency among servicemen is to replace air-core i.f.'s in many cases with the new iron-core transformers to improve gain and selectivity. Such a job requires more than just mechanical changeover as the average receiver so altered will oscillate. When an iron-core transformer replaces an air-core device, keep both grid and plate leads down to the absolute minimum length and do not allow them to run parallel, or come close to similar leads of other stages. Use "loose" shielding (½ or ¼ in.) on grid, plate and diode leads and ground the shielding to chassis. Use close-fitting "jacket-type" tube shields on the first detector and i.f. tubes and make sure they ground well to the chassis. Connect a paper, cartridge type condenser of about .1, 400-volt, from B-plus to chassis at the point where the lead comes from the transformer. In some instances there is room inside new i.f. transformers to install this condenser internally. The sooner r.f. is bypassed to ground after passing through the primary the better. If the i.f. tube equipped with the new transformer receives its bias from a resistor common to another stage install separate bias resistors. Bypass each with .1 mike, 200-volt size. Microammeter As Output Meter A d.c. microammeter (anything up to 500 microamps is ok) is used as an output meter in several factories making receivers equipped with diode second detectors. Simply connect the meter in series with the diode load resistor and it will indicate carrier strength. Short-circuit a.v.c. action, of course. When such an output indicator is used the test oscillator need not be modulated. Such an instrument, incidentally, makes a good tuning indicator in diode second detector sets not having a.v.c. Extreme sensitivity will plainly show up fading signals, overmodulation. D. C. Dynamic Saturation By Roger H. Hertel When sets using d.c. dynamics play for a half hour or so and then suddenly start to distort badly the trouble may be saturation of the speaker field. I have encountered several cases of this kind in the past three weeks and so far have discovered no remedy but replacement of the speaker. Tungsten Lamps As Resistors Ordinary 115 volt tungsten filament lamps make excellent load resistors for radio and audio frequency tests as they are non-inductive, or nearly so, and indicate by their appearance the approximate wattage dissipated. In order to use lamps for test purposes it is necessary to know what their resistance is at various values of current. We are indebted to Thornderson for the accompanying chart showing the resistance of various size bulbs (resistance increases with current) and also for the information that at approximately ½ rating filaments glow dull red, at ¾ rating they show bright yellow. By connecting lamps in series or in parallel, or in series parallel combinations, the output of either an audio amplifier or a radio transmitter may be checked with the assurance that the approximately correct load resistance is included in the circuit for proper match. Bass-Boosting Addition Uses One Extra Tube By J. Richard Kearns Loss of low frequencies at low volume levels has been a stumbling block for receiver designers in the past. Most of the better new receivers incorporate some sort of compensation but older sets do not. I have devised a circuit (inspired by the ABC circuit of Hazeltine and the newest high-fidelity models) that can be added to any high-quality radio incorporating a diode detector at moderate cost, using only one extra tube. Audio frequencies are amplified in two channels; middle and upper register being handled by the original amplifier, bass securing additional amplification from a new amplifier using a 6F7. The outputs of the two amplifiers are combined and reproduced through the original power output stage and speaker. A separate volume control is provided for the new bass amplifier so that any desired degree of compensation may be obtained. Usually, the tone control (if the receiver has one) is converted into an auxiliary amplifier control so that no extra knob is required on the panel. Audio is picked off the diode load resistor of the existing detector circuit. (A typical circuit is illustrated.) It is applied through a voltage divider to the grid of the pentode portion of the new tube, the plate circuit of which contains an a.f. choke paralleled by a condenser to resonate in the low frequency portion of the spectrum, somewhere around 70 cycles. From the plate, or output, audio is passed through a condenser, to the booster volume control and from the arm of the control to the control grid of the triode section. Output of the triode is carried from its plate to the input of the original power stage, here is combined with the audio developed by the original driver. It is sometimes desirable to cut down the low frequency response of the original amplifier. This is not absolutely necessary but frequently high amplification of lows by both channels produces hum where stations are not well filtered. It also may be desirable to permit lows to be dropped when listening to music. There are several ways of cutting lows out of the original amplifier and most good serviceman know how to do it so we will not go into detail on this point. The resonant plate load for the auxiliary amplifier can be made of parts designed just for this purpose. Or the serviceman can experiment. An ordinary filter choke and a .05 to .25 condenser in parallel is TRY SPRAGUES... and note the difference Now you can get an 8 mfd. Sprague 450 V. Condenser for only 57c. per unit—either in the Tiny Mikes or standard size units. Or, if you want the finest and most universal replacement motor run bus, try an 8 mfd. EC 1000 V. Condenser—the Rolls Royce of Condensers. Remember: YOU DON'T HAVE TO CHECK BIAS VOLTAGE ON A RECEIVER WHEN USING SPRAGUES AS REPLACEMENTS. You owe it to your reputation to use the best—ON EVERY JOB. Sprague Products Co. North Adams, Mass. $PRAGUE 600 LINE CONDENSERS AMERICA'S FINEST LINE OF QUALITY UNITS OHMITE "DIVIDOHM" Just the Thing for "Orphans"! When you want an odd resistance value, or a voltage divider especially in servicing discontinued models—use "DIVIDOHM." They are well written, factory-encouraging the town for replacement parts. Every service man's kit should contain at least a few of the most commonly used values. The famous OHMITE vitreous enamel coating is applied with insulated "spreading-of-conduction" so that with which approximate value can be easily determined. Any practical number of adjustable lugs may be used without shorting out much resistance. Made in six sizes: from 25 through 200 watts; resistance values through 100,000 ohms. Ask your jobber or write for Catalog 14. OHMITE MANUFACTURING COMPANY Manufacturers of Resistors of All Types 4845 Flourney St., Chicago, Ill. INDEX TO ADVERTISERS \| Page \| Page \| \|------\|------\| \| Aerovox Corp. \| 61 \| \| Aladdin Radio Industries, Inc. \| 11-12 \| \| American Television & Radio Co. \| 53 \| \| Arcturus Radio Tube Co. \| 55 \| \| Atwater Kent Mfg. Co. \| 67 \| \| Belmont Radio Corp. \| 49 \| \| Cannon Electric C. F. \| 64 \| \| Clarostat Mfg. Co. \| 64 \| \| Clough-Brengh, Co., The \| 62 \| \| Colby Mfg. Co. \| 46 \| \| Consolidated Wire & Assid. Corp. \| 60 \| \| Continental Carbon Co. \| 45 \| \| Continental Motors Corp. \| 45 \| \| Continental Radio & Tel. Corp. \| 34 \| \| Cornell Wire Co. \| 50 \| \| Crum Co., Geo. F. \| 49 \| \| Crosley Radio Corp. \| 49 \| \| Electric Soldering Iron Co. \| 62 \| \| Electronic Labs. \| 62 \| \| Faab Radio Electric Co. \| 66 \| \| Fairbanks-Morse Electric App. Inc. \| 66 \| \| Fox Sound Equipment Corp. \| 66 \| \| Frigidaire Mfg. Co. \| 32 \| \| Frigidaire Corp. \| 32 \| \| General Electric Co. (Radio) \| 27 \| \| General Electric Co. (Refrigerator) \| 27 \| \| General Industries Co., The \| 61 \| \| General Insulated Wire Co. \| 61 \| \| Gibson Electric Refrigerator Co. \| 69 \| \| Hope Mfg. Co. \| 64 \| \| Hygrade-Sylvania Corp. \| 64 \| \| International Radio Corp. \| 63 \| \| Kato Engineering Co. \| 64 \| \| Kelvinatec Corp. \| 43 \| \| Kenyon Corp., Inc., The \| 50 \| \| Leonard Refractor Corp. \| 41 \| \| Mallory & Co., Inc., P. R. \| 41 \| \| Muter Co., The \| 62 \| \| National Carbon Co. \| 51 \| \| Newburys Industries, Inc. \| 10 \| \| Norge Co. \| 38 \| \| Ohmite Mfg. Co. \| 66 \| \| Onan & Son, D. W. \| 49 \| \| Pioneer Gen-E Motor Corp. \| 8 \| \| Radcolet Co., The \| 61 \| \| RCA Mfg. Corp. \| 46 \| \| RCA Mfg. Co. (Tubes). Front Cover (Records) \| 37 \| \| (Records) \| 46 \| \| Readrite Meter Works \| 60 \| \| Rider, John F. \| 62 \| \| Sinclair Radio Corp. \| 53 \| \| Solar Mfg. Corp. \| 63 \| \| Sprague Products Co. \| 66 \| \| Swartz-Wattner Corp. \| 30 \| \| Sycamore Electric Mfg. Co. \| 2 \| \| Supreme Instr. Corp. \| 58 \| \| Tungsol Radio Tubes, Inc. \| 4 \| \| United American Bosch Corp. \| 9 \| \| Union Radio Products \| 61 \| \| Victory Mfg. & Dist. Co. \| 64 \| \| Webber Co., Earl \| 64 \| \| Webster Co. \| 61 \| \| Weston Electrical Instr. Co. \| 56 \| SEARCHLIGHT SECTION Classified Advertising Page SELLING OPPORTUNITIES \| 68 CATALOGS \| 68 EDUCATIONAL COURSES \| 68 Capitol Radio Engg. Inst. \| 68 Spraybark, F. L. \| 68 HOTEL AND MOTEL \| 68 RADIO STOCKS \| 68 Allied Radio Corp. \| 68 MCGRAW-HILL PUBLISHING COMPANY, INC., 330 West 42nd Street, New York, N. Y.; Branches: 128 North Michigan Ave., Chicago; 783 Mission St., San Francisco; 1016 Venetian House, Alvarado, Long Beach, Cal.; Washington; Philadelphia; Cleveland; Detroit; St. Louis; Boston; Atlanta, Ga. Printed by The Schweinler Press, N.Y. Octal Socket Jig To speed up the drilling out of un-punched holes in octal sockets so that analyzer plugs will fit I have made a jig of heavy sheet iron. It is circular, same size as the average chassis cut-out, and has holes drilled in all eight pin positions. Generally suitable, exact condenser value depending upon the inductance of the choke used. Don't get the resonant frequency too low or all you will amplify is motorboating. Careful filtering of plate and grid supply leads is necessary because of the high gain involved and resistor-capacitor filters in leads are indicated for this purpose. The auxiliary tube's output may be cut down much below its maximum possibilities as full output would simply overload the power stage. I use only about one-tenth of the possible gain in most jobs. As indicated, the two amplifier outputs are not in phase. This does not appear to affect performance. It would be possible to put outputs in phase by introducing the output of the 6F7 into one grid of the power stage push-pull amplifier and the output of the original audio channel into the other. This would require an additional resistor and coupling condenser, however, and I have not found it necessary. Flexible Filament Supply Uses Line-to-Speaker Transformers By Al Beers A Thordarson type 6048 or equivalent 500 ohm line-to-speaker transformer makes a fairly husky filament transformer for special equipment requiring a.c. voltage variable from .5 to 12.5 volts in small steps. It appears to be able to "take it" on reasonable loads for extended periods and I have used one for 6 weeks following failure of an old filament transformer originally used here for testing. A Thordarson type 76 single tube-to-magnet speaker or equivalent transformer makes a swell 1-to-1 job for any work where 110 to 120 volts a.c. is required and it is desirable to insulate equipment from the supply line, as in a capacity tester, or for the high potential supply of a tube tester. The illustration shows both units hooked up as a supply for a tube-tester. Terminal values, taken on a Weston 476 a.c. voltmeter at 115 volts are as follows. Copper oxide meter measurement will show slightly higher values: \| Terminal \| Volts \| \|----------\|-------\| \| 1 to 2 \| 5.8 \| \| 1 to 3 \| 6.9 \| \| 1 to 4 \| 8.2 \| \| 1 to 5 \| 8.2 \| \| 1 to 6 \| 12.5 \| \| 2 to 3 \| 1.5 \| \| 2 to 4 \| 1.5 \| \| 2 to 5 \| 2.3 \| \| 2 to 6 \| 2.4 \| \| 3 to 4 \| 4.2 \| \| 3 to 5 \| 8.3 \| \| 3 to 6 \| 8.6 \| \| 4 to 5 \| 1.8 \| \| 4 to 6 \| 5.5 \| \| 5 to 6 \| 7.8 \| \| 4 to 7 \| 1.1 \| \| 4 to 8 \| 1.8 \| \| 4 to 9 \| 7.3 \| \| 5 to 7 \| 1.9 \| \| 5 to 8 \| 4.2 \| \| 5 to 9 \| 4.4 \| The diagram shows recommended switching and should be self-explanatory. How To Rewind Orthovox Speakers By H. H. Beech The Utah Orthovox permanent magnet type speakers used in recent battery receivers present some servicing difficulties not found in the ordinary magnetic speaker. The following directions should be observed if the tone and power handling ability of the repaired speaker is to equal that of a new one of the same type. Since the current flows through the speaker windings in most installations, the trouble most commonly encountered is either burned out (open circuited) coils or weakened magnets. The procedure for removing the coils is as follows: First, remove the unit from the cone by loosening the supporting screws; the drive pin can be disconnected from the apex of the cone by holding a hot soldering iron to the soldered connection and at the same time pressing down slightly on the magnets. After the unit has been removed, the aluminum cover plate is taken off and the magnets are pulled away from the pole pieces. If the service man has had but little experience in repairing magnetic speakers, the magnets should be labeled "Right" and "Left" so that the unit can be reassembled in its original form (the markings "O" go to the rear of the unit). Before removing the brass plate or loosening any of the screws, a small rubber band, or sewing thread, should be passed under and around the laminated pole pieces. In this direction there is observed considerable difficulty. It will be encountered in getting the pole pieces back into their slots after the rewinding has been completed. Next remove the screws (nuts in some models) holding the brass plate, insert a thin edge between the plate and the pole pieces and carefully pry the laminations from their slot. Now remove the two flat-head screws at the top (outside) of the unit and the four armature-supporting and adjusting screws. The pole pieces should be removed from the remaining brass plate as outlined above, being careful not to disturb their alignment. Before the winding can be removed it is necessary that the "U" shaped armature supports be unsoldered at the top (the unit is bottom up) end. These should not be entirely removed; merely melt the solder at one end and bend back enough to allow the bobbin to be removed. Before the winding is removed from the bobbin, the paraffin is melted by holding the coil close to a flame or heating it in an oven. Sometimes the break is on the outside and can be repaired without replacing the entire winding. If a new coil must be wound, mark the direction of the old winding, the position of the bobbin on the armature and how full the bobbin is wound with the fine wire. A convenient source of wire supply is to unwind a new audio transformer, the wire being of the same size. The use of burned-out transformers is not recommended as the insulation is likely to be damaged. The easiest method of determining the amount of turns required is to count the layers taken from the transformer. For a 2,000 ohm impedance about 6 layers are required from a standard replacement transformer. If the winding is for push-pull circuits three layers are wound, a tap is brought out and then the remaining three layers are wound in the same direction. After the winding has been completed, it should be tested for continuity and then placed in boiling paraffin for about five or ten minutes. Swish the coil around so that the wax will penetrate the windings. Once the unit is reassembled, the armature should be centered before the drive pin is soldered to the apex of the cone. This is done by adjusting the terminal screws at each end of the armature support. After the unit is remounted on the cone tighten up all supporting screws first and then hold a hot soldering iron to the solder on the metal apex of the cone allowing the drive pin to find its normal position with regard to the cone. The above also applies in a general way to the repair of all kinds of magnetic and permanent magnet speakers. I have repaired dozens of both types and can tell no difference in tone or volume between the repaired speaker and a new one. SEARCHLIGHT SECTION EMPLOYMENT and BUSINESS OPPORTUNITIES—SURPLUS STOCKS—DISCONTINUED MODELS UNDERDISPLAYED—RATE PER WORD: Positions Wanted (full or part-time salaried employment only) 1/2 cents a word, minimum $3.00; all other classifications 1 cent a word, minimum charge $3.00. Proposals, 40 cents a line an insertion. NEW ADVERTISEMENTS RECEIVED UNTIL THE 5TH OF THE MONTH FOR THE ISSUE OUT THE FOLLOWING MONTH. INFORMATION: Box Numbers in care of our New York, Chicago and San Francisco offices count 10 cents each for first insertion. Replies forwarded without extra charge. Discount of 10% if one payment is made for four insertions. No reductions of undisplayed ads (not including proposals). DISPLAYED—RATE PER INCH: 1 inch ............... 7.80 per inch 2 to 3 inches ........... 7.80 per inch 4 to 6 inches ........... 7.80 per inch Rates for larger spaces, or for radio, on request. An advertising inch is measured vertically on one column, 3 columns—30 inches—to a page. SOUND - ON - FILM EQUIPMENT New — Used — Rebuilt 16 mm and 35 mm Startling low prices on projectors, screens, sound heads, amplifiers, microphones, portable projectors, arc lamps, rectifiers, generators, etc. Write for details S.O.S. CORP., 1660 Broadway, New York SEARCHLIGHT SERVICE Covers the Advertising of Agencies Wanted Agents Wanted Auction Notices Bids Wanted Books and Periodicals Buildings for Sale Business Opportunities Civil Service Opportunities Contracts to Be Let Contracts Wanted Educational Employment Agencies Foreign Business For Exchange For Rent Franchises Labor Bureaus Machinery Wanted Partners Wanted Patent Attorneys Patents for Sale Plants for Sale Positions Wanted Positions Wanted Property for Sale Proposals Real Estate Sales Representatives Wanted Salesmen Wanted Second Hand Equipment For Sale For Rent Exchange Wanted Specialties Tutoring Miscellaneous For Sale, For Rent and Wanted Address Departmental Advertising Staff McGraw-Hill Publications The new Crosley Shelvador completely re-styles the electric refrigerator. Beautiful, smart, completely out of the ordinary. And with the new design goes a new convenience, utility, and value. So many are the new features that they cannot all be illustrated on this page. The few shown indicate their far-reaching importance. Ice cube capacity has been increased about three times in some models. A more scientific shelf arrangement gives even greater strength to the slogan: "This Much More in a Shelvador." More than ever: No dealer can afford not to handle Crosley. THE CROSLEY RADIO CORPORATION Pioneer Manufacturers of Radio Receiving Sets POWEL CROSLEY, Jr., President Home of "the Nation's Station" — WXY—most powerful in the world—70 on your dial. CINCINNATI 5 NEW AND SENSATIONAL 1936 GENERAL ELECTRIC RADIO MODELS MODEL A-83. 8 metal tubes. Standard broadcasts, police calls, amateurs, aviation reports, foreign and domestic short-wave. 9-inch type stabilized dynamic speaker. Sliding-rule tuning scale. Speech-music control. Automatic volume control. 10 watts output. MODEL A-52. 5 metal tubes, giving the equivalent of 7-tube performance. Standard broadcasts, foreign short-wave, police calls, aviation reports. 8-inch type stabilized dynamic speaker. Wide-vision dial. Red and black tuning scale. Automatic volume control. I.F. wave trap. Excellent tone. 5 watts output. MODEL A-54. A-c. and D-c. table or shelf model. 5 metal tubes, giving the equivalent of 7-tube performance. Standard broadcasts, foreign short-wave, amateurs, aviation, police calls. 6½-inch type stabilized dynamic speaker. Wide-vision dial. Red and black tuning scale. Automatic volume control. Gracefully styled cabinet. Standard finish: two-toned walnut veneer. Special finishes: white and gold, black and gold, red and black. MODEL A-55. 5 metal tubes, giving the equivalent of 7-tube performance. Standard broadcasts, foreign short-wave, police calls, aviation reports. 9-inch type stabilized dynamic speaker. Wide-vision dial. Red and black tuning scale. Automatic volume control. I.F. wave trap. 5 watts output. MODEL A-85. 8 metal tubes. Standard broadcasts, police calls, amateurs, aviation reports, foreign and domestic shortwave. 10-inch type stabilized dynamic speaker. Sliding-rule tuning scale. Speech-music control. Automatic volume control. Remarkable sensitivity, selectivity, and reserve power. 10 watts output. GENERAL ELECTRIC THE ORIGINAL METAL-TUBE RADIO APPLIANCE AND MERCHANDISE DEPT., GENERAL ELECTRIC CO., BRIDGEPORT, CONN.
JESSIE SHORT et al. v. THE UNITED STATES Political question; Nonjusticiability; Indian tribal; Individual rights; Standards for decision Harold C. Faulkner, attorney of record, for certain plaintiffs. Faulkner, McComish & Wunsch, of counsel. Clifford L. Duke, Jr., attorney of record, for certain plaintiffs. Bryan R. Gerstel and William K. Shearer, Duke & Gerstel, of counsel. Jerry C. Straus, attorney of record, for defendant-intervenor. Wilkinson, Cragun & Barker, Edward M. Fogarty, Alan I. Rubinstein, Jerry R. Goldstein, of counsel. C. David Redmon, attorney of record, for defendant, with whom was Assistant Attorney General James W. Moorman. James E. Brookshire, of counsel. OPINION* SCHWARTZ, Trial Judge: In this case some 3800 Indian plaintiffs, who claim to be Indians of the Hoopa Valley Reservation, are suing for shares of the reservation's timber profits equal to those of all other such Indians. The Government has been held liable, and the case is continuing to determine which of the plaintiffs are Indians of the reservation. Jessie Short v. United States, 202 Ct. Cl. 870, 486 F.2d 561 (1973), cert. denied, 416 U.S. 961-62 (1974). The within opinion is submitted pursuant to orders of reference of November 12, 1976 and November 16, 1979. The defendant-intervenor, the Hoopa Valley Tribe, has now moved to dismiss the case on the ground that the determination of who is an Indian of the reservation requires decision of a nonjusticiable political question, under Baker v. Carr, 369 U.S. 186 (1962). The motion is herein denied. The Government's position on the motion requires careful statement. While the Government joins with the defendant-intervenor in contending that the case "fails the test" of Baker v. Carr, it asks that the court not dismiss, but rather grant a companion motion by the Government to substitute the Yurok Tribe for the plaintiffs. Failing such substitution, the action would remain nonjusticiable and would be dismissed. The motion for substitution is being denied, and the Government must therefore be taken as contending for a dismissal under the political question doctrine. In any event, the reasons advanced by both defendants for application of the doctrine must be examined for validity. Since the decision in Baker v. Carr, all discussions of the nonjusticiable political question doctrine, the present one not excepted, begin with the epitome of the law on the subject by Mr. Justice Brennan in his opinion, 369 U.S. at 217. After describing the major categories of the cases under the doctrine, he wrote: Prominent on the surface of any case held to involve a political question is found a textually demonstrable constitutional commitment of the issue to a coordinate political department; or a lack of judicially discoverable and manageable standards for resolving it; or the impossibility of deciding without an initial policy determination of a kind clearly for nonjudicial discretion; or the impossibility of a court's undertaking independent resolution without expressing lack of the respect due coordinate branches of government; or an unusual need for unquestioning adherence to a political decision already made; or the potentiality of embarrassment from multifarious pronouncements by various departments on one question. I The Contentions Together, the defendants maintain that the case presents all six of the criteria of Baker v. Carr* for the identification of a nonjusticiable question. Two only are made the subject of argument in any detail. One contention, on the premise that the assets here in dispute are tribal assets, argues that questions of Indian tribal affairs and assets are committed exclusively to branches of government other than the judiciary. The other is that the determination of the definition of an Indian of the reservation would require the formulation of judicially nondiscoverable, nonmanageable standards. The first of these is urged by the defendant-intervenor, the second is put forward by the Government. The Government does not press the committed elsewhere condition, presumably in the interest of harmony with the Government's motion that the court act to substitute for the individual plaintiffs a Yurok Tribe being organized by the Interior Department, in which it is urged that the Department's decision is conclusive that the Yurok and Hoopa Tribes are the two sole Indians of the reservation. Four of the Baker v. Carr criteria are not seriously argued: (1.--"[T]he impossibility of deciding without an initial policy determination of a kind clearly for nonjudicial discretion." The initial "policy determination" which would be made by the decision in this case, defendant-intervenor says, is whether the reservation will continue to exist and who is to manage it. These questions will plainly not be decided by this court. (2.--The impossibility of independent resolution "without expressing lack of the respect due coordinate branches of government." Here the motion refers to Committee hearings in Congress on some matters involving the reservation, and to the Interior Department's efforts to organize a Yurok Tribe. Unfortunately, Congress has made no efforts to solve the problems presented in this case. As for the Interior Department's efforts to create a Yurok Tribe, the Department has stated that its efforts are not intended to affect the continued litigation of this case. 44 Fed. Reg. 24536, 24538 (1979). The Department's program for the organization of a Yurok Tribe is discussed in an opinion of today's date denying the Government's motion to substitute the Yurok Tribe for the plaintiffs. (3.--"an unusual need for unquestioning adherence to a political decision already made," is not at all mentioned by the Government and is supported by the defendant-intervenor only by reiteration of its basic argument of the exclusively Congressional power over tribal property. (4.--"the potentiality of embarrassment from multifarious pronouncements by various departments on one question," is supported only by a vague reference to decisions "about to be reached" in "legislation or negotiation." II The Facts and Posture of the Case The first step in an examination for a nonjusticiable political question, according to Baker v. Carr, is a "discriminating inquiry into the precise facts and posture of the particular case," lest "semantic cataloguing" lead a court to reject decision of a bona fide controversy over the legality of some action denominated "political." 369 U.S. at 217. The nature of the case is described in the opinion in Jessie Short, 202 Ct. Cl. 870 (opinion and findings), 486 F.2d 561 (1973) (opinion only), cert. denied, 416 U.S. 961 (1974). Only a brief statement is here needed. The action is a suit by individual Yurok Indians for money which has been wrongfully withheld from them by the Department of the Interior, and paid to the Hoopa Indians per capita, in the legally erroneous belief that the Hoopas are the exclusive owners. By statute the Hoopa Valley Reservation was one of four reservations in California to which the President was authorized to remove Indians. When the reservation was created in 1876, both Hoopas and Yuroks were living in the designated area, a 12-mile square on the Trinity and Klamath Rivers in Northern California, and other Indians moved or were by the Government moved to the reservation from time to time. In 1891 an area adjoining the reservation, down river on the Klamath River, was added to the reservation by executive order. This area was inhabited by Yuroks. "Yurok" means down river. At least since the influx of white settlers into United States territory, the California Indians were not, as were Indians elsewhere, organized into tribal entities, but were gathered together in units no larger than village or similar groups. See Thompson v. United States, 122 Ct. Cl. 348, 356 (1952), cert. denied, 344 U.S. 856 (1952). There were no organized tribes on the original reservation, and there remained none until the imminence of distribution of timber proceeds led the Government in 1950 to sponsor establishment of a Hoopa Valley Tribe, in order to establish a list of eligibles to receive per capita distributions of the burgeoning timber profits. The enlarged reservation was in Jessie Short held to be a single reservation, no part of which is the exclusive property of any Indians, and all of whose Indians have equal rights to aliquot shares in the timber profits of the reservation. In that decision, 22 of 26 representative plaintiffs were found to be Indians of the reservation and were awarded summary judgment, their shares to be computed when the total number of Indians of the reservation was determined. The present posture of the case is that there are pending cross-motions for summary judgment as to the status, as Indians of the reservation, of slightly more than 3200 plaintiffs. Summary judgment has been given in favor of some 120 of the plaintiffs; proceedings to determine the status of the others are pending; and the claims of some 600 intervenors are in an earlier stage. This, then is the nature and posture of the case. The property involved has been held to be the individual property of the Indians of the Hoopa Valley Reservation, and the remaining proceedings will determine which of the individual plaintiffs are Indians of the reservation. The question for decision is whether those proceedings will entail decision of a nonjusticiable political question. III The History of the Present Contentions From 1963 to 1974 in this court and in the Supreme Court the Government argued that the assets involved were tribal and thus that the issues were those of tribal rights, exclusively committed to Congress, and beyond the power of the courts to settle. The repetitions of the contention, and its repeated rejection, are recounted in today's decision on the Government's motion for substitution of plaintiffs. The very cases now cited by the defendant-intervenor to show that the property rights are tribal and therefore their decision involves a political question, Cherokee Nation v. Hitchcock, 187 U.S. 294 (1902), and Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock, 187 U.S. 552 (1903), were cited to the court in 1963 by the Government, to show that the property rights involved were tribal and their determination beyond the court's jurisdiction. The claim of political question by reason of the tribal character of the rights involved is thus no more than a re-dressing of an old, rejected argument. If on the other hand, the motion is not treated as simply a long-delayed motion for a rehearing but as raising an issue for the first time, it is all the more remarkable, for it has been put off for 17 years. This case was instituted on March 27, 1963. The Government moved to dismiss on July 8, 1963. Baker v. Carr, with all the attention it focused on the political question doctrine, was more than a year old. Yet from 1963 through this court's decisions in 1964 and again in 1973 that the action could be maintained as an action for the shares of the individual plaintiffs in reservation timber profits, no mention was made of the political question doctrine. On the trial in 1969 both defendant and the Hoopa Valley Tribe, then an amicus and now a co-defendant, participated with all energy in the examination of the 26 representative plaintiffs. Of the 26, 22 were held to be Indians of the reservation. Thereafter both the Government and the Tribe, now admitted as a party, filed briefs in trial court, appellate division and on petition to the Supreme Court for a writ of certiorari. No mention was made of any nonjusticiable question involved in the decisions on individual entitlement. Following the denial of certiorari by the Supreme Court in 1974, between 2 and 3 years were spent by the parties on personal questionnaires designed to document the qualifications of the individual plaintiffs to be Indians of the reservation. These questionnaires were painfully filled out by over 3200 Indian plaintiffs, checked for accuracy by the Bureau of Indian Affairs and rechecked by plaintiffs' counsel. The facts were compiled and computerized, and in 1976 became the basis for cross-motions for summary judgment for and against 3200 of the 3800 plaintiffs. An additional 600 plaintiffs, the late intervenors in the action, meantime continued to fill out their questionnaires. During all this time, it did not occur to either the Government or the defendant-intervenor to speak out either that the issue was one of tribal rights and thus not for --- 1/ The defendant-intervenor cannot disavow responsibility for what was settled before it was admitted as a party in 1974. Its earlier absence from the case was its own doing. At the outset of the case it successfully resisted a motion to make it a third party defendant. Then it sought to intervene as a defendant, in 1969, on the eve of the trial. Admitted as an amicus, it examined and cross-examined the witnesses and otherwise exercised the privileges of a party. Its admission as a party in 1974 added to its status only the privilege of seeking certiorari as a party from the decision of the court in Jessie Short. 2/ The proceedings on these motions have been suspended for unsuccessful efforts at mediation, for the proceedings by the Government to organize a Yurok Tribe, and for the present motion and the companion motion to substitute a Yurok Tribe for the individual plaintiffs. decision by the judiciary or, if the issue were recognized to be the definition of an Indian of the reservation, that that issue is incapable of decision by the judiciary for lack of discoverable standards. Now, after an enormous investment in time and money by the 3800 Indian claimants and their many counsel, the Government and the defendant-intervenor come forward with a contention of political question which could have been made 17 years ago. If the invocation of Baker v. Carr is regarded as no more than a re-dressing of the old arguments of a lack of jurisdiction over tribal affairs, it is to be denied summarily. If it is a motion on the new ground of the political question doctrine, the long delay in its making bars it on the grounds of laches and estoppel. The motion comes after years of litigation on the premise of justiciability—years of reliance by plaintiffs, induced by the co-defendants, on the justiciability of the issue of the definition of an Indian of the reservation. --- 3/ A crowning touch to the long delay in raising the political question doctrine is the occasion on which the doctrine's applicability is said first to have been revealed to the movant: it came as a suggestion from the trial judge early in 1978. The context of the revelation is not described. It was part of an exhortation delivered to counsel on the merits of settlement and the risks of litigation. One of the paraded horribles was that after decades of litigation the Supreme Court might dismiss the case under the political question doctrine. Upon which the parties proceeded to formal mediation, which was unfortunately a failure. Rhetoric in a good cause needs but little excuse. The many arguments in favor of settlement cannot be of equal quality. Alternatively, the same reasons--the long delay in the making of the motion and the long and active participation by the movants in the litigation to determine individual entitlement--are strong evidence of the lack of merit of the motion now made. IV The Claim of "A Textually Demonstrable Commitment to a Coordinate Political Department" The defendant-intervenor urges, as its primary ground for dismissal under the political question doctrine, that the case is one of those Indian cases held in Baker v. Carr to have been textually by the Constitution committed to Congress for decision. The Government's variation on this contention is that the issue has been committed not to Congress but to the executive branch, and that the court is concluded by the Interior Department's recognition of the Yurok Tribe as the owner, with the Hoopa Tribe, of the timber profits involved. Only a brief word is necessary on this variation of the committed elsewhere argument. The Interior Department can no more conclude the court, nor prescribe a rule of decision for a pending case, than it concluded the court in Jessie Short with its 1958 decision that the Hoopas were the sole owners of the timber profits. Mr. Justice Brennan's exact words were, "a textually demonstrable constitutional commitment of the issue to a coordinate political department." 369 U.S. at 217. Neither the Hoopa Tribe nor the Government dwells on a textual demonstration; indeed, a constitutional text is not mentioned. And neither recognizes the point made by Mr. Justice Brennan that the political question doctrine does not avoid an antecedent question as to the power of the particular branch to conclude a court by its decision. Mr. Justice Brennan, dissenting in Goldwater v. Carter, 444 U.S. 996, ___, 100 S. Ct. 533, 539 (1979). But constitutional text and constitutional power aside, the contention of commitment of the issue elsewhere either misreads Baker v. Carr or misstates the nature of this case. This case is a dispute over individual rights, not a case of tribal rights. Mr. Justice Brennan made it plain in Baker v. Carr that the Indian matters which are committed to Congress, to the extent they are committed, are cases involving the status or recognition of Indian tribes, not Indian individuals. His now famous passage on the doctrine, quoted above, was the conclusion from his detailed review of the cases in four categories--foreign relations, duration of hostilities, the validity of enactments and "[t]he status of Indian tribes." Under that last heading he wrote that "[t]his Court's deference to the political departments in determining whether Indians are recognized as a tribe * * * reflects familiar attributes of political questions" as well as the "unique element" that the relation of Indians to the United States "resembles that of a ward to his guardian." 369 U.S. at 215-16 (quoting from Cherokee Nation v. Georgia, 5 Pet. 1, 16,17 (1831)). Yet, he pointed out, the doctrine has limits, "there is no blanket rule." While it is for Congress and not the courts to determine when the Indian is to be released from the condition of tutelage, Congress may not "'bring a community or body of people within the range of this power by arbitrarily calling them an Indian tribe * * * * Able to discern what is 'distinctly Indian' (United States v. Sandoval, 231 U.S. 28, 46 (1913)), the courts will strike down any heedless extension of that label. They will not stand impotent before an obvious instance of a manifestly unauthorized exercise of power." 369 U.S. at 215-17. In a lengthy footnote, Mr. Justice Brennan explored the limits of the doctrine in Indian cases with a close analysis of Cherokee Nation v. Georgia, supra, the historically leading case: "This case, so frequently cited for the broad proposition that the status of an Indian tribe is a matter for the political departments, is in fact a noteworthy example of the limited and precise impact of a political question." It held no more than that original jurisdiction was lacking, "for the Cherokees could in no view be considered either a State of this Union or a 'foreign state.'" Continuing, Mr. Justice Brennan wrote that Chief Justice Marshall made clear that if the issue of the Cherokee's rights arose in a customary legal context--"a proper case with proper parties"--it would be justiciable. Relevant for the present case is Mr. Justice Brennan's further comment that when in Worcester v. Georgia, 6 Pet. 515 (1832) "the same dispute produced a case properly brought," in which the right asserted was one of protection under federal treaties and laws from conflicting state law, and the relief sought was the voiding of a conviction under that state law, the Court did void the conviction, "despite the consequences in a heated federal-state controversy and the opposition of the other branches of the National Government." 369 U.S. at 215-16, n.43. The political question in Indian cases, so understood, has to do with the status and recognition of Indian tribes, not with the private or property rights of Indian individuals. The rights of individual Indians when controverted, are customarily ruled on by the courts. This distinction, seen by Mr. Justice Brennan in Cherokee Nation v. Georgia and Worcester v. Georgia, may be seen again in the recent cases of Gilligan v. Morgan, 413 U.S. 1, 11-12 (1973) and Scheuer v. Rhodes, 416 U.S. 232, 249 (1974). In the former, the Supreme Court held that the commitment of military functions to Congress and the Executive, and the complexity and subtlety and expertise required to manage these functions, rendered nonjusticiable a suit by the students at Kent State University for an injunction against the Ohio National Guard to restrain its conduct likely to lead to the unconstitutional use of force. Nevertheless, not long afterwards the Court in Scheuer v. Rhodes held Gilligan v. Morgan no bar to an action against the Governor of the State and others for damages on behalf of the estates of the students killed at the Kent State demonstration. The political question doctrine will not serve to prevent the determination of private rights. Scheuer v. Rhodes, supra, 416 U.S. at 249-50. See Scharpf, Judicial Review and the Political Question: A Functional Analysis, 75 Yale L.J. 517, 585-86 (1966). The courts recognize a "textually demonstrable constitutional commitment" to other political branches of a decision on Indian tribal affairs, but at the same time see to it that the political question doctrine of nonjusticiability should not leave Indians, a weak and dependent people, without protection against ill feeling and oppression. See Baker v. Carr, supra, 369 U.S. at 215-16; Choate v. Trapp, 224 U.S. 665, 675 (1912); United States v. Kagama, 118 U.S. 375, 383-85 (1886). This has been the pattern of the cases. The Congress, in the exercise of its plenary power over Indian affairs, may restrict the powers of a tribe (United States v. Wheeler, 435 U.S. 313, 323 (1978)), and the expressed Congressional standard for membership in a tribe will not be disturbed by the courts (see Simmons v. Eagle Seelatsee, 244 F. Supp. 808, 813 (E.D. Wash. 1965), aff'd, 384 U.S. 209 (1966)). And the Congressional power over Indian tribal affairs is held to be exclusive of any attempt on the part of the States to regulate the conduct of Indian tribes. See United States v. Sandoval, supra, 231 U.S. at 45-49; Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock, supra, 187 U.S. at 553; United States v. Holliday, 3 Wall. 407, 419 (1865). Such decisions, it may be noted, speak as much for the protection of private Indian rights from repression by State law, in the spirit of Worcester v. Georgia, supra, as for the exclusivity of Congressional power over tribal affairs. It has been well said that "it appears that the Court was persuaded of the hostility of the states against the Indians and therefore sought to maximize the scope of federal protection." (footnotes omitted) Scharpf, supra, 75 Yale L.J. at 586. Whatever the matters committed to Congress, the claims of individual Indian rights to land or money wrongfully withheld will not be held nonjusticiable, despite the implication of political matters. Even actions affecting the status of Indian tribes or claimed Indian tribal rights are justiciable, where the objective of the suit is the vindication of the tribe's rights. Thus the courts will pass on the status as a tribe of an Indian group laying claim to allegedly tribal lands. See Mashpee Tribe v. New Seabury Corp., 427 F. Supp. 899 (D.Mass. 1977), aff'd, 592 F.2d 575 (1979), cert. denied, 100 S. Ct. 138 (1979); Narragansett Tribe v. Southern Rhode Island Land Development Corp., 418 F. Supp. 798 (D.R.I. 1976). And there is no reluctance to pass on tribal matters where the claim is that the Secretary of the Interior has arbitrarily interferred with the tribe's controls of its own monetary affairs. See Harjo v. Kleppe, 420 F. Supp. 1110 (D.D.C. 1976), aff'd sub nom. Harjo v. Andrus, 581 F.2d 949 (D.C.Cir. 1978). What appears from the foregoing is that the application to Indian cases of the committed elsewhere aspect of the political question doctrine is limited at most to cases of tribal status or affairs, and has no application to individual Indian rights, or to actions to vindicate Indian rights, or to challenge the legality of government action. Since this is a case in which claimants are seeking the vindication of individual Indian rights, denied by the Executive Branch, it is doubly not subject to the doctrine. V The Claim of "A Lack of Judicially Discoverable and Manageable Standards" for Decision The second invocation of the political question doctrine addresses the issue actually before the court--the determination which of the plaintiffs are Indians of the Hoopa Valley Reservation. The Government argues that there are no "judicially discoverable and manageable standards"--the words of Baker v. Carr--for resolving "what is it that makes an Indian of the Reservation"; the case thus "fails the test" of Baker v. Carr for justiciability. The nature of the question, the Government contends, makes it impossible to fashion standards for individual qualification as an entitled Indian of the reservation: Despite his best efforts, the Trial Judge has been unable to fashion standards for individual qualifications as an 'entitled Indian of the Reservation' in reference to the legal arguments of counsel. We submit that this impasse derives from the nature of the question rather than the deficiencies in the legal arguments espoused. In the context of this case, for example, what are the legal criteria for choosing between a 1/4 blood minimum and a 1/8 blood minimum or any blood requirement at all? To borrow a concept from administrative law, 'there is no law to apply.' Citizens to Preserve Overton Park v. Volpe, 401 U.S. 402, 410 (1971). (Government brief, Feb. 7, 1980, 2-3). It is of course premature now to say that the trial judge is unable to determine which of the plaintiffs are Indians of the reservation. This is especially so since the Government and the Hoopa Valley Tribe found it easy, in the summary judgment proceedings, to fashion a standard and propose it for adoption, on the strength of large numbers of cited authorities. Their standard makes no fine distinctions between 1/4 and 1/8 blood, but disqualifies all of less than 1/2 blood, as well as most of those with 1/2 blood. The issue is, however, both difficult and novel. It is novel because there is no counterpart outside California of the system of nontribal reservations there obtaining, and because the California Indians themselves are unique in their nontribal character, that is, in the absence of organized tribes. It is difficult to decide--especially with little help from the parties--how much Indian blood, or the blood of tribal groups found on the reservation, shall distinguish Indians of the reservation. What years, if any, of residence, on, or off, the reservation shall be required? What other associations--or disassociations--with the reservation shall weigh in the decision: birthplace, residence in formative or in the aging years, 4/ The Government and the Hoopa Valley Tribe propose a standard composed of eight separate grounds for disqualification, whose cumulative result would disqualify all but some 120 of the 3200 plaintiffs who are the subjects of the motion for summary judgment. The plaintiffs, in turn, proposed a standard which qualified all but a handful of their members. Such loyalty to clients is understandable from counsel for the Yuroks and Hoopas, but more might have been expected from counsel for the United States. education "on" or "off," descent from residents listed on early censuses, the ownership of allotments? The motions for summary judgment are still pending. Among the pending matters are such sources of assistance to the court as the employment of a court-appointed expert and invitations to appropriate organizations to appear as amici curiae on the issue of the appropriate qualifications for an Indian of the reservation. It is not at all beyond the realm of possibility that the trial judge--and if not the trial judge, another judge or panel of judges--will find a formula which weighs and balances various indicia, to a just result. Perhaps the elements of reservation Indian status need not be so rigorously absolute as the Government implies. For instance, claimants with lesser degrees of Indian blood may perhaps be qualified by the number of their years of residence, or by other indicia of attachment. The "standard" or definition of an Indian of the reservation will of course be important only for the close cases. Of the 26 representative plaintiffs whose cases were tried, 22 were found to be qualified as Indians of the reservation, and four were set down for rehearing. Of the over 3,000 individual Indians now under consideration, the greatest number would doubtless be readily disposed of, even by a standard which relegated obvious cases to the far sides of the dividing line, and left cases in the middle for special treatment. It is of course desirable that a single, precise formula be found to decide every case, but it may be questioned whether an all-purpose, mathematical definition is an absolute. Thus a residue of close or doubtful cases could be heard specially, in the interest of avoiding injustice. The Hoopa Tribe, when it decided who should be its members and thereby become eligible for per capita distributions of timber profits, went as far as it could with category definitions, and then added named individuals. The issue is, after all, the determination of the status of individuals. If no predetermined standard will do the job, case by case decisions, even on 3,000 claimants, are in this court not impossible. Difficulty in formulation of the required definition could not justify a refusal to decide. It is the business of the federal courts to decide difficult and novel questions. A long list could be made of difficult questions, with political implications, decided by federal judges. Near the top might be the power of the House of Representatives over its members (Powell v. McCormack, 395 U.S. 486 (1969)), the fairness of a legislative apportionment plan (Baker v. Carr, supra), and whether inflation is an unconstitutional diminution of judicial compensation (Atkins v. United States, 214 Ct. Cl. 186, 556 F.2d 1028 (1977), cert. denied, 434 U.S. 1009 (1978)). Indian cases are no more difficult than many decided by the courts. The federal courts are "able to discern what is 5/ The archives of the court contain the decision by Commissioner Guion Miller on the 45,857 separate applications to share in a judgment in the case of the Eastern Cherokees v. United States, 45 Ct. Cl. 104 and 229 (1910), aff'd 225 U.S. 572 (1912). The Commissioner examined 4500 witnesses in 17 states and in his ten volume report on May 28, 1909, approved 30,254 claims. 'distinctly Indian.'" Baker v. Carr, 369 U.S. at 216. Who is an Indian is routinely decided under the Indian Crimes Act, 18 U.S.C. § 1153 (1976) without a fixed definition. See, e.g., United States v. Broncheau, 597 F.2d 1260 (9th Cir. 1979); United States v. Dodge, 538 F.2d 770 (8th Cir. 1976); cf. Montoya v. United States, 180 U.S. 261 (1901) (Indian "tribe" or "band" construed). A boundary dispute between two Indian tribes, not settled by the text of the governing statute, will not be turned away from court for lack of standards for the decision. Sekaquaptewa v. MacDonald, 9th Cir., Nos. 78-3504, 78-3505, May 23, 1980. While the question is apparently novel in the courts, the concept of an "Indian of the reservation" is not new in the statutes. For 50 years the phrase appeared in a statute concerning distribution of timber profits. Lastly, the decision of who are the Indians of the Hoopa Valley Reservation is fundamentally a further construction of the statute and executive order held in Jessie Short to have created a reservation, all of whose Indians have equal rights to such reservation fruits as timber profits. In the --- 6/ In the Timber Act of June 25, 1910, c. 431, § 7, 36 Stat. 857, codified as 25 U.S.C. § 407 (1940), the Secretary of the Interior was authorized to use timber profits "for the benefit of the Indians of the reservation." In the course of a comprehensive amendment in 1964 these words were rewritten to read "for the benefit of the Indians who are members of the tribe or tribes concerned." Act of April 30, 1964. Pub. L. No. 88-301, 78 Stat. 186-87, 25 U.S.C. § 407 (1964). *See H.R. Rep. No. 1292, 88th Cong., 2d Sess. 3 (1964), reprinted in [1964] U.S. Cong. & Ad. News 2162, 2164: "This change provides a better reference to the Indians entitled to share in the financial benefits flowing from such timber sales." language of the political question doctrine, the "initial policy decision" which is not for the courts to make, was in the present case made by the 1876 statute and the 1891 executive order. Cf. Narragansett Tribe v. Southern Rhode Island Land Development Corp., supra, 418 F. Supp. at 815. The decision on who are the Indians of the reservation will constitute the performance of the traditional function of judicial statutory interpretation. "Resolution of the question may not be easy, but it only requires us to apply normal principles of interpretation." Mr. Justice Powell, concurring in Goldwater v. Carter, supra, 444 U.S. at ___, 100 S. Ct. at 535. Accord, Powell v. McCormack, supra, 395 U.S. at 548-49; National Treasury Employees Union v. Nixon, supra, 492 F.2d at 603. VI Conclusion Application of the political question doctrine would require dismissal of the case, the Government's prayer for substitution of plaintiffs notwithstanding. Just as there are "prudential considerations" which counsel dismissal to avoid a decision on political questions, so are there prudential and 7/ Mr. Justice Powell has reduced the six criteria of Baker v. Carr to three inquiries, the last of which is, "Do prudential considerations counsel against judicial intervention?" Goldwater v. Carter, 444 U.S. 996, ___, 100 S. Ct. 533, 534 (1979). See also, A. M. Bickel, The Least Dangerous Branch (The Supreme Court at the Bar of Politics), 183-98 (1962); Bickel, The Supreme Court, 1960 Term: Foreward, The Passive Virtues, 75 Harv. L. Rev. 40, 42-51 (1961); contra: Mr. Justice Douglas, concurring in Baker v. Carr, 369 U.S. at 246, n.3; Wechsler, Toward Neutral Principles of discretionary considerations here which counsel against dismissal. A dismissal could not be explained to the 3800 plaintiff Yuroks who have sued and labored for many years for the "large, personal judgments" (the Government's words) for their money, paid by the Government to the Hoopas. "[D]ismissal of the suits now," the Government says, "would only exacerbate the day-to-day conflict on the reservation and make any peaceful organization of the Yurok Tribe and management of the reservation resources virtually impossible." Government brief, February 7, 1980, 4. The political question doctrine is a tool for the maintenance of order, not for the promotion of disorder. Finally, the court may not neglect to exercise its jurisdiction, exclusive of all other courts, to hear Indian monetary claims of the kind and magnitude here involved. Cf. Cohens v. Virginia, 6 Wheat. 264, 404 (1821); Navajo Tribe v. United States, Ct. Cl. Nos. 69, 299, 353, May 28, 1980, slip op. Part IV. Only a substantial claim of nonjusticiability may be ground for judicial refusal to decide a controversy within the jurisdiction of an Article III court. Cf. United States v. Nixon, 418 U.S. 683, 697 (1974). Accord, National Treasury Employees Union v. Nixon, 492 F.2d 587, 606 (D.C.Cir. 1974). 7/(cont'd) Constitutional Law, 73 Harv. L. Rev. 1, 7-10 (1959); cf. Henkin, Is There a "Political Question" Doctrine, 85 Yale L.J. 597, 622-24 (1976). Considerations of prudence are believed to be the source of the application of the political question doctrine to the status of Indian tribes. See C.G. Post, The Supreme Court and Political Questions, 112 et seq., passim (1936). The nature of the group of plaintiffs and the rights they assert, the posture of the proceedings and the settled law of the case, all confirm that the claim of the presence of a political question is insubstantial. There is no textually demonstrable constitutional commitment of decision elsewhere, no showing that the issues are beyond judicial capability to decide. Accordingly, it is the court's duty to decide the case, "to say what what the law is." Chief Justice Burger in United States v. Nixon, supra, 418 U.S. at 703 (quoting Marbury v. Madison, 1 Cranch 137, 177 (1803)). The motion must therefore be denied.
Pushing the Boundaries Offering digital and onsite services at your stores will be critical for future success, industry insiders insist. BY JERRY SOVERINSKY A few days before Ringo’s husband visited Japan on a business trip, the southern California blogger, desirous of numerous local items, but knowing that her husband would have little free time during his visit, placed an order on Amazon Japan. To save on shipping costs, rather than send the items to his Tokyo hotel, she shipped them to a nearby konbini, or convenience store, which has a delivery arrangement with the online seller. “It was very convenient because he didn’t have to shop around for me during his business trip in Japan,” she wrote on her blog. “He was able to save a lot of time.” The arrangement was not unique to that particular convenience store; rather, it is a ubiquitous arrangement—Amazon Japan Convenience Store Pickup—for Japanese konbini. (The service is distinct from Amazon Locker, a delivery model in the United States, in that the Japanese model also accommodates those who do not shop online, allowing them to order from specialty kiosks in the stores.) For travelers (and locals), the service is built on convenience, with thousands of endpoints serving as ship-to and pickup locations. And for store owners, the service is a traffic builder, one that can leverage store visits to stimulate in-store sales. It’s just one of several service-oriented features of Japanese convenience stores, which offer copying and faxing, photo printing, dry cleaning, bill payment, complimentary Wi-Fi and ticket reservations for flights, sporting events and concerts, in addition to selling standard convenience store fare like sodas and snacks. As a result, the stores are playing an increasingly prominent role in Japanese life, generating enthusiasm and loyalty among a passionate customer base. Convenience—that is, a more efficient and easier way of doing personal tasks—has emerged as perhaps the most powerful force shaping our individual lives and our economies. “Convenience stores are like braised pork rice,” said customer Yata Wang to the Wall Street Journal. “They are everywhere in Taiwan but you still keep longing for their flavor.” U.S. retailers can succeed by borrowing liberally from Japanese konbini, even if that doesn’t mean selling Monster Jam tickets or removing stains from cashmere. And it comes down to understanding the evolving consumer expectations of your eponymous industry: convenience. “Convenience decides everything,” said Evan Williams, Twitter co-founder, in a February 2018 New York Times op-ed. “[It] is all destination and no journey, we are becoming people who care mainly or only about outcomes.” Which means that offering 60-second checkouts and clean bathrooms, while essential basics for survival, may not—will not—be sufficient to grow your business. “In the developed nations of the 21st century, convenience—that is, a more efficient and easier way of doing personal tasks—has emerged as perhaps the most powerful force shaping our individual lives and our economies,” wrote Tim Wu, a law professor at Columbia, in a Wall Street Journal op-ed. You see this in your stores, as tweens, 20somethings and soccer moms browse their smartphones while filling their carts. There’s a different dynamic at play among shoppers today. They want food delivered and gas tanks replenished and a better deal and quicker service and … probably something different—but-based-on-the-same-premise tomorrow, next week and well into the future. ARE YOU BLOATED? Uber-like convenience store on wheels goPuff has grown by refining its offerings, an efficiency that traditional storefronts might find instructive. The below are the top 10 items ordered from goPuff in Newark, New Jersey, according to the Delaware Business Times. If you’re a Delaware c-store owner, where do these sit on your shelves? 1. Flamin’ Hot Cheetos 2. Poland Spring Water 3. Nesquik Chocolate Milk 4. Lay’s Salt and Vinegar Chips 5. Reese’s 6. Half Baked Ben & Jerry’s 7. Bagel Bites (pepperoni) 8. Two-liter Coca Cola 9. Cup Noodles (chicken) 10. Trojan Ultra-Ribbed Condoms The question is: Are you preparing to meet their changing expectations? Are you adapting your business model to move beyond simply selling merchandise, broadening your offerings to include more holistic notions of convenience? For that, you’ll need to consider an enhanced service-centric model, one that builds on these changing lifestyle dynamics. RETHINKING CONVENIENCE “Forget about what the convenience category used to mean for the past 30 years,” instructs Gunter Pfau, CEO of Stuzo, a provider of personalized and predictive commerce solutions for convenience store and fuel retailers. “Convenience will mean something different in five and certainly 15 years than what it means today.” To succeed, he says, will require “rethinking the category—convenience is what really matters.” It’s not a one-size-fits-all proposition, either, but reflective of your customer demographic. “Convenience differs by location. It means something different for urban and suburban consumers. “We’re not taking the constraints of what convenience is; we’re reimagining what it is,” he said. “What we’re saying is to rethink the category: What does convenience mean in the store for a professional living in an urban environment, for instance.” After conducting a comprehensive analysis of the digital capabilities of the convenience store industry’s top 100 brands—their mobile assets, digital presence and so on—and compiling hundreds of hours of video footage and interviews studying consumer shopping behaviors, Stuzo began formalizing emerging opportunities for convenience store retailers, most of whom lag far behind those in other industries when it comes to digital expertise. “The store footprint is becoming less important,” Pfau concluded, “and if you’re going to have a store footprint, you need to reimagine it … It’s easier to expand digitally than it is with physical locations.” Case in point: goPuff. CONVENIENCE WITHOUT PHYSICAL BOUNDARIES Started in 2013 by two undergraduates at Philadelphia’s Drexel University, goPuff began by delivering snacks, late at night, to local college students. Margins? What margins? Laugh at your own peril. Within four years, the service had expanded to include more than 70 Philadelphia delivery drivers alone, while expanding to 20 locations, from large urban centers (Chicago and New York) to more remote towns (Madison, Wisconsin). As a result of its popularity, the company has attracted millions of dollars in venture capital. Its durability and growth reflect a strict focus on efficiency, as goPuff doesn’t aim to be a hypermarket on wheels. Its premise is straightforward and uncluttered: Deliver snacks and smokes and alcohol and cigarettes—college kids’ essentials—24 hours of day, within 30 minutes of a mobile order. (Does the product assortment sound familiar?) “It’s Wawa on wheels,” proclaimed the Philadelphia Inquirer, describing the goPuff operation as incorporating a centralized warehouse in each college town where the company has a presence (typically in a low, low, low rent district), one that stocks 3,000 of the most popular items. Uncomplicated, yes. It’s powered by a popular smartphone app, which gives consumers easy access to tap-and-go ordering. And the concept is resonating—strongly—among its users. “Being judged grabbing five pints of ice cream—I don’t want any of that,” said goPuff’s co-founder Rafael Ilishayev in explaining the company’s appeal. “Judgment is a big thing. Otherwise we wouldn’t be selling so many Plan B [pills].” MEANWHILE, BACK AT THE STORE While the strength of a digital offering will indeed enhance your sales opportunities and thwart companies like goPuff from capturing what are otherwise standard convenience store occasions, changing how your physical stores operate is also crucial for success. Think about integrating frictionless checkout (the true “grab and go” experience), highly personalized experiences like predictive ordering and providing essential consumer needs like financial services, among others. “One of the challenges we see in the future is getting people into your stores, especially if they have driverless vehicles,” Pfau said. “They won’t need to go into a store any more for a cup of coffee. These services will get them to come in.” Gray Taylor, executive director of Conexxus, agrees. “The guys coming after us are digital natives that don’t pay for real estate,” he said. “We’ve got a tremendous real estate expense and have to get customers into our stores.” MONEY MAKERS One offering that Taylor believes holds substantial potential is financial services, something that many retailers used to offer. “In the 1980s, New York State had a regulation that prohibited big banks from opening a branch in a town with a state-chartered bank,” he said. “So I started a non-bank-owned financial network in 1983. When consumers traveled throughout the state, they could access their bank through this network.” The service allowed consumers to make mortgage payments, pay their utility bills and withdraw cash. “Basically, everything that you can do online today,” Taylor said. Over the following two decades, the laws changed, removing restrictions on big banks while clamping down on money transfer services, diminishing the market for financial services in convenience stores. “But it’s still viable. Keep in mind, one-quarter of the population is underbanked, and many are not banked at all,” Taylor said. “And if you don’t have a debit card, how do you purchase something on Amazon?” There are debit cards, of course, but those come with fees. “In Latin America, Netflix provides you with a barcode on your phone, you go to a convenience store and pay your bill, with the store earning a fee,” he said. “And in Brazil, you can buy airline tickets at stores, presenting a barcode on your phone to a convenience store, which also earns a fee for the service.” Walmart has already carved out a strong presence in offering financial services, with many of its Sam’s Club warehouse stores offering small business loans, while its stores include money centers, providing prepaid payment cards and checking accounts that serve its unbanked customers. “Unbanked companies use plans from Walmart to pay for things like cable and Netflix,” Taylor said. “Walmart is now the biggest unchartered bank in the world.” Seeking to capitalize on similar opportunities, Amazon announced earlier this year that it is working with major financial institutions, including J.P. Morgan Chase, to develop bank account-like products that will allow customers to shop its website without a credit card. The Japanese konbini were definitely on to something. So what are you waiting for? It’s difficult enough allocating employee time to change coffee filters, no doubt cashing checks will create a deeper resource drain, you’re thinking? Think again, Taylor said. “The labor component can be done seamlessly,” Taylor said. “We have lottery tickets that yield 6% commissions. If somebody came to your store to pay a $200 utility bill, at 2%, you’ll get $4. And it can be integrated at POS, so you won’t need a dedicated terminal.” Not to mention, the availability of those services will draw traffic to your stores, enhancing overall sales. “When we put in-store banking in our stores, our inside sales went up 3% at a 15% incremental profit rate,” Taylor said. “So if you get an extra $1 in sales, the incremental profit is huge.” BACK TO THE FUTURE So what’s the takeaway? Add a Ticketmaster kiosk? Peddle flat screen TVs? Cash checks? The precise answer will reflect your company’s demographic. (“Financial service offerings at a convenience store won’t work in Bloomfield Hills, Michigan—obviously,” Taylor said.). But the only certainty today in retail is change—and the necessity to adapt, either reactively or better yet, proactively. “If I were a Board member at one of the big convenience store companies, I would be scared,” Stuzo’s Pfau said. “Every company in this vertical should be worried about their existence 25 year from now. This is based on our understanding of consumer trends and what’s going on. Every company is facing existential threats.” Pfau insists that’s not hyperbole, but a macro view of society. “Unless you build a one-to-one relationship digitally with consumers, you will not be able to transform your business. You need to pivot.” Taylor agrees, and emphasizes that no matter your path for change, success will come by focusing on your industry’s enduring promise: convenience. “Think about how you can save your customers time, and your business model will then change. This is about removing friction,” Taylor said, pausing to emphasize a summation. “It’s not about just selling Cokes, smokes and gas.” Related: Feature (/category/Feature), Retailer Focus (/category/Retailer-Focus) ABOUT JERRY SOVERINSKY Jerry Soverinsky is a Chicago-based freelance writer. He’s also a NACS Magazine contributing writer. 0 Comments NACS Magazine 1 Login Recommend Sort by Best Start the discussion… LOG IN WITH OR SIGN UP WITH DISQUS Be the first to comment. ALSO ON NACS MAGAZINE Tank Corrosion 2 comments • 4 months ago NACS Magazine — We’re glad you liked the article! I’ll share your resource with our Fuels team and … Testing Healthy Sales 2 comments • 3 months ago NACS Magazine — Glad you enjoyed it, Paul! 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Keith Urban WINTER/SPRING 2007 Christina Aguilera The Who Merle Haggard Don Omar Trevor Rabin and much more... www.bmi.com evolve. DON'T BE PART OF MUSIC HISTORY. Berkleemusic is the online extension school of Berklee College of Music. Learn to adapt to the changing music industry with forward-thinking online music business courses and programs taught by Berklee’s world-renowned faculty. - Music Business - Guitar - Music Production - Songwriting - Theory - Harmony & Ear Training Call Our Advisors Today 1.866.BERKLEE 10% Discount for BMI Members! www.bmi.com/discounts Berklee music learn music online When the talented duo that makes up Gnarls Barkley decided to join forces in 2003, it was no surprise that their debut album, St. Elsewhere, was as distinctive as its two members. The collaboration of rapper/singer Thomas “Cee-Lo Green” Callaway and DJ/producer Brian “Danger Mouse” Burton — both from Atlanta — resulted in their first single, “Crazy,” which was an instant success in the U.K. and became the first song to top the British charts solely through digital distribution. It also peaked at No. 1 in the U.S. on Billboard’s Hot Digital Songs chart, and continues its Top 10 reign in the dance, pop, modern rock and adult contemporary categories. Other singles from the album posted to the group’s MySpace page, including “Gone Daddy Gone,” “Go Go Gadget Gospel” and “Smiley Faces,” have been downloaded several thousand times. Cee-Lo broke into the scene in the mid-‘90s with the group Goodie Mob, singing over tracks like “Soul Food” and “Black Ice.” He later released two solo albums, 2002’s Cee-Lo Green and His Perfect Imperfections and 2004’s Cee-Lo Green…Is the Soul Machine. Danger Mouse is also no stranger to the spotlight. While attending the University of Georgia, he released two electronica albums, 1999’s The Chilling Effect and 2000’s Rhode Island. He then left school to follow his dream and become a trip-hop DJ in London. After honing his skills as a producer, Danger Mouse returned to the States and released two more albums. It wasn’t until 2004, when he released The Grey Album, that he started to become known in the industry. That disc, which was a combination of The Beatles’ White Album and Jay-Z’s Black Album, was downloaded more than a million times in one day. He gained the attention of Gorillaz member Damon Albarn, who got him to work on their Grammy-winning Demon Days CD. Felicia J. Barclay --- The Wreckers Twin harmonies layered over some of the most dapper melodies and stories in recent country music memory have become The Wreckers MO. Members Michelle Branch and Jessica Harp took a chance on each other and Nashville, and so far, it’s returned fat dividends, including a 2006 Grammy nomination — the capping applause for a year filled with much of the same. CMT dubbed the girls’ debut, Stand Still, Look Pretty, one of the top country albums of the year, and their first single, “Leave the Pieces,” hit No. 1 after a long, steady climb up the charts. A CMA nomination helped officially welcome the duo to Music City, but the nod strayed from those typically designated for newcomers. Instead of a Horizon Award nomination, Michelle and Jessica jumped into the company of established country superstars with a Duo of the Year nod. New as they are to the country market, no one treats them as such; their music simply won’t allow it. Michelle Branch first gained major attention as a teenage pop star, boasting the Grammy Award-winning duet with legend Carlos Santana, “Game of Love,” along with multiple hit singles on her résumé. Instead of lingering in proven success, Branch felt drawn to country music’s emphasis on gritty, honest songwriting. Jessica Harp’s stint as Michelle’s backup singer came after the two discovered a special kinship through mutual friends, prompting Branch to extend an invitation to Jessica to join her on the road. Harp drew industry attention of her own, including a major label proposition for the solo career she thought she’d always wanted. Nothing felt quite right, and Jessica waited. Finally, a major Nashville label offered her a deal, she accepted and the Kansas City native packed and headed east. Harp put in a phone call to her best friend, and The Wreckers were born. Michelle and Jessica’s ruminations over forging a band together fell perfectly into place — the patience and roll of the die resulted in one of 2006’s most galvanic country music forays, ushering in a seasoned, yet refreshingly new pair brimming with promise. Elisabeth Dawson Webster’s defines a “raconteur” as “one who excels at telling anecdotes.” Or in other words, a storyteller. Anyone who knows Jack White’s prodigious talents as a songwriter with The White Stripes would agree that he’s one of contemporary rock’s mightiest musical storytellers (as well as a premier stylist, guitarist and bandleader). Pair him with another notable songwriter and artist, White’s old Detroit pal Brendan Benson, then add bassist Jack Lawrence and drummer Patrick Keeler — both from the Cincinnati band The Greenhornes — and you have The Raconteurs, one of the hottest new wrinkles within the modern rock scene. The new group began when White and Benson got together one hot summer day and wrote and recorded the song “Steady, As She Goes” at Benson’s East Grand Studio (which was, in fact, the attic of his home). Fired by what they created, the two joined forces with Lawrence and Keeler — whose band had been produced by Benson — to record a full album of Benson/White compositions whenever they had time amidst all their other activities. “We just went in and wrote songs and recorded immediately,” says White of their creative approach. Even though inspiration drove the project, the process of getting 10 songs down took a good year. But finally, in May 2006, the foursome released their debut album as The Raconteurs, Broken Boy Soldiers. The disc hit No. 7 on the U.S. charts and No. 2 in the U.K., powered by the success of its first single, the seminal “Steady, As She Goes,” which reached No. 1 on the Billboard Modern Rock chart. Hitting the road to appear at festivals like Lollapalooza as well as at clubs, the group that calls itself “a new band made up of old friends” quickly became a star attraction. What at first glance may have looked like a one-off side project now seems destined to take its place alongside its members’ other pursuits. The band has relocated to Nashville and is writing and recording new material. But even after a hit album and the better part of a year on the road, The Raconteurs remain a work in progress. “The band is just changing so much,” says White. “We’re really trying to figure out what we are.” Rob Patterson --- It’s been hard to miss Rick Ross lately, and not only because of the rap star’s hulking 300-pound frame. One person who’d surely agree would be Jay-Z. Once Ross’s underground anthem “Hustlin’” turned into a street smash, Jay-Z began a hunt for the Miami-bred rapper that sparked a bidding frenzy between Def Jam, Bad Boy and Irv Gotti’s label The Inc. Subsequent to Ross’s linking with Def Jam, label president Jay-Z frequently said that he was making Ross his “top priority,” and, clearly, he did. “Hustlin’” peaked at No. 7 on Billboard’s rap chart and hit No. 54 on the Hot 100. Before his Port of Miami album was released last August, “Hustlin’” had one million ringtone units, all but certifying that Def Jam’s attempt to make Rick Ross “large” paid off big. Born William Roberts, Ross grew up in Carol City, Fla., a bleak Miami suburb. He began rapping in the mid 1990s and started a group, Carol City Cartel. Ross takes his name from Los Angeles kingpin Ricky Ross, who ran a large drug distribution network in the 1980s and early 1990s. Ross the rapper alludes often to Miami’s position as a hub for international drug smuggling, and his rhymes often reflect the city’s dark underbelly. Although Ross is no doubt glad to have left the mean streets of Miami, he hasn’t forgotten his roots: In December of 2006, he launched Rick Ross Charities, a group that seeks to provide youth with educational and social enhancement opportunities. Malcolm Venable The Pink Spiders enter 2007 as one of the most talked about bands of 2006: Believe the hype. Rolling Stone, MTV, Bleeder and Spin jumping on the pink bandwagon constitutes as a big, ole steamy helping of hype for the brazen little trio that manages to speed ahead of the curve and pump out some of the best pop punk in years. Angst-ridden bubblegum with a mean sense of humor endears the hipsters to the growing pond of listeners who gobble up The Pink Spider’s deliciously naughty bravado. Lead singer and guitarist Matt Friction, bassist Jon Decious, and drummer Bob Ferrari couple dance-inducing beats with cheeky lyrics documenting the decadent, unapologetic lifestyles of rock stars. The secret’s out: The Spiders have a knack for belting out tightly packaged three-minute pop tarts. The group calls Nashville home and became gang leaders for a new generation of indie rockers in a town best known for the Ryman and Music Row. Their rapid ascension began with the foreshadowing EP The Pink Spiders Are Taking Over in 2004. 2005’s full-length Hot Pink crammed kids into venues across the country, and the majors came knocking. The Pink Spiders’ major label debut for Geffen, Teenage Graffiti, is the cause for the latest onslaught of hullabaloo. Tracks like “Little Razorblade” and “Modern Swinger” give teen crushes a welcome overhaul, while “Easy Way Out” revels in delightful paranoia. Produced by Cars’ frontman Ric Ocasek, the album serves as an early snapshot of rock stars who were never anything but. Elisabeth Dawson Life doesn’t always turn out the way we plan. Sometimes it turns out even better. Just ask Jake Owen. The RCA Records newcomer originally wanted to be a professional golfer. However, an accident changed those plans. “I was home for the summer and a few weeks before I was supposed to go back to school, I was waterskiing and had a bad accident,” Owen recalls. “I had reconstructive shoulder surgery and spent the next year and a half doing rehabilitation. I really couldn’t play golf. My neighbor had a guitar and I started teaching myself how to play.” That led to performing around his Florida hometown and an eventual move to Nashville. “I think things happen for a reason,” he says. “You just roll with it, keep your head up and keep believing. It happens the way it’s supposed to and my life has definitely worked out that way. I’m so thankful that I’m able to call this a job.” After moving to Music City, he opened a bank account and while chatting with the teller, told her he was trying to break into country music. She asked him for a CD, and he just happened to have one in his pocket. The next day he got a call from Warner/Chappell Music. That didn’t result in a deal, but soon after, Owen met producer Jimmy Ritchey. The two began writing together and Ritchey helped Owen land his deal with RCA. Owen co-wrote every song on his debut, Startin’ With Me, which includes a duet with one of his musical heroes, Alabama’s Randy Owen. The newcomer caught the attention of country radio with his up-tempo debut single “Yee Haw,” and then followed up with the poignant title track. Owen spent the better part of 2006 opening for Kenny Chesney and Brad Paisley. “It’s a very surreal kind of feeling because a lot of people work really hard to get to where they really want to be,” he says. “Now that I’ve gotten to this point, it’s an amazing feeling, but actually I’m still not there yet. I’m the opening act and I want to be where Kenny is. I want to be the guy with the name on the ticket. That’s my goal.” Deborah Evans Price The five guys in Hinder make no bones about wanting to deliver straight-ahead, no-frills rock. “Five people singing and putting on a big rock show,” declares lead singer Austin Winkler. “We want to bring that back. It would be wicked if we could.” It’s all going according to plan so far: The group’s debut album, Extreme Behavior (Universal Republic), effortlessly cracked the Billboard Top 10 and went platinum. The band’s mix of bedrock influences — ranging from Aerosmith and AC/DC to Buckcherry and the Foo Fighters — blends Winkler’s raspy “Blower” Garvey and Mark King, vocals with an arena-rock approach led by guitarists Joe anchored by bassist Mike Rodden and drummer Cody Hanson. Hinder was formed in Oklahoma City in 2001, when Garvey and Hanson discovered Winkler singing for a cover band at a college dorm party. “I heard him and was blown away,” says Hanson. “He has the kind of charisma very few people have and that unique voice.” The group’s dynamics quickly came together in rehearsals, as its members realized they shared the same goals. “We didn’t want to be just another faceless rock band playing depressing, ‘I hate my dad’s music,’” says Hanson, who writes most of Hinder’s material with Winkler. “We wanted to go out there and kick ass like they did in the ‘80s.” Sex and drugs (and of course rock & roll) flow freely through Extreme Behavior, from lead single “Get Stoned” (which Winkler describes as “Let’s get wasted and go have some make-up sex”), to party anthem “Room 21,” and even the ’80s hair-metal/power ballad pastiche “Lips of an Angel.” “That’s what rock is supposed to be about: rebellion and having fun,” Hanson says. “We’ve been blessed with the opportunity to play music as a career, so we might as well take advantage of it and have a good time.” Kevin Zimmerman Paris Hilton is a woman who needs no introduction. Likely the biggest media phenomenon of the first decade of the 21st Century, the heiress to the Hilton Hotel fortune may be best known for her socialite whirl, caught in the lenses of countless paparazzi cameras, and as the star of the hit Fox reality TV series A Simple Life. But behind the hubbub, she’s also a model, actress, author and entrepreneur with a growing chain of nightclubs (Club Paris), and lines of handbags, jewelry, watches and fragrances, with a fashion collection on the way. And yes, she’s a singer, songwriter and recording artist who, in spite of the skepticism her celebrity may provoke, made waves in the marketplace with her debut album, Paris, on her Warner Bros.-distributed label Heiress Records. Billboard called the disc “an enjoyable pop romp,” while All Music Guide praised Paris as “a very good pop album.” Collaborating with producers like top hit-maker Scott Storch, Fernando Garibay and a host of others, Hilton co-wrote five of its 11 tracks. The first single, “Stars Are Blind,” hit the Top 20, and “Turn It Up” went No. 1 on the Billboard Hot Dance Club Play. When Paris was released, it debuted at No. 6 on the Billboard album chart, and the album’s worldwide sales have surpassed half a million copies. And the music world hasn’t heard the last from the 25-year-old blonde. Work on another album is reportedly already underway, and Hilton says she plans to sign artists to her Heiress label. Known for her trademark saying, “That’s hot,” Paris Hilton will no doubt be adding her heat to the popular music scene for some time to come. Rob Patterson He might have one of the oddest names in the business, but Polow Da Don has quickly built a career that guarantees his moniker won’t be easily forgotten. Emerging as the next hot super-producer, Polow began racking up credits in 2004, working on tracks by Mya and Will Smith. In 2005 he produced “DJ Play a Love Song” by Jamie Foxx and that same year, Ludacris’ “Pimpin’ All Over the World.” But 2006 shaped up to be his breakout year: When Black Eyed Peas star Fergie shouted “Polow!” on her single “London Bridge,” Polow graduated from a “who?” to a “who’s who.” Polow’s beats are sometimes just as left-field as his nom de plume; innovative songs to his credit include Kelis’s loopy, alarm-based jam “Blindfold Me,” and Ciara’s ’80s-inspired smash “Promise.” Based in Atlanta, Polow attended Morehouse College for a spell but left in his freshman year to join the rap group Jim Crow, which inked a deal with Sony and released two albums under the label, 1999’s Crow’s Nest and Right Quick in 2001. Polow actually found himself in a bit of music-geek controversy in late 2005, when Fergie’s song “Glamorous” lifted several elements from a remix of Gwen Stefani’s “Luxurious.” Polow produced both tracks, yet his remix was never officially released, and when Fergie’s track surfaced it seemed like she was really, really “borrowing” from Gwen. Polow nonetheless escaped the brouhaha unscathed and went on to create more hits, including “Throw Some D’s” by Rich Boy. A bit of an enigma (his minimalist MySpace page reads, “Don’t need to meet anyone, everyone wants to meet me”), Polow has created his own label, Zone 4 Inc. While the behind-the-scenes track master might maintain anonymity for a little while longer, another year like this one will no doubt turn Polow into a household name. Malcolm Venable With their single-word moniker and an energetic style that incorporates the rhythms of pop, punk and alternative, Mexico City-based Motel heralds a new dynamic in the ever-accelerating currents of modern Latin rock. Their hooky single “Dime Ven” was the precursor to their self-titled Warner Music debut album, a well-received introduction that earned songwriter Rodrigo Dávila a 2006 Latin Grammy nomination for Best Rock Song and honors for the entire band when the CD was nominated for Best Rock Album by a Duo or Group with Vocal. The son of a well-known television personality — his mother is author and journalist Paty Chapoy — Dávila studied at Boston’s eminent Berklee College of Music before returning home to complete his composition studies in Mexico. After a short stint as a solo artist during which he recalls being paid for an early performance with an artichoke pizza in lieu of pesos, he formed Motel with vocalist and guitarist Billy Méndez. Over time, a shifting rhythm section was locked in when bassist Ruben Bridge and Pepe Damian, a drummer who had studied music in the U.S. at Arizona Western College, were enlisted as full time members. More melodic than their stateside counterparts, Motel references such disparate influences as Jeff Buckley and Coldplay. With rock rhythms, pop melodies and evocative vocals balanced on an axis of both optimism and melancholy, the band clearly appeals to an emerging generation of young fans weaned on MTV — listeners on both sides of the border who are eager to check into this Motel. Dan Kimpel Truly creative spirits rarely stand still and, indeed, in the past few years, Fred Hammond’s life has been a whirlwind of change. The acclaimed singer/songwriter/producer left his home in Detroit and settled in Dallas where he began work on his latest chart-topping album, Free to Worship, on Verity Records. “I wanted a sound that would come out of here that would say familiar, but fresh,” he says of his eighth studio album, which he feels combines both Motown and Texas flavors. “That’s what I believe we accomplished with new vocals and new musicians.” Hammond was also inspired by the teachings of his pastor, Bishop T.D. Jakes. “I wanted people to be able to hear the seeds that he planted in me over the last year,” says Hammond. “I followed him for many years, but now I’m up under him and I wanted people to hear what I’ve learned. I come to church and I sit and get replenished.” Hammond has long been an innovator in gospel music. He was an integral part of the groundbreaking group Commissioned and, after retiring from that group in 1995, he went on to launch Radical for Christ. His résumé also includes a stint with the Winans as well as his successful run as a solo artist. Along the way, he’s earned a reputation as “the Babyface of gospel music” for his working in mentoring and producing other artists. Songwriting has always been a key weapon in Hammond’s arsenal of talents. “It’s really how I convey what’s on the inside and what I’ve been through,” says Hammond, who has his own F. Hammond Music imprint. “I like to keep that simple and I’ve learned to write the way that I talk. Instead of writing in way that’s above everybody’s head or trying to impress people with words and phrases that are very flowery, I like to break it down and make it very, very easy.” —Deborah Evans Price Composer, music supervisor, music editor, sound designer, musician and producer, Brian Reitzell’s contributions to films exceed standard definitions. “I got into this whole racket by being a musician and being in bands,” he explains. “Sofia Coppola asked me to work on the film ‘The Virgin Suicides’ as a music supervisor, but neither of us knew what that was. She needed some ’70s music and I was unemployed. I had quit the band I’d been in for eight years and I wanted to play weird instrumental music. What better place to do it than in films?” Reitzell has since brought his talents to an acclaimed list of features, and at this juncture has completed four-and-a-half years of overlapping projects, including CQ, Lost in Translation, Thumbsucker, Friday Night Lights, Stranger Than Fiction and Marie Antoinette. It all begins when Reitzell creates a mix CD. “I’m a music geek. I may start talking about Kraut rock, or using musical terms a director may not understand. The best thing to do is give him a CD and say, ‘This is what I think your movie sounds like.’” Reitzell dislikes the term “temp track,” since, he says, most of what he envisions ends up in the completed film. “Fifty percent of the mix CD for Stranger Than Fiction and 80 percent of Lost in Translation,” he confirms. Reitzell appreciates being part of a creative team. “I like to collaborate,” he avows. “I can bring someone in for each project depending on what the movie needs. Whether I do it or someone else does it, if there’s anything musical that needs to happen in a film, I’m the boss.” —Dan Kimpel UNITING THE WORLD’S MOST INFLUENTIAL MUSIC, MEDIA & TECHNOLOGY LEADERS BY DAY; SHOWCASING THE WORLD’S HOTTEST EMERGING TALENT BY NIGHT An unprecedented group of global entertainment executives will congregate in West Hollywood, California April 29 - May 2 for A&R WORLDWIDE’s international music and media forum, MUSEXPO 2007. Designated “a united nations of the music industry,” MUSEXPO will showcase more than 30 emerging and yet-to-be undiscovered global musical talents for four consecutive nights at The Key Club, The Roxy and The Viper Room. MUSEXPO 2007’s mandate is to explore critical issues, debate the solutions and promote global alliances of like-minded colleagues. MUSEXPO has already proven to be an important ‘red-letter date’ on the global music business calendar…an annual event bringing key music and media creative talents and executives from around the world to Los Angeles as well as to showcase new global entertainment. For more details, please visit our website at www.musexpo.net. “In just over a year MUSEXPO has become the preeminent music industry conference of its kind. Attendance is truly a must for anyone interested in the past, present and future of our business.” Andy Karp, Head of A&R, Atlantic Records (USA) WWW.MUSEXPO.NET Honesty, Emotional Sincerity by Lorie Hollabaugh To say the past year has been a whirlwind of change for Australian Keith Urban would be an understatement, considering he married actress Nicole Kidman in June, checked himself into rehab in October, and released his new album, Love, Pain & the whole crazy thing, in November. Marriage to a major movie star no doubt increased media attention on the country artist tenfold, but it also seems to have fueled his creative powers as well, since the new album has been hailed by many as Urban’s best and most powerful. The first single, “Once in a Lifetime,” has already made history as the highest-charting debut (No. 17) in the 62-year history of Billboard’s Hot Country Songs chart; it was also the most-downloaded album on iTunes. The road to success has been rocky for this superstar, who spent a decade paying dues in Nashville after moving to the States in 1992. He first garnered attention as part of the Aussie-tinged band The Ranch, which packed houses around town with their dynamic live shows, but failed to catch fire at radio with their Capitol Records debut in 1997. Going solo proved to be the ticket for Urban, and his 1999 self-titled debut secured him a place as a standout talent among country’s newcomers. But it was 2002’s Golden Road that truly launched Urban’s career. Hits like “You’ll Think of Me,” “Somebody Like You” and “Raining On Sunday” made him a platinum seller. The album eventually sold over three million copies, and by the time Be Here was released in 2004, Urban was spending the majority of his time at the top of the charts, racking up No. 1s with hits like “Days Go By,” the monster ballad “Making Memories of Us,” and his seventh chart-topper, “Better Life,” which he co-penned with Richard Marx. (The two also collaborate on the new album on the song “Everybody.”) With that caliber of success comes a certain pace, however, and Urban no doubt battled exhaustion and weariness as he conquered the road first as a supporting act for both Brooks & Dunn and Kenny Chesney, and then on his own headlining theater tour in 2004 and arena tour in 2005. And so he found himself sequestered in rehab during the honeymoon phase of his marriage and the crucial promotional set-up period for his fourth studio album. The move was a courageous one for anyone, but for an artist at the height of his popularity even more so, some might say. But honesty and emotional sincerity has always been a hallmark of Urban’s work. “It’s just an accurate reflection of where I am now,” Urban says of his new record. “It’s about life. The title came from a great old movie called ‘Love, Pain and the Whole Damned Thing,’ and we just swapped ‘damned’ for ‘crazy,’ and it gave the right sense of how the album feels and what it’s about.” Co-producing the album with longtime collaborator Dan Huff at Urban’s Nashville home may have provided an extra creative stimulant as well. “I found this house that had a great room in the front with windows all around and amazing views, and almost all of the songs for this album were written there. It was supposed to be the dining room, but I sacrificed that for the music.” Dinner-parties-be-damned turned out to be a smart philosophy for Urban, whose first two songs from the album have already skyrocketed up the charts. One of his favorite songs, current single “Stupid Boy,” was the most-added song on the charts two weeks in a row, and was chosen by Kidman. The ballad addresses how foolish and reckless men can be with the hearts of the women they love, and was co-written by new artist Sarah Buxton, who also recorded it for her own record. Other gems on the record include “God Made Woman,” featuring choir backing and a majestic mix of string arrangements by David Campbell, and “Raise the Barn,” a rousing nod to those rebuilding in New Orleans featuring buddy Ronnie Dunn. “I’ve always wanted to do a song with Ronnie, and he records all his vocals in an old barn on his property. Needless to say, when we did it there was a whole lot of ‘raising’ going on!” The album includes a healthy mix of country and pop, which is just what Urban was going for in widening the road for not only country artists, but all artists in general. “I have different tastes,” explained Urban recently. “Diverse is not necessarily scattered. I can’t take too much of the same thing. The iPod has allowed for diversity in people’s tastes. It’s not about genre. It’s for short attention span people who want Metallica and Merle Haggard. And I think it has created acceptance for diversity on a single record.” A Nashville native, Lorie Hollabaugh grew up listening to stories about country music’s wild and wooly early days from her great uncle, disc jockey Hugh Cherry. She’s written about country music for the last decade and a half for publications such as Country Weekly, CMA’s Close Up magazine, Radio & Records, and DISH, among others. Given her all-conquering media presence, it’s hard to believe that Christina Aguilera’s current release, Back to Basics (RCA), is just her third English-language album of original material. Perhaps even more surprising is the fact that, after selling over 25 million albums worldwide with her brand of sultry dance-pop, the artist decided to go with a modern take on vintage jazz, soul and blues. “This is a concept album that follows a bold vision,” she declares. “The touchstones are Billie Holiday, Otis Redding, Etta James and Ella Fitzgerald — what I used to call my ‘fun music’ when I was a little girl.” A double album, Basics utilizes an orchestra, choir, string quartet and jazz horns throughout, ranging from a 1920s-style blues feel on “I Got Trouble” to the delicious Andrews Sisters-influenced “Candy Man” and the zoot-suit riot of “Ain’t No Other Man.” But lest longtime fans fear that Aguilera’s trying to be the next Rosemary Clooney, there are still plenty of modern sounds, from the emotionally naked “Save Me from Myself” to the risqué “Nasty Naughty Boy” and the straight-ahead club track “Still Dirty” (a reference to her previous ode to raunch, “Dirrty,” from the 2002 album Stripped). It’s been quite a journey from her early days as a member of “The New Mickey Mouse Club” (alongside fellow future stars Justin Timberlake and Britney Spears). Aguilera’s first self-titled album showed off her pipes and pop smarts via such instant hits as “Genie in a Bottle” and “What A Girl Wants,” while 2000’s My Kind of Christmas album was a strong seller. It was her appearance alongside Pink, Mya and Lil’ Kim on the Moulin Rouge cover of “Lady Marmalade,” however, that brought the former teen queen’s sexuality to the fore, something that was emphasized on Stripped. With Back to Basics, the artist reveals just how mature she’s become. “When you’re 17-years-old, green and inexperienced, you’re grateful for any guidance and direction you can get,” she recalls. However, within a few years, “I felt trapped. I was under the thumb of people who were mostly interested in keeping me doing exactly the same thing. “But I’m not blaming anyone,” she quickly adds. “You learn fast in this business and, once I knew where I wanted to go, I didn’t let anyone get in my way.” The prolonged layoff after Stripped — combined with her 2005 marriage to music executive Jordan Bratman — helped re-energize her. “I needed a break,” she states. “I began realizing that I should be experiencing a bit more of life than TV and recording studios, hotels and green rooms.” Good thing she caught her breath when she did: On the heels of Basics going straight to No. 1 on the Billboard chart, Aguilera’s currently in the midst of a world tour that will last at least through spring 2007. “I’m driven,” she understates with a laugh. Longtime entertainment journalist Kevin Zimmerman’s work has appeared in the Chicago Tribune, the Hartford Courant, MOJO and Spin magazines. Sonicbids One Year For Free! Everybody loves free stuff. And as a BMI member, you’re going to get something much more valuable than a plastic tumbler or a personalized keychain. How does access to over 7,000 exceptional festivals, song contests, and music licensing opportunities sound? Not only does a Sonicbids membership make it easy for you to connect with promoters online, it also provides you with an innovative, eco-friendly alternative to traditional press kits and makes you part of a dynamic community of over 100,000 musicians worldwide. To get your free trial started, head over to www.bmi.com/sonicbids. Musicians. Promoters. ONE Way To Connect! BMI is the preferred performing rights organization of Sonicbids. www.sonicbids.com Everything about reggaetón superstar Don Omar is outsized: his beat-heavy hits, a blazing stage show and his extraordinary success. Nominated for a 2006 Latin Grammy, King of Kings, Omar’s latest release, debuted at No. 1 and spent 11 successive weeks topping the Latin sales charts. The highest-ranking reggaetón album ever also spun off “Angelito,” a No. 1 single on the Billboard Latin Rhythm Radio chart. Don Omar even beat the in-store appearance sales record at DisneyWorld’s Virgin music store — a mark previously set by pop star Britney Spears. Within his genre, Don Omar is expanding the rhythmic reach of his beats beyond jackhammer predictability just as he elevates his themes with conscious messages. Beneath his boldness lies a deeper subtext, one of uplifting spirituality and determination inspired by, as he put it, “the real king of kings.” This spirit is a through line in his life: Born William Landrón in Villa Palmeras, Puerto Rico, Omar was previously a preacher at the Fuente de Agua Viva church in Bayamón. Although he eventually departed from the pulpit (a matter he addressed in his song “Aunque Te Fuiste”), evangelistic fervor was a hallmark of his music. From the sanctuary to the streets, Omar joined the growing reggaetón movement and hooked up with Héctor el Bambino (now know as Hector El Father) of the popular duo Héctor y Tito, producing and writing songs for the pair, and eventually collaborating vocally on “A la Reconquista.” With his solo hit “Desde que Llego” in 2002 and the release of his own CD, The Last Don, he rode the rising reggaetón wave, just beginning to crash ashore into the lucrative stateside market. His debut featured extensive production work by Luny Tunes and Eiel, two of reggaetón’s preeminent hitmakers, and showcased two massive singles, “Intocable” and “Dile.” Omar scored further hits with Luny Tunes on their compilation albums Mas Flow and Trayectoria, but his break, “Reggaeton Latino,” came from the Chosen Few compilation. The Latino pride anthem hit just as reggaetón was exploding across the U.S. urban landscape in the summer of 2005 and was so popular that a bilingual remix and a video — only the second reggaetón song with MTV airplay in the States — was created with preeminent Latino rappers N.O.R.E. and Fat Joe. Beneath Don Omar’s boldness lies a deeper subtext, one of uplifting spirituality and determination inspired by, as he put it, “the real king of kings.” Don Omar’s inventory of accolades includes a 2006 BMI Latin Award for “Pobre Diabla,” and Latin Pop Album of the Year, New Artist and Latin Rap/Hip-Hop Album of the Year from the 2003 Billboard Latin Music Awards. The platinum-selling live version of The Last Don was also nominated for Urban Music Album at the 2005 Latin Grammys. Omar is mounting a multi-million dollar King of Kings tour, a massive stage production complete with elaborate pyrotechnics and full-blown theatrical and dance elements. In the dazzling, over-the-top show, at one point Omar emerges in a white suit with a full-length, hooded cape to deliver a fire-and-brimstone sermon, “Predica” (Preach), that neatly brings his career full cycle. Omar’s impact on reggaetón is now extending outside of the studio and stage through his recent partnership with UMBRO, a globally recognized football brand to launch the Don Omar Casual Clothing Collection. Foot Locker in the U.S. and Puerto Rico is distributing the line of urban clothing. A complex artist and a sterling songwriter, Don Omar drives a shifting style with both bravado and substance. As reggaetón outgrows its adolescence, the thoughtfulness and inclusion of Omar may well be a signpost of what lies ahead for the urban market’s fastest growing genre. Dan Kimpel is a Los Angeles based author and journalist. He is the author of “Networking Strategies for the New Music Business” (ArtistPro/Thomson) and “How They Made It: True Stories of How Music’s Biggest Stars Went From Start To Stardom” (Hal Leonard). BMI members (recording artists, songwriters, musicians, singers, producers, engineers, graphic artists, photographers, record companies or music publishers) are invited to set up an account on muzlink.com for FREE! muzlink.com is a marketing and promotion service for music makers and a music search engine for music lovers. If you have music product for sale on the Internet go to: http://www.muzlink.com/Artist - enter the information required, including the BMI validation code: BMIJAN2007 and go live NOW with muzlink.com, linking up music makers with music lovers worldwide, local to global... Join the music evolution! BMI.com has launched a new version of our award-winning website, BMI.com. With a bold new look and modern Web 2.0 styling, this release — the tenth major revision since launching the music industry’s first site in 1994 — creates a cutting-edge online presence for BMI. BMI.com is the company’s most visible communications vehicle, receiving more than four million monthly page views from more than a million unique visitors worldwide. Since the new site launched in January, visitors are not only browsing longer, but they are looking at more pages per visit — an increase of 20 percent from just the previous month. In addition to an easier-to-navigate interface and a more visually appealing look, the site has been optimized as a tool to serve BMI members, who can now take advantage of these updated features: - Easy access to Online Services, where members can register new songs, view and check quarterly statements, or change their address - New career advice column - A unified events section combining information on BMI showcases and workshops with a calendar of industry events - All-new member section focused on songwriters and composers - Prominent display of professional discount offers - Automatic email notifications of local events for registered users - New pages devoted to specific music genres incorporating relevant upcoming events - All-new Roster section featuring more than 3,000 custom artist pages BMI.com has also been enhanced to better serve our business audience — our licensees — who will enjoy the following upgrades: - New Media section focusing on BMI’s involvement with new media technologies - Current Licensing news, including RSS syndication - New General Licensing-focused portal page - All-new “find your license type,” directing users to specific business licenses The relaunch of BMI.com is the result of many months of work by an in-house, company-wide development team charged with designing, programming, updating, editing and beta-testing the new site. All BMI.com visitors — from songwriters, composers and music publishers, licensees and other business customers, to music industry professionals and music lovers — will benefit from the new technology and advanced administrative features, including: - Brand new “podcast” interface allowing easy access to more than 2,100 video clips and all of BMI’s “See It Hear First” new artist podcasts - Repertoire search tool that is now “front and center” - Refined Search site-wide, including search ability within specific sections - Personal BMI.com account The successful relaunch of BMI.com is the result of many months of work by an in-house, company-wide development team charged with designing, programming, updating, editing and beta-testing the new site. With more advanced technology now in place, all future site enhancements can be more rapidly developed and implemented, which will allow BMI to continue to deliver the best in digital services to its songwriters, composers, music publishers and licensees. Merle Haggard: An Icon in the Truest Sense by Jon Weisberger By any conventional measure — radio hits, albums and concert tickets sold, songs recorded by other artists, awards and honors received over a career that’s now in its fifth decade — Merle Haggard qualifies as a giant of country music. But valuable as such measures are, they don’t begin to define the accomplishments that have earned the “Poet of the Common Man” his latest accolade: a BMI Icon. For as the title suggests, Merle Haggard’s music has reached into the heart of ordinary people’s lives in extraordinary ways. Born in Bakersfield, Calif., during the Great Depression, Merle Haggard grew up hard, and while music quickly became a powerful force in his life, it wasn’t until after he had served time for an attempted burglary that he pursued it as a career. With a voice that embedded hints of influence by figures like Jimmie Rodgers, Tommy Duncan (of Bob Wills’s Texas Playboys) and Lefty Frizzell in a distinctive style of his own, and singing songs that reflected the many dimensions of American working-class life, he soon established himself as a major force in country music, winning the Country Music Association’s Entertainer of the Year award in 1970. Yet even then it was clear that Merle Haggard was more than simply a successful country star. He took delight in assembling a band second to none in virtuosity and interpretive power, and more than occasionally led it himself with sturdy, inventive guitar licks; he offered up not just powerful songs of his own, but well-crafted and timeless hits from writers like Liz Anderson, and tributes to predecessors like Rodgers and Wills on which he re-created their signature sounds for new generations. As a songwriter, he boldly explored not just the most popular themes of love and heartbreak, but also the changing economic and social landscape, American history and politics, patriotism, war, and his own experiences as a convict, a husband, a father and a musician. Using the often uncomplicated yet elegant forms handed down by his predecessors, Merle Haggard has created an enduring body of work that resonates far beyond the world of country music while remaining firmly rooted within it. And while a considerable number of his greatest achievements came during the years when he ruled the airwaves, his creativity and interpretive power have remained undiminished even as new musical trends have supplanted those forms in popularity. At a time when many of his peers have gone into at least semi-retirement, he continues to travel the highways for personal appearances, and to record albums that have ranged through stunning new compositions, country classics and pop standards alike, tackling them all with a compelling approach that has only deepened with age, at once intensely personal and yet universal. Through his unflinching honesty and profound musicianship, Merle Haggard has come to symbolize the deepest currents of country music artistry. His influence on generations of artists ranging from Bob Dylan (with whom he recently toured) to country-rock pioneer Gram Parsons to country stars of today like Brad Paisley, Tim McGraw and Gretchen Wilson (with whom he recently recorded) has been, and continues to be, unmistakable. His enduring commitment to tradition, his consistent creativity and unshakable artistic integrity make Merle Haggard an Icon in the truest sense of the word. BMI songwriter Jon Weisberger is a Nashville-based freelance writer (No Depression, the Nashville Scene, Bluegrass Unlimited, Guitar World Acoustic and more), and bass player (Chris Jones & The Nightdrivers, the Roland White Band, Tony Trischka, April Verch and others). BMI Country Awards 2006 Publisher of the Year SONY/ATV Music Publishing Nashville Don't Ask Me How I Know Bart Butler Big Yellow Dog Music Help Somebody Kip Raines Jeffrey Steele 3 Ring Circus Music Like We Never Loved at All Vicky McGehee Warner-Tamerlane Publishing Corp. Long, Slow Kisses Jeff Bates Gordon Bradberry New Works Music Co. Lot of Leavin' Left to Do Brett Beavers Run The Twine Music Honky Tonk Badonkadonk Dana Davidson Randy Houser Me and Charlie Talking Miranda Lambert Heather Little Nashville Tune Music My Give a Damn's Busted Joe Dillon Tom Martin Tom Shapiro Diftunes Skin (Sarabeth) Doug Johnson Mike Curb Music Something More Kristian Bush Delphi Music Something to be Proud of Jeffrey Steele GustavoBuller Music Stay With Me (Brass Bed) Jedd Hughes Terry McBride Still Working For The Man Music, Inc. The Talkin' Song Repair Blues Dennis Linde EMI-Blackwood Music, Inc. Tequila Makes Her Clothes Fall Off Gary Hannan John Wiggins Chobe Music When I Get Where I'm Going George Teren House of Full Circle Music Who You'd Be Today Bill Lunn Annex Mayo Carter-BMG Music Publishing You'll Be There Cory Mayo Cuborn Music, Inc. Your Man Jace Everett EMI-Blackwood Music, Inc. BMI is a registered trademark of Broadcast Music, Inc. BMI’s 54th Annual Country Awards were held Saturday, Nov. 4 in Nashville, with BMI President & CEO Del Bryant and Jody Williams, Vice President of Writer/Publisher Relations, Nashville, hosting the black-tie ceremony, presenting Certificates of Achievement to the writers and publishers of the past year’s 50 most-performed country songs in the BMI repertoire. “As Good As I Once Was,” co-written by Toby Keith and Scotty Emerick, was named Song of the Year. Previously named Songwriter of the Year in 2001 and 2004, Keith also shared his third Songwriter of the Year crown with Ed Hill and Vicky McGehee, while Sony/ATV Music Publishing Nashville took Publisher of the Year honors for the fifth consecutive year. A stirring tribute to American legend Merle Haggard honored the newest BMI Icon, celebrating Haggard’s open-ended relevancy and influence that span genres and generations. “As Good As I Once Was” landed the Robert J. Burton Award for Most Performed Country Song of the Year for co-writers Toby Keith and Scotty Emerick, along with publishers Big Yellow Dog Music, Florida Cracker Music, Sony/ATV Tree and Tokeco Tunes. Vicky McGehee, Ed Hill and Toby Keith created a three-way tie for Country Pictured onstage are (l-r): BMI Vice President Jody Williams, Big Yellow Dog Music co-owner and GM Carla Wallace, Sony Tree Nashville President Troy Tomlinson, BMI President & CEO Del Bryant, Country Songwriters of the Year Ed Hill and Vicky McGehee, Country Songwriter of the Year and co-writer of the Country Song of the Year Toby Keith, co-writer of the Country Song of the Year Scotty Emerick and BMI Senior Vice President Phil Graham. Songwriter of the Year, as each claimed three of the top 50 award-winning songs. In the past year, McGehee’s hits “All Jacked Up,” “Hicktown” and “Like We Never Loved At All” helped cement her status as one of Music City’s “go-to” hit songwriters. Songwriting veteran Ed Hill’s track record is liberally scattered with hits; this year, Hill’s “Georgia Rain,” “Somebody’s Hero” and “Songs About Me” earned him his first BMI Songwriter of the Year title. Country superstar and two-time NSAI Songwriter of the Year Toby Keith added a third BMI Songwriter of the Year crown to his growing collection with the hits “Big Blue Note,” “HonkyTonk U” and “As Good As I Once Was.” With 17 songs among this year’s top 50, Sony/ATV Music Publishing Nashville (through its companies Sony/ATV Acuff Rose, Sony/ATV Songs LLC and Sony/ATV Tree) picked up its fifth consecutive Publisher of the Year win. The publishing powerhouse accumulated the highest percentage of copyright ownership thanks to award songs like “Believe,” “Class Reunion (That Used To Be Us),” “Do You Want Fries with That,” “God’s Will,” “Lot of Leavin’ Left to Do,” “Me and Charlie Talking,” “My Give A Damn’s Busted,” “Nobody But Me,” “Play Something Country,” “She Don’t Tell Me To” and “She Let Herself Go.” The capstone of the evening took the form of the Icon tribute to Merle Haggard, featuring performances by Martina McBride, John Anderson and Hank Williams Jr. Haggard’s numbers are staggering: 48 BMI Country Awards, nine BMI Pop Awards, a BMI R&B Award, and 16 BMI “Million-Air” awards for hits like “Big City,” “The Fightin’ Side of Me,” “I Had a Beautiful Time,” “Mama Tried,” “Okie from Muskogee,” “Today I Started Loving You Again” and “Workin’ Man Blues,” all from a catalog of songs that adds up to over 25 million performances. A total of six CMA awards, 17 ACM awards, two Grammys and a Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award dot Haggard’s résumé. A complete list of 2006 BMI Country Awards winners is available at bmi.com. The Who Return with ‘Endless’ Appeal by Jim Bessman It started, most memorably and famously, with a stutter. The title track of The Who’s 1965 debut American album, The Who Sings My Generation, with such stuttered lyrics as “talkin’ ‘bout my g-generation,” introduced one of the most important and revered bands of the 1960s — and one of the very few to still remain active some four decades later. It’s not exactly the same band, of course. Keith Moon, The Who’s original drummer and the embodiment of the outrageous rock & roll fantasy lifestyle at its most extreme, succumbed to the fast life in 1978. Original bassist John Entwistle followed suit, though he lasted until 2002. But surviving vocalist Roger Daltrey and guitarist/vocalist/songwriter Pete Townshend trudged on, performing the classic hits without a new studio album from the band since It’s Hard. But that album, which yielded the minor pop hits “Athena” and “Eminence Front,” came out in 1982 — over 24 years ago! So the fall 2006 release of Endless Wire was greatly anticipated and ecstatically received. Many critics felt that it was the best work by Townshend (who continued to issue solo albums since It’s Hard) in years, if not decades. There are key differences, to be sure. On the critical musicianship side, Zak Starkey, Ringo Starr’s son and The Who’s more-than-able touring drummer since 1996 (he actually received his first drum kit from his idol Moon), is present; equally estimable bassist Pino Palladino, who assumed the band’s touring bass role after Entwistle’s passing, is another seamless fill-in. In the vocal department, Daltrey’s bluster has aged well and is altogether fitting: Always the delivery vehicle for Townshend’s lyrics, Daltrey has been supplied with songs showing the observations and reflections of a complex man now in his sixties. So while the album’s opening track, “Fragments,” may hark back to “Baba O’Riley” (from 1971’s Who’s Next) with its dainty keyboard play, it is not at all the “teenage wasteland” of that song’s stirring verse. Nor is Endless Wire a mere throwback to earlier Who work in other aspects, though there are plenty more links with the past that are just as obvious, both musically and thematically. Rather, Endless Wire is Pete Townshend at his most pensive and philosophical — and modern. In “Fragments,” the artist who with his band helped define England’s modernist (mod) youth subculture of the mid-1960s, experiments with composer Lawrence Ball in creating music by way of the “Method” — an interactive music composition tool — as envisioned in Townshend’s three interlocking rock-opera projects: Lifehouse, which The Who released in 1972; Psychoderelict, Townshend’s solo album from 1993; and The Boy Who Heard Music, his blog’s novella written over the past two years. In that novella, “Fragments” is a big hit song by the three-piece band that is the center of the story. By itself, it’s an existential exploration of man’s place in the universe, though it returns in shorter instrumental form in the middle of “Wire & Glass,” a 10-song “mini-opera” tie-in with the novella that makes up the second half of Endless Wire (the album’s title track is itself a song from this part of the program). “Man in a Purple Dress” is simply Daltrey backed by Townshend’s acoustic guitar, and in its mocking rejection of priestly hypocrisy, is one of three songs Townshend wrote after watching Mel Gibson’s The Passion of the Christ. The frenetic rocker “Sound Round” evokes youth at life’s crossroads, “We Got a Hit” is a cynical take on stardom, and “Black Widow’s Eyes,” with its “Pinball Wizard” power-chording, is an ironic love song situated in the horrific Beslan (Russia) school massacre. Giving it a final context, then, Endless Wire, seems an extension of The Who’s skeptical 1970 hit “The Seeker,” in which Daltrey gives voice to Townshend’s dismissal of Dylan, The Beatles and Timothy Leary, none of whom can provide life’s big answers. Ever the spiritual wanderer, Townshend, who was heavily influenced by the Indian guru Meher Baba, perhaps tenders his own answer in “Mirror Door,” the mirror, incidentally, being a key symbol in Tommy. Citing such musical luminaries as Elvis Presley, Frank Sinatra and Johnny Cash, Daltrey’s voice concludes, “Music makes me, makes me strong.” As always, though, they are the words of Townshend, whose musical strengths have never been more pronounced as the creative genius behind The Who. Jim Bessman is a freelance writer, based in New York. DANCE AWARD Everytime We Touch Maggie Reilly (PRS) Sue Hodge (GEMA) Peter Risavy (CEMA) Mambo/Sony/ATV Music Publishing Germany (GEMA) SONG OF THE YEAR THE ROBERT S. MUSEL AWARD Listen To Your Heart Per Gessle (STIM) Mats Persson (STIM) Jimmy Fun Music (STIM) COLLEGE AWARD Feel Good Inc. Damon Albarn (PRS) James Hewlett (PRS) David Jaliceour * EMI Music Publishing Ltd. (PRS) BMI ICON Ray Davies --- MILLION-AIRS 7 Million MORE Marco Carcangini (SIAE) Nariman Nouri (IPRS) Nino Oliviero (SIAE) Riz Ortolani (SIAE) Creazioni Artistiche Musicali (SIAE) 6 Million THIS MAGIC MOMENT Mori Shunian (ISACEM) Duc Pernot * YOU'RE STILL THE ONE Shania Twain (PRS) 5 Million CROCODILE ROCK Sir Elton John (PRS) Bertie Higgins * HST Management Ltd./Universal Music Publishing Ltd. (PRS) HOW DEEP IS YOUR LOVE Barry Gibb (PRS) Robin Gibb (PRS) Maurice Gibb (PRS) Crompton Songs Gibb Brothers Music/BMG Music Publishing Ltd. (PRS) TIME OF THE SEASON Rod Argent (PRS) Verulani Music Co. Ltd. (PRS) 4 Million BLACK MAGIC WOMAN Patience (PRS) Bourne Music Ltd. (PRS) COME TOGETHER John Lennon (PRS) DON'T GO BREAKING MY HEART Sir Elton John (PRS) HST Management Ltd./Universal Music Publishing Ltd. (PRS) DON'T STAND SO CLOSE TO ME Sting (PRS) GM Sumner/EMI Music Publishing Ltd. (PRS) --- POP AWARDS CRAZY (2nd Award) Seal (PRS) Guy Sigsworth (PRS) Beeston Street Music Ltd. (PRS) Perfect Songs Ltd (PRS) DIAMONDS FROM SIERRA LEONE Don Black (PRS) John Barry * Kanye West * DON'T PHUNK WITH MY HEART Indeewar (IPRS) Anandji V. Shah (IPRS) Kalyanji J. Shah (IPRS) Paul Anthon * Baby Gerry * Cleveland Bell IV * B Fine * Printz Board * Bowlegged Lou * Curt T T * Victor May * George Pajon, Jr * Shy-Shy * will i am * Saregama India PLC (IPRS) EVERYBODY'S CHANGING Tom Chaplin (PRS) Richard Hughes (PRS) BMG Music Publishing Ltd. (PRS) FEEL GOOD INC. Damon Albarn (PRS) James Hewlett (PRS) David Jaliceour * EMI Music Publishing Ltd. (PRS) INSIDE YOUR HEAVEN Savan Kotecha * LISTEN TO YOUR HEART (2nd Award) Per Gessle (STIM) Mats Persson (STIM) Jimmy Fun Music (STIM) N DEY SAY Gary Kemp (PRS) Reformation Publishing Co. Ltd. (PRS) --- TV MUSIC AWARDS CSI Pete Townshend (PRS) CSI: MIAMI Pete Townshend (PRS) CSI: NY Pete Townshend (PRS) GREY'S ANATOMY Carim Claumann (PRS) Galia Duran (PRS) HOUSE Robert Del Naja (PRS) Grantley Marshall (PRS) Andrew Vowles (PRS) --- FILM MUSIC AWARDS FAILURE TO LAUNCH Rolfe Kent (PRS) FOUR BROTHERS David Arnold (PRS) SAHARA Clint Mansell (PRS) COUNTRY AWARDS IT'S A HEARTACHE (2nd Award) Ronnie Scott (PRS) Steve Wolfe (PRS) BMG Music Publishing Ltd. (PRS) Lojo Music Ltd. (PRS) MY OLD FRIEND Steve McEwan (PRS) BMG Music Publishing Ltd. (PRS) Trinitoid Music Ltd. (PRS) LATIN AWARDS ANDAR CONMIGO Julietta Venegas (SGAE) LA NEGRA TOMASA Guillermo Rodriguez Fifite (ISACEM) peermusic (UK) Ltd (PRS) PARTY FOR TWO Shania Twain (PRS) --- WORLD RADIO HISTORY BMI®, btm.com® and Broadcast Music Inc.® are registered trademarks of Broadcast Music Inc. BMI saluted the top European songwriters, composers and publishers at its 2006 London Awards, staged Oct. 3 in the Ballroom of London’s Dorchester Hotel. In addition to honoring the past year’s most-played songs on U.S. radio and television, the gala dinner and awards ceremony also recognized Kinks frontman and legendary songwriter Ray Davies (PRS) as a BMI Icon for his “enduring influence on generations of music makers.” Davies is co-founder, lead singer and rhythm guitarist of the Kinks, one of the most long-lived and influential rock groups of the British Invasion. As the band’s chief songwriter, he is the pen behind such Kinks classics as “You Really Got Me,” “All Day and All of the Night,” “A Well Respected Man,” “Waterloo Sunset,” “Tired of Waiting For You,” “Sunny Afternoon,” “Lola” and “Come Dancing.” In a written tribute to Davies that was read at the event, Who guitarist Pete Townshend called Davies “the true laureate of British popular music.” In addition to Townshend, who credits his sound to the 40-plus year music vet, artists as diverse as Morrissey, Blur and Oasis also claim Davies as their main influence. “Listen to Your Heart,” written by Per Gessle and Mats Persson, and published by Jimmy Fun Music (all STIM), was named Song of the Year and received one of BMI’s highest accolades, the Robert S. Musel Award. Recorded by Belgium-based duo D.H.T., the song was originally a No. 1 hit for Roxette in 1989 and received the BMI Dance Award at last year’s ceremony. “Feel Good Inc.,” co-written by Gorillaz members Damon Albarn and Jamie Hewlett (both PRS), along with De La Soul’s David Jolicoeur, was named BMI’s College Song of the Year for tallying the most performances on American college radio. The Grammy Award-winning hit is from the Gorillaz’ Demon Days CD, which went double platinum in the U.S. and triple platinum in the U.K. The BMI Dance Award went to “Everytime We Touch,” written by Stuart MacKillop, Maggie Reilly (both PRS) and Peter Risavy (GEMA), and published by Mambo/Sony/ATV Music Publishing. Germany (GEMA). The infectious tune by Euro-dance trio Cascada was a worldwide smash, topping the dance charts and making it into the Top Ten of the pop charts in America. “Million-Air” certificates were also presented throughout the evening in recognition of those songs that have achieved over three million U.S. radio and television performances, the equivalent of more than 17 years of continuous airplay. Topping the list was the theme to Mondo Cane, “More,” which earned a seven-million performance award for songwriters Marcello Ciocriolini (SIAE), Norman Newell (PRS), Nino Oliviero (SIAE) and Riz Ortolani (SIAE). “You’re Still the One,” written and recorded by 2004 BMI London Awards Song of the Year winner Shania Twain (PRS), reached the six-million performance plateau. Other “Million-Air” recipients included Sir Elton John, Eric Clapton, the Bee Gees, Sting, Seal, Pink Floyd’s Roger Waters, Peter Gabriel and Paul Rodgers of Free (all PRS). A complete list of London Awards honorees is available at bmi.com. Del Bryant, Chrysalis Records founder Chris Wright, and MTV International CEO Bill Roedy. Mats Persson (co-writer of Song of the Year “Listen to Your Heart”), BMI London Award winners Eagle Eye Cherry and Gary Kemp, Del Bryant, Per Gessie (co-writer of “Listen to Your Heart”), and Phil Graham. BMI continues to be a key sponsor of the Sundance Composers Lab, a major component of the Sundance Institute Film Music Program, which is dedicated to supporting emerging film composers and enhancing the role of music in independent film. BMI’s Doreen Ringer Ross, Vice President of Film/TV Relations, serves as an advisor to the Lab, held each year in July and August in Sundance, Utah. Fellows for the 9th Annual Sundance Composers Lab included Terry Dame (Closer to Heaven, The Incredibly True Adventure of Two Girls in Love, Puccini for Beginners), Viktor Krauss (Dr. T and the Women), Jessica Lurie (The Jessica Lurie Ensemble), Craig Richey (Friends with Money, Lovely and Amazing), Hahn Rowe (Clean, Shaven, Spring Forward), and Martin St. Pierre (The Wish, Falling Forward), who participated in workshops and creative exercises under the guidance of leading film composers and film music professionals during the two-week lab. Composer Lab Fellow Jessica Lurie gets some pointers from George S. Clinton. Ed Shearmur (l) mentors composer Terry Dame. Pictured (l-r, back): Terry Dame, Viktor Krauss, Hahn Rowe, Martin St. Pierre, Craig Richey, BMI’s Doreen Ringer Ross, Scott Fraser and Matt Anderson of the Sundance Institute; (front): Jessica Lurie, Sundance Composers Lab Advisor Ed Shearmur, Sundance Institute Film Music Program Director Peter Golub, Sundance Composers Lab Advisor George S. Clinton, and percussionist Steven Schick. Sundance Composers Lab Advisor Terence Blanchard, Feature Film Program Director Michelle Satter, Peter Golub, Doreen Ringer Ross, and Sundance Composers Lab Advisor Ron Shelton. Sundance Composers Lab Advisor Rob Messinger, music supervisor Tracy McKnight, Sundance Film Festival Director Geoff Gilmore, Doreen Ringer Ross, Peter Golub, New Line Cinema Music President Paul Broucek. Writing film scores is like being in four or five bands at once, according to Trevor Rabin. But how often does even the busiest session player have several releases at the top of the charts the same week? That was Rabin’s experience last summer when he had four films released in one month — Snakes on a Plane, The Guardian, Flyboys and Gridiron Gang — with three among the top ten-grossing films simultaneously. Rabin began his career as a film score composer a decade ago after almost four decades as successful pop rocker with progressive band, Yes. The son of a lead violinist in the Johannesburg Symphony Orchestra and a mother who taught piano, orchestral music had always interested him. Work on his own recordings as well as with Yes gave him chances to explore some of those ideas, but if he wanted to make a living at it, movies seemed to be his best career move. A project starts with him viewing a rough cut, writing music as it rolls, trying to get a feel for the film. Eventually there comes a “Eureka” moment that gives him a theme to develop, and then another and another. After he’s got a number of themes — for action, for romance, for suspense, for specific characters — he’ll mock up what he calls an “undertune” to play for the director and producer. “I think the hardest part is realizing those themes. Those are the things that provide you with the tools to write the score. The next hardest thing is to make sure those can interact and coexist with each other and at times have a dialogue with each other musically speaking,” explains Rabin. “Even if you have the organic sounds that rightfully attach themselves to film, if there’s no theme there then those things can’t sustain themselves throughout the film. You need theme to tell musical story, you need theme so you can provide variations on the theme, and twists in the themes and interaction between themes to go along with characters.” This 52-year-old South African native began piano lessons at age 6, guitar at age 12, and formed a band, The Conglomeration, with his brother at age 14. But while any bunch of kids can practice in the garage and perform in the school lunchroom, Master Rabin started playing recording sessions at age 15. After a stint in the South African military’s entertainment unit, he formed Rabbit, which became South Africa’s biggest pop group. The band’s debut, Boys Will Be Boys, went gold faster than any South African band before it, and their second release, A Croak and a Grunt in the Night, shipped gold, which in South Africa is 20,000 units. “Some countries the gold record is worth more than your royalties,” he quips. After leaving the group he resettled in London, playing sessions, producing and releasing three solo albums. In 1981 he moved to California and began work with Chris Squire and Alan White after the breakup of Yes. Songs written for a Rabin solo project became the basis for the reformation of Yes when vocalist Jon Anderson joined them. The result was the band’s biggest album, 90125, due to the hit single “Owner of a Lonely Heart.” Rabin left the band in 1995 for film scoring. “I wish people would listen to the ‘Remember the Titans’ score or ‘The Guardian’ score with the same interest as 90125. I’m very happy and proud of 90125, but I don’t think in any way, shape or form it’s close to my best work when I look at certain film scores I’ve done,” says Rabin. “Film scores are looked upon as one of the devices to put the movie together as opposed to legitimate music. I think that film composing gives one the most freedom. Being in a band and doing a rock & roll album has so many aspects that can be confining. Doing film scores, there’s nothing confining about it. Once you finish that movie you can be a chameleon and try a completely different style.” Dave Helland is a former associate editor of Down Beat magazine and a regular contributor to Grammy.com. The BMI Conducting Workshop completed its ninth year with "Conducting for the Film Composer," a two-week course taught by conductor/composer Lucas Richman and coordinated by BMI's Ray Yee, Senior Director of Film/Television Relations. Designed for composers who wish to refine their conducting skills, the free annual workshop is limited to eight BMI-affiliated film and television composers. This year's students included Joseph Julian Gonzalez (Resurrection Blvd., Price of Glory), James Venable (Powerpuff Girls, Jay and Silent Bob Strike Back, Clerks 2), Joseph Vitarelli (Revelations, Last Seduction), Andreas Kapsalas (Black Gold), Mervyn Warren (Honey, The Wedding Planner, A Walk to Remember), Walterio Pesquiera (Mujeres Insumisas, La Usurpadora, Plaza Sesamo [Sesame Street]), Stephen Ridley (The Sharttank Redemption) and George Shaw (Purity, Kidnapping of Ingrid Betancourt). Conducting Workshop participants included (l-r, front) composer Andreas Kapsalas, contractor David Low, pianist Alan Steinberger, conductor/composer Lucas Richman, BMI's Ray Yee, concert master Endre Granat, BMI's Anne Cecere, composer Walterio Pesquiera, composer Joseph Julian Gonzalez and composer, James Venable; (back row) editor Chris Ledesma, cellist Victor Lawrence, composer George Shaw, composer Mervyn Warren, violinist Mark Robertson, composer Stephen Ridley, composer Joseph Vitarelli and BMI's Phil Shrut. ACL Fest Finds Success in Diversity Over 130 bands, thousands of sweaty fans and a few adversarial thunderstorms created the grab bag of memorable moments from the 2006 Austin City Limits Music Festival held in Austin, Texas. Produced by Capital Sports & Entertainment and Charles Attal Presents, the ACL Festival evolved from the PBS award-winning televised concert series “Austin City Limits” and celebrated its fifth birthday this year. BMI sponsored one of eight stages at the event, showcasing 15 artists whose sounds reflected the stylistic hodgepodge so responsible for much of the festival’s international appeal, representing a cross-section of the current musical landscape. Claire Small, The Ghost Shivers, Joy Davis, Daniella Castro, Trish Murphy, Melissa Reaves, Troy Cassar-Daley, Young band, Live Perkins, South Austin Jug Band, Peter Dawson, Robin Tuck, Rodney Haynes, The White Ghost Shivers and New Monsoon page through as a must-see. Popular country rockers the Eli Young Band played to a stacked crowd. The White Ghost Shivers commandeered a golf cart with BMI’s Mark Mason (at wheel) before their show. Killer songstress Trish Murphy is pictured with BMI’s Perry Howard and Joan Williams. South Austin Jug Band members paused for a quick photo with friends. Seen here are (L-R): SAJB lead guitarist Willie Pipkin, bassist / vocalist Will Dupuy, BMI Austin rep Jill McGuckin, fiddle player Brian Beken, lead vocalist / guitarist James Hyland, booking agent Nancy Fly, mandolin player Dennis Ludiker with SAJB guest banjo picker and full-time Jason Boland & The Stragglers fiddler Noah Jeffries. BMI, SpiralFrog Complete Licensing Agreement BMI has completed a licensing agreement with broadband entertainment network SpiralFrog, a music download website based on an advertising revenue model that will launch early this year in the United States. Through its licensing agreement with BMI, SpiralFrog is able to legally use the more than 6.5 million musical works represented by BMI. “Songwriters create the musical excitement that attracts the public to digital entertainment,” said Del Bryant, BMI President & CEO. “SpiralFrog’s fresh approach to offering music in an advertising-driven model opens an exciting new opportunity for the public to discover our music. We are pleased to be working with SpiralFrog as a BMI licensee to expand the opportunity for legitimate music distribution in the digital domain.” “SpiralFrog is enthusiastic about this license,” said Joe Mohen, SpiralFrog Chairman and Founder. “It is only with support of industry leaders like BMI that we can help create market-driven solutions to Internet piracy so that young people can get the music they want from legitimate sources. BMI has been a leader in licensing all genres of music since it was created in 1939, and now, just as it was then, it is taking the lead in granting new licenses on commercially reasonable terms. Their business solutions allow legitimate internet companies like ours to compete with pirate sites.” Headquartered in New York, SpiralFrog will offer advertising-supported legal downloads of audio and video content licensed from the catalogs of the world’s leading record labels and from independents. The company offers a compelling alternative to illegal file-sharing and pirate sites in a secure environment, at no cost. Digital Licensing Center Hits User and Revenue Benchmarks BMI’s Digital Licensing Center (DLC), the music industry’s first fully automated end-to-end solution for licensing copyrights online, celebrated its sixth full year of operation in December. The DLC was created to make it easy for small webcasters to secure public performance rights online. The utility, which initially beta-launched in May 2000, was fully redesigned in 2004 with additional features. DLC royalty revenues for 2006 were up 76% versus 2005, while nearly 200 new websites executed BMI licenses through the service in 2006. The DLC serves the performance licensing needs of nearly 500 small websites. “It’s working. . . . The DLC has met its mandate to simplify music copyright licensing,” said Richard Conlon BMI’s Vice President of New Media & Strategic Development. “Small websites need dedicated resources where they can license their properties and pay their public performance fees online. For BMI, the DLC performs the administrative tasks of licensing and revenue booking for small sites, enabling us to keep headcount down. We plan to raise the current revenue ceiling for eligible sites from the current $43,000 to more than $50,000 in the first quarter of 2007 to make the utility available to more sites.” The system allows Internet sites to execute BMI licenses with one Klik-thruSM transaction, eliminating the need for paper contracting. Websites can visit the DLC and secure their BMI licenses 24 hours a day online. The service accepts electronic fee payments via credit card. All activity on the DLC reads over automatically into BMI’s billing and music use tracking systems. Since the re-launch in 2004, nearly 5,000 new media businesses have registered at the service to learn more about BMI’s copyright licensing solutions for webcasters. The service initially served small web properties generating less than $500 in annual fees for BMI. The Digital Licensing Center is located in the New Media section of BMI.com. Philippine Society Hosts CISAC Online Experts Conference Mon Del Rosario, President of FILSCAP, the Philippine performing right society, recently hosted a BIEM/CISAC “Online Experts” meeting in Manila, chaired by BIEM’s Bryan Lam. Rights societies from territories around the world, including Japan, Hong Kong, Korea, Thailand, and Australia, participated, with BMI’s Richard Conlon representing U.S. performing right interests. The purpose of the meeting was to share approaches to licensing the new media and discuss business solutions to problems ranging from transborder copyright issues to different models for licensing the public performing right. The working group will also closely monitor developments in China and India in an effort to help support the digital music copyright market. BMI, CCA Finalize WorshipCast License Agreement BMI and the Church Copyright Administration (CCA), a leader in Christian copyright clearances for six years, have announced a new package licensing agreement for CCA members’ Internet websites. The licensing agreement allows the CCA to facilitate licensing CCA members’ websites through CCA’s WorshipCast package. The CCA introduced their WorshipCast License on October 1, 2006; it is designed to provide churches a legal right to webcast worship music performed by a church’s praise/worship team. “Worship music is a cornerstone in the U.S. and we’re happy to help support the further growth with the Church Copyright Administration,” said BMI’s Scott Andrews. “Their WorshipCast service is a unique, trend-setting program that will benefit the Christian music and publishing industries by generating new sources of performance royalties. We’re proud to be a partner with this organization and to help grow the marketplace for the genre.” “Through the support of BMI, we are able to help facilitate the commitment by churches to be copyright compliant,” says CCA President Susan Fontaine Godwin. “Through our Internet streaming site, WorshipCast, we are able to offer a one-stop license that will help simplify the legal use of music on church websites. It is a groundbreaking endeavor for the CCA and we appreciate all of BMI’s help and support in the Christian music industry on behalf of their songwriter and composer affiliates.” Music 2.0 Panel Spotlights Digital Rights Management BMI’s Richard Conlon spoke on the “Covering Your (Musical) Assets” panel (focusing on digital rights management) at the Music 2.0 conference in Los Angeles. Pictured (l-r) are: moderator Eric German, Partner, Mitchell Silberberg & Knupp; Alby Galuten, VP, Digital Media Technology, Sony Corporation of America; Conlon; Marc Morgenstern, Vice President, Rights Holder Relations & Music Sales, Navio; Bruce Davis, CEO, Digimarc; and Jamie Perlman, Director, Business Development, SNOCAP. BMI, HBO Ink New Licensing Pact BMI has reached a new five-year licensing agreement with HBO and Cinemax. The previous contract between BMI and HBO, signed in 2003, expired at the end of 2006. The new agreement, which began in January 2007, gives HBO/Cinemax and all of their multiplexed channels continued access to the more than 6.5 million musical works represented by BMI. “This new agreement reflects the significant value of the BMI repertoire, while providing an uninterrupted revenue stream for our writers and publishers,” said BMI President & CEO Del Bryant. “We’re pleased that the music of our songwriters and composers will be carried to nearly 40 million HBO and Cinemax subscribers in the United States.” The musical creations by our songwriters and composers can be found on HBO Original Series Programs such as Big Love (theme music by BMI Icon Brian Wilson); The Sopranos, The Wire, Rome, Deadwood, Entourage, Curb Your Enthusiasm, Real Time with Bill Maher, Def Comedy Jam, Sex and the City, Six Feet Under, Carnivale, Lucky Louie and Real Sports. In addition, BMI music is featured in numerous movies on HBO and Cinemax, including Brokeback Mountain (movie score and original film song “A Love That Will Never Grow Old” by Gustavo Santaolalla); War of the Worlds (music by John Williams) and The Dukes of Hazzard (music by Nathan Barr). Broadcasters Get a Boost from BMI Songwriters BMI songwriter Steve Cropper performed at the 2006 Marconi Awards & Dinner, held during the NAB Radio Show in Dallas, Texas. Cropper led The Formats, a band made up of uniquely talented VIPs in the broadcasting industry, including BMI President & CEO Del Bryant, who sang back-up. Shown after the performance are BMI’s Mike O’Neill, NAB President & CEO David Rehr, Cropper, Bryant, and NAB Vice President John David. BMI award-winning country songwriter Jeffrey Steele rocked the house at New Northwest Broadcasters’ Annual President Awards Dinner, held in Seattle. An audience of New Northwest’s corporate executives, general managers and top sales people were on hand to watch one of BMI’s most prolific singer/songwriters perform songs from his vast repertoire. Pictured after the show (l-r) are: BMI’s Dan Spears, NNB CFO Trila Bumstead, Steele, NNB President Pete Benedetti, and BMI’s Michelle Mazzara. BMI songwriter Taylor Swift performed at Beasley Broadcast Group’s Annual Management Meeting, held in Philadelphia, where she belted out a number of selections from her debut album, including her hit song “Tim McGraw.” Pictured (l-r) at the event are: Beasley Broadcast Group, Inc. CFO Caroline Beasley, BBGI President Bruce Beasley, Swift, BBGI Chairman George Beasley, BMI’s Dan Spears, and Big Machine Records’ Scott Borchetta. BMI provided the entertainment for Clear Channel’s annual Broadcast Accounting holiday party, held in San Antonio. BMI songwriters Brandon Kinney and Wynn Varble performed a humorous set of hits and new music for an enthusiastic group of Clear Channel employees. Pictured after the performance (l-r) are: Broadcast Accounting Supervisor Angela Coy, Kinney, Clear Channel Chief Accounting Officer Herb Hill, BMI’s Dan Spears, Clear Channel Broadcast Controller Susan Hicks, Varble, Clear Channel Vice President, Broadcast Accounting Rick Mangum, and BMI’s Michelle Mazzara. BMI brought in award-winning songwriter Stephen Allan Davis to perform for the Citadel Business Manager’s Meeting in Las Vegas, where he entertained attendees with his unique combination of musicianship, songwriting and storytelling. Davis performed his hits “Take Time to Know Her,” recorded by Percy Sledge, and “Amy’s Back in Austin” by Little Texas, as well as new tunes. Pictured (l-r) are Davis, Citadel Corporate Business Manager Julia Martin and BMI’s Mason Hunter. BMI provided the musical entertainment at the annual Radio One Business Managers Meeting, held in Washington, DC. BMI songwriter/Capitol recording artist John Paul White entertained an enthusiastic group of Radio One executives at their opening night dinner. Pictured (l-r) are: BMI’s Dan Spears, Radio One VP, Finance Greg Bublitz, Radio One Senior VP, Finance Debbie Cowan, White, BMI’s Ben Tischker, and Radio One CFO Scott Royster. BMI, Association Partners Continue Cooperative Efforts National Restaurant Association Public Affairs Conference For the fourth year, BMI hosted a breakfast and addressed 750 state restaurant executives and their board members at the National Restaurant Association Public Affairs Conference in Washington, DC last September. The NRA is the leading business association for the restaurant industry. Pictured (l-r): Steve Anderson, President & CEO, National Restaurant Assoc.; Jeff Messenger, owner, Mount Vernon Restaurant, Chattanooga, TN; BMI's Marsha Williams; Ronnie Hart, President & CEO, Tennessee Restaurant Assoc.; BMI's Cleve Murphy. Pictured (l-r): Keith Overton, VP Tradewind's Resort; Richard Turner, General Counsel, Florida Restaurant & Lodging Assoc.; BMI's Cleve Murphy; Burton "Skip" Sacks, Past Chairman, National Restaurant Assoc.; Manny Paula, COO, Kelly's; Paul Hartgen, Incoming President & CEO, International Society of Restaurant Association Executives and President & CEO Nevada Restaurant Association. BMI provided musical entertainment for the Restaurant Association of Metropolitan Washington's (DC) annual RAMMY'S Awards Dinner in June. Pictured (l-r): Lynne Breaux, President, Restaurant Assoc. of Metropolitan Washington; BMI's Marsha Williams; Jim Simpson, Former Executive Director, National Licensed Beverage Association. BMI hosted a dinner for the International Society of Restaurant Association Executives during their Summer Conference in Hollywood, Florida. ISRAE is a society of restaurant association executives across the country working together to promote professional development through education, collaboration and the exchange of ideas and information. Pictured at the dinner are (l-r): Montine McNulty, Executive Director, Arkansas Hospitality Assoc.; Peter Christie, President & CEO, Massachusetts Restaurant Assoc.; BMI's Marsha Williams; Simon Flynn, President & CEO, Connecticut Restaurant Assoc., BMI's Jessica Frost; Patrick Horn, Membership Director Restaurant Assoc. of Metropolitan Washington; Lynne Breaux President Restaurant Assoc. of Metropolitan Washington. BMI sponsored the Culinary Showcase for the Texas Restaurant Association Foodservice Expo in Houston in June. This was the 69th show for the TRA and the second largest foodservice show in the nation, with more than 27,000 attendees. Pictured (l-r) are: BMI's Jessica Frost; Robert Westbrook, President, CiCi's Pizza & TRA Board Member; and BMI's Michele Reynolds. BMI presented to the Board of Directors at the Michigan Licensed Beverage Association Fall Conference in September as part of its continuing efforts to educate the marketplace about music licensing and the importance of compensating the creators of music. Pictured (l-r) are: BMI's Jessica Frost; Michael Brown, General Counsel, Michigan Licensed Beverage Assoc.; BMI's Marsha Williams; and Cathy Pavick, Executive Director, Michigan Licensed Beverage Assoc. High Honor. The BMI Lehman Engel Musical Theatre Workshop was presented with a special Tony Award at the 16th Annual Tony Honors for Excellence in the Theatre. Tony Award winners and Workshop alumni Lynn Ahrens and Stephen Flaherty presented the prestigious award to Advanced Workshop moderators Richard Engquist and Maury Yeston at a gala luncheon held at Tavern on the Green in New York City. Pictured after the ceremony are (front row): Tony Honors recipient Gerard Alessandrini, Yeston, American Theatre Wing President Douglas Leeds, Shubert Organization Chairman Gerald Schoenfeld, actress Angela Lansbury, American Theatre Wing Chairman Sondra Gilman, Tony Honors host Cynthia Nixon, Engquist, Tony Honors recipient Biff Liff, (middle row): Ahrens, Flaherty, Workshop Steering Committee members Nancy Golladay, Jane Smulyan and David Spencer, (back row): Workshop moderator Rick Freyer, Workshop alumnus Judd Woldin, BMI Workshop Director Jean Banks, Workshop Steering Committee members Patrick Cook and Frank Evans, and Workshop alumna Linda Kline. Oh, Brother. BMI hosted an intimate reception at its Music Row offices for Bee Gees legend Barry Gibb, along with his wife Linda, and their two sons, Ashley and Stephen, to introduce one of music's most preeminent songwriters to Music City's finest. Gibb is surrounded by BMI staffers Bradley Collins, Beth Mason, Harry Warner, Jody Williams, Phil Graham, Mark Mason and David Preston. School Spirit. EMI Music Publishing Co-Chairman/CEO and Syracuse University alumnus Martin Bandier (c) is pictured with BMI's Phil Graham (l) and Brandon Bakshi celebrating the launch of the Bandier Program for Music and the Entertainment Industries at SU London. Gibb (c) is welcomed by Phil Everly of the Everly Brothers and BMI's Del Bryant. Idolized. “American Idol” contestant Chris Daughtry, fourth place finalist on the popular show’s fifth season, stopped by the BMI Los Angeles office to talk about his No. 1 debut CD, Daughtry (19 Entertainment/RCA Recordings). Welcoming Daughtry (c) to the BMI L.A. office are his manager Sterling McIlwaine, and BMI’s Tracie Verlinde, Barbara Cane and Myles Lewis. He Writes the Canciones. BMI L.A. and peermusic hosted a special reception to present the 2006 BMI Latin Songwriter of the Year award to Latin rock superstar Juanes, who was unable to attend the awards ceremony due to his European tour. Congratulating the Colombian rocker are (l-r): BMI’s Delia Orjuela, peermusic’s Catherine Schindler and Yvonne Gomez, Juanes, peermusic’s Kathy Spanberger, Juanes’ manager Fernan Martinez and BMI’s Barbara Cane. (The) Word. BMI and the Songwriting Series presented “A Conversation with Donald Lawrence” at BMI’s New York office. The panel, moderated by Zomba’s Max L. Siegel, offered participants an opportunity to engage in a one-on-one conversation with the gospel music legend. Pictured after the panel are (l-r): BMI’s Wardell Malloy, Lawrence, BMI’s Catherine Brewton, the Songwriting Series’ Gwendolyn Quinn and Siegel. Beat Masters. BMI was on hand at the 13th Annual Billboard Dance Music Summit held in Las Vegas. BMI London’s Brandon Bakshi took part in the “Across the Pond” panel, which focused on the international dance music scene. Shown at the conference are (back row): DJ/producer Agostino Carollo; Music 2 Mix’s Eddie Gordon, who served as moderator; artist Darude; Kaiser Saucy and Lord Fader of the Loose Cannons; (front row): Petrol Records’ Richard Bridge; Bakshi; and Audiojelly.com’s Ricky Simmonds. Fame-ous Folks. The Nashville Songwriters’ Hall of Fame christened two more BMI members, Jimmy Buffett and Hugh Prestwood, at the 2006 induction ceremony hosted by the Nashville Songwriters Association International (NSAI) and the Nashville Songwriters Foundation (NSF). Pictured at the gala are (l-r): NSF Chairman and Hall of Fame songwriter Roger Murrah, BMI’s Jody Williams, Prestwood, Buffett, and BMI’s Del Bryant and Phil Graham. Hitmaker. BMI hit songwriter Denny Randell was recently presented with several “Million-Air” certificates as a composer on songs totaling more than 12 million broadcast performances. 1965’s “A Lover’s Concerto” received a four million performance award, while “Let’s Hang On” and “Working My Way Back to You” earned three million and five million airplays, respectively. Randell (c) is congratulated by BMI’s Charlie Feldman and Phil Graham in the New York office. Ready for Primetime. BMI composers Edward Shearmur, Greg O’Connor and Jim Wise were among the winners of the 2006 Creative Arts Primetime Emmys presented at the 58th Annual Emmy Awards ceremony. Congratulating Shearmur (c), who took home the trophy for Outstanding Main Title Theme Music for his work on the Showtime cable series Masters of Horror, are BMI’s Linda Livingston and Doreen Ringer Ross. Livingston and Ringer Ross also congratulated O’Conner and Wise, who earned the prestigious Outstanding Music and Lyrics statuette for their song “A Wonderful Normal Day” from MADtv: Episode 1111. Bahama Mamas. The BMI-sponsored Nassau Songwriters’ Festival invaded paradise for the third consecutive year, as the Bahamian town for which the festival is named played host to an exciting mixture of premiere songwriters, artists and stars on the rise. Pictured are (l-r): (first row) Curb recording artist Lee Brice with BMI’s Mark Mason; (second row) Halfway to Hazard’s D-Tox, singer-songwriter Sherrie Austin, R&B producer/hit songwriter Ben Margulies, BMI’s Mary Loving, and RPM Management’s Ryan Cook; (third row) hit songwriters Kendell Marvel and James Slater, Travis Television’s Greg Travis, Halfway to Hazard’s Chad Warrix, hit songwriters Kylie Sackley and Keith Stegall, GAC’s Storme Warren, songwriters Mitzi Dawn and Tim James, and BMI’s Bradley Collins. Inside Info. BMI, Gibson and Billboard presented the latest installment of the “Industry Insider” series entitled “Insight into Black Music.” The panel, moderated by Billboard’s Gail Mitchell, featured four key urban music executives at the Gibson Guitar showroom in Beverly Hills. Pictured after the panel are (l-r): Mitchell; BMI’s Malik Levy, InfoSpace Mobile’s Jaunique Sealy, Famous Music Publishing’s Billy Calloway, Coalition Group Management’s Troy Carter and BMI Award-winning songwriter, artist and producer Mike City. ‘Cold’ is Hot. Writer/Publisher execs from the BMI L.A. office met up with members of Columbia, S.C., hard rock trio Crossfade to present them with a 2006 BMI Pop Award for their hit “Cold.” The band was on tour during the ceremony held last May and unable to attend. Shown are (l-r): BMI’s Joe Maggini, Crossfade’s Mitch James and Ed Sloan, BMI’s Myles Lewis, and Crossfade’s James Branham. Birthday Bash. The Standard Hotel on L.A.’s Sunset Strip was the location of a recent birthday celebration for BMI songwriter/rapper Taboo (r) of multicultural hip-hop group the Black Eyed Peas. BMI’s Anne Cecere (l) is seen here wishing him a happy birthday. Muchas Muchachas. BMI presented a new generation of female talent at its Latin Alternative showcase held at S.O.B.’s in New York City during the Latin Alternative Music Conference. Rocking the stage were songstresses Sacha Nairobi, Tatiana Klauss and Coral, along with New York Latin rock band Julissa. Pictured after the show are (l-r): Alejandro Lagrotta, Julissa, Klauss, BMI’s Porfirio Piña, Coral, and BMI’s Delia Orjuela and Del Bryant. Mockumentary Music. BMI’s Brandon Bakshi (l) welcomed British composer Erran Baron Cohen (PRS) to the BMI London office to talk about his score to the hit movie Borat: Cultural Learnings of America for Make Benefit Glorious Nation of Kazakhstan. His brother is actor Sacha Baron Cohen, who stars in the blockbuster film. Mexican Música. Executives from BMI’s Latin Music team gathered in Los Angeles for Billboard’s inaugural Regional Mexican Music Summit. Pictured at the BMI-sponsored event are (l-r): Twiins Enterprises’ Adolfo Valenzuela, Sony BMG’s Nir Seroussi, regional Mexican group Montez de Durango’s José Luis Terrazas, Arpa Music’s Alejandro Garza, BMI’s Delia Orjuela, composer / producer Homero Patrón, Warner / Chappell Latin America’s Gustavo Menendez and Twiins Enterprises’ Omar Valenzuela. Hail to the Queen. BMI’s Doreen Ringer Ross was on hand to support Golden Globe Award-winning French composer Alexandre Desplat at a special screening of The Queen. Presented by BMI and the Society of Composers & Lyricists, the movie was followed by a Q&A with Desplat. Pictured are (l-r): Buena Vista Motion Picture Group VP Kaylin Frank, manager Robert Urband, journalist / moderator Jon Burlingame, Ringer Ross, Desplat, Kraft-Engel Management partner / agent Laura Engel and SCL Executive Director Laura Dunn. The Bluegrass Is Always Greener. BMI execs were on hand to celebrate bluegrass music’s biggest night at the International Bluegrass Music Association’s annual awards show and pre-party. BMI elder statesmen and budding stars alike were honored on the stage of the Grand Ole Opry House in Nashville. Pictured are (l-r): BMI’s Bradley Collins, BMI songwriting icon and bluegrass aficionado Tom T. Hall, legendary bluegrass producer and songwriter Carl Jackson, Hall’s wife, Dixie Hall, and BMI’s Jody Williams. All That Jazz. BMI continued its long and rich history in both jazz music and jazz music education as a major sponsor of the 34th Annual International Association for Jazz Education (IAJE) Conference held recently in New York City. The four-day gathering featured a special performance by members of the esteemed BMI Jazz Composers Workshop. BMI’s Jean Banks (c) is pictured with 2007 Grammy-nominated jazz virtuoso Joe Lovano and Workshop Musical Director Jim McNeeley, also a 2007 Grammy nominee. Lounge Singers. BMI Los Angeles presented another installment of its monthly “Acoustic Lounge” showcase, featuring performances by Alan Morphew, Dax, Andrea Hamilton and Skyler Stonestreet. Gathered after the show at Genghis Cohen are (l-r): BMI’s Paige Sober, Morphew, Dax, Hamilton, Stonestreet and BMI’s Myles Lewis. Total Recall. Friends and family of songwriter Morgane Hayes invaded BMI’s Music Row offices to fete her first No. 1 hit, Carrie Underwood’s “Don’t Forget to Remember Me.” Pictured at the party are (l-r): BMI’s Shelby Kennedy, EMI’s Tom Luteran, Arista’s Butch Waugh and Skip Bishop, Hayes, 19 Recordings’ Chris Oglesby and BMI’s Jody Williams. Royalties, Mon. Executives from the BMI London office made their way to the Caribbean to host a cocktail party with the Royalty Network Inc. The music industry meet and greet, held at the Liguanea Club in Kingston, Jamaica, featured top executives from the Jamaican Association of Composers and Publishers (JACAP) discussing international music royalties. BMI's Brandon Bakshi (c) meets with JACAP General Manager Hugh Beckford and JACAP Chairman Steve Golding. Now Hear This. BMI Grammy and Oscar-winning composer Gustavo Santaolalla, who scored the music to the blockbuster film, Babel, participated in a Q&A session following a special screening presented with the Society of Composers & Lyricists. Pictured are (l-r): SCL Executive Director Laura Dunn, BMI composer Chris Farrell, BMI's Doreen Ringer Ross, Santaolalla, and his musical partner Anibal Kerpel. Walk This Way. BMI's Barbara Cane, Tracie Verlinde and Joe Maggini were on hand to celebrate the induction of legendary BMI songwriters Kris Kristofferson and the late Waylon Jennings into the Hollywood RockWalk in Los Angeles. BMI country singer / songwriter Jessi Colter, Jennings' widow, accepted the posthumous induction in his honor. Pictured at the induction ceremony are (l-r): Colter, Cane, Kristofferson, Verlinde, BMI songwriter / producer T-Bone Burnett and Maggini. Movie Music. BMI sponsored a panel discussion entitled "Putting Music Into Your Film" during the 28th Annual Independent Feature Project Market (IFP) held last fall in New York. Moderated by BMI's Doreen Ringer Ross, panelists included music supervisor Sue Jacobs (Little Miss Sunshine), composer Pete Nashel (The Night Listener), director Patrick Stettner (The Night Listener), TVT Records VP Patricia Josephs and producer Peter Saraf (Little Miss Sunshine). Shown after the panel are (l-r): Jacobs, Nashel, Ringer Ross, Stettner, IFP Executive Director Michelle Byrd and Saraf. Tasty Tunes. Hot new music and tasty food were on the menu at the 2006 CMJ Music Marathon held in New York, where BMI hosted a series of lunchtime performances by Danish singer/songwriter Annekei, Philadelphia’s Eric James and Toronto transplant Justin Nozuka. BMI also served up a “Not So Acoustic Brunch,” featuring sets by The Broken West, Bound Stems, Oh No! Oh My! and The Rosewood Thieves. Pictured after Annekei’s performance are her attorney Paul Rothenberg, BMI’s Ben Tischker and Myles Lewis, Annekei, and BMI’s June Neira, Joe Maggini and Tracie Verlinde. Bound Stems’ Evan Sult, Dan Fleury, Bobby Gallivan, Janie Porche and Dan Radzicki share a brunch group hug. Not Forsaken. Vapor/ Sanctuary Records recording artists Los Abandoned took the stage at the filled-to-capacity Troubadour in Los Angeles during a recent BMI “Pick of the Month” showcase, where the band delivered its bilingual blend of hooky, high-energy pop/punk rock and retro-folklore. Pictured after their performance are (front row): BMI’s Joe Maggini, Los Abandoned’s Don Verde, BMI’s Delia Orjuela, Los Abandoned’s Vira Lata and Dulce; (in back): Los Abandoned’s Lady P and BMI’s Myles Lewis. Honor Roll. Three-time Grammy winner and BMI Gospel Trailblazer Yolanda Adams was among the recipients of the Texas chapter’s Recording Academy Honors, held recently at the Austin Convention Center. Seen after the ceremony are (l-r): Austin City Limits producer and NARAS National Board Chairman Terry Lickona, NARAS President Neil Portnow, NARAS Texas Chapter Executive Director Theresa Jenkins, NARAS National Vice Chairman Jimmy Jam, Adams, gospel singers Mary Mary, and BMI’s Thomas Cain and Jody Williams. ▶ Fine Fellows. Congratulations to James Woodward and John Kaefer, winners of the BMI Foundation’s 18th Annual Pete Carpenter Fellowship for aspiring film and television composers under the age of 35. Their prize included an internship with celebrated BMI composer Mike Post (Hill Street Blues, NYPD Blue, Law and Order), who was Carpenter’s longtime writing partner. Woodward (c, photo at right) is congratulated by Post and BMI’s Linda Livingston. ▶ Party People. BMI celebrated the kick-off to the Latin Grammys at the Bacardi Noche Latina pre-party held at Joe’s Pub in New York, featuring performances by BMI Latin Grammy nominees Motel, Javier García and Inés Gaviria. Seen celebrating are (l-r) Motel’s Jose Luis Damina Luna, BMI’s Jerry Vila, Motel’s Ruben Puente García, BMI’s Porfirio Piña, Motel’s Rodrigo Dávila Chapoy, BMI’s Delia Orjuela and Motel’s Emil Guillermo Méndez. ▶ Broadway Bound. The Tony-honored BMI Lehman Engel Musical Theatre Workshop hosted a group of 20 students from Valparaiso (Indiana) High School for a one-day “mini-workshop” session. The teens, who actively write musical theatre pieces during the school year under the direction of Alice Gambel using the teachings of Workshop founder Lehman Engel, come to New York every other year to present their works to the Workshop’s esteemed faculty. Students and teachers from Valparaiso are gathered here with Workshop faculty. Pictured are (back row): Dan Nellessen, Elizabeth Uzelac, Drew Nellessen, Richard Engquist, Tom Leland, Andria Kessler, Molly Vass, Tanau Popli, Aaron Porter, Mark Blane, Alan Chambers; (middle row): Ann Nellessen, Becky Schoon, Kathy McMillan, Laura Punter, Jamie Patton, Lindsay Babcock, Erin Gerig, Erika Marinello; (front row): Frank Evans, BMI’s Jean Banks, Nancy Golladay, Gambel, David Spencer, Pat Cook and Daniel Pritchett. Following In Their Footsteps. Legendary songwriters Boudleaux and Felice Bryant, the husband and wife writing team who penned such classics as “Bye Bye Love” and “Wake Up Little Susie,” were among the inaugural inductees in the Music City Walk of Fame. Boudleaux passed away in 1987 and Felice in 2003, but their sons, BMI President & CEO Del Bryant (l) and Nashville real estate executive Dane Bryant (r), were on hand to celebrate the tribute on their parents’ behalf. Feeling Fine. U.K. band The Feeling kicked BMI’s “Pick of the Month” showcase into high-gear when they doused a packed Key Club with music from their release, Twelve Steps and Home. Pictured after their performance are (top row): The Feeling’s Kevin Jeremiah (guitar) and Paul Stewart (drums), BMI’s Ray Yee, and The Feeling’s Richard Jones (bass); (bottom row): BMI’s Tracie Verlinde, Myles Lewis and Barbara Cane, The Feeling’s Ciaran Jeremiah (keyboards) and Dan Gillespie Sells (vocals & guitar); BMI’s Anne Cecere, The Key Club’s Andrea Egger; BMI’s Joe Maggini; and EMI Music Publishing’s Tami Lester. Mac Daddy. Friends, family and admirers converged on BMI’s Music Row offices to congratulate Christian music superstar tobyMac on an impressive feat in any genre: two simultaneous Gold albums. Pictured at the reception are (l-r): Publisher Eddie DeGarmo, BMI’s Beth Mason, tobyMac and BMI’s Jody Williams. They’ve Got Rhythm. BMI hosted a panel entitled “Merengue: Popular Music and the Industry” at El Museo del Barrio in New York City. Panelists included (l-r): top New York merengue promoter Vidal Cedeño, Dominican producer / manager Rafael “Cholo” Brenes, urban merengue artist Amarfis Aquino, BMI’s Porfirio Piña, merengue producer Henry Jimenez (and his son), and ethnomusicologist Edgardo Diaz Diaz, who served as moderator. BMI Staff/Titles For your convenience, the following is a list of the names and titles of BMI staffers whose pictures may appear in this issue. Del Bryant President & CEO Robbin Ahrold Vice President, Corporate Relations Tom Annastas Vice President, General Licensing Brandon Bakshi Senior Executive, Writer/Publisher Relations, Europe Jean Banks Senior Director, Theatre & Jazz Mark Barron Assistant Vice President, Marketing Marvin Berenson Senior Vice President & General Counsel Patsy Bradley Assistant Vice President, Writer/Publisher Administration, Nashville Catherine Brewton Vice President, Writer/Publisher Relations, Atlanta Thomas Cain Senior Director, Writer/Publisher Relations, Nashville Barbara Cane Vice President & General Manager, Writer/Publisher Relations, Los Angeles Fred Cannon Senior Vice President, Government Relations Bradley Collins Associate Director, Writer/Publisher Relations, Nashville Richard Conlon Vice President, New Media & Strategic Development Samantha Cox Senior Director, Writer/Publisher Relations, New York Antonella Di Saverio Director, Performing Rights Charlie Feldman Vice President, Writer/Publisher Relations, New York Emily Good Director, Classical Administration Phil Graham Senior Vice President, Writer/Publisher Relations Perry Howard Associate Director, Writer/Publisher Relations, Nashville Misha Hunke Senior Director, Performing Rights Ralph Jackson Assistant Vice President, Classical Music Relations Shelby Kennedy Director, Writer/Publisher Relations, Nashville Malik Levy Director, Writer/Publisher Relations, Los Angeles Myles Lewis Senior Director, Writer/Publisher Relations, Los Angeles Linda Livingston Senior Director, Film/TV Relations, Los Angeles Joe Maggini Associate Director, Writer/Publisher Relations, Los Angeles Wardell Malloy Director, Writer/Publisher Relations, New York Mark Mason Director, Writer/Publisher Relations, Nashville June Neira Associate Director, Writer/Publisher Relations, New York Lynn Oliver Associate Director, Writer/Publisher Relations, Atlanta Michael O'Neill Senior Vice President, Licensing Delia Orjuela Assistant Vice President, Writer/Publisher Relations, Latin Barbara A. Petersen Assistant Vice President, Classical Music Administration Porfirio Piña Director, Latin Music, New York David Preston Director, Writer/Publisher Relations, Nashville Doreen Ringer Ross Vice President, Film/TV Relations, Los Angeles Gary Roth Assistant Vice President, Legal & Business Affairs, Performing Rights Judith Saffer Assistant General Counsel David Sanjek Director, Archives Alison Smith Senior Vice President, Performing Rights Ron Solleveld Senior Vice President, International Dan Spears Assistant Vice President, Sales & Marketing, Media Licensing Ben Tischker Associate Director, Writer/Publisher Relations, New York Tracie Verlinde Senior Director, Writer/Publisher Relations, Los Angeles Jerry Vila Associate Director, Latin Music, Puerto Rico Harry Warner Assistant Vice President, Writer/Publisher Relations, Nashville Jody Williams Vice President, Writer/Publisher Relations, Nashville Ray Yee Senior Director, Film/TV Relations, Los Angeles BMI OFFICES New York 320 West 57th Street New York, NY 10019 (212) 586-2000 Fax: (212) 245-8986 firstname.lastname@example.org Nashville 10 Music Square East Nashville, TN 37203 (615) 401-2000 Fax: (615) 401-2707 email@example.com Los Angeles 8730 Sunset Boulevard Third Floor West Los Angeles, CA 90069 (310) 659-9109 Fax: (310) 657-6947 firstname.lastname@example.org Miami 5201 Blue Lagoon Drive Suite 310 Miami, FL 33126 (305) 266-3636 Fax: (305) 266-2442 email@example.com Atlanta 3340 Peachtree Road NE Suite 570 Atlanta, GA 30326 (404) 261-5151 Fax: (404) 816-5670 firstname.lastname@example.org London 84 Harley House Marylebone Road London NW1 5HN England 011-44-207-486-2036 Fax: 011-44-207-224-1046 email@example.com Puerto Rico Bank Trust Plaza Suite A-262/East Wing 255 Ponce De Leon Ave. San Juan, PR 00917 (787) 754-6490 Fax: (787) 753-6765 firstname.lastname@example.org To increase awareness of this original American art form, the Smithsonian’s National Museum of American History in 2002 launched Jazz Appreciation Month, or JAM. Since then, a distinguished roster of partners and jazz greats have pitched in to promote this international celebration of jazz. What can you do to promote JAM? Participate, appreciate, and educate. Share your passion. As a musician, donate a performance or lecture to your local school. As a fan, take someone to a jazz concert. Share your favorite jazz CD or book with a friend. Everyone can bring the uninitiated into the music, history, and joy of jazz. Together, let’s get the world jamming to America’s music. 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JAM Jazz Appreciation Month Smithsonian National Museum of American History Kennedy Bicentennial Center JAZZ APPRECIATION MONTH APRIL 2007 SIXTH ANNUAL CELEBRATION For more inspiring ways to share the world of jazz and for more information about JAM, visit smithsonianjazz.org Great Discounts for BMI Songwriters We welcome these new partners to BMI Platinum Privileges: - Muzlink - FedEx - Music Supervision - VLA (Volunteer Lawyers for the Arts) - Listener Station - Berklee Music - XM Satellite Radio - Sonicbids - Discrete Drums And we continue to offer discounts to further your career from: - Pitch This Music - Songwriter - CDW - Dell - Billboard - Disc Makers - MasterWriter - AudioMini.com - Songwriters Hall of Fame - Oasis - Music Connection - BRE - Variety - Hits - The Reporter www.bmi.com/career/discounts
INTRODUCTION TO THE SOLUBILITY OF LIQUIDS IN LIQUIDS The Solubility Data Series is made up of volumes of comprehensive and critically evaluated solubility data on chemical systems in clearly defined areas. Data of suitable precision are presented on data sheets in a uniform format, preceded for each system by a critical evaluation if more than one set of data is available. In those systems where data from different sources agree sufficiently, recommended values are proposed. In other cases, values may be described as "tentative", "doubtful" or "rejected". This volume is primarily concerned with liquid-liquid systems, but related gas-liquid and solid-liquid systems are included when it is logical and convenient to do so. Solubilities at elevated and low temperatures and at elevated pressures may be included, as it is considered inappropriate to establish artificial limits on the data presented. For some systems the two components are miscible in all proportions at certain temperatures or pressures, and data on miscibility gap regions and upper and lower critical solution temperatures are included where appropriate and if available. TERMINOLOGY In this volume a mixture (1,2) or a solution (1,2) refers to a single liquid phase containing components 1 and 2, with no distinction being made between solvent and solute. The solubility of a substance 1 is the relative proportion of 1 in a mixture which is saturated with respect to component 1 at a specified temperature and pressure. (The term "saturated" implies the existence of equilibrium with respect to the processes of mass transfer between phases). QUANTITIES USED AS MEASURES OF SOLUBILITY Mole fraction of component 1, $x_1$ or $x(1)$: $$x_1 = \frac{n_1}{\sum n_i} = \frac{m_1/M_1}{\sum (m_i/M_i)}$$ where $n_i$ is the amount of substance (number of moles) of component $i$, $m_i$ is the mass of substance $i$, and $M_i$ is its molar mass. Mole per cent of component 1 is $100x_1$. Mass fraction of component 1, $\omega_1$ $$\omega_1 = \frac{m_1}{\sum m_i}$$ where $m_i$ is the mass of component $i$. Mass percent of component 1 is $100\omega_1$, and may be described as g(1)/100 g sln which makes it clear that it is mass percent of solute relative to solution and not solvent. The equivalent terms "weight fraction" and "weight percent" are not used. The mole fraction solubility is related to the mass fraction solubility in a binary system by $$x_1 = \frac{\omega_1/M_1}{\omega_1/M_1 + (1 - \omega_1)/M_2}$$ Amount-of-substance concentration of component 1 in a solution of volume $V$, $$c_1 = \frac{n_1}{V}$$ is expressed in units of mol dm$^{-3}$. The terms "molarity" and "molar" and the unit symbol $M$ are not used. Mass ratio is occasionally used in a two-component solution in the form $\frac{g(1)}{g(2)}$, $\frac{mg(1)}{g(2)}$, etc. The term "part per million" (ppm) is not used, but may be expressed as $\frac{mg(1)}{kg}$ sln. Molality of component 1 in component 2 is often used in solid-liquid systems, defined $m_1 = \frac{n_1}{n_2} M_2$, with units mol kg$^{-1}$, but is not used in liquid-liquid systems where the distinction between "solute" 1 and "solvent" 2 is inappropriate. The term molality alone is inadequate, and the unit (mol kg$^{-1}$, mmol kg$^{-1}$) must be stated. Mole fractions and mass fractions are appropriate to either the "mixture" or the "solution" point of view; the other quantities are appropriate to the solution point of view only. ORDERING OF SYSTEMS It is necessary to establish a method of ordering chemical compounds, to be used for the lists of saturating components which define each chemical system. This order is also used for ordering systems within volumes. The systems are ordered first on the basis of empirical formula according to the Hill system (ref 2). The organic compounds within each Hill formula are ordered as follows: (i) by degree of unsaturation (e.g. cycloalkene, diene, alkyne, cycloalkane, alkane), then (ii) by order of increasing chain length in the parent hydrocarbon, then (iii) by order of increasing chain length of hydrocarbon branches, then (iv) numerically by position of unsaturation, then (v) numerically by position of substitution, then (vi) alphabetically by IUPAC name. For example, \| Empirical Formula \| Compound Name \| \|-------------------\|------------------------\| \| C$_5$H$_8$ \| cyclopentene \| \| \| 2-methyl-1,3-butadiene \| \| \| 1,4-pentadiene \| \| \| 1-pentyne \| \| C$_5$H$_{10}$ \| cyclopentane \| \| \| 3-methyl-1-butene \| \| \| 2-methyl-2-butene \| \| \| 1-pentene \| \| \| 2-pentene \| \| C$_5$H$_{12}$ \| 2,2-dimethylpropane \| \| \| 2-methylbutane \| \| \| pentane \| \| C$_5$H$_{12}$O \| 2,2-dimethyl-1-propanol\| \| \| 2-methyl-1-butanol \| \| \| 2-methyl-2-butanol \| \| \| 3-methyl-1-butanol \| \| \| 3-methyl-2-butanol \| \| \| 1-pentanol \| \| \| 2-pentanol \| \| \| 3-pentanol \| Deuterated compounds immediately follow the corresponding $^1$H compounds. GUIDE TO THE COMPILATIONS AND EVALUATIONS The format used for the compilations and evaluations has been discussed in the Foreword. Additional information on the individual sections of each sheet is now provided in the following. "Components". Each component is listed by IUPAC name (ref 1), chemical formula according to the Hill system, and Chemical Abstracts Registry Number. Also included are trivial name or names if appropriate. "Original Measurements". References are expressed in "Chemical Abstracts" style, journal names being abbreviated, and if necessary transliterated, in the forms given by the "Chemical Abstracts Service Source Index" (CASSI). "Variables". Ranges of variations of temperature, pressure, etc. are indicated here. "Prepared by". The compiler is named here. "Experimental Values". Components are described as (1) and (2), as defined in "Components". The experimental data are presented in the units used in the original paper. Thus the temperature is expressed $t/^\circ C$ or $T/^\circ F$ as in the original, and conversion to $T/K$ is made only in the critical evaluation. However, the author's units are expressed according to IUPAC recommendations (ref 3,4) as far as possible. In addition, compiler-calculated values of mole fractions and/or mass percent are included if the original data do not use these units. 1975 or 1977 atomic weights (ref 5) are used in such calculations. When appropriate, conversions from concentrations to mole fractions are included in the compilation sheets, with the values and sources of the densities being quoted and referenced. Details of smoothing equations (with limits) are included if they are present in the original publication and if the temperature or pressure ranges are wide enough to justify this procedure. Errors in calculations, fitting equations, etc. are noted, and where possible corrected. Material inserted by the compiler is identified by the word "compiler" in parentheses. The precision of the original data is preserved when derived quantities are calculated, if necessary by the inclusion of one additional significant figure. "Method". An outline of the method is presented, reference being made to sources of further detail if these are cited in the original paper. "Chemical Abstracts" abbreviations are often used in this text. "Source and Purity of Materials". For each component, referred to as (1) or (2), the following information (in this order and in abbreviated form) is provided if it is available in the original paper: - source and specification - method of preparation - properties - degree of purity. "Estimated Error". If this information was omitted by the authors, and if the necessary data are available in the paper, the compilers have attempted to estimate errors (identified by "compiler" in parentheses) from the internal consistency, the type of apparatus, and other relevant information. Methods used by the compilers for reporting estimating errors are based on the papers by Ku and Eisenhart (ref 6). "References". These are the references (usually cited in the original paper) which the compiler considers particularly useful in discussing the method and material. "Evaluator". The information provided here is the name of the evaluator, the evaluator's affiliation, and the date of the evaluation. "Critical Evaluation". The evaluator aims, to the best of his or her ability, to check that the compiled data are correct, to assess their reliability and quality, to estimate errors where necessary, and to recommend numerical values. The summary and critical review of all the data supplied by the compiler include the following information: (a) Critical text. The evaluator produces a text evaluating all the published data for the particular system being discussed, reviewing their merits or shortcomings. Only published data are considered, and even some of the published data may only be referred to in this text if it is considered that inclusion of a data compilation sheet is unjustified. (b) Fitting equations. If the use of a smoothing equation is justifiable, the evaluator may provide an equation representing the solubility as a function of the variables reported in the compilation sheets, stating the limits within which it should be used. (c) Recommended values. Data are recommended if the results of at least two independent experimental groups are available and are in good agreement, and if the evaluator has no doubt as to the adequacy and reliability of the experimental and computational procedures used. Data are reported as tentative if only one set of measurements is available, or if the evaluator is uncertain of the reliability of some aspect of the experimental or computational method but judges that it should cause only minor error, or if the evaluator considers some aspect of the computational or experimental method undesirable but believes the data to have some value in those instances when an approximate value of the solubility is needed. Data determined by an inadequate method or under ill-defined conditions is rejected, the reference being included in the evaluation together with a reason for its rejection by the evaluator. (d) References. All pertinent references are listed here, including all those publications appearing in the accompanying compilation sheets and also those which have been rejected and not compiled. (e) Units. The final recommended values are reported in SI units (ref 3). Continuation Sheets. These are used for both compilations and evaluations, and include sections listing the "Components" and also the "Original Measurement" or "Evaluator". Compilation continuation sheets may include a section headed "Comments and/or Additional Data". REFERENCES 1. Rigaudy, J.; Klesney, S.P. Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry (IUPAC), ("The Blue Book"), Pergamon, Oxford, 1979. 2. Hill, E.A. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1900, 22, 478. 3. Whiffen, D.H., ed. Manual of Symbols and Terminology for Physicochemical Quantities and Units (IUPAC), ("The Green Book"), Pergamon, Oxford, 1979; Pure Appl. Chem. 1979, 51, 1. 4. McGlashan, M.L. Physicochemical Quantities and Units, 2nd ed. Royal Institute of Chemistry, London, 1971. 5. IUPAC Commission on Atomic Weight, Pure Appl. Chem. 1976, 47, 75; 1979, 51, 405. 6. Ku, H.H., and Eisenhart, C., in Ku, H.H., ed. Precision Measurement and Calibration, NBS Special Publication 300, Vol. 1, Washington D.C., 1969.
Immediately following the publication of the poster, with its depictions and allusions of Messier, Messi, and Messiaen, some teams were already speculating on Messing as the treasure location (and even on Conyfield Wood). We had joked in advance that this might be the shortest Hunt on record, teams waiting for us in the wood when we came to plant the treasure box. In fact the first recorded trip to the wood came three days into the Hunt, and a steady trickle of visits turned into a positive torrent towards the end (with nine teams reporting a trip in the final two days). Altogether there were 29 reported visits to Messing, including seven teams making the journey twice (all successfully). Some highlights from these reports follow. Early Visits: 17th-19th December The first two teams to the treasure, Psychologicals and Alcoholus Lubricatum, each found it on the 19th December, only four days into the Hunt, yet each already on their second trip! The Psychologicals report that on the 17th: Nick (and Mary) make first visit to Messing. Find locations of the first 6 blue-edged pictures on route into Conyfield Wood. Notice the fallen tree and lots of bird boxes in the trees around the pond. Nick even searches the fallen tree, but misses finding the box! Similarly, Alcoholus Lubricatum on the 18th: A little further beyond that pond is a fallen tree and then a further pond beyond that. There are many trees, lots of clefts and no success this time. Gut feeling is that with the previous instructions being 20-30 meters distance was that whatever we are being told in the 7th blue boarded card would leave us close to this pond Each team persisted, and they both returned on the 19th to claim the first and second cards. The Festive Lull Following that early rush, there were a few more visits in late December. One of the OWLs made the trip on Christmas Eve, noting: There is also a magnificent fallen tree here. I've searched it really thoroughly - nothing! (and, along with several other teams during the Hunt, finding a geo-cache concealed in another tree). The Cachew Nuts on the 27th nearly missed the treasure due to a wild pine chase: But at this point one of B’s sillier ideas nearly derailed the mission. He was convinced that “Another Fine Mess” was a clue, via Laurel and Hardy, to “the trail of the Lonesome Pine” especially as the penultimate River Mess card had PINE prominently at the top. We walked on, for 50 yards or so, to find... an avenue of pine trees crossing the path. “Got to be right,” we said (stupidly!). And for the next two hours we searched the pine trees and found a footpath leading off it with orange markers on the trees. A clear trail... but it led nowhere. By this time the snow was falling and in near white-out conditions we crossed and re-crossed the “lonesome pine” trail, even, in desperation, investigating a dog poo bag hanging in a tree!! Well the message did say PICK UP MESS! Increasingly despondent at the prospect of a four-hour journey back home with nothing to show for it, B investigated every tree he could find, including one in the middle of a particularly vicious swathe of brambles. Finally, he retraced his steps back to the blue tree protector and the pond and then investigated a fallen tree halfway between the two ponds. He’d already looked there but not very thoroughly. This time, he put his hand into a stagnant and very cold puddle of water in the “TREE CLEFT”, wiggled something he found there... and it rattled. Heart thumping, he drew it out and then shouted to the others. Never has a found geocache given so much relief! Beef Leamington made two visits on consecutive days, using (as we had hoped some team might) experience of the site to inform their progress with the puzzle: Having not solved ‘in a fallen tree’, but having solved ‘in a tree cleft’ at that point we looked in various tree clefts visible from the pond but to no avail, but we did spot the fallen tree as a noticeable landmark. We returned home after lunch at The Old Crown, and managed to solve ‘in a fallen tree’ that evening, partly prompted by seeing the fallen tree. We returned the next day, 29 December and found the treasure very quickly, securing the fourth card. After a second lunch at The Old Crown we returned home (we did book a table that day). The old year was rounded out with a successful trip by Apopheniacs Anonymous: Appropriately enough then that we should retrieve Treasure Object M5 from the cleft in a fallen tree at Coneyfield Wood, Messing, at approximately 11:30am on the morning of New’s Year Eve, leaving ample time to get a table for a splendidly palatable roast lunch at the nearby Old Crown, not to mention plenty of time for New Year celebrations later in the evening. [...] We had also via the miracle of Google Streetmap eliminated many of the public footpath signs around Messing, leaving the one north of Coneyfield Wood as a prime candidate. Our sequence of wintry blue card photos did the rest, and we alighted on our fallen tree. Bereft of our cleft pointer, we briefly searched in vain. But finding a sort of split halfway along the fallen tree, a beautiful chorus suddenly emerged from the numbered bird boxes in the trees above us that sounded not a little dissimilar to the fifth piece of Messiaen’s Catalogue d’Oiseaux, and we felt sure that we had hit exactly the right note! The New Year One member of the Tim Tam Slammers: […] by coincidence, spent New Year’s day near Messing. As there are only two places in England starting with Mess…, and as one of the hexagons was of nearby Inworth, she decided to have a look. The Messing coat of arms confirmed that she was in the right place and she even found all pictures from the cards with the blue borders. In the end, she stood within one metre of the treasure, but without the “in a tree cleft” clue didn’t know what to look for. On the same day, two of the Pathfinders, with a speculated “POST THEN TREE” clue: […] made the trip up to Messing on New Year’s Day. The pictorial directions worked perfectly – starting with the strange wagon-wheel/wreath decoration that had eluded us on Google Earth. (The owner said Mitch was the fourth person she’d seen photographing it!). However at the pond, POST THEN TREE, didn’t make sense, and the trail went cold. After a discussion with Matt (at that point staying with friends on the outskirts of Paris – sadly no visit to Saint Chapelle, Musee de Cluny or Sainte Trinite this time!) we decided that TH could be LL, meaning it could say something like BY FALLEN TREE. There was indeed a prominent fallen tree, but despite extensive searching, and without the confidence in this clue, we came away empty-handed, convinced there must be additional directions hidden in the remaining codes. (the Pathfinders later solved the remaining clues, made a correct virtual claim, and submitted the best overall solution). Two days later, this dry patch in finds was extended by the Dave Kee Team, who may have been the first team to visit the site who did not ultimately go on to find the treasure: We identified all the pictures to the frozen pond but there we ran out of steam. We had a sortie, before the pub and after, and raked a lot of leaves but no luck (or love). Two weeks left of the Hunt, and only five successful finds! Things would soon turn around…. First weekend of January, 6th-8th On the following Saturday, 6th January, the Rookies took a trip to Messing (despite being quite determined, early in the Hunt, that the treasure must be in Blackmore or Ingatestone). Without all the clues: We found the blue post etc from the pictures, so we knew we were in the right place, and we had a look around the roots of the right fallen tree, but to no avail. Also on that day, three teams with rather better luck met in the wood. Here's the Strange Brotherhood's account: As we parked the car, we saw what looked suspiciously like another team of hunters; we lost sight of them while we were kitting up, but on following the route we had deduced to the treasure site (and identifying the landmarks), we met them again in the vicinity of the pond. After a few minutes of studiously ignoring each other, we decided to introduce ourselves, and were somewhat encouraged to hear that they also hadn't solved ADD SENDER TO STAMP, but were discouraged by hearing that they had visited the site a week ago, searched every tree, and found nothing... We decided to poke around anyway, but 90 minutes search of the area revealed nothing. The large fallen tree looked inviting, but was being searched by the other team, so we ignored it and searched the rest of the site. The other team went for lunch, but we carried on. I was looking at the trees on the small island in the larger pond and trying to work out if I would be able to cross the fallen trees which led across the water to reach them. As I uncertainly put one foot on them, I radioed my hunting partner to ask if she had by any chance already searched the island, to be told that she had searched the fallen tree again and found the treasure, thus saving me from an almost-certain wetting reminiscent of that experienced by a certain stuffed kangaroo... The team they met were the OWLs, hoping to do better than their solo visit on Christmas Eve: Rather awkwardly, as we were walking into the woods, a couple of people were also walking up the same path and we realised they were holding ATH printouts. We congregated by the pond, so we introduced ourselves and I explained I had been before, but not found the treasure. It was really nice to meet some other people who've been going through the same processes as we have, and we were all careful enough not to divulge key info to each other, while managing to establish that we were more or less in the same position in relation to finding the treasure - one clue short! Since I felt that I had focused so hard on the area behind the pond, previously, we took ourselves up to the 'crossroads' paths and did a thorough search around there. We came back to the bird copse area via the back path - noting on the way that the (probably geocached) camera had now disappeared from underneath the interesting tree! We exchanged some updates on our lack of success with the other team, who had covered much of the same searching that I had, previously, and after checking out the area by the bigger pond we had to go back to the village for lunch. It seemed likely the other team would strike lucky while we were gone, but that was okay - we were cold and hungry and would have time to come back after lunch. The Old Crown's food really is palatable, so after a fantastic meal we set off again - passing the other team by the front door of the pub! They had found ticket #6, which was great news, so after swapping a few more anecdotes about our shared experiences of doing the ATH, and some encouragement from them, we set off again. We turned left at the stile to shortcut up to the pond, and Rachel wanted to check out the fallen tree. I knew I'd already checked it really thoroughly but it was so distinctive that going over it again was definitely a good idea. Within five seconds, Oscar spotted the white tupperware box in the deep, water-filled cleft along the main trunk! I had poked into that cleft with a sturdy stick previously - I remembered all the sludge and water inside it, but I obviously hadn't got right down low and used my eyes, which was really frustrating. But hindsight is a wonderful thing :-) Don't rely on feeling for something with a stick! Rachel and Oscar opened the little box to find a lovely pack of cards, with backs printed up with the poster design, and each face showing a different Messier object. We took Messier object #7, Ptolemy Cluster, looked through the rest of the contents, and took a few photos. As we hotfooted it out of the woods, we passed a family with two excited kids just entering by the stile. Rachel said: "They're holding ATH printouts!" so we called out "Good luck!" and got some smiles in return. That family group were No Management Potential. They were one of two teams to find the treasure with neither of the final clues (IN A TREE CLEFT and IN FALLEN TREE), but perhaps their four-year-old child could be considered an unfair advantage. Their bittersweet tale—of frustration, redemption, and triumph—wins this years Best Hunters' Tale prize, and is reproduced here in full: Another Fine Mess With all clues pointing to Messing in Essex, and a confident sequence of pictures to follow, I headed down for a treasure hunt with my wife and young boys about lunchtime on Saturday January 6. We did however spot a couple going to have lunch in the pub that The Reverend B confidently identified as "clearly more treasure hunters", but they didn't look happy so perhaps they too were barking up the same wrong tree. Still, a good session on the slide and swings by the village hall and sandwiches in the car fortified the boys for the hunt ahead and we headed down to School Lane. Even an encounter with Bushes Sr & Jr in the church didn't dampen our spirits. Parking near the church, alongside the village sign replete with now-familiar crest, we looked around the church, village hall and pub for signs of the wheel. Alas nothing but the village sign dumped unceremoniously round the back of the hall ever since those upstarts from Wickham Bishops took the Best Kept Village title. Or perhaps an attempt by the setters to stop our spotting the link with the Essex crest. Devious... The Hunt On the right of School Lane is a row of raised cottages called Osborne Cottages and we were happy to report that the occupant of Number 15 had erected a wheel to the left of her door since the Google StreetView car last visited. Sadly though, our visit came a mere 12 hours after Twelfth Night, meaning no festive greeting in the form of a wreath. Round the corner, a distinctive footpath sign beckoned us to go for a walk in the woods, though the stile at the entrance of Conyfield Wood was less welcoming in its state of repair. At this point a trio whom we had spotted while we sandwiched in the car emerged from the wood, with their intrigue at our attention to the stile an immediate giveaway to their reason for visit, and their greeting of "good luck" an even clearer sign. Still they can't have been in the woods more than fifteen minutes so I asked if they'd "already been", to which one responded that it was their second visit. An unusual tree was a mere 10 metres further along the main path, and from there it was straight ahead to a blue pole where it met the next path, 50 metres along. Turning left took us to a pond, a mere 20 metres or so further and, though no longer frozen, the stick sticking out of the water, moss, and trees behind allowed sure identification. So far so good. Going round in circles So was the treasure close or would the remaining pair of rectangles on the puzzle be essential in narrowing our search? We started behind the pond, alongside a larger pond with surrounding earth banks. Here were a surprising number of bird boxes in trees, hanging bird feeders and the like. Was one of the boxes fake? Several were at head height, and a couple at ground level, but all proved to be treasure-free. From there we looked in vain, heading ever further south-east until we were much of the way to the road. The wood is replete with an unusual number of anomalous items that attracted our attention, very few of which I ever encounter in my sylvan orienteering, but each of which raised our hopes briefly: some impressive metre-high piles of twigs, some even larger piles of coniferous branches, an unusual animal box, an even more oddly-shaped bird box, and a momentarily encouraging bit of plastic strapped to a tree. We were clearly far off the scent so turned back north again, with The Reverend B taking the eastern perimeter while I took an unmarked path back to the large pond. We were back where we'd first started looking. Success! "Where will it be?" asked my four-year-old. "Well, I suppose they'd hide it off the ground as there was snow when they brought it", I responded, "in a tree, but not too high maybe". "Like this, Daddy?" he said, pointing to a substantial fallen tree. To oblige, I had a look in its obscured nooks, and bending down to a water-filled branch a couple of feet off the ground I spotted a plastic box well-hidden within. Eureka! Time 14:41 GMT, 40 minutes after reaching the wood. Beyond the final card was an extra piece of paper advertising Apopheniacs Anonymous, complete with Rorschach image. Given my Only Connect history and ill-founded attempts to see stellar patterns in messy tea stains I will be giving them a call soon. Inside, the word "Congratulations" confirmed our find. Evidently the 8th team there, The Lagoon Nebula became a metaphor for our murky search. Still, the boys were both delighted, but rightly amazed that we'd found it, brandishing the professionally made Eight of Spades that makes a permanent souvenir. The cards don't extend to M110, stopping instead at M52, just one higher than my childhood favourite Messier Object, the Whirlpool Galaxy, but 51 higher than the great Crab Nebula, that may just have been ours had we followed our hunch on that first weekend back in December. So back towards the village. Unfortunately, the revelation to my four-year-old that there was no more treasure to find brought tears, a fitting expression of the emotions of many a treasure hunter once the hunt has finally thrown up its bounty. The following day, Sunday 7th, saw Daphne HQ make a less-than-completely-fruitful trip: Went into the Church and found the treasure chest, a Tree of Life carving, and stained glass windows, including one dedicated to Saint Cecilia, the patron Saint of Musicians and the subject of a poem by Alexander Pope (whose verse had helped us earlier) Having turned out of the Church, I passed the Round Window, readily found the footpath sign and followed it past the former style, the forked tree, reaching the blue post I turned to the pond. I think walked on to the area thick with bird boxes and feeders, and then started to hunt. Without success. I still thought that treasure was buried. After a couple of hours I gave up, having sat on the fallen tree to have a drink, and having dug around its roots. It was the place I thought would be obvious to hide something - I was just looking in the wrong part of it. I also looked in bird boxes, that weird rabbit hutch thing - generally all over. I also got lots of odd looks from dog walkers as I ferreted around in leaf litter. Downhearted, I stomped at considerable pace back to the station, not even having time to grab a pint at The Old Crown. On the plus side I did see two lovely Shetland Ponies! Never mind, he would return within a week. On Monday 8th, Team Norway went to Messing, trusting to fortune. Any treasure hunter who has come this close will sympathise with the frustration they express: The only mistake that we know we made was to go down that path beside the blue post, deep into the wood, instead of carrying on the main path. It also took a little while to work out exactly where your picture of the pond had been taken from, but we think we found it. We had no detailed instructions for finding the treasure, but we had been encouraged by your message on 1st January, suggesting that it was possible to “strike it lucky”. We know that other teams have successfully done this in the past. Well, we didn’t. No luck. Zilch. Zippo. Never found anything. No treasure. Nada. We spent well over an hour combing the area, but never found anything. We were assuming that the treasure was somewhere near that pond. If we had gone further down the main path, past the pond, then pretty soon there is a crossroads, and you would have needed to supply another direction. (Maybe you did, on the two cards which we haven’t deciphered.) We checked on the other side of the path, opposite from the pond. But we concentrated on the area around and beyond the pond in the picture. As you’ll know, beyond it is another pond, and between them is a spectacular, large fallen tree. That’s probably where we would have hidden the treasure – especially when we saw that, standing beside it, we could see the tower of the church in which the hexagon 65 treasure lies. There is also a clearing with lots of bird feeders and bird boxes, and a very large heap of branches on the ground in the middle. We did have a look in the bird feeders that we could reach. The bird boxes were all too high. We had a poke around the heap of branches, but it looked as though it had been deliberately set up to provide a habitat for wildlife, and we didn’t want to disturb anything that was hibernating, so we really hope you didn’t put the treasure there. We were looking for a mark on a tree – not the Logica ‘L’ from old days, but maybe a ‘P’ for Pablo – but we never saw anything. We’d noticed earlier – when we were lost – that many of the trees had orange lines or dots painted on them, so we discounted those when we saw them. We had a good poke around – literally, using branches to poke into all the nooks and crevices – but never found anything. We feel that we have been within feet of the treasure :/ … which of course they had. The final few days: January 11th to 14th The Chiltern Fellowship tried their luck on Thursday January 11th, possibly hoping to steal a march on weekend Hunters: We deduced that the PINE PORTER card with its bird theme is indicating the group of bird feeders in the tree by the pond as the start of the final step noting that PINE PORTER is an anagram of TRIP OPENER. We also note the nearby messy pile (very appropriate!). Using the ADD STAMP TO SENDER direction re the postcards, we have further decoded the associated message as IN FALLEN TREE. However we searched thoroughly in and around the large fallen tree which lies immediately between the pond and the tree with the bird feeders [...] and did not find the treasure there. After that site visit, we have further decoded the postcard information to obtain the additional message BEECH BEARS L(ogica)L and take this to be a hint to look for a Logica L painted on to a beech tree close to the treasure to help locate its precise position. We did not find that L during our site visit. We presume that the ordered Messier objects or some use of the vectors/celestial positions obtained from deciphering the BE-GERM card on Page 2 are needed for the final steps to the treasure, unless IN FALLEN TREE and BEECH BEARS LL are expected to provide sufficient information. Although we still consider it possible that the treasure is within the fallen tree which we searched thoroughly (or has been removed from there), we concede that we have not been able to use the information from the BE GERM card fully and so accept that we may not have found the actual treasure site. When the weekend arrived, so did a rush of Hunters. The Eh? Team was there bright and early on the Saturday morning, claiming card number 9. The Rookies made their second visit: having solved some remaining hints, they could go back to Coneyfield Wood and find the treasure in 30 seconds flat. They were followed by Kathy and Andrew from the Puzzle Club: Here we met Mark who was already searching. He has taken part in the hunt for 10 years and told us what he was expecting to find. (It turned out he was wrong!) We all searched together for about an hour without success. Mark gave up and left us. Shortly after another team arrived, the Rookies. They went straight up to the tree and found the treasure right away. They took M10 and we took M11. We all celebrated together. We found the treasure at 1.05pm on 13th January. We think Mark was from the Stragglers, who wrote: Our man on the ground, Mark Horton, used these directions in a valiant effort to find the treasure in Conyfield Wood. Apparently he came very close but he did not find it. Next came Noel from Twelve Pack: To the left is the blue post, modeling the latest in treasure accoutrements. If one could hear what the post was thinking at this moment, it would have been, "I survived a treasure hunt and all I got was this messy globular cluster!" I passed two guys on the way back to the car. They clearly weren't bothered about stealth, because I could hear them discussing the hunt before I could see them. They said hello as they passed, and I replied "it's a bit messy". I'd expected this to trigger a conversation but they obviously thought I was just talking about the mud. They then spent a long time photographing the wooden stile and the distinctive tree. I was tempted to follow them and then run past them as they approached the treasure site, to teach them a lesson about treasure hunting. But it was lunchtime. We don’t know who those “two guys” were: possibly AftermATH or Roboogle Riddlers, both of whom visited Messing on dates unknown. The final known visit that day was Andy, from Les Messieurs: Andy was very happy with his find! Treasure ticket number 13 – The Hercules globular cluster! Nebula would be proud! After that rush, Sunday 14th—the final full day of the Hunt—was surprisingly quiet, with only two recorded visits to the wood, each a second attempt. The Tim Tam Slammers, having solved “IN A TREE CLEFT” by this time, and also having come mob-handed, were better equipped than before and apparently had little trouble finding the treasure. Which was good for Daphne HQ, who deserve a special mention for understatement, as we’ve highlighted here: Returning on the 14th knowing about looking in a cleft* I headed straight to the pond - no messing. I also made sure I was holding a pointless piece of paper to look, well, less odd. One dog walker asked “Are you orienteering?” “No, I replied, I am on a treasure hunt” “Jolly good!” he exclaimed! I started by doing a broad loop looking at cleft trees before coming back to the pond and heading to the fallen tree. From the woods emerged another group. We fell into friendly conversation, and as we stood by the fallen tree, one pulled the treasure out. This clearly was a help - but I am sure I would have found it a few mins later had I been alone! They took card 14, I took 15, then we beat a hasty retreat as it looked like another group was approaching. This time I did make it to The Old Crown for a pint - alas I have no idea if the food was palatable, as I hadn’t booked a table…* Clearly many teams had an excellent time in Conyfield Wood. Of the 29 reported visits, 15 ended in treasure. Of the others, seven led to subsequent successful visits, and one to a successful virtual claim. So only six teams visited the wood and never found the treasure. Of these, only one (the Stragglers) had solved both the clues IN FALLEN TREE and IN A TREE CLEFT, and they fully deserve their Nearest Miss prize (although both Team Norway and the Chiltern Fellowship also describe thorough searches of the tree—we’re not sure how they missed it). In any case, we are grateful to all teams for their participation, and especially for these good-humoured Hunters’ Tales.
Sermons and Sermonizing in 18th-Century Russia: At Court and Beyond* Ekaterina I. Kislova Moscow State University Abstract This paper is devoted to the question of the spread of court sermons in 18th-century Russian society. The author describes three types that had been formed by the 1740s: court, seminary, and parish homilies. The main question is how and by what means did the court homilies in Elizabeth Petrovna’s time spread the cultural models, thoughts, and ideas created by court preachers throughout Russian society as a whole? Did these texts penetrate traditional culture and how were they adopted? Who read the court sermons, apart from members of the court? To answer these questions, the author describes how court homilies were published and sold, and how they entered the manuscript tradition. The analysis of archival and published materials allows the author to conclude that in the second half of the 18th century, the court sermon was only beginning to penetrate the “traditional” culture. The genre spread primarily in the seminaries, where texts by court * Работа выполнена на средства гранта Президента РФ по государственной поддержке молодых российских учёных — кандидатов наук МК-1573.2013.6, проект “Церковнославянский язык и его место в церковном дискурсе XVIII века”. Обсуждение представленной работы состоялось на конференции “IX International Conference of the Study Group on Eighteenth-Century Russia” (Leuven, 2014), участие в которой стало возможным благодаря поддержке Германского исторического института в Москве (проект “Семантика социального”). preachers functioned as a “library” of panegyrical and theological elements to be used by students and teachers in their own compositions. With few exceptions, the court tradition does not intersect with texts originating from Old Russian and classical theological traditions, although all such texts are called slovo (literally ‘word,’ i.e., ‘sermon’). However, by the end of the 18th century, the new genre became more widely disseminated, following the spread of seminary education and the increase in the number of priests educated in this tradition. Keywords homily, preaching, publishing, Russian 18th century, seminary, Russian court Резюме Статья посвящена вопросу распространения придворных проповедей в русском обществе XVIII века. Автор описывает три типа проповеди, сформировавшихся к 1740-м годам (придворную, семинарскую и приходскую проповедь). Основной вопрос заключается в том, как придворная проповедь эпохи Елизаветы Петровны распространяла культурные модели, образы и идеи, сформированные придворными проповедниками, в русском обществе, какие именно способы этого распространения использовались. Проникали ли эти образы и модели в традиционную культуру и каким образом они адаптировались? Кто читал придворные проповеди вне придворного круга? Для ответа на эти вопросы автор описывает, как придворные проповеди публиковались, продавались и как они входили в рукописную традицию. Анализ архивных и опубликованных материалов позволяет автору сделать вывод о том, что во второй половине XVIII в. придворные проповеди только начинали проникать в традиционную культуру. В основном они были распространены в семинариях, где тексты придворных проповедников использовались в качестве “библиотеки” панегирических и теологических образов и моделей и служили образцами для студентов и учителей, создававших свои проповеди. Придворная традиция за редким исключением не пересекается с текстами, восходящими к древнерусским и классическим богословским традициям, хотя и те, и другие тексты называются “словами”. Однако к концу XVIII в. новый жанр распространяется всё шире — вслед за распространением семинарского образования и увеличением числа священников, воспитанных в этой традиции. Ключевые слова проповедь, проповедничество, издательское дело, Россия XVIII века, семинария, российский двор By the early 18th century, a new type of homily or sermon$^1$ had appeared in Russia, a type usually described with the terms “shkol’naia” (school), “scholastic,” or “baroque.” Its origins were in the Ukrainian and Polish and, more widely, Western European baroque traditions.$^2$ In Peter’s time such homilies --- $^1$ In this article, I use the English terms “sermon” and “homily” as counterparts of the names of the genre used in the 18th century: propoved’, slovo, and predika. $^2$ For more information see [Живов 1996; Кагарлицкий 1999; Кислова 2010]. were seen as a tool for working with mass consciousness and a means of forming public opinion: the objectives of reforms, the meaning of the changes taking place in society, or the significance of a military victory could be explained in a homily [УОРТМАН 2002: 68–80]. A series of decrees was aimed at requiring the educated monks to preach.$^3$ At the same time, seminaries were being established in Russia, and an educational system for the clergy was formed. This system was based on the Ukrainian ecclesiastical colleges, first of all, on the model of the Kyiv-Mohyla Academy and, consequently, on the Polish Jesuit collegiums in general [СМОЛИЧ 1996: 411–417; ФЛОРОВСКИЙ 1983: IV.4]. The subjects taught at the seminaries were aimed at the formation of an educated monk who had a knowledge not only of theology, but also of rhetoric and poetics. Regular preaching was also developing at the seminaries. As a result, we can define several co-existing types of homilies by the 1740s: a) Court homily, usually delivered during festive divine services at the court, often in the presence of the ruler. This type of homily is the best-researched, as these texts were regularly published (see [УОРТМАН 2004; ПОГОСЯН, СМОРЖЕВСКИХ 2002; ЖИВОВ 2004; МАКЕР 2007]). We discuss this type in detail below; b) Seminary homily, regularly delivered in churches at seminaries and open to everyone. Staff preachers appeared first at the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy in Moscow,$^4$ and they were approved by the Synod just as the teachers were.$^5$ Homilies could be delivered not only by staff preachers but also by teachers and prefects of some provincial seminaries (monks as well as “laymen”). In some provincial seminaries, regular preaching had developed relatively early: for example, since the 1720s in the Smolensk, Novgorod, Tobolsk, and Rostov seminaries, and since the 1740s in the Pereslavl, Kazan, Nizhny Novgorod, and Vyatka seminaries [ХАРЛАМПОВИЧ 1914: 748–752]; c) Parish homily (in the capitals and the provinces), delivered at parish churches and monastery cathedrals. The government routinely issued decrees ordering regular preaching at churches and monasteries, but in the first half of the 18th century, such preaching was rare outside of a monastic setting.$^6$ --- $^3$ For example, Decree of the 31st of January 1724 about Monasticism (Указ от 31 января 1724 г. о монашестве [ПСПИР, 4: file No. 1197]). $^4$ In the course of the 18th century, this educational institution had several different names (Hellenic-Greek, Latin or Slavic-Latin, Slavic-Greek-Latin, or Moscow Academy); for the purpose of this article, we shall call it the Moscow Academy, after its location. $^5$ See [ПСПИР, 7: files No. 2366, 2486, 2613, and others]. $^6$ For example, on July 9, 1729, the Synodal attorney-general Baskakov sent the following query to the Synod: “why were the preachers not sent to all the ranked monasteries in Moscow and near Moscow?” (“во все степенные в Москве и близ Москвы мужские монастыри чего для проповедников не определено?” [ПСПИР, 7: Apart from court celebrations and divine services attended by the rulers at Uspensky Cathedral in Moscow and Peter and Paul Cathedral in St. Petersburg, homilies were sometimes delivered as early as the beginning of the 1730s, but only in the 1750s did they become regular occurrences.$^7$ The spreading of homilies in ordinary parishes was connected with the increase in the number of seminary graduates among the clergy. Preaching and catechesis were beginning to be understood as highly important activities of the clergy, so, for example, already in 1737 in the Vologda Seminary students appointed as priests gave a written statement affirming that they “will preach sermons according to their ability and will instruct the people on a good, honest, and godly life” (будут по искусству своему предики сказывать и поучать народ, что подлежит доброму, честному и непорочному житию’ [Харлампович 1914: 751]). In 1775, Gavriil Petrov’s and Platon Levshin’s Collection of Various Sermons for all Sundays and Holidays (“Собрание разных поучений на все воскресные и праздничные дни”) was published. It set an example, providing material for parish homilies and reinforcing the preaching tradition. Court homilies could be dedicated to a variety of different topics. Many homilies were connected with originally secular holidays: military victories, conclusions of peace treaties, birthdays and name days of the monarchs and their heirs, marriages, anniversaries of a ruler’s ascension to the throne, etc. Their content could be theological or quite historical and publicistic, regardless of the formal subject, although on the whole, there was generally a correlation. For example, Amvrosy Yushkevich’s Sermon on the Day of the Third Solemn Gratitude Brought to the All-Generous God about the Everlasting Peace between the Russian Empire and the Swedish Crown (“Слово в день торжественного Всемедрому Богу принесенного третияго благодарения о состоявшемся вечном между империею Российскою и короною Шведскою мире,” July 15, 1744) is dedicated mostly to the description of the persecution of the Russian Orthodox Church before Elizabeth’s reign; Simon Todorsky’s God’s Special Blessing (“Божие особенное благословение,” a sermon for the marriage of the heir to the throne on August 21, 1745) related in detail the history of Petr Feodorovich’s glorious ancestors and contained a great deal of historical material. Homilies delivered during church holidays were more often dedicated to theological subjects (the salvation of the soul, the necessity of fasting, lives of individual saints). But there is no strict correlation; obviously, the content of $^7$ On homilies at Uspensky Cathedral, see, for example [Скворцов 1914: 116–138; Харлампович 1914: 755–758]. the homily depended on the preacher’s desire and the possibilities afforded by the situation or holiday. Homilies delivered without any church or secular context were very rare; the presence of the empress at a divine service, however, would motivate the composition of a sermon (for example, Markell Rodyshevsky’s Sermon in the Presence of Her Imperial Majesty in the Home Church of Her Imperial Majesty (“Слово при присутствии Ея Императорского Величества в домовой Ея Императорского Величества церкве”) on March 28, 1742, and his homily on June 22, 1742). All texts delivered in the presence of the empress contained elements of a panegyric, but this element had appeared already during the coronation celebrations in 1742, generally only in the conclusion of the homily; many texts omitted descriptions of the ruler’s actions and were quite “theological” in their subjects. This article is dedicated to a single aspect of homily study: how did the court homilies in Elizabeth Petrovna’s time spread the cultural models, thoughts, and ideas created by court preachers throughout Russian society? Were court homilies sought after, both at court and outside, and was there any difference in the perception of nominally “panegyrical” and “theological” texts? Who read them? Did these texts penetrate the traditional culture and how were they adopted? To answer these questions, let us take a look at how court homilies were published, how they were sold, and how they entered the handwritten tradition. 1. Court Homilies: Publishing and Selling Although most of the spoken homilies were not printed, some homilies delivered in the presence of the emperor or empress could be published at the decision and with the permission of the ruler. Before 1710, only two homilies, both by Feofan Prokopovich, were published. After the opening of the St. Petersburg Typography, homilies were actively published there (eighteen editions between 1717 and 1730). In total, between 1701 and 1726, thirty-three texts delivered in this period were published. Each text had from one to three editions. In Anna Ioannovna’s time, only four homilies (five editions) were published. Thus, in the first forty years of the 18th century, thirty-seven texts were published (forty-eight issues, forty-one of them in the Church Slavonic orthography and seven in the civil orthography). --- 8 We omit from the present article the Old Russian tradition of Zlatostrui, Izmaragd, Margarit, and other such collections of homilies by church fathers, because the 18th-century court homilies were not included in such collections; we also omit the Old Believers’ homilies, because this phenomenon is an independent and separate tradition. As for the Ukrainian homily, we shall speak about it only in a few specific aspects and in connection with the “Great Russian” homily. 9 For example, out of forty-five homilies delivered by Gavriil Buzhinsky between 1717 and 1727, only six were published after delivery [ПЕТУХОВ 1901: V–X]. After the 1740s, publication of court homilies became a prominent phenomenon in Russian culture.$^{10}$ On March 31, 1742, Elizabeth Petrovna issued a decree on the obligatory printing of homilies delivered in her presence, and on May 14, 1742, she issued a decree on obligatory preaching on Sundays and holidays. From then on, a homily delivered in the presence of the empress was submitted to the Synod for consideration and subsequent publication (from 1743, members of the Synod could send the text to a press immediately). Publication of court homilies in the first ten years of Elizabeth’s reign became a significant phenomenon of Russian culture, which is evidenced by the number of published texts (including republications). \| \| 1742 \| 1743 \| 1744 \| 1745 \| 1746 \| 1747 \| 1748 \| 1749 \| 1750 \| 1751 \| \|--------------------------\|------\|------\|------\|------\|------\|------\|------\|------\|------\|------\| \| Moscow Typography \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| (Church Slavonic \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| orthography) \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| 34 \| 6 \| 17 \| 8 \| 3 \| 5 \| 1 \| 11 \| 5 \| 3 \| \| \| Typography of the \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Academy of Sciences \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| (civil orthography) \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| 6 \| 7 \| 4 \| 1 \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Typography of the \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Senate in Moscow \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| (civil orthography) \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| 2 \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Total \| 42 \| 13 \| 21 \| 9 \| 4 \| 5 \| 1 \| 11 \| 4 \| 2 \| Between 1752 and 1761, only two homilies were published immediately after being delivered; both of them were connected with educational institutions, and only one of them was delivered in the presence of a member of the imperial family.$^{11}$ Does this mean that the court had lost its interest in homilies? In a certain sense, yes: the homily had fulfilled its propagandistic goal in the first years of Elizabeth’s reign, having established her image as an Orthodox ruler. But the publishing policy had also changed: it was re-oriented toward collections of works by contemporary preachers. Collections of sermons by Gedeon Krinovsky (two editions, in 1755–1759 and 1760) and Feofan Prokopovich (1760–1761) were published. Previously, publication of homily collections by contemporary authors had been common only in the Ukrainian-Polish tradition, where collections of a $^{10}$ I have described the appointment of preachers, preparation of homilies, their delivery, publication, and sale in [Кислова 2011А]. $^{11}$ The Speech about the Merit and Profit of the Catechesis Pronounced before the Beginning of Study after the Academic Recess in the Imperial Moscow University [...] 17th of August 1759 (“Речь о достоинстве и пользе катихизиса, которую пред начатием после вакации учения в Императорском Московском университете [...] Августа 17 дня 1759 года”) by Peter Alexeyev and The Sermon and Speech Pronounced before the Rank of the Land Nobility Cadet Corps when the New Colors were Dedicated in the Presence of His Imperial Highness [...] Petr Fedorovich 16th of May 1760 (“Проповедь и слово говоренные пред фрунтом Сухопутного шляхетного кадетского корпуса при освящении новых знамен в присутствии его императорского высочества [...] Петра Федоровича мае 16 дня 1760 года”) by Tikhon Yakubovsky. single author’s homilies had been published already in the late 17th century (for example, Lazar Baranovich’s The Spiritual Sword (“Меч духовный,” 1666) and his The Trumpets of Preaching Words (“Трубы словес проповедных,” 1674). Under Catherine II, the number of published non-court homilies increased, a development connected with the appearance of private and provincial typographies (individual homilies and collections were published by presses associated with educational institutions, typographies in Nizhny Novgorod, Kostroma, Yassy, Yaroslavl, and elsewhere, and private typographies owned by Lopukhin, Shnor, Ponomarev, and others). At the same time, the share of individual, separately published homilies decreased, and the number of collections of works by the same author (mostly in civil orthography) increased. Between 1762 and 1796, 276 individual editions (including republications) and seventy collections of works were published; between 1797 and 1800, twenty-one newly delivered individual sermons and twelve collections were issued.$^{12}$ We now turn our attention to the fate of court sermons delivered during Elizabeth Petrovna’s reign. 2. Numbers of Copies of Editions and Sales of the Texts The Moscow Typography published homilies in press runs from 300 to 1,200 copies, with a standard “half-run” of 600. An analysis of the Inventory of the Church and Civil Books Printed after the Foundation of the Synodal Typography (“Реестр церковных и гражданских книг, напечатанных со времени основания Синодальной типографии,” РГАДА, ф. 1184, оп. 5, д. 217) gives us the number of published copies more than 50,000: \| Year \| Press Runs \| Copies \| Press Runs \| \|------------\|------------\|----------\|------------\| \| 1742 \| 34 \| 24,000 \| three editions \| \| 1743 \| 6 \| 8,400 \| five editions \| \| 1744 \| 17 \| 4,200 \| five editions \| \| 1745 \| 8 \| 3,300 \| \| \| 1746 \| 4 \| 3,600 \| \| \| 1747 \| 5 \| 1,200 \| \| \| 1748 \| 1 \| 300 \| \| \| 1749 \| 11 \| 2,100 \| four editions \| \| 1750 \| 4 \| 1,200 \| \| \| 1751 \| 2 \| 900 \| \| \| 1752 (delivered in 1750) \| 1 \| 300 \| \| \| Total \| \| 49,500 \| min. 5,100$^{13}$ \| --- $^{12}$ For detailed data including translations and publications of homilies by church fathers, as well as information on typographies and type of edition (in civil or Church Slavonic orthography), see [Кислова 2011в: 78–89; Кислова, Матвеев 2011]. $^{13}$ The minimal press run for the sermon was 300 copies, the average—600 copies, so the figure of seventeen undocumented press runs could not produce less than 5,100 copies. Thus, during the first ten years of Elizabeth Petrovna’s reign, only the Synodal Typography published more than 50,000 copies of different homilies; if we consider 300 to be the minimum possible number of copies in any given press run, we have to add about 6,000 copies published in the typographies of the Senate and the Academy of Sciences. The decrees attached to the submitted homilies declared publication “for the public knowledge” (для всенародного извещия), “day and night, so that there might be no interruptions in the regular issuing of editions” (денно и ночно, дабы в очередном деле в печатании книжном не учинилось остановки). The low cost of the texts is also underlined: five kopecks “in booklets” and six kopecks in hard binding: “The homilies in booklets, mentioned above, are to be sold to the people for the indicated price, each for five kopecks [...] and at such a price it (the homily) can be sold to the people quickly, because everyone will be able to buy it willingly for such a low price” (Вышеозначенные предики в тетрагех продажею в народ производить надлежит по явленной цене каждую по 5 копеек [...] и по таковой цене продажею в народ может произойти в непродолжительном времени, ибо по оной малой цене всяк может купить охотно,’ РГАДА, ф. 1184, оп. 2, д. 4, л. 35об.). Were these hopes fulfilled? The surviving documents show that the demand for homilies was stable. At a St. Petersburg bookshop in 1739, according to S. P. Luppov, “out of 186 editions bought in May 1739, 168 were homilies” [Луппов 1976: 118]. A more detailed picture is provided by the information in the surviving registers of books sold from shops connected with the Moscow Typography.$^{14}$ For example, in mid-March 1743 the Moscow Typography shop sold the following texts (РГАДА, ф. 1184, оп. 1, д. 645, лл. 36об.–38) (see the table on the next page). Simultaneously with recently delivered homilies, sermons not only by Feofan Prokopovich but by other authors as well were sold. For example, on March 21, 1743, the Typography shop sold nine copies of Gavriil Buzhinsky’s The Key to the House of David (“Ключ дому Давидову,” October 11, 1719, published on November 19, 1722) and five copies of Varlaam Lenitsky’s Sermon […] on the Day of the Great Martyr Catherine (“Слово […] в день великомученицы Екатерины,” November 24, 1726, published on December 17, 1726). From 0 to 600 copies of homilies could be sold per day; obviously, batches of more than 100 copies are bulk purchases, perhaps by merchants for subsequent sales during fairs. The fact that merchants bought homilies to resell is indirectly indicated by the decree on republication of two homilies by Dimitry Sechenov: “…to print a full press run, i.e., 1,200 homilies, of each of the existing originals, because the copies printed in the past year, 1742, have $^{14}$ For a detailed analysis of the documents, see [Кислова 2011а]. \| March 11 \| Feofan Prokopovich \| Sermon in Praise [...] of Peter the Great (“Слово на похвалу [...] Петра Великого”) \| five copies \| \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| \| Silvester Kulyabka \| Sermon on the Sunday of the Samaritan Woman (“Слово в неделю самарыныны,” delivered on May 16 and published on June 14, 1742) \| thirty copies \| \| Iosaf Khotuntsevsky \| Sermon on the Day of the Assumption of the Lord (“Слово в день вознесения Господня,” May 27, published on June 25) \| nine copies \| \| Stefan Savitsky \| Sermon on the Fourth Sunday after the Descent of the Holy Spirit (“Слово в неделю четвертую по сошествии Св. Духа,” July 4, published on August 25, 1742) \| thirteen copies \| \| Afanasy Topolsky \| Sermon on the Seventh Sunday of the Holy Fathers after Easter (“Слово в неделю седьмую святых отец по пасче,” May 30, published on July 2) \| nineteen copies \| \| Platon Malinovsky \| Sermon on the Second Sunday after the Descent of the Holy Spirit about the Call of the Apostles (“Слово в неделю вторую по сошествии святого духа о звании апостолов,” June 20, published on August 2) \| eighty-six copies \| \| Markell Rodyshevsky \| Sermon in the Presence of the [...] Empress (“Слово при присутствии [...] императрицы,” either the one delivered on March 28 and published on April 30, or the one delivered on June 20 and published on August 2) \| seventy-three copies \| Total \| 235 \| March 12 \| Feofan Prokopovich \| Sermon in Praise . . . (“Слово на похвалу . . .”) \| three copies \| \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| \| Arseny Matseevich \| Sermon on the Day [...] of the Apostles Peter and Paul (“Слово в день святых [...] апостол Петра и Павла,” June 29, published on August 18) \| nine copies \| \| Arseny Matseevich \| Sermon on the Name Day of [...] Elizabeth Petrovna (“Слово в день [...] тезоименитства [...] Елизаветы Петровны,” September 5, published on October 7) \| twenty copies \| \| Stefan Savitsky \| Sermon on the Fourth Sunday after the Descent of the Holy Spirit (“Слово в неделю четвертую по сошествии Св. Духа,” July 4, published on August 25, 1742) \| thirteen copies \| \| Platon Petrunkevich \| Sermon on the Day of the Transfiguration of the Lord (“Слово в день преображения господня,” August 6, published on September 9) \| sixty-nine copies \| \| Kirill Florinsky \| Sermon [...] on the Dedication of the Church [...] of the Joy of All Who Sorrow (“Слово [...] в день освящения церкви [...] всех скорбящих радость,” July 15, published on September 30) \| eighty copies \| Total \| 194 been sold, and now the merchants are constantly demanding these homilies” (‘... напечатать с прежних оригиналов с каждой по 1му заводу то есть по 1200 предик, понеже напечатанные в прошлом 1742м году в продаже все, а ныне оных предик купцы требуют непрестанно,’ РГАДА, ф. 1184, оп. 2, д. 30, л. 4об.–5). Sales of Arseny Matseevich’s texts were almost as high. For example, by July 1, 1743, the Moscow Typography shop sold 474 out of 550$^{15}$ copies of the Sermon on the Day of the Apostles Peter and Paul and 699 out of 1,150 copies of the Sermon on the Name Day of Elizabeth Petrovna. Also popular were texts by the court preacher Stefan Savitsky (they sold 367 out of 550 copies of the Sermon on the Fourth Sunday after the Descent of the Holy Spirit); Markell Rodyshevsky (356 out of 550 copies of the Sermon in the Presence of the Empress); and Amvrosy Yushkevich (356 out of 550 copies of the Sermon on the Twenty-second Sunday after the Descent of the Holy Spirit, i.e., “Слово в неделю двадцать вторую по сошествии Св. Духа”). The Inventory of the Moscow Typography Office [...] 1 January 1749 (“Книга описная Московской Типографской конторы [...] 1 января 1749 г.,” РГАДА, ф. 1184, оп. 1, д. 664) shows that by that time, the “state warehouses” held 11,578 copies of homilies. By 1762, judging by the data in the List of Catalogues (“Росписной список,” РГАДА, ф. 1184, оп. 4, д. 192), 10,012 copies of homilies remained unsold (representing a total cost of 600 rubles 72 kopecks).$^{16}$ Thus, we can state that most copies of homilies were sold in the first years after their publication (1742–1748), and then the demand for them predictably decreased. Who was buying the homilies? Theoretically, homilies could be purchased and distributed to eparchies, but we have not found any documents confirming this.$^{17}$ One might suppose that there was a certain “administrative pressure” on the part of the hierarchs, but we do not believe this to be the case: unlike odes and literary works, homilies were published at the state’s expense, the money from their sales went to the typography, and the authors themselves received only twenty-five copies. Mostly, the buyers were priests and clergy, seminary students and teachers who had to deliver sermons to parishioners. Published sermons served --- $^{15}$ The author received twenty-five copies of each press run, and twenty-five more went “for giving”—to be presented to the Empress, members of the Court, the Synod, etc. $^{16}$ Some homilies printed in civil orthography were being sold until 1787, when they were confiscated by the decree of Catherine II [ПСЗРИ 22: 876–876, 882–883]: Markell Rodyshevsky’s 235 copies of the Sermon on Christmas Day (“Слово на день Рождества,” 1742), Peter Grebnevsky’s 230 copies of the Sermon on the Day of the Coronation (“Слово в день коронации,” 1742), Stefan Kalinovsky’s thirty copies of the Sermon on the New Year (“Слово на новый год,” 1742). $^{17}$ Such distribution was employed in the 17th century: thus, Lazar Baranovich’s collection of homilies The Spiritual Sword was sent by the government to the eparchies with the order “to pay three rubles for each exemplar” (“внести за каждый экземпляр 3 рубля” [Харлампович 1914: 422]). as model texts for imitation, as sources for sets of facts and examples, and as convenient working material. Some of the buyers were ordinary readers: merchants, bourgeoisie, and clerks (sometimes the texts bear owners’ inscriptions). But a more precise material for evaluation of the distribution of court homilies—and, consequently, the dissemination of cultural models and scenarios—in society is provided by the materials of handwritten collections of the second half of the 18th century. 3. Handwritten Copies of Court Homilies Despite the spread of printed books, the handwritten tradition in the second half of the 18th century was still very much alive. In the first place, a handwritten copy was much cheaper than a printed text. Second, the copyist often made a selection from existing texts and created a collection for his own purposes and goals (for example, in the collection РГАДА, ф. 181, оп. 1, д. 1031, several New Year’s sermons are included one after the other). At the same time, handwritten texts could be bound together with available printed ones (for example, РГАДА, ф. 181, оп. 1, д. 1030, д. 1031; НИОР РГБ, ф. 173, оп. 2, д. 49, and others). A number of such collections have been preserved in the archives of the Russian State Library, the Russian State Archives of Ancient Acts, the National Library of Russia, and other archives. Handwritten collections including homilies could be varied in their content.$^{18}$ Most often, court homilies are found in “dedicated” collections. Collections of spiritual literature from a wide spectrum,$^{19}$ including homilies by the church fathers, dialogues, extracts, biographies, pilgrimages, etc., seldom include contemporary homilies.$^{20}$ Feofan Prokopovich’s homilies connected with Peter were likely perceived more as historical, rather than theological, texts, so they are often included in historical collections of works dedicated to Peter.$^{21}$ Even in the 18th century, the handwritten tradition stemming from the Old Russian tradition differed from printed practice in its attitude regarding author- $^{18}$ This diversity becomes more prominent if the collection was compiled from separate booklets by an unknown person and without any indication of a specific timeframe, but I have considered mostly collections published by a single author or at one time, and have used these parameters in my comparisons. $^{19}$ In library and archival catalogues, they may be called “polemical collections,” “theological collections,” “collections of ecclesiastical content,” etc. $^{20}$ One of the few exceptions is РГАДА, ф. 188, оп. 1, д. 1365, A Collection of Church Texts (“Сборник церковного содержания”), in which, along with the homilies by John Chrysostom, Ephrem the Syrian, tales, dialogues, and extracts from The Great Mirror (“Великое Зерцало”) and The Golden Bead (“Златой Бисер”), we find a copy of Dimitry Sechenov’s Sermon on the Day of the Appearance of the Icon “Our Lady of Kazan” (“Слово в день явления иконы Казанской богоматери,” лл. 44–50об.). $^{21}$ For example, НИОР РГБ, ф. 299, д. 47 (with the inscription of the owner—collegiate assessor Andrey Vasilyevich Gubarev), д. 418 “Сборник сочинений о Петре Великом,” and others. ship. When court homilies were transferred into the field of handwritten texts, they often became anonymous. Copyists always gave the name of the authors of court homilies when they copied the text directly from the printed original, and sometimes they preserved the entire title page, with information on the typography, time of issue, and so forth; they might even duplicate the layout of lines and font size. Much more often, the titles of published homilies were shortened to brief formulas. The event or date of delivery was preserved, along with the name (more rarely, the title) of the author and sometimes the place of delivery; information on the presence of the empress was cut; cf. the following texts: \| Printed Text \| Handwritten Copy (НИОР РГБ, ф. 29, No. 1154, л. 7) \| \|------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|-----------------------------------------------------\| \| A Sermon on the twenty-second Sunday after the Descent of the Holy Spirit in the Highest Presence of Her Imperial Majesty, the most pious, the most sovereign Christian Empress the Great Monarchess our Elizabeth Petrovna of All Russia, and His Imperial Highness, the blessed sovereign Grand Prince Petr Fedorovich. Pronounced by the member of the Holy Synod the eminent Amvrosy, Archbishop of Novgorod the Great and Velikiye Luki. In the Moscow Cathedral of the Archangel, 1742, November 8th \| A Sermon on the twenty-second Sunday after the Descent of the Holy Spirit pronounced by Amvrosy, Archbishop in the M<oscow> Cathedral of the Archangel, 1742, November 8th \| \| Слово в неделю двадесять вторую, по сошествии Святаго Духа, в Высочайшее Присутствие Ея Императорскаго Величества, Благочестивейшия Самодержавнейшия Крестоносныя Императрицы Великия Государыны нашея Елисаветы Петровны Всєя России, и Его Императорскаго Высочества Благовернаго Государя Великаго Князя Петра Феодоровича. Проповеданное Святейшаго Синода Членом Преосвященным Амвросием Архиепископом Великоновоградским и Великолуцким. В Московском Архангелеском Соборе, 1742 года, Ноемврия 8 дня \| Слово в неделю кв по сошествии святаго духа проповеданное Амвросием архиепископом в м.[осковском] архангельском соборе 1742, ноября 8 дня \| Most often, the authorship of the most prominent preachers was indicated, for example, Feofan Prokopovich and, of the non-court preachers, Demetrius of Rostov—moreover, some anonymous homilies were regularly attributed to Demetrius of Rostov [Федотова 2001]). Authorship is also often preserved in the case of collections of homilies by a seminary teacher or student, but using a brief formula: the subject or event (a specific holiday) can be given in the title or in the margins of the homily, and the date and place of delivery and the author’s name are more often given after the texts (sometimes in Latin). Most homilies remained anonymous when copied and included in collections. For example, the collection РГАДА, ф. 188, оп. 1, д. 1031 contains twenty-four copied homilies (and one printed text). Authors are given for nine texts only, and of these nine, eight are copies of printed court homilies of the 1740s. Three more homilies are copied from the first volume of the collection of works by Gedeon Krinovsky without identification of the author. The authorship of the rest of the homilies remains unknown. At the same time, all court homilies, even when presented anonymously, retained their panegyrical elements glorifying the empress, often addressing her as if she were present at the divine service (for example, the anonymous Sermon on the Name Day of Elizabeth Petrovna, i.e., “Слово в день тезоименитства [...] Елизаветы Петровны,” РГАДА, ф. 188, оп. 1, д. 1031, лл. 141–148об.). Among the anonymous texts, some prohibited sermons could be found: the collection of Yakov Filippov, a student in the philosophy class at Moscow Academy (НИОР РГБ, ф. 299, No. 158), included a homily with the following inscription in the margin: “On marriage” (лл. 325об.–333об.). This is Amvrosy Yushkevich’s God’s Blessing in the Three Natural Treasures on Her Highness Princess Anna and His Highness Sovereign Anton Ulrich Duke of Brunswick and Lüneburg which was on the Day of Their Highest Marriage, June 3, 1739 . . . (“Божие благословение в природных трех сокровищах ея высочества государыни принцессы Анны и светлейшего князя и государя Антона Улриха герцога Брауншвейгского и Линебургского пребывающее в день же высочайшаго брачного их сочетания июля 3 1739 года . . .”). This text was prohibited during Elizabeth’s reign and removed from circulation,$^{22}$ but was available as a handwritten copy. Most often, court homilies are found in collections connected, in one way or another, with seminaries, where texts of copied sermons were considered as useful material for exercises in rhetoric. The copied texts often bear remarks, sometimes short and sometimes detailed, in Russian and Latin evidencing rhetorical analysis and subsequent use of the text: ненадо ‘not needed,’ оставить ‘leave,’ сравнение ‘comparison,’ другое подобие ‘another resemblance,’ вопрос ‘question,’ нравоучения ‘morals,’ conclusio (НИОР РГБ, ф. 299, No. 158, лл. 25–35об.), synecdocha, ratio, hypotesis [sic], arg<ument>, epiphora, etc. (НИОР РГБ, ф. 173.2, No. 49, лл. 4–17). The collection of Semen Pavlov, a Moscow Academy student (НИОР РГБ, ф. 173.2, No. 49), is an excellent example of the ways in which homilies were used at a seminary. It begins with copies of sermons from Gavriil Petrov’s and $^{22}$ Decree of November 18, 1742 [ПСПИР, 1: 472–473]. The same decree prescribed, under penalty of fine, the submission to typographies and voivod’s offices, over the course of six months, “homilies delivered by different preachers after the death of Her Majesty Empress Anna Ioannovna [...] should they be found in the possession of anyone, both printed and written” (“которые предики проповедаемы были от разных проповедников, по кончине Ея Величества Государыни Императрицы Анны Иоанновны [...] ежели оныя у кого есть, как печатные, так и письменные”). Let us note that homilies delivered during Anna Ioannovna’s reign were not banished under Elizabeth and are often found in collections. Platon Levshin’s Collection of Various Sermons, without identification of the source but with a detailed rhetorical analysis in the margins; the same collection contains Semen Pavlov’s own exercises in Russian and Latin, including speeches and homilies with corrections and reviews by teachers. The collection includes several booklets of anonymous homilies of the 1750s, copied in a different handwriting (but completed in Pavlov’s handwriting) and containing, for example, notes on their delivery in 1750. Two printed texts were bound with Pavlov’s collection: Alexander Levshin’s Grateful Sermon to the Omnipotent God on the Solemn Day of the Final Ending of the Infectious Disease in Moscow (“Слово благодарственное ко всемогущему Господу Богу в торжественный день совершенного пресечения заразительной болезни в Москве,” 1772, л. 369–374) and Feofan Prokopovich’s Sermon on the Funeral of Peter the Great (“Слово на погребение Петра Великого,” 1725, л. 375–378об.). They are followed by Semen Pavlov’s practice speech, “On the Decease of Someone Well-Known in Studies (“На преставление какого-либо учением славнаго”)” in Russian and Latin (л. 379–381об.), in which the use of constructions and rhetorical devices from the “model” texts is evident. Homilies included in collections used for study could be employed for long periods of time: thus, the texts of Feofan Prokopovich and Demetrius of Rostov remained essential examples until the very end of the 18th century. Texts also circulated freely (probably with their owners). Thus, the collection НИОР РГБ, ф. 173.1 (Collection of the Moscow Theological Academy), No. 222 contains homilies by Sergy and Silvester, teachers of rhetoric at the Alexander Nevsky Seminary, which they delivered in 1751–1752. The collection НИОР РГБ, ф. 299, д. 158, owned by Yakov Filippov, a student of the class of philosophy at the Moscow Theological Academy, contains fifteen homilies by Georgy Konissky which he delivered in Kiev, at the Kyiv-Mohyla Theological Academy; the texts were analyzed from the point of view of rhetoric and contain corrections and amendments. In the collection НИОР РГБ, ф. 173.1, д. 163, along with copies of published court homilies, we find three texts by Simon Todorsky which he delivered when he was the preacher of the Kiev Academy and which remained unpublished until the beginning of the 20th century (and also a copy of a published court homily on the birthday of the heir, Petr Fedorovich, in 1743). How far did court homilies penetrate into the parishes? Some collections that include court homilies contain entries and remarks indicating their circulation among provincial clergy (unfortunately, we cannot claim that they were created among this group). Thus, the collection РГАДА, ф. 188, оп. 1, д. 1031 was preserved in the village of Ignatyevо in the Serpukhov District before coming to the archive in 1887; the collection-convolute РГАДА, ф. 188, оп. 1, д. 1030 was preserved in the village of Belaya Tserkov in the Kiev Governorate until 1865; and the collection НИОР РГБ, ф. 299, д. 606 was presented to the priest Iona Mikheich from the village of Bely Rast (Moscow District) by the “Moscow Major Ivan Gerasimovich Lgovsky” (л. 1). Secular persons were not only readers but also compilers of such collections, although the collections they created are usually more diverse and include more secular texts than those compiled by clergy. For example, the collection НИОР РГБ, ф. 299, д. 241 includes the following entry: “These spiritual homilies were written by Ivan Tokmakovskoy, son of Yakov, Sergeant of the Izmaylovsky Leib Guard Regiment, on September 1, 1775” (л. 31)$^{23}$ and it contains, along with several homilies from the Collection of Gavriil Petrov and Platon Levshin, extracts from magazines, poems, and fables, as well as Denis Fonvizin’s Sermon on the Recovery of Pavel Petrovich (“Слово на выздоровление Павла Петровича”), and so forth. In the second half of the century, parish priests with seminary educations also started to compile their own collections of homilies, for example, the Sermons of the Moscow Nikolo-Yamskoy priest Nikolay Dmitriev, etc. (“Проповеди московского Николо-Ямского священника Николая Дмитриева и др.,” НИОР РГБ, ф. 299, д. 386): this collection is sewn together from separate booklets apparently by the same author, with corrections and notes made by the same hand when assembling the homilies. These homilies were delivered in Moscow from 1776 to 1791. By the end of the century, there appeared collections of works by provincial parish priests, for example, The Moral Counselsing of Priest M. Dmitrievsky (“Нравоучительные беседы свящ. М. Дмитревского”), written in the village of Lomtsy (probably in the Novosilsky District of the Tula Governorate) in 1798 [Срезневский, Покровский 1915: 441–442]. During this time, as the genre of collections of homilies by the same author continued to develop, it is an open question as to whether the handwritten collections by provincial priests appeared under the influence of the printed collections or the printed tradition appeared as a result of the spread of such handwritten compilations. The earliest examples of single-author compilations are, of course, homilies by Demetrius of Rostov, which were copied throughout the country and preserved in various collections of books [Федотова 2001]. Demetrius’ works were first published in the late 18th century as the Collection of Various Sermons and Other Works (“Собрание разных поучительных слов и других сочинений,” Moscow, Synodal Typography, March 1786). $^{23}$ In the same collection, a copy of the printed Brief Moscow Chronicle Composed by Alexander Sumorokov (“Краткая московская летопись, сочиненная Александром Сумороковым,” St. Petersburg, 1774) was made by “deacon Ivan of Nikolskaya mill” (диакон Иван Николск[ой] мелиц[ы]) on September 29, 1775 (л. 166об.). Feofan Prokopovich’s homilies were occasionally gathered into individual, single-author compilations, but generally they tended to form the bulk of multi-author collections (the collection НИОР РГБ, ф. 299, No. 158, for example, contains fifty-three homilies, of which nineteen are authored by Prokopovich; the collection НИОР РГБ, ф. 173.1, No. 163 contains thirty-five texts, of which fifteen are his). There were also handwritten collections of the most productive preachers of Elizabeth’s age: for example, we find eleven volumes of Arseny Matseevich’s homilies delivered both at the court and outside it among early 19th-century copies in the library of the Moscow Theological Academy. Evidently, he is also the author of the anonymous collection of homilies delivered in Yaroslavl between 1753 and 1759 (НИОР РГБ, ф. 173.2, No. 14), because the first text in the collection is a copy of his printed homily delivered at court in 1744. We also have information on collections of unpublished works by Dmitry Sechenov, another popular preacher [Гумилевский 1861: 48]. At the same time, printed collections of homilies by the same author were copied very rarely. Thus, Gedeon Krinovsky’s two-volume collection (the first edition, in civil orthography, published in 1754–1759, and the second edition, in Church Slavonic orthography, published in 1760) is represented only by single copies even in the archives of the Russian State Library. For example, the single complete copy of the second volume of Krinovsky’s works was made by “Ivan Vasilyev, junior office clerk of the main palace chancellery,” as he noted on the manuscript (НИОР РГБ, ф. 205, No. 394). The entire first volume of Krinovsky’s collection is also preserved in only a single handwritten copy, НИОР РГБ, Музейное собрание, М 5426. It was produced by two copyists working in turn (the copy was made from a 1755 civil edition; judging by the notes with names of villages in the margins, it could be connected in some way with the Novosilsky District of the Tula Governorate. Other homilies by Krinovsky (from the published collection and from other sources) were selected and copied without identification of the author (for example, РГАДА, ф. 188, оп. 1, д. 1031). We should also note that, to date, we have not seen a single complete handwritten copy of the Collection of Various Sermons for All Sundays and Holidays by Gavriil Petrov and Platon Levshin, although we find separate texts from this collection elsewhere. We should also note that Platon Levshin’s homilies are relatively rarely encountered in the handwritten tradition of the period covered by our research; this might be explained by the traditional “delay” of the reception of printed editions in the handwritten literature. --- 24 An entirely different tradition of handling manuscripts is illustrated by a collection of autographs presented by Platon Levshin to the library of the Trinity Seminary in 1806 (НИОР РГБ, ф. 173.1, д. 84) with the following presentation inscription: “These, my autographs, are to be saved for the memories in Trinity library. Platon, Metropolitan of Moscow. 1806, Vifania” (“Сии мои рукописания для памяти хранить в Троицкой библиотеке. Платон, м. Московский. 1806 года. Вифания”). Which authors and texts by court preachers were the most popular in the handwritten tradition? Throughout the 18th century, the most popular author was Demetrius of Rostov: his homilies were copied as entire collections and included in different collections, both with identification of the author and anonymously. But homilies by Demetrius of Rostov did not belong to the court tradition and contained virtually no publicistic or panegyrical elements traditional for court homilies. Texts by Demetrius of Rostov were rarely included in collections connected with seminaries. Among court preachers, Feofan Prokopovich was the most frequently copied author, and he is closely connected with the seminary tradition until the end of the 18th century (we should note that, even in the beginning of the 19th century, his homilies were included in school curricula as examples of rhetorical texts [ГАЛЯХОВ 1861]). Several works by Amvrosy Yushkevich, Arseny Matseevich, Silvester Kulyabka, Stefan Kalinovsky, and Kirill Lyashevetsky were popular. But the most popular text in the 1740s was Dimitry Sechenov’s Sermon on the Day of the Appearance of the Icon “Our Lady of Kazan”: it appears six times not only in seminary collections but also in collections of “traditional spiritual content,” obviously because it is more theological than publicistic and panegyrical. Remarkably, this text was republished three times between 1741 and 1746 due to reader demand.$^{25}$ Dimitry Sechenov was one of the few preachers of the 1740s who was a Great Russian by nationality and who was able to combine in his texts the rhetorical rules of the “Latin education” of the seminaries and the traditions of Russian and Old Russian spiritual literature. Conclusions We can thus state that in the second half of the 18th century, the court sermon was only beginning to penetrate “traditional” culture. It was disseminated primarily in seminaries, where texts by court preachers were used as models and provided a library of panegyrical and theological elements to be used by students and teachers in their own texts. With few exceptions, the court tradition does not intersect with texts originating from Old Russian and classical theological traditions, although all such texts are called slovo (literally ‘word,’ i.e., ‘sermon’). However, by the end of the 18th century, the new genre was becoming increasingly widespread, following the growing cultivation of seminary education and the numbers of priests educated in this context. $^{25}$ This text has recently been republished with a detailed commentary in [Кислова 2011c]. Abbreviated Names of Libraries, Archives, and Depositories НИОР РГБ Научно-исследовательский отдел рукописей Российской государственной библиотеки (Russian State Library, Research Department of Manuscripts, Moscow). РГАДА Российский государственный архив древних актов (Russian State Archives of Ancient Acts, Moscow). Bibliography Marker 2007 Marker G., Imperial Saint. The Cult of St. Catherine and the Dawn of Female Rule in Russia, DeKalb, IL, 2007. Галахов 1861 Галахов А., Историческая хрестоматия нового периода русской словесности (от Петра I до нашего времени), 1: От Петра I до Карамзина, С.-Петербург, 1861. Гумилевский 1861 Филарет (Гумилевский), архиеп., Обзор русской духовной литературы (умерших писателей), 2: 1720–1858 гг., С.-Петербург, 1861. Живов 1996 Живов В. М., Язык и культура в России XVIII века, Москва, 1996. ——— 2004 Живов В. М., Очерки исторической морфологии русского языка XVII–XVIII веков, Москва, 2004. Кагарлицкий 1999 Кагарлицкий Ю. В., Риторические стратегии в русской проповеди переходного периода, 1700–1775 гг. (Диссертация … канд. филол. наук, Москва, 1999). Кислова 2010 Кислова Е. И., “Проповедь 1740-х годов в истории русского языка”, в: П. Е. Бухаркин, У. Екуч, Н. Д. Кочеткова, ред., Окказиональная литература в контексте праздничной культуры России XVIII века, С.-Петербург, 2010, 33–52. ——— 2011а Кислова Е. И., “Издание придворных проповедей в 1740-е годы”, в: XVIII век, 26: Старое и новое в русском литературном сознании XVIII века, С.-Петербург, 2011, 52–72. ——— 2011в Кислова Е. И., “«Гражданское» и «церковнославянское» издание проповедей в XVIII в.: к вопросу о статусе двух типов орфографии”, в: Проблемы изучения русской литературы XVIII века, 15, С.-Петербург, Самара, 2011, 78–89. ——— 2011с Кислова Е. И., “«Слово в день явления иконы Пресвятая Богородицы во граде Казани» Дмитрия Сеченова”, в: Литературная культура XVIII века, 4, С.-Петербург, 2011, 110–147. Луппов 1976 Луппов С. П., Книга в России в послепетровское время: 1725–1740, Ленинград, 1976. Петухов 1901 Петухов Е., Проповеди Гавриила Бужинского (1717–1727). Историко-литературный материал из эпохи преобразований, Юрьев, 1901. Погосян, Сморжевских 2002 Погосян Е., Сморжевских М., “«Я Деву в солнце зрю стоящу …»: образ апокалиптической Жены в русской официальной культуре 1695–1742 гг.”, Studia Russica Helsingiensia et Tartuensia, 8, 2002, 9–37. ПСЗРИ Полное собрание законов Российской Империи, 22: 1783–1788 гг., С.-Петербург, 1830. ПСПиР Полное собрание постановлений и распоряжений по ведомству православного исповедания Российской Империи, 4: 1724 – 28 января 1725 г., 7, 1: 25 ноября 1741–1743 гг., С.-Петербург, 1876, 1890, 1899. Скворцов 1914 Скворцов Н. А., Материалы по Москве и Московской епархии за XVIII век, 2, Москва, 1914. Смолич 1996 Смолич И. К., История русской церкви, 8/1, Москва, 1996. Срезневский, Покровский 1915 Срезневский В. И., Покровский Ф. И., Описание Рукописного отделения Библиотеки Императорской Академии наук, 2, Петроград, 1915. Уортман 2004 Уортман Р. С., Сценарии власти. Миры и церемонии русской монархии, Москва, 2004. Федотова 2001 Федотова М. А., "Украинские проповеди Димитрия Ростовского (1670–1700 гг.) и их рукописная традиция. Статья 2", в: Труды отдела древнерусской литературы, 52, С.-Петербург, 2001, 409–431. Флоровский 1983 Флоровский Г., Пути русского богословия, Париж, 1983. Харлампович 1914 Харлампович К. В., Малороссийское влияние на великорусскую церковную жизнь, 1, 1914. References Fedotova M. A., “Ukrainskie propovedi Dimitriia Rostovskogo (1670–1700 gg.) i ikh rukopisnaia traditsiia. Stat’ia 2,” in: Trudy otdela drevnerusskoi literatury, 52, St. Petersburg, 2001, 409–431. Florovsky G., Puti russkogo bogosloviia, Paris, 1983. Kharlampovich K. V., Malorossiiskoe vliianie na velikorusskuiu tserkovnuiu zhizn’, 1, 1914. Kislova E. I., “Propoved’ 1740-kh godov v istorii russkogo iazyka,” in: P. E. Bukharkin, U. Ekuch, N. D. Kochetkova, eds., Okazional’naiia literatura v kontekste prazdnichnoi kultury Rossii XVIII veka, St. Petersburg, 2010, 33–52. Kislova E. I., “Izdanie pridvornykh propovedei v 1740-e gody,” in: XVIII vek, 26: Staroe i novoe v russkom literaturnom soznanii XVIII veka, St. Petersburg, 2011, 52–72. Kislova E. I., “«Grazhdanskoe» i «tserkovnoslavianskoe» izdanie propovedei v XVIII v.: k voprosu o statue dvuh tipov orfografii,” in: Problemy izuchenii russkoi literatury XVIII veka, 15, St. Petersburg, Samara, 2011, 78–89. Kislova E. I., “«Slovo v den’ iavleniia ikony Pre-sviatitya Bogoroditsy vo grade Kazani» Dimitriia Sechenova,” in: Literaturnaia kul’tura XVIII veka, 4, St. Petersburg, 2011, 110–147. Luppov S. P., Kniga v Rossii v poslepetrovskoe vremia: 1725–1740, Leningrad, 1976. Marker G., Imperial Saint. The Cult of St. Catherine and the Dawn of Female Rule in Russia, DeKalb, IL, 2007. Pogosjan Je., Smorzhevskikh M., “«Ia Devu v solntse zriu stoiaschhu . . . »: obraz apokalipticheskoi Zheyny v russkoii ofitsial’noi kul’ture 1695–1742 gg.,” Studia Russica Helsingiensia et Tartuensia, 8, 2002, 9–37. Skvortsov N. A., Materialy po Moskve i Moskovskoi eparkhii za XVIII vek, 2, Moscow, 1914. Smolich I. K., Istoriia russkoi tserkvi, 8/1, Moscow, 1996. Sreznevskii V. I., Pokrovskii F. I., Opisanie Rukopisnogo otdeleniia Biblioteiki Imperatorskoi Akademii nauk, 2, Petrograd, 1915. Wortman R. S., Sisenarii vlasti. Mify i tseremonii russkoi monarkhii, Moscow, 2004. Zhivov V. M., Iazyk i kul’tura v Rossii XVIII veka, Moscow, 1996. Zhivov V. M., Ocherki istoricheskoi morfologii russkogo iazyka XVII–XVIII vekov, Moscow, 2004. Екатерина Игоревна Кислова, канд. филол. наук старший преподаватель кафедры русского языка Московский государственный университет им. М. В. Ломоносова 119991 Москва, Ленинские горы, ГСП-1, МГУ, 1-й корпус гуманитарных факультетов, филологический факультет firstname.lastname@example.org
Teaching and learning through a brain-compatible approach: Implications for junior high school mathematics Nancy G. O'Kelley Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/etd-project Part of the Science and Mathematics Education Commons Recommended Citation O'Kelley, Nancy G., "Teaching and learning through a brain-compatible approach: Implications for junior high school mathematics" (1989). Theses Digitization Project. 544. https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/etd-project/544 This Project is brought to you for free and open access by the John M. Pfau Library at CSUSB ScholarWorks. It has been accepted for inclusion in Theses Digitization Project by an authorized administrator of CSUSB ScholarWorks. For more information, please contact email@example.com. TEACHING AND LEARNING THROUGH A BRAIN-COMPATIBLE APPROACH Implications for Junior High School Mathematics A Project Submitted to The Faculty of the school of Education In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements of the Degree of Master of Arts in Education: Secondary Option By Nancy G. O'Kelley, M.A. San Bernardino, California 1989 APPROVED BY: Advisor: Dr. Al Wolf Second Reader: Dr. Renate Nummela Caine Teaching and Learning Through A Brain Compatible Approach Implications for Junior High School Mathematics By Nancy G. O'Kelley # TABLE OF CONTENTS \| Section \| Page \| \|------------------------------------------------------------------------\|------\| \| Rationale and Purpose \| 1 - 3\| \| Review of Literature \| \| \| I. What is Meant by Brain-Compatible Education? \| 4 - 12\| \| II. Patterns and Programs - How the Brain works \| 13 - 18\| \| III. The Triune Brain Theory \| 18 - 22\| \| IV. Designing a Brain-Compatible School \| 22 - 28\| \| Rationale for a Brain-Compatible Approach to Teaching and Learning Mathematics \| 28 - 30\| \| I. Long Term Goals for the Student \| 30 - 36\| \| II. The Ten Commandments for Teachers \| 36 - 39\| \| Examples of Topics of Discussion and Related Student Activities to be Used in the Classroom \| 40 - 66\| \| Bibliography \| 67 - 68\| RATIONALE AND PURPOSE "I taught them what they needed to know, but they didn't learn it." That is a statement that every teacher has uttered at one time or another. The feeling is especially frustrating after a teacher has enthusiastically presented an extremely well prepared lesson. Why didn't they learn? Teachers often take such failures personally or they may look for others to blame. Parents, socio-economic factors, other teachers, lack of support, television, electronic games, the breakdown of the nuclear family, too little respect for authority, stingy taxpayers, and lower moral standards are a few examples of whom we blame for the failure of students to learn. However, we tend to overlook the fact that in our system students are compelled to attend. Therefore the schools must accept them as they are, not as one might wish them to be. The problems are difficult and varied but they are the school's problems to solve. The pressure is growing on schools and teachers to produce learning results. We must adopt methods and approaches that sharply increase the acquisition of learning. A vastly different approach is needed. In the days of Horace Mann, a teacher's function was to pass along to the students his knowledge of the few books that were available. In the last fifty years an explosion of knowledge has occurred. that has rendered that system of education useless in dealing with present needs. Mann's class and grade factory-type school and educational system had two major flaws. The first flaw was that children are not inert raw material, they are individuals with enormous differences. Some of them do not process well. The second flaw was the belief that children could be processed successfully at a uniform rate. Learning was viewed as a function of time - a child should learn twice as much in two years as in one year. When this did not happen there were attempts to modify the system. But the system has prevailed. Huge numbers of students who have not processed well have dropped out of school. Current drop out rates are as high as 50%. We are obviously not meeting the needs of our students. No crisis has arisen because of the number of drop outs until recently, because there were a variety of jobs for those who did not process well. However those jobs are becoming fewer and fewer. The central problem faced by educators today is how to bring about learning. Since failure to learn brings about additional problems in discipline, crime, mental health and other societal problems, it affects all of us. With new knowledge of how the brain functions, of what it demands, and of how learning takes place we can at last create school environments that will far more successfully help all learners to achieve. The teacher becomes a "creator" of learning rather than an instructor. The learning stems from the student's own brain and activities rather than resulting from "being taught". This project will explain what is meant by brain-compatible education, how the brain works (patterns and programs), the Triune Brain Theory, ideas for designing a brain-compatible school and a brain-compatible approach to teaching and learning mathematics. It will provide sample lessons and teacher ideas for use in the classroom that are in a brain-compatible mode. Although the ideas presented may seem visionary and futuristic, they do make sense in light of our knowledge of the brain. Brain-compatible schools may not be designed and implemented in the near future, but in the meantime we can utilize as many of the brain-compatible principles and techniques as possible. REVIEW OF LITERATURE I. WHAT IS MEANT BY "BRAIN-COMPATIBLE"? Logical Thinking The future of teaching and learning lies in the study of the brain. Only through an understanding of the brain can we untangle the mysteries of how people learn. It is essential to understand brain functions and operations before schools can be significantly improved. (Hart, 1983, p. IX) A new concept in learning has emerged that focuses on the problem of matching settings and instruction with the nature of the brain. The brain has modes of operation that are natural, empowering, and effective in making use of the fantastic power that the brain possesses. If forced to operate in other ways, the brain functions reluctantly, slowly and with substantial error. Brain-compatible is an appropriate term for education designed for the brain. Noticeably better outcomes would be produced by moving from our current brain-antagonistic school settings to brain-compatible schooling and training. (Hart, 1983, p. XIV) The more knowledge we gain of the brain, the better we can understand humans, human behavior and human learning. Our human brain is the product of hundreds of millions of years of evolution. It is not a logical apparatus, as is a computer, but reflects the illogical events and accidents of history. The brain is the organ for learning, and it is an organ, made of tissue, not an abstract concept. It took its shape tens of thousands of years before Greek-type sequential logic was invented. No part of the brain is naturally logical. (Hart, 1983, p. 49) As Morton Hunt points out in The Universe Within: For many centuries, philosophers and others who have studied the human mind have believed that reasoning takes place according to the laws governing logic. Or rather, that it should, but regrettably often fails to do so.... Such is the tradition that runs unbroken from Aristotle to Piaget. But the finds of cognitive science run counter to it: Logical reasoning is not our usual - or natural - practice, and the technically invalid kinds of reasoning we generally employ work rather well in most of everyday situations in which one might suppose rigorous deductive thinking was essential. (Hunt, 1982, p. 121) People with good knowledge of the material being presented may benefit from a logical presentation of the material. However, this type of presentation produces consistently very poor learning results with students who are not already familiar with the material. Students prior to learning are unable to perceive the logic that seems so obvious to the instructor who already possesses that logic. (Hart, 1983, p. 57) Our previous individual experience is the foundation to which more learning is added, and since each of us learns differently, in various sequences, logical group-instruction usually produces a serious degree of failure. Each of us learns in a highly individual and mainly random way, always adding to, sorting out and revising the input from teachers. and others that we have had up to that point. Therefore, any group instruction that has been logically planned and limited will be wrongly planned for many in the group and will usually prevent or inhibit learning. In fact, upon examining the useful learning that we have acquired as adults, the majority of it has been acquired randomly and from random experiences with no logical sequences being followed. (Hart, 1983, p. 58) Leslie Hart cites an excellent example of this fact by discussing how people learn to drive cars. This is an activity that requires precise knowledge and expertise. From early childhood we learn about steering, braking, parking and obeying traffic signals. We acquire our ability to use and manage cars in a mainly random manner. Once we actually drive the car we don't do each operation separately. We drive holistically - managing many operations at the same time, not by using some pre-programmed logical sequence of steps. (Hart, 1983, p. 54) Actually, very little in our world has been accomplished by sequential logic. The fact that we view logic as the highest form of achievement is merely a product of tradition. (Hart, 1983, p. 58) Robert Ornstein in Multimind responds to this Tradition by writing "...a living human being is usually thought to consist of the pure verbal and logical processes... It is the dominant view of what is known as the 'the Western intellectual tradition,' a view that might be remembered by its acronym, TWIT." (Ornstein, The conventional classroom has become a specialized place where aggressive teaching with a sequential, logical curriculum is done. Very few alternatives to this type of school system are even considered. Benjamin S. Bloom States: Group instruction, as presently used in most countries of the world may approach optimal qualities of instruction for only a small proportion of students in a given class. Even when this is the case, it is likely that the majority of students in the class are paying a heavy price for the ways in which the different qualities of instruction serve the special needs for a few members of the class! (Bloom, 1976, p. 136) Katz States: Education has not suffered from any freedom granted teachers to run schools as they see fit; it has suffered from the suffocating atmosphere in which teacher have to work. (Katz, 1971, p. 131) Learning is a process, not sequential, i.e., the resonating of what we know from experience with the resonating of new experience, particularly "school" experience. This process allows the brain its natural function of randomness: when the new experience (new information or concept) coincides with the old experience (the already learned information), then resonance, the process of learning, takes place. In Sympathetic Vibrations, K.C. Cole uses learning to explain resonance. ...resonance may provide a good analogy for the process of learning. It often takes a lot of little pieces of information to add up to a deep understanding, and a lot of little insights to add up to a great idea. But these little bits and pieces need to come at the right time and strike you in the right way. If the information comes along before you are prepared to offer feedback, the input simply dissipates like a swing pumped the wrong way. (Cole, 1985, p 267) Although the term "brain-compatible education" is relatively new, many of the beliefs and goals of brain compatible education have been discussed and promoted for decades. In his book, Schools of Tomorrow, John Dewey wrote of many of these concepts way back in 1915. Dewey believed that education had to be relevant to the daily life experiences of the students; "knowledge that is worthy of being called knowledge, training of the intellect that is sure to amount to anything is obtained only by participating intimately and actively in activities of societal life." (Dewey, 1915, p. 63) He cites the following example; It is possible for a child to learn the various properties of squares, rectangles, etc., and to acquire their names. But unless the squares and rectangles enter into his purposeful activities, he is merely accumulating scholastic information." (Dewey, 1915, p. 68) He believes that: Until a child goes to school he learns nothing that has not some direct bearing on his life. How he acquires this knowledge is the question that will furnish the clue for a natural school method. And the answer is, not by reading books or listening to explanations of the nature of fire or food, but by burning himself and feeding himself; that is, by doing things. (Dewey, 1915, p. 72) He also adds, If textbooks are used as the sole material, the work is much harder for the teacher, for besides teaching everything herself she must constantly repress and cut off the impulses of the child toward action. Teaching becomes an external presentation lacking meaning and purpose as far as the child is concerned. (Dewey, 1915, p. 73) Dewey further emphasizes: Give the child work that he recognizes as interesting and valuable and a chance to play, and his hatred of school will speedily be forgotten. The inflexibility of the ordinary public school tends to push students out of school instead of keeping them in. The curriculum does not fit them, and there is no way of making it fit without upsetting the entire organization of the school. One failure sets a pupil back in all his work and he soon gets the feeling that his own efforts are not important because the school machinery works on at the same rate, regardless of any individual pupil or study. Indifference or dislike is almost surely the result of feeling that work is making no impression, that the machine for which he is working is not after all affected or dependent up his work. (Dewey, 1915, p. 98) Dewey described the public school system in Gary, Indiana at that time. In Gary, the schools were organized to fit each individual child. They were extremely flexible, which allowed the child and the school to get along together. Individuals were allowed to spend more or less time on any one subject, or they could drop it altogether. Students who were stronger in one area than in the rest of their work could take that subject at a higher level - they were allowed to excel. Students who were losing interest in school or falling behind were aided by their teachers. The teacher found out what the child was good at and gave him plenty of time to work at it - to get ahead in it so that his interest in his work was stimulated. Even if his interest in the regular school program was never aroused, at least he was kept in school long enough to master one thing, probably the one most suited to the child's ability, instead of failing entirely by being held back in everything until even his one strong ability died and the pupil was without either training or the moral stimulus of success. The school program was reorganized every two months and the student could change his entire program at any of these times instead of having to struggle along for a whole year with work that was too hard or too easy. Students were classified not by grade, but rather as "rapid", "average" and "slow" workers. This classification didn't describe the quality of work done, but was used to allow the student's work to keep up with the natural growth of the child. Children at the schools in Gary were happy and hard working. The Gary schools taught concepts through experiences. All learning was relevant and perceived as useful. The community was a large contributor to the educational process. (Dewey, 1915: 164 - 204) Many of the characteristics of the public school system in Gary in the early 1900's would be termed brain-compatible today. The logic of these ideas was seen at least 70 years ago, but seems to have been forgotten until recently. This flip-flopping between a sequentialized approach to education and a more holistic approach has occurred for one major reason: the influence of the basic theory promoted at the time. During America's agricultural phase students, in one-room school houses, were taught that which was relevant and necessary to their daily lives. With the advent of the Industrial Revolution, America was transformed into a time clock oriented society in which sequential motion and productivity had the highest value. In educational settings, children were taught through a production-line, assembly mentality that produced quantity, not necessarily quality. According to Foshay, Most school practice arises from tradition, ritual and the context in which schools are conducted. Only during this century has scientific learning theory had an influence and then only in a fairly minor way. The school is a kind of subculture in which are preserved the relics of former times, with a few practices added or subtracted because of contemporary thought. (Foshay, 1973, p. 197) These past theories, the agricultural type and the industrial type, have been countered and weighed back and forth, a veritable flip-flopping between extremes. "...education flounders, often going around in circles by discovering 'new' methods that some historical research may show to have been 'new' 20 and 40 and 60 years before." (Hart, 1983, p. 24) This perspective cannot be tolerated today. As Hart adamantly points out, With the brain as a focus, however, it becomes possible to get onto genuinely new paths using information never previously available, and to arrive at a kind of theory that does explain what learning is and how is does come about sharply enough to be tested in many ways. (Hart, 1983, p. 24) Moreover, as Toffler shows, the "Third Wave", The Technological Age in which we are currently living, is more random and non-sequentialized and is aptly termed braincompatible. The Third Way brings with it a genuinely new way of life based on diversified, renewable energy sources, on methods of production that make most factory assembly lines obsolete; on new, non-nuclear families; on a novel institution that might be called the "electronic cottage"; and on radically changed schools and corporations of the future. The emergent civilization writes a new code of behavior for us and carries us beyond standardization, synchronization and centralization, beyond the concentration of energy, money and power. (Toffler, 1980, p. 4) As Dewey stated, the schools must "deal thoroughly with a small number of typical experiences in such a way as to master the tools of learning, and present situations that make the students hungry to acquire additional knowledge." (Dewey, 1915, p. 16) "To find out how to make knowledge when it is needed is the true end of the acquisition of information in school, not the information itself." (Dewey, 1915, p. 16) It seems definite that these concepts and ideas used in the early 1900's along with today's current knowledge of the brain may produce a school program that could guarantee success for our students. II. PATTERNS AND PROGRAMS—HOW THE BRAIN WORKS The brain is by nature a marvelous pattern detecting device. From birth sensory stimuli trace patterns in our brain tissue—almost like road maps. The message we receive through our sight, hearing, touch, smelling, and tasting have been organized into patterns and stamped into our brains. These mental pictures are useful and essential because they help us to recognize familiar objects and circumstances. We know what to do without having to stop and figure it out. Although we are usually not aware of it, we all rely on pattern thinking. The brain needs no coaxing, teaching or motivation to construct and interpret patterns. According to David B. Bronson: Pattern matching is inherently pleasing because that is what our minds are designed (or programmed) for...Quite apart from anything the teacher does...the student, being human, is a pattern finder and a pattern-maker. Possibly the greatest obstacle to our making use of this not very startling principle is our ingrained notion that education is the acquisition and mastery of new material. What we 'teach' and they do not 'learn' is the material. (Bronson, 1977, p. 453) The brain detects characteristics or features and also relationships among these features. This is an extremely flexible ability that is enhanced by the use of clues. The brain uses positive and negative clues in a probabilistic manner as is illustrated in the following example. The experience one brings to a given situation is what pattern recognition depends on heavily. Children often need to revise the patterns they have identified to fit new experiences. For example, consider the problem a child has in grasping such patterns as dessert, pie and cake. The child first must realize that meals have a sequence and dessert comes at the end of the meal. A wide variety of dishes may be suitable for dessert. An adult with years of experience has no difficulty understanding the concept of pie, but to a small child an open pecan pie, a crusted apple pie or a whipped creme covered chocolate creme pie have very little in common. The child may decide that pie means round - since that is the most obvious feature. However, many desserts are round, especially cakes-and they vary from pie-like cheesecake to layer cakes to birthday cakes with candles. In a few years, through random exposure and experience, the child has extracted the patterns to identify these treats correctly. We live by programs that can be acquired in two different ways; either through the genes or by being learned after birth. We switch on one program after another, selecting from those that have been acquired and stored in the brain. We as humans are far more dependent on the thousands of programs acquired after birth in contrast to animals that rely more on genetically transmitted programs. A program is a fixed sequence for accomplishing some end - a goal, objective or outcome that is usually a personal and individual purpose. In order to carry on activities, one must constantly select a program from those stored in the brain. and implement it. We have one program for walking across the room, another for climbing stairs, another for going down stairs, another for picking up packages etc. A shopping trip can entail the use of many programs. Each time an activity changes, the program in use must switched off and another selected and switched on. The brain does this so smoothly that we are usually not even aware of any switches being made. However, when getting dressed, we must make a conscious selection of what clothes to wear depending on the perception of the pattern that we will be encountering. If it is a work day, we will dress differently than if it is a day to paint the house. We select the most appropriate program to deal with what is seen as the pattern in effect. This constitutes a basic cycle. We must: 1) Evaluate the situation or need (detect and identify the pattern or patterns). 2) Select the most appropriate program from those stored. 3) Implement the program. (Hart, 1983, p. 84) If a student is unable to evaluate accurately the need or problem a situation presents, the cycle goes haywire. The student, quite plainly, does not know what to do. A good example of this would be the word problem dilemma. Students often cannot detect a mathematical pattern when it is cushioned with words. They have no idea what operations to use to solve the problem. George Polya illustrates a brain-compatible learning theory in the following paragraph on problem solving. He has titled this paragraph: Working From Inside, Working From Outside Establishing contacts between the proposed problem and his previous experience is certainly an essential part of the problem solver's performance. He can try to discover such contacts "from inside" or "from outside". He may remain within the problem, examining its elements till he finds one that is capable of attracting some usable element from outside, that is, from his previously acquired knowledge. Or he may go outside the problem examining his previously acquired knowledge until he find some element applicable to his problem. Working from inside, the problem solver scans his problem, its component parts, its aspects. Working from the outside, he surveys his existing knowledge and ransacks the provinces of knowledge that are most likely to be applicable to the present problem. (Polya, 1981, p. 51) People can use only the programs that they already have stored. There is no way to perform a program unless it has been stored. The person would not know how to do it. A student also cannot implement a program unless given the chance to do so. If a program is selected and implemented, but does not work, it aborts. "Abortion of a program always causes some degree of emotional shift because the failure of a program to work is in general disturbing and threatening." (Hart, 1983, p. 86) When programs work, an individual's confidence increases, when they do not work, confidence diminishes. Hart gives a new and much sharper definition of learning: "Learning is the acquisition of useful programs." (Hart, 1983, p. 86) Behavioral objectives switch from test-oriented type objectives (what the student will do when ordered to perform in a particular way) to broader concept of behavior, such as: Will the student select an appropriate program from those stored in the brain? Will the program prove to be useful and achieve the intended goal and not abort? Test, quizzes and examinations would become almost obsolete under this new definition of learning. "We almost never can find out from directed behavior what a student would do if not directed." (Hart, 1983, p. 87) In real life we don't give people pencil and paper tests, rather we find out what they can do. If people are coerced into acquiring a particular program, they may use it under duress but will not use it willingly. By the nature of being human, using a freely learned program satisfies the individual, while using a coerced program brings back the old fears under which it was built. Learning progress can be properly evaluated only through the observation of undirected behavior. New learning is speeded up by an effective transfer of learning. This entails using stored programs in new applications. The student who can adopt previously built programs to new situations and can see the similarities of patterns involved learns much more rapidly than a student who cannot. Present learning depends heavily on previous learning and biases stored in the brain of each individual. When individuals are given uniform instruction without regard to what they bring to the learning situation a high degree of failure is virtually guaranteed. Uniform instruction may also result in teaching students what they already know. An example of this is found in a recent study conducted by Educational Products Exchange Institute in Long Island, New York. They tested fourth graders on the contents of a mathematical test before they used it. Sixty percent scored 80 or above on the test! What a wasted year of mathematics for that sixty percent of the class. (Hart, 1983, p. 101) III. The Triune Brain Theory Emotions are greatly involved with learning. Paul D. MacLean's Triune Brain Theory (Hart, 1983, p. 36) can aid in understanding how and to what extent emotions affect learning. He shows how our present brain is composed of three brains of different ages. The oldest is known as the Reptilian. It is similar to the kind of brain possessed by agile reptiles that became the ancestors of mammals. It was, and still is, a survival brain - it insures the survival of the body. It is the fastest acting part of the brain and reads non-verbals signals long before anything else. It controls our flight or fight behaviors by taking over in stressful situations. It has a few ancient programs. The second brain is known as the old mammalian and is a far more sophisticated brain. This brain deals with the emotion of the individual. It is the brain that gives us a sense of responsibility for others. It combines with the Reptilian brain to form the deeply held value systems which govern our behavior. Our values and attitudes are non-rational and can only be changed through changed experiences. The third brain is called the New Mammalian. It is many times larger than the other two brains put together, taking up 85% of the brain mass. It is the cognitive part of the brain. It interprets situations and detects patterns. The New Mammalian or Neocortex controls our speech and writing. It acts on the basis of models and problem solving techniques that it has developed. It cannot function effectively, if at all, under threat. Threatening situations have great implications for instruction. The more complex a brain is, the slower it is to make decisions. The oldest brain made survival decisions based on life or death situations. The larger and more complex old mammalian brain was slower to make decisions, but was much more able to detect patterns and interpret situations and to store and implement many more programs. The huge neocortex became much too big and intricate, after it developed, to make quick action decisions, but was fantastic for pattern discrimination and the storage of a vast collection of programs. It had to depend on the older brains for decisions linked to survival. Thus we have the phenomenon, that Hart refers to as "downshifting". According to Hart, "When the individual detects threat in an immediate situation, full use of the great new cerebral brain is suspended, and faster-acting, simpler brain resources take larger roles." (Hart, 1983, p. 108) This is typical of students who have "test anxiety." The students often know and understand the material, but are so threatened by testing situations that the reptilian brain takes over and only the automatic pre-programmed responses are accessed. The student blanks out. Since the majority of academic and vocational learning depends primarily on the neocortex, the absence of threat is essential to effective instruction. "Cerebral learning and threat conflict directly and completely." (Hart, 1983, p. 110) By threat, Hart means not what is happening as much as what reasonably can be expected to occur in the very near future. It is the noose around one's neck, waiting to be tightened. It is what some person or group with power may do in the near future. The typical classroom setting can be a threatening situation in that it is a setting of captivity in which the instructor has the power to punish, ridicule or embarrass. Students may feel threatened by having to perform publicly at any given time and face public failure and the ridicule of their peers. The system of grading and issuing marks and report cards has become widely used for threat purposes. Failure to learn the new information is to be expected in a threatening situation which forces the brain to perform at the reptilian level, thereby not allowing the neocortex to function optimally. The neocortex functions best when we feel secure. A student's ability is best determined by providing opportunity, standing aside, and observing. This method poses no threat to students. Our current class and grade type of school is totally unrelated to our current understanding of brain development; and can be extremely brain antagonistic. A brain-compatible approach would tend to move our schools in the following directions: 1) Schools would provide a setting with open-ended expectations of student learning that is so organized that the fullest student achievement is welcomed. 2) Schools would provide a non-threatening, non-punitive ambiance that reduces all aspects of captivity to a bare minimum. Students should be allowed much freedom of movement and schedule. 3) Schools would place an emphasis on mastery rather than on passing. The mastery approach "makes 100 percent attainment of the key elements the goal, but leaves the time to achieve it flexible." (Hart, 1983, p. 134) This creates an atmosphere of high standards and reduces the threat of examinations which put undue value on a single performance at one time under set of conditions. The emphasis should be on domination of learning over the clock, scheduling and processing. 4) Schools would place a much greater emphasis on reality than on "the book". They would avoid the fragmentation caused by courses and would use unifying, holistic ideas. A brain-compatible approach does not define an educated person as one "who knows a lot," but rather as one who knows what to do, one who can detect the patterns involved and implement appropriate programs. (Hart, 1983, p. 136-137) Wayne Jennings and Joe Nathan stated: "For more than 50 years now, studies have been documenting the effectiveness of nontraditional school programs in the United States. This research should cause us to question 95 percent of current education practice." (Jennings, 1977, p. 568) John Goodlad points out: "For the schools to change, the people in them must change. Changing people is the most difficult of all human enterprises." (Goodlad, 1974, p. 116) IV. Designing a Brain-Compatible School A brain-compatible approach provides student activities which produce the desired learning. Through this approach learning means that: "The child should become familiar with and able to operate successfully in the real, complex world, in which he or she now operates to a limited degree and will soon operate to adult degree." (Hart, 1983 p. 168) "The brain-compatible school must be one in which the process of world discovery accelerates and broadens." (Hart, 1983, Some basic factors of a brain-compatible approach, according to Hart, are the following: 1) Young children must manipulate what they deal with. Activities that involve manipulation are important and helpful in later years also, but are not as essential. 2) We must dominantly address learning to immediate and later uses, instead of to testing. How will the child use it? We must steer clear of statements such as "You will need algebra to get into college." 3) The human brain must have the freedom to function in a natural, intuitive way and its output should be accepted. 4) Rote learning should be achieved only as individually necessary to achieve mastery and only by multimodal, vigorous, fast-paced methods. 5) The idea of curriculum will shift from meaning what teachers do to broadly planned ideas for what students will do. 6) Success will be expected and obtained. This will become obvious through monitoring student activities and progress. 7) Emphasis can be on mastery, rather than partial learning and on actual accomplishment rather than test answer. A threat free environment enables this type of quality learning and excellence. 8) Students can receive feedback from reality, rather than from authority. This can be enhanced by designing and providing activities with this built-in characteristic. 9) Students will be given many choices in interests in short term goals without the school surrendering control of main, consequential objectives. Students will acquire the ability to take responsibilities only if they are given responsibilities. 10) Students will be exposed to a rich variety of people, situations and settings which will greatly enhance the real world. 11) Instead of completing exercises, students will use oral and written language for communication purposes. (Hart, 1983 p. 169) The student is already a member of society, of the real world and must learn to take responsibilities in his own life. A 1979 yearbook of the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development brought forth the following views: As practiced, schooling is a poor facilitator of learning. Its persistent view of learning as product interferes with significant learning connected to such complex processes as inquiry and appreciation. What often passes for education is noise that interrupts the natural flow of learning. Schooling too often fragments learning into subject areas, substitutes control for the natural desire to learn, co-opts naturally active children for hours in assembly line classroom structures, and ignores both individual and cultural differences... The formal education system often destroys opportunities for learning from elders, from each other, and from the new generation... Much is known about the learning process but little has been applied to education... The American education system is not making use of brain research findings. (Overly, 1979, p. 107) The possibilities for designing brain-compatible schools are many. Staff retraining would be on-the-job and real, rather than by lecture and inservice. Students would be engaged in realities rather than writing at a desk. Teachers would provide individual guidance to students rather than aggressive teaching. Learning goals would be sharply defined; and would be sought in random order over extended periods of time. The classroom grouping would largely vanish. Students would be grouped temporarily for as long as the grouping served a purpose. Failure would not be acceptable to the school, but the progress of each student would be known in detail and reviewed often. Attendance would not be mandatory, but would reflect individual activities, home circumstances, out of school learning opportunities and explorations as much as student age and maturity would permit. As previously described, the schools in Gary, Indiana in the early 1900's utilized many of the techniques and concepts found in brain-compatible education. The success rate reflected a system which met the needs of its pupils. Over one third of all the pupils who left the Gary schools during the eight years of their existence went to college. This is admirable, especially when you consider that the population of Gary was principally made up of laborers in the steel mills who were foreign born. School appealed to these students so they wanted to continue their educational pursuits. Currently, no true brain-compatible schools exist, but the advocates of brain-compatible education feel that if we implemented brain-compatible approaches in our schools today, the following outcomes are ones which we may experience: 1) Most students may go far beyond present grade levels and receive a more solid education. 2) The discipline problem may be reduced. 3) Youth crime and drug problems which are at least partly due to school failure, boredom and age grouping may be reduced. 4) The community would be continuously involved in the educational processes. 5) As the tone of schools changes to a successful, cooperative effort, student and staff may show great improvement. 6) Student failure or serious lagging may be virtually eliminated as far as core learning is concerned. 7) Students may leave secondary school much more prepared for further education or work, with a grasp of and experiences of the real world. (Hart, 1983, p. 183) Learning is a brain function. As we learn more and more about the brain, we must apply this knowledge to teaching and learning in order to achieve optimum results. Learning and teaching must be done in a brain-compatible approach. Perhaps the schools described in this paper are a vision of the future. Change takes time, patience and cooperation. However, teachers can, in their given structured settings, adopt and utilize some brain-compatible teaching strategies and implement them in their classrooms now. Let's look at some brain-compatible teaching approaches for the mathematics classroom. Rationale for a Brain Compatible Approach to Teaching and Learning Mathematics To prepare students for life in today's highly technical society, their mathematical training must include and go far beyond providing training in the simple skills of counting, computing, putting numbers into formulas and even solving equations. Learning only rote mathematical rules poorly equips students to apply those rules to solving problems outside the classroom. The mathematics curriculum must focus on what mathematical concepts mean, how they are related and where they apply. The majority of mathematics concepts should be taught in such a way that students understand their application in day to day living and their value in various careers and vocations. Many students have become completely "turned off" to learning mathematics because of the drudgery they have been forced to suffer through for years. This situation must change so that students will be able to appreciate and enjoy mathematics. "The study of mathematics helps students to develop thinking skills, order their thoughts, develop logical arguments and make valid inferences." (O'Malley, 1985, p. 1) A knowledge of mathematics is essential to many other disciplines. Since technology has caused the role of mathematics in society to change, we must change the content in mathematics education. For example, the mathematics program should emphasize the effective use of calculators and computers. According to the new California State Framework, "mathematics education must focus on students' capacity to make use of what they have learned in all settings." (O'Malley, 1985, p. 1) The Framework emphasizes that; Mathematical power, which involves the ability to discern mathematical relationships, reason logically and use mathematical techniques effectively, must be the central concern of mathematics education and must be the context in which skills are developed. (O'Malley, 1985, p. 1) Current CAP and SAT test results indicate that the methods that we are now using for teaching and for learning are not producing mathematically powerful students. Teachers must be committed to developing mathematical understanding by allowing students to experience mathematics as a cumulative unified subject. To emphasize, mathematics can be experienced by using the whole language approach. In this approach, the four language skills are integrated continuously. The skills are speaking, listening, reading and writing. Each skill is interwoven with another and each other simultaneously. In mathematics this would mean that a concept is verbalized by the teacher and the students, is written on the board by the teacher and is written in the notebooks by the students, is read to the students by the teacher and is read by students to other students in small groups, and is heard by the teacher and by the other students. Instruction should be flexible enough to meet the learning needs of each student, and should stress applying concepts learned rather than memorizing rules and procedures. A brain-compatible approach to teaching and learning mathematical concepts would aid in meeting the demands of the new State Framework. Concepts would be taught as their need in practical applications arose. The program would stress learning through discovery, situational and open-ended lessons, calculator usage and cooperative learning. Low test scores as well as low enrollment in higher level math classes substantiate the claim that current approaches do not appear to be working; it is time for a new, fresh approach: A brain-compatible approach. I. Long-Term Goals for the Students A brain-compatible approach to teaching mathematics should include the following long-term goals listed below. These goals reflect the demands of the new California State Framework and the Model Curriculum Standards. Although many districts currently publish similar goals and objectives, the feeling is that the objectives are not being attained because of our teaching and learning behaviors. These goals are broader, less structured by time, and are reflective of brain-compatible teaching and learning strategies. The emphasis here is to attain these goals through brain-compatible approaches. Then learning will become relevant and worthy of pursuit. 1) The students will have a firm understanding of the significance and use of numbers in counting, measuring, comparing and ordering. 2) The students will have mastery of the basic operations with whole numbers. Whatever other skills and understanding people have, they must have the ability to calculate a precise answer when required. 3) The students will have sufficient familiarity with the number system to avoid applying tedious algorithms in special cases. They should be comfortable seeking shortcuts and realizing that mathematical understanding helps them avoid unnecessary work. 4) The students will have the ability to use the appropriate mathematical operation or operations to solve realistic problems. They should be able to recognize which problems can be solved by mathematics, to select the relevant information, and to choose the most appropriate mathematical model. 5) The students will have an understanding of when an approximate calculation is appropriate and the ability to make such an approximate calculation. Typically decision making is based on approximations and does not require accurate calculation. 6) The students will have an appreciation of the role of estimation in intelligent behavior and the capacity to make reasonable estimates. They should be able to derive reasonable estimates from (a) rough calculations. (b) intelligent guessing of the quantities that appear in a given mathematical formula. (c) measurement. (d) sampling techniques. (e) preparation and interpretation of simple graphs. 7) The students will have the ability to use a calculator effectively. They should be able to realize when a calculator is useful and when other methods such as mental approximation are more appropriate. They must approximate answers and use numbers intelligently so that they can detect absurd answers that might result from pushing the wrong buttons or using an incorrect calculation. 8) The students will be familiar with the nature and the purpose of computers. They should have the opportunity to use computers. Whether they do use them or not it is essential that they understand the principles on which computers function and the role they are capable of playing in our daily lives - domestic, social and professional. 9) The students will have a firm understanding of magnitude with respect to measurements and of the role of units in assigning numerical magnitudes to physical quantities. They should understand the need for standard units of measurement and know how to use appropriate measurement tools such as rulers, balances, liquid volume measure, thermometers etc. 10) The students will have the ability to organize and arrange data for greater intelligibility. They should develop the skills of tabulating and graphing results as well as the ability to detect patterns and trends in poorly organized data either before or after reorganization. 11) The students will develop the ability to extrapolate and interpolate from data and from graphic representations. They should know when extrapolation or interpolation is justified and when it is not. 12) The students will have an understanding of the role of functions modeling the real world. They will realize that real world phenomena are in a constant state of change and that the relationship between changing quantities is represented mathematically by a functional relationship between variables. They should be able to draw the graphs of functions (with the aid of calculators) and to derive information about functions from their graphs. They should understand the connection between the study of functions and the solution of equations and inequalities. 13) The students will have an understanding of rational numbers and of the relationship of fractions to decimals. They will be able to do the appropriate calculations with fractions or decimals or both in realistic situations. 14) The students will understand the meaning of rates and their relationship to the arithmetic concept of ratio. They should be able to calculate ratios, proportions and percentages, understand how to use them intelligently in real life situations; understand the common units in which rates occur (such as kilometers per hour, cents per gram), understand the meaning of per; and be able to express ratios as fractions. 15) The students will develop the ability to use probabilistic ideas in ordinary, elementary applications. They should understand the reasons for (and the dangers of) using sampling techniques; they should have the ability to describe a population terms of some simple statistic (mean, median, range); and they should understand the difference between intelligent risk taking, based on reasonable estimates of probabilities and foolish gambling based on unsupported guesswork or wishful thinking. 16) The students will develop the ability to solve problems involving money. They should understand decimal coinage, be able to use money in ordinary situations, understand the difference between income and expense, know the approximate cost of common articles and understand elementary concepts of economics such as profit, debt and interest. 17) The students will have an understanding of and the ability to use, the geometric concepts of perimeter, area, volume and congruency (as applied to simple figures). 18) The students will have an understanding of and ability to add and subtract signed numbers. They will be able to appreciate the advantage of using signed numbers in many real situations, for example, in measurement of temperature and other quantities. 19) The students will develop the ability to make, read and use a map. They should understand the symbolic nature of various map representations and learn to interpret scale drawings. 20) The students will develop the ability to think intelligently using numbers. This includes the ability to recognize given answers as absurd, without doing a precise calculation, by observing that they violate experience, common sense, elementary logic or familiar arithmetic patterns. It also includes the use of imagination and insight in using numbers to solve problems. They should be able to recognize when a trial and error method is likely to be easier to use than a standard algorithm. 21) The students will develop a positive attitude toward mathematics. Specific abilities and understandings will be of little value to people unless accompanied by two convictions: (1) that mathematics does do what it was invented to do - solve real, interesting problems and (2) that it is a tool that people can use confidently and well. The hope is that the students will find it enjoyable to do and appreciate it aesthetically. (O'Malley, 1985, p.28-32) These goals will aid in developing mathematical power in our students, which should be the central concern of mathematics education according to the California Mathematical Framework. Students who are mathematically powerful will have an attitude of curiosity and the willingness and ability to probe, explore, experiment, make conjectures and persevere. II "The Ten Commandments for Teachers" Ultimately, the quality of any mathematics program is only as good as the teachers in that program. Each student should be presented with exciting and successful experiences in mathematics, and no one method or approach will work for all students. Each teacher must therefore make use of a full range of strategies and devices that can be matched to the students learning needs, to the students expressed interests and to the mathematical goals that have been established. Differences in learning styles exist simply because of differences in the number and type of programs stored in each individual's brain. Students vary widely with respect to experiences, feelings, interests, capabilities, rates at which they learn and ways in which they prefer to learn. Because of these differences, the instructional materials and processes should be equally diverse. Over a period of time students should be involved in a wide variety of activities, including teacher-led discussions, assignments from textbooks, student-led discussions, small group or individual work on projects, experiments using concrete materials, activities that involve collecting data and making graphs; use of audiovisual materials; involvement in meaningful games; outdoor experiments; and exposure to musical and artistic elements. However, it is essential that every activity be purposeful and designed to help students learn specific skills or concepts. Diversity of activities just for the sake of variety is of limited value to students. (Smith, 1983, p. 22) Teachers should make a conscious effort to seek out and make available sources of information that will be resources for students both in and out of the classroom. Teachers can and should use student interests as a way of reinforcing the usefulness of mathematical concepts. Tours of local businesses and industries, presentations by speakers who use mathematics in their work and participation in work-related programs can all serve to reinforce learning and motivate students. (Smith, 1982, p. 23) Teachers who create an expectation of maximum achievement and provide for success and challenges motivate students to reach their potential achievement levels. The teacher must honor each student's right to work up to his or her maximum potential. Teachers should present interesting projects, ask stimulating questions and pose meaningful problems with equal frequency to students of all ability levels. To be motivated students must be active participants in the learning process. An important part of learning mathematics is doing it. Time must be allocated in class for questions, interacting, and trying new problems. George Polya suggested that teachers be given the following "Ten Commandments for Teachers" for problem solving. TEN COMMANDMENTS FOR TEACHERS 1. Be interested in your subject. 2. Know your subject. 3. Know about the ways of learning: The best way to learn anything is to discover it by yourself. 4. Try to read the faces of your students, try to see their expectations and difficulties, put yourself in their place. 5. Give them not only information, but "know-how," attitudes of mind, the habit of methodical work. 6. Let them learn guessing. 7. Let them learn proving. 8. Look out for such features of the problem at hand as may be useful in solving the problems to come—try to disclose the general pattern that lies behind the present concrete situation. 9. Do not give away your whole secret at once—let the students guess before you tell it—let them find out by themselves as much as is feasible. 10. Suggest it, don't force it down their throats. (Polya, 1981, p. 51) These ten commandments reflect a brain-compatible approach to teaching. If obeyed, learning will be maximized and teaching will become a more rewarding, interesting and delightful job. As we have seen, educators have been aware of brain-compatible approaches to teaching and learning for decades. These ideas are not necessarily new—only the terminology is different. When these strategies were implemented in schools, the results were outstanding—as was witnessed by Dewey in the early 1900's. (Dewey, 1915, chap. 4) However we continue to plod along using the Horace Mann factory type school which virtually guarantees failure for a large percentage of our students. Natural learning - learning randomly, by doing and experiencing in a social, cooperative atmosphere - is the way the brain was designed to learn. As educators, we must implement as many brain-compatible strategies as we can in our classrooms even if we are functioning in a brain-antagonistic school setting. The following pages contain a sprinkling of discussion topics and related student activities that portray a brain-compatible mode. MATH JOURNAL \[ x^2 + 5x + 4 \] Entry: I like to factor trinomials because it is similar to doing puzzles. I enjoy figuring out what factors of the third term will result in the desired middle term. Commentary: This excerpt from a math journal typifies a whole language approach to the assimilation of the concept of factoring trinomials. At the outset, a trinomial is a polynomial of three terms which can sometimes be factored into simpler form. Entry: I know that trinomials have three terms because the prefix "tri" means three. A polynomial has two or more terms since the prefix "poly" means many. Although we deal primarily with polynomials of two, three or four terms, a polynomial could have an infinite number of terms. Commentary: This excerpt shows that the student has memorized the definitions of "tri" and "poly". Nevertheless, does the student still know how to factor $ x^2 + 5x + 4 $? Entry: To factor a trinomial of this type you list the factors of the third term. Factors are the numbers that divide evenly into a given number. My job is to find a pair of factors, that when multiplied will result in the third term, but when added will result in the middle term. The fun lies in the fact that it is an easy, yet puzzling skill. Entry: The first type of puzzle that I ever enjoyed doing was a jigsaw puzzle. I enjoyed putting the pieces together to form the whole picture. The whole picture was important to me because I was anxious to see the final results of my efforts. Entry: In regard to trinomials, factoring consists of breaking down polynomials into their parts. Once this is done I can use the parts to make the whole again. It is self-satisfying to be able to see the whole picture and its parts and their relationship to each other. Commentary: The foregoing is an example of the manner in which I would have students develop an honest appraisal of their math knowledge by using my interpretation of a math journal. I modeled these excerpts for my students. A brain-compatible approach is not memorizing definitions, but is actual feelings, thoughts and ideas toward a mathematical concept. The interplay of my old information and my new information is the intrinsic reward of the success of being able to figure out the puzzle. Tapping in to students own feelings about their own knowledge in order to build and resonate with prior experience enhances their learning ability. MATH IN NATURE AND ART PHOTO ALBUM In science, all living things are structured in some form of symmetrical pattern. In math, the symmetry concept is essential to geometry. In art, balance, pattern and color are all parts of design symmetry. Have the students photograph or draw pictures reflecting the math found in nature and art. Some examples include: spider webs, snowflakes, leaves, pine cones, flowers, honey combs, butterflies, pineapples and other fruits, not to mention the architecture of houses, shopping centers, schools and so on. The students should mount their pictures on posterboard. Underneath each picture, students should write an essay detailing the patterns, geometrical elements and/or the type of symmetry they see in each figure. BAROQUE MUSIC The art of music was once tied to medicine and to bringing about so-called "supernatural feats". Hermes Trismegistus of Ancient Egypt wrote two books devoted to music. He set out the principles of a philosophy relating to music that was passed down for centuries through secret groups and through guilds of musicians, masons and architects. The gist of his philosophy was that there is a harmony and correspondence among all the different kinds of manifestations in the universe - the circling of the planets, the tides of the earth, the growth of vegetation, the lives of people and animals - all are related. All that is in the universe emanates from the same source, according to Hermetic philosophy, and therefore the same laws, principles and characteristics apply to each unit - "As above, so below". Ancient mathematicians looked out at the universe, noted the ratios of the different planetary cycles, counted the rhythmic periods in nature, calculated the ratios of the human body. They put together a "sacred geometry" - a set of mathematical ratios and they believed that these ratios, if used in the sound of music and the architecture of buildings would resonate with the life forces of the universe and thus enhance life. When you sound a note on one piano in a hall full of pianos the same note will resonate on the other instruments, enhancing the power of your single note to fill the whole hall. In the same way, the ancients believed that playing certain harmonies and combinations of notes would resonate with other elements in the universe tuned to the same scale. Through this resonance we could, at will, have our single notes increased in power. This would allow us to harmonize and tune in to the energies of the planet to open our natural powers. It was believed in the ancient schools of music that music was the bridge linking all things. They used specific harmonies, intervals and proportions in their music. They felt that when people heard sounds made of specific ratios, the rhythms of their cells, bodies and minds would be synchronized to the very same rhythms as the planets and plants, earth and sea. These particular sounds and rhythms would enhance life, making it healthier and more abundant. Music would open our minds to higher powers and would increase our awareness. The composers of Baroque music were trained and made to use these particular numbers and patterns for harmony, rhythm and tempo in their music. This "mathematical" Baroque music was supposed to affect us by aligning, harmonizing and synchronizing our minds and bodies to more harmonious patterns. Research shows that listening a few minutes a day to Baroque music will result in expanded awareness, better memory and other health benefits. Listeners felt refreshed, energized, centered. Tension and stress disappeared. Headaches and pains went away. Physiological graphs printed out the proof—lowered blood pressure, lowered muscle tension, slower pulse. (Ostrander, Schroeder, 1979, p. 141-143) Try an experiment with plants and music. Each student in your small group should raise the same plant in the same conditions of light, water and temperature. Each group member should choose one of the following types of music: rock, jazz, country-western, Baroque, Indian or no music at all. The plants should be able to hear only the chosen music. Keep a daily log of each plant’s progress — noting the health of the plant, its stature (is it leaning or straight, and in what direction is it leaning?) and its growth rate. After a few months, report back to the group and the entire class on your discoveries. To make this even more accurate, chambers for each plant could be built and kept in the classroom in the same location with the music source inside. An extension of this would be to research the effects of various types of music on unborn babies. Research yourself. In class, listen to rock music for several minutes, take your pulse and write it down. Follow the same procedure with the other types of music. What differences do you see? If a blood pressure cuff is available, follow the same procedure with your blood pressure. Teachers may wish to play Baroque music in the background during class. Note the effects it has on student performance and behavior. HOW DO YOU MEASURE UP? Lecture/Discussion Since the earliest times man has used his own bodies as the basis for measurement. Over the centuries man evolved rules of thumb - and of arm and food - to give himself units of length. The measure that Noah used to build his ark was originally the length from the elbow to the middle fingertip - about 18 inches. It was divided by the ancient Egyptians into fingers and palms. Four finger widths or digits, made a palm, and six palms made a cubit. About 4,000 years later, the Egyptians added a seventh palm and the royal cubit became standardized at about 21 inches. The inch used to refer to the width of a man's thumb. Eventually, in Rome, it became standardized as one-twelfth of a foot. Later, in England, Edward I defined the yard as three 12-inch feet and decreed that the inch should be equal to three grains of dry barley laid end to end. Shoemakers still use the barleycorn unit of measure. During the 16th century King Henry VII used his thumb to redefine the yard. He fixed the yard as the distance from the tip of his own nose to the tip of his thumb at the end of his outstretched arm. The foot, as its name implies, was once the distance from the heel to the tip of the big toe. It came to be used to measure an acre by Edward I. Before Edward's time an acre was the amount of land an ox could plow in a day. But since this could vary enormously, Edward pegged an acre at 40 rods by 40 rods - each road being 16 1/2 feet long - a measurement that has survived unchanged to this day. The first and only measurement system based on logic, rather than physical accident, was worked out during the French Revolution, as part of a general reaction against tradition. Twelve scientists created the metric system, and they decided to find some fundamental length in the natural world - to be called a meter, after the Greek Metron, meaning "measure" - and to make it the basis of a system of multiples of ten. The length they picked was the circumference of the earth measured on a line through the poles. The scientists measured a quarter of that circumference on a meridian through Paris and for convenience, called it 10 million meters or 10,000 kilometers. So the meter, which is slightly longer than a yard was fixed as 1/40,000,000 of the earth's circumference through the poles. Today, however, it is defined in terms of the wavelengths of light. Activities: 1) Check the units of length described here, that were measures of the human body, on yourself. How close were your measures to the measures given in history? How accurate were the ancient measuring systems? 2) Which measurement system do you prefer using today, customary or metric? Why? Is your answer a product of tradition and what you are used to, logic? 3) Design your own measurement system, based on a particular length that you invent. Determine the length of your base and of all other parts of your system. Be prepared to demonstrate measuring in your system. THE ART OF M. C. ESCHER Maurits Cornelius Escher, a Dutch artist, studied under Samuel Jessurun de Mesquita at the school of Architecture and Ornamental Design in Haarlem in the Netherlands. During this time Escher mastered the graphic techniques of woodcut, wood engraving and lithograph. He originally concentrated his efforts on landscapes and buildings. The Escher that most of us are familiar with, the artist preoccupied with space filling of a repetitive nature, developed from an interest in the work of Moorish artists. The Moors occupied Spain from 711 to 1492. In 1936, while traveling through southern Spain, Escher visited the Alhambra in Granada. He studied the Moorish mosaics on the walls and the floors of the Alhambra. He copied the motifs of the tiles in his notebook and used them later in his paints. Although he was inspired by the Moorish tiles, Escher preferred recognizable, animate figures to purely geometric patterns in his drawings. He enjoyed tessellating animate figures so much that he said: The dynamic action of making a symmetric tessellation is done more or less unconsciously. While drawing I sometimes feel as if I were spiritualist medium, controlled by the creatures which I am conjuring up. It is as if they themselves decide on the shape in which they choose to appear. They take little account of my critical opinion during their birth and I cannot exert much influence on the measure of their development. They are usually very difficult and obstinate creatures. (Mac Gillavry, 1965, p. 42) Escher's style of art changed dramatically after 1937. He began to concentrate more on communicating his own personal ideas and explorations through his art. It is strange that Escher's prints should be so inextricably tied up with mathematics since he was not a trained mathematician. Escher himself expressed surprise at this fact when he said of some of his work: The ideas that are basic to them often bear witness to my amazement and wonder at the laws of nature which operate in the world around us. He who wonders discovers that this in itself is a wonder. By keenly confronting the enigmas that surround us, and by considering and analyzing the observations that I had made, I ended up in the domain of mathematics. Although I am absolutely without training or knowledge in the exact sciences, I often seem to have more in common with mathematicians than with my fellow artists. (Escher, 1971) Escher was also surprised to learn that some of the basic rules of periodic space-filling which he had worked so hard to discover and communicate has already been discovered by the science of crystallography. Crystal formations became another rich source from which Escher drew material for his drawings. Many of his works were based on the principles of crystallography and color symmetry. Escher adapted the Moorish approaches and nature's forms with a remarkable inventiveness of his own. Today Escher's work is very well-known and popular, but is also highly respected by artists, mathematicians and scientists. M.C. Escher's fanciful repeating patterns are, in essence, tessellations of modified polygons. The underlying If we examine the arrangement, we see that a protrusion of "bump" on side 1 is a congruent indentation or "hole" on side 2, both equidistant from point A (and vice versa). Likewise, a "bump" on side 3 is a congruent "hole" on side 4, both equidistant from point B (and vice versa). We can summarize these relationships with the following notation: \[ 1 \leftrightarrow 2 \quad \text{Measure from A} \] \[ 3 \leftrightarrow 4 \quad \text{Measure from B} \] By applying the rule several times in succession to the square, we have: The modified square has exactly the same area as the parent square. It will tessellate the plane in the same manner as did the parent square. For more practice and information on creating tessellations see Creating Escher Type Drawings by E.R. Ranucci, 1977; Creative Publications. Activities 1) Examine several of the works of M.C. Escher and write down exactly what you feel and what you feel you see. Do you feel that there is an underlying message in the print? Write a conversation between you and a friend (or you and an enemy) about the feelings that you get from looking at it. 2) As you examine each piece of work that you choose, take notice of the geometric elements involved. Describe the work geometrically. Think of the following criteria: a) Is it a tessellation? 1) If so, what is tessellating? 2) What was the original polygon that Escher distorted to create the tessellation? b) If it is not a tessellation, what other geometric elements are involved? 1) Does it appear to be three-dimensional? 2) It is an optical illusion of sorts? 3) Is it a paradox of some sort? 4) List the interesting and amazing aspects of this piece of work. What are the "hidden" surprises? 5) What questions would you ask another person about the tessellation? 3) Choose a polygon that tessellates. Create your own tessellation by distorting and rotating the polygon. Remember to start simple, then in subsequent tessellations add more and more distortions. Color your tessellation so as to make the repetitive pattern obvious to the viewer. 4) Using brightly colored ceramic tiles and a tile cutter create a tessellation mosaic of your own design. It may be framed to hang up, or used as a hot plate for foods or any other practical purpose that you can think of. For ideas research Arabic art. Geometric themes often occur in Arabic art. Find out why it is common to see so much geometry in Arabic art, instead of living things. How does science become an art? How is art really a science? Visitor At this point it would be a great idea to invite an expert on stained-glass art to visit the classroom. This person could discuss how stained glass is made, the importance of geometry in stained-glass art and the relevance of mathematics in the world of art. It would be especially exciting if he/she could give a demonstration of making stained glass. and allow the students to participate. The students' creations would make lovely mobiles for the classroom. DOES ANYBODY REALLY KNOW WHAT TIME IT IS? In prehistoric times human beings lived from day to day and from season to season with little concern for the passing time. They began to watch the movements of the sun, the moon and the stars. They used these regular, natural events to keep track of time. These natural events still govern the way we keep track of time. Our calendar year is based on the time required for the earth to make a full trip around the sun. Do some research on time. See what you can find out about calendars, clocks and other ways to measure time. Even though people use different systems for measuring other quantities, nearly everyone uses the same system for time. Why do you think this is so? Work in small groups. Try to develop a "metric" system for measuring time. Think about the units we now use. Which would have to stay the same and which could be changed. Which units of time are determined by nature and which are determined by people? Notes: The students responses should show that units of time are governed by astrological events that are the same everywhere on earth. The students should also realize that it would be difficult to produce a completely metric calendar. The day could be divided into 10 hours and each hour divided in 10 units. and each of those divided into 10 minutes; so the minute would be $1/1000$ of a day instead of $1/1440$ of a day. The week could be 10 days, but the year would have to be 36 weeks plus several days. Which units of time are determined by nature? 1) Day - the time it takes for the earth to rotate on its axis once, or the time it takes for the earth the sun and other stars to make one complete apparent revolution around the earth. The length of the day would be different on a different planet. 2) Year - the length of time it takes the earth to make one complete revolution around the sun. If we changed the length of the year, seasons would occur at different time of the year - and that is what happened before the present calendar was adopted. 3) Month - the revolution of the moon around the earth. To have the full moon always occur on the same day of the month, a month should be approximately 28 days long. Since the months of the calendar currently in use are mostly too long to be consistent with the phases of the moon, it could be argued that the month is not a natural unit. In some calendars the month is based on the moon and is definitely natural. 4) Week - is about $1/4$ of a lunar month and so is about the difference between the phases of the moon (new, first-quarter, full, last-quarter) so it can be said to the natural, although it may not be quite the right length. Which units of time are determined by people? 1) Hour 2) Minute 3) Second An interesting notion to examine is the length of a day and a year (in earth days) on each of the other planets. Looking at the chart below, try to determine how old you would be on each of the other planets. Also, what strange phenomenon do you notice in the information about Venus? Why does this strange phenomenon occur? \| PLANET \| DISTANCE FROM SUN IN MILLIONS OF MILES \| DIAMETER (Miles) \| LENGTH OF DAY \| LENGTH OF YEAR (in "earth days") \| \|--------\|---------------------------------------\|------------------\|---------------\|---------------------------------\| \| MERCURY\| 36 \| 3,050 \| 58 days \| 88 days \| \| VENUS \| 67 \| 7,564 \| 243 days (retrograde) \| 224.7 days \| \| EARTH \| 93 \| 7,972 \| 23 hr. 56 min.\| 365.26 days \| \| MARS \| 142 \| 4,246 \| 24 hr. 37 min.\| 686.2 days \| \| JUPITER\| 486 \| 89,500 \| 9 hr. 55 min.\| 11.86 years \| \| SATURN \| 892 \| 75,275 \| 10 hr. 39 min.\| 29.46 years \| \| URANUS \| 1,783 \| 32,375 \| 23 hr. 9 min.\| 84.01 years \| \| NEPTUNE\| 2,810 \| 30,937 \| 18 hr. \| 164.1 years \| \| PLUTO \| 3,728 \| 2,500 \| 6 days 9 hr. \| 247 years \| How many days are in a year? Well, that depends on what kind of year you are talking about. An earth year has 365 or 366 days. However, an astronomical year (the time between vernal equinoxes, when the sun appears to be in the same plane with respect to the earth) is 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes and 6 seconds. A sidereal year (the length of time it takes the sun to get back to the same apparent position among the stars) is 365 days, 6 hours, 9 minutes and 9 seconds. A Hebrew year has 12 months and 354 days, except in those years when the month of Adar Sheni (29 days) is added to make 383 days. There are many other possibilities depending on the particular culture involved. Research various cultures and discover the differences in the lengths of years. CAN YOU TELL TIME? About 5000 years ago the Egyptians built what is still the world's biggest clock. It was designed to register time not only in hours but in days, seasons and even centuries. It is the Great Pyramid of Cheops which was built in the 27th century B.C. It is the largest of the group of pyramids at Giza on the Nile. These pyramids are the only surviving example of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. The Egyptians built this pyramid on such a scale, at such a latitude and at such a precise angle that it could indicate the precise day of the year as well as the time of day. On the ground adjoining the northern and southern faces, wide, level pavement or "shadow floors" were constructed. In winter the pyramid would cast its shadow on the pavement to the north, and in summer the highly polished southern face would reflect a triangle of sunlight onto the pavement to the south. The paving blocks had been cut in widths similar to the gradations by which each noonday shadow or reflection succeeded its predecessor. So the days could be measured and forecasts could be made for the solstices and the equinoxes. The equinoxes are the two times each year when the sun crosses the Equator, while the solstices are the two days when it is farthest from the equator. The descending passage, leading into the heart of the pyramid was set at an angle of 26°17', the exact alignment to aim it at the Pole Star. Although the Pole Star changes every few thousand years due to the gravitational pull of the sun and the moon, the Pyramid has moved also with the movement of the earth and has aligned itself with the new Pole Star (today being Polaris). The Pyramid was constructed to be an almost perfect observation from which the movement of the planets and the stars could be recorded. It is believed now that Stonehenge - the great circle of giant stone slabs on Salisbury Plain in the English county of Wiltshire was begun around 1900 B.C., about 800 years after construction of the Great Pyramid. Until recently, Stonehenge was popularly believed to have been built by the Druids as a sun worshipping temple and a site for human sacrifice. However it has been deduced that Stonehenge was built before the Druids appeared. They believe that it was built in several stages over a period of 300 years. In 1963 Professor Gerald Hawkins, the American astronomer, publicized his description of Stonehenge as some kind of a prehistoric computer, whose function was to make intricate calculations of sunrises and sunsets, the movements of the moon and eclipses of both the sun and the moon. Hawkins fed details of the structure's stone alignment into a computer and found that many related to the positioning of the sun and the moon. He brought forth the idea that by moving a marker stone around an outer circle of stones once a year, priests or astrologers could calculate suitable times for crop planting, predict weather cycles or practice divination. It is easy to make a sundial that will allow you to tell the approximate time of day without a watch. On a sunny day set a stick that is at least one meter long into the ground so that it is upright. Carefully observe the positions of the shadow each hour and mark them using chalk or stones. Discussion questions: 1) Why did you choose the location that you did? 2) Why is it important that others agree that your markings are accurately placed? 3) Do you think your sundial would still be useful several months from now? How would you need to change it? THE MOBIUS RING A recent and interesting field of modern mathematics is known as topology. The word topology means "study of place or position". Topology does not deal with the objects of traditional geometry. It is the geometry of distortion. It studies geometrical figures that retain their mathematical properties even when their size and shape change. Among the founders of topology was the German mathematician and astronomer Augustus Ferdinand Mobius (1790-1868), who discovered a strange topological feature which became known as the Mobius strip. He described the figure as a "strip without a second side". We expect a surface to have two sides ordinarily. For instance, a sheet of paper has a front and a back as does any other plane surface. However, Mobius managed to construct a one-sided strip; we cannot distinguish front from back or an upper side from a lower side. To illustrate this visually, take a rectangular strip and glue the ends together to form a ring. It will have a inner and an outer side. If, at a given point we begin to paint the outside green we will soon find that the entire outside is green. Similarly we can paint the inside red. A Mobius ring would be quite different as the two colors would overlap. Let us construct such a ring. Start with a rectangle but, before closing it into a ring, give one of the ends a half-turn. If we now start coloring a side, as we did before, we find there is nothing left unpainted. Such properties are called invariant. They concern the single side and single edge of the Mobius ring. Though originally the Mobius strip was just a mathematical curiosity, its features have become very important in theory and in practice. Recently, American industrialists have used the theory to design a new conveyor belt. Vacuum companies have also applied the theories in manufacturing their belts. Why would the Mobius features be beneficial to conveyor belts and vacuum belts? Mobius Activities 1) Make a Mobius strip as described before. Cut the strip along its middle. What are your results? How do they differ from the results you would get if you cut a plain ring down the middle? Take your first results and cut it down the middle again. Now what are your results? 2) Take a rectangular strip of paper and draw three lines lengthwise on the paper. Make a mobius ring. Cut the ring along the lines. What are the results? 3) Try taking a rectangular strip of paper and twisting it twice before taping or gluing the ends together. Cut this loop down the center of the strip. What are the results? Make another similar loop and cut is 1/3 of the way in from the edge. What are the results? 4) Finally, twist your rectangular strip of paper three times before gluing the ends together. Cut this loop down the center of the strip. What are the results? 5) In your groups, place one Mobius strip on top of the other. Before you cut down the center of both strips, try to visualize what you predict will happen when you cut. 6) What are some other ways in which the Mobius strip could be used? BIBLIOGRAPHY 1) Bloom, Benjamin. (1976). Human Characteristics and Human Learning. New York: McGraw-Hill. 2) Katz, Michael B. (1971). Class Bureaucracy and School. New York: Praeger. 3) Hart, Leslie. (1983). Human Brain and Human Learning. New York: Brain-Age Publisher. 4) Bronson, David. (1977). "Towards a Communication Theory" Teachers College Record. May 5) Polya, George. (1981). Mathematical Discovery. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 6) Jennings Wayne and Nathan Joe. (1977). "Startling/Disturbing Research on School Program Effectiveness." Phi Delta Kappan. March. 7) Goodlad, John. (1974). Looking Behind The Classroom Door. Ohio: Charles A. Jones. 8) Overly, Norman, ed. (1979). 1979 yearbook - Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. 9) Gardner, Howard. (1983). Frames of Mind. New York: Basic Books. 10) Mac Lean, Paul D. (1978). "A Mind of Three Minds: Educating the Triune Brain," Education and the Brain. 77th Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education. University of Chicago Press. 11) Ornstein, Robert and Thompson, Richard. (1986). The Amazing Brain. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. 12) Samples, Bob. (1981). Mind of Our Mother. New York: Addison-Wesley. 13) Dewey, John. (1915). Schools of Tomorrow. New York: E.P. Dutton and Co. 14) Hunt, Morton. (1982). The Universe Within. New York: Simon and Schuster. 15) Smith, Theodore R. Ed. (1982). Handbook for Planning an Effective Mathematics Program. California: California State Department of Education. 16) O'Malley, Edward, ed. (1985). Mathematics Framework for California Public Schools. California: California State Department of Education. 17) Ornstein, Robert. (1986). Multimind. A New Way of Looking at Human Behavior. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. 18) Cole, K.C. (1985). Sympathetic Vibrations. Reflection on Physics as a Way of Life. New York: Morrow. 19) Foshay, Arthur W. (1973). "The Elementary School in the United States." In Arthur W. Foshay, Seventy-Second Yearbook of The National Society for the Study of Education. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 20) Naisbett, John. (1981). Megatrends. Ten New Directions Transforming Our Lives. New York: Warner Books. 21) Toffler, Alvin. (1980). The Third Wave. New York: Willeter Morrow and Co., Inc.. 22) Escher, M. C. (1971). The Graphic World of M. C. Escher. New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., Publishers. 23) MacGillavry, Caroline H. (1965). Symmetry Aspects of M. C. Escher's Periodic Drawings. Utrecht: A. Oosthoek's Uitgeversmaatschappij NV, Published for the International Union of Crystallography. 24) Ostrander, Sheila and Schroeder, Lynn. (1979). Superlearning. New York: Dell Publishing Company.
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ELECTROSE was the insulation selected for use in connection with the first high power transmitters employed in the Navy, the first high power radio traction employed on board a submarine, the first radio equipment to make a record in air craft, the first radio set to fly across the Atlantic, and the recent world's record of long distance commercial telephone transmissions carried out from the U. S. S. America. "Electrose" Radio Standard Products Panels, sheets, bases, tubes, rods, dials, vacuum tube sockets, variometer rotors and stators, vario couplers, receiver shells and caps, condenser supports, antenna insulators, insulated connectors and bushings, horns, lightning switches, lightning arresters, transmitter key knobs, binding posts, switcharm knobs, dial knobs, and any other style of knobs. Sole Manufacturers Electrose Mfg. Co. 60-82 Washington Street 27-37 York Street 66-76 Front Street 1-23 Flint Street Brooklyn, N. Y., America Globe Commercial Co., San Francisco, Cal., Factory Representatives on the Coast. The AC AMPLIFIER for the AERIOLA SR. The Aeriola Sr., simplest and most efficient of all single-tube receiving sets, becomes still more efficient with the new model AC amplifier. No storage battery is required. With only two dry cells, two tubes, and a 45-volt plate battery the model AC amplifier greatly increases the Aeriola Sr.’s range of reception. Used with the Vocarola loud-speaker, the amplifier connected with an Aeriola Sr., fills a whole room with concerts received over distances of ten to thirty miles. Anybody can make the simple connections required, including mother and the girls. Because there are no storage batteries to charge, because both the Aeriola Sr. and this new model AC amplifier are so light and handy, the combination is ideal for Boy Scouts and for campers. Before buying radio apparatus, always consult the book, "Radio Enters the Home." Price 35 cents by mail. Sales Department, Suite 2064 233 Broadway, New York, N. Y. District Office 10 South La Salle St., Chicago, Ill. Contents—October, 1922 Cover Design, by O. J. Schulz ........................................... 17 Editorial .................................................................................. 18 Fictorial Section ..................................................................... 18 Political Broadcasting ............................................................ 26 Radio Penetrates Prison Walls, by Maurice Henle .............. 27 Allen Stanley, by Edwin Hall ................................................. 29 Dad Answers When He's Asked, by E. F. Lake .................. 30 Ida Geer Weller, by Claire Burquo ....................................... 31 Amelia Bingham, by Paul S. Gautier .................................... 32 Play Ball! Radio at the Bat!! .................................................. 33 Symphony Concerts on the Air, by St. John Martens .......... 35 Gustave Langenus, by H. N. Lee .......................................... 37 Japan's Response to Radio's Appeal ..................................... 38 An Example of Service to the Blind, by Ward Seeley .......... 39 WVP ..................................................................................... 41 Distant Broadcasting Stations Heard ..................................... 42 Broadcasting Station Directory .............................................. 43 New Class of Broadcasting Stations ....................................... 44 Cartoons .................................................................................. 45 Humor .................................................................................... 46 World Wide Wireless .............................................................. 48 Radio Communication in India, by S. B. Banerjea ............... 50 Filing Radiograms With Postal .............................................. 53 The New French Radio Central ............................................. 55 New Swedish Trans-Oceanic Station ...................................... 56 Bridging the Gap for the Cables ............................................. 57 100-Kilowatt Tube Developed Successfully ............................ 58 Radio Power Transmission's Improbability, by Dr. Charles P. Steinmetz ................................................................. 63 Short Wave Reception vs. Antenna Resistance, by Samuel Mills ................................................................. 64 A Convenient Change-Over Switch, by Edward W. Vail ....... 68 Advantages of Radio-Frequency Amplification, by B. Bradbury Miniature Warfare Direction by Oklahoma National Guard Radio ................................................................. 69 Good Work by IIV on 10 Watts ............................................. 70 An Efficient Loop Circuit, by Clyde B. Gardener .................. 70 Operating Suggestions for Armstrong Super-Regenerative Circuit, by Burton Clark ............................................. 71 December Trans-Atlantic Tests Announcement ....................... 71 Frequency Amateur Station 8AB ........................................... 72 Eliminating Capacity Effects .................................................. 73 New Appliances and Devices .................................................. 74 N. A. W. A. ............................................................................. 76 Stations Worked and Heard .................................................. 78 Queries Answered ................................................................. 79 Amateur Radio Stations of the United States (Supplementary List) ................................................................. 111 Advertisers' Index Arme Apparatus Co. .......................................................... 81 Adams-Morgan Co. ............................................................. 85 American Electric Co. .......................................................... 88 American Association of Advertising Agencies ....................... 88 American Electric Co. .......................................................... 89 American Radio Exposition Company ................................... 89 American Radio Institute ...................................................... 89 Artistic Wood Turning Works .............................................. 84 Audiofurn Mfg. Company ..................................................... 84 Automatic Electric Company ............................................... 85 Automatic Wireless Co., The .............................................. 85 Bogert & Hooper, Inc. ....................................................... 84 Boston Radio Exposition ..................................................... 85 Bruch Mfg. Co., L. S. ......................................................... 85 Burgess Battery Company .................................................... 85 Burgess Battery Company .................................................... 85 Chestnry Co., The .............................................................. 85 Continental Radio Co., The .................................................. 85 Continental Fibre Co., The .................................................. 85 Cooper Clad Steel Company ................................................ 85 Crosley Manufacturing Co. .................................................. 85 Diamond State Fibre Co. ..................................................... 87 Dicotograph Products Corporation ....................................... 85 Eaton Electric Co. .............................................................. 85 Duck Co., The William B. ................................................... 85 Eastern Radio Institute ....................................................... 90 Ehr Manufacturing Co., The H. H. ...................................... 92 European Radio Co. ............................................................ 92 Federal Telephone Information Bureau ................................. 92 Federal Telephone & Telégraph Co. ..................................... 97 France Mfg. Co., The ......................................................... 92 Fourth Cover General Electric Co. ........................................................... 89 General Radio Co. .............................................................. 89 General Radio Equipment Co. ............................................. 89 Gilmer-Layne Co. ............................................................... 89 Graham Mfg. Co. ............................................................... 89 Grebe & Co., A. H. .............................................................. 107 Hommell & Co., Ludwig ..................................................... 107 Hoagwell Insulation & Mfg. Co. .......................................... 107 Honeywell Co. ................................................................. 107 Jenkins, J. E. ....................................................................... 108 Jewell Electrical Instrument Co. .......................................... 108, 102 Joy-Kaiser Corporation ....................................................... 88 Kanawha Co., The Collin B. .............................................. 88 Kewanee Radio Mfg. Co. .................................................... 88 Klaxon Improved Apparatus Co. .......................................... 13 Lamb Electric Co., E. R. ..................................................... 88 Magnavox Co., The ............................................................. 81 Manhattan Electrical Supply Co., Inc. .................................. 81 Marconi Garden Co., The .................................................... 112 Milliken Electric Mfg. Co., Inc. ........................................... 89 National Cabinet Company .................................................. 89 National Carbon Co., Inc. ................................................... 89 National Radio Co., Inc. ..................................................... 89 New York Coil Co., Inc. ...................................................... 89 Novo Manufacturing Co. ...................................................... 100 Omnigraph Mfg. Co., The ................................................... 106 Pacemt Electric Co., Inc. .................................................... 84 Philadelphia Electric Valve Line .......................................... 84 Philadelphia Wireless Sales Corp. ........................................ 84 Philco Radio Engineering .................................................... 85 Pluta Co., F. D. .................................................................... 85 Rider Electric Company ..................................................... 85 Resistron Equipment Co. .................................................... 85 Radio Corporation of America .............................................. 1 Radio Distributing Co., The ................................................ 101 Radio Electric Co., The ...................................................... 84 Radio Instruments Company, Inc. ....................................... 86 Radio Laboratories, The ..................................................... 86 Radio Mica Products Co. .................................................... 88 Radio Shop of Newark, The ................................................ 88 Radio Supply Co., The ....................................................... 88 Roller-Smith Company ....................................................... 84 Rogers Radio Corporation ................................................... 88 Rohland Mfg. Co. .............................................................. 83 Ship Owners Radio Services, Inc. ........................................ 88 Simplex Radio Co. .............................................................. 83 Standard Radio Products ..................................................... 83 Systematic Printing Company .............................................. 84 Tait Knob and Dial Company .............................................. 88 Westinghouse Union Battery Co. ........................................ 100 Westinghouse Wireless Instruments Co. ............................... 89 Willard Storage Battery Co. ................................................ 89 Wireless Press, Inc. ............................................................ 82, 84, 84, 94, 98, 100, 106, 109 Y. M. C. A. Radio School .................................................... 107 SMALL ADS OF BIG INTEREST ........................................... 108 HOMCHARGE your Radio Battery for a nickel! Enjoyable Radio Concerts and maximum receiving range are obtained only when your battery is fully charged. Don't be bothered with the inconvenience and expense of taking your battery to a service station every few days for recharging. RADIO HOMCHARGER DE LUXE has been designed especially for this purpose. It charges your "A" or "B" battery over night without removing it from your living room. The Homcharger is silent and clean in operation—no muss—no trouble—no dirt—requires no watching. Simplicity itself. Attach to any lamp socket and connect to battery. Fully automatic in operation—cannot overcharge or injure your battery. Constructed of the best materials—moulded Bakelite Base—Jewell Ammeter—Oversize Silicon Steel Transformer. No castings to break—only the finest stampings used thruout. SAFE—all parts entirely enclosed—no danger from fire—approved by Fire Insurance Underwriters everywhere. Unconditionally guaranteed—lasts a lifetime. An Ornament For Your Living Room Beauty has been combined with utility in the NEW RADIO HOMCHARGER DE LUXE. The body is beautifully finished in rich Antique Mahogany—the base and fittings in a handsome dull gold. Equipped with rubber feet, it cannot mar polished surfaces. It harmonizes with the finest living room. Over 50,000 HOMCHARGERS IN USE 50,000 users have heartily endorsed the HOMCHARGER. Beware of imitations when buying as there is only one HOMCHARGER. Insist on the genuine which bears our registered trade name, HOMCHARGER. Furnished complete with attachment cord and plug, charging cable and battery clips. No extras to buy. Price at all good radio, accessory and electrical dealers, $18.50, or shipped prepaid upon receipt of purchase price, if your dealer does not carry it. Booklet illustrating the NEW RADIO HOMCHARGER DE LUXE in actual colors is FREE for the asking. Send for your copy today. The Automatic Electrical Devices Co. 119. West Third Street Cincinnati, Ohio Largest Manufacturers of Vibrating Rectifiers in the World BRANCH OFFICES: New York - Chicago - Pittsburgh - Detroit - Dallas - Philadelphia Los Angeles - Baltimore - Minneapolis - Kansas City - St. Louis - Atlanta. Which Will You Judge By—Results or Unproved Claims? Paragon Stands on its Record In 1915 the first regenerative receiver, Paragon, was manufactured. In 1916 Paragon effected the first transcontinental reception (not prearranged) from New York to California. In 1917-18 Paragon receivers, due to greater sensitivity and selectivity, proved superior to all others in interception of enemy signals by the U.S. Army and Navy. In 1921 Paragon effected the first transatlantic amateur reception, registering signals from 27 American amateur stations at Ardrossan, Scotland, a distance of 3500 miles. In 1922 Paragon Products are a safe investment in a market in which it is difficult to judge values. Paragon needs no extravagant claims; but we guarantee our customers this:—that Paragon Products are reasonable in price, sound in design and thorough in workmanship. If your dealer does not sell Paragon Products, send for our catalogue (free) and we will see that you are promptly supplied. ADAMS-MORGAN CO., 8 Alvin Ave., Upper Montclair, N.J. PARAGON Reg. U.S. Pat. Off. RADIO PRODUCTS Distortion Kills Music The Curves Show Why Unless the Amplifier Transformer favors all tones in exactly the same manner, distortion will result. Notwithstanding their high prices, some of the transformers whose curves are shown above are totally unsuited to radiophone reception. When you build use PARAGON, the same as is used in the Famous Paragon DA-2 Amplifier. This illustration shows PARAGON VT Controls (Price $6.00) and the PARAGON Amplifier Transformer (Price $5.00) built into a Detector two step unit. The combination gives you a handsome home-made instrument, low in price but highly efficient and absolutely without distortion. PARAGON VT Controls (Patented) may be used to control vacuum tubes wherever they are used as detector, oscillator, transmitter, and in cascade for radio and audio frequency amplifiers. An extremely useful and good looking unit. Comprises standard socket, famous PARAGON rheostat, grid condenser, provision for grid leak and all necessary circuit terminals. If your dealer does not stock these Paragon Products, we will see that you are promptly supplied. Write for booklet which will tell you the many uses for this efficient and compact mounting. ADAMS-MORGAN COMPANY, 8 Alvin Ave., Upper Montclair, New Jersey PARAGON Reg. U. S. Pat. Off. RADIO PRODUCTS CROSLEY CRYSTAL RECEIVER MODEL 1. Complete with head phones, antenna and insulators, ready to install without additional equipment. Will receive wave-lengths from 200 to 300 meters and has a range of 25 to 30 miles. Has been known to receive up to 200 miles. Price, $25.00. CROSLEY AUDION DETECTOR UNIT is designed to be added to the Crosley Crystal Detector outfit Model V or any other type of tuner, eliminating the use of Crystal Detector. Will increase the range of the Crystal outfit to about one hundred miles. One user in Minnesota hears Pittsburgh and Schenectady. The combination is equivalent to the Harke Senior. Price, $7.50. CROSLEY RADIO FREQUENCY TUNED AMPLIFIER. This unit can be used with practically any type of Audion Detector outfit, and is especially recommended for use with our combination apparatus receiver and audion detector or Harke Senior Model V. It is the feature of all of our larger units. Being our own design, we are proud of it. The R. F. T. A. not only amplifies the signals before they reach the detector enabling it to work more efficiently, but also makes sharper tuning possible and eliminates interference to a wonderful degree. Will add at least six times the volume and range. Price, $15.00. CROSLEY TWO-STAGE AUDIO FREQUENCY AMPLIFIER. With this unit, two stages of audio frequency amplification can be added to any type of radio apparatus. This added to any set will increase the volume about one hundred times. Finished in Adam brown mahogany, it will match up splendidly with any of our other units. Price, $25.00. ON THE RIGHT IS SHOWN the assembly of the four above units. This arrangement is equivalent to the CROSLEY RECEIVER MODEL X shown on the opposite page. Under normal conditions this set should be able to pick up broadcasting stations over a thousand miles away, yet the combined cost is far below that of any other set of this size on the market. TAP SWITCH 30 cents VARIOMETER PARTS $1.50 and $1.75 VARIO-COUPLER PARTS $1.50 VARIO-COUPLER WITH RING and Dial $8.00 RADIO FREQUENCY AMPLIFYING TUNER $4.00 BINDING POSTS No. 1 5 cents No. 2 7 1/4 cents No. 3 10 cents CITIZEN RADIO IS NEW. Few people realize the Manufacturer's problem in building production to take care of hysterical demand of last winter. While the CROSLEY MANUFACTURING COMPANY—an old established manufacturing concern—had been engaged in the production of Radio Apparatus for a year prior to the big rush, it was hard pressed to take care of the demand for its Radio Products. IN SPITE OF THIS FACT, CROSLEY Radio Apparatus has been recognized as the standard of value at moderate cost. And with the aid of an efficient staff of engineers certain additional refinements of details have been effected. CROSLEY RADIO APPARATUS and Radio Parts, with these refinements, are better now than ever. CROSLEY values are even more marked than heretofore, and are truly representative of the manufacturer, actuated by the highest ideals and a sincere desire to give the consumer the best for his money. DEALERS and JOBBERS are requested to write for literature and booklets describing and illustrating our products in detail. With the exception of the CRYSTAL RECEIVER MODEL 1, the above prices do not include head phones. Nor do they include batteries or tubes. Two Beautiful Pieces of Furniture With one stage of radio frequency amplification, audion detector and two stages of audio frequency amplification CROSLEY RECEIVER MODEL XX. The last word in Radio Equipment design. Comprises a combination of the CROSLEY RECEIVER Model X and a highly polished Adam brown mahogany cabinet with loud speaker and receptacle for batteries, charger, etc. Price, $100.00. CROSLEY RECEIVER MODEL XV. Another wonderful combination. The same as CROSLEY RECEIVER MODEL XX with loud speaker but without cabinet for batteries and constructed so that it can be set upon a table. Price, $70.00. CROSLEY HARKO SENIOR MODEL V. A combination tuner and Audion Detector. Will receive broadcasting stations up to one hundred miles. Under favorable conditions a user in Denver has heard Schenectady with this model. Price, $20.00. CROSLEY RECEIVER MODEL VI. This unit has approximately six times the range and volume of the Harko Senior. It consists of one stage of Radio Frequency Amplification and Audion Detector. It eliminates static to a large extent and distant stations are brought in clear and sharply. Price, $35.00. CROSLEY RECEIVER MODEL X. In placing this receiver on the market we are offering you a unit whose range, volume and selectivity is remarkable. Nothing can be compared with it at double the price. Developed in the CROSLEY laboratories, this unit combines one stage of tuned radio frequency amplification, audion detector and two stages of audio frequency amplification. It is the equivalent of CROSLEY RECEIVER MODEL VI and CROSLEY TWO-STAGE AUDIO FREQUENCY AMPLIFIER. Price, $55.00. Above prices are without head phones, batteries or tubes. Attractive discounts to Jobbers and Dealers. Write for our new illustrated Booklets and Catalog just off the press. CROSLEY MANUFACTURING COMPANY DEPT. W. A. 2 CINCINNATI, OHIO VARIABLE CONDENSERS Model A.0008 Mfd. $1.25 Model B.0008 Mfd. 1.75 Model C.001 Mfd. 2.25 SHELTRAN AMPLIFYING TRANSFORMERS $4.00 V-T SOCKET $ .50 RHEOSTAT $.60 MAGFON LOUD SPEAKER $10.00 KNOB AND DIAL $.40 Better Adjustment than any Vernier Rheostat Says Radio Editor Buffalo Eve News Retail Price $1.85 Postage 10c extra The Secret of Bradleystat Control A single knob varies the pressure on the two columns of graphite discs. The change of filament current is so gradual and smooth that no vernier rheostat can duplicate the noiseless Bradleystat. An internal switch protects the A-battery. The Bradleystat brings louder reproduction, quicker tuning, and a greater range. The adjustment is permanent and precise. Remember the one-year guarantee and the twenty years of experience behind the Bradleystat. Write for latest bulletin, today! Allen-Bradley Co. Electric Controlling Apparatus 283 Greenfield Ave., Milwaukee, Wis. Member of the National Radio Chamber of Commerce Bradleystat REGISTERED U.S. PAT. OFF. PERFECT FILAMENT CONTROL Why Gamble on "B" Batteries? You're careful in soldering connections. You spend good money for additional stages of amplification. You give special attention to insulation of aerial and lead-in. If you've gone that far, you simply can't afford to take a chance on having a leaky "B" Battery spoil it all with a bombardment of leakage noises. You can't afford anything less than a leak-proof Willard "B" Battery. Every cell of a Willard "B" Battery is an individual glass jar. Jars are well-spaced to prevent leakage from cell to cell. Threaded Rubber Insulation protects the plates and thus guards against inside leaks. Because of the leakproof feature Willard "B" Batteries are unusually quiet and hold their charge for long periods. Ask your radio dealer or the nearest Willard Service Station to show you the Willard 6-volt Radio "A" Battery and the Willard 24-volt Radio "B" Battery. WILLARD STORAGE BATTERY COMPANY Cleveland, O. Made in Canada by the Willard Storage Battery Company of Canada, Limited, Toronto, Ontario This Fada receiver meets the demand for dependable radio sets within the price range of everyone. Fada prices make it possible for "a radio receiver in every home." $35.00 A Fascinating Recreation—Build Your Own Radio Set That inherent instinct, within us all, to experiment, create and construct, influences many to build their own radio sets. Fada equipment is so designed to give you the greatest possible reward for your creative efforts. All instruments and parts are definitely simple in construction and unusually easy to assemble into neat, dependable radio sets. Anyone, with the aid of the Fada handbook, can assemble Fada parts with greatest ease and assurance. Fada detectors, mounted in cabinets with both one and two stage amplifiers hook up with any set, and increase your receiving range. The addition of Fada amplifiers in no way necessitates any change in your original construction. Fada rheostats, variable condensers, switches, vario-couplers, dials, etc. can be used with other equipment to make even a better radio set. Fada parts, if used exclusively in your assembly work, will give you a finished instrument of good appearance and highly satisfactory. After you once use Fada equipment, you will take great pride in having Fada imprinted on every radio part you use. Frank A. D. Andrea 1581-C JEROME AVE., NEW YORK CITY Now $2.00 Now $.75 $4.00 An Ideal Home Entertainer The Fada radio receiver, a result of the same perfection in design and construction that distinguishes all Fada products, is gaining popularity as an ideal home entertainer. When it's radio time in your home, you can sit back in your favorite chair, among the family circle and command at your fingers' touch, the talent of such noted artists as May Peterson, Percy Grainger, Mme. Margaret Namara, or Lydia Lipkowska—Russian coloratura soprano of the Imperial Opera of Petrograd. You marvel that their voices can come into your home with such depth of emotion and true personality. Music is an inspiration to everyone, it goes to the very soul of things and brings joy and happiness to all. With a Fada radio receiver music can be made part of your daily recreation. And after the musical program there is broadcasted a digest of important world events. You can, with a Fada receiver, literally keep a jump ahead of the headlines in tomorrow's newspapers. The new Fada handbook will be sent to you upon receipt of 5c. to cover postage. It's a How-To-Do-It book and you should have it. Frank A. D. Andrea 1581-C JEROME AVE., NEW YORK CITY The Fada receiver, detector and two stage amplifier represents the highest type of cabinet construction. A fitting instrument for the finest home and instantly responsive to various receiving ranges. $80.00 Interior of Fada Receiver, Detector and Two-stage Amplifier "Let me send you this Fada Handbook." Red Seal Battery Contest Starts Nov. 1st. Closes Nov. 15th All Radio Sets installed FREE in the homes of the winners anywhere in the U. S. A. Cabinet Closed 1st Prize This cabinet type complete Radio Receiving Set is one of the finest and most complete sets on the market. It is entirely new, manufactured by the Colin B. Kennedy Company of Springfield, Mass., who are makers of the finest type of radio receiving sets. The set is built into a cabinet and stands 58 inches high,—a masterpiece of cabinetry and design. The receiving set is regenerative, having an effective range from 375 to 25,000 meters—400 miles or more depending. Contained within the cabinet are all batteries, including a Manhattan Loud Speaker with special horn. Value complete, $725.00. Win this $725.00 Radio Set FREE Only a rich man could buy it but a poor man may win it FREE Simply obtain a free "Red Seal Battery" contest blank between November 1st and November 15th from stores that show the Window Display pictured below. Each contest blank gives full simple instructions to help you write your answer and full rules of the Contest. Red Seal Battery "Finish-the-Sentence" Contest The prizes will be awarded for the most appropriate answers for completing in your own way in not more than ten words, the following sentence: "The Red Seal Dry Battery is best (1) because it is the all-purpose battery and (2) because ........................................" Examples Your answer may be descriptive of the Red Seal Dry Battery or it may describe some use. For example: "It never fails on land, air or sea." Another: "It never starts what it can't finish." Another: "It rings bells and buzzes buzzers." Judges The judges of the Contest are: Mr. Llew Soule, Editor of "Hardware Age," New York; Mr. Howard A. Lewis, Manager of "Electrical Merchandising," New York, and Mr. Joseph A. Richards, President, Joseph Richards Co., Inc., Advertising Agents, New York. Awarding the Prizes Prizes will be awarded to those who conform to the rules of the Contest and whose answers, in the opinion of the judges, are most appropriate. In case two or more persons submit winning answers, prizes identical in character with those offered will be given to each successful contestant. Announcing the Winners As soon as possible after the judges have rendered their decision, the names of the prize winning contestants, will be announced in the Saturday Evening Post. Contest Opens Nov. 1 — Closes Midnight Nov. 15. All answers must be written only on contest blanks supplied by dealers displaying Red Seal Battery Contest window display. Send as many answers as you like to: Red Seal Battery Contest Manhattan Electrical Supply Co., Inc. 17 Park Place New York City, N. Y. MANHATTAN ELECTRICAL SUPPLY CO. INC. NEW YORK Makers of the Famous Red Seal Dry Batteries and Manhattan Head Sets The ideal combination for VT control without the use of jacks or plugs. We are the inventors and sole manufacturers of the famous Klosner Vernier Rheostat Model 100 still being sold for $1.50. Write for interesting literature on the "Amplitrol" and the Klosner Rheostats. Ask for Booklet OB. Klosner Amplitrol The long looked for has at last arrived. The new Klosner "Amplitrol" fills that long felt radio want—that of controlling the vacuum tube circuit without the use of jacks, plugs or any additional switches. A real radio necessity. Each of your amplifier tubes deserves one. No more plugging in from one stage to the next. Simply attach your phones or loud speaker to binding posts and turn on any stage at will. The "Amplitrol" not only adjusts the filament to its maximum efficiency, but it automatically controls the plate circuit at the same time, thus eliminating an extra operation. Unlike an automatic filament control, the "Amplitrol" does not put a sudden strain on your filament. It provides a gradual current increase for the filament, thus prolonging its life. Made of moulded condensite. Contacts of phosphor bronze. Exposed metal parts highly nickel plated. New style tapered knob, and dial correctly numbered in white lettering. Price, $4.00. What the "Amplitrol" is to the amplifying tube, so the Klosner Rheostat is to the detector tube. The new improved Rheostat Model 200 embodies some vast changes and improvements. These are too numerous to list, but your inspection will immediately win your approval. The "Amplitrol" and the new improved Klosner Rheostat are the ideal combination for your vacuum tubes. Klosner Rheostat Model 200, Price, $1.80. The "Amplitrol" and the Rheostat do not employ the Gyrator-Disk principle, but that of wire wound. This feature insures perfect control at all times, making tuning quicker and louder and giving greater range. See them at your dealers or write for literature. Klosner Improved Apparatus Co., 2024 Boston Road, New York City VACUUM tubes are used for two distinct individual purposes in a receiving set—as DETECTORS and as AMPLIFIERS. The qualifications of a tube for these two uses are so different that for maximum efficiency tubes of entirely different design must be used. This point was one of the chief considerations of the research engineers who designed Cunningham tubes in the great laboratories of the General Electric Company. After years of research and experimental work, the Cunningham C-300, a SUPER-SENSITIVE DETECTOR, and the Cunningham C-301, a DISTORTIONLESS AMPLIFIER, were developed. These two tubes, now nationally recognized as standards for all types of receiving sets, are responsible for the highly perfected results obtainable in radio phone reception. Amplifies As It Detects \| TYPE C-300 \| TYPE C-301 \| \|------------\|------------\| \| GAS CONTENT DETECTOR \| HIGH VACUUM AMPLIFIER \| \| $5.00 \| $6.50 \| PATENT NOTICE Cunningham tubes are covered by patents dated 11-7-05, 1-15-07, 2-18-08 and others issued and pending. Licensed only for amateur or experimental uses in radio communication. Any other use will be an infringement. The trade mark GE is the guarantee of thoroughness. Each tube is built to most rigid specifications. Trading as AUDIOTRON MFG. COMPANY 248 First Street San Francisco, Calif. 154 West Lake Street Chicago, Illinois Eveready "A" Batteries —hardwood box, mahogany finish —convenient handle, nickel plated —rubber feet protect the table —insulated top prevents short circuits —packed vent caps prevent spilling No. 6860—90 Amp. Hrs.—45 Lbs.—$18.00 No. 6880—110 Amp. Hrs.—52 Lbs.—$20.00 Eveready "B" Battery No. 766 Equipped with 3 positive voltage taps ranging from 16$\frac{1}{2}$ to 22$\frac{1}{2}$ volts. Fahnestock Spring Clip Binding Posts—an exclusive Eveready feature. Price $3.00 Eveready "B" Battery No. 774 Equipped with 6 positive voltage taps at 4$\frac{1}{2}$ volt intervals, ranging from 18 to 43 volts. Fahnestock Spring Clip Binding Posts—an exclusive Eveready feature. Price $5.00 For Better Results USE EVEREADY "A" and "B" BATTERIES with your radio set For sale by the better radio supply dealers everywhere Send today for descriptive booklets NATIONAL CARBON COMPANY, Inc., Long Island City, N. Y. Atlanta Chicago Cleveland Kansas City San Francisco At Last! The Perfect Radio Loud Speaker for the Home Here is the Radio Loud Speaker you have been waiting for! Here is the Loud Speaker that gives you the world's supreme quality at an amazingly low price. There is no other Loud Speaker like the Dictograph—made expressly for home use by the makers of world-famous Dictograph products—standard everywhere for the finest, most accurate and most sensitive sound-transmission and loud-speaking devices. No other organization in existence has the facilities, the skill, the experience of the Dictograph Products Corporation for producing a perfect Loud Speaker. A beautiful instrument! Finely constructed, richly finished. Its handsome appearance harmonizes with any home. Highly burnished, French lacquered, eleven-inch spun copper bell horn attached to die cast black enamel tone arm, finished with nickel trimmings. Cabinet 6 x 5 inches base, 4 inches high, of solid, ebony-finished hardwood, mounted upon rubber knobs. Furnished complete with 5 ft. flexible cord. No extra batteries required. Price $20 Complete with 5 ft. flexible cord. Dictograph Radio Loud Speaker Years of experience in producing the marvelously sensitive "Acousticon" for the Deaf, the Detective Dictograph and the Dictograph System of Loud-Speaking Telephones have made possible this wonderful Radio Loud Speaker that reproduces every sound—singing, speaking, instrumental music—in crystal-clear, natural tones, full volume, and FREE FROM DISTORTION AND NOISE. The Dictograph Radio Loud Speaker gives perfect results with any vacuum tube receiving set. No alterations; no extra batteries—you simply plug in and listen. And you pay even LESS for Dictograph quality than for an ordinary loud speaker. The tremendous demand of radio enthusiasts, volume production and Dictograph resources have made possible a REDUCTION from the price originally announced. Instead of $25, the price is ONLY $20—complete with 5 ft. flexible silk cord. Ask for a FREE DEMONSTRATION of the Dictograph Radio Loud Speaker at any reliable radio shop. See why radio fans are so enthusiastic about it. Satisfy yourself that here at last is the perfect Loud Speaker for the home. Get Dictograph quality and still save money. The Standard of the World DEALERS Order through your jobber or write for names of authorized distributors Dictograph Head Set The Dictograph Radio Head Set has established a standard of quality impossible to secure in any other product. Its use on any receiving set—crystal, detector or vacuum tube improves reception immeasurably. Be sure you get the Dictograph Radio Head Set—the world's standard of supreme quality for super-sensitive and accurate sound-transmission. 3,000 ohms resistance. Price, $12—the best Head Set in the world at any price. Regularly furnished as Standard Equipment with the leading Receiving Sets made. Dictograph Products Corporation 220 West 42d Street Branches in all principal cities New York City During the summer the Newark "Sunday Call," an exceedingly progressive newspaper, which has done many constructive things for radio, undertook an investigation of broadcasting stations listed by the Department of Commerce. Information was sought as to equipment, personnel, programmes and hours of operation. Reports were obtained from something like 150 of these stations, or approximately half, so the information furnished undoubtedly can be accepted as representative of the entire broadcasting list. From the data secured, it is evident that preconceived notions of broadcasting are due for some upsetting. It has been definitely established, for instance, that one-third of the broadcasting stations seeking to entertain the public throughout the country are endeavoring to do this with sets of a power of 10 watts, or less! Sixty per cent. use 100 watts or less. Only 9 out of the 150 reported power of 500 watts or more, which has recently been officially recognized as the standard power output of a well-conducted broadcasting station. In many cases the station reported it had no fixed hours of operation, and no programme beyond "canned" music. In a large number of cases the operator was also the announcer and the "feature director." Two points thus stand out for reflection. One, the inadequacy of personnel and organization to present features to the enormous audiences radio assembles. Second, that in the matter of power the greater proportion of broadcasting stations are inferior to the general run of amateur stations, yet these were prohibited by the Department of Commerce from broadcasting entertainment in favor of the 360-meter stations. There are many amateur stations throughout the country equipped with 200-watt transmitters, a large number of them use 100-watt transmitters, and an untold number—probably a thousand or more—use sets whose power output ranges anywhere from 20 to 50 watts. It is clear that a large percentage of so-called broadcasting stations, operating under the limited commercial station license, are really using only a fraction of the amount of power allowed amateur stations, and in a large number of cases are actually using less power than the amateurs themselves. In issuing licenses for broadcasting stations previously, the Department of Commerce has apparently gone on the theory of equality, one applicant as good as the next, so long as the radio laws were complied with. As a general rule all applications for licenses for broadcasting were granted. So that today we have over 500 broadcasting stations in constant operation, with more or less resultant interference between them, with time allocation schedules in effect in many places, the ether pretty well loaded with all kinds and qualities of speech and music—and the end is not yet in sight! One hopeful indication of clearer insight into the problem of giving intelligent broadcast service to the public, however, appears in the step taken by the Department of Commerce in the creation of a new class of broadcasting stations, to be known as "Class B." A wave-length of 400 meters has been assigned to all in this classification, entry into which calls for compliance with a set of specifications. These specifications require, among other things, 500 to 1,000 watts power output, with dependable, non-fluctuating power; special modulation; a non-resonant studio and a supervised programme. The use of phonographs or self-playing pianos is to be permitted only in an emergency or during an intermission in the programme. It is further provided that when two or more stations in a given locality qualify for the new classification and each is contending for priority over the other, the matter will be put up to the listeners, and the Department of Commerce will recognize their opinion and give priority to the station most desired by the listening public. In creating the new classification for broadcasting stations the Department of Commerce has taken a big step toward clearing up what had become an impossible situation. It is a certainty that the new arrangement is one which will receive the hearty endorsement and full co-operation of the radio industry and the public. Wholesome regard, not unmixed with awe, characterized the first showing of the 250-watt tube, generally known as the "P" type, when it was developed, a few years ago. Only a few persons understood its uses and possibilities, and they held it in such reverence that even burnt-out or inoperative tubes of the "P" type were preserved as prize specimens, to be exhibited pridefully and dilated upon whenever occasion offered. Soon afterward a tube employing 15,000 volts on the plate, with an output of 20 K.W., was developed. And now the radio world has been startled and amazed by the announcement of the development of a tube with an output capacity of 100 K.W.! Kenotron-rectified alternating current is used on the plates of all these power tubes of large capacity and their output is evidently subject only to the limitations of the kenotron rectifier tubes, which have not been developed to handle voltages much in excess of 20,000 volts. When the kenotron has been developed to handle higher voltages it seems reasonable to suppose that power tubes of 200, 300, or perhaps 500 K.W. will follow, with the result that the trans-oceanic transmitting stations of the future will consist of a couple of tubes, a transformer and a loop antenna with the directional properties so clearly demonstrated by Senatore Marconi on his recent visit to America. There's a vision for those given to speculation about the course of future radio progress! —The Editor. PROGRESS, says Aileen Stanley, vaudeville star, is like a big, massive moving Juggernaut—and Radio represents Progress. Her interview is on page 29. She makes many interesting observations. AMELIA BINGHAM, one of America's most noted actresses, regards the coming of Radio as particularly significant. On page 32 she comes deeply serious about Radio and makes comments all should read. HOW good is "perfect?" And is there such a thing as "perfect transmission of music over the radio telephone?" Gustave Langenus, an accomplished clarinet player, has something to say about these subjects on page 37 of this issue. WHY radio will have a real effect on the children's day, is told on page 31, in an interview with Ida Geer, recital artist. Miss Weller's motto is "Be Yourself." She is concerned with the welfare of e Views Showing Radio's Part in the National Life A broadcasting station is a necessary part of the equipment of the new $5,000,000 Eastman theater owned and operated by the Rochester University, Rochester, N. Y. Rain or shine, J. B. Taylor, consulting engineer of the General Electric Company, will make this radio umbrella serve a double use at the Mohawk Golf Club, located near Schenectady. The modern radio touch has been added to this famous New York City window display—to illustrate how farmers everywhere receive daily market reports by wireless telephone. Richard E. Williams (second from left) and Miss Valorin Driggers (standing next to him) will tell the world theirs was the first radio wedding. It took place in Tampa, Fla., on a palm-bedecked auto. Experimenting with the teletype, the most recent addition to the Navy Department. It's a wireless typewriter that transmits the written word through the air by punching a key and sending the dots and dashes. Giving Information by Radio to a Listening World Officers aboard the "Empress of France" at Quebec are in touch with the world. In Washington, D.C., Clifford Grant, detective chief, transmits a daily list of stolen autos to get co-operation from nearby towns. Beth Weber, Chicago, discovered a radio way to play chess with her chum, Miss Rosalind Kendall (above), of New York. Rosalind uses a Jersey City transmitting station to talk back to her friend. Miss Nellie Stevens is helping the New York Police work out a plan to send fingerprints and photos by radio. She's an artist and experienced in visualization. "Little Drops of Water, Little Grains of Sand—" The dance on the sands has become common to all beaches. It's made possible with radio music, as the photo shows. Miss Daisy Crossley tried out her "wireless buoy" at the beach. She says she obtained results, and that's quite enough for us. William Nigey went fishing on the Belgrade Lakes in Maine and added the "modern touch" to pass the hours when the fish were sleeping. Radio's Mystery Always Will Appeal to Children When both children wanted to listen to the bedtime story, C. D. Wagoner, of the General Electric Co., removed the headband and gave each youngster a phone to hear with. The nine-months-old son of Mr. and Mrs. LeRoy Allain, Cincinnati, surely looks as though he's listening to the angels through the family's set. Even Tom Thumb, the baby elephant of Seattle, tried to tune in and catch the latest music and news. Surrounded by Seattle kiddies Tom performs, using his trunk to manipulate the knobs. We can't read his expression and thus don't guarantee that Tom recognized anything he heard. They say he was listening to the call of his mother—perhaps. Radio Makes Better Citizens Mrs. Smith-Brown says: "Politics is—or should I say 'are' tee tee hee—just too stupid for anything. One paper says its candidate ought to be elected, and another says the same thing about another man. I just can't read about politics at all." How is Mrs. Smith-Brown—there are millions of women like her—to know what the real political issues are? How is her husband (millions are like him, too) to get his information, upon which the family's votes can be cast intelligently? Just as they always have secured most of their information and formed most of their opinions—by word of mouth. Nothing can replace the spoken word, the personal appeal. That is why President Wilson, campaigning for the League of Nations, made his tour of the country addressing enormous audiences. If he had had the radio telephone at his service, he could have spoken to the majority of the voters, at no more effort than that required to talk into a telephone at the White House. He would have been spared the effort that brought on his physical collapse. Equally, Senators Lodge and Borah and other Republicans opposed to the League, could have delivered their words directly into the ears of the same country-wide audience. And instead of partisan prejudice, as imperfectly reflected in the newspapers, the citizens, men and women, would have had the facts and opinions of each side direct from the mouths of the leaders. No vital issue can be decided fairly in this country henceforth without the use of the radio telephone. Radio can carry into the home nothing more important than the truth about those vital issues to decide which is to determine the course of this greatest of countries. It has been claimed that Rome fell because her empire grew beyond reach of Roman methods of communication. It was too big for politicians to weld together by speeches, and there were no newspapers, because printing had not been invented and few people could read, anyway. There was no radio. If the radio telephone had existed in A.D. 200, perhaps we would all be Roman citizens today! Instead, we are American citizens. The loss is Rome's and the gain ours. Ours is the radio telephone, and ours the better citizenship that it makes possible. Radio Penetrates Prison Walls Sing Sing Chapel Now Equipped for Wireless Telephone Reception—Prisoners Show Enthusiasm—May Be Installed in Prison School By Maurice Henle "STONE walls do not a prison make Nor iron bars a cage——" These lines ran through my mind as I walked down the road beside the gray walls of Sing Sing prison, on my way back to the little railroad station at Ossining, New York. I had just paid a visit to the famous penitentiary in order to ascertain what part, if any, the radio telephone was playing in modern prison life, and what its relation would be to such life in the future. The prison itself, including its immense yard with its tennis courts, baseball field with grand stands, and walks, occupies approximately three acres of ground. It is well situated between the New York Central Railroad tracks and the Hudson River. So close is the river that were an inmate to scale the western wall he would almost drop into the water itself. On each of the four corners of the wall that surrounds the entire structure and grounds, there is a tower, and in each of these towers during every hour of the day and night sits a sharp-eyed sentinel with a rifle. Attached to the prison itself on the extreme southern end, is the home of the warden, General Lewis E. Lawes, and the lawn in front of his house is covered with a beautiful carpet of grass and flowers. The whole aspect as seen from the outside seems to be utterly peaceful and only the iron bars of the grim prison buildings show that here is a place where society confines its outcasts. Radio Ignores Man's Law It is a world apart, a world within a world, a world that watches every move of its residents, who, from the time of their admittance until they are discharged, are completely cut off from their fellow men with the slight exception of infrequent visits from relatives. But the laws of nature recognize no man-made barriers and prison bars do not stop the messages sent through the air by the radio telephone. Music, speeches, and all the entertainment that is being enjoyed by hundreds of thousands of free citizens penetrate the prison walls just as easily as they enter the homes of law-abiding people. Radio re-establishes the contact between society and the prison. Only within the past few weeks has the radio telephone made its bow in Sing Sing. A splendid set with radio and audio frequency amplification and a Western Electric loud speaker has been installed in the chapel of the prison, the immense room that seats at one time the entire prison population of 1,200 men. Warden Lawes said that as yet radio activity in the prison is largely in the nature of an experiment. "What the future will hold," Warden Lawes explained, "is difficult to predict. The radio telephone cannot be an instrument for anything but good and for that reason, if no other, every effort will be made to find its permanent place in prison life." "I believe," he added, "its greatest value will lie along mass educational lines. The men hearing addresses made by prominent persons in many different parts of the country will gain valuable instruction. The music that is broadcast is of the better type and it, too, will enable the men to form a new viewpoint. "After all, it is a human problem with which we are dealing. Prisoners are no different from other men, essentially. They have broken laws, that is all, and it is society's duty not only to punish by locking them away, but at the same time to prepare them during their incarceration for their return to the normal world. If the man lacks a knowledge of the better things of life, then it is society's duty to educate him to know and desire them." The Sing Sing apparatus was installed shortly before the broadcasting of the Benny Leonard-Lew Tendler championship boxing exhibition in New Jersey, and although this was merely a coincidence, Warden Lawes eagerly seized upon the incident as a striking means of introducing radio to the prisoners. Prisoners "Sold" to Idea He utilized the boxing exhibition for many reasons. Primarily the radio telephone will be used, as he explained, for mass education. But he knew that only a small percentage of the men understood even the fundamentals of radio, or for that matter, had ever heard anything transmitted through the air. Here, then, was an opportunity of "selling" radio to the men, and selling it in such a thorough way that later on, when the sermons, music, and addresses came through the men would be eager to listen. The broadcast boxing match, therefore, served not only as a prison recreation, but as an impressive introduction of radio to the prisoners, most of whom had been previously ignorant of the latest contribution of electrical science to modern life. "Of course," concluded the warden, "when I say that in my opinion the radio telephone will benefit the prison primarily along mass educational lines, I do not mean to infer that this is the only use to which it may be put. For instance, I plan to give occasional radio concerts in the Death House, where the condemned prisoners await electrocution. Also within the prison we have a school, and how the radio telephone will find a place there may just as well be outlined to you by Mr. Henzel, who is the civilian in charge of that school." Without question, the most important phase of Sing Sing's corrective work is the prison school. When a man is committed, officials soon find out exactly how much he knows. Many times a lack of proper education, or of any education at all, was responsible for the faulty step he took. As Mr. Henzel, who is a very young man, said: "It is believed that men who have pursued the course of instruction in Sing Sing faithfully will be in a position to sense some of the finer things of life. "Possibly a few who were slaves of ignorance and impulse may become seekers after the light, and finally masters of their fate. Such is the aim of all true education, and, in the final analysis, the sole function of the prison school." Mr. Henzel was interested, to say the least, in the subject of radio and its application to the school. He was, in fact, hungry after information, and the interviewer for The Wireless Age soon found himself in the role of the one being interviewed. At any rate it was a liberal exchange of views. There are six "standards" in the school. A "standard" corresponds to the class year of an ordinary school, with the exception that it is but sixteen weeks in length. A permanent record is kept of the student's progress. The syllabus of the first four standards is designed for an intensive course in practical English as distinguished from academic or cultural English. It aims to teach the fundamentals of speaking, reading and writing the language, so as to satisfy the student's immediate pressing daily needs. To be able to communicate his thoughts in understandable English speech, to be able to write a simple and clear letter, to be able to read signs and the daily newspapers—these are what the foreigner usually hopes to accomplish on coming to America. The prison school often gives him his first training in English. In addition, a graduate of standard "four" should be versed in solving the ordinary arithmetical problems of buying and selling. In the last two standards, five and six, the syllabus introduces subjects of a broader interest and appeal. Here the aim is formative. The creation and development of new and broader needs is sought. The student is taught the fundamentals of formal grammar, and he is given some notion of how the machinery of government works. In his reading he comes in contact with the lives of great Americans and traces the growth of this country through various stages of development. He begins to sense the meaning of the world about him. In the last standard he "meets" well known authors, and for the first time takes note of literary expression. By this time he has also mastered fractions so that at the completion of this standard a student can take his place with the average man with an elementary school education. This, in brief, sums up the work of the prison school. Of course, the work is only for those who lack such instruction. If an educated prisoner is brought in, he is not sent through this course. Other duties are found for him; he teaches a class room, for instance; or does clerical work; or works in the print shop. Mr. Henzel agreed with Warden Lawes that the place for the radio telephone at the beginning was in the chapel. But he also sees a place for it in the class room. "An educator in Chicago, or in Schenectady, or elsewhere, may be giving a lecture of particular interest to students in standard six. Why not be able to tune in," asks Mr. Henzel, "and give the prisoner-students the benefit of this supplementary work?" "Many of them now take extension courses from Columbia University by mail." Mr. Henzel also appreciates the value of good music as an educator. Music, he said, often awakens a longing for the better things of life. "And music," he added, "appears to be the meat of the broadcast programs just now." In the chapel of Sing Sing, which now hears radio music, all the prisoners gather periodically. Here they receive their spiritual messages from ministers of the various faiths. Here. (Continued on page 42) "Being a singer for the phonograph, I naturally wondered what effect my broadcasting would have on record sales. But it did not take long to discover that my radio work increased interest in my phonograph singing." An Interview with Aileen Stanley By Edwin Hall "The radio telephone means Progress—and please capitalize that last word!" When Aileen Stanley, vaudeville headliner, requests anything, it usually is a command, and so we hasten to instruct the printer to make it a capital "P." A performer's ability to say or sing anything so that you just naturally swing into the tempo of it along with her, is called in stage parlance "putting it across." Therein lies the Great Divide between the two classifications of vaudeville artists. Either they can "put it across" or they "don't go over." And if they don't, you never hear of them, and if they do you do, and that's why you have heard and you hear of Aileen! And just as Aileen's songs go over on the big time vaudeville stage, so do they go over on the phonograph and the radio telephone. She sang first from the old WDY station at Roselle Park—that station whose triumphs still linger in the memories of those who followed radio broadcasting during its early introduction in the East. Progress she believes, is like a Juggernaut, massive, irresistible, ever-moving, non-stop. Everything that contributes toward the good of mankind has a niche in the Juggernaut of Progress. And the innumerable parts make the whole. It is the old story of little drops of water and little grains of sand. Her theories came without hesitation. I asked her to tell me more of her ideas of how radio fits in with the scheme of Progress. "What I mean is, that nothing can stop the onward march of radio," she replied, "that is, for long. And so instead of opposition or obstruction, such as every great invention has met, it would seem that the weight of constructive work and suggestion from the public and from professional people, meaning entertainers, should be pitted strongly against any pessimistic onslaughts, so that those obstacles would be wiped away quickly. "It has been said by some near-visioned people—or perhaps non-vision is what I mean—that the theatrical and music publishing businesses have suffered since the advent of radio. My own experience led me to doubt it. Even if it may be true in one or two instances, as in the case of other great inventions, those who suffer temporarily at the start are the ones who later profit—unless they allow their own prejudices to blind them. "As an example, look at the phonograph industry. In the initial stages, it was fought by the theatrical interests, who thought that if a person were able to get an artist's record he would not come to the theater and see the entertainer in person. Did that prove true? Does a cow give butter-milk? Caruso earned more on the stage after recording his voice than he did before he sang for the records, and needless to say his records were worth a mint, and still are, of course. Increased Record Sales "Being a vaudevillian and phonograph artist, I naturally thought while broadcasting just what effect it would have on my record sales, and my value to the stage. But it did not take long to find out for in almost every letter I received by the radio public, the writer asked about by new records, and also spoke of desiring to see me in person when I played in his or her city, and in many instances people have come from small towns to nearby cities where I was playing, attracted by having heard me over the radio telephone. "The fact that they came to the theater after hearing me by radio shows that although wonderful concerts can, are, and will be given over the wireless, still that one greatest asset—the artist's personality or magnetism—is really not as forceful as it is on the stage itself, and instead of being satisfied with hearing the act through the air, it creates a desire in both the actor and the layman to meet each other in person. "The layman comes to the theater, is captured by the artist's personality and held by his magnetism; the artist gets his inspiration from the upturned faces and is rewarded by their applause. "That is what I mean, when I say that instead of hurting anything that is here now, radio is bound to help. Eventually radio, music and stage will work in close harmony for the benefit and betterment of the only ones who count—the public." Aileen Stanley started out in the show business with her brother; the two being known as "child workers." At the start of the war, when the brother left for the army, Aileen attempted the "boards" alone, doing a "single" until now she has built up an enviable record, and is liked immensely by the public. And as a post-script we might add that she has won a bathing beauty contest in Chicago, and is an enthusiastic airplane "fan," being one of the first theatrical stars to make flights. Dad Answers When He's Asked It Was a Struggle Until the Radio Show and the Wireless Magazines Brought Father Up-to-Date By E. F. Lake The Son brought home a galena receiving set one Saturday, put up an aerial and tuned in on a musical program that was being broadcast that evening. The first Detroit Radio Show was to start on the following Thursday and the papers were touting it to a fare-you-well. Son was up-to-date, you see. With the arrival of the crystal set, Son treated Dad to more strange words than he had ever heard. Such words as antenna, condenser, amplifier, crystal detector, variometer, vacuum tube, frequencies, fading, etc., etc., came into constant use. Dad knew what fading was in a pitched ball, because he had batted against such balls but seldom connected; also what interference meant in a foot ball game; further, Dad has been "undamped" since Volstead's reign. But the queerest of all was to call an electric lamp or globe, a vacuum tube. When Son began to speak this strange language, Dad talked it too, but soon he saw he was exposing his ignorance before the family. That would never do. Therefore, he ceased until he could sneak into the library and study the dictionary and the encyclopedia. These did not seem to untwist the tangle and Dad then went to the Radio Show. This event was a grand success, judging from the crowds, the way they were seeking for information, and the interest in the exhibits and lectures. Not idle curiosity, but very live interest, had drawn the multitude. There was much ignorance like Dad's, and everyone was seeking knowledge. It was like the first automobile show that Dad saw. In spite of its ignorance, the crowd seemed above the average in intelligence and asked all kinds of questions, for they came for the purpose of learning. Detroit had awakened very suddenly to the possibilities of radio. Dad's work as a metallurgical engineer takes him all over Detroit and as late as last January he does not remember hearing anyone mention radio. Today it is talked about on every street corner and in every home. Those with just a little knowledge are called "experts"—which flattery may inspire some of them to become really expert. Some things at the show appeared funny to Dad. For instance, the first lecture he attended was entitled "Radio on the Farm." The young college professor who delivered this lecture started by saying that he had never been a mile out of a city and that he would not know a farmer if he saw one. He was well-informed on radio, however, and his lecture was very good, even though the farm part had to be a blank. The most humorous part of the average radio show is the way some booth-tenders glibly answer questions on subjects they know nothing about. Usually their answers are so apparently wrong no one pays much attention to them and they do not confuse the interrogator as much as they might. "I don't know" seems to be the hardest thing for a man to say and when he is placed on public view in a demonstrating booth it seems impossible for him to utter those frank if fatal words. First-time shows gather together more men of this type than do exhibitions of older things as more has been proved and standardized by the older industries and their knowledge is more positive. One demonstrator told Dad that a single wire 150 feet long made the best aerial; others said two wires, three wires and even four wires were the best if not less than three feet apart. This confusion seems foolish, for obviously the best type can be found experimentally, by erecting the several different kinds of aerials and switching a standard receiving set from one to the other. Outside aerials; aerials in the garret, or under the ceiling of a room; in phonograph bases, and even no aerials at all confuse the amateur, when this cheapest and simplest part of the radio set for home use could be standardized once for all. Fortunately, there were a few real radio engineers at the show, men who gave all the information needed by the crowd. They also seemed glad of the opportunity to answer all the foolish questions and to put men like Dad on the right path. Radio seems to be based on so much of the unknown that foolish questions will have to be answered intelligently for a long time to come. Engineers and professors must be only students for a long time if radio does in the future all it now promises. "I don't know" is the answer that shows the most intelligence when such is the case, for it will not confuse the beginner nor start him on the wrong road. The beginner of today becomes the engineer, professor and expert of tomorrow in things of this kind. The knowledge gained at the show enabled Dad to grasp the fundamental principles on which radio is based. He came home with a vacuum tube set to beat Son's galena set. He had made great progress in the six days following Son's purchase. Now radio magazines are coming to the house regularly, and another week may bring greater outfits, though Dad's ratio of increase, from a 25-mile galena set to a 500-mile vacuum tube set, can't be kept up for long. It would mean that if Son kept up this ratio, Dad would have only another week to jump to a 10,000 mile set. The vacuum tube set plus the technicalities he learned at the show restored Dad's prestige at home. Now, however, that the radio magazines are arriving, it is nip and tuck between Dad and Son—the one who gets the latest copy first has a big advantage over the other. Dad insists to himself that he is not going to be beaten, and is thinking of sending in duplicate subscriptions, the extra copies to come to his office. Mother has aroused great respect in the family by announcing that the wire frame in her hat is a perfectly good antenna, and that if any one wants to talk through her hat they can do so. "Consider the boy and girl of today. They get all this wonderful information and entertainment through the air. The world is smaller. Radio will have a marked effect on the people of tomorrow." An Interview With Ida Geer Weller By Claire Burquo The motto explained it. A plain, but neatly decorative and polished board hung from one wall in the cozy apartment of Ida Geer Weller on Riverside Drive, New York City. On it were imprinted but two words: "Be Yourself." "It was Elbert Hubbard's," the mezzo-contralto said simply, "and it is mine." It certainly is. In one of the breeziest interviews it has been my privilege to have, Miss Weller unburdened a varied collection of thoughts about the radio telephone—a host of impressions and opinions that had been storing up since she visited WJZ to sing to the radio audience some months ago. "I believe radio will have a marked effect on the people of tomorrow—the children of today," she said. "You recollect how skilful the American Indians were in living through their practical knowledge of nature's secrets. The Indian could tell time by the sun. He knew when it was going to rain merely by observing the sky. He could hunt his own game, and manufacture his own fire. He knew countless other things, necessary for him to know if he were to exist. "And what has our civilization—valuable as it is—done to us? Well, in the first place we made the watch and lost the art of reading the sun's time. Do we look at the sky to find out if we are going to have clear weather tomorrow? We do not. We read the newspapers. I speak of the masses. And about our food. Do we know how to track it or do we buy it from the butcher? And our fire we get merely by striking a match. "Now get this,—I don't mean to say we have not progressed. But I do feel that by acquiring our civilization we lost valuable knowledge which it was not necessary for us to lose in acquiring our modern knowledge. "And radio. How will it play its part in bringing back to us the lost gifts? Consider the boys and girls of today. Particularly those in rural, isolated communities. "They get all this wonderful information and entertainment through the air. The world is smaller. They are asking questions about the things they hear. They are learning. And especially are they learning about nature's wonderful gifts—because of their realization that the voice and the music is coming to them absolutely without the aid of material means." The conversation—it was a free exchange of opinion rather than the usual question and answer interview—drifted into the possibility of rediscovering the "radio brain," which Madame Olga Petrova discussed in these columns several months ago. Miss Weller, too, believes it is highly probable that the radio brain will come with the future. "It is all in the air," she said, "the only fault lies with our ears. They cannot hear, because of their construction. That may change. Who can say it will not, and not put himself down as a modern bigot?" And finally the thought turned to Miss Weller's sphere—singing. Right here it is well to digress and to give the reader an interesting tale about her, which the writer learned from a childhood friend. One day in a little town near Smoketown-on-the-Pennsylvania the wind lifted the roof off a house, and when the frightened mother and father ran upstairs to rescue their little one, they found her crowing with delight and swallowing the raindrops as they fell from the sky. An old superstition commands that drinking raindrops shall give a child a wonderful voice. The baby about whom we speak was Ida Geer Weller, of course, and that the ancient superstition in her case was borne out by fact is attested by thousands who yearly pay good American dollars to attend her recitals. She started to sing at six years of age, and the musical training that followed included courses in dramatic work as well as study under the best voice trainers our country produces. The singer comes from Revolutionary stock and prides herself upon being an American-trained singer of American blood. But—we have been drifting. "There is no question but that the future will develop broadcasting to a height of which we now have absolutely no conception," she was saying. "I mean that it will grow into something vastly different in form than the present mode of broadcasting. "The voice transmits perfectly over the radio-telephone. So that there remains but for those who guide the destinies of this new and powerful agency, to give the people the things they will get pleasure from hearing." When Mrs. Weller broadcast she did her best—successfully—in carrying out these ideas of her own. The audience will still remember the evening, by producing its collective memory a bit. It was on the occasion of the last concert given from WJZ's old studio, and was marked by a moment of excitement, unknown to the audience at the time. Miss Weller had finished singing, and a photographer was preparing to snap the picture you see reproduced in the art photograph section at the front of this issue. He set off his flashlight—and poof! —the draperies of the studio caught fire. Fortunately no casualties resulted, but friends of the singer to this day jokingly insist that her voice is "flamingly good." "You know, ingratitude is the very worst of all the sins." Amelia Bingham, one of the most talented actresses the American stage has produced, was talking. Her emphasis left no room for doubt as to the wisdom of her words. We were chatting in the quiet of her Riverside Drive home. If you ever have visited the Big City you will remember the house. Rubberneck wagon criers point it out. It is situated on the Drive between 82nd and 83rd streets, and may be easily distinguished by the statuary before it. The room in which we held our conversation was on the second floor at the front. Outside, motors were humming past. Across the way we could see a nurse girl taking her charge for a walk. It was a drowsy mid-afternoon scene, typical of the wealthier sections of the metropolis. Within was a room that fascinated the visitor. Age-old curios and heirlooms met the eye everywhere. Costly draperies hung gracefully. The rich, full tones of Amelia Bingham's voice completed the charm of the quiet chamber. Only a few weeks before, the actress had spoken from WJZ. She talked of patriotism, and how all should appreciate our country. All those who listened know how eagerly she talked, how firmly she grasped the opportunity that had been given her. And that was the theme of her first words when we met—the opportunity of radio. Beyond even radio's power as an entertainer, is its mission as an instructor and educator, she believes. It surpasses the printed word in this regard. "I have only just returned from a trip that took me into many small towns in Ohio and neighboring states," she began. "It amazed me to discover the grip that the radio telephone now has on the people throughout the country. It exceeds in importance every other agency that makes a claim to educate. "In days past these people could only be reached in a limited way. They read the papers—but they read only what they wanted to. If a man were interested only in sports, he would not read international news. If the drama held his attention, what chance had questions of labor? "I have found in my years of travel that people read only what they want to read. Unfortunately, we must admit that one's eyes are closed to subjects in which one is not interested. The laboring man can think of nothing but his problems. He is not interested in the terrible burdens of capital. He gets his pay each Saturday night and has practically no worries. And yet, despite the self-evident truth that it is the owner who depends entirely upon the profits of his business for a living who must worry about meeting his payroll, the laboring man, the salaried man, is bitterly prejudiced against him. "That is the thing I have feared—the widening breach between the two groups, employers and employees. "There is only one way to close this breach—to make the man in the street appreciate the real problems that confront the country and bring home to him that the safety of his land is dependent upon his understanding and co-operation. And that is education. He must be told. If the newspapers cannot force him to read, if the lecture platform cannot compel him to listen, then our hope must rest with the wonderful new agency—radio. "It really was uncanny for people to tell me when I was traveling that they heard me speak from Newark. Folks who lived in little out of the way places that I would not ordinarily visit in a lifetime were to all intents in the same room with me when I spoke by radio. "Here then is the way to reach them. In that audience were probably 200,000 people. It would have taken me three years of constant traveling to make myself heard by those people. And it was accomplished in fifteen minutes of a single evening. "I fear for a country in which the people do not appreciate its wonderful opportunities." And then she repeated—said the words that appear at the beginning. "You know, ingratitude is the very worst of all the sins. "It is radio's mission to prevent the possibility of such ingratitude by educating the people. Only radio can reach them," she repeated. "And what, to be specific," I asked, "do you mean by ingratitude of some of the people?" She thought a moment, and then went on: "I remember once going down on the crowded East Side of New York. I was asked to talk to a group of people whom I suspected of being disgruntled with society. They had no money. They were dissatisfied with their condition. I feared that I would not have a sympathetic audience. These people, you know, resent the words of those who, in their belief, are filled to overflowing with the material comforts of this life. They scowl when someone from Riverside Drive comes down among them. They resent their very existence. And in fact, they are the timber under which the red fires of the radical agitators are built. "This was the type of audience before which I appeared. "I could sense a feeling of not being welcome, even as I started to talk. "Well, at any rate, I spoke to them in a way that they did not believe I would. I did not try to antagonize them. I merely tried to make them know things that were never told them before. "You resent the gardens of the (Continued on page 42) Play Ball! Radio at the Bat!! Last year, radio for the first time entered the field of reporting the World's Series and again this year with the aid of broadcasting, baseball games are to be played in all the million or more of homes in all parts of the country that are happy in the possession of radio receiving sets. At the moment that this issue goes to press, preparations are being made for broadcasting the World's Series games play by play, incident by incident. Many of the details still remain to be worked out, but this much is certain: the Series will be broadcast. The General Electric Co., whose broadcasting station WGY at Schenectady, N. Y., has been heard in many points in the United States and Canada, is getting set for the big games. Other large broadcasting stations likewise will transmit the descriptions of the games, including WJZ at Newark, KDKA at Pittsburgh, and KYW at Chicago. By radio every section of the country will be enabled to learn of every play only a second or two after it is made. In those cases where it is possible, the voice of the observer at the ball park will be put directly on the air; in this respect some remarkable accomplishments in broadcasting of long-distance telephone messages may be possible. Where conditions make it impossible to put the voice of the reporter directly on the air, an operator in the radio station will relay his words. By radio the folks at home will be as well informed as will the crowds at the field, or the masses in front of the hundreds of animated score boards. Each home table can have its own radio player board—the one shown on this page, on which each play can be made as it is reported. This board can be used for the whole series if a separate box score is kept, or it may be used once, filling in the boxes shown below the diamond, and drawing another diagram like it each day. In each of the squares at the sides write the name and position of a player, then cut these squares apart, also cut out the baseballs. For convenience in handling, these may be pasted on cardboard. When the first man is announced at the bat, place the square bearing his name on the home plate. If he makes a hit and is safe at first, move him there and mark the hit under the "H" in the box score. If one strike is called, place one of the baseballs over the first square under "Strikes." If a ball is called next, put a baseball in the first square under "Balls." Similarly, when one is out, place a ball in the first square under "Outs." If you want, you can use a baseball to represent the ball in play, moving it from the home plate to whatever part of the field it may be hit, just as is done in the complicated mechanical boards. Play Ball! Broadcasting Station in Rio de Janeiro EASILY the most striking location for a broadcasting station in the Western Hemisphere is on the summit of Mount Corcovado, overlooking the colorful city of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Press reports from that city bear the information that the radiophone craze has at last struck the Brazilian Capital, and its music loving inhabitants are to be entertained by concerts, news reports and lectures by this newest addition to the broadcasting stations of the world. Whatever distinction the station on Mount Corcovado will eventually acquire, it has already the honor of being the first radio broadcasting station in all Brazil, although not in South America. As yet little is known in the United States of the station as it now stands, but those who have lived in Rio and have taken the trip to the summit of Corcovado believe that it is not exactly a suitable place for a broadcasting station. There is apt to be a great deal of difficulty in finding a good ground for the instruments; for the mountain on which the station is said to be placed, is solid granite from base to peak, and a ground embedded in rock is not exactly efficient. The builders of the station in order to overcome this unfavorable feature probably will have to erect a counterpoise. Then it is a difficult and inconvenient task to get to the top of Corcovado. Every hour a Swiss Electric Mountain Climber leaves the base of the mountain, and laboriously climbs the cog railway to the summit. The ascent takes forty minutes. Upon arrival at the head of the railway, there is an arduous climb of some three hundred steps before the actual summit is reached, and once there, the climbers are exposed to whatever winds or rains that prevail. If musicians and singers are to go there to perform, this condition is unfortunate, to say the least. Travelers hope that the station has been erected in Corcovado Hotel, which is on the side of the mountain, two-thirds of the way up, and accessible by street cars from the center of the city. Corcovado Hotel is 1460 meters above sea level, has a possible ground in the deep chasm over which it is built, and can tender some semblance of comfort and entertainment to the operators and performers. If, however, the station is on the summit, as the reports indicate, then it must be assumed that it is one of the show places of the Brazilian Centennial Exposition, and its builders are not taking its permanency into consideration. This station is not the first that has been operated in South America. More than a year ago, in August, 1921, the Teatro Coliseo, an opera house in Buenos Aires, installed a radiophone outfit, and broadcast its nightly performances for the entertainment of its small and select radio audience. Perhaps the Conseo may claim the distinction of being the first theatre to broadcast opera. It was mostly advertising, mixed with a creditable amount of enterprise, that prompted the venture, for at that time, radio work in the Argentine was of negligible proportions. The foreign ships in the harbor enjoyed the music more than the natives in their homes. Even now, radio has gained such a small start that it has not yet been the subject of official "verbotsen." The tariff on radio instruments is twenty-five per cent. of the total value, which sends prices soaring to almost double what we pay here, when the profits of all dealers are considered. Amateurs who might make their own sets are handicapped because there are no instruction books written in Spanish and no radio magazines. Under these difficulties, the radio situation in South America will be slow in improving. Britain Solving Problem "Great Britain will solve the interference problem in radiophone broadcasting by government control and regulation," according to A. P. M. Fleming, C. B. E., manager of the research and educational department of the Metropolitan - Vickers Electrical Company, Manchester, England. Mr. Fleming represented England at the international convention of the Institute of Electrical Engineers and the International Electro-Technical commission at Niagara Falls. "We have learned many valuable lessons from the broadcasting experience of the United States," said Mr. Fleming. "One of the things we have learned is to avoid the establishment of innumerable radio stations, with no plan of cooperation between them. Eight 1½ kw. stations are contemplated for England and some of these will probably be built this year." Radio Slow in Germany In Germany radio transmitters and receivers both are required to be licensed by the government, and receiving sets are assessed a monthly fee ranging from 1,000 marks to 7,500. Hence amateur radio in Germany is practically non-existent. The German Post Office Department keeps close control of the radio situation, both as to telephone and telegraph, and has made it so difficult and expensive for private individuals to enjoy the advantages of wireless that only the wealthy can afford to do so. Symphony Concerts on the Air Philharmonic Orchestra of New York is Heard over WJZ—Feat Marks New Era in Classical Music Field By St. John Martens NAPOLÉON never "came, saw and conquered" more completely than did the successful efforts to broadcast the closing concerts of the New York Philharmonic Orchestra last August. In years to come this feat will seem tame indeed. Others will follow that will rob it of its glory. They will be bigger and more far-reaching. But to those of us who have receiving sets today and thus are privileged to follow the radio telephone, in its development, the broadcast concerts were extraordinary. They marked the apex of the summer's achievement, from an artistic viewpoint. We are impelled by its triumph to review briefly the onward march of radio broadcasting since its beginning. Starting with the sending of phonograph records, it swiftly introduced the individual artists themselves. Then public events came to be recognized as possibilities, and introduced to the public a new era in broadcasting—the sending of eye-witness accounts of sporting events. So, in a way, the broadcasting fans were prepared for the announcements in the newspapers that four concerts of the Philharmonic Orchestra were to be put on the air. They came at a time when popular interest in indoor radio was suffering by competition from outdoor sports. And it served to remind us that radio was still on the job—still going forward. During each summer the Orchestra entertains New York music lovers at the new Stadium, a magnificent structure seating 10,000 persons, with room for many more standees. The fame of these annual summer offerings is not confined within the five boroughs of New York, and so, when the announcement was made that the programs were to be broadcast by radio, folk in the smaller towns within a radius of several hundred miles of the metropolis were just as eager to listen in as were the New Yorkers themselves. Dotted about the Maine woods and in the Adirondack Mountains were many camps, for the first time, these were equipped with outfits this year, and to them the concerts seemed to come from heaven itself. Hotels tuned up too, and even ships far out on the sea enjoyed the splendid music. Standing before his orchestra, Willem van Hoogstraten, the conductor, was enjoying a new sensation. The conductor of an orchestra always is its most picturesque figure. Audiences like to watch the graceful swing of his baton. But in a broadcast concert this is lacking. Sight plays no part, and the conductor, strange to say, simply is non-existent. That is one reason why the writer sought Mr. van Hoogstraten to record his reaction to the achievement for the readers of THE WIRELESS AGE. The conductor was found at his hotel, The Wellington, and, between hurried calls to the telephone and interruptions from persons seeking a moment of his time—for the life of an orchestra leader is a busy one—he fired broadsides of admiration for the new science. He summed up his acknowledgment of its power in replying to a question as to how he felt about the radio telephone: "You call your magazine THE WIRELESS AGE," he said, with delightful accent, "well—that seems to me the answer. We are in the wireless age." And then he went on: "I am not entirely satisfied that the radio telephone can bring out all the little details, the fine nuances of the music. But I must admit that up to this time my experience has been entirely from the transmitting side—I have never heard anything come over the air. But I will today—yes, this very day. "I am sure, however, that in a general way, radio music is entirely satisfactory. This holds true for what is known as the better music, such as our orchestra broadcast from the Stadium, as well as the lighter kind, that which you call jazz." And then he showed himself to be completely human by paying jazz music and popular melody a pretty compliment. "I like it," he said, with a smile. To show the caliber of music that went out on the air, it might be well to recall a few of the selections. They included the overture to "Mignon" by Thomas; the "Entr'acte—music from Rosamunde" by Schubert; Three Movements from the "Rustic Wedding" Symphony by Goldmark, and the Dream Pantomime from "Haensel and Gretel" by Humperdinck. At the final concert the famous "Pathetique Symphony" of Tchaikowsky was transmitted. The project was initiated by Kendall Banning, a progressive radio editor, who secured the co-operation of Adolph Lewisohn, donor of the Stadium and patron of the concerts. These preliminaries over, the engineering problem that faced the sponsors of the movement was solved with complete satisfaction. It was fully described in the notice printed in the programs of the Philharmonic Society as follows: "The suggestion of broadcasting the Stadium concerts was too good an opportunity to be disregarded. The Westinghouse Electric & Mfg. Co., which, with the Radio Corporation of America, operates the broadcasting station WJZ, was communicated with, executives of the American Telephone and Telegraph Company were consulted and radio engineers were called upon to study the technical problems involved. The thing was done. "A special equipment makes possible the spreading of the actual music of the Stadium concerts over a territory that represents a population of 75,000,000 people, operating receiving sets roughly estimated at about 500,000. "The music of the New York Philharmonic Orchestra is recorded by a special type of microphone developed by the Westinghouse Company. This device, in appearance a small black cylinder four inches long and four inches in diameter, is suspended in view of the audience about twenty-five feet in front of the platform and about twenty-five feet high. It is supplemented by a second microphone located just above the orchestra leader's platform for the purpose of recording any soloist. These microphones convert the music (as well as any applause) into an electric current of strength and character that varies in accordance with the character of the sound waves that impinge upon the diaphragm. "This current is then transmitted over a special wire leased for the entire week. The wire extends through the various telephone exchanges to the broadcasting station at Newark, a distance of twenty-five miles from the Stadium. At the broadcasting station the electric current is amplified by means of special vacuum tube circuits; the amplified current is then impressed upon the modulator tubes of the transmitting set. These modulator tubes in turn vary the output of the radio transmitter in accordance with the same sound waves that are impressed upon the microphones at the Stadium. "The music thus sent out may be picked up by any radio receiving set that tunes in to the prescribed wave lengths of 360 meters on which WJZ sends out its programs." And, as we said at the beginning of this article, even this achievement in broadcasting will seem tame at some time in the future—but that does not detract from the glory of the present. Two weeks after the first Stadium triumph, concerts given in the big arena by the various city bands were broadcast. The organizations that "appeared" simultaneously to the audiences in the Stadium and the hundreds of thousands of listeners-in included the Fire Department Band, the Street Cleaning Department Band, and the Police Band. During the season over 500 concerts were given by these bands in New York City parks and public places, giving every one of the more than 5,000,000 people in the metropolis a chance to hear the best band music in every section of the city. The broadcast concerts, however, were heard simultaneously by radio fans not only in all parts of the city, but over the Eastern part of the country, and far at sea as well. Not on His Beat "Liar, liar!" The words floated sharply from the window of A. H. Everest, of Pittsfield, Mass., recently. A cop was passing the door. He took a good look at his badge, polished it with his sleeve, and made a dash for the house. After demanding to know "what's the trouble," and being admitted, he found Mr. Everest calmly seated in his living room. "Where's the fight?" asked the perplexed cop. "In Schenectady," calmly replied Mr. Everest. Then the officer discovered that he was listening to a fight scene of Eugene Walter's new play "The Wolf," being broadcast from Schenectady, N. Y. In the big scene of the play Hilda, a grossly misunderstood young woman, calls her papa a prevaricator. Mingled with her screams were the curses and shouts of tough men of the Canadian woods. They came clearly through a loud speaker, and the cop sat down with Mr. Everest to enjoy, for the first time, a fight "on his beat," even though it was miles away. Equip Foreign Mail Boat The New York Central Railroad is arranging for radio communication with the Government steamship President, used in transporting foreign mail from steamships arriving at Quarantine to the road's pier, West Thirty-second street. John H. Delaney, Commissioner of Docks, granted permission for radio equipment on the pier and similar equipment is being installed on the President by the Post Office Department. If the average man, without a knowledge of those refinements of musical technique upon which all true musical criticism is based, were to tell you a clarinet selection he heard over the radio telephone came over "wonderfully," you would be reasonably certain that there is "something to this radio stuff after all." But if one of the country's very best clarinet players, one of its highest paid and most accomplished artists were to tell you that the instrument he plays transmits perfectly, you would be impressed. Impressed you would have been if you could have been present when Gustave Langenus, member of the New York Philharmonic Orchestra, member of the New York Chamber Music Society, and super-instructor of the clarinet, told me of the clarinet's success by radio. "I hear music daily over the radio, as it is called in the vernacular of our time. I enjoy it. The piano comes over clearly, every note; the voice floats from the loud speaker in a most mellow way; other music and speech likewise." It Must Be So But I must confess that not until Mr. Langenus paid radio his emphatic and positive compliment was I convinced of the positive perfection of the radio telephone, as viewed from the angle of the professional musician. That leaves no further room for discussion or argument. Mr. Langenus is too deeply wedded to his art to betray it with an idle remark. Like many another artist who thinks in terms of what we call the "better kind of music," Mr. Langenus believes that radio's future will depend largely upon the caliber of entertainment the public gets. But before you may gain the impression that he believes that only classical music selections should be put on the air, let me say that such is not the case. Mr. Langenus would give the public the most varied entertainment. To do this properly he thinks that broadcasting in general should be controlled in the main by one organization, or combination of organizations, the biggest and most wealthy and accomplished of radio companies. It would not do to have six or seven different telephone companies selling their service in each city; nor would it be to the best interest of the public to have many small companies unequipped either to get proper talent or to solve the engineering problems, competing to put entertainment on the air, he quite reasonably thinks. Divide the Night He would divide the evening into units. Orchestra selections from a competent, high class orchestra built solely for use over the radio telephone, would give the public its type of music. Next would follow voice selections. And finally an hour or so of dance music and the lighter variety of melody. Thus he would include everything—and at the same time maintain the highest standards in each class. "Many musicians," he said, "are compelled to make a living by playing a lot of music that is distasteful to them. This state of affairs is very regrettable because all musicians worthy of the name long to play good music. Until we have symphony orchestras in every city, the next best thing for the man to do who loves music for art's sake is to get together a few players and form a Chamber Music Club, from three to eleven members, according to the instrumentalists available. "Don't you see how radio could fit in? Chamber music in my opinion, is the very highest type of music, bar none. I cannot be too emphatic. If the various communities were unable to have such Chamber Music Clubs, or symphony orchestras, their only salvation would lie in their ability to get it over the radio telephone, by radio clubs, if necessary. Boosts Chamber Music "Chamber music in the future ought to become inseparably locked up with radio. It should, as it is the very highest expression of musical art, come to be expected from the transmitters of radio music. The pleasure and education derived therefrom will be very great. "Already New York, Boston, Chicago, Philadelphia, San Francisco, and Los Angeles can boast of such Chamber Music Societies, but there should be a hundred of these instead of half a dozen. "Yes, and furthermore, were the powers in the radio world to put Chamber music on the air, instead of a half hundred such organizations in the country, there would in reality be half a thousand and more. For the organization of such units of Chamber music in each town and village—even in each city—would become less of a necessity. "The important thing, remember, is to get this music before the public. And there is no speedier way of doing so than by playing in a broadcasting studio with the motor of the generator whirring and the amplifiers doing their duty." Japan’s Response to Radio’s Appeal Flowery Kingdom Taking Interest in Broadcasting—Japanese Wireless Paper Now Caters to the Novice Who Listens In—How “Wireless” Is Written in Japan Will the telephone talk Japanese? That question, foolish as it now seems, was asked in all seriousness when Alexander Graham Bell first demonstrated his invention of the telephone. He secured two Japanese college students to prove that they could converse over wires as easily as could Americans. Recently the Japanese have been asking themselves much the same question about radio. Can they talk by wireless? Tests have proved that they can, of course, and the Japanese public is taking great interest in the new art. Radio telephone history, as first revealed in the United States, is repeating itself in Japan. The course of events in the Flowery Kingdom is revealed in an issue of “The Musen Times,” which recently reached THE WIRELESS AGE. The first and last pages of this issue, No. 46, dated July 5th, 1922, are reproduced on this page. The publication is an old one, as wireless publications go, and for years has confined itself to wireless telegraphy. “Musen” means wireless. Now, however, it is giving great attention to radio telephony, and the issue in question devotes much space to it, including a long special article on “The Development and Future of the Radio Telephone in the United States.” There also are articles on radio telephony in Europe, experiments with moving trains, opening of a new French high-powered radio telegraph station, radio communication between Canada and Australia, the design of the French Army’s radio telephone transmitter, design and construction of antennas for amateur radio telephone receiving sets, and a story of an operator’s adventures. The diversification of the contents, and their careful selection, reminds one of THE WIRELESS AGE! In the reproduction below, the first page is at the left. Japanese is read vertically and to the left, from the top of a column of characters to the bottom, then to the top of the column at the left. The pages are turned from left to right. The binding of the magazine when closed, therefore, appears at the right instead of at the left, as in Occidental publications. On the front page the title appears (Continued on page 40) An Example of Service to the Blind Simple Receiving Set Brings Life Anew to Sightless Man Who Thought He Had Lost His World Forever—"Radio Is a Godsend to Me," He Says By Ward Seeley THIS is the story of Carlos F. Escalante. You who read his name here will see it for the first time. This is not strange. Public fame is no gauge of the true worth of a man's efforts to make the world better for his having lived in it. Until two years ago Mr. Escalante played his part in the world's drama, as traveler and business man. In 1920 he was attacked by a sudden illness, and the light of his eyes flickered and failed. For a year and a half he sat in darkness, with his memories of travels and adventures in Europe, in Mexico, and in America. Inaction weighed heavily upon him. In the home where once he strode confidently he could but stumble uncertainly, with out-stretched arm. The world was far beyond his reach, forever—or so he thought. His fate seemed almost more than he could bear. REVOLUTIONARY RADIO Then a new thing came into his life and revolutionized it. Last Christmas an old friend, Charles Andrews, a member of a prominent stock brokerage firm, gave him a simple radio set. "He sent a man up here," Mr. Escalante related, "and in less than two hours this wonderful thing was ready for me. I asked 'What do I have to do?' and he said 'Nothing but listen' and that is what I have been doing ever since. "It is a Godsend to me. You cannot imagine what it is to sit day after day alone in the dark—I who had been so active, only to sit here in this apartment—" and his finely-modeled face showed an inner struggle with the insufficiency of words to express his emotions, while his sensitive hands seemed to reach out for new ways of expression. "You cannot—no one can imagine what it is for a man to be stricken as I have been, and no more can you grasp what radio means to me. I had not thought that there could be such a blessing in the world. This—" he hesitated and then courageously pronounced the only word that fits: "This calamity I thought meant just the end of the world to me, and it did for quite some months. The people at the Lighthouse for the Blind have been very kind, and one of them comes here every Saturday. I have been learning to read the Moon type, the raised characters, but my hands aren't as steady as they might be and sometimes I slip from one line to another without knowing it. Still, the effort gives me something to do," and he slowly raised to his knee a thick heavy volume of the embossed print, to show how difficult it is to read. BROUGHT THE WORLD BACK "But the radio was the thing that brought the world back. I thought I had lost it for ever." The book slipped from his knees as his hands sought the headset on the chair at his side. "Yes, there's music. Listen, isn't it wonderful?" he asked as he held the phones out. It was, indeed. The simple little crystal set was bringing in a piano solo from WJZ, clearly and sweetly. "Oh, I hear so much over the radio," continued Mr. Escalante. "So much, so much. Do you know, I have heard complete operas, with the music, and very good descriptions of the story and the action. La Traviata, and Carmen, and La Bohème, and others. I have heard so many, and I thought I would never hear an opera again because I cannot see any more. I have seen them all many times, but good music is always new, don't you think? "And then, I like this lively new music, for dances, what you call—you know, that—" "Jazz," I suggested. "Yes, that's it. Jazz. I like that, too. It is a change, and it is full of life and it makes me happy. And the lectures are so interesting. Of course Mrs. Escalante reads to me a great deal, but she has a great deal to do and, well, you know how it is. "I asked her to write to Mr. White and thank-him for his description of the two bouts, the ones between Leonard and Tendler, and Britton. I heard them clearly. It was very exciting. Mr. White must be a remarkable man, isn't he? He has given me so much pleasure, and will you please thank him again for me? "And then I have heard the concerts of the Philharmonic Orchestra, the best music. I hope they will do that again for I am very fond of orchestra music. WJZ is doing wonderful things, isn't it? I hear other stations, too, WOR and WBAY, not so loudly, and sometimes WAAM, very faintly, and WEAF. This new arrangement they have between the various stations has cut down WJZ's time, and that is the best station." Again he sought the headset, and listened. "You see now, there is nothing to be heard at all," he complained, putting the headset back on the chair and feeling the hands of a watch on the table in front of him. "It is twenty minutes after one, and you won't hear WJZ again until four o'clock. It used to be that each hour I could hear, but now I hear WJZ only from 9 to 9:15"—Mr. Escalante gave the entire schedule upon which WJZ worked. He knew it perfectly. "Do you think WJZ will ever go back to the hourly system?" he inquired hopefully. "They say that there are other people sending out music, but I can't hear them, except, as I say, WOR and WBAY and that new station, WEAF. IS A NEW YORKER "It means so much to me, I seem to have the whole city right here with me. Do you know I am a New Yorker? Yes, I was born right here." He explained that he was born in 1859, on 31st Street between Fifth and Madison Avenues, then an aristocratic section. He was the eldest child. When he was nine years old the family sailed for Spain, in order to give the children the benefit of a European education. When he returned, at 18, he had forgotten most of his English, but soon picked it up again. His command of Spanish proved invaluable in conducting business with Latin America. At the time of the Mexican revolution during which Madero was killed he had important business interests there, which he was forced to abandon, being glad to escape to New York unharmed. He then became connected with the Interboro Rapid Transit Co. in the treasurer's office. "Would you allow me," I asked, "to send our photographer to take your picture? I would like to tell the readers of THE WIRELESS AGE of your experience with radio." "Well, Mr. Seeley," he explained with a smile, "I really do not think I care for publicity. Let us ask my wife also what she thinks of it." Mrs. Escalante was even firmer. She thought that her husband's blindness was a private matter. "'We cannot thank you enough," she said, "for what your radio does for us, but I cannot see any particular advantage in any article such as you suggest." "But, Mrs. Escalante," I protested, "there are thousands of blind people, and millions of fully-sighted people, who do not realize what radio means to the blind. You yourself did not until a friend gave you a set. My sole object in printing the story would be to help other blind people. Your story, told to the readers of THE WIRELESS AGE, should lead to many other blind persons enjoying the benefits of radio." That triumphed over natural delicacy. "Radio is certainly the most wonderful blessing in the world for the blind," said Mrs. Escalante. "They all should have it, and if there is anything we can do to help, we want to do it. I hope our story will introduce radio to many blind people." Coming Radio Shows NEW YORK CITY will have a radio show December 21 to 31 next, in the famous Grand Central Palace, two floors of which have been taken by the American Radio Exposition Co., which also has an option on a third, if necessary to accommodate the exhibitors. The show, coming as it does just before and after the Christmas holidays, is expected to draw large crowds, and prove a feature of the holiday season. Sound-proof rooms are to be constructed for exhibitors wishing to demonstrate their apparatus, and there will be special educational motion pictures. St. Louis, Mo., will be the radio center of the whole state during the week of October 6th to 11th, when the St. Louis Radio Association will hold its annual exhibition. The Missouri State Radio Association is co-operating with the St. Louis organization, and these two, with the Mid-West Division of the American Radio Relay League, will hold their conventions during the show week. The exhibition, therefore, will unite the radio amateur and broadcasting fan. Exhibits are to be made by leading manufacturers, jobbers and dealers, and many of the exhibits will proceed from St. Louis to Chicago, which has a radio show the following week. Springfield, Mass., is planning a radio show for October 3d to 7th, inclusive, in the Auditorium, whose 350-foot tower will carry a receiving antenna and possibly also one for transmission. WBZ being located in Springfield, and having created thousands of radio fans in the immediate vicinity, it is expected that the show will be thronged. Atlanta, Ga., is looking forward to its radio show from October 3d to 7th, inclusive, in the Auditorium. The event has been endorsed by the Atlanta Radio Club. Two newspaper broadcasting stations in the city have developed great local interest, and radio fans are numerous. Boston, Mass., is to have its second radio show October 30 to November 4, in Mechanics building, under the auspices of the New England Executive Radio Council. Members of the American Radio Relay League in the First District are to co-operate, and the exhibition will have a flavor of both the transmitting amateur and the broadcast fan. The amateurs will have their dinner on November 4, closing the show. Careful plans are being drawn to prevent the presence of poor apparatus or fraudulent exhibits of any kind, and an advisory committee has been formed of representatives of leading manufacturers, including the American Radio & Research Corp., Radio Corporation of America, Clapp-Eastham Co., General Radio Co., Wireless Specialty Apparatus Co., and Wm. J. Murdock Co. Concerts for 'Bus Riders' A Oakland, Cal., bus company has started experiments which it hopes will prove the practicability of installing radio equipment on each of the 85 busses running daily between that city and Sacramento. It was announced by the company that concerts from San Francisco and Oakland were picked up by the vehicle on which the tests were made when it was on the road. Japan's Response to Radio's Appeal (Continued from page 38) in the decorative panel in the upper right corner, and is read downward. The top character with four dots under it means "Nothing." The character under it is composed of two symbols, the one at the left standing for "Thread" and the right half meaning "White Water," in the sense of a flowing or bubbling spring. The two taken together mean "Wire." Thus, the first two complicated characters mean "Nothing Wire" or "No Wire" or "Wireless." This is Chinese ideography, or picture writing. The pronunciation of the first two characters is "Musen," and the meaning, "Wireless." The next four and wavy zigzags are Japanese phonetic symbols standing for the sounds of the English word "Times." The leading editorial, signed by the Editor-in-Chief, appears opposite the name of the paper, and is entitled, "Recent Appointment of a New Minister of Communications." In it the Editor expresses the hope that the new Minister will allow Japan to enjoy to the utmost the great facilities of the radio telephone. As in Japan the government is in complete control of radio, all development and use depends on the attitude taken by the authorities. In addition to its reading matter, the paper contains in its ten pages a number of advertisements of such things as battery chargers, ammeters, and vacuum tubes, by firms in Japan, the United States, and England. In the reproduction of the last page, shown to the right of the title page, one such advertisement is to be seen. The name of the company, prominently displayed on each side of the trademark "NK" within a triangle is "Chino-Japanese Wireless Apparatus Manufacturing Company." The matter immediately above the advertisement, containing the names and call letters of many European stations, is the story of a radio operator's achievements. Farm Market Service PERFECTION of radio service of the State Bureau of Markets now enables the New Jersey farmer, whose home, farm, club or bank is equipped with a radio receiving outfit, to have actual up-to-the-minute information of prices which his crops, shipped into Newark, New York or Philadelphia that day are bringing. WVP undoubtedly is a creature of circumstance. We say that advisedly—and we mean that it owes much of its popularity to its location on the same tiny island in New York Harbor as the Statue of Liberty. Those who have crossed the harbor must have seen the steel towers and the antenna of WVP, one of the very few government wireless stations used to broadcast general entertainment—speeches and music. Hundreds of tourists every day take a small boat at the Battery—that landmark of the metropolis that was the inspiration of such entertainers of boyhood as Horatio Alger, Jr.—and after a slow, but pleasant twenty-minute ride, alight on the island. The steel stilts towering 140 feet into the air are lost, for the moment, in the overpowering wonder of the Goddess of Liberty, to whom the tourists pay their respect, but the Grand Old Girl is an old story while WVP is new, and so we will confine ourselves to the station. WVP broadcasts on a wave length of 1,450 meters. Therein, too, it differs from the other transmitters of air entertainment, who must confine their activities to 360 meters. But WVP has some influence in governmental circles, 'tis said. In fact, as Lieutenant H. S. Paddock said it IS the government. Bedloe's Island is the official name of the garden spot in the harbor on which the station stands. It is in reality an army post, and one of the mightiest links in the radio net thrown by the Signal Corps over the country. Its powerful signals are heard in the most remote spots of each of the eight army corps areas in the country. Primarily the station is not an amusement dispenser. For twenty-three hours of the day crisp army orders leave the four wires on the high antenna for their given destinations. Only during a single hour of the twenty-four, from 9 to 10 p.m., does the wary, official eye wink, and entertainment relieve the monotony of the day's routine. Just about the time that January of this year took its place on the calendar Brig.-Gen. Edgar Russel, then Second Corps Area Signal Officer, conceived the plan of utilizing the station for a limited time during each day to broadcast entertainment. It was not long before his plan became operative. He enlisted the aid of that body of young amateur operators,—the Amateur Radio Reserve—who, while not actually enlisted in the army, still are being trained in U. S. Signal Corps work. This body is growing rapidly, and was organized because of the experience the army had during the late war, when it required some little time to train men in army methods. Adding radio telephone broadcasting would give them new and invaluable experience, it was felt. Application was made to Washington which allowed the station to use the wave length of 1,450 meters for broadcasting. It was not long before General Russel was transferred, and his work now is being carried on by Col. C. McK Saltzman, the present Corps Signal Officer; Lieutenant Paddock, Post Signal Officer; Captain Charles W. Chadbourne, Post Commander. The set used to broadcast, which was built by the General Electric Company, is a powerful one—3½ K.W. Possibly it is most appreciated by men in government work itself, sailors within a radius of a thousand miles out at sea, and army posts scattered throughout the country. The average broadcasting fan, who can tune only in a limited range on each side of 360 meters, does not hear it—which is a pity. The studio itself is most modest. It is merely the adjoining room to that used as an office by Lieutenant Paddock. Besides its usual quota of government furniture, it holds a player piano, contributed by the maker, a phonograph—and a microphone. A distance of some four or five hundred feet separate the studio and the small building or radio shack used to house the transmitting apparatus. The wires from the studio to the shack pass through an iron fence, the top-most pipe of which serves as a conduit. The broadcasting transmitter consists of a 7½ horsepower alternating current motor driving a 2,000-volt generator, which supplies the plate current for six 250-watt vacuum tubes. The motor also drives a 24-volt generator which acts as an exciter for the 2,000-volt generator. The filaments of the tubes are lighted from the alternating current power circuit through a step-down transformer. Three of the six vacuum tubes are used as oscillators and three as modulators, the constant current method of modulation being used. The pick-up device at the broadcasting studio consists of a "Phonetron" in place of the usual microphone. The output of this device is passed through two stages of resistance-coupled audio frequency amplification before reaching the line which connects the studio with the radio station and the transmitting apparatus. This line is about 900 feet long and the conductors are thoroughly shielded throughout their entire length. Before applying the voice frequency currents, generated at the studio, to the grids of the modulating tubes of the transmitter they are again passed through four stages of resistance-coupled audio frequency amplification, the first two of which utilize the ordinary amplifier tubes and the last two, five-watt power tubes. A radiophone receiving set is installed in a room adjoining the studio and is used to check the actual transmitted sounds as to quality and proper operation of the transmitting set. Talent has been plentiful at WVP. Some "canned" music, records for the piano and phonograph are used, but for the most part singers and players "appear" in person from the station. One evening each week has been given over to concerts under the direction of Charles D. Issaeson, of the New York "Evening Mail." More than a hundred artists have thus appeared, including Tom Williams, baritone; Harriet Cady, pianist, composer of Chinese music; The Misses Dale, operatic singers; Anca Seidlova, Czecho-Slovakian pianist; Isidore Greenberg, violinist, and a pupil of Leopold Auer; George O'Brien, American tenor; Elsie Reign, contralto; Emily Roosevelt Chadderton, soprano; Andrew Haigh, pianist; Ruth Fried, soprano; Elsie Duffield, soprano; Schima Kaufman, violinist; Bartolo Vavatini, baritone; Willy Sauber, pianist; George Kassony, French baritone; Eugenia Jones, whistler. Artists supplied by the Knabe Piano Co. also have appeared, as have those of the General Phonograph Corporation on the historic Bedloe's Island. On one night a man appeared who demonstrated each instrument in a band. At another time a group of negro singers sang negro melodies. This will serve to indicate the wide variety of talent that has entertained from WVP, the army signal corps station on the historic Bedloe's Island. However, as has been indicated, broadcasting is but one-twenty-fourth of the work of the station. If you ever visit the island, or pass by it, you will see not one, but two antennae. The larger one—300 feet in length—is used for broadcasting, and for the inter-area communication work over the entire country. The smaller one carries government messages within the Second Corps Area. It is also interesting to note that the government now uses wireless almost exclusively in the transmission of telegraph messages. Washington, D. C., acts as the mother station, as it were. From there most orders emanate. The Bedloe's Island station is operated by remote control from Governor's Island, across the harbor, in the transmission of such government work. Through this network of stations, the government has been able to cut its commercial telegraph bill to almost nothing. It saves, in the Second Area alone, from $1,000 to $1,500 a month in message tolls. Give this a thought when next you pay your income tax. Radio Penetrates Prison Walls (Continued from page 28) too, they hear sermons preached in distant cities, transmitted and received by radio telephone. It must not be mistakenly imagined that the introduction of radio into prison life will lay a path of roses for the prisoners to walk upon. They must do their work now, and they will do it in the same way now that radio has reached the prison. But the officials know that it will introduce a new element. It will constantly remind the prisoner, in a constructive way, of the outside world. It will figuratively crumble the walls that keep him confined, while literally they remain firm. His body will remain where it is; his mind will expand and escape the bars, finding a new incentive to direct the body better when it once more is released and allowed to go its way in the world where all good people belong. That the installation in Sing Sing had an immediate favorable effect is to be seen in a letter sent by one of the inmates to the Radio Construction Co., New York City, the day after the first radio concert. "There was plenty of interest created, as we had heard plenty about it, but excepting the newer men, none of us has ever seen the practical working of the device that will undoubtedly be the greatest means of entertainment and education the world has known. Many lads in here, have plied me with queries as to how it works, how it is constructed, and how it is possible to receive just what you want to when the air is full of 'Broadcasts.' Perhaps you have some literature that you could send me that would explain these most natural inquiries. "Most sincerely yours, "Number 68777." Amelia Bingham (Continued from page 32) rich,' I told them, 'and yet you have the most wonderful gardens in all the world available for a five-cent fare. The trees and cool grass of Central Park are yours. The park belongs to you. You resent the opportunity of the rich to possess art. And yet, for five cents you can fairly wallow around in the greatest collection of art in the world—the Metropolitan Museum. It is yours. Why, you are wealthy in the things that go to make life worth while! Just be patient, and use these opportunities that belong to you—the people—to improve yourselves.' "The expressions on the faces turned up to me, changed from scowling distaste to interest, then understanding. That's what I mean by radio's opportunity—the educating of the people into an appreciation of our country." The most remarkable thing about the rapid spread of the radiophone is that it has occurred without a law forbidding it.—Kansas City Star. Flapper: "Whenever I comb my hair at night just before I go to bed, sparks jump and crackle. Can't you give me a lightning arrester or something that will keep the wireless waves out of my hair?" Distant Broadcasting Stations Heard Broadcasting fans daily surprise themselves and others by reaching out across hundreds of miles by a turn of the wrist. Often the most simple bulb equipment will produce astonishing results, as reported below. What have YOU done? Covers 1,450 Miles EDWARD C. GILL, of Earlysville, Va., reports that he is justly proud of himself and his U. V. 200 detector tube. His pride springs from the list of broadcasting stations he has heard with the single tube, without amplification, covering distances up to 1,450 miles. His list is as follows: \| Station \| Location \| Distance \| \|-----------\|-------------------\|----------\| \| WGY \| Schenectady \| 475 miles\| \| WBAY \| New York City \| 325 " \| \| WWZ \| New York City \| 325 " \| \| WVP \| New York City \| 325 " \| \| WJZ \| Newark, N. J. \| 315 " \| \| WOR \| Newark, N. J. \| 315 " \| \| 3XW \| Parkersburg, Pa. \| 225 " \| \| WEAS \| Washington, D. C. \| 105 " \| \| WPM \| Washington, D. C. \| 105 " \| \| NOF \| Washington, D. C. \| 105 " \| \| KDKA \| Pittsburg, Pa. \| 205 " \| \| WHK \| Cleveland, O. \| 320 " \| \| WWJ \| Detroit, Mich. \| 405 " \| \| WHAS \| Louisville, Ky. \| 425 " \| \| WSK \| Indianapolis, Ind.\| 405 " \| \| KYW \| Chicago, Ill. \| 565 " \| \| KSD \| St. Louis, Mo. \| 650 " \| \| WSB \| Atlanta, Ga. \| 465 " \| \| WAAG \| Shreveport, La. \| 945 " \| \| WPO \| Memphis, Tenn. \| 695 " \| \| KFAF \| Denver, Colo. \| 1450 " \| \| WHA \| Madison, Wis. \| 700 " \| \| WCX \| Detroit, Mich. \| 405 " \| Mr. Gill also has heard faintly, a station on the Pacific Coast signing off, and his chief indoor sport now is trying to tune it in again. 2,300-Mile Broadcast Reception with Amateur Set WHAT is believed to be a record for reception of a broadcasting station program with an amateur set was made on August 16, at Watertown, N. Y., when the music and news reports of Station KFC, the broadcasting station of the Northern Radio and Electric Company, Seattle, Washington, was clearly received by Henry B. Graves, Jr., of the Frank A. Empsall Co., an approximate distance of 2,300 miles. A receiving set of the General Electric Company, Type AR-1300 and AA-1400 was connected to a makeshift antenna about 50 feet high and 150 feet in length. No earth connection was used, a loop composed of ten turns of No. 18 lamp cord on a 4-foot frame, being used as a counterpoise. When a Western Electric No. 7A loud speaker was attached to the receiving set in place of the head telephones, the music and speech from KFC could be heard 300 feet away. Later in the evening the programs of stations WHAS, Louisville, Ky.; WOH, Indianapolis, Ind.; and KSD at St. Louis, Mo., were also brought in with exceptional volume and clarity. The reception of the music and speech of Station KFC is undoubtedly a distance record for radiophone reception using an amateur type of set. Hears Porto Rico LUBIN PALMER, Schooley’s Mountain, N. J., is doing some exceptional broadcasting reception work over long distances. Despite his proximity to WJZ at Newark, he has been able to hear broadcast programs from as far west as Kansas City, Mo., and has done even better distance work to the south, hearing the station at San Juan, Porto Rico, 1,225 miles away in an air line. His list of distant stations is as follows: \| Station \| Location \| Distance \| \|-----------\|-------------------\|----------\| \| KSD \| St. Louis, Mo. \| 875 miles\| \| WHAS \| Louisville, Ky. \| 625 " \| \| WSB \| Atlanta, Ga. \| 745 " \| \| WOC \| Davenport, Ia. \| 850 " \| \| WHB \| Kansas City, Mo. \| 1075 " \| \| WBSQ \| San Juan, P. R. \| 1225 " \| WSB Heard on Pacific PHILIP I. MERRYMAN, a commercial operator on the tug Oneonta, heard WSB, Atlanta, Ga., on July 29, while the tug was in Columbia Bay, off Astoria, Oregon. This is a distance of 2,300 miles, airline, from Atlanta. Mr. Merryman picked up the Atlanta station at 9.43 p.m., meridian standard time, or 11.43 p.m., Atlanta time, just as WSB signed off for the evening. He was astounded to hear the voice announce itself as Atlanta. As Mr. Merryman remarked in his letter, “Boy, that’s real DX!” On One Bulb JACQUES H. HERTS, of New York City, has an Aeriola Senior, and was surprised on September 12th to hear KDS, at St. Louis, 900 miles away. The same evening a slightly different adjustment brought in WHAS, at Louisville, Ky., 650 miles, and another, WWJ, Detroit, about 500 miles, airline distance. These three stations were all heard between 10 and 11 p.m. Mr. Herts uses no amplifier, and has a single wire 60 feet long, with a 50-foot lead-in. Apartment House de Luxe THE builder of a certain apartment house in Newark, N. J., is installing what is believed to be the most up-to-date set of radio equipment for this type of dwelling. The building will have 72 apartments. A system will be installed with two complete Radiola receiving sets, each with a large loop or directional antenna, so that each may be pointed to a particular broadcasting station and receive concerts without interference from any other. Each set will be equipped with two steps of radio and two steps of audio frequency amplification. The apparatus will be in a special room in charge of a licensed operator, and connections will run to each apartment, so that a tenant may plug in on whichever concert or program he likes best. A touring car in Chicago equipped with radio telephone receiving equipment. Paul D. Coats, a fan, shown at the wheel, rides about the city's streets and hears concerts from as far away as Newark, N. J. New Class of Broadcasting Stations Government Creates "Class B" With Authority to Use 400 Meters for Such Stations as Can Comply With High Requirements Covering Equipment and Operation CREATION of a new class of super-broadcasting stations has been authorized by the Department of Commerce, which has assigned a wave-length of 400 meters to the new classification. Stations using this wave-length will be known as "Class B" broadcasting stations. The new class will consist of only a few stations, well scattered over the country to prevent interference, and chosen entirely with regard to their capabilities, both as concerns radio technical matters and entertaining ability. The new regulation establishing the special Class B station and defining it are as follows: AMENDMENTS TO REGULATIONS To Radio Inspectors and Others Concerned: Regulation 57, page 55, amended August 8, 1922, to read: CLASS "B" RADIOTELEPHONE BROADCASTING STATIONS A new class of radiotelephone broadcasting station license is hereby established to be known as Class "B." A license will not be issued for a station in this class which does not comply in every respect with the specifications hereunder. STATION WAVE-LENGTH—The wave-length of 400 meters only will be assigned for the use of stations of this class which must be reasonably free from harmonics. POWER—The power supply must be dependable and non-fluctuating. The minimum required will be 500 watts in the antenna and the maximum shall not exceed 1,000 watts in the antenna. MODULATION—The system must be so arranged as to cause the generated radio frequency current to vary accurately according to the sound impressed upon the microphone system. SPARE PARTS—Sufficient tubes and other material must be readily available to insure continuity and reliability of the announced schedule of service. ANTENNA—The antenna must be so constructed as to prevent swinging. SIGNALING SYSTEM—Some dependable system must be provided for communication between the operating room and the studio. STUDIO—The radio equipment in the studio must be limited to that essential for use in the room. The room shall be so arranged as to avoid sound reverberation and to exclude external and unnecessary noises. SERVICE PROGRAMS—The programs must be carefully supervised and maintained to insure satisfactory service to the public. MUSIC—Mechanically operated musical instruments may be used only in an emergency and during intermission periods in regular program. DIVISION OF TIME—Where two or more stations of Class "B" are licensed in the same city or locality a division of time will be required if necessary. FORFEITURE OF 400 METERS PRIVILEGE Licenses issued for the use of the 400 meters wave-length shall specially provide that any failure to maintain the standards prescribed for such stations may result in the cancellation of the license and requiring the station to use the 360 meter wavelength. D. B. CARSON, Commissioner of Navigation. Approved HERBERT HOOVER, Secretary of Commerce. Cartoonists' Wit Amuses Radioists All Over The Country CAN YOU BEAT IT? THE HARDUPS ARE GIVING A CONCERT WITH FULL ORCHESTRA ACCOMPANIMENT. GEE! NOW DO THEY DO IT? HE IS AS POOR AS A CHURCH HOUSE. I DIDN'T KNOW HE COULD EVEN HIRE A HAND ORGAN. BARITONE SOLO, SOPRANO SOLO, INSTRUMENTAL QUARTET, JAZZ BAND ALL BY FAMOUS ARTISTS. HE MUST HAVE STRUCK OIL SUDDENLY. SUCH A CONCERT MUST COST SOMETHING. WE COULDN'T SPURGE LIKE THAT AND I MAKE A LOT MORE THAN HE DOES. YOUR WHOLE YEAR'S SALARY WOULDN'T PAY THE TENOR. THEY ARE NO PIKERS ABOUT ENTERTAINING. HOW CAN THEY DO IT WITHOUT MONEY? COME IN! THE CONCERT IS JUST STARTING! OH! IT'S A RADIO CONCERT! METROPOLITAN MOVIES "IS THIS THE JOINT WHERE THEY ADVERTISED FOR TALENT FOR A RADIO CONCERT?" "Yes. What can you do?" "I'm a club juggler." —N. Y. World. LIFE ON THE RADIO WAVE VER JIST A MINUTE TOO LATE, AUNT POLLY — TH GINK JIST GOT THRU GIVIN' A LECTURE T' FAT FOLKS, TELLIN' EM HOW T' CUT DOWN WEIGHT. WHY, HAROLD?! —San Francisco Chronicle. As Famous Mutt and Jeff Become Ardent Radio Fans JEFF IS THE ROBIN'S RAINCOAT AS A RADIO SALESMAN MISS SCHULTZ MUST HAVE A BROADCASTING STATION AS A RADIO OPERATOR, JEFF IS THE LIZARD'S LEGGINGS IT'S NICE TO BE AN AUTHORITY ON SOMETHING When Ether Waves Run Wild Con-structive Hints Realizing that there is nothing like the homemade set, this department is dedicated to those who roll their own. Subscribers will have all their questions answered as they arrive under the time control when they act like regular customers and buy 'em tailor-made. In sending queries be sure to give complete diagrams, and a picture of yourself. Mr. Editor: I enclose wiring diagram of my set, on which I have spent $77.92 for materials and $1,492.00 in time. It's a peach of a set, isn't it? I also show in the diagram the only kind of music I hear through it. Now, I understand that speeches, songs, classical music, etc., are to be heard by radio. Why don't I hear those, too? Biff Bam. Answer: You put too many road houses in your set. Take some of them out and substitute two theaters, one opera house, sixteen concert halls, one pulpit, one college (Harvard or Yale), the Woolworth building, and a phonograph. You then will have no need for your radio set except on Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, Saturday and Sunday. Sir: As you can see by the enclosed picture, I have assembled my set complete except for the panel. Now what I want to know is, where should the panel be drilled? That is to say, what spots on the panel should I drill, and do you know anybody who will lend me a machine to do it with? My picture also enclosed. Sitting Bull. Out Our Way Answer: What you have is not a one-step; it's a stumble. Try a loud speaker according to the accompanying sketch. To operate, take loud speaker firmly in the left hand and twirl once every 24 hours. All you will hear will be "At Six O'Clock in the Morning." But can you expect more?—W. S. Delirious Dave (With 19 apologies to Bide Dudley—Continued from last month despite the bets and threats.) An elephant entered the store. He placed one foot on Dave's chest and recited, "I regret I have but one trunk to check with the American Express Company." Dave came to. You will recall that he fainted a month ago, in these columns. But when he revived he was not in the columns any more. He was in the Zoo. "You—hoo." Where did he hear that voice before? It might have been his father, excepting that it was the voice of a little girl. Sure enough little Gertrude was looking at him through the bars of a cage. "Why Gerty," flabbergasted Dave. "Listen!" Gerty had spoken. Radio music poured from the horn which had been erected in the drug store, following out Dave's idea as told to Proprietor Tracy. They listened to a prize fight, opera solo, and sermon, but before Gertrude could eat her fifteenth soda with chocolate ice cream, there was a noise. A crowd of two thousand escaped convicts came through the trap door leading into the saloon. A stranger entered. He whipped out a pistol and shot Dave, Proprietor Tracy and Gerty dead. Then he killed the two thousand convicts. If not properly discouraged, the author of this thrilling story of love and two hearts may succumb to the inclination to write still another serial brimming over with pathos and tense moments. And Humor Fills the Ozone Science or Invention? A NEWSPAPER clipping comes to our attention—and holds it. In the article there is described a new invention, perfected by a 15-year-old boy, by which it is possible to transmit milk by radio. This is by far the most advanced stage to which the science of wireless has progressed. In the technical explanation we find that "the milk is passed through a vacuum and the spark going through the vacuum unites the atoms of the milk with the electrons and is carried out in the form of electric current. This applies to the sending of milk." Of course, the article referred to sweet milk. But despite the fact that no reference is made to buttermilk, we have it on good authority that it is just as easy to send buttermilk from New York to Buffalo by radio as it is to send sweet milk. The youthful inventor says that the sweet milk is received in the form of an ordinary message. It doesn't matter if the message happens to be a boxing bout description or a grand opera aria. We can see the complications that are liable to happen. Suppose Galli Curci is singing and instead of sending music, she by mistake transmits a couple of gallons of butter milk! In the place of the phones, the inventor goes on, a condenser is used. When the condenser is filled to capacity it discharges. Atoms discharge easier than the electrons, says he, and therefore the atoms discharge and form the milk. Try it on your cow. Our informer says that scientists have even gone farther than this. Not alone sweet milk, and buttermilk, may be sent over, but cheese cake and gendampte kalbfleisch as well. Goodness only knows where this radio stuff will lead. The railroad company executives already are worrying. In fact, we feel the time is not far distant when you, yourself, will be able to jump into a transmitter in Kokomo and come out of an Aeriola Sr. set over in Paris. Necessity IS the mother of imagination!—M. H. LIFE ON THE RADIO WAVE Wise Crack-les As for that chap out in Spokane who said that static in his radio set sounded like a ton of coal sliding down the chute into his cellar, all we can add is that certainly his wish was daddy to his thought. He didn't say anthracite or bituminous coal, but either would be welcome. * * * We suggest that they install a gigantic broadcasting station up at Niagara Falls right over the falling waters. This will allow the roar of the great falls to be heard throughout the country and will save millions of dollars in honeymoons alone. All a young couple will have to do is tune in for Niagara, hold hands and let their gosh darn imagination run riot. * * * She'd Be a Curiosity Asks a certain Nebraska daily: "If the old fashioned lady who wore a coil of wire around her waist and called it a' bustle or around her hair and called it a rat, would attend a radio concert—would she be a broadcasting or a receiving station?" * * * Wisdom Denby prohibits the use of navy radio for broadcasting Congressional speeches. Gosh, the man has sense hasn't he?—Nashville Tennessean. * * * Amending an Old Song The American youth's three R's are now: Readin', 'ritin' and radio.—Say the Chicago Journal of Commerce. "—taught to the tune of the vacuum tube," as one might say. * * * Mebbe, Mebbe! Wonder if the radio craze will develop wireless wire-tappers.—Pittsburgh Gazette-Times. * * * Mother, buying a knock-down crystal set, after inspecting the list of parts: "Never mind the cat-whisker, Tabby will never miss one hers." Five New Stations to Link the Americas by Radio The Radio Corporation of America has received orders from the United Fruit Company and the Tropical Radio Telegraph Company for five radio stations, three for Central America and two for the United States, each with a sending radius of more than two thousand miles. The erection of these five stations will fill an important and essential gap in the radio communication system of the Americas. The three Central American stations will be located on the corners of the triangle embracing Honduras, Nicaragua and Panama. They will be operated by the Tropical Radio Telegraph Co. and will be located at Managua, the capital of Nicaragua, and at Tegucigalpa, the capital of Honduras, the city designated as the capital of the new Central American Union. These stations will connect with the United Fruit Company's station at Almirante, Panama. The terminals of this communication system in the United States will be at New Orleans, Louisiana, where the present station of the Tropical Radio Telegraph Co. is to be enlarged and new apparatus installed, and at a new station which the Tropical Radio Telegraph Co. will erect in the vicinity of Miami, Florida. Intercommunication between these five stations, and ship to shore communications with them, will open entirely new routes of communication between the Americas. The new stations will open a radio relay route between Bogota, Colombia, and the United States, a distance of more than two thousand miles. Because of the layout of the three tropical stations, service from nearly all parts of Central America is practicable. In fact the system is designed to tie with North and South America in all points from southern Panama to the southern border to Mexico. Equally as important as the land and overseas communication aspects of this new radio system is the announcement that the new tropical stations will be used for ship-to-shore radio service by vessels plying the waters of the Atlantic Ocean, Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean Sea, and the Pacific Ocean. All the recent radical changes in the technical design of modern radio telegraph apparatus, the results of the combined efforts of the Radio Corporation of America and the General Electric Company, will be incorporated in the apparatus used in this new inter-continent radio communication project. Vacuum tubes of the latest design, and many times more powerful than any tubes heretofore used in sets for commercial service, together with the highly efficient multiple-tuned antenna, will be special features of these new stations. The wave-lengths used will range from 2,500 to 4,500 meters and the power actually delivered to the antenna at these wave-lengths will be equivalent to over 100 kilowatts. It is worthy to note that in the case of the Tegucigalpa, Honduras, station the delicate radio apparatus, as well as the heavy steel members used in the construction of the 437-foot towers must be transported over an 80-mile mountain trail. It is expected that this station will be placed in operation in November of this year. Radio Covers 7,000 Miles The U. S. Navy radio station at Cavite, P. I., now transmits its messages directly to the Pacific Coast, covering a distance of about 7,000 miles. At San Francisco the signals are picked up by a new "barrage" receiver, designed by the radio research section of the navy. Previously, messages from Cavite have been relayed by Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, which now is free to devote itself to its own traffic. Need Radio for Foreign Trade Reports Use of the radio telephone for broadcasting the numerous opportunities in foreign trade reported to it by its agents abroad is being considered by the Department of Commerce. A great mass of foreign trade information is received by the Department in Washington daily and is released to the press and also printed in the Department's various publications, but much of it fails to reach interested firms. Broadcasting it by radio would give it almost 100 per cent distribution, it is considered. The Department maintains 34 branch offices in all parts of the country, and at present it is planned to send foreign trade news by wire to them, for their local broadcasters. Eventually it is hoped to equip each branch office with a receiving set, enabling the matter to be transmitted by radio from Washington to all offices simultaneously, avoiding use of the wires. Radio Exports Growing American exports of radio apparatus during last June were valued at $547,364, or nearly half the total for the first six months of the year, $1,164,514. This is in line with the trend of radio exports this year, which have been rising in value and number by leaps and bounds. Probably the greater portion of the material shipped abroad consists of commercial apparatus to be included in the equipment of big foreign transmitting stations, but there also is a rising flood of instruments and complete sets designed for amateur use. Accurate information on foreign markets for radio materials will be available during the winter, as a result of a survey being made by R. A. Lindquist, chief of the electrical equipment division of the United States Department of Commerce. He is now in Europe, and will visit England, Sweden and Germany during a period of three months. Mexico Tries Lighthouse Sets Two wireless transmitting and receiving sets have been ordered by the Mexican Department of Communications for use on lighthouses. The order is an experimental one, and if the sets prove as valuable to the Mexicans as similar equipment have proved in the United States, all Mexican lighthouses will be given radio equipment. Enlarged Radio Facilities on Oregon Coast The radio facilities at the entrance to the Columbia River, the port of Oregon and the outlet of the only water level grade through the Cascade or Sierra Nevada Mountains to the Pacific Ocean, are being enlarged and improved. The two big naval stations now existing there are to be enlarged, improved and co-ordinated, the control being vested in the stations at North Head, Wash., while the big Young's Bay plant, near Astoria, is to be operated solely as a transmitting station. The work on the Young's Bay plant proper is already under way. It will include the erection of a fifth big steel mast and the installation of the machinery and equipment necessary for the operation of the increased size of the plant and for the remote control development. About six men will remain at the Young's Bay plant to maintain the instruments, but all operation will be done from the North Head station. When the work of improving the Young's Bay plant is complete the mechanics and experts will shift their activities to North Head. There a new mast is to be raised, a new headquarters building constructed, a larger power plant installed and the whole station developed to handle the traffic included in the newer and larger scope planned for it. The underground cable, which runs from North Head to the cable crossing of the Columbia River, has been laid. This will serve effectively to do away with the delays and interruptions of communication due to wire trouble during storms. Some time ago the Port of Astoria commission requested the Government to take steps to increase the efficiency and capacity of the stations serving the Columbia River, as the increasing traffic at that port was making insistent demands that the communication facilities be increased. Some time later the announcement was made that the Government expected to co-ordinate the two existing stations and so to increase their capacity as to accommodate all traffic on the river. This work is now under way earnestly. It is also understood that the Lighthouse Department expects within a short time to install a Kolster radio beacon on the lightship at the mouth of the Columbia, as well as to equip all its present property with radio. This will render the naval stations on the district serviceable. The radio slot machine has arrived in the United States. Dropping a quarter in the slot delivers the coin to the nearest broadcasting station. Hotels are expected to install these receivers. Report American Weather to France Exchange of weather reports between the United States and France has commenced by radio, and now daily meteorological data are transmitted from Annapolis to Bordeaux, and from Lyons to Bar Harbor. This information is especially valuable to Europe, as most storms progress from west to east, and storms along the Atlantic Coast, if of sufficient intensity, cross the ocean and affect the weather not only on European coasts but sometimes far inland. In France the local and American weather reports are collated by weather experts in Paris, and transmitted from the Eiffel Tower in the form of weather reports and predictions for western Europe. The reports from FL are received in all parts of Europe. Fees for Canadian Licenses and Examinations The Department of Marine and Fisheries of Canada has announced an amendment to the Canadian Radio Regulations, by inserting the following rates of fees for station licenses and operators' examinations, as follows: Fees for station licenses: Limited Coast Station .................. $50.00 Public Commercial Station ............. 50.00 Private Commercial Broadcasting Station ........................................... 50.00 Private Commercial Station ............ 10.00 Experimental Station ................... 5.00 Amateur Broadcasting Station ......... 5.00 Amateur Experimental Station .......... 1.00 Private Receiving Station .............. 1.00 Technical or Training School Station .. 5.00 Ship Station ........................... 1.00 Fees for operators' examinations: Extra First-Class Certificate ........... 5.00 First-Class Certificate .................. 4.50 Second-Class Certificate ............... 1.00 Third-Class Certificate ................ 1.00 Experimental Certificate ............... 2.50 Amateur Certificate .................... .50 Emergency Certificate, any class ...... 5.00 Radiotelephone Certificate ............. 2.50 Commends Navy Radio Man's Bravery Chief Radioman Claude G. Alexander has been commended by Secretary of the Navy Roosevelt for bravery in rescuing the pilot of the airplane in which he was riding when it crashed to the ground. He was flying with Ensign Ralph R. Auerswald across the country in a Naval plane last July, when the plane crashed near Encinitas, Cal., bursting into flames. Alexander crawled out of his seat, released the pilot's safety belt and was lifting the unconscious man out of his seat when an explosion occurred. Alexander was thrown clear of the plane, while Auerswald fell beneath the plane. The radio operator dragged the pilot to safety from the midst of the flames. Special Radio Sets for Hughes' Brazilian Trip WHAT is the most sensitive receiving apparatus ever installed on a merchant ship is carried by the Pan American, operated for the U. S. Shipping Board by the Munson Line. This is the ship that carried Secretary of State Hughes to Rio de Janeiro for the opening of the Brazilian Centennial Exposition there, and the entire wireless equipment of the vessel was remodeled for the voyage. It was decided that constant and direct radio communication with the United States would be necessary during the entire trip. The receiving equipment consists of a three-stage radio frequency amplifier, detector, and two stages of audio frequency amplification. The amplifiers and tuning equipment have a range of from 150 to 30,000 meters. There also is a heterodyne circuit for reception by this method. A regenerative tuner is used, however, for wave-lengths up to 6,000 meters. This equipment gives the ship a receiving range of 10,000 miles. The ship's transmitter also is a new one installed especially for the trip, and is an arc outfit whose signals are readable 5,000 miles. In addition, a 1 k.w. standard Navy spark transmitter, with a range of 1,500 miles, was installed. L. K. Meriweather is chief operator on the Pan American. Army and Navy Training Air Operators TRAINING of radio operators especially for airplane work is being carried out by both the U. S. Army and Navy, this being a recent development of both branches of the service. The Naval Bureau of Aeronautics at Pensacola, Fla., and the Army Air Service at Rantoul, Ill., so far have trained 60 men for aerial service, who now are in active flying duty. The men are selected from lists of promising radio students at the Naval Great Lakes Training Station, and transferred to the new school. Here they are given the same ground school work that is given to student aviators, after which they concentrate on radio work, including operation and repair of all types of transmitting and receiving apparatus. The course lasts for 12 weeks, the last three of which are spent with an air squadron for practical work. The Army's course is somewhat similar, and is given at Chanute Field, Rantoul, Ill., to those whose enlistments are accepted for the Army Air Service. China a New Radio Field CHINA is being regarded by the radio telegraph companies as a great field for expansion, the recent treaty restoring communication with China to the Chinese government operating to prevent foreign governments from handling commercial messages from China. For some years various countries have transmitted such business through their official stations. America, for instance, has handled much traffic through the Navy radio station at Pekin, which relays its messages through Cavite, P. I. Formation of Chinese companies to operate radio systems is coming in the near future, and these, of course, will look to the Occident for their equipment and personnel. Gambia Uses Radio GAMBIA, the British colony in West Africa, has installed radio telephone and telegraph stations at Bathurst and McCarthy Island, 176 miles apart. The new stations are in daily use, giving instantaneous communication between the two centers. The colony has no organized wire telegraph or telephone system, and the radio stations already have proven of great value. Rushing Belgian Station WORK on the first Belgian radio station designed for international communication is progressing, and the new station is expected to be in operation before the coming winter. It is located at Bruges. Until it is in operation, Belgian wireless will continue to be confined to reception from stations in other European countries, and the relaying of messages, weather and market reports to all parts of the kingdom by land wire. Radio in Life and Death TO radio's achievements in saving life at sea must be added participation in funeral services. What is considered as the first contribution of wireless to a funeral at sea occurred early in September, when the S.S. Canadian Trooper asked the Cunarder Carman to transmit in full the ritual for burial at sea. One of the Canadian steamer firemen had died, and the captain, who called upon to read the service, that he had no prayer book. He asked his radio operator to get ual from the nearest steamer. Japan to Install Ship-to-Ship Radio Stations THE city of Yokohama has a radio telephone service, a company there for a capital of $75,000. Important communications expected to give between two steamers. Radio Communication in India New Regulations Provide for Licensing of Experimental, Limited Commercial and Broadcasting Stations—Existing Service to Be Expanded to Reach Now Isolated Sections—Public Demonstrations of Radio Telephony By S. B. Banerjea Wireless telegraphy is making slow progress in India, where there are not very many wireless enthusiasts; but I doubt not, if the advantages of wireless be clearly explained to the people, it will secure many enthusiasts—to the good of the country, maybe the world. It is interesting to learn that the Marconi Company has applied to the Government of India for permission to erect a broadcasting station, either at Bombay or at Calcutta. The agents of this company have received several applications from Europeans and a few Indians for private apparatus. Most of the applicants hail from Bombay and the rest from Calcutta. The licenses are issued by the Director of Wireless Telegraphy, Simla, to whom all applications must be forwarded. With the idea of popularizing radio and assisting in its use and development, the Indian States and Eastern Agency of Bombay will give demonstrations during October. Later on, demonstrations will be given in the principal native states. Complaints having been made in the press that the Indian Government was not encouraging wireless enterprises, the Director-General of Posts and Telegraphs has announced that he is prepared to grant licenses for the erection, maintenance and operation of wireless telegraph stations in British India for the following purposes: 1. Non-commercial stations, that is, fixed stations established for research, experiment or instruction and which are operated by the licensee solely with a view to the advancement of wireless telegraphy. 2. Limited commercial stations, that is, fixed stations established in connection with the business of the licensee or for carrying the private or business correspondence of the licensee. The licenses will be valid for one year and may be renewed at the option of the licensee. A fee of ten rupees per annum will be charged for each license. Licenses will have to be renewed on January 1st of each year. In the case of limited commercial stations, an annual royalty will be charged, depending on the class of station, those maintaining a 24-hour service being in class I; not exceeding 16 hours in class II; and not exceeding 8 hours in class III. The royalties are, "rupees 440, 300, and 150 respectively for telegraph sets, and for sets equipped for telephony, rupees 550, 370, and 190. Stations outside the delivery radius of a Government telegraph office, which is usually five miles, may have their royalty reduced by 50 per cent." The Government has announced that the above licenses will also cover the import into British India of the necessary apparatus, but separate import licenses are required when it is desired to import apparatus for sale. Import licenses are accompanied by a bond in a sum not exceeding twice the value of the goods imported, which must be executed by the licensee to guarantee observance of the terms of the license. When stations for radio telephone broadcasting purposes are desired, a special license will be required for each such station. Charges have been made in the past that the Government had done practically nothing to make wireless operation popular, or for developing the system in India. But the facts are otherwise; a big station is being erected in Madras for inland work and it is understood that this station is being converted into a high speed automatic plant for working inland and to Rangoon. The wireless apparatus at the Sandheads is being brought up to date. Malabar is to be connected by wireless, the necessary apparatus for which is being supplied by the Marconi Company. Arrangements are being made to have wireless for the tea districts of Assam, which will prove a veritable boon to the district which now is practically without communication. Coastal stations are being maintained at Diamond Harbour, Port Mair, Karachi, Madras, Rangoon, Calcutta, Bombay, and Victoria Point. The inland stations are Allahabad, Delhi, Lahore, Nagpur, Patna, Poona, Quetta, Secunderabad, Peshawar, Uhow, and Maymyo. The Government of India will advise as to types of suitable feeder stations in any locality and will obtain, erect, maintain, and work the feeder stations on behalf of the local Government, in accordance with the local requirements. Rules governing the control of traffic on land and sea have been framed, as also rules regarding the transmission of wireless messages. Commander Nicholson, the Director of Wireless in India, has issued a press communiqué, from which the further fact has been learned that arrangements have been made for broadcasting news, concerts, speeches, lectures, and other educational and entertainment programs to subscribers in certain areas, which may extend to 200 or 300 miles. Market quotations and other reports will also be broadcast to other subscribers. From the above, it will be clear that the Government of India is moving with the times. The Government alone, cannot, however, move in every direction unless the public helps it in large numbers. A few people here and there will not be able to advance the cause of wireless communication in India. The broadcasting fever, or craze, as one will so put it, has not caught the people at all. Should a big demand show up, the cost of apparatus will go down. Even now, the price is not prohibitive. What the country needs is a number of enthusiastic workers to get things going. Wireless is no longer a plaything, but a real benefactor of mankind. Communication with the Malabar area will be by means of seven radio transmitters, just ordered by the Madras Government from Marconi's Wireless Telegraph Co., Ltd., of London. This comes about logically as an outgrowth of the Moplah rebellion in that region, lasting from August to December last in its main phase. The Malabar section is heavily wooded and hilly, not to say mountainous, and is traversed only by footpaths and a few post roads. The work of the troops was greatly hindered by the destruction of all means of communication, telegraphic and postal by the rebels, a number of whom were returned soldiers with a clear idea of the value of such hampering tactics. The lines were promptly repaired only to be again torn down and no amount of watching could prevent their being destroyed by the rebels as fast as repaired. Six armed camps have now been constructed at various strategic points each to hold a company of police and each camp is to be provided with a wireless set of the type known as Duplex Telephone Installation. A charging plant is also being imported and the installations will be set up under the supervision of one of Marconi's experts. The aerial system employed will be simple, consisting of two masts 30 feet high and 200 feet apart, made of local materials. It is expected that the effective range, depending on conditions, will be from 30 to 50 miles, which will be sufficient for communication between the camps. The Marconi Company is reported to be making an effort to push the employment of such stations throughout India and is arranging for a series of demonstrations among the various native States in the near future. In conclusion I should like to add that the date from which the Indian Wireless Telegraphy (shipping) Act of 1920 shall have come into force has been postponed from August 1, 1922, to January 1, 1923. Filing Radiograms With the Postal Radio Corporation of America Makes Important Arrangement With Postal Telegraph-Cable Co. to Extend Radio Facilities to Whole Country ANNOUNCEMENT has been made by Edward J. Nally, President of the Radio Corporation of America, that an agreement had been signed between his company and the Postal Telegraph-Cable Company whereby every office of the Postal Company in the United States becomes an agency of the Radio Corporation for the acceptance of radiograms for transmission across the Atlantic Ocean and for the delivery of radiograms received from overseas for points in the United States. This important linking of radio and wire line services reflects the rapid growth of the Radio Corporation's overseas telegraph traffic since the return of its high power stations by the Government after the close of the World War. These stations transmit and receive radiograms directly to and from England, France, Norway and Germany, and through connecting stations abroad, to and from all countries in Europe, Asia and Africa. The Radio Corporation now maintains the only direct line of telegraph communication with Germany and Scandinavia; and additional direct service is planned for the near future with Belgium, Holland, Italy, Poland and Sweden, giving to those peoples the opportunity to communicate directly with their scattered brethren and nationals in all sections of the country. Prior to the arrangement made by the Radio Corporation of America whereby it is enabled to use the extensive land line service of the Postal Telegraph Company, practically all the radiograms transmitted to transatlantic countries originated in New York City and Washington, D. C. The contract just signed gives to the inland commercial centers and the thousands of small points reached by the Postal system equal facilities with those now enjoyed by the eastern cities mentioned, the Postal Telegraph Company performing the same service for radiograms of the Radio Corporation of America as it does for cablegrams to be transmitted by submarine cable. Mr. Nally pointed out that although heretofore radiograms received from Europe, destined to points inland in the United States, had been forwarded over telegraph land lines, the service established by the agreement with the Postal Company insures prompt organized collection as well as distribution of radiograms at all points in the United States and gives to every section of the country the benefits of the phenomenal advances made in recent years in the radio art. With the development of high speed wireless telegraphy to an even higher point than at present, the new arrangement will permit the Radio Corporation of America to carry out its plans for the inauguration of a low rate plain language Radio Letter service between the United States and Europe. The Radio Corporation's present offices in New York, Washington and San Francisco for the reception and delivery of radiograms will be continued, and its plans for the opening of additional offices of its own in the more important centers from time to time will go forward as the growth of business warrants. Radiograms coming over the land wires of the Postal Telegraph system from all sections of the country will be received at the Central Radio office at 64 Broad Street, New York City, where all the Eastern radio stations of the Corporation are controlled. T. R. McElroy Sets New World Record for Code Reception A RADIO Marathon was held Sunday morning, Aug. 6, at 10 A.M., in Congress Hall of the Pageant of Progress Exposition on the Chicago Municipal Pier. It was a speed contest for radio operators in receiving straight Continental Code, and simultaneously transcribing the message on regulation Western Union typewriters. Contestants were present from other cities, and included T. R. McElroy of the Western Union Telegraph Company from Boston, holder of the present world's record of 56½ words per minute; B. G. Scutter of the New York Times Radio Department from New York; Benedict B. Brankey of the Western Union Telegraph Company, Chicago; and M. Swartz, assistant radio inspector, 9th district. The test was conducted by Mr. Lawrence R. Schmitt, formerly United States Radio Inspector, ninth district. The judges were Capt. Alfred Thomas of the Radio Corporation of America, Mr. E. A. Beane, U. S. Radio Inspector, ninth district, and Mr. Schmitt. The starting speed was 40 words a minute. Succeeding tests were run for two-minute intervals, increasing the speed two words per minute at each test. The rules for elimination provided that after a speed of 46 words a minute was reached, the contestant having the greatest number of errors was to be eliminated, and that this method was to be followed by successive tests at a higher speed. Brankey was eliminated at 46 words a minute, Swartz at 48. The contest was now on between Scutter and McElroy. Scutter was eliminated at 52 words a minute. McElroy was presented with the solid gold diamond medal by Geo. E. Carlson, Commissioner of Gas and Electricity of the City of Chicago when he copied 52 1/5 words per minute, perfect copy. To add interest for the spectators, the dots and dashes were sent through a loud speaker, and many of the audience expressed surprise that anyone could decipher the code at such speed. After Mr. McElroy had won the main contest, Commissioner Carlson offered a prize of $50.00 additional in case the world's record was beaten. McElroy established a world's record of 55 1/10 words per minute, perfect copy. Before awarding the prize, and to remove all doubt as to whether or not 55 1/10 words per minute perfect copy was superior to 56½ words per minute with four errors, which was the previous record, Commissioner Carlson obtained an opinion from a commission of five experts relative to this record. Veterans Get Radio Jobs A LARGE number of disabled veterans of the A.E.F. have been rehabilitated by giving them radio training, in which the Veterans' Bureau is particularly successful. Some of the new operators are on Shipping Board vessels, and others have been placed with different steamship lines through the "radio want ads" broadcast for the veterans through NOF, the government station at Anacostia. As more and more men are trained, the Bureau expects to be able to furnish men for service at land stations. So far, 100 men have been prepared for radio service at the Nola Radio School, New Orleans; 40 at the Loomis Radio School, Washington, and 70 at the Service Radio Institute, Washington. In New York City the famous Radio Institute of America has graduated 42 men who have obtained first-class commercial licenses. At the present time 282 are in training in all parts of the country. The foundation stone of the wireless station of Sainte Assise, known as Paris Radio Central, was laid on January 9th, 1921, and since that date, observations from all parts of the world signify to the very high efficiency of the station. Sainte Assise was formally opened to commercial traffic on August 17th, 1922. Previously the wireless station of Croix d'Hins, near Bordeaux, which was opened at the end of 1920, has claimed the honor of being the most powerful wireless station of the world. The power of the new Sainte Assise station, however, eclipses that of Bordeaux, the Paris station being about twice as powerful. The Compagnie Generale de T. S. F., which constructed and now operates the station, carried out the work on a large scale. The site of the station is on the plateau of Sainte Assise, about twenty-five miles from Paris. The ground is approximately level and the soil is sufficiently moist at all times to ensure an efficient earthing system. Many conditions were laid down by the French Ministry of Posts and Telegraphs when the erection of the station was sanctioned, and it was some time before a location was found which would comply with them all. During the afternoon, Senatore Marconi, from his yacht Elettra, at sea in the neighborhood of New York, reported excellent signals. A further telegram of congratulations after more detailed observations, was sent by Senatore Marconi on the following day, according to The Wireless World, London. There are two main buildings in which have been installed three transmitting sets as follows: 1. Two valve transmitters of 5 K. W. each, for short distance communication, the aerials being supported on a tower about 330 feet high. 2. A "Continental" station, consisting of four high-frequency alternators with an aerial input of 25 K. W., for European services. The aerial, which is of the "double cone" type, consists of four independent networks and is supported by a single tower 830 feet in height. 3. An "International" station, consisting of two 500 K. W. high-frequency alternators and two of 250 K. W. each. In this case the aerial consists of a double network suspended horizontally by sixteen towers, each 830 feet high. The earth system consists of 240 square yards of copper plates and ten miles of buried copper wires. The four alternators with which the station is equipped can be run independently, or they can be used in combination to increase the output. They may also be used independently for duplex transmission. Two sources of power supply are available, one a power distribution network, and the other an emergency installation of three Diesel engines each of 1,800 H. P. The station can transmit either with one machine of 250 K. W., or with two such machines coupled, or similarly with one or two machines of 500 K. W., or it may conduct two simultaneous transmissions. The stations are all designed to handle traffic at a speed of at least 100 words a minute, so that with all six working transmitters at the same time, 36,000 words an hour may be transmitted. Both the transmitting and receiving stations are controlled from the Bureau Central Radioelectrique, Rue Montmartre, Paris, in the center of the business quarter. In addition this office is connected with the two principal Paris telegraph offices of the Bourse and Rue de Grevelle, by means of high speed Baudot and Hughes telegraphic apparatus. The recording apparatus for reception is all located on the same operating tables and the arrangements are very similar to those at Radio House, London, from which the English trans-oceanic stations are controlled. The receiving stations are distinct from the transmitting center, and are located at Villecresnes, 22 kilometers S. S. E. of Paris, at Essonnes 30 kilometers south of Paris, and Valenton, 18 kilometers S. S. E. of Paris. New Swedish Trans-Oceanic Station Radio Corporation of America to Erect $2,000,000 Station Near Gottenborg—Two 200 K. W. Alexanderson Alternators Will Transmit Across Atlantic COMPETING with English, French and German firms, E. F. W. Alexanderson, Chief Engineer of the Radio Corporation of America, has been successful in securing a contract with the Swedish Government for furnishing apparatus for a high power radio station to handle direct wireless communications between the United States and Sweden. The total cost of the station will probably be over $2,000,000. The new station will be situated in the vicinity of Gottenborg, which is on the west coast of Sweden, and the contract with the Radio Corporation of America calls for the installation of two 200 k.w. Alexanderson alternator equipments, which, when associated with the well known multiple-tuned antenna, will each deliver to the antenna a current of six hundred amperes. The equipment is similar to that which is being supplied to Poland by the Radio Corporation. The receiving equipment will consist of two complete and independent modern sets and the necessary amplifying apparatus and will be used in conjunction with receiving aerials especially devised for the reduction of static disturbances. At the time that the apparatus contract was signed a very important traffic contract also was signed, which assured the direct communication between Sweden and the United States for a long period of years. The need of direct telegraph connection between Sweden and the United States was emphasized during the war and immediately thereafter. Internal conditions within Sweden demanded closer relationship with North America and therefore, more reliable and rapid communication facilities. Accordingly, as early as January, 1920, the Swedish-American Association submitted a report to the Royal Telegraph Administration setting forth the exact nature of the economic and political situation, with a recommendation that the subject of direct radio telegraph connections with the United States be investigated at once. The Swedish Government traced the trend of increasing influence and prestige which had been established in other European countries to their tightly-woven international communication systems. A special committee then was appointed to investigate the possibilities of long-distance radio communication for Sweden. According to the report of this committee, existing means of international cable communication via various European countries was a serious handicap to Sweden from a commercial, as well as political point of view, and this was especially true of the connections between Sweden and the United States. It was also recognized that direct communication between the two countries would give a cheaper and freer service tending to bring about a closer relationship not only between the governments and their people but also between the commercial and financial interests of the two countries. Particularly would this be true in the field of international banking where there has long been felt a need for more direct contact. It was also pointed out in the (Continued on page 61) Bridging the Gap for the Cables How Radio Central Saved the Day When the Irish Seized Cable Stations—Putting Into Operation Two New "Spare" Transmitters and Maintaining 24-Hour Transmission WHEN the Irish forces during August seized and closed nine of the sixteen European cable stations they unwittingly did a favor to the business world in general and to radio in particular. By this action great congestion was caused in the remaining cables, and pressure of business forced hundreds of firms who never before had used radio in trans-Atlantic communication to avail themselves of the newer method of communication, thereby receiving their first and most impressive practical demonstration of its value. What will be the ultimate effect of the sudden prominence of radio work across the ocean it is impossible to estimate, but it is certain that by its service in the emergency radio has earned a reputation even higher than it had before. Firms that at first despaired of their European messages getting across in time to be of any benefit, turned to radio. Not only in New York City, but in many other cities business houses, their cablegrams refused by the cable companies, resolved to "try radio." And then what was at first merely a hope became a mainstay. Perhaps the most important educational work done for radio, by the cable congestion, in fact, was in cities other than New York, for in the metropolis radio long ago took its place beside the other methods of communication. In other parts of the country, due in part to certain difficulties of filing messages, radio was little used. In the weeks since August 7, however, thousands of messages have come to New York, by telephone, telegraph and even by mail, for dispatch across the Atlantic by radio. The chief part in negativating the effects of the cable interruption was played by the Radio Corporation of America, whose six circuits, already transmitting daily to Great Britain, Norway, France, Germany, and other European countries, were called upon suddenly to handle a tremendous increase in traffic. Almost instantaneously the traffic flowing into the New York control office at 64 Broad Street jumped to nearly twice its normal volume. The telephones rang incessantly, in fact there were not enough wires into radio headquarters to accommodate all those who wished to make inquiries as to service or to file urgent messages for transmission to the other side. On the morning that the news filtered over from England that the Irish had seized and silenced the cable stations there, it became evident that industrial New York was demanding that radio take the place of the cable. By the next day, other cities took up the cry. What happened at Radio Central when this deluge of traffic descended? Externally, nothing. The big operating room at 64 Broad Street hummed with activity, as usual. A few extra operators pounded typewriters for longer hours, and that was about all the change that could be seen. Fortunately, extra transmitting facilities were available at Rocky Point, N. Y., and New Brunswick, N. J., having been completed only about two weeks before, and these, consisting of two transmitters, originally designed to act as "spares," were put to work at once. Most of the new traffic, of course, was bound for Great Britain, though there also were numerous messages for other European countries, which, formerly sent through the British cables, now went directly to their destinations by radio, without stopping in England on the way. Messages of the latter type, of course, are sent by the Radio Corporation of America direct to receiving stations in the various countries. The greatest volume of traffic across the Atlantic, however, was to England, and the result was that the two spare transmitters worked mostly on messages to that country, which thus was able to receive three streams of radio messages simultaneously. In fact, at times the transmitters that normally work with other Continental countries were given British traffic. This occurred only when they were clear of messages for the country to which they are assigned, which happened occasionally. When some idle time developed for one of the transmitters, it was easy to turn over to it traffic from a congested circuit. The procedure was simplicity itself. The messages were simply handed to the transmitting operator for the circuit in question, after having advised England over one of its regular circuits to listen on the new wavelength. A signal "go ahead" from England, and the transfer was complete. A minute would be considered a long time for such a move, as it is customary to send a flash across the Atlantic and receive a reply in 15 seconds and less. This flexibility of radio equipment is one of its most important features—and possibly its least dramatic. One man sits and works a typewriter keyboard on one side of a long table, perforating a tape that operates the automatic transmitter; another man sits at the other side of the table, transcribing a wavy line on a tape traveling in front of him. That is all. But when one has punched a few holes in his tape, and the other, seconds later, has interpreted a wavy line into a few words, there has been performed an operation exactly equal to picking a cable line up from the bottom of the sea and moving it hundreds or even thousands of miles in a few seconds. The mythical Aladdin's Lamp and the Flying Carpet lose prestige when compared with the actual radio, especially for flexibility. Picking the cable up and moving it around, in fact, was exactly the cure adopted by the cable companies. Cable ships were sent to the Irish coast, where they grappled for the cables whose land ends were dead, cut them, spliced on a new length, and reeled the additional cable around the Emerald Isle to England. About 400 miles of cable had to be connected in order to reach England, thereby giving the cable companies some severe problems. The new and increased length increased the resistance of the line so greatly that duplex operation, that is, sending of messages both ways, proved impossible, and at the time this is written these spliced cables are being operated simplex, or only in one direction. Achieving even this much by cable was a matter of days, almost as many days as it took Radio Central in seconds to re-route its transmitters. Those were precious days during which that important part of American business that depends upon quick communication with Europe would have been starved, had it not been for radio. The general public perhaps is not aware of the vital position of the cable and radio systems in the business of the world. Banks, brokers, exporters, manufacturers, steamship lines, all are constant users of wire and radio. The banks need daily quotations on foreign exchange, and sometimes, when great and sudden changes in values are taking place, would pay large premiums for expedited service, if they could get it, so important do minutes and even seconds become on quickly rising and falling markets. Radio Central contains a number of direct telegraph lines to banking houses, over which messages are sent, saving the very few minutes required for delivery by messenger. The brokers, both those dealing in foreign exchange and in bonds and stocks, need daily quotations of the prices on foreign markets, and also send hundreds of buying and selling orders by radio and cable to their correspondents abroad. Manufacturers place buying orders for raw material likewise, and frequently conclude deals involving large sums by sending a few code words. Where large contracts are at stake a few minutes may mean the gain or loss of sums running into six figures or more. In general, messages across the Atlantic are expected to lose no business time. If filed before the addressee across the sea goes out for lunch, they are expected to reach him before he leaves for the day, and if given to the transmitter too late for that, they must be on the addressee's desk when he arrives the next morning. This means that the five hours difference in time between New York and London works favorably to both sides. The Londoner, closing his desk at 5 in the afternoon, which is noon in New York, sees his outgoing radiogram to New York and knows that it will be delivered there before the close of the New York day. The New Yorker, getting his radiogram from London, knows that the day is done over there by noon, and when he too leaves at 5 o'clock by his time, taking a look at his radiogram in reply, he knows that his London correspondent will find it on his desk at 9 a.m., English time, or 4 a.m., New York time. This is the consistent practice of firms in both countries who send daily messages to each other, so much so that the greater proportion of the messages sent abroad from each country are filed after 5 p.m. This gives New York the period from 5 p.m. to 4 a.m. to transmit its messages designed for receipt at the beginning of the new day abroad, while England has from 10 p.m. to 4 a.m., English time, to do the same thing. Those messages that do not demand delivery under these conditions customarily are subject to being deferred, and carry a lower rate both by cable and by radio. During the cable congestion the cable companies abolished the deferred rate business, being unable to handle but a small part of the full rate traffic that was offered, but the Radio Corporation of America preserved its deferred classification. One of the results of the congestion, therefore, was continuous 24-hour transmission from Radio Central, which was one of the methods by which radio facilities were able to replace the service from the lost cables. In addition two new transmitters were placed in service. This possibility of increasing the working hours, in fact, was important. As in the cable business, so in radio, the bulk of the traffic is filed at the close of the business day, and is gotten off during the night. Prior to the emergency both cable and radio transmitters had idle periods; their facilities were designed to carry the peak load, and anything over that, after being absorbed by such extra facilities as might be available, simply ran over into the previous idle time. Though neither the cable companies nor the Radio Corporation of America make public any figures of their business, it is known that while the cables have been restored in part and are handling some business, the traffic by radio is holding up remarkably close to its high point. Firms that once used the cables exclusively now are filing by radio because they prefer the service. It was during the first difficult days of the cable crisis that radio was called upon to carry its greatest burden, and when involuntary tributes to it were noted on all sides. Typical was the action of one of the important commodity exchanges in New York City, members of which need constant and very swift communication with London and Liverpool. One of the wire companies has sole right to maintain an office in this exchange, a privilege it guards jealously. However, when the cables were silenced, members called upon radio for help, only to find that radio messengers were barred from the floor. A hasty meeting of the board of directors was called, and after a heated debate it was decided that the contract in question was predicated upon the ability to give service, and could be disregarded as long as the service was unavailable. Radio messengers then flowed to this exchange daily in a steady stream, until the cables had been laid around Ireland and a semblance of service restored. Still another evidence of the value of radio came to light in rather an amusing fashion shortly before the cable trouble. A New York business house, having beaten competitors by using radio, remarked how pleased it was with the service, and even put its commendation in writing—but it also let it be known that it would rather that other firms in its line were kept in ignorance of the radio facilities that had proved so valuable to it! 100-Kilowatt Tube Developed Successfully Is Largest Ever Made. Development of New Copper-to-Glass Seals Rendered Extraordinary Accomplishment Possible. Few Stations Capable of Using Such Power Production of a vacuum tube of 100-kilowatt output capacity has been successfully accomplished within the last few weeks in the laboratories of the Bell Telephone System at the Western Electric Co., New York City. This is by far the largest vacuum tube ever produced. The new 100 k.w. tube has not been placed in commercial use, as comparatively few stations exist capable of utilizing such power. That it will be utilized in the near future, however, seems guaranteed by the possibilities of the tube, which are as remarkable as is its mere appearance. The new tube contains one important addition to the art of making metal-to-glass seals. It was the solution of this problem, in fact, that did more than anything else to make the 100 k.w. tube possible, as the type of seal usually employed in vacuum tube construction fails under the high temperatures of large power. The new method is the invention of Mr. W. G. Housekeeper, who undertook the mechanical details of developing the tube, while Dr. M. J. Kelly concentrated upon the electrical design and process of evacuation. These special seals can be made in any desired size, and are capable of withstanding repeated heating and cooling over wide ranges of temperature, from that of liquid air to 350 degrees Centigrade, without cracking and without impairment of their vacuum holding qualities. In an interview with Dr. William Wilson of the Western Electric Laboratories he stated that it is "no exaggeration to say that the invention of these seals has made possible the construction of vacuum tubes, capable of handling in single units, powers of any magnitude which may be called for in wireless telegraph and telephone transmission." The underlying principle connected with the making of this seal consists in obtaining an intimate connection between the glass and metal, either by chemical combination or by mere "wetting" of the copper by the glass, when the latter has been softened by heat, and in so proportioning the glass and metal portions of the seal that the stresses produced when the seal is heated or cooled will not be great enough to rupture either the glass or the junction between the glass and metal. The three principal types of seals developed by Mr. Housekeeper are known as the ribbon seal, the disc seal and the tube seal. By proper shaping of the metal ribbon, seals have been successfully made up to very large sizes, and capable of successfully conducting a current of several hundred amperes. The principles involved in the making of the disc seal are the same as those involved in making the ribbon seal. If a metal disc is sealed wholly into glass the edges must be sharpened or the glass and copper break away from each other as in the case of the ribbon seal. In the general use to which these seals are put there is no necessity for having the glass surround the circumference of the copper disc and the necessity for sharpening the edge is obviated by allowing the glass to adhere to the flat portion of the disc only, care being taken to prevent its flowing around the edge. It is necessary to have a ring of glass on both sides of the seal in order to equalize the bending stresses which would otherwise tend to break the glass and copper away from each other. Successful disc seals have been made with copper up to 1-10" thick. There is, of course, a certain maximum thickness that can be used for a seal of a given diameter and it is preferable to keep well below this limit. The third type of seal and the most important in connection with the present problem is the tube seal. This furnishes the means of joining metal and glass tubes end to end and is used in the water-cooled 100 k.w. tube to attach the anode to the glass cylinder which serves to insulate the other tube elements. As in the case of the disc seal, it can be made either with the edge of the metal not in contact with the glass, or with the metal sharpened to a fine edge which is in contact with the glass. The glass may be situated either inside or outside of the metal. The first thermionic tubes in which these seals were embodied were made of copper and were designed to operate at 10,000 volts and to give about 5 k.w. output. The vacuum creating process in the case of these tubes at first presented considerable difficulty, chiefly on account of the large amount of occluded gas contained by the metal parts. This caused the time of pumping of the tube to be very long and dangerous warping of the internal structure developed owing to the fact that during exhaust the tube elements are maintained at a much higher temperature than they are subjected to during normal operation. The trouble was overcome by heating the various parts of the tube to as high a temperature as possible in a vacuum furnace, prior to the final assembly, and thus getting rid of a large amount of the occluded gases. The anode was preheated before the glass seal was made and the whole filament grid assembly was preheated just before it was mounted on the glass stem. The pre-heating of the parts brought about an enormous reduction in the time required for pumping and gave a much more uniform product. Although successful from the standpoint of operation, this tube had several undesirable features that it was thought well to eliminate. In the first place the welding of the bottom into the tube was not particularly desirable, and in general any troubles that occurred due to leaks in the metal could be traced to this point. Further, in the assembly of the tube there were a very large number of welds to be made which constituted points of weakness at the high temperature necessary for the evacuation of the tubes. It was, therefore, decided to go to a type of tube in which the anode would be drawn in one piece and in which as many welds as possible would be eliminated in the assembly of the internal elements. At the same time it was considered desirable to go to a somewhat larger type of structure in which high tension insulation could be more easily provided and a larger tube was, therefore, designed capable of delivering 10 k.w. to an antenna at a plate voltage of 10,000 volts. In this tube all welds except those in the collar are eliminated, the assembly being bolted together. The drawing of the anode did away with the leaks that were troublesome in the older tubes and the manufacture of the tube can be carried out with certainty. With this tube as much as 12 k.w. have been obtained in an artificial antenna working at 12,000 volts. This power was obtained at a frequency of 600,000 cycles corresponding to a wavelength of 500 meters. The difficulties of obtaining this amount of power at this frequency when using a number of smaller tubes in parallel, are obvious to anyone who is acquainted with the problem. On a direct current test the anode was found to be capable of dissipating 26 k.w. when cooled with water. The success which had attended the development of a tube of this high power capacity indicated the possibility of constructing still larger tubes and it was decided to proceed with the development of a tube capable of delivering at least 100 k.w. into an antenna. The development proceeded with a few minor alterations along the lines of the smaller tube, nominally rated at 10 k.w. and the 100 k.w. tube is now developed. The anode which is made of a piece of seamless copper tubing closed by a copper disc welded into the end, is 14 inches long and 3½ inches in diameter. The filament is of tungsten and is .060 inch in diameter and 63.5 inches long. The current required to heat it is 91 amperes, the total amount of power consumed in the filament being approximately 6 k.w. The filament leads are of copper rod one-eighth of an inch in diameter and are sealed through 1 inch copper disc seals. The grid is of molybdenum and is wound around three molybdenum supports. The handling of the parts of this tube during manufacture presents a task of no mean magnitude and numerous fixtures have been devised to assist in the glass working. It has been found necessary for instance to suspend the anode in gimballs during the making of the tube seal owing to its great weight, and special devices have been made to hold the filament grid assembly in place while it is being sealed in, otherwise the strain produced by its weight cause cracking of the seal. The significance of this development in the radio art cannot be overestimated. It makes available tubes in units so large that only a very few would be necessary to operate even the largest radio stations now in service, with all the attendant flexibility of operation which accompanies the use of the vacuum tube. From the standpoint of wireless telephony the development of these high power tubes gives us the possibility of using very much greater amounts of power than have ever been readily available before. The filaments in these tubes have been made so large that the electron emission from them will easily take care of the high peak currents accompanying the transmission of modulated power. The 100 k.w. tube by no means represents the largest tube made possible by the present development. There is no doubt that if the demand should occur for tubes capable of handling much larger amounts of power they could be constructed along these same lines. New Swedish Trans-Oceanic Station (Continued from page 57) Ljungquist, Head of the Royal Telegraph Administration of the Kingdom of Sweden, visited America to inspect the high power station of the Radio Corporation and to particularly see the Alexanderson alternators. The Swedish Riksdag did not act upon the report of the mission and the tenders submitted by the competing companies last year for two reasons, one being the necessity of economy on the part of the Swedish Government itself, another, because of the fact that the Administration was undecided as to whether the vacuum tube or the alternator should be used in the stations. But when the Riksdag met this year it sent a special legislative committee to study the subjects. After hearing its report, the Riksdag recommended the use of the Alexanderson alternator, and authorized the signing of the contract by the Telegraph Administration. The order is considered as especially gratifying because the Swedish engineers are considered among the most advanced in the electrical world in developing and manufacturing apparatus. Advantages of Radio-Frequency Amplification By B. Bradbury Radio Engineer, General Electric Company When receiving very weak radio signals from distant stations it is found that amplification of the audible tones as heard in the telephone receivers is of little or no benefit, since the strength of tube noises, static, or other interference is increased in greater proportion than the signal strength. Under these conditions the most satisfactory signals will often be obtained directly in the output from the detector without additional amplification, since the signal, although weaker, is much more distinct in the telephones than when amplified. To secure a louder signal with good quality, or to receive more distant stations, some other means of amplification must therefore be adopted. This other means is the amplification of the signal frequency as it is received on the antenna, before it reaches the detector. Detector efficiency decreases with a decrease in the energy received, so that if we can increase this energy before it reaches the detector, better efficiency will result. One of the most common methods of obtaining radio frequency amplification is the utilization of regeneration in the detector tube itself. Since perfect rectification does not take place in the detector, a certain amount of radio frequency flows in its plate circuit, so that by coupling this circuit back to the grid or input of the tube, the amplified signal frequency is made to re-energize the grid and cause a still greater change in the variations of the plate current. Regeneration may be accomplished by means of capacitive or inductive back coupling, or a combination of both. Short wave receivers are often constructed with a variable inductance in the plate circuit which can be tuned to the signal frequency. Sufficient voltage is thus built up across the plate circuit to feed a small amount of energy back to the grid through the capacity between the grid and plate within the tube itself. For long wavelengths the tube capacity becomes insufficient for good regeneration, and some additional means must be provided, such as inductive coupling between the grid and plate circuits. This consists of placing a coil of wire in the plate circuit and coupling it back to the input or grid circuit of the tube. Another method of obtaining radio frequency amplification is to use one or more vacuum tubes ahead of the detector tube with suitable coupling between them to transfer the energy from one tube to the next at the signal frequency. As with audio frequency, the coupling between tubes may be resistances, inductances or transformers but they cannot, of course, have the same values as for audio frequency coupling. Just as it is somewhat of a problem to build a transformer which will transfer signal voltages uniformly over a wide range of audio tones, so it is difficult to build transformers which will operate well over a broad range of radio frequencies. Since there is such a great difference in the frequencies of the various wave-lengths in use, it is necessary to change transformers to receive all of the different classes of communication. At short wave-lengths amplification is accompanied by more or less regeneration through the grid and plate capacities of the tubes, as mentioned in connection with detector regeneration. For some wave-lengths the back coupling is sufficient to cause oscillations in the amplifier tubes, and to overcome this tendency some special means must be provided, such as an adjustable grid voltage which can be made positive and thus secure stable operation. Resistance coupling has the disadvantage of letting through tube noises and other audible frequencies, so that it is sometimes difficult to use it with advantage in addition to the regular audio stages following the detector. It has, however, the advantage of being effective over a wide range of frequencies and will therefore give uniform amplification over a broader wavelength band than inductive coupling. Inductive or transformer coupling as previously mentioned, will transfer energy at a limited range of frequencies. For this reason inductances and transformers made for use in the amplification of the high frequencies of short wave-lengths will not transfer tube noises or disturbances which are limited to audible frequencies. Several stages may thus be connected in cascade to amplify the signal without distortion before it reaches the detector. Audio amplification may then be added as desired to obtain whatever volume of sound is found necessary. Three or four stages of radio frequency amplification make it possible to use a loop antenna with good results. For receiving broadcast signals a loop made by winding ten turns of wire, spaced three-eighths of an inch apart on a frame three feet square, is about the right size to use. There are now transformers on the market which will give good signals in conjunction with a loop and the construction of such a set will produce very gratifying results. Improvements in Microphones By Mark Meredith Many attempts have been made to improve the imperfect articulation resulting from the use of the carbon granule type of transmitter, but hitherto no successful substitute has been obtained, and the immense amount of telephone traffic going on every day is maintained by the earliest methods with very little modification. For moderate distances with wire transmission the solid back transmitter is quite satisfactory, but for long-distance working, and especially in radio-telephony, its performance is not so satisfactory. This is due to the fact that it is necessary to employ amplifiers, and imperfections which are unnoticed under ordinary circumstances are amplified as much as the desired variations, so that, although a large volume of sound can be obtained, the articulation is distorted and speech cannot be clearly understood. Under the auspices of the National Institute of Inventors, England, a new type of transmitter has been developed, which is free from the disturbing elements associated with carbon transmitters. The variations in resistance accompanying the usual vibration of a thin diaphragm are accomplished by the movements of an electrode in glowing neon gas, which gives both an invariable value of the resistance when the vibration amplitude is zero and a large proportional change in resistance when vibration takes place. It appears that, owing to the nature of the conductor—an electron stream—there are no inertia effects, and the speech is transmitted with great clearness. This microphone should prove a service in radio-telephony circuits, for a more perfect modulating device is badly needed for this purpose. Meanwhile it has already been applied to the production of sound produced at the same time and synchronised with cinematograph films. A photographic record of light variations, produced by the use of the microphone and a vacuum tube is printed by the side of the cinema picture, and reproduction of the accompanying sounds obtained by selenium and a system of amplifiers. Transmission of power by radio is a very remote possibility. Yet it is true that in some respects, radio power transmission exists today, for the message which you receive by radio has been carried by the power of the electro-magnetic wave from the sending to the receiving station. The sending station sends out electro-magnetic waves of a power of several kilowatts or even hundreds of kilowatts, but this power scatters in all directions and it may be only a fraction of a milliwatt which we receive; that is, less than a millionth part of the power sent out. This small power is sufficient, when amplified, however, to give us the message. The problem of power transmission essentially differs from that of transmission for communication, for in power transmission most, or at least a large part of the power sent out by the generating station, must arrive at the receiving station, to make it economical to transmit the power. Hence, the problem of radio power transmission is that of directing the radio waves so closely that a large part of their power remains together so as to be picked up by the receiving station. Much successful work has been done in directing radio waves and for instance our trans-Atlantic stations send out most of their power eastwards. But still, even as directed, the power scatters over the coasts of Europe from Norway to Spain, so that it is impossible to pick up any substantial part of it. The limits of impossibility of concentrating a beam of radio waves may be illustrated by comparison with a beam of light. Light is an electromagnetic wave, differing from the radio wave merely by having a wavelength many million times shorter. While usually the light scatters in all directions, like the wireless wave, we can direct it in a concentrated beam by the searchlight. But there is inevitably a scattering of the light in the searchlight beam, and when the beam starts perhaps with a square yard section at the searchlight mirror, at 10 miles distance it has at the very best scattered to a diameter of 2,000 feet and at 100 miles distance the beams cover a section of 16 square miles. If it were a beam of radio power, it would thus require at 100 miles distance a receiving station covering 16 square miles—about four miles wide and, what is still more difficult, four miles high, to pick up a large part of the power. The cause of this scattering is twofold. First, the inevitable imperfections of any apparatus. No matter how perfect a reflector, there are slight imperfections, and at 100 miles distance, they seriously count. Furthermore even with an absolutely perfect reflector, the beam of light would stay together only if the light came from a mathematical point. As it must however come from a small area, this causes an inevitable scattering, which at best gives an angle of scattering of about two degrees. This is about 100 times as much as would be permissible to transmit power economically a hundred miles by a direct radio beam. Thus the probability of power transmission by directed radio is very small, except perhaps in very special cases where the distances are moderate and the efficiency of transmission of secondary importance. The second possibility of radio power transmission—at least theoretically—is by resonant vibrations or standing waves. Suppose we had a very large sending station sending out electro-magnetic waves not of hundreds, but of hundreds thousands of millions of kilowatts, and suppose we could find a wave length where the absorption in the passage of the wave through space is sufficiently small so as to be negligible compared with the amount of power. Assuming, first, there were no receiving stations. Then the waves issuing from the sending station would circle the globe and return to the sending station and if the wave-length is adjusted so that the returning wave coincides with the outgoing wave, it would return its power, and little power would be required from the sending station to maintain such a system of high power standing waves, only enough to supply the losses—just as little power is required in a wire transmission system, to maintain the voltage wave, when no current is taken off. Suppose now we erect a second station, tuned for the same wave length as the sending station. It would resonate with the standing electromagnetic wave issuing from the sending station, thereby stop its passage by absorbing its energy. It would as we may say, punch a hole in the standing wave sheet coming from the sending station. Power would then flow into this hole; the sending station would begin to send out additional power to maintain the wave sheet, and this power would be received by the receiving station. Any receiving station of suitable design would then be able to pick up power from the universal power supply carried by the standing wave sheet covering the earth. Also several sending stations might send out power. These might have different wavelengths, which then would not interfere, and the receiving station could be tuned to receive power from any one of the generating stations. Or—what would be preferable—all the generating stations would be tuned to the same wave-length, that is, the same frequency. Then they would have to be synchronized and operate in synchronism, just as electric generating stations on the same transmission line are operated in synchronism. Theoretically, this is very interesting speculation, but whether it could ever become a possibility, would depend on the question whether a radio wave of such length could be found as to make the losses of power by absorption, etc., commercially negligible, and whether stations for such wavelengths and power would be economically feasible. Short Wave Reception vs. Antenna Resistance Tests of Different Antenna Types Show Importance of Correct Installation—Weak Signals Due to High Resistance—Suggestions for Efficient Antenna Construction By Samuel Miller HIGH resistance in the antenna, caused by faulty installation, is responsible for the diverse and sometimes discouraging results achieved in the reception of radio telephone broadcasting and other short-wave signals. Since hundreds of thousands of antennas have been erected in all parts of the country by broadcasting fans, it has been observed that two amateurs, using identical receiving apparatus, may have at the headset or loud speaker signal volumes differing as much as 25 to 1. In the hands of experienced radio men this state of affairs has been rectified in individual cases by a process of observation, and trial and experiment. Given receiving apparatus of known worth, produced by capable manufacturers, the first move of the "radio trouble shooter" after testing batteries, bulbs and crystals, is to go over the antenna system, consisting of aerial and ground. It is there that the trouble often lies. Faulty antenna installation has done more to give unsatisfactory results to the broadcasting amateur than any other single factor. In the vast majority of cases, high resistance in the antenna, resulting from hasty, thoughtless or ignorant installation, is the sole cause of poor receiving. Lowering the resistance by remedying the conditions often brings entirely satisfactory results. The importance of low resistance in the antenna is obvious when it is considered that the flow of current in any circuit, voltage remaining constant, is inversely proportional to the resistance of that circuit. In other words, the less resistance there is in the receiving antenna, the more current will flow in it to and through the set. As the output of the set in volume of sound is dependent on the input of current, the importance of increasing the antenna current as much as possible is evident. It is, even under the best conditions, infinitely small, being only a millionth of an ampere or so, and there is an additional reason for making its path to the receiving set as easy as possible. Astounding improvement frequently is realized by a rearrangement of the antenna in such a way as to secure less resistance. Sometimes the mere matter of a soldered connection, or moving the lead-in six inches further away from the side of the house, or any one of a hundred simple changes, may increase the signal strength 100 or even 1,000 times. The reason for this great improvement is obvious when it is considered that modern vacuum tube sets are capable of amplifying by a factor of many thousands of times. Consequently each drop in antenna resistance, with consequent increase in primary current flow, is multiplied by the amplifying factor of the set. It is a sort of compound interest, and at rates that would bankrupt the biggest bank in the country if forced to pay them for a single hour! Here, then, is an investment of extraordinary profit for the receiving operator to make: go over the antenna, or have it gone over by an expert, and correct all conditions making for high resistance. Just what such conditions are may be seen from the results of tests I have recently made on antennas of all types, in city and country, for the purpose of measuring their characteristics. The most obvious form of high resistance in the antenna circuit consists of imperfect contacts, which need solder. One particularly bad case, which I will report in detail later, showed a resistance of 100 ohms because the amateur had fastened his ground clamp about a pipe without taking the trouble to scrape off the paint. His results were unsatisfactory until the paint was removed, a perfect contact made, and the resistance thus lowered to 28 ohms. When it is considered that a circuit has a resistance of one ohm when it requires a pressure of one volt in order to force a current of one ampere through it, it is to be wondered at that any current at all went through the antenna with the 100 ohms of paint resistance. Cutting the resistance to almost a quarter of its former value multiplied the output of the set many times. During my investigations into antenna efficiency various other factors in resistance developed, such as nearness to grounded metal including pipes and roofs, proximity of the lead-in to the side wall of the building, and even the angle at which the lead-in enters the building. Practically every type of installation was the subject of accurate tests with a special, calibrated measuring set, which I carried about with me, making thorough examinations of each antenna, electrically and mechanically. Through the measuring apparatus I was able to measure directly the resistance, capacity and fundamental wave-length, and calculate the inductance from the last two factors. Inasmuch as the facts observed and conclusions reached form guides for others who may have occasion to examine the efficiency of their own or others' antennas, I am giving here the details of each test. Measuring apparatus such as was especially developed for these tests is not easily available to the average man, but I believe that from the results and analyses published in this article, readers of THE WIRELESS AGE should be able to make material improvements in their antennas, with consequent surprising increases in signal volume, in those cases where high resistance is indicated by the present layout. Antenna 1 The first antenna tested consisted of a single wire, No. 14 insulated copper, 125 feet long connected between two buildings over a grass ground. The ground connection was made to 11 copper strips spread fanwise and buried 18 inches in the ground. Within the house a lead-in 15 feet long went to the receiving set. This antenna showed the following excellent characteristics: \| Distance (Meters) \| Resistance (Ohms) \| \|-------------------\|------------------\| \| 300 \| 12 \| \| 360 \| 10 \| \| 400 \| 9 \| \| 500 \| 9 \| Apparent capacity at 625 meters, .00037 MF. Fundamental wave-length, 180 meters. Inductance, calculated, 24 microhenries. Antenna 2 Single wire, No. 14 insulated copper, 40 feet long, 10 feet high, connected between a tree and a building over grass. Ground connection made to steam radiator. On the broadcasting wave of 360 meters this showed a considerably higher resistance than the first antenna. The constants: \| Resistance \| Meters \| Ohms \| \|------------\|--------\|------\| \| 250 \| " \| 22 \| \| 275 \| " \| 24 \| \| 300 \| " \| 25 \| \| 360 \| " \| 28 \| \| 400 \| " \| 30 \| Apparent capacity at 625 meters, .0002 MF. Fundamental wave-length, below 125 meters. Inductance, calculated, less than 22 microhenries. Antenna 3 This was the same antenna as number 2, but instead of the steam radiator ground a counterpoise was used, consisting of a single wire raised one foot from the ground under the aerial wire. This showed higher resistance than the previous arrangement, adding two ohms to the resistance at 360 meters, and cutting down the signal intensity from a broadcasting station on this wave to only 25 per cent of its previous value—a striking evidence of the importance of resistance. The constants: \| Resistance \| Meters \| Ohms \| \|------------\|--------\|------\| \| 200 \| " \| 17 \| \| 250 \| " \| 22 \| \| 300 \| " \| 27 \| \| 360 \| " \| 30 \| \| 400 \| " \| 32 \| Apparent capacity at 550 meters, .00011 MF. Fundamental wave-length, below 125 meters. Inductance, less than 22 microhenries. Antenna 4 A single wire of No. 14 insulated copper. From the lead-in it runs vertically 80 feet to the roof, touching the building at different points, and then extends 50 feet from the cornice to a point 13 feet over the roof. The ground connection is made to a steam radiator. This showed a high resistance, due to the long stretch of wire touching the side of the building. \| Resistance \| Meters \| Ohms \| \|------------\|--------\|------\| \| 300 \| " \| 39 \| \| 360 \| " \| 40 \| \| 400 \| " \| 42 \| \| 500 \| " \| 48 \| Apparent capacity at 600 meters, .00044 MF. Fundamental wave-length, 210 meters. Inductance, 28 microhenries. Antenna 5 A single wire consisting of 7 strands of No. 22 phosphor bronze. It runs from the lead-in horizontally 30 feet at a height of 8 feet above grassy ground, and then back at an angle to the roof, a distance of 150 feet. The ground connection is made to a steam radiator. (Continued) \| Resistance \| Meters \| Ohms \| \|------------\|--------\|------\| \| 360 \| " \| 10 \| \| 400 \| " \| 10 \| \| 500 \| " \| 9 \| Apparent capacity at 650 meters, .00049 MF. Fundamental wave-length, 260 meters. Inductance, 39 microhenries. Antenna 6 This is an ambitious-appearing four-wire T-type antenna, but showed a resistance that is relatively high. The wire is 7-strand No. 22 phosphor bronze. The horizontal portion is 70 feet long, 10 feet above the roof of a 7-story apartment house. The wires are three feet apart. The lead-in runs down to a point 30 feet below the roof, passing only one foot away from an iron leader pipe. There also is a galvanized iron chimney partially grounded, only 5 inches away from one of the outside wires of the antenna. The resistance shown is no doubt due in part to the proximity of the leader pipe and chimney. \| Resistance \| Meters \| Ohms \| \|------------\|--------\|------\| \| 300 \| " \| 30 \| \| 360 \| " \| 22 \| \| 400 \| " \| 20 \| \| 500 \| " \| 19 \| Apparent capacity at 850 meters, .0007 MF. Fundamental wave-length, 240 meters. Inductance, 23 microhenries. Antenna 7 A single wire of No. 14 bare copper. Located on the roof of a one-story building, 65 feet long, 12 feet above roof, with a 30-foot lead-in, running downward one foot from the side of the building. Ground connection to a water pipe. A metal leader pipe runs diagonally across the path of the lead-in, 10 inches from it. \| Resistance \| Meters \| Ohms \| \|------------\|--------\|------\| \| 200 \| " \| 15 \| \| 250 \| " \| 15 \| \| 300 \| " \| 18 \| \| 360 \| " \| 23 \| \| 400 \| " \| 26 \| \| 500 \| " \| 26 \| Apparent capacity at 425 meters, .00008 MF. Fundamental wave-length, 145 meters. Inductance, 74 microhenries. Antenna 8 A single wire of No. 14 bare copper. It stretches for a length of 100 feet from a pole 40 feet high to the cornice of a 2-story building, over a grassy ground. The lead-in is brought down vertically for 20 feet and at a distance of 6 inches from the building. The ground connection is made to the water pipe. \| Resistance \| Meters \| Ohms \| \|------------\|--------\|------\| \| 250 \| " \| 13 \| \| 300 \| " \| 11 \| \| 360 \| " \| 9 \| \| 400 \| " \| 8 \| \| 500 \| " \| 6 \| Apparent capacity at 550 meters, .00035 MF. Fundamental wave-length, 195 meters. Inductance, 30 microhenries. Antenna 9 Two wire antenna, 7-strand No. 22 phosphor bronze. It stretches 135 feet on the top of a six-story building, across a courtyard to the top of another building, at a height of 14 feet above the roof. The wires are separate 3 feet, and the lead-in is connected to the flat top 15 feet from one end, running down an airshaft for 50 feet, 1½ feet from the wall. The ground connection is made to a water pipe. This antenna gave a classic example of high resistance, showing 100 ohms at 360 meters. Investigation revealed that the amateur had fastened his ground clamp over the water pipe without first scraping away the paint. This was corrected, and the following results obtained: Resistance \| Distance (Meters) \| Resistance (Ohms) \| \|------------------\|-------------------\| \| 360 \| 28 \| \| 400 \| 25 \| \| 500 \| 20 \| \| 600 \| 20 \| Apparent capacity at 850 meters, .00081 MF. Fundamental wave-length, 295 meters. Inductance, 11 microhenries. Antenna 10 Single wire No. 14 insulated copper, stretching from the water tank of a 12-story building down an airshaft for 140 feet. Ground connection made to a steam radiator. Two sets of measurements were made here. The first were taken directly at the lead-in insulator, in other words, neglecting the lead-in, which was 50 feet long around the moulding of a room. This first test showed the following results: Resistance \| Distance (Meters) \| Resistance (Ohms) \| \|------------------\|-------------------\| \| 250 \| 19 \| \| 300 \| 15 \| \| 360 \| 13 \| \| 400 \| 14 \| \| 500 \| 15 \| Apparent capacity at 600 meters, .00039 MF. Fundamental wave-length, 205 meters. Inductance, 30 microhenries. The second test was made at the end of the 50-foot lead-in, and gave much higher resistances. Resistance \| Distance (Meters) \| Resistance (Ohms) \| \|------------------\|-------------------\| \| 250 \| 40 \| \| 300 \| 25 \| \| 360 \| 27 \| \| 400 \| 22 \| \| 500 \| 22 \| Apparent capacity at 650 meters, .00041 MF. Fundamental wave-length, 195 meters. Inductance, 26 microhenries. Antenna 11 Single wire of No. 14 bare copper, stretching from the roof of a 12-story building down and outward for 100 feet to the roof of a 4-story building. The antenna then turns inward and runs 55 feet to the lead-in insulator, 25 feet of this distance across the front of a building. The lead-in inside the room is 20 feet long. Ground connection is made to a steam radiator. Resistance \| Distance (Meters) \| Resistance (Ohms) \| \|------------------\|-------------------\| \| 360 \| 25 \| \| 400 \| 22 \| \| 500 \| 17 \| (Antenna 11—Continued) \| Distance (Meters) \| Resistance (Ohms) \| \|------------------\|-------------------\| \| 600 \| 17 \| \| 700 \| 17 \| Apparent capacity at 800 meters, .00074 MF. Fundamental wave-length, 325 meters. Inductance, 40 microhenries. Antenna 12 Single wire of No. 14 insulated wire, stretching between a tree and a bamboo pole for a length of 90 feet, at a height of 15 feet. The ground connection is made by driving a number of iron spikes in the earth to a depth of 10 inches. The soil under the antenna is very rocky. Resistance \| Distance (Meters) \| Resistance (Ohms) \| \|------------------\|-------------------\| \| 200 \| 40 \| \| 250 \| 50 \| \| 300 \| 50 \| \| 360 \| 90 \| \| 400 \| 80 \| \| 500 \| 80 \| Apparent capacity at 550 meters, .00026 MF. Fundamental wave-length, 135 meters. Inductance, 19 microhenries. Antenna 13 This is the same as No. 12, but instead of the very poor iron spike ground, a single wire counterpoise of No. 14 insulated wire is used. This has the effect of cutting the resistance exactly in half at 360 meters, although the resistance at 200 meters was more than doubled. Resistance \| Distance (Meters) \| Resistance (Ohms) \| \|------------------\|-------------------\| \| 200 \| 90 \| \| 250 \| 50 \| \| 300 \| 50 \| \| 360 \| 45 \| \| 400 \| 45 \| \| 500 \| 45 \| Apparent capacity at 500 meters, .0002 MF. Fundamental wave-length, 180 meters. Inductance, 45 microhenries. Antenna 14 Single wire antenna of No. 12 bare copper wire, fastened to a water tank on top of a six-story building, 15 feet above the roof, stretching downward at an angle for 70 feet to the cornice, whence it falls 40 feet, about one foot away from the front of the building. Ground connection made to a steam radiator. With this antenna the enormous resistance of 400 ohms was registered at 250 meters, as shown below. This was probably due to the fact that the radiator piping system before it is grounded to earth is in effect a loop which is resonant to 250 meters. At that wave length it absorbs a large amount of energy. A startling proof of this may be seen by comparing the figures below with antenna 15, the same installation, but with a water pipe ground. Resistance \| Distance (Meters) \| Resistance (Ohms) \| \|------------------\|-------------------\| \| 200 \| 21 \| \| 225 \| 55 \| \| 240 \| 190 \| \| 250 \| 400 \| \| 275 \| 160 \| \| 300 \| 44 \| Antenna 14—Continued \| Distance (Meters) \| Resistance (Ohms) \| \|------------------\|-------------------\| \| 325 \| 22 \| \| 360 \| 12 \| \| 400 \| 9 \| \| 500 \| 7 \| Apparent capacity at 650 meters, .00036 MF. Fundamental wave-length, 180 meters. Inductance, 25 microhenries. Antenna 15 Same antenna as No. 14, but using a water pipe ground instead of the connection to the steam radiator. \| Distance (Meters) \| Resistance (Ohms) \| \|------------------\|-------------------\| \| 250 \| 17 \| \| 300 \| 12 \| \| 360 \| 12 \| \| 400 \| 10 \| \| 500 \| 10 \| Apparent capacity at 650 meters, .00037 MF. Fundamental wave-length, 230 meters. Inductance, 40 microhenries. Antenna 16 Single wire of No. 16 bare copper, running for a length of 60 feet horizontally across the front of a building, 1 foot from the wall. Ground connection to a steam radiator, which caused the same sudden increase of resistance at 250 meters as noted in the previous case, with the same solving of the problem by using a water pipe ground. \| Distance (Meters) \| Resistance (Ohms) \| \|------------------\|-------------------\| \| 200 \| 25 \| \| 225 \| 50 \| \| 250 \| 320 \| \| 275 \| 140 \| \| 300 \| 45 \| \| 360 \| 19 \| \| 400 \| 15 \| \| 500 \| 19 \| Apparent capacity at 550 meters, .00024 MF. Fundamental wave-length, 120 meters. Inductance, 17 microhenries. Antenna 17 This is the same antenna as the previous one, but using a water pipe ground instead of the steam radiator, thereby revealing normal resistance. Resistance \| Distance (Meters) \| Resistance (Ohms) \| \|------------------\|-------------------\| \| 200 Meters \| 22 Ohms \| \| 250 \| 20 \| \| 300 \| 17 \| \| 360 \| 17 \| \| 400 \| 17 \| \| 500 \| 17 \| Apparent capacity at 500 meters, .00024 MF. Fundamental wave-length, 180 meters. Inductance, 38 microhenries. Measuring Outfit The instruments used for measuring the antennas consist of a calibrated oscillator with a wave length range between 150 and 800 meters and the measuring unit proper. The entire outfit has been so built that both units can be easily carried by one person to all parts of the city and country, thus enabling one to make the measurements of antennas under all conditions. The oscillator is composed of a Western Electric Type "N" tube allowing the use of a dry cell for lighting the filament. A potential of 45 volts is required on the plate, which is supplied by two small "B" batteries. Both the plate and grid oscillating coils are tapped inductors of the General Radio Type 226A, the maximum inductance of each being approximately 280 microhenries. The tuning condenser has a maximum capacity of 0.00007 microfarad. The coupling coil is 4" in diameter and is wound with 4 turns of annunciator wire. The leads to this coil are copper shielded as is also the box in which the entire set is placed. A wiring diagram of the oscillator is shown in figure 2. The measuring unit can be used either for measuring the resistance, the apparent capacity or the fundamental wave-length of an antenna; the inductance is calculated from the apparent capacity and fundamental wave length. This unit consists essentially of a series tuning circuit and a dummy antenna circuit, the latter to be substituted for the antenna to be measured. In series with the antenna circuit is a units and tens resistance box, across which is placed a galena crystal detector in series with a galvanometer. A diagram of this unit is shown in figure 3. The method of measuring the antenna resistance is by coupling the oscillator coupling coil to the measuring outfit and setting the oscillator at some definite wave-length. The series tuning circuit is varied until resonance is obtained by indication of maximum galvanometer deflection. By means of a throw-over switch the antenna is disconnected and the series tuning circuit is connected across the dummy antenna circuit, which in turn is tuned for the resonance by observing the galvanometer for maximum deflection. Resistance is then added in the dummy antenna circuit until the same galvanometer deflection is obtained as with the antenna in the circuit; the added resistance represents the antenna resistance. This comparison method of measuring antenna resistance has been checked and found reliable by laboratory investigations. Figure 4 shows the method of measuring antenna resistance. The apparent capacity measured is practically the static capacity of the antenna, and is obtained by using the maximum inductance in the series tuning coil and varying the oscillator until resonance is had. In this measurement the series tuning condenser is short-circuited. By switching over to the dummy antenna circuit, the condenser in this circuit is then varied until resonance is again obtained, the condenser reading representing the apparent capacity. For convenience this instrument is calibrated directly in micro-micro farads. In figure 5 is shown the circuit used in measuring the apparent capacity. For measuring the fundamental wave-length, the antenna is put in series with a single 4-inch loop to which is coupled the oscillator. The oscillator is varied until resonance is obtained by maximum deflection in the galvanometer. The wave-length is obtained from the oscillator condenser reading and a consultation of a calibrated curve sheet, made easily accessible by pasting on the inside of the box. Figure 6 shows the circuit used in making this measurement. Suggestions on Antenna Construction In conclusion, a few precautions in construction details on the installation of an antenna are necessary. 1. Keep the flat top and lead-in away from metallic grounded substances. 2. Be sure that you have a ground connection as perfect as possible. Solder this connection, as the solder will not hold unless you have a clean surface. The water pipe should be used in preference to other grounded metallic pipes. 3. The dielectric losses are low, and hence the resistance is smaller for an antenna stretched across a grass ground than over a building. --- A Convenient Change-Over Switch By Edward W. Vail To avoid unnecessarily using current from a storage battery on nearby reception or to listen in between selections when a loud speaker is used, it is very convenient to be able to receive on a crystal, to amplify the crystal reception, to receive with one tube or, as usual, with a detector tube and one or more amplifiers. All of this may be done by using the switch shown in the accompanying diagram. The switch is simply one like those used for putting the primary condenser in series or parallel with the oscillation transformer, except that there are ten contacts for the ends of the switch arms instead of eight, and an auxiliary contact in one position. The connections are shown in the accompanying schematic diagram. In position (1) the detector tube is in circuit with the receiving phone socket $P$ and the B battery. In position (2) the detector tube is connected with the B battery and the amplifying transformer. In position (3) the crystal is in circuit with the amplifying transformer, and in position (4) the crystal is in circuit with the phone socket $P$. These phone sockets receive the well-known two-pin phone plug. The left-hand connecting strip of the control switch has an auxiliary spring contact as indicated by the inner arrow for making the return connection to the secondary transformer circuit when the crystal is connected with the amplifying transformer. The above arrangement is fool proof and short circuits none of the batteries in passing from one position to another on the switch points. Obviously one A battery may be used for the three tubes. The same series of circuit arrangements may be accomplished by a cylindrical switch, but the switch here described, is simpler and takes up less room. The same switch may be adapted for use with a detector tube, crystal and with the new Armstrong super-regenerative circuit as well. The switch is particularly useful in helping to locate loose connections or other "bugs." Miniature Warfare Direction by Oklahoma National Guard Radio The First National Guard Organization to Use Radio in Sham Battles and Other Military Maneuvers It remained for the Oklahoma National Guards to be the first national guard organization in the United States to use radio as a means for conducting sham battles and other maneuvers during their encampment. While radio has been used to some extent in guard work, the Oklahoma organization added a radio unit to its organization during their encampment at Fort Sill this year and the success with which the new unit met and worked was demonstrated on July 28th when a sham battle was staged; the movements of the troops and all orders being delivered by radio. The orders were received from Fort Sam Houston, Tex., over the radio at the central station DM6 at Post Field, Okla., and were relayed from the central station, which was under the directorship of Lieut. Earl C. Hull, to the station located in the field, where the battle started. Two loud speakers were placed on the field and the orders were heard by the entire regiment of infantry and artillery, who were on their toes to start the moment orders were received from Fort Sam Houston. Two airplanes equipped with radio sets hovered over the battle field and four crews equipped with field radio sets progressed from the main field station following the troops. During the entire engagement, which lasted for several hours, the radio worked without a hitch and the orders could be heard and transmitted to the officers in charge above the roar of the cannons and the popping of the rifles. Preliminary to the sham battle a school was conducted for two weeks by Lieut. Hull, to which every organization in the guard sent picked men. Lieut. Hull was a former instructor over seas with the A.E.F. and has been a student of radio for the past twelve years. "Radio and the airships are going to be the biggest factors in the next war and in the civilian life of the American people and that is why I want the Oklahoma National Guard to be on their toes and up in radio work," said Col. J. P. O'Neil, senior instructor of the Oklahoma guards. Good Work by 1IV on 10 Watts The amateur station of C. H. Campbell, 66 Vine Street, Bridgeport, Conn., 1 IV, is one which is known by hundreds of amateurs throughout the eastern part of the country who have either worked with it or heard it. The transmitter consists of two UV-202 radiotrons in a full-wave, self-rectifying circuit. High voltage is obtained from a 200-watt Acme transformer. The key is in the primary and a separate transformer is used to light the filaments. The antenna current is 2.5 amperes. The receiving equipment consists of a Z-Nith regenerator, home made two-step amplifier, and Baldwin phones. With this receiver, amateurs' signals from all districts, except the sixth and seventh, and broadcasting stations as far as KYW (Chicago), have been heard. The antenna is an inverted "L" of 4 wires, spaced 2 feet apart. It is 55 feet long and 40 feet high. The lead-in is a 6-inch cage. A counterpoise ground is used. It is fan-shaped and is directly under the antenna, 6 feet above the earth. It contains 9 wires 60 feet long. Both the antenna and counterpoise are electrose insulated and all joints are soldered. The antenna resistance is seven ohms. Signals of 1 IV have been reported from 20 states and Canada. The station has worked amateur stations in 14 states and Canada, and was reported by a ship off Cuba last January, a distance of 1,280 miles. 1IV is an official relay station and handles considerable traffic. An Efficient Loop Circuit By Clyde B. Gardenier Every amateur is interested in radio frequency, either to increase his range or make local broadcasting stations come in louder. It is invaluable to those forbidden the use of outdoor antennas. A combination of radio and audio frequency amplification and loop reception is the natural solution to these problems. Since detector efficiency is directly proportional to the energy received, it is necessary to amplify the signal frequency as received on the loop, before it reaches the detector. Perfect rectification does not take place in the detector tube itself, a certain amount of radio frequency flowing in the plate circuit. By coupling this circuit back to the grid, the amplified signal frequency is made to energize the grid once more and cause increased variations in the plate current. This regeneration feature may be accomplished by a coil of wire in the plate circuit coupled back to the grid of the tube through a fixed condenser. Sufficient voltage is built up by this impedance to feed some back to the grid. The accompanying diagram shows a circuit embodying these principles that is very efficient and at the same time extremely simple. The first tube is made to perform the two functions of amplification at radio frequency and detection. One step of audio frequency amplification added produces sufficient intensity of sound to operate a loud speaker. The inductive back coupling is obtained with a 100-turn honeycomb coil and fixed condenser of .002 mfd. capacity. The tube is a Radiotron No. 200 with 45 volts on the plate. Several of these tubes have been used in the circuit and it is found that they work efficiently with a plate voltage up to 50, with an increase in signal strength in direct proportion to the applied voltage. Amplifying at audio frequency is a simple undertaking, consisting merely of its transformer, Radiotron No. 201, and rheostat. With 9 turns No. 18 lamp cord wire, ½ inch apart, on a 3-foot loop, radio programs are received from WJZ, WBAY, etc.; the music being heard comfortably throughout a 5-room apartment; and without the static and other foreign noises accompanying the outdoor antenna. The loop is tuned to 360 meters with a 23-plate condenser at 64 degrees. Amateurs come in at 95 degrees, but for this class of work it is recommended to cut down the turns on the loop to six. The set has two controls and means to turn the loop. Operating Suggestions for Armstrong Super-Regenerative Circuit By Burton S. Clark In the Boston Globe To those who have tried the new "super" circuit without really getting first-class results the following experiences that I have had with it may be of interest and benefit. For the last two weeks I have been so fortunate as to do some experimenting on the new circuit with Prof. Newell in the electrical engineering laboratory at Worcester Polytechnic Institute. It certainly works and the strength of signals is truly remarkable, but we did not find it very selective, especially on code. Eighth, 6th, 4th, 3d and 2d district stations came in and 1st district amateur stations were too numerous to mention. Music from Schenectady, Newark and other nearer broadcast stations came in splendidly when properly tuned, and this brings me to some of the real points of the circuit. The circuit has to be very carefully tuned, a "hair" one way resulting in excessive regeneration—indicated by a rushing and hissing noise in the phones—a "hair" the other way and numerous harmonics result, as noted by the "canaries." There is just one place for the signal. The regeneration is very critical to control in the first tube. A fine control over the filament current of this tube is essential for satisfactory operation. Changing the position of the lower lead from the loop and changing taps on the variocoupler, when this type of tuning unit is employed, may help in tuning. The batteries, both filament lighting and plate, should be kept up to normal, as the tubes, especially when putting the circuit into operation, must be burned brighter than usual. In the case of the low-frequency oscillator (second tube) it may be found that once oscillation has been established in it the filament current may be reduced considerably and still preserve the oscillatory state. This effect is more pronounced when L-1500 coil is shunted by a 0.0005 variable condenser. I found that better results were obtained when the plate circuit of the oscillator tube was tuned instead of the grid circuit which contains the coil L-1200, placing a fixed capacitance of 0.0002 microfarads across L-1200. The best improvement noted in our experiments occurred when a choke coil and very small condenser were placed between the plate and grid of the oscillator in the two-tube circuit. This trap was used instead of the L-250 coil commonly employed. The condenser was of fixed value and its capacity was approximately 0.00025. The choke used was the primary winding of an audio-frequency amplifying transformer. The effect of this change was to stabilize the circuit and increase signal strength. UV-201 tubes were used with marked success with a negative grid bias of 3½ to 4½ volts on the first tube and 9 to 10 volts on the grid of the oscillator. VT-1's were tried with good results. Fine results were obtained with "L" tubes, but these tubes require more filament current and greater negative bias on the grids. The "B" battery voltages employed varied between 65 and 120 volts. This potential did not appear to be critical when a value sufficient for operation of the tubes was obtained. The negative bias on the oscillator tube was found to be quite critical and different values should be tried. When the two-tube circuit is working properly it is not advisable to wear the head phones, as there is sufficient energy available to satisfactorily operate a loud speaker. If phones are used they may be placed nearby on the table. We operated a loud speaker connected directly to the phone terminals in the two-tube circuit, which gave signals of very good audibility. The circuit showing inductive coupling in the oscillator tube circuits is practical and can be nicely controlled when used in a two-coil mount. This circuit, however, is not as stable in operation as one employing capacity coupling and is consequently more difficult to adjust and tune. If the circuit employing inductive coupling is used, a variable condenser of 0.0005 microfarads may be connected across the plate inductance to advantage. In conclusion, I may say that the super-regenerative circuit is a splendid one when carefully worked out, and those who have not as yet met with much success in operating it need not be discouraged, for excellent results can be obtained with it. December Trans-Atlantic Tests The third series of trans-Atlantic amateur tests will be conducted by the American Radio Relay League in co-operation with the radio amateurs of England, France and Holland. The tests will be conducted from December 12th, to December 31st, 1922, inclusive. During the first ten days of the tests, American and Canadian amateurs will transmit signals for reception by the radio amateurs of the European countries. Those of the American and Canadian transmitters making the best records as determined by reception reports from the European amateurs, will be used to transmit the results of reception by American and Canadian radio amateurs when the English and French radio amateurs are transmitting. For the first time in the history of amateur radio, American and Canadian amateurs will have an opportunity to demonstrate their skill in receiving amateur signals from across the Atlantic. As a result of the success of the A. R. R. L. trans-Atlantic tests of last December, when thirty radio amateur transmitters succeeded in bridging the Atlantic, the French Government has permitted the issuance of several amateur transmitting licenses, while the British Post Office Department has issued a special permit to the Wireless Society of Manchester to use a power of 1,000 watts of continuous wave energy for the express purpose of establishing amateur radio communication with the amateurs of the United States. The American and Canadian amateurs are highly optimistic in reviewing their chance of hearing the British amateurs using this amount of power, since several American amateurs using less than 500 watts of C. W. energy were heard by Paul F. Godley, who was at Ardrossan, Scotland, last winter. Mr. Godley is arranging to establish his record breaking receiver at some point on the north Atlantic coast during the coming tests with the idea of copying signals from the European amateur stations. Announcement A series of preliminary tests, for the purpose of determining what American and Canadian transmitters shall be given a place in the final tests with an individual schedule and code letters, will be conducted from October 25th to November 3rd inclusive. To qualify for the final tests a transmitter must cover a distance of at least 1,200 miles. The preliminary tests will cover a period of two and one-half hours (9:30 P. M. to midnight, central standard time) each night, which is divided into ten periods of fifteen minutes each. Transmission will take place by inspection districts. One district will transmit at a time, all others remaining silent in an endeavor to copy as many of the transmitting stations as possible. After the tests each night, the receiving stations are to send a confirming record to all transmitters heard at a distance of 1,200 air line miles or over, and operators of transmitting stations must file at least one 1,200 mile record to be eligible for the trans-Atlantic tests. French Amateur Station 8AB This Experimental Station, the First of Its Kind in France and the First to Communicate With Amateurs in England—An Interesting Story of Development Which Many American Amateurs Will Appreciate The licensing of amateur experimental stations by the French Government last winter has already resulted in the achievement of some very interesting results in the way of communication between a French amateur station and several English stations. French amateur station 8AB, Nice, France, owned and operated by Leon Deloy, has been particularly successful in transmitting to English amateurs according to a description of the station in "The Wireless World" of London. The aerial which was used in all the transmission experiments is an umbrella type, consisting of three bronze wires of two millimeters diameter (.078 inch) and 25 meters (82 feet) of effective length. They are extended by insulated cables and suspended from their point of connection by an ebonite insulator attached to the lightning conductor of the house where the station is situated. The mean height of this aerial from the ground is about 20 meters, or 65½ feet. The lead-in wire, which is taken from the top of the aerial, is about 10 meters long (32.8 feet) to the point where it reaches the instruments; this is also a bronze wire two millimeters (.078 inch) in diameter. As soon as the necessary authority had been received for conducting experiments in transmission, a valve transmitter was installed. The connections were those shown in the circuit diagram given in figure 1. The tube was an ordinary receiving tube, type T.M. Alternating current from the city mains was used for the filament, using a small tapped Ferrix transformer to step down the voltage. The coils used for the primary and secondary were coils which had served in the construction of a heterodyne. They consisted of 300 turns of No. 24 wire for the anode and aerial coil, wound on a cardboard cylinder 15 centimeters (5.89 inches) in diameter, and for the grid coil 250 turns wound on a cylinder 12 centimeters (4.7 inches) in diameter. The condenser of the grid coil was an ordinary receiving condenser of a capacity of 0.00075 microfarad. The plate voltage was supplied by a Ferrix transformer giving 250 volts at the secondary. The station was soon improved in the following manner. The key, instead of being placed in the earth lead, was placed in the primary of the high tension transformer, in order to avoid all possibility of shocks to the operator. The second improvement consisted in employing two tubes in parallel in place of one, and the signals of the station were at once heard at Cros-de-Cagnes at a distance of about 11 kilometers, or 6.8 miles. A high tension transformer was next installed which gave 500 volts at the secondary in place of 250. In these circumstances the plates of the tubes heated quickly, but for telegraphic transmission, where the signals are never of long duration, this did not constitute a serious difficulty. With this circuit completed, a 4-volt lamp, with a carbon filament, was put in series with the earth lead, in order to indicate by its brilliance approximately the best adjustment of the apparatus, and to facilitate adjustments. With this addition the station was rendered more powerful by employing four tubes in place of two. The energy transferred to the aerial was then found to have been greatly augmented. The station's signals were heard on the first test at Antives, a distance of about 18 kilometers, or 11.16 miles. Up to this stage the earth connection had been simply to the water-pipe and now, with the assistance given by the lamp in the earth lead, it was found that by connecting the earth lead in turn to water, gas and central heating connections, and to the lightning conductor, the energy in the antenna was increased. The first transmission had been made on a wave-length of 1,580 meters. During tests made at a later period the wavelength was reduced to 960, then 725, and finally 525, employing other coils in the oscillating circuit. For 525 meters the same coils were employed which had been used for a long while in the receiving apparatus. The plate and aerial coil consisted of 120 turns of bell wire coiled on a cardboard cylinder 75 millimeters (2.9 inches) in diameter and the grid coil 100 turns of No. 24 wire, coiled on a cardboard cylinder 55 millimeters (2.14 inches) in diameter. At this stage the four receiving tubes were replaced by two 50-watt transmitting tubes, the connections being modified in the following manner. The transformer of 500 volts was replaced by a transformer of 1,000 and 2,000 volts. A fixed condenser was inserted in the plate circuit to allow the passage of H.F. currents, while a choke coil inserted between the secondary of the high tension transformer and the plates prevented the transfer of high frequency currents into the secondary. A grid condenser shunted by a resistance was also inserted as shown in figure 2. By earthing a receiving aerial which had before been left insulated during transmission, a considerable increase in aerial current was obtained. The aerial coil and the grid coil were later replaced by an oscillation transformer, constructed in the following manner. The exterior coil was formed of a copper tube 7 millimeters (.283 inch) in diameter, wound in a spiral of 20 centimeters (7.8 inches) diameter, and consisting of about 30 turns spaced 7 millimeters (.283 inch) apart. With this coil two metallic clips were used which permitted connection to be made to the aerial and plate wherever desired. The grid coil was constructed of bronze wire three millimeters (.117 inch) in diameter, and consisted of 25 turns on a diameter of 17 centimeters (6.68 inches) a metallic clip allowing the required number of turns to be included in the circuit. An aerial ammeter was included and thereafter all adjustments were made following its indications and with the successive improvements described, the antenna current gradually rose from one-tenth of an ampere to three amperes. Later on, when the antenna current registered 2½ amperes, the signals were heard at Bonifacio, about 300 kilometers (180 miles) distant. The replacement of all the earth leads which went from the apparatus to water, gas and other connections, by strip, and the elimination of all unnecessary joints in the high frequency circuit, resulted in increasing the antenna current from 3 to 4 amperes. At the same time the wave-length was reduced to 360 meters in order to get away from interference caused by numerous stations working on 600 meters spark. With 4 amperes in the aerial, the signals were received at Amiens, about 800 kilometers (480 miles) distance. At this time the two 50-watt tubes were replaced by one 250-watt tube, the aerial current remaining at 4 amperes, but the valve was much less forced. At this stage tests were undertaken with the experimental station of Mr. Burnham, 2FQ, at London. Mr. Burnham was putting 2½ amperes into his aerial, and had every hope of being received at Nice. Actually, after some days' unsuccessful efforts, his signals were received very strongly. Signals from Nice had been received regularly by another London amateur, at a distance of about 1,100 kilometers, or 660 miles. Then English 2FQ heard French 8AB and they were able to communicate very easily both ways several times in the evening. The signals of 8AB were also received by an amateur in Aberdeen, Scotland, at a distance of 1,700 kilometers, or 1,020 miles. The station has also communicated with 2OM, another amateur station in London, and has also received excellent signals from 2CV. The arrangement of the circuit in use at present is shown in figure 2, the only difference being that two 250-watt tubes are now being used in parallel and the antenna current is normally from 4 to 5 amperes. For the information of amateurs who may care to construct a similar station, the following dimensions of the principal pieces of apparatus not already described are given: The plate condenser is composed of 40 photographic plates 18 x 24 centimeters (7 x 9.4 inches) to separate the foils. The grid condensed is composed of 10 glass plates 5 x 18 centimeters (1.9 x 7 inches) separating sheets of tinfoil. The grid resistance is of a special type not yet patented. The choke coil is composed of 250 turns of No. 24 wire on a cardboard cylinder 12 centimeters (4.7 inches) in diameter. Eliminating Capacity Effects It is not the purpose of this article to treat with the phenomena of stray capacities further than necessary to explain to the reader the methods used to eliminate or counteract their effects in radio circuits. The suggestions offered below are the result of extensive observation of radio apparatus both of amateur and commercial rating. It is unnecessary to explain at length the effects of stray capacity. They are too obvious and are met with too often in much of the apparatus that is in use today. Often the expenditure of a little time in hunting them up and even less in correcting them would result in a much more satisfactory functioning of the apparatus in hand whether it be for reception or transmission. If the reader is constructing a set of either type a careful resume of the suggestions below will be advisable. The first point that will be considered will be the antenna system. It is upon this that the whole station is dependent. Most of the things which have to do with capacity in this structure are brought out in the designing of a correct antenna, but sad to relate they are very rarely observed in practice and therefore they are emphasized here. The "lead-in" must be as nearly stationary as possible. In shortwave C.W. transmission a swinging "lead-in" will cause a great deal of wavelength variation, especially if it is very near the side of a building. About the only way to remedy this is to have your antenna as nearly taut as possible and then to stretch the "lead-in" from it to the "lead-in" insulator on the building. Other points to be observed about the antenna system are: Keeping the resistance as low as possible, and if you use a counterpoise be sure that it is well insulated from the ground. Always make allowance when figuring your insulation for damp and rainy weather. Also use wooden supports for your counterpoise. We will now take up one of the most troublesome of stray capacities; i.e., body capacity. In using the ordinary vacuum tube "hook-up," the effects of body capacity are as a rule unnoticed, but with the regenerative tuner they are usually manifest to a most disagreeable extent. They are caused by the introduction of an imperfect dielectric, which is as a rule the hand, into the capacity field which surrounds the tuner. Often this field is of large extent and the movement of a person within several feet of the tuner when it is oscillating can be noticed. The best and only practical method of getting rid of this field is to line the whole box which incloses the apparatus with thin sheet copper and ground this lining. Care should be taken that no apparatus is in contact with it and moving parts should be placed at such a distance that in no portion of their rotation will they touch it. Sharp edges and corners should be avoided as much as possible in the construction of this lining. The above method will admit of much variation according to the means of the designer. In place of using copper as a shield a fine brass mesh may be used or even the coating of the whole inside of the cabinet with tin-foil held in place with shellac. The same precautions that are taken with the copper lining are to be observed in this case, too, and care should be taken that each part of the foil is in contact with the adjacent portion. Often it is not necessary to shield the whole cabinet and a shield covering the inside of the panel will eliminate most of the effects due to body capacity. Another method of eliminating body capacity, although in the strictest sense it is not elimination, is to use extended controls for the various adjustments to be made. Often this is not satisfactory due to one control interfering with another especially where the panel is rather crowded. If you desire to use this method, extension handles may be purchased from several well-known radio companies and they can be obtained equipped with a dial. If your income is limited these extension handles can be made from glass rods or from hard rubber or bakelite rods. Convenient methods of attaching these handles to the apparatus for which they are intended should suggest themselves to the constructor. Verniers are especially desirable, equipped with these anti-capacity controls. (Continued on page 77) Amrad Radio-Frequency Transformer The American Radio and Research Corporation of Medford Hillside, Mass., has brought out a radio-frequency transformer, known as a "radioformer," for use with their line of Amrad receiving equipment. This radio-frequency amplifier is available in two types—No. 3071, particularly for use with Amrad short wave tuner No. 2596 and Amrad detector 2-Stage amplifier No. 2634; and No. 3045 for use with any of the Amrad units comprising the well-known Amrad unit system. Amrad radio-frequency amplifier No. 3045 may also be employed with any tuner or detector units now available. Both types are identical, except that No. 3071 is encased in a cabinet with rounded corners while No. 3045 is provided with square corners. New Type of Roller-Smith Galvanometers The Roller-Smith Company has developed and now offers two different types of galvanometers, one or the other of which will be found to meet practically any requirement. These instruments were designed with the particular requirements of educational institutions and laboratories in mind. These galvanometers will also be of interest to anyone who is concerned in electrical measurements involving the use of a bridge network. These instruments are offered with the assurance that every detail of design and workmanship is up to the exacting standard which the Roller-Smith Company has constantly before it. The case of the Type KGD galvanometer, designed particularly for student use, is polished black walnut with highly finished hard rubber top. The binding posts have non-removable tops. A zero adjuster is conveniently located on the front of the case. The dial is pure white bristol-board. A knife-edge pointer is provided. The scale divisions are uniform with 5 divisions on both sides of zero. The instrument is well damped. The case of Type LGD, designed for applications where sensitivity, accurateness and ruggedness are essential, is selected beautifully finished black walnut with heavy beveled plate glass front, which affords a complete view of the mechanism. A zero adjuster is conveniently located on the end of the case and the pointer can easily be adjusted to zero. The dial is pure white bristol-board. The pointer is of the knife-edge type. The scale divisions are uniform with 10 divisions on both sides of zero. These instruments are exceedingly well damped which insures quick readings. The Radio Homcharger De Luxe Good appearance has been combined with utility in the new Radio Homcharger De Luxe, a battery charging rectifier developed by the Automatic Electrical Devices Company, 119 West Third Street, Cincinnati, Ohio, especially for the home-charging of radio A and B batteries. Finished in a dull mahogany and old gold, it harmonizes with the finest room furnishings, and permits the radio enthusiast to re-charge his battery after an evening's entertainment, without even disconnecting it from his set. The Radio Homcharger De Luxe is constructed upon the same perfect operating principle used in the type A Homcharger, which has heretofore been the most popular battery charging rectifier in the radio field. Its working parts are entirely enclosed, eliminating all danger of shock and fire. It is constructed of the highest grade materials throughout such as—moulded bakelite base, Jewel ammeter, oversized silicon steel transformer. There are no frail castings to break, as all parts are made from highest quality stampings. The Homcharger De Luxe can be operated by anyone. It is self-polarizing, so that the batteries may be connected either way and they will always charge. It gives a tapering charge, as recommended by battery manufacturers, and is guaranteed not to harm or injure the battery in any way. The above company has issued a booklet illustrating the radio Homcharger De Luxe in actual colors, which will be furnished upon request. Thorkite, a New Crystal Detector Element An extremely rare bismuth-copper-silver-sulphide mineral, Thorkonsonite, very rich in precious metals, has been placed on the market under the trade name "Thorkite." This mineral has been found to be a most efficient detector element for crystal radiophone receiving sets. This mineral is known to occur in but one mine in America. Its value as a rectifier was unknown until recently, as few specimens of the mineral exist, and for this reason very little experimental work could be conducted on this ore. The mineral as first broken from its silicious lime matrix is only an indifferent detector crystal but after the surface has been exposed to the atmosphere, or artificially aged by means of an electric current, it becomes extremely sensitive as a rectifier for the high frequency radio waves. Continued exposure to the atmosphere tends to increased sensitiveness, the result being that this crystal lasts almost indefinitely and actually improves with use and age. This distinguishes it from many detector minerals which deteriorate to a greater or less extent when exposed to the atmosphere. New Catalog of Jewell Instruments The Jewell Electrical Instrument Co. of Chicago, has recently added so extensively to its line of electrical measuring instruments that it became necessary to issue an entirely new catalog. This new catalog is now off the press and in addition to being an attractive piece of printing matter, it is indeed a most complete and valuable addition to electrical engineering literature. Each instrument is clearly illustrated and its applications, size, scale length, accuracy and general characteristics described in detail. In the back of the catalog detailed dimensional drawings are shown of each instrument together with full size scales and complete listing of readings and prices. The sales department of the Jewell company is revising the entire mailing list and has asked all electrical engineers and users of electrical measuring instruments to send their names asking for a catalog. They are also preparing to send out their 1922-23 leather vest pocket "Jot-book" covers. The Jewell "Jot-book" or vest pocket memorandum pad with monthly calendars and filler pads has become an established and permanent feature of Jewell publicity. The Jewell Electrical Instrument Co. has been adding new representatives and making changes in several of its territories. The line has developed and grown to such an extent that a more intensive selling program has been possible and many of the changes made were to enable the representatives to devote more time to the sale of Jewell instruments. Briefly enumerated, the territories and representatives affected by recent changes are as follows: New York by John Forshay, 45 Vesey Street; Philadelphia by L. B. Underwood, 139 N. Fourth Street; Buffalo by J. H. Burroughs, 70 Bloomfield Avenue; Cleveland by P. J. Burrill, 517 Bangor Bldg.; Dallas by F. T. Morrissey, 305-306 Slaughter Bldg.; Seattle by Messrs. Eicher & Bratt, 2107 L. C. Smith Bldg. All other territories and representatives remain as before. The "Planet" Loud Speaker A NEW loud-speaker, known as the Planet, has been put on the market by the Planet Radio Corporation, 1223 South Wabash Avenue, Chicago. The horn is a casting made of a patented metal known as Murphy bell alloy, which is claimed to have unusual properties for sound reproduction without distortion. It is built on the ram's horn principle. The scientific principles of the French horn have also been included in its construction. The Planet loud-speaker can be attached to any amplified receiving set by using two or more stages of audio-frequency amplification. New Pacent Products THE new Pacent universal detector stand is dust proof, rust proof, and fool proof. Adjustment is easily made and held by the employment of a special universal joint. It has a moulded top and base, a substantial ground-glass covering. All binding posts and metal parts are carefully machined. It is extremely neat and has an appearance of precision which is very satisfactory to the radio user. This detector is now available through the Pacent jobbers and dealers, and is being put on the market at a price which will assure it the same general popularity which has been experienced by other Pacent Radio Essentials. The Pacent company has also brought out a new amplifying transformer which has many distinctive features. The transformer occupies a space of only 1¼ by 1½ inches. A laminated core is used, which is firmly clamped between heavy metal clamping plates. Secondary and primary windings have been carefully impregnated to prevent moisture absorption. The Audioformer, as it has been called, gives maximum amplification with minimum distortion. The voltage amplification is particularly high. The Audioformer is now available through the established Pacent dealers and distributors. Combined Antenna Plug and Crystal Set THE Globe Phone Mfg. Co., Reading, Mass., has placed on the market a complete radio receiving set to be attached to an electric light socket in the same way that one would attach an electric light bulb, electric iron, or a vacuum cleaner. In a city where there is a radio telephone broadcasting station, the electric light wires along the streets and in residences absorb the radio wave energy and in this way music, lectures, sermons, weather and stock reports can be received by using this compact receiving set. This new receiving set can also be used with an outside antenna if desired. The instrument is seven inches long and one and one-half inches in diameter, and contains the entire apparatus. No batteries are necessary with this set. No electric current is consumed by attaching the device to the electric light socket. New Westinghouse Battery Charger A NEW type of Rectigon, known as the "Radio-Type" Rectigon, designed primarily to charge 11 or 12 cell plate batteries, such as are used for radio receiving sets, but also suitable for charging 3-cell filament batteries or 3- and 6-cell automobile starting and lighting batteries, has been developed by the Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing Company. This type of Rectigon is similar to the private garage type, being portable, well finished, automatic in operation, and free from oil and grease. At the top of the transformer is a fuse block which is so arranged that, when the fuse is in the extreme left position, the Rectigon will charge an 11- or 12-cell battery and, when the fuse is at the right, will charge a 3- or 6-cell battery. Since only one fuse can be inserted at one time, there is no possibility of an incorrect connection. After the fuse is in the proper position, the Rectigon can be started by clasping the battery clips over the terminals on the battery and turning on the current at the lamp socket. To stop charging, the current is turned off and the battery is disconnected. Fourar Radio Is Formed FOURAR Radio, Inc., has been organized, and now is functioning as a merchandising organization, handling radio apparatus made by the Radio Corporation of America, G. Brandes, Inc., Dubilier Condenser & Radio Corp., and the National Carbon Co. The president of the new company is Alfred Fantl head of a buying service for department stores all over the country, and the new radio jobber thereby secures at the start close contact with the department store trade. Arthur Wiesenberger, formerly research director of the National Dry Goods Association, is secretary and treasurer of the Fourar company, whose name means "Four R's," the letters standing for "Reliable Radio for Representative Retailers," descriptive of the company's policy. The officers of the company, besides those already named, are: first vice-president, William Dubilier, who is president of the company bearing his name; second vice-president, Frederick Dietrich, president of G. Brandes, Inc.; third vice-president, Maurice C. Rypinski, formerly of the Westinghouse Electric & Mfg. Co., now vice-president of the Brandes company. A Vernier Rheostat AN eastern manufacturer has recently placed on the market a new vernier rheostat, with a single knob for both the rough and fine adjustments. Its operation is quick, easy, and positive. The base and knob are made of highly finished condensite, while the contact springs are made of phosphor bronze, with the metal parts nickel-plated. The diameter of the rheostat is 2½ inches and it weighs about one pound. BRIMFIELD Academy Radio Club, Springfield, Mo., was formed on May 8, 1922 with a membership of 27. It was organized by O. H. Benson, director of the Junior Achievement Bureau, Eastern States League. The officers of the club are: President, D. Walker Cheney; vice-president, Everett Landen; secretary, Gladys Campbell; treasurer, Herbert Smith. All the members of the club live in and around Brimfield and cover quite a wide area, including Brimfield, East Brimfield, South Warren, Holland, and Wales. The young people range in age from 14 to 20 and are enthusiastic and earnest workers. They are all members of the Hitchcock Free Academy. The program of work for the club is to study the principles of electricity the radiophone and radio telegraphy; to purchase, set up and work a radio outfit for the Hitchcock Free Academy to be used by all the members as a broadcasting and receiving station. Every member of the club during the year will learn to demonstrate some one phase of radio telegraphy so as to be able to pass on to others by way of public demonstrations the knowledge which they have acquired. THE Northern Indiana Radio Club of South Bend, Ind., is conducting a campaign for members and plans are making for many interesting club events. The club is exclusive only in that the members must be interested in radio. They must all be active members, and the club's activities will embrace all lines of endeavor which concern the operation and construction of radio sets. CAMP Ellis A. Gimbel, at Spring Mount, Pa., on the Perkiomen, has been equipped with a radio telephone outfit. The radio is proving popular among the hundreds of Girl Scouts. MRS. Avery Lord of Elizabeth, N. J., reports that she recently picked up radio telephone messages from Chicago with a crystal set. The feat, the authenticity of which is unestablished, could be caused, radio experts assert, by freak air currents. Mrs. Lord said the conversation between Chicago and New York was regarding a boy in Montclair, N. J., whom the Chicagoan wanted to reach. THE Milwaukee Amateur's Radio Club resumed its weekly meetings on Thursday, September 14th, in the Trustees Room of the Milwaukee Public Museum. At this meeting Radio conditions in general were discussed thoroughly by well known radio men. THE Cape Breton Amateur Radio Association occupied one of the booths at the North Sydney, N. S., Mercantile Fair held July 25th to Aug. 2nd. Exhibits were received from members in Sydney, North Sydney and Sydney Mines, and comprised all classes of apparatus from the homemade crystal set to the stately "tailor made" detector-amplifier sets. Concerts were broadcast each evening from the home of the president, G. Arnold Edwards, whose station is licensed for club broadcasting on 250 meters under the call 7AA, and were listened to by hundreds of interested spectators at the fair, the receiving set comprising detector and four stages of audio-frequency amplification, with a loud speaker. Though only one 5-watt tube was procurable at the time, the music came through in great shape and was clearly audible, even through the usual QRM of such surroundings, at a distance of five or six yards from the booth. The association will broadcast a regular weekly concert hereafter and will use 10 watts of power. Should local interest prove keen enough the power will probably be increased to 100 watts during the winter months. Mr. Edwards's private call is 1AW on 200 meters, using the same set and anyone hearing either C. W. or phone is asked to communicate with him at Box 155, North Sydney, N. S. The phone signals have been reported good up to 24 miles with perfect quality of modulation, but much greater range is expected when the new cage aerial and counterpoise with new panel set is brought into operation. So far as is known, this is the first association broadcast station to be licensed in Nova Scotia, and is purely for the benefit and entertainment of members and other listeners within range. THE call of the amateur radio station of C. W. Vincent, Uniontown, Pa., has been changed from 8AYW to 8HM. THE Egyptian Radio Bugs Association is composed of a number of radio clubs located in southern Illinois. The Marion, Ill., section meets every Wednesday evening in the Greater Marion Association rooms in the City Hall. A complete receiving set has been installed. The officers of the Marion section are: President, Le Roy Sullins, and secretary, Lloyd Williams. Other Clubs of the Association are located at Carbondale, Mt. Vernon, Johnston City and Herrin. The association will attend the St. Louis Radio Show, October 4 to 6. GERMAN manufacturers of radio apparatus and equipment are not in a position to make extensive deliveries of their product, according to Vice Consul Nathaniel B. Davies, Berlin, in a report to the Department of Commerce. This is due to the fact that up to the present time the demand has not been sufficiently great to warrant the manufacture of radio instruments in large quantities. Amateur radio work is not popular in Germany and stations are not numerous. Radio telephony in particular is almost an unknown science except to engineers, professional operators, and experimenters. The principal reasons given for the lack of interest in radio on the part of the general public are that amateur stations are a luxury beyond the means of the average German, under present economic conditions, and official restrictions on their use. All radio communication in Germany is under the control of the Federal Post Office Department, which operates the commercial stations. Private installations must ordinarily be made by the Department, but in exceptional cases private companies or individuals may be authorized to erect their own plants, but they must first obtain a license from the Post Office Department. The fee for such a license varies according to the size of the plant, with a maximum of 2,000 marks per annum. UNITED STATES Civil Service Examinations for radio positions are listed below. Applications for these examinations may be had from the local secretary of the Civil Service Board at your Post Office, or, if not available there, may be secured from the U. S. Civil Service Commission, Washington, D. C. The examinations are held simultaneously on the dates given in several cities in each state, applicants presenting themselves for examination at the nearest examining office. Junior Engineer, Radio, Bureau of Standards, salary $1,200 to $1,500 per year. Examination to be held November 22. Applicants must have been graduated with a degree from a college or university of recognized standing, showing at least 118 credit hours, or that he is a senior student in such an institution. His undergraduate work must include radio course as well as general courses in physics, chemistry and mathematics through calculus. On the same date will be held an examination for Junior Physicist, Radio, same salaries. Applicants must be college graduates or senior students, with a course in mathematics through elementary differential equations, and also must show at least 18 hours of physics. Junior Radio Engineer, to fill vacancies in the Signal Corps and elsewhere, at $1,200 to $2,000 a year. Examination to be held October 4. The applicant must show that he has been graduated from a college of recognized standing with at least 118 credit hours, or be a senior student. His studies must have included electrical engineering, physics, chemistry and mathematics through calculus. EDWIN H. ARMSTRONG, inventor of the regenerative and super-regenerative circuits, has sailed on the Mauretania for a sojourn of several months in England and France. The purpose of his trip abroad is to seek rest and recreation. He will renew old acquaintances in London and Paris and will then go to the south of France to take a holiday. Much importance is attached to Mr. Armstrong's visit abroad in engineering circles. He has frequently expressed his indebtedness to European inspiration for his radio discoveries, and has many warm friends in England and on the continent. MOST interesting installation has recently been completed for the Piedmont High School, Piedmont, California, involving a distinct improvement over present methods of inter-classroom communication. The installation consists of a central or master station and 25 receiving stations, each equipped with a No. LS-2 Magnavox Telemegaphone, the motor generator and battery being installed in a steel cabinet in the basement. The master station is operated like an ordinary telephone as shown in the illustration. Talking into the Magnavox in ordinary tones, the speech is amplified in any or all of the 25 classrooms as desired, in sufficient volume to be distinctly audible to all the students. A novel feature of this particular installation also is the fact that, by means of a special switch, broadcasted radio lectures and concerts may be connected so as to be reproduced in any or all the classrooms by the same Magnavox Telemegaphones. Eliminating Capacity Effects (Continued from page 72) I here wish to mention a word about this vernier control on apparatus. Its merits on the regenerative tuner are too well known to need mention and I would advise any amateur that can afford them to equip his apparatus in such a manner. A short time ago in one of the popular radio magazines there was a contribution explaining the use of a lead pencil as a vernier. The article explained how, by placing the "rubber" end of a pencil against one side of the dial and using it as a geared control, it was possible to obtain the same end that a regular geared control gives, but I find by using a lead pencil the introduction of a conductor; i.e., the lead, will cause serious capacity effects which are very troublesome. Should it be desired to use the above vernier control, I would suggest using a glass or hard rubber rod tipped with a rubber cap such as can be purchased for pencils, in a similar manner. Thus all the effects due to capacity will be eliminated. Mechanical movements inside of the tuner are another thing to be considered. Often the relative movement of a variometer rotor or of the plates of a variable condenser will cause serious capacity losses. As a rule the effects on the circuit such as "howling" which are caused by them are under control but the losses due to capacity between the various parts are high. The use of lattice-wound coils and variometers will reduce coil capacity but shielding of each individual apparatus that has a variable factor is the only way to reduce variable, distributed capacity. Amplifiers, especially those designed for radio-frequency should be individually shielded and the shields grounded. This practice is, I believe, adopted by the Navy. Shields may be of copper gauze or if the amplifiers are in separate cabinets, using foil as above mentioned may be practiced. Leads that lead to the cabinet often are a source of trouble. Those such as battery leads should be made as short as possible and should be fixed. Connections between two or more cabinets should be of a strip of copper and should be as short as possible. Such leads as the 'phone cords can be obtained shielded with a copper braid which should be grounded. If you can not obtain them or do not care to go to the expense you can shield your own by braiding over them a shield of No. 40 bare copper wire. They then can be covered with another insulating braiding taken from an old cord. Be sure that the shield is not in contact with the tips at either end and that it is firmly fastened so there will be no contact. $50 in Prizes Monthly In order to stimulate interest and bring out the thousand and one good ideas which we know are of value to our readers, we have increased the amounts formerly paid for prize contest articles, as follows: First Prize .................................................. $25.00 Second Prize ................................................ 15.00 Third Prize ................................................... 10.00 The new arrangement, with the increased prizes, will go into effect with the January, 1923, issue. Prize contest articles are judged and classified by the editors of THE WIRELESS AGE on points of originality, practicability and general utility. Literary ability is not required and neither are finished drawings. Ordinary sketches will do, so long as they are technically correct. You do not need literary ability to win one of these prizes—the utility and practicability of the idea is what counts. It may take you an hour to prepare the article, but $25, $15 or $10 for an hour's work is well worth while. For full details of the contest see the announcement below. Prize Contest Announcement The subject for the new prize contest of our year-round series is: REDUCTION OF ANTENNA RESISTANCE CLOSING DATE :: :: Nov. 1, 1922 Contestants are requested to submit articles at the earliest practical date. Prize winning articles will appear in the January, 1923, issue. All manuscripts should be addressed to the CONTEST EDITOR OF THE WIRELESS AGE. PRIZE CONTEST CONDITIONS—Manuscripts on the subject announced above are judged by the Editors of THE WIRELESS AGE from the viewpoint of the originality of the idea presented, its practicability, and its general utility and classification in decreasing order. Literary ability is not needed, but neatness in manuscript and drawing is taken into account. Finished drawings are not required, sketches will do. Contest is open to everybody. The closing date is given in the above announcement. THE WIRELESS AGE will award the following prizes: First Prize, $25; Second Prize, $15; Third Prize, $10. If quality counts, bear in mind that Ace equipment speaks for itself. An Ace type TRU Concert Receptor can be placed in your parlor, and is in a class with your piano or finest phonograph. $50. $50. For electrical efficiency we claim our TRU to be equal or superior to any similar equipment now on the market. A very important point to be considered in purchasing a Concert Receiver is the proposed change of wave lengths of broadcasting stations. The majority of Radio receivers now on the market would be worthless should this change be effected. Our receiver is arranged for immediate adaptation to this change by even a most inexperienced person. Better investigate—we have literature for the asking. THE PRECISION EQUIPMENT COMPANY 2487-39 Gilbert Ave. Cincinnati, Ohio. When writing to advertisers please mention THE WIRELESS AGE STATIONS WORKED AND HEARD Stations worked should be enclosed in brackets. All monthly lists of distant stations worked and heard which are received by the 10th of each month will be published in the next month's issue. For example, lists received by November 10th will be published in the December issue. Spark and C. W. stations should be arranged in separate groups. 1ACU—P. D. Baldwin Groton Long Point. Conn. (August). C. W.—1fw, 1gv, (1lv), (1oz), 1py, 1qn, 1sq, 1xm, 1xx, (1agh), 1agi, (1ahm) fone, (1aip) fone, (1ajp), (1ang), lawb, (1ayq), (1azw), 1bkg, 1bqt, (1bse), (1cbp), (1cia), 1cpn, (1cqw), (2bg), (2fc), 2fx, 2hw, 2kl, 2rm, 2ts, (2aeh), (2aq), (2ar), 2age, (2ajw), 2auz, (2awh), 2aws, 2bdg, (2bdu), 2beh, 2bh, 2bf, 2bgm, (2bir), 2bio, (2bp), (2bml), 2bnz, 2buh, 2br, (2brc), 2byc, 2cbg, 2cbw, 2ccd, (2eci), (2ecs), (2egk), (2ech), (2col), (2cox), (2epk), 3as, 3cc, 3dt, 3fr, 3fs, 3gk, 3mk, 3ot, 3sm, 3tj, 3rw, 3zo, (3afb), (3anj), 3aqr, (3bgt), 3bjy, 3bit, (3bnu), 3bvc, 3bvl, 4bx, 4dc, 4ea, (4ft), 5hk, 8eh, (8sb), 8se, 8sp, 8ue, 8acf, 8afd, 8anh, 8aqo, 8bdu, (8bef), 8bfm, 8bfx, 8blx, (8bph), 8brc, (8bss), 8bxh, (8dz), 8cj, (8cy), 8cko, 9ci, 9ii, 9io, 9arr. Spark.—(1ava), (1bvb), (1cdm), (2di), 2om, (2nf), (2atf), 3arm, 8uc. Daylight, C. W.—(1iv), (1oz), (1agh), 1agi, (1ahm), (1aip), (1ajp), (1ang), (1ayq), (1azw), (1bse), (1cbp), (1cia), (1cqw), (2bg), 2kl, (2aeh), (2aq), (2ajw), (2awh), (2bdu), (2bir), (2bml), 2brb, (2brc), (2eci), (2ehr), (2cox), (2epk), 3dt, 3ot, (3awh), (3bgt), 4ea. 5RE—Stuart Adcock, 2000 Washington Ave., Knoxville, Tenn. (July and August). C. W.—2aaq, 2awf, 2beh, 2bjq, 2cbg, 2fd, 2nz, 3awo, 3bij, 3blf, 3bmn, 3by, 3bv, 3bz, 3ca, 3cbm, 3fs, 3hl, 3jd, 3iw, 3ko, 3wj, 3ot, 3rv, 3vw, 3zo, 3zw, 3zz, 3xw fone, 4aj, 4au, 4bl, (4bq), 4bx, 4dc, 4dg, 4ds, 4ea, 4eb, (4gh), 4gl, 4gx, (4hw), 4id, 4jh, 4jk, 4kb, 4kc, 4kf, 4li, 4lp, 4ma, 4mw, 5am, (5abm), 5amk, qra? 5da, 5di, 5do, 5ek, 5es, 5fv, 5la, 5nm, 5pl, 5px, 5qi, 5uk, (5wo), 5zwa, 8ab, 8byv, 8acf, 8afd, 8aim, 8hm, 8amo, 8awb, 8and, 8an, 8apt, 8ao, 8aqo, 8asm, 8asz, 8avd, 8ayt, 8awm, 8axb, 8azf, 8bbd, 8bcy, 8bdo, 8bdu, 8bef, 8bff, 8bfx, 8bjc, (8bk), 8bmf, 8bnu, 8bw, 8bpl, 8bpv, 8brg, 8bvt, 8bwa, 8bwm, 8bun, 8bxh, 8bxv, 8bzf, 8bp, 8cab, 8cay, 8cbf, 8cei, 8cef, 8cdz, 8cgm, 8ggw, 8cgx, 8ch, 8cj, 8ckk, 8ckd, 8coo, 8cur, 8czt, 8da, 8dak, 8ea, 8hh, 8ju, 8kf, 8kg, 8kh, 8kv, 8kr, 8oi, 8pt, 8sb, 8sp, 8ue, 8zae, 8zaf, 8zg, 8zz, 8xe, 8xv, 8ap, 9aon, 9aow, 9abv, 9ax, 9alb, 9als, 9aqi, 9ark, 9axf, 9avk, 9ami, 9bcl, 9bt, 9bsg, 9bhd, 9bya, 9bsa, 9cxu, 9cdr, 9dex, 9dfb, 9dj, 9dyk, 9dr, 9dtj, 9dug, 9dn, 9xi, 9hw, 9ii, 9io. 9lq, 9iz, 9nu, 9oh, 9ox, 9uh, 9us, 9uu, 9ux, 9wa, 9xl, 9yaj. Spark.—3bv, 4fd, 4gn, 4ie, 5zl, 8baz, 8bda, 8ew, 8uc, 8zo, 9dmj, 9dwm, 9dzv, 9if, 9ox, 9pd, 9uh, 9uv, 9zl, 9zv. SZA—B. P. Williams, 3220 Orleans St., Pittsburgh, Penna. CW—(1agh), Iawz, Ianq, lawb, lbkq, lcpn, lcqw,(1fb),(1gv), (1rd), lxp, (2auz), Zaer, (2ayf), 2aja, 2awi, 2ajf, 2bdg, 2bdg, (2brc), 2bqd, 2bg, 2cgj, 2cis, 2cpd, 2tz, 2gz, 2hw, 2ry, 3auu, 3aah, 3aao, 3aqr, 3bz, 3bmg (3bnu), 3bvc, (3bjj), 3btw, (3blf), 3cc, (3ca), (3cbm), 3lr, 3zo, 4bx, 4ds, 4ea, 4ft, (4mw), 5do, 5ek, (5atu), 8awz, (8asz), 8amd, 8afy, 8avl, 8axn, 8afd, 8apt, (8amm), 8awm, (8bvt), (8bjy), (8brc), (8bsj), (8bfm), (8bjy), 8bnu, 8bxt, 8hlx, 8boz, (8cdz), 8caz, 8cye, 8ctp, 8cfb, 8cjh, 8cgx, (8brm), 8bjc, (8brw), 8ccx, 8bo, 8ctk, 8cur, (8ckk), 8bwa, 8bjjs, 8bvr, (8bbt), 8cgm, 8ft, 8hj, 8lt, 8ml, 8nb, 8mf, 8ue, 8uo, (8uc), 8wi, (8sp), 8yu, 8xj, (8zai), 8sb, 8zz, (8zg), 8en, (8zq), 8zag, 9aap, (9ajh), (9al), 9aon, 9ami, 9arr, 9avn, 9aqm, 9bdb, (9bgh), 9bag, 9bhd, 9ckg, (9cja), 9cp, 9dek, 9dzv, 9dtj, (9dfb), 9gl, (9ii), 9lz, 9nu, 9ox, 9uc, 9us, Spark—2ahu, 2aje, 2bsc, (2om), 3acy, 3awf, 4fd, 5zl, 8ard, 8bep, 8bda, 8bxc, 8ail, 8uc, 8wz, 8zy, 8eci, 8fe, 8ckx, 9azf, 9aza, 9bws, 9dmj, 9uc, 9wx, 9uh, 9mc, 9lf, 9zm 9DB—D. C. Wallace, 1630 Stevens, Minneapolis, Minn. (August). (Mostly CW) 2 fp, 4 bv, 4 kf, 4 mw, 5 aa, Saar, (5di), 5do, 5dih, 5 ek, 5 hb, 5nv, 5 qi, 5rj, 5uk, 5za, 5zw, 5zay, (6ca), 7lu, (8ab), 8aq, 8eh, 8ft, 8fi, 8mq, 8uc, 8ue, 8ve, 8vy, (8wr), 8zo, 8zz, 8adn, 8aff, 8az, 8apt, 8apw, (8asv), 8asz, 8atu, 8bdo, (8bef), 8bft, 8bgo, (8box), 8bpl, 8brq, (8brt), 8bvt, 8bwa, 8bxb, 8cgn, 8cgx, 8dak, 8zw, (9fk), (9hg), (9ja), (9na), (9nx), (9ox), (9xl), (9xt), (9zc), (9zn), (9aap), (9abd), (9aix), (9amb), (9ami), (9aon), (9aps), (9atu), (9bai), (9bci), (9bgh), (9bkj), (9bqw), (9bmn), (9bsg), (9btt), (9cxs), (9cfi), (9dbl), (9dlb), (9dkz), (9dof), (9dv), (9dsn), (9dyz), (9yaz), (9yak), (9zac), Can. 3ko. Essential for GOOD Reception Weston Filmament Voltmeter One of a Group of important Weston Radio Instruments Gives you your proper voltage instantly—thus greatly simplifies exact tuning. Saves its cost over and over by eliminating hazardous guesswork and making it possible to get doubled or trebled life out of each tube. A premature tube "burnout" is practically an unknown occurrence with a Weston Voltmeter—if you use it properly. Your dealer can supply you, or if he cannot, we will. Don't take a substitute if you want best results. Write for Radio Circular J. WESTON ELECTRICAL INSTRUMENT CO. 27 Weston Ave. Newark, N. J. Branch Offices in all Larger Cities. A. The hook-up which you enclose, although rather unusual, resembles the Reimartz tuner in some respects. We are surprised, however, that you get better results with the loop than with an antenna. Your antenna may be faulty. Possibly the loop is picking up the signals from a telephone or power line. It is well known that the latter are often very effective in picking up distant stations. See if moving the loop away from telephone or power lines has any influence and let us know of your results. You might improve your circuit to some extent by omitting the .0005 condenser C and substituting variometer V as shown. * * * J. C. Thompson, Lemoyne, Pa. Q. On the evening of July 21 while listening in on my receiving set between the hours of 8:30 and 9:30 P. M. at Camp Hill, Pa., I had the peculiar experience of hearing what I think were weak signals from a very powerful broadcasting station. The conversation was in a foreign language and I was not able to interpret it as I believe it was either German or Holland Dutch. This has occurred several times on good nights and I was wondering whether there would be some way of checking up this piece of transmission, and could determine whether one of the larger broadcasting stations in a foreign country was working during that particular time, or probably you could determine whether it was someone closer by. I was tuned to about 5,000 meters. I am using a three-step radio frequency detector and two steps of amplification, using Radio Corporation radiofrequency transformers and audio-frequency transformers. I had the radio frequency transformers connected for the 5,000 meter range during the period these interesting signals came in. For tuning I was using .001 condenser in series with the antenna circuit, also a variocoupler with which I had added an inductance winding 276 turns bank wound on a 4" shell. I would certainly appreciate anything that you could do to help me along in determining where these mysterious signals are coming from. A. The radiophone station you are hearing is probably some Dutch or German high power station experimenting with radiophone transmission. There are no regular broadcasting stations anywhere in the world on that wave length, for that band is assigned by international agreement for long distance transmission. It may possibly have been a Dutch battleship. Try to get the call letters of the station if you hear it again. * * * Irving Fine, New York City. Q. In the August issue of THE WIRELESS AGE, page 74, figure 9, you illustrate a combined, radio-audio frequency amplifier in which the tubes are made to do double duty. I would certainly very greatly appreciate the favor if you would let me know whether choke coils can be used in this hook-up instead of the transformers as shown. Instead of the audio-frequency transformer I would like to use iron core chokes; and in place of the radio-frequency transformers I would like to use radio-frequency choke coils. Kindly send me a hook-up for same, also data on how to build the radio-frequency chokes for this circuit. A. It is not efficient to use R.F. and A.F. choke coils in an amplifier where the tubes do double duty, and wetherefore do not recommend it. We show herewith a hook-up using 5 tubes to give 4 stages of radio-frequency, detector and 3 stages of audio-frequency amplification, using transformers. We do not advise the use of more than 3 audio-frequency stages because of the howling they set up. * * * W. H. Myers, Jefferson City, Mo. The questions below refer to figure 1, page 65, of THE WIRELESS AGE, June, 1922. Q. 1. What should be the capacity of the condensers, Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4 respectively? A. 1. The condenser 1, 2, 3 and 4 should have a capacity of .005 mfd. each. It is important to note that this resistance coupled amplifier is useful only on wavelengths above 1,500 meters. Q. 2. What should be the voltage of the "B" battery? A. 2. The "B" battery voltage should be quite large—say 150 to 200 volts. Q. 3. What is the value, in ohms, of the resistance in the plate circuit? A. 3. The plate resistance should be 50,000 to 100,000 ohms. G. T. Conner, Dallas, Texas. Q. It is my intention to experiment with rectified 60 cycle, 110 volt lighting current for use on the filaments of receiving tubes. I understand there are vacuum tube rectifiers on the market which I could use, but I do not know just how to go about getting the current regulated to 6 volts. Should it be put through the rectifiers before or after being stepped down? If not, just how much should it be stepped down in order to give 6 volts D. C. after passing through the tubes? Will you kindly give, also, information as to how to hook up the circuit in order to secure advantage of both halves of the cycle? A. 1. It is neither advisable nor necessary to rectify the 60 cycle current for use on the filaments of receiving tubes, since rectification would not be of material help in reducing the 60 cycle hum. The filaments should be run directly off the secondary of a step-down transformer—the hum being balanced out by means of a 200-ohm potentiometer connected across each filament. See diagram below. J. Van de Velde, New York City. Q. 1. In the June issue of THE WIRELESS AGE I saw a hook-up 'of a set made by George R. Troxell, winner of the $10 prize. I made the crystal detector set and it works first class. Now I want to make the set as illustrated in figure 5. Enclosed find a sketch of what the outside of my panel looks like. Please give me an idea of what it ought to look like when built like figure 5. A. 1. The outside of your panel should be as shown herewith. Q. 2. Is my cabinet large enough to hold all the other additional parts or will I need a larger one? A. 2. Your cabinet is large enough to hold all parts. Q. 3. How does one go about tuning the set? A. 3. To tune this set (Figure 5, page 70, June, 1922, issue of THE WIRELESS AGE) proceed as follows: Set the plate variometer at minimum. Tune the antenna circuit by means of the tap switch and variable condenser. Then adjust grid variometer to obtain maximum signal. You may find it necessary then to slightly retune the antenna condenser. Adjust filament rheostat and potentiometer until best results are obtained. Tune with plate variometer until loudest signal is heard. It is necessary now "WHY THE MENAGERIE?" YOU wouldn't stand for a young menagerie howling around the house. Why permit your radio set to act that way? It's unnecessary. For just five dollars you can add an Acme Audio Frequency Transformer to your set. This ends the howling and distortion so prevalent in the ordinary detector unit and at the same time it greatly increases the volume of incoming sound. Music and the human voice assume their natural tones. No more thin, squeaky voices and tiny elfin wails. You will also want the Acme Radio Frequency Amplifying Transformer. You can use it with either a vacuum tube or a crystal detector set. It greatly increases the distance over which you can receive broadcasting programs. Just the same price as the Acme Audio Frequency Transformer. Two stages of Acme Audio Frequency Amplification with two stages of Acme Radio Frequency Amplification will give you maximum range, volume and certainty of natural tone. Your set is incomplete without them. The Acme Apparatus Company (pioneer transformer and radio engineers and manufacturers) also make detector units, detector and two stage amplifying units, the Acme Clear Speaker, the Acmefone, also C. W. and spark transmitting apparatus. Acme Apparatus is for sale at radio, electrical and department stores. If one is not close at hand, send money direct. Ask also for interesting and instructive book on Transformers. The Acme Apparatus Company, Cambridge, Mass., U.S.A. New York Sales Office, 1270 Broadway. Type A-2 Acme Amplifying Transformer Price $5 (East of Rocky Mts.) ACME for amplification A Chain Is No Stronger Than Its Weakest Link The best wireless set is no better than its insulators, for a poorly insulated antenna will cause dissatisfaction with the best of sets. HOPEWELL INSULATORS offer maximum insulation. Hopewell Patented Air Gap Insulators are made without metal. They do not absorb moisture. The air gap puts the electrical stress on the air, not on the material in the insulator; hence, it will not deteriorate. Radio Department: HOPEWELL ➔ INSULATION & MFG. CO. HOPEWELL, VA. LEARN THE CODE Get all the fun there is to be had from your wireless set. Learn to read the dots and dashes and double your pleasure. The Marconi-Victor Records Provide the ideal instruction. SIX DOUBLE FACED RECORDS-TWELVE LESSONS From the alphabet to press and code work. Actual operating conditions reproduced. Satisfaction guaranteed. Price: $5.00 per set Wireless Press, Inc. 326 BROADWAY NEW YORK "Globe Radio Head Phones Highly sensitive Matched receivers Natural in tone. Each receiver tested by radio. Light weight (11 oz.) Comfortable to wear. Specially designed adjustable headband. Will not distort signals when amplified. Articulation is perfect. There are many types of head sets on the market but not too many good ones. The GLOBE RADIO HEAD SET incorporates a knowledge of acoustics not possessed by other companies. It embodies correct design with the best of materials. THE GLOBE PHONES ARE FOR THOSE WHO DISCRIMINATE. Ask about the Globe Antenna Attachment Plug for using electric light wires. GLOBE PHONE MFG. CO. EARL C. HANSON, Technical Radio Expert Reading, Mass., U. S. A. will need. My hook-up now enables me to hear the radiation of my friend, who has two steps of audio in his receiving set. He sends by code by means of a key in his antenna circuit. A. To talk to your friend several squares away, simply add a microphone in the ground lead of your antenna, tuning the plate variometer so that it is beyond the oscillation point. You can determine when oscillations are present by touching the grid terminal with a moistened finger and listening in the phones. On touching the grid a dull thump is heard, and on removal of the finger, a similar thump is heard. Better results are obtained with about 100 volts on the plate. Be sure, however, to obtain an amateur station transmitting license from your local radio inspector first and confine your enthusiasm to 200 meters. Below is hookup. E. Bilgart, Chicago, Ill. Q. I have thoroughly studied the "Supersensitive Receiving Set" described by Charles R. Doty on page 84 in your book known as "Practical Amateur Wireless Stations." I am building a set like this and would like to know if with this set I will be able to tune into the radio concerts broadcasted from station WJZ, Newark, N. J., and other distant places. Also is it possible to tune into these stations and tune out a local station? I do not clearly understand the construction of the coupler in this set. Is it a sliding coupler or is the primary and secondary wound on the same tube? Also what are the 3 F. S. W. for? A. This "Supersensitive Receiving Set" is suitable only for receiving long waves, above 2,000 meters and cannot be used for reception of broadcasting on 360 meters. Harold Unger, Morgantown, W. Va. Q. 1. What is the standard diameter of the stators and rotors of the variometers and variocouplers? A. 1. There is no standard diameter of stators and rotors of variometers or variocouplers. The stators have a diameter of the order of 6 in. and the rotors about 4 to 5 in. in variocouplers, and the stators of variometers are about 5 in. in diameter with the rotors 4½ in. In the case of the variometers, both windings are on spherical or ball shaped forms instead of on cylindrical forms. Q. 2. How many turns of wire are taken on the stator and rotor of the variometers and variocouplers? A. 2. In variocouplers, there are about 36 turns on both stator and rotor. In variometers there are about 30 turns on both stator and rotor. Q. 3. How many taps are taken on the stator of the variocoupler and how many --- Red Star Head Phones Why take a chance with your receiving set by using poor head phones, for after all your radio receiver set is no better than your head phones. Red Star head phones speak up sharp and clear. Light in weight, they fit the head comfortably and do not tire; they are easily adjusted over the ears. Protect your receiving set by buying good head phones—ask your dealer to show you Red Star phones. You will be surprised at the results you will attain. Monocoil, 2,000 ohms, $5.00 Long-distance, 3,200 ohms, $8.00 Including head band and 6 ft. cord General Radio Equipment Co. 1131 Diversey Parkway Chicago --- Na-ald Small-space V. T. Socket 35c. each. 3 for $1.00 Insulated ceramic Condensers. Requires but small space for mounting. Readily accessible binding posts. No excess metal to interfere with efficiency. Unaffected by local currents or soldering fluxes. Phosphor bronze contacts; nickel plated brass binding screws. Slash-cut slot. Priced possible only because of enormous quantities. Special proposition for dealers and jobbers. ALDEN-NAPIER CO. 82 Willow Street, Dept. A., Springfield, Mass. --- Buy Your Radio Receiving Set At Mrs.’ Cost! Buy your Radio Supplies at a large discount below the list or retail price. If a saving of $15.00 to $140.00 on a Radio Receiving Set or if a saving of 25% to 40% on Radio Supplies interests you, write or telegraph us today. KING RADIO MFG. COMPANY 521 Penn Ave. Wilkinsburg, Pa. --- “All-American” Transformers Radio and Audio Frequency Radio and Audio frequency are day by day becoming more and more important. The days of sets with detector only, are gone. To get the best results, you must use the best transformers. “All-American” Radio and Audio Frequency Transformers have given the best results to thousands of radio fans in all parts of the country and will give you the same results as soon as you try them. Try the hook-up illustrated, but be sure to use “All-American” Transformers or you will not be satisfied. Ask your dealer RAULAND MFG.CO. 35 So. Dearborn St., Chicago, Ill. --- SEND FOR THESE BULLETINS Every person interested in "Radio" should have them. No. AJ-10. 3½" ammeters, milli-ammeters, voltmeters, milli-voltmeters and thermal ammeters for all receiving and transmitting sets. No. AJ-20. Telephone receivers. No. AJ-810. Medium and large size ammeters, milli-ammeters, voltmeters, milli-voltmeters and current squared meters for all receiving and transmitting sets. Distributors write for attractive proposition. ROLLER-SMITH COMPANY Electrical Instruments Meters and Circuit Breakers MAIN OFFICE 2129 Woolworth Bldg., NEW YORK WORKS Bethlehem, Penna. Offices in Principal Cities in U. S. and Canada EXPERIMENTERS Build your Super-Regenerative Set from this new book and get it right The Armstrong Super-Regenerative Circuit By GEORGE J. ELTZ, Jr., E. E., A. I. E. E. Complete description of each of Three Circuits Invented by MAJOR E. H. ARMSTRONG How to Change a Regenerative to Super-Regenerative Circuit 52 Pages 21 Photos and Hook-Ups Price $1.00 Dealers, Place Your Orders Now WIRELESS PRESS, Inc., Distributors, 326 Broadway, New York O. Ingmar Oleson, Ambrose, N. D. Q. Will you please give exact specifications for building the Low Voltage Radiophone set mentioned on page 76 of the June number of THE WIRELESS AGE. Describe particularly the modulation transformer and the inductance coil. Would Ford coil work as transformer? A. The modulation transformer used in the Low Voltage Radiophone Set described in the June, 1922, number of THE WIRELESS AGE was an ordinary bell-ringing transformer such as may be purchased from your electrical dealer. However, a Ford coil would make a much better transformer because of the greater ratio of turns (primary to secondary). But you must add a rheostat in the microphone circuit to prevent excessive current in the microphone. A very good modulation transformer may be built as follows: Add about 100 turns of No. 28 enamel wire, which you should use as a primary. Use the existing primary of the amplifying transformer as your secondary (this generally has about 4,000 turns of No. 40 enamel). The inductance coil contains 40 turns of approximate No. 14 bare copper wire, on a tube 5 inches in diameter, with the turns ⅜ inch apart, taps taken out at every turn. W. Walter Filson, Audubon, N. J. Q. Since I installed power spark transmitter I have been able to work without the least bit of trouble, stations north of me, and after one solid year I have only last week landed 8EW in Pittsburgh, Pa. I had a flat top L antenna for about six months, and then changed to a cage L using 4 wires in all. Antenna 65 feet and lead-in 35 rounds to each? What are the number of meters to each tap? A. 3. On the stator of the variocoupler taps are taken at every 6 turns, except for the first 6 turns, which are tapped at every turn. There is no definite wave length for each tap. That is determined by the capacity of your antenna and the setting of your antenna condenser. Q. 4. How many rounds of wire are taken on the rotor of the variocoupler? A. 4. There are about 36 turns on the rotor of the variocoupler. Q. 5. What type of bulb detector is the best to use? Why cannot two B batteries be used in place of one B battery and storage battery to light the detector bulb? A. 5. A UV-200 Radiotron makes a better detector than a UV-201. This tube is designed to operate with 18 to 22 volts on the plate and 6 volts on the filament. A higher voltage on the filament will burn it out and the tube will then be useless. Q. 6. Would like a diagram of the hook-up of one variable condenser, two vario-meters, one variocoupler, and one bulb detector. A. 6. Below is hook-up. --- WE specialize in printing "RADIO" forms of every description. We have done it for others in the trade and can save you money, too. A letter or phone call telling us your wants, will get us on the job. SYSTEMATIC PRINTING COMPANY Telephone Canal 4812 136 West Broadway, New York City feet. Can you give me a solution to get away from this marked directionalism? Radiation is 2 amperes on 3/4 k.w. I think if I put my aerial east and west I would probably work as far west as I have gone north to Canada. Trans. 3/4 Thor. Dubilier condenser .008 Bell Gap (by the way, I can only use one side of the gap) Pan cake O. T. I would appreciate a solution. A. The inverted "L" antenna is known to possess certain directive properties. Generally better radiation is obtained in the direction of the antenna—greatest radiation being in the direction of the arrow.—See diagram. However, such directional effects are noticeable only when the horizontal part of the antenna is several times as long as the vertical portion. More uniform radiation is secured with a T antenna—the directive properties being practically nil. Changing the direction of your aerial may change the direction of maximum radiation. Much greater distance may be covered by increasing the height—and at the same time the directional properties would become relatively less important. * * * Harry S. May, Johnstown, Pa. Q. 1. Please publish in your magazine a hook-up for 1 stage of radio-frequency amplification, using a Westinghouse Aeriola Senior detector with Type W. D. 11. Aeriotron tube style No. 319533, using 1.5 volts on filament 22½ on plate, radio amplifier to consist of Murad type T II. R. F. transformer, radiotron tube UV-201, Bradleystat filament control 1,200 to 400 potentiometer, and a 0.5 MFD condenser and a .23 plate variable condenser. Also am using 2 stages of audio-frequency type RORK Serial 687 with 6 volts on filament, 90 on plate. Get good results with this, but would like to work some far stations. A. In adding one step of radio frequency to your Aeriola Senior, you will find it necessary to reverse the connections to the ticker coil in order to obtain regeneration. Herewith is wiring diagram requested. The storage battery and B Battery are same as used with rest of apparatus. * * * Vernon Chaberd, Youngstown, Ohio. Q. In connection with the article in your March and April issues entitled "Filament and Plate Current from A. C. Supply," I constructed a transformer, the specifications of which are given herewith on a separate sheet. I am having trouble with it heatDear Radio Fan: This is between ourselves, so I am going to get a little personal. Did you ever use a "ROYALFONE" with your set? If you haven't, you are not getting the full benefits that radio affords you. A receiving set catches the sounds from the air; but a set of phones are required to translate the sounds so that they are understood. A good pair of phones will help your receiving a thousandfold. The next time you are in a radio store listen in on the dealer's set with a "ROYALFONE." You will experience a thrill that comes once in a lifetime. You will hear the messages and musical selections as if you were in the same room with the transmitter. The sounds will be natural and not distorted. The phones are so light and they fit so perfectly that you will not realize that they are doing their heavy work. When you are through, examine the "ROYALFONE" carefully. You will notice that all parts are of the best selected material and skillfully assembled. After your curiosity has been satisfied, tell the dealer what you think of the "ROYALFONE." If you will write me your opinion, there will be a surprise in store for you. "ROYALFONE" KING OF ALL. Made by ROYAL ELECTRICAL LABORATORIES MANUFACTURERS OF ELECTRICAL AND RADIO EQUIPMENT 181 South Street Newark, N. J. We have attractive propositions for jobbers. --- 4000 MILES Pick up that elusive long-distance broadcasting station. An Illinois amateur, by using three stages of the DX RADIO FREQUENCY TRANSFORMER listens to Hawaii, Massachusetts, Georgia, California and Texas broadcasting stations regularly and hears broadcasting stations in sixteen different States. Using only two stages of DX RADIO FREQUENCY TRANSFORMERS, another amateur picked up 200 meter spark signals from fourteen different States in two hours' time. Make transcontinental reception a regular thing. Use the Best Prompt Shipments in Quantity RADIO INSTRUMENT COMPANY, INC. WASHINGTON, D.C. --- Improve Your Radio Set with a Panel of CONDENSITE CELORON The better the insulation the finer your radio set will perform. Keep your connections tight and your insulation right. This is a radio axiom. Here is another. Get the best panel obtainable. The essential qualities of a radio panel are non-conductivity, strength and appearance. Condensite Celoron is a strong, hard, waterproof material that will give you surface and volume resistivities, and a dielectric strength greater than you will ever need. In addition to this, this material machines readily, engraves with clean-cut characters and takes a fine, natural, polish or a beautiful, dull, mat surface. Mount your equipment upon a Condensite Celoron Panel and note the improvement. Are you a radio enthusiast? Step into your nearest radio supply store and get a Celoron Panel cut to the size you want. If by any chance that dealer cannot supply you, write us direct. Do you make radio equipment? If you are not now using Condensite Celoron, let us give you the facts. Are you a radio dealer? Send today for our special dealer's proposition covering Celoron Panels and Parts. DIAMOND STATE FIBRE COMPANY BRIDGEPORT (near Philadelphia), PA. Branch Factory and Warehouse, Chicago Offices in principal cities In Canada: Diamond State Fibre Co. of Canada, Ltd., Toronto THORKITE THE PERFECT RADIOPHONE DETECTOR A new Silver-Copper-Bismuth Sulphide Crystal composed of some twenty-one chemical elements and rare metals of assay value over one hundred times that of galena. Vastly more sensitive—does not deteriorate but actually improves with use and lasts indefinitely. Mounted in ½ inch nickeled cup. Can be attached direct to panel if desired. Special alloy used in mounting adds to the natural efficiency of this wonder crystal. Fully guaranteed. If you want the best radio reception, use THORKITE. Price $1.00 by mail postpaid Dealers’ inquiries solicited GILMOR-LAYNE CO. DISTRIBUTORS 203 L. A. Railway Bldg., Los Angeles, Cal. The Condenser With a Conscience The “Standard” Condenser The superiority of design and craftsmanship will instantly appeal to all critical users. Furnished complete, fully assembled, tested, at LESS THAN PRE-WAR PRICES. 11 plates $2.58 23 plates $2.95 43 plates $3.60 Send coupon. Postage paid on return of order. For Western States and to Colonies add 10¢; for Canada, 25¢. FULLY GUARANTEED Money back if not satisfied. Just return by insured Parcel Post within 3 days. ALUMINUM HORNS Superior to sound ready for attachment to your RECEIVER. 12/40c each. 10 b. New York. We can also furnish in any desired quantity—Condensers, Switches, Jacks and other accessories. Sockets 1-3-8 mounting. Switches, Jacks, Plugs. All or highest “standard” quality at the right price. STANDARD RADIO PRODUCTS CO. 207 Fulton Street - - New York WARNING! While we try to adequately supply the newsstand demand for The WIRELESS AGE the safe way of getting your copy is to give to your newsdealer a standing order or place your yearly subscription with him. Now is a good time to do it. VARIABLE CONDENSERS OF QUALITY Designed correct and made to precision. The condenser you need for good results with the Super-regenerator or the regenerative receiver. Some manufacturers of high grade regenerative receivers have adopted these condensers for their sets. Plates shaped to give a straight line increase in wave-length and very low minimum capacity. Each condenser perfect and fully guaranteed. 41 plate .0011 M.F.... $5.75 9 plate .00025 M.F.... $3.25 21 plate .0006 M.F.... 4.75 Without knobs or dials. RADIO LABORATORIES OF NEW JERSEY, Inc., CRANFORD N. J. JOY-KELSEY CORPORATION RADIO EQUIPMENT 4021 West Kinzie St. Chicago III. For any make of phone PUT MICA DIAPHRAGMS ON YOUR PHONES Ask your dealer or send direct for free illustrated circular No. 21. LIBERAL DISCOUNTS Eliminate TO DEALERS & JOBBERS Noises CLEARER—BETTER—PURE TONE Immediate delivery RADIO MICA PRODUCTS CO. 156 East 43d Street New York City The Only Knob and Dial Without A Set-screw The unsightly and troublesome SET-SCREW is at last eliminated. No more splitting the head of the set screw or stripping of threads, perhaps ruining the dial. To mount the TAIT-KNOB-AND-DIAL simply hold the dial with one hand and screw on the knob with the other, a few seconds does it. No tools are necessary. When fastened it is self centering and dead aligned. This beautiful patterned KNOB-AND-DIAL is made of the best grade of BAKELITE. Prices—4" $1.50; 3" $1.00 To those building their own sets—Don’t fail to use this dial; it is the ONLY ONE AVAILABLE, its finest and is the PEER of all KNOBS-AND-DIALS. If your dealer has none, write us, and we will refer you to one who has. Dealers—If your Jobber is not stocked up write us and we will refer you likewise. We Sell Strictly To Manufacturers and Jobbers—whom we invite to write us for free samples and discounts. TAIT KNOB & DIAL COMPANY, Inc. 11 East 42nd Street Phone Murray Hill 0341 New York Patented June 20, 1922. No Concerts Missed Because of Run-Down Batteries With a Tungar Battery Charger you can easily keep your batteries up to full voltage. It enables you to recharge batteries from any a-c. lighting circuit at your convenience and at a minimum cost. The battery doesn’t have to be taken out of the house. “B” storage batteries, also, can be charged by means of a simple, inexpensive attachment. The Tungar Battery Charger requires no attention while operating and is so designed that there isn’t the slightest danger of injuring the battery. And its first cost is very low. Tungar has kept other people’s storage batteries in condition for years—why not yours? Of course, it is equally good for your automobile battery. Our new booklet on the application of Tungars to radio batteries will interest you. Send to us for booklet B-3640, if your dealer cannot supply you. Attention Mr. Amateur! We have a complete stock of the old line Radio Companies' experimental and measuring instruments and parts. The famous Grebe Receivers and Amplifiers are our specialty. We are the official Radio Corporation distributors. Have your dealer order from us. PHILADELPHIA WIRELESS SALES CORPORATION Formerly Philadelphia School of Wireless Telegraphy 1533 PINE STREET PHILADELPHIA, PA KNOTT RADIO NAME PLATES STYLE A Antenna' A Battery— Phone Ground B Battery+ Input 9 for 50c A Battery+ B Battery— Output STYLE B Phones 2nd Step Coupler Parallel Off 3rd Step Low Pass Coil Variable Condenser On Potentiometer Detector Tube + Increase Current Vacuum Tube Grid Varimeter Increase Current Primary Microdenser 1st Step Secondary Series Microstat 12 for 50c Plate Varimeter Rheostat Send 10c to your dealer, or we will send you upon receipt of price. Made of sheet brass, etched, silver plated and lacquered. They are of exceptional value and will prove the finishing touch in a radio place for them. They greatly improve the appearance of a set and simplify the operations. Send 10c stamp for circulars about Knott Sure Ground, Patent Stop Dia., Rheostat, Quadroll, Cingooli, Microdenser, Microstat. Jobbers, write for our proposition, it will interest you. E. R. KNOTT MACHINE CO., 1 Ellery Street, Boston 27, Mass. EASTERN RADIO INSTITUTE 899 BOYLSTON ST. BOSTON, MASS. You are urged to investigate the ADVANTAGES offered by the EASTERN RADIO INSTITUTE, New England's OLDEST, LARGEST and BEST EQUIPPED radio school. Successful graduates are found in responsible radio positions all over the world. Why not be one? REMEMBER: Our ORGANIZATION with YEARS of PHENOMENAL EXPERIENCE and SUCCESS is behind every man who enrolls! "Ask any man in Radio—he will tell you!" Our illustrated prospectus for the asking. F. D. PITTS, Director. DEALERS: WE are Jobbers for Grebe Receiving Sets Murdock Products Baldwin Phones Federal, Fada and Radio Shop Products Write for our Special Proposition A The Radio Shop OF NEWARK 41 South Orange Ave. NEWARK, N. J. Unlimited resources of entertainment with the Magnavox Radio IT is the Magnavox Radio which is invariably selected for demonstrations of technical or public interest. The two sizes of Magnavox Radio meet every requirement of volume and range—from the home gathering to the largest public audience. \| Model \| Price \| \|----------------\|--------\| \| R-2 Magnavox Radio with 18-inch horn \| $85.00 \| \| R-3 Magnavox Radio with 14-inch horn \| 45.00 \| \| Model C Magnavox Power Amplifier \| \| \| 2 Stage—AC-2-C \| $80.00 \| \| 3 “ —AC-3-C \| 110.00 \| The Magnavox products may be had of good dealers everywhere. Our interesting new booklet (illustrated in 3 colors) sent on request. THE MAGNAVOX COMPANY, Oakland, California; N. Y. Office, 370 Seventh Avenue MAGNAVOX RADIO The Reproducer Supreme KENNEDY EQUIPMENT The Standard by which to judge Radio Equipment So careful has been the manufacture of Kennedy Equipment since its inception that radio enthusiasts everywhere proclaim it the standard by which to measure all radio receiving apparatus. KENNEDY Short-wave Regenerative Receiver Type 281 is a sturdy example of the quality which has made the name Kennedy synonymous with good radio equipment everywhere. Type 281 possesses selectivity and efficiency to a high degree, these features being insured by the correct use of inductively coupled circuits. All Kennedy Regenerative Receivers are licensed under Armstrong United States Patent No. 1,113,149. KENNEDY RADIO EQUIPMENT is Sold by Good Dealers Everywhere Write for Latest Bulletin C-3. Address our nearest office. THE COLIN B. KENNEDY COMPANY INCORPORATED SAN FRANCISCO U.S.A. SAINT LOUIS SIMPLEX —that's your safeguard Simplex Vario-Coupler Panel Simplex Amplifier Panel Simplex Variometer Panel Simplex Detector Panel SIMPLEX PANEL UNITS make it possible to try out the many different hook-ups without disassembling panel, which is a decided advantage. SIMPLEX RADIO CO. 1013-15 Ridge Ave. Phila., Pa. "EURACO" PRODUCTS (Guaranteed) Compact—Interchangeable—Most Efficient—Accurate. MICA GRID CONDENSERS GRID LEAK RESISTANCE 60 Cents per Unit. 60 Cents per Unit. Mica Condensers—Grid Leaks—Mountings. Interesting Proposition for Dealers. EUROPEAN RADIO CO. 1342 East 22nd Street Brooklyn, N. Y. RADIO & AUTO STORAGE BATTERIES CHARGED FROM A LAMP SOCKET $15 At a Cost of a Few Cents With An F-F BOOSTER The Pioneer Charger. Is it not gratifying to feel Your Radio Batteries will never Fail and that you are Always Ready to Receive a Message or to Hear Broadcast Music, Sermons and News? It pays to be careful or tell Friends Your Radio Batteries are F-F BATTERY BOOSTERS Charge Automatically. Screw Plug in Lamp Socket. Connect F-F BATTERY Terminals and see Waves of Current are Rectified and Reversed Inflowable Carbon Electrodes which Maintain a Constant Self-Limiting Load. No Skill is Required. All Parts are Easily Replaced, should they Break. COMPLETE, COMPACT, SELF-CONTAINED, PORTABLE AUTOMATIC BATTERY CHARGERS. F-F BATTERY BOOSTERS are Full Wave Automatic Magneto Rectifiers for 105-125 Volt 60 Cycle A.C. Current. POPULAR PRICES: Type 100 charges 6 Volt Battery Up to 100 Amps $15 Type B charges Radio "D" Batteries Up to 120 Volts $15 Type 105 charges 6 Volt Battery Up to 100 Amps $20 Type 12 charges 12 Volt Battery At 5 amperes......$15 Type 165 charges 6 Volt Battery Up to 100 Amps......$20 Type 1612 charges 12 Volt Battery At 7 amperes......$20 Type 1625 is a Combination of Both Types 165 & 1612 $28 The Larger the Battery the More Current it can take. Time is limited. Shipping Weights Complete 11 to 15 Pounds. PURCHASE BY MAIL. F-F BATTERY BOOSTERS are Best Express Shipment. If via Parcel Post have remittance include Postage and Insurance. F-F BATTERY BOOSTERS for D.C. Other F-F BATTERY BOOSTERS Charge Batteries from Farm Lighting Plant and D.C. Circuits. FOR ARGONAUTS, MARINE, Wireless, etc. F-F ROTARY RECTIFIERS of 12 Battery, 8 Ampere Capacity, ORDERED WITH F-F BATTERY BOOSTERS. F-F BATTERY & RADIO-AUTO BOOSTER Bulletins 34 & 34A. The France Mfg Co. OFFICES & WORKS Cleveland, Ohio, U.S.A. ATTENTION! RADIO AMATEURS There's music in the air A good electrical connection means clearer reception. EBY BINDING POSTS Guarantee both Demand them of your dealer. They'll cost you less in the end. Look us up at the New York show. Commander "H" Ensign "H" Buddy Midget THE H. H. EBY MANUFACTURING CO., PHILA., PA. When writing to advertisers please mention THE WIRELESS AGE' Contemporaries of Tomorrow's Models are revealed in the EXPERIMENTERS INFORMATION SERVICE presentation for 1922-1923 of RADIO RECEIVERS AND TRANSMITTERS. ASK FOR CATALOG 98. EXPERIMENTERS INFORMATION SERVICE DESIGNERS OF THE HIGHEST CLASS RADIO APPARATUS IN THE WORLD 23RD FLOOR 220 WEST 42ND ST. NEW YORK CITY RADIO CABINETS Hard or soft wood, Mahogany or Walnut Finish, manufactured according to your specifications. Wooden parts for Radio Outfits, including Vario-meters and Couplers. Send us Sample or Blue-print For Estimate BOGERT & HOPPER, Inc. 65 Barclay Street NEW YORK CITY Telephone Barclay 7416-7 NOW IN STOCK Year Book Wireless Telegraphy, 1922 Price $6.00 WIRELESS PRESS, Inc., 326 Broadway, New York A New Member of the Pacent Plug and Jack Family THE PACENT DUOJACK This new Pacent Radio Essential, like all previous members of the Pacent Plug and Jack Combination, fills a definite existing Radio need. The Duojack enables you to instantly convert an ordinary set equipped only with binding posts to a plug and jack set. It also facilitates connecting two pairs of phones or a loud speaker and headset to your receiver. The illustration suggests many applications for this very ingenious device. Cat. No. 53 Price $1.50 The Pacent Duojack will be in production by October first, but dealers and jobbers are advised to place advance orders at the earliest possible date. Outline of the Pacent Sales plan upon request. A device for every plug and jack need Pacent Universal Plug Pacent Standard and Automatic Jacks Pacent Twinadapter Pacent Multijack Don’t Improvise Pacentize Send for Descriptive Bulletins Pacent Electric Company INCORPORATED 150 Nassau St., New York, N. Y. ATWATER KENT 2-STAGE AMPLIFIER THE OUTSTANDING Advantages OF THIS INSTRUMENT are 1. Excellence of reproduction. 2. Amplification regulation by small knob. 3. A complete instrument in itself. 4. Compactness. 5. Regulation entirely by knob, no jacks to equip. 6. Transformers protected by steel housing. 7. Short wiring connections eliminate capacity effect. 8. Hermetically sealed, absolutely no moisture troubles. THE LOW PRICE IS MADE POSSIBLE AS A RESULT OF 20 YEARS’ EXPERIENCE IN QUANTITY MANUFACTURE OF SCIENTIFIC ELECTRICAL INSTRUMENTS. Price $16.00 An Excellent Merchandising Proposition ATWATER KENT MANUFACTURING COMPANY Radio Dept. 4946 STENTON AVENUE PHILADELPHIA, PA. Artistic Variometer Parts Wholesale only Variocouplers, Rotors, Winding Forms, Stators, in Genuine Mahogany. Quick Deliveries, write for prices. Artistic Wood Turning Works 821 No. Halsted St., Chicago, Ill. RADIO MERCHANDISE F. D. PITTS CO. Incorporated 219 Columbus Avenue, Boston, Mass., U. S. A. Announces a Change of Policy WHOLESALE ONLY Distributors for A. H. GREBE & CO. (New England) RADIO CORPORATION OF AMERICA GENERAL ELECTRIC COMPANY WESTINGHOUSE ELECTRIC & MFG. CO. WIRELESS SPECIALTY APPARATUS COMPANY MAGNAVOX COMPANY CLAPP-EASTHAM COMPANY WESTERN ELECTRIC COMPANY ACME APPARATUS COMPANY DeFOREST RADIO TEL. AND TEL. COMPANY FEDERAL TEL. AND TEL. COMPANY WM. J. MURDOCK COMPANY ADAMS MORGAN COMPANY PACENT ELECTRIC COMPANY CHELSEA RADIO COMPANY REMLER RADIO MFG. COMPANY FRANK A. D. ANDREA HERBERT H. FROST ELECTROSE MFG. COMPANY SIGNAL ELECTRIC MFG. CO. GENERAL RADIO COMPANY AMERICAN RADIO AND RESEARCH CORP. JOHN FIRTH AND COMPANY GENERAL APPARATUS CO. C. D. TUSKA COMPANY AMERICAN EVEREADY WORKS WIRELESS PRESS MURAD LABORATORIES DUBILIER CONDENSER COMPANY WESTON ELECTRICAL INSTRUMENT COMPANY And Others Dealers are urged to send for our latest stock sheets, listing desirable radio merchandise for immediate delivery at attractive discounts. The Retail and Mail Order Business Formerly Conducted by The F. D. Pitts Co. at 12 Park Square, Boston, Mass., Providence, R. I., and Springfield, Mass., is Now Operated by the "Pitts Radio Stores, Inc.," at the Same Addresses How Astounding Results Are Secured IN TRANSMITTING AND RECEIVING EVERY RECEIVING AMATEUR can profit by the experience of J. O. Smith. EVERY TRANSMITTING AMATEUR can gain a great deal through his new book, "Modern Radio Operation." Practically all amateurs in America and many abroad have heard 2ZL and wondered how he gets his marvelous results. Those who have been privileged to go over this station, owned and operated by J. O. Smith, at Valley Stream, Long Island, have understood how the utterly unprecedented accomplishments of this station have been possible and have been able to secure greater efficiency from their own installations by operating them according to the principles used at 2ZL. Mr. Smith's knowledge, his experience, his results, are available to everyone now. His book, just printed, places at everyone's disposal all the details of 2ZL, and of other famous continuous-wave transmitting stations, such as 1ZE, 82G and 9ZG (which were installed by Mr. Smith) and even of the well-known broadcasting stations WDY, WJZ and WGY. J. O. SMITH knows how to put through long distance, two-way voice communication—he has done it. He knows how to get the greatest range in code work—he has been copied by many amateurs in Europe. Operating radio amateurs in all parts of the country have written him, by the hundreds, asking questions on one phase or another of tube transmission. They will welcome his new book, "Modern Radio Operation," for, until this book appeared, no one could ever profit fully by the work done at 2ZL. One could admire and wonder, and by mail or in person get a few pointers. Here, for the first time is the full story, put into print so all can study it at leisure and use its data at will. The book will increase every amateur's knowledge, enable him to arrange his set in the light of the most modern practices, save him time and money in purchasing equipment, and give him facts that will make his tubes last longer, increase the quality of his modulation, add miles to his effective receiving or transmitting range. It discusses with particular clearness the comparative virtues of spark and CW transmission, and shows conclusively the superiority of the tube in range, clarity of reception, ease of eliminating interferences, and, what is to many the most important of all, low power consumption. DO YOU KNOW —the proper proportion of grid and plate currents in a transmitting tube? —the proper proportion of plate current when not modulating, to the normal full-load current when modulating? —how to eliminate excessive plate current when no adjustment of the circuits will do it? —the percentage of increase in output to be expected by the addition of one or more tubes to a transmitter? —the advantages and disadvantages of transmitting circuits employing direct rectification, the plate A. C. with half-wave rectification; A. C. with full-wave rectification; and electrostatic A. C.; and which type of circuit is the most economical and at the same time most efficient? IF YOU DON'T—"MODERN RADIO OPERATION" WILL TELL YOU, and tell you in plain language that you will enjoy reading. NO THEORY—NO MATHEMATICS NO FORMULAS Just a straight story of the development and operation of the tube sets that made amateur history, written in everyday language that explains itself, by the man whose design and operation of 2ZL gave that station worldwide fame. RECEIVING EXPLAINED—Chapter 4 is the most comprehensive yet published on receiving apparatus and is intended especially for those who are content to listen to the broadcast programs. It contains full details, with diagrams, of every type of set; crystal, honeycomb, regenerative with audio frequency amplification and the radio frequency amplifier; radio frequency set used on indoor loop antennas. There is even a summary of the super-regenerative Armstrong circuit, 100,000 times more sensitive than the usual hook-up. LIST OF CHAPTERS 1. The Radio Telephone. 2. Transmitting Equipment Used in Radio Telephony and Its Operation. 3. Types of High Power Broadcasting Stations. 4. Receiving Equipment for All Purposes and Its Operation. 5. Spark and Continuous Wave Transmitters. 6. Vacuum Tube Fundamentals. 7. Operating Characteristics of Vacuum Tubes. 8. Methods of Obtaining Plate Potentials, and Types of Continuous Wave Transmitters. 9. Continuous Wave Transmission by Antennas. 10. Tube Transmitters in Commercial Work. 11. Advantages of a Couplerpole Antenna in Connection with Tube Transmitters. 150 PAGES OVER 50 ILLUSTRATIONS NOW READY "Modern Radio Operation" is now ready for distribution. It is the most up-to-date volume on amateur tube operation ever published, and should be in every station. It will save you time and money, tell you how to get the maximum results with the minimum power, how to save tubes and how best to use the power that is available in your locality. Price $1.75 At any dealer, or send order direct to the publisher— WIRELESS PRESS, Inc. 326 Broadway New York City Federal RADIO INSTRUMENTS ARE SUPERIOR IN BEAUTY OF FORM AND FINISH, SIMPLICITY OF OPERATION, EFFICIENCY AND DURABILITY THE Federal CRYSTAL RECEIVER, when used alone, is highly efficient for receiving radiophone programs in a clear—soft—pleasant tone, within a radius of 25 TO 30 MILES. With the addition of THE Federal JUNIOR AMPLIFIER this range is increased to 100 MILES. IF YOU HAVE A RECEIVER of any other type increase its efficiency by using Federal HEAD TELEPHONES. THE Federal BATTERY UNIT is arranged to contain both "A" and "B" Battery in a most compact and convenient manner. The metal container is beautifully finished—a style peculiar to Federal APPARATUS and is in perfect harmony with ANY SETTING. YOUR RECEIVING SET IS ONLY AS EFFICIENT AS YOUR HEAD TELEPHONES The Name Federal Is a Guarantee FEDERAL BATTERY UNIT Federal Telephone & Telegraph Co. BUFFALO, NEW YORK PRICE REDUCTION OF TUBE SOCKET The ever-increasing demand for our universal tube socket has enabled us to reduce the cost of manufacture and correspondingly the sale price. The same high quality of material and workmanship will be rigidly adhered to. These sockets are adaptable to any of the standard American four-watt transmitting or receiving tubes. They are adapted to the Western Electric VT-2 tubes, as well as to the Radiotron U-105 tubes. The contact springs are sufficiently rugged to carry the plate current of the five-watt transmitting tubes without arcing. POSITIVE CONTACT SPRINGS Rugged, Attractive, Reliable TYPE 156 SOCKET PRICE $1.25 Send for Free Radio Bulletin 911W GENERAL RADIO COMPANY MASSACHUSETTS AVENUE AND WINDSOR STREET CAMBRIDGE 39 MASSACHUSETTS Do not confuse the products of the GENERAL RADIO CO. with those of other concerns using the words "General Radio." The General Radio Co. has been manufacturing radio and scientific instruments for many years. It has no affiliation with any other company. Standardize on General Radio Equipment Throughout "TUNING IN" To the right tune is very simple when your connections are soldered with the NEW "POST SOLDERING IRON" (The iron with the platinum heating unit) Removable Soldering Tip Designed especially to cover every requirement for delicate work. The smallest practical-efficient instrument on the market. Attached to any socket, Universal Current. Fully Guaranteed. From your dealer, jobber or write, POST ELECTRIC COMPANY, 30 East 42d Street, Room 509, NEW YORK BRACH vacuum LIGHTNING ARRESTER The Highest Development in Radio Protection Ordinary common sense will lead the average radio user not only to comply with the rules of municipal authorities to insure the safety of his radio equipment, but he will do it to make possible clear signals and enjoyable entertainment. The BRACH VACUUM LIGHTNING ARRESTER has demonstrated its reliability through over 16 years of service to the big railroad and telephone companies, large fire alarm systems and the U. S. Army. It is built up to a standard—not down to a price. Listed by the Underwriters' Laboratories L. S. BRACH MFG. CO., Newark, N. J. MAKERS OF SOLDERBALL—Mends Metals; Connects Wires COAST REPRESENTATIVES—Pacific States Elec. Co., San Francisco, Los Angeles, Oakland, Seattle, Portland, Spokane. Indoor Type $2.50 Outdoor Type $3 Triplex Filament Meter Filament control by the use of proper instruments in receiving sets is the trend of the times. The Jewell triplex filament instrument, made as an ammeter or voltmeter, places on your panel the proper means for controlling the filaments of three tubes. It has a self-contained mechanism for switching to either tube and being of small size, can be accommodated on the most compact tube set. Price $10.00 We were the first to supply a complete line of miniature radio instruments of uniform size. Ask your dealer or write to us for complete radio circular. Jewell Electrical Instrument Co. 1650 Walnut St. Chicago IT PAYS TO BUY Where You See This Sign— A COMPLETE stock; — a competent radio man in charge; — the Golden Rule in force—are what you find at shops displaying this sign. Mr. Dealer—Let us tell you about the Rowline Sign and how it will help you. Write us. Ship One's Radio Service, Inc. 80 Washington St. New York, N. Y. Wholesale Distributors NEW YORK COIL COMPANY RADIO PRODUCTS ARE BUILT TO WORK—NOT JUST TO SELL The leadership they enjoy is due to correct design, exceptional workmanship and eighteen years' experience in the manufacture of Wireless and precision electrical devices. There are no disappointments when these parts are used, that is why they are so much in demand with the builder, jobber and dealer. Our Catalog will save you money. It's free Price, $4.00 Price, $4.00 Price, $4.00 11 plate, price ...............$1.50 23 plate, price ............... 2.00 43 plate, price ............... 3.00 3 plate vernier .................. 1.25 Entertain - a-phone Receiving Set No. 2 detector and two stages amplification. Price, $50.00 Greatest value in radio. NEW YORK COIL COMPANY, Inc. 338 Pearl Street New York City, N. Y. DUCK'S RADIO CATALOG No. 16 256 PAGES Continuously since 1909 Duck's Radio Catalogs have never been equaled for completeness and great wealth of radio data Send 25c in coin carefully wrapped for your copy of this wonderful book, the most unusual and complete catalog ever put between two covers. Not sent otherwise. Enormous cost and tremendous demand prevent distribution to less than 1000. Never in the history of No. A666 Duck's Positive Contact Bakelite Tube Socket (at right) is found during the past year. The most perfect tube socket on the market today. To our knowledge there is no other type of tube socket that cannot be forcibly criticized from any angle. Either the receptacle does not easily accommodate the tube, or its diameter on the bases of bulbs, or the notch on receptacle is not just right, or the receptacle is easily subjected to breakage or connection difficulties in an inconvenient place, or, and most important of all, the form and style of the contact do not insure positive, certain contact without considerable manipulation. In our new socket all these defects in other bulbs are overcome. No. A666 Duck's Bakelite Tube Socket, $1. Shipping weight, ½ pound. There are many Duck products that completely eliminate all competitive types. Duck Products have stood the test of time. 1909-1922 The longest line in America—63 COMPLETE INSTRUMENTS—58 PARTS. DEALERS We want the responsible dealers in every city and town in United States, both for the sale of our exclusive line of Duck products and all other worth-while lines of radio equipment, which we can quote attractive dealers' discounts. We can offer you facilities and advantages that no other radio house can offer. Our new moulded variometer (at right) speaks for itself. For a comprehensive description of the Duck's new radio though back of our variometers, we invite your attention to our exhaustive descriptive pages. In prettiness of design, compactness, and lightness of weight, we have not seen any variometer that we believe compares with ours. The form, unlike many others, positively will not warp. No. A900 plate variometer, with knob and dial, $7.25 No. A901 grid variometer, with knob and dial, $7.25 Note: It knob and dial are not desired deduct 75c. The WILLIAM B. DUCK CO., 239-241 Superior St., Toledo, Ohio Give Your Radio Set the Advantage of WESTINGHOUSE RADIO BATTERIES Westinghouse "A" Batteries are especially built for the peculiar requirements of radio work. They deliver a constant, dependable flow of low voltage current. They are built to give long, low-cost service. They demand a minimum of attention. In the Westinghouse "B" battery you have a storage battery for "B" work—the latest development in radio practice. It has all the reliability and dependable performance of a storage battery and none of the disadvantages of a dry cell. The Westinghouse "B" gives a steady, continuous, noiseless service. It lasts indefinitely. When exhausted it is easily recharged. The first cost is the last cost. Don't lose the enjoyment of your Radio by operating under unsatisfactory conditions. Get Westinghouse "A" and "B" batteries from your radio dealer or the nearest Westinghouse Service Station. 14¾ in. long 2½ in. wide 3¾ in. high WESTINGHOUSE UNION BATTERY CO. Swissvale, Pa. "The best Westinghouse can build." NOVO "B" BATTERIES FOR RADIO 28¼-45 & 105 VOLTS NOISELESS DEPENDABLE GUARANTEED ASK YOUR DEALER NOVO MANUFACTURING CO. 424-438 W. 33rd ST. NEW YORK 531 S. DEARBORN ST. CHICAGO. 35c. each 3 for $1.00 Na-ald Genuine Condensite Dial The Dial that runs true Numerals engraved on bevel and knurled bossed that finger touches. Engraved with clear indication to make accurate reading easy. Concealed set screw in metal insert. Will not warp or chip. Finish and material permanent. Low price with this quality only possible through automatic production methods. Special dealer and jobber proposition—an opportunity. ALDEN-NAPIER CO. 52 Willow Street, Dept. A., Springfield, Mass. Head Receivers Micro-Phones Keys Jacks Plugs Etc. HIGH GRADE WIRELESS APPARATUS American Electric COMPANY State and 64th Streets, Chicago, U. S. A. 2nd Edition Now Ready for Delivery A complete UP-TO-DATE list of American Amateur Stations. A complete UP-TO-DATE list of Broadcasting Stations and Special Stations. Notes on Construction of Receiving Set and Calibration of Receiving Set without the use of Wavemeter. Price $1.00 Dealers write for prices WIRELESS PRESS, 326 Broadway, New York 4 People for $5 THAT'S what the Radisco Phonoscope means to your radio receiving set. Four people can listen in on a crystal or audion set, where only one could before with ordinary head phones. Since head phones cost from $5 to $15 each, the expense for phones to let the whole family listen in would be from $20.00 to $60.00 or more. The Radisco Phonoscope allows four people to listen in as easily and clearly at a cost of only $5. Briefly, this is the way it works. A receptor is provided into which one receiver of your present head set can be automatically inserted. The signals received by your head set will then be transmitted through pure para rubber tubing to the four listening ends of the Phonoscope itself. Sold by the Radio Distributing Company and its agents throughout the country. If your dealer cannot supply you, send money direct with name of dealer. Money gladly refunded within 15 days if you are not perfectly delighted with the results you secure. 10 cents to cover mailing charges will bring you a copy of the new Radisco Radio Catalog. The Radio Distributing Company, Newark, N. J., U. S. A. Radisco Phonoscope Price $5 Radisco Heliophone (Pocket receiver) Price $5 Radisco Vario-coupler Price $6.50 RADISCO RADIO PRODUCTS The Latest Developments HOWARD MICROMETER ADJUSTMENT RHEOSTAT PATENT PENDING Rheostats are used in many different ways—but for the user for radio purposes we have just what he has longed for—a HOWARD MICROMETER ADJUSTED RHEOSTAT with ONE KNOB CONTROL and INSTANTANEOUS ADJUSTMENT of the micrometer portion as well as the main or adjustment portion. Less than one turn of the knob gives complete control of the main as well as the micrometer portions of the rheostat. The delicate balance so necessary for the most efficient operation of gas content detector tubes is therefore readily obtained. PRICE, $10. Micrometer Attachment (Patent Pending) As shown on the rheostat above has been so designed that it may be placed on our regular rheostats now in service. PRICE, 58 CENTS. Special Micrometer Rheostat Dial (Patent Pending) We manufacture a special dial for use with the micrometer rheostat and attachment which indicates the resistance in the circuit. PRICE, 25 CENTS. HOWARD MULTI-TERMINAL TELEPHONE RECEIVER PLUG (Patent Pending) This new plug provides positive connections for standard receiver terminals instantly. From one to six pairs of receivers may be accommodated in such a manner that the maximum electrical efficiency is assured. Series, parallel, and series parallel combinations can be made available without the use of tools. PRICE, $2.00. ASK YOUR DEALER Liberal Discount to the Trade HOWARD RADIO CO., Manufacturers 4248 North Western Ave., Chicago, Ills., U.S.A. JEWELL Lightning Arrester Approved by Underwriters' Laboratories, latest Code. Carbon block types (not porcelain) using a brown glazed porcelain case which can be installed inside or outdoors. Carbon block arresters have been standard in Railway signal and telephone protection for over 20 years. Ask your dealer or write us for special circular. Price $1.10 Jewell Electrical Instrument Co. 1650 Walnut Street Chicago Saves time, labor and is accurate "PREPARED RADIO MEASUREMENTS" By R. R. Batcher Price $2.00 WIRELESS PRESS, Inc. 326 BROADWAY NEW YORK If you use Amplifying Tubes you can make your Victor talking machine a RADIO LOUD SPEAKER, with a "Beeko" Radio-Phono attachment. Sample by mail, 40c. Liberal discount in quantities. J.H.BUNNELL&CO. 32 Park Place, Dept. W NEW YORK Radak Parts are leaders in their lines Type HT RADAK UNIVERSAL TUBE SOCKET Moulded in One Piece Made of condensite, without the usual objectionable metal parts. Designed for mounting easily on back of panel, requiring neither shelf nor brackets. Quickly screwed to any flat surface. Binding posts on top. Also holes outside each contact spring for using solderless connections. Fills a great need of the amateur. Price complete, $1.00 Type H400 RADAK FILAMENT RHEOSTAT Economizes Panel Space Unique Clapp-Eastham twin-construction design insures economy of space and freedom from tube noises. Current conducted by two sliding contacts—rather than through bearings—going direct to ends of wire attached to terminals. Requires space of only 1½ in. diameter by 1¾ in. depth. Price complete, $1.35 Type H. R. V. RADAK VARIOMETER Cuts Down Dielectric Losses Ball of hollow moulded hard rubber; outer shell of bakelite. Inner wire is fine steel ball. Outer winding formed in section of sphere. Clearance small, giving wide range of wave-lengths. Dielectric material reduced to minimum. Unusually long inductance range for size of instrument. May be rotated continuously without breaking contact. Furnished with its metal and knob. Price complete, $6.50 Each of the parts shown separately here is one good reason why Radak Receiving Sets are giving such satisfaction. Each embodies the long experience of the Clapp-Eastham Company, and is a unit used in Radak sets. Sold separately for the benefit of amateurs who construct their own sets. A Radio Catalog showing other parts, as well as the latest Radak Receiving Sets, 6 cents. CLAPP-EASTHAM COMPANY, OLDEST AND LARGEST MAKERS OF RADIO EQUIPMENT EXCLUSIVELY. ESTABLISHED 1906 101 MAIN STREET, CAMBRIDGE, MASS. "RED-HEADS" A Triumph in Radio Receiver Design 3000 ohms, complete with cord and military headband. NOW $6.50 At the new price of $6.50 per pair, "Red-Heads" represent today's biggest value in radio headsets "Red-Heads" Will be the Popular Receivers This Season For sensitiveness, for mechanical perfection and for durability, "Red-Heads" easily surpass any 'phones ever offered at anything like the $6.50 price. Their genuine merit has created a country-wide demand for "Red-Heads." The new low price will vastly increase their popularity everywhere. SPECIFICATIONS Each "Red-Head" receiver is wound to 1500 ohms (3000 ohms per pair) with highest quality electrolytic copper on accurately ground pole pieces attached to the best magnet steel procurable for the purpose. Machine-finished aluminum backs with brass posts and nickelized binding posts. Ear caps of special design, molded from our special red-brown composition, comfortably fitting the ear. High quality, fully adjustable military type head-band with leather taping and Green mercerized cord. Careful workmanship and distinctive appearance. Fully guaranteed. It's a Fact That— "RED-HEAD" 'Phones at $6.50 are the lowest priced, high-grade, 3000-ohm aluminum curcuit receivers on the market. The new price is possible only because of greatly increased production and cleverly improved facilities. Not one iota of quality has been sacrificed. "NAA" Detector Crystals "Known and used the world over" These are the original tested detector crystals where the most gratification but they only mean "interference," with good results. The genuine "NAA" are distinguished by their tested sensitiveness—remember that!—marked by the name "J. S. Newman" on each box. "NAA" Galena, Silicon or Goldite, per crystal.......................... 25c Mounted, set in Woods metal in brass cup, per crystal...................... 40c Have you observed how the Teagle line of radio products is coming to the front? "Demonstrated merit" is the reason. We are the producers of Tube Rheostats, Sockets, Condensers, Detectors, Crystal Receivers, Adaptaphones, etc. Like Newman-Stern "Red-Heads," they give the utmost for the money and the maximum of satisfaction. They must. For like our "Red-Heads," they're fully guaranteed. RADIO INSTITUTE OF AMERICA (Formerly Marconi Institute) America’s Foremost School Devoted to the Practical Science of Wireless Telegraphy and Telephony RESIDENCE SCHOOL A systematically organized course of instruction on radio apparatus of all types and models—SPARK—ARC—C.W.—I.C.W. and telephone. The Radio Institute of America is the most completely equipped of any radio school in the United States and offers sound practical training at the smallest cost. The Radio Institute of America has been an established and successful institution for over fifteen years. It has trained over 6500 men, 95% of whom have successfully engaged in this new branch of science and industry. Afternoon and evening classes are conducted throughout the entire year. Prominent executives in the radio field are former students of the Institute. The Radio Corporation employs thousands of men in its executive departments, its factories and laboratories in addition to those employed as wireless operators on shipboard. A large percentage of these men are graduates of the Institute. HOME STUDY DIVISION The home course of radio training which has been developed for the benefit of those who cannot attend the Institute personally, is the same course used at the Institute. It includes everything from basic principles of electricity and magnetism to actual operation of commercial radio equipment, including arc and tube transmitters. It also includes the same text books used in the Institute classes, as well as a buzzer set of greatly improved design with a variable automatic transmitter for code practice. A three weeks Post-Graduate course in the New York Residence school is given without extra charge to students of the Home Study Division. The graduates of the Radio Institute of America enjoy a great and exclusive advantage in the close connection existing between the Institute and the Radio Corporation of America, the world's largest radio manufacturing and commercial radio company. You, too, can be successful in this new field if you properly train yourself by means of the Course given by the Institute. Qualified radio men are assured of an unlimited opportunity for future advancement. Information on either the Residence School or Home Study Division will be gladly sent upon request. Address all communications to Director— RADIO INSTITUTE OF AMERICA 326 BROADWAY NEW YORK, N. Y. BRANCH RESIDENT SCHOOL New Call Building, New Montgomery Street, San Francisco, Cal. $10.00 At FIRST CLASS DEALERS $11.50 WITH PLUG ATTACHED The perfected product of a scientific organization with over 30 years' outstanding leadership in the telephone world. Automatic Electric Head Sets are designed with a powerful single pole electro-magnet, and a complete soft iron magnetic path. Both weak and strong signals are reproduced with maximum clearness and entirely without distortion or foreign noises, whether used with crystal, V. T. detectors or multi-stage amplifiers. The Automatic Electric Head Sets are made only in one style and resistance—the very best! Resistance has been subordinated to a definite scientific design which gives the best results under all conditions. It is safer to patronize the dealer who handles the Genuine Automatic Electric Head Sets Automatic Electric Company ENGINEERS, DESIGNERS & MANUFACTURERS OF THE AUTOMATIC TELEPHONE IN USE THE WORLD OVER HOME OFFICE AND FACTORY: CHICAGO, U. S. A. Let Your Apparatus Speak for Itself AMERICAN RADIO EXPOSITION —A national exposition for radio manufacturers, dealers, inventors and amateurs, covering the entire field of radio. —A complete exhibition of apparatus, accessories and materials. —Daily demonstrations, broadcasting, lectures, orchestral concerts, Grand Opera artists in person—motion pictures illustrating practical uses of radio and the principles of its operation. To be held at Grand Central Palace 46th St., to 47th St. & Lexington Avenue —The heart of the great terminal zone, close to the busiest shopping districts. NEW YORK CITY DECEMBER 21st to 31st, 1922 —Schools and colleges will be closed, making it convenient for young folk to attend. To these young people the magic of radio makes a specially strong appeal. Manufacturers and dealers should contract for space now Address inquiries as to rates, etc., to AMERICAN RADIO EXPOSITION COMPANY 120 Broadway, New York City Telephone, John 0009 Educational and Interesting Burgess, the Radio Battery — construction fully patented When you buy a Burgess "B" Battery you get more than long life, noiselessness, high capacity and moderate price. You get also Burgess special radio construction, perfected by wireless specialists and fully patented! This exclusive radio construction is found in no other battery on the market today. Leading manufacturers of radio equipment specify "Burgess." Burgess "B" Batteries are handled by all progressive jobbers and dealers. "Look for the Black and White Stripes." And if your dealer doesn't handle Burgess "B" just address: BURGESS BATTERY COMPANY Engineers—Dry Batteries—Manufacturers Offices and Warehouses at: CHICAGO, ILL., 111 W. Madison St. ST. PAUL, MINN., 2362 University Ave. NEW YORK, N.Y., 50 Church St. KANSAS CITY, MO., 2109 Grand Ave. BOSTON, MASS., 136 Federal St. MADISON, WIS., Main and Breezy Sts. In Canada: BURGESS BATTERIES, Ltd. Winnipeg, Toronto, Montreal BURGESS "B" BATTERIES "ASK ANY RADIO ENGINEER" LEARN THE CODE AT HOME WITH THE OMNIGRAPH "Just Listen—The Omnigraph will do the teaching" THE OMNIGRAPH Automatic Transmitter will teach you both the Wireless and Morse Code—fast, easy, and without trouble, quickly and inexpensively. Connected with Buzzer, Buzzer and Buzzer Sounder, the OMNIGRAPH gives you messages, at any speed, from 5 to 50 words a minute. THE OMNIGRAPH is not an experiment. For more than 15 years it has been sold all over the world. Thousands of users guarantee that the OMNIGRAPH is used by several Depts. of the U. S. Army, from the President's Office down. The OMNIGRAPH to test all applicants applying for Wireless Operator's License. The OMNIGRAPH has been successfully adopted by the leading Universities, Colleges and Radio Schools. Send for FREE catalog describing three models, $14 to $30. DO IT TODAY. THE OMNIGRAPH MFG. CO., 16A Hudson St., New York City If you own a Radio Phone set and don't know the Code—you are missing most of the fun "Is the Product Right?" It is a maxim of advertising that a poor product cannot be successfully advertised. It may flash upon the scene with brilliance, become the talk of the hour, and to all appearances be destined to set new records, but unless it is and does what is claimed for it, no amount of printer's ink and artist's colors can give it permanence. Once in a while some article of merchandise will appear to defy this rule, but not for long. Public response, at first, perhaps, quick and active, becomes slower and slower. Sales fall off. The business grows sick, and in a few months or a few years, the very name of the product is forgotten. Advertising men know this so well that today the first question upon which they must be satisfied before they will recommend advertising to any manufacturer is—Is the product right? And merchandise that is right—merchandise that will satisfy in service—merchandise that will bring customers back for another purchase is the first requirement of the jobber and the retailer who expect to endure and flourish. There is no better assurance of this kind of merchandise than an advertising pledge to the public. [Published by THE WIRELESS AGE in cooperation with The American Association of Advertising Agencies] Variable Air Condenser Made by the originators of the Honeycomb Coil and of the Tapped Type Amplifying Transformer for Radio Frequency that has just about eliminated Static troubles. As superior in operation as it is in appearance. Buy Radio by the Name Cotoco Static Defeated Loop Aerials Available to All Cotoco Tapped Amplifying Transformer for Radio Frequency has exceeded all expectations in overcoming static. Write for FREE Connection Diagram for Loop Aerial set giving name of your dealer. Ask for it. It's Free. Coto Coil Co. 87 Willard Ave. Providence, R. I. Radio a Profitable Profession On ships radio operators get good pay, have wonderful opportunities for travel and are treated as officers. On land there are an increasing number of good positions open to trained men as operators or with companies manufacturing and selling radio apparatus. We have trained thousands of successful men for jobs like these. Let us train you. Complete course covering ARC, SPARK and VACUUM TUBES Y. M. C. A. RADIO SCHOOL 149 East 86th Street New York City "The Best Radio School in the East" "AS GOOD AS BRANDES" ONLY if a headset bears the name Brandes can it be "as good as Brandes." And genuine Brandes Matched Tone headsets cost no more than less sensitive and less rugged imitations. Send ten cents in stamps for the "Beginner's Book of Radio," which explains radio in terms that anyone can understand. Distributors and District Offices: Munsey Bldg., Washington, D. C. 76 Pearl St., Boston, Mass. 33 S. Clinton St., Chicago, Ill. 709 Mission St., San Francisco, Cal. International Electric Company, Wellington, N. Z. C. Brandes, Inc. Matched Tone Headsets 237 Lafayette St., New York. Made in Canada by Canadian Brandes, Ltd., Toronto Distributed by Perkins Electric, Ltd., Montreal SMALL ADS OF BIG INTEREST A MEETING PLACE FOR BUYERS AND SELLERS Space in this department costs only 65 cents a line. Minimum space seven lines. Payable in advance. INVENTORS: Protect your invention through the services of A. M. Wilson, Inc., Washington, D. C. Over 20 years' efficient, expert confidential service. Skilled in Radio-Electrical, Chemical, and Mechanical fields. Our 1922 Illustrated Booklet—giving all necessary and most useful information which every inventor should know, will be sent free upon request. Prompt and careful attention. Highest references. Moderate fees. Send sketch or model for our careful opinion and preliminary advice. Write today to A. M. WILSON, INC. (Room 3 CRIB) 312-18 Vickers Building, Washington, D. C. (Successor to business established in 1891 by A. M. Wilson.) LIGHTNING—Wonderful new Electrolyte charger discharges with absolute safety. Eliminates old Sulphuric Acid method entirely. World has waited half a century for this invention. One gallon, retails $10.00, free to agents. LIGHTNING CO., St. Paul, Minn. Jenkins Vernier Rheostat Indispensable for adjustment on Radio Frequency and Detector Tubes. Patent instant cut-off switch. $1.75 Write for folder. Liberal Discounts to Dealers and Jobbers CONTINENTAL "New York's Leading Radio House" For the Wireless Sage of the Wireless Age THIS CLAPP-EASTHAM SET Consisting of a Type HR Regenerative Receiver and a Type HZ Two Stage Amplifier. Uniform in size, polished mahogany. Strong, clear tone, simple tuning, utmost reliability. Complete with Federal Telephone Head Set, Magnavox Loud Speaker, Antenna Equipment, all Tubes and Batteries, $177.50. Glad to write or show you all about it. "Modern Radio"—a new two hundred and eight page catalogue of our wireless equipment, supplies and apparatus sent for thirty-five cents. CONTINENTAL RADIO & ELECTRIC CORP. 6 and 15 Warren Street New York, U. S. A. Personally Selected Books for the Beginner When the Radio Craze swept the country manuscripts for beginners' books, hastily prepared, were submitted to us by the score. None Met Our Standards Some obviously were written by authors of too little knowledge. Others were incomplete or written in language too technical for the novice. We rejected all manuscripts until An Introduction To Radio was offered to us Here at Last Was a Real Book for the Beginner J. Andrew White, Editor of the WIRELESS AGE, read it through page by page. He liked it—the language was not too technical—the illustrations were carefully selected—the diagrams right—and the information was really comprehensive. He passed it on to me—I felt just as he did, and then—he put it up to J. O. Smith, of "2ZL" fame, for his opinion. "J. O." came back with an emphatic endorsement of the book. He said, "this is the manuscript we have been waiting for. It is what thousands of beginners have been waiting for and it's up to us to give it to them." Then we tried it out on some of our novice friends and they said it was easily understandable. So Here Is the Book—In Two Volumes—Handy Pocket Size List of Chapters: Chapter 1—An Introduction to Radio. Chapter 2—Radio Telephony. Chapter 3—The Various Instruments Used in Radio Transmitting and Receiving Outfits. Volume 2. Chapter 4—Technical Terms Explained. Chapter 5—How To Set Up Receiving Outfits. Chapter 6—Primer of the Vacuum Tube. Chapter 7—How To Set Up Radio Transmitters. Your Money Back If You're Not Pleased I want you to examine these books because I know they are what you want. Pin a dollar bill or check to the attached coupon. If the books are not just as represented return the books within 5 days and we will send your money back at once. Or go to your dealer and have him order them for you. DEALERS—Get Your Order In Quick WIRELESS PRESS, INC., New York City ORDER BLANK WIRELESS PRESS, INC., Date 326 Broadway, New York. Here's my dollar. Send me AN INTRODUCTION TO RADIO. If I don't like the books I'll return them in 5 days and get my money back. Name ............................................................... Street ............................................................... City ............................................................... State ............................................................... SPECIAL OFFER For $3.00 we will send you these books and THE WIRELESS AGE for a year (outside U. S., $3.50). This saves you 50c. If you want to grasp this opportunity check one of the squares below. ☐ New Subscriber ☐ I am now an AGE subscriber The Indispensable Trio THE Thoro-bred Rheostat, Dial and Vacuum Tube Socket are an indispensable trio for every tube set. Without these three you will not know the best results your receiving set can give. Here's why. The Thoro-bred Rheostat enables you to secure the maximum detector action through its extremely close adjustment of the filament control. It has a resistance of five ohms, which eliminates the use of a vernier adjustment, since the resistance of one of its turns of wire on the resistive element is so small that the effect is not noticeable on the tube. All metal points are silver plated. It is adaptable for either table or panel mounting. Molded parts are of Bakelite. Knob is supplied with pointer and is of the same design as the dial. Patent applied for. Price $1.10. The Thoro-bred Tube Socket is the second of this indispensable trio. The tube insert is of brass, heavy nickel plated with high polish. The base is of molded bakelite, making it possible to withstand high heat. The leakage from the grid to the filament is reduced to a minimum. Bakelite used in the Thoro-bred Socket does not absorb the moisture or cause the leakage as in other sockets employing the common shellac composition. It gives a better appearance and holds the original finish. Price $1.00. The Thoro-bred Dial was the first genuine Bakelite dial to be offered with both Clock-wise and Counter-Clock-wise Readings. This dial was also the first to introduce the popular "raised axis" which eliminates all panel scraping and friction and permit easy operation. The brass insert employed, does away with any wobbliness that might otherwise develop. Patent applied for. Price 90c. The indispensable trio can be obtained at your nearest dealer. If, for some reason he is not already supplied, send us his name and your money direct. THE MARSHALL-GERKEN COMPANY TOLEDO, OHIO, U. S. A. ## Amateur Radio Stations of the United States ### Supplementary List brought up-to-date from September WIRELESS AGE #### First District RE-ISSUED. \| Call Sign \| Name and Address \| City, State \| \|-----------\|------------------\|-------------\| \| 1 AEA \| Joseph A. Siegner, 53 Mathy Ft., New Haven, Conn. \| New Haven, Conn. \| \| 1 AEC \| R. B. Brown, Jr., 7 Winslow St., Plymouth, Mass. \| Plymouth, Mass. \| \| 1 AFB \| Nathaniel H. Calby, 9 New London, N. H. \| New London, N. H. \| \| 1 AFQ \| F. W. Steitz, 18 Jackson St., Holyoke, Mass. \| Holyoke, Mass. \| \| 1 APT \| Greenwood & Co., 75 Howard St., Boston, Mass. \| Boston, Mass. \| \| 1 ARA \| C. L. Johnson, P. O. Box 124, Attleboro, Mass. \| Attleboro, Mass. \| \| 1 APW \| T. R. Noble, 48 Pleasant St., Pittsfield, Mass. \| Pittsfield, Mass. \| \| 1 AXL \| A. Whitman, 73 Payne St., Quincy, Mass. \| Quincy, Mass. \| \| 1 AGF \| John H. Braun, 106 Main St., Branford, Conn. \| Branford, Conn. \| \| 1 AGP \| T. J. Gridley, 43 Holywood St., Springfield, Mass. \| Springfield, Mass. \| \| 1 AGV \| T. H. Allen, 21 Highland Ave., Watertown, Mass. \| Watertown, Mass. \| \| 1 AHG \| Philip E. Smith, 72 Elm St., Northampton, Mass. \| Northampton, Mass. \| \| 1 AHH \| Joseph May, 26 Snow Ave., Millford, Conn. \| Millford, Conn. \| \| 1 AHI \| D. B. Heilbrook, 101 School St., Cliftondale, Mass. \| Cliftondale, Mass. \| \| 1 AHE \| John B. Whitehall, Windfield Farm, No. Simsbury, Conn. \| No. Simsbury, Conn. \| \| 1 ARM \| Henry B. Joy, "Treasure Hill", Watch Hill, R. I. \| Watch Hill, R. I. \| \| 1 AHB \| J. J. Leferre, 33 Linden St., Springfield, Mass. \| Springfield, Mass. \| \| 1 AHV \| John W. H. Jones, 960 Main St., Brattleboro, Vt. \| Brattleboro, Vt. \| \| 1 AIA \| John G. Philips, 1000 N. Christian Ct., Maine \| Portland, Maine \| \| 1 AIC \| L. V. DeVries, Hatfield St., Northampton, Mass. \| Northampton, Mass. \| \| 1 AIK \| Charles W. Gamage, Maple St., Lynn, Mass. \| Lynn, Mass. \| \| 1 BBU \| Lloyd C. Kenfield, 274 Massachusetts Ave., Boston, Mass. \| Boston, Mass. \| \| 1 CHQ \| Eugene Ronson, State Road, Scotland, Conn. \| Scotland, Conn. \| \| 1 CQW \| George N. Rang, 82 Mill St., Newport, R. I. \| Newport, R. I. \| \| 1 VV \| J. G. Barrett, Jr., 674 E. 2nd St., Boston, Mass. \| Boston, Mass. \| #### Sixth District \| Call Sign \| Name and Address \| City, State \| \|-----------\|------------------\|-------------\| \| 6 BNN \| R. B. Loehr, 1921 Irving Ave., Oakland, Calif. \| Oakland, Calif. \| \| 6 BNO \| Paul R. Clark, Mt. Tamalpais, Mil. Academy, San Rafael, Calif. \| San Rafael, Calif. \| \| 6 BNP \| D. McIver, Box 125, Willows, Calif. \| Willows, Calif. \| \| 6 BNQ \| M. Schilling, Box 297, Beaumont, Calif. \| Beaumont, Calif. \| \| 6 BNR \| P. Schulz, R. F. D. No. 6, Box 254, San Bernardino, Calif. \| San Bernardino, Calif. \| \| 6 BNS \| L. Stauffer, 1000 S. 1st St., Mendon, Utah \| Mendon, Utah \| \| 6 BNT \| W. C. Maddock, 225 Willard St., San Francisco, Calif. \| San Francisco, Calif. \| \| 6 BNU \| D. H. Atkins, 25 Glen Alpine Rd., Piedmont, Cal. \| Piedmont, Cal. \| \| 6 BNV \| Unassigned \| \| \| 6 BNW \| S. D. Baker, 1000 S. 1st St., Elko, T. H. \| Elko, T. H. \| \| 6 BNX \| R. B. Biogel, 2542 Beachwood Drive, Hollywood, Calif. \| Hollywood, Calif. \| \| 6 BNY \| G. V. Halicek, 224 W. Florida St., Hemet, Calif. \| Hemet, Calif. \| \| 6 BNZ \| Ed. Walsh, 4855 Berzington Ave., Los Angeles, Calif. \| Los Angeles, Calif. \| \| 6 BOA \| Eastern Oregon University Campus, Tucson, Ariz. \| Tucson, Ariz. \| \| 6 BOB \| E. B. Finney, 1000 S. 1st St., Phoenix, Ariz. \| Phoenix, Ariz. \| \| 6 BOC \| C. A. Steele, 5th St., San Rafael, Calif. \| San Rafael, Calif. \| \| 6 BOD \| T. H. Woehl, 726 N. El Molino Ave., Pasadena, Calif. \| Pasadena, Calif. \| \| 6 BOE \| K. B. Unger, 119 Edith Ave., Salt Lake City, Utah \| Salt Lake City, Utah \| \| 6 BOF \| T. T. Strickland, 1000 S. 1st St., Quincy, Calif. \| Quincy, Calif. \| \| 6 BOG \| C. Crandall, Jr., Colonial Hotel, Honolulu, T. H. \| Honolulu, T. H. \| \| 6 BOH \| A. W. Martin, Jr., 894 Willow St., San Francisco, Calif. \| San Francisco, Calif. \| \| 6 BOI \| D. C. Kirk, 462 Int. Nat. Bank Bldg., San Francisco, Calif. \| San Francisco, Calif. \| \| 6 BOJ \| Whittier College, Whittier, Calif. \| Whittier, Calif. \| \| 6 BOK \| W. Munter, 718 Clement St., San Francisco, Calif. \| San Francisco, Calif. \| \| 6 BOL \| Taf. High School, 1000 S. 1st St., Taf., Calif. \| Taf., Calif. \| \| 6 BOM \| L. A. Smith, 17 N. First St., San Jose, Calif. \| San Jose, Calif. \| \| 6 BON \| A. Hunsburg, 195 Santa Teresa St., Santa Clara, Calif. \| Santa Clara, Calif. \| \| 6 BOO \| R. O. Furbush, R. F. D. Carrier, B. P. O., Kingsbury St., Long Beach, Calif. \| Long Beach, Calif. \| \| 6 BOQ \| Unassigned \| \| \| 6 BOR \| D. J. Balbonit, 163 Walker St., San Francisco, Cal. \| San Francisco, Cal. \| \| 6 BOS \| Unassigned \| \| \| 6 BOT \| W. Bombine, 1191 Pine St., San Francisco, Calif. \| San Francisco, Calif. \| \| 6 BOU \| D. Nilsker, 1158 Oakland Ave., Piedmont, Cal. \| Piedmont, Cal. \| \| 6 BOV \| C. M. Vander Heidt, 1357 Broadway, San Francisco, Calif. \| San Francisco, Calif. \| \| 6 BOX \| Ede. Flynn, 3346 Liberty St., Fresno, Calif. \| Fresno, Calif. \| \| 6 BOX \| F. L. Whitley, 539 13th St., Richmond, Calif. \| Richmond, Calif. \| \| 6 BOY \| Boy Scouts of America, Prop. Rich, Richmond, Calif. \| Richmond, Calif. \| \| 6 BOZ \| W. Drinack, 453 16th St., Richmond, Calif. \| Richmond, Calif. \| \| 6 BPO \| J. F. Williams, 1000 S. 1st St., Redwood City, Calif. \| Redwood City, Calif. \| \| 6 BPB \| E. N. Willis, 1254 15th St., Santa Monica, Calif. \| Santa Monica, Calif. \| \| 6 BPC \| L. C. Brand, Mountain and Grand Ways, Glendale, Calif. \| Glendale, Calif. \| \| 6 BPD \| J. Rodriguez, R. F. D. Box No. 455, Riverside, Calif. \| Riverside, Calif. \| \| 6 BPE \| C. H. Tringham, Pleasanton, Calif. \| Pleasanton, Calif. \| \| 6 BPF \| W. Delp, 2505 N. 16th St., Oakland, Calif. \| Oakland, Calif. \| \| 6 BPG \| J. P. Cunningham, 6391 Dana St., Berkeley, Calif. \| Berkeley, Calif. \| \| 6 BPH \| C. S. Flesher, 1000 S. 1st St., Graton, Calif. \| Graton, Calif. \| \| 6 BPI \| B. Goldwater, 710 N. Central Ave., Phoenix, Ariz. \| Phoenix, Ariz. \| \| 6 BPJ \| B. G. Burke, care of Pine Knoll, O. \| Pine Knoll, O. \| \| 6 BPK \| H. Green, Box 665, Big Bear Lake, Calif. \| Big Bear Lake, Calif. \| \| 6 BPL \| W. N. Furrer, 2010 Q St., Berkeley, Calif. \| Berkeley, Calif. \| \| 6 BMP \| G. Furrer, 453 Center Ave., Palo Alto, Calif. \| Palo Alto, Calif. \| \| 6 BMQ \| D. Hardin, 414 Church St., Salinas, Calif. \| Salinas, Calif. \| \| 6 BMR \| D. Bardin (Portable), Salinas, Calif. \| Salinas, Calif. \| \| 6 BMS \| G. E. Martin, 4410 Mattler St., Los Angeles, Calif. \| Los Angeles, Calif. \| \| 6 BMT \| C. C. Sansom, 7135 Whittier Ave., Los Angeles, Calif. \| Los Angeles, Calif. \| \| 6 BMU \| H. B. Green, 814 S. Vermont Ave., Los Angeles, Calif. \| Los Angeles, Calif. \| \| 6 BMV \| Unassigned \| \| \| 6 BWW \| L. L. Lindsley, 1200 E. 1st St., Los Angeles, Calif. \| Los Angeles, Calif. \| \| 6 BXX \| L. H. Hackley, 714 90th St., Sacramento, Calif. \| Sacramento, Calif. \| \| 6 BYA \| U. McLaughlin, 3224 16th St., Sacramento, Calif. \| Sacramento, Calif. \| \| 6 BYB \| E. K. Fuglin, 213 Judith St., Roseville, Calif. \| Roseville, Calif. \| \| 6 BYC \| W. F. Wall, 329 Fall St., San Francisco, Calif. \| San Francisco, Calif. \| \| 6 BYD \| C. G. Mason, 4223 Latona Ave., Los Angeles, Calif. \| Los Angeles, Calif. \| \| 6 BYE \| H. Luldgren, 1169 Spence St., Los Angeles, Calif. \| Los Angeles, Calif. \| \| 6 BYF \| Unassigned \| \| \| 6 BYG \| L. H. Kuehl, 213 Judith St., Roseville, Calif. \| Roseville, Calif. \| \| 6 BYH \| E. W. Furrer, 2010 Q St., Berkeley, Calif. \| Berkeley, Calif. \| \| 6 BYI \| L. Pinkerton, 223 Bonita St., Nogales, Arizona \| Nogales, Arizona \| \| 6 BYJ \| W. L. Krane, 1025 Coronado Terrace, San Diego, Calif. \| San Diego, Calif. \| \| 6 BYK \| Unassigned \| \| \| 6 BYL \| Clayton Bane and Mill Muller, 619 Castro St., San Francisco, Calif. \| San Francisco, Calif. \| \| 6 BYM \| G. Brown, Jr., 205 E. 48th St., Salt Lake City, Utah \| Salt Lake City, Utah \| \| 6 BYN \| L. Pinkerton, 223 Bonita St., Nogales, Arizona \| Nogales, Arizona \| \| 6 BYO \| W. L. 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Privacy Threshold Analysis for the NOAA4000 Fisheries WAN and Enterprise Services Introduction: This Privacy Threshold Analysis (PTA) is a questionnaire to assist with determining if a Privacy Impact Assessment (PIA) is necessary for this IT system. This PTA is primarily based from the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) privacy guidance and the Department of Commerce (DOC) IT security/privacy policy. If questions arise or further guidance is needed in order to complete this PTA, please contact your Bureau Chief Privacy Officer (BCPO). Description of the information system: Provide a brief description of the information system. The E-Government Act of 2002 defines “information system” by reference to the definition section of Title 44 of the United States Code. The following is a summary of the definition: “Information system” means a discrete set of information resources organized for the collection, processing, maintenance, use, sharing, dissemination, or disposition of information. See: 44. U.S.C. § 3502(8). The NMFS Headquarters WAN and Enterprise Services System (NOAA4000) is a General Support System (GSS); it comprises three cloud subsystems- Oracle Cloud Infrastructure (OCI), Google Cloud Platform (GCP), and the Appian Cloud Platform. The system hosts several applications that collect, store and/or disseminate information, on members of the public, including foreign national guests, and in some cases, NOAA staff and/or contractors. NOAA4000 has ingested the former NOAA4020 Science and Technology subsystem and all of its applications. Being that NOAA4000 is a GSS system, the ingestion did not change or introduce any new support that NOAA4000 already provides. Address the following elements: a) Whether it is a general support system, major application, or other type of system The NMFS Headquarters WAN and Enterprise Services System (NOAA4000) is a General Support System (GSS); it comprises three cloud platform subsystems- Oracle Cloud Infrastructure (OCI), Google Cloud Platform (GCP), and the Appian Cloud Platform. The system hosts several applications that collect, store and/or disseminate information, on members of the public, including foreign national guests, and in some cases, NOAA staff and/or contractors. b) System location This system has two geographical locations: Ashburn, VA, and Data Center in Seattle Washington. c) Whether it is a standalone system or interconnects with other systems (identifying and describing any other systems to which it interconnects) The NMFS WAN NOAA4000 connects to the Seattle DR site via NWAVE NOAA0550 and has interconnections with the following entities: 1. US Coast Guard 2. Pacific States Marine Fisheries Commission 3. US Custom and Border Protection 4. Atlantic Coastal Fisheries Information Network (ACFIN) 5. Information Technology Center (ITC – NOAA1101) 6. 1901 NSOC 7. Department of Justice (DOJ) 8. Naval Research Lab MDA 9. Other NOAA NMFS Systems: a. NOAA4011 (NFPLRS) b. NOAA4100 (GARFO) c. NOAA4200 (NEFSC) d. NOAA4300 (SERO) e. NOAA4400 (SEFSC) f. NOAA4500 (WCR) g. NOAA4600 (NWFSC) h. NOAA4700 (AKRO) i. NOAA4800 (AKFSC) j. NOAA4920 (PIRO) k. NOAA4930 (SWFSC) l. NOAA4960 (PIFSC) The interconnections between NOAA4000 and the entities listed above are established through encrypted interfaces (VPN) or the Verizon MPLS (which is internal NMFS). Authentication methods are in place to validate authorized users. Virus and malicious code prevention is employed to protect the integrity of the software and the data. d) The purpose that the system is designed to serve NOAA4000 provides the necessary Infrastructure, Data Center colocation, and Application Support services that are instrumental to obtaining the objectives of the NMFS and its mission. NOAA4000 GSS includes hardware, software, information, data, applications, communications, facilities, and people. NOAA4000 provides IT support by providing IT Infrastructure for Fisheries applications, providing enterprise security services, network connectivity (WAN/LAN), enterprise resource access (local/remote), database management, and enterprise IT helpdesk support. IT Infrastructure consists of the hardware and software used within the environment to support the NMFS mission. The IT Services component provides technology services to the NMFS organization and NMFS applications supported by the IT infrastructure. Below are the services NOAA4000 provides: IT Infrastructure: Hardware End-user systems (Desktops/Laptops, Printers, Mobile devices, Desk phones) Administrative Systems (Appliances, Servers, Networking devices, Storage) Software Operating Systems (Desktop, Mobile, Server, Network) Applications (Utilities, Tools, Productivity, Database) Telecommunications (Includes Voice, Data, and VTC Circuits) IT Services: - Local Area Networking (LAN) - Wide Area Networking (WAN) - VoIP - File Shares/Print Service - Helpdesk - Internet Connectivity - Application Hosting and Development - Enterprise Active Directory Enterprise Storage - VPN - Web Services - IT Security Service - Database Management e) The way the system operates to achieve the purpose NOAA4000 provides IT support by providing IT Infrastructure for Fisheries applications, providing enterprise security services, network connectivity (WAN/LAN), enterprise resource access (local/remote), database management, and enterprise IT helpdesk support. The NMFS WAN services are through N-WAVE. f) A general description of the type of information collected, maintained, used, or disseminated by the system SISP - The Seafood Inspection Services Portal is a web-based application that captures information pertaining to the scheduling, tracking, and fee collections for seafood inspection activities. The SISP allows Seafood Inspection Program participants (Seafood Companies, Seafood Inspection Personnel, System Administrative Staff, NOAA Finance (Billing Data)) to create an account, to update company information including multiple locations, to request certificates, inspections and contracts, and to review and pay invoices. We collect the information under the authority of the Agriculture and Marketing Act of 1946 and Fish & Wildlife Act of 1956. Name, work email address, work address, and financial transaction are collected. We share the information with the private sector for invoicing and bill payment. This application collects PII and BII EDMS – The Electronic Document Management System is a Web-based content management application that serves as a secure repository to archive various artifacts throughout their development life cycle. Authorized NMFS users (employees and contractors) can easily query this content management database, which has improved workflow. This application is a central resource for Habitat Division supervisors and staff for ongoing performance appraisal activity used to assist in completing required personnel related forms that contain names, job descriptions, and GS level. EDMS also contains various legal documents/case files that may include SSN/Tax ID numbers. Information in EDMS is housed behind the network firewall. The collection of such information is authorized by 5 U.S.C. 1302. This application collects PII and BII. EDMS has been decommissioned; however, residual data is still stored within NOAA4000 boundaries. VMS - The National Vessel Monitoring System program provides near-real time fishing vessel monitoring, control and surveillance throughout the U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ). Continuous 24/7/365 monitoring supports compliance with marine and fishing regulations regarding open and closed seasons, closed areas, international boundaries and obligations, and overfishing. The onboard-enhanced mobile transceiver units (EMTUs) send position location information to NMFS, which is stored in a database and displayed on an electronic surveillance software, which is currently vTrack. The information obtained through VMS is evidentiary in nature and used to prosecute violations of fishery regulations in administrative and civil proceedings. The overall authority for federal fishery management is the Magnuson-Stevens Conservation and Management Act (16 U.S. Code 1801 et. Seq.). Names, home telephone numbers, home email addresses and addresses for vessel operators are collected. Fisheries share the information with the U.S. Coast Guard, many coastal states' marine enforcement offices, the Navy, Immigration and Customs Enforcement, NMFS science centers, and NMFS fishery managers. This application collects BII. TRIDENT - is a cloud based, case management system which allows sworn law enforcement officers, special agents, and other staff seamless electronic collaboration with internal team members and external partners, and the development of case documentation by providing the ability to view/share incident data that documents enforcement activities such as patrols, investigations, compliance assistance and education and outreach. The information is used to document and track patrols, investigations and other enforcement activities in which U.S. laws and regulations as well as violations of international agreements. Enforcement personnel develop domestic and international investigative case files that support prosecuting alleged violations; data and information from these files and data collected refers to businesses and members of the public. This information is collected under the authority of the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act (16 U.S. Code 1801 et. Seq.) and other laws under the purview of NOAA. The Trident solution is a FedRAMP platform as a service (PaaS), private cloud, web accessible development environment, enabling the use of MicroPact’s infrastructure and middleware services. The system is integrated with the NOAA Office General Counsel system Justware. This application collects PII and BII. NRDA - The Natural Resources Damage Assessment Database collects information about restoration projects suggested by the public in response to an incident, such as an oil spill. The public (which could include companies or other business entities) submits all restoration activity information. Statutes authorizing programs to cover collections of information from the public in the form of contact information for receipt of data generated by programs, e.g. 15 U.S.C. 1151, “to make the results of technological research and development more readily available to industry and business, and to the general public.” Along with project information, the database collects individual contact information (name, organization, work email address, home address, and home phone number). Personal information is used internally and not disseminated. Organizational names are publicly accessible as the submitting organization or as project partners, or along with research information. This application collects PII. RCDB - The Restoration and Conservation Database collects information related to fisheries habitat restoration projects implemented by the NOAA Office of Habitat Conservation. The Restoration Center often works with private companies and members of the public to implement projects and collects but does not disseminate contact information for individuals who have worked on the projects. Contact information includes name, work phone number, work email address, work address and organization name. An authorizing statute is 15 U.S.C. 1151. Company names can be disseminated publicly and listed as “project partners” or “funding recipients” depending on their relationship to the project. Research information is also available to the public. This application collects PII. eAOP - Electronic Annual Operating Plan application provides NMFS managers and employees with the ability to plan, monitor, and report on organizational and Program information. This includes planning and reporting of milestones and performance measures, arraying milestones by key subject areas, and assisting Programs managers and staff in producing Program Annual Operating Plans. Contact names and phone numbers PII (contact information) are included in the milestone and performance measure information. Only NMFS employees with password access, granted by the Database Administrator, may retrieve information from the system. The organization uses the information internally for assembling annual operating plans and for reporting strategic progress to NOAA and the Department of Commerce. This application collects PII. NPS - National Permits System accept and maintain all Sustainable Fisheries permit applications and related data. Some of the West Coast and Pacific Islands Regions permits information is housed in NPS, as well as Antarctic Marine Living Resources and High Seas permits; the rest is in other NMFS FISMA systems and is addressed in their PIAs. Authorities that apply to this application and its data are: - The Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act (16 USC 1801 et seq.) - The High Seas Fishing Compliance Act - The Tuna Conventions Act of 1950 - The Antarctic Marine Living Resources Convention Act - The Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Convention Implementation Act (WCPFCIA; 16 U.S.C. 6901 et seq.) - The Marine Mammal Protection Act - The Endangered Species Act and the Fur Seal Act The authority for the mandatory collection of the Tax Identification Number is 31 U.S.C. 7701. This application collects PII and BII. eDiscovery Application system is a web-based application used to simplify agency response to Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) requests, and aid in the processing Administrative Records (AR), and to a lesser extent, Congressional Inquiries and Legal Holds. The system serves as a single point for the collection, review, tagging, redaction and export of responsive records. NMFS offices share the information in order to coordinate monitoring and management of sustainability of fisheries and protected resources, as well as with the applicable State or Regional Marine Fisheries Commissions and International Organizations. Sources of information include the permit applicant/holder, other NMFS offices, the U.S. Coast Guard, and State or Regional Marine Fisheries Commissions. This application collects PII and BII. TIPS - Traceability Information Program for Seafood is a public facing, web based application. The TIPS application is used to establish registration, reporting and recordkeeping requirements for U.S. aquaculture producers of shrimp and abalone, two species subject to the Seafood Traceability Program, also known as the Seafood Import Monitoring Program (SIMP). Owners or operators of U.S. inland, coastal and marine commercial aquaculture facilities (“producers”) will be required to report information about production and entry into U.S. commerce of shrimp and abalone products. In addition, producers will be required to register with NMFS and retain records pertaining to the production of shrimp and abalone and entry of those products into U.S. commerce. This program serves as a domestic counterpart to the shrimp and abalone import requirements under SIMP. It also assists NMFS in verifying U.S. aquaculture shrimp and abalone were lawfully produced by providing information to trace each production event(s) to entry of the fish or fish products into U.S. commerce. This application collects PII and BII. ECO - Environmental Consultation Organizer is a web-based, case management application on Appian PaaS using AWS to support NMFS consultations under the Endangered Species Act (ESA) and under the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act sections 305(b)(2) & 305(b)(4) Essential Fish Habitat (EFH). This is the database for documenting and tracking consultation status and key internal process requirements throughout the consultation including quality assurance review and status in meeting statutory timelines. ECO collects project lead’s name and business telephone number. Some fields are for internal use while some fields are available to the public through the public interface on the application. This application collects PII. FSD Loans - Financial Services Division collects information from applicants for the following programs and purposes: The Fisheries Finance Program (FFP), credit information, personal identification including social security number, and tax returns. The information collected verify applicants for fisheries loans. Capital Construction Fund (CCF), personal identification including social security numbers and tax returns. The information collected verifies applicants for CCF accounts and projects. Fishermen's Contingency Fund (FCF), personal identification including social security numbers, and personal transaction information. The information is used to verify business losses and lost fishing gear for claims made by the fishermen. Information collected includes: Tax returns; Applicant’s name and address; The amount of financing applied for; The purpose of loans; An appraisal of the vessel or facility involved; Financial information including the last three tax returns (these are not stored electronically); A list of creditors and buyers with relevant credit terms; Identification of authorized representatives (accountant, attorney, insurance agent); Legal history (status regarding bankruptcy, litigation, delinquency on and Federal debt, etc.). Annual financial statements are required of all borrowers. These statements update the financial statement information presented with the original application. The financial statements are used to monitor the borrower’s financial condition and to trigger servicing actions if indicated. Loan applications are entered into the system from paper forms completed by the public, into an online application, which is managed by NMFS NOAA4000. Regional offices access the information in order to administer loans for applicants. The loan data is stored only in NOAA4000. This application collects PII and BII. UAS - Unmanned Aircraft System is a standalone system used for civil and criminal enforcement activities and fisheries intelligence. The UAS collects pictures and videos of vehicles, vehicle tags, vessels vessel IDs and persons. The information in the system will be retrieved either by live feed to an external hard drive, directly to the computer, or to a flash drive. A camera is mounted on the unmanned aerial system, which broadcasts the information to the person(s) on the ground. Some UAS use radio signals to transmit and receive the information. Some UAS have a multi-band wireless transmitter built in along with an antenna. Depending on the UAS, the receiver of the information signals can be either the remote control unit, a computer, tablet or smartphone device. Some UAS use 4G / LTE networks to transmit the information. This consists of a camera module, a data module and a 4G / LTE modem. The only information sharing conducted by the system will be with state and federal partners such as the US Coast Guard and JEA partners. We collect information under the authority of Presidential Memorandum: Promoting Economic Competitiveness While Safeguarding Privacy, Civil Rights, and Civil Liberties in Domestic Use of Unmanned Aircraft Systems (Feb. 15, 2015). This system collects PII/BII. GCLD - General Counsel Litigation Database - This is an application to assist NOAA’s legal counsel manage and respond to various inquiries on NMFS/NOAA litigation from Congress, the White House, Fisheries councils, government agencies. PII/BII is not collected. MMHSRP - Marine Mammal Health and Stranding Response Program The Marine Mammal Health and Stranding Response Program system is a centralized database that is accessible via a restricted web that collects and disseminate reference (Level A) data (i.e., genus, species, common name, etc.) on stranded marine mammals and tracks the animal's rehabilitation disposition when deemed non-releasable. The system is for the purpose of scientific research. Our users are federal agencies, their non-federal partners, private organizations (i.e., aquariums), researchers, and educational institutions. PII/BII is not collected. FWS - NMFS Federal Web Site - The National Marine Fisheries Service Federal Web Service (NMFS FWS) is a public facing responsive web service implemented with a Drupal 8 instance provisioned on an Acquia Drupal PaaS multi-tier medium environment fronted by Akamai Kona Site Defender web application firewall (WAF) and Akamai Content Delivery Network edge caching services. This consolidation improves information architecture, web content, and search functions, as well as providing a responsive design to accommodate increasing number of customers using mobile devices. PII/BII is not collected. NATS – The NMFS Agreement Tracking System (NATS) has been created to reduce the time and effort required to approve agreements by NMFS Financial Management Centers (FMCs) and Budget Execution Division (BEX) personnel. Additionally, NATS intends to reduce the amount of physical folders and paperwork that need to be printed for routing and approval. This application collects BII. GSDS The primary purpose of the NMFS’ Global Seafood Data System (GSDS) is to fulfill congressional directives to curtail the United States import and consumption of fisheries products that are a product of Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated (IUU) fishing. Information derived from this system will be used to direct NMFS personnel in the monitoring, management and enforcement of fisheries imports. The SeafoodImport Monitoring Program (SIMP), will be the first of four NMFS trade monitoring programs that GSDS will focus on. GSDS will utilize data analytics, machine learning, and artificial intelligence to process fisheries trade data from various sources to structure data and create reports. This information will be utilized to establish a more comprehensive approach to counter the flow of IUU fishing products into the U.S. It will help NMFS to establish management measures, within the scope of other U.S. fisheries trade management roles, to provide a well-informed awareness and understanding in support of the initiative to assure legitimate trade and combat IUU fishing. ITDS - ST6 International Trade Data System is used to support a number of NMFS offices/programs to monitor imports of fisheries products. Types of BII data collected are name of business, address, contact information, and product information. The data is collected by U.S. Customs and Border Protection (CBP) and provided to NMFS via SFTP for inclusion in the ITDS database. Reasons for the NMFS database: 1. The ITDS is an inter-agency, distributed system that allows businesses to submit trade data to a single agency (CBP). CBP then makes these data available to participating ITDS agencies via secure, system integration. (2) The NMFS component of the ITDS is an import monitoring system designed to improve the efficiency and accuracy of NMFS trade monitoring programs by utilizing the data and services provided by CBP via the national ITDS architecture. NMFS trade monitoring programs supported by the NMFS ITDS include the Antarctic Marine Living Resources (AMLR) program, the Highly Migratory Species (HMS) program, the Seafood Import Monitoring Program (SIMP), and the Tuna Tracking Verification Program (TTVP). The NMFS ITDS is also integrated with the NMFS National Permit System (NPS) to provide international trade permit data to NMFS trade monitoring programs and to CBP. MRIP - The Marine Recreational Information Program – The Extract, Transform and Load (ETL) system is a tool to collect and process recreational saltwater fishing license and registration data from the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico coastal states. This data is inputted in the National Saltwater Angler Registry (NSAR). Types of PII collected include fishing license information, name, address, driver’s license number, phone, email, and date of birth. NSAR - The National Saltwater Angler Registry system serves as a consolidated phone book of the nation’s recreational saltwater anglers. NSAR data is used to furnish frames for the MRIP surveys. Types of PII collected include fishing license information, name, address, driver’s license number, phone, email, and date of birth. NFCSS - The NOAA Fisheries Committee on Scientific Stature is a national-level Performance Management Advisory Committee (PMAC) established to review the contributions, impact and stature of NOAA Fisheries Band IV and V non-supervisory research scientists. The NFCSS evaluates scientists whose primary responsibility is to conduct research and develop scientific products for resource management advice, other scientific advice, publications, and reports that represent new or more comprehensive understanding of a subject. The NFCSS members are Band V scientists, who are subject matter experts, from the regional science centers appointed to three-year terms by the respective regional Science Director. There is a website and database to manage and record the results of NFCSS member reviews conducted for the purpose of evaluating a scientist's credentials and contributions to allow them to be assigned to a higher pay Band without being a supervisor and to produce a standard report for the committee chair (OST Science Director). In 2014, OST upgraded the NFCSS website and database to enable password protected, role-based secure storage and retrieval of review package documents. Access to the database is restricted to the OST Science Director, the six regional Deputy Science Directors, one Band V research scientist from each regional science center, the NOAA Fisheries HR Business Partner, and the NFCSS database administrator and is provided by the NFCSS database administrator only at the request of the NFCSS Chair. Information collected includes name, work contact information, letters of reference and curricula vitae, performance plan, science director memoranda and name of immediate supervisor. The administrator uploads copies of a memorandum from the NFCSS Chair to the Science Center director of staff being reviewed. The data (name, email, documents) for staff being reviewed are entered by their Deputy Science Director. The review comments are entered by the NFCSS members. Protected Resources National Inventory of Marine Mammals (NIMM) System - The National Inventory of Marine Mammals (NIMM) system maintains current and past data (it replaces previous inventory databases maintained by NMFS since the 1970s) on marine mammals under NMFS’ jurisdiction (dolphins, porpoises, whales, seals, and sea lions) held in permanent captivity for public display. In addition, NIMM includes information on marine mammals held in permanent captivity for scientific research, enhancement, and national defense purposes. NIMM includes beached/stranded marine mammals only if they have been deemed non-releasable and cannot be returned to the wild. NIMM allows marine mammal Owners and Facilities to enter inventory data directly into the online system. NIMM will eventually provide the public with real-time access to the national inventory. Types of BII collected include institution name, address, email, phone, and fax. NOAA Emergency Contact List - The Emergency Contact List stores store contact information for ST staff and staffemergency contacts to be used in case of emergency. This is PII data. g) Identify individuals who have access to information on the system Authorized federal employees and contractors with a need-to-know. NOA4000 also has public accessible data that is accessed by the public via the internet but does not contain PII or BII nor do they have access to network resources. NOA4000 also provides non-sensitive PII and BII to other state and federal agencies for law enforcement purposes. Also, NOA4000 provides fishery information that does not include PII or BII to private organizations, researchers and educational institutions. h) How information in the system is retrieved by the user There are two primary ways users can retrieve information from NOAA4000. They have to be locally connected to the NOAA4000 network or via remote access through NMFS VPN, which is within the FISMA boundary of NOAA4000. Based on the application or support being offered; data can also be accessed via general internet. i) How information is transmitted to and from the system NOAA4000 information is transmitted via Virtual Private Networks (VPNs), Internet, and dedicated network connections that makeup NMFS Verizon MPLS (WAN) network. For GCP, all information is coming through the TIC externally to NWave and then to GCP through a partner interconnect. The partner interconnect is controlled through a single Google Project, this networking project is managed by the NMFS networking team. Those networking connections are then provided to the different partners within NMFS. Firewalls are managed through the same network connection described above. The default firewall configuration is to deny all, and allow through exception. Firewall configurations are managed only by the networking team. Any communication ports that go through the firewall have to be opened by the firewall team, through an internal approval process. Questionnaire: 1. Status of the Information System 1a. What is the status of this information system? _____ This is a new information system. Continue to answer questions and complete certification. X This is an existing information system with changes that create new privacy risks. Complete chart below, continue to answer questions, and complete certification. \| Changes That Create New Privacy Risks (CTCNPR) \| \|-----------------------------------------------\| \| a. Conversions \| d. Significant Merging \| X \| g. New Interagency Uses \| \| b. Anonymous to Non-Anonymous \| e. New Public Access \| \| h. Internal Flow or Collection \| X \| \| c. Significant System Management Changes \| f. Commercial Sources \| \| i. Alteration in Character of Data \| \| j. Other changes that create new privacy risks (specify): \| \| • Applications previously contained within the NOAA4020 boundary were migrated to NOAA4000. \| _____ This is an existing information system in which changes do not create new privacy risks, and there is not a SAOP approved Privacy Impact Assessment. Continue to answer questions and complete certification. _____ This is an existing information system in which changes do not create new privacy risks, and there is a SAOP approved Privacy Impact Assessment. Skip questions and complete certification. 1b. Has an IT Compliance in Acquisitions Checklist been completed with the appropriate signatures? _____ Yes. This is a new information system. _____ Yes. This is an existing information system for which an amended contract is needed. _____ No. The IT Compliance in Acquisitions Checklist is not required for the acquisition of equipment for specialized Research and Development or scientific purposes that are not a National Security System. X No. This is not a new information system. 2. Is the IT system or its information used to support any activity which may raise privacy concerns? NIST Special Publication 800-53 Revision 4, Appendix J, states “Organizations may also engage in activities that do not involve the collection and use of PII, but may nevertheless raise privacy concerns and associated risk. The privacy controls are equally applicable to those activities and can be used to analyze the privacy risk and mitigate such risk when necessary.” Examples include, but are not limited to, audio recordings, video surveillance, building entry readers, and electronic purchase transactions. X Yes. (Check all that apply.) \| Activities \| \| \|-------------------------------------------------\|---\| \| Audio recordings \| \| \| Video surveillance \| X\| \| Building entry readers \| \| \| Electronic purchase transactions \| \| Other (specify): UAS use by law enforcement for area safety surveillance, detection, & avoidance while inspecting & marking remote crime scene areas; crime scene reporting; will follow the NOAA Unmanned Aircraft Systems policy in regard to PII and BII collection. ____ No. 3. Does the IT system collect, maintain, or disseminate business identifiable information (BII)? As per DOC Privacy Policy: “For the purpose of this policy, business identifiable information consists of (a) information that is defined in the Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) as "trade secrets and commercial or financial information obtained from a person [that is] privileged or confidential." (5 U.S.C.552 (b)(4)). This information is exempt from automatic release under the (b) (4) FOIA exemption. "Commercial" is not confined to records that reveal basic commercial operations" but includes any records [or information] in which the submitter has a commercial interest" and can include information submitted by a nonprofit entity, or (b) commercial or other information that, although it may not be exempt from release under FOIA, is exempt from disclosure by law (e.g., 13 U.S.C.).” X Yes, the IT system collects, maintains, or disseminates BII. ____ No, this IT system does not collect any BII. 4. Personally Identifiable Information (PII) 4a. Does the IT system collect, maintain, or disseminate PII? As per OMB 17-12: “The term PII refers to information that can be used to distinguish or trace an individual’s identity either alone or when combined with other information that is linked or linkable to a specific individual.” X Yes, the IT system collects, maintains, or disseminates PII about: (Check all that apply.) X DOC employees X Contractors working on behalf of DOC X Other Federal Government personnel Members of the public No, this IT system does not collect any PII. If the answer is “yes” to question 4a, please respond to the following questions. 4b. Does the IT system collect, maintain, or disseminate Social Security numbers (SSNs), including truncated form? Yes, the IT system collects, maintains, or disseminates SSNs, including truncated form. Provide an explanation for the business need requiring the collection of SSNs, including truncated form. - EDMS data contains some legal documents, which may include SSN. - NPS - Tax Identification Number is required on all permit applications other than research or exempted fishing permits, under the authority of 31 U.S.C. 7701. For purposes of administering the various NMFS/Fisheries permit and registration programs. A person shall be considered to be doing business with a federal agency including, but not limited to, if the person is an applicant for, or recipient of, a federal license, permit, right-of way, grant, or benefit payment administered by the agency or insurance administered by the agency pursuant to subsection (c) (2) (B) of this statute. - VMS and Trident collects Vessel ID Numbers, Permits for Federal or State permit/licenses issued and start and end dates and other permit - SISP/FDS Loan collects credit, personal and SSN information for verification of financial information to determine qualifications for Fisheries Loans, Capital Construction Fund accounts and other projects. - NATS collects budget information, business information, and all supporting documents needed to approve an agreement package. Provide the legal authority, which permits the collection of SSNs, including truncated form. The Marine Mammal Protection Act, 16 U.S.C. 1361 et seq.; the Fur Seal Act, 16 U.S.C. 1151 et seq.; and the Endangered Species Act, 16 U.S.C. 1531 et seq. [For collection of the fax Identifying Number (Employer Identification Number or Social Security Number), 31 U.S.C. 7701.] No, the IT system does not collect, maintain, or disseminate SSNs, including truncated form. 4c. Does the IT system collect, maintain, or disseminate PII other than user ID? Yes, the IT system collects, maintains, or disseminates PII other than user ID. No, the user ID is the only PII collected, maintained, or disseminated by the IT system. 4d. Will the purpose for which the PII is collected, stored, used, processed, disclosed, or disseminated (context of use) cause the assignment of a higher PII confidentiality impact level? Examples of context of use include, but are not limited to, law enforcement investigations, administration of benefits, contagious disease treatments, etc. Yes, the context of use will cause the assignment of a higher PII confidentiality impact level. No, the context of use will not cause the assignment of a higher PII confidentiality impact level. If any of the answers to questions 2, 3, 4b, 4c, and/or 4d are “Yes,” a Privacy Impact Assessment (PIA) must be completed for the IT system. This PTA and the SAOP approved PIA must be a part of the IT system’s Assessment and Authorization Package. CERTIFICATION X___ The criteria implied by one or more of the questions above apply to the NOAA4000 and as a consequence of this applicability, a PIA will be performed and documented for this IT system. _____ The criteria implied by the questions above do not apply to the NOAAXXXX and as a consequence of this non-applicability, a PIA for this IT system is not necessary. \| Information System Security Officer or System Owner \| \|-----------------------------------------------------\| \| Name: Doug Brackett \| \| Office: 3609 \| \| Phone: 301-427-8815 \| \| Email: email@example.com \| \| Signature: \| \| Date signed: April 18, 2022 \| \| Information Technology Security Officer \| \|-----------------------------------------------------\| \| Name: Catherine Amores \| \| Office: 3432 \| \| Phone: 301-427-8871 \| \| Email: firstname.lastname@example.org \| \| Signature: \| \| Date signed: \| \| Privacy Act Officer \| \|-----------------------------------------------------\| \| Name: Robin Burress \| \| Office: NOAA OCIO \| \| Phone: 828-271-4695 \| \| Email: email@example.com \| \| Signature: \| \| Date signed: 65847696 \| \| Authorizing Official \| \|-----------------------------------------------------\| \| Name: Nancy Majower \| \| Office: 3853 \| \| Phone: 301-427-8811 \| \| Email: firstname.lastname@example.org \| \| Signature: \| \| Date signed: \| \| Bureau Chief Privacy Officer \| \|-----------------------------------------------------\| \| Name: Mark Graff \| \| Office: NOAA OCIO \| \| Phone: 301-628-5658 \| \| Email: email@example.com \| \| Signature: \| \| Date signed: 514447892 \|
May 22, 2017 Site Plan Review DECISION Project: 162 Main Street Applicant: 162 Main Street Reading Trust To the Town Clerk: This is to certify that, at a public hearing of the Community Planning and Development Commission opened and closed on May 22, 2017 by a motion duly made and seconded, it was voted: “We, the Reading Community Planning and Development Commission, upon request from Reading CRE Ventures LLC, under the provision of Section 4.6 of the Zoning Bylaws of the Town of Reading, and MGL Chapter 40A Section 3, to consider the contemplated site plan for 162 Main Street (Assessors Map 7, Lot 116) – as shown on the Site Plan of Land prepared by Sullivan Engineering Group, LLC, dated March 15, 2017, and architectural plans prepared by Twomey Design, dated February 10, 2017 – do hereby vote 3-0-0, to approve the said plans, subject to the Findings and Conditions below.” Materials Submitted: The following materials were submitted into the public record: a) Certified List of Abutters, dated 3/20/17. b) Site Plan Review Application, stamped by Town Clerk 3/27/17. c) Addendum to Application, received 3/22/17. d) Request for Waivers, email from Jack Sullivan to Community Development Director, dated 3/27/17. e) Public Hearing Legal Notice, stamped by Town Clerk 4/25/17. f) Sheet 1 of 1 – Site Plan of Land: 162 Main Street, Reading, MA, prepared by Sullivan Engineering Group, LLC, showing Existing Conditions and Proposed Site Development, dated 3/15/17. g) Sheet 1 of 8 –First Floor Plan - Existing, Doyon’s Repair, 162 Main St., Reading, prepared by Twomey Design, dated 2/10/17. h) Sheet 2 of 8 –Second Floor Plan - Existing, Doyon’s Repair, 162 Main St., Reading, prepared by Twomey Design, dated 2/10/17. i) Sheet 3 of 8 –First Floor Plan, Doyon’s Repair, 162 Main St., Reading, prepared by Twomey Design, dated 2/10/17. j) Sheet 4 of 8 –Second Floor/Roof Plan, Doyon’s Repair, 162 Main St., Reading, prepared by Twomey Design, dated 2/10/17. k) Sheet 5 of 8 –North Side Elevation and Front Elevation, Doyon’s Repair, 162 Main St., Reading, prepared by Twomey Design, dated 2/10/17. l) Sheet 6 of 8 –South Side Elevation and Rear Elevation, Doyon’s Repair, 162 Main St., Reading, prepared by Twomey Design, dated 2/10/17. m) Sheet 7 of 8 –First Floor Lighting, Doyon’s Repair, 162 Main St., Reading, prepared by Twomey Design, dated 2/10/17. n) Sheet 8 of 8 –Second Floor Lighting, Doyon’s Repair, 162 Main St., Reading, prepared by Twomey Design, dated 2/10/17. o) Letter from Interim Health Agent to Community Development Director, dated 3/27/17. p) Memo from Town Engineer to Community Development Director, dated 5/17/17. q) Draft Decision, dated 5/22/17. Findings: 1) Overview: The Applicant is the owner of the subject property (162 Main Street) and is related to the owner of the adjacent property at 172 Main Street (Doyon’s Appliance). The property at 162 Main Street comprises approximately 23,815 square feet, and is developed with a two-story mixed-use building and associated parking lot. The building contains an apartment on the 2\textsuperscript{nd} floor, and is zoned for commercial use on the 1\textsuperscript{st} floor. The Applicant is seeking Site Plan approval from the CPDC under Section 4.6 of the Reading Zoning Bylaw to continue the residential use of the 2\textsuperscript{nd} floor, and to renovate and expand the 1\textsuperscript{st} floor by approximately 785 square feet for use as a retail repair facility for Doyon’s. A new deck and new means of egress will be added to the 2\textsuperscript{nd} floor apartment; the first floor will be fit out for a repair shop, two bathrooms and a utility closet. The project includes reductions to overall impervious area, repaving and striping/formalizing of the parking lot, modifications to the parking layout, an enclosed dumpster/recycling area, a loading space, the addition of landscaping along the street frontage, and the addition of an unenclosed farmer’s porch on the front façade of the building. 2) Zoning: The front of the site, where the building is located, is within a Business A Zoning District, and the rear of the site is within an S-15 Zoning District. The proposed retail appliance repair use is permitted in the Business A Zoning District. The apartment is considered a pre-existing, non-conforming use. 3) Parking/Traffic: The proposed retail repair and residential uses require a total of 9 parking spaces. The proposed site layout formalizes the parking situation with striping, and provides 14 parking spaces, including 1 handicapped space. The project is anticipated to generate very little consumer traffic as most of the appliances will be delivered and picked-up by Doyon’s trucks. 4) Loading Zone: A 12’ x 35’ loading zone is proposed on the northern side of the building; it will mainly be used by Doyon’s trucks. 5) Curb Cuts: The two existing curb cuts off of Main Street will be maintained but made more visually appealing and easier to navigate with the installation of raised landscaped islands. 6) Interior Space: The proposed structure will comprise approximately 3,638 gross square feet, as follows: 2,343 (1\textsuperscript{st} floor) and 1,295 (2\textsuperscript{nd} floor). 7) Noise: The proposed use is not anticipated to generate noise beyond what is typical for an appliance repair building with associated parking/loading. 8) Lighting: The building will contain motion-activated, downward-focused lighting for safety and security purposes, and recessed lighting under the porch. The parking lot will not be lit. Lighting specifications are required. 9) Landscaping/Screening: The project will include the creation of a landscaped island along Main Street, and a strip of trees and shrubs along the southern property boundary. A cherry tree is proposed at the front southerly corner of the building. A decorative lattice fence is proposed to screen the left side of the building. A detail of the fence shall be provided. 10) Dumpster / Trash Removal: A dumpster is proposed at the rear of the loading area on the northern edge of the site within the existing L-shaped concrete retaining. This location is recessed into the grade and set back from the street. The dumpster will sit on a 9’x17’ concrete pad and be enclosed by a gated stockade fence. Trash will be removed from the site approximately once per week. A detail of the fence shall be provided. 11) Snow Storage: Snow storage is proposed at the rear of the site behind the dumpster enclosure. 12) Fire Access: The existing steps and platform on the south side of the building will be removed; however, the distance from the corner of the building to the stone retaining wall is tight for fire truck access to the rear of the site. The Fire Department requests that Doyon’s service trucks be parked at the rear of the site when not in use. 13) Mixed-Use Building Safety: The building is proposed to be mixed-use, with an apartment above the appliance repair shop. The Applicant shall equip the building with a device that alerts the resident of any problems caused during an appliance repair. 14) Grading / Drainage: The grade increases by approximately 33 feet from Main Street to the back of the site. In addition, the property is slightly higher than the Doyon’s facility at 172 Main Street, and there is a concrete retaining wall between the two sites. The existing grading is not proposed to change. The project will reduce the amount of impervious surface and is not proposing a formal drainage system; therefore, no drainage calculations or stormwater report have been provided. 15) Retaining Walls: The stone and concrete retaining walls on the southern property boundary will be maintained as is but dressed up with landscaping. The concrete retaining wall between 162 and 172 Main Street will be reinforced with a steel guardrail. A cable wire is being considered as a more attractive option than the steel guardrail. 16) Utilities: The proposed retail repair use is anticipated to consume less water and generate less sewage than the prior restaurant use. The existing sewer service to the building is proposed to be maintained; the water service will be extended from Main Street. Gas is proposed. 17) South Main Street Design Guidelines: The Applicant has considered and incorporated recommendations of the Guidelines in the site design. 18) Pedestrian Access: There is an existing bituminous concrete sidewalk along Main Street. 19) Signage: The Applicant intends to remove the existing free-standing sign and propose new signage for the site. A proposed free-standing sign is depicted in the center of the landscaped island along Main Street. A Sign Permit is required prior to the installation of signage. The Site Plan Decision herein does not include approval for any future uses or site renovations that may – on their own merits and design – trigger the requirements of site plan review and/or require a special permit. All future proposed uses requiring a site plan review or a special permit shall obtain such approval(s) prior to occupancy of any tenant space. Waivers from Site Plan Checklist Requirements: The Applicant has requested the following waivers: F. Locus Plan – waiver from providing locus plan at 1” = 400’ scale; Applicant does not feel it is necessary due to the visibility of the site on Main Street. I. Grading and Drainage Plan – waiver from providing Grading and Drainage Plan; project will decrease impervious area and is not proposing formal drainage system. J. Utility Plan – waiver from providing Utility Plan; the new water and sewer services are shown on the Site Plan. L. Landscape Plan – waiver from providing Landscape Plan; proposed landscaping is shown on the Site Plan. M. Photometric Plan – waiver from providing Photometric Plan; proposed lighting is shown on the Site Plan and Lighting Plans, and only building-mounted lighting is proposed. N. Construction Details – waiver from providing Construction Details; will be provided with Building Permit application. O. Drainage Calculations – waiver from providing Drainage Calculations; the project disturbs less than 1 acre, is reducing impervious area, and is not proposing formal drainage system. Q. Traffic Study – waiver from providing a Traffic Study; the proposed project will not generate more traffic than the prior use, or require additional curb cuts, or change the on-site circulation pattern. The CPDC voted 3-0-0 to approve the requested waivers. Conditions: General: 1) Public Health, Safety and Welfare: If, at any time, the site becomes a nuisance to public health, safety or welfare (i.e., traffic spillover onto Route 28, excessive noise, unreasonable site illumination beyond the hours of operation, etc.) – as shall be evidenced by substantiated complaints to the Police Department or Public Services Office – the Applicant/Owner shall agree to work with staff to rectify the problem. Should the situation warrant it, an additional Site Plan Review by the CPDC may be required. 2) Health Concerns: The Applicant shall ensure ongoing compliance with the Interim Health Agent’s memo to the Community Development Director, dated 3/27/17. 3) Utilities: All utilities, structures, frames and covers shall meet the Town of Reading standards. The electric utility plan is subject to approval by the Reading Municipal Light Department (RMLD). Prior to the Commencement of Site Work: 1) 172 Main Street: The Applicant shall provide a written statement from the owner of 172 Main Street to the Community Development Director authorizing the owner of 162 Main Street to install a cable wire or guard rail on top of the retaining wall on 172 Main Street, and authorizing the dumpster on 162 Main Street to overhang the property at 172 Main Street. 2) Engineering Concerns: The Applicant shall work with the Town Engineer to address any outstanding concerns in his memo to the Community Development Director dated 5/17/17. Prior to the Issuance of Building Permits and Prior to the Start of Construction: 1) The Applicant shall make the following plan changes, and shall submit two (2) full size (24x36) copies of the revised plans to the Community Development Director: a. The Existing Conditions Plan shall be revised to show ownership of direct abutters, and all existing drainage features. b. The Site Layout Plan shall be revised to include calculations demonstrating compliance with zoning bulk and dimensional requirements. c. The Architectural Plans shall be stamped. 2) The following information shall be provided to the Community Development Director: a. Details of all proposed fencing and retaining walls; b. Specifications for each proposed lighting fixture; 3) Other Permits: The Owner/Applicant is responsible for obtaining all other requirements and permits including but not limited to, utility connections, sewer, water, curb cut, street opening and Jackie’s Law excavation permits from the Engineering Department (prior to excavation), and Board of Health approvals. 4) Pre-Construction Meeting: The Owner/Applicant and contractors shall coordinate with the Community Development Director to schedule a pre-construction meeting with Town staff prior to applying for demolition and/or building permits, in order to review these conditions and any and all final construction sequencing, details and plans for this project. 5) Site Plan Revisions: The Applicant shall revise the Site Plan pursuant to any conditions imposed herein and submit 2 full-size (24x36) copies of the revised plans to the Community Development Director for review and approval prior to the issuance of a Building Permit. 6) Construction Documents & Fire Safety: Full construction documents must be submitted and approved by the Fire Department. A building permit shall not be issued until the Fire Department has approved the plans. In addition, the plans shall depict a fire safety device system to alert the upstairs resident to any problems in the repair shop below. During Construction: 1) Construction Hours: Construction shall be limited to the hours stated in Section 8.9.8 “Construction Hours” of the Reading General Bylaws and said hours shall be posted in a conspicuous place at the entrance prior to any work on the site. 2) Construction Activities: Construction activities shall be conducted in a workmanlike manner at all times. Blowing dust or debris shall be controlled by the Applicant through stabilization, wetting down, and proper storage and disposal methods, subject to the approval of the Health Director or designee. The Applicant shall ensure that the abutting local streets are kept clear of dirt and debris, which may accumulate as a result of construction activities for the Project. Documentation shall be provided demonstrating ongoing pest management control, subject to the approval of and administration by the Health Director. 3) Site Inspections: Town staff or their designee shall have reasonable access to inspect the site to determine compliance with this Decision. 4) Bond: The Applicant/Owner shall furnish a bond for the final As-Built plans prior to the issuance of the final certificate of occupancy. The bond amount shall be determined by the Town Engineer. The bond shall be returned once the requirements of this condition are met. Prior to the Issuance of a Certificate of Occupancy: 1) Handicap Parking: The handicap parking space shall be properly posted in the location depicted on the approved Signage Plan. 2) Dumpster: The Applicant shall ensure that the dumpster is enclosed per the approved Site Plan and that it complies with the requirements of the Health Agent. 3) Signage: No signage is approved with this Decision. The Applicant shall submit a Sign Permit Application to the Community Development Director for the proposed free-standing sign and any proposed wall signs. 4) Architecture: The building façade on each elevation (north, south, east, west) shall be substantially as indicated on the approved architectural plans and elevations. 5) Landscaping: The landscaping shall be installed as indicated on the plans. In the event that weather conditions prevent completion of the proposed landscaping prior to the desired date of occupancy, the Applicant shall submit a bond to cover the cost of installation of the remaining landscaping features. 6) As-Built Plans: Two full size paper copies and electronic AutoCAD final As-Built plans showing the building footprint, drainage systems and utility connections shall be submitted to the Community Development Director and Town Engineer to ensure compliance with this decision and other applicable Town standards. The bond held for this requirement will be returned to the Applicant once this condition has been fulfilled. Conditions for Ongoing Maintenance after Occupancy: 1) Lighting: All exterior building and site lighting shall comply with the dark sky initiatives (light shall shine down only) with the light source being fully shielded (with cutoff shields) so that no lighting or glare spills onto abutting properties. Any exterior lighting that is required for security purposes may be illuminated by photocells and is not required to be extinguished at the close of business. All site and building lighting, beyond what is needed for security purposes, shall be programmed to shut off at the close of business each day. 2) Landscaping: The landscaping as depicted on the approved plan shall be maintained in a healthy condition in perpetuity. In the event that landscaping is damaged, the property owner shall replace such landscaping during the next growing season. 3) Off-Street Loading and Delivery: No delivery trucks shall queue on Main Street or within the on-site circulation aisles in a manner that impedes traffic flow through the parking lot. Delivery by tractor trailer shall be prohibited. 4) Doyon’s Service Trucks: Doyon’s service trucks shall be parked at the rear of the property when not in use. 5) Dumpster: The dumpster enclosure shall be maintained in good condition by the property owner. The fence shall be repaired or replaced as necessary to maintain screening and ensure containment of all trash and debris. 6) Trash Removal: All trash collection and disposal is the responsibility of the owner. The Applicant shall ensure daily that exterior areas of the site remain clear of debris, trash and any equipment used in connection with any commercial activities on site. Modifications/Revisions - Plan Changes after Approval by the Approving Authority: Contemplated future changes to the plan approved herein shall be presented to the Community Development Director and the Zoning Enforcement Officer/Building Inspector, or other relevant Town staff, for review prior to implementation of proposed changes. 1. Minor Modification: Changes that do not substantially alter the concept of the approved Plan in terms of the specific location, the proposed land use, the design of building form and approved building details and materials, site grading or egress points. These include but are not limited to small changes in site layout, topography, architectural plans, landscaping plan, traffic circulation, parking, lighting, signage, open space or other criteria set forth in Section 188.8.131.52. Requests for approval under a minor modification for future renovations/alterations to the approved site plan or for future tenant changes shall be reviewed by the Community Development Director to determine if the proposed work qualifies for review through the Minor Site Plan Review process of Section 4.6.3 of the Reading Zoning Bylaw. If the work is eligible for review under Minor Site Plan review, the Community Development Director may review and grant approval of the proposed work by administrative approval of the Minor Modification. At the determination of the Community Development Director, the Applicant may be required to present the proposed project at a public meeting of the CPDC. 2. Major Modification: Substantial additions, deletions or deviations from the approved plan, including but not limited to changes in site layout, topography, architectural plan, landscaping plans, traffic circulation, parking, lighting plan, signage, open space or other criteria set forth in Section 184.108.40.206 of the Reading Zoning Bylaw. (Note: Approval of the major modification shall be grounds for reconsideration of the Site Plan application. Denial of proposed major modifications shall not invalidate the Site Plan in conformance with the previously approved Plan). Signed as to the accuracy of the vote as reflected in the minutes: Julie D. Mercier, Community Development Director Date: 5/23/17 Cc: Applicant, Town Clerk, DRT Staff, planning file
The Bates Student - volume 126 number 01 - September 4, 1996 Bates College Follow this and additional works at: https://scarab.bates.edu/bates_student A Baptism By Blowtorch: Too many students, too few beds. The Housing Office deals with a crisis. by Sarah Gunn This past summer, the Housing Office was faced with a daunting task. At normal capacity, Bates holds 1471 students. 1548 students are living on campus this year. Matt Arsenault '96, who recently inherited the position of Housing Coordinator from Dan Ludden, Assistant Dean of Students, found the experience hectic. "It was a baptism by fire," he said. Shaking his head, he amended his statement. "No. Maybe it would be better to say that it was a baptism by blowtorch." The class of '00 is huge, matriculating 501 students this year. In addition, many in the senior class have returned from study abroad programs. This situation has placed the largest—and second—largest classes in Bates history together. Ludden was pulled from his duties as dean to deal with the crisis. "It was definitely not a year to have the coordinator leave the office," he said. "When I heard the numbers, I was a little afraid. And I've been doing this for a while." At midsummer, almost 200 students were yet to be placed. No room at the dorm "The problem is not really first-years," Ludden explained. "It's sophomores. While many upperclass students are placed in rooms through the Housing Lottery and first-year students reside in predetermined rooms, the Housing Office's staff had a difficult time finding space for the many students who left the Housing Lottery empty handed. Usually, sophomores and other students left without rooms are placed in surplus first-year rooms. The Housing Office will typically overestimate the number of first-year students. "These rooms usually turn into summer placement rooms for students without housing. This year, we used them all for first-years," Arsenault said. Without these extra rooms, the Housing Office was forced to improvise. The Chaplain's House, left vacant from Chaplain Wes Ayram's departure last week, college this year, was converted into student housing. A lounge in Clason house became a room. Empty Smith doubles were transformed into triples. A Bates-owned apartment was quickly converted and turned into housing for about 13 students. There were still too many students, too few beds. Finally, the Office issued a "plea" for students to live off-campus. Underclassmen, who usually cannot receive permission to leave campus housing, were strongly encouraged to make the switch. "Almost 50 students answered our plea and decided to live off-campus," Arsenault said. "That freed up a lot of space, and netted us some doubles in the process," Ludden explained. "It worked out nicely." At the very end of the summer, rooms were found for all. "It's been under control for a while," Arsenault explained. "But there's a difference between control and busy. It's been relentless." Left with a bit of time to spare, the Housing Office was then able to improve upon their performance. "During the last two weeks, even more slots opened up—mainly leave of absence students. Particularly financial cases." These open slots allowed the staff to play with potential problem areas. "We were able to take students out of some Smith and Adams basement rooms and relocate them into more desirable locations," Ludden said. Ludden and Arsenault expressed satisfaction at their achievement. "I judge my success with how many sophomores get messed with," Ludden said. "I think that we Continued on page 4. As the sun sets on a stress-filled summer, all is peaceful. All have rooms. Gussie Falleder photo The light at the end of the tunnel And what did you do over Short Term? Russia, basketball, and cultural networking. Read it all in Sports. p. 19 What's up with those boxes? And that fee? Gussie Falleder discusses the mysteriously empty storage rooms throughout campus. Experience the passion of... Features. p. 7 The Inside Track And who said there's nothing to do in Lewiston? The Movie Mill complex on Canal Street can dispel your doldrums, tickle your fancy, and excite your senses. Sit back in a cushy recliner and indulge yourself. Read Arts! p. 14. Smokescreens on the smokestack... Wondering about those oh-so expensive bricks? A newly discovered letter tells all... p. 12-13 The Inside Track news 1-6 features 7-8 arts 12-13 sports 17-19 forum 9-11 campus 14-16 Surprise! Comedy with a cause Comedian offers an alternative approach to alcohol counseling by Sarah Gunn Most first-year students expected last Saturday's comedy routines to simply include jokes, improv and maybe a couple of impressions. They got more than they expected. Interspersed within the Star Wars jokes and physical comedy was an underlying theme: drug and alcohol awareness. Many students were caught by surprise. The orientation booklet advertised only a "nationally acclaimed comedian, Steve Matuska." The words "drugs" and "alcohol" were absent from the packet. "He was falsely represented in the brochure," Blaine Hudson '00 said. "Yes, he's a comedian. But half of the way through, he became a motivational speaker." Katrina Beach '00 concurred. "The whole sneak attack from comedian-to-motivational speaker thing bugged me." Yet while some students found fault with the tactics used, many respected the message. "There was some truth to what he said, using humor to get out of difficult situations. It was a good thing to remind us. I just wasn't expecting it," she explained. "Still, it gave us something to do." Hudson continued, "The whole education thing was weird, but still interesting." Finally, a packed house Plagued by logistical problems and disinterest on the part of students, the alcohol and drug orientation has traditionally been one of the most sparsely attended events of first-year orientation. The decision to use a comedian was a radical departure from these earlier programs, which were backed by substance abuse counselors and structured as informational lectures. Few students came. "We had been vexed for years by our attempts to develop an alcohol program," F. Celeste Branham, Dean of Students, explained. "We tried different formats and remained dissatisfied." The college decided to try another approach. "We decided to try something new. The comedian has had much success at other institutions," Branham said. "His context is not intimidating, it's informative, and it's reportedly very funny." Several students admitted that Matuska's humor captured their interest. "I don't think that many people would have come if he wasn't a comic," Hudson said. "I'm glad that I went," Andrea Emshoff '00 said. "It was much better than I expected." Laughing the way to truth Matuska's program, which stresses people's need to look beyond the misleading messages offered by advertisements and popular culture, was designed to counteract students' ambivalence about the subject of alcohol abuse. "It's not surprising that students didn't attend the earlier lectures," he said. "There's a perception that they're not realistic." "I'd sit beside students while they watched programs about drugs and alcohol, and they'd complain that this stuff sucks," he said. "These were $20- to $30-thousand dollar programs, and the students hated them." "I thought, why not make them laugh?" Through the power of laughter, he argued, audiences would be more amenable to his message. The comedian chose to veer away from judgemental or statistics-driven lectures. "Students don't need facts," he explained. "A new fact won't change behavior. Students know that." By incorporating humor and education, Matuska hopes to engage his audience. "What I do works. My goal isn't too big. I don't think that I'll change anyone's life. But if I make them laugh, I have them. If they're entertained, they'll be more likely to think." Emshoff agreed. "I thought that he was funny. He incorporated the alcohol information really well." "I thought that he was really funny," Lindy Forrester '00 concluded. "If he were strictly a motivational speaker, I'd fall asleep. By the end, people were okay with it." Students become AWARE of sexual assault New rape awareness program informs, engages by Anne-Marie Miller Perhaps expecting another hot and stuffy lecture, first-year students filed into the chapel Sunday night for an annual rape awareness session of orientation. They experienced something very different. A theatrical group from Boston, AWARE (Actively Working for Acquaintance Rape Education) took an active approach to rape awareness. The four-member troupe used sketch theatre to communicate the difficulties college students often experience when faced with ambiguous sexual situations. This program represents a departure from previous years' rape awareness lectures. "We've been very happy with the previous programs," F. Celeste Branham, Dean of Students, said. "They worked very well, but we wanted to try something new." The group presented a skit in which an assault occurred, then remained in character to field questions from the audience of first-year students and junior advisors. The ensemble then introduced themselves and discussed what they felt to be the most important issues regarding rape awareness: communication, the legalities of assault, and the best ways to support a friend who has been sexually assaulted. "It's just as important to hear as it is to listen," AWARE actors told first-year students. Rape, they stated, is about power and control; it is important to believe a survivor and to give her back control over the situation. "This is relevant to every single person," one member of the group emphasized, "not just to women." Dean Branham then briefly discussed the college's position on sexual violence, stating that the college's intolerance of violence was "not an empty rhetoric." She briefly mentioned the college's new anonymous reporting policy, which allows students to report an assault to the health center without having to pursue further action against a perpetrator or to give specific details about the assault. Audience response Both students and administrators seemed pleased with the outcome of this experiment. Greta Hammond '00 thought that the group "presented in a better way than just a lecture—people got a chance to grill the characters. [The audience] took it more seriously." Chris Tisdale, Director of Health Services, concurred. "[the presentation] was excellent. They gave accurate interpretations of what survivors feel." "The presentation generated a very important discussion and conveyed all the right messages," said Branham. Students were interested and sometimes surprised by one another's opinions. "I was just alarmed at how many people questioned Maura's [the survivor's] stand," said Tyler Barnes '00, "and why more people didn't go after Steve [the perpetrator]." Several audience members expressed concern that a more broad range of circumstances was not covered. The skit presented a very unambiguous situation. "I changed my view on rape. [Before the presentation] I probably would have blamed the girl more." Carlie Tuggey '00 "I thought it was helpful," Dave Carlson '00 said, "but I think people have heard the same thing before. More scenarios would have been helpful." Most students, however, felt that the presentation covered very important material, and that it helped them to develop a better understanding of what sexual violence was, and ways in which it could be prevented. "I changed my view on rape," Carlie Tuggey '00 said. "[Before the presentation] I probably would have blamed the girl more." Dorm councils gain judicial powers by Becky Gladding In an effort to build stronger community structures within the dorms and houses, the Deans of Students, upon recommendation from the President and the Board of Trustees, wish to revitalize House Councils. As in the past, the main focus of these councils will be to bring students together in a social context. This year, however, a new judiciary component has been added to each council's list of responsibilities. The goal of the judiciary board will be to mediate problems within the residence. Most cases of dorm damage, noise disputes, and misuse of housing facilities would all fall within the scope of dorm councils. If any student has a problem with another resident, he or she may list a complaint with the RC or the President of the House Council. This complaint may be anonymous or named. Pursuant to the complaint, the council may investigate. If the complaint is named, then a hearing will follow. A hearing may or may not be heard in an anonymous complaint. During the hearing, each student is allowed to express his/her rendition of the events(s) and the accused student is allowed to introduce witnesses in his/her defense. The council will listen to both sides of the dispute and then suggest a resolution. The complaints and actions taken by the council must be reported to the Dean's Office, although the council may decide whether or not to name the students involved. In the event that the issue before the council involves a serious case of misconduct or several students from different residences are accused, the case will most likely be reviewed by the Deans to determine how the case should be settled. In accordance with the college's desire to build a stronger sense of community, the House Councils are also expected to list and post the expectations for behavior within the residence. These expectations, which will be decided in the first dorm/house meeting by all the residents, should include the following issues: Quiet Hours, Smoking Areas, Bathrooms Gender Designations, BlueSlip Policies, Alcohol Use and Dorm Damage Policies. The thought motivating these changes is to allow students to regulate and monitor themselves within their residence. The major function of these councils will still be for social interaction and the secondary goal will be to mediate small disputes and to foster a stronger sense of community within the individual residences. Multicultural position left vacant Dean of Students' office fills in, hires interim assistant by Sarah Gunn In early July, Bates was faced with a difficult realization: the position of Director of Multicultural Affairs would not be filled by the start of the school year. Last spring, Melanie Goshu, the Coordinator of Multicultural Affairs, informed the college that she would resign her position to pursue graduate studies. "A committee was pulled together during the spring," F. Celeste Branham, Dean of Students, explained. "The committee worked diligently, and narrowed the field to three candidates." "Not one candidate was acceptable," she said. "It was a disappointing outcome, but placing an unsuitable candidate was not an option." The committee rewrote the job description, "which underwent no substantial change," and re-advertised the position. "We've already received over 100 applications, and would like to locate someone this semester," Branham continued. She expressed confidence that the position would be filled by the start of second semester. "It is difficult to identify someone with exposure to many different areas of multicultural education," she said. "We need someone who has already developed the skills and sensitivity for the position." Picking up the slack Meanwhile, plans had to be made to fill the void left by the position's vacancy. The Multicultural Center plays an active role in the college's cultural, educational, and social life. The Director of Multicultural Affairs oversees cultural programming like lectures, performances, and receptions. The Director also coordinates Multicultural organizations and acts as a mentor and advisor to individual students. The Center's largest events, like October Weekend, "were already in place, and planned," Branham explained. "They will take place." "In the interim, the Dean of Students' staff will take on the responsibilities of the multicultural center," Branham said. Administrators with experience in multicultural issues will assist in the planning of Center events. "We hope that programs will not be scaled back," Branham said. In addition, the college has recently hired Adam Gaynor '96 as a Program Assistant. He will assist in the coordination and publicizing of Multicultural Center-sponsored events. The position will "probably be only a semester-long job," Branham explained. Looking forward October Weekend, Bates' major multicultural recruitment drive, and other large events sponsored by the Center will not be affected by the college's lack of a director. "The big events were already in place," Branham explained. "We hope that programs will not be scaled back." "Our plan is to search until we find a qualified candidate," she continued. "It will be a challenge, but we are committed to bringing someone as soon as possible." Finding rooms for all... behind the scenes Continued from page 1. did a good job in that department. The worst situation would be to force apart sophomores who want to room together." "That would be a horrid situation," he continued, "and it didn't happen." Arsenault also pointed to the status of triples. "We didn't have to force triples on unwilling sophomores," he said. "I'm really glad about that." "We won't call up a senior struggling through thesis and stick them with a disgruntled first-year." Matt Arsenault, Coordinator of Housing While all students do have rooms, leaving them may be a difficult feat. "We do have some open slots — by 'slot' I mean doubles with only one resident," Arsenault said. "Singles are hard to find." Doubles will be filled on a seniority basis, he explained. "We won't call up a senior struggling through thesis and stick them with a disgruntled first-year." Empty singles do exist on campus, but are "practically impossible to access," Ludden explained. "The rooms are reserved for medical emergencies only," Arsenault warned. "Simple roommate disputes won't work." ■ A nationwide trend Bates' situation is not unique. As the children of baby boomers begin to choose schools, colleges have faced unrelenting waves of incoming first-year students. "It's a nationwide trend," Ludden said. "We've done a fairly good job. Brown University couldn't place all of their students. Boston University has students living in Howard Johnsons. Whiston rented a Ramada." "We've been successful," he explained. "We were able to fix it before everyone arrived. Everybody's got a bed." It's not easy bein' green: the birth of a major Bates inaugurates new environmental studies department by Keri Fox In addition to being the first class of the new millennium, the Class of 2000 has an option to major in Environmental Studies. While the major is still a work in progress, it has finally arrived. The process started seven years ago. A group of professors, primarily in the natural sciences, came together to address student and faculty concerns and interests regarding environmental issues. At the urging of other departments, the committee expanded their focus beyond the sciences to include the social and human aspects in their planning. During this seven year span, the Environmental Studies Task Force was formed. The task force delivered their plan for an environmental studies major to the Educational Policy Committee in March of 1995. The faculty then approved the major in April. A new major was born. ■ An interdisciplinary approach The committee's initial focus on interdisciplinary education has not been lost in the process of turning this idea to reality. "Not all environmental problems are solved through purely technological means," Professor John Smedley, Physics professor and chair of the Environmental Studies department, said. The environmental studies major has 4 "tracks." One follows a humanities course, "Culture, Society and the Environment," one follows a social science course, "Environmental and Natural Resource Policy" and two more which find their home in the natural sciences, Geo-Chem and Bio-Geo. Complementing these "tracks" is a group of core courses which contain classes in the humanities, natural and social sciences. The requirements for these "tracks" are not yet included in the course book. To get information, going to the source seems the best approach. The course book does list the professors involved in the department. By talking directly with these professors, an interested student could find out more specifics, Smedley suggested. The major also includes an internship requirement and a year-long thesis. Smedley describes the program as a very active process in which, "given the kind of intense, interdisciplinary thesis experience we would like students to engage in, a full year seems to be required." Students in the classes preceding 2000 will still need to go through the interdisciplinary process to achieve an Environmental Studies major because of the difficulty of fulfilling all of the requirements. It was suggested by Smedley that interested upperclass students use the new plan as a model for designing their own major. Majors with interdisciplinary foci are not new at Bates- the American Cultural Studies and African American studies programs have been components of Bates courses for years. ■ A new professor Assistant Professor Curtis Bohlen has joined the Bates faculty as the second Environmental Studies professor of the major. In addition, Professor Carl Straub, of the Religion department was recently made the Clark A. Griffith Professor of Environmental Studies. This new major has already provided more opportunities for students interested in the topic or frustrated by limited enrollment. Professor Bohlen is offering two new courses, "Working with Environmental Data," a core course, and "Wetland Science and Policy," an elective. This winter semester a third environmental elective, "Caring for Creation: Physics, Religion, and the Environment." The course will be team-taught by two professors, Smedley and Professor Tracy of the Religion department. Also this winter, a tentatively titled "Introduction to Environmental Studies" course will be offered by Bohlen. Professor Smedley has optimistic plans about the major and the impact of its interdisciplinary goals. The department is currently working on a lecture series and hopes to get students more actively involved in the everyday aspects of environmental activism. On a broader scope, "it would be nice to have every department offering an [environmental] course." Smedley said. New environmental opportunities abound on the Bates campus. photo courtesy of Bates College Catalog The Bates Student is accepting applications right now! The following openings are available for paid positions on The Bates Student: Managing Editor (we are looking for someone with skills in business administration, general reliability, leadership qualities and creative vision) Photo Editor (dark room experience) Around Campus Editor (good dental records) To apply, please contact Jeremy Breningstall at x6596 or Box 68 by September 11. 25 Bucks!!! It all seemed so wrong. by Gussie Falleder It's the tricky smell that always sits in the bottom floor of Chase Hall on a weekend morning. The Bates burger meeting the Maintenance pile and hits me every time. This is a stable memory of Bates that mixes with warm faces from parties. There's a fragile comfort and a reliable consistency. Leaving Bates last spring, I depended on that consistency a great deal, anticipating my arriving senior year. This meant the return of old friends and the folks whom I wanted to know a little better, as well as the assumption that class registration would go my way; this time, no more freshman year novelty or sophomore year monotony, but a security in the consistency of life here and the days ahead. With all this good-hearted faith and hope in the Bates community it seemed fitting that after waiting out summer placement for housing I ended up in the old home of the former Bates Chaplain, 227 College Street, falsely rumored as "Bushwacker House." The unexpected problems with housing in the spring fell right into place when the reliable consistency of the Bates community assured me a nice room where I would be able to live for my last year. Like most students, therefore, I expected my first few days here to be all about moving my stored belongings from my old home, Davis House. Not thrilled about the sweaty schlepping ahead, I resigned myself to silence with the image of a warm bed and a cold shower. However, when I bounded down the stairs with an unusual childlike excitement, the emptiness of the Davis House basement aged me beyond my years. The utter space filled with sheer air and the thought of all my stuff in the hands of others, who had scavenged, sitting in Massachusetts homes or Parker doubles, patting themselves on the backs. And the thought of these folks as members of my Bates community. Later I learned that all of my stuff had been taken away by the Maintenance folks during general summer cleaning. Although I hadn't remembered tagging all of my boxes, I knew some had been tagged and I knew I'd have to check this tagging controversy at the source. Thankful that my stuff hadn't been stolen, I called Maintenance and left a message to arrange a time to pick up my stuff, and ran around campus asking everyone I saw about their summer vacations. Meanwhile the word on the street was that the college, via Maintenance, hoped to get a buck out of the whole storage fiasco, in fact they insisted on it. Well, it was more like 25 bucks. Twenty-five dollars! I was really disappointed. I was jaded. I was completely livid. Three years of school service, tons of sub-frosh cracker parties in New York talking up Bates, R.A. participation, and not only that but I completely fulfilled my P.E. requirement for the first time. I thought I meant something to this place. A place where you can make a human mistake. A place where one can catch the President in Commons balancing honey on rice cakes. Convincing myself into a calm bitter storm, everything seemed curiously still. Then one night while talking with friends in their new home I turned the corner from the kitchen to the living-room surprised to find a painting I owned hung on their wall. This painting, known fondly to few as "Rosalita," I had stored, apparently in an illegal manner. This painting had been passed down by graduating Bobcats for many years and is a No illegality in mind, although I flirted with the thought. I intended to give the individuals involved a piece of my mind which would amazingly persuade them to see my way; I mean, honestly, it just seemed wrong and blatantly tyrannical to put it mildly. But like the motion of a bureaucratic system the Maintenance head told me that the fee had been set by the Dean of Students and handed me some dittos to read. I felt like a rat in a wheel with a tiny pea brain and the sight of my stacked boxes in the Maintenance pickup pulled at my wallet. Before I knew it I was giving the friendly women in the window my money and in a flash had I led my stuff again. The order of events isn't very clear but those 40 minutes seemed to move like one. So, honestly, my disappointment and anxiety falls back on me. My fierce antiestablishment classicist blah blah burned out pretty fast. My principles melted into a sense of self preservation instincts. But in the end I suppose the most important thing is that I have my stuff, and, interestingly enough, a few other items. I think at Bates you almost always break even, the physical and the metaphysical. It's that community thing. I'm always struck by the fragile comfort and reliable consistency that I've found here. My Summer Vacation Intended to function as a standard run-of-the-mill summer break narrative by Michael Della Bitta Sparing any sordid tall tales, the most factual portrayal of my summer's endeavors would probably include such juicy details as the employment-seeking, multi-member game of phone tag I played with American Power Conversion, a computer company in my hometown, or the all-too-brief stint I had as a fund-raiser for an independent nonprofit environmental organization dedicated to protecting our nation's drinking water supplies and waterways, or the brain-numbing eternity during which I distributed my personal fast food of choice: donuts. You know, you can't really learn all that much from a donut. Or even many donuts, come to think about it. Many things that humankind spends mounds of time to conceive and produce don't really make much sense. When one spends the greater amount of one's waking hours making and distributing the stupid fast-food product for too long, one begins to question the importance of such activity. How does the professed maker of such items really contribute something meaningful to the grander scheme of things? I mean, sure, Albert Einstein probably consumed his share of those deep-fried nasties during the conception of the theories of relativity, but that isn't much consolation when you're stuck doing it for a summer. Even less so, those who do it for a permanent living. Maybe that's what I learned from donuts... Luckily, one does not need only judge a summer based on scholastic and vocational efforts. So what else did I do? Well, I could accurately say that I spent the time and solitude of my summer vacation regaining that sense of an emotional identity and personal purpose that will allow me to tackle this last year. It's true, and that would have made a pretty well-rounded essay ending, but then I'd have to go throw up. I'll wax tangential and offer up: The Top Five Things Mike Did This Summer, that have nothing to do with jobs or saving the earth. 5. Avoided old friends who, through divine intervention of some On a wing and a prayer: the story of Katahdin by Andrew Aspen As we finished the last of our pita bread and peanut butter on the side of Mount Katahdin, we discussed our options. Continuing to climb in summer would mean we would have to gamble with the weather on top, as well as stretch our water supply dangerously thin. The risk-takers among us balked at the thought of aborting our ascent so late in the game. If we could make it three quarters of the way up, surely the final leg was no more than a challenge ripe for the taking. Ultimately, however, caution prevailed over ambition, to the relief of some and the dismay of others, we turned back toward camp. From that moment on I felt like my AESOP experience, during my first year at Bates, was somehow incomplete. We had failed. This lack of fulfillment gnawed away at my soul, and I knew it could destroy me entirely. All year long, I wandered around campus in a daze. I had no direction, no motivation, no hope, and above all, no clue. That April, just when I most feared that my AESOP complex had caused irreparable damage, I stumbled upon the road to salvation. Former AESOP coordinator Sunshine Mathon had selected an elite group of outing specialists to lead AESOP trips for the following semester. Because of their skill and privilege to walk among their peers, I trained all summer to be in top physical condition and performed daily mental exercises to sharpen my mind, focused intently on this light at the end of the tunnel. I arrived at Bates in mid-August ready to face the challenge of Mount Cadillac, deep in the untamed wilds of Acadia National Park. Only days after this unsuccessful venture on Katahdin, bursting with anticipation, I began the long and perilous journey up Mount Cadillac with my co-leader and a new troop of first-years. These people had not shared in my sorrow of the previous year. They represented a fresh start and a new beginning. We headed up the trail despite rain, rain, and cold, putting forth an effort matched by no other. It was becoming apparent, however, that the elements would not cooperate. Violent mists pounded us, thwarting our ascent. My second AESOP failure was imminent. Back at our campsite, we consoled each other. Though I tried to conceal my despair for the protection of the fragile first-years, it was plain to see that my inner-being was in dire straits. Only two more chances remained to heal the gaping wound in my soul, and so I re-tailored my lifestyle with the single goal of an AESOP success story in mind. Throughout my sophomore year I lived and breathed AESOP. The thought of the next opportunity to prove myself was never far from my mind. I was determined. In the spring of my sophomore year I was dealt yet another devastating blow. I was deemed unfit to lead an AESOP trip for the following school year, due to local politics and for other reasons unknown. It seemed that I had lost my place among the select few and instead was ushered on to the waiting list. I felt betrayed. The sight of happily returning AESOP vans at the beginning of my junior year was too much to bare. So frustrated and confused was I that I chose to leave the College and study outside of the country for the following semester. While I was away, it occurred to me that I was only trying to run away from my problems. I needed to return and confront the problem head on. Upon my return to the U.S., I learned that I would be leading the very same trip which started my ride on that roller coaster called AESOP: Baxter State Park, home of Mount Katahdin. This would be the final conquest. Like a warrior preparing for battle, I abandoned my fears and anxieties, concentrating only on the task of Katahdin. This trip was mine and mine alone. There was no group to think about, no need for the responsibility of leading a trip, but that was no longer what mattered. I was in it for myself and no one else. Three years had finally passed since my first AESOP trip and confronting last week as I vigorously chewed my peanut-butter-on-an-English-muffin-breakfast, I visualized the peanut-butter-on-pita-bread-lunch that awaited me at the summit. In a few hours, if all went well, I would be free from my three year nightmare. Our climb was slow and steady, and the karma was good. Just before noon, we could see the rock cairn marking the summit off in the distance. My heart raced but the world seemed to move in slow motion. Behind each step was a swelling momentum toward liberation from my dark AESOP past. When we finally arrived, I could feel the hollow within filling with the glory of hard fought victory. Suddenly, my AESOP complex, my tormentor thus far throughout my Bates career, began to evaporate in front of my eyes. Instead of darkness I saw skies all around and the valley down below. At long last, I had reached my long anticipated AESOP climax, and for the first time I felt like a true Bates student. Thanks to the mountain, I finally started to see who I am and where I'm going. The grass looks just a bit greener and the flowers smell sweeter than ever. Though it took a long and harsh three years, my moment atop Mount Katahdin was worth waiting for. Everything was just as I had imagined it would be, minus the peanut butter which, curiously, I had forgotten back at the campsite. Summer narrative Continued from Page 7 sort, have found some new homophobic or utterly dogmatic sect of Christianity and think it's time for me to see the light as well. 4. Quit smoking. And then quit again. Then again, and so on... 3. Got obsessed with space aliens. I really think that contact with an alien civilization is going to be the next big cultural advancement of the first world. 2. Grew my hair out and grew my facial hair so that my mother started referring to me as "Jesus," which of course was an ego boost. 1. Tried to avoid hearing or seeing the Macarena as much as possible. Ever since I caught my mother doing the Electric Slide at one of my high school dances, I've had a sort of vendetta against line dances like that. Also, that "That Girl! Ooooh!" song. God, that suck! To wrap it all up in a sentence, I think I should be happy to be back. Welcome back folks, or for first-years, welcome! Democratic party needs to build on unity shown at Convention by Jeremy Pelofsky Contrary to the criticism in the media about the Democratic and Republican national conventions being too scripted and devoid of news, these gatherings are still necessary and even fun, with or without the media coverage. Attending my first national political convention in Chicago was an incredible experience even though I was part of the cast of thousands, no, tens of thousands representatives of the media. What made Chicago special for the Democrats was the public opinion polls favoring the Democrats in the race for the White House, the lack of a major conflict abroad, and the enthusiasm of the delegates and the media. Though I remained impartial while in attendance, I feel it necessary to clear the air on the type of support President Bill Clinton and Vice President Al Gore are receiving from their party. It isn’t as positive as they would like, but then again, beggars cannot be choosers right? Despite the concerns of a repeat of the 1968 Democratic Convention, this convention was much more tame, dispassionately so. In 1968, thousands of demonstrators marched on the delegate hotels as well as the convention center protesting the United States’ involvement in the Vietnam War and the support of the conflict by the expected Democratic nominee, Hubert H. Humphrey in addition to a whole host of other issues facing the country at the time. In 1996, Democrats in Congress and delegates to the convention showed their unified position and signed the week before the hoopla in Chicago. But, those same liberals were somehow mostly silent during the Convention itself. In fact, members of the centrist Democratic Leadership Council (which helped launch Clinton into the national spotlight) praised him publicly for first returning to his “roots” as a centrist Democrat. President Clinton signed the bill and promised to fix the “bad” parts of the bill if reelected, but has not specified yet which parts he intends to fix. The bill effectively eliminates welfare benefits permanently after a combined total of five years of receiving such payments; reduces and eventually abolishes the Aid to Families with Dependent Children program and the food stamp program, all of which have helped millions of Americans regain their footing in the world. During this convention, people were not swarming the streets around the Sheraton Hotel where the President was staying protesting his support of a bill pending in Congress that would allow states the right not to sanction the right of gays to marry. In fact, unless you were with the Clinton/Gore reelection team, a hotel guest, or the press, you could not get within a couple hundred feet of the hotel. Dump trucks and trash trucks blocked all vehicle and protestor access to the hotel. The only noticeable protesters were those Democrats against abortion or partial birth abortions. I was witness to one incident where the protestors managed to sneak out of the designated “protest” area which was a penned area across the street and a couple parking lots away from the entrance to the convention site, the United Center. Those against partial birth abortions rented a van, plastered the side with their message, and drove it around the back side of the United Center where most of the media entered and where their tents were located ensuring notice. But, I digress. The point I intended to make in this space was the notion that President Clinton and Vice President Gore are the only hope in this election for hanging onto what we have: secure student loans, a sensible defense policy, fairly moderate social policy, positive steps taken to help eradicate violent crime that has been ravaging our nation over the last ten years, ensuring a living and fair wage for workers, and saving the funding for Medicare, Medicaid, and Social Security for when our generation hits retirement or falls ill. One of my biggest complaints with members of the Democratic Party is that so few realize that the alternative of not reelecting Clinton. Bob Dole, a man who had already turned fifty by the time most of us were born, certainly will not turn this country the way the Democrats would like. Many Democrats may not like what President Clinton has done . . . But, given the alternatives, all Democrats need to unify the way they did in Chicago. Internet offers wealth of offbeat advice for those about to hit the polls by Alan Wright The national conventions are over and the heavy campaigning is nigh in this year’s presidential contest. At this very moment from coast to coast, Americans are gathering the information they require to make informed decisions on election day. I know that someone once said something on the order of, “an informed electorate is the foundation of democracy.” With this in mind, I decided to do my civic duty and scour the Internet for election information; here are a couple of sites I found helpful in my quest. Microsoft’s on-line political magazine Slate (http://www.slate.com/toe/current/contents.asp) offers indispensable information as the 1996 presidential election draws near. Equally interesting and far more entertaining is the satirical Slate (http://www.slate.com) also owned by Microsoft, which parodies Slate. Slate is available in its entirety only to those who pay a subscription fee, but there is a decent amount of free material. The Washington Post (http://washingtonpost.com) is great if you’re interested in bursting the bubble. The Post’s critically acclaimed Outlook section is available for on-line perusal. You will find Outlook superior to the renowned Leisure and Arts Section of the Sunday New York Times. There is plenty of election coverage here. The Post is one of the best sources for news and election information in cyberspace. No serious investigation of political issues would be complete without a visit to media giant CNN (http://www.cnn.com). I saw, I read, and I felt pretty proud of myself. However, I soon realized that I was duty bound to do more than just browse through the more obvious sites, and so I began my search anew. One great thing about the Internet is that it allows one to interact with the freaks of this country while keeping them at a safe distance. This is exactly what I planned to do. I wasn’t quite sure how to go about finding what I was looking for but information came easily and in depressingly large quantities. Here is a brief description of two sites I stumbled upon and what they can teach you. By far the most interesting site I encountered was Parascope (http://www.parascope.com/index.html). This site is a veritable encyclopedia of paranoid delusions. The site specializes in conspiracy theories. No theory is too inane, no evidentiary base too thin, and no stone is left unturned in compelling investigations of your favorite conspiracies. Special attention is paid to the J.F.K. assassination and mysterious spots such as Area 51. More germane to the subject at hand is the section on political cover-ups. Clinton’s name is everywhere. Discriminating readers may question the veracity of what appears in Parascope, but it is a unique source of information and worth reading for entertainment value alone. Voting is serious business and I am not about to ignore fiction in a foolhardy search for the truth. Parascope defines itself as an, “on-line resource dedicated to uncovering information on conspiracies, UFO’s paranormal phenomenon and other strange goings on.” The emphasis here is on strange. This site also features loads of third party information. Just as strange but far more frightening is The Independence Webpage (http://www.netpath.net/~jeffr/index.htm). This Militia site has a decidedly different take on the political scene. Emphasis is on gun control but just about everything is covered. This site will also allow you to visit militia pages from your home state and sign up with local groups. As my search drew to a close I was extremely disheartened. The end result of my quest was the sobering revelation that it was early in the morning and I was becoming very, very sleepy. Write for Forum Staff Editorial Out amidst the crowd The overpopulation frenzy has hit Bates before. Upperclassmen have sat disgruntled in library corners and on long Commons lines. Busy administrators and staff have shuffled around the houses and dorms on campus. There is a feeling of excitement and a feeling of apprehension. Concurrent with the same moment, in the midst of settling into a new school year, there are also discussions going on of a Bates vision bound to pictures of blue prints that bear the intention to retouch and resurface the campus. As we look around, and see the campus of today, one would perhaps not claim it presumptuous to use the current situational difficulties as critical categories by which to judge the potential costs and benefits of any future change. In doing so, though, a certain degree of care needs to be taken that the immediate seeming urgencies of the here and now do not blind the adaptive vision necessary to facilitate a better and brighter future. Adaption can come on many different levels, and they are not always the obvious ones. Size and polish of institutional facilities seem important, and to a certain extent they are. And yet in spite of their importance, it is also nevertheless integral to take into account the fact that they are far from being the sole priorities in institutional excellence. If one looks to the past, one finds well-educated individuals long before there were computers, long before there were satellites, long before there were ice arenas, long before we knew that the day would come, when we would benefit, with some amount of gratitude, from all the availabilities that we currently benefit from today. Obviously, there is more to education than size and polish. So as we look around our campus in the present, and see the numbers of enrollment mysteriously rising, the ambitious proposals for new buildings and developments, and witness an ever escalating level of fiscal involvement in the process of education, do we say that we have reached our peak? Or do we question whether we have yet realized what we are here for? Are we here to become better people? To learn something about ourselves? To make a better world? Or merely to presume some abstract significance towards actions that have become unconscious; to follow set guidelines in order to avoid confronting ourselves; to do what's easiest; to prevent the breakdown of a systemic structure that we did little to create but that we nevertheless (often) stubbornly hold onto, even as it twists along an uncertain path. We hear the echoes of academic voices of old, yet often today they seem to sound sentimental and strange. Perhaps this is because we measure ourselves by the ruler, but don't sufficiently question the criteria by which measurement as a standard of behavior is decided upon in the first place. If we were to step back, and to look at things with a greater caliber of circumspection, a few surprises may burst their way upon us. And perhaps it's more than time. Let's do it while we still have the room to think. Editorial Policy The Bates Student is published weekly by students of Bates College when the College is in session. Editorials represent the majority opinion of the Board. Views expressed in individual columns and features are solely those of the authors. The opinion pages of the Student are intended as an open forum for the Bates community, and we invite all who are interested to contribute. Letters to the Editor must be received by 5 p.m. on the day before publication. All letters must be signed, though in special circumstances the newspaper may be willing to withhold names upon request. Letters may be delivered in person to Room 224, Campus Life Laboratory, or in laser-printed and single-spaced or saved on a 3.5" computer disk in Macintosh WordPerfect format; or sent via e-mail to firstname.lastname@example.org. The Bates Student reserves the right not to print letters and to edit letters for length and clarity. Postal correspondence can be addressed to: The Bates Student, 309 Bates College, Lewiston, ME 04240, or telephone (207) 795-7894. Subscriptions are $10 for one semester or $12 for two semesters. Checks should be made payable to The Bates Student. The writing on the wall by Jeremy Breningstall I. The doors opened. II. It was the dark of night. III. It was not night. IV. The relevant portion of this article (if you're not quick, you just might miss it): V. You made a mistake. You thought that everything comes out in the way you expect it. But I suppose it's not too late to say it's never too late. Let's have a look at some of the figures. Russia has it that they're approaching 1800. Geometrical, as some would have it. Actually, it's all about the chaos theory. A butterfly flapped its wings in Argentina -- and 250 extra people appeared on campus. The charts measure up. All charts come in a box. Every box is a square. But I don't have time to box. Piles of paper, sweeping up like lava. Each page gets a vote. Figure it out. Subtraction. Figures dotted on a line of paper, and an X appears. But we all cannot live in a democracy. Especially not the grasshoppers, those jumpy little critters of the night -- but let's not talk falsely now. Let's walk. VI. Suddenly, there I was. I was standing in the midst of a performance of the highest order. The juggler stood before me, spinning cycles with his circles of fire, turning light into air, and defying the very laws of gravity. As the circles spun round and round, the world began to turn quicker, then quicker, then quicker. And then the scene unfolded, in a napkin-like blow through the wind, catching dozens of curtains, as it went along. A convivial felt arose beneath my feet, and a world slowly began to step by. I reached out but could not touch what was on the other side. Sometimes, you have to step out into the other dimension. The one that crosses your mind you can't reach. The one that is 90%, yet off of the surface. But you're getting confused, I see that. That's good. Let's try again. VII. Outside, a carpenter was hard at work, pounding boards of wood together. Each slice of wood he pounded onto the next. At some point, it became difficult. Longer and longer stakes were needed to hold the wood together. Suddenly, in the midst of it all, a dashing figure in a cap swept across the lawn. Little bells jingled when he walked. He stuck out his hand. "Excuse me," I would have thought, had it not been for the missing particle beneath his feet. "There is no ground!" someone shouted out from the crowd. The jester walked over and patted the little girl on the head. "Of course there is a ground," he said. "After all, all the world's a stage, isn't it? And I'm here, aren't I?" She sees perfectly well, but she doesn't blink her invisible eyelid. With remarkable dexterity for a nautilus, he continued moving on. Without a thought, I grabbed him by the sleeve and pulled him over to my eye. "But who are you?" I asked. "I am the clouds," he said. "But when do you turn to rain?" I asked. "Appreciate the view," he said. I looked around me, and he was gone. VIII. From afar, the pillars took their hold. Marble arose like a silent figure, stalking its memory in the night. Time ticked backwards, then forwards, backwards, then forwards. Don't be afraid of the future -- or the past. For is there really any difference? I was going to say "no," but I was interrupted. Suddenly, a masked figure dawning an elaborate cape swung his sword at my side. "Hey," I said, "Don't you know that a kite in the air can provide quite a scare?" I don't mind the swaying in the wind. The part that's tied down, though, kind of gets to you after awhile. Have you ever heard the story about the eagle? She was tall and grey, and spoke of an empty space between the road and the return, and sometimes, in the middle of the night, she would look towards the sky. She came and floated threw, past the whisky bars of West London, and towards the avenue, past a small park, where children sometimes played. When she was tired, she would find a couple of blocks, you could find a place to pick up a drink, perhaps for less than most. I was just thinking about the eagle, I don't know why. But after the wind came the thicket, and I guess I keep wondering about these tiles they keep building on the ceiling. Do you ever walk upside down? Anyway. The masked man is looking at me, his head is at a slant. Little stick figures, with bandanas on their arms, are swaying at his side. It all looked so coordinated, the choreography so profound. And yet I still saw no ground. In the resulting platform of the transcendental tray of pleasures, I did not know quite what to do. Here were the characters of the play. And yet who was I? What role did I have? And why couldn't I, for the life of me, remember what my lines were? I felt as if I'd just arrived at the trunk, and it was already empty. Who was the manager of this scenario? And why wasn't their number listed? I looked down at the bottom of the trunk. It was red and yellow, with a texture of velvet carpet coating. The walls stood up around it, the air below it. The thoughts struck quick as lightning, and soft as an unfolding ball of yarn. Was this the end? Or was it some sort of trick, and this was only the beginning? And which would be worse? IX. The last call. Questions? "Hey kid! Don't you think it's just a tad dangerous to be handing out unprocessed information just like that?" "Highly." Bottle packs a punch that even Aaron couldn't fathom By Alan Wright I am a sucker for a good celebration. Weddings, Bar Mitzvahs, National Beef Week, you name it and I'm there. I'm also a big fan of sports, baseball, basketball, soccer, cricket, etc. I love them. So imagine my excitement when Coors announced it was coming out with a new bottle style in celebration of America's love of baseball and softball, the Coors bat bottle. That's right, folks; you may now purchase Coors or Coors light in a bottle that looks like a baseball bat made for Mr. Bill, and in just time for postseason play. The pint-sized bottles hit shelves August 19 and have a simulated wood grain molded into the glass, simulated tape around the neck of the bottle and a Coors insignia instead of a Louisville Slugger trademark on the barrel section of the bat. Even the bottle cap has a faux wood trim. As an added bonus these bottles are stamped, "limited edition" indicating a short production run which makes these bottles an excellent investment opportunity. But don't buy this bottle just because you know the return on your modest investment (about a buck) will be so high. The new bottle makes drinking Coors a celebration of American culture. Not much you can do other as patriots related to the game is worth the effort and watching grown men scratch and spit all the while drinking an ice-cold inebriating beverage from an oddly shaped bottle that in some magical way brings you closer to America's Pastime. Furthermore, the pint sized container is perfect for your sports related drinking binges. But this bat isn't just for drinking, you can use it to play Nerf baseball in your hallway after the game or for warring off angry peace officers (Though I would not recommend this course of action). You can use this exciting new container for a multitude of purposes. From cracking walnuts to serving as a prism in your dorm window, this container will keep you smiling long after the sale. Still not convinced? Perhaps you are angry at baseball for the strike and the problems that was causing in a recent. Perhaps you are annoyed by baseball's failure to name a permanent commissioner, its inability to reach a labor accord, the immaturity of its players, or maybe you just hate Marge Schott. I don't blame you, but why punish Coors? This isn't just some marketing stunt. This isn't the story of a company too lazy to change its product that decided to change the packaging instead. Then again, so what if they are merely capitalizing on this form of chicanery. Wise Polonius reminds Laertes, "Costly thy habit as thy purse can buy/ But not expressed in fancy, rich, not gaudy/ For the apparel oft proclaims the man." These words of wisdom are echoed in the popular refrain, "clothes make the man." The philosophical implications of this statement are immeasurable, but best cast aside elsewhere, save those which pertain to Coors. If the clothes do indeed proclaim the man as the Bard would have us believe, then it is safe to assert that Shakespeare himself would agree that bottles oft proclaim the beer. It logically follows, then that Coors may very well taste better by virtue of its new duds. Coors is not merely attempting to capitalize on the popularity of our nation's pastime by associating itself with the sport. Far from it, this is about the fundamental pastoral beauty of baseball and pureness of Coors. It has given us the opportunity to experience sports within the comfort of our own homes. This is not a chance you can afford to miss. One member of the editorial board remarked that the bottle looked more like a bowling pin than a bat. This product can foster a greater appreciation of baseball in such afflicted areas. Even if you don't really like baseball, use this product properly, and in sufficient quantities and you will see the light. So even if you hate Coors, this new bottle hits a home run. Movies and Munchies Beckon Batesies by Josh Popichak Something is happening down on Canal Street in Lewiston. Bit by bit, life is slowly being breathed back into the old Bates Mill complex. The brick structure, which contains over one million square feet of potential retail space, has seen a return to action over the past six months. One of the businesses that has recently opened its doors in the mill is The Movie Mill and Cinema Cafe. Owned and operated by local entrepreneurs Laurie and Michael Morin, the Movie Mill presents patrons with an experience radically different from traditional movie theaters, in which patrons pay to sit in what is often a large, auditorium-like setting. The Movie Mill, according to Laurie Morin, is designed "to be an extension of the patron's living room." Staggered rows of soft, plush recliners occupy the front section of the two theaters in the Movie Mill. Small circular tables made from spools salvaged from the Bates Mill and surrounded by directors' chairs complete the unusual decor. Guests are able to dine on a variety of hot and cold appetizers, sandwiches, popcorn, and candy while watching the film and can silently signal for one of the waiters or waitresses in attendance simply by turning on a small lamp in the middle of the table. In this manner, noisy and potentially annoying disturbances are avoided. Soft drinks, beer, and wine are also available during the movie. According to Morin, "people enjoy this concept very much. They like the ambience that we offer and the concept of food during the movie." The smaller of the two theaters seats approximately fifty guests and the larger holds one hundred, but expansion plans are already in the works. "We anticipate having two more movie theaters, to be located on the third floor of the mill, in operation by September 1997," said Morin. Noting that it would take at least six months to complete the renovations necessary to transform empty mill space into an atmosphere that will appeal to the movie-watching public, Morin added that "we've learned what the bugs are, and we're going to try to eliminate them this time around." One of the new theaters will show children's movies, and the other will be designated for classic, foreign, and arthouse films. The theaters currently open show second-run movies at discount prices. Admission is $3.50 per person, with three dollar tickets available at several locations in Lewiston, including the Bates College bookstore. In addition, Morin noted that she is currently working on making The Movie Mill a regular college shuttle stop on weekends. "The more people that know about it and request it, the easier this will be," she added. Bates students, particularly those who remained on campus over the summer, have played a big part in the growing success of The Movie Mill. Many consider it to be an affordable, enjoyable option to the more expensive first-run movie theaters in the area. Laureen Gallagher, a senior at Bates, "really liked it [The Movie Mill]. I would recommend it to anyone," she said. "It's a nice price, especially if you go on 'two-for-one night,' when it comes out to $1.75 per person. And it's also convenient," she added. "Because of its proximity to the college you can walk there." When asked what sold her on the concept of a movie theater in which patrons would enjoy all the comforts and conveniences of their own homes, Morin noted that "there wasn't much in the way of activities in Lewiston. It's an idea that's been done throughout the country and we wanted to bring it to Maine." The fact that the theater is contributing to the growing revitalization of the long-abandoned Bates Mill complex is an added benefit, she said. The films currently playing at The Movie Mill are Eraser and Phenomenon. These will run through Thursday, September 6th. Starting Friday, Morin expects to be showing The Frighteners and Multiplicity, with Kazaam and/or Harriet The Spy being the matinee features. Evening shows typically run Tuesday through Sunday and begin at around 6:30 p.m. and 10 p.m. Afternoon matinees are featured on Saturdays and Sundays. For more information on shows and times, patrons are encouraged to call The Movie Mill Hotline, 78-MOVIE (786-6843). The Hotline offers customers a pre-recorded message of the weekly feature presentations. Show listings can also be found advertised in the entertainment section of the Lewiston Sun-Journal newspaper as well as the Encore supplement. Parking is available in front of the Bates Mill Enterprise Complex and across the canal walkway at the Centreville parking garage. Freshman orientation showcases old talent, welcomes new by Josh Popichak The sound of laughter on a darkened quad; the stately tolling of the Hathorn bell; a splash of crimson color painted across the fringe of a maple tree. Yes, it would seem that the season of freshman fall orientation is upon us here at Bates College. And with it the college has welcomed yet another group of students into its fold: the class of 2000. As always, this year's first-year orientation program, designed to introduce new students to the school and the many different programs and activities it offers, contained a sampling of events at Bates. Their introduction to the arts began on the evening of Saturday, August 31, with a concert/dance performance held on the library terrace. The Bates Modern Dancers opened the evening with several pieces from their repertoire, including the student-choreographed "Went Away," "Found My Back," and choreos of "Hide and Seek." The second part of a two-part piece entitled "Invention" choreographed by Bates' Director of Dance Marcy Plavin, concluded the dancers' performance and followed an untitled work-in-progress. Upon the conclusion of the dance program, the spotlight was turned on the Bates Meriminders. The college's all-female A Cappella singing group announced that auditions for those interested in joining will be held on Thursday, September 6 and commenced with a program that was pop-influenced and upbeat. It included numbers such as Rickie Lee Jones' 1979 hit "Chapel E. s in Love" and the ABBA classic "Take A Chance On Me." The Deansmen, Bates' male A Capella singing group, opted for a program that was a bit more soulful, opening with the Carole King tune "Up On The Rooft" and continuing the theme with the rest of their selections. All three groups performed in front of a large and appreciative audience made up primarily of first-year students and their parents. When the show concluded, these frosh had what was for many of them their first taste of some of the cultural offerings the Bates community has open to them. Exposure to the arts continued on Sunday evening, but this time the attention of the freshman class was turned on itself. The annual New Student Talent Show included over a dozen performances by some brave and talented first-year students, who did their best to entertain and amuse the large audience that packed the Alumni Gymnasium. Highlights of the evening included a memorable performance of Vanilla Ice's "Ice Ice Baby" that was supplemented by heavy audience participation, and a whodunit charades game/performance involving three audience members. A lesser-known Batesie practices his repertoire for the first-year talent show. The show concluded with a brief appearance by the Bates College Deansmen, who announced that tryouts for the group will be held on Wednesday, September 5 at 7 p.m. in the Olin Arts Center. All those interested are invited to attend. Have A Heart, Play A Part, Use Your Smarts, Write for Arts! John Gorka: Popular Friend of Folk Music Releases New CD by Josh Popichak Have you been experiencing a yearning for the warm, intimate musical atmosphere that coffeehouses typically offer? Got a craving for some good old-fashioned folk music but you're not quite sure how to satisfy it? If you answered 'yes' to both of these questions, then beyond simple lyrics that occasionally glow over meaning, then the new John Gorka CD might be for you. Between Five and Seven, Gorka's sixth album, is the latest work from the well-known folk singer whose career began twenty years ago in an Eastern Pennsylvania steel town. Gorka, a native of New Jersey, started performing at Godfrey Daniel's coffeehouse on the South Side of Bethlehem, Pa., while he was still in college. He released his first album, I Know, in 1987, and since that time has continued to gain recognition as "the preeminent male singer/songwriter of the New Folk Movement," according to Rolling Stone. Between Five and High Street/Windham Hill Records (Between Five and Seven is neither innovative nor inspiring, but does feature some positive elements that deserve note, simply because they demonstrate that the potential existed for this to be a great album. John Gorka's voice, reminiscent of singer Leo Kottky, is pleasant to listen to and flows effortlessly from one track to the next. The backing vocals, courtesy of Lucy Kaplanian and Jennifer Kimball, add a depth and richness to the songs as well. The instrumentation featured on this CD, for the most part, is excellent, reflecting both the high-quality of Gorka's musicianship and the fact that many fine performers were brought in from outside of Minneapolis (his home base during the two months of the year when he was recording for the recording of the album. Mary Chapin Carpenter's backing band lent a big hand when they offered their services to Gorka while laying over in Minnesota for several days. Gorka himself deftly manipulates the acoustic guitar, his chosen instrument. In the process, he presents us with narratives, depicting the trials of life and love with the finesse of someone who's experienced the ups and downs that both inevitably dish out. He is aided by the skilled usage of electric guitar and baritone acoustic guitar on many of the cuts. It is a shame that the lyrics on a number of Gorka's songs are unable to match the superbly-produced instrumental tracks featured on this CD. It is the writing and the overall lack of consistency displayed by it that lead one to believe that perhaps this noted performer has been resting on his laurels (small as they doubtless are) for too long. The lyrics range considerably in quality, from above average to poor. However, the majority of the songs are just fair, and a couple feature lyrics that come across as downright dumb (i.e. "Edgar the Party Man," which is dominated by the toe-tappy chorus "My name is Edgar, And I am a party man, I come from a party town, I come in a party van"). Still, Gorka does manage to include several of the intensely personal, deeply introspective songs that have helped him carve out a niche in a highly competitive music world. He seems particularly comfortable on the dark, brooding pieces, such as "The Mortal Groove" (track 4) and a part of "Dixie Down" (track 5). "Can't Make Up My Mind," with its upbeat, rock-pop feel, is also worth listening to for a change of pace. Unfortunately, these songs represent the few bright spots on a CD that will clearly leave many fans questioning the status of Gorka and his music. On a sidenote, fans of The Band, the legendary Canadian rock group of the late sixties and early seventies, might want to check out "Scraping Dixie," the last song on the album (and also the longest). It features the familiar guitar riff from The Weight, one of the group's classic songs penned by Robbie Robertson. (Whether the title of Gorka's song is an allusion to another of The Band's beloved favorites, "The Night They Drove Old Dixie Down," or merely a coincidence, is impossible to say.) Whatever one's musical taste may be, John Gorka attempts to offer something new and different in the way of folk music with Between Five and Seven. Several of the songs are well-crafted, and all are pleasing to listen to instrumentally, but Gorka's basic failure to present his message in the sophisticated manner most people have come to expect from folk music and its practitioners is so disappointing that it simply cannot outweigh the positive forces that obviously came together in the making of this album. Still searching for the authentic folk music experience of the coffeehouse on CD? Take a word from the wise: keep searching, or stick with the real thing. As The Pendulum Swings... The following message is from the Chase Hall Committee: James Mapes, actor, hypnotist, and master of the mind will be making a special encore appearance at the Gray Cage on Friday, September 6. Seen here two years ago, Mapes mesmerized and astounded an audience of approximately four hundred Batesies and truly hypnotized over forty. His show last time concluded with a hypnotic suggestion to all those under his influence; if they were ever to see him perform again, upon a simple cue they would once again be under his control. You are strongly urged not to miss this amazing, once-in-a-lifetime opportunity. The show will begin at 9 p.m. Friday in the Gray Cage, and is brought to you courtesy of the Chase Hall Committee. Admission is three dollars. Appearing live in the Silo on September 14: Percy Hill. Percy Hill is a young seacoast rock group that is turning heads, surprising ears, and gaining an eclectic and energetic audience after just one year on the music scene. Industry pundits have compared Percy Hill's improvisational musical stylings to that of the Allman Brothers, Santana, and the Grateful Dead. Don't miss their first appearance at Bates! The show, to be held in the Benjamin Mays Center, will begin at 9 p.m. on Saturday, September 14. Cost of admission is three dollars. Brought to you by the Chase Hall Committee. Once a revered landmark on the Bates College campus, the Maintenance Smokestack is now being sold piece by piece as a part of the advanced fund raising gearing towards the year 1996. And yet, another painful reminder of what our lovely smokestack has been reduced to—a shameful pile of bricks, tossed around like celebrity watches. As part of the natural course of human events, we, the authors, feel it imperative to pay our respects, homage, and deepest dues to the very strangest places on campus. You can imagine our surprise, then, when this week, when we sought to initiate our endeavor, lo and behold, the smokestack (smokescreen, prime climbing target, and forever universal symbol of the flowering of manhood) had disappeared. Rumor had it that the pieces had been chopped off, and they were now headed to the auction block. Whatever sucker alumni could be found were going to be charged $150 a pop for the shards of red tinsel dust. We didn't believe it at first, either, but then we found evidence which was simply too clear to doubt. And it wasn't only our shining towers that they were going after. No, they were after much more... Bates College Department of the Interior September 1, 1996 Dear Executive Directors: In accordance with your request this morning, this is a summary of my conclusions after my visit to the Grand Cayman Islands on August 3-16. I. Summary. The situation is very disturbing. Current trends, unless reversed in the next 2-3 months, will lead to neutralization and best and more likely to an utter failure to meet our desired revenue goal for the 1996 year ($600 million, as decided at the last Supreme Council meeting). II. The new government of the student body is the greatest source of concern. It is indecisive and drifting. Although Richard Holley states that he, rather than the Committee of Generals, is making decisions, it is not clear that this is actually so. In any event, neither he nor the Committee are experienced in political administration, and so far they show little talent for it. There is no clear concept on how to re-shape or conduct the various hand presences. The Province Chiefs, most of whom are new and inexperienced, are receiving little or no direction because the generals are not preoccupied with external political affairs. A specific example of the present situation is that General Johnson is spending all his time commanding III Corps, which is in the vital zone around Admissions and needs full-time direction. I made these points as strongly as possible to Holley, Volpi, Carpenter, and Kovacs. III. The general area of the student business, which lacks leadership, has been poorly informed, and is not working to a common plan. My impression is that the business does not know how to conduct a coordinated administration. This has of course been stressed to her both by Dean Graham and myself (and also by Gene Weaver), and I do not think she is consciously rejecting our advice; she has just become as a lower in her life and cannot readily change now. Braz's newly appointed deputy, Mary Frell, who is a lawyer, seems to be a highly competent team player. I have stated the situation frankly with him and he has said he will try. All he could not constitute what would in effect be an executive committee operating below that level of Registrar. IV. Plans for covert action into Frye Street were prepared as we had requested and were an excellent job. They present a wide variety of sabotage and psychological operations against Frye Street from which I believe we should aim to select those that provide maximum pressure with minimum risk. V. Administrative resources and personnel cannot usefully be substantially increased. I have outlined a modest underlay of additional staff, and also the provision of uniforms for the Self Defense Corps. This is the least exposed form and one from low morale. VI. The only solution is to drastically accelerate what we have with tuition, books, room, board, meal plans, parking fees, fire alarms, key deposits, laundry machines, soda machines, alumni fundraising, dorm damage, late fees, registration fees, etc.: milking as much out as we can get. Phases 1-436 have already gone into operation. Now is the time to bring the others into play. The following are the plans that have been made. Please implement with caution, as some may attract attention. Deadlines, rules, budget, labor, deficit, inflation, and operating costs have proven useful explanations in the past, and are likely to continue being so in the future. Goals 1996 1. Find spotted toad on the lawn, declare quad an endangered species preserve. 2. Offer major donors guest appearances on Baywatch with David Chockachakachi. 3. Turn the Puddle into a guaranteed fishing pavilion. 4. Pre-dorm damage bill (BatesCard allows for automatic reduction). 5. Multiple villages constructed between Bates and Freeport. 6. Building names auctioned off to corporations. (suggested ideas include: Ronald McDonald Frye House, Michatin Merrill Gymnasium, and Natural Light Page Hall) 7. Initiate $75 fine for fire drills (half price of regular fire alarms! Necessary to pay for building damage from drills). 8. Poll tax for R.A. voting 9. Birkenstock fee. 10. Declare Bryant Gumbel's room a historic monument, install velvet ropes, charge admission. 11. $50 fee for unhappy trays. 12. Sediment at bottom of Puddle excavated, turns out to be cure-all for baldness, ingrown toenails, and so on. Net profit expected to be in millions. 13. Plowing fee for each inch of snow. 14. Pay stalls in bathrooms. 15. Bicycle parking tax. 16. North end of campus cordoned off as hunting preserve. Separate licensing for moose and duck reduces danger of crossfire 17. BCTV syndication of Lonnie Klein show to introduce new competition in late night talk show war. 18. Poll tax for R.A. non-voting 19. No more free refills in Commons. 20. Phantom Punch II: Nancy Kerrigan vs. Tonya Harding duke it out in the Underhill Ice Arena 21. Bagel sandwich import tax. 22. Memorial plaques for 1995-96 fencing season. 23. Presence of ants used to prove that Puddle was actual inspiration for Walden Pond. 24. Tuition grooming fee 25. Threat to move Bates football to another city unless Lewiston builds new deluxe stadium. 26. Intention fee for contact with Registrar's office. 27. Fine for taking too much ketchup in Commutes (double when used for pasta). 28. Publicity from boxing bout generates further interest in the scenic surroundings within the Underhill Ice Arena. Seals brought in. Winter Sea World opens to the public. 29. Official transcript released for Hawthorne and Longfellow's tenure at Bates. 30. Security phones sold to Nynes, allowing for switch to pay format. 31. Lewiston Junior High annexed to up enrollment. Igloo Idea resolves potential housing crisis. Lastly, I would like you to remind you that this list must be kept absolutely secret. The masses have no understanding of the meaning of what we are involved with, and may not understand the nature of our desperation. We will succeed! Yours Truly, [Signature] Department of the Interior Where there were walls, let there be salad! A few more reasons why Bob Volpi should run the world by Jen Weiers Now first years and JYA-returnees are not the only ones mired in befuddlement as they wander Commons in search of marshmallows, 2% milk, and Worcestershire sauce. We may know where things were, but we aren't sure where things are. Let the lesson of '96 be that much has changed, for much has changed, my friends. We're all in the same boat, though, and with Bob Volpi at the helm, we can be sure we're headed in a good direction. But what is all this? To solve the mystery, pick up one of the leaflets put together by Director of Food and Dining Bob Volpi. Available now on a Commons or Den table near you, the "Welcome Back" letter offers a full account of the staff's summertime accomplishments and of the general improvements made to the Commons. Eight paragraphs of information flanked by some darn cute pictures support Volpi's feeling that "this year, your dining experience will be its very best at Bates." The Student does not intend to compete with or replace Volpi's table mail, but merely to highlight a few things not covered. First, there are three new bins next to the conveyor belt. After Monday night's dinner each container was filled with a friendly assortment of all three familiar utensils, but in fact, the bins are meant to separate the silverware. One was marked "Spoons," one "Forks." Spoons and forks, respectively and not collectively, are intended to be tossed in these bins. One bin was somehow rendered blank; I can only speculate it is important for the knives. Help stop the fraternalization of silverware! If you can discern between fork and spoon and knife (this seems to be a big IF), you can make your tray happier than ever before. Elsewhere in Chase Hall: Lots of rice glass sets, good warm blankets, toaster oven, chemistry goggles...sounds like a prize package from Wheel of Fortune, but it's all available direct from the mail room. This September has been good to the bulletin boards, which you can find them in The Big Room. Need an exercise bike? Want a fridge? Hankering after Mark Erelli's guitar? Check that bulletin board. Extra physics or philosophy texts clogging your shelves? Give Corey and Sue a call. Yes. Finally, about the Den: it sure looks snazzy—dig that new salad bar—but the atmosphere will soon be darkening. After seventeen years, one of the Den's most beloved employees will be switching to the day shift and working upstairs in Commons. Germaine Morin is looking forward to her new hours, but not to the decrease in time for chatting with students. Don't cry about Germaine. We'll still see her. The best thing to do to cheer up is find one of Bob Volpi's papers, and rejoice in the accomplishments of someone who constantly exceeds our needs and expectations here at Bates. Read it front to back, aloud, and in the bathtub. Translate it into Portuguese, and sing it from the front steps of Hathorn Hall! It's good stuff. Library renovations improve accessibility of materials A little inconvenience may prove to be worth the final result by Erryl Parker The Helen and George Ladd Library has undergone a remarkable new facelift that has changed the way students, faculty, and community members will study and do research in the coming years. According to senior Steve Ockenfels, the renovations began "right after graduation" this past June. He states that the library was closed for about two weeks, during which he and several other summer library employees helped box books and move furniture. Renovators then came into the library and "stripped it to its bare bones," says Steve. After two weeks, the library reopened to the public, but it was clear and obvious that things weren't the same. Immediately one would have noticed that the entrance was moved slightly. Instead of going straight through the two sets of double doors, one would go through the first set and then veer off to the left and go into the door located on the left of the airlock. The next change that one would have noticed right away was that the reading room was temporarily converted to the circulation desk, and the reference area was temporarily moved to the area located down the set of stairs off of the reading room. In the meantime, electricians and carpenters arrived and began their work at renovation. When the work was nearing completion, the library closed for two more weeks from mid-August to late August while everyting books, furniture, the circulation desk—was moved back to its original place. Once again, the library reopened to the public. Steve's official job title stated that he was to be working in the department of "Bind and Mend," a job that essentially means that he was supposed to be working in periodicals and circulation. He was also told that at various points in the summer his work would be stopped at whatever stage he happened to be, and he would be asked to help move boxes and prepare for the renovations to come. Overall, according to Steve, the renovation "was slightly delayed but everything is going to be open on time [for classes]." The reason he gave for the delay was that "a combination of different things" took a little more time than was originally planned. The changes affected Bates students and faculty, as well as members of the Lewiston community, during the height of the renovation. Computers were down, and not all materials were available to the general public. Library staff members' offices were relocated and many were placed in a space already inhabited with another staff member. As far as permanent changes are concerned, Steve says that a new conference room was added as a part of the original plans for the renovation. The reference area, according to Steve, is "more accessible and more available" by being built a little closer to the entrance. When the total renovation is completed, all of the periodicals and reference books will be located on the first floor. All in all, says Steve, "while it might have impeded work for some students and faculty, overall the changes will have been positive." Write for Around Campus... The experience will enhance your life! Stacking Hard by Ryan Spring While most youngsters spend their summers at camp or working a part-time job, Stuart Abelson '97 has almost always spent his summers becoming one of the top water-skiers in the world. Abelson, of Andover, Mass., is currently ranked 14th in the world by the International Water-skiing Federation (IWF). Abelson competes in the trick event which is made up of two 20-second legs. In each leg, the competitor squeezes as many tricks as possible into the 20 seconds. Points are awarded only if the trick is performed correctly. The only difference between the two legs is that the first leg is performed holding the tow line by the hand, while the second leg is done using the foot. In June, Abelson traveled to Georgia to do in the World Intercollegiate Tournament as a member of the U.S. team. Competing as the team's trick specialist, he placed sixth out of 35 competitors. After dropping the handle to the tow line and falling while trying to perform a complicated trick on the first leg of the competition, Abelson recovered. He impressed the crowd and, more importantly, the judges on the second leg of the event. "I came back with a strong run in the second part," Abelson said. "It is very hard to regroup after making a mistake in the first half, especially in such a big tournament." As a team, the U.S. finished first overall in the tournament. Later in the month, Abelson, along with his younger brother Richard who is also a talented water-skiier, competed in the Speedo U.S. Open Water-ski Championships in Greenville, N.C. The Open level is the highest level of competition in the U.S. Abelson finished ninth in the competition and his brother was right behind him at tenth. "My days are numbered [as a better skier than his brother]," the elder Abelson added. Abelson's success continued throughout the summer at the Eastern Championships, where he won the trick competition, and at Open Nationals in Duston, Fla., the biggest tournament of the year. In his third year competing at Nationals, Abelson finished fourth, earning him a sponsorship by O'Brien (a water-skiing outfitter). "I went out there totally focused and just kicked butt," Abelson said. Stuart Abelson '97, shown here in hyperspace, is currently ranked 14th in the world by the IWF. College Relations photo. Abelson credits his success in reaching such a high level to spending summers training in Wolfeboro, N.H. under the watchful eyes of Bob McGraw. "I've seen them [Stuart and Richard] develop as water-skiers and people," McGraw said. "When they were young, there was no sense of reality to what they could achieve. But, as they have become older, reality set in through many checkpoints along the way and they have begun to realize their limitations while still trying to achieve their goals." One such limitation is Abelson's inability to train year round. Despite starting a water-skiing program here at Bates (he is currently a player/coach), he is unable to train year-round like most of the skiers he competes against during the summer. This limitation, however, may be a blessing in disguise as it has allowed Abelson to explore his other interests. He is a neuroscience major with plans to eventually attend medical school. In addition to that, Abelson became a pilot in the summer of 1992 when a back injury forced him to spend much of the summer away from water-skiing. "I spent the mornings in rehab and the afternoons learning to fly," Abelson reminisced. "Ironically, the injury was one of the best things to ever happen to me." Abelson is currently the President Emeritus of the Bates Aviators club. There have not been many limitations on Abelson, however, thanks to the support of his parents. "My parents have been the motivation for me," Abelson said. "It is really important to surround yourself with people who will push you to help you obtain your goals, and that's what my parents have done." Stuart's goals this fall, at least as far as water-skiing goes, are to help the Bates water-skiing club get bigger and more competitive. He will be taking a huge step towards this goal on Saturday when the Bates Water-ski Club hosts the inaugural Bates College Classic in Sanford. Preseason Notebook by Ryan Spring As evidenced by the tired bodies limping around commons, preseason practices for the fall athletic teams have already begun. Here is a quick guide to what the rest of us missed while enjoying our last days of summer: Men's Cross Country Coach Al Fereshtehian's squad, unlike most of the other teams, waited to begin practices until this past Tuesday. "We started later to give the first-years a chance to get oriented," Fereshtehian said. "Unlike most teams, we don't need to get in offense or defensive shape; the team can run on their own." This season looks promising for the Bobcats who had a strong recruiting year with about 15 first-years joining the program. This should complement the returning talent and experience of the upperclassmen. In addition, Sean Colibeau '96 has joined the team as its first assistant coach. He will be important, according to Fereshtehian, in helping with the increased size of the team this year due to the influx of first-years. Women's Cross Country The women's cross country team returns a "strong team" according to coach Carolyn Court, but there will surely be some new faces as Bates has one of the largest teams in New England. "They all have good attitudes," Court said, "and everyone came back really fit." The Bobcats will break in a new training ground over at Lost Valley this season as they aim to be one of the top ten teams in New England. Field Hockey "So far, so good," is how head coach Stacey Watts described the Bobcats' short preseason. Watts, along with senior captain Nicole Ouellette, will lead an extremely young squad this year. The strength of the team will be the sophomores, according to Watts, who has a lot of decisions to make before Saturday's scrimmages at MIT. Men's Soccer The men's soccer program is joined by a new assistant coach this fall, Brian Young. Young, originally of Brunswick, is a 1995 graduate of the University of New Hampshire where he played on an NCAA Championship qualifying team. Since graduation, he has played for the Cape Cod Crusaders of the USISL for two years. "Because he has played at such a high level," head coach George Purgavie said, "he can show our players what it takes to get to the next level." Continued on Page 18, Column 1 Preseason Notebook Continued from Page 17 Purgavie is also encouraged thus far with his team's overall fitness, the quality of first-year talent, the leadership of its captains, and the conditions of the playing field which looks to be in the best shape it's been in recent years. Women's Soccer Head coach Jim Murphy '69 welcomed 46 athletes to preseason last week, including 27 first-years, the most ever for the women's soccer team. But not only is the quantity of candidates up; so is the quality. "I have been really impressed with the first-year players," Murphy said. "There are about a dozen [first-year] players that will be vying for spots." Unfortunately, Murphy wasn't as impressed with some of the returnees. "I was disappointed with the fitness of some of the veterans," Murphy said. Murphy was also faced with the same complications that beset all fall coaches: trying to organize tryouts around new student orientation. "We don't have the first-years much of the time," Murphy said. "I want to be fair and it's hard when not everyone is there all the time." Women's Tennis New head coach John Illig brings some continuity and energy to the women's tennis program. After five years up at Colby, he has defected to lead the Bobcats with the help of the two senior captains, Annalee Gunlicks' and Helena Baldwin. "I will rely on the help of the two co-captains to get a feel for the players and how things have been done here in the past," Illig said. Illig plans to keep a group of 18 players, 10 of which will be on the varsity, while the other eight will be on the junior varsity squad. Only the top eight players, however, will travel. Football The first team to arrive for preseason, the Bates football team has had a strong preseason thus far and looks poised to build on last year's win over Bowdoin. "This is the best preseason we have had since I have been here," head coach Rick Pardy said. According to Pardy, this year's squad came to preseason in excellent condition and looks to be a stronger, faster, and more cohesive unit than last year. Pardy has two new assistants this year, Bill Lacey and Greg Youngblood. Lacey, who was a lineman at Villanova, joins the Bobcats from Wagner college and will be the offensive line coach. Youngblood, who played defensive back for Pardy at Bates and graduated in 1993, will coach the wide receivers after a stint as the defensive coordinator at the Sultanny School. As a Bobcat, Youngblood won the prestigious Schmidt Award. Pardy is excited about the four new additions, citing their energy, work ethic, and caring for players as huge assets to the team. New Tennis & Squash Coaches Join Bates Staff This fall, Bates welcomes two new head coaches to the College. Paul Gastonguay '89, a former training partner of tennis great Ivan Lendl, will take over the men's tennis and squash programs and John Illig moves down the Turnpike from Colby to coach the women's tennis and squash teams. A Ariston nativ Gastonguay is the winningest tennis player in Bobcat history. Gastonguay compiled a 149-41 record in singles and doubles while at Bates, including the two best seasons by a singles player in school history. In his senior season, he finished with a 29-5 record, was a finalist for the NCAA Arthur Ashe Award, and became just the school's second ever All-American. After graduating, Gastonguay competed for four years on the professional circuit as a member of the International Tennis Federation (ITF) Satellite, Challenger and Association of Tennis Professionals (ATP) tours. During this time, he acted as a training partner for three-time U.S. Open champion Ivan Lendl. Since 1993, Gastonguay has held the position of Assistant Tennis Director of Lendl's Grand Slam Health and Tennis Center in Bedford, N.Y. where he has coached several top-ranked junior players. Gastonguay takes over the Bates men's racquets program from George Wigton, who retired this year after 30 years at the College. Gastonguay joins women's soccer and basketball coach Jim Murphy '69 and Nordic ski coach Becky Flynn Woods '89 among Bates alumni on the college's coaching staff. "We look forward to welcoming Paul Gastonguay back to Bates College," said Suzanne Coffey, Director of Athletics. "His playing record, both here and in the professional ranks, speaks for itself. As someone who learned the game under George Wigton, we know that as a coach Paul will continue the tradition of excellence and sportsmanship the program has exhibited for the past 30 years." Illig spent the last five years coaching at Colby, the last three as head coach of the men's and women's tennis and squash teams. Over the past two years, Illig has led the Colby women's tennis team to national prominence, achieving consecutive third-place finishes in New England in 1994-95 and 1995-96 and culminating with a season-ending ranking of 12th in the NCAA Division III poll, the highest rank in the program's 28-year history. As coach of the women's squash team, Illig led the White Mules to national rankings of 10th and 12th in each of the past two years, also school bests. He takes over the squash program from Herb Bunker, who had been at Bates since 1985. "I'm looking forward to building a program here at Bates," said Illig. "The Bates teams I have coached against in the past have consistently impressed me with their attitudes and class. I think it will be a real comfortable fit." Illig's reason for moving from Colby, a school which to an outsider might appear to be similar to Bates, is twofold. "Here at Bates we are closer to the competition and the indoor tennis facilities are better," Illig said. "There are more squash courts, also. The facilities here give the program the potential to go much farther than we did at Colby." Illig, who is single, also pointed out that not only is he closer to the competition, but also to social centers like Portland and Boston, making this a "life decision" as well as a career one. "We are very excited to have John Illig join our staff," said Coffey. "He brings a sense of steadiness and expertise to Bates women's racquet sports that will be a tremendous asset to the program." Illig, a native of Rochester, N.Y., graduated in 1986 with a bachelor of arts degree in English Literature from the University of Rochester, where he competed in the NCAA Division III individual championships in 1984. Can't play sports? Try writing about them. Contact Ryan at x 7647 After a strong preseason, the Bobcats look poised to improve upon last year's victory over Bowdoin. College Relations photo. Jump Shots and Vodka Shots Five Batesies attempt to show their Russian foes how to hoop it up. American Style by Ryan Spring International competition was at the forefront of many Americans' minds this summer as they watched the U.S. compete against the rest of the world in Atlanta. This was definitely true of myself, although not so much because of my love of rhythmic gymnastics or synchronized swimming, but rather because I am representative of my country in athletics. Although I didn't win a gold medal, I was able to take solace in the fact that I made my country proud... well, sort of. A student of the Russian language for five years, I finally decided to test my proficiency last April when I joined 14 other Bates students and one professor on a four-week trip to Russia. We stayed with host families in a small city south of Moscow called Orei and our task was to immerse ourselves in the Russian language and culture. On one particular evening, one of many actually, we decided to immerse ourselves in the Russian tradition of drinking Stolichnaya vodka. Not only was it a lesson in culture (but also a lesson in how to drink the water anyway) and economics (only two dollars a bottle). We wandered the streets with our Russian friends and hosts looking for-- well, I don't really know what we were looking for, actually. It was early evening, and the Cars concert we had planned to attend turned out to be something quite different and unexpected, so we bailed out early. As we strolled through Orei, I had no idea that my first taste of international competition awaited me. I was more concerned about walking into a kiosk or remembering my name or tripping over a little statue of Lenin in my semi-drunken state. However, as we reached a trolley-bus stop, I was awakened out of my haze by the sounds of scratching gravel and a round rubber sphere clanking off metal hoops and bouncing on rough pavement. Maybe not the NBA Finals, but unmistakably basketball. As I turned towards my American friends and opened my mouth, I think they already knew what was to follow. My tongue, loosened by my favorite Russian beverage, easily invited the Russian playground legends to play a little roundball against some Yankees. I was confident. I played church league basketball in sixth grade and intramural in high school. No way could they touch us. Of course, I never played church league after drinking Stoli... Our four-on-four challenge was everything the Olympics, which would take place later in the summer, was not. We had no corporate sponsorships, no billionaire fans, no hype, no NBC. (Of course, we also had a basketball as bald as Kojak, two uneven rims, and a court with less cement than the roads in Hallowell County.) We had stripped away all the distractions and had been left with the true essence of sport and competition: trash talking, swearing, and defending one's manhood (or, in this case, citizenship) at all costs. Myself and my three Bates teammates quickly became incensed and frustrated with our play and playing conditions. Our Russian foes, however, used every inch of the court and every dead spot on the backboard and they used it to their advantage. We, on the other hand, still had blood alcohol levels exceeding the legal driving limit in Maine. We were losing... bad. I slowly began to emerge from my stupor to the realization that we were losing to four Russians. We were Americans; basketball, like apple pie and apple pie, was our birthright. We couldn't lose to four people from our former "Cold War" enemy. I became more intense and focused. I even hit a few shots as my teammates picked up their level of play as well. With our pride and egos in grave danger, we began to get fired up. "We are not going to lose to a bunch of f-cking Russians; we're Americans!" I bellowed in one of my finer moments. Our Russian man's so fat; when her beeper goes off people think she is backing up," yelled my friend Dan as a pass whizzed through his flailing arms. The Russians were up to our challenge, and with my limited knowledge of the Russian language I was able to pick up some expletives and something being said about our mothers. If it weren't for all the people speaking Russian, I might have thought we were back on the playgrounds of French Lick. Slowly, I began to realize that our cause was hopeless and yelling was futile. Embarrassment and anger swelled inside me as daylight withered and our non-playing friends grew restless with our plight. As the ball made its final bounce, I challenged the Russians to a rematch the following day. Same bat time. Same bat channel. As we sauntered-- okay, stumbled-- off the court, my friend grabbed for the waiting bottle of Stolichnaya (Gatorade is for the weak) while I inwardly fumed over the debacle of which I had just been a part. My friends found my intensity somewhat humorous, but I saw no humor in being beaten by a bunch of kids who think that Shaq is a place "where people go to get together." I vowed revenge. I would not let down the birthplace of Michael Jordan, Larry Bird, and Chocolate Thunder. We would prevail in the rematch. The next day, joined by another Bates student, we gave the Russians what Nolan Richardson has termed "90 minutes of hell." Our minds unclouded by alcohol and intent only on beating-- okay, humiliating-- our foes, we ran, passed, and shot our way to a 20-30 point victory. Although the bitterness from the previous night did not wear away in our victory, it was comforting to know that we had reestablished our country's basketball prominence in Moscow, Russia. A smile actually appeared on my face (yes, I am serious) as I left the court and headed off to participate in another cultural exchange involving "samogon" (homemade Russian liquor on the next tier down from rubbing alcohol) and a Russian host mother with a heart of gold and a bear hug grip tighter than George the Animal Steel. THINK ALOUD
Modelling the structure of latexin–carboxypeptidase A complex based on chemical cross-linking and molecular docking Dmitri Mouradov\textsuperscript{1}, Ari Craven\textsuperscript{1}, Jade K. Forwood\textsuperscript{1}, Jack U. Flanagan\textsuperscript{2,3}, Raquel García-Castellanos\textsuperscript{5}, F. Xavier Gomis-Rüth\textsuperscript{7}, David A. Hume\textsuperscript{1,2,3,4}, Jennifer L. Martin\textsuperscript{1,2}, Bostjan Kobe\textsuperscript{1,2} and Thomas Huber\textsuperscript{1,6,7} \textsuperscript{1}School of Molecular and Microbial Sciences, \textsuperscript{2}Institute for Molecular Bioscience, \textsuperscript{3}Cooperative Research Centre for Chronic Inflammatory Diseases, \textsuperscript{4}ARC Special Research Centre for Functional and Applied Genomics and \textsuperscript{5}Advanced Computational Modelling Centre, Department of Mathematics, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia and \textsuperscript{6}Institut de Biologia Molecular de Barcelona, Centre d’Investigació i Desenvolupament, Consell Superior d’Investigacions Científiques, c/Jordi Girona 18–26, E-08034 Barcelona, Spain \textsuperscript{7}To whom correspondence should be addressed, at the Advanced Computational Modelling Centre, Department of Mathematics. E-mail: email@example.com We have determined the three-dimensional structure of the protein complex between latexin and carboxypeptidase A using a combination of chemical cross-linking, mass spectrometry and molecular docking. The locations of three intermolecular cross-links were identified using mass spectrometry and these constraints were used in combination with a speed-optimised docking algorithm allowing us to evaluate more than $3 \times 10^{11}$ possible conformations. While cross-links represent only limited structural constraints, the combination of only three experimental cross-links with very basic molecular docking was sufficient to determine the complex structure. The crystal structure of the complex between latexin and carboxypeptidase A4 determined recently allowed us to assess the success of this structure determination approach. Our structure was shown to be within 4 Å r.m.s. deviation of Ca atoms of the crystal structure. The study demonstrates that cross-linking in combination with mass spectrometry can lead to efficient and accurate structural modelling of protein complexes. Keywords: chemical cross-linking/latexin–carboxypeptidaseA/mass spectrometry/molecular docking/protein complex structure Introduction Most cellular functions require a delicately balanced interplay of multi-protein complexes and transient protein–protein interactions. Elucidation of such protein–protein interactions at the atomic level leads us to a greater understanding of cellular processes and opens the way to regulate these processes actively, leading to many applications in biotechnology. Unfortunately, the structures of protein complexes are difficult to study with traditional structure determination methods using X-ray crystallography and NMR spectroscopy, hence there are relatively few protein–protein complexes for which the structure has been determined (Janin, 2005). The structure of proteins in molecular complexes is often not significantly different from their structure when they are determined in isolation and they generally exhibit complementarity in shape and chemical properties at the interface (Jones and Thornton, 1996). One can therefore try to use the three-dimensional structures of the individual proteins and determine the missing information, the relative orientation of the molecules in the complex, by calculation. Molecular docking techniques have over recent decades made important methodological advances, such as employing fast Fourier (Katchalski-Katzir \textit{et al.}, 1992) or spherical harmonic (Ritchie \textit{et al.}, 1999) transforms. Useful empirical improvements that allow more reliable scoring of a large number of docking configurations (Halperin \textit{et al.}, 2002) have also been introduced. The Critical Assessment of Predicted Interactions (CAPRI) experiments (Zacharias, 2005) have been established to monitor progress and successes of molecular docking approaches; however, despite continuing incremental improvements, molecular docking remains a difficult problem and computed protein complex structures are often unreliable and of limited use. A variety of biophysical and biochemical techniques exist that can produce rapid experimental information regarding a protein’s environment and facilitate computational studies of protein–protein interactions. Molecular probe techniques, such as FRET (fluorescence resonance energy transfer) (Goedken \textit{et al.}, 2005) and EPR (electron paramagnetic resonance) (Popp \textit{et al.}, 2005) labels, are frequently used to measure selective distances between parts of a molecule. Recently, it has been shown that artificial amino acids can be selectively and efficiently incorporated into proteins for use as probes using a cell-free expression system (Ozawa \textit{et al.}, 2005). Similarly, new developments in NMR spectroscopy employ long-range electronic effects of paramagnetic ions to determine the alignment of the paramagnetic anisotropy tensor in a protein molecule (Pintacuda \textit{et al.}, 2004). By generating all possible tensor juxtapositions, it is possible to compute the relative orientation of proteins in a complex (Ubbink \textit{et al.}, 1998). Another emerging approach to derive a set of sparse distance constraints, which can then facilitate computational structure prediction, is based on the use of chemical cross-linkers (Swaney, 1986; Friedhoff, 2005). Chemical cross-linking has been used successfully for many years to study protein interactions in virus particles (Zhu and Courtney, 1988) and other large protein complexes (Benashski and King, 2000; Rappsilber \textit{et al.}, 2000). Topological models have been derived from such cross-linking studies in the past. However, more detailed models were generally not obtained because in most cases it was not possible to determine exactly which residues had been cross-linked. Recent advances in mass spectrometry allow the identification of the exact insertion points of low-abundance cross-links and has opened up a new perspective on the use of cross-linkers. in combination with computational structure prediction (Friedhoff, 2005). This approach is also amenable to high throughput (Young et al., 2000). Various groups have successfully investigated the feasibility of using chemical cross-linking as a tool for probing spatial organization of protein complexes by matching cross-links to already solved structures (Kalkhof et al., 2005; Tang et al., 2005). Other groups (Bennett et al., 2000; Sinz and Wang, 2001) have applied the method successfully to map out residues in the protein interaction interface. One approach to using chemical cross-linking information that does not appear to have been greatly exploited before is to combine it with molecular docking so that the cross-links are treated as explicit constraints in the calculations. Here, we applied this strategy to characterize the mode of interaction between carboxypeptidase A (CPA) and its inhibitor latexin. Carboxypeptidases catalyse the hydrolysis of peptide bonds at the C-terminus of peptides and proteins. CPA is a metallocarboxypeptidase containing a catalytic Zn$^{2+}$ ion and is a prototype for a family of enzymes with this activity (Vendrell et al., 2000). The only known mammalian carboxypeptidase inhibitor is latexin and, despite the determination of the latexin crystal structure, its mode of interaction with CPA remained unclear (Aagaard et al., 2005). Recently, the crystal structure of the complex between latexin and CPA4 was determined (Pallares et al., 2005), allowing us to assess the accuracy of the models derived from molecular docking with cross-linking restraints and to evaluate the feasibility of this cross-linking method for high-throughput structure determination of protein–protein complexes. Materials and methods Purification of latexin–CPA1 complex Mouse latexin was expressed in Escherichia coli and purified as previously described (Aagaard et al., 2005). Briefly, latexin containing an N-terminal His-tag (MKHHHHHHSGA) was expressed in BL21 DE3 pLysS cells at 37°C by autoinduction (Studier, 2005) and grown until the culture reached an OD$_{600\text{nm}}$ of $\sim$5. The pellet was resuspended in buffer A (50 mM phosphate buffer pH 8.0, 300 mM NaCl, 20 mM imidazole) and lysozyme was added to a final concentration of 1 mg/ml. The lysate was centrifuged at 15 000 r.p.m. (JA20 rotor) for 15 min at 4°C. The supernatant was collected and loaded on to a 5 ml Ni-NTA column, eluted using an imidazole gradient and loaded directly on to an S200 gel filtration column pre-equilibrated in gel filtration buffer (20 mM HEPES pH 7.5, 100 mM NaCl). Bovine CPA1, purchased from Sigma (C0261), was resuspended in 15 ml of phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) and filtered through a 0.45 µm filter. The sample was then purified by gel filtration on an S200 column containing 20 mM HEPES 7.5, 100 mM NaCl and 10 µM ZnCl$_2$. Latexin and CPA1 were then combined, incubated on ice for 30 min and further purified by gel filtration using S200 gel filtration in 20 mM HEPES 7.5, 100 mM NaCl and 10 µM ZnCl$_2$. Fractions were pooled, concentrated to 30 mg/ml using a Millipore Amicon filtration device (10 000 MW cut-off) and stored at $-80^\circ$C. Cross-linking A 100 µl volume of latexin–CPA1 complex (8 mg/ml in 100 mM HEPES, 1 M NaCl, pH 7.1) was combined with 900 µl of cross-linking solution [5 mM citrate buffer pH 5 and 2 mM BS$^3$ [bis(sulfosuccinimidyl) suberate] cross-linker (Sigma, S5799)] for a final pH of $\sim$5.4 and incubated for 24 h at room temperature before the reaction was quenched using 20 µl of 20 mM Tris buffer (pH 8). In-gel digestion and extraction Intercolecularly cross-linked complex was purified from non-linked monomers on a Gradipore precast SDS–PAGE gel. After staining with Coomassie Brilliant Blue, the band of interest containing the cross-linked CPA1–latexin complex was excised. The band was further destained using several washes of 200 µl of 50% CH$_3$CN, 50 mM NH$_4$HCO$_3$. The sample was dried and incubated in 5 µl of 0.5 mg/ml trypsin (Sigma) and 200 µl of 50 mM NH$_4$HCO$_3$ at 37°C overnight. The digested sample was centrifuged and the peptides were extracted from the supernatant with 100 µl of 60% CH$_3$CN–0.1% TFA, shaking at 200 r.p.m. for 30 min at 37°C. The sample was then centrifuged at 3000 r.p.m. and the supernatant pooled. The extraction process was repeated three times further. The pooled sample was dried using a SpeedVac and resuspended in 100 µl 60% CH$_3$CN–0.1% TFA. Mass spectrometry The cross-linked peptide solution was analysed using electrospray ionisation mass spectrometry (ESI-MS). The peptides were first separated by reversed-phase HPLC using a C$_{18}$ capillary column (Agilent) and then eluted with a gradient of 0–60% (v/v) acetonitrile in 0.1% aqueous acetic acid over 45 min at a flow rate of 0.1 µl/min. The column was connected in-line to an Applied Biosystems QSTAR Pulsar mass spectrometer, which was used to record mass spectra. Peptide assignment The set of peaks obtained from the ESI mass spectra was analysed using an in-house program that assigns $m/z$ values to possible cross-linked peptide fragments from amino acid sequences. Putatively assigned cross-linked fragments were then cross-checked with the original spectra for validation of real peaks by identifying multiply charged states. Docking with distance constraints The structures of murine latexin (1WNH) and bovine CPA1 (1M4L) were used for all docking calculations. The best docking orientation of latexin relative to CPA1 (centred at the origin) was computed by a systematic six-dimensional search over all rotations in steps of 5° and all Cartesian translations of 1.0 Å up to $\pm$66 Å along each coordinate axis. This gives a total of 129 168 $\times$ 133$^3$ or more than $3 \times 10^{11}$ configurations. Docking calculations took $\sim$20 min on a Pentium 4 3.0 GHz computer (1 GB RAM, 512 kB cache). Given the cross-linker reagent used here, the maximal C$\alpha$–C$\alpha$ distance between cross-linked lysine residues is estimated as 25 Å; models with distances >25 Å were therefore immediately excluded from further analysis. This screening of configurations can be performed very efficiently. To save time, a pre-screen was used in which only the coordinates of those residues involved in the constraints were rotated and translated. Only when the constraints were met were the rest of the coordinates rotated and translated and a full analysis was carried out. A linear scaling grid cell algorithm with geometric hashing was used further to check for any intermolecular residue pairs in close spatial proximity and thus to exclude those models with steric overlap, defined here when Fig. 1. Purification of CPA1, latexin and the CPA1–latexin complex. (A) Elution profiles of latexin, CPA1 and latexin–CPA1 complex from an S200 26/60 gel filtration column (Pharmacia). (B) SDS–PAGE analysis of the eluates confirming the purity of the samples. Please note that a colour version of this figure is available as Supplementary data at PEDS Online, where latexin is blue, CPA1 is red and latexin–CPA1 complex is brown. Table I. Identified BS$^3$ cross-linked peptides from the CPA1–latexin complex \| Experimental mass (Da) \| Predicted mass (Da) \| Sequence of cross-linked peptides (latexin, CPA1) \| Charged states \| \|-----------------------\|---------------------\|--------------------------------------------------\|---------------\| \| 3709.3454 \| 3710.06068 \| LFLVQTVQQAS@EDIPGR + TELNQVA@SAVAALK \| +3, +4 \| \| 5081.9239 \| 5081.51584 \| PVQHLAWVACGYVMWQNSTEDTWY@MLK + SAVAAL@SLYGTSYK \| +4, +5 \| \| 4524.53 \| 4524.20083 \| LFLVQTVQQAS@EDIPGR + NWDAGFG@AGASSSPCSETYHKGK \| +3, +4 \| $^a$The experimental and predicted masses are monoisotopic. The @ character represents the cross-linked lysine residue. Two different charged states were identified for each cross-link. Cz centres come closer than 3.5 Å to each other. At the beginning of the calculation, atoms of the fixed molecule are assigned into cubic cells with dimensions of the steric overlap distance (3.5 Å). A residue in the rotated molecule is then checked for steric overlap by considering only residues from the fixed molecule which are in the same cell or the 26 adjacent cells, since only those can be within the defined distance. Coordinates of the residues in each cell are stored in a linked list for which the start positions are retrieved by hash search using the 3D cell indices to construct search keys. Models were scored by a simple hydrophobic energy score that counts the number of contacts (<8 Å) between hydrophobic amino acids (A, V, L, I, F, C, M, W). For each rotation, the 10 best scoring models were retained. Final models were sorted according to their hydrophobic score and the 1000 best models considered. Models were grouped based on the root mean square deviations (RMSD) of the coordinates of Cz atoms after optimal superposition using k-medoids clustering (de Hoon et al., 2004) and the 10 best scoring models from each cluster were taken as the representative ensemble of the group. RMSD values were calculated by considering the backbone Cz atoms of both the CPA1 and latexin molecules. Results Purification of latexin–CPA1 complex Size-exclusion chromatographic profiles demonstrate that latexin forms a stable complex with CPA1. Individually, the proteins elute from a gel filtration column consistent with being monomeric species. When combined in an equimolar ratio, the proteins elute as a single peak corresponding in size to the latexin–CPA1 complex (Figure 1A). SDS–PAGE analysis of the eluates confirms the presence of both proteins in the complex (Figure 1B). The sequence of latexin was confirmed by sequencing. The sequence of bovine CPA1 supplied by Sigma was not assigned unambiguously by the manufacturer; we found that the sequence was consistent with PDB code 1M4L by MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry. Intermolecular cross-linking of latexin–CPA1 When the complex was treated with BS$^3$ cross-linking reagent, SDS–PAGE analysis under protein-denaturing conditions showed a strong band that corresponded to the combined masses of latexin and CPA1. Our ESI-MS analysis of peptide fragments after tryptic in-gel digestion of this band confirmed three intermolecular cross-linked peptides (Figure 2), which are summarized in Table I. Given that cleavage by trypsin is not observed after lysine residues that have been chemically modified by the cross-linking reagent, all three observed peptides resulted from fully digested peptides. The assigned peptides were confirmed by the observation of multiple charge states in the ESI mass spectra in the measured mass range of 400–2500 Da. The differences between experimentally measured and calculated $m/z$ values were 0.715, 0.329 and 0.408 Da, with <0.02% relative error. No other peptides from either latexin, CPA1 or any common contaminates, such as keratin, were found in these mass ranges. The cross-linked peptides associated with mass of 5081.9239 Da contained two methionine residues and, owing to the formation of sulfoxides, an additional mass at +32 Da is observed with ~8 times higher intensity. However, the exact mass of the oxidized fragment could not be determined owing to its overlap with a neighbouring mass peak (Figure 2B). Fig. 2. ESI mass spectra of the three identified cross-linked fragments, indicated in panels (A)-(C) (the @ character indicates a cross-linked Lys). Intensity vs $m/z$ peaks are shown (the HPLC spectra are omitted). The three peaks were taken from different chromatographic fractions. Two spectra are shown for the cross-link assigned to 5081.9239 Da (B). The top spectrum represents the unmodified fragments and the bottom spectrum shows the mass signal from two sulfoxide formations of the two methionines present in the cross-linked sequence (). Please note that a colour version of this figure is available as Supplementary data at PEDS Online. Docking of latexin–CPA1 with cross-linking constraints Our derived cross-links imposed important distance constraints on the relative orientation of the two proteins in the complex. From the more than $3 \times 10^{11}$ possible configurations, only 0.13% satisfied all three constraints and a further 99.75% of those conformations had steric overlap. The distance constraints from our cross-links are, however, not sufficient by themselves to define a single docking mode of latexin with CPA1. The final 1000 best scoring models exhibited a significant variation in structure of up to 17 Å RMSD between models and they covered large areas of putative interfaces on both molecules (Figure 3A). The models also segregate into more distinct docking modes and could be loosely grouped into 10 clusters. The population between clusters range from 19 (cluster 6) for the smallest to 350 (cluster 1) for the largest cluster. The increase in both total and hydrophobic contacts formed upon latexin–CPA1 complex formation for each cluster type is reported in Table II as an average over the ensemble of the 10 best scoring models in each cluster. The total number of contacts formed correlated directly with the size of the protein–protein interaction surface and was comparable in size for all 10 clusters. Furthermore, the number of hydrophobic contacts made by the latexin–CPA1 complex provides the basis for a simple energy-based discrimination of models. In all but one cluster, the average gain of hydrophobic contacts upon complex formation was between 8 and 10. However, models from cluster 1 formed an average of 19 hydrophobic contacts, nearly twice as many as models from any other cluster. Energetically, this cluster was clearly favoured over all other docking modes. As the structure of the human latexin–human CPA4 complex was recently determined (Pallares et al., 2005), our ‘low-resolution’ structure could be compared directly with the high-resolution crystallographic structure. Figure 4 shows the RMSD of the Cα atoms between the crystal structure and the best 1000 models plotted against hydrophobic scores. It can be seen that the hydrophobic score discriminates between models that have been pre-screened to satisfy cross-linking and steric overlap constraints. The average RMSD between the 10 best scoring structures from cluster 1 and the crystal structure is 3.85 Å (Figure 3B) and the best scoring docked structure based on hydrophobic interactions has an RMSD of 3.74 Å when compared with the crystal structure (Figure 3C). It should be noted that this accuracy was achieved with a very simple, coarse-grained scoring function, which is based entirely on yes/no-type hydrophobic contacts between equal-sized Cα atoms and no further refinement of the models was performed. In addition, docked models with lower RSMDs were identified (Figure 4, models to the left of the best scoring structure); however, these had fewer hydrophobic interactions and hence scored lower based on our strategy. Discussion The central idea behind the proposed hybrid method for ‘low-resolution’ structure determination of protein complexes is to... use distance constraints between inter-protein residues of the complex within a molecular docking algorithm. These distance constraints are derived from cross-linking experiments, where identified cross-linked residues must be within the maximum cross-linking distance of the linker. The work reported here shows that the interaction mode of structurally characterized proteins that form a complex can be determined with a limited number of constraints when accompanied by molecular docking. Once the generic cross-linking methodology had been optimized, it took a $\sim 5$ days (3 days for cross-linker insertion and identification, 2 days for docking) to derive the interaction between the two interacting proteins, using $\sim 0.2$ mg of the protein complex. A similar study has been undertaken investigating the calmodulin–melittin complex, where a low-resolution 3D structure was determined using chemical cross-links, mass spectrometry and docking (Schulz et al., 2004). However, there are a few major differences between the two approaches, mainly as a consequence of our desire to implement the process for high throughput applications. First, we chose to use one cross-linker rather than three to probe for residue distances. This means that additional distance information is lost, but the use of just one cross-linker allows a faster and simpler protocol. The second major difference is the way in which the derived distance constraints were used to generate the three-dimensional data. Schulz et al., used a heuristic conjoined rigid body/torsion angle simulated annealing protocol to solve the structure, whereas we applied rigid body docking by exhaustive search to generate our structure. Minimal conformational changes are often observed within the individual subunits upon complex formation between well-structured proteins (Lo Conte et al., 1999); in such cases, a rigid body approach is applicable. However, for interactions between small proteins (peptides) such as the calmodulin–melittin complex, significant structural changes can be expected and this flexibility must be accounted for in the docking process. This additional variable requires more constraints to determine the structure of the complex with reasonable accuracy. By contrast, only six degrees of freedom (three rotations and three translations) need to be defined in the rigid body docking approach and we have shown that this can be achieved with as few as three distance constraints. Our method can Table II.* Top 10 scoring structures in each cluster based on hydrophobic contacts: average number of contacts, hydrophobic contacts and RMSD to the crystal structure \| Cluster \| Total contact gain \| Hydrophobic contact gain (average) \| RMSD (nm) \| \|---------\|--------------------\|-----------------------------------\|-----------\| \| 1 \| 143.3 \| 19.0 \| 0.384 \| \| 2 \| 137.0 \| 9.9 \| 1.514 \| \| 3 \| 97.7 \| 9.7 \| 1.619 \| \| 4 \| 124.6 \| 9.5 \| 1.487 \| \| 5 \| 118.3 \| 9.3 \| 1.434 \| \| 6 \| 116.2 \| 9.3 \| 1.325 \| \| 7 \| 99.4 \| 9.0 \| 1.244 \| \| 8 \| 95.2 \| 8.1 \| 1.501 \| \| 9 \| 70.2 \| 8.0 \| 1.573 \| \| 10 \| 108.8 \| 7.8 \| 1.233 \| Fig. 4. RMSD of C$_\alpha$ atoms between the crystal structure and the best 1000 docked models plotted as a function of hydrophobic contacts gained by protein complex formation. Cluster 1 (represented by o) is clearly shown to be the best docked cluster based on RMSD when compared to the crystal structure. Our best scoring structure is highlighted with an arrow while the crystal structure is visible on the y axis. Please note that a colour version of this figure is available as Supplementary data at PEDS Online. therefore be viewed as a minimalist approach to the related work of Schulz et al. and shows that a small number of distance constraints and a very simple yes/no scoring method can be used to deduce a reasonably accurate three-dimensional structure of the CPA1–latexin complex. The CPA1–latexin complex proved to be a good choice for testing this methodology for several reasons. First, the structures of both components have been determined previously (Rees et al., 1983; Kilshtain-Vardi et al., 2003; Aagaard et al., 2005). Second, the structure of the homologous complex between human latexin and CPA4 has been solved by X-ray crystallography while our work was under way, allowing assessment of the accuracy of the method through a direct structural comparison. Third, this method relies on minimal structural change in the subunits upon the formation of the complex and the crystal structure of the human CPA4–latexin complex confirmed that there is minimal change in the conformations of the individual proteins upon complex formation. The crystal structure (Pallares et al., 2005) shows that human latexin binds to CPA4 by covering the funnel-like active site of CPA4, making contacts mostly with the rim of the funnel. Latexin comprises two cystatin-like domains (Aagaard et al., 2005) and both domains are involved in the interaction, with the majority of contacts coming from the C-terminal domain. The sequences of mouse and human latexin share 85% identity. After superposition, the RMSD of the mouse and human latexin structures is 0.66 Å for 217 C\textsubscript{α} atoms [program O (Jones et al., 1991)]. Among the residues involved in the interaction between human latexin and CPA4 (23 residues making contacts at <4 Å), only three are not conserved in mouse latexin: Asn7 is replaced by His, Glu32 by Leu and Val161 by Leu. The sequences of bovine CPA1 and human CPA4 share 61% identity. After superposition, the RMSD of the structure of bovine CPA1 [PDB code 1M4L (Kilshtain-Vardi et al., 2003)] and CPA4 from the latexin complex is 0.62 Å for 300 C\textsubscript{α} atoms [program O (Jones et al., 1991)]. Out of the 25 CPA4 residues involved in the interaction between human latexin and CPA4, seven are not conserved in bovine CPA1: Val164 is replaced by Thr, Glu237 by Ser, Gln239 by Lys, Val240 by Tyr, Cys244 by Ile, Val247 by Ile and Thr276 by Arg. There is a lack of large structural changes upon latexin–CPA1 complex formation, as inferred from the available structural data. In latexin, there are only minor differences in the main chain atoms of the segments surrounding the residues that make contacts with CPA1; for example, the main chain positions change by <1 Å in the loop connecting α3 and β6 (interacting residues 123–127) and the largest differences (just over 1 Å) are in the β8–β9 loop [interacting residues 183, 185, 187, 189–192 (Pallares et al., 2005)]. Some interacting side chains show different rotamer conformations in free and bound latexin, which may or may not be caused by complex formation; these include Asn125, Trp141, His185, Ile187 and Glu191. The most significant appears to be Trp141, where the rotamer conformation seen in the free mouse protein would clash with the free amino acid non-covalently bound in the CPA4 active site. The three amino acid differences between mouse and human latexin can be easily accommodated in the protein–protein interface. The structures of free bovine CPA1 and latexin-bound human CPA4 are also remarkably similar. The largest differences are observed in the segment 237–248, partly due to amino acid changes in this area (residues 237, 239, 240, 244, 247). Thr245 shows one of the largest displacements of ~2 Å. The largest movement occurs in Tyr248, which swings around to point in the opposite direction as it switches from an ‘open’ to a ‘closed’ or ‘down’ conformation due to the presence of the free amino acid in the specificity pocket of the protease (Pallares et al., 2005). In other interacting areas of the protein, the amino acid change of Val274 to Ile in bovine CPA1 is compensated for by a movement in the main chain, leaving the end of the side chain in a similar location in the two proteins. The Arg side chain of bovine CPA1 that replaces Thr276 in human CPA4, would clash with the valine non-covalently bound in the CPA4 active site. Finally, the side chain of Arg127 occupies a slightly different position in the two CPAs. The best-derived structure from our docking results compares well with the solved crystal structure, having an RMSD for all C\textsubscript{α} atoms of both proteins of less then 4 Å (Figure 3C). The orientation of latexin, in the docked structure, is rotated by several degrees compared with the crystal structure. This rotation has come around as a consequence of optimising hydrophobic interactions between the two molecules as a form of docking refinement. The N-terminus displays very little difference between the crystal structure and the docked structure; however, the rotation of the latexin forces the main the β-turn of Ala188–Ser189 in the β8–β9 loop to be placed deeper into the CPA1 active site. In addition, the α3–β6 loop (interacting residues 123–127) of latexin is shifted by ~5 Å in the docked structure but still remains within interacting distance of the CPA1. The top-scoring docked structure also has the C-terminus of the latexin pointing in towards a pocket in the CPA1 molecule formed by residues 125–139. The minor rotation of latexin in the docked versus crystal structure creates a total of 18 additional hydrophobic --- Table III. Hydrophobic contacts of <8 Å C\textsubscript{α}–C\textsubscript{α} distance on both the crystal and top scoring docked structure; 18 additional hydrophobic interactions are present in the best docked structure \| Docking structure hydrophobic interactions \| Crystal structure hydrophobic interactions \| \|-------------------------------------------\|------------------------------------------\| \| Latexin residue \| CPA1 residue \| Latexin residue \| CPA1 residue \| \| Leu125 \| Leu161 \| Leu125 \| Leu183 \| Leu125 \| Leu184 \| Leu125 \| Ile192 \| Leu125 \| Ile193 \| Trp126 \| Leu183 \| Trp126 \| Ile192 \| Trp126 \| Ile193 \| Ala154 \| Met79 \| Ile247 \| Ala9 \| Ile247 \| Ala9 \| Phe279 \| Met160 \| Phe279 \| Leu161 \| Phe279 \| Leu184 \| Phe279 \| Ile187 \| Phe279 \| Ile192 \| Leu280 \| Leu161 \| Leu281 \| Leu161 \| Ala283 \| Phe126 \| interactions in the docked structure that have Cα–Cα distances of <8 Å for the two interacting proteins. Nine of the additional hydrophobic interactions involve Leu125 and Thr126 of latexin (Table III). The extra hydrophobic interactions appear to bring the two proteins slightly closer to each other than is observed in the crystal structure. The interface of the docked structures was analysed to assess whether the accuracy was sufficient to guide the selection of putative interacting residues for mutagenesis experiments. This was performed by counting all hydrophobic interactions for each residue using the best scoring cluster and then mapping out interacting ‘hot spots’. Figure 5 shows the crystal structure of the complex with these hotspots highlighted. Both interacting loops of the inhibitor identified by the crystal structure (β8–β9 and α3–β6 loops) are highlighted as hot spots in this analysis, as are the residues that form the rim of the funnel-like active site of CPA4. This analysis therefore indicates that although the RMSD with the crystal structure is ~4 Å, the docked structure is sufficiently accurate to predict the major interaction regions of the proteins. Conclusion We have demonstrated the utility of ‘low-resolution’ structure determination of a protein–protein complex based on the structures of individual components and a limited number of chemically introduced cross-links. The structure of latexin–CPA1 was determined to 3.74 Å Cα RMSD of the crystal structure using a combination of cross-linking and mass spectrometry technology and rigid body docking with a simple scoring function. The structure can define the interface between the two molecules accurately enough to guide mutagenesis experiments probing the contribution of interacting residues and provide reagents that can be used to probe the cellular functions of the proteins. 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Hsp72 modulation of Inflammatory immune responses Thesis submitted in accordance with the requirements of The University of Liverpool for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy by Hazel Elyse Ireland March 2009 University of Chester Copyright © and Moral Rights for this thesis and any accompanying data (where applicable) are retained by the author and/or other copyright owners. A copy can be downloaded for personal non-commercial research or study, without prior permission or charge. This thesis and the accompanying data cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the copyright holder/s. The content of the thesis and accompanying research data (where applicable) must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holder/s. When referring to this thesis and any accompanying data, full bibliographic details must be given, e.g. Thesis: Author (Year of Submission) "Full thesis title", University of Liverpool, name of the University Faculty or School or Department, PhD Thesis, pagination." # Table of Contents \| Section \| Page \| \|-------------------------------\|------\| \| Title page \| i \| \| Declaration \| iii \| \| Acknowledgements \| iv \| \| Abstract \| v \| \| Publications from this thesis \| vi \| \| Thesis contents \| vii \| \| List of Figures \| xvii \| \| List of Tables \| xxv \| \| Abbreviations \| xxvii\| DECLARATION The work presented in this thesis is original and has not been submitted previously in support of any qualification or course. Signed: Date: 13/03/09 Acknowledgements I would like to acknowledge the following people who have advised and supported me throughout a long seven years! My supervisor Professor John Williams for his continued advice, support, patience and heated debates. Everybody who I have worked with in the labs over the last seven years. You all know who you are! Special thanks go to Alison Morgan and Dr. Gareth Jones for helping me stay positive and toying with some of my ideas. Thanks to Mum and Dad for worrying – but hey, that’s what you’re there for! And finally infinite thanks go to Gaz Miln for everything! Abstract The body initiates an immune response to danger signals. The Danger model of the immune system postulates that danger signals are produced by exogenous molecules from foreign invaders, such as bacteria, and endogenous molecules released from damaged or injured cells. The response involves antigen recognition leading to up-regulation of cytokines and cell surface markers, followed by the recruitment of antigen presenting cells and T-helper cells which determine how the immune system responds. Endogenous danger signals include Hsp72 and HMGB-1. This thesis describes the development of specific antibodies and ELISAs for use in the quantification and detection of intra-cellular Hsp72 from cell extracts, and released Hsp72 from cell cultures which enabled the confirmation of physiological levels of Hsp72 from model systems. The ability of endogenous Hsp72 to stimulate an immune response was demonstrated and this response was not solely due to LPS contamination of recombinant protein preparations. Hsp72 was able to augment the response to LPS. In the presence of another endogenous danger signal, HMGB-1, relative amounts of Hsp72 were shown to augment a pro-inflammatory response whilst being able to maintain an anti-inflammatory response demonstrating Hsp72 has the ability to modulate the immune response. Hsp72 was also shown to be able to stimulate an immune response by binding to cell surface receptors, which could be blocked by specific peptides corresponding to known receptors. These include some receptors not utilised by LPS. The proportion of these different danger signals has consequences for the progression and outcome of an immune response and this may well be modulated by imposition of a supplemental or future stress at different points. In the most severe case, this can lead to death through sepsis following trauma. Publications Ireland, H.E., Leoni, F., Altaie, O., Birch, C.S., Coleman, R.C., Hunter-Lavin, C. & Williams, J.H.H. (2007). Measuring the secretion of heat shock proteins from cells. Methods, 43(3): 176-183. Williams, J.H.H. & Ireland, H.E. (2008). Sensing danger – Hsp72 and HMGB-1 as candidate signals. Journal of Leukocyte Biology, 83(3): 489-492. \| Chapter \| Section \| Page \| \|---------\|------------------------------------------------------------------------\|------\| \| 1 \| Introduction \| \| \| \| 1.1 Rationale for Study \| 1 \| \| \| 1.2 The Danger model \| 2 \| \| \| 1.2.1 The innate immune response \| 4 \| \| \| 1.2.2 The adaptive immune response \| 6 \| \| \| 1.3 Heat shock proteins \| 6 \| \| \| 1.3.1 Regulation of the heat shock response \| 8 \| \| \| 1.4 The Hsp70 family \| 8 \| \| \| 1.5 Intra-cellular functions of Hsp72 \| 9 \| \| \| 1.6 Mechanisms of Hsp72 release from cells \| 10 \| \| \| 1.7 Extra-cellular functions of Hsp72 \| 14 \| \| \| 1.8 The role of Hsp72 within the immune system \| 15 \| \| \| 1.9 Recognition of Hsp72 by the immune system \| 15 \| \| \| 1.10 Stimulation of the innate immune response by Hsp72 \| 16 \| \| \| 1.10.1 CD91 \| 16 \| \| \| 1.10.2 CD40 \| 19 \| \| \| 1.10.3 CD14 \| 19 \| \| \| 1.10.4 CD36 \| 19 \| \| \| 1.10.5 TLR-/TLR-4 \| 20 \| \| \| 1.10.6 TLR-7 \| 20 \| \| \| 1.10.7 LOX-1 \| 20 \| \| \| 1.11 High mobility group box protein-1 (HMGB-1) \| 21 \| \| \| 1.12 Regulation of HMGB-1 \| 22 \| \| \| 1.13 Intra-cellular functions of HMGB-1 \| 22 \| \| Chapter \| Page \| \|------------------------------------------------------------------------\|------\| \| 1.14 Mechanisms of HMGB-1 release from cells \| 22 \| \| 1.15 Extra-cellular functions of HMGB-1 \| 24 \| \| 1.16 The role of HMGB-1 within the immune system \| 25 \| \| 1.17 Recognition of HMGB-1 by the immune system \| 26 \| \| 1.18 Stimulation of the innate immune response by HMGB-1 \| 26 \| \| 1.18.1 RAGE \| 26 \| \| 1.18.2 TLR-2/TLR-4 \| 27 \| \| 1.19 Stimulation of the innate immune response by LPS \| 29 \| \| 1.20 Contamination of recombinant proteins by LPS \| 31 \| \| 1.21 Measuring Hsp72 \| 33 \| \| 1.22 Aims and objectives \| 35 \| 2 Materials and Methods \| Section \| Page \| \|------------------------------------------------------------------------\|------\| \| 2.1 Equipment \| 36 \| \| 2.2 Reagents \| 41 \| \| 2.2.1 Hsp72 ELISA buffers \| 48 \| \| 2.2.2 Cell extraction buffer \| 49 \| \| 2.2.3 SDS-PAGE buffers \| 49 \| \| 2.2.4 Western blotting buffers \| 50 \| \| 2.3 Methods \| 52 \| \| 2.3.1 Screening of sheep serum for peptide-specific antibodies \| 52 \| \| 2.3.2 Reduction of disulfide bonds in peptides \| 52 \| \| 2.3.3 Immobilization of peptide onto iodoacetyl gel \| 52 \| \| 2.3.4 Affinity purification of polyclonal antibodies \| 53 \| \| Chapter \| Page \| \|------------------------------------------------------------------------\|------\| \| 2.3.5 Buffer exchange and desalting of purified antibodies \| 54 \| \| 2.3.6 Biotinylation of antibodies \| 55 \| \| 2.3.7 Determination of biotin incorporation \| 55 \| \| 2.3.8 Determination of protein concentration \| 56 \| \| 2.3.9 Determination of IgG concentration \| 56 \| \| 2.3.10 SDS-PAGE electrophoresis \| 57 \| \| 2.3.11 SDS-PAGE total protein staining \| 58 \| \| 2.3.12 Western blotting \| 58 \| \| 2.3.13 Immuno-staining of western blots \| 59 \| \| 2.3.14 Optimisation of primary and secondary labelled antibody dilutions for Hsp72 ELISAs \| 59 \| \| 2.3.15 Intra-assay variability of optimal Hsp72 ELISA conditions \| 60 \| \| 2.3.16 Inter-assay variability of optimal Hsp72 ELISA conditions \| 60 \| \| 2.3.17 Recovery assays of Hsp72 spiked, and non-spiked cell extracts using an optimised ELISA \| 60 \| \| 2.3.18 Recovery assays of Hsp72 spiked, and non-spiked tissue extracts using an optimised ELISA \| 60 \| \| 2.3.19 Recovery assays of Hsp72 spiked, and non-spiked tissue culture supernatant using an optimised ELISA \| 60 \| \| 2.3.20 Albumin depletion from serum and tissue culture supernatant \| 61 \| \| 2.3.21 Cell culture conditions \| 61 \| \| 2.3.22 Thawing of frozen cell lines \| 61 \| \| 2.3.23 Growth of U937 cell line \| 61 \| \| 2.3.24 Cell counting and viability testing \| 62 \| \| 2.3.25 Freezing and storage of cell lines \| 62 \| \| 2.3.26 Preparation of heat-inactivated FBS \| 62 \| \| Chapter \| Page \| \|------------------------------------------------------------------------\|------\| \| 2.3.27 Preparation of cell lines prior to experimental treatments \| 62 \| \| 2.3.28 Transformation of U937 cells into U937 macrophages \| 62 \| \| 2.3.29 Isolation of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) \| 63 \| \| 2.3.30 Determination of apoptosis by measurement of caspase-3 \| 64 \| \| 2.3.31 Determination of necrosis by propidium iodide staining \| 64 \| \| 2.3.32 Detection of endotoxin contamination by LAL assay \| 64 \| \| 2.3.33 Determination of IL-1β secretion by ELISA \| 65 \| \| 2.3.34 Determination of IL-6 secretion by ELISA \| 66 \| \| 2.3.35 Determination of TNF-α secretion by ELISA \| 67 \| \| 2.3.36 Determination of IL-10 secretion by ELISA \| 67 \| \| 2.3.37 U937 macrophage migration assay \| 68 \| \| 2.3.38 Preparation of heat-treated necrotic cell lysate (NCL) \| 68 \| \| 2.3.39 Statistical analyses \| 70 \| 3 Design and development of an ELISA for measuring inducible Hsp70 (Hsp72) \| Section \| Page \| \|------------------------------------------------------------------------\|------\| \| 3.1 Introduction \| 71 \| \| 3.2 Methods \| 74 \| \| 3.2.1 Peptide selection and design \| 74 \| \| 3.2.2 Preparation of peptides for immunisation \| 74 \| \| 3.2.3 Screening of sheep serum for peptide-specific antibodies \| 75 \| \| 3.2.4 Purification of polyclonal antibodies \| 75 \| \| 3.2.5 Specificity of peptide-specific antibodies to Hsp72 \| 76 \| \| 3.2.6 Depletion of albumin using SwellGel® Blue (cibacron blue) \| 76 \| \| Chapter \| Page \| \|------------------------------------------------------------------------\|------\| \| 3.2.7 Optimisation of an ELISA for Hsp72 in cell and tissue extracts \| 76 \| \| 184.108.40.206 Optimisation of primary and secondary labelled antibody dilutions\| 76 \| \| 220.127.116.11 Optimisation of standard curve range \| 77 \| \| 18.104.22.168 Intra- and inter-assay variability of optimal ELISA conditions for cell and tissue extracts \| 77 \| \| 22.214.171.124 Recovery of Hsp72 in spiked cell and tissue extracts \| 77 \| \| 3.2.8 Optimisation of an ELISA for Hsp72 in tissue culture supernatant \| 77 \| \| 126.96.36.199 Optimisation of primary and secondary labelled antibody dilutions\| 77 \| \| 188.8.131.52 Optimisation of standard curve range \| 77 \| \| 184.108.40.206 Intra- and inter-assay variability of optimal ELISA conditions for tissue culture supernatant \| 78 \| \| 220.127.116.11 Recovery of Hsp72 in spiked tissue culture supernatant \| 78 \| \| 3.3 Results \| \| \| 3.3.1 Selection of peptides for generation of polyclonal antibodies \| 79 \| \| 3.3.2 Screening of sheep sera at weeks 6, 10 and 14 \| 79 \| \| 3.3.3 Cross-reactivity of sheep sera with either peptide \| 81 \| \| 3.3.4 Ability of sheep sera to recognise Hsp72 protein \| 81 \| \| 3.3.5 Purification of peptide specific antibodies from serum \| 85 \| \| 3.3.6 Specificity of peptide specific antibodies \| 86 \| \| 3.3.7 Interference in the detection of Hsp72 by albumin in complex matrices \| 86 \| \| 3.3.8 Optimisation of an ELISA for Hsp72 in cell and tissue extracts \| 89 \| \| 18.104.22.168 Optimisation of a sandwich ELISA using various antibody combinations \| 89 \| \| Chapter \| Page \| \|------------------------------------------------------------------------\|------\| \| 22.214.171.124 Optimisation of primary and secondary labelled antibody dilutions \| 89 \| \| 126.96.36.199 Optimisation of standard curve range \| 91 \| \| 188.8.131.52 Intra- and inter-assay variability of optimal ELISA conditions for cell and tissue extracts \| 91 \| \| 184.108.40.206 Recovery of Hsp72 from spiked cell and tissue extracts \| 91 \| \| 3.3.9 Optimisation of an ELISA for Hsp72 in tissue culture supernatant \| 98 \| \| 220.127.116.11 Optimisation of primary and secondary labelled antibody dilutions \| 98 \| \| 18.104.22.168 Optimisation of standard curve range \| 98 \| \| 22.214.171.124 Intra- and inter-assay variability of optimal ELISA conditions for tissue culture supernatant \| 98 \| \| 126.96.36.199 Recovery of Hsp72 from spiked tissue culture supernatant \| 98 \| \| 3.4 Discussion \| 104 \| 4 The effects of recombinant heat shock proteins on cytokine secretion from peripheral blood mononuclear cells and U937 macrophages \| Section \| Page \| \|------------------------------------------------------------------------\|------\| \| 4.1 Introduction \| 108 \| \| 4.2 Methods \| 110 \| \| 4.2.1 Preparation of cells for treatment \| 110 \| \| 4.2.2 Preparation of heat shock proteins for experiments \| 110 \| \| 4.2.3 Preparation of LPS for experiments \| 110 \| \| 4.2.4 Determination of endotoxin content of heat shock proteins \| 110 \| \| 4.2.5 Treatment of cells with native or denatured heat shock proteins. \| 110 \| \| 4.2.6 Time course experiments with native or denatured, Hsp72 or low endotoxin Hsp72 \| 110 \| \| Chapter \| Page \| \|------------------------------------------------------------------------\|------\| \| 4.2.7 Treatment of U937 macrophages for 4 h, with Hsp72 and polymyxin B \| 111 \| \| 4.2.8 Cell counts and viability tests by trypan blue exclusion \| 111 \| \| 4.2.9 Determination of apoptosis \| 111 \| \| 4.2.10 Determination of necrosis \| 111 \| \| 4.2.11 Measurement of secreted cytokines \| 111 \| \| 4.3 Results \| \| \| 4.3.1 Endotoxin contamination of recombinant heat shock proteins \| 112 \| \| determined by LAL assay \| \| \| 4.3.2 Cytokine secretion from PBMCs following 24 h incubation \| 113 \| \| with native or denatured heat shock proteins \| \| \| 188.8.131.52 Treatment of PBMCs with native or denatured Hsp72 or DnaK \| 113 \| \| 184.108.40.206 Treatment of PBMCs with native or denatured Hsp60 or GroEL \| 121 \| \| 220.127.116.11 Treatment of PBMCs with native or denatured Cpn10 or GroES \| 129 \| \| 18.104.22.168 Cell viability and cell death in PBMCs following treatment \| 130 \| \| with native and denatured heat shock proteins \| \| \| 4.3.3 Cytokine secretion from U937 macrophages following 24 h \| 138 \| \| incubation with native or denatured heat shock proteins \| \| \| 22.214.171.124 Treatment of U937 macrophages with native or denatured \| 138 \| \| Hsp72 or DnaK \| \| \| 126.96.36.199 Treatment of U937 macrophages with native or denatured \| 146 \| \| Hsp60 or GroEL \| \| \| 188.8.131.52 Treatment of U937 macrophages with native or denatured \| 154 \| \| Cpn10 or GroES \| \| \| 184.108.40.206 Cell viability and cell death in U937 macrophages \| 155 \| \| following treatment with native and denatured heat shock proteins \| \| \| Chapter \| Page \| \|---------\|------\| \| 4.3.4 \| Effects on U937 macrophages following a time course of treatments with native or denatured, Hsp72 or low endotoxin (LE) Hsp72 \| 163 \| \| 4.3.5 \| Effect on cytokine secretion from U937 macrophages following 4 h treatment with Hsp72 or LPS, pre-incubated with polymyxin B \| 169 \| \| 4.4 \| Discussion \| 174 \| 5 The effect of blocking peptides on Hsp72 stimulation of cytokine production by, and migration of, U937 macrophages \| Section \| Page \| \|---------\|------\| \| 5.1 \| Introduction \| 177 \| \| 5.2 \| Methods \| \| 5.2.1 \| Preparation of cells for treatment \| 178 \| \| 5.2.2 \| Preparation of Hsp72 for experiments \| 178 \| \| 5.2.3 \| Preparation of peptides for blocking experiments \| 178 \| \| 5.2.4 \| Treatment of U937 macrophages with Hsp72 pre-treated with blocking peptides \| 178 \| \| 5.2.5 \| Measurement of secreted cytokines \| 178 \| \| 5.2.6 \| Effect on migration of U937 macrophages by Hsp72 and blocking peptides \| 178 \| \| 5.2.7 \| Treatment of Hsp72 with anti-flagellin antibody \| 179 \| \| 5.2.8 \| Western blots of Hsp72 and flagellin \| 179 \| \| 5.2.9 \| Cell counts and viability tests by trypan blue exclusion \| 179 \| \| 5.3 \| Results \| \| 5.3.1 \| Effect on cytokine secretion and cell migration following treatment of U937 macrophages with Hsp72, pre-treated with blocking peptides \| 180 \| \| 220.127.116.11 \| Effect of TLR-2 blocking peptide \| 180 \| \| 18.104.22.168 \| Effect of TLR-4 blocking peptide \| 180 \| \| Chapter \| Page \| \|---------\|------\| \| 22.214.171.124 Effect of TLR-5 blocking peptide \| 180 \| \| 126.96.36.199 Effect of TLR-7 blocking peptide \| 181 \| \| 188.8.131.52 Effect of CD14 blocking peptide \| 181 \| \| 184.108.40.206 Effect of CD36 blocking peptide \| 181 \| \| 5.3.2 Determination of flagellin contamination of recombinant Hsp72 \| 195 \| \| 5.4 Discussion \| 197 \| 6 Interactions between extra-cellular Hsp72 and HMGB-1 on the stimulation of U937 macrophages 6.1 Introduction \| 199 6.2 Methods 6.2.1 Preparation of cells for treatment \| 201 6.2.2 Preparation of Hsp72, HMGB-1 and LPS for experiments \| 201 6.2.3 Treatment of U937 macrophages with mixtures of Hsp72, HMGB-1 and LPS. \| 201 6.2.4 Time course treatment of U937 macrophages with different concentrations of LPS \| 201 6.2.5 Treatment of U937 macrophages with Hsp72 and/or HMGB-1, with or without anti-Hsp72 and/or anti-HMGB-1 antibodies \| 201 6.2.6 Effect on migration of U937 macrophages by Hsp72 and/or HMGB-1, with or without anti-Hsp72 and/or anti-HMGB-1 antibodies \| 201 6.2.7 Treatment of U937 macrophages with heat-treated NCL, with or without anti-Hsp72 and/or anti-HMGB-1 antibodies \| 202 6.2.8 Effect on migration of U937 macrophages by NCL, with or without anti-Hsp72 and/or anti-HMGB-1 antibodies \| 202 6.2.9 Treatment of U937 macrophages with Bac-Hsp72, and/or HMGB-1 \| 202 \| Chapter \| Page \| \|---------\|------\| \| 6.2.10 Effect on migration of U937 macrophages by Bac-Hsp72, and/or HMGB-1 \| 202 \| \| 6.2.11 Measurement of secreted cytokines \| 202 \| \| 6.2.12 Cell counts and viability tests by trypan blue exclusion \| 202 \| \| 6.3 Results \| \| \| 6.3.1 Effect on cytokine secretion following treatment of U937 macrophages with mixtures of Hsp72, HMGB-1 and LPS \| 203 \| \| 6.3.2 Effect on cytokine secretion and cell migration following treatment of U937 macrophages with Hsp72, and/or HMGB-1, pre-incubated with anti-HSp72, and/or anti-HMGB-1 \| 207 \| \| 6.3.3 Effect on cytokine secretion and cell migration following treatment of U937 macrophages with heat-treated NCL, pre-incubated with anti-Hsp72, and/or anti-HMGB-1 \| 211 \| \| 6.3.4 Effect of varying Hsp72 concentrations with fixed HMGB-1 on cytokine secretion from, and migration of, U937 macrophages \| 214 \| \| 6.3.5 Effect of varying HMGB-1 concentrations with fixed Hsp72 on cytokine secretion from, and migration of, U937 macrophages \| 219 \| \| 6.3.6 Effect on cytokine secretion and cell migration following treatment of U937 macrophages with mixtures of Bac-Hsp72, and HMGB-1 \| 224 \| \| 6.4 Discussion \| 234 \| \| 7 General Discussion \| 236 \| \| 7.1 Discussion \| 236 \| \| 7.2 Future work \| 250 \| \| 8 References \| 251 \| \| List of Figures \| Page \| \|-----------------\|------\| \| Figure 1.1 \| The Danger model of immune stimulation. \| 5 \| \| Figure 1.2 \| Structure of Hsp72 protein. \| 9 \| \| Figure 1.3 \| The facilitation of protein folding by intra-cellular Hsp72. \| 12 \| \| Figure 1.4 \| Proposed mechanisms of Hsp72 release from cells. \| 13 \| \| Figure 1.5 \| Interaction of Hsps with receptors of the adaptive and innate immune system. \| 17 \| \| Figure 1.6 \| Cell surface receptors involved in the immune functions of Hsp72. \| 18 \| \| Figure 1.7 \| Structure of HMGB-1 protein. \| 21 \| \| Figure 1.8 \| Proposed mechanisms of HMGB-1 release from cells. \| 24 \| \| Figure 1.9 \| Cell surface receptors involved in the immune functions of HMGB-1. \| 28 \| \| Figure 1.10 \| Stimulation of the immune response by various bacterial components. \| 30 \| \| Figure 2.1 \| Illustration of normal (A) and PMA transformed (B) U937 cells. \| 63 \| \| Figure 2.2 \| Illustration of a modified Boyden chamber used for U937 macrophage migration assay. \| 69 \| \| Figure 3.1 \| Illustration of a commercial sandwich ELISA for the detection of Hsp72. \| 73 \| \| Figure 3.2 \| Amino acid sequence information for human Hsp72, HSPA1A. \| 75 \| \| Figure 3.3 \| Amino acid sequence of human Hsp72, HSPA1A from aa 438-641. \| 80 \| \| Figure 3.4 \| Amino acid sequence of TAT peptide (Hsp72 aa 489-499). \| 80 \| \| Figure 3.5 \| Amino acid sequence of DEG peptide (Hsp72 aa 555-566). \| 81 \| \| Figure 3.6 \| Screening of sheep serum for antibodies to DEG and TAT peptides by ELISA. \| 82 \| \| Figure 3.7 \| Screening of cross reactivity of TAT sheep serum with DEG peptide by ELISA. \| 83 \| \| Figure \| Description \| Page \| \|--------\|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------\|------\| \| 3.8 \| Screening of cross reactivity of DEG sheep serum with TAT peptide by ELISA. \| 83 \| \| 3.9 \| Screening of DEG and TAT sheep serum for antibodies to Hsp72 by ELISA. \| 84 \| \| 3.10 \| Reducing SDS-PAGE of a typical affinity purification of peptide specific sheep antibodies from whole serum. \| 85 \| \| 3.11 \| Non-reducing SDS-PAGE of purified DEG and TAT antibodies following affinity purification. \| 86 \| \| 3.12 \| SDS-PAGE gel (A) and western blots to determine specificity of DEG (B) and TAT (C) for Hsp72. \| 87 \| \| 3.13 \| Western blot showing interference caused by albumin when detecting Hsp72 in complex matrices. \| 88 \| \| 3.14 \| Optimisation of capture and detector antibody combinations for use in a sandwich ELISA. \| 90 \| \| 3.15 \| Checkerboard titration optimisation of primary and secondary antibody dilutions of an ELISA for measuring Hsp72 in cell and tissue extracts using DEG as a capture antibody. \| 92 \| \| 3.16 \| Checkerboard titration optimisation of primary and secondary antibody dilutions of an ELISA for measuring Hsp72 in cell and tissue extracts using TAT as a capture antibody. \| 93 \| \| 3.17 \| A typical standard curve obtained from an optimised ELISA for measuring Hsp72 in cell and tissue extracts using DEG as a capture antibody. \| 94 \| \| 3.18 \| Intra-assay variability of an optimised ELISA for measuring Hsp72 in cell and tissue extracts. \| 95 \| \| 3.19 \| Inter-assay variability of an optimised ELISA for measuring Hsp72 in cell and tissue extracts. \| 96 \| \| 3.20 \| Checkerboard titration optimisation of primary and secondary antibody dilutions of an ELISA for measuring Hsp72 in tissue culture supernatant. \| 99 \| \| 3.21 \| A typical standard curve obtained from an optimised ELISA for measuring Hsp72 in tissue culture supernatant. \| 100 \| \| 3.22 \| Intra-assay variability of an optimised ELISA for measuring Hsp72 in tissue culture supernatant. \| 101 \| \| Figure \| Description \| Page \| \|--------\|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------\|------\| \| 3.23 \| Inter-assay variability of an optimised ELISA for measuring Hsp72 in tissue culture supernatant. \| 102 \| \| 3.24 \| Illustration of an optimised indirect sandwich ELISA for the quantification of Hsp72 from cell and tissue extracts, and tissue culture supernatants. \| 107 \| \| 4.1 \| Endotoxin contamination of recombinant heat shock proteins in native and denatured forms. \| 112 \| \| 4.2 \| Effect on IL-1β secretion by PBMCs when incubated for 24 h with Hsp72 (A) or DnaK (B), in native or denatured (de) forms. \| 115 \| \| 4.3 \| Effect on IL-6 secretion by PBMCs when incubated for 24 h with Hsp72 (A) or DnaK (B), in native or denatured (de) forms. \| 116 \| \| 4.4 \| Effect on TNF-α secretion by PBMCs when incubated for 24 h with Hsp72 (A) or DnaK (B), in native or denatured (de) forms. \| 117 \| \| 4.5 \| Effect on IL-10 secretion by PBMCs when incubated for 24 h with Hsp72 (A) or DnaK (B), in native or denatured (de) forms. \| 118 \| \| 4.6 \| Effect on IL-1β secretion by PBMCs when incubated for 24 h with Hsp60 (A) or GroEL (B), in native or denatured (de) forms. \| 123 \| \| 4.7 \| Effect on IL-6 secretion by PBMCs when incubated for 24 h with Hsp60 (A) or GroEL (B), in native or denatured (de) forms. \| 124 \| \| 4.8 \| Effect on TNF-α secretion by PBMCs when incubated for 24 h with Hsp60 (A) or GroEL (B), in native or denatured (de) forms. \| 125 \| \| 4.9 \| Effect on IL-10 secretion by PBMCs when incubated for 24 h with Hsp60 (A) or GroEL (B), in native or denatured (de) forms. \| 126 \| \| 4.10 \| Effect on IL-1β secretion by PBMCs when incubated for 24 h with Cpn10 (A) or GroES (B), in native or denatured (de) forms. \| 131 \| \| 4.11 \| Effect on IL-6 secretion by PBMCs when incubated for 24 h with Cpn10 (A) or GroES (B), in native or denatured (de) forms. \| 132 \| \| 4.12 \| Effect on TNF-α secretion by PBMCs when incubated for 24 h with Cpn10 (A) or GroES (B), in native or denatured (de) forms. \| 133 \| \| 4.13 \| Effect on IL-10 secretion by PBMCs when incubated for 24 h with Cpn10 (A) or GroES (B), in native or denatured (de) forms. \| 134 \| \| Figure \| Description \| Page \| \|--------\|------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|------\| \| 4.14 \| Effect on IL-1β secretion by U937 macrophages when incubated for 24 h with Hsp72 (A) or DnaK (B), in native or denatured (de) forms. \| 140 \| \| 4.15 \| Effect on IL-6 secretion by U937 macrophages when incubated for 24 h with Hsp72 (A) or DnaK (B), in native or denatured (de) forms. \| 141 \| \| 4.16 \| Effect on TNF-α secretion by U937 macrophages when incubated for 24 h with Hsp72 (A) or DnaK (B), in native or denatured (de) forms. \| 142 \| \| 4.17 \| Effect on IL-10 secretion by U937 macrophages when incubated for 24 h with Hsp72 (A) or DnaK (B), in native or denatured (de) forms. \| 143 \| \| 4.18 \| Effect on IL-1β secretion by U937 macrophages when incubated for 24 h with Hsp60 (A) or GroEL (B), in native or denatured (de) forms. \| 148 \| \| 4.19 \| Effect on IL-6 secretion by U937 macrophages when incubated for 24 h with Hsp60 (A) or GroEL (B), in native or denatured (de) forms. \| 149 \| \| 4.20 \| Effect on TNF-α secretion by U937 macrophages when incubated for 24 h with Hsp60 (A) or GroEL (B), in native or denatured (de) forms. \| 150 \| \| 4.21 \| Effect on IL-10 secretion by U937 macrophages when incubated for 24 h with Hsp60 (A) or GroEL (B), in native or denatured (de) forms. \| 151 \| \| 4.22 \| Effect on IL-1β secretion by U937 macrophages when incubated for 24 h with Cpn10 (A) or GroES (B), in native or denatured (de) forms. \| 156 \| \| 4.23 \| Effect on IL-6 secretion by U937 macrophages when incubated for 24 h with Cpn10 (A) or GroES (B), in native or denatured (de) forms. \| 157 \| \| 4.24 \| Effect on TNF-α secretion by U937 macrophages when incubated for 24 h with Cpn10 (A) or GroES (B), in native or denatured (de) forms. \| 158 \| \| 4.25 \| Effect on IL-10 secretion by U937 macrophages when incubated for 24 h with Cpn10 (A) or GroES (B), in native or denatured (de) forms. \| 159 \| \| Figure \| Description \| Page \| \|--------\|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------\|------\| \| 4.26 \| Time course of IL-1β secretion by U937 macrophages treated with 1000 ng/mL Hsp72 or low endotoxin (LE) Hsp72 in native (A) and denatured form (B). \| 164 \| \| 4.27 \| Time course of IL-6 secretion by U937 macrophages treated with 1000 ng/mL Hsp72 or low endotoxin (LE) Hsp72 in native (A) and denatured form (B). \| 165 \| \| 4.28 \| Time course of TNF-α secretion by U937 macrophages treated with 1000 ng/mL Hsp72 or low endotoxin (LE) Hsp72 in native (A) and denatured form (B). \| 166 \| \| 4.29 \| Time course of IL-10 secretion by U937 macrophages treated with 1000 ng/mL Hsp72 or low endotoxin (LE) Hsp72 in native (A) and denatured form (B). \| 167 \| \| 4.30 \| Secretion of IL-1 β by U937 macrophages treated with Hsp72 or LPS with or without polymyxin B for 4 h. \| 170 \| \| 4.31 \| Secretion of IL-6 by U937 macrophages treated with Hsp72 or LPS with or without polymyxin B for 4 h. \| 171 \| \| 4.32 \| Secretion of TNF-α by U937 macrophages treated with Hsp72 or LPS with or without polymyxin B for 4 h. \| 172 \| \| 4.33 \| Secretion of IL-10 by U937 macrophages treated with Hsp72 or LPS with or without polymyxin B for 4 h. \| 173 \| \| 5.1 \| Effect on cytokine secretion from U937 macrophages by Hsp72 pre-incubated with different concentrations of a TLR-2 blocking peptide. \| 183 \| \| 5.2 \| Effect on cell migration of U937 macrophages by Hsp72 pre-incubated with a TLR-2 blocking peptide. \| 184 \| \| 5.3 \| Effect on cytokine secretion from U937 macrophages by Hsp72 pre-incubated with different concentrations of a TLR-4 blocking peptide. \| 185 \| \| 5.4 \| Effect on cell migration of U937 macrophages by Hsp72 pre-incubated with a TLR-4 blocking peptide. \| 186 \| \| 5.5 \| Effect on cytokine secretion from U937 macrophages by Hsp72 pre-incubated with different concentrations of a TLR-5 blocking peptide. \| 187 \| \| 5.6 \| Effect on cell migration of U937 macrophages by Hsp72 pre-incubated with a TLR-5 blocking peptide. \| 188 \| \| Figure \| Description \| Page \| \|--------\|------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|------\| \| 5.7 \| Effect on cytokine secretion from U937 macrophages by Hsp72 pre-incubated with different concentrations of a TLR-7 blocking peptide. \| 189 \| \| 5.8 \| Effect on cell migration of U937 macrophages by Hsp72 pre-incubated with a TLR-7 blocking peptide. \| 190 \| \| 5.9 \| Effect on cytokine secretion from U937 macrophages by Hsp72 pre-incubated with different concentrations of a CD14 blocking peptide. \| 191 \| \| 5.10 \| Effect on cell migration of U937 macrophages by Hsp72 pre-incubated with a CD14 blocking peptide. \| 192 \| \| 5.11 \| Effect on cytokine secretion from U937 macrophages by Hsp72 pre-incubated with different concentrations of a CD36 blocking peptide. \| 193 \| \| 5.12 \| Effect on cell migration of U937 macrophages by Hsp72 pre-incubated with a CD36 blocking peptide. \| 194 \| \| 5.13 \| Effect on cytokine secretion from U937 macrophages by Hsp72, or Hsp72 pre-incubated with an anti-flagellin antibody. \| 195 \| \| 5.14 \| Western blots to determine contamination of recombinant Hsp72 with flagellin. \| 196 \| \| 6.1 \| Effect on cytokine secretion following 4 h treatment of U937 macrophages with (A) Hsp72 and/or HMGB-1, and (B) LPS and, Hsp72 and/or HMGB-1. \| 204 \| \| 6.2 \| Effect on cytokine secretion by U937 macrophages following 5 h time course of LPS at different concentrations. \| 206 \| \| 6.3 \| Effect on cytokine secretion from U937 macrophages incubated with Hsp72, HMGB-1, or mixtures of Hsp72/HMGB-1, with or without anti-Hsp72 and/or anti-HMGB-1. \| 209 \| \| 6.4 \| Effect on migration of U937 macrophages incubated with Hsp72, HMGB-1 or mixtures of Hsp72/HMGB-1, with or without anti-Hsp72 and/or anti-HMGB-1. \| 210 \| \| 6.5 \| Effect on cytokine secretion from U937 macrophages incubated with necrotic cell lysate, with or without anti-Hsp72 and/or anti-HMGB-1. \| 212 \| \| 6.6 \| Effect on migration of U937 macrophages incubated with necrotic cell lysate, with or without anti-Hsp72 and/or anti-HMGB-1. \| 213 \| \| Figure 6.7 \| Effect of varying Hsp72 concentrations with fixed HMGB-1 on cytokine secretion from U937 macrophages. \| \|-----------\|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Figure 6.8 \| Effect of varying Hsp72 concentrations with fixed HMGB-1 on migration of U937 macrophages. \| \| Figure 6.9 \| Effect of varying Hsp72 concentrations on cytokine secretion from U937 macrophages. \| \| Figure 6.10 \| Effect of varying Hsp72 concentrations on migration of U937 macrophages. \| \| Figure 6.11 \| Effect of varying HMGB-1 concentrations with fixed Hsp72 on cytokine secretion from U937 macrophages. \| \| Figure 6.12 \| Effect of varying HMGB-1 concentrations with fixed Hsp72 on migration of U937 macrophages. \| \| Figure 6.13 \| Effect of varying HMGB-1 concentrations on cytokine secretion from U937 macrophages. \| \| Figure 6.14 \| Effect of varying HMGB-1 concentrations on migration of U937 macrophages. \| \| Figure 6.15 \| Effect on cytokine secretion following treatment of U937 macrophages with Bac-Hsp72. \| \| Figure 6.16 \| Effect of varying Bac-Hsp72 concentrations on migration of U937 macrophages. \| \| Figure 6.17 \| Effect on cytokine secretion following treatment of U937 macrophages with Bac-Hsp72 and 1000 ng/mL HMGB-1. \| \| Figure 6.18 \| Effect of Bac-Hsp72 with 1000 ng/mL HMGB-1 on migration of U937 macrophages. \| \| Figure 6.19 \| Effect on cytokine secretion following treatment of U937 macrophages with Bac-Hsp72 and 500 ng/mL HMGB-1. \| \| Figure 6.20 \| Effect of Bac-Hsp72 with 500 ng/mL HMGB-1 on migration of U937 macrophages. \| \| Figure 6.21 \| Effect on cytokine secretion following treatment of U937 macrophages with Bac-Hsp72 and 100 ng/mL HMGB-1. \| \| Figure 6.22 \| Effect of Bac-Hsp72 with 100 ng/mL HMGB-1 on migration of U937 macrophages. \| \| Figure 7.1 \| The discrimination between necrotic and apoptotic cells by the immune system. \| 239 \| \|-----------\|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|-----\| \| Figure 7.2 \| Signalling receptors utilised by Hsp72, HMGB-1, and bacterial components. \| 246 \| \| Figure 7.3 \| Relative differences in inflammatory responses of the immune system. \| 249 \| \| Table \| Description \| Page \| \|-------\|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------\|------\| \| 1.1 \| Classification of Hsps, their localisation and function. \| 7 \| \| 3.1 \| Reported Hsp72 serum levels using commercial or in-house ELISAs. \| 72 \| \| 3.2 \| Recovery of Hsp72 from spiked U937 cell extracts. \| 97 \| \| 3.3 \| Recovery of Hsp72 from spiked tissue extracts from exercised Duroc pigs. \| 97 \| \| 3.4 \| Recovery of Hsp72 from spiked control or heat-treated tissue culture supernatant. \| 103 \| \| 4.1 \| Dose responses of cytokine secretion by PBMCs incubated for 24 h with native or denatured, Hsp72 or DnaK. \| 119 \| \| 4.2 \| Correlation between cytokine secretion by PBMCs when incubated for 24 h with native or denatured, Hsp72 or DnaK. \| 120 \| \| 4.3 \| Dose responses of cytokine secretion by PBMCs incubated for 24 h with native or denatured, Hsp60 or GroEL. \| 127 \| \| 4.4 \| Correlation between cytokine secretion by PBMCs when incubated for 24 h with native or denatured, Hsp60 or GroEL. \| 128 \| \| 4.5 \| Dose responses of cytokine secretion by PBMCs incubated for 24 h with native or denatured, Cpn10 or GroES. \| 135 \| \| 4.6 \| Correlation between cytokine secretion by PBMCs when incubated for 24 h with native or denatured, Cpn10 or GroES. \| 136 \| \| 4.7 \| Cell viability, caspase-3 and necrosis measurements of PBMCs following 24 h incubation with native or denatured heat shock proteins. \| 137 \| \| 4.8 \| Dose responses of cytokine secretion by U937 macrophages incubated for 24 h with native or denatured, Hsp72 or DnaK. \| 144 \| \| 4.9 \| Correlation between cytokine secretion by U937 macrophages when incubated for 24 h with native or denatured, Hsp72 or DnaK. \| 145 \| \| 4.10 \| Dose responses of cytokine secretion by U937 macrophages incubated for 24 h with native or denatured, Hsp60 or GroEL. \| 152 \| \| 4.11 \| Correlation between cytokine secretion by U937 macrophages when incubated for 24 h with native or denatured, Hsp60 or GroEL. \| 153 \| \| Table \| Description \| Page \| \|-------\|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------\|------\| \| 4.12 \| Dose responses of cytokine secretion by U937 macrophages incubated for 24 h with native or denatured, Cpn10 or GroES. \| 160 \| \| 4.13 \| Correlation between cytokine secretion by U937 macrophages when incubated for 24 h with native or denatured, Cpn10 or GroES. \| 161 \| \| 4.14 \| Cell viability, caspase-3 and necrosis measurements of U937 macrophages following 24 h incubation with native or denatured heat shock proteins. \| 162 \| \| 4.15 \| Correlation between cytokines secreted by U937 macrophages when incubated for up to 6 h with native Hsp72. \| 168 \| \| 4.16 \| Significant differences in cytokine secretion between HI-RPMI (no treatment) and Hsp72, or LPS that were pre-incubated with polymyxin B. \| 173 \| \| 6.1 \| Cell counts and viability of U937 macrophages following 4 h treatment with Hsp72 and/or HMGB-1, and LPS with or without Hsp72 and/or HMGB-1 \| 205 \| \| Abbreviation \| Description \| \|--------------\|-------------\| \| APC \| Antigen presenting cell \| \| AU \| Absorbance units \| \| BSA \| Bovine serum albumin \| \| CD \| Cluster of differentiation \| \| cDNA \| Complementary DNA \| \| CV \| Coefficient of variation \| \| DAMP \| Damage-associated molecular pattern \| \| DC \| Dendritic cell \| \| ddH$_2$O \| Double distilled water \| \| dH$_2$O \| Distilled water \| \| ELISA \| Enzyme linked immuno-sorbent assay \| \| ER \| Endoplasmic reticulum \| \| FBS \| Foetal bovine serum \| \| Grp \| Glucose regulating protein \| \| HMGB-1 \| High mobility group box -1 \| \| Hsc \| Heat shock cognate \| \| HSE \| Heat shock element \| \| HSF1 \| Heat shock transcription factor 1 \| \| Hsp \| Heat stress protein \| \| kDa \| Kilo dalton \| \| LBP \| Lipid binding protein \| \| LPS \| Lipopolysaccharide \| \| MWCO \| Molecular weight cut-off \| \| NCL \| Necrotic cell lysate \| \| NF-$\kappa\beta$ \| Nuclear factor kappa-beta \| \| NK \| Natural killer \| \| PAMP \| Pathogen-associated molecular pattern \| \| PBS \| Phosphate buffered saline \| \| PRR \| Pathogen recognition receptor \| \| RAGE \| Receptor for advanced glycation end products \| \| SNS \| Self- non-self theory \| \| TLR \| Toll-like receptor \| \| v/v \| Volume by volume \| \| w/v \| Weight by volume \| \| $\lambda$ \| Wavelength \| \| Symbol \| Description \| \|--------\|---------------------------\| \| $\lambda_{EM}$ \| Emission wavelength \| \| $\lambda_{EX}$ \| Excitation wavelength \| Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1 Rationale for Study The immune system mounts a response to exogenous molecules, such as bacterial products, and it has been shown that auto-antibodies can be generated, which are implicated in autoimmune diseases, such as diabetes (Brudzynski, 1993; Brudzynski, Martinez & Gupta, 1992). This demonstrates that it also responds to endogenous molecules which have recently been identified as danger signals that are released by damaged cells and able to activate the antigen-presenting cells (APCs) (Gallucci & Matzinger, 2001; Matzinger, 1994; Matzinger, 1998; Matzinger, 2002). Heat shock proteins (Hsps), particularly Hsp72, have been reported as being danger signals to the innate immune system when found in the extra-cellular milieu (Bianchi, 2007; Campisi & Fleshner, 2003; Campisi, Leem & Fleshner, 2003; Matzinger, 2002; Williams & Ireland, 2008). The presence and levels of extra-cellular Hsp72 in particular has been studied extensively in many stressful situations such as in vitro and in vivo heat stress (Aït-Aïssa et al., 2003; Currie, Moyes & Tufts, 2000; Guzhova et al., 2001), infection (Njemini et al., 2007; Njemini et al., 2003b), exercise (Fehrenbach et al., 2000; Madden et al., 2008; Walsh et al., 2001) and fever (Oehler et al., 2001). Another protein which has been recently termed a danger signal is high mobility group box-1 (HMGB-1) which is normally found bound to chromatin within the nucleus but can be released under stressful conditions such as sepsis (Wang et al., 2001a; Yang et al., 2007), arthritis (Kokkola et al., 2002; Taniguchi et al., 2003) and lung inflammation (Abraham et al., 2000; Li et al., 2003), and functions extracellularly as a late mediator of the pro-inflammatory response (Andersson et al., 2000; Chen et al., 2004; Harris & Raucci, 2006; O'Connor et al., 2003; Qin et al., 2006; Williams & Ireland, 2008). In relation to the innate immune response, Hsp72 is thought to bind to certain receptors on cells which can then trigger an inflammatory response resulting in the release of cytokines, and that Hsp72 itself can act as a chemokine (Gouwy et al., 2005; Lehner et al., 2004; Panjwani, Popova & Srivastava, 2000; Wang et al., 2001b). The stimulatory immune function of extra-cellular Hsp72 has been questioned recently as being due to LPS contamination of recombinant proteins. during in vitro experiments (Bausinger et al., 2002; Gao & Tsan, 2003a; Gao & Tsan, 2004; Tsan & Gao, 2004a; Tsan & Gao, 2004b). HMGB-1 also stimulates the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and under normal stress conditions such as tissue injury or trauma, functions in a regulatory protective manner by stimulating the immune system to repair the damage. However, when the immune system is stimulated by HMGB-1 and lipopolysaccharide (LPS), increased amounts of HMGB-1 are released in an autocrine manner in response to up-regulated TNF-α secretion which stimulates a solely pro-inflammatory response. If this response is not controlled it can lead to sepsis, and eventually death (Chen et al., 2004; Gaini et al., 2007a; Gaini et al., 2007b; Qin et al., 2006; Wang et al., 2001a). The measurement of extra-cellular Hsp72 by enzyme linked immuno-sorbent assay (ELISA) has been reported in various matrices such as serum, plasma and tissue culture supernatant, but the levels reported vary widely (Njemini, Demanet & Mets, 2003a; Njemini et al., 2003b; Pockley, Shepherd & Corton, 1998; Wright et al., 2000), although all rely upon the same components. Part of this thesis therefore was to develop a method to accurately quantify Hsp72 in various sample types. The work in this thesis demonstrates that extra-cellular Hsp72 is able to stimulate the innate immune system independently of LPS contamination and that Hsp72 is able to modulate the immune response by binding to various cell surface receptors involved in cytokine signalling. Also, it is postulated that Hsp72 may help to regulate the pro-inflammatory actions of HMGB-1. ### 1.2 The Danger model The immune system has recently been suggested to be able to be activated by endogenous molecules, now described as danger signals which has lead to a new theory regarding how the immune system responds (Matzinger, 1994). Originally, in 1959, Burnet suggested a response known as the ‘self- non-self’ (SNS) model describing that lymphocytes were able to recognise a foreign body which stimulates the cell to generate cell surface receptors and proposed that the immune system acted to distinguish between ‘self and non-self’. However, it was later discovered that B cells were able to generate an autoimmune response in conjunction with T cells in the presence of a ‘signal’. This ‘signal’ was found to be antigen which was presented by APCs. This potentially meant that the immune system could be directed against the ‘self’, resulting in auto-immunity and therefore questioning the SNS model. In 1989, Janeway described APCs as being dormant until activated through pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) which recognise pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) from bacteria, and then up-regulate co-stimulatory signals and then present the bacterial antigen to T cells. Therefore, it was the PRRs that allowed the immune system to discriminate between ‘infectious-nonself’, and, ‘non-infectious-self’ (Janeway, 1989; Janeway Jr et al., 2005b). The SNS model could still not explain certain aspects of the immune response such as responses to viruses, auto-immunity or transplant rejection. In 1994, Matzinger proposed a new model of how the immune responses are activated. It was suggested that APCs are activated by danger signals from damaged cells. These signals appear in the extra-cellular environment by necrosis following a stressful event. This event would up-regulate the intra-cellular production of certain endogenous molecules that when presented in the extra-cellular environment are recognised by PRRs as being a result of an abnormal cell death. These signals would not be present when cells are healthy or die via apoptosis (Adams, 2003; Kaczorowski et al., 2008; Matzinger, 1994; Matzinger, 1998; Matzinger, 2002; Williams & Ireland, 2008) (Figure 1.1). The Danger model provides an explanation regarding a number of issues about how the immune system responds. For example, transplants and foetuses are ‘non-self’ but are not associated with bacterial products so should not stimulate an immune response. However, transplants often stimulate a response and are rejected whereas foetuses are generally not. As they are not ‘self’, using the SNS model, both should stimulate a response, but using the Danger model it can be explained in terms that a foetus does not send ‘danger signals’ but transplants often do. With regards to auto-immunity, in which the immune system responds to the ‘self’, the Danger model simply suggests that this occurs in some cases, due to a genetic mutation, resulting in an inadequate clearance of apoptotic cells, such as Lupus (Kaplan et al., 2002), or by incorrectly recognising ‘self’ as being ‘non-self’ following cellular damage caused by a pathogen, such as type 1 diabetes (Abulafia-Lapid et al., 1999; Reines, 2001). In both cases, the immune system is simply responding to ‘danger signals’ which would ordinarily be cleared. Necrosis and inadequate clearance of apoptotic cells can lead to the accumulation of endogenous danger signals. These endogenous molecules mediate the innate immune response by stimulating APCs to secrete cytokines and other inflammatory signals, leading to the recruitment of immune cells to the site of infection and the activation of the adaptive immune response (Dybdahl et al., 2005; Gastpar et al., 2004; Wang et al., 2006a; Yang et al., 2006). 1.2.1 The innate immune response The innate immune system provides an immediate defence against pathogens and other endogenous molecules and involves the recruitment of cells such as macrophages, natural killer (NK) cells, dendritic cells (DCs) and several other lymphocyte populations (Janeway Jr et al., 2005b; Janeway Jr et al., 2005c). Both exogenous and endogenous mediators are readily recognised by the innate immune system by conserved small motifs known as PAMPs for pathogens, or damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) (Bianchi, 2007; Prohászka & Füst, 2004). These PAMPs include lipopolysaccharide (LPS), flagellin, lipoteichoic acid, and DAMPs include Hsp60, Hsp72 and HMGB-1 (Gutsmann et al., 2001; Nilsen et al., 2008; Smith et al., 2003; Sugawara et al., 1999; Ye & Gan, 2007; Asea et al., 2000b; Dybdahl et al., 2005; Fuza et al., 2003; Habich et al., 2002; Kol et al., 2000; Rouhiainen et al., 2004). These molecules are recognised by PRRs, which include cell membrane receptors, for example toll-like receptors (TLRs) and cluster of differentiation (CD) markers, which are able to recognise microbial products and other endogenous molecules (Asea et al., 2002; Binder, Han & Srivastava, 2000; Bosco et al., 1997; O’Connell et al., 2004; Takeda, Kaisho & Akira, 2003; Triantafilou & Triantafilou, 2002; Wang et al., 2006b). Interaction between PAMPs and PRRs/TLRs leads to the activation of an inflammatory response, including the production of feedback signals, such as cytokines, and/or release of mediators, such as Hsp72 or HMGB-1, leading to the recruitment of immune cells to the site of inflammation and the activation of the adaptive immune response (Ding et al., 2001; Peetermans et al., 1994; Wang et al., 2005). Figure 1.1: The Danger model of immune stimulation. APCs are activated by DAMPs from distressed cells and either through internalisation and re-presentation, or by co-stimulation, stimulate the adaptive immune response. (Adapted from Matzinger, 2002; Bianchi, 2007). 1.2.2 The adaptive immune response The adaptive immune response is initiated when antigens are bound by APCs, such as macrophages and DCs, and are presented to T cells (Janeway Jr et al., 2005b). Adaptive immunity was originally characterised by four fundamental elements: - being antigen specific and allowing the immune system to be able to differentiate between two highly conserved proteins; - being highly diverse in the ability to recognise a multitude of different proteins and molecules; - being able to generate memory B and T cells which are able to mount a stronger and quicker immune response when the same antigen is encountered; - ability to differentiate between 'self' and 'non-self' molecules and responding only to the non-self molecules. (Janeway Jr et al., 2005b). Being able to differentiate between 'self' and 'non-self' molecules is obviously now debatable with the Danger model proposal that the activation of the adaptive immune system by APCs can also be activated by DAMPs which are released by cells undergoing stress and damage (Matzinger, 1998), such as infection leading to necrosis (Basu et al., 2000; El Mezayen et al., 2007; Mambula & Calderwood, 2006a; Saito, Dai & Ohtsuka, 2005; Scaffidi, Misteli & Bianchi, 2002). Two of these proposed DAMPs, or endogenous molecules will be discussed further: Hsp72 and HMGB-1. 1.3 Heat shock proteins The term heat shock response was first used by Ritossa et al. (1962) to describe an increase in the expression of certain genes when Drosophila melanogaster larval salivary gland cells were exposed to a 30°C heat stimulus. These genes were subsequently found to lead to an increase in the expression of proteins with molecular weights of 27 and 70 kDa (Tissieres, Mitchell & Tracy, 1974), and these proteins were named heat shock proteins (Hsps). Many studies following this discovery found that Hsps were expressed by the majority of prokaryotes and eukaryotes, and were found to be highly conserved (Boorstein, Ziegelhoffer & Craig, 1994; Hartl, 1996). In most plant and animal systems, Hsps are synthesised following a variety of stresses such as heavy metal exposure, oxidative stress and in vitro serum deprivation (Ireland et al., 2004; Lang et al., 2000; Ménoret et al., 2002). Within the cell, Hsps act as molecular chaperones by assisting the correct folding of nascent proteins, prevention of inappropriate protein aggregation, and mediating transport of proteins across intra-cellular membranes (Bukau & Horwich, 1998; Mayer & Bukau, 1998). Hsps are able to bind to hydrophobic surfaces of unfolded polypeptides which expose hydrophobic amino acid side chains that can result in aggregation. This binding results in the stabilisation and correct folding of polypeptides (Hartl, 1996; Tavaria et al., 1996). Hsps are named based on their molecular weight in kDa and gene sequence homology. The main Hsp families are small Hsps (10 – 40 kDa), Hsp60, Hsp70, Hsp90 and Hsp100 (Table 1.1). Table 1.1: Classification of Hsps, their localisation and function. \| Name \| Molecular weight (kDa) \| Localisation \| Function \| \|------------\|------------------------\|-------------------------------\|-----------------------------------------------\| \| Small Hsps \| 15-40 \| Cytosol, Nucleus \| Cytoskeletal stabilisation \| \| Hsp60 \| 58-65 \| Cytosol, Mitochondria \| Protein folding \| \| \| \| \| Prevention of aggregation \| \| Hsp70 \| 66-78 \| Cytosol, Mitochondria, \| Protein refolding \| \| \| \| Endoplasmic reticulum \| Protection against stress \| \| \| \| \| Downregulation of HSF1 activity \| \| Hsp90 \| 82-90 \| Cytosol, Endoplasmic reticulum\| Prevention of aggregation \| \| \| \| \| Maintenance of HSF1 \| \| Hsp100 \| 97-120 \| Cytosol, Nucleus, Mitochondria\| Thermotolerance \| \| \| \| \| Protein refolding \| Adapted from (Pockley, 2003) and (Srivastava, 2002) 1.3.1 Regulation of the heat shock response The heat shock response is regulated by the activation and translocation from the cytosol to the nucleus of heat shock transcription factor 1 (HSF1), which upon heat shock, trimerises and binds to heat shock elements (HSEs) that are located within promoter regions of Hsp genes (Morimoto, 1993; Sarge, Murphy & Morimoto, 1993) which result in the transcriptional activation and synthesis of Hsps (Cotto, Kline & Morimoto, 1996). As Hsp synthesis increases, Hsp72 and other Hsps (such as Hsp90) re-localise to the nucleus where they bind to the HSF1 trans-activation domain and repress transcription of Hsp genes (Shi, Mosser & Morimoto, 1998; Wu, 1995). Under unstressed conditions, HSF1 is present within the cytosol as a monomer which is bound to Hsps and other chaperones, and is deficient in translational activity (Shi et al., 1998). 1.4 The Hsp70 family The Hsp70 family of proteins is among the most widely studied of the heat shock proteins and are the major chaperones involved in assisting the correct and biologically active folding of nascent polypeptides. This process is ATP-dependent in eukaryotic cells (Gebauer, Zeiner & Gehring, 1997; Mayer & Bukau, 1998). In mammalian systems, the most well known members of the family include the constitutive cytosolic Hsc70 (Hsp73), the stress-induced cytosolic form (Hsp72), Grp78 (BiP), which is found within the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), and the mitochondrial Grp75 (Gebauer et al., 1997; Liu et al., 2005). The main form of Hsp72 in E. coli is DnaK (Krska, Elthon & Blum, 1993). Proteins from this family contain two domains: the N-terminal domain, and the C-terminal domain (Mallouk et al., 1999; Sriram et al., 1997; Tavaria et al., 1996). The N-terminal domain is highly conserved and is also known as the ATPase domain. It is able to hydrolyse ATP to ADP which leads to conformational changes in the other domain. The C-terminal domain contains a variable region known as the substrate binding domain. The substrate binding domain contains a groove to which hydrophobic peptides bind. The C-terminal domain also contains a hinge region which allows it to form a lid for the substrate binding domain (Gething & Sambrook, 1992; Hartl, 1996; Hartl & Hayer-Hartl, 2002; Ruchalski et al., 2006; Rudiger, Buchberger & Bukau, 1997) (Figure 1.2). 1.5 Intra-cellular functions of Hsp72 Within the cell, Hsp72 has a clearly defined role. Under normal conditions, its main role is to facilitate folding and assembly of nascent proteins. It does this by binding nascent proteins in an ATP-dependent manner (Figure 1.3). When the N-terminal is ATP bound, the lid is open and unfolded protein is bound and released rapidly. Following recognition and binding of the unfolded protein (by extended hydrophobic regions), hydrolysis of ATP occurs leading to Hsp72 being ADP bound. In this substrate bound state, the lid is closed, and the protein is tightly bound within the groove of the substrate binding domain. In order for Hsp72 to release the protein, the co-chaperones Hsp40 and Hsp90 bind to the N-terminal of Hsp72 resulting in a conformational change leading to the release of ADP. This then allows ATP to be bound which leads to the release of the substrate protein, which is then either completely folded into the correct conformation either by being rebound by Hsp72, or being transferred to another co-chaperone, such as Hsp60 (Bukau & Horwich, 1998; Mallouk et al., 1999). Hsp72 is also involved with translocation of proteins across membranes via ATP hydrolysis, to within the mitochondria (Neupert & Brunner, 2002) and the ER (De los Rios et al., 2006; Rapaport et al., 1998). Elevated levels of intra-cellular Hsp72 have also been shown to inhibit apoptosis, or programmed cell death (Garrido et al., 2001). When cells are undergoing a stressful event, NF-κB signalling pathway is up-regulated, and this in turn up-regulates HSF1 and Hsp72, which in turn acts to suppress NF-κB signalling. This suggests that a negative feedback loop associated with Hsp72 could provide an anti-inflammatory response (Hamilton et al., 2004). This response is thought to involve inhibition of IκB kinase resulting in the protection of IκK (Ran et al., 2004), or prevention of IκB degradation which would interfere with the release and translocation of NF-κB to the nuclear compartment, thus preventing the up-regulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines (Weiss et al., 2007; Yoo et al., 2000). It has been demonstrated that Hsp72 can bind to tumour necrosis factor receptor-associated factor 6 (TRAF6) preventing NF-κβ activation which may be useful in helping cells survive tissue injury (Chen et al., 2006). In relation to HMGB-1, elevated levels of intra-cellular Hsp72 attenuate HMGB-1 secretion by transfected RAW264.7 cells, by interfering with the CRM1 translocation export pathway. Following stimulation by LPS, or TNF-α (24 h), levels of HMGB-1 secretion into the cell culture media was reduced in transfected cells. HMGB-1 remained within cell extracts in transfected cells (Tang et al., 2007a). Hsp72 is also found in the extra-cellular milieu. The mechanisms of release and its actions outside the cell are still being debated and are discussed further here. 1.6 Mechanisms of Hsp72 release from cells Release of Hsp72 was first reported in a study on cultured rat embryo cells following heat treatment (Hightower & Guidon Jr, 1989). Following this a number of studies have reported the release of Hsp72 from a variety of cells (Baretto et al., 2003; Broquet et al., 2003; Evdonin et al., 2006b; Guzhova et al., 2001; Hunter-Lavin et al., 2004). The mechanisms by which Hsp72 is released are unclear. It has been shown that necrosis leads to Hsp72 release in a passive manner (Basu et al., 2000; Mambula & Calderwood, 2006a; Saito et al., 2005), which may be the case for the majority of disease states. However, active secretion is now thought to be a possible mechanism, but how Hsp72 is secreted from the cell still remains unclear. The classical pathway of secretion (ER/Golgi-dependent secretory pathway) allows for soluble proteins containing an N-terminal signal (leader sequence) to be transported to the translocation apparatus of the ER. From here they are transported to the Golgi, undergoing post-translational modifications such as N-glycosylation, and are enclosed within secretory vesicles which are able to fuse with the cell membrane, leading to the release of proteins (Nickel, 2003). However, Hsp72 lacks the N-terminal signal required for this form of transport, and the use of inhibitors of the classical secretion pathway, such as brefeldin A and monensin, have been found to have no effect on the release of Hsp72 (Broquet et al., 2003; Hightower & Guidon Jr, 1989; Hunter-Lavin et al., 2004) (Boyce & Yuan, 2006). Mambula et al. (2007) have postulated that there are likely three possible mechanisms of Hsp72 release. Firstly, Hsp72 is passively released from necrotic cells following a severe heat shock (Mambula & Calderwood, 2006a) and correlates highly with other markers of myocardial necrosis (Dybdahl et al., 2005). Secondly, it can be released within vesicles in a similar way to IL-1α (Arai & Kuwajima, 2000), or IL-1β, which are subsequently lysed in the extra-cellular environment. Thirdly, a mechanism has been described which involves secretion through endolysosomes that fuse with the cell membrane and release Hsp72, as it has been found to be expressed with cathepsin D, a lysosome marker. The heat shock which resulted in the release of Hsp72 also correlated with an increased expression in cell surface LAMP-1, a lysosomal-associated membrane protein (Mambula & Calderwood, 2006b). Other studies have also demonstrated that Hsp72 may be released by exosomes which are lipid-bound (Lancaster & Febbraio, 2005; Tytell, 2005), or may be released through specialised membrane domains known as lipid rafts. Lipid rafts are specialised sphingolipid and cholesterol rich areas within the cell membrane which allow for transport of proteins, both intra- and extra-cellular (Pike, 2004). Transport of proteins across lipid rafts can be disrupted by methyl-$\beta$-cyclodextrin, and Hsp72 release has been found to be disrupted in the cell line, Caco-2 (Broquet et al., 2003), PBMCs (Hunter-Lavin et al., 2004), and Hsp72 has been shown to integrate within an artificial lipid bi-layer (Arispe, Doh & De Maio, 2002; Vega et al., 2008). It is therefore likely that there are at least four mechanisms by which Hsp72 is released from cells (Figure 1.4). Figure 1.3: The facilitation of protein folding by intra-cellular Hsp72. (A) Hsp72 is found in an ATP bound state with the substrate-binding lid open. (B) Following recognition and binding of the unfolded protein hydrolysis of ATP occurs leading to Hsp72 being ADP bound. In this substrate bound state, the lid is closed, and the protein is tightly bound within the groove of the substrate binding domain. (C) The co-chaperones Hsp40 and Hsp90 then bind to the N-terminal of Hsp72 resulting in a conformational change leading to the release of ADP. This then allows ATP to be bound which leads to the release of the substrate protein, Hsp40 and Hsp90. Hsp72 is then ready to facilitate protein folding again. (Adapted from Bukau et al., 1998; Mahlouk et al., 1998; Hartl and Hayter-Hartl, 2002; De los Rios et al., 2006). Figure 1.4: Proposed mechanisms of Hsp72 release from cells. (A) Hsp72 released by necrosis; (B) release within vesicles followed by lysis; (C) release by endolysosomes which fuse with the cell membrane; (D) transported through lipid rafts directly into the extra-cellular milieu. (Adapted from Broquet et al., 2003; Hunter-Lavin et al., 2004; Mambula et al., 2007). 1.7 Extra-cellular functions of Hsp72 The presence of Hsp72 in the extra-cellular milieu has been discovered fairly recently and has been found to have a variety of potential roles. It has been found on the cell surface of human tumour cells and has been shown to stimulate the immune system by causing NK cells to attack tumour cells which have part of the Hsp72 C-terminal domain expressed on the extra-cellular surface (Botzler et al., 1998). Hsp72 has also been found to be present in the peripheral circulation of healthy individuals (Njemini et al., 2003b; Pockley et al., 1998; Wright et al., 2000), and can be found at increased levels in those with certain diseases (Njemini et al., 2007; Wright et al., 2000), and also following exercise (Walsh et al., 2001). Hsp72 appears to be especially prevalent in the circulation of patients with peripheral and renal vascular disease (Wright et al., 2000). Levels of Hsp72 are also found to be elevated during infection and fever (Njemini et al., 2003b; Stewart & Young, 2004), and could be due to cells actively releasing Hsp72, necrosis or apoptosis. Hsp72 has also been demonstrated to stimulate the production of inflammatory cytokines through activation of the NF-κβ signalling pathway (Asea et al., 2000b; Hall, 1994). This function of extra-cellular Hsp72 appears to contrast with its intra-cellular function of suppressing NF-κβ (Chen et al., 2006; Weiss et al., 2007). This may indicate that extra-cellular Hsp72 acts as a danger signal to nearby viable cells by stimulating NF-κβ, leading to up-regulation of intra-cellular Hsp72 and anti-inflammatory signals, and an improved chance of survival of the viable cells during a stressful insult. Conversely, one study has shown that LPS-free Hsp72 from Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M. tb) inhibits the maturation of murine DCs and induces pro-inflammatory IL-10 secretion, whereas Hsp72 contaminated with LPS does induce maturation and the secretion of TNF-α. Thus Hsp72 may have anti-inflammatory properties (Motta et al., 2007). Immunization of rats with M. tb Hsp72 also resulted in the induction of IL-10 (Prakken et al., 2001), and immunization of rats with an M. tb Hsp72 peptide (aa 234-252) suppressed the progression of arthritis. T cells derived from rats which were pre-treated with this peptide prior to stimulation with M. tb secreted excessive IL-10. In vivo administration of an anti-IL-10 antibody partly reduced the effect of the Hsp72 peptide against arthritis progression (Tanaka et al., 1999). A similar study by Wendling et al. (2000) also revealed that T cells from rats which were immunised with specific M. tb peptides which corresponded to rat Hsp72 (GenBank accession no. Q07439) produced large amounts of IL-10. when re-stimulated with specific peptides in vivo. This evidence demonstrates that Hsp72 has anti-inflammatory activity, especially in the absence of LPS. More recently, another study has demonstrated that cytokine stimulation by Hsp72, could be reduced using anti-Hsp72 antibodies in THP-1 and U937 cell lines (El Mezayen et al., 2007). This study did not use recombinant protein to stimulate, but instead used pre-stimulated necrotic cell lysate (NCL) which contained cell derived Hsp72. NCL was applied directly to cell cultures, or pre-incubated with antibodies to Hsp72 then applied to cells in con-junction with LPS. They showed that non-recombinant Hsp72 induced cytokine production could be reduced using these antibodies. The possible mechanisms of extra-cellular Hsp72 are discussed further in relation to the immune response. ### 1.8 The role of Hsp72 within the immune system Since Hsp72 is found in the extra-cellular matrix, and is implicated as being a significant marker of some disease states, such as infection (Njemini et al., 2003b), atherosclerosis (Lamb, El-Sankary & Ferns, 2002; Svensson et al., 2006), Alzheimer’s disease (Hamos et al., 1991; Yoo et al., 2001), Huntington’s disease (Hay et al., 2004), sickle cell anaemia (Adewoye et al., 2005), and vascular disease (Wright et al., 2000), it might have a functional role. The functional role of Hsp72 could be as an inflammatory danger signal to the immune system (Campisi et al., 2003; Vega et al., 2008; Williams & Ireland, 2008). ### 1.9 Recognition of Hsp72 by the immune system The Danger model allows for recognition of endogenous self molecules as markers of tissue damage or cellular stress which activate the immune system. These have now been termed damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) (Bianchi, 2007). Hsp72 is a candidate for one of these danger signals. In the innate response, Hsp72 is able to bind PRRs and TLRs to stimulate NF-κβ activation resulting in the release of cytokines and nitric oxide (NO) and up-regulating the expression of co-stimulatory molecules and MHC II (Asea et al., 2000b; Basu et al., 2000; Basu & Matsutake, 2004; Binder, Vatner & Srivastava, 2004; Knowlton, 2006; Panjwani, Popova & Srivastava, 2002). In the adaptive response, Hsp-peptide complexes are readily taken up by APCs and internalised. The peptides are presented to MHC class I and MHC class II molecules and transported for recognition by T cells (Basu & Matsutake, 2004; Park et al., 2006a). Hsp72 has also been found in a membrane-bound form which externalises a specific epitope (TKD) found only on tumour cells which acts as a receptor for NK cells by binding to NK cells, possibly via Fc receptors on NK cells. The TKD peptide was found to bind to NK cells resulting in the up-regulation of CD94 which is associated with lytic activity against tumours expressing membrane-bound Hsp72, and stimulates migration of NK cells (Botzler et al., 1998; Gastpar et al., 2004; Multhoff, 2007; Vega et al., 2008). Therefore, Hsps such as Hsp72 appear to have a dual role in activating the immune system (Figure 1.5). 1.10 Stimulation of the innate immune response by Hsp72 Hsp72 is known to strongly activate the immune system, resulting in the secretion of cytokines. It is thought they are able to do this by binding to receptors on the cell surface, much in the same way as PAMPs are recognised by PRRs (Calderwood et al., 2007; Takeda et al., 2003; Triantafilou & Triantafilou, 2002). These receptors may recognise Hsp72, Hsp72-peptide complexes, or just the peptide which is bound to Hsp72 (Basu et al., 2001; Binder et al., 2004). These PRRs are thought to include the following described here (Figure 1.6). 1.10.1 CD91 CD91 is an oxidized low density lipid (oxLDL) binding protein found on the surface of membranes of APCs involved in receptor-mediated endocytosis. It was first described as a common receptor to Hsp 60, 72, Gp96 and calreticulin by Binder et al. (2000). It does appear to have an important role in antigen presentation by Hsp, as it has been shown that in vitro blocking experiments which utilised a CD91 receptor associated protein (RAP), there was a strong inhibition of Hsp72 to human macrophages, and a weak inhibition of binding to DCs (Delneste et al., 2002). RAP has also been reported to inhibit binding of Hsp72 to peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) (Martin et al., 2003). Other studies have doubted the binding ability of CD91 with Hsp72, as one study demonstrated that Hsp72 which was free in solution showed little difference in binding ability between cells with or without CD91 expression (Thériault et al., 2005). Figure 1.5: Interaction of Hsps with receptors of the adaptive and innate immune system. In the adaptive immune response, Hsp-peptide complexes are internalised by endocytosis and are processed and presented on MHC molecules of APCs. In the innate immune response, Hsps bind to signalling receptors which activate NF-κB and result in release of cytokines, chemokines and nitric oxide (NO), and expression of CD markers and MHC II. (Adapted from Binder et al., 2004; Motta et al., 2007; El Mezayen et al., 2007). Figure 1.6: Cell surface receptors involved in the immune functions of extracellular Hsp72. The scavenger receptors LOX-1 and CD91 are shown to either stimulate activation of NF-κβ or internalise via endocytosis. Activation through TLR-7 is as yet unknown. All other receptors are thought to exclusively mediate cell signalling and activation of NF-κβ. (Adapted from Binder et al., 2000; Pockley et al., 2003; Janeway Jr. et al., 2005; Pockley et al., 2007; Calderwood et al., 2007; Wang et al., 2006; Motta et al., 2007). 1.10.2 CD40 CD40 is a co-stimulatory protein found on APCs which is a member of the TNF-α receptor family. When stimulated it binds to CD40L on activated T cells, which leads to an increase in expression of CD40 on APCs (O’Sullivan & Thomas, 2003). CD40 was initially identified as a receptor for mycobacterial Hsp72 through use of competitive binding studies with anti-CD40 antibodies (Wang et al., 2001b). Becker et al. (2002) demonstrated that murine Hsp72 could also bind to recombinant CD40 in cell lysates. The binding of mammalian Hsp72 to CD40 was demonstrated by Millar et al. (2003) by showing that bone marrow-derived DCs require CD40 for the Hsp72-induced secretion of IL-12. Bone marrow-derived DCs from chimeric mice which lacked CD40 did not produce IL-12 when challenged with Hsp72, whereas CD40 expressing DCs from control mice (C57BL/6J) did (Millar et al., 2003). 1.10.3 CD14 CD14 is a receptor found on the surface of macrophages, and other APCs, and can also be found in a soluble form. Its primary function is to bind LPS in conjunction with TLR-4 and MD-2 as part of an LPS signalling receptor cluster, but only in the presence of Lps binding protein (Heidenreich, 1999). It was originally postulated as a receptor for Hsp72 by Asea et al. (2000b) who demonstrated that Hsp72 binding to CD14 resulted in an up-regulation of TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6. However, they also found another Hsp72 signalling pathway which was independent of CD14 and led to an increase in TNF-α only. Another study by the same group showed that NF-κβ activation was enhanced in response to Hsp72, and that the enhancement was increased following transfection of HEK293 cells with CD14 (Asea et al., 2002a). In contrast, it has been demonstrated that Hsp72 did not bind to CD14 in transfected CHO cells using flow cytometry analysis (Delneste et al. 2002). 1.10.4 CD36 CD36 is a member of the class B scavenger receptor family, and also binds oxLDL, like CD91 and LOX-1 (Pluddemann, Neyen & Gordon, 2007). On macrophages, CD36 has been reported to form part of a receptor complex (CD36-αVβ3 complex) which is involved in the stimulation of phagocytosis (Bottcher et al., 2006). It has yet to be demonstrated as a receptor for Hsp72, but it has been shown to bind gp96 (Binder et al., 2004). Delneste et al. (Delneste et al., 2002) did not show any binding of Hsp72 to CD36 in transfected CHO cells using flow cytometry analysis. 1.10.5 TLR-2/TLR-4 TLR-2 and TLR-4 are members of the TLR family of receptor proteins which act as PRRs recognising PAMPs, leading to downstream activation of NF-κβ and interference response factor (IRF) signalling pathways, and the production of cytokines and adhesion molecules which mediate innate and adaptive immunity in response to inflammation (Takeda et al., 2003). TLR-2 and/or TLR-4 have been reported by several groups to be receptors for Hsp60, Hsp72, Gp96 and HMGB-1 (Ohashi et al., 2000). TLR-2/TLR-4 is involved in the CD14 dependent stimulation by Hsp72 described by Asea et al. (2002). Dybdahl et al. (2002) demonstrated that Hsp72 could stimulate the production of TNF-α from macrophages derived from C3H/HeN mice but not C3H/HeJ. When Hsp72 was pre-incubated with antibody to TLR-4, the production of TNF-α and IL-6 from human adherent monocytes was abrogated. Antibody to TLR-2 had no effect. 1.10.6 TLR-7 TLR-7 is known to recognise single-stranded RNA (ssRNA) within endosomes as part of the innate immune response to viruses (Krieg, 2007; Triantafilou et al., 2005). A recent study by Wang et al. (2006) demonstrated that the phagocytic response to Hsp72 in wild-type murine macrophages was significantly increased when compared to TLR-7 deficient mice (C57BL/6). They also demonstrated that when RAW264.7 cells were transfected with small interfering RNA (siRNA) for TLR-7, phagocytic activity and TNF-α release was reduced compared to RAW264.7 cells transfected with an empty vector (control). Presence of TLR-7 and Hsp72 within the lipid raft region of macrophages membranes was verified by western blot. As Hsp72 in this study was able to stimulate phagocytosis through TLR-7, it may indicate that when Hsp72 is released from necrotic cells, it is able to act as a chemokine (Asea, 2006; Asea et al., 2000a; Asea et al., 2000b) when receptors from APCs, such as TLR-7, are bound by it. 1.10.7 LOX-1 LOX-1 is a Class E scavenger receptor which binds oxLDL, but has been found to bind with high affinity to Hsp72 (Binder et al., 2004; Delneste et al., 2002; Theriault, Adachi & Calderwood, 2006; Thériault et al., 2005). LOX-1 is known to be involved in cross-presentation of antigens and Hsp72 is thought to bind LOX-1, possibly in a peptide-bearing manner, and is internalised by endocytosis leading to stimulation of the adaptive immune response via MHC I (Binder et al., 2004; Calderwood et al., 2007; Delneste et al., 2002; Inoue & Sawamura, 2007). 1.11 High mobility group box protein-1 (HMGB-1) The Danger model postulates that damaged cells release their contents into the extra-cellular milieu which contain endogenous danger signals that are capable of stimulating an immune response (Bianchi, 2007; Palumbo et al., 2007; Williams & Ireland, 2008). Hsp72 has already been discussed as a candidate signal but there are likely others, one of which is HMGB-1. HMGB-1 is a 25 kDa nuclear protein consisting of two DNA-binding domains, known as HMG box A and B, and an acidic tail which interacts with the HMG boxes, possibly regulating their molecular interactions (Andersson et al., 2002; Bianchi & Manfredi, 2007; Knapp et al., 2004; Thomas, 2001; Wang et al., 2007) (Figure 1.7). HMGB-1 proteins are highly conserved, and in mammals are virtually identical. It is generally found within the nucleus but can also be found in the cytosol, external membranes and within the extra-cellular milieu (Bonaldi et al., 2002; El Gazzar, 2007; Thomas, 2001; Zetterström et al., 2002). Within the box A region there is a heparin binding domain (aa 6-12) which is similar in sequence to a number of heparin binding proteins (Cardin & Weintraub, 1989), and a region which functions to stabilise amyloid fibrils (Takata et al., 2003). The complete box A region is capable of being a RAGE antagonist (Bianchi & Manfredi, 2007). The box B region contains the pro-inflammatory region of HMGB-1 (aa 89-108), and part of box B along with part of the connecting segment before the acidic tail is able to bind RAGE (aa 150-183) (Huttunen et al., 2002; Huttunen & Rauvala, 2004; Li et al., 2003). Figure 1.7: Structure of HMGB-1 protein. (Adapted from Thomas, 2001; Bianchi & Manfredi, 2007; Takata et al., 2003; Huttunen et al., 2002; Li et al., 2003). 1.12 Regulation of HMGB-1 The regulation of HMGB-1 is not very well understood. Only very recently has it been demonstrated that expression of HMGB-1 may be activated by the JAK/STAT pathway (Liu et al., 2007). This study showed that when murine macrophages were stimulated with LPS, HMGB-1 expression was increased and this correlated with the activation of JAK/STAT. This activation was suppressed when specific inhibitors of JAK2, STAT1 or STAT3 were applied, and HMGB-1 expression was reduced. To determine whether this mechanism was responsible for the secretion of TNF-α following challenge with HMGB-1, HMGB-1 was applied to macrophages and induced secretion of TNF-α. Using the JAK/STAT inhibitors prior to HMGB-1 treatment resulted in a significant decrease in TNF-α expression (Liu et al., 2007). TNF-α, which is secreted by activated immune cells also leads to the up-regulation of HMGB-1 (Wang et al., 1999). 1.13 Intra-cellular functions of HMGB-1 Within the cell HMGB-1 is transiently bound to chromatin and functions as a DNA chaperone by promoting DNA-protein interactions (Bonaldi et al., 2002). It regulates transcription by bending DNA to enable binding of transcription factors (Thomas, 2001). HMGB-1 also binds non-specifically to the minor groove within DNA to induce these changes. These structural changes allow DNA to bind and interact with various proteins, such as p53, NF-κβ, steroid hormone receptors and other homeobox-containing proteins (Bianchi, 2007). HMGB-1 is also found at the periphery of the cell membrane in cells that are motile or can be activated, such as macrophages (Rouhiainen et al., 2004). It is thought that HMGB-1 is translocated into the cytoplasm by lysosomal exocytosis prior to release into the extra-cellular milieu (Gardella et al., 2002). 1.14 Mechanisms of HMGB-1 release from cells HMGB-1 is released from necrotic cells in a passive manner (Scaffidi et al., 2002), and, like Hsp72 has been found to be released via a non-classical secretory pathway, despite lacking a peptide leader sequence (Bell et al., 2006; Gardella et al., 2002; Rouhiainen et al., 2004) (Figure 1.8). The release of HMGB-1 from necrotic cells has been demonstrated to induce the inflammatory response, including release of pro-inflammatory cytokines and migration of immune cells to sites of inflammation (Degryse et al., 2001; Palumbo et al., 2007; Yang et al., 2006). Scaffidi et al. (2002) demonstrated that macrophages incubated with necrotic cells induced NF-κB activation and release of TNF-α. Incubation with apoptotic cells did not, and it was found that HMGB-1 in apoptotic cells is tightly bound to chromatin due to hypoacetylation of histones (Scaffidi et al., 2002). The release of HMGB-1 from necrotic cells therefore leads to inflammation and tissue regeneration by attracting dendritic cells (DCs) and neutrophils, and the activation of stem cells (Palumbo et al., 2007). HMGB-1 has also been found to be actively secreted from immune cells in a non-classical manner by lysosomes (Gardella et al., 2002). This mechanism of HMGB-1 release is associated with the late onset of chronic inflammation. This study showed that HMGB-1 relocates to the periphery of the cell membrane in response to 18 h incubation with LPS, and is secreted following a short co-incubation (10 min) with lysophosphatidylcholine (LPC). LPC is a bioactive lipid which is generated by inflamed cells (Gilon & Henquin, 2001). One report has implicated that HMGB-1 is also released during apoptosis (Bell et al., 2006). Jurkat cells were treated with apoptosis inducers and HMGB-1 release was determined by western blot. HMGB-1 was found to be present in supernatants after 30 h following treatment with all apoptosis inducers tested. Another study reported that RAW264.7 cells could release HMGB-1 through apoptosis when stimulated with LPS for 20 h, and that when stimulated with polyinosinic-polycytidylic acid (poly(I:C)), release from apoptotic cells was dependent on IFN-α. Anti-IFN-α antibodies prevented HMGB-1 release (Jiang, Bell & Piestsky, 2007). Late-stage apoptosis is also termed as secondary necrosis, whereby apoptotic bodies become permeable and release their contents. Apoptotic bodies are known to retain fragments of chromatin and it is likely that HMGB-1 bound to this chromatin is released following permeabilisation (Widlak et al., 2002). Figure 1.8: Proposed mechanisms of HMGB-1 release from cells. (A) HMGB-1 released by necrosis; (B) release by endolysosomes which fuse with the cell membrane; (C) release by apoptotic bodies during late stage apoptosis. (Adapted from Scaffidi et al., 2002; Gardella et al., 2002; Bell et al., 2006). 1.15 Extra-cellular functions of HMGB-1 Extra-cellular HMGB-1 acts as a late inflammatory mediator of endotoxin lethality leading to sepsis (Qin et al., 2006; Wang et al., 1999) and is found at increased levels in serum from patients with sepsis (Gaini et al., 2007a; Gaini et al., 2007b), and pancreatitis (Sawa et al., 2006; Yamada et al., 2003). Studies have shown that extra-cellular HMGB-1 functions to stimulate the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α and IL-1-β, but suppress mRNA transcription of anti-inflammatory cytokines IL-10 and TGF-β (El Gazzar, 2007). TGF-β has many functions in controlling cell cycle, survival and proliferation, and is a known inducer of apoptosis (Schuster & Kriegstein, 2002). IL-10 is able to suppress cytokine release from activated macrophages (Gazzinelli et al., 1996; Janeway Jr et al., 2005a; Malefyt et al., 1991). This suggests that increasing levels of HMGB-1 actively down-regulate anti-inflammatory, and, encourage pro-inflammatory responses, leading to systemic inflammation (Wang et al., 2001a). In Balb/C mice, elevated serum levels of HMGB-1 are associated with lethality following LPS infection. This effect could be suppressed and mortality reduced following injection with anti-HMGB-1 antibodies (Wang et al., 1999). Similar studies have also shown the attenuating effects of anti-HMGB-1 antibodies on cytokine secretion in other models (El Gazzar, 2007; Sawa et al., 2006). Sawa et al., (2006) induced pancreatitis in C3H/HeN mice and following administration of anti-HMGB-1 found that anti-HMGB-1 attenuated the onset of pancreatitis and associated organ dysfunction. An in vitro study by El Mezayen et al. (2007) demonstrated that cytokine stimulation by HMGB-1 could be reduced using anti-HMGB-1 antibodies in THP-1 and U937 cell lines which were stimulated with NCL containing HMGB-1 in conjunction with LPS. They showed that HMGB-1 induced cytokine production could be reduced using these antibodies. Migration of some immune cells in response to HMGB-1 has been reported in some cells types. In DCs, HMGB-1 has been found to stimulate the expression of the chemokine receptors, CCR7 and CXCR4. When DCs were stimulated with LPS in the presence of anti-HMGB-1 antibodies, the expression of these receptors was reduced resulting in the reduced migration of DCs to the receptor ligands CCL19 and CXCL12 (Dumitriu et al., 2007). Migration of fibroblasts to HMGB-1 was demonstrated by Palumbo et al. (2007) to be dependent on activation of NF-κβ by HMGB-1 which could be blocked by pre-incubating fibroblasts with ribobenzimidazole (DRB), an inhibitor of transcription. Chemotaxis of DCs in response to HMGB-1 was demonstrated by Yang et al. (2007) who showed that migration of DCs could be induced by HMGB-1 in a dose dependent manner and that this migration is receptor mediated by the binding of HMGB-1 to the receptor of advanced glycation end products (RAGE). In relation to intra-cellular Hsp72, IL-1β and TNF-α expression and release was reduced in RAW264.7 cells which were given a non-lethal heat shock (42.5°C, 1.5 h) followed by 12 h recovery (37°C) prior to stimulation with HMGB-1. In RAW264.7 cells which were transfected to over express Hsp72, cytokine secretion was also reduced following stimulation with HMGB-1. Elevated intra-cellular levels of Hsp72 are known to inhibit NF-κβ activation as a feedback response to a stressful insult which would lead to the release of HMGB-1 (Tang et al., 2007a; Weiss et al., 2007). ### 1.16 The role of HMGB-1 within the immune system As HMGB-1 is implicated as being a mediator in the late inflammatory response and in many disease states, such as sepsis (Gaini et al., 2007b; Wang et al., 2001a), arthritis (Kokkola et al., 2001), atherosclerosis (Kalinina et al., 2004), pancreatitis (Yasuda et al., 2007), and lung inflammation (Abraham et al., 2000), HMGB-1 must play a functional role in the immune response, and when found in the extra-cellular milieu is now widely regarded as a ‘danger signal’ (Bianchi, 2007; Harris & Raucci, 2006; Williams & Ireland, 2008). 1.17 Recognition of HMGB-1 by the immune system HMGB-1 recognition by the immune system is similar to that previously described for Hsp72. In the innate immune response, HMGB-1 is released following cell damage, stimulation with LPS, and oxidative stress (Chen et al., 2004; Scaffidi et al., 2002; Tang et al., 2007b). It is able to bind PRRs and TLRs leading to the stimulation of NF-κβ activation and consequent up-regulation of cytokines (Andersson et al., 2000; O’Connor et al., 2003; Taniguchi et al., 2003; Wang et al., 2001a), leading to further secretion of HMGB-1 (Kalinina et al., 2004). The up-regulation and expression of CD markers following HMGB-1 stimulation leads to an adaptive response, whereby macrophages are activated (Fiuza et al., 2003; Rouhainen et al., 2004) and DCs mature and migrate towards HMGB-1 (Dumitriu et al., 2007). 1.18 Stimulation of the innate immune response by HMGB-1 HMGB-1 is able to stimulate the immune response by binding certain cell receptors, leading to the up-regulation of cytokines. There are only three identified receptors for HMGB-1 to date: TLR-2, TLR-4 and RAGE (Huttunen et al., 2002; Park et al., 2004). More recent studies suggest that TLR-9 (Tian et al., 2007) may be linked to HMGB-1 in association with RAGE, although direct binding has not been elucidated. The effects of binding to the three known receptors are discussed here. 1.18.1 RAGE The receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE) is a multi-ligand receptor belonging to the immunoglobulin family. It has been shown to bind s100 proteins, amyloid-β protein and HMGB-1 (Chavakis, Bierhaus & Nawroth, 2004; Huttunen et al., 2002; Schmidt et al., 2001). RAGE is found within the cell membrane but can also be found in a soluble form which blocks the action of RAGE ligands, such as HMGB-1 (Rong et al., 2004; Taniguchi et al., 2003). When HMGB-1 binds to membrane-bound RAGE, it signals partly through the MAPK signalling pathway resulting in the secretion of more HMGB-1, and autocrine stimulation of HMGB-1 leads to signalling via NF-κβ signalling pathway, resulting in the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines (Lotze & Tracey, 2005; Park et al., 2003; Riuzzi, Sorci & Donato, 2006) (Figure 1.9). 1.18.2 TLR-2/TLR-4 As described before, TLR-2 and TLR-4 are PRRs which when stimulated lead to downstream activation of NF-κβ and interference response factor (IRF) signalling pathways, and the production of cytokines and adhesion molecules which mediate innate and adaptive immunity in response to inflammation (Takeda et al., 2003). HMGB-1 binds rapidly to TLR-2 and TLR-4 expressed on RAW264.7 cells when assessed by FRET analysis, and NF-κβ activation is up-regulated in HEK-293 cells, through TLR-2 in a manner similar to the TLR-2-specific stimulus, Pam$_3$CSK$_4$, and through TLR-4, similar to LPS (Park et al., 2006b; Park et al., 2004) (Figure 1.9). Figure 1.9: Cell surface receptors involved in the immune functions of HMGB-1. Extra-cellular HMGB-1 binds to TLR2 and TLR-4 and activates the MyD88-dependent NF-κB pathway leading to the release of pro-inflammatory responses. Binding through RAGE also follows the MyD88-dependent pathway but MAPK is also implicated whereby MAPK leads to NF-κB activation and the autocrine up-regulation of HMGB-1 which is in turn secreted externally and binds TLR-2, TLR-4 and/or RAGE. (Adapted from Lotze & Tracey, 2005; Park et al., 2006; Takeda et al., 2003; Huttunen et al., 2002; Taneguchi et al., 2003). 1.19 Stimulation of the innate immune response by LPS As previously described Hsp72 and HMGB-1 are able to stimulate the immune response through PRRs which include CD14, TLR-2 and TLR-4. This stimulation is very similar, if not identical to the immune response to LPS or other bacterial products. LPS stimulates the production of cytokines and activation of the adaptive immune response by being presented to a complex receptor cluster on the surface of APCs by a lipopolysaccharide-binding protein (LBP) (Mathison et al., 1992; Triantafilou et al., 2001; Triantafilou & Triantafilou, 2002). LPS from Gram negative and lipoteichoic acid (LTA) from Gram positive bacteria are able to bind via this cluster which consists of CD14 and TLR-4 in association with MD-2. LPS binds directly to CD14 and is cross-linked specifically to TLR4 and MD-2, but only when co-expressed with CD14 (Dauphinee & Karsan, 2006; Triantafilou & Triantafilou, 2002). When bound, LPS activates NF-κβ signalling pathway through MyD88, leading to the production of various cytokines, including IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α (Dauphinee & Karsan, 2006; Latz et al., 2002; Triantafilou & Triantafilou, 2002) (Figure 1.10). TLR-2 binds Gram negative LPS, Gram positive LTA and petidoglycans, and also binds LPS-associated lipopeptides (Kurt-Jones et al., 2002; Means, Golenbock & Fenton, 2000; Zhang & Ghosh, 2001). Again, binding is associated with CD14 and activates NF-κβ signalling pathway downstream of TLR-2, and is the same as for TLR-4 (Means et al., 2000) (Figure 1.10). The immune system can also be stimulated by flagellin, the major component of flagellum of Gram negative bacteria which enables motility, such as in E. coli, (Hayashi et al., 2001). Flagellin is known to bind TLR-5 and stimulates the activation of the NF-κβ pathway (Hayashi et al., 2001; Smith et al., 2003; Ye & Gan, 2007). Figure 1.10: Stimulation of the immune response by various bacterial components. (Adapted from Means et al., 2000; Hayashi et al., 2001; Zhang et al., 2001; Kurt-Jones et al., 2002; Smith et al., 2003). 1.20 Contamination of recombinant proteins by LPS Many reports have suggested that Hsps, including Hsp72, and HMGB-1 can interact with receptors such as CD40, CD14 and TLR-2 and TLR-4 (Asea et al., 2000b; Dybdahl et al., 2005; Park et al., 2004; Wang et al., 2001b; Yu et al., 2006). As these are known receptors for bacterial products, it has been suggested by others that the effects on the immune response by recombinant Hsps are the result of contamination with bacterial products (Bausinger et al., 2002; Gao & Tsan, 2003a; Gao & Tsan, 2003b; Tsan & Gao, 2004a). This is potentially an issue with studies which have demonstrated an effect by Hsp72 which are recombinantly produced from E. coli (Asea et al., 2000a; Ménoret, 2004; Valentis et al., 2008). Recombinant protein production usually involves transfecting E. coli with plasmid DNA containing the desired gene for the protein of interest. The gene also has a polyhistidine-tag (His-tag) codon encoded to allow downstream purification of the recombinant proteins. Following sufficient replication of E. coli, cells are harvested, centrifuged and lysed (usually with detergent or enzymes) before being applied to an immobilised metal affinity column. This affinity column is bound with either nickel or cobalt ions to which the His-tag binds and any unbound proteins are removed by washing with phosphate buffer. The recombinant protein of interest is then eluted with imidazole. Bausinger et al. (2002) originally suggested that maturation of DCs was the result of LPS contamination in recombinant Hsp72 preparations. They showed that when LPS was reduced from these preparations by polymyxin B agarose, cytokine production was not induced, even in the presence of soluble CD14. Gao and Tsan (2003a) confirmed that removal of LPS by polymyxin B agarose abrogated any effect of Hsp72 on TNF-α secretion by RAW264.7 cells and that pre-incubation of cells with polymyxin B solution prior to challenge with Hsp72 gave similar results. Their study also indicated that the effect of boiling Hsp72 on TNF-α abrogation was due to the low level of LPS contaminant being heat sensitive. Similar experiments on recombinant Hsp60 demonstrated the same effect (Gao & Tsan, 2003b). In 2004, Gao and Tsan published more evidence disputing the effects of Hsps on the immune response, through use of gene expression arrays on 96 cytokine genes in murine macrophages. Hsp72 and Hsp60 (5 μg/mL) were found to have no enhanced effect on gene expression over PBS treated cells, but LPS (1 ng/mL) enhanced expression markedly. There are many studies which oppose this theory that contamination by bacterial products is solely responsible for activation of the immune response by Hsps. In 2000, Kol et al. reported that pre-incubation of PBMCs with polymyxin B did not affect the production of IL-6 but pre-incubation with anti-CD14 antibodies or heat treatment did. They further demonstrated that Hsp60 could stimulate a CD14 transfected human cell line (U373) but not a transfected rodent cell line (CHO). This suggests that another co-receptor may be involved in cytokine activation within rodent systems. It has been demonstrated that pre-incubating Hsps with anti-Hsp antibodies markedly reduces cytokine expression in a variety of systems. Retzlaff et al. (1994) showed that stimulation of IL-1β from BALB/c mice macrophages was significantly reduced when various Hsps were pre-incubated with neutralising antibodies prior to application on macrophages. Dybdahl et al. (2002) used antibodies to CD14 and TLR-4 on adherent monocytes which were able to inhibit TNF-α and IL-6 secretion in response to recombinant Hsp72. The use of antibodies in this way has been criticised as it is an indirect way of demonstrating binding of Hsps, as antibodies to receptors may just be blocking binding of LPS, and anti-Hsp antibodies (especially Hsp60) may interfere with Hsp-bound LPS to certain receptor complexes (Tsan & Gao, 2007). This is possible as there is growing evidence that some Hsps, including Hsp72 can bind LPS (Habich et al., 2005; Triantafilou et al., 2001). However, Svensson et al. (2006) applied Hsp72-rich supernatant from macrophages stimulated with oxLDL, to naïve macrophages. IL-1β and IL-12 secretion were increased from macrophages treated with this supernatant and the effect on secretion could be significantly reduced when the oxLDL supernatant was pre-incubated with neutralising anti-Hsp72 antibodies. Also reported is the effect of Hsp72 release into supernatant from transfected U937 cells, which was then applied to U937 cell cultures (Lee et al., 2006). Hsp72-rich supernatant was able to significantly increase expression of matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) gene which plays a major role in migration of cells (Watanabe et al., 1993). This lead to an increase in the migration of U937 cells compared to treatment with supernatant from mock transfected cells. Pre-incubation of Hsp72-rich supernatant with anti-Hsp72 reduced the expression of MMP-9 and also the migration of U937 cells (Lee et al., 2006). More recently, another study has demonstrated that cytokine stimulation by Hsp72, or HMGB-1 could be reduced using anti-Hsp72 or HMGB-1 antibodies in THP-1 and U937 cell lines (El Mezayen et al., 2007). This study did not use recombinant protein to stimulate, but instead used pre-stimulated necrotic cell lysate (NCL) which contained cell derived Hsp72 and HMGB-1. NCL was applied directly to cell cultures or pre-incubated with antibodies to Hsp72 or HMGB-1, then applied to cells in conjunction with LPS. They showed that nonrecombinant Hsp72 and HMGB-1 induced cytokine production could be reduced using these antibodies. Studies on the interaction between HMGB-1 and TLR-2/4 used either cell line expressed or purified porcine HMGB-1 (Park et al., 2004; Yu et al., 2006). Yu et al. (2006) added polymyxin B to the culture medium of cells prior to experiments and still demonstrated that HMGB-1 utilises TLR-2 and TLR-4 to induce TNF-α release which could be inhibited in a dose dependent manner with anti-TLR2 and TLR-4 antibodies. Interestingly, they found that HMGB-1 acted through TLR-4 in human whole blood and primary macrophages, and through TLR-2 in RAW264.7 macrophages and CHO cells over-expressing both TLRs. The reasons for this are not clear. Also, the study by El Mezayen et al. (2007) mentioned previously demonstrated that antibodies to HMGB-1 could reduce the stimulation of cytokines from human cell lines which were incubated with pre-stimulated NCL and LPS, thus showing that HMGB-1 itself does stimulate the innate immune response. These data provide strong evidence that Hsp72 and HMGB-1 do play an important role within the immune response. ### 1.21 Measuring Hsp72 Hsp72 is widely regarded as a biomarker for stress in a variety of plant and animal systems (de Pomerai, 1996; Grosvik & Goksoyr, 1996; Ireland et al., 2004; Krasko et al., 1997; La Porte, 2005; Lewis et al., 1999; Nadeau et al., 2001; Pyza et al., 1997; Schröder et al., 2000; Scofield, Bowyer & Duffy, 1999; Terry et al., 2006). There is growing evidence demonstrating that Hsp72 could be used as a marker of disease and disease progression (Adewoye et al., 2005; Dybdahl et al., 2005; Hay et al., 2004; Martin et al., 2003; Wright et al., 2000; Yasuda et al., 2006; Zhu et al., 2003), and tissue damage following exercise (Madden et al., 2008). This is due to the presence of Hsp72 in the peripheral circulation and that it is found elevated in some disease states (Njemini et al., 2003b; Wright et al., 2000). It has also been demonstrated in vitro to be released under stress compared to controls (Guzhova et al., 2001; Luo et al., 2008; Mambula & Calderwood, 2006a). The measurement of intra-cellular Hsp72 from tissue and cell extracts, and extra-cellular Hsp72 in supernatants, plasma and serum have been reported using a variety of methods, such as densitometry, flow cytometry and ELISAs (Bachelet et al., 1998; Davies et al., 2006; Dybdahl et al., 2005; Fehrenbach et al., 2000; Lang et al., 2000; Njemini et al., 2003a; Njemini, Demanet & Mets, 2005; Theodorakis, Drujan & De Maio, 1999; Tong & Luo, 2000; Walsh et al., 2001). Densitometry is generally not a valid method of measurement of any protein as it measures differences in optical density between samples of interest, rather than measurement against known standards, and it is difficult to compare between film/blot due to inherent differences between exposures (Theodorakis et al., 1999). Also, densitometry measurements using western blots for Hsp72 in complex matrices do not account for the blocking of Hsp72 binding to nitrocellulose by other proteins of a similar molecular weight, such as albumin in serum and tissue culture supernatants (Mambula & Calderwood, 2006b; Park, Yeo & Park, 2006c). The same applies when using densitometry to distinguish between mRNA expression (Theodorakis et al., 1999; Tong & Luo, 2000). Therefore, densitometry should only be used as a qualitative measure of differences in Hsp72 levels between samples. Hsp72 ELISAs are reported to accurately measure Hsp72 protein levels in a variety of matrices (Njemini et al., 2005; Njemini et al., 2003b; Walsh et al., 2001; Wright et al., 2000). The commercial Hsp72 ELISAs are also reportedly extremely sensitive at quantifying Hsp72 in various matrices (Pockley et al., 1999; Walsh et al., 2001). They are indirect sandwich ELISAs which use a monoclonal capture antibody immobilised to the plastic surface of a treated ELISA plate. Antigen in the form of standards and unknown samples are then applied to the plate and any Hsp72 binds to the capture antibody. The bound Hsp72 is then detected by a primary rabbit anti-Hsp72 antibody which is subsequently bound by a horseradish peroxidise (HRP) conjugated anti-rabbit secondary antibody. The addition of an enzyme substrate enables the colorimetric detection of bound Hsp72 (Fukushima et al., 2005; Walsh et al., 2001; Zhu et al., 2003). The commercially available ELISAs are costly and have recently been found to be unreliable in the determination of levels of Hsp72 in cell culture supernatants that contain serum, and serum or plasma samples. It is likely that in the studies quantifying Hsp72 in serum or tissue culture supernatants there are some non-specific matrix problems, such as lipids or other proteins which either prevent Hsp72 binding to the bound antibody, or that Hsp72 is already peptide or antibody bound (Asea et al., 2000a; Child et al., 2006; Murray et al., 2001; Pockley et al., 1998; Urbonaviicute et al., 2007). As a result, many studies have employed their own in-house ELISAs, although they are mainly based on those commercially available (Njemini et al., 2005; Njemini et al., 2003b; Pockley et al., 1998; Rea, McNerlan & Pockley, 2001). The reported levels of Hsp72 found in serum samples with these commercial or in-house methods are extremely varied. All the lower Hsp72 levels reported utilised a commercial Hsp72 ELISA (Stressgen Inc., EKS-700). Interestingly, the studies reporting high levels of Hsp72 in serum all perform ELISAs using the same components utilised by the commercially available ELISA. Therefore it cannot be assumed that measurements of Hsp72 in serum and cell culture supernatants which have been reported are accurate, although supporting the specificity of these antibodies are western blots that have been used to detect intra-cellular Hsp72 in cell extracts (Davies et al., 2006; Downs et al., 2002; Tavaria et al., 1996; Tsuchiya et al., 2003). Also, other studies measuring Hsp72 by ELISA in tissue culture supernatants do not use serum supplemented media when performing experiments which may result in inaccurate effects due to extra stress on cells (Mambula & Calderwood, 2006b). ### 1.22 Aims and objectives The role of extra-cellular Hsp72 is still not fully understood. This thesis aims to examine aspects of the role for Hsp72 in being a danger signal to the innate immune system. The objectives of this thesis are: - To develop a method of measuring Hsp72, both intracellular and extracellular, from cell extracts and cell culture supernatants. - To determine whether LPS contamination is responsible for the reported stimulation by recombinant Hsps. - To determine the relative contributions of Hsp72 and LPS to the immune response. - To determine the cell surface receptors Hsp72 can bind leading to stimulation of the immune system. - To determine whether cell derived Hsp72 can stimulate an immune response in macrophages. - To assess how Hsp72 may interact with other elements of the Danger model. Chapter 2 Materials and Methods 2.1 Equipment 0.2 mL PCR tubes Starlab (UK) Ltd. Part no. B1402-4300 0.6 mL Microcentrifuge tubes Thermo Fisher Scientific Inc. Part no. TUL-918-010X 1.2 mL Micro dilution tubes Starlab (UK) Ltd. Part no. E1730-9000 1.5 mL Microcentrifuge tubes Thermo Fisher Scientific Inc. Part no. TUL-918-014G 12-well Cell Culture Plates Thermo Fisher Scientific Inc. Part no. TKT-520-070H 25 cm$^2$ Cell Culture Flasks Thermo Fisher Scientific Inc. Part no. 136196 48-well Cell Culture Plates Thermo Fisher Scientific Inc. Part no. TKT-522-070S 96-well Cell Culture Plates Thermo Fisher Scientific Inc. Part no. DPS-130-010N 96-well TC-treated Black Clear Bottomed Plates Thermo Fisher Scientific Inc. Part no. DPS-130-020K 96-well aluminium insert for Dri-Block Thermo Fisher Scientific Inc. Part no. BLD-810-560Q BD Eclipse Blood Collection Needle, 21g Southern Syringe Services Ltd. Part no. 368609 \| Equipment \| Supplier \| Part Number \| \|---------------------------------\|---------------------------------\|-------------\| \| BD Vacutainer One Use Holder \| Southern Syringe Services Ltd. \| 364815 \| \| BD Vacutainer® Whole Blood Tube, K₂EDTA, 10 mL \| Southern Syringe Services Ltd. \| 367895 \| \| BD Vacutainer® Whole Blood Tube, K₂EDTA, 6 mL \| Southern Syringe Services Ltd. \| 367873 \| \| Bio-Rad ChemiDoc XRS Molecular Imaging System \| Bio-Rad Laboratories Ltd. \| 170-8070 \| \| Bio-Tek Synergy™ HT Multi-Detection Microplate Reader \| Labtech International Ltd. \| SIAFR \| \| Bright-Line™ Haemocytometer \| Sigma-Aldrich Ltd. \| Z359629 \| \| Circulating Water Bath \| Wolf Laboratories Ltd. \| GD100-P5 \| \| Dynex Ultrawash PLUS™ Plate Washer \| Jencons (Scientific) Ltd. \| 701-005 \| \| E100 Binocular Microscope \| Jencons (Scientific) Ltd. \| 450-951 \| \| Extra Thick Blot Paper \| Bio-Rad Laboratories Inc. \| 170-3965 \| Hermle Z323K Refrigerated Centrifuge VWR International Ltd. Part no. 521-0221 including: Swing-out Rotor (8 X 15 mL) Part no. 521-0189 Fixed-angle Rotor (24 X 1.5 mL) Part no. 521-0201 Fixed-angle Rotor (8 X 50 mL) Part no. 521-0194 High Speed Mini Orbital Shaker Wolf Laboratories Ltd. Part no. SSM5 HTS Transwell-96 Well Permeable Support System Thermo Fisher Scientific Inc. Part no. HTS-106-050J Inverted TE2000-U Microscope System Nikon Corporation Ltd.: Eclipse TE2000-U Basic Unit Part no. MEA51010 Eposcopic Fluorescence Attachment (Hg) Part no. MEE54000 CFI Plan Fluor ELWD Objectives Part nos. MRH38220/MRH38420/MRH18620 Hamamatsu Orca – 285 Digital CCD Camera Part no. 1HMOC285 Coolpix Digital Colour Camera Part no. 85400RUK IPLAB Suite Software Part no. 1SCSUITE LMS Series 1 Cooled Incubator Wolf Laboratories Ltd. Part no. 305 Mini Trans-Blot Electrophoretic Transfer Cell Bio-Rad Laboratories Inc. Part no. 170-3930 \| Product Description \| Manufacturer \| Part Number \| \|---------------------------------------------------------\|-------------------------------------\|-------------\| \| Mini-PROTEAN® II Electrophoresis Cell \| Bio-Rad Laboratories Inc. \| 165-2940 \| \| Nitrocellulose Membrane, 0.45 µm \| Bio-Rad Laboratories Inc. \| 162-0115 \| \| Non-binding 96-well plates \| Thermo Fisher Scientific Inc. \| FB56426 \| \| Nunc Immuno Maxisorp 96-well plates \| Thermo Fisher Scientific Inc. \| DIS-971-030J\| \| PowerPac™ 3000 Power Supply \| Bio-Rad Laboratories Inc. \| 165-5057 \| \| Sigma 1-14 Microcentrifuge \| Wolf Laboratories Ltd. \| 10016 \| \| Slide-A-Lyzer Dialysis Cassette Kit, 10K MWCO \| Pierce Biotechnology Inc. \| 66382 \| \| SwellGel® Blue albumin removal kit \| Pierce Biotechnology Inc. \| 89845 \| \| Techne Dri-Block DB-3 \| Thermo Fisher Scientific Inc. \| BLD-715-010G\| \| Temperature-controlled, stirred water bath, GD100-S5 \| Thermo Fisher Scientific Inc. \| BLE-650-010G\| \| Ultrafree®-CL microcentrifuge filters, NMWL 100 kDa \| Sigma-Aldrich Ltd. \| M-2286 \| \| Ultrafree®-CL microcentrifuge filters, NMWL 30 kDa \| Sigma-Aldrich Ltd. \| M-1661 \| Vortex mixer, mini Thermo Fisher Scientific Inc. Part no. GBI-900-010E Zeba™ desalt spin columns, 2 mL Pierce Biotechnology Inc. Part no. 89889 Zeba™ desalt spin columns, 5 mL Pierce Biotechnology Inc. Part no. 89891 ## 2.2 Reagents Acetic Acid, Gacial Sigma-Aldrich Ltd. Part no. 320099-2.5L Acrylamide VWR International Ltd. Part no. 442994J Agarose 1 Anachem Ltd. Part no. 0710-500G-R ε-Amino-n-caproic acid Sigma-Aldrich Ltd. Part no. A-7824 Ammonium Persulphate Sigma-Aldrich Ltd. Part no. A-3678 Antibiotic/Antimycotic Solution (100X) Sigma-Aldrich Ltd. Part no. A-5955 Anti-FliC (flagellin) antibody Cambridge Bioscience Ltd. Part no. 629701 Anti-mouse IgG (whole molecule)-Biotin antibody Sigma Aldrich Ltd. Part no. A-6649 Anti-Mouse IgG (whole molecule)-Peroxidase antibody Sigma-Aldrich Ltd. Part no. A-5278 Anti-Sheep IgG (whole molecule)-Peroxidase antibody Sigma-Aldrich Ltd. Part no. A-3415 Benzamidine Sigma-Aldrich Ltd. Part no. B-6506 *Borrelia p41 recombinant flagellin of E. coli* origin** Autogen Bioclear UK Ltd. Part no. ABC1111 \| Product Name \| Supplier \| Part Number \| \|--------------------------------------------------\|---------------------------------\|-------------\| \| Bovine Serum Albumin \| Sigma-Aldrich Ltd. \| A-7906 \| \| Bromophenol Blue \| Thermo Fisher Scientific Inc. \| B/4630/44 \| \| Camptothecin \| Sigma-Aldrich Ltd. \| C9911 \| \| CD14 (N-15) Blocking Peptide \| Santa Cruz Biotechnology Inc. \| sc-6998-P \| \| CD36 (N-15) Blocking Peptide \| Santa Cruz Biotechnology Inc. \| sc-5522-P \| \| CellTiter® Aqueous One Solution Cell Proliferation Assay \| Promega UK Ltd. \| G3580 \| \| Coomassie (Bradford) Protein Assay Kit \| Pierce Biotechnology Inc. \| 23200 \| \| DEGLKGKISEAD Custom-made Peptide \| KJ Ross-Petersen, Denmark. \| \| \| DEGLKGKISEAD-KLH Conjugated Custom-made Peptide \| KJ Ross-Petersen, Denmark. \| \| \| Dimethyl Sulfoxide \| Sigma-Aldrich Ltd. \| D-2650 \| \| DL-Dithiothreitol \| Sigma-Aldrich Ltd. \| D-0632 \| \| Escherichia coli DnaK Protein \| Assay Designs Inc. \| SPP-630 \| \| Product Name \| Supplier \| Part Number \| \|--------------------------------------------------\|---------------------------------\|-------------\| \| Escherichia coli GroEL Protein \| Assay Designs Inc. \| SPP-610 \| \| Escherichia coli GroES Protein \| Assay Designs Inc. \| SPP-620 \| \| Enzolyte™ Rh110 Caspase-3 Assay Kit \| Anaspec Inc. \| 71141 \| \| Escherichia coli 0111:B4 Lipopolysaccharide \| Sigma-Aldrich Ltd. \| L-4391 \| \| Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid, anhydrous (EDTA)\| Sigma-Aldrich Ltd. \| E-6758 \| \| Extravidin® peroxidise conjugate \| Sigma Aldrich Ltd. \| E-2886 \| \| EZ-Link® NHS-PEO₄-Biotinylation Kit \| Pierce Biotechnology Inc. \| 21455 \| \| Foetal Bovine Serum (FBS) \| Cambrex Corporation. \| 14-810F \| \| Glycine \| VWR International Ltd. \| 101196X \| \| HABA/Avidin Reagent \| Sigma-Aldrich Ltd. \| H-2153 \| \| Histopaque™-1077 Hybri-max Solution \| Sigma-Aldrich Ltd. \| H-8889 \| \| HMG1 (HMGB-1) Antibody \| Assay Designs Inc. \| CSA-614 \| \| Product Name \| Company \| Part Number \| \|------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|--------------------------------\|-------------\| \| HMG-1 (HMGB-1) Human Protein \| Sigma-Aldrich Ltd. \| H-4652 \| \| Human IL-1β (Interleukin-1 beta) ELISA Ready-SET-Go! Kit \| eBioscience Inc. \| 88-7010 \| \| Human IL-6 (Interleukin-6) ELISA Ready-SET-Go! Kit \| eBioscience Inc. \| 88-7066 \| \| Human IL-10 (Interleukin-10) ELISA Ready-SET-Go! Kit \| eBioscience Inc. \| 88-7106 \| \| Human TNF-α (Tumor Necrosis Factor alpha) ELISA Ready-SET Go! Kit \| eBioscience Inc. \| 88-7346 \| \| Hydrochloric Acid, 37% \| Sigma-Aldrich Ltd. \| 320331 \| \| Imject® Alum \| Pierce Biotechnology Inc. \| 77161 \| \| Immobilized TCEP Disulfide Reducing Gel \| Pierce Biotechnology Inc. \| 77712 \| \| Imperial Protein Stain \| Pierce Biotechnology Inc. \| 24615 \| \| L-Glutamine Solution (200 mM) \| Cambrex Corporation. \| 17-605E \| \| β-Mercaptoethanol \| Thermo Fisher Scientific Inc. \| M/P200/05 \| \| 2-Mercaptoethylamine HCl \| Sigma-Aldrich Ltd. \| M-9768 \| \| Chemical Name \| Supplier \| Part Number \| \|---------------------------------------------------\|---------------------------------\|-------------\| \| Methanol \| VWR International Ltd. \| 152506X \| \| Microlink™ Peptide Coupling Kit \| Pierce Biotechnology Inc. \| 20485 \| \| N,N,N',N'-Tetramethylethylenediamine (TEMED) \| Sigma-Aldrich Ltd. \| T-9281 \| \| N'N'-Methylenebisacrylamide \| VWR International Ltd. \| 4433003N \| \| Phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride \| Sigma-Aldrich Inc. \| P-7626 \| \| Phorbol 12-Myristate 13-Acetate \| Sigma-Aldrich Ltd. \| P-1585 \| \| Phosphate Buffered Saline without Ca or Mg \| Cambrex Corporation. \| BE17-516F \| \| Polymixin B Solution \| Sigma-Aldrich Ltd. \| 81271 \| \| Potassium Chloride \| Sigma-Aldrich Ltd. \| P-5405 \| \| Potassium Dihydrogen Orthophosphate \| VWR International Ltd. \| 102034B \| \| Precision Plus® Protein Dual Colour Standards \| Bio-Rad Laboratories Inc. \| 161-0374 \| \| Precision Plus® Protein Unstained Standards \| Bio-Rad Laboratories Inc. \| 161-0363 \| \| Product Name \| Company \| Part Number \| \|--------------------------------------------------\|--------------------------------\|-------------\| \| Protease Inhibitor Cocktail 100X \| Sigma-Aldrich Ltd. \| P-8340 \| \| QCL-1000 Chromogenic LAL Endotoxin Detection Assay Kit \| Cambrex Corporation. \| 50-647U \| \| Recombinant Human Hsc70 (Hsp73) Protein \| Assay Designs Inc. \| SPP-751 \| \| Recombinant Human Chaperonin 10 (Cpn10) Protein - Low Endotoxin \| Assay Designs Inc. \| ESP-110 \| \| Recombinant Human Hsp70 (Hsp72) Protein, baculovirus expressed \| Stressmarq Biosciences Inc. \| SPR-115 \| \| Recombinant Human Hsp70 (Hsp72) Protein \| Assay Designs Inc. \| ESP-555 \| \| Recombinant Human Hsp70 (Hsp72) Protein - Low Endotoxin \| Assay Designs Inc. \| NSP-555 \| \| Recombinant Human Hsp60 Protein - Low Endotoxin \| Assay Designs Inc. \| NSP-540 \| \| RPMI-1640 Medium \| Cambrex Corporation. \| BE12-702F \| \| RPMI-1640 Medium, Phenol Red-Free \| Cambrex Corporation. \| BE12-918F \| \| Sheep IgG \| Sigma-Aldrich Ltd. \| I-5131 \| \| Sodium Acetate, trihydrate \| VWR International Ltd. \| 27652.232 \| \| Chemical \| Supplier \| Part Number \| \|---------------------------\|---------------------------------\|-------------\| \| Sodium Bicarbonate \| Sigma-Aldrich Ltd. \| S-6297 \| \| Sodium Carbonate \| Sigma-Aldrich Ltd. \| S-7795 \| \| Sodium Chloride \| Sigma-Aldrich Ltd. \| S-7653 \| \| Sodium Deoxycholate \| Sigma-Aldrich Ltd. \| D-6750 \| \| Sodium Dihydrogen Orthophosphate 1-hydrate \| VWR International Ltd. \| 102454R \| \| Sodium Dodecyl Sulphate \| VWR International Ltd. \| 442444H \| \| Sucrose \| Sigma-Aldrich Ltd. \| S-7903 \| \| SwellGel® Blue Albumin Removal Kit \| Pierce Biotechnology Inc. \| 89845 \| \| SuperSignal® West Pico chemiluminescent substrate \| Pierce Biotechnology Inc. \| 30477 \| \| TATDKSTGKAN Custom-made Peptide \| KJ Ross-Petersen, Denmark. \| \| \| TATDKSTGKAN-KLH Conjugated Custom-made Peptide \| KJ Ross-Petersen, Denmark. \| \| \| 3,3',5,5'-Tetramethylbenzidine (TMB) Substrate \| Cheshire Sciences (UK) Ltd. \| UP664781 \| Thimerosal Sigma-Aldrich Ltd. Part no. T-8784 TLR2 (N-17) Blocking Peptide Santa Cruz Biotechnology Inc. Part no. sc-8689-P TLR4 (C-18) Blocking Peptide Santa Cruz Biotechnology Inc. Part no. sc-8694-P TLR5 (N-15) Blocking Peptide Santa Cruz Biotechnology Inc. Part no. sc-8695-P TLR7 (H-20) Blocking Peptide Santa Cruz Biotechnology Inc. Part no. sc-13208-P Tris (hydroxymethyl)methylamine VWR International Ltd. Part no. 443866G Triton® X-100 Sigma-Aldrich Ltd. Part no. T-8787 Trypan Blue Solution (0.4%) Sigma-Aldrich Ltd. Part no. T-8154 Tween® 20 Sigma-Aldrich Ltd. Part no. P-1379 U937 Human Cell Line European Collection of Cell Cultures. Part no. 85011440 ### 2.2.1 Hsp72 ELISA buffers 0.1 M Sodium bicarbonate buffer, pH 9.6 Sodium carbonate (10.6 g) and sodium bicarbonate (8.4 g) were added to 1 L of dH$_2$O and pH adjusted to 9.6. 0.15 M Phosphate buffered saline, pH 7.2 (PBS) Sodium chloride (8.0 g), potassium chloride (0.2 g), potassium dihydrogen orthophosphate (0.24 g) and sodium dihydrogen orthophosphate (1.44 g) were added to 1 L of dH$_2$O and pH adjusted to 7.2. Blocking buffer 0.5 % (w/v) bovine serum albumin (BSA) was dissolved in PBS. Wash Buffer Phosphate buffered saline, pH 7.2 plus 0.05 % (v/v) Tween®20 and 0.01 % (w/v) thimerosal. Detector antibody The detector antibody was a kind gift from Dr Torsten Nygård, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, Aarhus University, Denmark. It is a mouse monoclonal antibody raised against Bovine Hsp70 (H-9776, Sigma-Aldrich Ltd.) which is specific for Hsp72 and at a concentration of 1 mg/mL in PBS + 0.01 % (w/v) thimerosal. 1 M Phosphoric acid Orthophosphoric acid (6.8 mL) was diluted with dH$_2$O up to 100 mL. 2.2.2 Cell extraction buffer Tris base (0.315 g), EDTA (0.004 g) and DL-dithiothreitol (0.01 g) was made up to 100 mL with dH$_2$O and pH adjusted to 7.4. This was then supplemented with phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride (0.035 g), $\varepsilon$-amino-n-caproic acid (0.065 g), benzamidine (0.016 g) and 0.1% (v/v) Triton X-100. This was prepared up to one month in advance and stored at 4°C. 2.2.3 SDS-PAGE buffers 1.5 M Tris-HCl, pH 8.8 Tris base (18.5 g) was added to 40 mL of dH$_2$O and pH adjusted to 8.8 then made up to 100 mL with dH$_2$O. 0.5 M Tris-HCl, pH 6.8 Tris base (3.0 g) was added to 40 mL of dH$_2$O and pH adjusted to 8.8 then made up to 100 mL with dH$_2$O. Acrylamide-bis Acrylamide (30.0 g) and N’N’ bismethylene acrylamide (0.8 g) was added to 100 mL of dH$_2$O, stirred thoroughly then filtered through Whatman #1 filter paper. 10 % SDS solution SDS (10.0 g) was added to 100 mL of dH$_2$O. 10 % Ammonium persulphate Ammonium persulphate (0.1 g) was added to 1 mL of dH$_2$O. This was freshly prepared when required. 0.05 % Bromophenol blue Bromophenol blue (0.01 g) was added to 20 mL of dH$_2$O. Non-reducing sample buffer Sucrose (2.4 g), 0.5 M Tris-HCl pH 6.8 (2.0 mL), 10 % SDS solution (2.0 mL), 0.05 % bromophenol blue (0.4 mL) was added to 9.1 mL of dH$_2$O and mixed thoroughly. Reducing sample buffer Non-reducing sample buffer plus DL-dithiothreitol (0.02 g). Electrode buffer, pH 8.3 Tris base (5.4 g), glycine (25.92 g) and 10 % SDS solution (9.0 mL) was added to 900 mL of dH$_2$O and stirred thoroughly. This was prepared a day prior to use and stored at 4°C. ### 2.2.4 Western blotting buffers Transfer buffer Tris base (3.03 g), glycine (14.4 g) and 200 mL methanol was made up to 1 L with dH$_2$O. This was prepared a day prior to use and stored at 4°C. Tris buffered saline (TBS) Tris base (2.42 g) and NaCl (29.22 g) was added to 750 mL of dH$_2$O, pH adjusted to 7.5 then made up to 1 L with dH$_2$O. Washing solution (TTBS) Tween®20 (0.05 % v/v) was added to 500 mL of TBS and stirred thoroughly. Blocking solution BSA (1 % w/v) was added to 50 mL of TBS and stirred thoroughly. Antibody buffer BSA (1 % w/v) was added to 100 mL of TTBS and stirred thoroughly. 2.3 Methods 2.3.1 Screening of sheep serum for peptide-specific antibodies. Peptides were coated onto Nunc Immuno Maxisorp 96-well plates, 100 µL per well at 5 µg/mL in 0.1 M sodium bicarbonate buffer and incubated overnight at 4°C. Plates were then washed three times with ELISA wash buffer using an automated plate washer and plates were blotted dry. Plates were then blocked with 250 µL per well blocking buffer and incubated at 25°C for 1 h. Plates were washed and dried as before. Serum from immunised sheep was diluted 1/100, 1/1000, and 1/10000 in PBS and applied to the plate at 100 µL per well. Control pre-immune serum was added at the same dilutions, as controls. The plate was then incubated at 37°C for 1 h. Plates were washed and dried as before. An anti-sheep IgG peroxidase-labelled antibody was diluted 1/1000 with 0.5 % BSA (w/v) in wash buffer and applied to the plate at 100 µL per well and incubated for 1 h at 25°C. Plates were washed and dried as before and TMB substrate applied at 100 µL per well for 30 min in the dark at 25°C. The reaction was stopped with 100 µL per well 1 M phosphoric acid and the plates read at 450 nm using a microplate reader. 2.3.2 Reduction of disulfide bonds in peptides. Reduction of disulfide bonds in peptides were performed using immobilized TCEP gel. TCEP gel slurry (400 µL) was added to a Handee™ spin cup column and placed into a collection tube. The column was centrifuged at 50 g for 30 sec. Supernatant was discarded and the gel washed with 300 µL peptide coupling buffer (component of Microlink™ peptide coupling kit) by adding coupling buffer to the column, vortexing briefly and centrifuging at 50 g for 1 min. The gel was washed a total of 5 times. Peptide was dissolved in 300 µL coupling buffer (1 mg/mL), added to the top of the gel and vortexed briefly before incubation for 60 min at 25°C. Reduced peptide sample was then collected by centrifugation at 50 g for 1 min. The reduced sample was then used immediately for generating an affinity column using the Microlink™ peptide coupling kit. 2.3.3 Immobilization of peptide onto iodoacetyl gel. Peptides with free, reduced sulphydryl groups can be coupled to iodoacetyl gel to form an affinity substrate for purification of antibodies. Iodoacetyl gel reacts with free sulphydryl groups to form a stable thioether link on a 15-atom spacer which allows binding between peptide and antibody to be more efficient. The iodoacetyl gel was purchased pre-packed in spin columns for ease of use. All reagents were brought to 25°C before use. Peptide was dissolved in 300 µL of coupling buffer resulting in a peptide concentration of 1 mg/mL. The column cap was loosened and base plug was removed, and the column placed into a collection tube which was then centrifuged at 1000 g for 2 min. The cap was removed and plug reinserted, and the gel was re-suspended in 300 µL of coupling buffer. The cap was loosened, plug removed and column placed in a collection tube then centrifuged at 1000 g for 2 min. Flow through was discarded. This step was repeated twice more. The column was then plugged and 250 µL of peptide sample added directly to the gel; 5 µL of sample was retained for analysis. The cap was replaced and gel and sample mixed using a vortex at low speed. The column was then incubated overnight at 4°C followed by centrifugation at 1000 g for 1 min. The flow through was retained to determine coupling efficiency. The column was then plugged, coupling buffer (300 µL) added and cap replaced. The column was gently inverted 10 times followed by centrifugation as before. This step was repeated twice more. Flow-through was retained to determine coupling efficiency. The remaining active sites on the iodoacetyl gel were blocked by the addition of 2 mg of L-cysteine in 200 µL of coupling buffer which was added to the gel, mixed gently and incubated for 60 min at room temperature with mixing every 15 minutes. The column was then centrifuged at 1000 g for 1 min and 300 µL of wash solution (1 M NaCl) added. The column was gently inverted 10 times followed by centrifugation as before. This step was repeated twice more. PBS (300 µL) was added to the column, plug and cap replaced, and gently inverted 10 times followed by centrifugation as before. This step was repeated twice more followed by the addition of 300 µL PBS containing 0.02 % (w/v) sodium azide. The column was then stored at 4°C until required for affinity purification of antibodies. Coupling efficiency was determined by comparing protein concentration of peptide sample prior to coupling, after coupling, and flow-through from wash steps. 2.3.4 Affinity purification of polyclonal antibodies. Immobilized peptide and buffers were equilibrated to room temperature prior to use. Column cap and plug were removed and column centrifuged at 1000 g for 1 min and flow-through discarded. 300 µL of PBS was then added to the column and cap and plug replaced before mixing gently by inversion. Cap and plug were then removed and the column centrifuged as before and flow-through discarded. This step was repeated once more. The plug was then replaced and 250 µL of serum was added to the column and cap replaced; 5 µL of sample was retained for analysis. The column was then incubated overnight at 4°C. Cap and plug were removed and the column centrifuged at 1000 g for 1 min. Flow-through was retained for analysis. Wash solution was prepared by diluting original wash solution (1 M NaCl) 1:1 with dH₂O containing 0.05 % (v/v) Tween®-20. The plug was then replaced and 300 µL diluted wash solution added. The cap was replaced and column gently inverted 10 times. The plug was then removed and column was centrifuged at 1000 g for 1 min. Flow-through was retained for analysis. This step was repeated twice more. PBS (300 µL) was then added to the column and mixed as before. The column was then centrifuged as before and flow-through retained for analysis. This step was repeated twice more. PBS (300 µL) was then added to the column in 100 µL increments down the sides of the column to wash the immobilized peptide gel down. The plug was then removed and the column centrifuged as before. Flow through was discarded. The plug was replaced and 100 µL of elution buffer was added to the column and was gently mixed by tapping on the bench top. The cap was replaced and the column was incubated at room temperature for 10 min. Following incubation the column cap and plug were removed and the column centrifuged at 1000 g for 1 min. Eluate was collected and immediately neutralised with 5 µL of 1 M Tris, pH 9.0. Elution steps were repeated four more times to ensure maximum elution of pure antibodies, followed by buffer exchange to PBS using desalting columns (Section 2.3.4). The column was then regenerated by washing three times with 300 µL of coupling buffer followed by two washes with PBS. PBS containing 0.02 % (w/v) sodium azide (300 µL) was then added to the column and stored at 4°C until required for use again. 2.3.5 Buffer exchange and desalting of purified antibodies. Buffer exchange and desalting of antibodies was performed using Zeba™ desalting spin columns. Columns and buffers were brought to 25°C prior to use. The column bottom closure was twisted off and cap loosened then placed in a 15 mL collection tube. The column was centrifuged at 1000 g for 2 min to remove storage solution. PBS buffer (2.5 mL for 5 mL column, and 1 mL for 2 mL column) was then added dropwise to the column. The column was then centrifuged as before and buffer discarded. This was repeated 4 times to ensure complete removal of residual storage solution. Antibody sample (1 mL for 5 mL column, and 500 µL for 2 mL column) was then pipetted slowly onto the centre of the resin bed followed by a stacker of ddH₂O (100 µL) to ensure maximal protein recovery. The column was then centrifuged at 1000 g for 2 min and sample collected. ### 2.3.6 Biotinylation of antibodies All reagents were brought to room temperature before use. IgG at a concentration of between 1-10 mg diluted in 0.5-2 mL of PBS was prepared. NHS-PEO₄-biotin was dissolved in 170 µL of dH₂O to prepare a 20 mM solution. The appropriate volume of NHS-PEO₄-biotin was added to the IgG sample. The reaction was then incubated on ice for two hours and the biotinylated IgG sample was collected and desalted using desalting spin columns (See method 2.3.5). ### 2.3.7 Determination of biotin incorporation. A generic HABA assay was used to determine the number of biotin molecules incorporated per antibody molecule. HABA/avidin solution 45 µL was pipetted in triplicate onto a non-binding 96-well microtitre plate well and the absorbance was measured at 500 nm. The value was recorded as $A_{500}$ HABA/avidin. Then 5 µL of biotinylated antibody was added to each well containing the HABA/avidin solution and mixed briefly on a plate shaker. Absorbance was then measured multiple times at 500 nm until the signal was stable for at least 15 sec. This value was then recorded as $A_{500}$ HABA/avidin/biotin. The calculation to determine biotin incorporation was as follows: Calculation 1 – concentration of biotinylated protein in mM/mL $$mM\ protein\ per\ ml = \frac{protein\ concentration\ (mg/ml)}{molecular\ weight\ of\ protein\ (mg/mM)} = Calc\ 1$$ Calculation 2 – change in absorbance at 500 nm $$\Delta A_{500} = (A_{500}\ HABA/avidin) - (A_{500}\ HABA/avidin/biotin) = Calc\ 2$$ Calculation 3 – concentration of mM biotin per mL Calculation 4 – mM of biotin per mM of antibody \[ \frac{\text{mM biotin}}{\text{ml reaction mixture}} = \frac{\text{Calc 2}}{34,000 \times 0.5} = \text{Calc 3} \] \[ \text{mM biotin per mM antibody} = \frac{(\text{Calc 3}) \times 10 \times \text{dilution factor}}{\text{Calc 1}} \] ### 2.3.8 Determination of protein concentration of samples. Sample protein concentration was determined using a coomassie dye protein assay which is a modified version of the Bradford binding assay (Bradford, 1976). It utilises coomassie blue dye which binds to amino acid residues resulting in a shift in absorbance from 465 nm to 595 nm when protein is bound. This can be visualised as a colour change from brown to blue. All protein concentrations were determined using the microplate method. Protein standards (2 - 0.125 mg/mL) were prepared using bovine serum albumin (BSA) diluted in the appropriate buffer. Standards, zero control and samples (5 µL) were added in triplicate to a non-binding 96-well microtitre plate followed by the addition of 250 µL of dye reagent solution. The plate was then incubated at 25°C with shaking for 5 min. Absorbance was then measured at 595 nm. If sample concentrations were higher than within the working range of the assay, they were subsequently diluted in appropriate buffer until within range. If sample concentrations were lower than the working range, the assay was modified as follows: BSA standards were prepared within the range 100 - 3.125 µg/mL in appropriate buffer. Standards, zero control and samples (75 µL) were then dispensed onto a non-binding 96-well microtitre plate in triplicate followed by the addition of 75 µL of dye reagent concentrate. The plate was incubated at 25°C with shaking for 5 min and absorbance read at 595 nm. ### 2.3.9 Determination of IgG concentration. Purified IgG concentration was measured using the method described in section 2.3.8 except that IgG from the appropriate animal species was used to generate the standards instead of BSA. All other conditions remained the same. 2.3.10 SDS-PAGE electrophoresis. Sodium dodecyl sulphate – polyacrylamide electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) was used to analyse cellular protein extracts, proteins released into the extra-cellular media, and to determine antibody purification techniques. Following determination of protein or IgG concentration (Sections 2.3.8 - 2.3.9), all samples were adjusted in the appropriate buffer until all contained the same amount of protein. They were then diluted 1:1 with sample buffer (either reducing or non-reducing (Section 2.2.3). All reduced samples were denatured by heating at 75°C for 10 min followed by cooling for 10 min prior to use. Non-reduced samples were applied directly onto the gel. Precision Plus® standards that do not require any pre-treatment were used as a molecular weight reference. Samples were separated using homogenous percentage SDS-PAGE gels as described by Laemmli (1970) using the Bio-Rad mini-protean II electrophoresis apparatus. For all buffers required see section 2.2.3. All samples were run using 10 % separating gels. The following method is for running two 1 mm spaced gels. The 10 % separating gels were prepared by adding the following to a small side-arm flask: dH$_2$O (6.05 mL), 1.5M Tris-HCl, pH 8.8 (3.75 mL), 10% SDS solution (150 µL) and acrylamide-bis (5.0 mL). This was then degassed for 15 min before the addition of 10 % ammonium persulphate (50 µL) and TEMED (7.5 µL). The solution was then quickly pipetted between the glass plates until 2 cm from the top of the inner plate, then carefully overlaid with 1 mL of dH$_2$O and allowed to polymerise for 1 h. The dH$_2$O was poured off and a 3 % stacking gel was prepared by adding the following to a small side-arm flask: dH$_2$O (3.15 mL), 0.5 M Tris-HCl, pH 6.8 (1.25 mL), 10 % SDS solution (50 µL) and acrylamide-bis (500 µL). This was then degassed for 15 min before the addition of 10 % ammonium persulphate (50 µL) and TEMED (5.0 µL). The well combs were put into place and the stacking gel solution poured and allowed to polymerise for 1 h. The well combs were then removed and the gel apparatus assembled and electrode buffer added to the inner reservoir and outer tank. Standards and samples were then loaded onto the stacking gel and the gel run at 200 V (constant voltage) until the bromophenol blue dye front was within 2 mm of the bottom of the separating gel. The gel was then carefully removed and either stained for total proteins or electro-transferred by western blotting onto nitrocellulose membrane for probing with specific antibodies. 2.3.11 SDS-PAGE total protein staining. For visualisation of proteins on SDS-PAGE gels, Imperial protein stain which is a modified coomasie blue dye was used. Following SDS-PAGE, the gels were removed from the apparatus and washed three times with 100 mL dH$_2$O, with shaking, followed by staining with 20 mL per gel of protein stain for 1 h, with shaking. The stain was then poured off and the gel washed with 200 mL dH$_2$O which was replaced frequently to increase band intensity in relation to background. This was maximized by overnight washing with 200 mL dH$_2$O. Stained gels were visualized and recorded using the Bio-Rad ChemiDoc imaging system. 2.3.12 Western blotting. Following SDS-PAGE electrophoresis (Section 2.3.10), gels were subjected to electrophoretic transfer to nitrocellulose membrane by western blot using the Bio-Rad mini-trans blot apparatus. For all reagents required see section 2.2.4. For each gel, pre-cut nitrocellulose membrane, pre-cut filter paper and sponges were soaked in transfer buffer. The transfer cassette was then assembled as described below from the bottom upwards: CLEAR PLASTIC (TOP) SPONGE FILTER PAPER (X1) NITROCELLULOSE MEMBRANE SEPARATING GEL FILTER PAPER (X2) SPONGE BLACK PLASTIC (BOTTOM) When placing the membrane on top of the gel, care was taken to ensure there were no air bubbles in between and good contact was made. This was achieved by using a test tube as a rolling pin. The transfer cassette was then closed and placed within the blotting apparatus along with the cooling unit and that tank filled with transfer buffer. The transfer was run at 100 V (constant voltage) for 1 h. Following transfer the nitrocellulose blot was removed and immuno-stained using specific antibodies. 2.3.13 Immuno-staining of western blots. For all buffers required see section 2.2.4. After western blotting electro transfer, the blot was blocked in blocking solution for 1 h at 25°C. Blocking solution was then poured off and the blot incubated with antigen specific antibody at the appropriate dilution in 50 mL of antibody buffer (Section 2.2.4) and incubated overnight at 4°C. Solution was then discarded and the blot washed three times with 50 mL washing solution before being incubated with appropriate dilution of secondary enzyme-labelled antibody or enzyme-labelled avidin in 50 mL antibody buffer for 1 h at 25°C. The blot was washed five times with 50 mL washing solution then incubated with 2 mL Supersignal West Pico chemiluminescent substrate for 5 min, then visualised and recorded using the Bio-Rad ChemiDoc imaging system. 2.3.14 Optimisation of primary and secondary labelled antibody dilutions for Hsp72 ELISAs. Nunc Immuno Maxisorp plates were used throughout ELISA development. Primary antibody and secondary labelled antibody dilutions were optimised through use of checkerboard titrations to ensure optimal signal to noise ratio between the highest standard required and zero control. Plates were coated overnight at 4°C with either DEG or TAT purified antibodies at 2 µg/mL in 0.1 M sodium bicarbonate buffer. Plates were then washed three times with 350 µL/well wash buffer and blotted dry, before being blocked with 300 µL/well of 0.5 % (w/v) BSA in PBS and incubated at 25°C for 1 h. Plates were then washed three times as before and blotted dry. An appropriate high standard of pure Hsp72 protein was prepared in the appropriate buffer, along with zero controls of buffer only. These were applied to the plates at 100 µL/well and sealed before incubation at 37°C for 2 h. Plates were then washed five times with 350 µL/well wash buffer with a 20 sec soak time between each wash, then blotted dry. Primary antibody was serially diluted in 0.5 % (w/v) BSA in wash buffer at relevant dilutions, and 100 µL/well applied to the plates for 1 h at 37°C. Plates were then washed five times with 350 µL/well wash buffer with a 20 sec soak time between each wash, and then blotted dry. Secondary labelled antibody was serially diluted at relevant dilutions with 0.5 % (w/v) BSA in wash buffer was applied to the plates (100 µL/well) and incubated at 37°C for 1 h. The plates were then washed five times as before and blotted dry before the application of 100 µL/well TMB substrate for 45 min, with shaking, at 25°C in the dark. The reaction was stopped with the addition of 100 µL/well 1 M phosphoric acid. The plates were then read at 450 nm on a microplate reader. 2.3.15 Intra-assay variability of optimal Hsp72 ELISA conditions. Intra-assay variability was determined by applying 6 replicates of each standard and zero control to the optimised ELISA. 2.3.16 Inter-assay variability of optimal Hsp72 ELISA conditions. Inter-assay variability was determined by applying 2 replicates of each standard and zero control to five individual plates. 2.3.17 Recovery assays of Hsp72 spiked, and non-spiked cell extracts using an optimised Hsp72 ELISA. Recovery of Hsp72 in cell extracts was determined by applying spiked or non-spiked samples to the optimised ELISA. Control (37°C) or heat-treated (40°C, 4 h) U937 cell extracts were diluted in extraction buffer to contain 100 µg/mL total protein and applied to the plate as non-spiked samples. Spiked samples were prepared by diluting cell extracts to contain 200 µg/mL total protein. This was then diluted 1:1 with extraction buffer containing 100, 50 and 10 ng/mL Hsp72 to result in cell extracts at 100 µg/mL total protein and spiked with 50, 25 and 5 ng/mL Hsp72. 2.3.18 Recovery assays of Hsp72 spiked, and non-spiked tissue extracts using an optimised Hsp72 ELISA. Recovery of Hsp72 in tissue extracts was determined by applying spiked or non-spiked samples to the optimised ELISA. Tissue extracts (muscle and brain from the domestic Duroc pig) were diluted in extraction buffer to contain 10 µg/mL total protein and applied to the plate as non-spiked samples. Spiked samples were prepared by diluting cell extracts to contain 20 µg/mL total protein. This was then diluted 1:1 with extraction buffer containing 100, 50 and 10 ng/mL Hsp72 to result in cell extracts at 10 µg/mL total protein and spiked with 50, 25 and 5 ng/mL Hsp72. 2.3.19 Recovery assays of Hsp72 spiked, and non-spiked tissue culture supernatant using an optimised Hsp72 ELISA. Recovery of Hsp72 from tissue culture supernatant was determined by applying spiked or non-spiked samples to the optimised ELISA. Spiked samples were prepared by adding pure Hsp72 to 10 % RPMI or 10 % RPMI from heat-treated U937 cells (1 X 10^6/mL, 42°C, 2 h) at 25, 10 and 2.5 ng/mL. Non-spiked 10% RPMI was used as a 0 ng/mL control. 2.3.20 Albumin depletion from serum and tissue culture supernatant. One disc of SwellGel® Blue per sample was placed in a mini-spin column and re-hydrated with 380 µL ddH_2O and vortexed for 5 sec. The bottom closure of the mini-spin column was twisted off and the cap loosened, then the column placed in a 2 mL collection tube and centrifuged at 12,000 g for 1 min. Flow through was discarded. Serum or supernatant (50 µL) was then added to the resin and incubated for 2 min. The column was then centrifuged as before and flow-through reapplied to the column for 2 min to ensure maximal albumin binding. The column was centrifuged as before and flow-through retained. The column was then discarded. If sample required more albumin removal, the sample was applied to a new SwellGel® column and the process repeated until all albumin was removed. Albumin removal was determined by SDS-PAGE electrophoresis (Section 2.3.10). 2.3.21 Cell culture conditions. All culture and manipulation of cells was performed using aseptic technique in a Class II tissue culture hood. All cells were grown or incubated at 37°C in a humidified atmosphere under 5% CO_2 unless stated otherwise. 2.3.22 Thawing of frozen cell lines. RPMI-1640 medium was equilibrated at 37°C then supplemented with 10% (v/v) foetal bovine serum (FBS) (10% RPMI). Vials of cells were removed from liquid nitrogen and rapidly thawed at 37°C until almost completely thawed. Cell culture medium (9 mL) was dispensed into a 25 cm² tissue culture flask and the thawed cell suspension was then dispensed into the flask and observed under an inverted light microscope for viability. The flask was then incubated at 37°C. 2.3.23 Growth of U937 cell line. Human monocytic U937 cells were grown in 10% RPMI and maintained at a density of between approximately 2 - 9 X 10^6 cells/mL. Cells were passaged every 3-4 days and observed for viability using trypan blue exclusion (Section 2.3.24). 2.3.24 Cell counting and viability testing. Cell number and viability testing were performed using trypan blue dye exclusion. Routinely 500 µL of cell suspension was diluted 1:1 with trypan blue and incubated for 10 min. Viability and counts were carried out four times with 20 µL of cell/trypan blue suspension using a haemocytometer. 2.3.25 Freezing and storage of cell lines. Cells were routinely frozen down to maintain minimal passaging of cells. Sub-confluent cells (~5 X 10^5 cells/mL) were transferred to a 15 mL centrifuge tube and centrifuged at 300 g for 3 min at 25°C. The medium was removed and the cell pellet re-suspended in 1 mL of ice-cold freeze medium (FBS supplemented with 10% (v/v) sterile dimethyl sulfoxide) and transferred to a cryovial. Cryovials were incubated in vapour phase liquid nitrogen for at least 2 h and were then transferred to liquid nitrogen and stored until required. 2.3.26 Preparation of heat-inactivated FBS. FBS was heat-inactivated to inactivate heat-labile components such as growth factors and complement proteins which may adversely affect experimental results. FBS was allowed to thaw at 37°C before being placed in a 56°C water bath for 30 min. The FBS was swirled every 5 min during the 56°C incubation. After 30 min the FBS was removed and allowed to cool on ice. 2.3.27 Preparation of cell lines prior to experimental treatments. Prior to treatments, U937 cells were centrifuged at 400 g, washed once with RPMI then re-suspended in phenol red free RPMI containing 10 % (v/v) heat-inactivated FBS (10 % HI-RPMI) plated out into 12-well cell culture plates at ~5 X 10^5 cells/mL (1 mL/well). 2.3.28 Transformation of U937 cells into U937 macrophages. U937 cells were grown as described previously (Section 2.3.23). Prior to experimental treatments, cells were removed from flasks and viability tested as described in section 2.3.24. Cells in log phase of growth and at >95% viability were then centrifuged at 500 g for 3 min at 25°C and re-suspended at ~5 X 10^5 cells/mL in phenol red-free RPMI medium supplemented with 10% heat-inactivated FBS (10 % HI-RPMI), containing 10 ng/mL phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA). Cells were plated out in 12-well cell culture plates at 1 mL/well and incubated for 48 h to enable differentiation of cells. After this time the media was removed and cells rinsed twice with 10% HI-RPMI then 1 mL/well fresh 10% HI-RPMI media was added. U937 macrophages were then ready for experimental treatments. U937 cells usually grow in a single cell suspension. When transformed with PMA, U937 cells became larger and began to adhere to the well surface within 24 hours, with some forming clusters. Within 48 hours the majority (>90%) of U937 cells adhered to the well surface and became granular with large lysosomes which is consistent with maturation of monocytes to macrophages (Figure 2.1). ![Image](image1.png) ![Image](image2.png) Figure 2.1: Illustration of normal (A) and PMA transformed (B) U937 cells. ### 2.3.29 Isolation of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). Venous whole blood was collected using K$_2$EDTA vacutainers. Aliquots (3 mL) of whole blood were mixed by inversion with 5 mL of PBS without Ca$^{++}$ or Mg$^{++}$ in a 15 mL centrifuge tube. Histopaque® (3 mL) was then carefully layered underneath the blood/PBS and centrifuged at 400 g for 30 min. With a Pasteur pipette the upper layer of plasma was removed to within 0.5 cm of the PBMC interface. PBMCs were then carefully transferred to a new 15 mL centrifuge tube with 10 mL PBS and mixed by inversion. This was centrifuged for 10 min at 250 g after which the supernatant was discarded. The pellet was re-suspended in 5 mL PBS and this was centrifuged for 10 min at 250 g after which the supernatant was removed and the step repeated once. PBMCs were then re-suspended in 10% HI-RPMI (5 mL) followed by counting and viability testing using trypan blue exclusion (Section 2.3.19). PBMCs were then diluted with 10% HI-RPMI to adjust cell density to $\sim 1 \times 10^6$ cells/mL and plated out in 12-well cell culture plates at 1mL/well. These were then incubated for 1 h prior to treatment. 2.3.30 Determination of apoptosis by measurement of caspase-3. Caspase-3 activity was determined using a fluorescence assay which measures caspase-3 and caspase-7. Caspase-3 plays an essential part in apoptosis and is common to most apoptotic pathways. It is an effector caspase which is cleaved and activated by granzyme B. Caspase-3 then activates a caspase proteolytic cascade leading to apoptosis. The assay kit used to measure caspase-3 activity utilises the synthetic peptide (Z-DEVD)₂-Rh110 which, upon caspase-3 cleavage, generates the green fluorophore Rh110 (rhodamine 110). This green fluorescence can be detected at $ \lambda_{\text{ex}} $ 496 nm/$ \lambda_{\text{em}} $ 520 nm using a fluorescence microplate reader. The assay also measures downstream caspase-7 as the substrate specificity for both caspases is the same. Typically, 100 $ \mu $L of cells ($ \sim 5 \times 10^4 $ per well) were plated out in a clear-bottomed black 96-well cell culture plate. Cells were then treated with 50 $ \mu $L of test compound for the desired time. Caspase-3 substrate solution (40 $ \mu $L, 1M DL-dithiothreitol (DTT); 1 mL assay buffer; 10.4 $ \mu $L caspase-3 substrate) was then added to the plate at 50 $ \mu $L caspase-3 substrate solution per well. The plate was incubated in the dark for 60 min at 25°C, and fluorescence intensity measured at $ \lambda_{\text{ex}} $ 496 nm/$ \lambda_{\text{em}} $ 520 nm using a microplate reader. 2.3.31 Determination of necrosis by measurement of propidium iodide staining. Typically, 100 $ \mu $L of cells ($ \sim 5 \times 10^4 $ per well) were plated out in a clear-bottomed black 96-well cell culture plate. Included on the plate were positive controls consisting of $ \sim 5 \times 10^5 $ necrotic cells/mL; negative controls consisting of $ \sim 5 \times 10^4 $ per well of untreated cells; and background controls of media only. Cells were then treated with 10 $ \mu $L of test compound for the desired time followed by the addition of 100 $ \mu $L/well of 5 $ \mu $g/mL propidium iodide in PBS. The plate was then incubated for 20 min in the dark at 25°C before fluorescence intensity was measured at $ \lambda_{\text{ex}} $ 535 nm/$ \lambda_{\text{em}} $ 617 nm using a microplate reader. Necrotic cells were prepared by autoclaving 5 $ \times $ 10$ ^5 $ cells/mL in 10 % RPMI at 121°C. for 20 min. 2.3.32 Detection of endotoxin contamination by LAL assay. Endotoxin concentrations can be measured by the Limulus amebocyte lysate (LAL) assay which utilises a purified enzymatic protein derived from the circulating amebocytes of the horsehose crab, Limulus polyphemus. Gram-negative endotoxin is able to catalyse the activation of the purified amebocyte protein and in the presence of p-nitroaniline (pNA) releases a yellow substrate which can be measured photometrically. All materials used for the LAL assay were brought to room temperature before use and the assay was performed carefully to reduce the possibility of any external endotoxin contamination. All glassware and plastic consumables were sterilised before use. Endotoxin standards were prepared in the range 1 - 0.125 EU/mL with LAL reagent water. A sterile non-binding plate was pre-equilibrated to 37°C in a heating block. With the plate still on the heating block, standards, blank and samples were carefully pipetted in duplicate onto the plate at 50 µL per well. Then 50 µL of prepared LAL protein extract was then added to each well and the plate gently tapped to enable mixing. The plate was then incubated for 10 min followed by the addition of 100 µL pre-warmed p-NA substrate solution and the plate tapped gently. The plate was then incubated for a further 6 min on the heating block followed by 100 µL of 25% (v/v) acetic acid to stop the reaction. The plate was then read at 405 nm using a microplate reader. 2.3.33 Determination of IL-1β concentration by ELISA. The concentration of IL-1β secretion was quantified by a commercially available enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The ELISA format is an indirect sandwich assay that uses a plate bound antibody to capture antigen (in this case IL-1β) in an unknown sample followed by a biotinylated detector antibody and, a peroxidise-labelled avidin. TMB substrate is then added to convert the peroxidase to a detectable colorimetric form which is converted to an absorbance value with a microplate reader at 450 nm. Using a defined set of IL-1β standards unknown samples can be quantified. An ELISA plate was coated with 100 µL/well of capture antibody in coating buffer at 1/250 dilution. The plate was sealed and incubated at 4°C overnight. The plate was then washed five times with 250 µL/well wash buffer with a soak time between each wash of 1 min. The plate was then blotted dry and all wells were blocked with 200 µL/well of 1X assay diluent and incubated for 1 h at 25°C. The plate was washed and blotted dry as before. Standards (0-500 pg/mL) were prepared by diluting IL-1β stock in 1X assay diluent. Samples were either applied directly to the plate or diluted, if required, in 1X assay diluent. Standards and samples were applied at 100 µL/well to the appropriate wells, the plate sealed and incubated overnight at 4°C. The plate was then washed and dried as before and 100 µL/well of biotinylated detector antibody diluted (1/250) in 1X assay diluent was added and incubated at 25°C for 1 h. The plate was then washed and dried as before and 100 µL/well of peroxidase labelled avidin diluted (1/250) in 1X assay diluent was added and incubated at 25°C for 1 h. The plate was then washed seven times with a soak time of 1 min between washes and blotted dry. Substrate solution was then added to the plate (100 µL/well) and incubated for 15 min before the addition of 1M orthophosphoric acid (50 µL/well) to stop the reaction. The plate was then read at 450 nm using a plate reader. Absorbance values were then converted to IL-1β concentrations using Prism™ 5.01 software. ### 2.3.34 Determination of IL-6 concentration by ELISA. The concentration of IL-6 was determined using a commercially available indirect sandwich ELISA. An ELISA plate was coated with 100 µL/well of capture antibody in coating buffer at 1/250 dilution. The plate was sealed and incubated at 4°C overnight. The plate was then washed five times with 250 µL/well wash buffer with a soak time between each wash of 1 min. The plate was then blotted dry and all wells were blocked with 200 µL/well of 1X assay diluent and incubated for 1 h at 25°C. The plate was washed and blotted dry as before. Standards (0 - 200 pg/mL) were prepared by diluting IL-6 stock in 1X assay diluent. Samples were either applied directly to the plate or diluted, if required, in 1X assay diluent. Standards and samples were applied at 100 µL/well to the appropriate wells, the plate sealed and incubated overnight at 4°C. The plate was then washed and dried as before and 100 µL/well of biotinylated detector antibody diluted (1/250) in 1X assay diluent was added and incubated at 25°C for 1 h. The plate was then washed and dried as before and 100 µL/well of peroxidase labelled avidin diluted (1/250) in 1X assay diluent was added and incubated at 25°C for 1 h. The plate was then washed seven times with a soak time of 1 min between washes and blotted dry. Substrate solution was then added to the plate (100 µL/well) and incubated for 15 min before the addition of 1M orthophosphoric acid (50 µL/well) to stop the reaction. The plate was then read at 450 nm using a plate reader. Absorbance values were then converted to IL-6 concentrations using Prism™ 5.01 software. 2.3.35 Determination of TNF-α concentration by ELISA. The concentration of TNF-α was determined using a commercially available indirect sandwich ELISA. An ELISA plate was coated with 100 µL/well of capture antibody in coating buffer at 1/250 dilution. The plate was sealed and incubated at 4°C overnight. The plate was then washed five times with 250 µL/well wash buffer with a soak time between each wash of 1 min. The plate was then blotted dry and all wells were blocked with 200 µL/well of 1X assay diluent and incubated for 1 h at 25°C. The plate was washed and blotted dry as before. Standards (0-500 pg/mL) were prepared by diluting TNF-α stock in 1X assay diluent. Samples were either applied directly to the plate or diluted, if required, in 1X assay diluent. Standards and samples were applied at 100 µL/well to the appropriate wells, the plate sealed and incubated overnight at 4°C. The plate was then washed and dried as before and 100 µL/well of biotinylated detector antibody diluted (1/250) in 1X assay diluent was added and incubated at 25°C for 1 h. The plate was then washed and dried as before and 100 µL/well of peroxidase labelled avidin diluted (1/250) in 1X assay diluent was added and incubated at 25°C for 1 h. The plate was then washed seven times with a soak time of 1 min between washes and blotted dry. Substrate solution was then added to the plate (100 µL/well) and incubated for 15 min before the addition of 1M orthophosphoric acid (50 µL/well) to stop the reaction. The plate was then read at 450 nm using a plate reader. Absorbance values were then converted to TNF-α concentrations using Prism™ 5.01 software. 2.3.36 Determination of IL-10 concentration by ELISA. The concentration of IL-10 was determined using a commercially available indirect sandwich ELISA. An ELISA plate was coated with 100 µL/well of capture antibody in coating buffer at 1/250 dilution. The plate was sealed and incubated at 4°C overnight. The plate was then washed five times with 250 µL/well wash buffer with a soak time between each wash of 1 min. The plate was then blotted dry and all wells were blocked with 200 µL/well of 1X assay diluent and incubated for 1 h at 25°C. The plate was washed and blotted dry as before. Standards (0 - 200 pg/mL) were prepared by diluting IL-10 stock in 1X assay diluent. Samples were either applied directly to the plate or diluted, if required, in 1X assay diluent. Standards and samples were applied at 100 µL/well to the appropriate wells, the plate sealed and incubated overnight at 4°C. The plate was then washed and dried as before and 100 µL/well of biotinylated detector antibody diluted (1/250) in 1X assay diluent was added and incubated at room temperature for 1 h. The plate was then washed and dried as before and 100 µL/well of peroxidase labelled avidin diluted (1/250) in 1X assay diluent was added and incubated at 25°C for 1 h. The plate was then washed seven times with a soak time of 1 min between washes and blotted dry. Substrate solution was then added to the plate (100 µL/well) and incubated for 15 min before the addition of 1M orthophosphoric acid (50 µL/well) to stop the reaction. The plate was then read at 450 nm using a plate reader. Absorbance values were then converted to IL-10 concentrations using Prism™ 5.01 software. 2.3.37 U937 macrophage migration assay. U937 macrophages were prepared as in section 2.3.28, and harvested by scraping, then centrifuged at 500 g for 3 min at 25°C, and re-suspended in fresh 10% HI-RPMI at ~5 X 10^5 cells/mL. Macrophages (75 µL) were added to the upper compartment of a modified Boyden chamber (HTS Transwell® permeable support) and treatment (235 µL) added to the lower compartment (Figure 2.2). Migration of cells was monitored at 4 h. Migrated cells were counted and viability tested by trypan blue exclusion (Section 2.3.24) and photographed using the inverted TE2000-U microscope system. 2.3.38 Preparation of necrotic cell lysate (NCL). U937 macrophages were prepared as described in section 2.3.28, in 25 cm^3 flasks. Flasks were incubated at 40°C (heat-treated) for 4 h then media was removed and cells washed twice with 10% HI-RPMI before being harvested by scraping in fresh media. Cells were then subjected to repeated (3 times) freezing with liquid nitrogen and thawing at 25°C, before centrifugation at 13 500 g for 30 min. Centrifugation was repeated once more to remove cell debris. The media containing intra-cellular contents was then used immediately for experimental treatments. Figure 2.2: Illustration of a modified Boyden chamber used for U937 macrophage migration assay. (A) Macrophages are added to the top chamber, treatment to the bottom chamber. (B) As treatment diffuses through pores macrophages are activated and begin to migrate through the pores. (C) As the macrophages are further stimulated, more migration occurs. (D) Following treatment, the number of cells which have migrated through the pores are counted. The microporous membrane pore size is 8.0 µm. U937 macrophages are approximately 15-20 µm. 2.3.39 Statistical analyses. All statistical analyses were performed using Prism™ 5.01 (GraphPad Software Inc., San Diego, USA). All data are represented as the mean ± standard error of the mean (SEM) unless stated otherwise in the figure legend. Numbers of replicates (n) are shown in parentheses in figure legends where appropriate. Statistical significance of single variables was tested using the unpaired Student’s two-tailed t-test. Dose- or time-dependent effects were tested using one-way or two-way ANOVA, with appropriate post hoc multiple comparison test shown in parentheses in figure legends. Chapter 3 Design and Development of an ELISA for Measuring Inducible Hsp70 (Hsp72). 3.1 Introduction The measurement of intra-cellular Hsp72 from tissue and cell extracts, and extra-cellular Hsp72 in supernatants, plasma and serum have been reported using a variety of methods (Fehrenbach et al., 2000; Njemini et al., 2005; Njemini et al., 2003b; Walsh et al., 2001). Measurements have generally utilised ELISAs which reportedly accurately measure Hsp72 protein levels in a variety of matrices (Njemini et al., 2003a; Njemini et al., 2005; Walsh et al., 2001; Wright et al., 2000). The commercial Hsp72 ELISAs are indirect sandwich assays which use a monoclonal capture antibody immobilised to the plastic surface of a treated ELISA plate. Antigen in the form of standards and unknown samples are then applied to the plate and any Hsp72 binds to the capture antibody. The bound Hsp72 is then detected by a primary rabbit anti-Hsp72 antibody which is subsequently bound by a horseradish peroxidise conjugated anti-rabbit secondary antibody. The addition of an enzyme substrate enables the colorimetric detection of bound Hsp72 (Fukushima et al., 2005; Walsh et al., 2001; Zhu et al., 2003) (Figure 3.1). Both of the antibodies used by the commercially available kits have been generated using peptide sequences from the human Hsp72 protein sequence HSPA1A (accession number M11717 (NCBI Database)). The commercially available ELISAs are costly and have recently been found to be unreliable in the determination of levels of extra-cellular Hsp72 in cell culture supernatants that contain serum, and serum or plasma samples. This is likely due to matrix effects of samples containing large amounts of proteins and lipids which can interfere with protein detection in ELISAs (Murray et al., 2001). As a result, many studies have employed their own in-house ELISAs, although they are mainly based on those commercially available (Njemini et al., 2005; Njemini et al., 2003c; Pockley et al., 1998; Rea et al., 2001). Also, other studies measuring Hsp72 by ELISA in tissue culture supernatants do not use serum supplemented media when performing experiments which may result in inaccurate effects due to extra stress on cells (Mambula & Calderwood, 2006b). The reported levels of extra-cellular Hsp72 found in serum samples with the commercial or in-house methods are extremely varied (Table 3.1). All the lower Hsp72 levels reported utilised a commercial Hsp72 ELISA (Stressgen Inc.). Intriguingly, the studies reporting high levels of Hsp72 in serum all perform ELISAs using the same components utilised by the commercially available ELISA. Therefore it cannot be assumed that measurements of Hsp72 in serum and cell culture supernatants which have been reported are accurate. An important aspect missing from all of these studies is a secondary detection method to support the detection of Hsp72 in complex matrices such as cell supernatants containing serum, and serum alone. Therefore there has been some concern about the ability of these ELISAs to accurately quantify extra-cellular Hsp72. Supporting the specificity of these antibodies are western blots that have been used to detect intra-cellular Hsp72 in cell extracts (Tsuchiya et al., 2003). Despite this, the broad range of Hsp72 levels reported suggests some matrix interference with the ELISA methods. Matrix interference is also likely to be the reason for the lack of secondary supporting evidence (Urbonaviciute et al., 2007). Table 3.1: Reported Hsp72 serum levels using commercial or in-house ELISAs. \| Reference \| Hsp72 range (ng/ml) \| Antibodies utilised \| \|----------------------------------\|---------------------\|----------------------------------------------------------\| \| (Njemini et al., 2005; Terry et al., 2006) \| 10 – 20 000 \| Capture - Stressgen SPA-810 Detector – Stressgen SPA-812 \| \| (Pockley et al., 1998) \| 20 – 18 500 \| Capture - Stressgen SPA-810 Detector – Stressgen SPA-812 \| \| (Njemini et al., 2003b) \| 235 – 6 000 \| Capture - Stressgen SPA-810 Detector – Stressgen SPA-812 \| \| (Rea et al., 2001) \| 20 – 1 500 \| Capture - Stressgen SPA-810 Detector – Stressgen SPA-812 \| \| (Fukushima et al., 2005) \| 2 – 130 \| Stressgen Kit \| \| (Zhu et al., 2003) \| 0.2 – 30 \| Stressgen Kit \| The aims of this chapter are: - To produce antibodies specific to Hsp72. - To develop a method of accurately detecting Hsp72 levels in different matrices such as cell and tissue extracts, tissue culture supernatants and serum. Figure 3.1: Illustration of a commercial sandwich ELISA for the detection of Hsp72. Plates are coated with an anti-Hsp72 capture antibody at 4°C overnight, followed by blocking of unbound sites with BSA. Standards, samples and controls are added to the plate and any Hsp72 present will bind to the antibody. Unbound proteins are then washed off and a secondary detector anti-Hsp72 antibody is added to the plate. This will bind to any Hsp72 present. Following washing of excess antibody, a species specific enzyme-labelled antibody is applied which binds to the Fc part of the detector antibody. Following washing of excess antibody substrate is then added to the plate for a specified time, during which the substrate is oxidised by hydrogen peroxide in the presence of the HRP on the enzyme-labelled antibody and a coloured product forms. The reaction is stopped by the addition of 1 M orthophosphoric acid and the plate is then read at 450 nm on a plate reader. The signal is directly proportional to the amount of Hsp72 present and unknown samples can be interpolated through use of the standard curve measurements. 3.2 Methods 3.2.1 Peptide selection and design. Specific Hsp72 peptide sequences were selected from analysing the protein sequence for HSPA1A, accession number M11717 (NCBI Database). This sequence is 641 amino acids long (Figure 3.2). Two peptides were selected to raise antibodies specific for Hsp72 based on sequence position, hydrophilicity, antigenicity and surface probability using the analysis software Lasergene® v7.2 components, EditSeq and Protean. EditSeq was used to format protein sequence information which could then be directly imported into Protean. Protean was used to determine hydrophilic and antigenic regions within the protein sequence as well as surface probability. Selected peptides were then synthesised and used for screening, or conjugated to Keyhole Limpet Hemocyanin (KLH) for immunisation. KLH is widely used as a carrier protein for small peptides to enhance their immunogenicity and as it is derived from a mollusc, it is unlikely to produce cross reacting antibodies in mammalian species which interfere with typical target samples. 3.2.2 Preparation of peptides for immunisation. Sheep polyclonal serum was supplied by MicroPharm UK Ltd. Peptides were supplied pre-conjugated to KLH via an N-succinimidyl-3-maleimidobezoate cross-linker to an added cysteine residue at the N-terminus. The cross linker was covalently attached to the cysteine residue to ensure that the peptide antigen was not compromised. The conjugated peptide was mixed with an adjuvant, Imject® Alum at 1 mg of peptide per mL of adjuvant. Peptides were separately pre-dissolved in PBS before the dropwise addition of adjuvant, which was then continually mixed by gentle rocking for 30 min. An adjuvant is used to generate an improved immune response to an antigen within the host by causing localisation of antigen for a prolonged period. Primary immunisation of sheep required 1 mg of peptide, followed by three subsequent immunisations of 0.5 mg at weeks 4, 8 and 12. Bleeds for screening of antibodies are taken at weeks 6, 10 and 14 (~ 5 mL per bleed). Positive serum was collected from sacrificed sheep at week 14 (~ 300 mL per sheep). Figure 3.2: Amino acid sequence information for human Hsp72, HSPA1A. Highlighted amino acids depict target peptides selected for polyclonal antibody generation (accession number M11717 (NCBI Database)). 3.2.3 Screening of sheep serum for peptide-specific antibodies. For all buffers required for ELISAs, see section 2.2.1. Serum from sheep immunized with either DEG or TAT peptides were screened by an ELISA as described in section 2.3.1. 3.2.4 Purification of polyclonal antibodies. Antibodies specific to the two peptides were purified from serum using affinity columns. For the TAT peptide column, it was necessary to reduce disulfide bonds to free sulfhydryl groups within the peptide using TCEP prior to immobilization on the affinity column matrix. Either TAT or DEG peptide was then immobilized onto an iodoacetyl gel to produce a peptide specific affinity column. Polyclonal sheep serum was then applied to the columns and peptide-specific antibodies were collected and desalted. Antibodies were then either stored at -20°C until required, or labelled with biotin as described in section 2.3.6 for use in western blots. ### 3.2.5 Specificity of peptide-specific antibodies to Hsp72. The specificity of the peptide-specific antibodies to Hsp72 generated was tested by ELISA screening as described for bleed screening (Section 2.3.1) except that pure Hsp72 was used as plate coating (1 µg/mL in 0.1 M sodium bicarbonate buffer), and western blotting. For western blotting, samples of pure human Hsc70 (1 µg/mL in PBS), pure human Hsp72 (1 µg/mL in PBS), pure rat Hsp72 (1 µg/mL in PBS), DnaK (1 µg/mL in PBS), 37°C treated U937 cellular extract (1 X 10^6 cells in 1 mL cell extraction buffer) and 42°C heat treated (4h) U937 cellular extract (1 X 10^6 cells in 1 mL cell extraction buffer) were all diluted 1:1 with SDS-PAGE reducing sample buffer and applied to a 10 % SDS-PAGE gel at 20 µL per well as described in sections 2.3.10-11, followed by western blotting as described in sections 2.3.12-13, which were probed with 1:2000 dilution of either biotinylated peptide-specific antibody followed by incubation with 1:5000 dilution of peroxidase-labelled avidin. ### 3.2.6 Depletion of albumin using SwellGel® Blue (cibacron blue). Depletion of albumin from samples was performed as described in section 2.3.20. For western blotting, samples of pure human Hsp72 (1 µg/mL), in PBS; in PBS with 2.5 % (w/v) BSA; in RPMI; in 10 % RPMI. Samples of PBS containing 1 µg/mL pure Hsp72, and 2.5 % (w/v) BSA or 10 % RPMI, were depleted twice with SwellGel® Blue. Samples were then diluted 1:1 with SDS-PAGE reducing sample buffer and applied to a 10 % SDS-PAGE gel at 20 µL per well as described in section 2.3.10 followed by western blotting as described in sections 2.3.12-13, which were probed with 1:2000 dilution of either biotinylated peptide-specific antibody followed by incubation with 1:5000 dilution of peroxidase-labelled avidin. ### 3.2.7 Optimisation of an ELISA for Hsp72 in cell and tissue extracts. #### 220.127.116.11 Optimisation of primary and secondary labelled antibody dilutions. For tissue extracts, optimisation of primary and secondary antibodies was performed as described in section 2.3.14. A pure Hsp72 standard for the ELISA was prepared in cell extraction buffer at 100 ng/mL, and a negative control of extraction buffer only. Primary antibody was serially diluted at 1/1250, 1/2500, 1/5000, 1/10000 and 1/20000 in 0.5 % (w/v) BSA in wash buffer. Secondary peroxidise-labelled antibody was serially diluted at 1/1250, 1/2500 and 1/5000 with 0.5 % (w/v) BSA in wash buffer. 18.104.22.168 Optimisation of standard curve range. Optimisation of the standard curve range for measuring cell and tissue extracts was performed using standards prepared in extraction buffer, along with a zero control of extraction buffer only. The standard curve range was: 100, 50, 25, 12.5, 6.25, 3.125, 1.56, 0.78, 0.39, and 0 ng/mL. Standards were applied to the plates in triplicate. 22.214.171.124 Intra- and inter-assay variability of optimal ELISA conditions for cell and tissue extracts. Intra-assay variability was determined by applying 6 replicates of each standard and zero to the optimised ELISA. Inter-assay variability was determined by applying 2 replicates of each standard to five individual plates. 126.96.36.199 Recovery of Hsp72 in spiked cell and tissue extracts. Cell and tissue extracts were applied to the optimised ELISA in triplicate, as described in sections 2.3.17 and 2.3.18. 3.2.8 Optimisation of an ELISA for Hsp72 in tissue culture supernatant. 188.8.131.52 Optimisation of primary and secondary labelled antibody dilutions. For tissue culture supernatants, optimisation of primary and secondary antibodies was performed as described in section 2.3.14. A pure Hsp72 standard at 100 ng/mL was prepared in 10 % RPMI, and a negative control of 10 % RPMI only. Primary antibody was serially diluted at 1/500, 1/1000, 1/2000, 1/4000 and 1/8000 in 0.5 % (w/v) BSA in wash buffer. Secondary peroxidase-labelled antibody was serially diluted at 1/1250, 1/2500 and 1/5000 with 0.5 % (w/v) BSA in wash buffer. 184.108.40.206 Optimisation of standard curve range. Optimisation of the standard curve range for measuring Hsp72 in tissue culture supernatant was performed using standards prepared in 10 % RPMI, along with a zero control of 10 % RPMI only. The standard curve range was: 50, 25, 12.5, 6.25, 3.125, 1.56, 0.78, 0.39, 0.19 and 0 ng/mL. Standards were applied to the plates in triplicate. 220.127.116.11 Intra- and inter-assay variability of optimal ELISA conditions for tissue culture supernatant. Intra-assay variability was determined by applying 6 replicates of each standard to the optimised ELISA. Inter-assay variability was determined by applying 3 replicates of each standard to five individual plates. 18.104.22.168 Recovery of Hsp72 in spiked tissue culture supernatant. Tissue culture supernatants were applied to the optimised ELISA in triplicate, as described in section 2.3.19. 3.3 Results 3.3.1 Selection of peptides for generation of polyclonal antibodies. The complete Hsp72 sequence (amino acids 1-641) was analysed for areas of hydrophilicity (>0.5, Hopp-Woods plot), antigenicity (>1.0, Jameson-Wolf plot) and surface probability (Figure 3.3). Two short peptide sequences were selected which were both hydrophilic and antigenic in nature. These were: TATDKSTGKAN, aa 489-499 (TAT) DEGLKGKISEAD, aa 555-566 (DEG) Both of these sequences are found in the peptide binding region of Hsp72. The sequence at aa 555-566 was also found to be within the peptide sequence which was used by Stressgen Inc. as an immunogen for a polyclonal rabbit antibody (Stressgen Inc., product SPA-811). Each peptide sequence was then analysed individually to ensure they remained hydrophilic and antigenic, and tertiary structure was not altered (Figures 3.4 and 3.5). These sequences were analysed for homology to Hsp72 using basic local alignment search tool for standard protein-protein sequences (BLASTp, NCBI). Both sequences were determined to be well conserved across a variety of species for Hsp72. 3.3.2 Screening of sheep sera at weeks 6, 10 and 14. Serum bleeds from sheep either immunised with DEG or TAT peptides were screened as described in section 2.3.1. Sera from DEG and TAT immunised sheep showed very significant increases at 6, 10 and 14 weeks when compared to pre-immune sera (P<0.05) but no significant differences between each post-immune sera. Typically for DEG immunised sheep serum absorbance values were between 1.560 AU when diluted at 1/1000 and 1.341 AU when diluted at 1/10 000, compared to pre-immune serum which gave absorbance values of 0.591 and 0.167 respectively. For TAT immunised sheep serum, absorbance values were between 1.467 AU when diluted at 1/1000 and 1.306 AU when diluted at 1/10 000, compared to pre-immune serum which gave absorbance values of 0.591 and 0.167 respectively (Figure 3.6). Figure 3.3: Amino acid sequence of human Hsp72, HSPA1A from aa 438 - 641. Blue plot - hydrophilicity; Pink plot - antigenicity; Yellow plot - surface probability. Chosen peptide sequence regions indicated in black. Figure 3.4: Amino acid sequence of TAT peptide (Hsp72 aa 489-499). Blue plot - hydrophilicity; Pink plot - antigenicity; Yellow plot - surface probability. Figure 3.5: Amino acid sequence of DEG peptide (Hsp72 aa 555-566). Blue plot - hydrophilicity; Pink plot - antigenicity; Yellow plot - surface probability. 3.3.3 Cross-reactivity of sheep sera with either peptide. When both TAT sheep serum and DEG pre-immune serum were tested against the DEG peptide there were no differences between either sera at any dilution ($P=0.30$) (Figure 3.7). A similar result was obtained when DEG serum and TAT pre-immune serum were tested against the TAT peptide ($P=0.13$) (Figure 3.8). 3.3.4 Ability of sheep sera to recognise Hsp72 protein. When tested for the ability to recognise Hsp72 protein, DEG serum gave higher absorbance values compared to TAT at all dilutions (Figure 3.9). When each sera were compared to pre-immune sera, DEG serum was significantly different when compared to pre-immune DEG serum ($P<0.0001$) and TAT serum was significantly different from pre-immune serum ($P<0.0001$) (Figure 3.9). High absorbance values were obtained for both serum at 1/100 dilution (1.221 AU for DEG and 0.967 AU for TAT) and remained above the optimal value of 1.0 AU for DEG serum at 1/1000 (1.026 AU). However, TAT serum showed a significant reduction in absorbance value at 1/1000 (0.451 AU). Pre-immune serum absorbance values remained relatively high at 1/1000 dilution (0.387 AU for DEG and 0.385 AU for TAT) (Figure 3.9). Figure 3.6: Screening of sheep serum for antibodies to DEG and TAT peptides by ELISA. Plates were coated with either DEG or TAT peptide (5 µg/mL in PBS) and tested for specificity with either DEG or TAT sheep serum respectively. Data are presented as mean ± SEM, n=2, CVs < 5%. Figure 3.7: Screening of cross reactivity of TAT sheep serum with DEG peptide by ELISA. Plate was coated with 5 µg/mL DEG peptide in PBS and screened with TAT sheep serum (Week 14) and pre-immune bleed as a control. Data are presented as mean ± SEM, n=3, CVs < 5%. Figure 3.8: Screening of cross reactivity of DEG sheep serum with TAT peptides by ELISA. Plate was coated with 5 µg/mL TAT peptide in PBS and screened with DEG sheep serum (Week 14) and pre-immune bleed as a control. Data are presented as mean ± SEM, n=3, CVs < 5%. Figure 3.9: Screening of DEG and TAT sheep serum for antibodies to Hsp72 by ELISA. Plates were coated with 1 μg/mL recombinant human Hsp72 in PBS and screened with DEG or TAT sheep serum (Week 14) and pre-immune sera as control. Data are presented as mean ± SEM, n=3. * Indicates significant difference between pre- and post-immune sera through use of two-way ANOVA: * (P<0.0001). 3.3.5 Purification of peptide specific antibodies from serum. Purified peptide specific antibodies were eluted within fractions 2 to 5 (Figure 3.10). Strong doublet bands can be seen at approximately 150 kDa within these fractions along with more faint bands seen at approximately 100, 75 and 45 kDa which correspond to F(ab')$_2$, reduced IgG and Fab fragments respectively from pure sheep IgG (Figure 3.10). A non-reducing SDS-PAGE gel of purified DEG and TAT antibodies showed only doublet bands at approximately 150 kDa indicating pure intact IgGs (Figure 3.11). Purification of peptide specific antibodies from polyclonal sera resulted in an average yield of 1.545 mg/mL of pure antibodies for DEG peptide and 1.162 mg/mL of pure antibodies for TAT peptide. Figure 3.10:** Reducing SDS-PAGE of a typical affinity purification of peptide specific sheep antibodies from whole serum. A 10 % gel was cast and loaded with the following under reduced conditions: Lane 1 - molecular weight markers; Lane 2 - whole sheep serum; Lane 3 - unbound sheep serum; Lane 4 - 0.5 M NaCl wash #1; Lane 5 - 0.5 M NaCl wash #2; Lane 6 - 0.5 M NaCl wash #3; Lane 7 - PBS wash #1; Lane 8 - fraction #1; Lane 9 - fraction #2; Lane 10 - fraction #3; Lane 11 - fraction #4; Lane 12 - fraction #5; Lane 13 - fraction #6. Gel was stained with Imperial protein stain and exposed according to ChemiDoc Quantity One® software standards for coomassie blue. Figure 3.11: Non-reducing SDS-PAGE of purified DEG and TAT antibodies following affinity purification. A 10% gel was cast and loaded with the following under non-reduced conditions: Lane 1 - molecular weight markers; Lanes 2 and 3 - pure mouse IgG; Lanes 4 and 5 - pure DEG IgG; Lanes 6 and 7 - empty; Lanes 8 and 9 - pure TAT IgG. Gel was stained with Imperial protein stain and exposed according to ChemiDoc Quantity One® software standards for coomassie blue. 3.3.6 Specificity of peptide specific antibodies. Western blots were probed with peptide specific antibodies for Hsp72 (Figure 3.12). Both DEG and TAT purified antibodies showed specific reactivity with pure Hsp72 from human and rat, and with U937 cell extracts. No reactivity was seen with Hsc70 or DnaK indicating that both DEG and TAT antibodies were specific to Hsp72 (Figure 3.12). 3.3.7 Interference in the detection of Hsp72 by albumin in complex matrices. Western blots probed with DEG antibody showed clear bands at approximately 70 kDa in the PBS and RPMI samples containing Hsp72 (Lanes 2 and 4). Sample containing PBS and BSA showed no binding (Lane 1). Samples containing FBS or BSA and Hsp72 produced large smears from 50 to 70 kDa (Lanes 3, 5 and 8). RPMI samples containing albumin which had been depleted also produced smears but these were reduced slightly following repeated depletions (Lanes 6 and 7). RPMI samples containing 10% FBS which had been depleted showed less smearing resulting in a relatively clear band at approximately 70 kDa following two depletions (Lanes 9 and 10) (Figure 3.13). Figure 3.12: SDS-PAGE gel (A) and western blots to determine specificity of DEG (B) and TAT (C) for Hsp72. 10% gels were cast and loaded with the following: Lane 1 - molecular weight standards; Lane 2 - pure Hsc70; Lane 3 - pure human Hsp72 (Assay Designs); Lane 4 - pure human Hsp72 (Stressmarq); Lane 5 - empty; Lane 6 - pure rat Hsp72 (Assay Designs); Lane 7 - pure DnaK (Assay Designs); Lane 8 - 4 h, 37°C U937 cell extract; Lane 9 - 4 h, 42°C U937 cell extract. Blots were probed with either DEG-biotin or TAT-biotin at 1/5000 dilution followed by avidin at 1/5000 dilution. Blots were exposed for 240 sec. Figure 3.13: Western blot showing interference caused by albumin when detecting Hsp72 in complex matrices. 10% gels were cast and loaded with the following: Lane 1 - PBS + 2.5% BSA; Lane 2 - Hsp72 in PBS; Lane 3 - Hsp72 in PBS + 2.5% BSA; Lane 4 - Hsp72 in RPMI; Lane 5 - Hsp72 in RPMI + 2.5% BSA; Lane 6 - 1X albumin depleted Hsp72 in RPMI + 2.5% BSA; Lane 7 - 2X albumin depleted Hsp72 in RPMI + 2.5% BSA; Lane 8 - Hsp72 in 10% RPMI; Lane 9 - 1X albumin depleted Hsp72 in 10% RPMI; Lane 10 - 2X albumin depleted Hsp72 in 10% RPMI. Blot was probed with DEG-biotin at 1/5000 dilution followed by avidin at 1/5000 dilution. Blot was exposed for 90 sec. 3.3.8 Optimisation of an ELISA for Hsp72 in cell and tissue extracts. 22.214.171.124 Optimisation of a sandwich ELISA using various antibody combinations. Using DEG as a capture antibody and TAT as a detector resulted in low absorbance values for the standards tested with no difference between 500 ng/mL Hsp72 and 0 ng/mL control (Figure 3.14A). Using TAT as a capture antibody and DEG antibody as a detector also resulted in low absorbance values for the standards tested with low signal to noise ratios (Figure 3.14B). Due to the low absorbance values obtained using DEG and TAT, optimisation with another antibody (TOR, a mouse monoclonal antibody raised against bovine Hsp70. See section 2.2.1) was attempted. Using TOR as a capture antibody, again resulted in low absorbance values using either DEG or TAT as a detector (Figure 3.14C). However, using DEG or TAT as a capture antibody and TOR as a detector resulted in very high absorbance values at both 500 and 100 ng/mL pure Hsp72 compared to 0 ng/mL (Figures 3.14 A and B). Therefore all subsequent optimisations were performed using TOR as a detector antibody. 126.96.36.199 Optimisation of primary and secondary labelled antibody dilutions. Optimal primary antibody dilution for an ELISA using DEG antibody as a capture antibody was determined to be 1/5000, and the secondary antibody 1/2500 through use of a checkerboard titration (Figure 3.15). This was based on optimal signal to noise ratio using 100 ng/mL pure Hsp72 as signal (AU = 4.176) and 0 ng/mL as noise (AU = 0.088). Optimisation of primary antibody dilution for an ELISA using TAT as a capture antibody was determined to be 1/5000, and the secondary antibody 1/5000 (Figure 3.16). As the optimised ELISA using DEG as a capture antibody had a lower background absorbance (AU = 0.088) than using TAT (AU = 0.261), all subsequent optimisations were performed using DEG only. Figure 3.14: Optimisation of capture and detector antibody combinations for use in a sandwich ELISA. Plates were coated with 2 µg/mL capture antibody. Detector and secondary enzyme-labelled antibodies were at 1/5000 dilution. 188.8.131.52 Optimisation of range of standards. The detection range was determined to be 100 - 0.78125 ng/mL with a limit of detection of 0.78125 ng/mL Hsp72 (P<0.05) (Figure 3.17). 184.108.40.206 Intra- and inter-assay variability of optimal ELISA conditions for cell and tissue extracts. Intra-assay variability of the optimised sandwich ELISA was determined by replicating six standard curves on one plate. CVs were less than 5% (Figure 3.18). Inter-assay variability was determined by comparing five standard curves from 5 individual plates. CVs were less than 11% and there was a very high correlation between all curves ($r = 0.948$, $P<0.001$) (Figure 3.19) 220.127.116.11 Recovery of Hsp72 from spiked cell and tissue extracts. Recovery of Hsp72 from spiked cell and tissue extracts was performed using 3 different amounts of Hsp72 within the standard curve range. The % recovery for cell extracts were all >90%, although at the low concentration there was a slight over recovery (109% for control + 5 ng/mL, and 103% for treated + 5 ng/mL) (Table 3.2). The % recovery of Hsp72 from tissue extracts were all >90% except for muscle tissue spiked with 25 ng/mL Hsp72 which was 89%. There was a slight over recovery when either muscle or brain were spiked with 5 ng/mL (113 and 106% respectively), and brain spiked with 50 ng/mL Hsp72 (102%) (Table 3.3). Recovery (%) was within the acceptable limits of 80-120%. Figure 3.15: Checkerboard titration optimisation of primary and secondary antibody dilutions of an ELISA for measuring Hsp72 in cell and tissue extracts using DEG as a capture antibody. (A): Pure Hsp72 at 100 ng/mL; (B) Negative control. Primary antibody was diluted 1/1250, 1/2500, 1/5000, 1/10000 and 1/20000. Secondary antibody was diluted at 1/11250, 1/2500 and 1/5000. Plates were coated with 2 µg/mL DEG antibody. Figure 3.16: Checkerboard titration optimisation of primary and secondary antibody dilutions of an ELISA for measuring Hsp72 in cell and tissue extracts using TAT as a capture antibody. (A): Pure Hsp72 at 100 ng/mL; (B) Negative control. Primary antibody was diluted 1/1250, 1/2500, 1/5000, 1/10000 and 1/20000. Secondary antibody was diluted at 1/11250, 1/2500 and 1/5000. Plates were coated with 2 µg/mL TAT antibody. Figure 3.17: A typical standard curve obtained from an optimised ELISA for measuring Hsp72 in cell and tissue extracts using DEG as a capture antibody. Primary antibody was diluted at 1/5000 and secondary antibody diluted at 1/2500. Plate was coated with 2 µg/mL DEG antibody. * (P<0.05), (P<0.01), * (P<0.001), using one-way ANOVA with Dunnett’s post hoc test. ns indicates no significant difference. Figure 3.18: Intra-assay variability of an optimised ELISA for measuring Hsp72 in cell and tissue extracts. Primary antibody was diluted at 1/5000 and secondary antibody diluted at 1/2500. Plate was coated with 2 µg/mL DEG antibody. n = 6, CVs <5 %. $r^2 = 0.9961$. Figure 3.19: Inter-assay variability of an optimised ELISA for measuring Hsp72 in cell and tissue extracts. Primary antibody was diluted at 1/5000 and secondary antibody diluted at 1/2500. Plate was coated with 2 µg/mL DEG antibody. CVs <11 %. *** (P<0.001), using Pearson correlation, $r = 0.948$. Table 3.2: Recovery of Hsp72 from spiked U937 cell extracts. \| Sample \| Expected (ng/mL) \| Observed (ng/mL) \| Recovery (%) \| \|-------------------------\|------------------\|------------------\|--------------\| \| Control (37°C) \| N/A \| 11.617 \| N/A \| \| Control + 50 ng/mL \| 61.617 \| 58.648 \| 95 ± 0.2 \| \| Control + 25 ng/mL \| 36.617 \| 33.229 \| 91 ± 0.5 \| \| Control + 5 ng/mL \| 16.617 \| 18.106 \| 109 ± 0.8 \| \| Treated (40°C, 4 h) \| N/A \| 44.669 \| N/A \| \| Treated + 50 ng/mL \| 94.669 \| 92.137 \| 97 ± 0.6 \| \| Treated + 25 ng/mL \| 69.669 \| 63.946 \| 91 ± 0.6 \| \| Treated + 5 ng/mL \| 49.669 \| 51.205 \| 103 ± 1.2 \| Note: n = 4. Recovery shown as % ± SEM. Table 3.3: Recovery of Hsp72 from spiked tissue extracts from exercised Duroc pigs. \| Sample \| Expected (ng/mL) \| Observed (ng/mL) \| Recovery (%) \| \|-------------------------\|------------------\|------------------\|--------------\| \| Muscle \| N/A \| 4.694 \| N/A \| \| Muscle + 50 ng/mL \| 54.694 \| 52.445 \| 96 ± 1.7 \| \| Muscle + 25 ng/mL \| 29.694 \| 26.495 \| 89 ± 1.2 \| \| Muscle + 5 ng/mL \| 9.694 \| 10.955 \| 113 ± 2.1 \| \| Brain \| N/A \| 18.011 \| N/A \| \| Brain + 50 ng/mL \| 68.011 \| 69.122 \| 102 ± 0.9 \| \| Brain + 25 ng/mL \| 43.011 \| 40.956 \| 95 ± 2.3 \| \| Brain + 5 ng/mL \| 23.011 \| 24.318 \| 106 ± 2.6 \| Note: n = 4. Recovery shown as % ± SEM. Note: Exercise consisted of treadmill exercise increasing speed from 0.4 km/h up to an average 5.2 km/h by increments of 0.4 km/h every 2 minutes until maximum capacity for the individual pig. This speed was maintained until the individual animal was exhausted, which was assessed by uncoordinated breathing and movements. 3.3.9 Optimisation of an ELISA for Hsp72 in tissue culture supernatant. 18.104.22.168 Optimisation of primary and secondary labelled antibody dilutions. Optimal primary antibody dilution for an ELISA measuring Hsp72 in tissue culture supernatant was determined to be 1/1000, and the secondary antibody 1/1250 through use of a checkerboard titration (Figure 3.20). This was based on optimal signal to noise ratio using 100 ng/mL pure Hsp72 as signal (AU = 2.568) and 0 ng/mL as noise (AU = 0.113). 22.214.171.124 Optimisation of range of standards. The detection range was determined to be 50 - 0.39 ng/mL with a limit of detection of 0.39 ng/mL Hsp72 (P<0.001) (Figure 3.21). 126.96.36.199 Intra- and inter-assay variability of optimal ELISA conditions for tissue culture supernatant. Intra-assay variability of the optimised sandwich ELISA was determined by replicating six standard curves on one plate. CVs were less than 5 % (Figure 3.22). Inter-assay variability was determined by comparing five standard curves from 5 individual plates. CVs were less than 11 % and there was a very high correlation between all curves (r = 0.998, P<0.0001) (Figure 3.23). 188.8.131.52 Recovery of Hsp72 from spiked tissue culture supernatant. The % recovery of Hsp72 from tissue culture supernatant were all >100 % but below 120 % (Table 3.4). Recovery (%) was within the acceptable limits of 80-120 %. Figure 3.20: Checkerboard titration optimisation of primary and secondary antibody dilutions of an ELISA measuring Hsp72 in tissue culture supernatant. (A): Pure Hsp72 at 100 ng/mL; (B) Negative control. Primary antibody was diluted 1/500, 1/1000, 1/2000, 1/4000 and 1/8000. Secondary antibody was diluted at 1/1250, 1/2500 and 1/5000. Plates were coated with 2 µg/mL DEG antibody. Figure 3.21: A typical standard curve obtained from an optimised ELISA for measuring Hsp72 in tissue culture supernatant. Primary antibody was diluted at 1/1000 and secondary antibody diluted at 1/1250. Plate was coated with 2 µg/mL DEG antibody. * (P<0.05), (P<0.01), * (P<0.001), using one-way ANOVA with Dunnett’s post hoc test. ns indicates no significant difference. Figure 3.22: Intra-assay variability of an optimised ELISA for measuring Hsp72 in tissue culture supernatant. Primary antibody was diluted at 1/1000 and secondary antibody diluted at 1/1250. Plate was coated with 2 µg/mL DEG antibody. n = 6, CVs <5 %. $r^2 = 0.9998$. Figure 3.23: Inter-assay variability of an optimised ELISA for measuring Hsp72 in tissue culture supernatant. Primary antibody was diluted at 1/1000 and secondary antibody diluted at 1/1250. Plate was coated with 2 µg/mL DEG antibody. CVs <11 %. *** (P<0.0001), using Pearson correlation, $r = 0.998$. Table 3.4: Recovery of Hsp72 from spiked control or heat-treated tissue culture supernatant. \| Sample \| Expected (ng/mL) \| Observed (ng/mL) \| Recovery (%) \| \|-------------------------\|------------------\|------------------\|--------------\| \| Control (10 % RPMI) \| N/A \| 0.062 \| N/A \| \| 25 ng/mL spike \| 25.062 \| 26.943 \| 107 ± 3.1 \| \| 10 ng/mL spike \| 10.062 \| 11.186 \| 111 ± 2.0 \| \| 2.5 ng/mL spike \| 2.562 \| 2.711 \| 102 ± 1.6 \| \| Heat-treated (42°C, 2 h)\| N/A \| 0.619 \| N/A \| \| 25 ng/mL spike \| 25.619 \| 28.176 \| 109 ± 2.6 \| \| 10 ng/mL spike \| 10.619 \| 10.943 \| 103 ± 1.2 \| \| 2.5 ng/mL spike \| 3.119 \| 3.314 \| 106 ± 3.7 \| Note: n = 4. Recovery shown as % ± SEM. 3.4 Discussion The aims of this chapter were to produce antibodies specific to Hsp72 and develop a method of detecting and quantifying Hsp72 in different media such as cell and tissue extracts, and tissue culture supernatant. Two polyclonal antibodies were produced from sheep by immunisation with conjugated peptide sequences from the N-terminal region of the human sequence for Hsp72, HSPA1A (accession number M11717 (NCBI Database)). Both antibodies were easily purified by affinity purification. The antibodies were found to be highly specific for Hsp72 and did not cross react with Hsc70 or DnaK as determined by western blotting. Both antibodies were also capable of detecting single bands in cellular extracts. When applied to western blots of spiked tissue culture supernatant containing 10 % (v/v) FBS, or spiked PBS containing 2.5 % (w/v) BSA, clear bands were not visible due to the effect of albumin which is abundant in serum and has a molecular weight of 66 kDa. Albumin could be removed from samples by repeated depletion by SwellGel® Blue but this is extremely costly. However, removal of most albumin from 10 % RPMI spiked with Hsp72 did result in a fairly clear band at approximately 70 kDa which was determined to be Hsp72. This ‘blocking’ effect of albumin when using western blots for the identification of Hsp72 is probably the main reason there are no publications showing western blots of Hsp72 in serum or tissue culture supernatant containing FBS. These antibodies were applied to an ELISA for use in quantifying Hsp72. An indirect sandwich ELISA format was determined to be the most suitable format due to the ability to detect a particular protein from complex matrices, such as tissue culture supernatant supplemented with FBS, or serum (Jeney et al., 1999; Njemini et al., 2005), and an amplification of signal by using a secondary enzyme-labelled detector antibody. As both antibodies were raised in sheep, they could not be optimised for use together for ELISA development due to non-specific binding between the antibodies which could not be reduced. Steric hindrance was probably a factor as the peptide regions the antibodies were raised against are relatively close together within the substrate binding region, and therefore the detecting antibody could not bind to relevant epitope on Hsp72 (Kent, Ryan & Siegel, 1978). Therefore, a specific mouse monoclonal antibody (TOR) for Hsp72 was utilised which was able to detect an undetermined epitope of Hsp72 which was accessible in the sandwich ELISA format (Figure 3.24). Usually, sandwich ELISAs employ the use of a monoclonal antibody as the capture antibody which is plate bound, and a detector antibody from a polyclonal source, such as goat or rabbit. However, it was found that the monoclonal antibody was unable to efficiently detect Hsp72 when plate bound and therefore the ELISAs were optimised using the affinity purified polyclonal DEG antibody as the capture. The polyclonal antibody had a better avidity to Hsp72 in PBS, extraction buffer and supplemented tissue culture supernatant. This suggested that the epitope recognised by the monoclonal anti-Hsp72 antibody is either within the ATPase domain which is inaccessible when bound to ATP, or that binding of Hsp72 to either of the polyclonal antibodies results in bound ATP being released from Hsp72 that results in the epitope for the monoclonal antibody being revealed (Botzler et al., 1998). When developing the ELISAs for quantifying Hsp72, it was necessary to optimise conditions for detection within cell or tissue extracts independently from the conditions required for detection within tissue culture supernatant. The ELISA for quantifying Hsp72 within extracts was found to be highly specific and sensitive enough to quantify Hsp72 down to as little as 0.78125 ng/mL Hsp72 in samples containing as little as 10 μg/mL total protein and is comparable to the commercially available kit. Also, the ELISA was able to detect and quantify Hsp72 from species other than human as demonstrated by the use of Duroc pig tissue. The ELISA for quantifying Hsp72 within tissue culture supernatant was also found to be highly specific and was more sensitive than the ELISA for extracts, being able to detect as little as 0.39 ng/mL Hsp72 within a complex matrix such as 10% RPMI. Quantification of Hsp72 in serum/plasma was not a primary requirement of this thesis. It would require a large number of healthy volunteers for collection of serum/plasma for use in the optimisation of such an ELISA. The serum/plasma would by used as a buffer for the reference standard curve for quantification to minimise possible matrix differences between the detection of analyte in the matrix for standards and analyte in the matrix for samples (Njemini et al., 2005; Njemini et al., 2003b). As the ELISA is able to quantify Hsp72 in 10% RPMI, it is probable that the ELISA could be applied to quantifying Hsp72 within serum and/or plasma samples, as other studies have shown this is possible (Hunter-Lavin et al., 2004; Njemini et al., 2005; Pockley et al., 1998). Further work by other researchers, in-house, have demonstrated that levels of Hsp72 release from in vitro cultures are within the limits of the ELISA for supernatants. For example, various 2 h heat-shock and ABC transport inhibitor treatments give values of Hsp72 release between 5.12 (± 0.79) and 45.9 (± 3.81) ng/mL (personal communication, Leoni, 2007). In conclusion, the development of ELISAs capable of quantifying Hsp72 from cell and tissue extracts, and within tissue culture supernatant was successful and are more cost effective than those commercially available. They can be utilised for use in determining the effects of various potential stressors on the intra-cellular production, and extra-cellular levels of Hsp72. The DEG antibody produced here is used in chapters 5 and 6 for western blotting and as a neutralising antibody for blocking experiments. Figure 3.24: Illustration of an optimised indirect sandwich ELISA for the quantification of Hsp72 from cell and tissue extracts, and tissue culture supernatant. Plates are coated with an anti-Hsp72 capture antibody at 4°C overnight, followed by blocking of unbound sites with BSA. Standards, samples and controls are added to the plate and any Hsp72 present will bind to the antibody. Unbound proteins are then washed off and a secondary detector anti-Hsp72 antibody is added to the plate. This will bind to any Hsp72 present. Following washing of excess antibody, a species specific enzyme-labelled antibody is applied which binds to the Fc part of the detector antibody. Following washing of excess antibody substrate is then added to the plate for a specified time, during which the substrate is oxidised by hydrogen peroxide in the presence of the HRP on the enzyme-labelled antibody and a coloured product forms. The reaction is stopped by the addition of 1 M orthophosphoric acid and the plate is then read at 450 nm on a plate reader. The signal is directly proportional to the amount of Hsp72 present and unknown samples can be interpolated through use of the standard curve measurements. Chapter 4 The effects of recombinant heat shock proteins on cytokine secretion from peripheral blood mononuclear cells and U937 macrophages. 4.1 Introduction Extra-cellular heat shock proteins have been reported to have a stimulatory effect on the innate immune system (Asea, 2006; Asea et al., 2000b; Campisi & Fleshner, 2003; Guzhova et al., 1998; Milani et al., 2002; Svensson et al., 2006). These effects include the secretion of many cytokines, both pro-and anti-inflammatory (Campisi et al., 2003; El Mezayen et al., 2007; Moré, Breloer & von Bonin, 2001; Retzlaff et al., 1994; Singh-Jasuja et al., 2000; Svensson et al., 2006). Most of these studies employed the use of recombinant proteins expressed in transfected E. coli. More recently it has been reported that these innate immune responses may actually be due to contamination of these proteins by LPS, or possibly flagellin (Bausinger et al., 2002; Gao & Tsan, 2003a; Gao & Tsan, 2003b; Gao & Tsan, 2004; Kol et al., 2000; Tsan & Gao, 2004a; Ye & Gan, 2007). Gao and Tsan (2004) utilised highly purified recombinant human (rh) Hsp72 and Hsp60 and subjected murine macrophages to a 4 h incubation with 5 µg/mL of either stress protein or LPS (1 ng/mL) and performed gene array expression on a number of common cytokines. They reported there was no increased expression of any of these cytokines in response to rhHsp72 or rhHsp60 in contrast to incubation with LPS. A time course experiment measuring IL-1β also showed no expression. However, Kol et al. (2000) stimulated cytokine production from U373 cell line with Hsp60 and the effect was completely abrogated by heat treatment which suggested no LPS contamination present as LPS is heat labile. Campisi et al. (2003) also demonstrated that even in the presence of polymixin B, Hsp72 could stimulate TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6 secretion from rat splenocytes and macrophages. More recently, it has been suggested that Hsp72 can activate macrophages, especially when in a membrane bound form (Vega et al., 2008). Svensson et al. (2006) observed that supernatant from stimulated peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs), which contained released Hsp72, resulted in a 3-fold increase in IL-1β and IL-12 secretion in naïve macrophages that could be blocked by anti-Hsp72 antibodies. The aim of this chapter is to determine whether recombinant heat shock proteins are able to induce cytokine expression and production, or if the effect is due to LPS contamination. 4.2 Methods All preparations and cell culture experiments were carried out within a Class II tissue culture hood. 4.2.1 Preparation of cells for treatment. U937 macrophages were prepared as in section 2.3.28. PBMCs were isolated and prepared for treatment as in section 2.3.29. 4.2.2 Preparation of heat shock proteins for experiments. Heat shock proteins used for experiments were: Hsp72, low endotoxin Hsp72, DnaK, Hsp60, GroEL, Cpn10, GroES. Proteins were diluted in 10% HI-RPMI to give 10,000, 1,000 and 100 ng/mL stock solutions. For heat-treated stress protein treatments, stock solutions were heated at 75°C for 20 min and allowed to cool prior to use. 4.2.3 Preparation of LPS for experiments. LPS from E. coli O111:B4 was reconstituted in 10% HI-RPMI at 1 mg/mL and allowed to dissolve. LPS was then further diluted in 10% HI-RPMI to give 1 μg/mL stock solution. 4.2.4 Determination of endotoxin content of heat shock proteins. Endotoxin content of 1000 ng/mL native or denatured heat shock proteins was determined using the Limulus Amebocyte Lysate assay as described in section 2.3.32. 4.2.5 Treatment of cells with native or denatured heat shock proteins. Native or denatured heat shock proteins were applied to cells at 1/10 dilution (100 μL protein stock to 900 μL 10% HI-RPMI) so that cells were treated with 1000, 100 and 10 ng/mL stress protein. Cells were then incubated for 24 h. 4.2.6 Time course experiments with native or denatured, Hsp72 or low endotoxin Hsp72. Native or denatured Hsp72 or low endotoxin Hsp72 were applied to U937 macrophages at 1/10 dilution (100 μL protein stock to 900 μL 10% HI-RPMI) so that cells were treated with 1000 ng/mL heat shock protein. Cells were then incubated for up to 6 h. 4.2.7 Treatment of U937 macrophages for 4 h, with Hsp72 and polymyxin B. Hsp72 (1000 ng/mL) or LPS (100 ng/mL) was pre-incubated with or without 20 µg/mL polymyxin B before being added to U937 macrophages for 4 h. 4.2.8 Cell counts and viability tests by trypan blue exclusion. Following treatment, cells were re-suspended into the media by repeated pipetting. Cells were then counted and assessed by trypan blue exclusion (Section 2.3.24). 4.2.9 Determination of apoptosis. Cells were plated onto a black 96 well cell culture plate and treated with stress proteins or LPS and cells were then analysed for apoptosis by caspase 3/7 detection (Section 2.3.30). 4.2.10 Determination of necrosis. Following treatments, necrosis was determined by propidium iodide (Section 2.3.31). 4.2.11 Measurement of secreted cytokines. Following treatment, media was removed from the wells and clarified by centrifugation at 400 g for 5 min and transferred to a clean 1.5 mL microcentrifuge tube. Media was then either used fresh or frozen at -70°C until required. Secretion of TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6 and IL-10 were measured as described in sections 2.3.33 - 2.3.36. 4.3 Results 4.3.1 Endotoxin contamination of recombinant heat shock proteins determined by LAL assay. Endotoxin contamination of recombinant heat shock proteins was determined as endotoxin units (EU) per μg of protein. All heat shock proteins, whether native or denatured had less than 0.075 EU per μg except for native and denatured, DnaK (2.344 and 2.274 EU per μg respectively) and GroEL (0.396 and 0.239 EU per μg respectively). None of the proteins tested showed any significant difference from controls (HI-RPMI) except for native and denatured, DnaK (P<0.001) and GroEL (P<0.001) (Figure 4.1). ![Graph showing endotoxin levels in various heat shock proteins](image) Figure 4.1: Endotoxin contamination of recombinant heat shock proteins in native and denatured forms. Native and denatured heat shock proteins were applied to a LAL assay at 1 μg/mL in 10% HI-RPMI. Data are presented as mean ± SEM, n = 4. Significance shown as difference from 10% HI-RPMI using two-way ANOVA with Bonferroni’s post hoc test: * (P<0.05), (P<0.01), * (P<0.001). 4.3.2 Cytokine secretion from PBMCs following 24 h incubation with native or denatured heat shock proteins. Cytokine secretion from PBMCs following treatments with native or denatured heat shock proteins are presented in Figures 4.2 – 4.13 and Tables 4.1 – 4.17. 184.108.40.206 Treatment of PBMCs with native or denatured Hsp72 or DnaK. Following incubation of PBMCs with Hsp72 for 24 h, an almost 4-fold increase (P<0.001) in IL-1β secretion was seen at 100 ng/mL native Hsp72 (2049.210 pg/mL) compared to denatured Hsp72 (601.144 pg/mL) (Figure 4.2A). A 4-fold increase (P<0.001) was also observed at 1000 ng/mL native Hsp72 when compared to denatured Hsp72 (405.545 and 7.184 pg/mL respectively) (Figure 4.2A). IL-6 secretion increased almost 2-fold when incubated with 10 ng/mL native Hsp72 (31.352 pg/mL) compared to denatured Hsp72 (17.101 pg/mL) although this was not significant (Figure 4.3A). IL-6 secretion increased more than 3-fold (P<0.001) when incubated with native Hsp72 compared to denatured Hsp72 at 100 ng/mL (2874.279 and 798.760 pg/mL respectively), and 3-fold (P<0.001) when incubated with 1000 ng/mL (4370.564 and 1915.391 pg/mL respectively) (Figure 4.3A). TNF-α secretion increased 2-fold (P<0.05) when PBMCs were incubated with 10 ng/mL native Hsp72 compared with denatured Hsp72 (97.288 and 39.732 pg/mL respectively) (Figure 4.4A). TNF-α increased over 2-fold (P<0.001) when incubated with 100 ng/mL native Hsp72 (781.203 pg/mL) compared to denatured Hsp72 (362.789 pg/mL), and also increased nearly 3-fold (P<0.001) when incubated with 1000 ng/mL native compared to denatured Hsp72 (2298.341 and 816.756 pg/mL respectively) (Figure 4.4A). IL-10 secretion increased over 40-fold (P<0.001) when PBMCs were incubated with 100 ng/mL native Hsp72 (136.370 pg/mL) compared to denatured Hsp72 (3.024 pg/mL), and increased nearly 10-fold (P<0.001) when incubated with 1000 ng/mL native Hsp72 compared to the denatured form (558.350 and 59.007 pg/mL respectively) (Figure 4.5A). All cytokine responses were dose dependent at 1000 and 100 ng/mL native Hsp72 (P<0.01 – 0.001), but only TNF-α was dose dependent at 10 ng/mL (P<0.05) when compared to untreated control cells (Table 4.1). A significant correlation was seen between TNF-α and all other cytokines ($r^2 = 0.941 – 0.996$, P<0.01) and between IL-1β and IL-10 ($r^2 = 0.999$, P<0.01) (Table 4.2). Cytokine responses were dose dependent when treated with denatured 1000 ng/mL Hsp72 (P<0.001), but only IL-6 and TNF-α were dose dependent when incubated with 100 ng/mL (P<0.001). No significant difference was observed with 10 ng/mL treatment (Table 4.1). Significant correlations were seen between IL-1β and IL-10 ($r^2 = 1.000$, $P<0.01$), and between IL-6 and TNF-$\alpha$ ($r^2 = 1.000$, $P<0.01$) (Table 4.2). When incubated with 10 ng/mL native DnaK, IL-1$\beta$ secretion increased over 20-fold ($P<0.001$) compared to denatured DnaK (164.730 and 7.435 pg/mL respectively) (Figure 4.2B). A 15-fold increase ($P<0.001$) was observed with 100 ng/mL native compared to denatured DnaK (1012.419 and 69.688 pg/mL respectively), and an almost 3-fold increase ($P<0.001$) was seen when incubated with 1000 ng/mL native DnaK (2247.721 pg/mL) compared to denatured DnaK (891.625 pg/mL) (Figure 4.2B). IL-6 secretion increased nearly 40-fold ($P<0.001$) when incubated with 10 ng/mL native DnaK compared to denatured DnaK (1066.259 and 28.298 pg/mL respectively); nearly 5-fold ($P<0.01$) with 100 ng/mL native (2404.094 pg/mL) compared to denatured (522.136 pg/mL), but were not significantly different when incubated with 1000 ng/mL native DnaK compared to the denatured form (4617.849 and 4298.035 pg/mL) (Figure 4.3B). TNF-$\alpha$ secretion increased over 2-fold ($P<0.01$) when incubated with 10 ng/mL native DnaK compared to denatured DnaK (584.657 and 263.869 pg/mL respectively) (Figure 4.4B). A 2-fold increase ($P<0.001$) in TNF-$\alpha$ was observed when incubated with 100 ng/mL native compared to denatured DnaK (1036.363 and 347.935 pg/mL respectively), and there was an increase ($P<0.001$) incubated with 1000 ng/mL native or denatured DnaK (6584.202 and 5925.299 pg/mL respectively) (Figure 4.4B). IL-10 increased 8-fold ($P<0.05$) following incubation with 10 ng/mL native DnaK compared to denatured DnaK (42.755 and 7.345 pg/mL respectively); a 34-fold increase ($P<0.001$) was observed following incubation with 100 ng/mL native (442.932 pg/mL) compared to the denatured form (13.996 pg/mL); a 2-fold increase ($P<0.001$) in IL-10 secretion was seen when incubated with 1000 ng/mL native DnaK compared to denatured DnaK (750.417 and 336.107 pg/mL respectively) (Figure 4.5B). All cytokine responses were dose dependent at all when incubated with native DnaK ($P<0.05 - 0.001$) (Table 4.1). Significant correlations were observed between IL-1$\beta$, IL-6 and IL-10 ($r^2 = 0.988$, $P<0.01$) (Table 4.2). Cytokine responses were dose dependent when treated with denatured 1000 ng/mL DnaK ($P<0.001$), but only IL-6 and TNF-$\alpha$ were dose dependent when incubated with 100 ng/mL ($P<0.01 - 0.001$). No significant differences were observed with 10 ng/mL treatment except for TNF-$\alpha$ ($P<0.05$) (Table 4.1). Significant correlations were seen between all cytokines ($r^2 = 0.996 - 1.000$, $P<0.01$) (Table 4.2). Figure 4.2: Effect on IL-1β secretion by PBMCs when incubated for 24 h with Hsp72 (A) or DnaK (B), in native or denatured (de) forms. Data are presented as mean ± SEM, n = 4. * Indicates significant difference between mean concentration points through use of two-way ANOVA with Bonferroni’s multiple comparison post hoc test: * (P<0.05), (P<0.01), * (P<0.001). Figure 4.3: Effect on IL-6 secretion by PBMCs when incubated for 24 h with Hsp72 (A) or DnaK (B), in native or denatured (de) forms. Data are presented as mean ± SEM, n = 4. * Indicates significant difference between mean concentration points through use of two-way ANOVA with Bonferroni’s multiple comparison post hoc test. * (P<0.05), (P<0.01), * (P<0.001). Figure 4.4: Effect on TNF-α secretion by PBMCs when incubated for 24 h with Hsp72 (A) or DnaK (B), in native or denatured (de) forms. Data are presented as mean ± SEM, n = 4. * Indicates significant difference between mean concentration points through use of two-way ANOVA with Bonferroni's multiple comparison post hoc test: * (P<0.05), (P<0.01), * (P<0.001). Figure 4.5: Effect on IL-10 secretion by PBMCs when incubated for 24 h with Hsp72 (A) or DnaK (B), in native or denatured (de) forms. Data are presented as mean ± SEM, n = 4. * Indicates significant difference between mean concentration points through use of two-way ANOVA with Bonferroni's multiple comparison post hoc test: * (P<0.05), (P<0.01), * (P<0.001). Table 4.1: Dose responses of cytokine secretion by PBMCs incubated for 24 h with native or denatured, Hsp72 or DnaK. Significance shown as difference between treatments using one-way ANOVA with Bonferroni’s multiple comparison post hoc test. \| Treatment \| Concentration of Treatment (ng/mL) \| \|-----------\|-----------------------------------\| \| \| 10 vs. 0 \| 100 vs. 10 \| 1000 vs. 100 \| \| Hsp72 \| \| \| \| \| IL-1β \| ns \| P>0.05 \| \| P<0.01 \| * \| P<0.001 \| \| IL-6 \| ns \| P>0.05 \| * \| P<0.001 \| * \| P<0.001 \| \| TNF-α \| * \| P<0.05 \| * \| P<0.001 \| * \| P<0.001 \| \| IL-10 \| ns \| P>0.05 \| * \| P<0.001 \| * \| P<0.001 \| \| deHsp72 \| \| \| \| \| IL-1β \| ns \| P>0.05 \| ns \| P>0.05 \| * \| P<0.001 \| \| IL-6 \| ns \| P>0.05 \| * \| P<0.001 \| * \| P<0.001 \| \| TNF-α \| ns \| P>0.05 \| * \| P<0.001 \| * \| P<0.001 \| \| IL-10 \| ns \| P>0.05 \| ns \| P>0.05 \| \| P<0.01 \| \| DnaK \| \| \| \| \| IL-1β \| * \| P<0.05 \| * \| P<0.001 \| * \| P<0.001 \| \| IL-6 \| \| P<0.01 \| * \| P<0.001 \| *** \| P<0.001 \| \| TNF-α \| * \| P<0.05 \| \| P<0.01 \| * \| P<0.001 \| \| IL-10 \| \| P<0.01 \| * \| P<0.001 \| * \| P<0.001 \| \| deDnaK \| \| \| \| \| IL-1β \| ns \| P>0.05 \| ns \| P>0.05 \| * \| P<0.001 \| \| IL-6 \| ns \| P>0.05 \| * \| P<0.05 \| *** \| P<0.001 \| \| TNF-α \| * \| P<0.05 \| \| P<0.01 \| * \| P<0.001 \| \| IL-10 \| ns \| P>0.05 \| ns \| P>0.05 \| *** \| P>0.001 \| Note: ns = not significant Table 4.2: Correlation between cytokine secretion by PBMCs when incubated for 24 h with native or denatured, Hsp72 or DnaK. Significance shown following Pearson correlation: * (P<0.05); (P<0.01) \| \| IL-1β \| IL-6 \| TNF-α \| IL-10 \| \|-------\|---------\|---------\|--------\|--------\| \| Hsp72 \| \| \| \| \| \| IL-1β \| \| 0.890 \| 0.991\| 0.999*\| \| IL-6 \| 0.890 \| \| 0.941 \| 0.910 \| \| TNF-α \| 0.991** \| 0.941* \| \| 0.996\| \| IL-10 \| 0.999 \| 0.910 \| 0.996\| \| \| \| IL-1β \| IL-6 \| TNF-α \| IL-10 \| \|-------\|---------\|---------\|--------\|--------\| \| deHsp72 \| \| \| \| \| \| IL-1β \| \| 0.910 \| 0.910 \| 1.000\| \| IL-6 \| 0.910 \| \| 1.000\| 0.920 \| \| TNF-α \| 0.910 \| 1.000 \| \| 0.910 \| \| IL-10 \| 1.000 \| 0.920 \| 0.910 \| \| \| \| IL-1β \| IL-6 \| TNF-α \| IL-10 \| \|-------\|---------\|---------\|--------\|--------\| \| DnaK \| \| \| \| \| \| IL-1β \| \| 0.988 \| 0.939 \| 0.988\| \| IL-6 \| 0.988 \| \| 0.920 \| 0.978* \| \| TNF-α \| 0.939 \| 0.920 \| \| 0.876 \| \| IL-10 \| 0.988** \| 0.978* \| 0.876 \| \| \| \| IL-1β \| IL-6 \| TNF-α \| IL-10 \| \|-------\|---------\|---------\|--------\|--------\| \| deDnaK \| \| \| \| \| \| IL-1β \| \| 0.999 \| 0.999\| 0.999\| \| IL-6 \| 0.999 \| \| 0.996\| 0.996\| \| TNF-α \| 0.999 \| 0.996 \| \| 1.000\| \| IL-10 \| 0.999 \| 0.996 \| 1.000\| \| 220.127.116.11 Treatment of PBMCs with native or denatured Hsp60 or GroEL. Incubation of PBMCs with 100 ng/mL native Hsp60 resulted in a 60-fold increase (P<0.001) in IL-1β secretion compared to incubation with denatured Hsp60 (188.399 and 3.158 pg/mL respectively) (Figure 4.6A). A 13-fold increase (P<0.001) was also observed when incubated with 1000 ng/mL native Hsp60 (2007.328 pg/mL) compared to incubation with the denatured form (152.586 pg/mL) (Figure 4.6A). IL-6 secretion increased 70-fold (P<0.001) when incubated with 100 ng/mL native Hsp60 compared to denatured Hsp60 (1488.644 and 21.173 pg/mL respectively), and increased 2-fold (P<0.001) when incubated with 1000 ng/mL native (4069.630 pg/mL) compared to denatured Hsp60 (2014.229 pg/mL) (Figure 4.7A). Incubation with 100 ng/mL native Hsp60 resulted in a 10-fold increase in TNF-α (P<0.001) in comparison to denatured Hsp60 (554.023 and 54.586 pg/mL respectively); TNF-α also increased nearly 3-fold (P<0.001) when incubated with native Hsp60 compared to the denatured form (2525.781 and 975.481 pg/mL respectively) (Figure 4.8A). IL-10 secretion increased almost 6-fold (P<0.001) following incubation with 100 ng/mL native Hsp60 (69.007 pg/mL) when compared to denatured Hsp60 (12.026 pg/mL), followed by a 44-fold increase when incubated with 1000 ng/mL Hsp60 compared to the denatured form (397.218 and 44.238 pg/mL respectively) (Figure 4.9A). All cytokine responses were dose dependent in PBMCs that were incubated with 100 and 1000 ng/mL (P<0.001) native Hsp60 but were not significant when incubated with 10 ng/mL compared to untreated cells. Significant correlations were observed amongst all cytokines ($r^2 = 0.960 - 0.999$, P<0.05 – 0.01) (Table 4.4). IL-1β and TNF-α responses were only dose dependent when PBMCs were treated with 1000 ng/mL denatured Hsp60 (P<0.001), compared to untreated cells. IL-6 and IL-10 secretion were also dose dependent at 100 ng/mL (P<0.05). No significance in cytokine response was observed when PBMCs were incubated with 10 ng/mL denatured Hsp60 (Table 4.3). Significant correlations were observed amongst all cytokines ($r^2 = 0.973 - 1.000$, P<0.05 – 0.01) (Table 4.4). Following incubation of PBMCs with GroEL, IL-1β secretion increased 2-fold when incubated with 10 ng/mL native GroEL compared to the denatured form (4.206 and 2.339 pg/mL respectively) although this was not significant; a 4-fold increase (P<0.001) was observed when incubated with 100 ng/mL native compared to denatured (221.981 and 54.332 pg/mL respectively); and a nearly 4-fold increase (P<0.001) was seen at 1000 ng/mL native GroEL compared to the denatured form (1839.356 and 542.800 pg/mL respectively) (Figure 4.6B). IL-6 secretion increased 2-fold following incubation with 10 ng/mL native GroEL (19.137 pg/mL) compared to denatured GroEL (8.449 pg/mL) although this was not significant; a 20-fold increase (P<0.001) was observed when incubated with 100 ng/mL native compared to denatured form (2517.183 and 127.036 pg/mL respectively); an significant increase (P<0.001) was also seen when incubated with 1000 ng/mL native GroEL compared to denatured (4770.412 and 4197.884 pg/mL respectively) (Figure 4.7B). TNF-α secretion from PBMCs increased 2-fold following incubation with 10 ng/mL native GroEL compared to the denatured form (74.081 and 36.948 pg/mL respectively) but this was not significant; a 3-fold increase (P<0.01) was observed when incubated with 100 ng/mL native GroEL (541.955 pg/mL) compared to denatured GroEL (167.841 pg/mL); a significant increase (P<0.001) was also seen when incubated with 1000 ng/mL native GroEL compared to denatured (2419.952 and 1967.859 pg/mL respectively) (Figure 4.8B). Secretion of IL-10 increased almost 2-fold (P<0.001) when PBMCs were incubated with 100 ng/mL GroEL compared to denatured GroEL (75.183 and 39.655 pg/mL respectively), and increased over 2-fold (P<0.001) following incubation with 1000 ng/mL native GroEL (578.758 pg/mL) compared to the denatured form (283.360 pg/mL) (Figure 4.9B). All cytokine responses were dose dependent (P<0.001) when incubated with 100 or 1000 ng/mL native GroEL when compared to untreated PBMCs. No significant difference was seen when incubated with 10 ng/mL GroEL. Significant correlations were seen between TNF-α and all other cytokines ($r^2 = 0.944 - 0.996$, P<0.05 – 0.01) and between IL-1β and IL-10 ($r^2 = 1.000$, P<0.01) (Table 4.4). A dose response was seen for IL-1β secretion when incubated with denatured GroEL at 100 and 1000 ng/mL (P<0.001) but not at 10 ng/mL. A dose response (P<0.001) was only seen when incubated with 1000 ng/mL denatured GroEL for IL-6 and TNF-α secretion when compared to untreated PBMCs (Table 4.3). Significant correlations were seen between all cytokines ($r^2 = 0.995 - 1.000$, P<0.01) (Table 4.4). Figure 4.6: Effect on IL-1β secretion by PBMCs when incubated for 24 h with Hsp60 (A) or GroEL (B), in native or denatured (de) forms. Data are presented as mean ± SEM, n = 4. * Indicates significant difference between mean concentration points through use of two-way ANOVA with Bonferroni’s multiple comparison post hoc test: * (P<0.05), (P<0.01), * (P<0.001). Figure 4.7: Effect on IL-6 secretion by PBMCs when incubated for 24 h with Hsp60 (A) or GroEL (B), in native or denatured (de) forms. Data are presented as mean ± SEM, n = 4. * Indicates significant difference between mean concentration points through use of two-way ANOVA with Bonferroni’s multiple comparison post hoc test: * (P<0.05), (P<0.01), * (P<0.001). Figure 4.8: Effect on TNF-α secretion by PBMCs when incubated for 24 h with Hsp60 (A) or GroEL (B), in native or denatured (de) forms. Data are presented as mean ± SEM, n = 4. * Indicates significant difference between mean concentration points through use of two-way ANOVA with Bonferroni's multiple comparison post hoc test: * (P<0.05), (P<0.01), * (P<0.001). Figure 4.9: Effect on IL-10 secretion by PBMCs when incubated for 24 h with Hsp60 (A) or GroEL (B), in native or denatured (de) forms. Data are presented as mean ± SEM, n = 4. * Indicates significant difference between mean concentration points through use of two-way ANOVA with Bonferroni’s multiple comparison post hoc test: * (P<0.05), (P<0.01), * (P<0.001). Table 4.3: Dose responses of cytokine secretion by PBMCs incubated for 24 h with native or denatured, Hsp60 or GroEL. Significance shown as difference between treatments using one-way ANOVA with Bonferroni’s multiple comparison post hoc test. \| Treatment \| Concentration of Treatment (ng/mL) \| \|-----------\|-----------------------------------\| \| \| 10 vs. 0 \| 100 vs. 10 \| 1000 vs. 100 \| \| Hsp60 \| \| \| \| \| IL-1β \| ns \| P>0.05 \| * \| P<0.001 \| * \| P<0.001 \| \| IL-6 \| ns \| P>0.05 \| \| P<0.01 \| * \| P<0.001 \| \| TNF-α \| ns \| P>0.05 \| * \| P<0.001 \| * \| P<0.001 \| \| IL-10 \| ns \| P>0.05 \| * \| P<0.001 \| * \| P<0.001 \| \| deHsp60 \| \| \| \| \| IL-1β \| ns \| P>0.05 \| ns \| P>0.05 \| *** \| P<0.001 \| \| IL-6 \| ns \| P>0.05 \| * \| P<0.05 \| * \| P<0.001 \| \| TNF-α \| ns \| P>0.05 \| ns \| P>0.05 \| * \| P<0.001 \| \| IL-10 \| ns \| P>0.05 \| * \| P<0.05 \| * \| P<0.001 \| \| GroEL \| \| \| \| \| IL-1β \| ns \| P>0.05 \| * \| P<0.001 \| * \| P<0.001 \| \| IL-6 \| ns \| P>0.05 \| * \| P<0.001 \| * \| P<0.001 \| \| TNF-α \| ns \| P>0.05 \| \| P<0.01 \| * \| P<0.001 \| \| IL-10 \| \| P<0.01 \| * \| P<0.001 \| * \| P<0.001 \| \| deGroEL \| \| \| \| \| IL-1β \| ns \| P>0.05 \| * \| P<0.001 \| * \| P<0.001 \| \| IL-6 \| ns \| P>0.05 \| ns \| P>0.05 \| * \| P<0.001 \| \| TNF-α \| ns \| P>0.05 \| ns \| P>0.05 \| * \| P<0.001 \| \| IL-10 \| ns \| P>0.05 \| * \| P<0.001 \| * \| P<0.001 \| Note: ns = not significant Table 4.4: Correlation between cytokine secretion by PBMCs when incubated for 24 h with native or denatured, Hsp60 or GroEL. Significance shown following Pearson correlation: * (P<0.05); ** (P<0.01) \| \| IL-1β \| IL-6 \| TNF-α \| IL-10 \| \|-------\|---------\|---------\|--------\|--------\| \| Hsp60 \| \| \| \| \| \| IL-1β \| \| 0.960* \| 0.993\| 0.997\| \| IL-6 \| 0.960* \| \| 0.986* \| 0.978* \| \| TNF-α \| 0.993** \| 0.986* \| \| 0.999\| \| IL-10 \| 0.997 \| 0.978* \| 0.999\| \| \| deHsp60 \| IL-1β \| IL-6 \| TNF-α \| IL-10 \| \|---------\|---------\|---------\|--------\|--------\| \| IL-1β \| \| 1.000 \| 1.000*\| 0.973 \| \| IL-6 \| 1.000 \| \| 1.000\| 0.974* \| \| TNF-α \| 1.000 \| 1.000 \| \| 0.976* \| \| IL-10 \| 0.973* \| 0.974* \| 0.976* \| \| \| GroEL \| IL-1β \| IL-6 \| TNF-α \| IL-10 \| \|---------\|---------\|---------\|--------\|--------\| \| IL-1β \| \| 0.911 \| 0.996\| 1.000\| \| IL-6 \| 0.911 \| \| 0.944* \| 0.911 \| \| TNF-α \| 0.996** \| 0.944* \| \| 0.996\| \| IL-10 \| 1.000 \| 0.911 \| 0.996\| \| \| deGroEL \| IL-1β \| IL-6 \| TNF-α \| IL-10 \| \|---------\|---------\|---------\|--------\|--------\| \| IL-1β \| \| 0.998 \| 1.000\| 0.999\| \| IL-6 \| 0.998 \| \| 0.999\| 0.995\| \| TNF-α \| 1.000 \| 0.999 \| \| 0.998\| \| IL-10 \| 0.999 \| 0.995 \| 0.998*\| \| 18.104.22.168 Treatment of PBMCs with native or denatured Cpn10 or GroES. Following incubation of PBMCs with Cpn10 for 24 h, there were no significant differences in IL-1β secretion at any concentration of native Cpn10 compared to denatured Cpn10 (Figure 4.10A). IL-6 secretion increased when incubated with 100 ng/mL native Cpn10 compared to the denatured form (9.467 and 6.922 pg/mL respectively) although this was not significant; a 2-fold increase (P<0.001) in IL-6 secretion was observed when incubated with 1000 ng/mL native Cpn10 (19.101 pg/mL) compared to denatured Cpn10 (10.485 pg/mL) (Figure 4.11A). There were no significant differences in TNF-α secretion following incubation with native Cpn10 compared to denatured Cpn10 at any concentration (Figure 4.12A). IL-10 secretion increased almost 4-fold (P<0.001) following 100 ng/mL treatment with native Cpn10 compared denatured Cpn10 (9.810 and 2.715 pg/mL respectively), and increased almost 4-fold (P<0.001) following incubation with 1000 ng/mL Cpn10 compared to the denatured form (11.323 and 3.266 pg/mL respectively) (Figure 4.13A). IL-1β, IL-6 and IL-10 secretion from cells treated with native Cpn10 was dose dependent at 100 and 1000 ng/mL when compared to untreated cells (P<0.05 - P<0.001). IL-1β, IL-6 and IL-10 secretion from cells treated with denatured Cpn10 was dose dependent at 1000 ng/mL (P<0.05 -P<0.001). IL-1β secretion was also significant at 100 ng/mL denatured Cpn10 (P<0.01). There were no significant differences observed for TNF-α secretion at any dose for either native or denatured Cpn10 (Table 4.5). There was a significant correlation between IL-1β and IL-10 secretion when incubated with native Cpn10 ($r^2 = 0.961$, P<0.05), and denatured Cpn10 ($r^2 = 0.995$, P<0.01) (Table 4.6). PBMCs incubated with 100 ng/mL native GroES showed a significant increase (P<0.05) in IL-1β secretion when compared to denatured GroES (4.961 and 3.535 pg/mL respectively; a 3-fold increase (P<0.001) was seen at 1000 ng/mL native GroES compared to denatured GroES (12.910 and 4.165 pg/mL respectively) (Figure 4.10B). IL-6 secretion increased almost 3-fold (P<0.001) when incubated with 10 ng/mL native GroES (19.137 pg/mL) compared to the denatured form (7.665 pg/mL); a 2-fold increase (P<0.001) was observed at 100 ng/mL native compared to denatured GroES (22.191 and 11.502 pg/mL respectively), and also at 1000 ng/mL native compared to denatured GroES (25.244 and 13.476 pg/mL respectively) (P<0.001) (Figure 4.11B). TNF-α increased significantly (P<0.05) when incubated with 10 ng/mL native GroES (60.156 pg/mL) compared to the denatured form (42.518 pg/mL); secretion increased at 100 ng/mL native GroES when compared to denatured GroES (63.868 and 49.015 pg/mL respectively) although this was not significant; TNF-α increased significantly (P<0.05) when incubated with 1000 ng/mL native GroES (80.723 pg/mL) compared to the denatured form (60.156 pg/mL) (Figure 4.12B). An almost 2-fold increase (P<0.01) in IL-10 secretion was observed following treatment with 10 ng/mL native GroES (2.474 pg/mL) compared to denatured GroES (1.921 pg/mL); 100 ng/mL native compared to the denatured form (4.290 and 2.711 pg/mL respectively, P<0.001); and with 1000 ng/mL native GroES compared to denatured GroES (7.846 and 4.220 pg/mL respectively, P<0.001) (Figure 4.13B). Cytokine secretion was dose dependent (P<0.05 -P<0.001) when cells were treated with native GroES compared to untreated cells, except for IL-1β and IL-10 secretion at 10 ng/mL which were not significant (Table 4.5). Significant correlations were seen between IL-1β and IL-10 following incubation with native GroES ($r^2 = 0.983$, P<0.05), and IL-6 and TNF-α ($r^2 = 0.960$, P<0.05) (Table 4.6). When treated with denatured GroES, secretion of all cytokines were dose dependent at 1000 ng/mL (P<0.05 -P<0.001). IL-6 and IL-10 were also dose dependent (P<0.05 -0.01) when treated with 100 ng/mL denatured GroES (Table 4.5). Significant correlations were seen between IL-1β, TNF-α and IL-10 following incubation with denatured GroES ($r^2 = 0.957 – 0.074$, P<0.05), and IL-6 and TNF-α ($r^2 = 0.961$, P<0.05) (Table 4.6). ### 22.214.171.124 Cell viability and cell death in PBMCs following treatment with native and denatured heat shock proteins. There was no significant change in cell number or viability (0.91 x $10^6$ cells/mL) when compared to seeding density (1 x $10^6$ cells/mL) although cell counts were reduced. No significant cell death by apoptosis or necrosis was detected for any treatment when compared to untreated cells, and all were significantly different from the positive controls for either apoptosis or necrosis (Table 4.7). A decrease in cell number was observed when treated with either native or denatured DnaK, and GroEL, as well as a small increase in apoptosis and necrosis, although these were not significantly different from untreated cells (Table 4.7). Figure 4.10: Effect on IL-1β secretion by transformed PBMCs when incubated for 24 h with Cpn10 (A) or GroES (B), in native or denatured (de) forms. Data are presented as mean ± SEM, n = 4. Indicates significant difference between mean concentration points through use of two-way ANOVA with Bonferroni’s multiple comparison post hoc test: * (P<0.05), (P<0.01), * (P<0.001). Figure 4.11: Effect on IL-6 secretion by PBMCs when incubated for 24 h with Cpn10 (A) or GroES (B), in native or denatured (de) forms. Data are presented as mean ± SEM, n = 4. * Indicates significant difference between mean concentration points through use of two-way ANOVA with Bonferroni’s multiple comparison post hoc test: * (P<0.05), (P<0.01), * (P<0.001). Figure 4.12: Effect on TNF-α secretion by PBMCs when incubated for 24 h with Cpn10 (A) or GroES (B), in native or denatured (de) forms. Data are presented as mean ± SEM, n = 4. * Indicates significant difference between mean concentration points through use of two-way ANOVA with Bonferroni’s multiple comparison post hoc test: * (P<0.05), (P<0.01), * (P<0.001). Figure 4.13: Effect on IL-10 secretion by PBMCs when incubated for 24 h with Cpn10 (A) or GroES (B), in native or denatured (de) forms. Data are presented as mean ± SEM, n = 4. * Indicates significant difference between mean concentration points through use of two-way ANOVA with Bonferroni’s multiple comparison post hoc test: * (P<0.05), (P<0.01), * (P<0.001). Table 4.5: Dose responses of cytokine secretion by PBMCs incubated for 24 h with native or denatured, Cpn10 or GroES. Significance shown as difference between treatments using one-way ANOVA with Bonferroni's multiple comparison post hoc test. \| Treatment \| Concentration of Treatment (ng/mL) \| \|-----------\|-----------------------------------\| \| \| 10 vs. 0 \| 100 vs. 10 \| 1000 vs. 100 \| \| Cpn10 \| \| \| \| \| IL-1β \| ns \| P>0.05 \| \| P<0.01 \| * \| P<0.001 \| \| IL-6 \| ns \| P>0.05 \| * \| P<0.05 \| \| P<0.01 \| \| TNF-α \| ns \| P>0.05 \| ns \| P>0.05 \| ns \| P>0.05 \| \| IL-10 \| ns \| P>0.05 \| * \| P<0.001 \| * \| P<0.001 \| \| deCpn10 \| \| \| \| \| IL-1β \| ns \| P>0.05 \| \| P<0.01 \| *** \| P<0.001 \| \| IL-6 \| ns \| P>0.05 \| ns \| P>0.05 \| * \| P<0.05 \| \| TNF-α \| ns \| P>0.05 \| ns \| P>0.05 \| ns \| P>0.05 \| \| IL-10 \| ns \| P>0.05 \| ns \| P>0.05 \| \| P<0.01 \| \| GroES** \| \| \| \| \| IL-1 β \| ns \| P>0.05 \| * \| P<0.05 \| * \| P<0.001 \| \| IL-6 \| * \| P<0.001 \| * \| P<0.001 \| * \| P<0.001 \| \| TNF-α \| * \| P<0.05 \| * \| P<0.05 \| \| P<0.01 \| \| IL-10 \| ns \| P>0.05 \| * \| P<0.001 \| * \| P<0.001 \| \| deGroES** \| \| \| \| \| IL-1β \| ns \| P>0.05 \| ns \| P>0.05 \| * \| P<0.05 \| \| IL-6 \| ns \| P>0.05 \| * \| P<0.05 \| ** \| P<0.01 \| \| TNF-α \| ns \| P>0.05 \| ns \| P>0.05 \| * \| P<0.05 \| \| IL-10 \| ns \| P>0.05 \| \| P<0.01 \| * \| P<0.001 \| Note: ns = not significant Table 4.6: Correlation between cytokine secretion by PBMCs when incubated for 24 h with native or denatured, Cpn10 or GroES. Significance shown following Pearson correlation: * (P<0.05); (P<0.01) \| \| IL-1β \| IL-6 \| TNF-α \| IL-10 \| \|----------------\|---------\|---------\|--------\|--------\| \| Cpn10** \| \| \| \| \| \| IL-1β \| \| 0.942 \| 0.644 \| 0.961* \| \| IL-6 \| 0.942 \| \| 0.799 \| 0.827 \| \| TNF-α \| 0.644 \| 0.799 \| \| 0.409 \| \| IL-10 \| 0.961* \| 0.827 \| 0.409 \| \| \| deCpn10 \| \| \| \| \| \| IL-1β \| \| 0.735 \| 0.592 \| 0.995\| \| IL-6 \| 0.735 \| \| 0.823 \| 0.801 \| \| TNF-α \| 0.592 \| 0.823 \| \| 0.650 \| \| IL-10 \| 0.995 \| 0.801 \| 0.650 \| \| \| GroES \| \| \| \| \| \| IL-1β \| \| 0.673 \| 0.849 \| 0.983* \| \| IL-6 \| 0.673 \| \| 0.960* \| 0.714 \| \| TNF-α \| 0.849 \| 0.960* \| \| 0.863 \| \| IL-10 \| 0.983* \| 0.714 \| 0.863 \| \| \| deGroES \| \| \| \| \| \| IL-1β \| \| 0.904 \| 0.957* \| 0.974* \| \| IL-6 \| 0.904 \| \| 0.961* \| 0.826 \| \| TNF-α \| 0.957* \| 0.961* \| \| 0.938 \| \| IL-10 \| 0.974* \| 0.826 \| 0.938 \| \| Table 4-7. Cell viability, caspase-3 and necrosis measurements of PBMCs following 24 h incubation with native or denatured heat shock proteins. \| Treatment \| Viable cell count (x 10^6) (Trypan blue exclusion) \| Apoptosis (Caspase-3, RFU) \| Necrosis (Propidium Iodide, RFU) \| \|----------------------------\|-----------------------------------------------------\|-----------------------------\|----------------------------------\| \| \| \| 1000 \| 100 \| 10 \| 1000 \| 100 \| 10 \| \| No Treatment \| 0.91 \| 252 \| 2884 \| 97 \| \| \| \| \| Positive Control \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Concentration of treatment (ng/mL) \| 1000 \| 100 \| 10 \| 1000 \| 100 \| 10 \| 1000 \| 100 \| 10 \| \| Hsp72 \| 0.88 \| 0.88 \| 0.89 \| 255 \| 252 \| 253 \| 102 \| 99 \| 99 \| \| Denatured Hsp72 \| 0.89 \| 0.90 \| 0.91 \| 254 \| 251 \| 252 \| 98 \| 98 \| 98 \| \| DnaK \| 0.82 \| 0.84 \| 0.85 \| 257 \| 257 \| 256 \| 111 \| 105 \| 102 \| \| Denatured DnaK \| 0.84 \| 0.85 \| 0.84 \| 255 \| 256 \| 254 \| 107 \| 105 \| 103 \| \| Hsp60 \| 0.87 \| 0.87 \| 0.89 \| 251 \| 253 \| 251 \| 101 \| 100 \| 97 \| \| Denatured Hsp60 \| 0.88 \| 0.89 \| 0.90 \| 253 \| 252 \| 254 \| 98 \| 96 \| 98 \| \| GroEL \| 0.84 \| 0.85 \| 0.87 \| 255 \| 255 \| 256 \| 103 \| 103 \| 99 \| \| Denatured GroEL \| 0.84 \| 0.86 \| 0.88 \| 256 \| 253 \| 253 \| 103 \| 101 \| 98 \| \| Cpn10 \| 0.89 \| 0.90 \| 0.90 \| 254 \| 252 \| 250 \| 98 \| 98 \| 97 \| \| Denatured Cpn10 \| 0.90 \| 0.91 \| 0.91 \| 253 \| 252 \| 253 \| 99 \| 98 \| 98 \| \| GroES \| 0.90 \| 0.91 \| 0.90 \| 253 \| 254 \| 254 \| 96 \| 97 \| 97 \| \| Denatured GroES \| 0.89 \| 0.90 \| 0.90 \| 254 \| 253 \| 251 \| 97 \| 98 \| 98 \| Note: n = 4. Caspase-3 positive control = 2 µm camptothecin; necrosis positive control = autoclaved (see section 2.3.32). Seeding density = 1 x 10^6 cells/mL. 4.3.3 Cytokine secretion from U937 macrophages following 24 h incubation with native or denatured stress proteins. Cytokine secretion from U937 macrophages following treatments with stress proteins are presented in Figures 4.14 – 4.25 and Tables 4.8 – 4.14. 126.96.36.199 Treatment of U937 macrophages with native or denatured, Hsp72 or DnaK. Following incubation of U937 macrophages with Hsp72, a 2-fold increase in IL-1β secretion was seen with 100 ng/mL native Hsp72 (8.090 pg/mL) compared to denatured Hsp72 (4.906 pg/mL), although this was not significant. A 12-fold increase (P<0.001) was seen at 1000 ng/mL native Hsp72 (76.850 pg/mL) compared with denatured Hsp72 (6.035 pg/mL) (Figure 4.14A). IL-6 levels increased 30-fold (P<0.001) after 24 h when incubated with 1000 ng/mL native Hsp72 (69.062 pg/mL) compared to denatured Hsp72 (2.154 ng/mL) (Figure 4.15A). Secretion of TNF-α increased 4-fold following incubation with 10 ng/mL Hsp72 (6.455 pg/mL) compared to denatured Hsp72 (28.988 pg/mL). TNF-α levels also increased 4-fold (P<0.001) when incubated with 100 ng/mL native Hsp72 compared to the denatured form (45.428 and 11.939 pg/mL respectively), and increased over 6-fold (P<0.001) following treatment with 1000 ng/mL native Hsp72 (338.369 pg/mL) when compared to denatured Hsp72 (52.817 pg/mL) (Figure 4.16A). IL-10 increased 200-fold (P<0.001) when incubated with native Hsp72 compared to denatured Hsp72 (129.098 and 0.640 pg/mL respectively), and increased 15-fold (P<0.001) following incubation with 1000 ng/mL native (301.906 pg/mL) compared to denatured Hsp72 (21.774 pg/mL) (Figure 4.17A). Cytokine secretion from cells treated with native Hsp72 was dose dependent at 10, 100 and 1000 ng/mL when compared to untreated cells (P<0.05 – 0.001), except for IL-6 and IL-10 at 10 ng/mL which were not significant (Table 4.8). Significant correlation was seen between all cytokines ($r^2 = 0.995 – 1.000$, P<0.01) except for IL-10 (Table 4.9). No significant differences were seen in relation to dose for denatured Hsp72 except for TNF-α secretion at 100 and 1000 ng/mL (P<0.05 and P<0.01 respectively) (Table 4.8). There was no significant correlation between any cytokine when incubated with denatured Hsp72 (Table 4.9). IL-1β increased 6-fold (P<0.0)1 following incubation with 100 ng/mL native DnaK compared to denatured DnaK (31.778 and 7.540 pg/mL respectively), and 4-fold (P<0.001) at 1000 ng/mL (218.973 and 57.395 pg/mL respectively) (Figure 4.14B). IL-6 secretion increased significantly (P<0.001) following incubation with 1000 ng/mL native DnaK compared to denatured DnaK (157.922 and 143.424 pg/mL respectively) (Figure 4.15B). A significant increase (P<0.01) in TNF-α secretion from cells was observed when treated 1000 ng/mL native DnaK compared to denatured DnaK (593.236 and 539.368 pg/mL respectively) (Figure 4.16B). IL-10 secretion increased 38-fold (P<0.001) following incubation with 10 ng/mL native DnaK compared to denatured DnaK (38.998 and 1.179 pg/mL respectively); a 25-fold increase (P<0.001) was observed when incubated with 100 ng/mL native DnaK compared to denatured form (270.009 and 10.522 pg/mL respectively); and increased 2-fold (P<0.001) following incubation with 1000 ng/mL native DnaK (436.974 pg/mL) compared to denatured DnaK (277.607 pg/mL) (Figure 4.17B). Cytokine secretion from cells treated with native or denatured DnaK was dose dependent at 10, 100 and 1000 ng/mL (P<0.05 -P<0.001) when compared to untreated cells, except for IL-6 secretion when treated with 10 ng/mL denatured DnaK which was not significant (Table 4.8). Correlation was observed between TNF-α and all other cytokines ($r^2 = 0.957 – 0.979$, P<0.05) when treated with native DnaK, and between IL-1β and IL-6 ($r^2 = 0.999$, P<0.01) (Table 4.9). Figure 4.14: Effect on IL-1β secretion by U937 macrophages when incubated for 24 h with Hsp72 (A) or DnaK (B), in native or denatured (de) forms. Data are presented as mean ± SEM, n = 4. * Indicates significant difference between mean concentration points through use of two-way ANOVA with Bonferroni's multiple comparison post hoc test: * (P<0.05), (P<0.01), * (P<0.001). Figure 4.15: Effect on IL-6 secretion by U937 macrophages when incubated for 24 h with Hsp72 (A) or DnaK (B), in native or denatured (de) forms. Data are presented as mean ± SEM, n = 4. * Indicates significant difference between mean concentration points through use of two-way ANOVA with Bonferroni’s multiple comparison post hoc test: * (P<0.05), (P<0.01), * (P<0.001). Figure 4.16: Effect on TNF-α secretion by U937 macrophages when incubated for 24 h with Hsp72 (A) or DnaK (B), in native or denatured (de) forms. Data are presented as mean ± SEM, n = 4. * Indicates significant difference between mean concentration points through use of two-way ANOVA with Bonferroni’s multiple comparison post hoc test: * (P<0.05), (P<0.01), * (P<0.001). Figure 4.17: Effect on IL-10 secretion by U937 macrophages when incubated for 24 h with Hsp72 (A) or DnaK (B), in native or denatured (de) forms. Data are presented as mean ± SEM, n = 4. * Indicates significant difference between mean concentration points through use of two-way ANOVA with Bonferroni's multiple comparison post hoc test: * (P<0.05), (P<0.01), * (P<0.001). Table 4.8: Dose responses of cytokine secretion by U937 macrophages incubated for 24 h with native or denatured, Hsp72 or DnaK. Significance shown as difference between treatments using one-way ANOVA with Bonferroni’s multiple comparison post hoc test. \| Treatment \| Concentration of Treatment (ng/mL) \| \|-----------\|-----------------------------------\| \| \| 10 vs. 0 \| 100 vs. 10 \| 1000 vs. 100 \| \| Hsp72 \| \| \| \| \| IL-1 β \| * \| P<0.05 \| \| P<0.01 \| * \| P<0.001 \| \| IL-6 \| ns \| P>0.05 \| * \| P<0.05 \| * \| P<0.001 \| \| TNF-α \| * \| P<0.001 \| * \| P<0.001 \| * \| P<0.001 \| \| IL-10 \| ns \| P>0.05 \| * \| P<0.001 \| * \| P<0.001 \| \| deHsp72 \| \| \| \| \| IL-1 β \| ns \| P>0.05 \| ns \| P>0.05 \| ns \| P>0.05 \| \| IL-6 \| ns \| P>0.05 \| ns \| P>0.05 \| ns \| P>0.05 \| \| TNF-α \| ns \| P>0.05 \| * \| P<0.05 \| * \| P<0.001 \| \| IL-10 \| ns \| P>0.05 \| ns \| P>0.05 \| * \| P<0.001 \| \| DnaK \| \| \| \| \| IL-1 β \| \| P<0.01 \| * \| P<0.001 \| *** \| P<0.001 \| \| IL-6 \| * \| P<0.05 \| * \| P<0.001 \| * \| P<0.001 \| \| TNF-α \| * \| P<0.001 \| * \| P<0.001 \| * \| P<0.001 \| \| IL-10 \| * \| P<0.001 \| * \| P<0.001 \| * \| P<0.001 \| \| deDnaK \| \| \| \| \| IL-1 β \| * \| P<0.05 \| \| P<0.01 \| * \| P<0.001 \| \| IL-6 \| ns \| P>0.05 \| * \| P<0.001 \| * \| P<0.001 \| \| TNF-α \| * \| P<0.001 \| * \| P<0.001 \| * \| P<0.001 \| \| IL-10 \| ns \| P>0.05 \| ns \| P>0.05 \| * \| P<0.001 \| Note: ns = not significant Table 4.9: Correlation between cytokine secretion by U937 macrophages when incubated for 24 h with native or denatured, Hsp72 or DnaK. Significance shown following Pearson correlation: * (P<0.05); (P<0.01) \| \| IL-1β \| IL-6 \| TNF-α \| IL-10 \| \|----------\|---------\|---------\|--------\|-------\| \| Hsp72\| \| \| \| \| \| IL-1β \| \| 0.995 \| 1.000\| 0.935 \| \| IL-6 \| 0.995 \| \| 0.996\| 0.915 \| \| TNF-α \| 1.000 \| 0.996 \| \| 0.938 \| \| IL-10 \| 0.935 \| 0.915 \| 0.938 \| \| \| deHsp72\| IL-1β \| IL-6 \| TNF-α \| IL-10 \| \|------------\|-------\|------\|-------\|-------\| \| IL-1β \| \| 0.880\| 0.850 \| 0.580 \| \| IL-6 \| 0.880 \| \| 0.930 \| 0.660 \| \| TNF-α \| 0.850 \| 0.930\| \| 0.890 \| \| IL-10 \| 0.580 \| 0.660\| 0.890 \| \| \| DnaK \| IL-1β \| IL-6 \| TNF-α \| IL-10 \| \|------------\|-------\|------\|-------\|-------\| \| IL-1β \| \| 0.999\| 0.957\| 0.882 \| \| IL-6 \| 0.999\| \| 0.966\| 0.899 \| \| TNF-α \| 0.957\| 0.966\| \| 0.979\| \| IL-10 \| 0.882 \| 0.899 \| 0.979\| \| \| deDnaK \| IL-1β \| IL-6 \| TNF-α \| IL-10 \| \|------------\|-------\|------\|-------\|-------\| \| IL-1β \| \| 0.992\| 0.922 \| 0.996\| \| IL-6 \| 0.992*\| \| 0.949\| 0.990*\| \| TNF-α \| 0.922 \| 0.949\| \| 0.898 \| \| IL-10 \| 0.996\| 0.990\| 0.898 \| \| 188.8.131.52 Treatment of U937 macrophages with native or denatured Hsp60 or GroEL. Incubation of U937 macrophages with native Hsp60 resulted in an increase of IL-1β secretion at 100 ng/mL native Hsp60 compared to denatured Hsp60 (12.038 pg/mL and 8.299 pg/mL respectively), although this was not significant. There was a 3.5-fold increase in IL1-β secretion at 1000 ng/mL native Hsp60 (53.053 pg/mL) compared to denatured Hsp60 (14.563 pg/mL) (P<0.001) (Figure 4.18A). Secretion of IL-6 increased 3-fold (P<0.001) when incubated with 10 ng/mL native Hsp60 compared to the denatured form (3.016 and 1.102 pg/mL respectively) followed by a 2-fold increase (P<0.001) at 100 ng/mL native Hsp60 (5.713 pg/mL) compared to denatured Hsp60 (2.356 pg/mL) (P<0.05), and increased 6-fold at 1000 ng/mL native Hsp60 compared to denatured Hsp60 (35.434 pg/mL and 6.421 pg/mL respectively, P<0.001) (Figure 4.19A). TNF-α secretion increased almost 20-fold (P<0.01) following incubation with 10 ng/mL native Hsp60 (19.148 pg/mL) compared to denatured Hsp60 (1.732 pg/mL), followed by a nearly 5-fold increase (P<0.001) at 100 ng/mL (45.798 pg/mL native and 9.102 pg/mL denatured) and a 5-fold increase (P<0.001) at 1000 ng/mL (276.411 pg/mL native and 56.049 pg/mL denatured) (Figure 4.20A). Secretion of IL-10 increased 16-fold (P<0.001) after incubation with 100 ng/mL Hsp60 compared to denatured Hsp60 (59.906 and 3.043 pg/mL respectively), and a 10-fold increase (P<0.001) was observed when incubated with 1000 ng/mL native compared to denatured Hsp60 (286.818 and 26.243 pg/mL respectively) (Figure 4.21A). Cytokine secretion from cells treated with native or denatured Hsp60 were dose dependent at 10, 100 and 1000 ng/mL (P<0.05 – P<0.001) when compared to untreated cells, except for IL-1β and TNF-α when treated with 10 ng/mL denatured Hsp60 which were not significant (Table 4.10). There was a significant correlation between all cytokines when treated with native Hsp60 ($r^2 = 0.993 - 1.000$, P<0.01). When treated with denatured Hsp60 there was a significant correlation between IL-6 and all other cytokines ($r^2 = 0.969 - 0.980$, P<0.05), and between TNF and IL-10 ($r^2 = 0.999$, P<0.01) (Table 4.11). IL-1β increased 5-fold (P<0.001) following incubation with native GroEL compared to denatured GroEL at 1000 ng/mL (64.677 and 12.996 pg/mL respectively). No significant differences were seen at other concentrations (Figure 4.18B). IL-6 secretion increased 2-fold (P<0.001) when incubated with 100 ng/mL native GroEL (11.145 pg/mL) compared to denatured GroEL (5.198 pg/mL) and also increased at 1000 ng/mL (49.230 pg/mL and 33.961 pg/mL respectively, P<0.001) (Figure TNF-α secretion increased significantly (P<0.001) from cells treated with 1000 ng/mL native GroEL compared to denatured GroEL (459.852 pg/mL and 360.298 pg/mL respectively) (Figure 4.20B). A 6-fold (P<0.001) increase of IL-10 secretion was observed following incubation with 100 ng/mL GroEL (95.975 pg/mL) compared to the denatured form (16.231 pg/mL), and a 3-fold increase following incubation with 1000 ng/mL native compared to denatured GroEL (420.020 and 137.439 pg/mL respectively) (Figure 4.21B). Cytokine secretion from cells treated with native and denatured GroEL were dose dependent at 10, 100 and 1000 ng/mL (P<0.05 - P<0.001) when compared to untreated cells, except for IL-6 secretion when treated with 10 ng/mL native or denatured GroEL which were not significant (Table 4.10). Significant correlation was observed between all cytokines when treated with native GroEL ($r^2 = 0.984 - 1.000$, $P<0.05 - 0.01$). A significant correlation was also seen between IL-6 and TNF-α ($r^2 = 0.998$, $P<0.01$), and IL-6 and IL-10 ($r^2 = 0.999$, $P<0.01$) and, TNF-α and IL-10 ($r^2 = 0.997$, $P<0.01$), when treated with denatured GroEL (Table 4.11). Figure 4.18: Effect on IL-1β secretion by U937 macrophages when incubated for 24 h with Hsp60 (A) or GroEL (B), in native or denatured (de) forms. Data are presented as mean ± SEM, n = 4. * Indicates significant difference between mean concentration points through use of two-way ANOVA with Bonferroni’s multiple comparison post hoc test: * (P<0.05), (P<0.01), * (P<0.001). Figure 4.19: Effect on IL-6 secretion by U937 macrophages when incubated for 24 h with Hsp60 (A) or GroEL (B), in native or denatured (de) forms. Data are presented as mean ± SEM, n = 4. * Indicates significant difference between mean concentration points through use of two-way ANOVA with Bonferroni’s multiple comparison post hoc test: * (P<0.05), (P<0.01), * (P<0.001). Figure 4.20: Effect on TNF-α secretion by U937 macrophages when incubated for 24 h with Hsp60 (A) or GroEL (B), in native or denatured (de) forms. Data are presented as mean ± SEM, n = 4. * Indicates significant difference between mean concentration points through use of two-way ANOVA with Bonferroni's multiple comparison post hoc test: * (P<0.05), (P<0.01), * (P<0.001). Figure 4.21: Effect on IL-10 secretion by U937 macrophages when incubated for 24 h with Hsp60 (A) or GroEL (B), in native or denatured (de) forms. Data are presented as mean ± SEM, n = 4. * Indicates significant difference between mean concentration points through use of two-way ANOVA with Bonferroni’s multiple comparison post hoc test: * (P<0.05), (P<0.01), * (P<0.001). Table 4.10: Dose responses of cytokine secretion by U937 macrophages incubated for 24 h with native and denatured Hsp60 and GroEL. Significance shown as difference between treatments using one-way ANOVA with Bonferroni’s multiple comparison post hoc test. \| Treatment \| Concentration of Treatment (ng/mL) \| \|-----------\|-----------------------------------\| \| \| 10 vs. 0 \| 100 vs. 10 \| 1000 vs. 100 \| \| Hsp60 \| \| \| \| \| IL-1 β \| \| P<0.01 \| * \| P<0.001 \| * \| P<0.001 \| \| IL-6 \| * \| P<0.001 \| * \| P<0.001 \| * \| P<0.001 \| \| TNF-α \| * \| P<0.001 \| * \| P<0.001 \| * \| P<0.001 \| \| IL-10 \| ns \| P>0.05 \| * \| P<0.001 \| * \| P<0.001 \| \| deHsp60 \| \| \| \| \| IL-1 β \| ns \| P>0.05 \| \| P<0.01 \| * \| P<0.001 \| \| IL-6 \| * \| P<0.001 \| * \| P<0.001 \| * \| P<0.001 \| \| TNF-α \| ns \| P>0.05 \| * \| P<0.05 \| *** \| P<0.001 \| \| IL-10 \| ns \| P>0.05 \| * \| P<0.05 \| * \| P<0.001 \| \| GroEL** \| \| \| \| \| IL-1 β \| * \| P<0.05 \| \| P<0.01 \| * \| P<0.001 \| \| IL-6 \| ns \| P>0.05 \| * \| P<0.001 \| * \| P<0.001 \| \| TNF-α \| * \| P<0.001 \| * \| P<0.001 \| * \| P<0.001 \| \| IL-10 \| ns \| P>0.05 \| * \| P<0.001 \| * \| P<0.001 \| \| deGroEL** \| \| \| \| \| IL-1 β \| * \| P<0.05 \| \| P<0.01 \| * \| P<0.001 \| \| IL-6 \| ns \| P>0.05 \| * \| P<0.05 \| * \| P<0.001 \| \| TNF-α \| \| P<0.01 \| * \| P<0.001 \| * \| P<0.001 \| \| IL-10 \| ns \| P>0.05 \| * \| P<0.001 \| * \| P<0.001 \| Note: ns = not significant Table 4.11: Correlation between cytokine secretion by U937 macrophages when incubated for 24 h with native or denatured, Hsp60 or GroEL. Significance shown following Pearson correlation: * (P<0.05); (P<0.01) \| \| IL-1β \| IL-6 \| TNF-α \| IL-10 \| \|-------\|---------\|---------\|--------\|--------\| \| Hsp60 \| \| \| \| \| \| IL-1β \| 0.999 \| 0.998 \| 0.994\| \| \| IL-6 \| 0.999 \| 1.000 \| 0.993\| \| \| TNF-α \| 0.998 \| 1.000 \| 0.995\| \| \| IL-10 \| 0.994 \| 0.993 \| 0.995*\| \| \| deHsp60 \| \| \| \| \| \| IL-1β \| 0.980 \| 0.912 \| 0.901 \| \| \| IL-6 \| 0.980* \| 0.975* \| 0.969* \| \| \| TNF-α \| 0.812 \| 0.975* \| \| 0.999*\| \| IL-10 \| 0.901 \| 0.969 \| 0.999\| \| \| GroEL \| \| \| \| \| \| IL-1β \| 0.990 \| 1.000** \| 0.988* \| \| \| IL-6 \| 0.990** \| 0.987* \| 1.000\| \| \| TNF-α \| 1.000 \| 0.987* \| \| 0.984* \| \| IL-10 \| 0.988* \| 1.000** \| 0.984* \| \| \| deGroEL \| \| \| \| \| \| IL-1β \| 0.844 \| 0.846 \| 0.823 \| \| \| IL-6 \| 0.844 \| 0.998 \| 0.999\| \| \| TNF-α \| 0.846 \| 0.998 \| \| 0.997\| \| IL-10 \| 0.823 \| 0.999 \| 0.997\| \| 184.108.40.206 Treatment of U937 macrophages with native or denatured Cpn10 or GroES. When incubated with native Cpn10, there was no significant difference in IL-1β secretion at any dose when compared to denatured Cpn10 (Figure 4.22A). IL-6 secretion increased significantly (P<0.01) when U937 macrophages were incubated with 100 ng/mL native Cpn10 compared to denatured Cpn10 (4.302 and 3.303 pg/mL respectively); secretion increased significantly (P<0.001) when incubated with 1000 ng/mL native (7.628 pg/mL) compared to the denatured form (4.453 pg/mL) (Figure 4.23A). TNF-α secretion increased 2-fold (P<0.001) when incubated with 10 ng/mL native Cpn10 compared to denatured Cpn10 (4.573 and 2.345 pg/mL respectively), which increased 3-fold (P<0.001) when treated with 100 ng/mL (8.594 and 2.600 pg/mL respectively), followed by a 4-fold increase (P<0.001) in secretion when treated with 1000 ng/mL native Cpn10 compared to denatured Cpn10 (11.876 and 2.680 pg/mL respectively) (Figure 4.24A). IL-10 increased 10-fold (P<0.001) following incubation with 100 ng/mL native compared to denatured Cpn10 (0.356 and 0.038 pg/mL respectively), and an almost 6-fold (P<0.001) increase following 1000 ng/mL native Cpn10 (0.703 pg/mL) compared to the denatured form (0.120 pg/mL) (Figure 4.25A). Cytokine secretion from cells treated with native and denatured Cpn10 was dose dependent at 10, 100 and 1000 ng/mL when compared to untreated cells (P<0.05 - P<0.001) (Table 4.12). A significant correlation was observed between IL-1β and IL-10 when treated with either native ($r^2 = 0.961$, P<0.05) or denatured ($r^2 = 0.995$, P<0.01) Cpn10 (Table 4.13). Following incubation of U937 macrophages when treated with native GroES, IL-1β secretion increased significantly (P<0.001) compared to denatured GroES at 10 ng/mL (8.888 and 7.163 pg/mL respectively); secretion was significantly increased (P<0.001) following incubation with 100 ng/mL native GroES (9.613 ng/mL) compared to the denatured form (8.104 pg/mL). No significant increase was seen when incubated with 1000 ng/mL (Figure 4.22B). IL-6 secretion increased significantly (P<0.01) when incubated with 100 ng/mL native GroES (2.794 pg/mL) compared to denatured GroES (2.109 pg/mL) and was increased 0.5-fold (P<0.001) when treated with 1000 ng/mL native GroES compared to denatured GroES (6.325 and 4.188 pg/mL respectively) (Figure 4.23B). There was a 2-fold increase (P<0.001) of TNF-α secretion when cells were treated with 10 ng/mL native GroES compared to denatured GroES (4.410 and 1.199 pg/mL. respectively), which increased 4-fold (P<0.001) when treated with 100 ng/mL (9.283 and 1.918 pg/mL respectively), followed by an 8-fold increase (P<0.001) in secretion when treated with 1000 ng/mL native GroES compared to denatured GroES (16.526 and 2.352 pg/mL respectively) (Figure 4.24B). Incubation with 100 ng/mL native GroES resulted in a significant (P<0.001) increase in IL-10 secretion compared to denatured GroES (0.442 and 0.000 pg/mL respectively), and a 4-fold (P<0.001) increase following incubation with 1000 ng/mL native compared to denatured GroES (0.937 and 0.120 pg/mL respectively) (Figure 4.25B). Cytokine secretion from cells treated with native and denatured GroES was dose dependent at 10, 100 and 1000 ng/mL when compared to untreated cells (P<0.05 - P<0.001), except for TNF-α secretion when treated with 10 ng/mL denatured GroES which was not significant (Table 4.12). Significant correlation between IL-1β and IL-10 ($r^2 = 0.983$, P<0.05), and IL-6 and TNF-α ($r^2 = 0.960$, P<0.05) was observed following treatment with native GroES. There was correlation between IL-1β, TNF-α and IL-10 ($r^2 = 0.957 - 0.974$, P<0.05), and between IL-6 and TNF-α ($r^2 = 0.961$, P<0.05) following treatment with denatured GroES (Table 4.13). 220.127.116.11 Cell viability and cell death in U937 macrophages following treatment with native and denatured heat shock proteins. There was no significant change in cell number or viability (4.66 x $10^5$ cells/mL) when compared to seeding density (5 x $10^5$ cells/mL) although cell counts were reduced. No significant cell death by apoptosis or necrosis was detected for any treatment when compared to untreated cells, and all were significantly different from the positive controls for either apoptosis or necrosis (Table 4.14). Figure 4.22: Effect on IL-1β secretion by U937 macrophages when incubated for 24 h with Cpn10 (A) or GroES (B), in native or denatured (de) forms. Data are presented as mean ± SEM, n = 4. * Indicates significant difference between mean concentration points through use of two-way ANOVA with Bonferroni’s multiple comparison post hoc test: * (P<0.05), (P<0.01), * (P<0.001). Figure 4.23: Effect on IL-6 secretion by U937 macrophages when incubated for 24 h with Cpn10 (A) or GroES (B), in native or denatured (de) forms. Data are presented as mean ± SEM, n = 4. * Indicates significant difference between mean concentration points through use of two-way ANOVA with Bonferroni's multiple comparison post hoc test: * (P<0.05), (P<0.01), * (P<0.001). Figure 4.24: Effect on TNF-α secretion by U937 macrophages when incubated for 24 h with Cpn10 (A) or GroES (B), in native or denatured (de) forms. Data are presented as mean ± SEM, n = 4. * Indicates significant difference between mean concentration points through use of two-way ANOVA with Bonferroni’s multiple comparison post hoc test: * (P<0.05), (P<0.01), * (P<0.001). Figure 4.25: Effect on IL-10 secretion by U937 macrophages when incubated for 24 h with Cpn10 (A) or GroES (B), in native or denatured (de) forms. Data are presented as mean ± SEM, n = 4. * Indicates significant difference between mean concentration points through use of two-way ANOVA with Bonferroni’s multiple comparison post hoc test: * (P<0.05), (P<0.01), * (P<0.001). Table 4.12: Dose responses of cytokine secretion by U937 macrophages incubated for 24 h with native or denatured, Cpn10 or GroES. Significance shown as difference between treatments using one-way ANOVA with Bonferroni’s multiple comparison post hoc test. \| Treatment \| Concentration of Treatment (ng/mL) \| \|-----------\|-----------------------------------\| \| \| 10 vs. 0 \| 100 vs. 10 \| 1000 vs. 100 \| \| Cpn10 \| \| \| \| \| IL-1 β \| * \| P<0.001 \| * \| * \| P<0.001 \| \| IL-6 \| * \| P<0.001 \| * \| * \| P<0.001 \| \| TNF-α \| * \| P<0.001 \| * \| * \| P<0.001 \| \| IL-10 \| ns \| P>0.05 \| * \| P<0.001 \| * \| P<0.001 \| \| deCpn10 \| \| \| \| \| IL-1 β \| * \| P<0.001 \| * \| * \| P<0.001 \| \| IL-6 \| * \| P<0.001 \| * \| * \| P<0.001 \| \| TNF-α \| * \| P<0.001 \| * \| * \| P<0.001 \| \| IL-10 \| ns \| P>0.05 \| ns \| P>0.05 \| * \| P<0.001 \| \| GroES \| \| \| \| \| IL-1 β \| * \| P<0.001 \| * \| * \| P<0.001 \| \| IL-6 \| * \| P<0.001 \| * \| * \| P<0.001 \| \| TNF-α \| * \| P<0.001 \| * \| * \| P<0.001 \| \| IL-10 \| ns \| P>0.05 \| * \| P<0.001 \| * \| P<0.001 \| \| deGroES \| \| \| \| \| IL-1 β \| * \| P<0.001 \| * \| * \| P<0.001 \| \| IL-6 \| * \| P<0.001 \| * \| * \| P<0.001 \| \| TNF-α \| ns \| P>0.05 \| * \| P<0.001 \| * \| P<0.001 \| \| IL-10 \| ns \| P>0.05 \| ns \| P>0.05 \| *** \| P<0.001 \| Note: ns = not significant Table 4.13: Correlation between cytokine secretion by U937 macrophages when incubated for 24 h with native or denatured, Cpn10 or GroES. Significance shown following Pearson correlation: * (P<0.05); (P<0.01) \| \| IL-1β \| IL-6 \| TNF-α \| IL-10 \| \|----------------\|---------\|---------\|--------\|-------\| \| Cpn10** \| \| \| \| \| \| IL-1β \| \| 0.888 \| 0.914 \| 0.722 \| \| IL-6 \| 0.888 \| \| 0.985* \| 0.932 \| \| TNF-α \| 0.914 \| 0.985* \| \| 0.940 \| \| IL-10 \| 0.722 \| 0.932 \| 0.940 \| \| \| deCpn10 \| \| \| \| \| \| IL-1β \| \| 0.984* \| 0.989* \| 0.685 \| \| IL-6 \| 0.984* \| \| 0.966* \| 0.774 \| \| TNF-α \| 0.989* \| 0.966* \| \| 0.588 \| \| IL-10 \| 0.685 \| 0.774 \| 0.999\| \| \| GroES \| \| \| \| \| \| IL-1β \| \| 0.733 \| 0.771 \| 0.655 \| \| IL-6 \| 0.733 \| \| 0.994\| 0.984\| \| TNF-α \| 0.771 \| 0.994* \| \| 0.985\| \| IL-10 \| 0.655 \| 0.984 \| 0.985* \| \| \| deGroES \| \| \| \| \| \| IL-1β \| \| 0.909 \| 0.883 \| 0.599 \| \| IL-6 \| 0.909 \| \| 0.958 \| 0.866 \| \| TNF-α \| 0.883 \| 0.958 \| \| 0.757 \| \| IL-10 \| 0.599 \| 0.866 \| 0.757 \| \| 4.3.4 Effects on U937 macrophages following a time course of treatments with native or denatured, Hsp72 or low endotoxin (LE) Hsp72. Cytokine secretion from U937 macrophages following treatments are presented in Figures 4.26 – 4.29 and Table 4.15. Following a time course, IL-1β secretion increased in a time dependent manner from U937 macrophages when treated with either Hsp72 (12.545 pg/mL) or LE-Hsp72 (11.984 pg/mL), when compared to 0 h (4.813 pg/mL). Significant differences were observed at 3 h (11.929 and 9.242 pg/mL respectively) and 4 h (12.720 and 9.753 pg/mL respectively) between, Hsp72 or LE-Hsp72 (Figure 4.26A). There was no difference over time between either, denatured Hsp72, or denatured LE-Hsp72 (Figure 4.26B). IL-6 secretion also increased in a time dependent manner with significant differences seen between Hsp72 and LE-Hsp72 at 4 h (26.319 and 21.480 pg/mL, P<0.01), 5 h (39.916 and 31.075 pg/mL, P<0.001), and 6 h (44.699 and 39.900 pg/mL, P<0.001) (Figure 4.27A). There was no difference at any time between denatured, Hsp72 or LE-Hsp72 at any time point (Figure 4.27B). TNF-α secretion increased in a time dependent manner reaching a peak at 6 h for both Hsp72 and LE-Hsp72 (716.870 and 604.050 pg/mL respectively). Significant differences (P<0.01 – 0.001) were observed between Hsp72 and LE-Hsp72 at all time points except at 0 h (Figure 4.28A). There was an increase in TNF-α secretion over time following incubation with both denatured forms but these were not significantly different from 0 h (Figure 4.28B). IL-10 secretion increased in a time dependent manner that peaked at 6 h for both Hsp72 and LE-Hsp72 (75.775 and 66.898 pg/mL respectively). Significant differences were observed after 3 h until 6 h between Hsp72 and LE-Hsp72 (P<0.05 – 0.001) (Figure 4.29A). There was no difference between 0 h and any time point following incubation with denatured forms of Hsp72 and LE-Hsp72 (Figure 4.29B). Significant correlation was observed between all cytokines over time when incubated with Hsp72 ($r^2 = 0.830 - 1.000$, P<0.05 – 0.01) and LE-Hsp72 ($r^2 = 0.900 - 1.000$, P<0.01) (Table 4.15). Figure 4.26: Time course of IL-1β secretion by U937 macrophages treated with 1000 ng/mL Hsp72 or low endotoxin (LE) Hsp72 in native (A) or denatured form (B). U937 macrophages were treated with 1000 ng/mL Hsp72 from 0-6 h. U937 macrophages were treated with 100 ng/ml LPS from 0-6 h. Data are presented as mean ± SEM, n = 4. Significance shown as difference from 0 h using two-way ANOVA with Bonferroni’s multiple comparison post hoc test: * (P<0.05), (P<0.01), * (P<0.001). Figure 4.27: Time course of IL-6 secretion by U937 macrophages treated with 1000 ng/mL Hsp72 or low endotoxin (LE) Hsp72 in native (A) or denatured form (B). U937 macrophages were treated with 1000 ng/ml Hsp72 from 0-6 h. Data are presented as mean ± SEM, n = 4. Significance shown as difference from 0 h using two-way ANOVA with Bonferroni’s multiple comparison post hoc test: * (P<0.05), (P<0.01), * (P<0.001). Figure 4.28: Time course of TNF-α secretion by U937 macrophages treated with 1000 ng/mL Hsp72 or low endotoxin (LE) Hsp72 in native (A) or denatured form (B). U937 macrophages were treated with 1000 ng/ml Hsp72 from 0-6 h. Data are presented as mean ± SEM, n = 4. Significance shown as difference from 0 h using two-way ANOVA with Bonferroni’s multiple comparison post hoc test: * (P<0.05), (P<0.01), * (P<0.001). Figure 4.29: Time course of IL-10 secretion by U937 macrophages treated with 1000 ng/ml Hsp72 or low endotoxin (LE) Hsp72 in native (A) or denatured form (B). U937 macrophages were treated with 1000 ng/ml Hsp72 from 0-6 h. Data are presented as mean ± SEM, n = 4. Significance shown as difference from 0 h using two-way ANOVA with Bonferroni’s multiple comparison post hoc test: * (P<0.05), (P<0.01), * (P<0.001). Table 4.15: Correlation between cytokines secreted by U937 macrophages when incubated for up to 6 h with native Hsp72. Significance shown following Pearson correlation: * (P<0.05); ** (P<0.01) \| \| IL-1β \| IL-6 \| TNF-α \| IL-10 \| \|-------\|---------\|---------\|--------\|-------\| \| Hsp72 \| \| \| \| \| \| IL-1β \| \| 0.830* \| 0.980*\| 0.830\| \| IL-6 \| 0.830* \| \| 0.890\| 1.000\| \| TNF-α \| 0.980 \| 0.890 \| \| 0.890*\| \| IL-10 \| 0.830 \| 1.000 \| 0.890\| \| \| \| IL-1β \| IL-6 \| TNF-α \| IL-10 \| \|-------\|---------\|---------\|--------\|-------\| \| LE-Hsp72 \| \| \| \| \| \| IL-1β \| \| 0.930 \| 0.990\| 0.930\| \| IL-6 \| 0.930 \| \| 0.900\| 1.000\| \| TNF-α \| 0.990 \| 0.900 \| \| 0.900\| \| IL-10 \| 0.930 \| 1.000 \| 0.900\| \| 4.3.5 Effect on cytokine secretion from U937 macrophages following 4 h treatment with Hsp72 or LPS, pre-incubated with polymyxin B. Cytokine secretion from U937 macrophages following treatments are presented in Figures 4.30 – 4.33 and Table 4.16. Following incubation with Hsp72, IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α and IL-10 secretion were significantly decreased when pre-incubated with polymyxin B compared to no polymyxin B (IL-1β: 11.021 and 14.939 pg/mL respectively, $P<0.05$; IL-6: 21.945 and 26.738 pg/mL respectively, $P<0.001$; TNF-α: 529.203 and 618.647 pg/mL respectively, $P<0.001$; IL-10: 242.079 and 415.763 pg/mL respectively, $P<0.001$) (Figures 4.30 – 4.33). A significant decrease in all cytokine secretion was seen when LPS was pre-incubated with polymyxin B (IL-1β: 10.684 and 33.070 pg/mL respectively, $P<0.001$; IL-6: 75.188 and 1576.964 pg/mL respectively, $P<0.001$; TNF-α: 382.900 and 9793.075 pg/mL respectively, $P<0.001$; IL-10: 293.218 and 1381.471 pg/mL respectively, $P<0.001$) (Figures 4.30 – 4.33). No significant differences were observed when HI-RPMI was pre-incubated with polymyxin B. When pre-incubated with polymyxin B, Hsp72 resulted in significant increases ($P<0.05 - 0.001$) in cytokine secretion when compared to HI-RPMI which was pre-incubated with polymyxin B, as did LPS (Table 4.16). Figure 4.30: Secretion of IL-1β by U937 macrophages treated with Hsp72 or LPS with or without polymyxin B for 4 h. U937 macrophages were treated with 1000 ng/ml Hsp72 or 100 ng/mL LPS either with or without pre-incubation with 20 μg/mL polymyxin B. Data are presented as mean ± SEM, n = 4. Significance shown as difference from HI-RPMI using two-way ANOVA with Bonferroni’s multiple comparison post hoc test: * (P<0.05), (P<0.01), * (P<0.001). Figure 4.31: Secretion of IL-6 by U937 macrophages treated with Hsp72 or LPS with or without polymyxin B for 4 h. U937 macrophages were treated with 1000 ng/ml Hsp72 or 100 ng/mL LPS either with or without pre-incubation with 20 µg/mL polymyxin B. Data are presented as mean ± SEM, n = 4. Significance shown as difference from HI-RPMI using two-way ANOVA with Bonferroni’s multiple comparison post hoc test: * (P<0.05), (P<0.01), * (P<0.001). Figure 4.32: Secretion of TNF-α by U937 macrophages treated with Hsp72 or LPS with or without polymyxin B for 4 h. U937 macrophages were treated with 1000 ng/ml Hsp72 or 100 ng/mL LPS either with or without pre-incubation with 20 μg/mL polymyxin B. Data are presented as mean ± SEM, n = 4. Significance shown as difference from HI-RPMI using two-way ANOVA with Bonferroni's multiple comparison post hoc test: * (P<0.05), (P<0.01), * (P<0.001). Figure 4.33: Secretion of IL-10 by U937 macrophages treated with Hsp72 or LPS with or without polymyxin B for 4 h. U937 macrophages were treated with 1000 ng/ml Hsp72 or 100 ng/mL LPS either with or without pre-incubation with 20 µg/mL polymyxin B. Data are presented as mean ± SEM, n = 4. Significance shown as difference from HI-RPMI using two-way ANOVA with Bonferroni’s multiple comparison post hoc test: * (P<0.05), (P<0.01), * (P<0.001). Table 4.16: Significant differences in cytokine secretion between HI-RPMI (no treatment) and Hsp72, or LPS that were pre-incubated with polymyxin B. Significance shown as difference from HI-RPMI using one-way ANOVA with Bonferroni’s multiple comparison post hoc test. \| \| IL-1β \| IL-6 \| TNF-α \| IL-10 \| \|-------\|---------\|---------\|---------\|---------\| \| Hsp72 \| * (P<0.05) \| * (P<0.001) \| * (P<0.001) \| * (P<0.05) \| \| LPS \| * (P<0.05) \| * (P<0.001) \| * (P<0.001) \| * (P<0.05) \| 4.4 Discussion The aim of this chapter was to determine whether recombinant heat shock proteins are able to induce cytokine expression and production, or if the effect is due to LPS contamination. A number of recombinant heat shock proteins were applied to PBMCs or U937 macrophages, in native or denatured forms. It was found that all native proteins caused a dose dependent stimulation of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines in both cell types. When Hsp72 and Hsp60 were applied to U937 macrophages, there was a high correlation between cytokines secreted when stimulated with the native form compared to the denatured form which suggests that at least some heat shock proteins are capable of stimulating an immune response independently of LPS. This is in agreement with other studies (Kol et al., 2000; Svensson et al., 2006). However, as the stimulation of cytokines was not completely abrogated by denaturation, it is possible that there is an LPS component to some of the activity. Kol et al. (2000) demonstrated that any activity could be abrogated by boiling recombinant proteins. The experiments described here only used a relatively mild denaturation compared to boiling as proteins are able to be denatured at lower temperatures than boiling, and boiling has been demonstrated to reduce the ability of LPS to stimulate cytokine secretion by as much as 90% (Gao, Wang & Tsan, 2006). Also, as demonstrated by LAL assay, the only recombinant heat shock proteins found to contain any detectable LPS were DnaK and GroEL. When these proteins were denatured, this LPS contamination was only marginally reduced. This evidence suggests that at least some heat shock proteins are able to stimulate cytokine secretion. When recombinant human proteins were used, there was a reduced cytokine response when compared to the equivalent bacterial protein. This is likely to be partially due to LPS contamination, but also the recognition of a foreign protein by immune cells. For example, human Hsp72 and the E. coli equivalent, DnaK, are both known to activate cytokine synthesis (Vabulas et al., 2002; Wang et al., 2005), but Hsp72 appears to be able to bind a number of receptors, including CD14 (Asea et al., 2000b), TLR2/4 (Asea et al., 2002), LOX-1 (Delneste, 2004) and CD40 (Becker, Hartl & Wieland, 2002) whereas DnaK only appears to bind CD40 (Nolan et al., 2004). Recombinant human Hsp60 was able to stimulate pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines, as was GroEL, both of which are known to stimulate pro-inflammatory cytokines (Graham et al., 2004) (Moré et al., 2001). The response of Hsp60 could be due to Hsp60 being bound to LPS, as it has been demonstrated that Hsp60 is able to bind LPS through a distinct region (aa 354-365) which has the motif LKGK (Habich et al., 2004; Habich et al., 2005). Interestingly, Hsp72 also contains this LKGK motif (aa 558-561) but there have been no studies reporting whether this may be an LPS-binding region. It is therefore possible that Hsp72 may act as an LPS-binding protein (LBP). Some studies have shown that the cell surface receptor for LPS involves a complex of which Hsp72 is a component which is indirect evidence that Hsp72 can bind to LPS (Triantafilou et al., 2001; Triantafilou & Triantafilou, 2002). The cytokine responses to Cpn10 and GroES were very low when compared to the other heat shock proteins, although a dose dependent increase was observed for both proteins. Again, this could be due to LPS contamination as secretion was reduced following denaturation, but it has recently been suggested that Cpn10 functions to increase the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 by inhibiting the activation of NF-κβ by LPS (Johnson et al., 2005). The results here are not comparative with this study as their study utilised 100 μg/mL Cpn10 which is at least 100-fold higher than the concentrations used here. A higher correlation between cytokines secreted was seen when U937 macrophages were incubated over a short time course with Hsp72 or LE-Hsp72, than at 24 h which demonstrated that the cytokines measured here are upregulated quickly following stimulation with Hsp72. As there was no difference between Hsp72 and LE-Hsp72, it is likely that Hsp72 itself can stimulate the cytokine response. As Hsp72 is able to bind CD40, this leads to stimulation of the pro-inflammatory cytokine TNF-α (Becker et al., 2002). Secretion of TNF-α in turn initiates the stimulation of the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10, which acts to inhibit the production of TNF-α, as well as IL-1β and IL-6 (Moore et al., 2001). Hsp72 is therefore likely to be involved in the pro-inflammatory modulation of the immune response, although it has recently been suggested that an LPS-free preparation of Mycobacterial Hsp70 does not stimulate pro-inflammatory cytokines but stimulates IL-10 (Motta et al., 2007). Interestingly, when either Hsp72 or LE-Hsp72 was denatured, the only cytokine secreted was TNF-α, which is the primary immune response when stimulated with LPS. The abrogation of IL-10 secretion when Hsp72 was denatured may indicate that the primary function of extra-cellular Hsp72 is anti-inflammatory which is in agreement with the work by Motta et al. (2007), and has been previously suggested by others (Prakken et al., 2001). LPS contamination of recombinant Hsp72 was further investigated by pre-incubating Hsp72 with polymyxin B which is a potent inhibitor of LPS activation. When LPS (100 ng/mL) was pre-incubated with polymyxin B, there was a significant reduction in the secretion of cytokines from U937 macrophages. Pre-incubation of Hsp72 also resulted in a significant decrease in secretion. However, this reduction, although significant, did not abrogate secretion completely and was still significantly higher than untreated U937 macrophages. This again suggests that Hsp72 has the ability to stimulate cytokine secretion of immune cells independently of LPS. The results found in this chapter conclude that many recombinant heat shock proteins, especially Hsp72, are able to stimulate a cytokine response which is likely to be independent of LPS. Chapter 5 The effect of blocking peptides on Hsp72 stimulation of cytokine production by, and migration of, U937 macrophages. 5.1 Introduction The previous chapter determined that recombinant Hsp72 is able to stimulate an immune response from PBMCs and U937 macrophages independently from LPS. Hsp72 is reported to illicit this response via several receptors on the cell surface such as CD14 (Asea et al., 2000b), CD40 (Becker et al., 2002; Millar et al., 2003; Nolan et al., 2004), CD91 (Binder et al., 2000), the toll-like receptors TLR-2 (Asea et al., 2000b; Asea et al., 2002), TLR-4 (Asea et al., 2002), TLR-7 (Wang et al., 2006b) and, the scavenger receptors LOX-1 (Delneste et al., 2002) and SREC-1 (Theriault et al., 2006). It has also been demonstrated that a peptide sequence homologous to Hsp72 (aa 329-338) is able to bind to the cytoplasmic domain of macrophage scavenger receptors, including CD36 (Nakamura et al., 2002). As some of these receptors are also LPS-binding receptors (Triantafilou & Triantafilou, 2002) (Sondermann et al., 2000), it is plausible that any immune response may be due to contamination of Hsp72 by LPS. More recently, it has been proposed that flagellin may actually be a contaminating stimulant (Ye & Gan, 2007) which is supposedly specific for TLR-5 (Smith et al., 2003). The previous chapter however, demonstrates that although there may be some contaminating LPS present in recombinant Hsp72 preparations, there is a marked effect of Hsp72 on the stimulation of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines. Hsp72 has been shown to interact with lipid raft-associated TLR-7 and can stimulate enhancement of macrophage phagocytosis in conjunction with TLR-7 (Wang et al., 2006b). Also, Hsp72 which is localised at the cell surface has been shown to induce migration of human NK cells through a specific epitope, TKD (Gastpar et al., 2004). Extra-cellular Hsp72 could therefore act as a chemokine through binding to a number of cell surface receptors and stimulating pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokine release, leading to migration of phagocytic cells, which would correlate with Hsp72 being an endogenous danger signal (Campisi et al., 2003; Vega et al., 2008; Williams & Ireland, 2008). The aim of this chapter is to determine whether Hsp72 cytokine stimulation can be abrogated through use of blocking peptides to a number of cell surface receptors, and if this has any effect on Hsp72 induced cell migration. 5.2 Methods All preparations and cell culture experiments were carried out within a Class II tissue culture hood. 5.2.1 Preparation of cells for treatment. U937 macrophages were prepared as in section 2.3.28. 5.2.2 Preparation of Hsp72 for experiments. Hsp72 was diluted in 10 % HI-RPMI to give 10 000 ng/mL stock solutions. 5.2.3 Preparation of peptides for blocking experiments. Recombinant peptides derived from TLR-2, TLR-4, TLR-5, TLR-7, CD14 and CD36 were diluted in 10 % HI-RPMI to give 20 µg/mL stock solutions. 5.2.4 Treatment of U937 macrophages with Hsp72 pre-treated with blocking peptides. Hsp72 (1000 ng/mL in 10 % HI-RPMI) was pre-treated with blocking peptides for TLR-2, TLR-4, TLR-5, TLR-7, CD14 and CD36 at 20, 10, 5, 2, and 1 µg/mL for 1 h before being applied to U937 macrophages for 4 h. 5.2.5 Measurement of secreted cytokines. Following treatment, media was removed from the wells and clarified by centrifugation at 400 g for 5 min and transferred to a clean 1.5 mL micro-centrifuge tube. Media was then either used fresh or frozen at -70°C until required. Secretion of TNF-α and IL-10 were measured as described in sections 2.3.35 - 2.3.36. 5.2.6 Effect on migration of U937 macrophages by Hsp72 and blocking peptides. Migration of U937 macrophages was determined as in section 2.3.37. Hsp72 (1000 ng/mL in 10 % HI-RPMI) was pre-treated with blocking peptides for TLR-2, TLR-4, TLR-5, TLR-7, CD14 and CD36 at 20 µg/mL for 1 h, then added to the lower chamber for 4 h. Hsp72 (1000 ng/mL) in 10 % HI-RPMI or 10 % HI-RPMI only were used as controls. 5.2.7 Treatment of Hsp72 with anti-flagellin antibody. Hsp72 (1000 ng/mL) was incubated with 5 µg/mL anti-flagellin antibody for 1 h before being applied to U937 macrophages for 4 h. Hsp72 only or anti-flagellin antibody only were applied to U937 macrophages as control samples. 5.2.8 Western blots of Hsp72 and flagellin. Serial dilutions of Hsp72 and a flagellin control (1 µg/mL) were run on SDS-PAGE followed by western blot as described in sections 2.3.10 and 2.3.12-13 and probed with either anti-Hsp72 or anti-flagellin. 5.2.9 Cell counts and viability tests by trypan blue exclusion. Following treatment, cells were re-suspended into the media by repeated pipetting. Cells were then counted and assessed by trypan blue exclusion as described in section 2.3.24. 5.3 Results 5.3.1 Effect on cytokine secretion and cell migration following treatment of U937 macrophages with Hsp72, pre-treated with blocking peptides. 18.104.22.168 Effect of TLR-2 blocking peptide. When Hsp72 was pre-incubated with a peptide of TLR-2 before being applied to U937 macrophages, TNF-α and IL-10 secretion was significantly reduced (P<0.01) when Hsp72 was blocked with 20 µg/mL of TLR-2 peptide compared to Hsp72 only (Figures 5.1A-B). TNF-α secretion was reduced by 1 %, from 626.028 to 618.540 pg/mL, and IL-10 by 3 %, from 368.987 to 357.915 pg/mL. No other significant decrease was observed. Migration of U937 macrophages was significantly reduced (P<0.001) when Hsp72 was pre-incubated with TLR-2 peptide (4.564 X 10^3 cells/mL) compared to Hsp72 alone (4.465 X 10^3 cells/mL respectively). Both were significantly different from control samples (P<0.001) (Figure 5.2). 22.214.171.124 Effect of TLR-4 blocking peptide. Following pre-incubation of Hsp72 with a TLR-4 peptide, cytokine secretion was significantly reduced (P<0.001) in a concentration dependent manner at 20 and 10 µg/mL peptide for both TNF-α (527.424 and 605.714 pg/mL respectively) and IL-10 (172.917 and 295.874 pg/mL respectively), and a significant reduction (P<0.05) in IL-10 secretion was also seen when blocked with 5 µg/mL (356.788 pg/mL) (Figures 5.3A-B). Migration of U937 macrophages was significantly reduced (P<0.001) when Hsp72 was pre-incubated with TLR-4 peptide (3.328 X 10^3 cells/mL) compared to Hsp72 alone (4.465 X 10^3 cells/mL respectively). Both were significantly different from control samples (P<0.001) (Figure 5.4). 126.96.36.199 Effect of TLR-5 blocking peptide. TNF-α secretion was significantly reduced (P<0.001) in a concentration dependent manner when Hsp72 was pre-incubated with TLR-5 peptide at all concentrations (151.417, 225.450, 461.556, 567.644 and 604.899 pg/mL at respective concentrations: 20, 10, 5, 2 and 1 µg/mL TLR-5 peptide) (Figure 5.5A). IL-10 secretion was also significantly reduced (P<0.001) in a concentration dependent manner at all concentrations (51.382, 72.456, 104.496, 291.935 and 332.551 pg/mL at respective concentrations of 20, 10, 5, 2 and 1 µg/mL TLR-5 peptide) (Figure 5.5B). Migration of U937 macrophages was significantly reduced (P<0.001) when Hsp72 was pre-incubated with TLR-5 peptide (3.435 X 10^3 cells/mL) compared to Hsp72 alone (4.465 X 10^3 cells/mL respectively). Both were significantly different from control samples (P<0.001) (Figure 5.6). 188.8.131.52 Effect of TLR-7 blocking peptide. When Hsp72 was pre-incubated with a peptide of TLR-7 before being applied to U937 macrophages, TNF-α was not significantly reduced at any concentration of TLR-7 peptide (Figure 5.7A). In contrast, IL-10 secretion was significantly reduced (P<0.001) in a concentration dependent manner when Hsp72 was blocked with all concentrations (226.458, 290.867, 305.534, 326.092 and 348.207 pg/mL at respective concentrations of 20, 10, 5, 2 and 1 μg/mL TLR-7 peptide) compared to Hsp72 only (368.987 pg/mL)(Figure 5.7B). Migration of U937 macrophages was reduced when Hsp72 was pre-incubated with TLR-7 peptide although this was not significantly different from Hsp72 alone (4.320 and 4.465 X 10^3 cells/mL respectively). Both were significantly different from control samples (P<0.001) (Figure 5.8). 184.108.40.206 Effect of CD14 blocking peptide. Following pre-incubation of Hsp72 with a CD14 peptide, cytokine secretion was significantly reduced (P<0.001) in a concentration dependent manner at 20, 10 and 5 μg/mL peptide for both TNF-α (335.035, 381.683 and 506.346 pg/mL respectively) and IL-10 (99.797, 231.434 and 307.925 pg/mL respectively), and a significant reduction (P<0.05) in IL-10 secretion was also seen when blocked with 2 μg/mL (357.164 pg/mL) (Figures 5.9A-B). Migration of U937 macrophages was significantly reduced (P<0.001) when Hsp72 was pre-incubated with CD14 peptide (2.985 X 10^3 cells/mL) compared to Hsp72 alone (4.465 X 10^3 cells/mL respectively). Both were significantly different from control samples (P<0.001) (Figure 5.10). 220.127.116.11 Effect of CD36 blocking peptide. TNF-α secretion was significantly reduced (P<0.001) in a concentration dependent manner when Hsp72 was pre-incubated with CD36 peptide at all concentrations (63.886, 139.566, 331.689, 484.954 and 580.636 pg/mL at respective concentrations of 20, 10, 5, 2 and 1 μg/mL CD36 peptide) (Figure 5.11A). IL-10 secretion was also significantly reduced (P<0.001) in a concentration dependent manner at all concentrations (54.315, 82.312, 133.380, 263.049 and 350.299 pg/mL at respective concentrations of 20, 10, 5, 2 and 1 μg/mL CD36 peptide) (Figure 5.11B). Migration of U937 macrophages was significantly reduced (P<0.001) when Hsp72 was pre-incubated with CD36 peptide (2.535 X 10^3 cells/mL) compared to Hsp72 alone (4.465 X 10^3 cells/mL respectively). Both were significantly different from control samples (P<0.001) (Figure 5.12). Figure 5.1: Effect on cytokine secretion from U937 macrophages by Hsp72 pre-incubated with different concentrations of a TLR-2 blocking peptide. (A) Effect on TNF-α, and (B) IL-10. Hsp72 (1000 ng/mL) was pre-incubated for 1 h with TLR-2 blocking peptide before being applied to macrophages for 4 h. Hsp72, or peptide (20 μg/mL) only were used as controls. Data are presented as mean ± SEM, n=4. * (P<0.05), (P<0.01), * (P<0.001), using two-way ANOVA with Bonferroni’s post hoc test. Figure 5.2: Effect on cell migration of U937 macrophages by Hsp72 pre-incubated with a TLR-2 blocking peptide. Hsp72 (1000 ng/mL) was pre-incubated for 1 h with TLR-2 blocking peptide (20 μg/mL) before being applied to the lower chamber of the Boyden chamber. U937 macrophages (5 X 10^5 cells/mL) were applied to the upper chamber and the plate was incubated for 4 h. Cells within the lower chamber were counted. Data are presented as mean ± SEM, n=4. * Indicates significant difference, compared to Hsp72 only, through use of one-way ANOVA with Bonferroni’s multiple comparison post hoc test: * (P<0.05), (P<0.01), * (P<0.001). Figure 5.3: Effect on cytokine secretion from U937 macrophages by Hsp72 pre-incubated with different concentrations of a TLR-4 blocking peptide. (A) Effect on TNF-α, and (B) IL-10. Hsp72 (1000 ng/mL) was pre-incubated for 1 h with TLR-4 blocking peptide before being applied to macrophages for 4 h. Hsp72, or peptide (20 μg/mL) only were used as controls. Data are presented as mean ± SEM, n=4. * (P<0.05), (P<0.01), * (P<0.001), using two-way ANOVA with Bonferroni’s post hoc test. Figure 5.4: Effect on cell migration of U937 macrophages by Hsp72 pre-incubated with a TLR-4 blocking peptide. Hsp72 (1000 ng/mL) was pre-incubated for 1 h with TLR-2 blocking peptide (20 μg/mL) before being applied to the lower chamber of the Boyden chamber. U937 macrophages (5 × 10^5 cells/mL) were applied to the upper chamber and the plate was incubated for 4 h. Cells within the lower chamber were counted. Data are presented as mean ± SEM, n=4. * Indicates significant difference, compared to Hsp72 only, through use of one-way ANOVA with Bonferroni’s multiple comparison post hoc test: * (P<0.05), (P<0.01), * (P<0.001). Figure 5.5: Effect on cytokine secretion from U937 macrophages by Hsp72 pre-incubated with different concentrations of a TLR-5 blocking peptide. (A) Effect on TNF-α, and (B) IL-10. Hsp72 (1000 ng/mL) was pre-incubated for 1 h with TLR-5 blocking peptide before being applied to macrophages for 4 h. Hsp72, or peptide (20 μg/mL) only were used as controls. Data are presented as mean ± SEM, n=4. * (P<0.05), (P<0.01), * (P<0.001), using two-way ANOVA with Bonferroni’s post hoc test. Figure 5.6: Effect on cell migration of U937 macrophages by Hsp72 pre-incubated with a TLR-5 blocking peptide. Hsp72 (1000 ng/mL) was pre-incubated for 1 h with TLR-5 blocking peptide (20 µg/mL) before being applied to the lower chamber of the Boyden chamber. U937 macrophages (5 X 10^4 cells/mL) were applied to the upper chamber and the plate was incubated for 4 h. Cells within the lower chamber were counted. Data are presented as mean ± SEM, n=4. * Indicates significant difference, compared to Hsp72 only, through use of one-way ANOVA with Bonferroni’s multiple comparison post hoc test: * (P<0.05), (P<0.01), * (P<0.001). Figure 5.7: Effect on cytokine secretion from U937 macrophages by Hsp72 pre-incubated with different concentrations of a TLR-7 blocking peptide. (A) Effect on TNF-α, and (B) IL-10. Hsp72 (1000 ng/mL) was pre-incubated for 1 h with TLR-7 blocking peptide before being applied to macrophages for 4 h. Hsp72, or peptide (20 μg/mL) only were used as controls. Data are presented as mean ± SEM, n=4. * (P<0.05), (P<0.01), * (P<0.001), using two-way ANOVA with Bonferroni's post hoc test. Figure 5.8: Effect on cell migration of U937 macrophages by Hsp72 pre-incubated with a TLR-7 blocking peptide. Hsp72 (1000 ng/mL) was pre-incubated for 1 h with TLR-7 blocking peptide (20 μg/mL) before being applied to the lower chamber of the Boyden chamber. U937 macrophages (5 X 10^5 cells/mL) were applied to the upper chamber and the plate was incubated for 4 h. Cells within the lower chamber were counted. Data are presented as mean ± SEM, n=4. * Indicates significant difference, compared to Hsp72 only, through use of one-way ANOVA with Bonferroni’s multiple comparison post hoc test: * (P<0.05), (P<0.01), * (P<0.001). Figure 5.9: Effect on cytokine secretion from U937 macrophages by Hsp72 pre-incubated with different concentrations of a CD14 blocking peptide. (A) Effect on TNF-α, and (B) IL-10. Hsp72 (1000 ng/mL) was pre-incubated for 1 h with CD14 blocking peptide before being applied to macrophages for 4 h. Hsp72, or peptide (20 μg/mL) only were used as controls. Data are presented as mean ± SEM, n=4. * (P<0.05), (P<0.01), * (P<0.001), using two-way ANOVA with Bonferroni’s post hoc test. Figure 5.10: Effect on cell migration of U937 macrophages by Hsp72 pre-incubated with a CD14 blocking peptide. Hsp72 (1000 ng/mL) was pre-incubated for 1 h with CD14 blocking peptide (20 μg/mL) before being applied to the lower chamber of the Boyden chamber. U937 macrophages (5 X 10^5 cells/mL) were applied to the upper chamber and the plate was incubated for 4 h. Cells within the lower chamber were counted. Data are presented as mean ± SEM, n=4. * Indicates significant difference, compared to Hsp72 only, through use of one-way ANOVA with Bonferroni’s multiple comparison post hoc test: * (P<0.05), (P<0.01), * (P<0.001). Figure 5.11: Effect on cytokine secretion from U937 macrophages by Hsp72 pre-incubated with different concentrations of a CD36 blocking peptide. (A) Effect on TNF-α, and (B) IL-10. Hsp72 (1000 ng/mL) was pre-incubated for 1 h with CD36 blocking peptide before being applied to macrophages for 4 h. Hsp72, or peptide (20 μg/mL) only were used as controls. Data are presented as mean ± SEM, n=4. * (P<0.05), (P<0.01), * (P<0.001), using two-way ANOVA with Bonferroni's post hoc test. Figure 5.12: Effect on cell migration of U937 macrophages by Hsp72 pre-incubated with a CD36 blocking peptide. Hsp72 (1000 ng/mL) was pre-incubated for 1 h with CD36 blocking peptide (20 μg/mL) before being applied to the lower chamber of the Boyden chamber. U937 macrophages (5 X 10^5 cells/mL) were applied to the upper chamber and the plate was incubated for 4 h. Cells within the lower chamber were counted. Data are presented as mean ± SEM, n=4. * Indicates significant difference, compared to Hsp72 only, through use of one-way ANOVA with Bonferroni’s multiple comparison post hoc test: * (P<0.05), (P<0.01), * (P<0.001). 5.3.2 Determination of flagellin contamination of recombinant Hsp72. Since the cytokine response of U937 macrophages to Hsp72 appears to be partially blocked by the TLR-5 peptide, it was necessary to determine if recombinant Hsp72 was contaminated with flagellin, as TLR-5 is reported to be a specific receptor for flagellin (Smith et al., 2003). When Hsp72 was pre-incubated with anti-flagellin, there was no significant difference in TNF-α or IL-10 secretion when compared to Hsp72 alone (Figure 5.13). When Hsp72 was probed with anti-flagellin by western blot, no flagellin could be detected (Figure 5.14). Figure 5.13: Effect on cytokine secretion from U937 macrophages by Hsp72, or Hsp72 pre-incubated with an anti-flagellin antibody. Hsp72 (1000 ng/mL) was pre-incubated for 1 h with anti-flagellin (5 μg/mL) before being applied to macrophages for 4 h. Data are presented as mean ± SEM, n=4. * (P<0.05), (P<0.01), * (P<0.001), using one-way ANOVA with Bonferroni’s multiple comparison post hoc test. Figure 5.14: Western blots to determine contamination of recombinant Hsp72 with flagellin. 10% gels were cast and loaded with the following: Lanes 1 and 6 - 25 ng pure human Hsp72; Lanes 2 and 7 - 12.5 ng pure human Hsp72; Lanes 3 and 8 - 6.25 ng pure human Hsp72; Lanes 4 and 9 - 3.125 ng pure human Hsp72; Lanes 5 and 10 - 25 ng pure E. coli derived flagellin. Blots were probed with either: (A) DEG-biotin at 1/5000 dilution followed by avidin at 1/5000 dilution or, (B) anti-flagellin at 1/1000 dilution followed by anti-mouse IgG HRP-conjugate at 1/1000 dilution. Blots were exposed for 120 sec. 5.4 Discussion The aim of this chapter was to determine whether the stimulatory effect of Hsp72 on immune function could be abrogated by utilising blocking peptides to several cell surface receptors which are known to bind Hsp72. It was shown that Hsp72 alone could induce TNF-α and IL-10 secretion and stimulate migration of U937 macrophages. Some of the blocking peptides were found to be able to prevent this stimulation, but there was no complete abrogating effect. These effects could be due to effective blocking of Hsp72 to the relevant receptors, or that binding of Hsp72 to certain peptides can block the binding of Hsp72 to other receptors. TLR-2 blocking peptides could only block the effect of Hsp72 on macrophage activity at the highest concentration of blocking peptide used, which suggests that Hsp72 does not bind avidly to TLR-2 which is in agreement with other studies (Thériault et al., 2005). Hsp72 activation of an immune response was blocked in a dose dependent manner by all other known Hsp72 receptor peptides which correlates with findings by others that Hsp72 can bind a variety of cell surface receptors (Asea et al., 2000b; Basu et al., 2000; Becker et al., 2002; Millar et al., 2003; Nolan et al., 2004; Wang et al., 2006b). TLR-4 and CD14 blocking also resulted in a reduction of cytokine secretion in a dose dependent manner. This is suggestive that Hsp72 can bind to TLR-4 and CD14 as other groups have shown (Asea et al., 2000b; Asea et al., 2002). This may be the result of LPS contamination as suggested by other studies (Tsan & Gao, 2004a; Tsan & Gao, 2004b) although other proteins, such as Hsp60, have been shown to bind CD14 independently of LPS (Kol et al., 2000). Blocking of CD36 resulted in the highest rate of cytokine reduction. CD36 is a class B scavenger receptor and can bind many ligands, including oxLDL, which is known to bind to other receptors such as LOX-1. LOX-1 is also a receptor known to interact with Hsp72 (Delneste et al., 2002). On macrophages, CD36 has been reported to form part of a receptor complex (CD36-αVβ3 complex) which is involved in phagocytosis (Bottcher et al., 2006). Therefore, it may be that Hsp72 is an endogenous signal which promotes chemotaxis leading to phagocytosis of cellular debris from necrotic cells. As stimulatory activity was effectively blocked by a TLR-5 peptide, and it has been suggested that flagellin could be a contaminating component of recombinant Hsp72 (Ye & Gan, 2007), the effect of pre-incubating Hp72 with an anti-flagellin antibody on cytokine secretion, or probing by western blot was investigated. None of these two methods demonstrated any contamination by flagellin, as cytokine activity was not affected and there was no binding by anti-flagellin. Ye et al. (2007) have demonstrated that very low levels of flagellin are required to stimulate activation of NF-κβ which does suggest that there may be enough flagellin present in recombinant Hsp72 preparations. Conversely, in the same paper, they do show a stimulatory effect of Mycobacterial Hsp72 on NF-κβ activity which shows that even if flagellin is present in E. coli Hsp72, it is likely that Hsp72 is also able to stimulate an immune response. Interestingly, the use of a TLR-7 blocking peptide effectively reduced only IL-10 secretion, and not TNF-α. Binding of TLR-7 by Hsp72 has only been reported by one other group as a mechanism which enhances phagocytosis (Wang et al., 2006b). Migration of U937 macrophages was not reduced compared to Hsp72 only treated cells. This may indicate that migration of macrophages is dependent on the secretion of TNF-α rather than IL-10. As the binding appears to block only IL-10 secretion, it may indicate that the anti-inflammatory effect of Hsp72 leading to stimulation of IL-10 is modulated through TLR-7. Further work needs to be done to determine exactly which receptors are being bound by Hsp72, or if the response is due to the blocking of Hsp72 to other receptors. Although this is not the case for TLR-7, as blocking with this peptide resulted in only IL-10 secretion abrogation, demonstrating that other receptors must be involved. From the work in this chapter it is likely that Hsp72 is able to bind a number of receptors present on the cell surface of U937 macrophages although the types of receptors present was not determined. This is based on the partial blocking of cytokine secretion from U937 macrophages by Hsp72. As these peptides were produced against hydrophilic regions of receptors, it is likely that Hsp72 is able to bind these regions of the receptors tested here. The receptors tested here are all members of the super immunoglobulin family. This may suggest that these receptors have the ability to bind a wide variety of molecules and able to recognise ‘dangerous’ molecules present in the extra-cellular milieu. Chapter 6 Interactions between extra-cellular Hsp72 and HMGB-1 on the stimulation of U937 macrophages. 6.1 Introduction The previous chapter demonstrated that Hsp72 is able to act as an endogenous danger signal by stimulating the production of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines, and the migration of macrophages when bound to cell surface receptors. Several other endogenous danger signals have been proposed (Bianchi & Manfredi, 2007), such as HMGB-1. HMGB-1 is a nuclear protein that acts as a DNA chaperone under normal conditions and is associated with chromatin. It is released by necrotic or damaged cells and stimulates a pro-inflammatory response, but remains bound to chromatin in cells undergoing apoptosis (Scaffidi et al., 2002), although it has recently been shown to be released during late apoptosis (Bell et al., 2006). It is also actively secreted by viable cells (Gardella et al., 2002). Hsp72 is known to be released by necrosis (Daniels et al., 2004; Saito et al., 2005; Todryk et al., 1999), not apoptosis (Srivastava, 2003), although it has been shown to be actively secreted (Kalinina et al., 2004; Mambula & Calderwood, 2006a; Mambula & Calderwood, 2006b). Although both proteins are implicated as danger signals, they have different effects on other cells and tissues. Extra-cellular Hsp72 appears to have a regulatory role (Van Molle et al., 2002) by binding to cell surface receptors and through internalisation (Guzhova et al., 2001; Guzhova et al., 1998), leading to the secretion of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines (Luo et al., 2008; Njemini et al., 2007a), whereas HMGB-1 induces fever and inflammation in low doses (O'Connor et al., 2003; Wang et al., 1999) and is able to effectively inhibit secretion of IL-10 (Fiuza et al., 2003). HMGB-1 is thought to contribute to autoimmune reactions in lupus through stimulation of IFN-γ secretion from dendritic cells (Tian et al., 2007), and anti-HMGB-1 treatment is able to prevent LPS-induced fever or sepsis (Qin et al., 2006; Wang et al., 1999). As both proteins can be found within the extra-cellular milieu, and Hsp72 is known to interact with HMGB-1 within the nucleus (Tang et al., 2007a; Tang et al., 2007b) it is plausible that the presence of extra-cellular Hsp72 may interact with HMGB-1, and abrogate or inhibit some of the effects of HMGB-1, and vice versa. Therefore the aim of this chapter is to determine whether extra-cellular Hsp72 is able to modulate the immune responses of U937 macrophages to extra-cellular HMGB-1 in relation to secretion of TNF-α and IL-10 secretion and migration. 6.2 Methods All preparations and cell culture experiments were carried out within a Class II tissue culture hood. 6.2.1 Preparation of cells for treatment. U937 macrophages were prepared as in section 2.3.28. 6.2.2 Preparation of Hsp72, HMGB-1 and LPS for experiments. Hsp72, Bac-Hsp72 and HMGB-1 were diluted in 10% HI-RPMI to give 10,000 ng/mL stock solutions. LPS from E. coli O111:B4 was reconstituted in 10% HI-RPMI at 1 mg/mL and allowed to dissolve. LPS was then further diluted in 10% HI-RPMI to give 1 μg/mL stock solution. 6.2.3 Treatment of U937 macrophages with mixtures of Hsp72, HMGB-1 and LPS. Hsp72 (1000 ng/mL), HMGB-1 (1000 ng/mL) and LPS (100 ng/mL) were applied separately or as mixtures to U937 macrophages and incubated for 4 h. 6.2.4 Time course treatment of U937 macrophages with different concentrations of LPS. U937 macrophages (5 X 10^5 U937 macrophages) were incubated with 10,000, 1000, 100 and 10 ng/mL LPS for up to 5 h. 6.2.5 Treatment of U937 macrophages with Hsp72 and/or HMGB-1, with or without anti-Hsp72 and/or anti-HMGB-1 antibodies. Hsp72 (1000 ng/mL) and/or HMGB-1 (1000 ng/mL) were applied directly to cells, or were pre-incubated with 1 μg/mL of anti-Hsp72 and/or anti-HMGB-1, for 1 h prior to being applied at 1 mL per well (5 X 10^5 U937 macrophages) for 4 h. 6.2.6 Effect on migration of U937 macrophages by Hsp72 and/or HMGB-1, with or without anti-Hsp72 and/or anti-HMGB-1 antibodies. Migration of U937 macrophages was determined as in section 2.3.37. Hsp72 and/or HMGB-1, with or without anti-Hsp72 and/or anti-HMGB-1 were added to the lower chamber as described and incubated for 4 h. 6.2.7 Treatment of U937 macrophages with heat-treated NCL, with or without anti-Hsp72 and/or anti-HMGB-1 antibodies. Heat-treated NCL (Section 2.3.38) were pre-incubated with 1 µg/mL of anti-Hsp72 and/or anti-HMGB-1 for 1 h prior to being applied at 1 mL per well (5 X10⁵ U937 macrophages) for 4 h. 6.2.8 Effect on migration of U937 macrophages by NCL, with or without anti-Hsp72 and/or anti-HMGB-1 antibodies. Migration of U937 macrophages was determined as in section 2.3.37. Necrotic cell lysate, with or without anti-Hsp72 and/or anti-HMGB-1 were added to the lower chamber as described and incubated for 4 h. 6.2.9 Treatment of U937 macrophages with Bac-Hsp72, and/or HMGB-1. Baculovirus expressed recombinant Hsp72 (Bac-Hsp72), at 1000, 500, 250 and 125 ng/mL, was applied to U937 macrophages with or without, HMGB-1 at 1000, 500 and 100 ng/mL, and incubated for 4 h. 6.2.10 Effect on migration of U937 macrophages by Bac-Hsp72, and/or HMGB-1. Migration of U937 macrophages was determined as in section 2.3.37. Bac-Hsp72 and HMGB-1 were added to the lower chamber as described. Bac-Hsp72, at 1000, 500, 250 and 125 ng/mL, was applied to U937 macrophages with or without, HMGB-1 at 1000, 500 and 100 ng/mL, and incubated for 4 h. 6.2.11 Measurement of secreted cytokines. Following treatment, media was removed from the wells and clarified by centrifugation at 400 g for 5 min and transferred to a clean 1.5 mL micro-centrifuge tube. Media was then either used fresh or frozen at -70°C until required. Secretion of TNF-α and IL-10 were measured as described in sections 2.3.35 - 2.3.36. 6.2.12 Cell counts and viability tests by trypan blue exclusion. Following treatment, cells were re-suspended into the media by repeated pipetting. Cells were then counted and assessed by trypan blue exclusion as described in section 2.3.24. 6.3 Results 6.3.1 Effect on cytokine secretion following treatment of U937 macrophages with mixtures of Hsp72, HMGB-1 and LPS. Following treatment of U937 macrophages with Hsp72 (1000 ng/mL), TNF-α secretion increased 50-fold (P<0.001) compared to untreated macrophages (631.404 and 12.677 pg/mL respectively). IL-10 secretion also increased over 3-fold (P<0.001) when compared to untreated macrophages (326.106 and 97.839 pg/mL respectively) (Figure 6.1A). A similar increase in TNF-α was seen following treatment with HMGB-1 (1000 ng/mL) (679.852 pg/mL, P<0.001) (Figure 6.1A), but IL-10 secretion was abrogated (92.270 pg/mL) and not significantly different from untreated macrophages (Figure 6.1A). When macrophages were treated with both Hsp72 and HMGB-1, a 120-fold increase (P<0.001) in TNF-α was observed (1526.435 pg/mL), and there was a 2-fold increase (P<0.001) in IL-10 secretion (215.297 pg/mL) when compared to untreated macrophages (Figure 6.1A). When the same treatments were applied to U937 macrophages, with added LPS (100 ng/mL), a similar trend in cytokine secretion was observed: TNF-α secretion increased significantly (P<0.001) with LPS and Hsp72, compared to LPS only treated macrophages (13016.020 and 10032.150 pg/mL respectively). IL-10 secretion also increased (P<0.0001) when compared to LPS treated macrophages (1860.653 and 1372.494 pg/mL respectively) (Figure 6.1B). A similar increase in TNF-α was seen following treatment with LPS and HMGB-1 (17954.710 pg/mL, P<0.001), but IL-10 secretion was significantly decreased (784.467 pg/mL, P<0.001) compared to LPS treated macrophages (Figure 6.1B). When macrophages were treated with LPS and, both Hsp72 and HMGB-1, a 2-fold increase (P<0.001) in TNF-α was observed (21149.150 pg/mL), but IL-10 secretion was significantly decreased (P<0.001) when compared to LPS treated macrophages (1255.950 and 1372.494 pg/mL respectively) (Figure 6.1B). There were no differences in cell viability or counts following any 4 h treatment compared to untreated macrophages (Table 6.1). U937 macrophages treated with different doses of LPS over a 5 h time course showed no significant differences in cytokine secretion between dose (P>0.05) (Figure 6.2). Figure 6.1: Effect on cytokine secretion following 4 h treatment of U937 macrophages with (A) Hsp72 and/or HMGB-1, and (B) LPS and, Hsp72 and/or HMGB-1. Hsp72 and HMGB-1 concentrations were 1000 ng/mL. LPS concentration was 100 ng/mL. Data are presented as mean ± SEM, n = 4. * Indicates significant difference between mean concentration points, compared to untreated cells, through use of one-way ANOVA with Bonferroni’s multiple comparison post hoc test: * (P<0.05), (P<0.01), * (P<0.001). Table 6.1: Cell counts and viability of U937 macrophages following 4 h treatment with Hsp72 and/or HMGB-1, and LPS with or without Hsp72 and/or HMGB-1. \| Treatment \| Viable cell count (x 10^5) \| \|----------------------------\|---------------------------\| \| Untreated \| 4.95 ± 0.05 \| \| Hsp72 \| 4.93 ± 0.07 \| \| HMGB-1 \| 4.94 ± 0.04 \| \| Hsp72+HMGB-1 \| 4.92 ± 0.04 \| \| LPS \| 4.95 ± 0.06 \| \| LPS+Hsp72 \| 4.95 ± 0.02 \| \| LPS+HMGB-1 \| 4.93 ± 0.04 \| \| LPS+Hsp72+HMGB-1 \| 4.92 ± 0.04 \| Note: n = 4. Seeding density = 5 x 10^5 cells/mL. Figure 6.2: Effect on cytokine secretion by U937 macrophages following 5 h time course of LPS at different concentrations. (A) TNF-α secretion, (B) IL-10 secretion. Data are presented as mean ± SEM, n = 4. * Indicates significant difference between dose curves through use of one-way ANOVA with Bonferroni’s multiple comparison post hoc test: * (P<0.05), (P<0.01), * (P<0.001). 6.3.2 Effect on cytokine secretion and cell migration following treatment of U937 macrophages with Hsp72, and/or HMGB-1, pre-incubated with anti-Hsp72, and/or anti-HMGB-1. When Hsp72 was pre-incubated with anti-Hsp72 before being applied to U937 macrophages, there were significant (P<0.001) reductions in both TNF-α (109.596 pg/mL) and IL-10 (164.681 pg/mL) secretion for both treatments when compared to cells treated with Hsp72 only (631.404 and 326.106 pg/mL respectively for TNF-α and IL-10) (Figure 6.3). Migration of U937 macrophages increased over 3-fold (P<0.001) in response to Hsp72 compared to control cells (4.465 and 1.388 X 10^3 cells/mL respectively). This migration was significantly reduced when Hsp72 was pre-incubated with anti-Hsp72 (3.547 X 10^3 cells/mL, P<0.001) compared to Hsp72, but was still significantly different from control cells (Figure 6.4). When incubated with Hsp72, and/or anti-Hsp72, there was a high correlation between TNF-α and migration ($r^2 = 0.675$), although the correlation was higher for IL-10 and migration ($r^2 = 0.799$). When HMGB-1 was pre-incubated with anti-HMGB-1 before being applied to U937 macrophages there was a significant reduction in TNF-α (158.370 pg/mL, P<0.001) compared to HMGB-1 only (679.852 pg/mL) (Figure 6.3A). There was a significant increase of IL-10 secretion (101.551 pg/mL, P<0.05) compared to HMGB-1 only (92.270 pg/mL), although neither was significantly different from untreated cells (Figure 6.3B). Migration of U937 macrophages increased over 3-fold (P<0.001) in response to HMGB-1 compared to control cells (4.798 and 1.388 X 10^3 cells/mL respectively). Migration was significantly reduced when HMGB-1 was pre-incubated with anti-HMGB-1 (3.108 X 10^3 cells/mL, P<0.001) compared to HMGB-1, but was still significantly different from control cells (Figure 6.4). When incubated with HMGB-1, and/or anti-HMGB-1, there was a high correlation between TNF-α and migration ($r^2 = 0.900$), and a low correlation between IL-10 and migration ($r^2 = 0.350$). When a mixture of both Hsp72 and HMGB-1 was pre-incubated with antibodies to the respective proteins there was a significant reduction in secretion of TNF-α (109.921 pg/mL, P<0.001) compared to Hsp72/HMGB-1 only (1526.435 pg/mL) (Figure 6.3A). There was a significant decrease in IL-10 secretion (178.224 pg/mL, P<0.001) when a mixture of both Hsp72 and HMGB-1 was pre-incubated with antibodies compared to Hsp72/HMGB-1 only (215.297 pg/mL) (Figure 6.3B). Migration of U937 macrophages increased over 4-fold (P<0.001) in response to Hsp72/HMGB-1 compared to control cells (5,660 and 1,388 X 10^3 cells/mL respectively). Migration was significantly reduced when Hsp72/HMGB-1 was pre-incubated with anti-Hsp72/HMGB-1 (2.590 X 10^3 cells/mL, P<0.001) compared to Hsp72/HMGB-1, but was still significantly different from control cells (Figure 6.4). When incubated with Hsp72/HMGB-1, and/or anti- Hsp72/HMGB-1, there was a high correlation between TNF-α and migration ($r^2 = 0.950$), and a high correlation between IL-10 and migration ($r^2 = 0.800$). Figure 6.3: Effect on cytokine secretion from U937 macrophages incubated with Hsp72, HMGB-1, or mixtures of Hsp72/HMGB-1, with or without anti-Hsp72 and/or anti-HMGB-1. (A) TNF-α secretion, (B) IL-10 secretion. Data are presented as mean ± SEM, n = 4. * Indicates significant difference between untreated and treated cells, through use of one-way ANOVA with Bonferroni's multiple comparison post hoc test: * (P<0.05), (P<0.01), * (P<0.001). Figure 6.4: Effect on migration of U937 macrophages incubated with Hsp72, HMGB-1, or mixtures of Hsp72/HMGB-1, with or without anti-Hsp72 and/or anti-HMGB-1. Data are presented as mean ± SEM, n = 4. * Indicates significant difference between treated and untreated cells, through use of one-way ANOVA with Bonferroni’s multiple comparison post hoc test: * (P<0.05), (P<0.01), * (P<0.001). 6.3.3 Effect on cytokine secretion and cell migration following treatment of U937 macrophages with heat-treated NCL, pre-incubated with anti-Hsp72, and/or anti-HMGB-1. Heat-treated NCL (See section 2.3.38) pre-incubated with anti-Hsp72, when applied to U937 macrophages resulted in a significant ($P<0.001$) decrease in TNF-$\alpha$ (468.030 pg/mL) and IL-10 (173.904 pg/mL) secretion when compared to cells treated with NCL only (777.916 and 214.094 pg/mL respectively) (Figure 6.5). Cell migration was reduced significantly when NCL was pre-incubated with anti-Hsp72 (7.497 from $8.292 \times 10^3$ cells/mL, $P<0.001$) (Figure 6.6). When heat-treated NCL pre-incubated with anti-HMGB-1 was applied to U937 macrophages there was a significant reduction in both TNF-$\alpha$ ($P<0.001$) and IL-10 ($P<0.01$) secretion (422.156 and 201.596 pg/mL respectively), compared to NCL treatment alone (Figure 6.5). Cell migration was reduced significantly when NCL was pre-incubated with anti-HMGB-1 (7.257 $\times 10^3$ cells/mL, $P<0.001$) (Figure 6.6). NCL which was pre-incubated with both anti-Hsp72 and HMGB-1 then applied to U937 macrophages resulted in a significant decrease ($P<0.001$) of TNF-$\alpha$ secretion (383.405 pg/mL) and IL-10 secretion (167.352 pg/mL) compared to NCL treatment alone (Figure 6.5). Cell migration was reduced significantly when NCL was pre-incubated with anti-Hsp72/HMGB-1 (7.025 $\times 10^3$ cells/mL, $P<0.001$) (Figure 6.6). When incubated with NCL, and/or anti-Hsp72/HMGB-1, there was a high correlation between TNF-$\alpha$ and migration ($r^2 = 0.778$), and a high correlation between IL-10 and migration ($r^2 = 0.893$). Figure 6.5: Effect on cytokine secretion from U937 macrophages incubated with NCL, with or without anti-Hsp72 and/or anti-HMGB-1. (A) TNF-α secretion, (B) IL-10 secretion. Data are presented as mean ± SEM, n = 4. * Indicates significant difference between mean concentration points, compared to NCL only, through use of one-way ANOVA with Bonferroni’s multiple comparison post hoc test: * (P<0.05), (P<0.01), * (P<0.001). Figure 6.6: Effect on migration of U937 macrophages incubated with NCL, with or without anti-Hsp72 and/or anti-HMGB-1. Data are presented as mean ± SEM, n = 4. * Indicates significant difference between mean concentration points, compared to NCL only, through use of one-way ANOVA with Bonferroni’s multiple comparison post hoc test: * (P<0.05), (P<0.01), * (P<0.001). 6.3.4 Effect of varying Hsp72 concentrations with fixed HMGB-1 on cytokine secretion from, and migration of, U937 macrophages. Following treatment of U937 macrophages with varying concentrations of Hsp72 with a fixed concentration of HMGB-1 (1000 ng/mL), there was a dose dependent decrease in TNF-α secretion (1607.835 – 679.699 pg/mL) which peaked when incubated with 1000 ng/mL of Hsp72/HMGB-1 (1607.835 pg/mL) and was significant at each dose except for 15.625 ng/mL. There was also a dose dependent decrease in IL-10 secretion (234.824 – 24.737 pg/mL) which peaked at 1000 ng/mL Hsp72/HMGB-1 (234.824 pg/mL) and was significant at each dose except for 15.625 ng/mL. There was a high correlation between TNF-α and IL-10 ($r^2 = 0.984$) (Figure 6.7). Cell migration was not dose dependent except for those treated with Hsp72 at 1000 ng/mL (5.660 X $10^3$ cells/mL) and 500 ng/mL (5.417 X $10^3$ cells/mL). Migration correlated highly with TNF-α ($r^2 = 0.962$), and IL-10 ($r^2 = 0.956$) (Figure 6.8). Following treatment of varying concentrations of Hsp72 only there was again a dose dependent response of both cytokines, although TNF-α secretion was lower and IL-10 secretion was higher than when incubated with Hsp72/HMGB-1. There was a high correlation between TNF-α and IL-10 ($r^2 = 0.931$) (Figure 6.9). Cell migration was dose dependent between 1000 – 250 ng/mL Hsp72 only (4.465 – 2.247 X $10^3$ cells/mL). Migration correlated highly with TNF-α ($r^2 = 0.966$), and IL-10 ($r^2 = 0.962$) (Figure 6.10). Figure 6.7: Effect of varying Hsp72 concentrations with fixed HMGB-1 on cytokine secretion from U937 macrophages. HMGB-1 concentration was 1000 ng/mL. Data are presented as mean ± SEM, n = 4. TNF-α is represented by (●) depicted on the left Y-axis; IL-10 is represented by (■) on the right Y-axis. * indicates significant difference between mean concentration points, compared to HMGB-1 only, through use of one-way ANOVA with Bonferroni’s multiple comparison post hoc test: * (P<0.05), (P<0.01), * (P<0.001). $r^2$, Pearson correlation. Figure 6.8: Effect of varying Hsp72 concentrations with fixed HMGB-1 on migration of U937 macrophages. HMGB-1 concentration was 1000 ng/mL. Data are presented as mean ± SEM, n = 4. * Indicates significant difference between mean concentration points of Hsp72, compared to HMGB-1 only, through use of one-way ANOVA with Bonferroni’s multiple comparison post hoc test: * (P<0.05), (P<0.01), * (P<0.001). Figure 6.9: Effect of varying Hsp72 concentrations on cytokine secretion from U937 macrophages. Data are presented as mean ± SEM, n = 4. TNF-α is represented by (●) is depicted on the left Y-axis; IL-10 is represented by (■) on the right Y-axis. * indicates significant difference between mean concentration points, compared to 0 ng/mL only, through use of one-way ANOVA with Bonferroni’s multiple comparison post hoc test:* (P<0.05), (P<0.01), * (P<0.001). $r^2$, Pearson correlation. Figure 6.10: Effect of varying Hsp72 concentrations on migration of U937 macrophages. Data are presented as mean ± SEM, n = 4. * indicates significant difference between mean concentration points, compared to 0 ng/mL only, through use of one-way ANOVA with Bonferroni’s multiple comparison post hoc test: * (P<0.05), (P<0.01), * (P<0.001). 6.3.5 Effect of varying HMGB-1 concentrations with fixed Hsp72 on cytokine secretion from, and migration of, U937 macrophages. Following treatment of U937 macrophages with varying concentrations of HMGB-1 with a fixed concentration of Hsp72 (1000 ng/mL), there was a dose dependent decrease in TNF-α secretion (1455.885 – 633.382 pg/mL) which peaked when incubated with 1000 ng/mL of HMGB-1/Hsp72 (1455.855 pg/mL) but was only significantly decreased until dose 125 ng/mL (666.729, P<0.01). There was also a dose dependent increase in IL-10 secretion (194.979 – 387.641 pg/mL) which was highest at 1000 ng/mL HMGB-1 only (387.641 pg/mL) and was significantly different (P<0.001) at each dose. There was a low correlation between TNF-α and IL-10 ($r^2 = 0.656$) (Figure 6.11). Cell migration was dose dependent between 1000 – 500 ng/mL HMGB-1 (5.660 – 4.817 X $10^3$ cells/mL). Migration correlated well with TNF-α ($r^2 = 0.823$), but was lower with IL-10 ($r^2 = 0.557$) (Figure 6.12). Following treatment of varying concentrations of HMGB-1 only there was a dose dependent response of TNF-α between 1000 – 62.5 ng/mL only (P<0.001 < 0.05). All other doses were not significantly different from each other. There were no significant differences in dose response for IL-10 at any concentration of HMGB-1. There was a low correlation between TNF-α and IL-10 ($r^2 = 0.507$) (Figure 6.13). Cell migration was dose dependent between 1000 – 62.5 ng/mL HMGB-1 (4.798 – 1.718 X $10^3$ cells/mL). Migration correlated well with TNF-α ($r^2 = 0.895$), and with IL-10 ($r^2 = 0.891$) (Figure 6.14). Figure 6.11: Effect of varying HMGB-1 concentrations with fixed Hsp72 on cytokine secretion from U937 macrophages. Hsp72 concentration was 1000 ng/mL. Data are presented as mean ± SEM, n = 4. TNF-α is represented by (●) is depicted on the left Y-axis; IL-10 is represented by (■) on the right Y-axis. * indicates significant difference between mean concentration points, compared to 0 ng/mL only, through use of one-way ANOVA with Bonferroni’s multiple comparison post hoc test:* (P<0.05), (P<0.01), * (P<0.001). $r^2$, Pearson correlation. Figure 6.12: Effect of varying HMGB-1 concentrations with fixed Hsp72 on migration of U937 macrophages. Hsp72 concentration was 1000 ng/mL. Data are presented as mean ± SEM, n = 4. * indicates significant difference between mean concentration points, compared to Hsp72 only, through use of one-way ANOVA with Bonferroni’s multiple comparison post hoc test: * (P<0.05), (P<0.01), * (P<0.001). Figure 6.13: Effect of varying HMGB-1 concentrations on cytokine secretion from U937 macrophages. Data are presented as mean ± SEM, n = 4. TNF-α is represented by (●) is depicted on the left Y-axis; IL-10 is represented by (■) on the right Y-axis. * indicates significant difference between mean concentration points, compared to 0 ng/mL only, through use of one-way ANOVA with Bonferroni's multiple comparison post hoc test:* (P<0.05), (P<0.01), * (P<0.001). $r^2$, Pearson correlation. NB: Significant differences for TNF-α are indicated above curve and IL-10 differences are indicated below curve. Figure 6.14: Effect of varying HMGB-1 concentrations with on migration of U937 macrophages. Data are presented as mean ± SEM, n = 4. * indicates significant difference between mean concentration points, compared to 0 ng/mL only, through use of one-way ANOVA with Bonferroni's multiple comparison post hoc test: * (P<0.05), (P<0.01), * (P<0.001). 6.3.6 Effect on cytokine secretion and cell migration following treatment of U937 macrophages with mixtures of Bac-Hsp72, and HMGB-1. When U937 macrophages were incubated with Bac-Hsp72 only, there was a dose dependent decrease in the secretion of TNF-α between 1000 – 125 ng/mL Bac-Hsp72 (226.149 – 25.099 pg/mL, P<0.001). There was also a dose dependent decrease in IL-10 secretion between 1000 – 125 ng/mL Bac-Hsp72 (151.642 – 28.566 pg/mL, P<0.001). Cytokine secretion correlated highly ($r^2 = 0.978$) (Figure 6.15). Cell migration was dose dependent between 1000 – 500 ng/mL Bac-Hsp72 (2.107 – 1.634 X $10^3$ cells/mL). Migration correlated highly with TNF-α ($r^2 = 0.992$), and with IL-10 ($r^2 = 0.947$) (Figure 6.16). When Bac-Hsp72 was incubated with 1000 ng/mL HMGB-1 there was a dose dependent decrease in TNF-α secretion between 1000 – 250 ng/mL Bac-Hsp72 (1042.048 – 651.737 pg/mL, P<0.001 – 0.05). IL-10 secretion was completely abrogated by 1000 ng/mL HMGB-1. Cytokine secretion correlated well ($r^2 = 0.771$) (Figure 6.17). Cell migration was dose dependent between 1000 – 250 ng/mL Bac-Hsp72 (6.211 – 5.121 X $10^3$ cells/mL). Migration correlated highly with TNF-α ($r^2 = 0.960$), but was lower with IL-10 ($r^2 = 0.891$) (Figure 6.18). Following incubation with Bac-Hsp72 and 500 ng/mL HMGB-1, a dose dependent decrease in TNF-α secretion was observed between 1000 – 500 ng/mL Bac-Hsp72 (398.608 – 190.793 pg/mL). Secretion of IL-10 was only dose dependent at 1000 ng/mL Bac-Hsp72 (48.000 pg/mL, P<0.001). All other doses were completely abrogated by 500 ng/mL HMGB-1. Secretion of TNF-α and IL-10 correlated highly ($r^2 = 0.972$) (Figure 6.19). Cell migration was dose dependent between 1000 – 500 ng/mL Bac-Hsp72 (4.519 – 4.137 X $10^3$ cells/mL). Migration correlated highly with TNF-α ($r^2 = 0.848$), but was lower with IL-10 ($r^2 = 0.719$) (Figure 6.20). Incubation with Bac-Hsp72 with 100 ng/mL HMGB-1 resulted in a dose dependent decrease of TNF-α secretion between all doses (237.960 – 77.402 pg/mL, P<0.001). IL-10 secretion was also dose dependent between 1000 – 250 ng/mL Bac-Hsp72 (79.990 – 30.667 pg/mL, P<0.001 – 0.01). Secretion of TNF-α and IL-10 correlated highly ($r^2 = 0.951$) (Figure 6.21). Cell migration was dose dependent between 1000 – 500 ng/mL Bac-Hsp72 (2.892 – 2.336 X 10^3 cells/mL). Migration correlated highly with TNF-α ($r^2 = 0.984$), and with IL-10 ($r^2 = 0.990$) (Figure 6.22). Figure 6.15: Effect on cytokine secretion following treatment of U937 macrophages with Bac-Hsp72. Data are presented as mean ± SEM, n = 4. TNF-α is represented by (●) is depicted on the left Y-axis; IL-10 is represented by (■) on the right Y-axis. * indicates significant difference between mean concentration points, compared to 0 ng/mL only, through use of one-way ANOVA with Bonferroni's multiple comparison post hoc test:* (P<0.05), (P<0.01), * (P<0.001). $r^2$, Pearson correlation. Figure 6.16: Effect of varying Bac-Hsp72 concentrations on migration of U937 macrophages. Data are presented as mean ± SEM, n = 4. * indicates significant difference between mean concentration points, compared to 0 ng/mL only, through use of one-way ANOVA with Bonferroni's multiple comparison post hoc test:* (P<0.05), (P<0.01), * (P<0.001). Figure 6.17: Effect on cytokine secretion following treatment of U937 macrophages with Bac-Hsp72 and 1000 ng/mL HMGB-1. Data are presented as mean ± SEM, n = 4. TNF-α is represented by (●) is depicted on the left Y-axis; IL-10 is represented by (■) on the right Y-axis. * indicates significant difference between mean concentration points, compared to HMGB-1 only, through use of one-way ANOVA with Bonferroni’s multiple comparison post hoc test:* (P<0.05), (P<0.01), * (P<0.001). $r^2$, Pearson correlation. Figure 6.18: Effect of Bac-Hsp72 with 1000 ng/mL HMGB-1 on migration of U937 macrophages. Data are presented as mean ± SEM, n = 4. * indicates significant difference between mean concentration points, compared to HMGB-1 only, through use of one-way ANOVA with Bonferroni’s multiple comparison post hoc test: * (P<0.05), (P<0.01), * (P<0.001). Figure 6.19: Effect on cytokine secretion following treatment of U937 macrophages with Bac-Hsp72 and 500 ng/mL HMGB-1. Data are presented as mean ± SEM, n = 4. TNF-α is represented by (●) is depicted on the left Y-axis; IL-10 is represented by (■) on the right Y-axis. * indicates significant difference between mean concentration points, compared to HMGB-1 only, through use of one-way ANOVA with Bonferroni's multiple comparison post hoc test:* (P<0.05), (P<0.01), * (P<0.001). $r^2$, Pearson correlation. Figure 6.20: Effect of Bac-Hsp72 with 500 ng/mL HMGB-1 on migration of U937 macrophages. Data are presented as mean ± SEM, n = 4. * indicates significant difference between mean concentration points, compared to HMGB-1 only, through use of one-way ANOVA with Bonferroni’s multiple comparison post hoc test: * (P<0.05), (P<0.01), * (P<0.001). Figure 6.21: Effect on cytokine secretion following treatment of U937 macrophages with Bac-Hsp72 and 100 ng/mL HMGB-1. Data are presented as mean ± SEM, n = 4. TNF-α is represented by (●) is depicted on the left Y-axis; IL-10 is represented by (■) on the right Y-axis. * indicates significant difference between mean concentration points, compared to HMGB-1 only, through use of one-way ANOVA with Bonferroni's multiple comparison post hoc test:* (P<0.05), (P<0.01), * (P<0.001). $r^2$, Pearson correlation. Figure 6.22: Effect of Bac-Hsp72 with 100 ng/mL HMGB-1 on migration of U937 macrophages. Data are presented as mean ± SEM, n = 4. * indicates significant difference between mean concentration points, compared to HMGB-1 only, through use of one-way ANOVA with Bonferroni's multiple comparison post hoc test: * (P<0.05), (P<0.01), * (P<0.001). 6.4 Discussion This chapter aimed to determine if Hsp72 was able to abrogate or inhibit the effects of HMGB-1 on the immune response. Firstly, Hsp72 is able to stimulate the secretion of TNF-α and IL-10, whereas HMGB-1 only stimulates TNF-α secretion. HMGB-1 is known to abrogate IL-10 (Andersson et al., 2000; Fiuza et al., 2003). However, when both Hsp72 and HMGB-1 were applied together, there was a significant increase in TNF-α, but also, IL-10 secretion was significantly higher than HMGB-1 treated, or, untreated samples. It therefore suggests that Hsp72 is able to stimulate IL-10 secretion despite the presence of HMGB-1, and supports a role for Hsp72 as a modulatory chemokine and danger signal. When Hsp72 or HMGB-1 was added to LPS a similar, but amplified pattern of cytokine release occurred. This amplification could not be achieved through the addition of more LPS suggesting that receptors other than CD14 and TLR-2/4 are involved in the stimulation of the immune response by Hsp72 and HMGB-1. The effect could not due to potential contamination by LPS. Hsp72 and HMGB-1 have previously been reported to be able to stimulate migration of immune cells (Dumitriu et al., 2007; Gastpar et al., 2004; Palumbo et al., 2007; Rouhiainen et al., 2004; Yang et al., 2006), and neutralising antibodies have been shown to inhibit cytokine secretion (El Mezayen et al., 2007). The results here support both of these findings. When Hsp72 was pre-incubated with anti-Hsp72, there was an overall reduction of cytokine secretion and migration of macrophages was reduced and the correlation between migration and cytokines was high. There was a reduction of cytokine secretion and migration of macrophages when HMGB-1 was pre-incubated with anti-HMGB-1, but in contrast to Hsp72 migration was positively correlated with TNF-α, and inversely with IL-10. However, when both Hsp72 and HMGB-1 were applied to macrophages, there was a high positive correlation between migration and both cytokines. Pre-incubation with antibodies to both proteins reduced migration and cytokine secretion. This again suggests that Hsp72 is able to counteract some of the pro-inflammatory effects of HMGB-1 by stimulating IL-10 secretion. To determine whether Hsp72 and HMGB-1 from necrotic cells were able to significantly affect cytokine secretion and migration of macrophages, NCL was pre-incubated with anti-Hsp72 and/or anti-HMGB-1. NCL was able to stimulate secretion of TNF-α and IL-10 and resulted in significantly more migration than either Hsp72 or HMGB-1. When antibodies were applied there was a significant reduction in cytokine secretion and migration of macrophages. There was less of an effect than expected when anti-HMGB-1 was applied but this is possibly due to the treatment for heat-treated NCL not resulting in large enough levels of HMGB-1 being produced, or that the antibody used did not effectively block binding of HMGB-1 to cell surface receptors. The same could be applied to the Hsp72 antibody used. Also, there was a higher correlation between migration and IL-10 than there was for migration and TNF-α further supporting Hsp72 as a modulatory chemokine. However, as the reduction, although significant, was slight there must be other signals from necrotic cells which stimulate migration of, and cytokine release from macrophages (Gallucci, Lolkema & Matzinger, 1999; Shi & Rock, 2002; Shi, Zheng & Rock, 2000). Migration of macrophages when incubated with Hsp72 and/or HMGB-1 was always significantly higher than untreated macrophages. HMGB-1 treatment resulted in higher migration levels than Hsp72, and appears to be highly correlated with TNF-α secretion. HMGB-1 is known to induce migration of immune cells (Rouhiainen et al., 2004) and increase levels of TNF-α (Yu et al., 2006). Migration in relation to Hsp72 was highly correlated with both TNF-α and IL-10. However, the number of migrating macrophages was much less than with HMGB-1, possibly indicating that the stimulation of IL-10 reduced the number of migrating macrophages. This data correlates well with the ability of IL-10 to reduce migration of immune cells. The use of a certified endotoxin-free recombinant Hsp72 expressed in Baculovirus induced less TNF-α and IL-10 than Hsp72 expressed in E. coli, and less migrating macrophages. Again, the correlation was high between both cytokines and migration of macrophages. The results from varying concentrations of either Bac-Hsp72 with a fixed concentration HMGB-1, or vice versa demonstrated that the presence of Hsp72 could effectively reduce the number of migrating macrophages. It is possible this was due to an increased secretion of IL-10 when there was less HMGB-1 present, or due there being less TNF-α produced overall. It is possible therefore that immediately following a mild stress, leading to the necrosis of a small number of cells, that increased levels of extra-cellular Hsp72 may modulate a particular immune response in the presence of low levels of extra-cellular HMGB-1, whereas higher levels of HMGB-1 associated with further necrosis lead to an amplified, and possibly qualitatively different, immune response. Chapter 7 General Discussion 7.1 Discussion The immune system is known to respond to exogenous molecules derived from pathogens, and it has also been shown to respond to endogenous molecules, leading to autoimmune diseases (Brudzynski, 1993; Brudzynski et al., 1992). In recent years it has been recognised that many endogenous, or 'self' molecules can also modulate an immune response, as a result of injury or tissue damage, such as necrosis. This response can be pro- or anti-inflammatory depending on the stimulus or damage and is hypothesised by the Danger model (Gallucci et al., 1999; Matzinger, 1994; Matzinger, 2007; Seong & Matzinger, 2004). The Danger model postulates that abnormal cell death (necrosis) resulting from infection or other damage, is recognised by the immune system as a danger, and therefore stimulates an immune response. The stimulus comprises DAMPs, which are released by cells undergoing necrosis, but not apoptosis (Bianchi, 2007; El Mezayen et al., 2007; Gallucci et al., 1999; Shi et al., 2000), or PAMPs which are bacterial products such as LPS (Seong & Matzinger, 2004). Cells undergoing necrosis passively release their intra-cellular contents due to loss of membrane integrity, whereas apoptotic cells retain their contents within membrane-bound vesicles which display phagocytic signals, such as phosphatidylserine (PS), to induce phagocytosis before membrane integrity of the vesicles is lost. PS is usually found on the cytosolic side of the cell membrane. If apoptotic cells are not efficiently cleared, vesicle membranes become impaired and secondary necrosis occurs. Secondary necrosis also leads to release of DAMPs (Adams, 2003; Bell et al., 2006; Kono & Rock, 2008; Martin et al., 1995) (Figure 7.1). These stimulating DAMPs include Hsp72 and HMGB-1 (Basu et al., 2000; Bianchi, 2007; Campisi et al., 2003; Degryse et al., 2001; Dumitriu et al., 2007; Kono & Rock, 2008; Saito et al., 2005; Scaffidi et al., 2002; Vega et al., 2008; Williams & Ireland, 2008). Hsp72 has been shown in vitro to be released by passive or active mechanisms (Bausero et al., 2005; Evdonin et al., 2006b; Mambula & Calderwood, 2006a; Zhu et al., 2003). Extra-cellular Hsp72 has been shown to stimulate an immune response in vitro, through the release of cytokines (Asea, 2006; Asea et al., 2002; Luo et al., 2008; Marcatili et al., 1997), and elevated levels of Hsp72 have also been determined in vivo in relation to certain inflammatory situations (Adewoye et al., 2005; Madden et al., 2008; Rea et al., 2001; Walsh et al., 2001; Wright et al., 2000). This indicates that elevated levels of extra-cellular Hsp72 may modulate part of the inflammatory immune response. The basal and elevated levels of Hsp72 reported by these studies vary widely depending upon the method used (Njemini et al., 2005). Most of the studies which reported relatively low levels of Hsp72 utilised a commercial ELISA kit (Stressgen Inc.) (Fukushima et al., 2005; Walsh et al., 2001; Zhu et al., 2003). Studies reporting high levels of Hsp72 utilised an ELISA developed in-house (Njemini et al., 2005; Njemini et al., 2003b; Pockley et al., 1998; Wright et al., 2000). The levels reported in serum (up to 18.5 µg/mL, Pockley et al., 1998) would imply a massive amount of tissue damage or active release of Hsp72. There are similar issues regarding values of Hsp60 found in serum which are directly related to the type of ELISA used (Lewthwaite et al., 2002; Niizeki et al., 2008). Only one of these articles reports the actual absorbance values obtained from a standard curve using an in-house ELISA (Pockley et al., 1998), and the absorbance value for the top end of the standard curve (20 µg/mL Hsp72) was reported as less than 0.3 AU when measured at 405 nm. When optimising an ELISA the maximum absorbance, as determined by the top standard, should always be between 1.0 and 3.0 AU when using a colourimetric substrate (R&D Systems Inc., 2002). This does imply that the high levels of Hsp72 reported are the result of a relatively flat slope with a low correlation value (r) (although this was not reported), and are therefore not particularly accurate. The commercial ELISA kit generates a standard curve which results in the top standard (50 ng/mL Hsp72) giving an absorbance value of over 1.5 AU. One issue with the commercial ELISA is that it contains a diluent for producing standards and samples (if required). The constituents of this diluent are unknown and are not necessarily appropriate for use in some matrices, such as serum or cell culture supernatant. Matrix interference is known to occur in many sample types, including serum, such as abundant proteins and lipids, which can interfere with binding to the molecule of interest. To reduce the possibility of inaccurate results, protein standards used in ELISAs should be diluted in a solution identical to that of unknown samples, such as cell culture supernatant. In chapter 3, an in-house ELISA for Hsp72 was developed using an affinity-purified polyclonal antibody targeted to a specific epitope found only in Hsp72. Through optimisation, this in-house ELISA was found to be sensitive, and is able to determine accurate levels of intra-cellular Hsp72 in cellular extracts, and extra-cellular Hsp72 in cell culture supernatants. When measuring cell culture supernatant containing 10 % (v/v) FCS, there was a significant reduction in signal compared to PBS or extraction buffer, due to interference from serum components. It was demonstrated by western blot that this interference was mainly due to the presence of albumin, which could be depleted using cibacron blue. Although the ELISA was not required for any further work for this thesis, it was useful in confirming the type of concentrations present within, and being released from cells. Also, the antibodies developed are also applicable for use in western blots and as neutralising antibodies for use in blocking experiments in chapters 5 and 6. The ELISA is currently being applied to clinical samples such as tissue and serum from leukaemic patients, to determine the if Hsp72 is a significant marker of disease progression, and it is also being applied to tissue and serum samples from pigs to determine stress levels in housed animals. In order to determine quantification os Hsp72 within serum samples rather than pattern analysis, it would be necessary to optimise the ELISA for use with serum samples. This would probably include re-optimisation of antibody concentrations in order to be able to detect Hsp72 within the complex matrix of serum and also determine whether serum samples would be required to be diluted for optimal detection. Figure 7.1: The discrimination between necrotic and apoptotic cells by the immune system. A normal cell will usually contain DAMPs within the cell interior. A cell undergoing apoptosis retains membrane integrity so DAMPs remain hidden from the immune system and are phagocytosed. If an apoptotic cell is not efficiently cleared then secondary necrosis will occur, and like necrosis, cellular contents are released, including DAMPs. DAMPs are then recognised by an immune cell, such as a macrophage or DC, resulting in an inflammatory response. (Adapted from Bell et al., 2006; Bianchi, 2007; Gallucci, Lolkema & Matzinger, 1999; Kono & Rock, 2008). The second objective of this thesis was to determine whether LPS contamination is responsible for the reported stimulation by recombinant Hsps. This is an important aspect relating to a number of previous studies which have demonstrated the stimulatory effects of extra-cellular Hsp72, and other Hsps (Asea, 2006; Asea et al., 2000b; Campisi & Fleshner, 2003; Guzhova et al., 1998; Milani et al., 2002; Retzlaff et al., 1994; Svensson et al., 2006). There are also a small number of reports demonstrating a lack of stimulation of Hsp72 and attributed the stimulation to LPS contamination (Bausinger et al., 2002; Gao & Tsan, 2003a; Gao & Tsan, 2003b; Gao & Tsan, 2004; Tsan & Gao, 2004a), and maybe other microbial products such as flagellin (Ye & Gan, 2007). The results from this thesis demonstrated that recombinant human Hsp72 is able to activate the immune system independently of LPS or flagellin (Chapters 4, 5 and 6), although the presence of both human Hsp72 and LPS together results in an enhanced stimulatory effect (Chapter 6) which has been reported by others (El Mezayen et al., 2007). A comparative study of native and mildly denatured Hsps demonstrated that denaturation resulted in a reduction in cytokine responses in PBMCs and U937 macrophages, except for DnaK and GroEL, and Cpn10 and GroES (Chapter 4). DnaK and GroEL were the only two proteins which were shown to contain large amounts of endotoxin contamination as determined by LAL assay, and denaturation did not significantly reduce LPS detection. The levels of cytokine secretion from Cpn10 and GroES were significantly lower than all the other proteins tested. The human Hsp72 data corresponds well with data by others who demonstrated that human Hsp72 is able to stimulate cytokine production independently of LPS contamination (Svensson et al., 2006). Some studies which demonstrate that LPS is responsible for the stimulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines are convincing (Gao & Tsan, 2003a; Gao & Tsan, 2003b; Gao & Tsan, 2004; Tsan & Gao, 2004a). However, it is important to remember that the Danger model indicates that the signals stimulating the immune response can be endogenous or ‘self’ as well as foreign. The studies by Gao and Tsan have all demonstrated the effects of human recombinant Hsp72 on murine models, and therefore demonstrating the effects of a foreign intra-cellular molecule, rather than an endogenous one. As endogenous Hsp72 regulates an anti-inflammatory response when intra-cellular, the presence of an exogenous protein in the extra-cellular milieu may send a signal to the immune system that the foreign invader is damaged and is being adequately dealt with by other immune cells in the area, and therefore does not require a pro-inflammatory response. However, if the exogenous protein is found in the presence of LPS, which is found externally on the bacterial cell wall, the immune response would be stimulated but directed towards LPS rather than the exogenous protein. This is supported by evidence that LPS-free Mycobacterial tuberculosis (Mt) Hsp72 does not induce pro-inflammatory cytokine TNF-α secretion, or DC maturation, but induces the secretion of IL-10, whereas LPS contaminated Mt Hsp72 does induce TNF-α secretion and DC maturation (Motta et al., 2007). The report by Bausinger et al. (2002) demonstrated that human Hsp72 could not induce pro-inflammatory cytokine secretion in human-derived DCs. The data presented in this thesis is not directly comparable to their data as different cell types may elicit different responses. Bausinger et al. (2002) discredit work by Basu et al. (2000) by suggesting that DC maturation was only stimulated by using large quantities of Hsp72 (200 μg/mL). However Basu et al. (2000) demonstrated cytokine stimulation from macrophages, further supporting the evidence that comparing responses of different cell types is not appropriate when suggesting that recombinant Hsp72 only stimulates an immune response due to LPS contamination. In the innate immune response, cytokine release would occur within a few hours (Janeway Jr et al., 2005c). Experiments by Bausinger et al. (2002) used a fixed time of 18 h to demonstrate that DCs do not induce cytokine secretion and therefore do not lead to maturation of DCs but do not demonstrate an actual lack of maturation. Experiments by Basu et al. (2000) used a fixed time of 20 h and demonstrated that DCs expressed antigen-presenting and co-stimulatory molecules following incubation with Hsp72. Therefore it is possible that DCs secrete cytokines within a few hours of exposure to Hsp72, leading to the expression of antigen-presenting and co-stimulatory molecules. With regards to flagellin contamination of Hsp72, data shown here (Chapter 5) does not show any contamination. The only published report of flagellin being responsible for the effect of Hsp72 stimulation of the immune response, does not actually demonstrate flagellin contamination of Hsp72 but rather reports that Burkholderia pseudomallei (Bp) recombinant Hsp72 expressed in E. coli lacking the flagellin gene do not activate NF-κβ activity whereas BpHsp72 expressed in E. coli containing the flagellin gene does, in a similar way to MtHsp72, and flagellin itself (Ye & Gan, 2007). Data from this thesis also demonstrated that human Hsp72 expressed in a Baculovirus system, which is certified endotoxin-free, is able to stimulate both TNF-α and IL-10 secretion (Chapter 6), which supports endogenous Hsp72 as a danger signal (Campisi et al., 2003; Matzinger, 1998; Williams & Ireland, 2008). The third objective of this thesis was to determine the relative contributions of Hsp72 and LPS to the immune response. Relating to the studies regarding LPS contamination, data shown in this thesis demonstrates that LPS is able to stimulate cytokine secretion, and that Hsp72 alone is also able to stimulate cytokine secretion. In chapter 6 of this thesis, LPS was shown to induce secretion of TNF-α and IL-10, and that this secretion was dependent on time rather than dose. Hsp72 was also shown to stimulate the production of these cytokines. When Hsp72 was added to LPS (100 ng/mL), the secretion was significantly increased. This increase could not be attributed to LPS contamination as LPS was shown not to increase cytokine secretion between different concentrations at 4 h. These data are in direct accordance with others who demonstrated that endogenous Hsp72 enhances the immune response to LPS (Campisi & Fleshner, 2003). Campisi & Fleshner (2003) clearly showed that endogenous rat Hsp72 is able to stimulate a modest secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines. LPS from E. coli stimulated the secretion significantly more than Hsp72, and this effect was stimulated significantly further by the addition of Hsp72 to LPS. Again, this data shows the importance of using same species Hsp72 as the model system being used. The fourth objective of this thesis was to determine the cell surface receptors required for Hsp72 stimulation of the immune system. In chapter 5 of this thesis, it was demonstrated that, through use of blocking peptides corresponding to certain cell receptors, that the secretion of both TNF-α and IL-10, and migration of macrophages by endogenous Hsp72 could be reduced. Using a blocking peptide corresponding to a region of the TLR-2 receptor, Hsp72 induced cytokine secretion was only partially reduced when using a high concentration of peptide (20 μg/mL), and migration was significantly reduced, although the reduction was rather small. This would indicate that Hsp72 does not avidly bind TLR-2 peptide which is in agreement with Thériault et al. (2005) who failed to show any binding of Hsp72 to TLR-2 by TLR-2 over-expressing HEK293 cells, although Asea et al. (2002) demonstrated that HEK293 cells which were co-transfected with TLR-2 and CD14 were able to bind Hsp72. This may indicate that U937 macrophages do not normally express TLR-2, although the presence of TLR-2 and TLR-4 has been demonstrated by others (Greene et al., 2004). It could also suggest that the peptide for TLR-2 did not prevent binding of Hsp72 to its functional receptors on U937 macrophages. Cytokine secretion of macrophages following incubation with Hsp72 and TLR-4, TLR-5, CD14 or CD36 blocking peptides resulted in a dose dependent reduction in cytokine secretion. Migration of macrophages was also significantly reduced when incubated with each peptide although migration was still significantly different from un-stimulated macrophages. This data suggested that either Hsp72 was stimulating cytokine secretion through these relative receptors, or that Hsp72 bound by these peptides was unable to bind its functional cell surface receptors. Also, the lack of complete abrogation of migration indicates that Hsp72 was able to bind other cell signalling receptors. The reduction in an immune response when using a TLR-5 peptide was unexpected. It does imply that the recombinant Hsp72 used is likely to be contaminated with flagellin, as has been suggested by Ye et al. (2007). However, the use of neutralising antibodies to flagellin did not result in a change in cytokine secretion compared to Hsp72 alone, and western blotting did not show any contamination. If flagellin was present, it may suggest that the antibody was unable to bind its flagellin epitope as it may be bound by Hsp72. It was also demonstrated that Hsp72 potentially binds CD36. As CD36 is a receptor involved in signalling of phagocytosis, it is probable that the presence of endogenous Hsp72, from necrotic cells, binds to CD36 alerting the immune system to necrotic or damaged cells which require clearing (Bottcher et al., 2006). These data indicating Hsp72 binding to CD36 contrast with results reported by Delheste et al. (2002) who demonstrated that Hsp72 is unable to bind transfected CHO cells. This report though does not indicate whether the Hsp72 used corresponds to human Hsp72 or hamster Hsp72, although in the same article they demonstrate binding of Hsp72 to scavenger receptors on human DCs, which does suggest that they utilised human Hsp72 in the experiments performed with CHO cells. However, the data in this thesis is comparable to studies by others demonstrating binding of a sequence homologous to Hsp72 (aa 329-338) bound to the cytoplasmic domain of macrophage scavenger receptors, including CD36 (Nakamura et al., 2002). These data again demonstrate the requirement that Hsp72 treatment is from the same species as the model system being used when describing the effects of Hsp72 on the immune system in relation to the Danger model (Kono & Rock, 2008; Matzinger, 1998; Matzinger, 2002). Interestingly, the use of a TLR-7 blocking peptide with Hsp72 only reduced the stimulation of IL-10 and not TNF-α, or migration of macrophages. This effect on IL-10 secretion was dose dependent. This may indicate that when endogenous Hsp72 is bound to TLR-7, it signals the anti-inflammatory part of the immune response regulated by extra-cellular Hsp72. TLR-7 is found within the membranes of endosomes, although it was recently reported to be found in the lipid raft domain on the surface of RAW264.7 macrophages (Wang et al., 2006b). However, their method for surface staining of cells states that cells were fixed then stained with anti-TLR-7 antibodies. It is generally accepted for surface staining of cells that they are stained prior to being fixed, as fixation can interfere with membrane staining. As TLR-7 has only been reported to reside within endosomes (Means et al., 2000; Smits et al., 2008; Takeda et al., 2003; Triantafilou et al., 2005), and would therefore only be found in the extra-cellular milieu following necrosis, then the data presented in chapter 5 may demonstrate that when Hsp72 is bound to TLR-7 following necrosis that Hsp72 is unable to stimulate IL-10 through other receptors. One such receptor shown to stimulate IL-10 secretion by Hsp72 is epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR). Epidermal growth factor (EGF) binds to EGFR and stimulates the MAPK/ERK activation pathway leading to the production of IL-10. Extra-cellular Hsp72 has been found to activate EGFR in association with TLR-2/TLR-4 in A431 cells (Evdonin et al., 2006a). Evdonin et al. (2006) also demonstrated that media from heat-treated cells containing secreted Hsp72 was able to stimulate activation of EGFR, whereas media from control cells lacking Hsp72 did not. Pure Hsp72 (100 ng/mL) was also able to activate EGFR. In theory this could mean that extra-cellular Hsp72 up-regulates IL-10 through activation of MAPK/ERK by binding to EGFR, and that this can be blocked specifically by a peptide corresponding to a region of TLR-7, or that this particular peptide binds to the region of Hsp72 which would normally bind EGFR but does not block the other receptor binding regions of Hsp72 which up-regulate TNF-α secretion through NF-κβ activation. TLR-7 mRNA expression has been found to be increased in THP-1 cells following treatment with LPS or live E. coli (Zarembor & Godowski, 2002). This could indicate that TLR-7 is not only a receptor for ssRNA from viruses which activates through MyD88/IRF7 leading to the production of IFN-α, but can also be stimulated by Hsp72 leading to the production of IL-10. IL-10 stimulation by imidazoquinoline, a TLR-7 antagonist, has been reported in murine bone marrow-derived DCs, possibly through JAK/STAT activation (Samarasinghe et al., 2006). Also, many other proteins have been shown to activate the immune response through the same PRRs as LPS. For example, HMGB-1 has been found to signal through TLR-2 and TLR-4, although the pattern of cytokine production is different to that of LPS in that IL-10 is not up-regulated (El Gazzar, 2007; Park et al., 2006b; Yu et al., 2006). Also, TLR-2 has been demonstrated to be stimulated by endotoxin-free lipoproteins (Aliprantis et al., 1999), and TLR-4 deficient mice were not responsive to Hsp60 whereas TLR-4 positive mice were (Ohashi et al., 2000), which demonstrates that molecules other than LPS are able to stimulate an immune response through TLR-2 and TLR-4. The binding of endogenous molecules to PRRs which are the same as PRRs recognised by bacteria may suggest the presence of some bacterial products. However, it has been suggested that the immune system may have evolved to be able to recognise a wide variety of danger signals rather than foreign molecules through PRRs, and that invading pathogens have evolved to bind to these (Matzinger, 2002). This is a possibility as is has been found that CD14 deficient mice were more resistant to Gram negative bacteria or LPS than CD14 positive mice, demonstrating that in order for bacteria to stimulate an immune response and infect the host, it must be able to bind to certain PRRs (Haziot et al., 1996) (Figure 7.2). The fifth objective was to determine whether cell derived Hsp72 can stimulate an immune response in macrophages. Data in chapter 6 demonstrated that through use of neutralising antibodies to Hsp72, the stimulation of TNF-α and IL-10 could be reduced. When anti-Hsp72 was used in conjunction with necrotic cell lysate (NCL) from heat-treated U937 macrophages, cytokine secretion was also significantly reduced, and migration of U937 was reduced compared to NCL only treated macrophages. Although secretion of cytokines and migration of macrophages was significantly reduced compared to NCL only, cytokine secretion and migration was still significantly different from control, untreated macrophages demonstrating that there are many other stimulatory factors from necrotic cells which are able to stimulate an immune response. This data is in accordance with similar work by El Mezayen et al. (2007) who demonstrated that the use of anti-Hsp72 antibodies attenuated the cytokine response of THP-1 cells when cells were incubated with NCL and LPS. Other known stimulators originating from necrotic cells include uric acid, chromatin, and nucleosomes (Decker et al., 2005; Gallucci et al., 1999; Hu et al., 2004; Shi et al., 2000). Figure 7.2: Signalling receptors utilised by Hsp72, HMGB-1, and bacterial components. Hsp72 can stimulate the immune response through various receptors. It has common receptors with both LPS and HMGB-1 for which they may all compete. (Adapted from Lotze & Tracey, 2005; Park et al., 2006; Takeda et al., 2003; Huttunen et al., 2002; Taneguchi et al., 2003; Means et al., 2000; Hayashi et al., 2001; Zhang et al., 2001; Kurt-Jones et al., 2002 Pockley et al., 2003; Janeway Jr. et al., 2005; Pockley et al., 2007; Calderwood et al., 2007; Wang et al., 2006; Motta et al., 2007; Samarasinghe et al., 2006; Zarembert et al., 2002, and data demonstrated in this thesis). The sixth objective of this thesis was to assess how Hsp72 may interact with other elements of the Danger model. HMGB-1 is another candidate danger signal as both Hsp72 and HMGB-1 have clear intra-cellular roles, and both are known to interact strongly with the immune system following necrosis, they also appear to play different roles extra-cellularly. For example, Hsp72 has been shown to stimulate the production of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines from a monocytes and macrophages (Asea et al., 2000b; Basu et al., 2000; Svensson et al., 2006), and the maturation of DCs (Wang et al., 2005). In comparison, HMGB-1 has also been shown to stimulate TNF-α, IL-1 and IL-6 from monocytes and macrophages (Andersson et al., 2000; O’Connor et al., 2003; Taniguchi et al., 2003), and can induce the migration of DCs (Degryse et al., 2001; Dumitriu et al., 2007; Yang et al., 2006). In contrast, Hsp72 has been shown to have a protective role in the extracellular milieu by binding to cell surfaces and through internalisation (Guzhova et al., 2001; Guzhova et al., 1998), whereas HMGB-1 can induce fever and is fatal at low doses in mouse and rat model systems (O’Connor et al., 2003; Wang et al., 1999). Intra-cellularly, up-regulation of Hsp72 has been shown to prevent the release of HMGB-1 by binding HMGB-1 and inhibiting translocation through the chromosome region maintenance 1 (CRM1)-dependent nuclear export pathway utilised by HMGB-1, and also reduced the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokine release by inhibiting MAPK and NF-κβ signalling pathways (Tang et al., 2007b; Tang et al., 2007c). As there is a definite relationship between the two proteins within the cell, it is possible that there may be an association outside the cell. A possible relationship between Hsp72 and HMGB-1 was investigated in chapter 6 of this thesis. Firstly it was demonstrated that whilst both proteins stimulated a secretion of TNF-α from macrophages, Hsp72 also up-regulated IL-10 secretion whereas HMGB-1 did not. In the presence of both proteins, macrophages secreted significantly more TNF-α and IL-10 secretion was significantly up-regulated but was reduced compared to Hsp72 alone. This suggested that Hsp72 is able to up-regulate an anti-inflammatory response despite the presence of HMGB-1. Similar, but amplified results were obtained when either or both proteins were incubated with LPS. In the presence of neutralising antibodies, there was a significant reduction in TNF-α and IL-10 secretion. Migration of U937 macrophages was also increased in the presence of Hsp72 and HMGB-1, or both. Antibodies reduced this migration but this was still significantly different from untreated cells, suggesting that the antibodies did not sufficiently block binding of either Hsp72 or HMGB-1. Migration also correlated well with TNF-α secretion which is a well known function of TNF-α (deJong et al., 1996; Janeway Jr et al., 2005c; Katerinaki et al., 2003). Neutralising antibodies to Hsp72 and HMGB-1 were also shown to reduce cytokine secretion and migration of macrophages when stimulated in the presence of NCL, further supporting the presence of both proteins having an effect on the immune system when released from necrotic cells (Basu et al., 2000; El Mezayen et al., 2007; Scaffidi et al., 2002). A relationship between Hsp72 and HMGB-1 was investigated by varying the concentrations of each protein in the presence of a fixed amount of the other. It was found that Hsp72 was able to up-regulate IL-10 in the presence of HMGB-1 providing there was always more Hsp72 present than HMGB-1, and that migration of cells was highly correlated with TNF-α secretion. If more HMGB-1 was present than Hsp72, IL-10 secretion was always reduced which may be a consequence of higher levels of TNF-α being present. It is possible therefore that during early stages of infection, for instance, that cytokine secretion is stimulated by an invading pathogen leading to the up-regulation of intra-cellular Hsp72. This in turn prevents HMGB-1 release and down-regulates TNF-α secretion. If the result is cell necrosis, then larger amounts of Hsp72 than HMGB-1 would be released, which would potentially try to counteract the effects of the invading pathogen by modulating the immune response and up-regulation of anti-inflammatory cytokines. Hsp72 possibly does this by competing with bacterial components for certain PRRs on cell surfaces. However, if there is insufficient Hsp72 released following necrosis then the invading pathogen would be able to over-stimulate the up-regulation of TNF-α, which in turn up-regulates HMGB-1 over Hsp72, leading to the onset of sepsis. In conclusion, the ideas presented in this discussion are summarised in a simplified form in Figure 7.3. Endogenous extra-cellular Hsp72 has an integral role within the immune system by modulating cytokine responses through binding of various cell surface receptors. In terms of relating endogenous Hsp72 to the Danger model, it is important to use same species Hsp72 as the model system being used, as the model system may not respond to other species Hsp72 in the same manner. The data presented in this thesis has demonstrated that endogenous Hsp72 is able to stimulate the immune system by itself, and that the response is not solely due to LPS contamination of recombinant protein preparations. In fact Hsp72 augments the response to LPS. In the presence of another endogenous danger signal, HMGB-1, relative amounts of Hsp72 were shown to augment a pro-inflammatory response whilst being able to maintain an anti-inflammatory response. demonstrating modulation. As HMGB-1 is a late mediator of the immune response, initial increased levels of Hsp72 would be able to modulate the immune response, unless in the presence of increased necrosis caused by infection. It was demonstrated that extra-cellular Hsp72 can interact with extra-cellular HMGB-1 by inhibiting some of the pro-inflammatory responses of HMGB-1, in a similar way to that seen within the nucleus. The relative amounts of each protein found in the extra-cellular milieu may determine the type of inflammatory immune response generated, whether it be protective modulation (higher levels of Hsp72 over HMGB-1), pro-inflammatory (higher levels of HMGB-1 over Hsp72), or chronic pro-inflammatory (high levels of HMGB-1, low levels of Hsp72 and infection) (Figure 7.3). The proportion of these different DAMPs or PAMPs will have different qualitative effects on the response and this may well be modulated by imposition of an extra bacterial infection (or other stressor) at different points in this continuum and may significantly alter the inflammatory response. In the most severe case, this can lead to death through sepsis following trauma. Figure 7.3: Relative differences in inflammatory responses of the immune system. The stressor could be an infection. This will result in the release of DAMPs or PAMPs, such as Hsp72 and/or HMGB-1 which will depend on the magnitude of the stressor. 7.2 Future Work Extension of the work presented in this thesis would take two main routes. These routes would involve a complete analysis of: a) the cell surface receptors involved in binding Hsp72; b) the signalling pathways involved in Hsp72 mediated signal transduction. This may include antagonising receptor binding through use of antibodies directed towards the receptors themselves rather than the use of receptor peptides sequences. Such an approach could use the macrophage system used in this thesis and then could be applied further to transfected cell systems whereby cells are transfected with genes that up or down regulate certain receptors. Analysis of cytokine secretion and/or direct binding of Hsp72 to receptors through flow cytometry or fluorescence microscopy could be utilised. As Hsp72 has been shown to bind a number of receptors which are able to be bound by other molecules, affinity characteristics could be elucidated via the use of binding kinetics systems, such as Biacore. Biacore utilises surface plasmon resonance (SPR) which is used to measure the adsorption of material onto a metal planar surface which can be coated with molecules of choice. As the binding of Hsp72 with receptors and other molecules is not covalent it could be displaced by another with a higher affinity. This may be difficult to assess as no sensor chips are yet available which offer correct orientation of molecules binding to the sensor chip surface. This work would require design and optimisation of receptor-based chips. It would also be useful to elucidate the signalling pathways used by Hsp72 in terms of pro- and/or anti-inflammatory responses as binding to different receptors probably signal through different downstream pathways which lead to different inflammatory responses. As Hsp72 has been shown to up-regulate the secretion of IL-10, a potent anti-inflammatory cytokine, it may be useful to determine which pathway stimulates its release and manipulate it in such a way that would be of therapeutic use in controlling pro-inflammatory conditions. 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Impulsivity can be broadly divided into decisional and motoric subtypes. Here we focus on a specific form of motor impulsivity, namely anticipatory or premature responding (1). In preclinical studies, premature responding is studied with the 5-choice serial reaction time task (5-CSRTT), a test for visual attention in which rodents monitor and respond to unpredictable visual targets (1). Premature responding is measured as anticipatory responding before target onset. Other forms of motor impulsivity include motor response inhibition or the inability to inhibit a prepotent motor response. The other major subgroup of impulsivity, decisional impulsivity, includes delay discounting—the tendency to select a smaller immediate reward over a larger delayed reward—and reflection impulsivity—the tendency to make rapid decisions without adequate consideration of options. These various subtypes of impulsivity are associated with broadly distinct but partially overlapping neural networks and neurochemical substrates (2–4). Substance use disorders are commonly associated with high impulsivity [reviewed in Perry and Carroll (3)], which can occur both as a consequence of and a predictor of substance use disorders. In rodents, premature responding is elevated after methamphetamine (5) and alcohol withdrawal (6) and is also influenced by cannabinoid receptor CB1 receptor antagonists (7). High levels of premorbid premature responding and impulsive choice have also been shown to predict the transition to compulsive cocaine use in rodents (8), substantiating a potential role of premature responding as a predictor of future risk for substance use disorders. Although premature responding has been extensively studied in experimental animal models, premature responding with an analogous task has not yet been translated to studies in humans. We developed a novel translation of the 5-CSRTT to assess premature responding in abstinent alcohol- and methamphetamine-dependent subjects and recreational cannabis users, compared with age- and gender-matched healthy volunteers. To compare drug versus natural rewards, we also assessed premature responding in obese subjects with and without binge eating disorder (BED). We assessed premature responding as a primary outcome and motivation for explicit reward as an exploratory measure. We hypothesized that premature responding would be elevated in abstinent alcohol- and stimulant-dependent subjects and recreational cannabis subjects. We hypothesized that obese subjects with BED would be elevated in premature responding, similarly to those with substance addiction. Methods and Materials Recruitment Abstinent subjects with alcohol dependence (EtOH) $(n = 30)$, obese subjects $(>30$ body mass index [BMI]) with BED $(n = 30)$, obese control subjects without BED $(n = 30)$, and recreational... cannabis users (Cann) ($n = 30$) were recruited via community and university-based advertisements in Cambridge. Age- and gender-matched healthy volunteers (HV) (1:1 HV matching were used for EtOH, BED, and obese control subjects; 1:2 HV matching was used for Cann) were recruited via community- and university-based advertisements in Cambridge (HV: $n = 30$, $n = 30$, $n = 30$, $n = 60$, respectively). A total of 110 HV were recruited in Cambridge. Abstinent methamphetamine-dependent subjects (Meth) ($n = 23$) were also recruited from an inpatient rehabilitation center in Eden Prairie, Minnesota. Twenty age-matched HV were recruited from community advertisements in Minneapolis. Primary diagnoses were confirmed by a psychiatrist with the DSM IV-TR criteria for substance dependence or Research Diagnostic Criteria for BED (9). None of the Cann subjects fulfilled criteria for dependence. Subjects >18 years old were included. The HV, EtOH, obese BED, obese control subjects, and Cann subjects were excluded if they had a current major depression or other major psychiatric disorder including substance addiction (except nicotine), major medical illness, or were taking psychotropic medications. The EtOH subjects were tested 2 weeks–1 year after abstinence and >1 week after discontinuation of long-acting benzodiazepines used during detoxification. Subjects were excluded if they had positive urine drug screens or alcohol breathalyzer test on testing day. Positive cannabis urine drug screen was allowed for Cann subjects, because metabolites can be detected 3 weeks after last use. The Meth subjects were tested 1 week–1 year after abstinence and excluded if they had current major depressive episode of moderate severity (Beck Depression Inventory [BDI] >20), other major psychiatric history, or medical illness. Because human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) frequency is high, a subanalysis was conducted. Other forms of substance addiction were allowed, assuming the primary drug for rehabilitation admission was methamphetamine (self-identified, highest frequency use, and escalating use before admission). Regular drug screens were conducted at the rehabilitation center. All psychiatric diagnoses were confirmed by a psychiatrist with DSM IV-TR criteria. For HV, EtOH, obese BED, obese control subjects, and Cann subjects, two separate specifically designed questionnaires were used to assess drug use (e.g., type, duration of use, amount/week, last use). Psychiatric disorders were screened with the Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview (10). Subjects completed the UPPS-P Impulsive Behaviour Scale (11) and BDI (12). The EtOH and obese subjects completed the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (13), and obese subjects completed the Binge Eating Scale (BES) (14). The National Adult Reading Test (15) was used to obtain an index of premorbid IQ. Subjects were paid for their study participation time and told they could receive an additional amount (£5) for their performance. Subjects in Minnesota were given the equivalent amount in a department store gift card. The study was approved by the University of Cambridge Research Ethics Committee and the University of Minnesota Institutional Review Board. Task Subjects were seated in front of a touch screen (a Paceblade Tablet personal computer; Paceblade Technology, Amersfoort, the Netherlands). When four boxes appeared on the screen, the subject pressed and held down the space bar on the keyboard with their dominant index finger (Figure 1). The space bar press indicated the “cue onset” time. After a specified period (cue-target interval), a green circle target appeared briefly and randomly in one of the four boxes. Subjects released the space bar and touched the box on the screen in which the target had appeared. The primary outcome measure was premature release of the space bar before target onset. The block order was as follows: Baseline block 1; Test block 1; Baseline block 2; Test blocks 2–4. Baseline blocks without monetary feedback were used to individualize monetary feedback amounts for subsequent blocks on the basis of the mean fastest reaction time (RT) and SD of the individual (Figure 1). The four Test blocks ![Figure 1](image.png) Figure 1. Premature responding task. (A) Task. Subjects press and hold down the space bar when they see four empty boxes (Cue) on the touch screen. After a green circle (Target) appears in one of the boxes, the subject releases the space bar and touches the box in which the target had appeared. The main outcome measure, premature responding, is measured as release of the space bar before target onset. (B) Feedback for the Test blocks is individualized on the basis of the mean fastest reaction time (RT) and SD obtained in the Baseline block. with monetary feedback were optimized to increase premature responding and varied by duration and variability of the cue-target interval and the presence of distractors. See Supplement 1 for further task details. It was programmed in Visual Basic with Visual Studio 2005 and Microsoft .NET Framework 2.0 (Microsoft, Redmond, Washington) with the US currency equivalent for feedback for subjects tested in Minnesota. Total task duration was 20 min. Motivation to reward feedback was calculated as Motivation Index = (Mean RT Baseline 1 – Mean RT Baseline 2)/(Mean RT Baseline 1 + Mean RT Baseline 2). Test block 1 (with monetary feedback) occurred between Baseline blocks (without feedback) and had otherwise similar characteristics. Thus, Baseline 2 follows instrumental learning with monetary feedback consistent with testing in extinction without feedback. Other outcome measures included accuracy (correct responses/(correct responses + incorrect responses)), correct trial RT (in Test block 1), late responses (late responses/(correct fast responses + late responses)), which correspond to errors of omission in the rodent paradigm, and total win. Incorrect responses are errors of commission (wrong box touched after target onset) (1) and are equivalent to the accuracy measure: incorrect response = 1 – accuracy. Outlier RTs (RT >3 SD from mean) were removed from analysis. The HV were tested on the stop signal task (16), a test of motor response inhibition and action cancellation, and a delay discounting task (17), which assesses the preference for a smaller immediate reward over a larger delayed reward. Primary outcome measures included the slope of the discounting curve (K-value), the go reaction time, and stop signal reaction time. Statistical Analysis Variables that were not normally distributed (Shapiro-Wilk statistic $p < .05$) were transformed with square root transformation. Outliers (>3 SD above group mean) were removed. The EtOH, Cann, Obese BED, and Obese control subjects and Meth subjects were compared with their own matched HV with independent $t$ tests. To control for differences in BDI or IQ, univariate analysis was conducted with BDI or IQ covariates. Relationships between premature responding and Motivation Index, disease severity measures, and task characteristics were tested with Pearson’s correlation coefficient $r$. Current smokers, ex-smokers, and nonsmokers were compared with analysis of variance. In Meth subjects, HIV+ and HIV– and high nicotine (>1 pack/day) and low or no nicotine were compared with independent $t$ tests. Statistical tests were two-tailed, and significance was assigned at $p < .05$. Results Abstinent Alcohol-Dependent Subjects Thirty EtOH subjects (reported in mean [SD]: weeks abstinent 15.60 [16.89]; years heavy use: 12.78 [8.27]; units/day: 28.36 [14.58]; Total units [units/day $\times$ years heavy use $\times$ 365 $\times$ percent drinking days]: 128,573 [124,490]) were compared with 30 HV. The EtOH subjects had higher UPPS-P, Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test, and BDI scores (Table 1). The EtOH subjects were taking the following medications: acamprosate ($n = 2$); and disulfiram ($n = 1$). Compared with HV, EtOH subjects made more premature responses (Figure 2, Table 1), including when covaried for BDI ($F = 8.99$, $p = .004$). The EtOH subjects also made more premature responses compared with HV ($t = -2.36$, $p = .023$) when subanalyzed to exclude the three subjects taking medications with possible psychotropic effects. In the secondary analysis, EtOH subjects had decreased motivation to reward feedback (Motivation Index) (Figure 2, Table 1). There were no differences in premature responding between current ($n = 12$, 10.71 [8.20]), past ($n = 4$, 9.5 [7.14]), and nonsmokers ($n = 11$, 10.72 [9.82]) ($F = .06$, $p = .941$). In EtOH subjects, there was no correlation between premature responding and severity (total units), duration abstinence, or Motivation Index (reported as Pearson correlation coefficient: $r = -.09$–.18, $p > .05$). However, there was a negative correlation between Motivation Index with total units ($r = -.43$, $p = .019$). Recreational Cannabis Users Thirty Cann subjects (reported in mean [SD]: number of joints/week 6.64 [5.21]; number of years 5.12 [4.21]; 5 did not report the amount) were compared with 60 HV. The Cann subjects had higher UPPS-P scores compared with HV. The Cann subjects made more premature responses compared with HV (Figure 2, Table 1), including when subanalyzed without those with positive cannabis --- Table 1. Subject Characteristics and Behavioral Measures \| \| EtOH ($n = 30$) \| HV-EtOH ($n = 30$) \| t \| p \| Cann ($n = 30$) \| HV-Cann ($n = 60$) \| t \| p \| \|------------------------\|-----------------\|--------------------\|-----\|------\|-----------------\|-------------------\|-----\|------\| \| Age \| 41.40 (11.57) \| 42.47 (12.35) \| .35 \| .730 \| 25.33 (7.53) \| 26.42 (7.74) \| .64 \| .527 \| \| Men ($n$) \| 18 \| 18 \| \| \| 18 \| 46 \| \| \| \| IQ \| 114.32 (6.76) \| 116.13 (5.88) \| 1.11\| .273 \| 116.76 (5.89) \| 117.18 (5.70) \| .32 \| .745 \| \| BDI \| 12.89 (9.29) \| 5.62 (6.47) \| 3.52\| < .001\| 9.81 (8.99) \| 6.18 (6.73) \| 2.15\| .034 \| \| UPPS-P \| 154.25 (20.14) \| 120.69 (26.29) \| 5.55\| < .001\| 141.38 (19.52) \| 129.81 (22.03) \| 2.44\| .017 \| \| AUDIT \| 19.59 (14.10) \| 5.15 (3.81) \| 5.42\| < .001\| \| \| \| \| \| Premature Response \| 10.17 (8.79) \| 6.02 (4.36) \| 2.32\| .024 \| 10.39 (8.34) \| 7.01 (4.53) \| 2.50\| .014 \| \| Accuracy \| .93 (.05) \| .92 (.06) \| .70 \| .486 \| .89 (.09) \| .91 (.07) \| 1.16\| .250 \| \| Late Response \| .06 (.05) \| .08 (.07) \| 1.27\| .208 \| .08 (.07) \| .07 (.08) \| .58 \| .562 \| \| Total Win \| 1087.53 (419.93)\| 1089.00 (400.10) \| .01 \| .989 \| 950.39 (413.33) \| 1044.06 (463.52) \| .94 \| .352 \| \| RT Baseline 1 \| 394.96 (97.69) \| 369.48 (112.48) \| .94 \| .353 \| 345.93 (113.77) \| 342.05 (97.79) \| .17 \| .867 \| \| RT Reward \| 339.38 (50.76) \| 316.39 (48.35) \| 1.80\| .077 \| 319.82 (27.34) \| 304.15 (32.72) \| .23 \| .831 \| \| RT Baseline 2 \| 336.28 (91.83) \| 268.75 (63.89) \| 3.31\| .002 \| 258.99 (112.74) \| 256.90 (80.75) \| .37 \| .714 \| \| Motivation Index \| .08 (.10) \| .16 (.12) \| 2.81\| .007 \| .14 (.12) \| .15 (.14) \| .40 \| .679 \| Reported in mean (SD). AUDIT, Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test; BDI, Beck Depression Inventory; BED, binge eating disorder; BES, Binge Eating Scale; BMI, body mass index; Cann, recreational cannabis users; EtOH, abstinent alcohol-dependent subjects; HV, healthy volunteers; RT, reaction time; UPPS-P, UPPS Impulsive Behaviour Scale. urine drug screens ($n = 19$, premature responding $11.41$ [8.13], $t = 2.99, p = .004$). Obese Subjects with and without BED Thirty obese BED and 30 obese control subjects were compared with their own age- and gender-matched HV. The groups differed by BMI, BES, and BDI scores (Table 2). There were no differences in premature responses or Motivation Index between obese BED and HV and obese control subjects and HV (Figure 2, Table 2). In obese subjects with and without BED, there was no correlation between premature responding and BES, BMI, or Motivation Index ($r = -.19-.002, p > .05$). There was a negative correlation between Motivation Index and BES ($r = -.37, p = .012$) but not BMI ($r = .20, p = .128$). Abstinent Methamphetamine-Dependent Subjects Twenty-three Meth subjects (reported in mean [SD]: days abstinent: 79.16 [140.28]; years ever used: 10.16 [6.31]; years of heavy use: 2.60 [2.51]; Penn Craving Scale: 15.17 [9.17]) were compared with 20 HV from Minnesota (Table 2). Data from one Meth subject were excluded, due to a moderately severe current major depressive episode. Six Meth subjects had a concurrent alcohol use disorder, and 21 used nicotine daily. Meth subjects had the following comorbid psychiatric diagnoses: lifetime major depression ($n = 4$); panic disorder ($n = 1$); posttraumatic stress disorder ($n = 1$); obsessive-compulsive disorder ($n = 1$); anorexia nervosa/bulimia ($n = 1$); compulsive sexual behaviors ($n = 2$); and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder ($n = 4$). Meth subjects were taking the following medications: antidepressant ($n = 9$); mood stabilizer ($n = 3$) (used also for pain); neuroleptic ($n = 2$); and medication status unknown ($n = 2$). The Meth subjects had a lower IQ and higher BDI and UPPS-P scores compared with HV (Table 2). The Meth subjects had higher premature responding compared with HV (Figure 2, Table 2) including when co-varied for BDI and IQ ($F > 4, p < .05$). There were no differences in premature responding (reported in mean [SD]: HIV+ 14.09 [11.32], HIV– 14.00 [6.29], $t = .02, p = .981$) or Motivation Index (HIV+ .12 [.14], HIV– .12 [.10], $t = −.08, p = .947$) in Meth subjects who were HIV– ($n = 11$) versus HIV+ ($n = 11$) or who had a concurrent alcohol use disorder ($n = 6$) versus those that did not ($n = 16$) ($t = −1.75, .21, p > .05$). There were no differences in premature responding between heavy (>1 ppd, $n = 11$, 14.73 [7.72]) and light/nonsmokers ($n = 9$, 11.67 [5.36]) ($t = 1.00, p = .332$). In Meth subjects, premature responding or Motivation Index did not correlate with duration of use, Penn Craving Scale score, or duration of abstinence ($r = −.33−.08, p = .141−.634$). HV and Nicotine Use Nicotine use was compared in a subgroup of HV. Current smokers ($n = 19$, 9 men [47%], age in years 30.00 [10.63], years smoked 12.27 [9.39]) had greater premature responding compared with past smokers ($n = 12$, 3 men [25%], age in years 39.75 [16.08], years smoked 6.31 [5.00]) and nonsmokers ($n = 60$, 28 men [47%], age in years 31.25 [11.89]) (age: $F = 2.76, p = .07$; gender: $\chi^2 = 2.02, p = .357$; premature responding: $F = 4.51, p = .013$) (Figure 2). Premature responding remained significantly different when covaried for age and gender ($F = 4.22, p = .022$). Relationship with Other Measures In HV, premature responding did not correlate with the UPPS-P (reported as Pearson correlation coefficient $r$: $n = 110, r = .13, p = .372$), Barratt Impulsiveness Scale ($n = 60, r = .14, p = .391$), Motivation Index ($n = 110, r = .09, p = .382$), Go Reaction Time (mean 445.39 [SD 105.38]; $n = 55, r = −.15, p = .327$), stop signal reaction time (mean 175.71 [SD 45.11]; $n = 55, r = .07, p = .62$), or Delay Discounting Task (mean .02 [SD .02]; $n = 80, r = .11, p = .397$). In HV, premature responding was negatively correlated with age ($n = 110, r = −.25, p = .004$) but not IQ ($n = 110, r = −.10, p = .50$). When all groups were considered both in the HV and for each subject group, premature responding also did not correlate with Motivation Index ($r = −.13−.16, p > .05$) or with IQ, BDI, or task measures including accuracy, RT, late responses, or amount won ($p > .05$). There were no gender differences in HV or each subject group in premature responding or Motivation Index ($p > .05$). Discussion We developed a novel task for premature responding adapted from the preclinical 5-CSRTT and demonstrate its translational utility in clinical subjects. In keeping with our hypotheses, the main findings indicate that subjects abstinent from alcohol and methamphetamine dependence exhibited significantly more premature responding compared with HV. Recreational cannabis users were also more impulsive on this novel task than HV, a behavioral impairment shared by current smokers but not ex-smokers or nonsmokers. However, obese subjects with and without binge eating did not show elevated levels of premature responding compared with HV. Obesity, with food as a natural reward, and substance addictions, with drug as an exogenous reward, have overlaps, but its relationship is not without controversy (18). The comparison of obesity and binge eating with substance addiction with the same measure allows a direct assessment of the relationship with substance addiction. That subjects with BED were not elevated in premature responding did not support our hypothesis. Here we highlight differences between obesity and binge eating with substance addictions, on the basis of the premature responding measure, a form of motor impulsivity. Our findings dovetail with recent preclinical studies showing premature responding is both a consequence of (i.e., a state effect) (5) and a predictor of and risk factor (i.e., a trait effect) for the transition to compulsive cocaine and nicotine use (19,20). Because our study assesses subjects cross-sectionally after substance exposure, we are unable to distinguish between state and trait effects or to assess whether subjects are self-medicating a pre-existing condition. Future studies in unaffected family members are required to address these differences. Stimulant Dependence In the stimulant dependence preclinical literature, rodents with high premature responding have lower ventral striatal D2/D3 receptors (21) and are at greater risk for the development of compulsive cocaine seeking. Thus, rodents with high levels of premorbid premature responding have greater motivation to take cocaine and inability to inhibit drug seeking, despite aversive consequences (8). In humans, low striatal D2/D3 receptor availability is associated with impulsivity in both methamphetamine-dependent subjects and HV, arguing for premorbid trait effects (22). Equally, in rodents, greater premature responding for up to 2 weeks after chronic methamphetamine exposure suggests premature responding can also be a consequence of methamphetamine abuse (5). Methamphetamine blocks reuptake and enhances release of norepinephrine and dopamine and, to a much lesser extent, serotonin (23). In primates, methamphetamine is associated with striatal dopaminergic neurodegeneration (24,25) with substantial but incomplete recovery after 18 months (26). In humans, persistently reduced dopamine transporter (27) and D2/D3 receptor density (28) is partially reversible after prolonged abstinence (27). Several lines of preclinical evidence suggest that dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine modulate impulsive action. Rodents with high premature responding have lower ventral striatal D2/D3 receptors (21). Acute amphetamine increases premature responding in rodents, an effect attenuated by 6-hydroxydopamine lesions of the nucleus accumbens and by D1/D2 receptor antagonists (29). Central serotonin depletion or 5-HT2C receptor antagonism is also associated with greater premature responding in rodents (30). Atomoxetine, a selective norepinephrine-reuptake inhibitor also dose-dependently decreases premature responding (31). Studies of unaffected family members are indicated to differentiate possible neurochemical state and trait effects. Alcohol Dependence Abstinent subjects with alcohol dependence also had greater premature responding. However, in contrast to the preclinical literature on stimulants, the role of premature responding as a predictor for alcohol dependence is less well-established. Premature responding was positively associated with greater withdrawal severity from chronic alcohol in a study of 15 different inbred strains of mice (32). Acute alcohol exposure (33) and early but not late abstinence after chronic alcohol exposure is associated with --- Table 2. Subject Characteristics and Behavioral Measures in Methamphetamine Dependence \| \| Obese BED (n = 30) \| HV (n = 30) \| t \| p \| Obese Control (n = 30) \| HV (n = 30) \| t \| p \| Meth (n = 22) \| HV-Meth (n = 20) \| t \| p \| \|------------------------\|--------------------\|-------------\|-----\|------\|------------------------\|-------------\|-----\|------\|---------------\|-------------------\|-----\|------\| \| Age \| 42.92 (18.59) \| 44.12 (10.18) \| .49 \| .623 \| 44.06 (9.70) \| 43.59 (10.01)\| .18 \| .854 \| 31.05 (4.78) \| 33.50 (7.78) \| 1.24 \| .221 \| \| Men (n) \| 13 \| 13 \| \| \| 19 \| 19 \| \| \| 21 \| 16 \| \| \| \| IQ \| 115.95 (6.67) \| 116.32 (5.93) \| .23 \| .821 \| 115.18 (6.45) \| 116.49 (5.89)\| .82 \| .415 \| 112.01 (4.59) \| 110.89 (4.71) \| 2.17 \| .036 \| \| BDI \| 115.50 (6.52) \| 50.02 (5.25) \| .489\| < .001\| 69.46 (5.92) \| 59.33 (5.31) \| .71 \| .481 \| 152.32 (8.13) \| 53.55 (5.33) \| 4.74 \| < .001\| \| UPPS-P \| 132.60 (19.98) \| 124.02 (23.53) \| 1.50\| .138 \| 128.95 (19.89) \| 123.95 (24.11)\| .88 \| .384 \| 156.71 (22.47) \| 120.94 (21.27) \| 5.22 \| < .001\| \| BMI \| 34.68 (5.49) \| 23.86 (2.74) \| 9.66\| < .001\| 32.72 (3.41) \| 24.11 (2.89) \| 10.55\| < .001\| \| \| \| \| \| BES \| 24.70 (7.36) \| 7.22 (7.12) \| 9.22\| < .001\| 8.67 (7.08) \| 7.30 (7.05) \| .75 \| .456 \| \| \| \| \| \| AUDIT \| 6.11 (5.51) \| 5.13 (3.78) \| .80 \| .425 \| 4.05 (3.99) \| 4.58 (3.87) \| .48 \| .631 \| \| \| \| \| \| Premature Responding \| 5.78 (3.66) \| 5.91 (4.18) \| .13 \| .899 \| 6.83 (4.73) \| 5.99 (4.35) \| .72 \| .477 \| 7.52 (5.59) \| 13.35 (6.77) \| 3.03 \| .004 \| \| Accuracy \| 94.06 \| 92.07 \| 1.19\| .240 \| 94.04 \| 92.07 \| 1.36\| .180 \| 91.06 \| .49 \| .624\| \| \| Late Response \| 0.08 (0.07) \| 0.08 (0.08) \| .00 \| 1.000 \| 0.07 (0.07) \| .08 (0.08) \| .51 \| .608 \| 0.06 \| .07 (0.05) \| .58 \| .563 \| \| Total Win \| 1126.79 (558.44) \| 1058.17 (418.35) \| .54 \| .592 \| 1189.21 (456.83) \| 1093.24 (433.28)\| .83 \| .407 \| 1192.43 (418.29) \| 1.45 \| .154 \| \| RT Baseline 1 \| 379.74 (196.54) \| 388.07 (150.01) \| .35 \| .733 \| 412.70 (93.27) \| 381.20 (99.35)\| 1.27\| .210 \| 348.53 (96.10) \| 389.24 (140.37) \| 1.11 \| .276 \| \| RT Reward \| 324.48 (40.82) \| 347.62 (36.09) \| 2.32\| .021 \| 315.84 (49.67) \| 335.49 (35.12)\| 1.38\| .173 \| 318.97 (36.83) \| 318.97 (36.83) \| .029\| .772 \| \| RT Baseline 2 \| 288.14 (86.55) \| 271.64 (64.89) \| .84 \| .407 \| 284.45 (66.40) \| 279.23 (65.12)\| .31 \| .760 \| 270.75 (121.25) \| 269.63 (94.95) \| .03 \| .974 \| \| Motivation Index \| .14 (.10) \| .18 (.13) \| 1.36\| .187 \| .19 (.14) \| .18 (.13) \| .29 \| .775 \| .12 (.13) \| .18 (.09) \| 1.72 \| .09 \| Reported in mean (SD). Meth, abstinent methamphetamine-dependent subjects; other abbreviations as in Table 1. increased premature responding in rodents (6). Thus, premature responding is a state effect of alcohol, but its status as a trait effect is less clear. Binge Eating and Obesity The relationship between premature responding and binge eating is also not well-established. In rodents, high premorbid premature responding is associated with greater escalation of sucrose-seeking behavior and reinstatement after extinction (34). By contrast, premature responding in 15 different strains of mice is not associated with sucrose acquisition or preference (32). Our finding that obese subjects were not elevated in premature responding is consistent with these preclinical findings. Cannabis Use In rodents, the cannabinoid CB1 receptor antagonist, SLV330, decreases premature responding (7). Recreational cannabis users have elevated impulsivity as measured with questionnaires and behavioral tasks including impulsive choice, motor response inhibition, and reflection impulsivity (35,36). In the present study, recreational cannabis users made more premature responses despite exclusion of those screening positive for cannabis metabolites, suggesting that our findings were not related to acute cannabis effects. Nicotine Use Premature responding is associated with nicotine use as both a state and trait effect. In rodents, nicotine increases premature responding (37), and high premorbid premature responding predicts greater motivation to initiate and maintain nicotine use (20). That current smokers have greater premature responding, compared with ex-smokers and nonsmokers, suggests a clear state effect of nicotine that might be associated with greater likelihood of ongoing use but does not support a trait effect. Relationship to Other Tasks and Measures We have stringently and operationally defined premature responding with a translation of the preclinical 5-CSRTT itself based on a human paradigm; see Robbins (1)). The task incorporates measures to optimize premature responding, including decreasing target time, variable cue-target intervals after repeated responding at fixed short intervals, and introduction of a distractor (1). The premature responding measure is also differentiated from other measures of inattention, accuracy, and sensitivity to reward feedback. Other studies have assessed impulsive action with continuous performance tasks in which subjects respond quickly to targets and must withhold responding to catch trials (38,39). These tasks capture a form of motor impulsivity measured as commission errors consistent with motor response inhibition or action restraint assessed as in the Go/NoGo paradigm. Premature responding has also been assessed in the context of high conflict in the Simon task defined as rapid response errors (40) and rapid responding to high conflict stimuli (41). This form of premature responding might be more specific to situations of high conflict. Anticipatory responding has also been assessed in the context of risky time-sensitive rewards (42) and might also be sensitive to reward or loss value. Thus, other tasks measuring impulsive action might measure other forms of motor control or be specific to the context of conflict, risk, or reward sensitivity. In this study, premature responding correlated negatively with increasing age, consistent with the trajectory of impulsivity with age (43). The measure did not correlate with impulsivity questionnaires, which is a common observation in the comparison of questionnaire and laboratory-based measures (44). We show that this novel task is independent of other subtypes of impulsivity, such as stopping and delay discounting. Inhibitory mechanisms might be implicated but might differ, depending on whether it is anticipatory or postinitiation. In the rodent 5-CSRTT, differences between premature responding and false errors (analogous to Go/NoGo or Continuous Performance Task commission errors) have been highlighted (45). The issue of proactive stopping (46) or preparing to suppress a response tendency rather than reactive stopping after signal onset might be relevant. In the rodent literature, premature responding can correlate with delay discounting (47), although the neural substrates might not be identical (4). That we did not observe a relationship might reflect task differences: in rodents, delay discounting is tested with short delays in seconds with rewarding feedback, whereas the questionnaire uses delays in days–months without feedback. A discounting task in real time with feedback is indicated (48). Premature responding did not correlate with IQ, depression scores, accuracy, RT, late responses, amount of money won, or motivation for monetary feedback. The accuracy measure accounts for variations in accuracy due to nonspecific influences such as attentional capacity, motivation, or motor behavior, because correct and incorrect responses require the same motor effort (1). Motivation We also show that motivation for monetary incentive as measured by the Motivation Index is decreased in abstinent alcohol-dependent subjects and is negatively correlated with severity of alcohol dependence and binge eating. This measure of motivation, which assesses RT in extinction after instrumental conditioning with monetary feedback, is unrelated to premature responding. Because monetary reward in these disorders is a conditioned reinforcer, our findings suggest possible similarities between substance use disorders and a subtype of obesity characterized by the pattern of food intake or binge eating. This finding dovetails with the observation of decreased ventral striatal activity to anticipation of monetary reward with an increase in activity to alcohol cues in alcohol-dependent subjects (49). These data are thus consistent with rodent studies in which sugar binging demonstrates addictive-like properties including enhanced responding for sugar after abstinence, amphetamine cross-sensitization, and nucleus accumbens dopamine release (50). In humans, food presentation to BED subjects is associated with greater striatal dopamine release (51). Our data add to the growing literature addressing the relationship between obesity and substance use disorders. Study Limitations There were several limitations. In the obese subjects, testing under food restriction might influence these findings. Using the primary reinforcer (e.g., food) might also affect these findings, although monetary outcome is a conditioned reinforcer in all the diagnostic groups tested. Nicotine use was not defined a priori as a group, and the sample size of ex-smokers was low although well-matched for age and gender. Further studies focusing on nicotine use are indicated, although these preliminary findings are strongly suggestive of a possible effect. Relative to HIV, methamphetamine-dependent subjects were not matched for gender and had a lower IQ, and methamphetamine and alcohol-dependent subjects had higher depression scores. However, we show that IQ, gender, and depression scores are unrelated to these measures, suggesting these factors to be relatively unimportant. Other forms of impulsivity have also been shown to be independent of IQ (52). Lower premorbid IQ has been reported to be associated with stimulant dependence (53). Cognitive changes might also change with more prolonged abstinence. Conclusions With a novel translational task, we show that premature responding is elevated in subjects with substance dependence and recreational cannabis use but not in obese subjects with or without binge eating. Alcohol use and binge eating severity were linked by a blunted motivation for monetary rewards. Our findings help to elucidate the complex relationship between drug and natural food reward and suggest binge eating might represent a specific subtype in the mechanisms underlying obesity. Studies in high-risk populations are warranted to assess the role of premature responding as a biomarker for the development of substance addiction. We would like to thank the staff and clients at PRIDE for their invaluable assistance with the study. VW is a Wellcome Trust Intermediate Fellow in Clinical Neurosciences. YW is supported by the Fyssen Fondation. NAH is a Wellcome Trust Intermediate Fellow in Clinical Neurosciences. ETB is employed part-time by the University of Cambridge and part-time by GlaxoSmithKline (GSK) and is a shareholder of GSK. TWR is a consultant for Cambridge Cognition, Eli Lilly, GSK, Merck, Sharpe, and Dohme, Lundbeck, Teva, and Shire Pharmaceuticals. He is or has been in receipt of research grants from Lundbeck, Eli Lilly, and GSK and is an editor for Springer-Verlag (Psychopharmacology). JWD is a consultant for Boehringer Ingelheim and has received grants from this company. JEG has received research grant support from the National Institute of Mental Health, National Institute on Drug Abuse, a Center for Excellence in Gambling Research grant from the National Center for Responsible Gambling, Forest, Roche, Psyadon, and Transcept Pharmaceuticals, and the University of South Florida. 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Documentation of statistics for The Public Sector Finances 2019 Statistics Denmark Sejrøgade 11 DK 2100 København Ø 1 Introduction The purpose of the statistic is to show the activities that are owned or controlled by the general government and to illustrate the public area as an economic unit called the public sector. Statistics Denmark began publishing the statistic in March 1998, where it contained figures covering the period 1993-1996. 2 Statistical presentation The public sector’s finances is an annual specification of the institutional distribution of activities carried out by the public corporations, giving total figures as well as figures divided into industrial groups. Furthermore, the statistics contain figures for the public sector and all public corporations and quasi-corporations. 2.1 Data description The statistic describes the public area in economic terms that are directly comparable to the overall national accounts of the Danish economy. The statistic for public companies include all public corporation-like companies and public corporations. The public corporation-like companies are public institutions that operate on market terms and whose accounts can be separated from the state and municipal accounts. The public companies are organized by private law and are owned and / or dominated by public authorities. The public companies are mainly in the utility and transport business. Public corporations differ from public administration and service in that they produce market goods and services, while public administration and services predominantly produce public (non-market) services that are made available to other parts of the economy; either free of charge or at prices that do not necessarily cover the cost of production. 2.2 Classification system The statistics are based on the European System of Accounts 2010 (ESA2010) and also the industrial classification DB07 (based on the European classification system NACE Rev. 2). 2.3 Sector coverage The public sector, that is general government and public corporations. 2.4 Statistical concepts and definitions ESA2010: The concepts in this statistics are described in the national account manual ESA2010. ESA2010 2.5 Statistical unit The entities included in this statistic are all entities in Statistics Denmark’s business register which have a public sector sector code. The compilation of the statistics are based on both yearly accounts for institutional units and yearly accounts for central government, regions and municipalities. 2.6 Statistical population The public sector 2.7 Reference area Denmark. 2.8 Time coverage The statistic covers the period 1993 and onwards. 2.9 Base period Not relevant for these statistics. 2.10 Unit of measure Million DKK. 2.11 Reference period The figures relate to the financial year. If the financial year for a public corporation is different from the calendar year; the calendar year with the longest accounting period is selected as the financial year. 2.12 Frequency of dissemination Annual 2.13 Legal acts and other agreements Paragraph 6 and 8 of the Act on Statistics Denmark (in Danish). The statistic also follows the EU regulation 549/2013 and regulation 1893/2006. 2.14 Cost and burden For the part of the statistic concerning general government, no calculation of the burden of response is done. For the public companies, the burden of response is estimated not to surpass 180 minutes a year for each company. 2.15 Comment Additional information is available by contacting Statistics Denmark. 3 Statistical processing The data for the statistic is based on accounting information from central government, regions, and municipalities, along with approximately 700 public companies. The accounting information is gathered directly from central government, regions, and municipalities, while data from the public companies are collected by the use of surveys. The accounting information is checked for errors, along others by comparing to the previous year's accounts, and a macro-validation is carried out on the most detailed industrial classification. The gathered data covers the full population, and as such no further calculations are necessary. 3.1 Source data The data for the statistic is based on accounting information from central government, regions, and municipalities, along with approximately 700 public corporations (in Danish). 3.2 Frequency of data collection Annual 3.3 Data collection Account information from central and local government are received by electronic transfers while information from the public corporations comes via questionnaires or submission of financial statements. 3.4 Data validation The gathered account information is checked for errors. The figures are compared with earlier account information. If the numbers deviate too much, the company in question is contacted to check the validity of the data. Furthermore, macro-validation is carried out on the most detailed industrial classification. 3.5 Data compilation Data covers the full population so enumeration is not necessary. If account information from a public corporation is delayed then key indicators are used together with last year information. 3.6 Adjustment No corrections to data is made other than those already described. 4 Relevance The primary users are the ministries of economic affairs, interest organisations, politicians, educational institutions, and the interested public. Some users need information on the total sector and the subsectors contribution to the public sector as a whole. Others need detailed information on the public corporations. 4.1 User Needs Ministries of economic affairs, organizations, politicians, educational institutions and members of the public. Some users need information on the total sector and the subsectors' contribution to the public sector as a whole. Others need detailed information on the public corporations. 4.2 User Satisfaction Data on user satisfaction are not currently collected. 4.3 Data completeness rate The statistics satisfy the international guidelines and requirements. 5 Accuracy and reliability Full coverage of all industries is obtained by conducting a yearly check of the population in relation to a variety of sources. Accounting information is obtained from central and local government accounts and furthermore from questionnaires. Some accounting information is adjusted to the terminology used in the national accounts system and therefore deviates from normal accounting conventions. Furthermore, public corporations may use different methods of accounting. Accounting data entered wrongly are also a source of error, which is minimized by comparison with information from the previous year. If necessary, the company in question is contacted to validate the data. 5.1 Overall accuracy The statistic is based on data which covers the full population, and since the data in question are audited accounts, the overall accuracy is expected to be high. A high precision is also ensured through a series of quality processes during the compilation of the statistic. Newly created public companies of minor economic significance are in a few cases added with a one-year delay. Accounting data entered wrongly are also a source of error, which is minimized by comparison with information from the previous year. If necessary, the company in question is contacted to validate the data. Automatic procedures check for errors in the data entry and general accounting errors, including the balance sheet, i.e. data is checked for inconsistency. 5.2 Sampling error The statistic is a complete statistic based on accounting information from the total public sector. Thus there is no sample uncertainty. 5.3 Non-sampling error The data material covers the entire population but newly created public companies of minor economic significance are in a few cases added with a one-year delay. Accounting data entered wrongly are also a source of error, which is minimized by comparison with information from the previous year. If necessary, the company in question is contacted to validate the data. Automatic procedures check for errors in the data entry and general accounting errors, including the balance sheet, i.e. data is checked for inconsistency. If the financial year for a public corporation is different from the calendar year; the calendar year with the longest accounting period is selected as the financial year. 5.4 Quality management Statistics Denmark follows the recommendations on organisation and management of quality given in the Code of Practice for European Statistics (CoP) and the implementation guidelines given in the Quality Assurance Framework of the European Statistical System (QAF). A Working Group on Quality and a central quality assurance function have been established to continuously carry through control of products and processes. 5.5 Quality assurance Statistics Denmark follows the principles in the Code of Practice for European Statistics (CoP) and uses the Quality Assurance Framework of the European Statistical System (QAF) for the implementation of the principles. This involves continuous decentralized and central control of products and processes based on documentation following international standards. The central quality assurance function reports to the Working Group on Quality. Reports include suggestions for improvement that are assessed, decided and subsequently implemented. 5.6 Quality assessment This statistics is based on final account information from the government institutions and public corporations included in the statistic. As a general rule, all accounting information has been received by the time of publication and as such the quality of the statistic is estimated to be high. The primary sources of errors are: - Errors in the account material - a company will occasionally send in corrections regarding previous accounting material. These are usually few and minor corrections have do not impact that published statistic. - Errors in the national account-related classification of transactions - a potential source of errors that is minimised by validating data through a check of annual developments on company level as well as industrial classification level. - Incomplete population - occasionally, a public company has not been classified as public at the time of its start-up and is thus not included in the statistic. This is usually companies with very little activity, however, and cause no significant impact on the figures. 5.7 Data revision - policy Statistics Denmark revises published figures in accordance with the Revision Policy for Statistics Denmark. The common procedures and principles of the Revision Policy are for some statistics supplemented by a specific revision practice. 5.8 Data revision practice The figures for the latest two years are provisional, as revisions to the prior two years of published data may occur during the collection of current accounting data from the public companies and general government, but the difference between provisional and final figures are small. 6 Timeliness and punctuality The statistic is published in December the year after the latest accounting year and without delays. 6.1 Timeliness and time lag - final results The statistics are published yearly at the end of the year, following the accounting period. 6.2 Punctuality The statistics are usually published without delay in relation to the scheduled date. 7 Comparability These statistics are comparable from 1993 and onwards. The figures are produced according to international guidelines and are therefore comparable with similar estimates from other countries. 7.1 Comparability - geographical Since the statistic follows the international guidelines for national accounts there is a high degree of comparison with other countries. 7.2 Comparability over time The comparability is good, as there have been no changes in terminology or methods, and the data follows international national account requirements to a large degree. Something that may influence the comparability can be if a larger public company is divided into several companies within different industrial classifications. This would influence the output and intermediate consumption as internal trade across industrial classifications is not removed. Trade between companies within the same group of companies would thus be included in data. At the same time, the split of a company has an effect on the level of gross fixed capital formation if sale of capital goods take place between two companies within the same group. 7.3 Coherence - cross domain The statistics are comparable with statistics for general government finances. 7.4 Coherence - internal Data comes from different data sources but since all data are converted following the same international guidelines the internal consistency is assumed to be high. 8 Accessibility and clarity These statistics are published in Danish press release and in the StatBank under Public corporations and public sector. For further information please see the subject page on Government finances. 8.1 Release calendar The publication date appears in the release calendar. The date is confirmed in the weeks before. 8.2 Release calendar access The Release Calendar can be accessed on our English website: Release Calendar. 8.3 User access Statistics are always published at 8:00 a.m. at the day announced in the release calendar. No one outside of Statistics Denmark can access the statistics before they are published. 8.4 News release These statistics are published in a Danish press release. 8.5 Publications Annually as a statistical briefing in the series Offentlige Finanser (in Danish only) 8.6 On-line database The statistics are published in the StatBank under Public corporations and public sector in the following tables: - OFF14: Public finances by sector and account - OFF14A: Public corporations by sector and account 8.7 Micro-data access All information is stored in the internal DIOR database and can be obtained on request with due consideration for Statistic Denmark's policy about confidentiality. 8.8 Other The data for the statistic is also used for the survey to Eurostat covering the liabilities of public companies. 8.9 Confidentiality - policy Data Confidentiality Policy at Statistics Denmark. 8.10 Confidentiality - data treatment In the compilation of the public sector's finances, Statistics Denmark's data confidentiality policy is followed. 8.11 Documentation on methodology There are no separate descriptions of methods for this statistic. 8.12 Quality documentation Results from the quality evaluation of products and selected processes are available in detail for each statistics and in summary reports for the Working Group on Quality. 9 Contact The administrative placement of these statistics are in the division of Public finance. The person responsible is Helene Gjermansen, tel. +45 39 17 34 65/mobile +45 24 76 70 09, e-mail: firstname.lastname@example.org 9.1 Contact organisation Statistics Denmark 9.2 Contact organisation unit Government Finance 9.3 Contact name Helene Gjermansen 9.4 Contact person function Responsible for the statistics 9.5 Contact mail address Sejrsøgade 11, 2100 Copenhagen 9.6 Contact email address email@example.com 9.7 Contact phone number +45 3917 3465/mobile +45 24 76 70 09 9.8 Contact fax number +45 39 17 39 99
Right here, we have countless ebook Sabc Television Guide and collections to check out. We additionally have enough money variant types and after that type of the books to browse. The conventional book, fiction, history, novel, scientific research, as with ease as various extra sorts of books are readily manageable here. As this Sabc Television Guide, it ends happening inborn one of the favored ebook Sabc Television Guide collections that we have. This is why you remain in the best website to see the incredible ebook to have. 7A2 - QUINTIN SIENA South Africa has a uniquely rich and diverse theatre tradition which has responded energetically to the country’s remarkable transition, helping to define the challenges and contradictions of this young democracy. This volume considers the variety of theatre forms, and the work of the major playwrights and theatre makers producing work in democratic South Africa. It offers an overview of theatre pioneers and theatre forms in Part One, before concentrating on the work of individual playwrights in Part Two. Through its wide-ranging survey of indigenous drama written predominantly in the English language and the analysis of more than 100 plays, a detailed account is provided of post-apartheid South African theatre and its engagement with the country’s recent history. Part One offers six overview chapters on South African theatre pioneers and theatre forms. These include consideration of the work of artists such as Barney Simon, Mbongeni Ngema, Phyllis Klotz; the collaborations of William Kentridge and the Handspring Puppet Company; the work of Magnet Theatre, and of physical and popular community theatre forms. Part Two features chapters on twelve major playwrights, including Athol Fugard, Reza de Wet, Lara Foot, Zakes Mda, Yaël Farber, Mpumelelo Paul Grootboom, Mike van Graan and Brett Bailey. It includes a survey of emerging playwrights and significant plays, and the book closes with an interview with Aubrey Sekhabi, the Artistic Director of the South African State Theatre in Pretoria. Written by a team of over twenty leading international scholars, The Methuen Drama Guide to Contemporary South African Theatre is a unique resource that will be invaluable to students and scholars from a range of different disciplines, as well as theatre practitioners. Twenty-two-year-old Anna’s unconventional family is prone to raising eyebrows: she lives with two eccentric dads in a small town in rural KwaZulu-Natal and, after surviving her parents’ divorce, she’s used to the questioning glances of conservative Afrikaans family members and curious neighbours. Now, amid a menagerie of pets and her kaftan-clad mother, Anna must manage the ailing health of one of her dads. Her experiences on her reporter’s beat don’t make her days any easier. But how do you remain a supportive daughter and still live your own life? Told with warmth and gentle humour, The Paper House is a celebration of life, love and the family that shapes us. A longer-range purpose is to collect comparable information on as many polities as possible in order to facilitate the development of a richer theory to guide language policy and planning in other polities that undertake the development of a national policy on languages. This volume is part of an areal series which is committed to providing descriptions of language planning and policy in countries around the world."--BOOK JACKET. Offers advice on installing and testing a satellite receiver, and lists stations and satellites Often, new exporters will feel a bit overwhelmed about trading with South Africa. Much consideration and planning will need to go into deciding on the company type, delivery of products and services, marketing strategies, and local conditions. Before making these big decisions exporters and investors should spend some time thinking about business objectives. Discover South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland with themost incisive and entertaining guidebook on the market. Whether you plan to safari in Kruger National Park, savour the fine wines of the Western Cape orexplore the village where Nelson Mandela grew up, The Rough Guide to South Africa, Lesotho & Swaziland will show you ideal places to sleep, eat, drink and shop along the way. Inside The Rough Guide to South Africa, Lesotho & Swaziland - Independent, trusted reviews written in Rough Guides' trademark blend of humour, honesty and insight, to help you get the most out of your visit, with options to suit every budget. - Full-colour maps throughout - navigate Johannesburg's downtown shopping streets or the beachfront of Port Elizabeth without needing to get online. - Detailed regional coverage - whether off the beaten track or in more mainstream tourist destinations, this travel guide has in-depth practical advice for every step of the way. Areas covered include: Cape Town and the Cape Peninsula; The Western Cape; The Northern Cape; The Eastern Cape; the Garden Route; KwaZulu-Natal; Durban; Free State; Gauteng; Johannesburg; North West Province; Mpumalanga; Limpopo; Lesotho; Swaziland. Attractions include: Table Mountain; Robben Island; Kirstenbosch National Botanical Garden; Stellenbosch; the Wild Coast; Hluhluwe-Imfolozi Park; the Drakensberg mountains; Joburg's Apartheid Museum; Blyde River Canyon; Kruger National Park. - Stunning, inspirational images Itineraries - carefully planned routes to help you organize your trip. - Basics - essential pre-departure practical information including getting there, local transport, accommodation, food and drink, health, the media, festivals, sports and outdoor activities, crime and personal safety, and more. - Background information - a Contexts chapter devoted to history, music and books, plus a handy languagesection and glossary. Make the Most of Your Time on Earth with the Rough Guide to South Africa, Lesotho & Swaziland. The Rough Guide to South Africa, Lesotho & Swaziland is the ultimate travel guide to Africa's most diverse and most traveler-friendly country with clear maps and detailed coverage of all the best South African attractions. Discover South Africa's highlights in full color, with stunning photography and information on everything from the top Cape Town sights, the best KwaZulu-Natal beaches, the most luxurious places to stay in the Cape Winelands and the pick of the safari lodges in the Kruger National Park. Find detailed practical advice on what to see and do in South Africa, relying on up-to-date descriptions of the best hotels, bars, clubs, shops and restaurants for all budgets. The Rough Guide to South Africa, Lesotho & Swaziland also includes detailed coverage of all the best things to do in South Africa and the best places to do them whether whale watching at De Hoop Nature Reserve, shark-cage diving in False Bay or bunjee jumping from the Gouritz River Bridge. The Rough Guide to Cape Town, The Winelands and The Garden Route is the most comprehensive and informative guide available to this spectacular region. You’ll find detailed information on everything from sandboarding in De Hoop Nature Reserve to sampling wine in the many Western Cape’s estates. Whether you want to wander the pastel-coloured streets of the Bo-Kaap, explore the Garden Route’s dramatic Storms River Mouth, or catch a glimpse of the rare Cape mountain zebras or African penguins in the craggy Table Mountain National Park, this guide will lead you to the best attractions in this diverse region of South Africa. Updated specifically for travellers visiting for the football World Cup in 2010, this edition is packed full of in-depth information and up-to-date reviews of all the hottest new places to stay in Cape Town from hotels to community-minded accommodation and tour companies. Find the best restaurants, shops, bars and clubs across every price range giving you balanced reviews and honest, first-hand opinions. Explore the region with authoritative background on everything from local cuisine to desert wildlife, relying on comprehensive maps and practical language tips. A firsthand report of the workings of the press in the intensely troubled nation, complete with portions of the Erasmus Commission Reports never before published in the United States on the so-called Muldergate scandal. Pollak was the co-founder and editor of MORE magazine, which specialized in media analysis. After observing the workings of the press in South Africa, he believes that in the 1980s the English-language press will play a significant role in determining whether that country will be able to defuse its racial problem before it explodes into bloody civil strife. The press in South Africa remains the one relatively free institution that has been critical of the government. Pollak examines the pressures under which it works, the ways in which the government has sought to control it, the ways in which the press has fought against the controls, and the actual impact that the press has had upon the course of events, domestic and foreign. He describes the punitive closing of newspapers, the arrests and the torture, and the abuse of reporters imprisoned for what they have written. He also describes the carefully calculated bureaucratic obstacles to press coverage of events in South Africa, such as visas, work permits, and police credentials, as well as tapped telephones, security sleuths, and general harassment and intimidation used by the government to encourage self-censorship on the part of journalists. The constant war of nerves between the Nationalists and the press corps produces the desired chilling effect. Pollak shows that the South African press played an important part in revealing the Muldergate scandal, a saga of national and international intrigue, corruption, and violence that included an attempt by South Africa to purchase the Washington Star to extend its credibility around the world. In this riotous romp through South Africa, Malaysia, Thailand, Singapore, the Philippines, India, Mexico, Hawaii, Costa Rica and Rarotonga, Stu often finds more Purgatory than Paradise, more Hell than Heaven. But none of this curbs his passion for The Tropics. Or cold beer. So lie back in a deckchair, put on your sunscreen and join Stu in this quirky quest for Paradise. This fully revised and updated Insight Pocket Guide is packed with all the information you need to enjoy South Africa, in a genuinely pocketable format. Be inspired to visit this beautiful country by the brand new Insight Pocket Guide South Africa, a concise, full-colour guide that combines lively text with vivid photography that brings this country to life. Inside Insight Pocket Guide South Africa: - Where To Go details all the key areas in the area, from the Cape Town to Robben Island, while handy maps on the cover flaps help you find your way around, and are cross-referenced to the text. - Top 10 Attractions gives a rundown of the best sights, including Cape Peninsula and Wine Country. - Perfect Tour provides an itinerary for a perfect week on South Africa. - What To Do is a snapshot of ways to spend your spare time in South Africa, with detailed suggestions including shopping, entertainment and dining. - Essential information on South Africa's culture, including a section on the country's history. - Eating Out covers the South Africa's best cuisine. - Curated listings of the best hotels and restaurants. - A-Z of all the practical information you'll need. About Insight Guides: Insight Guides has over 40 years' experience of publishing high-quality, visual travel guides. We produce around 400 full-colour print guidebooks and maps as well as picture-packed eBooks to meet different travellers' needs. Insight Guides' unique combination of beautiful travel photography and focus on history and culture together create a unique visual reference and planning tool to inspire your next adventure. 'Insight Guides has spawned many imitators but is still the best of its type.' - Wanderlust Magazine A guide to this city, including accounts of all the attractions from the historic city centre and Robben Island, to the African townships and Table mountain. It includes details on trips around Cape Town including whale spotting, the Winelands, and Cape Point. The best hotels, restaurants, bars, beaches and shops are reviewed and complemented by the colour maps with grid references for every sight and recommendation. Scholars of international relations and international communications view the extent of media freedom from country to country as a key comparative indicator either by itself or in correlation with other indices of national political and economic development. This indicator serves as a bellwether for gauging the health and spread of democracy. Historical Guide to World Media Freedom brings together comprehensive historical data on media freedom since World War II, providing consistent and comparable measures of media freedom in all independent countries for the years 1948 to the present. The work also includes country-by-country summaries, analyses of historical and regional trends in media freedom, and extensive reliability analyses of media freedom measures. The book's detailed information helps researchers connect historical measures of media freedom to Freedom House's annual Freedom of the Press survey release, enabling them to extend their studies back before the 1980s when Freedom House began compiling global press freedom measures. Key Features: A-to-Z, country-by-country summaries of the ebb and flow of media freedom are paired with national media freedom measures over time. Introductory chapters discuss such topics as the theoretical premises behind the nature and importance of media freedom, historical trends, and the challenges of coding for media freedom in a way that ensures consistency for comparison. Concluding material covers the historical patterns in media freedom, how media freedom tracks with other cross-national indicators, and more. Accessible to students and scholars alike, this groundbreaking reference is essential to collections in political science, international studies, and journalism and communications. Johannesburg is severely underrated as a tourist destination. This could be because it has no beaches, no snow-capped mountains, and no ancient buildings. But Johannesburg has something else - it is a cultural and industrial centre, with an enormous array of entertainment events running day and night. Johannesburg is also the scene of the fall of the abominable Apartheid system. So Johannesburg is not only a cultural centre, but it is also politically one of the most significant cities in Africa, and the most economically powerful. Furthermore, the human race evolved in the Johannesburg area. So there are many reasons to visit. This book gives an introduction to South Africa and Johannesburg in particular. It covers all the things to see and visit in Johannesburg and its surrounds. It provides addresses, phone numbers and GPS coordinates of each tourist attraction, so that you can find them easily. Discover Cape Town, the Winelands and the Garden Route with the most incisive and entertaining guidebook on the market. Whether you plan to admire the panoramic views from the top of Table Mountain, indulge on a wine estate tour or spot the Big Five in a wildlife reserve, this new edition of The Rough Guide to Cape Town, the Winelands and the Garden Route will show you ideal places to sleep, eat, drink and shop along the way. Inside The Rough Guide to Cape Town, the Winelands and the Garden Route - Independent, trusted reviews written in Rough Guides' trademark blend of humour, honesty and insight, to help you get the most out of your visit, with options to suit every budget. - Full-colour maps throughout - navigate Cape Town's city centre or find your way around Stellenbosch without needing to get online. - Stunning, inspirational images - Itineraries - carefully planned routes to help you organize your trip. - Detailed coverage - whether off the beaten track or in more mainstream tourist destinations, this travel guide has in-depth practical advice for every step of the way. Areas covered include: the city centre; the V&A Waterfront; Robben Island; the Cape Flats; the Atlantic Seaboard; Stellenbosch; Paarl; Franschhoek; Somerset West; the Whale Coast; the Garden Route and Overberg Interior; Route 62 and the Little Karoo; Port Elizabeth and the private reserves. Attractions include: Table Mountain; Boulders Beach; Cape Point; Chapman's Peak Drive; De Hoop Nature Reserve; the wine estates; Tsitsikamma National Park; the Cango Caves; Addo Elephant Park. - Basics - essential pre-departure practical information including getting there, local transport, health, the media, festivals, parks and wilderness areas, crime and personal safety and more. - Listings chapters - from accommodation, food and drink to shopping and Cape Town for kids. - Background information - a Contexts chapter devoted to history, music and books, plus a handy language section and glossary. Make the Most of Your Time on Earth with the Rough Guide to Cape Town, the Winelands and the Garden Route Only a small proportion of the more than 1,100 entries have been retained from the earlier editions and supplements, 1955 to 1983; more publications reflecting social and economic changes in South Africa have been included; and the annotations are more extensive. The main focus is on references such as dictionaries, yearbooks, and encyclopedias, but handbooks, manuals, and histories are cited if no conventional references exist on the subject. The selection is not limited to books published in South Africa. The arrangement is by broad subject headings following the Dewey Decimal system. The annotations are primarily descriptive, but evaluations creep in now and again. Distributed by Books International. Annotation copyrighted by Book News, Inc., Portland, OR South Africa Investment and Business Guide - Strategic and Practical Information The Rough Guide to South Africa is the definitive guide to one of the world's most fascinating and varied countries. Now available in ePUB format. With accommodation listings that range from the most sumptuous safari lodges to cheap and cheerful backpacker lodges in stunning coastal positions, there's something for every budget. In-depth coverage on South Africa's many nature reserves is complemented by an illustrated wildlife guide, to help you make the most of your time on safari. Whether you want to explore the country's big sights - from the wilds of Kruger National Park and the best spots for whale watching to Cape Town's vibrant dining scene - or to uncover its many hidden gems, such as the dramatic desert scenery of the Richtersveld, The Rough Guide to South Africa is your indispensable travelling companion. Make the most of your time on EarthTM with The Rough Guide to South Africa. A companion volume to the World Radio TV Handbook, this guide provides details of all geostationary communications, their operators and their programming worldwide. It contains coverage maps, receiver tests, programming surveys, and installation guides. Insight Guides Pocket Guide Cape Town Travel made easy. Ask local experts. The definitive pocket-sized travel guide. Compact, concise and packed full of essential information about where to go and what to do, this is an ideal on-the-move guide for exploring Cape Town. From top tourist attractions like Long Street, Boulders Beach and Table Mountain, to cultural gems, including the cell where Nelson Mandela was held on Robben Island, the elegant Cape Dutch mansions of the Cape Winelands, and the breathtaking Tree Canopy Walkway at Kirstenbosch National Botanical Garden, plan your perfect trip with this practical, all-in-one travel guide. Features of this travel guide to Cape Town: - Inspirational itineraries: discover the best destinations, sights and excursions, highlighted with stunning photography - Historical and cultural insights: delve into the city's rich history and culture, and learn all about its people, art and traditions - Practical full-colour map: with every major attraction highlighted, the pull-out map makes on-the-ground navigation easy - Key tips and essential information: from transport to tipping, we've got you covered - Covers: City Centre; Victoria and Alfred Waterfront; Table Mountain; Southern Suburbs; Robben Island; Excursions Looking for a comprehensive guide to South Africa? Check out Insight Guides South Africa for a detailed and entertaining look at all the country has to offer. About Insight Guides: Insight Guides is a pioneer of full-colour guide books, with almost 50 years' experience of publishing high-quality, visual travel guides with user-friendly, modern design. We produce around 400 full-colour print guide books and maps, as well as phrase books, picture-packed eBooks and apps to meet different travellers' needs. Insight Guides' unique combination of beautiful travel photography and focus on history and culture create a unique visual reference and planning tool to inspire your next adventure. As South Africa's democracy matures, this book raises pertinent questions: How does the state mediate between traditional tribal authority and constitutional law in matters such as initiation customs or the rights of women, children, and homosexuals? What are the limitations on artistic freedom in a society where sensitivities over colonial- and apartheid-era representations are acute? How does race open up discussions or close down dialogue? and What are the parameters of freedom of speech when minorities fear that hateful language may trigger actual violence against them? Examining disputes over South African art, music, media, editorial cartoons, history, public memory, and a variety of social practices, the culture wars' perspective is extended to new territory in this study, demonstrating its cross-cultural applicability and parsing critical debates within this vibrant society in formation. "Black Television Travels provides a detailed and insightful view of the roots and routes of the televisual representations of blackness on the transnational media landscape. By following the circulation of black cultural products and their institutionalized discourses—including industry lore, taste cultures, and the multiple stories of black experiences that have and have not made it onto the small screen—Havens complicates discussions of racial representation and exposes possibilities for more expansive representations of blackness while recognizing the limitations of the seemingly liberatory spaces created by globalization." —Bambi Haggins, Associate Professor of Film and Media Studies at Arizona State University "A major achievement that makes important contributions to the analysis of race, identity, global media, nation, and television production cultures. Discussions of race and television are too often constricted within national boundaries, yet this fantastic book offers a strong, compelling, and utterly refreshing corrective. Read it, assign it, use it." —Jonathan Gray, author of Television Entertainment, Television Studies, and Show Sold Separately Black Television Travels explores the globalization of African American television and the way in which foreign markets, programming strategies, and viewer preferences have influenced portrayals of African Americans on the small screen. Television executives have been notoriously slow to recognize the potential popularity of black characters and themes, both at home and abroad. As American television brokers increasingly seek revenues abroad, their assumptions about saleability and audience perceptions directly influence the global circulation of these programs, as well as their content. Black Television Travels aims to reclaim the history of African American television circulation in an effort to correct and counteract this predominant industry lore. Based on interviews with television executives and programmers from around the world, as well as producers in the United States, Havens traces the shift from an era when national television networks often blocked African American television from traveling abroad to the transnational, post-network era of today. While globalization has helped to expand diversity in African American television, particularly in regard to genre, it has also resulted in restrictions, such as in the limited portrayal of African American women in favor of attracting young male demographics across racial and national boundaries. Havens underscores the importance of examining boardroom politics as part of racial discourse in the late modern era, when transnational cultural industries like television are the primary sources for dominant representations of blackness. "Discover Cape Town, the Winelands and the Garden Route with the most incisive and entertaining guidebook on the market. Whether you plan to admire the panoramic views from the top of Table Mountain, indulge on a wine estate tour or spot the Big Five in a wildlife reserve, this new edition of The Rough Guide to Cape Town, the Winelands and the Garden Route will show you ideal places to sleep, eat, drink and shop along the way. Inside The Rough Guide to Cape Town, the Winelands and the Garden Route - Independent, trusted reviews written in Rough Guides' trademark blend of humour, honesty and insight, to help you get the most out of your visit, with options to suit every budget. - Full-colour maps throughout - navigate Cape Town's city centre or find your way around Stellenbosch without needing to get online. - Stunning, inspirational images - Itineraries - carefully planned routes to help you organize your trip. - Detailed coverage - whether off the beaten track or in more mainstream tourist destinations, this travel guide has in-depth practical advice for every step of the way. Areas covered include: the city centre; the V&A Waterfront; Robben Island; the Cape Flats; the Atlantic Seaboard; Stellenbosch; Paarl; Franschhoek; Somerset West; the Whale Coast; the Garden Route and Overberg Interior; Route 62 and the Little Karoo; Port Elizabeth and the private reserves. Attractions include: Table Mountain; Boulders Beach; Cape Point; Chapman's Peak Drive; De Hoop Nature Reserve; the wine estates; Tsitsikamma National Park; the Cango Caves; Addo Elephant Park. - Basics – essential pre-departure practical information including getting there, local transport, health, the media, festivals, parks and wilderness areas, crime and personal safety and more. - Listings chapters from accommodation, food and drink to shopping and Cape Town for kids. - Background information - a Contexts chapter devoted to history, music and books, plus a handy language section and glossary. Make the Most of Your Time on Earth with the Rough Guide to Cape Town, the Winelands and the Garden Route" Various methods of conveying newsworthy information are discussed in this analysis of the common qualities of public relations and journalism professionals. Practical anecdotes explain how public relations practitioners and journalists interact daily in the South African media context. Common features between these two professions are discussed, including how a public relations professional applies journalistic skills including interviewing, writing, taking photographs, and designing page layout. Recent technological developments are covered, and print, television, and electronic media are compared. The Rough Guide to South Africa is the most comprehensive and informative guide available to this spectacular country. You’ll find detailed information on everything from hiking in the mysterious Drakensberg to sampling wine in the many Western Cape’s estates. Updated specifically for travellers visiting South Africa for the football World Cup in 2010, Lesotho and Swaziland have been excluded from the book allowing for more in-depth information on how to tackle the World Cup in this edition. Whether you want to wander the pastel-coloured streets of the Bo-Kaap, explore the Garden Route’s dramatic Storms River Mouth, or get spine-tinglingly close to lions and other big game in Kruger National Park, this guide will lead you to the best attractions in South Africa. The Rough Guide to South Africa features up-to-date reviews of all the hottest new places to stay from hotels in South Africa to community minded accommodations and tour companies. Find the best restaurants, shops, bars and clubs in South Africa across every price range giving you balanced reviews and honest, first-hand opinions. Explore all corners of South Africa with authoritative background on everything from local cuisine to desert wildlife, relying on practical language tips. This guide does not pretend to be a comprehensive directory of African web sites - but instead a timesaving guide to sites that can be relied on."
WIRELESS WEEKLY THE HUNDRED PER CENT AUSTRALIAN RADIO JOURNAL Vol. 3 No. 15 Jan. 18th 1924 REGISTERED AT THE GENERAL POST OFFICE SYDNEY FOR TRANSMISSION BY POST AS A NEWSPAPER SPECIAL FEATURE THIS WEEK Details Wireless Weekly Cup Competition "Radiovox" Receiving Sets In refinement of tone and simplicity of control, we are confident that in the RADIOVOX we have attained results yet to be equalled by any other Radio Receiver offering on the World's markets. Made in Australia of the finest imported electric parts, and furnished in designs and at prices to suit every locality and purse, the RADIOVOX Series of Sets will reward your attention at the Exhibition and at our Showrooms. Write for our Catalogue explaining in detail the patented features and advantages of our self-contained loud speaker construction. Quality Parts Make Quality Sets In your Sets use UNITED Transformers and Condensers for results. The UNITED and SIGNAL line of Radio parts are for sale at all up-to-date Dealers. Ask for them. Remler Parts We announce to all dealers that we have stocked the well-known line of REMLER Parts and Coils at most attractive prices. Our new Price List of REMLER Goods is now ready for dealers and manufacturers. Get it before you place your next Radio order. Try a United Transformer Clear, Sweet, No Distortion Sold by all Up-to-date Dealers United Distributing Company Ltd. Wholesale Only Distributors of REMLER, "UNITED" and "SIGNAL" Radio Parts 28 CLARENCE STREET, SYDNEY ::: and at 592 BOURKE STREET, MELBOURNE According to recent announcements in the daily press, the Empire Wireless Chain is as far off as ever. Fears were expressed in England that in the event of a Labour Government the project would receive a set back, inasmuch as such a Government would be opposed to private enterprise. It was argued that the Government should have complete control of the scheme in order that in times of national emergency the plant could be used without delay. That painfully weak argument can be blown to ribbons by the experience obtained during the war when the factories were acquired by the Government to manufacture munitions. It means, however, that Marconi with his organisation will not be given the contract and thus further delay is assured. The beneficial effects of a chain of broadcasting stations throughout the Empire is apparent to all. Mr. Bruce, like other Dominion Premiers, realised this, and vigorously denounced the muddling methods of the British authorities. The Empire Wireless Chain must be built and as soon as possible. --- Roster for Week ending 23rd January, 1924 \| Time \| Stations \| \|------------\|----------\| \| 7.30 to 8.0 \| 2 RA 2 GR 2 IJ 2 UW 2 ZG 2 YI 2 JM 2 UR 2 YI 2 YG 2 ZN 2 YI 2 ZN 2 JM 2 YG \| \| 8.0 to 8.30 \| \| \| 8.30 to 9.0 \| \| \| 9 to 9.30 \| \| \| 9.30 to 10 \| \| - Thur. Jan. 17 - Friday, .....18 - Saturday, ..19 - Sunday, .....20 - Mon., .......21 - Tues., .....22 - Wednes., ...23 --- Page 3 nla.obj-628085882 National Library of Australia The proprietors of Wireless Weekly, the first radio magazine in Australia, have decided to encourage the work of amateurs in Australasia in some concrete form. With this object in view, two handsome silver cups will be presented, one for the best valve and one for the best crystal set made by any amateur in Australasia or New Zealand. No other journal or country for that matter has ever offered such a prize. The competition costs nothing to enter, and both cups will be of unique and appropriate design. The handsome silver cups will be excellent ornaments and a source of pride to the owners. They are at present being specially manufactured for Wireless Weekly, and photos will be published in these columns in a forthcoming issue. Any amateur may enter for both cups. The competition will be decided by the popular vote of our readers. As each nomination is received photos of the sets will be prepared and numbered, and published week by week. When the competition closes the votes will be counted under the supervision of a committee whose names will be announced later. The competitor whose set gains the most votes will be declared the winner. There are no other prizes. The cups will be shown in the windows of each of the wireless firms advertising in this journal. Amateur Status. For the purpose of this competition Wireless amateur will mean any person who does not deal or trade in or manufacture any apparatus required for wireless sets on wireless broadcasting stations, and who is not employed by any person so dealing, trading, or manufacturing, or by any broadcasting firm. An amateur must reside within Australasia which comprises the Commonwealth of Australia, Dominion of New Zealand, and any of the islands or territory under British Administration or Mandate in Australasia. The sets must be wholly made by the amateur in the area thus defined and will be divided into two classes—crystal and valve sets. What is required. Competitors are required to submit: 1. One photo, not less than 4in. by 3in., showing the set complete. 2. One photo not less than 4in. by 3in., showing the wiring of the set. 3. An ink diagram not less than 4in. by 3in. showing the circuit and wiring. 4. A small paragraph of not more than 100 words explaining the set. 5. The nomination form shown below, witnessed by a member of the committee of a radio club or any trader (if) advertising in Wireless Weekly, or a local J.P. NOMINATION FORM I ........................................... of ........................................... desire to enter my ........................................... set in Wireless Weekly Cup Competition. I agree to abide by the conditions set down by the proprietors, and I solemnly declare that I am a wireless amateur as defined in page 2 of W.W., No. 15, Vol. 3, of January 18, 1924. (Signed) ........................................... Witness ........................................... VOTING COUPON. To the Editor Wireless Weekly, I ........................................... consider Set No. ........................................... owned by ........................................... is the best set in the Wireless Weekly Competition. Signature ........................................... Date ........................................... Crystal Detectors and Their Adjustment By D. R. McGown. That the oft-despised crystal has certain inherent advantages is the subject of this article. The author tells how these may be adapted for practical reception. How often you hear such a remark as, "Oh, he hasn't much of a set—it's only a crystal outfit!" which savours slightly of an attitude of gentle "razz." How many of those who make such remarks realise that these same crystal outfits or at least these same type outfits, have actually made radio history? The crystal detector came into general use in 1906, the first being a germanium, which required a local battery for operation. Other battery crystal detectors were molybdenite, titanium dioxide, copper pyrite, iron pyrite, and the "herkimer" detector, a combination of zinc oxide and copper pyrite crystals. The other type, which still survives in use to-day, did not require a local battery, nor such a heavy contact. In this class we find several that were included in the former list, i.e., "perikon," and iron pyrites, and besides these silicon and galena. In the hands of the average user, carborundum, galena, silicon, and iron pyrites were the best, in the order named, with the first two in a position where the actual constants of the particular crystals used determines their positions. The battery type depend for their operation on their "unilateral conductivity," though certain directions in the crystal's formation, which affect the battery type, depend on the "rectification" of the actual received energy. In other words, in the battery type, a direct current of small magnitude is passed through the crystal at all times; the received energy, which is delivered to the detector by the receiving set either aids or opposes the flow of this direct current, due to the fact that the crystal conducts current better in one direction than the other, which results in a sound in the head telephones. The rectifying type acts as a valve which passes one-half the cycle and alters nothing the other. Half of the cycle is held back while pulsating direct current, and if properly connected a condenser can be charged, and from this point of telephone operation the actual received energy, therefore, operates the head-set, and the actual signal received varies according to the way the signal is emitted by the transmitting station. It may be in the form of groups of oscillations, like in a spark set, or it may be in the form of continuous, variable frequency oscillations such as we have in a telephone station, and it will be reproduced at the receiving end with absolute accuracy. A crystal is very much less sensitive than a simple vacuum tube detector. It is cheap, simple, not liable to damage, relatively easy to adjust, and safe counsel; it is ideal for a beginner, as it cannot be readily damaged and, if destroyed, can be cheaply replaced. It is susceptible to remaining constant in a sensitive position; it is liable to oxidation and damage from dirt; and it broadens the tuning of the receiving apparatus. Present-day crystal sets are equipped with galena detectors. Usually, good galena has a rather "wavy" surface, which breaks, or shatters rather roughly. Galena which breaks in regular cubical crystal form, is usually poor, and may have no semi-metal spots on its surface. The so-called "stone" galena, which fractures with a crystallisation resembling the grain of coarse steel is also good. It is entirely a matter of test to find out whether a particular specimen is a good detector or not. Sometimes a very good looking piece will be found worthless, but on the other hand, pieces which are large lumps and sensitive, will usually show whether or not the whole lump will likewise prove sensitive. Galena from various parts of the country sometimes shows this in a marked degree. The writer has had specimens from certain mines, which all proved to be worthless, although of very good wave appearance, while specimens from the same mine, but from a different vein, showed up as very good, although casual appearance showed little or no difference. Although certain specimens do possess spots that are sensitive, it is not an absolute test. Many times specimens will be found that are very good as far as numbers of sensitive surfaces go, that are very poor as far as actual sensitiveness on weak signals, while another specimen, that has relatively few "spots" will be unusually good on those said spots, and will break in on very feeble signals from relatively distant stations. Carborundum, in almost all cases, is sensitive only when the lightest red semi-transparent crystals lie at the centre of the large crystal masses. It is absolutely essential that carborundum be tested carefully before a sensitive apparatus is assembled, after often the despires of finding a really good piece. The mounting of crystals is important. Galena should be mounted solidly in a cup, chip, or similar device, with a very slight contact allowed to rest on it. This usually takes the form of a light copper wire, which can be mounted on the side of the metal. Carborundum, on the other hand, must be used with a rather heavy pressure. It is best to mount the crystal in a cup, with soft metal alloy, and to press down with a steel point, which is ususually a phonograph needle, with considerable pressure, considering the size of the contact. This pressure may run up to as high as two or three pounds, and can best be applied with a spring, or screw. Owing to the lightness of the contact, galena is more or less easy to get out of adjustment, and a pad of felt, rubber, or other soft material will help, if placed under the detector mounting. When transmitting, it is essential that the galena detector be disconnected so short-circuiting is left in circuit it will be burned so the sensitive spot is lost. It is better, by far, to open the circuit, either on one, or both sides, than to try to adjust or re-short it, as in the latter case a closed oscillatory circuit is set up, which may "knock" the point anyway, while demagnetization by heat results will be obtained on transmitting. No such precautions are needed with carbonium, which will not be disturbed by vibration, so long as it is not jarred out of the contact position. It is proof against all damage from nearby transmitters, spark gaps, and the strongest signals will not affect it in the least, although even moderate clicks of static might damage the point on a galena detector. With all crystal detectors, the signal in the telephones depends on the current the crystal receives, rather than its potential. In a vacuum tube set, the signal depends entirely on the voltage as it is a trigger-effect device, but this does not hold in a crystal. A single-circuit crystal set, illustrated diagrammatically in Fig. 1, is the basic circuit of most of the sets of this type sold to-day, or the circuit shown in Fig. 2 may be used instead. Numerous combinations are of about equal efficiency. In either case, we have an oscillatory circuit composed of the antenna, condenser, coil, condenser, and ground. The crystal is connected directly across this, and all the energy received by the antenna is impressed on the crystal, even if it is not in the diffusing frequency that the antenna is tuned to. Thus it is often impossible to do any tuning with such a circuit, although some considerable volume may be obtained. The addition of a second slider, as shown in Fig. 3, will remove the detuning from the antenna circuit, and it forms a very good short-circuit across the turns connected between the ground and slider, it actually broadens the tuning, in that adjustable values of resistance, as the resistance of the detector varies greatly, and is never the same, probably, even if adjusted to the same "point," it will cause detuning of the antenna circuit. In all cases the crystal is getting, however, a maximum of energy from the antenna circuit, which alone is enough to give broad tuning. Fig. 4 shows the connection for a loose-coupled crystal set, which is the best. The resistance of the crystal, when adjusted for reception, is quite high, probably 2000 to 10,000 ohms. This Radio While Motoring Using a top aerial on a three valve Sleeper Monotone Set, Mr. Harry Wiles, of Goulburn St., Sydney, achieved some remarkable exploits while motoring between Sydney and Penrith recently. A loud speaker was used and an excellent programme was presented by Broadcasters (Sydney) Ltd. Station. Even when the car was traveling at 35 miles per hour, the reception was clear, considering the conditions. Mr. Wiles is constructing a set, especially adapted for motoring, for use on a tour of the South Coast. The opinion exists that crystal reception is very limited, and that the usual range of crystal sets is about 15 to 25 miles. This is simply the range that is absolutely certain, with inexperienced listeners, and actually is a matter of great regret, because many years crystals were used for commercial radio work, and many are the records that were established with them. The operation of a commercial station using a crystal or "bunch of coal" as it was termed, was a matter that deserves much praise. When it is considered that more than half of commercial communication was kept up over thousands of miles, with spark sets transmitting, and crystal sets receiving, using conditions shown in Fig. 1, the more wonderful it is. Today someone thinks he has done well, when he hears a broadcasting station of 500 watt output, 250 miles away. He is only to be pitied in his ignorance. Take some of the old commercial and ship stations, such as KPH, Redondo Beach, Hutterer, Hillcrest (San Francisco), East San Pedro, and the like. In those days commercial work was handled by stations sent out, regardless that would make the distance (?) of the average crystal hound of to-day look sick. In the days when crystals were used exclusively, it was not an uncommon thing for ships to handle business with Manhattan Beach (practically New York City) when the said ships were off the coast. Similar and better records were hung up on the Pacific Coast. Ship stations have been known to handle business with Hillcrest, KPH, San Francisco, when 2500 or 3000 miles west of Honolulu!! (4500 or 5000 miles from KPH). The said KPH station was a 1000 watt, Japanese east station, with spark transmitters of about 5kw input (probably not more than 2kw, in the antenna), with crystal sets on the home ends. Traffic was handled with ships between San Francisco and Honolulu, nightly, all the way both ways, from San Francisco to Honolulu. The claim that crystals are suited only for local or short distance work is certainly knocked flat by these old records, which are not exceeded greatly in these days of vacuum tube receivers. The fact that these records were established by radio telephone stations does not mean they are dead, as there was a chance to try any telephone tests—because there were no telephone going, but, if there had been, they would have been heard at great distances, as well, without doubt. Broadcasting News By Daily Papers. The few newspapers in America which have installed broadcasting stations have not, up to the present time, used them in a way which we believe will become customary a few years hence. It would be worth while for the wide awake programme manager to notice how many people on their way to or from work, read their daily papers; they scan the headlines hurriedly and note whatever topics are interesting to them. They do not then throw away their papers and keep for a while, as usual when more leisure is available, and the items which are then first read are those which are headlined in such a way as to attract attention without the first cursory examination. That is, a man does not use the headlines primarily to get the news from the paper, but to determine what items are worth reading. The front page is what sells the newspaper, and the headlines are the selling agents. Now, if this is so, why should not an enterprising newspaper take ten minutes a day in the evening when most people are at home, to put the important news items of the day on the air. They don't, because, so the sceptics say, if the people already have the news via radio, they are better to read the paper. This is certainly not so; if the radio news items are properly worded, they will convey nearly all the news, and also the impression that it is well worth while to buy the paper to get the rest of the facts. This use of radio, putting real news on the air, is a new practice, untried, although it is probably one of radio's most promising fields. The possibilities of the service were apparent in New York City recently when practically every paper had been in trouble publication because of an unexpected strike in the press room. Had the radio news service been developed, the principal news items of the day would have been disseminated almost as well as if the pressmen had not walked out. And we are perfectly sure that this radio news service would aid in cutting down the circulation of the newspaper carrying it on, would rather augment it—that is, if the items selected comprise the really worthwhile news of the day, the kind of items used for the headlines of the successful paper. Copenhagen-Bornholm Radio Link Following the example of the American Telephone and Telegraph Company in its installation of the radio telephone link to Catalina Island, Denmark has installed similar radio equipment which puts Copenhagen in touch with Denmark's island, Bornholm, about 100 miles out in the Baltic Sea. The radio link is arranged for two-way communications and is installed in the regular duplex fashion: at each end of the channel is a transmitting station and a few miles away from this is the receiving station. We are led to believe that Poulsen arcs are used for generating the high-frequency power. If this is so, it would seem that the action is far behind modern practice, for water-cooled triodes are now generally used for installations of this kind. While in America several Poulsen arcs operating satisfactorily in trans-Atlantic stations or for spans of a thousand miles or more, an arc would hardly be considered as suitable as a tube outfit for the few kilowatts needed in the Denmark radio link. A Compact 2-Valve Receiver With the set here described, broadcasting stations may be received on a Batty, B.Sc., in Wireless World. The principle behind the design of the aerial circuit is much as it was I know, an aerial coil and condenser being chosen of such size and its distance from the secondary adjusted to a point at which there is a satisfactory balance between the energy received by the aerial and the energy transferred to the secondary circuit. It is sometimes found that a tuned aerial used in conjunction with a tuned secondary circuit, owing to the resistance of its coil and the resultant damping actually passing on to the secondary, lessens rather than increases ununed coil, especially on rather weak signals. After all, there is a very good calculation in theory and practice for the use of different inductance values to fit the strength of signal received. Thus, in winding alternating current transformers, the turns number is tuned to suit both the periodicity, which is the equivalent of the wave length, and the voltage, which is the equivalent of the signal strength. For local signals we thus use a larger aerial coil, say 100 turns, and for distant signals a smaller coil, say 50 turns connected directly to ground and earth without any condenser in the primary circuit. The secondary circuit is tuned in the usual way, and the coupling between primary and secondary is variable. With this system of aerial and secondary, the secondary can oscillate and heterodyne incoming signals without any sign of oscillation in the primary (aerial) circuit. Tightening the coupling both increases the tendency of the primary to oscillate and decreases the oscillations in the secondary circuit, and it is very difficult to show movement of the coupling to strike any point of oscillation desired. The coupler itself consists of two coils on two hubs on the same spindle. The first hub is secured to the panel by two set screws only. Rotation of the spindle causes movement of the second hub which is tapped 3BA to fit the spindle. Rotation of the second hub is prevented by two guides fixed on the first hub passing through clearance holes in the moving hub. The set tunes from about 300 to something over 600 metres. All three coils (including the plate circuit inductance) are uniform and consist of 50 turns of 32 D.A.C.C. wire. The condensers are of an unusual type, consisting of two 3-inch aluminium discs, one fixed and one movable. The fixed disc is secured to a vulcanite hub which is in turn secured to the panel; the fixing and hub being unconnected with those of the aerial and secondary coils. The fixed hub of the condensers is thick enough to ensure there is sufficient clearance between the fixed plate of the condenser and the underside of the panel for part of the filament resistance which can be easily installed in between two three-inch condensers fixed at 4in. centres. Capacity effects between the fixed condenser plates and the rheostats do not cause ill effects, as the fixed plates of the condensers are connected to the filament and the moving plates respectively, and the moving plates which are connected to the first and second grids respectively are completely shielded by the fixed plates at all times. The coils used are all standard, wound on various forms and screwed to hubs which can be fitted either to the tuning coupler as fixed or moving coils, or they may be fixed behind the tuned condenser, between the horizontal and vertical panel, making a very compact construction. The wave length and damping of the coil is not appreciably affected so long as the distance between the hub and the condenser plate is at least $ \frac{3}{8} $ of an in. Variation of the values of the conThe increase of strength of signal when using these condensers is probably due to the small amount of metal used in their construction. The minimum value of the condensers is very low, enabling a range of wave lengths from 300-700 metres to be obtained by the use of one coil and condenser only. The terminal of the moving plate of the condenser is on an arm of spring copper held between the spring washer and lock nut, and is for convenience bent out to the edge of the condenser plates. If a piece of 1in. copper strip is bent over one of the terminal arms of the condenser with a piece of mica for insulation between the two, a grid condenser will be formed which is both mechanically strong and very efficient. The value of the condenser is small (0.0002 uF), and with "A.R." valves signals may be readily beaten without a leak. There is nothing unusual as regards the connections: no reaction is used. The condensers may be used either with a 60 turn coil as mentioned are required to cover the whole broadcast above, in which case five or six turns casting wave length, or a smaller coil of 50 to 60 turns is used, in which case the condenser plates are much closer together and a broadcasting range is covered by half a turn, enabling an ordinary telephone to be used. Tuning is a little bit tricky at first, but results are well worth the slight extra trouble. There are three adjustable features, the coupler between aerial and secondary condenser and the tuned anode condenser. The easiest procedure is as follows: Start with loose coupling, say 1 inch between aerial and secondary condensers; then screw both condensers up to high values until the click of starting oscillation is heard, making sure that the aerial itself is not oscillating. Then screw down both condensers together, keeping just on the oscillation point until the carrier wave is heard with maximum oscillation—not of necessity maximum strength. Then leaving the tuned anode condenser alone, tighten the coupling and screw the secondary condenser until oscillation stops. The position of the secondary condenser is now fixed so long as no alteration is made in the high or low tension coils, the aerial, or the number of telephones in circuit. Other stations may be tuned in by variation of the coupler and the tuned anode only. The setting of the tuned anode condenser is correct for any given wave length, and its dial can consequently be marked off in actual wave lengths. --- NEW ELECTRAD DIODE CONVERT YOUR CRYSTAL SET INTO A VALVE SET. USE A DIODE 2 ELEMENT VALVE, A SINGLE 1½ VOLT DRY CELL AND PRESTO! YOU HAVE A VALVE SET AT A COST OF NOT MORE THAN 30/-. GIVES YOU THE CLEAR PRODUCTION OF A CRYSTAL WITH A STEADINESS AND RELIABILITY OF A VALVE. TAKES NO. B. BATTERIES—AND IN AN HOUR MAKES A VALVE SET OF ANY OUTFIT. ANNOUNCING NEW ARRIVALS. — — We are Sole N.S.W. Agents for: Sleeper Radio Equipment.—Monotuned (Grimes Inverse Duplex Circuit) Construction Sets, with complete wiring diagrams. Fine tinned copper wire, terminal lugs, vario-coupler, variometer, transformer, 4 h. condenser, Ernecastat and all other accessories. Croesley Radio Equipment.—Shelstrom Transformer 9:1 ratio, vario-coupler, variometer unassembled, valve socket, rheostats, for all types of vacuum tubes, Croesley book type condenser headphones and all other accessories. Electrad Radio Products.—“Diode,” 2 element dry cell vacuum tube and socket, vario-fam, high resistance unit 1/10 to 3 megohms. Electrad lead in “Inducoroid.” Electrad B Batteries. Radio Improvement Company’s.—Anti-squeezity jacks and switches—made specially for Radio use, a novel departure, eliminates soldering, less than half as long as ordinary jacks, will take all standard plugs—jacks, 5 different styles—switches, 3 different styles. Springfield Braided Antenna, 16 strands of 3.64 flat high grade copper, braided into hollow cable with a tensile strength of 100lbs. Recommended primarily for loop, indoor and portable antennas. “Witchcraft” Loud Speaker, Deveaux Gold Seal Headphones, Clei Telephone Plug, “Autostat.” Morrison Loud Speaker, for attachment to Gramophone. Newman’s Radio Plans and Radio Constructors. “Teleradio” Equipment. Henley’s Radio Publications. Ask your dealer to show you these goods. If you cannot secure them from your dealer write us direct. Dealers are requested to write for our latest price list. Continental Radio and Electric Coy. MANUFACTURERS AND IMPORTERS OF RADIO EQUIPMENT Equitable Buildings, 350 George Street, Sydney Phone B 2467. 2 FC Broadcasts "Southern Maid" The wireless station—2FC—which has been erected for the broadcasting service which has been inaugurated by Farmer's, was officially opened on Wednesday last. The opening was not marked by any ceremony, but took the form of a broadcasting by the casters of H. C. Willoughby and Company's new musical comedy, "The Southern Maid," from Her Majesty's Theatre. The manner in which the transmission by wireless of this play was effected constituted an Australian record, and also provided a distinction for Australian wireless engineers. For some considerable time past careful experiments have been made concerning the placing of sound collecting instruments or microphones, as they are termed, on the stage of Her Majesty's Theatre, and towards the end of last week a test was made under actual working conditions. The results which were achieved exceeded expectations, and made possible the official commencement of this class of broadcasting. The microphones, placed at specially selected points on the stage, were connected to an amplifying panel in the basement of the theatre, and the sound collected by them and transformed into electrical currents was "stepped-up" to volume and transmitted by cable line to the studios situated on the roof garden of Farmer's premises, in Pitt Street. There it was passed through another amplifier, taken by a landline line to the wireless station at Willoughby, and then radiated by wireless telephony. Prior to the actual commencement of the play, at Her Majesty's, the announcer at the studio at 2FC gave a general call, which was followed by a peal of chimes rung on tubular bells. These bells enabled wireless men to tune their stations accurately, and at their conclusion a story of the play, "The Southern Maid," was briefly given out, and of the announcement synchronised with the commencement of the play at the theatre, and the studio was then switched from the station to the theatre. The control panels at the theatre were brought into operation, and connected to 2FC. A number of eulogistic reports have been received from enthusiasts who "listened in" to the performance. "Freak" Receptions. Freaks are by no means the prerogative of the golfer or the angler; the wireless amateur may justly claim his share, and the approach of winter conditions undoubtedly increases the possibilities of such exceptional results. Writing on Christmas evening with a two-valve set at Eastbourne Mr. A. Roach was impressed by the remarkable strength of several of the English stations. Accidentally he switched over to a simple crystal circuit and was surprised to hear London (usually very faint) with considerable strength. More astonishing still, Cardiff (5WA) could be heard jamming, and on tuning in, this station was clearly received. Newcastle (5ND) was next heard, though fading was rather pronounced. A soprano voice was then heard jamming, and on altering tuning, our correspondent was in time to hear the familiar words: "Glasgow calling!" Tell your friends about Our Big Competition EVERY NOTE reproduced by the "True Music" Loud Speaker RINGS TRUE—and really is music. For clarity of voice production and freedom from distortion there is no other LOUD SPEAKER in the World superior to the "TRUE MUSIC" Made in England Price £9-0-0 New System Telephones Pty. Ltd. 280 Castlereagh Street SYDNEY Phone M 3220 25.27 Queen's Bridge St. MELBOURNE Phone Central 1701 Swimming Race Result Broadcasted. On Saturday afternoon the result of the swimming match between Arne Borg and "Bay" Charlton, was made known over the whole State within a minute after the swimmers crossed the pool, the news service of the "Evening News" and Farmer's Wireless Broadcasting Station being used to achieve the result. The race was timed to start at half-past 3, but was delayed for some little time owing to a diving championship to occupy the pool which was expected. An announcement was made from 2FC (Farmer's Station) to this effect, and listeners were asked to stand by until the wait further prolonged. In order to keep in touch with the station, and also to occupy their time during the wait, a musical selection was given from Farmer's Studio, but this was suspended when the result became known. The "News" representative at the baths held a special line to the office, and another special telephoning line was held from "News" to Farmer's Studio. As the result finally the result was telephoned through. Without any delay the announcer communicated the results to hundreds of listeners in all parts of the State, in less than one minute after the swimmers had completed the course. It was a great achievement for wireless telephony. AN EXCEPTIONAL RELAY TEST. A remarkable radio experiment is reported in "The New York Evening Post." Under direction of Dr. A. A. Alexanderson, Chief Engineer of the Radio Corporation, a wireless signal was recently transmitted direct from Radio Central, on Long Island, to Poland. At Warsaw the signal was made to actuate the transmitter, and thenceward itself back to New York, the entire operation occupying the merest fraction of a second. At New York the "tick" was transmitted again; this time to Warsaw and the cycle of operations was continued 40 times before the "ticks" had died down inaudibly. Broadcasting in Schools Mr. Bruntwell, Minister for Education will meet representatives of the Teachers' Federation for the purpose of discussing with them the question of introducing broadcasting into the schools of New South Wales. During the past few days Mr. Bruntwell has been interested in broadcasting and so impressed is he that he will ask the Teachers Federation to submit to him a scheme for application to the schools of the State. Radio Company Limited 15 LOFTUS STREET Circular Quay SYDNEY Of importance to Experimenters and to those about to enter the field of Wireless During the month of January LARGE REDUCTIONS will be made of our stocks of EXPERIMENTAL SETS and PARTS at COST and under COST PRICES, all of which will carry our guarantee to give satisfaction. A Small Transmitter with Tube Modulation complete with Valves and Batteries ready for use at £25 is just one of our many bargains. Stocks limited. Send your Order as early as possible. Station 2MU (J. Nangle) will be closed for a month, commencing from the 12th January. Time signals will therefore not be issued on Saturday and Sunday evenings until the expiration of that period. The feasibility of organising a wireless broadcasting service for farmers was recently discussed at the Annual Congress of the South African Agricultural Union, when the desirability of having the latest market information, etc., broadcast, was emphasised. That he had a wireless set installed at his house was submitted as proof of a defendant's insanity at the Clerkenwell Court (England) recently. At the Royal Society of Arts in England, recently, M. Edouard Belin gave a lecture and demonstration dealing with the process of transmitting and reproducing writing, drawing and photographs without wires. Mr. Alan A. Campbell Swannan presided. As testifying to the value of wireless direction-finding apparatus on board ship, it is interesting to learn that the Marconi International Marine Communication Co., Ltd., have been instructed to fit direction-finding apparatus on all passenger ships of the Cunard fleet. Probably one of the most popular singers associated with broadcasting during the past two years has been Madam Lily Payling, the Australian contralto. Madam Payling will be remembered for her success at the inauguration of the "Daily Mail" wireless concerts from Holland, in July, of last year, more recently for her performance of "Carmen" at the Royal Albert Hall, in April last. On that occasion her singing, broadcast from 2LO, was received on three loud speakers in the hall, and there accompanied on the pianoforte by Mr. L. Stanton Jeffries. Commenting on 2FC's broadcasting of the "Southern Maid," the "Sydney Sun" says:—"With plays in which the chorus plays a leading part, broadcasting has its great and obvious defects. You cannot yet send them by wireless. When television is perfected that difficulty will be overcome. For the best there are certain performances the stage which are so to say, look their parts better when the audience could not see them. But it might not be easy to break the news to them." Mr. Bruntell is proposing to introduce wireless and cinemas into the State Schools. He also has a scheme ready for launching which will mean the establishment of junior technical colleges catering for the whole State. Before the end of 1924, wireless and cinemas may both be permanently established as part of the educational facilities at our State schools, the Minister said recently. Mr. A. E. Wright, who has an experimental wireless station at Scarborough, South Coast, reports having distinctly heard from 8.30 p.m. to 10.35 p.m. on Sunday by wireless from California a symphony orchestra and a female solo. A soprano solo was proceeding when an induction compelled him to close down. The music was supplied, as distinctly announced by the Electric Company of California. Mr. Wright has the ordinary two-valve set. It is reported from Greece that a national wireless service has been agreed upon, to be installed by the Marconi Company. The agreement will be ratified by the National Assembly. Negotiations are also proceeding for the installation by a Franco-Greek Company, of a wireless telephone system between the principal towns of Greece and the Eiffel Tower. On Saturday, November 24th, the Belgian Minister of Railways opened a new broadcasting station at Brussels. "Radio Electrique de Bruxelles," as the new station is called, transmits regular programmes commencing at 8.30 p.m. daily, on a wave length of 410 metres. To Amateurs We want Your Custom Watch our prices drop. First-class Apparatus at rock-bottom Prices CATALOGUES SHORTLY READY COME ON IN The Home Electric 106a King Street, Sydney Phone B 5565 Sole Agents for the Famous FEDERAL GEAR An Efficient Groundless Receiver By Frederick J. Rumford During a series of interesting experiments recently made near Pelham, N.Y., by a staff of radio engineers from Columbia University, while investigating "dead spots," they found that with a short antenna and with no ground they could obtain remarkable results in comparison with the ordinary single circuit regenerative receiver, using a small amplifier with taps primary, in which the primary functions as a feed-back coil. In place of the usual type of aerial, they used a fishing reel upon which was wound about 50 feet of bare wire, whose effectiveness could be varied with little or no trouble. The table shows that the best results were obtained with no ground or counterpoise, but with an aerial approximately from 38 to 50 feet long and a height of from 6 to 10 feet from the ground. Fig. 1 shows the hook-up from which a suitable set suitable for the vacationist could be easily and inexpensively made up. It would be advisable to use one of the dry cell tubes. \| Aerial \| Height \| Length \| Ground \| Counterpoise \| Tuning \| Signals \| \|--------\|--------\|--------\|--------\|--------------\|--------\|---------\| \| \| 10 ft. \| 50 ft. \| Pipe... \| None... \| Broad... \| Faint... \| \| \| 10 ft. \| 50 ft. \| None... \| Wire on ground \| Better... \| Doubled... \| \| \| 10 ft. \| 50 ft. \| None... \| 2' below aerial... \| Critical... \| Louder... \| \| \| 10 ft. \| 50 ft. \| None... \| None... \| Average... \| Same... \| \| \| 10 ft. \| 38 ft. \| None... \| None... \| Critical... \| Same... \| \| \| 10 ft. \| 37 ft. \| None... \| None... \| Critical... \| Less... \| \| \| 6 ft. \| 50 ft. \| None... \| None... \| Sharp... \| Strong... \| \| \| 2 ft. \| 50 ft. \| None... \| None... \| Critical... \| Less... \| Fig. 1 Hook up for Groundless Receiver What Wireless Can’t Do. “Think of it, Amelia,” remarked Peter, as he read his Sunday paper, “the radio age is here! By television we’ll be able to see all round the world!” “Yes,” said Amelia, “but radio won’t tell me where to find that thimble I lost last week.” “Broadcasting,” continued Peter, “will go on for 12 hours a day; and there will be a special wave length for the protection of the innocent.” “Well, anyhow,” said Amelia, hopefully, “we can cut that off.” “We shall merely have to turn over a lever, and then call up a friend at the other side of the world.” “Yes, Peter,” said Amelia, “and the radio exchange will put us on to the wrong number, and the wireless waves will be erased, and we’ll find ourselves listening to an Eskimo trying to raise the local ice-land exchange.” “Power and light for household use will be distributed from wireless stations.” “Yes, dear, and the crops will be short-circuited and the porridge will oscillate!” Think of aeroplanes controlled by wireless, Amelia.” “Yes, you may be able to control aeroplanes; but I’ll still have to control the children in the good old way that grandma did—over her knee. And wireless is not going to sew on trousers’ buttons or clean out the sink, or feed the baby.” And Amelia plucked a woman’s pre-wireless weapon—a hair-pin—from her hair and proceeded expertly to mend the gas stove.—Sydney Sun. Aerial Wires. A distinctive feature of the outfit is the two aerial wires, one at an angle from the pole, and one lying parallel to the ground. This method is used when communicating with a similar station, the lower “aerial” being a counterpoise, which dispenses with the earth connection, a great source of trouble in dry country. The instruments are shown set for sending “directed” signals, that is, transmitting in one direction. If necessary the poles can be discarded, and the wires laid in a similar position, but at right angles to the earth’s surface, but this considerably lowers the efficiency. When good earth is available, the two aerials are connected together, and suspended as high as possible. For short work, one pair of wires are fastened beneath one of the planes, and the other is allowed to hang down by its end forming a sort of inverted letter L. By Hershfield Abie the Agent Listen, Mr. Knobsville! You must come over and listen to my new radio bet! Thank, Mr. Hughes! I’ll be up to your house tonight! I’m positively sorry I prohibited him to go to his house to listen to his radio. It was a wonderful thing to me, this radioing mess. And we should live upright and respect our neighbours! Thanking you one and all for your kind attention! There’s a big German in the hall. I’ll let you hear it! The usher will now pass the contribution box among you! Now, it’s a great invention! —M. Y. Journal How to Use a Two Element Vacuum Tube By H.B.T. Everyone who builds his own radio outfit desires to receive over a maximum distance with a minimum expenditure. The writer recently constructed an outfit which is far more sensitive than a crystal outfit and is more satisfactory and reliable in its operation. In fact, the writer's results have been so pleasing that he thought he would let his brother fans know how to do the same thing. Nowadays everyone wants a vacuum tube set and yet everyone cannot afford to invest in the necessary storage battery "F" Batteries and other accessories that go to make up receivers of this type. While shopping recently I came across a new Fleming type of vacuum tube called Diode which I purchased complete with socket at a very reasonable figure. This was a two-element tube operating from dry cells. The receiver circuit outlined in the diagram was set up and perfect reception was made possible. Previous to the purchase of this vacuum tube, I was using a crystal set. With the vacuum tube I was not only able to pick up stations that I had never heard before, but the quality of the reception was every bit as good as that obtainable with a good crystal set, and there was an entire absence of circuit noises and howling. In fact, one cannot make a two-element tube, how no matter how hard one tries. I have had such good results with this vacuum tube that some of my friends asked me to change his crystal set over into a vacuum tube set employing this same type of tube. I did not find it necessary to completely disassemble his crystal set to make the necessary changes. In fact, I used all of the instruments of the old crystal set with the exception of the crystal. The rheostat is carefully adjusted until the signals are loudest. When the rheostat was placed at the proper position, I found it impossible to adjust it further, and the tube retained its same degree of sensitivity for several hours. It is evident that it would not be advisable to incorporate these tubes without a rheostat as that would allow too much current to pass through the filament from the batteries. The advantage of permanent adjustment of this arrangement will appeal strongly to those who have been troubled with crystal reception. Crystal sets work fine, but they do get out of adjustment and here is something that gives us just as good quality, greater distance and no trouble in adjustment. In the way of experimenting I set up a second circuit with a 20 ohm potentiometer. This allowed me to make the filament negative or positive. By the use of this arrangement the results were found to be a little bit better, but the difference afforded by the addition of the potentiometer can be assured that they will get good results well worth the trouble of setting the other outfit. Mr. M. Cawkaday has developed several circuits employing the Diode two element tube and at a later date they will be published. Each year the Institution of Radio Engineers presents a sum of 500 dollars to the radio worker whose inventions or contributions to the science are of the most outstanding and practical nature. This year the prize has been awarded to Harold H. Brantley, an engineer of the Radio Corporation of America, for his invention of the "Wave Antenna." FOR SALE—Twenty Yard Aerial, complete with fifteen feet masts and Telephone Head Set. Apply, Frank Smith, Box 2234, G.P.O., or City 9148. More about Short Wave Transmission The more we think of short waves for radio transmission, the more the idea appears. The work of Franklin and Marconi in England, and of the Westinghouse Company and the Bureau of Standards in America prove beyond doubt the feasibility of employing a range of frequencies at present used by no one. The amateur is apparently of the opinion that 3,000 kilocycles (100 metres) and higher is not a useful range for him, but actual experiments show this range to be perfectly workable, and it must therefore be put to use with all other. The experiments of the Westinghouse Company in using 3,000 kilocycles for re-broadcasting, is, according to reports, proving very successful. Suppose we grant that for the time being it is not practical to use waves of less than 50 metres except for rather short distances. The Bureau of Standards has shown this to be far from the truth, but as the range is undoubtedly not large, we will consider only the range between 50 metres and 100 metres, that is a frequency range from 3,000 k.c. to 6,000 k.c. If we allowed a frequency band of 20,000 cycles between adjacent channels, this unused high-frequency band would allow the non-interfering operation of 150 channels. This is six times as many channels as are to-day available for all our broadcasting. If we allow the same separation of channels, we think it, these 150 channels would lie so far apart that the beat note between the two stations closest together in the series would be inaudible! What is the draw-back? Well, it is not possible to send a great deal of power on these high frequencies, but the question at once arises, is it necessary to send a deal of power? And the answer is: It depends upon the kind of receiving set used. A radio-frequency amplifier for a 6,000 k.c. current would be difficult, if not impossible to build, but here the super-heterodyne comes to the rescue. It seems that 50 watts at 50 metres, with a good super-heterodyne receiver, might well be better than 5,000 watts at 500 metres with the ordinary receiver. BROADCASTING A WIRELESS JOURNAL. An interesting legal point with regard to broadcasting arose recently in France, where a proposal was made and all arrangements prepared for broadcasting a complete wireless journal under the title of "Journal sans Fil." Those who waited at the appointed hour for the first number of this special newspaper, however, were disappointed, for at the last moment the French Minister of Posts and Telegraphs issued an instruction to publication, stating that, under the present regulations governing wireless, all transmitting stations had to be officially authorised. FOR SALE—Valve Receiver, with special valve, enclosed, 12in. x 10in. polished cabinet, 10in. x 12in. operating panel, 10in. x 12in., H.C. (.3) .0005, .0008, variable (2) condensers, 50 volt, B. battery. Quick sale. £10 or offer. Phone: Duy, City 8906; night, North 2916. R. H. Evans. Marrickville and District Radio Club On Monday, the 7th inst., in the Schoolroom, Marrickville, the usual weekly meeting of the above club was held, Mr. W. L. Hamilton presiding. Mr. Hemmant (Secretary) in a short report covering the club's activities over the preceding six months pointed out that numerically we were stronger. No falling off had been noticed, a good roll up always being assured. This was primarily due to the high class of lecturers who had joined the fold, the standard being maintained by the worthy effort of Publicity Officer. The President in a few well chosen words welcomed the presence of the foundation members in the person of Mr. W. F. Allsworth, who had been absent in the country for the last seven months. Mr. Allsworth suitably responded. Arrangements for a launch picnic being held on February 2nd were entered into. This picnic is to be confined to club members and their wives, and will no doubt act as a solace to the weaker sex who deprive themselves of the company of their beloved spouses each Monday evening. Afterwards an excellent demonstration of reception was provided by Mr. H. Westman, the generous kind lent for the occasion by the well known firm of W. Harry Wiles. The action of this firm was highly appreciated, this firm being the only occasion on which apparatus had been lent by them for demonstration purposes. Concord Amateur Radio Club The first meeting of the New Year was held on the 3rd January, at the club rooms, Wallace St., Concord at 8 p.m. A serious discussion was entered upon by members on the various amusement requirements. The visit of 2CM to America will be followed by members, and it is hoped that Mr. MacLurean will break more world's records with his low power tests. The letter from the Federal authorities re a Federal Council was dealt with, and the club thinks it will be a great help to the amateur movement at large. It is, however, felt that the clubs can do nothing until a mass meeting of their representatives are called. Samples of multi-valve sets were received from Hart and Hedgman and Co., New America, and distributed amongst the members. After this the balance sheet was accepted and this showed that the club were making better progress than that of the preceding year. Mr. Stephenson, Lie Mascotte, A.V., was elected to fill the vacant position of Vice-President. The January business meeting of the club will take place on the 10th January, at which it will be decided either to build a transmitter or enlarge the existing one. Practical reception and buzzer practice was then carried out. The meeting adjourned at 10 p.m. All correspondence should be addressed to Hon. Sec., W. H. Barker, Wallace St., Concord. Leichhardt and District Radio Society Members of the Leichhardt and District Radio Society convened in their New Year's meeting on Tuesday, January 9th, when the 15th business and 62nd general meeting was held at the Club-room, 176 Johnston St., Annandale. The meeting was well attended, and business transacted included the election of four new members, and the discussion of a proposal to have a hall designed for the club members. Matters in connection with the moonlight excursion fixed for the 19th inst., were also finalised, and the outing points to a successful outing on that occasion. The Society's valve set is now in operation, and giving good results. Although only a single valve set at present, sufficient gear has been provided for one stage of amplification and—as time goes on—the set will be added to. The membership of the Society continues to increase, and new members are always welcome. All inquiries should be addressed to the Hon. Secretary, Mr. W. J. Zech, 145 Booth St., Annandale. Croydon Club The Croydon Radio Club held its first meeting of the New Year on Saturday, January 5th, at the Club rooms, Rockleigh, Lang St., Croydon, at 7.30 p.m. There was a fair attendance for the first meeting after holidays. New members were welcomed. Mr. C. W. Shade, who presided, thanked members of the Club for the silver pencil which had been presented to him by the club members at Christmas. It is hoped that there will be a large attendance at all future meetings held every Saturday, and that new members will join up with this body of radio experimenters. All communications should be addressed to the Hon. Secretary, G. Maxwell Curtis, "Carwell," Highbury Street, Croydon. Waverley Radio Club The adjourned annual meeting of the Waverley Radio Club was held on the 10th January with Mr. Perry occupying the chair. The half-yearly balance sheet was read and adopted. The election of President and Council then took place. Mr. M. Perry was re-elected President without opposition. The Council also elected unopposed, resolved as follows: Messrs. R. Howell, E. Bowyer, J. Burrows, G. Thomson, H. Simpson, T. Nott, Messrs. D. Graham and A. Burrows declined. The council will elect officers at its first meeting. Arrangements were made for the club's 5th anniversary function, which will be held in the club rooms, on the 24th January. A visiting representative of the club will be invited. Waverley Club's re-elected publicity officer, Mr. Burrows, is a frequent writer for the "Sun" and lately his articles on home-made valves caused some comment in wireless circles. Members of the Waverley Club were pleased to see Mr. R. Howell re-elected Secretary for the next half-year. Mr. Howell, who is well known in Sydney's wireless community, is a hard worker, and an asset to any club. Mr. M. Perry, who lately joined New Systems Wireless, is again President of Waverley Club, an office which he has held for some months. Wireless Chain Ticklish Problem (London Cable.) Owing to Labour's doubtful attitude towards the Marconi Company, a special effort is being made to effect a settlement of the wireless dispute before the Conservatives relinquish office. Labour, while in Opposition, has been hostile to the Marconi Company, strongly advocating a Post Office monopoly of wireless. In this connection there is likely to be Labour criticism of Mr. Bruce's statement that he advocates a private station in competition with the Post Office. The Labour member, Mr. G. Middleton, of the party which makes a renewed attack on the "wireless monopolists," pointing out that two ex-Postmaster-Generals are at present actively associated with Marconi's, Mr. F. G. Kelway being a director of Marconi's, and Baron Gainsford chairman of Directors of the British Broadcasting Co., in which Marconi's are interested. It is possible that an eleventh-hour compromise will be announced by which Sir Laming Worthington-Evans (the present P.M.G.) will give Marconi's a practically unrestricted license, but Labour would undoubtedly resent such action by a sitting Government. On the question is passing on by Sir Laming Worthington-Evans, Marconi will probably offer Marconi's a limited license, with a threat to build an additional Post Office station in the event of non-acceptance by Marconi's. This additional station would provide reciprocal working for Australia, but Marconi's will probably retaliate by abandoning its own Australian stations, thereby cutting off the alternative route from England to Australia. Broadcasting for Victoria TWO COMPANIES. It is stated that two comprehensive broadcasting services will be commenced in Melbourne almost immediately. While it has been known for some time that the Australian Broadcasting Company Proprietary, Ltd., with which Messrs. Farmer and Co., of Sydney, are associated, would establish a powerful broadcasting station in Melbourne, similar to the stations operated by Farmer's in Sydney, it will come as a surprise to most people to learn that a second service for Victoria has been planned by the Amalgamated Radio Company of Australasia, Ltd., and that this company proposes to commence broadcasting in Melbourne on or before January 1st. Each company has capital of £100,000. Both services will be within reach of every part of the State. In addition to musical entertainments each station will broadcast news, weather reports, market reports, fashion notes, talks and stories for children, time tables and shipping notes, and it is hoped to arrange for the broadcasting of talks on topical matters by public men. It was stated to-day that steps are being taken by the Australian Broadcasting Company, by arrangement of the Amalgamated Wireless (Australasia), Ltd., to erect a broadcasting station in Melbourne, which will be one of the most powerful in the world. Radio Health Talks The American Red Cross goes about its work of human service, and leaves the shouting to others, says "Radio." The organization's Boston, Massachusetts Chapter has just published the 38 five to ten minute practical talks on health, written by Mr. Henry Copley Greene with the cooperation of many eminent medical men and women of Massachusetts, and broadcasted by Mr. Greene from WGBI, the Amrad-Simmons Medical History Man. In an introductory note to the book, which is called "Listen In," Dr. Richard C. Cabot, of the Harvard Medical School, says: "The outstanding merit of Mr. Greene's book is that it is never dull, yet never sensational. Most health books are very unhealthily and very dull. They paint countless 'dangers' which the average man runs with impunity every day, because they are not dangerous. . . . But this book is interesting, and so far as I know, most people who read it or listen to it will probably read it through, and remember much of it. There are extraordinarily few exploded myths in it, and there is a great deal of sensible advice even exhilarating advice here and there. This . . . is a remarkable achievement." Among the topics which were broadcasted are: "When to Call the Doctor," "A Fair Chance for Mothers and Babies," "Keep a Good House," "Fresh Air and How to Get It," "That Tired Feeling," "Medical Bunk," "Sweat Clearance of Tuberculosis," and "Cleanliness." Note these Values in "Volmax" parts Valve Sockets for R. Valves, 1/9, 2/- 2/6, 4/11. Valve Sockets (American), 4/11, 5/6, 6/6. Valve Sockets W.D. 11, 7/6. Rheostats, 2000 ohms, 2/- Resistance Rods, 100,000 ohms, 2/- Voltmeter for receiving panels, 18/6. Ammeters for receiving panels, 18/6 Argentine Crystal The wonderful new Crystal supersedes all others: Plain, 2/6; Wood-metal mounting, 3/5; Nickel mounting, 3/6. SEND FOR CATALOGUE Phone M 3378 International Conference At the recent meeting of the Wireless Telegraphy Committee of the International Shipping Conference, two resolutions were passed as follows: "(1) It is desirable that the maritime States should take steps to convene an international conference for the consideration of wireless problems and practices; (2) In a proposed conference, all maritime States are urged not to apply to foreign vessels regulations more stringent than those in the Convention of 1914." (2) "The maritime Governments at the maritime states should be invited to give the closest study to the problem of perfecting the automatic alarm device within the next six months." The automatic device referred to under resolution 2 is an automatic alarm system which will call up efficiently in cases of emergency even in the absence of an operator. CHEAP. VALVE SET—Well made set in cabinet, bakelite panel, 2 variable condensers, H. C. Coils, 2 valves, one English, one American. First with 40-10 securities. Bargain. R. H. Evans, Box 306, G.P.O., King City 8806. A 3-Valve H.C. Coil Set guaranteed to work perfectly, including all batteries, phones & aerial FOR £22/10/0 For experimental purposes, I have just built up a splendid honeycomb coil set, using detector valve and two stages audio frequency. This set is compact in every respect, has two condensers, Bradycystal, filament control, series parallel switch, extension handles on coil holders, plug and jack with high resistance phones. On Wednesday, 9th inst., this set was used on test with a borrowed loud speaker (W.E.) and gave excellent volume without distortion or noise. Broadcasting of the "Southern Maid." Aerial only 12ft high at far end. Extra coils are also included, to take in the lower wave lengths. There are no frills about the set, which is all wired and mounted on bakelite panels. All components are completely new, and it makes, and can be used to build up other circuits. A number of extra parts are included, also a Ducon Adaptor to eliminate aerial. 6 volt amp. Exide "A" Battery is NEW and fully charged; valves perfect. The above price is considerably below trade cost of the parts alone. Trial will be given. Just the thing for a live club or experimenter. N. K. S. C/o Howell's Exchange, Barlow Street, Sydney Broadcasters (Sydney) Ltd. WEEK-END PROGRAMMES. Broadcasters' (Sydney), Ltd., submitted the following programmes for Saturday and Sunday:— Saturday 12 (noon), general news; 12.30, news, morning Stock Exchange calls, market reports, weather reports; 1.3, Broadcasters' No. 1 Orchestra will play the following violin solo, Ethel Holden, waltz, "Gipsy Love," intermezzo, "Cquirrel" nocturne, fox trot, "Fiji Island Selections," waltz, dance suite intermezzo; 2.30, Mid-day, general news; 3 p.m., news; 3.15, afternoon chats to women; 3.30, weather reports; 4.45 to 4.45, Orchestra, Caroles No. 6, "The Christmas," Air de Ballet, "Nymphs of the Nile," cello solos, Miss Mabel Bird, selections, "The Merry Widow"; 5 p.m., news; 5.30, news; 6 p.m., news; 6.30, Stock Exchange calls; 6.45 to 7.45, bedtime stories; 8.42, Mr. Billy Brown (humourist), stories. Night 7.45 to 8 p.m., Broadcasters' No. 2 Orchestra will play selections; 8 p.m., Miss Doris Ward soprano, "The Piper Love"; 8.13, Miss Ethel Holden (violinist), "Caratina" (Bolton); 8.23, Mr. W. E. Lewis (bass), Eri Tu" (Un Ballo Il Matrimonio); 8.30, Selection from the Orchestra; 8.40, Miss Elsa Harvey (contralto), selections; 8.45, Selection from the Orchestra; 8.54, Mr. Roland Roberts (baritone), "Claze Props," "Red Devon by the Sea," Interlude of 3 minutes; 9 p.m., Mr. W. E. Lewis (bass), Miss Doris Ward (in duets), "Rose of My Heart"; 9.12, Miss Mabel Bird (celist), "The Swan Song"; 9.20, Miss Doris Ward (soprano), P.O. Flora Divert; 9.30, Mr. W. E. Lewis (bass), "O Western Wind" (May Brabie), "Passing By" (Purcell); 9.38, Selections from the Orchestra; 9.45, Miss Elsa Harvey (contralto), Selections; 9.50, Mr. Billy Brown (humourist), "Old Fashioned Town"; 9.55, Mr. Roland Roberts (baritone), The Ballad of Turpin; "Wimmin and Wimmin"; 9.58, Selection from the Orchestra; National Anthem. --- Published by W. J. MacLardy, of 58 Macleod St., Cremorne, for the Proprietors and Printers, Publicity Press Ltd., 33-37 Regent St., Sydney. Natural Production "ATLAS" AMPLITONE LOUD SPEAKER The prime distinction between the Atlas Amplitone and other loud speakers is that the Amplitone is first of all a musical instrument. It reproduces, not a series of notes, but the full, clear, natural tones of the music as actually sung or played. It is the same distinction as that between the old fashioned wax cylinder tin horn, scratchy phonographs of a few years ago and the finest phonographs of to-day, whose reproductions deceive even the trained ear. The rich mellowness of the violin, the brilliance of flutes and piccolos and the various toned notes of the voice are reproduced naturally on the Amplitone. Musical critics and radio enthusiasts who have heard the Amplitone, agree that, at last, the musical superiority of even the finest phonographs has been surpassed. The Amplitone reproduces with truly amazing fidelity and naturalness the music and speech of broadcasted programmes. It is non-distorting and will not blast. THE DOUBLE DIAPHRAGM. This astonishing faithful reproduction is largely due to a patented construction known as "the double-composition diaphragm"—the exclusive feature of the ATLAS AMPLITONE, Loud Speaker. It compensates for the shortcomings of broadcasting and receiving conditions and gives you the programmes clear, sweet and natural. OTHER ADVANTAGES. The Atlas Amplitone is unbelievably sensitive, responding as readily to very weak as to the stronger impulses. Requires no storage battery to energise the magnets and gives splendid results, even with a single stage set. STOCK NOW AVAILABLE BOOK YOUR ORDERS EARLY COLVILLE-MOORE WIRELESS SUPPLIES 10 ROWE STREET SYDNEY Telephone B2261 Trade enquiries invited Sole Distributors for N.S.W. BROADCAST RECEIVING SETS AND LICENSE FORMS Together with the FREE SERVICE of Broadcasters (Sydney) Limited may be obtained from the following L. F. E. Bean & Co. 229 Castlereagh St., Sydney. Telephone: City 353. Continental Radio & Electric Company Equitable Buildings, George St., Sydney Telephone: B 2467. United Distributing Company Ltd. (Wholesalers) 28 Clarence Street, Sydney. Telephone: City 3566. W. Harry Wiles 60-62 Goulburn Street Sydney. Telephone City 3688 Wireless Supplies Ltd. 21 Royal Arcade, Sydney Telephone: M 3378. Pitt, Vickery Ltd. 335 Pitt Street, Sydney Telephone: City 6053. E. R. Cullen 96 Bathurst Street Telephones: City 869, 2506. Radio Company Limited. 15 Loftus Street, Sydney. Telephone: B 5586. Radio House 619 George Street Sydney Telephone: City 1487. Colville-Moore Wireless Supplies 10 Rowe Street Sydney. Telephone: B2261. Ramsay, Sharp & Co. Ltd. 217 George Street, Sydney. Telephone: City 3176. The Home Electric 106a King Street, Sydney. Telephone: B 5565. Pacific Radio Co. Temporary City Address: 2nd Floor, 121 Pitt St., Sydney. And 38 Donnelly St., Balmain. O'Sullivan's Electric Shop (Frank E. O'Sullivan) 296 Pitt Street, Sydney. Telephone: City 8070. Swains 119-123 Pitt Street, Sydney. N. P. Olsen, 18 Hunter Street, Newcastle.
RESURFACING ASTEROIDS & THE CREATION RATE OF ASTEROID PAIRS A Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of Purdue University by Kevin Graves In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy December 2018 Purdue University West Lafayette, Indiana \| Chapter \| Title \| Page \| \|---------\|----------------------------------------------------------------------\|------\| \| 1 \| Introduction \| \| \| 2 \| Background \| \| \| 3 \| Methodology \| \| \| 4 \| Results \| \| \| 5 \| Discussion \| \| \| 6 \| Conclusion \| \| \| 7 \| References \| \| Appendices A. Supplementary Data B. Additional Figures C. Supplementary Methods THE PURDUE UNIVERSITY GRADUATE SCHOOL STATEMENT OF DISSERTATION APPROVAL Dr. David Minton, Chair Department of Earth, Atmospheric, and Planetary Sciences Dr. Jim Richardson Planetary Science Institute Dr. H. Jay Melosh Department of Earth, Atmospheric, and Planetary Sciences Dr. Michelle Thompson Department of Earth, Atmospheric, and Planetary Sciences Dr. Francesca DeMeo Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Department of Earth, Atmospheric, and Planetary Sciences Approved by: Dr. Darryl Granger Head of the Graduate Program ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I have been very blessed to have so many amazing people who have supported and encouraged me. Before I can mention anyone else, I want to thank my parents, Charles and Kathryn Graves. To my mother, I thank you for always pushing me to work hard and succeed in and out of school. To my father, I thank you for sharing your love for science with me from a young age. I thank Jim Richardson for first taking me on as a graduate student, and helping me through my first year of graduate school. The demonstration of your impact cratering code when I visited Purdue got me excited about the opportunities for computational research in planetary science. I especially thank, my advisor, David Minton for his guidance and advice over these last few years. Thank you for helping me to stand as an independent scientist. I thank all of my fellow students that tackled graduate school with me, and a special thanks to my fellow lab mates in Hampton Hall 2263 for being fun, supportive, and incredibly good looking. To my baby girl, Rae, your infectious laugh always cheers me up. I love watching you grow and learn new things about the world. To my unborn baby, I can’t wait to meet you. Finally, to my wife, Alex, thank you for always being there for me. Thank you for moving to Indiana so that I could chase this dream. I don’t think I would have stayed sane without your love and support, and I am eager to take on the future with you. # TABLE OF CONTENTS \| Section \| Page \| \|------------------------------------------------------------------------\|------\| \| LIST OF TABLES \| vii \| \| LIST OF FIGURES \| viii \| \| SYMBOLS \| xiii \| \| ABBREVIATIONS \| xv \| \| ABSTRACT \| xvi \| \| 1 INTRODUCTION \| 1 \| \| 1.1 Asteroid Colors and Spectroscopy \| 2 \| \| 1.2 Asteroid Clustering \| 5 \| \| 2 WEATHERING AND REFRESHING ASTEROID SURFACES \| 9 \| \| 2.1 Weathered and Unweathered Asteroids \| 11 \| \| 2.2 Space Weathering and Resurfacing Mechanisms \| 13 \| \| 3 TRENDS IN THE WEATHERING STATES OF ASTEROIDS \| 19 \| \| 3.1 Orbitally Independent gri-Slope vs. Size Trend \| 19 \| \| 3.2 Distribution of Spectral Slopes and Perihelion \| 24 \| \| 3.2.1 Removing the observational bias in the spectral slope vs. perihelion distribution \| 28 \| \| 4 RESURFACING ASTEROIDS FROM YORP SPIN-UP AND FAILURE \| 33 \| \| 4.1 Nominal YORP Spin-up and Failure Model \| 33 \| \| 4.2 Testing Assumptions of Nominal Model \| 41 \| \| 4.3 Discussion \| 47 \| \| 4.4 Conclusion \| 49 \| \| 5 RESURFACING ASTEROIDS AT LOW PERIHELIA \| 51 \| \| 5.1 Introduction \| 51 \| \| 5.2 Modeling Methods \| 51 \| \| 5.3 Resurfacing from Close Encounters \| 56 \| \| 5.3.1 Methods \| 56 \| \| 5.3.2 Results \| 57 \| \| 5.4 Resurfacing from Thermally Induced Surface Degradation \| 58 \| \| 5.4.1 Methods \| 58 \| \| 5.4.2 Results \| 63 \| \| 5.5 Discussion \| 66 \| 5.5.1 Resurfacing from Close Encounters .......................... 67 5.5.2 Resurfacing from Thermally Induced Surface Degradation .... 69 5.5.3 Testable Predictions of Thermally Induced Surface Degradation 75 5.6 Conclusion .................................................................. 77 6 THE CREATION RATE OF ASTEROID PAIRS ......................... 79 6.1 Introduction ............................................................... 79 6.2 Inner Main Belt Asteroid Pairs Created by YORP Fission ........ 81 6.2.1 Pair Free Orbital Similarity Distribution .................... 83 6.3 Model Construction ..................................................... 86 6.3.1 Initial Conditions .................................................. 88 6.3.2 N-body Simulation ................................................. 91 6.4 Results ...................................................................... 92 6.5 Discussion ................................................................... 96 6.6 Conclusion .................................................................. 101 7 CONCLUSION ................................................................. 105 7.1 Looking to the Future .................................................. 110 \| Table \| Description \| Page \| \|-------\|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------\|------\| \| 4.1 \| Space weathering timescales for different populations of S and Q-type asteroids. Values are calculated with $\tau_0 \approx 4 - 17$ Myr for the e-folding timescale ($\tau_{SW}$) and $\tau_0 \approx 2 - 7$ Myr for the Q-type removal timescale ($\tau_{Q \rightarrow S}$). All timescales are calculated with zero eccentricity. \| 45 \| 5.1 A contour plot of the Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) between the observed spectral slope vs. perihelion windowed moving average and the windowed moving average of the asteroids generated by resurfacing from close encounters with the terrestrial planets. No combination of the parameters $\tau_{SW0}$ and $r^$ can generate windowed moving averages with > 95% of the points within the 95% confidence intervals of the observed distribution in Fig. 3.3. 5.2 The windowed moving average and the linear regression at $q < 0.9$ AU of the asteroids’ spectral slope vs. perihelion distribution from resurfacing due to close encounters with the terrestrial planets for the best fit solution of $\tau_{SW0} = 100$ Myr and $r^ = 3.4 \ R_{pl}$. The dashed green line is the windowed moving average of the spectral slopes of the modeled asteroids. The uncertainty for the model windowed moving average is smaller than the thickness of the line. The solid orange line is the windowed moving average of the observed spectral slopes of the observed NEA asteroids and the shaded region is its uncertainty at a 95% confidence level (from Fig. 3.3). Both moving averages have a window size of ±0.1 AU. The dashed-dotted black line is the linear regressions for $q < 0.9$ AU of the modeled asteroids, and the solid black line is the linear regressions for $q < 1$ AU of the observed NEA. The modeled asteroid windowed moving average does not match that of the observed data. Only 42% of the points on the modeled windowed moving average fall within the error bounds of the observed moving average. For clarity, the error bars for the slopes of the linear regressions are not shown (see §5.3.2 for the errors), but the slope of the modeled asteroids’ linear regression does not match the steep slope of the observed and debiased linear regression at $q < 0.9$ AU. 5.3 Three contour plots showing the RMSEs between the windowed moving averages of the spectral slope vs. perihelion distribution of the perihelion threshold resurfacing model and the observed and data. The top, middle, and bottom frames show the RMSEs for the space weathering timescales of $\tau_{SW0} = 10$ kyr, 100 kyr, and 1 Myr respectively. The shaded regions correspond to solutions where > 95% of the points on the modeled windowed moving average fall within the error bounds of the observed moving average. For all tested values of $\tau_{SW0}$, the parameters that provide acceptable solutions are $\tau_{SW0} < 5$ Myr, $k \gtrsim 5$, and $\tau_{R0}/\tau_{SW0} \gtrsim 2$. 5.4 Identical to Fig. 5.2 except showing the results for the solar distance-dependent resurfacing model for the parameters: $\tau_{SW0} = 22$ kyr, $\tau_{R0}/\tau_{SW0} = 7$ ($\tau_{R0} \approx 150$ kyr), and $k = 8$. These parameters represent the smallest RMSE between the windowed moving averages of the modeled and observed spectral slope vs. perihelion distributions of NEAs. We found that 100% of the points on the modeled windowed moving average fall within the error bounds of the observed moving average. The slope of the linear regression at $q < 0.9$ AU of the modeled asteroids also falls within the error bounds of slope of the linear regression for the observed and debiased data (see §5.4.2 for details). 6.1 The cumulative distribution of the Drummond orbital similarity distance, $D_D$, between all inner main belt asteroids and their closest neighbor with a larger absolute magnitude. Each distance is calculated using the mean orbital elements of both asteroids, and we restricted the distribution to pairs of asteroids with $1 \leq \Delta H \leq 3$. A pair-free distribution is also shown, which is calculated from fuzzed mean orbital elements of all asteroids (see §6.2.1). The error bars of the pair-free distribution are generated from five instances of generating the fuzzed mean orbital elements. 6.2 A flowchart describing the progression of our model and data analysis. The black rectangles denote the major steps in the pipeline. The green ovals describe the parameters and assumptions made at one particular step. The orange oval is our primary free parameter (the pair creation rate) and the blue ovals are additional parameters that we varied. Each shape also contains section number(s) referring to where we discuss it in the chapter. 6.3 The cumulative distribution of the Drummond orbital similarity distance, $D_D$, between all observed inner main belt asteroids (black) and three different nominal model runs (gray) with varying pair creation rates. The observed $D_D$ distribution is identical to that in Fig. 6.1. All model runs are generated using N-body simulations with an initial separation velocity of $\Delta v = 0.2v_{esc}$, and the differential magnitude between the members of each pair are selected from linearly increasing probability density with increasing $\Delta H$ (see §6.3.1). The three model runs have pair creation rates of 0.005 Myr$^{-1}$ (bottom), 0.011 Myr$^{-1}$ (middle), and 0.022 Myr$^{-1}$ (top). The middle model run generates a the best fit to observations of all tested parameters, while the other runs under- and over-predict the number of asteroid pairs. \| Symbol \| Description \| \|--------\|-------------\| \| $q$ \| Perihelion Distance (Chapters 2-5) \| \| \| Mass ratio between members of asteroid pair (Chapter 6) \| \| $Q$ \| Aphelion Distance \| \| $H$ \| Absolute Magnitude \| \| $D$ \| Diameter \| \| $S$ \| Spectral Slope (or gri-slope in Chapter 4) \| \| $\omega$ \| Rotational Speed \| \| $\dot{\omega}$ \| Rotational Acceleration \| \| $B$ \| Lambertian Scattering Coefficient \| \| $G_1$ \| Solar Radiation Constant \| \| $\rho$ \| Density \| \| $a$ \| Semimajor Axis \| \| \| Crack Size ($\S 5.5.2$) \| \| $e$ \| Eccentricity \| \| $i$ \| Inclination \| \| $\Omega$ \| Longitude of Ascending Node \| \| $\omega$ \| Argument of Perihelion \| \| $f$ \| True Anomaly \| \| $R$ \| Radius \| \| $C_y$ \| YORP Coefficient \| \| $b/a$ \| Aspect Ratio \| \| $\tau_{SW}$ \| Space Weathering Timescale \| \| $\tau_{Q \rightarrow S}$ \| Q-type Removal Timescale \| \| $P$ \| Orbital Period \| \| $R_{pl}$ \| Planetary Radii \| $\tau_R$ Resurfacing Timescale $k$ Thermal Resurfacing Power-Law Scaling Parameter $\Delta \sigma_s$ Change in Thermal Stress \| Abbreviation \| Description \| \|--------------\|-------------\| \| NEA \| Near-Earth Asteroid \| \| MC \| Mars Crosser \| \| CC \| Carbonaceous Chondrite \| \| OC \| Ordinary Chondrite \| \| YORP effect \| Yarkovsky-O’Keefe-Radzievskii-Paddack effect \| \| SDSS \| Sloan Digital Sky Survey \| \| RMSE \| Root Mean Square Error \| \| IMC \| Intermediate-source Mars Crosser \| \| MOID \| Mean Orbital Intersection Distance \| \| SFD \| Size Frequency Distribution \| Many surface and dynamical processes affect the evolution of asteroids in our solar system today. The spectral slopes of S and Q-type asteroids are altered by the weathering of their surfaces due to solar wind interactions and micrometeorite impacts, as well as any processes that work to remove that weathered material. These processes of space weathering and asteroid resurfacing compete with each other to determine the spectral slope of each asteroid, with space weathering raising the spectral slope and resurfacing lowering it. By considering the distribution of spectral slopes with respect to orbital location and size, we can determine which potential resurfacing processes are the most dominant. I show that the distribution of spectral slopes with respect to size is present in all populations of S and Q-type asteroids in the inner solar system, regardless of orbit. I also show that the spectral slopes of S and Q-type Near-Earth Asteroids (NEAs) decrease with decreasing perihelion, but only for perihelia $q \lesssim 0.9$ AU. By building Monte Carlo and models N-body simulations of asteroids, I test which resurfacing mechanisms are consistent with these trends in spectral slopes. I find that spin-up and failure from the Yarkovsky-O’Keefe-Radzievskii-Paddack (YORP) effect is an important resurfacing mechanism that creates the observed weathering trends with size. I also show that resurfacing asteroids due to close encounters with the terrestrial planets cannot explain the spectral slope vs. perihelion trend at $q \lesssim 0.9$ AU, but that resurfacing asteroids due to thermally induced surface degradation, by assuming a power law relationship between the resurfacing timescale and the solar distance, gives much more consistent results. I also explore the creation rate of asteroid pairs, which are asteroids that have very similar orbits but are not gravitationally bound. The majority of pairs are formed by YORP spin-up and fission, followed by a separation of the two members. Asteroid pairs are then disassociated over time as their orbits become less similar due to chaos, resonances, and the Yarkovsky effect. I simulate both the formation of asteroid pairs in the inner main belt via YORP and their subsequent disassociation. By comparing the distribution of orbital similarity distances from observations and from our model, I estimate that asteroids fission and create an asteroid pair every $8 - 13$ YORP cycles, where a YORP cycle is twice the time it takes the YORP effect to change the spin rate of an asteroid from zero to its critical spin rate. I argue that the rate of fissioning via the YORP effect is not substantially limited by any stagnation or stochastic evolution, and that losing mass via rotational fission is much less effective than collisional disruption, even for small asteroids. 1 INTRODUCTION The first four asteroids (Ceres, Pallas, Juno, and Vesta) were discovered in a relatively short period of time, from 1801-1807. Originally, these new bodies were classified as additional planets that existed between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. However, with the advent of more accurate star charts aiding observers, many more asteroids were found starting in the 1840s and 1850s. These new observations made it clear that these “asteroids,” a Greek term for “star-like,” are something unique from the classical planets. Since then, ever improving telescopic observations and other remote sensing techniques have allowed us to better characterize the composition and evolution of these bodies. Asteroids provide clues to the formation of our solar system and record information on its dynamical evolution. They have a very minute but catastrophic chance of causing an impact-induced disaster on Earth, and may even provide valuable resources in the future. While those reasons alone can make asteroid research a very intriguing and rewarding endeavor, they are not the main reason I have spent the last few years studying them. I have been primarily interested in asteroids because they present a very unique physical system to study. Their small gravity, combined with exterior interactions present in the inner solar system, generate dynamical processes which alter their surfaces, shapes, and sizes. These processes can be very non-intuitive, and only by careful observations, analysis, theory, and sometimes modeling can they be adequately understood. In the remainder of this section, I provide a brief, simplified history of two types of asteroid observations and their relevant analysis. These observations are the foundation for the original work in this dissertation. First, observations of the colors and spectra of asteroids have made it possible to build taxonomic classifications. By comparing these observations and classifications with meteorites, we can discern the composition of and modification present on the surface of asteroids. Additionally, asteroid orbits have been found to cluster together, suggesting a common history among the members of the cluster. By measuring the physical and dynamical attributes of these clusters, the formation and evolution of these clusters can be better understood. 1.1 Asteroid Colors and Spectroscopy The first photometric observations to successfully categorize asteroids were from Wood and Kuiper (1963) and Chapman et al. (1971). The results from these studies were able to identify two broad categories of asteroids, later denoted “S,” for their similarity to silicate or stony terrestrial rocks and meteorites, and “C,” for their similarity to carbonaceous meteorites (e.g. Chapman 2004; DeMeo et al. 2009). Previous studies conducted observations using broad color filters, but were not successful in categorizing asteroids or making inferences about their compositions (e.g., Watson 1938; Kitamura 1959). In the 1980s, the Eight Color Asteroid Survey (ECAS) (Zellner et al., 1985) conducted the first large scale survey on the colors of asteroids. They observed nearly 600 asteroids in eight filters in the visible wavelengths, which allowed Tholen (1984) to construct the first widely used asteroid taxonomy. Tholen (1984) confirmed that there are two more densely populated spectral classes, denoted as the S-types and C-types. However, he also denoted a total of 14 taxonomic classes to group all observed asteroids. With the introduction of charged-coupled devices (CCDs) in the 1980s, spectral observations of much fainter asteroids could be conducted at much higher spectral resolutions. This technology lead to the Small Main-belt Asteroid Spectroscopic Surveys (SMASSI and SMASSII) to be conducted in the 1990s (Xu et al., 1995; Bus, 1999). These surveys (especially SMASSII) led to a large set of internally consistent spectral observations in the visible wavelengths that could be used to categorize asteroids into an updated taxonomy including 26 total classes (Bus, 1999; Bus and Binzel, 2002). Most recently, DeMeo et al. (2009) extended the SMASSII taxonomy with the addition of observations in the near-infrared wavelengths. These new near-infrared observations allowed for a more robust classification scheme, but also slightly altered some of the classifications from the SMASSII taxonomy. One of the primary goals of the spectral classification of asteroids is to build an understanding of asteroid composition. Before the Galileo spacecraft visited asteroid (951) Gaspra in 1991, the only information available about the composition of asteroids was from spectral observations and meteorites that may have a source body located in the asteroid belt. However, by comparing the spectra of meteorites and asteroids, there is a potential to connect the detailed compositional knowledge of meteorites with different asteroid spectral classes. In a general sense, this comparison is relatively straightforward. For example, carbonaceous chondrite (CC) meteorites have relatively similar spectra to C-type asteroids, ordinary chondrite (OC) meteorites have relatively similar spectra to S-type asteroids, and iron meteorites have relatively similar spectra to the mostly featureless X-type asteroids. Naturally, the conclusion is that each of those meteorites was sourced from that particular asteroid type: CC meteorites from C-type asteroids, OC meteorites from S-type asteroids, and iron meteorites from X-type asteroids. However, just because asteroids and meteorites have relatively similar spectra, does not mean that they have the same composition. Other types of meteorites such as stony-irons and primitive achondrites also have spectra that are relatively similar to S-type asteroids (Burbine et al., 2002). Additionally, there can be consistent differences between certain types of meteorites and asteroid classes that are otherwise very similar. An important example is that S-type asteroids and OC meteorites have very similar spectral features, with broad absorption bands at 1 and 2 $\mu$m and a feature at $\sim$1.3 $\mu$m, but nearly all S-type asteroids have relatively higher reflectances at longer wavelengths, or a higher spectral slope, and shallower absorption bands when compared to OC meteorites. This difference is very consistent and has caused many to raise the question if S-type asteroids are the source bodies of OC meteorites, since there are asteroids, called Q-types, which match the spectra of OC meteorites much more consistently. However, the S-types are the most common type of asteroids that have orbits that cross the Earth, while Q-types are significantly less abundant, and OC meteorites are the most common type of meteorite fall. The relative abundance of both OC meteorite falls and S-type asteroids near the Earth suggests that S-type asteroids must be the source bodies of OC meteorites. These two seemingly contradictory points of evidence has been called the “S-type Conundrum” (Chapman, 2004). Since the 1980s, a few solutions to this conundrum have been suggested. In the population of near-Earth Asteroids (NEAs), defined as those that have a perihelion $q \leq 1.3$ and aphelion $Q \geq 0.984$ (Rabinowitz, 1994), there is a significant fraction of Q-type asteroids (DeMeo et al., 2014). Some studies, such as Bell et al. (1989) and Gaffey (1993) suggested that the Q-type asteroids could be the sole progenitor of OC meteorites, and that dynamical processes could be preferentially delivering material from these types of asteroids to the Earth. However, Gaffey (1993) also showed that a fraction of S-type asteroids, which he denoted as S(IV), had the correct mineralogy to be identical to OC meteorites by closely investigating their absorption bands, even though the spectral slopes and absorption band depths of these asteroids were still different from OC meteorites. This observation of a similar mineralogy between S(IV) asteroids and OC meteorites led others to consider a surface modification process that could alter the spectrum of an asteroid with an OC meteorite composition to that of an S-type asteroid. A surface modification process occurring on an airless body, such as the one suggested for S-type asteroids, is referred to as “space weathering.” Lunar soils returned from the Apollo missions showed different optical properties compared to pristine lunar rocks (e.g. Fig. 1 in Chapman 2004). These optical differences resulted from the inclusion of nanophase ($\sim 10$ nm) metallic particles in the soils that were not present in the pristine rocks. Processes such as micrometeorite impacts and solar wind irradiation can create these particles (e.g. Hapke et al. 1975; Hapke 2001; Sasaki et al. 2001), and alter the spectrum of the surface of the moon. With the work of Gaffey (1993), this process of space weathering was more closely studied with respect to S-type asteroids. There were significant concerns as to whether lunar-like space weathering could occur on smaller asteroids (Chapman, 1996), but through extensive laboratory work in the 1990s-2000s, more complete surveys of asteroids, and spacecraft visits to a few S-type asteroids, the process of space weathering on S-type asteroids is now generally accepted. I will discuss the background of space weathering on S and Q-type asteroids in more depth in Chapter 2, but an important conclusion from many of these studies is that space weathering on the surface of an asteroid with an OC meteorite composition is a relatively efficient process. The lack of observed Q-type asteroids, especially in the main belt, compared to the general abundance of S-type asteroids also argues for an efficient space weathering rate. However, Q-type asteroids do exist and are relatively common in the NEAs, which raises the question, what causes Q-type asteroids to have a surface that is not altered by space weathering? As the process of space weathering only affects the upper surface of an asteroid, any process that can remove or bury that space weathered veneer can effectively change an S-type asteroid into a Q-type asteroid. In Chapters 2-5, I explore, model, and discuss the process of resurfacing S-type asteroids to create Q-types. 1.2 Asteroid Clustering Another important set of observations that can give important insights into asteroid evolution is that the orbits of many asteroids cluster together even though they are not gravitationally bound. Hirayama (1918) first reported evidence that there were at least five clusters of asteroids in the main belt that could not be due to random chance. These clusters are known as asteroid families and are named after the asteroid in the cluster that was discovered first. Hirayama (1918) identified the families: Eos, Themis, Koronis, Flora, and Maria. He concluded that these asteroid families resulted from a single asteroid that was broken up some time in the past. Since 1918, further observations, theoretical calculations, and numerical simulations have all verified that the prominent asteroid families in the main belt are formed from a catastrophic breakup of a single asteroid (for a more extensive review, see Bendjoya and Zappalà 2002). More recently, Vokrouhlický and Nesvorný (2008) found that certain pairs of asteroids could also have very similar orbits that cannot be attributed to random chance. These asteroids are also not gravitationally bound together, but their orbits are much more similar than those between members of asteroid families, suggesting that they formed from a very recent breakup of an asteroid into two parts. These asteroid pairs are also only seen between smaller ($D \lesssim 5$ km) asteroids. Vokrouhlický and Nesvorný (2008) hypothesized a few different formation mechanisms. Like asteroid families, they could be formed from a catastrophic collision which resulted in only two members being large enough to be observed. Another process, known as the Yarkovsky-O’Keefe-Radzievskii-Paddack (YORP) effect, occurs when an irregularly shaped asteroid is heated by the Sun and radiates that heat away imparting a torque on body (Rubincam, 2000; Bottke et al., 2006). The YORP effect can be extremely effective at changing the spin rate of small asteroids and can even cause them to fission when spun up to very high spin rates (Walsh and Richardson, 2008). Pravec et al. (2010) showed that rotational fission via the YORP effect is the most consistent explanation for the creation of asteroid pairs. I give a more detailed background of the studies of Vokrouhlický and Nesvorný (2008) and Pravec et al. (2010) in Chapter 6. The YORP effect is a very important evolutionary process for small asteroids. Besides being a formation mechanism for asteroid pairs, Walsh and Richardson (2008) also argued that it is the primary formation mechanism for binary asteroids – two gravitationally bound asteroids. Other models have also used the YORP effect to account for the spin rate distribution of NEAs (Rossi et al., 2009) and main belt asteroids (Marzari et al., 2011), as well as the size frequency distribution of the main belt at small sizes (Jacobson and Morbidelli, 2014). I also argue for YORP-induced spin up and surface failure as an effective resurfacing mechanism for S-type asteroids. in Chapter 4. However, the YORP effect can be very difficult to model. The evolution of an asteroid’s spin at very low and very high spin rates is not well understood (e.g., Vokrouhlický et al. 2007; Bottke et al. 2015). Also, some studies have argued that the YORP effect will cause a Stochastic evolution of an asteroid’s spin rate and cause the YORP effect to stagnate (Statler, 2009; Cotto-Figueroa et al., 2015). In Chapter 6, I use Pravec et al. (2010)’s conclusion that YORP effect is creating asteroid pairs as well as the observations of asteroid pairs in the inner main belt to estimate the rate at which asteroid pairs are created. A measure of the creation rate of asteroid pairs can then place constraints on the importance and strength of the YORP effect on small asteroids. 2 WEATHERING AND REFRESHING ASTEROID SURFACES Portions of the content of this chapter were published in the journal Icarus as Graves et al. (2018). The most common type of meteorite falls are ordinary chondrites (e.g., Chapman 1996). Ordinary Chondrites (OCs) are stony meteorites that were never heated enough to cause differentiation. They have very similar spectral signatures to S-type asteroids, which are the most common type of Near-Earth Asteroid (Binzel et al., 2004; Carry et al., 2016). Near-Earth Asteroids (NEAs) are defined as those that have a perihelion $q \leq 1.3$ and aphelion $Q \geq 0.984$ (Rabinowitz, 1994). They both show absorption bands at 1 and 2 $\mu$m, have a feature at $\sim 1.3 \mu$m, and exhibit the same general spectral shape (DeMeo et al., 2009). Many S-type asteroids are also mineralogically very similar, if not identical, to OC meteorites (Gaffey, 1993; Reddy et al., 2015; Brunetto et al., 2015). However, the spectra of S-type asteroids and OC meteorites are not identical. S-type asteroids typically have a higher relative reflectance at longer wavelengths through the visible and near infrared (known as a spectral slope) in the visible and near-infrared wavelengths, and have shallower absorption band depths compared to OC meteorites (Gaffey, 1976; Bus, 1999; DeMeo et al., 2009). S-type asteroids also typically have lower albedos than OC meteorites (Chapman, 2004). Multiple studies have shown that S-type asteroids are almost certainly the progenitors of many OC meteorites, and the differences in spectral characteristics can be due to a process known as “space weathering” (Chapman, 2004; Nakamura et al., 2011; Brunetto et al., 2015). Space weathering is a broad term used to describe the alteration of the optical properties of material on a surface of an airless body, such as the Moon and asteroids (Brunetto et al., 2015). It is the generally accepted mechanism to explain the differences between the spectral and albedo properties of S-type asteroids and OC meteorites (e.g., Chapman 2004; Brunetto et al. 2015). Space weathering includes processes such as ion irradiation from the solar wind and micrometeorite impacts (Brunetto et al., 2015), and can change the spectrum of an asteroid with an OC composition to that of an S-type asteroid by increasing the spectral slope and decreasing its absorption band depths. These spectral changes have been verified by experiments (Sasaki et al., 2001; Clark et al., 2002; Brunetto and Strazzulla, 2005; Strazzulla et al., 2005; Brunetto et al., 2006; Loeffler et al., 2009), remote sensing (Vernazza et al., 2009), and a sample return from an S-type asteroid, (25143) Itokawa (Noguchi et al., 2011). Additionally, space weathering can darken the surface of a asteroid with an OC composition, creating the albedo differences between OC meteorites and S-type asteroids (Brunetto et al., 2015). The presence of Q-type asteroids, with spectra consistent to those of OC meteorites (Bus, 1999; DeMeo et al., 2009), suggests that space weathering has not affected the surfaces of these asteroids. If space weathering alters the surfaces of these types of asteroids, but there are Q-type asteroids that do not show any sign of space weathering, there must either be a compositional or physical reason keeping these asteroids from weathering or additional processes that are resurfacing these asteroids. Hapke (2001) argued for a selective space weathering effect, where the solar wind could not weather a surface with an OC composition in the absence of fine regolith, potentially giving smaller asteroids, with less fine regolith, a less weathered spectrum. However, observations of S-type asteroid (25143) Itokawa showed highly weathered regions with very little fine regolith (Ishiguro et al., 2007). A better explanation for the presence of Q-type asteroids is that they have recently been resurfaced and have not yet had time for space weathering to create any alteration of their surface. An asteroid is resurfaced if the upper veneer of material that can be altered by space weathering agents (on the order of 10 nm; Noguchi et al. 2011) is removed or buried by unweathered material. 2.1 Weathered and Unweathered Asteroids To constrain the prevalence of any resurfacing processes, we must first understand the distribution of weathered, S-type asteroids and unweathered, Q-type asteroids. S-type asteroids are the most common type of NEA, comprising about 40% of the total population, and are also the second most common type of asteroid, behind C-type asteroids (DeMeo and Carry, 2013), another type of primitive asteroids that are linked to carbonaceous chondrites. S-type asteroids are more common in the inner parts of the Main Asteroid Belt, and become increasingly less common farther away from the Sun (DeMeo and Carry, 2013). Q-type asteroids have been primarily found in the NEA region where they comprise about 10% of the total population (Binzel et al., 2004; Binzel et al., 2010; DeMeo et al., 2014; Carry et al., 2016), but they have also been found in the small members of multiple asteroid families and clusters (Mothé-Diniz and Nesvorný, 2008; Rivkin et al., 2011; Thomas et al., 2011, 2012), and in the members of recently separated asteroid pairs (Polishook et al., 2014). Marchi et al. (2006a) showed that the spectral slope decreased from a higher average S-type slope to a lower average Q-type slope with decreasing perihelion in the NEA and Mars Crosser (MC) regions. DeMeo et al. (2014) also found a higher percentage of Q-type asteroids at lower perihelion. As Q-type asteroids typically have lower spectral slopes than S-types, their findings correlate with those of Marchi et al. (2006a). Additionally, Binzel et al. (2004) noted that the average spectral slope of NEAs and MCs decreased with decreasing size, starting at a diameter of $\sim$5 km. Carry et al. (2016) and Thomas et al. (2012) found a similar size trend using data from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS) in the NEAs and MCs and the Koronis family, respectively. Lin et al. (2015) conducted a multicolor survey and found that the ratio of sub-kilometer Q-type to S-type asteroids in the main belt is $<0.05$. However, both Carvano et al. (2010) and DeMeo and Carry (2013) classified the asteroids in the main belt that were observed by the SDSS, and Carvano et al. (2010) found about four times more Q-types than DeMeo and Carry (2013) at sizes $\lesssim 5$ km. Surveys like the SDSS and that of Lin et al. (2015) have only limited spectral resolution, and, more importantly, limited spectral coverage. As many S and Q-type asteroids can be degenerate in the visible wavelengths, observations in both the near infrared and the visible wavelengths are needed to accurately determine the boundary between the taxonomic classes. Due to the limited observations of small main belt asteroids in both the visible and the near infrared, the ratio of Q to S-types in the main belt is not fully understood. A number of these studies investigated a trend in the spectral slopes of both S-type and Q-type asteroids, and suggest that there is a spectrum between a fully unweathered, recently resurfaced, Q-type asteroid and a S-type asteroid that has been fully saturated by space weathering. In the remainder of this dissertation, we primarily use the spectral slope as the primary tool to determine the amount that space weathering has affected the asteroid. By making this choice, we avoid using the binary distinction between an S-type and Q-type asteroid to determine if an asteroid is affected by space weathering, and it allows us to quantify the degree of weathering. An example of why it is important to consider the degree of weathering can be seen from the results of Mothé-Diniz et al. (2010). They found that the spectra of a subset of S-type asteroids match the spectra of OC meteorites, suggesting that there are S-type asteroids that are relatively unweathered. However, the asteroids that they considered have lower spectral slopes than the core S-type asteroids. A binary classification would incorrectly mark these asteroids as completely weathered, but by considering the spectral slope we can more accurately represent the weathering state of these asteroids. Different resurfacing mechanisms would create different observable trends in the spectral slopes of S and Q-type asteroids. By quantifying those trends, we can test the effectiveness of potential mechanisms. From the studies cited above, we can conclude that the distribution of the spectral slopes of S and Q-type asteroids has been shown to have two primary trends: (1) the average spectral slope decreases with decreasing size, and (2) the average spectral slope decreases with decreasing perihelion in the NEA region. We analyze these trends in detail in Chapter 3, but because any asteroid with a low spectral slope can be classified in one of these two trends, any potential resurfacing mechanism would need to explain at least one trend. 2.2 Space Weathering and Resurfacing Mechanisms The presence and distribution of Q-type asteroids and less weathered S-type asteroids suggests that there is an ongoing cycle of space weathering and resurfacing. By constraining the timescale of the rate of spectral (or albedo) change from space weathering and the timescale of any potential mechanisms that could resurface asteroids, we can help constrain which potential resurfacing mechanisms may be prevalent. The timescale for space weathering of an asteroid with an OC composition has been estimated from laboratory experiments to take anywhere from $\sim 10 \text{ kyr} - 100 \text{ Myr}$. From heavy ion irradiation experiments, Strazzulla et al. (2005) estimated a timescale for the solar wind to raise the spectral slope of an OC to something similar to an S-type asteroid to be $\sim 10 \text{ kyr} - 1 \text{ Myr}$ in the NEA region. Loeffler et al. (2009) conducted similar experiments with keV He ions and found a timescale of less than $10 \text{ kyr}$ at 1 AU. Sasaki et al. (2001) estimated the timescale for micrometeorite impacts to raise the spectral slope of an asteroid with OC composition to a fully weathered S-type asteroid to be about $100 \text{ Myr}$ in the NEA region. Vernazza et al. (2009) matched the ages and spectra of recently created asteroid clusters to the weathering timescales in Strazzulla et al. (2005) to claim that the solar wind is raising the spectral slope of asteroids in the main belt at timescales $\lesssim 1 \text{ Myr}$, and that micrometeorite impacts continue to slightly increase their spectral slopes through $100 \text{ Myr}$. Furthermore, Keller and Berger (2014) observed solar flare particle tracks from regolith particles that suggested an exposure age of the upper surface may be as short as $1-10 \text{ kyr}$. The rapid weathering timescales of irradiation experiments ($\sim 1 \text{ kyr} - 1 \text{ Myr}$) compared to micrometeorite experiments ($\sim 100 \text{ Myr}$) have led to the consensus that the solar wind is the primary space weathering mechanism, especially for relatively unweathA space weathering timescale of $\sim 10$ kyr – 1 Myr places an important constraint on viable resurfacing mechanisms. First, it suggests that any resurfacing process must, on average, reset a single NEA in a timescale comparable to that of space weathering, due to the relatively high ratio of Q-type to S-type asteroids ($\sim 1:4$). Additionally, we can estimate the average resurfacing time of many potential mechanisms, and compare them to this space weathering timescale. Possibly the most straightforward resurfacing mechanism would be catastrophic collisions, where asteroids are broken apart into many fragments with the largest being about half of the size of the original asteroid. All asteroids created by such a collision would certainly have the upper-most surface stripped away, leaving a fully unweathered, Q-type asteroid. Willman et al. (2008); Willman et al. (2010) and Willman and Jedicke (2011) calculated a space weathering timescale by assuming that asteroids were resurfaced only after their last catastrophic disruption. Using the ages of asteroid families and the estimated age since last catastrophic disruption (Bottke et al., 2005), they estimated a weathering timescale of 100 Myr–1 Gyr. This timescale for the destruction of asteroids into smaller unweathered fragments is 2-5 orders of magnitude longer than the ion irradiation experiments simulating the solar wind, implying that disruptive collisions cannot be the primary resurfacing mechanism for creating Q-type asteroids because they occur far too infrequently. Smaller, non-disruptive, collisions can also work to resurface asteroids. The physical excavation and depositing of ejecta, known as impact gardening, will expose unweathered material, lowering the entire spectral slope of the asteroid (Paolicchi et al., 2009; Marchi et al., 2012). Additionally, post-impact seismic shaking could overturn an asteroid’s surface and also expose unweathered material (Richardson et al., 2005; Rivkin et al., 2011; Shestopalov et al., 2013). Unfortunately, both of these processes are difficult to model quantitatively. For example, see Section 3 in Marchi et al. (2012) for a discussion of the uncertainties in modeling impact gardening. However, Rivkin et al. (2011) used order-of-magnitude arguments to suggest that post-impact seismic shaking is consistent with the existence and distribution of less weathered asteroids found in the Koronis family for a space weathering timescale of $\sim 1$ Myr. I did not test this mechanism in my dissertation work, but it is a potential explanation for the decrease in spectral slopes with decreasing size. Nesvorný et al. (2005) proposed that asteroids could instead be resurfaced from the movement of surface grains due to tidal forces during a close encounter with a terrestrial planet. For an asteroid to be resurfaced by a close encounter with a planet, it must pass very close to the planet. The exact closest approach distance needed to cause a resurfacing event is difficult to determine as it depends on the speed of the asteroid with respect to the planet, the rate of rotation, the spin-pole direction compared to the planet-asteroid plane, and the composition and structure of the asteroid’s surface (e.g., Richardson 1998). However, Richardson (1998) showed that at very small distances ($\lesssim 1.5$ planetary radii), nearly all encountering asteroids will break apart. It is reasonable to then assume that a slightly more distant encounter could only resurface (and not disrupt) the asteroid. Many additional studies have further explored this mechanism (Marchi et al., 2006a; Binzel et al., 2010; DeMeo et al., 2014; Carry et al., 2016), and Nesvorný et al. (2010) found that if a close encounter with a distance of 5 planetary radii is sufficient to cause a complete resurfacing of an asteroid, then resurfacing from close encounters could generate the number of Q-type asteroids in the NEA region for a space weathering timescale of 1 Myr. Because most asteroids with low perihelia still have large aphelia, and therefore cross the orbits of all of the terrestrial planets, tidal effects from close encounters with the terrestrial planets could potentially create the decrease in spectral slopes with decreasing perihelion (Marchi et al., 2006a). In Chapter 5, we show that for any reasonable combination of the minimum encounter distance needed for a complete resurfacing and the space weathering timescale, close encounters cannot explain the decrease in spectral slopes with decreasing perihelion. The increase in spin rate of an asteroid due to irregular radiative torques, known as the Yarkovsky-O’Keefe-Radzievskii-Paddack (YORP) effect, can increase an asteroid’s spin rate to the point where it fissions or experiences surface or internal failure (Bottke et al., 2006; Walsh et al., 2008; Hirabayashi, 2015). A fissioning event or a large-scale surface failure could disrupt, cover, or overturn much of the surface of an asteroid resurfacing it and lowering its spectral slope. Additionally, the YORP effect is stronger for asteroids that are either closer to the Sun or smaller (e.g., Scheeres 2007). In Chapter 4, we investigate resurfacing from YORP-induced rotational failure or fission and show that it can create the decrease in spectral slope with decreasing size, but should not create any trends in spectral slope with respect to orbital location (i.e., perihelion). Finally, thermal cycling and fatigue can cause surface breakdown of an asteroid and remove, destroy, or cover any space weathered particles (Delbo et al., 2014). This process of breaking down boulders and grains due to thermal cycling has been shown to be effective in terrestrial, Martian, and anhydrous environments (e.g., Eppes et al. 2016; Viles et al. 2010; Delbo et al. 2014), and is expected to also occur in vacuum or low pressure environments such as on the surfaces of comets and asteroids (Thirumalai and Demou, 1970; Dombard et al., 2010; Molaro et al., 2015; Molaro et al., 2017; Auger et al., 2018). Additionally, the magnitude of temperature change increases with decreasing perihelion, increasing the rate of thermal fatigue and degradation. This fracture and degradation can expose underlying unweathered material and resurface the asteroid if either the fractured material is removed from the asteroid, or if a significant amount of the surface material is overturned. Although the timescale of thermally induced surface degradation is not well constrained, if it causes resurfacing at moderately low perihelia, it can create the decrease in spectral slopes with decreasing perihelion. In Chapter 5, we show that thermally induced surface degradation is consistent with the spectral slope vs. perihelion distribution for a reasonable range of parameters. In summary, the resurfacing mechanisms of close encounters with the terrestrial planets, impact gardening, collisions and subsequent seismic shaking, and YORP-driven spin-up and failure could all potentially resurface asteroids at a rate that can match the number of observed unweathered asteroids for a space weathering timescale of $\sim 10 \text{ kyr} - 1 \text{ Myr}$. Thus, it is crucial to consider the spectral slope distribution with respect to size and perihelion when determining which mechanisms are the most effective. In the next chapter, I quantify the spectral slope vs. size and the spectral slope vs. perihelion distributions, and in Chapters 4 and 5, I use those distributions as the primary constraint when modeling the resurfacing processes of YORP-induced spin-up and failure (Chapter 4), tidal effects from close encounters with the terrestrial planets (Chapter 5), and thermally-induced surface degradation (Chapter 5). 3 TRENDS IN THE WEATHERING STATES OF ASTEROIDS Portions of the content of this chapter were published in the journal Icarus as Graves et al. (2018). As mentioned in the previous chapter, there are two primary trends in the spectral slopes of S and Q-type asteroids: 1. The average spectral slopes decrease with decreasing size below a diameter of $\sim 5$ km, and 2. The average spectral slopes decrease with decreasing perihelion in the NEA region. In this chapter, I quantify these relationships. By using data generated from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS), I show that the correlation between lower spectral slopes and a smaller asteroid size is pervasive throughout the inner solar system. Previously, the trend of lower spectral slopes correlating with smaller sizes was constrained to investigations in the NEA and Mars Crosser (MC) region (Binzel et al., 2004; Carry et al., 2016), or the Koronis family in the Main Belt (Thomas et al., 2012). I also re-examine the spectral slope vs. perihelion trend using the same data as in Marchi et al. (2006a). Instead of a steady decrease in average spectral slope with decreasing perihelion from the MC region and throughout the NEA region as found in Marchi et al. (2006a), I found that there is only a significant trend in decreasing average spectral slope with decreasing perihelion for $q \lesssim 0.9$ AU. 3.1 Orbitally Independent gri-Slope vs. Size Trend The Sloan Digital Sky Survey is a large photometric and spectroscopic survey that was primarily designed to observe extragalactic objects (York et al., 2000). The SDSS also detected moving objects, such as asteroids in the main belt, NEA and MC regions (Ivezić et al., 2001; Carry et al., 2016). The SDSS takes observations in five photometric bands, $u'$, $g'$, $r'$, $i'$, and $z'$, with wavelengths from 0.3 to 1 $\mu$m (Ivezić et al., 2001). These five bands have been used to sort asteroids into broad taxonomic classes (Carvano et al., 2010; DeMeo and Carry, 2013; Carry et al., 2016). In this study, we use the set of SDSS data that was processed and classified by DeMeo and Carry (2013) and Carry et al. (2016). Classifying asteroids as either Q-types or S-types is difficult without both visible and near-infrared spectral data. Additionally, the majority of Sk and Sq-type asteroids in the main belt are good matches to some OC meteorites (Mothé-Diniz et al., 2010). A resurfaced asteroid with this composition need not be classified as a Q-type. To avoid these difficulties, we only use the slope of the linear regression through the $g'$, $r'$, and $i'$ filters, known as the gri-slope (DeMeo and Carry, 2013), as a parameter to describe the amount of weathering that has accumulated on the surface. The gri-slope is analogous to spectral slope, as the $g'$, $r'$, and $i'$ filters cover approximately 0.4 – 0.8 $\mu$m (Ivezić et al., 2001), and the spectral slope is taken over the range 0.44 – 0.92 $\mu$m (Bus, 1999). In nearly all cases, a higher gri-slope corresponds to a higher spectral slope and vice versa. In Fig. 3.1, we plot the distribution of the gri-slopes of all observed main belt S and Q-type asteroids as a function of their size. We show the linear regression through all asteroids with an absolute magnitude $H > 13$ (approximately diameters $D < 5$ km). Choosing the cutoff of $D < 5$ km is consistent with the change in the trend of gri-slopes vs. size seen in the Koronis family (Thomas et al., 2012), as well as the maximum size of detected Q-types (Binzel et al., 2004). Also, the slope of the linear regression of the asteroids with a magnitude of $H < 13$ is statistically insignificant. This suggests that a resurfacing mechanism is only present at sizes $H \gtrsim 13$. We also include the linear regression of the NEA and MC S and Q-type asteroids generated from Fig. 7 of Carry et al. (2016). Both the main belt and the NEA and MC asteroids have nearly the same trend of decreasing average gri-slopes with decreasing size. The slopes of the linear fits are $-0.42 \pm 0.04\%/100$ nm/mag and $-0.36 \pm 0.17\%/100$ nm/mag for the main belt asteroids and NEA and MC asteroids, respectively. There is also a vertical offset between the linear regression of the main belt and NEA and MC data of $0.6 \pm 0.3\%/100$ nm/mag. At all sizes, NEAs and MCs have, on average, slightly lower gri-slopes than their main belt counterparts, but there is a similar trend in both populations. Composition can also affect the observed weathering state, and thus gri-slope, of individual asteroids (Sasaki et al., 2002; Marchi et al., 2005). The fraction of olivine to pyroxene can cause different maximum (minimum) gri-slopes for fully weathered (unweathered) objects as well as different weathering rates. By considering the entire main belt, we effectively ignore compositional effects. To remove any effect of composition, we can restrict ourselves to a single asteroid family. The Flora family is a good test population to investigate the resurfacing of asteroids. It is an old family (Dykhuis et al., 2014), so the weathering states of all family members should not be greatly affected by the initial family-forming collision. Its location in the inner belt allows smaller asteroids to be detected by the SDSS. The composition of the Flora family is expected to be dominated more by olivine than pyroxene, potentially allowing for a greater range in gri-slopes between weathered and unweathered surfaces (Vernazza et al., 2009). Finally, asteroids in the Flora family do not cross the orbits of the terrestrial planets, avoiding any need to disentangle the effects of resurfacing at low perihelia. In Fig. 3.2, we plot the gri-slope vs. size for the members of the Flora family using the asteroid family catalog of Nesvorný et al. (2015). We again plot the linear regression through all asteroids with a magnitude H > 13. We also include the running mean of the gri-slopes, with a box size of 15 and the uncertainty of the mean values at a 95% confidence level. There is a steeper gri-slope vs. size trend in the Flora family when compared to the entire main belt. The slope of the linear regression Figure 3.1. The distribution of gri-slope vs. absolute magnitude of S and Q-type asteroids in the main belt from the SDSS. The solid line is the linear regression through the main belt asteroids with absolute magnitudes $H > 13$, and the dashed line is the linear regression through the NEA and MC data from Carry et al. (2016) (data not shown). The slopes of the linear regressions are $-0.42 \pm 0.04\%/100$ nm/mag and $-0.36 \pm 0.17\%/100$ nm/mag for the main belt asteroids and NEA and MC asteroids, respectively, showing a statistically significant decrease in the average gri-slope of asteroids smaller than $H=13$ for both populations. Figure 3.2. Same as Fig. 3.1, except only considering asteroids in the Flora family. The solid line is the linear regression through the Flora family asteroids with absolute magnitudes $H > 13$. The points and error bars are the running mean of the gri-slope with a box size of 15 and the uncertainty of the mean values at a 95% confidence level. The slope of the linear regression is $-0.73 \pm 0.15\%/100$ nm/mag, showing a significant decrease in the average gri-slope of asteroids smaller than $H = 13$ that is steeper than the trends in Fig. 3.1. of the gri-slopes vs. size for the Flora family is $-0.73 \pm 0.15\%/100$ nm/mag. The steeper trend may be due to the large olivine content of the Flora family asteroids (Vernazza et al., 2009). We only use the data from the Flora family to compare to our modeling results in Chapter 4, §4.1 and §4.2 We claim that any results from the restricted analysis of the Flora family are generally applicable to the entire inner solar system due to the similarity of the NEA and MC, and main belt trends shown in Fig. 3.1. The MCs, which are the majority of asteroids observed in Carry et al. (2016), are sourced from weak resonances all throughout the main belt (Morbidelli and Nesvorný, 1999). Thus, we can expect the MCs to have the same compositional trends as the main belt. We also find qualitatively similar gri-slope vs. size trends if we consider the NEAs or the inner, middle, or outer main belt asteroids alone. YORP spin-up and failure coupled with space weathering from the solar wind qualitatively fits the data in Figs. 3.1 and 3.2. The YORP effect and exposure from the solar wind scale identically with orbit (see Chapter 4, §4.1 for a further discussion), but only YORP will work increasingly effectively to resurface asteroids at smaller sizes. Additionally, the large sensitivity of the YORP effect from the exact placement of boulders and craters on the surface can cause a large range of possible rotational acceleration rates (Statler, 2009), giving a spread in the timescales needed for an asteroid of a particular size to spin up to the point of failure. A spread in timescales for an asteroid to fail and resurface would also generate a spread in the gri-slopes as seen in Figs. 3.1 and 3.2. In Chapter 4, we develop a model to test the parameters needed for YORP to create the gri-slope vs. size trend seen in Fig. 3.2. ### 3.2 Distribution of Spectral Slopes and Perihelion In order to properly test potential resurfacing mechanisms at low perihelion, we must first understand the distribution of spectral slopes there. In this section, we find that there is a substantial observational bias in the observed spectral slopes, especially in the Mars Crosser (MC) region, and, after removing that bias, we find no evidence of a perihelion trend for perihelia $q \gtrsim 0.9$ AU. In Fig. 3.3, we plot the NEA and MC spectral slopes against perihelion, similarly to Fig. 1 in Marchi et al. (2006a). The size of each circle corresponds to the asteroid’s diameter, assuming a constant albedo for all asteroids. We also include a windowed moving average of the spectral slopes, where each average spectral slope is calculated by taking the average of all spectral slopes of asteroids with perihelion that are within Figure 3.3. The distribution of spectral slope vs. perihelion of S and Q-type asteroids in the NEA and MC regions using the data in Binzel et al. (2004); Lazzarin et al. (2004, 2005). NEAs are drawn as black circles and MCs as green circles. The size of the circle corresponds to the diameter of the asteroid. The dashed blue line is the linear regression through the asteroids, the solid orange line and shaded region is a windowed moving average, where each average spectral slope is calculated by taking the average of all spectral slopes of asteroids with perihelion that are within ±0.1 AU, and its uncertainty at a 95% confidence level. This figure is very similar to Fig. 1 from Marchi et al. (2006a), except that we use a windowed moving average instead of one that uses a set number of points to create the average. We denote the perihelion above which MCs affect the windowed moving average by a vertical gray line. The average spectral slope decreases with decreasing perihelion. However, there is a plateau from $q \approx 0.9 - 1.3$ of nearly constant average spectral slopes, before increasing again in the MC region. ±0.1 AU. The shaded region is the uncertainty of the average spectral slopes at a 95% confidence level. Overall, the average spectral slope decreases with decreasing perihelion from the MCs through the NEAs. The slope of the linear regression of the spectral slopes vs. perihelion is $0.27 \pm 0.06 \%/\mu\text{m}/\text{AU}$ for the entire population. However, by using the windowed moving average instead of a traditional moving average, where each average spectral slope is calculated with the same number of points equally sampled from above and below the asteroid’s perihelion, we do not find a steady decrease in the average spectral slope with decreasing perihelion, as was found in Marchi et al. (2006a). Instead, we find that the average spectral slope only has a significant trend with perihelia of $q \lesssim 0.9$ AU and $q \gtrsim 1.3$ AU, with the slope of the linear regression through the spectral slopes of asteroids with $0.9$ AU $\leq q < 1.3$ AU is $0.01 \pm 0.26 \%/\mu\text{m}/\text{AU}$. Additionally, by using a windowed moving average, we better represent the dependence of the asteroids’ spectral slopes on perihelion because point-based moving averages use varying perihelion windows based on the number of observations at different perihelia (e.g. larger windows at low perihelion where less asteroids are observed). We also include a gray vertical line at a perihelion, above which the running mean is affected by the spectral slopes of MCs ($q = 1.2$ AU). Next, we plot the spectral slopes against their absolute magnitude in Fig. 3.4. We include an estimate of the diameter of each asteroid using an albedo of 0.25, which is the approximate average of S and Q-type NEAs (Binzel et al., 2004). Again, we include the windowed moving average with a window size ±1 mag. with its 95% confidence intervals. In general, the average spectral slope decreases with decreasing size, so smaller asteroids have fresher surfaces on average. The linear regression of the spectral slopes vs. absolute magnitude has a slope of $-0.024 \pm 0.009 \%/\mu\text{m}/\text{mag}$. We also include the linear regression of the spectral slope vs. absolute magnitude for only the asteroids with $0.9$ AU $\leq q < 1.3$ AU since that region has does not show a spectral slope vs. perihelion trend. The slope of the linear regression for the asteroids with $0.9$ AU $\leq q < 1.3$ AU is $-0.02 \pm 0.01 \%/\mu\text{m}/\text{mag}$, consistent with the slope Figure 3.4. The distribution of spectral slope vs. absolute magnitude and diameter using the same data as in 3.3. NEAs are drawn as filled black circles and MCs as filled green circles. The dashed blue line is the linear regression through the asteroids, the solid orange line and shaded region is the windowed moving average of the spectral slopes with a window size of ±0.1 mag and its uncertainty at a 95% confidence level. As noted in Binzel et al. (2004), the average spectral slope does decrease with increasing magnitude. of the linear regression through the whole population. We also highlight the MCs in Figs. (3.3) and (3.4). 3.2.1 Removing the observational bias in the spectral slope vs. perihelion distribution There is a bias that is not accounted for in spectral slope vs. perihelion distribution shown in Fig. 3.3. The MCs have a lower average absolute magnitude than the NEAs, with an average magnitude for the MCs of $13.5 \pm 0.2$ and an average magnitude for the NEAs of $17.5 \pm 0.3$. Assuming that there is no large systematic difference in the albedos between the NEAs and MCs, then this difference in average absolute magnitude implies that observed MCs are larger than the NEAs, on average. Additionally, we show in the previous section that the gri-slope decreases, on average, with decreasing size in all populations of S and Q-type asteroids. Because the SDSS data covers magnitudes of up to $H \approx 18$ in the NEA and MC regions, we can conclude that the average spectral slope decreases with decreasing size in the entire population of our NEAs and MCs. Additionally, we show in the previous section that the rate of decrease of spectral slope with size is consistent between the Main Belt and asteroids in the NEA and MC regions. Because this trend appears to be universal in all populations of S-type and Q-type asteroids and that there is no significant difference when only considering asteroids with perihelia $0.9 \text{ AU} \leq q < 1.3 \text{ AU}$ (green dash-dotted line in Fig. 3.3), we make the assumption that there is no significant difference between the rate of decrease in spectral slopes with size in the NEA region and the MC region, and we use the spectral slope vs. magnitude trend shown in Fig. 3.4 to estimate the size-dependent observational bias in the spectral slope vs. perihelion distribution, particularly in the MC region. To remove the bias, we estimate the spectral slope of each asteroid as if it had a magnitude of $H = 17.5$, the average magnitude of the observed NEAs. We calculate the spectral slope of the linear regression in Fig. 3.4 at the magnitude of each asteroid, $H^$, and at a magnitude of 17.5. Then, we apply a correction based on the difference between those calculated spectral slopes, and that correction is applied to the asteroid’s spectral slope. Specifically, we alter each asteroid’s spectral slope by: $$S_D = S_B + [S_\mu(17.5) - S_\mu(H^)] \quad (3.1)$$ where $S_D$ is the debiased spectral slope of the asteroid, $S_B$ is the initial, biased spectral slope of the asteroid, $S_\mu$ is the spectral slope of a point on the linear regression through the spectral slope vs. magnitude distribution (the blue dashed line in Fig. 3.4), which we evaluate at 17.5 and $H^$. The moving average in Fig. 3.4, appears to have a much less significant trend for asteroids with $H \gtrsim 15$, so we also attempted to debias the spectral slopes by evaluating $S_\mu$ as a point on the windowed moving average, instead of on the linear regression. There is no significant difference between the two results, as the primary change is in the MCs, which primarily exist at $H < 15$. Additionally, if we use the windowed moving average to debias the spectral slopes, we are not able to debias the entire set because there is no corresponding average value of the spectral slopes for the asteroids with the highest and lowest magnitudes. We apply the correction to each asteroid and show our results in Fig. 3.5. We include a windowed moving average, again with a window size of $\pm0.1$ AU. We also include two linear regressions through debiased spectral slopes below and above $q = 0.9$ AU. The slope of the linear regression at $q < 0.9$ AU is $0.56 \pm 0.21\%/\mu m/AU$, steeper than the slope of linear regression through the entire populations’ biased spectral slopes. The slope of the linear regression at $q > 0.9$ AU is $0.03 \pm 0.11\%/\mu m/AU$, showing no evidence of any trend. By debiasing the spectral slope, we show that the increase in spectral slopes at $q \gtrsim 1.3$ AU in Fig. 3.3 is not explained by MCs being more weathered, but by observed MCs being larger than the observed NEAs, combined with an observational bias. Additionally, the requirements for a resurfacing mechanism to explain a perihelion trend in spectral slopes significantly changes. A resurfacing mechanism only needs to affect asteroids with $q \lesssim 0.9$ AU, to match this debiased spectral slope vs. perihelion distribution. Figure 3.5. Same as Fig. (3.3) except the size bias in the spectral slopes has been removed. See §3.2 for debiasing details. Due to the bias toward observing only large, and thus more highly weathered, MCs, the debaised spectral slope shows no consistent spectral slope vs. perihelion trend above $q \approx 0.9$ AU. The trend in the NEA region does not significantly change. Due to the relatively consistent range of observed sizes of NEAs for all perihelia, there is not a significant change in the spectral slope vs. perihelion distribution in the NEA region with the debiased data. The slopes of linear regressions of the biased NEAs are $0.52 \pm 0.21\%/\mu m/AU$ for $q < 0.9$ AU and $-0.01 \pm 0.31\%/\mu m/AU$ for $q > 0.9$ AU, consistent with the slopes of linear regressions of the debiased data. In Chapter 5, we use the windowed moving average through the observed spectral slope vs. perihelion distribution of only the NEAs (denoted by the orange curve lying left of the gray line in Fig. 3.3) as our primary constraint on possible resurfacing mechanisms. We do not model the spectral slopes of MCs due to the difference in the dynamics of NEAs and MCs and due to the lack of evidence for any significant spectral slope vs. perihelion trend in the MCs. We also use average spectral slope of all NEAs with $q > 0.9$ AU of $0.35 \pm 0.17\%/\mu m$ to define the maximum weathering state for our modeled asteroids. 4 RESURFACING ASTEROIDS FROM YORP SPIN-UP AND FAILURE Portions of the content of this chapter were published in the journal Icarus as Graves et al. (2018). 4.1 Nominal YORP Spin-up and Failure Model To understand the process of resetting a surface from YORP spin-up and failure, we develop a Monte Carlo code to compute the evolution of the spin rate and the weathering rate for a population of asteroids. Our YORP evolution model is similar to published models that reproduced the rotation rate of NEAs and main belt asteroids and the size distribution of main belt asteroids (Rossi et al., 2009; Marzari et al., 2011; Jacobson et al., 2014). We model the evolution of the spin rate by the YORP effect by (Scheeres, 2007; Rossi et al., 2009): \[ \dot{\omega} = \frac{3BG_1}{4\pi\rho a^2\sqrt{1-e^2}} \frac{1}{R^2} C_y \] (4.1) where $ B \approx 2/3 $ is the Lambertian scattering coefficient, $ G_1 \approx 10^{17} \text{kg m/s}^2 $ is the solar radiation constant, $ \rho $ is the density of the asteroid, $ C_y $ is a non-dimensional YORP coefficient, $ R $ is the volumetric mean radius of the asteroid, and $ a $ and $ e $ are its semi-major axis and eccentricity. The $ C_y $ parameter describes the effectiveness of YORP on a particular asteroid, and contains information of its shape and moments of inertia. The asteroid’s spin rate will accelerate toward a maximum allowed spin rate if $ C_y > 0 $ and will decelerate toward a zero spin rate if $ C_y < 0 $. Due to the dependence of the acceleration rate on $ a $ and $ R $, we expect YORP to become more important at small sizes close to the sun. Recently, Golubov and Krugly (2012) studied the effects of the normal and tangential components of the solar radiation pressure on the YORP torque and found that the magnitude of these components are on a similar order. Our model is based on the normal component only. We also evolve the weathering rate for our population of asteroids. If space weathering is dominated by the solar wind, the rate of exposure will also increase closer to the sun (Marchi et al., 2006b): \[ \text{exposure rate} \sim \frac{1}{a^2 \sqrt{1 - e^2}} \] (4.2) Increasing the amount of exposure to the solar wind will continue to change the spectral properties of S and Q-type asteroids until they saturate as a fully weathered S-type. If asteroids are resurfaced by YORP and weathered by the solar wind, we expect to find lower spectral slopes and more Q-type asteroids at smaller sizes, regardless of orbital location, addressing shortcomings of the close encounter models. In our model, we simulate $10^4$ asteroids for 950 Myr, corresponding to the age of the Flora family (Dykhuis et al., 2014). For each asteroid, we select an absolute magnitude from a uniform distribution of $12 < H < 18$. We only consider the trends based on size, so we do not replicate the size frequency distribution of the asteroid population. We select the initial rotation rate from a Maxwellian distribution with $\sigma \approx 2$ rev/day. The spin rates of small asteroids deviate from a Maxwellian distribution for sizes less than $D \approx 5$ km (Polishook and Brosch, 2009); however, due to the strong effect of YORP on the evolution of small asteroids, the initial rotation rate distribution has no effect on the end state in a YORP evolution model (Rossi et al., 2009). We assume that all asteroids begin with unweathered surfaces. The initial weathering state of their surfaces is also a transient effect that does not affect the end state of these simulations. We assume that the asteroids in our model can be represented by prolate ellipsoids. We draw an aspect ratio $b/a$ of the smaller to largest axis for each asteroid from a Gaussian distribution with a mean of $\mu = .6$ and a standard deviation of $\sigma = 0.18$ following Jacobson et al. (2014), which matches the aspect ratio of small, fast-rotating asteroids (Michikami et al., 2010). We calculate the maximum allowed spin rate before failure from a simplified model using the aspect ratio (Pravec and W., 2000): \[ \omega_{max} \approx \sqrt{\frac{4\pi\rho G}{3} \frac{b}{a}} \] (4.3) where $ \rho $ is the density of the asteroid and $ G $ is the gravitational constant. We set the density of all asteroids to $ \rho = 2500 \text{ kg/m}^3 $. We do not consider the effect of cohesive forces on asteroid failure in our model. Asteroids larger than approximately 200 m almost never rotate faster than 2.2 h, the critical spin rate for a spherical asteroid held together only by gravity (Pravec and W., 2000). Because our model only considers asteroids down to a size of $ H = 18 $ ($ D \approx 700 \text{ m} $), cohesion should have little effect on the failure rate of these bodies. At each timestep, every asteroid is spun up by YORP and is weathered by a simplified space weathering model. We evolve the asteroid spin rate by Eq. 4.1. Following Jacobson et al. (2014), we draw the YORP coefficient $ C_y $ from a Gaussian distribution centered at zero with a standard deviation of $ \sigma = 0.0125 $. The standard deviation is approximated from calculated values of $ C_y $ from observed asteroids (Scheeres, 2007). We do not consider YORP obliquity evolution in our model. The combined obliquity and spin evolution of an asteroid is complex. YORP will cause an asteroid to asymptotically evolve toward a single obliquity value while increasing or decreasing its spin rate (Vokrouhlický and Čapek, 2002; Bottke et al., 2006). Our values of the YORP parameter $ C_y $ are derived from observations with a large range of obliquities and are normalized to an obliquity of 90° (Scheeres, 2007). Since an obliquity of 90° often generates the largest absolute value of rotation rate acceleration (e.g., Bottke et al. 2006), we can expect our range of $ C_y $ values for the population will incorporate the appropriate range of possible values. Without obliquity dynamics, the evolution of individual asteroids will not be valid, but we can estimate that, for a population of asteroids, the average timescale between resurfacing events will be accurate. We incrementally weather the asteroids with a simplified space weathering model. We track the time, $t$, since the last resurfacing event for each asteroid, and calculate a corresponding gri-slope for the asteroid: $$S = (S_{\text{max}} - S_Q)(1 - \exp(-t/\tau_{SW})) + S_Q$$ \hspace{1cm} (4.4) where $S_{\text{max}}$ is the maximum gri-slope an S-type asteroid attains, $S_Q$ is the gri-slope of a freshly exposed Q-type asteroid, and $\tau_{SW}$ is the timescale of the weathering. Eq. 4.4 is a saturation curve and has been used to fit optical properties of an asteroid’s surface from the accumulation of space weathering (Brunetto et al., 2006; Willman et al., 2010). When the spin rate of an asteroid reaches the maximum spin rate, defined by Eq. 4.3, the asteroid experiences a resurfacing event. The resurfacing event could be due to fission, or a large scale surface disruption from global landslides. Regardless of the exact process, we consider the asteroid to be resurfaced. We set the time since last resurfacing event $t = 0$, and reselect a new YORP coefficient with the condition that $C_y < 0$. We keep the size and aspect ratio of the asteroid the same. We also make the reasonable assumption that an event that completely resurfaces an asteroid would also change the overall shape of the asteroid, so we also select a new random value of $C_y$. It is important to note that, depending on how an asteroid’s surface fails at high spin rates, it may be possible for the overall shape of the asteroid to change without a total resurfacing event. We discuss the possibility and effects of an incomplete resurfacing event in §4.2. As an asteroid evolves to a low rotation rate, the asteroid can enter into a tumbling state. The evolution in a tumbling state cannot be represented by our simple model. Following Jacobson et al. (2014), we apply a minimum spin rate of $10^5$ hours, at which we reverse the sign of $C_y$ and allow the asteroid’s spin rate to accelerate again. We do not consider collisions in our model. Previous models have used collisions as an additional mechanism to evolve the spin rate of asteroids and have been necessary to describe the rotation rate distribution of the main belt (Marzari et al., 2011). In our model we are primarily concerned with relative timescales of weathering and resurfacing of asteroids. Collisions cause infrequent stochastic evolution in the spin rates of the asteroids, but the spin rates of small asteroids are primarily dominated by YORP (Marzari et al., 2011). The stochastic evolution generated from collisions can cause some interesting second order effects which we will discuss in the next section, but they do not substantially change the results of our modeling. Using the Flora family SDSS data (Fig. 3.2), we set the values of some of the parameters in Eqs. 4.1 and 4.4. From the location of the Flora family in the inner main belt, we set $a = 2.2$ AU and $e = 0$ in Eq. 4.1. We also make the assumption that the space weathering timescale, described in Eq. 4.4, is dominated by the solar wind. The solar wind has an dependence on the orbit shown in Eq. 4.2, so the timescale of space weathering $\tau_{SW}$ is dependent on our choice of $a$ and $e$. We can use Eq. 4.2, to scale the space weathering timescale to other values of $a$ and $e$. We derive the maximum gri-slope, $S_{\text{max}}$, from a normal distribution based on the distribution of Flora family asteroids with magnitudes of $H < 13$. For the Flora family members, we find an average value of $15.9\%/100$ nm and a standard deviation of $1\%/100$ nm. We selected $S_Q$ from a normal distribution with an average of $6\%/100$ nm and a deviation of $.5\%/100$ nm, which corresponds to the lower end of the range of gri-slopes for Q-types in the DeMeo and Carry (2013) classification scheme. With the assumptions made above, the space weathering timescale $\tau_{SW}$ is the only free parameter in our model. Due to the form of our space weathering model, space weathering will asymptotically approach $S_{\text{max}}$ with an e-folding time $\tau_{SW}$. We vary $\tau_{SW}$ in our model to find the best fit. Fig. 4.1 shows a good fit for $\tau_{SW} = 45$ Myr. We show the gri-slope vs. absolute magnitude distribution of the model results, along with the running mean of both the model results (box size of 330) and the data from the Flora family from Fig. 3.2. We also find a range of space weathering timescales that acceptably fit the distribution. In Fig. 4.2, we show the Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) between the running mean of the observed and modeled asteroids. The box sizes of the running means were chosen to approximately select from the same range of H values, but Figure 4.1. The modeled asteroids’ gri-slope vs. absolute magnitude distribution for the best fit solution with an e-folding space weathering timescale of $\tau_{SW} = 45$ Myr at 2.2 AU. The points and error bars are the running mean of the gri-slope with a box size of 15 and the uncertainty at a 95% confidence level of the Flora family asteroids (from Fig. 3.2). The solid line is the running mean of the gri-slope of the modeled data with a box size of 330. The uncertainty of the mean for the model data is smaller than the thickness of the line. Figure 4.2. The Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) of the gri-slope vs. size running mean of the Flora family and the modeled asteroids. The box sizes of the running mean of the observed and modeled asteroids are selected to sample the approximately the same range of absolute magnitudes. We use the average uncertainty of the mean values of the Flora family asteroids of ± .58 %/100 nm as a cutoff to define the best fit RMSEs. The range of acceptable space weathering timescales from the nominal model is $\tau_{SW} = 32 - 70$ Myr, where the RMSE ≤ .58 %/100 nm. Figure 4.3. Similar to Fig. 4.2, except that we show results from altering the maximum time, $t_{max}$, of the model. A larger $t_{max}$ will allow the population to further evolve toward smaller values of $C_y$ and allow for more rapid YORP evolution, and vice versa for lower values of $t_{max}$. The change to the $\tau_{SW}$ is relatively minor for reasonable values of $t_{max}$, especially for the minimum bound of $\tau_{SW}$. the RMSEs are insensitive to small variations in the box size. We used the average uncertainty of the mean values of the Flora family asteroids of $\pm 0.58\%/100$ nm as a cutoff to define the best fit RMSEs. We found a range of space weathering timescales, $\tau_{SW} = 32 - 70$ Myr, where the RMSE $\leq 0.58\%/100$ nm. To make these results more comparable to previous studies, we can estimate the time it takes for a newly resurfaced Q-type asteroid to weather such that it would become an S-complex asteroid, $\tau_{Q \rightarrow S}$. From DeMeo and Carry (2013), the maximum slope a Q-type asteroid can have is $9.5\%/100$ nm. We find the average time that it takes to weather an asteroid from a newly resurfaced state, with a gri-slope of $\sim 6\%/100$ nm, to a state where the gri-slope is $9.5\%/100$ nm. From our range of estimates for the space weathering timescale, we estimate $\tau_{Q \rightarrow S} \approx 14 - 31$ Myr. These timescales should only be taken as an approximate maximum, as S-type asteroids can have gri-slopes as low as $6\%/100$ nm in the classification of DeMeo and Carry (2013). It is the combination of a low gri-slope and a low $z'-i'$ color (corresponding to a deep $1\,\mu m$ absorption band) that defines the unweathered Q-types. Additionally, we can scale these timescales to any orbit using Eq. 4.2: $$\tau_{Q \rightarrow S} = \tau_0 \cdot \left(\frac{a}{1\text{ AU}}\right)^2 \sqrt{(1 - e^2)}$$ (4.5) where $\tau_0 \approx 3 - 6$ Myr. In the next section, we address the effects of the assumptions that we use in our nominal YORP spin-up and failure model. ### 4.2 Testing Assumptions of Nominal Model In the construction of our nominal model we made necessary assumptions and selected parameters that have been previously used in the literature. In this section, we discuss and vary the parameters and assumptions made in the nominal model. An important effect in the model is that the distribution of the YORP coefficients is not in steady state throughout the simulation. As asteroids evolve to the maximum spin rate, and a resurfacing event occurs, their YORP coefficients are randomly redrawn. However, for a given asteroid size, those with a larger absolute $C_y$ values will evolve more quickly and change their $C_y$ values more often. Over time, more asteroids will get “stuck” with low $C_y$ values. Additionally, this trend toward lower values of $C_y$ is more pronounced for smaller asteroids due to their more rapid YORP evolutions. Asteroids that are stuck in these low $C_y$ states will evolve more slowly and lengthen the timescale between resurfacing events, slightly raising the average gri-slopes for smaller asteroids. These low $C_y$ states for small asteroids are important to match the Flora family distribution of gri-slopes at all sizes. Without the slight raising of the average gri-slopes for smaller asteroids, there would be an overabundance of asteroids with very low gri-slopes at small sizes ($H \gtrsim 16$). The effect of the trend toward lower values of $C_y$ on the derived necessary space weathering timescale is minor. We test the effect of this trend by altering the length of our simulations, $t_{\text{max}}$. In Fig. 4.3, we show the distribution of the RMSE between the running mean of the model and observations for a range of space weathering timescales and for different values of $t_{\text{max}}$. For lower values of $t_{\text{max}}$, the trend toward lower values of $C_y$, is muted and restricted to only the smallest asteroids, resulting in shorter resurfacing timescales and requiring a shorter space weathering timescale. By increasing $t_{\text{max}}$, asteroids will have more resurfacing events and causes slightly more asteroids in the simulation to be “stuck” with low $C_y$ values, resulting in longer resurfacing and space weathering timescales. If $t_{\text{max}}$ becomes too small ($\sim 100$ Myr), the initial weathering state of the asteroids begins to become important. Varying the nominal value of $t_{\text{max}}$ by $\pm 50\%$ only slightly changes the minimum bound of $\tau_{SW}$. The maximum bound of $\tau_{SW}$ does change more significantly. Raising $t_{\text{max}}$ by 50% raises the maximum bound of $\tau_{SW}$ to $\approx 80$ Myr, and lowering $t_{\text{max}}$ by 50% lowers the maximum bound of $\tau_{SW}$ to $\approx 54$ Myr. For asteroids to get stuck with low $C_y$ values, the population must be left undisturbed for a period of time equal to $t_{\text{max}}$. Collisions can create large craters and move boulders on the surface of asteroids, which can cause a significant change in the YORP coefficient (Statler, 2009). This high sensitivity of YORP to the exact shape of the asteroid, called Stochastic YORP (Bottke et al., 2015), could cause small collisions to disturb the asteroids with low values of $C_y$, thereby increasing $C_y$, and allowing those asteroids to resurface more often. Marzari et al. (2011) first used collisions alongside YORP evolution. They considered that collisions could effectively induce stochastic evolution by randomly selecting a new $C_y$ after any collision changed the obliquity of the asteroid by $> 0.2$ radians. They found that collisions could trap large ($\approx 5$ km) asteroids in a low spin state, which could lengthen the time between resurfacing events. This effect quickly becomes less important at sizes less than 5 km, as YORP begins to more strongly dominate the spin evolution of the asteroid. Since $\approx 5$ km is where the trend in decreasing gri-slope with decreasing size begins, we assume that this effect will only cause a minor change in the average gri-slopes of asteroids in our model. Collisions could potentially decrease the average gri-slope of the smaller asteroids in our model, where the trend toward lower values of $C_y$ is the strongest. Collisions could change $C_y$ often enough to quickly remove any asteroid stuck in a low $C_y$ state, which would keep the time between resurfacing events relatively short. However, the effect of collisions on the evolution of asteroids in our model could be highly dependent on the number of small impactors in the main belt. The exact impactor Size Frequency Distribution (SFD) at sizes $\lesssim 1$ km in the main belt is not well understood. Collisional evolution models predict a steep power law slope ($N(> D) \sim D^{-3.5}$) and many small impactors (Dohnanyi, 1969; Bottke et al., 2005). The SDSS and the Sub-Kilometer Asteroid Diameter Survey, suggest a shallow power law slope ($N(> D) \sim D^{-2.5}$) continuing down to sizes $D \sim 200$ m (Ivezić et al., 2001; Gladman et al., 2009). The rotational disruption model of Jacobson et al. (2014) creates an SFD that also matches well with the shallower power law slope of these observations. A shallower power law could mean less impactors at small sizes, and a slower removal of asteroids stuck with low values of $C_y$. Regardless of the impact rate, collisions should only affect the resurfacing rate of the smaller ($D \lesssim 2$ km) asteroids. Larger asteroids would still resurface at a similar rate and require a similar space weathering timescale to match Figure 4.4. Similar to Fig. 4.2, except that we also show results from doubling the standard deviation of the distribution of $C_y$. A wider distribution of $C_y$, allows asteroids to evolve more quickly and resurface more often, lowering the acceptable values of $\tau_{SW}$. observations. The complex interaction between collisions and the resurfacing rate of asteroids from failure at high spin rates are left for a future study. The only reasonable change to a parameter that could allow for a shorter space weathering timescale in our model would be increasing the value of $C_y$. Our nominal distribution of $C_y$ matches well with the measured values of 0.022 and 0.005 for asteroids (1862) Apollo (Kaasalainen et al., 2007) and (54509) YORP (Taylor et al., 2007; Lowry et al., 2007), respectively, under the assumption that these asteroids were affected by YORP. As small asteroids settle into low values of $C_y$ in our model, \| Location \| $\tau_{SW}$ (Myr) \| $\tau_{Q \rightarrow S}$ (Myr) \| \|---------------------------------\|-------------------\|-------------------------------\| \| NEA Region ($a \approx 1$ AU) \| 4-17 \| 2-7 \| \| Inner Main Belt ($a \approx 2.2$ AU) \| 19-80 \| 8-35 \| \| Middle Main Belt ($a \approx 2.7$ AU) \| 29-120 \| 12-53 \| \| Outer Main Belt ($a \approx 3.1$ AU) \| 38-159 \| 16-69 \| Table 4.1. Space weathering timescales for different populations of S and Q-type asteroids. Values are calculated with $\tau_0 \approx 4 - 17$ Myr for the e-folding timescale ($\tau_{SW}$) and $\tau_0 \approx 2 - 7$ Myr for the Q-type removal timescale ($\tau_{Q \rightarrow S}$). All timescales are calculated with zero eccentricity. the standard deviation of $C_y$ decreases to $\sim .006\%/100$ nm after 950 Myr, about half of the initial value. Any measurements of $C_y$ of asteroids today could be skewed toward these lower values. To test the effect of changing $C_y$, we run the model where we select $C_y$ from a Gaussian distribution centered at zero with a standard deviation of $\sigma = 0.025$, twice the nominal value. The RMSE values with the new distribution of $C_y$ for a range of space weathering timescales is shown in Fig. 4.4. Using these larger values of $C_y$, we estimate that the needed space weathering timescale can be as short as 19 Myr in the main belt, resulting in space weathering timescales of $$\tau = \tau_0 \cdot \left(\frac{a}{1 \text{ AU}}\right)^2 \sqrt{(1 - e^2)},$$ where $\tau_0 \approx 4 - 17$ Myr for the e-folding timescale ($\tau_{SW}$) and $\tau_0 \approx 2 - 7$ Myr for the Q-type removal timescale ($\tau_{Q \rightarrow S}$). Both of these values of $\tau_0$ are generated from the range of possible solutions discussed in this section. Table 4.1 provides a list of the approximate e-folding and Q-type removal space weathering timescales for the NEA region, and the inner, middle, and outer main belt. After reaching the maximum spin rate, an asteroid could experience a number of different effects. Some models have shown that asteroids could fission to form a binary or pair at high spin rates (Walsh and Jacobson, 2015). After a fissioning event, the evolution of a binary asteroid can take different pathways, some of which can slow down the spin rate evolution of the asteroid from YORP (Jacobson and Scheeres, 2011), implying that this mechanism could lengthen the timescale between resurfacing events. We expect binary formation to have a higher order effect on the resurfacing rate of asteroids, and we leave its investigation for a future study. Other modeling efforts such as Hirabayashi (2015), have shown that, depending on the internal structure, spherical asteroids could experience large scale failure at high spin rates, which would not necessarily result in a fission. Any large scale failure could alter the shape of the asteroid and change the sign and magnitude of $C_y$ causing the asteroid to decrease its rotation rate. Regardless of the outcome of the asteroid’s surface at its maximum spin rate, we have considered the asteroid to be fully resurfaced in our model. There is a possibility in both the fissioning and non-fissioning cases that the asteroid would not completely resurface. Movement of a fraction of the surface could change the YORP parameter enough to cause the asteroid’s rotation rate to decrease, but it would not completely resurface the asteroid and reset its spectral slope. For instance, repeated landslides and internal deformation, such as those hypothesized to create the equatorial ridge on fast rotating “top-shaped” asteroids, such as (66391) 1999 KW4 and (29075) 1950 DA (Walsh et al., 2008; Hirabayashi and Scheeres, 2015), could refresh the material on only a limited part of the asteroid’s surface. Also, Polishook et al. (2014) suggested that a fission event could be followed by the spreading of dust, which coats the primary and secondary in weathered material and covers any exposed unweathered material. Unfortunately, there is no clear understanding of the surface evolution of asteroids at high rotation rates. For a partial resurfacing due to landslides or internal deformation, it is unclear what fraction of surface material is displaced when an asteroid reaches its maximum spin rate. Additionally, the probability that an asteroid will experience a certain type of evolution - fission, surface shedding, or large-scale deformation - is unknown. Due to the lack of clear understanding of the surface evolution at high spin rates and to keep unconstrained parameters to a minimum, we only consider the case where an asteroid is fully resurfaced every time it reaches its maximum spin rate. Previous studies, such as Čapek and Vokrouhlický (2004), Golubov and Krugly (2012), and Bottke et al. (2015), have investigated a bias of YORP torques toward either prograde or retrograde. Unfortunately, these investigations have not converged to a single conclusive answer. We do not account for any YORP directional bias in our model. 4.3 Discussion Modeling studies of resurfacing mechanisms are very important because they can allow us to find a range of space weathering timescales at which certain mechanisms are important. By varying parameters in the last section, we find the full range of the space weathering timescale needed for YORP spin-up and failure, $\tau_{SW} \approx 19-80$ Myr. Our estimated Q-type removal timescale, $\tau_{Q \rightarrow S(1AU)} \approx 2-7$ Myr, is shorter than those calculated assuming that disruptive collisions are the primary resurfacing mechanism, but is still longer than laboratory estimates (Willman and Jedicke, 2011; Strazzulla et al., 2005). If the space weathering rate is $\tau_{SW} \sim 1$ Gyr in the main belt as calculated in Willman and Jedicke (2011), from only destructive collisional resurfacing, we would expect YORP spin-up and failure to keep asteroids smaller than a few kilometers uniformly unweathered. This prediction is not consistent with observations, and it suggests that YORP spin-up and failure is a more effective resurfacing mechanism that catastrophic collisions and that the space weathering timescale must be shorter than 1 Gyr. Laboratory estimates using solar wind as a source find a faster space weathering rate by an order of magnitude or more than what is required for YORP to be the primary resurfacing mechanism for small asteroids. These faster laboratory measurements require one of two things: (1) another mechanism is resurfacing asteroids at a faster rate than YORP spin-up and failure, or (2) the observed space weathering rate is longer than the experimentally derived space weathering rate. A longer observed space weathering rate could be generated from gardening of the surface from small impacts or small landslides as the spin rate and the local slopes on the asteroid change. These local resurfacings would expose unweathered material, giving the asteroid a less weathered overall spectrum, and increasing the time for an asteroid to become saturated (Shestopalov et al., 2013). We also find our estimated space weathering timescale to be comparable ($\sim 2 - 7$ times longer) than the timescale needed for planetary encounters to create the 20% of Q-types seen in the NEA population from the model of Nesvorný et al. (2010). It is possible that both could be effective resurfacing mechanisms in the NEA region. There are also other effects apart from YORP spin-up and failure that could cause the spectral slope vs. size trend seen in the data. Collisions and subsequent seismic shaking have been cited as a possible explanation for the similar trend seen in the Koronis Family (Rivkin et al., 2011; Thomas et al., 2011, 2012). Rivkin et al. (2011) used an order of magnitude argument to suggest that the timescales for collisions and seismic shaking, and space weathering are comparable. It is unclear whether seismic shaking could match the slope and shape of gri-slope vs. size trend or whether that resurfacing rate would be faster or slower than YORP. Its investigation is left for future work. We discussed in the last section that we do not include binary formation in our model; however, since YORP can create both binary and Q-type asteroids, the number of Q-type vs. S-type binaries can hint at the relative lifetimes of Q-type and binary asteroids. A full statistical analysis is left for future work, but even finding binary Q-type asteroids, such as (1862) Apollo (Pravec and Harris, 2007; DeMeo et al., 2014), suggests that a YORP induced fission (and not a close encounter with Earth or Venus) may have been the last event to resurface that asteroid. This prediction is reasonable because a close encounter with a planet would much more readily disrupt the binary before it would disturb the surface of either member. Walsh et al. (2008) showed that close encounters can only be expected to create a small fraction of the binaries in the NEA region, making it unlikely that (1862) Apollo formed by tidal effects. The destruction of binary asteroids is most often due to the Binary YORP effect (Čuk and Burns, 2005; Jacobson and Scheeres, 2011; Walsh and Jacobson, 2015), which will scale in orbit together with YORP and space weathering. However, we only expect YORP and Binary YORP, and not the space weathering rate to scale with size. A strong prediction of this study is that we should observe more Q-types among small binary asteroids compared to larger binaries. The spectral slope vs. size trend in this study is not the only trend in spectral slopes that is seen for the S and Q-type asteroids. Marchi et al. (2006a) first noted that there is a spectral slope vs. perihelion trend in the NEAs and MCs. It was these observations that led to further investigations of creating Q-type asteroids from close encounters with the terrestrial planets (e.g., Binzel et al. 2010; Nesvorný et al. 2010; DeMeo et al. 2014; Carry et al. 2016). Boulder breakdown from thermal cycling could also work to resurface asteroids in the NEA region and could naturally create the slope vs. perihelion trend (Delbo et al., 2014; Molaro et al., 2015), although further investigations are necessary. Our study has not considered the perihelion trend, and YORP coupled with space weathering originating from the solar wind will not reproduce it. It seems that there must be at least two primary mechanisms resurfacing asteroids: one effect (such as YORP spin-up and failure) creating the spectral slope vs. size trend and another effect creating the slope vs. perihelion trend. Additionally, if the mechanism creating the perihelion trend is independent of size, which would be reasonable for resurfacing from close encounters with the terrestrial planets or from thermal cycling, it could also explain the size-independent lower gri-slopes in the NEAs and MCs compared to the main belt that is seen in Fig. 3.1. 4.4 Conclusion From gri-slopes of main belt asteroids, MCs, and NEAs gathered from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey, we showed that S-type and Q-type asteroids are, on average, less weathered at smaller sizes, regardless of orbital location. We found the slope of the linear trends of the gri-slope vs. absolute magnitude distributions to be $-0.42 \pm 0.04\%/100$ nm/mag and $-0.36 \pm 0.17\%/100$ nm/mag for the main belt asteroids, and the NEAs and MCs, respectively. The similarity between the trends suggested a common resurfacing mechanism that preferentially reduces the average gri-slopes of S and Q-type asteroids at smaller sizes. Additionally, we presented the gri-slope vs. size distribution of the Flora family asteroids to remove any compositional trends in gri-slope and any observational biases. We found a steeper slope of the linear trend through the Flora family asteroids of $-0.73 \pm 0.15\%/100$ nm/mag. We presented the first resurfacing model from YORP spin-up and failure to explain the weathering trends with size. With a simple YORP evolution and space weathering model, we can fit the observed gri-slope vs. size trend in the Flora family asteroids. By varying the non-dimensional YORP coefficient distribution and the run time of the model, we find a range of values for the space weathering timescale $\tau = \tau_0 \cdot \left(\frac{a}{1 \text{ AU}}\right)^2 \sqrt{(1 - e^2)}$, where $\tau_0 \approx 4 - 17$ Myr for the e-folding timescale and $\tau_0 \approx 2 - 7$ Myr for the Q-type removal timescale. Given the assumptions in our model, we conclude that YORP spin-up and failure is an effective mechanism for resurfacing small asteroids. The relative effectiveness between YORP and other resurfacing mechanisms affecting only small asteroids, such as impacts and subsequent seismic shaking, is left for future work. 5 RESURFACING ASTEROIDS AT LOW PERIHELIA 5.1 Introduction In this chapter, I investigate two potential resurfacing mechanisms: (1) tidal effects from close encounters with the terrestrial planets, and (2) thermally-induced surface degradation. I show the possible spectral slope vs. perihelion distributions that can be created from each mechanism and compare them to the observed distribution quantified in Chapter 3. I find that tidal effects from close encounters with the terrestrial planets cannot generate a distribution that can match observations for any reasonable combination of parameters, and that thermally-induced surface degradation provides a much better fit. Thus, close encounters with the terrestrial planets are not an important resurfacing mechanism, and, while more work needs to be done to fully understand the process of thermally-induced degradation on the surfaces of asteroids, it is very likely that it plays a crucial role in resurfacing asteroids in the NEA region. 5.2 Modeling Methods To model the spectral slopes of asteroids at low perihelia ($q \lesssim 0.9$ AU), we must consider the evolution of asteroids from their source regions in the main belt, and track their orbits throughout their lifetime in the NEA region. By combining information on the amount of accumulated space weathering, resurfacing processes, and the current perihelion of each asteroid throughout the simulation, we can model the spectral slope vs. perihelion distribution. In the model of Bottke et al. (2002), the three primary source regions of S and Q-type NEAs are the 3:1 mean motion resonance with Jupiter, the $\nu_6$ secular resonance, and the Intermediate source Mars Crossers (IMCs). The IMCs are a subset of the Mars crossing population that are below the $\nu_6$ resonance and are not in the 3:1 mean motion resonance. We do not consider other source regions, such as the outer belt resonances, because they do not contain a significant number of S and Q-type asteroids (DeMeo and Carry, 2013), and they contribute less to the steady state population of NEAs when compared to the above three (Bottke et al., 2002). We note that there is a recent updated estimate to the near-Earth Object fluxes in Granvik et al. (2018). However, we do not expect our results to significantly change with the inclusion of this updated model because the results of the two resurfacing methods are similar when considering each of the three source regions alone. It appears that, in our model, the estimate of the NEA fluxes plays a minor role compared to the weathering and resurfacing that occurs once the asteroids are in the NEA region. We integrate the orbits of 6000 asteroids, with 2000 initially in each of our source regions. Asteroids in the 3:1 mean motion resonance with Jupiter are randomly distributed within a semi-major axis of $a = [2.48 - 2.52]$ AU, an eccentricity of $e < 0.35$, and an inclination of $i < 15$ degrees. Asteroids in the $\nu_6$ secular resonance begin with a semi-major axis of $a = [2.06 - 2.37]$ AU, an eccentricity of $e = 0.1$, and an inclination of $i = [2.5 - 15]$ degrees. The semi-major axis and inclination are selected such that the asteroids fall within the strong part of the $\nu_6$ resonance, described in detail in Morbidelli and Gladman (1998). Asteroids in the IMCs are generated to match the semi-major axis, inclination, and eccentricity distribution of observed asteroids with a magnitude of $H < 16$ in the IMC region, using 3373 asteroids pulled from the JPL Small Body Database (ssd.jpl.nasa.gov). These initial conditions are very similar to those in Bottke et al. (2002), and generate statistically similar NEAs. We use a Regularized Mixed Variable Symplectic (RMVS) integrator in the SWIFTER N-body code (Levison and Duncan, 1994) to integrate the asteroids. We include all eight major planets, but do not account for the general relativistic effects on Mercury’s orbit. We integrate all asteroids with a 1 day timestep and the simulation runs for 100 Myr. We tested a subset of our model with a 12 hour timestep and found no difference in the final average spectral slope vs. perihelion distribution. We also remove asteroids from the simulation if they collide with the Sun or a planet or have a semi-major axis larger than 1000 AU. Due to the relatively short integration time of 100 Myr and the chaotic nature of NEAs, we do not expect the small deviations in Mercury’s orbit from general relativistic effects to change the close encounter statistics or the orbital distributions of the NEAs. Additionally, encounters with Mercury are very rare compared to encounters with the other terrestrial planets. The integrator records all close encounters between asteroids and planets within 3.5 Hill Radii of the planet. We also simulate the increase in the asteroids’ spectral slopes over time using a simplified space weathering model. If an asteroid remains in its current orbit and experiences no resurfacing events, the rate of change of the spectral slope depends on the current spectral slope of the asteroid (Brunetto et al., 2006; Willman et al., 2010). In other words, the spectral slope of an asteroid being space weathered follows an exponential saturation curve, where the rate of increase of its spectral slope decreases as the asteroid becomes more weathered. Since we constrain the spectral slope to a maximum value of $S_{\text{max}}$, we can express the rate of change in spectral slope due to space weathering as: $$\left(\frac{dS}{dt}\right)_{SW} = \frac{1}{\tau_{SW}} (S_{\text{max}} - S). \quad (5.1)$$ where $S$ is the slope of the asteroid and $\tau_{SW}$ is its e-folding space weathering timescale. We assume that the process of space weathering is dominated by the alteration of an asteroid’s surface by the solar wind because of its much smaller timescale. Because the intensity of the solar wind scales with the solar distance as $1/r^2$, we scale the space weathering timescale accordingly: $$\tau_{SW} = \frac{\tau_{SW0}}{(1 \text{ AU})^2} \oint r^{-2} dt = \frac{\tau_0}{(1 \text{ AU})^2} a^2 \sqrt{1 - e^2}, \quad (5.2)$$ where $r$ is the instantaneous solar distance of the asteroid, $P$ is the orbital period, $a$ and $e$ are its semi-major axis and eccentricity, and $\tau_{SW0}$ is the space weathering timescale at $a = 1$ AU and $e = 0$. The integral in Eq. 5.2 is taken over one orbit. Throughout the simulation, the asteroid’s orbit evolves, and the space weathering timescale $\tau_{SW}$ changes. Thus, we increment the spectral slope at each timestep with Eq. 5.1 to accurately represent the spectral slope over its evolution throughout the NEA region. We select the minimum spectral slope, $S_{OC}$, and maximum spectral slope, $S_{\text{max}}$, for each asteroid randomly from Gaussian distributions. We use the spectral slopes of OC meteorites to calculate the value of $S_{OC}$, with the mean value $\mu_{OC} = 0$ and the standard deviation $\sigma_{OC} = 0.05$, approximately matching the OC spectral slopes used in Vernazza et al. (2009). We use the distribution of spectral slopes from NEAs with perihelia $q > 0.9$ AU to calculate the value of $S_{\text{max}}$ (Fig. 3.3). By using the average spectral slope for NEAs with $q > 0.9$ AU, we are not necessarily finding the average spectral slopes of completely weathered S-type asteroids. There are other resurfacing mechanisms that can lower the average spectral slope of the entire population, but there is no significant spectral slope vs. perihelion trend at $q > 0.9$ AU. We find a mean value of $\mu_{\text{max}} = 0.34$ and standard deviation of $\sigma_{\text{max}} = 0.1$. At the beginning of the simulation all asteroids start at $S_{\text{max}}$, simulating a lack of spectral slope vs. perihelion trend in the MCs and main belt. Then, throughout the integration, an asteroid can experience resurfacing processes either through close encounters or thermally induced degradation. These effects, which are described in §5.3.1 and §5.4.1, will cause the spectral slopes of asteroids to decrease. We calculate the change in spectral slope on each asteroid from space weathering every $10^4$ years. For the close encounter resurfacing model, we apply the change in the spectral slopes due to a resurfacing encounters at the time of the encounter, and for the thermally induced degradation model, we also calculate the change in spectral slope on each asteroid every $10^4$ years. We then save the perihelion and spectral slope of each asteroid in the NEA region every $10^5$ years throughout the simulation to measure the effect of the resurfacing and weathering processes on the spectral slope vs. perihelion distribution. Shorter timesteps for calculating the change in spectral slope and for saving the perihelion and spectral slope of each asteroid yield similar results. We use the positions and spectral slopes from timesteps throughout the simulation to generate a representative sample of the steady-state NEA distribution. According to Bottke et al. (2002), the $\nu_6$ resonance, the 3:1 resonance, and the IMCs generate approximately 37%, 27%, and 20% of the population of NEAs at any given time. By simply selecting all asteroids in the NEA region every $10^5$ years, we will not generate the appropriate total fraction of asteroids evolving from each source region. To account for this, we artificially duplicate instances of a perihelion and a spectral slope of an asteroid at a random time from underrepresented source regions until we find the correct distribution. Specifically, we find the number of saved asteroids from each source region across all timesteps: $N_{3:1}$, $N_{\nu_6}$, and $N_{IMC}$. Then, we find the maximum of $(N_{\nu_6}/0.37, N_{3:1}/0.27, N_{IMC}/0.2)$ corresponding to the source region that has the largest number of asteroids over the needed fraction. We artificially increase the number of the other two source regions and repeat this process until we reach the appropriate fractions for each source region. For both resurfacing mechanisms, we consider a range of possible parameters. Due to the computational cost of running the N-body integration, we reuse its results for each set of parameters. For each new parameter set, we select a new $S_{\text{max}}$ and $S_{OC}$ for each asteroid from the appropriate distribution, and evolve the spectral slopes according to the model and the specific parameters. There are two primary sources of uncertainty in calculating the windowed moving average from the modeled asteroids: (1) the selection of $S_{\text{max}}$ and $S_{OC}$ for each asteroid at the beginning of the simulation, and (2) the randomized artificial increase in the number of asteroids from underrepresented source regions. To reduce the uncertainty from these two sources, we run each set of parameters 12 times with randomized values of $S_{\text{max}}$ and $S_{OC}$ and randomized duplication of asteroids from underrepresented source regions for each iteration. The final spectral slope vs. perihelion distribution for a specific set of parameters is the combination of all of the spectral slope and perihelion pairs from all 12 iterations. After applying these iterations, we have almost 4 million total sets of perihelia and spectral slopes from all iterations (including all source regions) for each set of paparameters to compare to the NEA distribution in Fig. 3.3. We calculate the windowed moving average through the modeled spectral slope vs. perihelion NEA distribution with a window size of ±0.1 AU. We then calculate the Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) between the windowed moving averages of the observed spectral slope vs. perihelion distribution and the modeled distribution. A lower RMSE corresponds to a better fit, and we define acceptable solutions by the condition that ≥ 95% of the points on the modeled windowed moving average must fall within the 95% confidence intervals of the windowed moving average of the observed NEAs in Fig. 3.3. Due to the multiple iterations at each set of parameters, the uncertainties of the modeled distributions’ windowed moving averages are over an order of magnitude less than those from the observed distribution. Thus, we only consider the uncertainties from the observed distribution. In the next section, we include resurfacing from planetary close encounters in our model, and show the results in §5.3.2. 5.3 Resurfacing from Close Encounters 5.3.1 Methods To include resurfacing from close encounters, we follow the “NEA model” described in Nesvorný et al. (2010), except that we model the spectral slopes instead of the S vs. Q-type classification. We gather all close encounters in the simulation and select a maximum resurfacing distance, $ r^ $, in planetary radii ($ R_{pl} $) inside which all asteroids will experience a complete resurfacing event. By considering only the maximum resurfacing distance, we simplify the complex behavior of asteroids during close encounters, but we capture the average required resurfacing distance for a population of asteroids. Additionally, by using planetary radii, we approximately scale for tidal gravity between all planets (Richardson, 1998). After an asteroid experiences a resurfacing encounter with a planet, we select its spectral slope from the $ S_{OC} $ distribution to estimate an unweathered surface. Then, the asteroid incrementally weathers each time step due to the solar wind using Eq. 5.1. We simulate the spectral slopes vs. perihelion distribution for the range of space weathering timescales, $\tau_{SW0} = 10 \text{ kyr} - 100 \text{ Myr}$, and for maximum resurfacing distances, $r^* = 1.5 - 20 \ R_{pl}$. The range of space weathering timescales encapsulates those estimated through other studies with solar wind as the primary weathering agent (Brunetto et al., 2015). We extend the maximum range of the space weathering timescale to 100 Myr because better solutions were found at long timescales. The upper bound of maximum resurfacing distances of $20 \ R_{pl}$, is distant enough that we should not expect any tidal effects to be relevant at that distance (Richardson, 1998; Walsh and Richardson, 2008). ### 5.3.2 Results We plot the RMSE between the windowed moving averages of our simulated and observed distributions in Fig. 5.1 for the entire range of tested parameters. No set of parameters produce a windowed moving average that has $\geq 95\%$ of its points within the 95% confidence intervals of the observed distribution in Fig. 3.3. Also, there are no solutions that can match the steep slope of the linear regression at $q < 0.9 \text{ AU}$. Thus, no combination of $\tau_{SW0}$ and $r^$ can provide a spectral slope vs. perihelion distribution that resembles the observed NEA distribution. Fig. 5.2 shows the windowed moving average through the distribution of spectral slopes vs. perihelia and the linear regression at $q < 0.9 \text{ AU}$ for a simulation with $\tau_{SW0} = 100 \text{ Myr}$ and $r^ = 3.4 \ R_{pl}$. This combination of parameters represents the minimum RMSE for all tested parameters, with RMSE = 0.07 %/$\mu$m. The windowed moving average has the same window size as the observed moving average of $\pm 0.1 \text{ AU}$. The uncertainties on the modeled windowed moving average are smaller than the width of the line. We also show the windowed moving average and the linear regression at $q < 0.9 \text{ AU}$ for the observed NEAs reproduced from Fig. 3.3. The windowed moving average of the modeled distribution in Fig. 5.2 is visibly not a good fit for the observed spectral slope vs. perihelion distribution. There are large deviations between the observed and modeled windowed moving averages, especially at low perihelia. Additionally, the slope of the linear regression at $q < 0.9$ AU is $0.170 \pm 0.004\%/ \mu m/AU$, significantly different than the slope through the linear regression of observed NEAs ($0.52 \pm 0.21\%/ \mu m/AU$). From these results, we can confidently conclude that resurfacing asteroids from close encounters with the terrestrial planets is not a dominant resurfacing mechanism for S and Q-type NEAs. However, this conclusion is contrary to many previous studies (e.g., Marchi et al. 2006a; Binzel et al. 2010; Nesvorný et al. 2010; DeMeo et al. 2014; Carry et al. 2016). In §5.5.1, we discuss how the correlation between close encounters and Q-type asteroids found in many of these studies is most likely due to confounding variables. In the next section, we investigate a model for resurfacing asteroids from thermally induced degradation, and show that it can provide a better fit to the spectral slope vs. perihelion distribution in the NEA region compared to resurfacing from close encounters. ### 5.4 Resurfacing from Thermally Induced Surface Degradation #### 5.4.1 Methods It has been well established in the engineering literature that the growth rate of macroscopic cracks as a result of thermal fatigue goes as a power law with the induced cyclic stress (e.g., Janssen et al. 2002; Paris and Erdogan 1963; Le et al. 2014; Ritchie 2005). Measurements of such power laws are strongly dependent on the material size and shape, the size of the initial crack, and the environment, so they cannot be generalized to the case of asteroid surfaces. However, if we consider that the breakdown of boulders, production of regolith, and exposure of fresh material on these asteroids depends, in part, on the growth of many fatigue cracks in and across the surface, then it is not unreasonable to hypothesize that their convolved effect on the removal of space weathered surface material – or the resurfacing rate – also follows some power law with stress (a similar argument was also made in Marchi et al. 2009). Figure 5.1. A contour plot of the Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) between the observed spectral slope vs. perihelion windowed moving average and the windowed moving average of the asteroids generated by resurfacing from close encounters with the terrestrial planets. No combination of the parameters $\tau_{SW0}$ and $r^$ can generate windowed moving averages with > 95% of the points within the 95% confidence intervals of the observed distribution in Fig. 3.3. Figure 5.2. The windowed moving average and the linear regression at $q < 0.9$ AU of the asteroids’ spectral slope vs. perihelion distribution from resurfacing due to close encounters with the terrestrial planets for the best fit solution of $\tau_{SW0} = 100$ Myr and $r^ = 3.4 \ R_{pl}$. The dashed green line is the windowed moving average of the spectral slopes of the modeled asteroids. The uncertainty for the model windowed moving average is smaller than the thickness of the line. The solid orange line is the windowed moving average of the observed spectral slopes of the observed NEA asteroids and the shaded region is its uncertainty at a 95% confidence level (from Fig. 3.3). Both moving averages have a window size of $\pm 0.1$ AU. The dashed-dotted black line is the linear regressions for $q < 0.9$ AU of the modeled asteroids, and the solid black line is the linear regressions for $q < 1$ AU of the observed NEA. The modeled asteroid windowed moving average does not match that of the observed data. Only 42% of the points on the modeled windowed moving average fall within the error bounds of the observed moving average. For clarity, the error bars for the slopes of the linear regressions are not shown (see §5.3.2 for the errors), but the slope of the modeled asteroids’ linear regression does not match the steep slope of the observed and debiased linear regression at $q < 0.9$ AU. Additionally, the thermally induced stress in an object is directly proportional to the amplitude of its diurnal temperature range (e.g., Molaro et al. 2015). For fast rotating bodies (with periods less than one Earth day), such as most asteroids, the amplitude of its diurnal temperature range is primarily controlled by the solar distance (Marchi et al., 2009; Molaro et al., 2017). Thus, we make the reasonable assumption that the total rate of surface degradation on an asteroid’s surface has a power law relationship with the solar distance. For resurfacing to occur from thermal effects, the thermal cycling would cause cracks to form in boulders on the surface of the asteroid, and those growing cracks would eventually break off sections of the boulders’ surfaces. Then, any resulting debris or regolith would need to be moved across the surface or completely removed from the asteroid to expose the underlying unweathered material (see §5.5.2 for further discussion). Because space weathering only affects the upper microns of the regolith grains on an asteroid (Noguchi et al., 2011), any location where breakdown and subsequent surface movement or removal occurs will expose completely unweathered material. Additionally, the bulk spectral slope of an asteroid is a combination of the spectral slopes across all arbitrary subdivisions of the observed hemisphere. Thus, as small sections are resurfaced, the bulk spectral slope of the asteroid is lowered. However, if a highly weathered section is resurfaced, there will be a larger change in the bulk spectral slope than if a relatively unweathered section is resurfaced. Thus, the rate of change of an asteroid’s bulk spectral slope from thermally induced resurfacing should approximately depend on the current bulk spectral slope of the asteroid, assuming that the spectral slope doesn’t greatly change across the surface of the asteroid. In our model implementation, we assume that the averaged rate of change in the bulk spectral slope due to the resurfacing of small sections across the body linearly depends on the current bulk spectral slope of the asteroid. Specifically, we calculate the rate of change of the spectral slope as: \[ \left( \frac{dS}{dt} \right)_R = \frac{1}{\tau_R} (S_{OC} - S). \] (5.3) where $\tau_R$ is the e-folding resurfacing timescale. Eq. 5.3 satisfies the need for a more rapid rate of decrease in the spectral slope for more highly weathered asteroids. We also found that the exact formulation of the rate of change in the spectral slope due to resurfacing does not greatly alter our results. We then increment the spectral slope, $S$, at each time step using Eqs. 5.1 and 5.3. Due to our relatively large timestep of $10^4$ y, an incremental change in spectral slope can become large when $\tau_{SW}$ or $\tau_R$ become small. However, for a given $\tau_{SW}$ and $\tau_R$, there is a spectral slope ($S^$) between $S_{OC}$ and $S_{\text{max}}$ where the space weathering and resurfacing rate cancel each other. By setting Eq. 5.1 equal to the negative of Eq. 5.3, we find $$S^ = \frac{\tau_R S_{\text{max}} + \tau_{SW} S_{OC}}{\tau_R + \tau_{SW}}.$$ (5.4) We create a constraint that if an incremental step in spectral slope would cross $S^$, then we set $S = S^$. Following our argument at the beginning of this section, we let the resurfacing timescale, $\tau_R$, scale with the solar distance, $r$, raised to some unknown power $k$: $$\tau_R = \frac{\tau_{R0}}{(1\text{AU})^2} \oint r^{-k} dt = \frac{\tau_{R0}}{(1\text{AU})^2} \oint \frac{2\pi a^k (1 - e^2)^{k-3/2}}{(1 + e \cos(f))^{k-2}} df,$$ (5.5) where $f$ is the true anomaly, $P$ is the orbital period, and $\tau_{R0}$ is the resurfacing timescale at $a = 1$ AU and $e = 0$. As in Eq. 5.2, the integral is taken over one orbit. The integral in Eq. 5.5 cannot be solved analytically in general, but it can be solved numerically and rapidly with the use of Gaussian hypergeometric functions. Due to the limited constraints on thermally induced surface degradation, we have 3 relatively unconstrained parameters to explore: the space weathering and resurfacing timescales for a circular orbit at 1 AU, $\tau_{SW0}$ and $\tau_{R0}$ respectively, and the power law exponent controlling the dependence of the resurfacing timescale on solar distance, $k$. To simplify the parameter space, we searched over 10 logarithmically spaced values of space weathering timescales from $\tau_{SW0} = 10$ kyr – 10 Myr, and vary $\tau_{R0}/\tau_{SW0} = 10^{-1} - 10^8$ and $k = 1.5 - 35$. We use the parameter $\tau_{R0}/\tau_{SW0}$ instead of $\tau_{R0}$ because comparing the plots with different values of space weathering timescales $(\tau_{SW0})$ is more intuitive. ### 5.4.2 Results Fig. 5.3, shows three contour maps of the RMSE between the windowed moving averages of the modeled and observed spectral slope vs. perihelion distributions. The top, middle, and bottom plots are calculated with $\tau_{SW0} = 10$ kyr, 100 kyr, and 1 Myr respectively. We also shade acceptable solutions, where $\geq 95\%$ of the points on the windowed moving average of the modeled distribution are within the 95\% confidence intervals of the observed distribution. We find a small range of acceptable solutions for $\tau_{SW0} = 10$ kyr with $k \approx 5 - 10$, and $\tau_{R0}/\tau_{SW0} \approx 2 - 50$. For $\tau_{SW0} = 100$ kyr and $\tau_{SW0} = 1$ Myr, we find a large range of solutions with $k \gtrsim 6$ and $\tau_{R0}/\tau_{SW0} \gtrsim 5$, with no upper bound in the tested parameter space. Considering all 10 tested values of $\tau_{SW0}$, we find acceptable solutions with $\tau_{SW0} \lesssim 5$ Myr, $k \gtrsim 5$ and $\tau_{R0}/\tau_{SW0} \gtrsim 2$. We choose not to extend the parameter space for $k$ and $\tau_{R0}/\tau_{SW0}$ because higher values produce increasingly higher RMSEs, and exceedingly high values of $k$ are likely not physical. Fig. 5.4, shows the windowed moving average and the linear regression at $q < 0.9$ AU of the spectral slope vs. perihelion distribution for $\tau_{SW0} = 22$ kyr, $\tau_{R0}/\tau_{SW0} = 7$ ($\tau_{R0} \approx 150$ kyr), and $k = 8$. This combination of parameters represents the minimum RMSE for all tested parameters, with RMSE = 0.018 \%/$\mu$m. As in the Fig. 5.2, the windowed moving average has a window size of $\pm 0.1$ AU, and the uncertainty of the modeled distribution is smaller than the thickness of the line. We also show the windowed moving average and the linear regression at $q < 0.9$ AU for the observed NEAs. The parameters in Fig. 5.4 provide a very good fit to the spectral slope vs. perihelion distribution. The slope of the linear regression at $q < 0.9$ AU is 0.4656 $\pm 0.0005$ \%/$\mu$m/AU, which is also consistent with the observed distribution of NEAs. Figure 5.3. Three contour plots showing the RMSEs between the windowed moving averages of the spectral slope vs. perihelion distribution of the perihelion threshold resurfacing model and the observed data. The top, middle, and bottom frames show the RMSEs for the space weathering timescales of $\tau_{SW0} = 10$ kyr, 100 kyr, and 1 Myr respectively. The shaded regions correspond to solutions where $> 95\%$ of the points on the modeled windowed moving average fall within the error bounds of the observed moving average. For all tested values of $\tau_{SW0}$, the parameters that provide acceptable solutions are $\tau_{SW0} < 5$ Myr, $k \gtrsim 5$, and $\tau_{R0}/\tau_{SW0} \gtrsim 2$. Figure 5.4. Identical to Fig. 5.2 except showing the results for the solar distance-dependent resurfacing model for the parameters: $\tau_{SW0} = 22$ kyr, $\tau_{R0}/\tau_{SW0} = 7$ ($\tau_{R0} \approx 150$ kyr), and $k = 8$. These parameters represent the smallest RMSE between the windowed moving averages of the modeled and observed spectral slope vs. perihelion distributions of NEAs. We found that 100% of the points on the modeled windowed moving average fall within the error bounds of the observed moving average. The slope of the linear regression at $q < 0.9$ AU of the modeled asteroids also falls within the error bounds of slope of the linear regression for the observed and debiased data (see §5.4.2 for details). (0.52 ± 0.21 %/μm/AU). All of the acceptable solutions, which are shaded in Fig. 5.3, provide similar fits as the one shown in Fig. 5.4, and are able to match the slope of the linear regressions at $ q < 0.9 $ AU of the observed distribution of NEAs. When comparing Figs. 5.4 and 5.2, resurfacing asteroids from thermally induced surface degradation can provide a much better explanation for the decrease in spectral slopes at low perihelia. The large region of acceptable solutions supports solar distance dependent resurfacing as a natural explanation for producing the spectral slope vs. perihelion trend. However, a robust and quantitative conclusion for whether resurfacing from thermally induced degradation as a solar distance dependent resurfacing process is occurring on the surface of asteroids, may require precise knowledge of all three parameters $-\tau_{SW0}, \tau_{R0}$, and $k$. This work – specifically Fig. 5.3 – builds a functional relationship between these three parameters, and future work can help constrain the region of acceptable solutions. We discuss these results and additional qualitative and quantitative evidence for thermally induced surface degradation in §5.5.2. ### 5.5 Discussion By modeling the population of NEAs, we were able to test the effectiveness of resurfacing S and Q-type asteroids from either tidal effects during close encounters with the terrestrial planets or thermally induced degradation at low solar distances. We find that resurfacing from close encounters cannot adequately match the observed spectral slope vs. perihelion distribution, and that a thermally induced degradation process modeled as a solar distance dependent resurfacing model provides a much better fit. In this section we discuss both results. We show how previous studies supporting the close encounter mechanism are most likely confounded by an underlying distribution of less weathered asteroids at low perihelion. We also consider the acceptable solutions of the thermally induced surface degradation models and show that they agree with the process of thermal fracture on the surface of an asteroid. 5.5.1 Resurfacing from Close Encounters Resurfacing asteroids from close encounters with the terrestrial planets cannot generate a spectral slope vs. perihelion distribution that is consistent with the observed distribution. However, previous studies by Binzel et al. (2010) and Carry et al. (2016) used the correlation between Q-type asteroids and recent low Mean Orbital Intersection Distances (MOIDs) and low close encounter distances with the terrestrial planets instead of relying on the spectral slopes. Here, we argue that the correlations in these studies are confounded by the higher fraction of Q-types at low perihelia created by another resurfacing mechanism (such as thermally induced surface degradation). Binzel et al. (2010) cloned all observed Q and S-type NEAs and MCs, six times and conducted backwards simulations of all asteroids and clones. Over their 0.5 Myr integrations, they selected the lowest MOID from all timesteps for each asteroid and its clones, which we refer to at the minimum MOID. They found that all Q-type asteroids had a minimum MOID within the lunar distance, while this was not true for the S-types. Using binomial statistics, they found a probability of 0.9% that all Q-types would have a minimum MOID within the lunar distance if they were randomly sampled from the distribution of their population of S and Q-type asteroids. Even though Q-type asteroids were later observed in the NEA and MC regions that do not have a minimum MOID within the lunar distance (DeMeo et al., 2014), this statistical argument still suggests a strong correlation between Q-type asteroids and a low minimum MOID with Earth. Carry et al. (2016) used observations from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey, and conducted similar backwards simulations for NEAs and MCs with about 100 clones for each asteroid. They counted the number of close encounters of each asteroid and all of its clones with Venus, Earth, and Mars. They found that Q-type asteroids have more resurfacing encounters than S-types for Venus and Earth, but no difference between S-types and Q-types for encounters with Mars. They did not attempt to correlate each Q-type asteroid to a recent resurfacing event with a terrestrial planet, but they did conclude that Q and S-type asteroids are dynamically different and that Q-types tend to have more close encounters with Earth and Venus. Using the data from the supplementary material of Binzel et al. (2010), we found that 100% of all asteroids with $q < 0.9$ AU have a minimum MOID within the lunar distance of Earth, including 13 Q-type asteroids. Therefore, there is no significance that the Q-types at $q < 0.9$ AU have low minimum MOIDs because all asteroids in their study at $q < 0.9$ AU have low minimum MOIDs. If we remove these asteroids due to their lack of significance, and also remove the MCs from the calculation because they are unable to have low MOIDs with Earth, we find that the fraction of asteroids with $0.9 < q < 1.3$ AU with low minimum MOIDs is 30/42. The probability that all 7 Q-types with $0.9 < q < 1.3$ AU have a minimum MOID within the lunar distance if they are randomly sampled is $(30/42)^7 \approx 9\%$, much less significant than 0.9%. Additionally, the conclusion that Q-types tend to have more close encounters with Earth and Venus, on average, from Carry et al. (2016) is certainly correct. However, it is difficult to gain any insight into whether close encounters have actually resurfaced these Q-types unless we consider similar populations of S and Q-type asteroids. The majority of asteroids that Carry et al. (2016) considered for close encounters with Earth and Venus were MCs, and the majority of MCs that they observed are S-types. Q-type asteroids only comprised a significant fraction of their population for the NEAs. By including MCs that are heavily weighted towards S-types and that cannot have close encounters with Earth or Venus, the cumulative number of close encounters of S-type asteroids with Earth and Venus will naturally grow more slowly than Q-types, even if both S and Q-type NEAs have the same average number of close encounters. If the MCs were removed from the analysis, it is unclear if the remaining Q-types NEAs would have more close encounters with Earth and Venus than compared to S-type NEAs, and the significance of their results would certainly decrease. Furthermore, Nesvorný et al. (2010) found that resurfacing from close encounters with the terrestrial planets could explain the overall number of Q-types in the NEA population but could not match their orbital distribution. They noticed a bimodal distribution of Q-type asteroids at semi-major axes $a \lesssim 1$ AU and $a \gtrsim 1.5$ AU, which has since been smoothed out with more observations (DeMeo et al., 2014). However, they found that they were not able to match both populations simultaneously. In particular, when they used a space weathering timescale that scaled with solar wind irradiation $(1/r^2)$, they were unable to match the low $a$ (and low $q$) population, consistent with our inability to match the very low spectral slopes at low perihelia by resurfacing from close encounters. We conclude that tidal effects from close encounters with the terrestrial planets are not a dominant resurfacing mechanism for S and Q-type asteroids for the following reasons: (1) close encounters are unable to generate the observed spectral slope vs. perihelion distribution for any reasonable range of space weathering timescales and maximum resurfacing distances, and (2) the previous correlations between Q-type asteroids and low MOIDs or close encounters with the terrestrial planets in backwards simulations can be explained by a larger fraction of Q-type asteroids at low periheilion. It is possible that very close encounters with the terrestrial planets can still resurface some asteroids, but those events do not appear to play a large role in the population of S and Q-type asteroids. In the next subsection, we discuss the results from our thermally induced surface degradation model, which can provide a much more consistent fit to the observed spectral slope vs. perihelion distribution of NEAs. ### 5.5.2 Resurfacing from Thermally Induced Surface Degradation In §5.4.1, we cite evidence that suggests the breakdown of the surface of an asteroid due to thermal cycling can be well represented by a power law. However, we did not place any limits on the power law relationship, and allowed both $\tau_{R0}$ and $k$ to be unconstrained parameters. From the acceptable solutions of our solar distance dependent resurfacing model, we conclude that the process of thermally induced surface degradation produces a good representation of the observed spectral slope vs. perihelion distribution, only if our acceptable solutions are consistent with the process of thermal fracture. Here, we argue that the range of acceptable solutions are consistent, and that other observations and modeling studies qualitatively support the process of thermal breakdown at low perihelia. The acceptable values of $\tau_{SW0} \lesssim 5$ Myr generally fit with experimental results. Interestingly, this upper bound is barely consistent with the range of space weathering timescales at $a = 1$ AU and $e = 0$ required for YORP spin-up and failure to be a primary resurfacing mechanism for asteroids at small sizes found in Chapter 4, §4.1. If a solar distance dependent resurfacing process is the cause of the low spectral slopes at low perihelion, it could suggest that the YORP effect could be resurfacing asteroids more often than only at the fission spin rate, as assumed in Chapter 4. It could also mean that another process, such as impacts followed by seismic shaking, may be the dominant process for resurfacing asteroids at small sizes. The acceptable values of $k$ can provide additional insight. In our model, the timescale of resurfacing scales as $\tau_R \propto r^k$ with $k > 5$, and the best solutions found at lower values of $k$. This constraint is not surprising, as $k$ needs to be larger than 2 to overcome the increase in the rate of space weathering with decreasing perihelion, which is controlled by the amount of solar insulation. To consider how $k$ compares with the process of thermally induced degradation and with previous studies, it is useful to estimate the dependence of the thermally induced resurfacing timescale from our model on the induced thermal stress. From the arguments in §5.4.1, we assume that the resurface timescale goes as a power law with both thermal stress and solar distance. Furthermore, Molaro et al. (2017) give the relationship between induced thermal stress and solar distance: $\Delta \sigma_s \propto r^{-1.71}$. Thus, using $\tau_R \propto r^k$, we find $$\tau_R \propto \Delta \sigma_s^m = \Delta \sigma_s^{k/-1.71}$$ \hspace{1cm} (5.6) where $m \lesssim -3$ to match the range of acceptable solutions in our model, and the best fit solutions are around $m \approx -4.7$. One approach that has been used in the literature to estimate thermally induced degradation rates is to measure the rate of crack growth for a given boulder size and initial crack length based on induced stress. Migliazza et al. (2011) estimated the dependence of the rate of stable crack growth in a block of marble on the amplitude of induced thermal stress using the Paris law (Paris and Erdogan, 1963): $\frac{da}{dN} \propto \Delta \sigma_s^{3.84}$, where $a$ is the crack length and $N$ is the number of thermal cycles. Delbo et al. (2014) used this result, along with experimental measurements of thermally induced crack growth through meteorites in dry air, to estimate the rate of regolith production on asteroid surfaces. Our parameter would be consistent with that from Migliazza et al. (2011), if we were to assume that the rate of crack growth of a single macroscopic crack is inversely proportional to the resurfacing timescale of an asteroid ($\frac{da}{dN} \propto 1/\tau_R$). However, there are a number of critical issues with making this assumption, which are discussed extensively in Section 4 of Molaro et al. (2017). For one, the results from Migliazza et al. (2011) and Delbo et al. (2014) only quantify the stable regime of crack growth, neglecting the time it takes to form and grow a microcrack into a macroscopic feature. For an asteroid first undergoing strong thermal cycling, many macroscopic cracks may be present on the surface and the results of Delbo et al. (2014) may be accurate. However, to account for the complete and continuous resurfacing that is occurring at low perihelia, it is necessary to account for the total fatigue lifetime of the surface. This period can be orders of magnitude longer than that of stable crack growth (Janssen et al., 2002), suggesting that these models underestimate the total lifetime of objects undergoing breakdown, and thus would not produce the same scaling law as our resurfacing rate. Most importantly, thermally induced breakdown occurs over a range of geomorphic scales, and thus a thermally induced resurfacing rate should reflect the convolved effect of the thermally induced changes to the landscape as a whole. Since $\frac{da}{dN}$ is crack-size and block-size dependent, the behavior it describes is not representative of such a complex geomorphological process. Ultimately, we argue that the scaling law inferred from our analysis describes something different than the Paris law. A given value of $\tau_{R0}$ is difficult to translate into a timescale of a physical alteration of the surface of an asteroid because $\tau_{R0}$ only considers the spectrum of the entire asteroid. However, the rate of regolith production due to thermally induced surface degradation may be closely related. Recent studies of the properties of regolith particles returned from (25143) Itokawa by the JAXA Hayabusa spacecraft have attempted to predict the primary formation process of regolith on Itokawa. Michikami et al. (2018) argued that the axial ratio and shape distribution of the regolith fragments are consistent with being the products of impact fragments and not thermal fatigue. Tsuchiyama et al. (2011) argued that the well-rounded profiles of the regolith fragments could be due to abrasion from seismic-induced grain motion, but Hazeli et al. (2018) argued that the well-rounded profiles were consistent with thermal fatigue. Unfortunately, our range of acceptable results cannot help determine which mechanism of regolith production is the most dominant on Itokawa. Depending on the value of $\tau_{R0}$, the thermal breakdown rate at Itokawa’s perihelion of about 1 AU could create more or much less regolith compared to that generated by impacts. If a consensus on the presence or production rate of regolith on the surface of Itokawa is reached, we could place a direct constraint on $\tau_{R0}$ and greatly shrink the parameter space of acceptable values for $\tau_{SW0}$ and $k$ that would be necessary for thermally induced surface degradation to create the spectral slope vs. perihelion trend at $q \lesssim 0.9$ AU. Additionally, two spacecraft missions, OSIRIS-REx and Hyabusa2, are expected to return more regolith samples to Earth in the next five years. Even though these asteroids have different mineralogies than S and Q-type asteroids, studies of their regolith may provide important insights on the presence and rate thermal breakdown on the surface of asteroids. There are also separate observations and modeling results suggesting that thermal processes can drastically affect asteroids at low perihelia. The asteroid (3200) Phaethon has a perihelion of 0.14 AU, and has experienced unexpected brightening during multiple perihelion passages (Jewitt and Li, 2010; Li and Jewitt, 2013). The brightening is associated with an impulsive release of dust particles near its perihelion (Jewitt and Li, 2010). Due to the high temperatures reached on Phaethon’s surface, near surface water ice is not expected to survive. Thus, the most plausible explanation is that thermal fracture of the surface creates dust which is then removed by either the residual velocities of crack growth or through radiation pressure sweeping (Jewitt, 2012). Additionally, there is evidence that asteroids are completely disrupted at very low perihelia. The model of Granvik et al. (2016) was able to match the distribution of NEAs by instantaneously removing any asteroids from the simulation if they fell below a threshold perihelion, $q \sim 0.05 - 0.2$ AU. They did not directly model the disruption process, but did suggest 3 possible mechanisms: (1) thermal cracking and removal of grains from radiation pressure, (2) the spin up of asteroids to the point of disruption from the YORP effect (or a similar sublimation driven YORP effect; see Steckloff and Jacobson 2016), and (3) the sublimation of volatiles present inside the asteroid causing it to blow apart. If thermally induced surface cracking or degradation and the removal of grains from radiation pressure is the primary cause of asteroid resurfacing and disruption at low perihelia, it paints the picture that thermal processes first disrupt the surface of asteroids at a perihelion of $q \lesssim 0.9$ AU. Once the asteroid reaches a perihelion of $q \sim .05 - .2$ AU, thermal fracture becomes a runaway process and quickly disrupts the entire asteroid. As suggested by Jewitt (2012) and Granvik et al. (2016), the removal of dust via radiation pressure sweeping may play an important role in resurfacing and disrupting asteroids. Lofted particles can only be pushed away from an asteroid when the acceleration due to radiation pressure becomes larger than the acceleration due to the gravity of the asteroid. If the residual velocities from thermally induced surface cracking lofts particles off the surface of the asteroid, radiation pressure may push sufficiently small particles away from the asteroid (Jewitt, 2012). We note that simple dust removal (i.e. without any surface degradation) would not be sufficient to give a small asteroid an unweathered spectrum because the surfaces of boulders can be weathered just as effectively as loose material (e.g., Ishiguro et al. 2007). Thus, for an asteroid to have a completely unweathered spectrum, the surfaces of boulders on the asteroid would need to be disrupted to expose unweathered material. Conversely, surface degradation, followed by overturn or mass movement, without any dust removal, could resurface an asteroid, but it would naturally be a self-limiting process. The fast resurfacing timescale, $\tau_{R0} \approx 150$ kyr, of our best fit solution, shown in Fig. 5.4, would suggest that the surfaces of asteroids at the Earth’s orbit are broken down much more rapidly than the lifetime of NEAs ($\sim 10$ Myr; Gladman 2000). Other acceptable solutions permit significantly higher values of $\tau_{R0}$, but asteroids with lower perihelia would still experience surface degradation on a much faster timescale than their lifetimes. If the resulting surface degradation does not remove material from the asteroid, then a thick regolith layer would rapidly form and shut off further thermally induced resurfacing. For our model to accurately describe the distribution of spectral slopes at low perihelion, we require some level of dust removal to occur at least at lower perihelia. Fortunately, this process appears to be reasonable (e.g., Jewitt 2012; Granvik et al. 2016). If the weathered material is being removed from the surface in large amounts, we would expect to see a brightening of the asteroid shortly after the dust is released (Jewitt et al., 2015). However, no S or Q-type asteroids with low perihelia have been seen to show any cometary features (Jewitt, 2013). These observations suggest that (1) the removal of surface material is an ongoing process that is occurring very slowly ($\lesssim 1$ kg s$^{-1}$; Jewitt 2013), (2) the removal of material happens only periodically and wasn’t observed, or (3) the asteroids are somehow being resurfaced without the removal of surface material. It is puzzling that asteroids appear to be completely disrupted at low perihelion (Granvik et al., 2016), but we have only seen evidence of one asteroid (3200 Phaethon) losing mass in that region (Jewitt et al., 2015). From the above arguments, we cannot conclusively show that thermally induced surface degradation is resurfacing asteroids at low perihelia. However, it is consistent with other observations and our basic understanding of thermal fracture. Additionally, other resurfacing processes that could occur at low perihelia cannot explain the rapid change in resurfacing rates that is needed to match the observed spectral slope vs. perihelion distribution. YORP driven spin-up and failure has been cited as a possibility for resurfacing and disrupting asteroids at low perihelion (Nesvorný et al., 2010; Granvik et al., 2016). However, if space weathering is dominated by the solar wind, both the rate of spin-up and failure from the YORP effect (or a sublimation driven YORP effect) and the space weathering rate should identically scale with the amount of solar insolation (see e.g., Chapter 4, §4.1), resulting in no orbital dependence on the spectral slopes of asteroids. Granvik et al. (2016) also suggested that the sublimation of volatiles inside asteroids could cause them to blow apart. It could be possible that a similar sublimation of volatiles in the near surface could be breaking apart the surface of S and Q-type asteroids at a slightly higher perihelia than where these asteroids are disrupted. However, S and Q-type asteroids likely experienced heating to 600–960°C (Keil, 2000), most likely removing the majority of water content from the entire body and making a sublimation driven resurfacing process unlikely. 5.5.3 Testable Predictions of Thermally Induced Surface Degradation In the previous subsection, we discussed how the process of thermally induced surface degradation is a viable mechanism for resurfacing asteroids at low perihelia. Here we list a few testable predictions from our model: 1. The primary testable result from this study is that the timescale of thermal degradation must scale relatively strongly with solar distance and induced thermal stress. We estimate that the timescale of thermal degradation scales by $r^k$ where $k > 5$, and by $\Delta \sigma_s^m$ where $m < -3$, with the best fit solutions around $k \approx 8$ and $m \approx -4.7$. The value of $m$ could be potentially measured through experimental studies of thermally induced surface degradation with a focus on the entire breakdown process, from crack initiation to failure and disaggregation. These experiments would also need to consider the nature of the breakdown in a vacuum and in objects of different sizes. Finally, the changes in the bulk spectral measurements due to breakdown would need to be measured. 2. S and Q-type asteroids at low perihelion may have high thermal inertia (potentially higher than those with perihelia above $\approx 0.9$ AU) suggesting that they have lost loose material, or that the asteroid is blocky enough to allow significant thermal stresses to build up. 3. If asteroids are resurfaced through thermal effects causing the removal of material, evidence for dust lofting off these asteroids may be observable – even though it was not seen in Jewitt (2013). In particular, Q-types and S-types with low spectral slopes at very low perihelia would be good candidates for observations. However, the resurfacing and removal process needed to change the spectral properties of these asteroids does not require large amounts of material loss, and may be difficult to observe except in extreme cases (e.g., a total disruption like in Granvik et al. 2016). 4. Thermally induced degradation should be most effective where there is a large temperature change. If resurfacing is connected to thermal effects, then it should be focused in the equatorial regions of asteroids with obliquities near $0^\circ$ or $180^\circ$. If observational geometries allow for an observation biased toward the polar region of one of these asteroids, our model would predict that the asteroid’s spectrum would appear more weathered and have a higher spectral slope. 5. Finally, we expect any regolith that is present on asteroids with low perihelia ($q \lesssim 0.9$ AU) to be predominantly created by thermally induced degradation. Whether that regolith will look similar to the regolith on Itokawa is unclear (Tsuchiyama et al., 2011; Michikami et al., 2018; Hazeli et al., 2018), but asteroids at a lower perihelia would have a more pronounced effect. 5.6 Conclusion The spectral slopes of S and Q-type asteroids are a strong indicator of the amount of space weathering that has accumulated on their surfaces. Asteroids with lower spectral slopes have most likely been resurfaced recently, and the distribution of these low slopes gives us a powerful constraint to determine which potential resurfacing processes are the most dominant. There are two primary trends in the distribution of spectral slopes: (1) a decrease in spectral slope with decreasing perihelion, and (2) a decrease in the spectral slope with decreasing size. In this study, we tested whether close encounters with the terrestrial planets or thermally induced surface degradation could match the observed spectral slope vs. perihelion distribution. We limited our investigation to only the spectral slope vs. perihelion trend, as the trends are most likely created by different resurfacing processes, and the spectral slope vs. size trend was used as a constraint in Chapter 4. We found that resurfacing from close encounters could not reproduce the observed spectral slope vs. perihelion distribution for any reasonable combination of parameters. We also argued that previous results supporting close encounters as a viable resurfacing mechanism were due to confounding variables, as the correlation of Q-type asteroids’ past orbits with the terrestrial planets are confounded by the higher fraction of Q-type asteroids at low perihelia, most likely created by another resurfacing mechanism. We found that resurfacing from thermally induced degradation could accurately recreate the observed spectral slope vs. perihelion distribution. We found acceptable solutions with a space weathering timescale for a circular orbit at 1 AU of $\tau_{SW0} \lesssim 5$ Myr, a ratio of the resurfacing timescale to the space weathering timescale of $\tau_{R0}/\tau_{SW0} \gtrsim 2$, and a power law exponent controlling how strongly the resurfacing rate scales with solar distance of $k \gtrsim 5$. Our acceptable solutions for the power law scaling factor are broadly consistent with the process of thermally induced surface degradation and thermal fatigue. Additionally, other evidence, such as the unexpected brightening of asteroid (3200) Phaethon during its low perihelion passages (Jewitt, 2012) and the complete disruption of asteroids at very low perihelia (Granvik et al., 2016), can also be explained by thermally induced degradation followed by the removal of grains. While more work needs to be done to better constrain the process of thermal breakdown on the surface of asteroids, our work, and specifically Fig. 5.3, builds a functional relationship between the timescales of space weathering and thermally induced degradation, and the scaling law of thermal degradation which are required to resurface asteroids from thermal effects. 6 THE CREATION RATE OF ASTEROID PAIRS 6.1 Introduction Two asteroids with similar heliocentric orbits, but not gravitationally bound together, were found throughout the main belt by Vokrouhlický and Nesvorný (2008). Even when considering the variation in the number density of asteroids due to resonances and large asteroid families, these “asteroid pairs” have orbits that are more similar than is expected by random chance (Vokrouhlický and Nesvorný, 2008; Pravec and Vokrouhlický, 2009). Using the orbits of 370,000 asteroids, Vokrouhlický and Nesvorný (2008) found $\sim 60$ statistically significant pairs by measuring an orbital similarity distance between their osculating orbital elements and comparing them to the orbital similarity distribution generated by asteroids with randomly sampled orbits. Additionally, Rożek et al. (2011) compared $\sim 372,000$ orbits using mean orbital elements and found $\sim 100$ pairs, with a small dependence on the metric used to calculating the orbital similarity between two asteroids. Rożek et al. (2011) also found that by using the mean orbital elements, the orbital similarity distance between many pairs significantly decreased. After backwards N-body integrations of asteroid pairs, many were found to have close approaches to one another with low separation velocities (Vokrouhlický and Nesvorný, 2008, 2009; Pravec et al., 2010). The common history of these asteroids strongly suggests that they formed from a single asteroid or from a disassociated binary. Vokrouhlický and Nesvorný (2008) proposed that the pairs may be formed by 1) collisional disruption, 2) the radiative torque due to the irregularities on the asteroid, known as the Yarkovsky-O’Keefe-Radzievski-Paddack (YORP) effect (Rubincam, 2000; Bottke et al., 2006), causing the asteroid to spin up and fission, or 3) the disassociation of unstable asteroid binaries. Pravec et al. (2010) conducted observations on 35 asteroid pairs and found that all observed pairs had a mass ratio below about 0.2. For binary asteroids formed by rotational fission, the free energy, defined as the potential plus kinetic energy, minus the self-potentials of both objects, can help determine the outcome of the system (Pravec et al., 2010). A system with a mass ratio of $\gtrsim 0.2$ has positive free energy and can therefore escape due to internal dynamics. However, systems with mass ratios $\lesssim 0.2$ have negative free energy and cannot become unbound. Additionally, Pravec et al. (2010) found that primary asteroids spin more slowly as the mass ratio of the pair increases. If an asteroid pair is formed by rotational fission, a larger mass ratio will cause the secondary to carry a greater fraction of the angular momentum away from the system, slowing the spin rate of the primary. They also showed that the relationship between the mass ratio of the system and the primary’s spin rate agrees exceptionally well with formation by a rotational fission event. Both of these attributes of asteroid pairs give very compelling evidence that most are formed by YORP-induced rotational fission followed by a gravitational escape of the secondary. Another characteristic of asteroid pairs is their relatively young lifetimes, as most pairs have separated less than one million years ago (Vokrouhlický and Nesvorný, 2008; Pravec et al., 2010). These short lifetimes suggest that processes such as chaos, resonances, and a thermal radiation force causing a semimajor axis drift, known as the Yarkovsky effect (e.g., Bottke et al. 2006), can quickly disassociate asteroid pairs. Furthermore, they suggest that asteroid pairs must be created relatively rapidly to replace those that are disassociated. Assuming that the population of asteroid pairs is in a steady state, an estimate of either the rate of disassociation or the rate of asteroid pair creation can aid in the prediction of the other. In this study, we build a population of asteroid pairs in the inner main belt. We model the evolution rate of each member of the pair beginning at the same location and with slightly different velocities. From the end state of these simulations, we build an orbital similarity distribution of all modeled asteroids in the inner main belt and compare it to the observational distribution. By changing the rate of pair creation, we alter the modeled orbital similarity distribution, and we find a range of pair creation rates which sufficiently match the observational distribution. An estimation of the pair creation rate can give important insights in the process of YORP-induced rotational fission. We compare our results of the pair creation rate to those from previous theory-driven YORP evolution models (Jacobson and Scheeres, 2011; Jacobson et al., 2016). The relative difference between these timescales of the pair creation rate can place constraints on the process of YORP evolution and fission, which we can then also compare to previous YORP-evolution models (Marzari et al., 2011; Jacobson and Morbidelli, 2014; Bottke et al., 2015; Cotto-Figueroa et al., 2015; Graves et al., 2018). We can also directly calculate the effect of the rate of rotational fission on the size frequency distribution of the main belt, providing a separate estimate from the one in Jacobson and Morbidelli (2014). We discuss and compare our results with previous studies in §6.5. The rest of the chapter is organized as follows. In §6.2, we build the orbital similarity distribution of inner main belt asteroids which serves as the primary constraint for modeling. We remove asteroid pairs from the distribution that could not be formed by YORP. In §6.3, we outline our model to generate the orbital similarity distribution of inner main belt asteroids given a pair creation rate. We use an N-body simulation to track the evolution and disassociation of asteroid pairs. In §6.4, we show the results of our model. ### 6.2 Inner Main Belt Asteroid Pairs Created by YORP Fission In this study, we use the Drummond orbital similarity metric ($D_D$) to characterize and identify asteroid pairs (Drummond, 1981; Rożek et al., 2011): $$D_D^2 = \left( \frac{e_B - e_A}{e_B + e_A} \right)^2 + \left( \frac{q_B - q_A}{q_B + q_A} \right)^2 + \left( \frac{I_{BA}}{180^\circ} \right)^2 + \left( \frac{e_B + e_A}{2} \right) \left( \frac{\theta_{BA}}{180^\circ} \right). \quad (6.1)$$ The term $I_{BA}$ is the angle between the angular momentum vectors ($\mathbf{h}$) and $\theta_{BA}$ is the angle between the eccentricity vectors ($\mathbf{e}$) of the two asteroids (Rożek et al., 2011): $$I_{BA} = \cos^{-1} \left( \frac{\mathbf{h}_B \cdot \mathbf{h}_A}{h_B h_B} \right)$$ $$\theta_{BA} = \cos^{-1} \left( \frac{\mathbf{e}_B \cdot \mathbf{e}_A}{e_B e_B} \right)$$ (6.2) The Drummond orbital similarity distance which approaches zero as the orbits of two objects become more similar. It is a modified form of the metric created by Southworth and Hawkins (1963), and both metrics were created to compare meteor orbits and determine meteor stream membership. We chose the Drummond orbital similarity distance because Rożek et al. (2011) found it to show the best time stability in the main belt and it is relatively simple to calculate. However, these two metrics and the metrics created by Jopek (1993), Jopek et al. (2008), and Zappala et al. (1990) which was also later modified by Nesvorný and Vokrouhlický (2006) are all statistically equivalent when searching for asteroid pairs (Rożek et al., 2011). In fact, the metric created by Zappala et al. (1990) and modified by Nesvorný and Vokrouhlický (2006) was the one used in Vokrouhlický and Nesvorný (2008) to first identify asteroid pairs. To build the distribution of $D_D$ which we use as a constraint in our model, we retrieved all the asteroid orbits and absolute magnitudes from the Minor Planet Center (minorplanetcenter.net/iau/MPCORB/MPCORB.DAT) that fall within the inner main belt and have observations at multiple oppositions. We define the inner main belt as $a = [1.7, 2.5]$ AU, $q > 1.7$ AU, and $i < 15^\circ$. We limit our selection to the Inner Main belt because there are a significant number of pairs found there due to the higher degree of observational completeness compared to other regions of the main belt (Vokrouhlický and Nesvorný, 2008). We can also simplify the Yarkovsky forces in our model due to the limited range of semi-major axes and eccentricities. Rożek et al. (2011) found that when using the mean orbital elements, where the short periodic oscillations are removed, there are a greater number of asteroid pairs that can be picked out of the background population and the asteroid pairs tend to reside in more similar orbits. As both of those features essentially create a better signal to noise for the asteroid pairs in the orbital similarity distribution, we exclusively use the mean orbital elements in this study. To calculate the mean orbital elements we use the “prop9” tool in the OrbFit software suite (adams.dm.unipi.it/orbfit), which analytically calculates the mean and proper elements of an asteroid. We use the analytical tool instead of a numerical one due to the much faster execution speed. We calculate $D_D$ between each asteroid and its nearest neighbor that has a higher absolute magnitude using their mean orbital elements and Eq. (6.1). Finally, we remove all asteroid pairs from the distribution where $\Delta H < 1$ or $\Delta H > 3$, where $\Delta H$ is the difference between the magnitude of the secondary and primary asteroid in each pair. For an asteroid pair to be created by YORP, the mass ratio must be $q \lesssim 0.2$ which corresponds to $\Delta H \gtrsim 1$. Fig. 6.1 shows the resulting $D_D$ distribution of the inner main belt asteroids generated from mean orbital elements and restricted to $1 \leq \Delta H \leq 3$. We also show the $D_D$ distribution generated from a pair-free population. We describe how we calculate this distribution in §6.2.1. As in previous studies, the observed orbital similarity distribution deviates from the pair-free distribution at low values of $D_D$ (Vokrouhlický and Nesvorný, 2008; Rožek et al., 2011). The pair-free distribution shows that only $\approx 1 - 3$ asteroids with a $D_D \leq 10^{-3}$ are generated by random chance, but we find $\approx 55$ asteroid pairs with a $D_D \leq 10^{-3}$. ### 6.2.1 Pair Free Orbital Similarity Distribution In both Vokrouhlický and Nesvorný (2008) and Rožek et al. (2011), pair-free distributions were created by randomly sampling over the orbital elements of the asteroids in question. Vokrouhlický and Nesvorný (2008) considered the variation in the number density of asteroids to account for large-scale clumping from resonances and large families, and Rožek et al. (2011) randomly selecting each orbital element from the probability distribution of the real sample as if each element was an independent Figure 6.1. The cumulative distribution of the Drummond orbital similarity distance, $D_D$, between all inner main belt asteroids and their closest neighbor with a larger absolute magnitude. Each distance is calculated using the mean orbital elements of both asteroids, and we restricted the distribution to pairs of asteroids with $1 \leq \Delta H \leq 3$. A pair-free distribution is also shown, which is calculated from fuzzed mean orbital elements of all asteroids (see §6.2.1). The error bars of the pair-free distribution are generated from five instances of generating the fuzzed mean orbital elements. variable. Both of these methods are useful in the discovery of asteroid pairs, but they do not take into account the clumping of asteroids on a smaller scale, such as less prominent or young asteroid families. By not accounting for small scale clustering, any generated pair-free distributions will continue to deviate from the observed distribution at larger orbital similarity distances. This deviation can be seen in Fig. 1 of Vokrouhlický and Nesvorný (2008) and more clearly in Fig. 1 of Rożek et al. (2011). For this study, we want to isolate the signal of the close orbital similarity distances of asteroid pairs from all other factors to provide the best modeling constraint. To generate a pair-free distribution, we follow the method described in Section 2.4.1 of Schunová et al. (2012) with a few modifications. We slightly change, or “fuzz,” the position of each asteroid in its 5-dimensional orbital element space $(a, e, i, \Omega, \omega)$. For each asteroid, we find its two closest neighbors with higher magnitudes and calculate their Drummond orbital similarity distance with the current asteroid. Then, we randomly alter the asteroid’s orbit such that the Drummond orbital similarity distance between the new orbit and the old is, at most, the average of the distances of its nearest neighbors, which we call $D_{fuzz}$. To alter the orbit, we assume that $D_{fuzz}$ is formed solely by a change in each orbital element independently. We then calculate the change in each orbital element $(\Delta a, \Delta e, \Delta i, \Delta \Omega$ and $\Delta \omega)$ needed to independently generate $D_{fuzz}$ by using the appropriate terms in Eq. (6.1). We calculate $\Delta a$ by: \[ \Delta a = \frac{2aD_{fuzz}}{1 - D_{fuzz}}, \] and can solve for $\Delta e$ from: \[ D_{fuzz}^2 = \left( \frac{\Delta e}{\Delta e + 2e} \right)^2 + \left( \frac{\Delta e}{\Delta e - 2e + 2} \right)^2. \] For $\Delta i, \Delta \Omega,$ and $\Delta \omega,$ we numerically calculate $D_D$ via Eq. (6.1) for two sets of orbital elements that are identical except for the element in question and find the change in that orbital element (e.g., $\Delta a$) where $D_D = D_{fuzz}$. For asteroids that do not have a sufficiently close neighbor, the maximum differences $\Delta \Omega = \pm \pi$ or $\Delta \omega = \pm \pi$ may not create a large enough separation to generate $D_D = D_{fuzz}$. In those cases we set $\Delta \Omega = \pi$ or $\Delta \omega = \pi$. Then, we generate a fuzzed orbit $(a_f, e_f, i_f, \Omega_f, \omega_f)$ where each element $x$ is randomly generated within the range $\pm \Delta x$. We continue to randomly generate fuzzed orbits until $D_D \leq \bar{D}_{fuzz}$, where $D_D$ is calculated between the fuzzed orbit and the original orbit. We also check that the asteroid still falls within the bounds of the inner main belt (as defined in previously in this section). We use the average similarity distance between the two closest neighbors, $\bar{D}_{fuzz}$, instead of only the closest neighbor (as in Schunová et al. 2012) because we want to remove any arbitrarily close asteroid pairs from the population. Using only the closest neighbor, the very small $D_D$ of a very close asteroid pair can (and does) remain small. However, by taking the average of $\geq 2$ of the asteroid’s closest neighbors, a single very close pair does not keep its small $D_D$. Effectively, this method removes any statistically unusual pair of asteroids but keeps the small scale number density distribution of the population. We also calculated $\bar{D}_{fuzz}$ with the five closest neighbors and found a similar pair-free distribution. After we generate fuzzed orbits for all asteroids in the inner main belt, we calculate $D_D$ for each asteroid and its closest pair with a larger magnitude, using only the fuzzed orbits. After removing any asteroid that does not fall within $1 \leq \Delta H \leq 3$, we arrive at the distribution shown in Fig. 6.1. The pair-free distribution closely follows a power law with a slope of $\approx 4.7$ (similar to Vokrouhlický and Nesvorný 2008), but, it has a smaller deviation from the observed distribution at larger values of $D_D$ compared to both Vokrouhlický and Nesvorný (2008) and Rožek et al. (2011). ### 6.3 Model Construction In this section, we build a model pipeline to estimate the distribution of orbital separation distances ($D_D$) in the inner main belt for a given pair creation rate. The model pipeline is visualized as a flow chart in Fig. (6.2). Each rectangular box describes a main step in the pipeline and the ovals describe assumptions and parameters. Figure 6.2. A flowchart describing the progression of our model and data analysis. The black rectangles denote the major steps in the pipeline. The green ovals describe the parameters and assumptions made at one particular step. The orange oval is our primary free parameter (the pair creation rate) and the blue ovals are additional parameters that we varied. Each shape also contains section number(s) referring to where we discuss it in the chapter. that go into each step. We label each box with a section number to denote where we describe the details of each particular step. 6.3.1 Initial Conditions We initialize each asteroid with an absolute magnitude, orbit, albedo, and density with each variable randomly selected from the appropriate distribution. We generate the absolute magnitude of each asteroid by estimating the size-frequency distribution of the inner main belt asteroids down to the observational limit ($H = 20.3$). We use a combination of the observed inner main belt asteroids retrieved from the Minor Planet Center, and the estimated power law slope, $\alpha = 0.23$, from Gladman et al. (2009) at smaller absolute magnitudes to extrapolate to small sizes. We assume that the Inner Belt is observationally complete up to a magnitude of $H = 17.8$. We generated the albedo, $p_v$, of each asteroid from the bimodal distribution described in Masiero et al. (2011). First, we randomly selected whether the asteroid fell within the high or low albedo population. We applied an equal probability to fall within either population because the population sizes are approximately equal (see Fig. 8 and 10 in Masiero et al. 2011). Albedos for asteroids in the both populations were randomly selected from a Gaussian distribution of $\log_{10}(p_v)$, with a mean albedo $\mu = 0.06$ and a standard deviation $\sigma = \pm^{0.03}_{-0.02}$ for the low albedo population, and $\mu = 0.28$ and $\sigma = \pm^{0.13}_{-0.09}$ for the low albedo population (Masiero et al., 2011). Then, we generate the initial asteroid orbits from a Gaussian multivariate kernel density estimator built from the semi-major axis, eccentricity, and inclination of the inner main belt asteroids retrieved from the Minor Planet Center, and we randomize the orbital angles. We also choose a pair creation rate, defining the timescale that a particular asteroid will fission and create an asteroid pair. However, not all asteroids will fission into pairs at the same rate. Since YORP is the primary formation mechanism for creating pairs, we can assume that if YORP has a greater effect on an asteroid, then it will split into a pair more quickly. The change in the spin rate of an asteroid due to the YORP effect is (Scheeres, 2007; Rossi et al., 2009): \[ \dot{\omega} = \frac{3BG_1}{4\pi\rho a^2\sqrt{1-e^2}} \frac{1}{R^2} C_y \] (6.5) where $ B $ is the Lambertian scattering coefficient, $ G_1 $ is the solar radiation constant, $ \rho $ is the density of the asteroid, $ C_y $ is a non-dimensional YORP coefficient, $ R $ is the volumetric mean radius of the asteroid, and $ a $ and $ e $ are its semi-major axis and eccentricity. The relative strength of the YORP effect between two asteroids is a function of the density, semi-major axis, eccentricity, radius, and YORP coefficient of each asteroid. However, the YORP coefficient, which contains information about the asteroid’s shape and moments of inertia, should not depend on other characteristics of the asteroid. Additionally, it is not necessarily consistent over long periods of time. Thus, we do not consider it when considering relative strength of the YORP effect. In our model, we calculate the probability of an asteroid splitting into a pair during a timestep, $ dt $, as a function of the relative strength of the YORP effect and a reference pair creation timescale ($ \tau_{\text{pair}} $): \[ P_{\text{pair}} = \frac{dt}{\tau_{\text{pair}}} \left( \frac{\text{km}}{R} \right)^2 \left( \frac{2000 \text{ kg/m}^3}{\rho} \right) \left( \frac{2.5 \text{ AU}}{a} \right)^2 \frac{1}{\sqrt{1-e^2}}. \] (6.6) Due to the dependence of Eq. (6.6) on $ \rho $, we also give each model asteroid a density. We assign asteroids from the low albedo population a density of 1000 kg/m$^3$ and give a density of 2000 kg/m$^3$ to the asteroids from the high albedo population, corresponding to approximate densities of C and S-type asteroids that have diameters of $ \sim 1-5 $ km (Carry, 2012). For each pair, we must determine the size of the primary and secondary members. In our nominal model, we assume that the absolute magnitude difference, $ \Delta H $, between the secondary and the primary of each pair follows a distribution with a linearly increasing probability density with increasing $ \Delta H $: $ f(\Delta H) = 0.5\Delta H - 0.5 $. We also test two other initial distributions: (1) a uniform distribution in $ \Delta H $, and (2) a uniform distribution in the mass ratio distribution $ q $. We restrict $ 1 \leq \Delta H \leq 3 $. for all distributions. We use the distribution with a linearly increasing probability density with increasing $\Delta H$ as our nominal choice because the best fit results in §6.4 correspond to this distribution. We then determine the magnitude of each asteroid by applying a conservation of mass condition: $$H_p = H_0 + \frac{5}{3} \log_{10} \left( 1 + 10^{-3\Delta H/5} \right)$$ $$H_s = H_p + \Delta H,$$ where $H_0$, $H_p$, $H_s$ are the pre-fissioned, primary, and secondary asteroids’ magnitudes. We generate 517,655 asteroids, which corresponds to the number of predicted asteroids in the inner main belt down to the observational limit of $H < 20.3$. We then choose a pair creation rate, or pair formation timescale $\tau_{\text{pair}}$, and randomly generate the asteroid pairs throughout a period of 10 Myr, saving their formation times. Before we begin the time-consuming N-body simulation of each asteroid pair, we apply a simple observational selection effect to test if each pair would be observed. We assume that the relatively constrained region of the inner main belt will remove any strong dependence on orbit and that the fraction of observed to predicted asteroids at a specific absolute magnitude represents the probability of being observed. We then calculate the fraction of observed vs. predicted asteroids by dividing the slope of the observed cumulative size frequency distribution by the slope of the predicted cumulative size frequency distribution. Both the primary and secondary member of each pair must be observed in order to feed them into our N-body simulation. The last initial condition needed for the N-body simulation is the initial orbital elements of the primary and secondary asteroids. We place both members at the orbit of the pre-fissioned asteroid and then apply a relative velocity kick to the secondary in the orbital plane of the pre-fissioned asteroid. We only apply the kick in the orbital plane because an asteroid that is highly evolved by YORP (i.e. one that has been spun up to fission), will also evolve its orbital pole to $0^\circ$ or $180^\circ$ (Čapek and Vokrouhlický, 2004; Vokrouhlický et al., 2015). An asteroid that has fissioned from another one will have a velocity that is primarily in the plane of rotation, and, therefore, in the plane of the pre-fissioned asteroid’s original orbit. From the backwards simulations of Vokrouhlický and Nesvorný (2008) and Pravec et al. (2010), asteroid pairs appear to separate with relative velocities that are less than the escape velocity of the asteroid. We assume that the separation velocity is $\Delta v = \beta v_{esc}$ for all asteroids, where $v_{esc}$ is the escape velocity of the asteroid and $\beta$ is a free parameter. In the supplementary material of Pravec et al. (2010), they show that many of the well characterized backwards simulations suggest that the relative separation velocities are $\sim 1/10$ of the escape velocity. We test three values: $\beta = 0.05, 0.2,$ and $0.5$. ### 6.3.2 N-body Simulation After building the initial conditions for all asteroid pairs, we evolve them with the Regularized Mixed Variable Symplectic (RMVS) integrator from the SWIFTER N-body code (Levison and Duncan, 1994). We include seven planets (Venus - Neptune), and run the simulation for 10 Myr with a 15 day timestep. A shorter timestep of 7.5 days does not produce statistically different results. We include a simplified Yarkovsky effect by applying a transverse acceleration to each asteroid, following Vokrouhlický and Nesvorný (2008): $$a_T = \frac{n^2 a}{2v} \frac{da}{dt}$$ \hspace{1cm} (6.9) where $n$ and $v$ are the mean motion and current velocity of the asteroid, and $da/dt$ is the average change in the semi-major axis of the asteroid from the Yarkovsky force. The value of $da/dt$ has been estimated from previous studies (e.g., Bottke et al. 2006; Granvik et al. 2016), for asteroids at a given size and orbit. Here, we calculate $da/dt$ as a function of the asteroid’s density and diameter following Granvik et al. (2016): $$\frac{da}{dt} = \pm \left( \frac{da}{dt} \right)_0 \left( \frac{1 \text{ km}}{D} \right) \left( \frac{2000 \text{ kg/m}^3}{\rho} \right)$$ \hspace{1cm} (6.10) where $(da/dt)_0 = 2 \times 10^{-4} \text{ AU/Myr}$. As in Granvik et al. (2016), we including only a maximum and minimum $da/dt$, because most small asteroids have obliquities near 0 or $180^\circ$ (Hanuš et al., 2011), which is especially true for asteroids highly evolved by YORP. Because the diurnal component of the Yarkovsky effect usually dominates, the bimodality of the asteroids’ obliquities will create a bimodality in the resulting Yarkovsky force (Bottke et al., 2006). Additionally, since both members of each pair have the same rotational direction, they will evolve in the same direction, and have the same sign in Eq. (6.10). At the end of the N-body simulations, we sample the orbital elements of each asteroid pair at the end of the 10 Myr period over which the asteroid pairs were generated. For example, if an asteroid pair was generated at 2 Myr, we extract the orbital elements after 8 Myr have passed in the N-body simulation. We also extract the orbital elements of the planets at the same times to calculate the mean orbital elements of each asteroid. From the mean orbital elements, we then calculate $D_D$ between each asteroid and its pair. Finally, we combine the $D_D$ of all simulated asteroid pairs with the pair-free distribution generated in §6.2.1 to generate a model $D_D$ distribution for the entire inner main belt, and compare it with the observed $D_D$ distribution shown in Fig. (6.1). The primary free parameter for our model is the rate of pair creation, $1/\tau_{\text{pair}}$, but we also vary $\beta$, the coefficient that describes the initial separation velocity of each asteroid pair as a function of the primary’s escape velocity, and the initial distribution of the size difference between the secondary and primary asteroids. We also repeat the entire simulation including the creation of the asteroids in the inner main belt, forming the asteroid pairs, and integrating their orbits five times and use the average $D_D$ distribution to compare with observations. ### 6.4 Results Fig. (6.3) shows the observational $D_D$ distribution from the inner main belt as well as distributions for three pair creation rates from our nominal model, with pair creation rates of 0.005, 0.011, and 0.022 Myr$^{-1}$ for an asteroid with $D = 1$ km, $a = 2.5$ AU, $e = 0$, and $\rho = 2000$ kg/m$^3$. We show a distribution created with a pair creation rate of 0.011 Myr$^{-1}$ that matches the observed distribution extremely well, as Figure 6.3. The cumulative distribution of the Drummond orbital similarity distance, $D_D$, between all observed inner main belt asteroids (black) and three different nominal model runs (gray) with varying pair creation rates. The observed $D_D$ distribution is identical to that in Fig. 6.1. All model runs are generated using N-body simulations with an initial separation velocity of $\Delta v = 0.2v_{esc}$, and the differential magnitude between the members of each pair are selected from linearly increasing probability density with increasing $\Delta H$ (see §6.3.1). The three model runs have pair creation rates of 0.005 Myr$^{-1}$ (bottom), 0.011 Myr$^{-1}$ (middle), and 0.022 Myr$^{-1}$ (top). The middle model run generates a the best fit to observations of all tested parameters, while the other runs under- and over-predict the number of asteroid pairs. well as two distributions created from pair creation rates 0.005, and 0.022 Myr$^{-1}$ that under-estimate and over-estimate the number of asteroid pairs. Using a two-sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov test on the observed and modeled pairs with $D_D \leq 10^{-3}$, we find that for distributions generated with a pair creation rate of $0.008 - 0.013$ Myr$^{-1}$, the null hypothesis that the samples are drawn from the same distribution cannot be rejected at a 95% confidence level. We choose $D_D \leq 10^{-3}$ as a reference point for determining asteroid pairs that are most likely not generated by random chance. Similar cutoffs do not generate different results. We can also represent our results as the number of YORP cycles needed to create an asteroid pair. We assume that a YORP cycle is twice the amount of time needed to change an asteroid’s spin rate from zero to a fissioning spin rate, assuming a constant YORP acceleration. Assuming asteroids fission at a spin period of $\approx 2.5$ hours, we can use Eq. (6.5) to estimate the average timescale of a YORP cycle, $\bar{\tau}_{\text{YORP}}$, for an asteroid with $a = 2.5$ AU, $e = 0$, and $\rho = 2000$ kg/m$^3$. We also assume an average value for $C_y = 0.01$ (e.g., (Jacobson and Morbidelli, 2014)), and we find $\bar{\tau}_{\text{YORP}} = 9.7$ Myr. Thus, we predict that asteroids fission and create an asteroid pair every 8-13 YORP cycles. An important result from the backwards simulations of asteroid pairs is that most pairs have ages less than 1 Myr (Pravec et al., 2010). In Fig. (6.4), we show the distribution of the ages of all asteroid pairs with $D_D \leq 10^{-3}$. The majority of pairs are very young, with $\approx 85\%$ of all pairs generated in the last 1 Myr, consistent with Pravec et al. (2010). We show the three initial distributions of the size difference between the primary and secondary members of each pair in the upper plot of Fig. (6.5). In the lower plot, we show the final differential magnitude distribution resulting from the three different initial distributions. We only consider the pairs with $D_D \leq 10^{-3}$. We also show the differential magnitude distribution of observed asteroid pairs. Our nominal model with a linearly increasing probability density with increasing $\Delta H$, matches Figure 6.4. The age distribution of all asteroid pairs with $D_D \leq 10^{-3}$ at the end of our simulations. This distribution is generated from the best fit simulation parameters (see §6.4), and the error bars are the standard deviations from the five separate simulations. The ages of most pairs are very young with $\approx 85\%$ having separated less than 1 Myr ago, qualitatively consistent with Pravec et al. (2010). the observations well, but the other two initial initial distributions over-predict the number of higher mass ratio pairs. We also varied the initial separation velocities between the secondary and primary of each asteroid pair. For $\beta = 0.05$ and $\beta = 0.05$, we find very similar best fit ranges for pair creation rates of $0.008 - 0.012 \text{ Myr}^{-1}$ and $0.009 - 0.012 \text{ Myr}^{-1}$, respectively. However, the model with $\beta = 0.2$ best matches the power law slope at $D_D \lesssim 10^{-3}$, while a higher value of $\beta$ steepens the slope and lower value of $\beta$ shallows it. 6.5 Discussion Our estimation that an asteroid creates an asteroid pair every 8-13 YORP cycles can provide important insight into the process of YORP-induced evolution and rotational fission. Previous models (Marzari et al., 2011; Jacobson and Scheeres, 2011; Jacobson and Morbidelli, 2014; Bottke et al., 2015; Jacobson et al., 2016; Graves et al., 2018) have calculated the rate of fission from YORP-induced spin-up by using theoretical calculations (e.g., using Eq. 6.5), and making a few critical assumptions. In particular, these models must decide how asteroids evolve at very low and very high spin rates. At very low spin rates, the process of YORP evolution can potentially become stagnant, and other processes such as impacts may play an important role in their evolution (Marzari et al., 2011). At very high spin rates, many of the models listed above assume that the asteroid will fission and then settle into a shape that allows the YORP effect to decrease its spin rate. However, the dynamics at high spin rates are poorly understood. It is unclear if asteroids will always fission when they reach very high spin rates, or if it is common for surface or internal failure to cause a significant change in the shape of the asteroid and change the direction of the YORP acceleration before fission occurs. Another important assumption that previous YORP-evolution models had to make was the presence, or lack thereof, of Stochastic YORP. Stochastic YORP is the idea that the YORP effect is highly dependent on the exact shape and inerFigure 6.5. The three tested initial differential magnitude distributions and their resulting effect on the differential magnitude distribution of modeled asteroid pairs. In the top plot, we show the probability density functions of each initial differential magnitude distribution that we tested. In the bottom plot, we show the fraction of pairs in each differential magnitude bin for the three initial distributions. Only the initial distribution generated from a linearly increasing probability density with increasing $\Delta H$ generates a differential magnitude distribution of asteroid pairs that resembles observations. The initial distributions generated from a flat distribution in $\Delta H$ or $q$ both over-predict the fraction of low differential magnitudes ($\Delta H \sim 1$) and under-predict the fraction of high differential magnitudes ($\Delta H \sim 2 - 3$). tial distribution of the asteroid, and that by altering the shape of an asteroid from collisions, surface mass movement, or internal deformation can drastically change the strength - and possibly direction - of the YORP effect (Statler, 2009; Bottke et al., 2015; Cotto-Figueroa et al., 2015). Some models have accounted for Stochastic YORP through estimating the effects of collisions on each asteroid (e.g., Marzari et al. 2011; Jacobson and Morbidelli 2014; Bottke et al. 2015; Jacobson et al. 2016) and others have not considered any Stochastic YORP, allowing asteroids to steadily evolve from low to high spin rates, and vice versa (Rossi et al., 2009; Graves et al., 2018). Additionally, Cotto-Figueroa et al. (2015) accounted for Stochastic YORP by considering the change in the shape of asteroids as their potentials change due to YORP-induced evolution of their spin rates. Cotto-Figueroa et al. (2015) argued that Stochastic YORP could drastically decrease the rate of YORP-induced rotational fission by trapping asteroids in self-limiting cycles. Our study does not rely on a YORP evolution model, and thus, we do not need to make any of the assumptions discussed above. However, by comparing our modeled pair creation rate with the pair creation rate determined from a theory-driven YORP evolution model, we can put constraints on the efficiency of YORP at fissioning asteroids. The pair creation rate is effectively measuring three entangled components: (1) the rate an asteroid evolves to a high spin rate via YORP and subsequently fissions, (2) the probability that the fissioned asteroid produces a low mass ratio binary (with the mass ratio $q \lesssim 0.2$), and (3) the probability that a low mass ratio binary will quickly become gravitationally unbound. There is also a possibility that asteroid pairs are formed from a radiation effect acting on a tidally locked binary asteroid (known as the binary YORP effect; Ćuk and Burns 2005). The binary YORP effect can cause the expansion of a binary asteroid, eventually leading to the separation of the two bodies. However, this process should only play a minor role in creating asteroid pairs. The relationship between the spin rate of the primary and the mass ratio of most asteroid pairs from Pravec et al. (2010) means that most asteroid pairs were formed from an asteroid that was very near the critical spin rate. Binary asteroids that evolve via the binary YORP effect require that the bodies are tidally locked (Ćuk and Burns, 2005). Thus, as they expand, the spin rate of the primary slows down and would not correspond to the relationship found in Pravec et al. (2010). Using the results from Jacobson and Scheeres (2011) and Jacobson et al. (2016), we can estimate the pair creation rates from their theory-driven YORP evolution models. Jacobson and Scheeres (2011) found the probability that a low mass ratio binary will quickly become gravitationally unbound to be approximately 70%. Jacobson et al. (2016) used a YORP evolution model paired with a binary evolution model to estimate the ratio of high mass to low mass ratio binaries. Since they used a YORP evolution model, they needed to make many of the assumptions discussed above. They assumed that there is no YORP stagnation at low spin rates, that an asteroid will fission every time it reaches a very high spin rate, and that the only source of Stochastic YORP is due to collisions. Using those assumptions, they found that high mass ratio binaries form 4-8 times more often as low mass ratio binaries. Finally, we can roughly assume that the effect of impact-induced Stochastic YORP will not significantly alter the timescale to fission, since a collision will approximately have the same chance of increasing or decreasing the spin rate of the asteroid. Thus, we assume that the YORP cycle that we defined in §6.4 is equal to the timescale to fission from Jacobson et al. (2016). Putting these three components together, we find that the models of Jacobson and Scheeres (2011) and Jacobson et al. (2016) predict a pair creation timescale of $\sim 6 - 11$ YORP cycles. The similarity between the estimated pair creation timescales between this study and those of Jacobson and Scheeres (2011) and Jacobson et al. (2016) supports many of the assumptions made in Jacobson et al. (2016). Most importantly, the average rate of YORP-induced fission must be very similar to that used in Jacobson et al. (2016). Specifically, there cannot be a significant amount of YORP stagnation at low spin rates and most asteroids must fission when they reach very high spin rates. Additionally, the effect of Stochastic YORP on the rate of YORP-induced rotational fission appears to be minor. The trapping of asteroids in self-limiting YORP cycles, as suggested in Cotto-Figueroa et al. (2015), cannot occur for a significant number of asteroids or for large periods of time. If any of these assumptions were not true, then the pair creation rate would be lower than what we found in this study. Another important result is that the distribution of asteroids which fission into low mass ratio ($q \lesssim 0.2$) binaries/pairs appears to skew towards lower mass ratios. Fig. (6.5) showed that a distribution with a linear increase in the probability density function from 0 at $\Delta H = 1$ to 1 at $\Delta H = 3$ creates much better observed differential magnitude (or mass ratio) distribution compared to initial distributions with more pairs formed at lower values of $\Delta H$. The distributions that are uniform $\Delta H$ or $q$ create more pairs with lower $\Delta H$, due to a much larger population of pairs at smaller sizes. Smaller asteroid pairs, where the primary is closer to the observational limit, will most likely only be observed if $\Delta H$ is small. We also compared the sizes of the primary asteroids, and found that the nominal distribution of $\Delta H$ is a much better fit. The other two distributions over estimate the number of asteroid pairs at $H \gtrsim 17$. Our best fit initial $\Delta H$ distribution suggests a strong bimodality in the mass ratios of asteroids fissioned by YORP spin-up, where both high mass and low mass ratio fissioning can occur but we should find fewer asteroid pairs/binaries with $q \approx 0.1-0.2$. If we use the pair creation rate, paired with the mass loss per fission and pair creation, we can also estimate the rotational disruption rate due to YORP spin-up and fission. By using our initial distribution of $\Delta H$, we find the average mass ratio is $\bar{q} \approx 0.05$. In estimates of collisional disruption rates of asteroids, a common metric is the timescale to break apart an asteroid such that at most half of its original mass is in the largest fragment (e.g., Bottke et al. 2005). From our best estimate of the pair creation rate, 0.008-0.013 Myr$^{-1}$, we can roughly estimate the average timescale for an asteroid to lose half of its mass from rotational fission: $0.75 - 1.25 \left( \frac{1\text{km}^2}{D^2} \right) \left( \frac{1\text{AU}}{a^2} \right)$ Gyr. For this quick estimate, we ignored the effect of the decrease in diameter of the primary after each fission. Regardless, this estimate suggests that rotational fission plays a less significant role than collisional disruption ($t_{\text{coll}} \sim 100$ Myr; Bottke et al. 2005) on the size-frequency distribution of the main belt. Finally, a measure of the pair creation rate can be used to make an estimate if, and at what sizes, we may observe asteroid pairs in the Near-Earth Asteroid (NEA) population. We have not yet observed any NEA pairs (Schunová et al., 2012). The chaotic nature of NEA orbits suggests that the detectability lifetimes of asteroid pairs would drastically reduced, but their small sizes and orbits that take them closer to the Sun should increase their rate of rotational fission from the YORP effect. A similar model as the one used in this study could make this estimate, but it is left for future work. 6.6 Conclusion Most asteroid pairs are formed from YORP-induced rotational fission followed by a rapid escape of the secondary. By tracking the evolution of simulated asteroid pairs and comparing their distribution to the observed distribution, we can estimate the rate of pair creation, and gain insight into the process of YORP evolution and fission. In this study, we restricted our analysis to the inner main belt, and calculated the distribution of the Drummond orbital similarity distance, $D_D$ between each asteroid and its nearest neighbor with a larger absolute magnitude. We only considered pairs where the differential magnitude between the secondary and the primary is $1 \leq \Delta H \leq 3$, to limit our population to the pairs that could only be formed by YORP fission. We calculated the values of $D_D$ from the mean orbital elements due to their effectiveness at identifying asteroid pairs (Rożek et al., 2011). We also generated a pair-free distribution in the inner main belt by taking each asteroid and “fuzzing” its orbit to remove any pairs of asteroids with an anomalously low $D_D$. We then built a model to simulate the creation and disassociation of asteroid pairs in the inner main belt. We estimated the population of asteroids in the inner main belt and simulated the creation of asteroid pairs over 10 Myr with a set pair creation rate. We also scaled the relative creation rate by the rate at which the YORP effect changes the spin rate of an asteroid. Each asteroid pair was given a differential magnitude, $\Delta H$, or mass ratio, $q$. We tested three different differential magnitude distributions in our model: (1) a linearly increasing probability density with increasing $\Delta H$, (2) a uniform distribution in $\Delta H$, and (3) a uniform distribution in $q$. The secondaries of each pair were also given a relative velocity kick in a random direction within their orbital plane. The size of the kick was set to a fraction of the escape velocity, and we tried three different values $\beta = 0.05, 0.2,$ and $0.5$, where $\Delta v = \beta v_{esc}$. We applied an absolute magnitude-dependent observational selection to the model population and tracked the orbits of all generated asteroids for 10 Myr in an N-body simulation, which included a simplified Yarkovsky force. Then, we extracted the orbits of all asteroid pairs at the end of the 10 Myr model time, and generated their mean orbital elements. We calculated $D_D$ of all of the asteroid pairs and combined them with the pair-free $D_D$ distribution. By comparing the observed and modeled $D_D$ distributions we found the best-fit pair creation rate to be $0.008 - 0.013$ Myr$^{-1}$. We also found that the initial differential magnitude distribution between the members of each pair with a linearly increasing probability density with increasing $\Delta H$ to best fit the differential magnitude distribution of the observed pairs. The other initial differential magnitude distributions over-predicted the number of higher mass ratio pairs. We also found that the choice of $\beta$ did not greatly affect the best-fit pair creation rate. However, the solution with $\beta = 0.2$ best fit the observed power law slope at $D_D \leq 10^{-3}$, while $\beta = 0.05$ and $0.5$ under-predicted and over-predicted the observed slope, respectively. The best fit pair creation rate corresponds to an asteroid pair forming every 8-13 YORP cycles. This pair creation rate is consistent with results from Jacobson and Scheeres (2011) and Jacobson et al. (2016), suggesting that our results support many of the assumptions in their models. Specifically, our results argue for a lack of any significant self-limitation or stagnation of YORP evolution. Finally, our results suggest a lack of importance of YORP-induced rotational disruption on the size frequency distribution of the main belt. Due to the steep skew towards asteroid pairs being formed with a larger $\Delta H$ (or a smaller mass ratio), the timescale for an asteroid to lose a significant fraction of its mass is much smaller than the timescale from catastrophic collisions. 7 CONCLUSION Chapters 4, 5, and 6 all have their own conclusions that are contained within the context of each individual study. However, it is also important to consider the combined conclusions from all three. In particular, Chapters 2-5 are all focused on determining the major resurfacing mechanisms that are present on S and Q-type asteroids. Another important connection is between Chapters 4 and 6, since Chapter 6 directly addresses many of the assumptions used in the YORP-induced evolution model developed in Chapter 4, §4.1. I discuss those combined conclusions here, and leave with ideas for future work. In Chapter 2, §2.2, I discuss six mechanisms that are expected to resurface asteroids: 1. Catastrophic collisions, 2. Impact gardening, 3. Non-catastrophic collisions followed by seismic shaking, 4. Tidal effects from close encounters with the terrestrial planets, 5. YORP-induced spin-up and failure or fission, and 6. Thermally-induced surface degradation. All of these mechanisms can certainly resurface some asteroids, but it can be difficult to determine the relative effectiveness of each mechanism. As discussed in Chapter 2, §2.2, quick calculations and previous studies have suggested that all of these mechanisms could play a dominant role in the creation of less weathered asteroids, except for catastrophic collisions. Thus, a constraint is needed to quantitatively test the effectiveness of each mechanism. In Chapter 3, I showed that the distribution of spectral slopes provided a powerful constraint to determine the most dominant resurfacing mechanisms. I showed that the distribution of spectral slopes has two primary trends, which can reasonably explain the presence of all Q and S-type asteroids with low spectral slopes. I show that the average spectral slope decreases with decreasing size for asteroids with $D \lesssim 5$ km and that the average spectral slope decreases with decreasing perihelion for $q \lesssim 0.9$ AU. From the simulations in Chapters 4 and 5, I found three primary results: (1) YORP-induced spin-up and failure or fission can explain the spectral slope vs. size trend, (2) tidal effects from close encounters with the terrestrial planets cannot explain the spectral slope vs. perihelion trend, and (3) thermally-induced surface degradation can explain the spectral slope vs. perihelion trend. These results taken in this simplified form suggest the following interpretation: YORP-induced spin-up and failure and thermally-induced surface degradation are the dominant resurfacing mechanisms for S and Q-type asteroids. However, there are a few inconsistencies and caveats. First, in all of the resurfacing models in Chapters 4 and 5, I left the space weathering timescale as a free parameter. The YORP-induced spin-up and failure model required a space weathering parameter of $\tau_{SW} \gtrsim 4$ Myr, and the thermally-induced surface degradation model required a space weathering parameter of $\tau_{SW} \lesssim 5$ Myr (both timescales are for asteroids with $a = 1$ AU). While these timescales do overlap slightly, the thermally-induced degradation model had better solutions with a shorter timescale, and many laboratory experiments, and the solar flare particle tracks on asteroid (25143) Itokawa, also argue for a space weathering timescale of $\tau_{SW} \lesssim 1$ Myr (potentially significantly less). See Chapter 2, §2.2, for a discussion of these timescales. To further illustrate the timescales of these resurfacing and space weathering processes, I compare the resurfacing processes of YORP-induced spin-up and failure and thermally induced surface degradation with space weathering due to the solar wind as a function of solar distance in Fig. 7.1. I show the relative timescales of all processes, and how they scale with solar distance for a 1 km asteroid with zero eccentricity. The two space weathering functions have timescales of 10 kyr and 100 kyr at 1 AU. YORP-induced spin-up and failure has a timescale of 1 Myr at 1 AU, approximating a fast YORP resurfacing solution from the model in Chapter 4. Thermally induced surface degradation has a timescale of 150 kyr at 1 AU and $k = 8$, to show the best fit solution from the model in Chapter 5. Due to solar irradiation controlling the scaling of the timescales of both space weathering and YORP, the difference between those timescales remains constant. As the resurfacing timescale due to YORP is always larger than the space weathering timescale, YORP can only slightly lower the average spectral slope of all 1 km asteroids (as seen in e.g., Fig. 3.1). However, a very short space weathering timescale may create too large of a difference, and YORP (as it is modeled in Chapter 4) cannot significantly alter the average spectral slope of 1 km asteroids. Thermally induced surface degradation scales much more strongly with solar distance and can have shorter timescales than space weathering for small solar distances, while becoming very slow at high solar distances. Fig. 7.1 qualitatively shows the two regimes of resurfacing mechanisms: (1) $q \gtrsim 1.3$, where YORP-induced surface degradation is the primary resurfacing mechanism, and (2) $q \lesssim 1$ AU where thermally induced surface degradation dominates the resurfacing of asteroids. Both mechanisms can potentially work in the other regime but are much less effective. Due to the multiple arguments for a fast space weathering timescale ($\tau_{SW} \lesssim 1$ Myr), it appears that the required space weathering timescale of $\tau_{SW} \gtrsim 4$ Myr for my YORP-induced spin-up and failure model is difficult to support. A possible solution is that the relatively unexplored mechanisms of impact gardening or non-catastrophic collisions followed by seismic shaking could be a more efficient resurfacing mechanism than YORP-induced spin-up and failure or fission. However, explaining the spectral slope vs. size trend that appears to be present in both the main belt, where collisions are likely, and the NEA region, where collisions may be less frequent, could be very difficult. A full analysis of the viability of an impact-induced resurfacing mechanism is a complex topic that I leave for a future study. Figure 7.1. The relative timescales of resurfacing processing and space weathering due to the solar wind as a function of perihelia for a 1 km asteroid in a circular orbit. The two space weathering functions have timescales of 10 kyr (A) and 100 kyr (B) at 1 AU, and the resurfacing processes have timescales at 1 AU of 4 Myr for YORP-induced spin-up and failure and 150 kyr for thermally induced surface degradation. The thermally induced surface degradation function also uses $k = 8$ to control how the timescale scales with perihelion (or solar distance). Another solution to shorten the timescale of resurfacing from YORP-induced spin-up and failure is that downslope motion and overturn may be occurring on the surfaces of asteroids as their spin rates are changed by the YORP effect. As the spin rate of an asteroid is changed from zero to a fissioning spin rate (or vice versa), the local slopes on the surface will drastically change. Most asteroids do not sustain these high local slopes, as Richardson et al. (2018) showed that $\approx 70\%$ of all asteroids exist in a region of “maximum surface stability,” where the topographic variation the local slopes are very low. Thus, over the course of a YORP cycle, an asteroid’s surface must fail, deform, and expose unweathered material multiple times. This more continuous and rapid resurfacing process should also require a faster space weathering timescale to match the observed spectral slope vs. perihelion trend. Additionally, the modeled spectral slopes of asteroids under the effect of space weathering and YORP spin-up and fission become bimodal at small sizes (Fig. 4.1), which is not seen in the observations (Fig. 3.2). A more continuous resurfacing process would also eliminate the bimodality of the spectral slopes. Finally, the results of the pair creation rate in Chapter 6 directly support many of the assumptions in the YORP-evolution model in Chapter 4. Since the pair creation rate that is necessary to match the population of asteroid pairs is remarkably consistent with the calculated pair creation rate from the results of the YORP-evolution model of Jacobson et al. (2016), the assumption that the YORP effect consistently changes the spin rate of asteroids over time without any substantial self-limitation or stagnation must be valid. Any appreciable self-limitation or stagnation of the YORP evolution of small asteroids would also increase the time it takes for those asteroids to spin-up to a point of fission or failure. It would also increase the time needed to change the local slopes on the surface of an asteroid. Both of these effects would decrease the rate of resurfacing from a YORP-induced process, and argue for a different resurfacing process to explain the spectral slope vs. size trend. The lack of self-limitation or stagnation of the YORP effect supports it as a potentially rapid size-based resurfacing process. 7.1 Looking to the Future As I worked on my third project on the asteroid pair creation rate, I finally felt like I had come into my own as a scientist. I now have plenty of new ideas for future projects and have continuously thought about different ways to model asteroids. However, after I finish my dissertation (and publish Chapters 5 and 6), I will be leaving the field. I am excited for the new direction my life is taking, but I wanted to use this section to build a wish list of questions that I hope will be answered. I also hope that some of the work here will help others in future studies to answer these questions. The primary question that I hope to be answered is, what are the primary resurfacing mechanisms for S and Q-type asteroids? I believe I have helped to answer this question, but there is still work to be done. While it is certainly possible (and I would even go so far to say probable) that the primary resurfacing mechanisms are (1) YORP-induced spin up and failure created Q-type asteroids at small sizes, and (2) thermally induced degradation creating Q-types at low perihelia, it is far from a conclusive explanation. In particular, the very short space weathering timescales inferred from the solar flare particle tracks on asteroid (25143) Itokawa (1–10 kyr; Keller and Berger 2014) place a very tight constraint on resurfacing mechanisms. Any studies that address whether the YORP effect could resurface asteroids more rapidly than in Chapter 4 would be very interesting. Also, resurfacing from small impacts creating gardening or seismic effects would also need to be studied in detail to assess their viability of resurfacing small asteroids. As these processes can be very difficult to model, it may be worthwhile to investigate the differences in impact rates across the inner solar system (e.g. NEAs vs. main belt) and see if they have any effects on the weathering states of small asteroids. Another question I hope to have answered is, how and when do the surfaces of OC-like asteroids breakdown due to thermal effects? I addressed this in Chapter 5, §5.5.3, but I will mention it again here for completeness. I believe there is a great opportunity for laboratory testing of the thermal degradation timescale as a function of induced thermal stress. These results could help address the wide range of acceptable parameters used in Chapter 5. Most importantly, they could help constrain the observable space weathering timescale on the surface of S and Q-type asteroids, further allowing us to determine the most dominate resurfacing mechanisms. Finally, I hope that the pair creation rate, calculated in Chapter 6, can be applied as a constraint in future work. As mentioned in Chapter 6, §6.5, the pair creation rate could be used to predict the number and size of asteroid pairs in the NEA region. Additionally, a full investigation of the rate of rotational disruption may be more useful than the order of magnitude arguments made in Chapter 6, §6.5. Also, I did not consider any asteroid pairs that were formed from high mass ratio binaries. While these asteroid pairs are only a small portion of the entire population, their larger mass ratios could have an important contribution to the rate of rotational disruption. I have very much enjoyed my time studying, analyzing, and modeling asteroids these last few years. I know that many of the skills that I have learned here will serve me well in my future, and I plan to keep an eye on new and exciting studies and missions. 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MUNGRET ANNUAL 1953 THE MUNGRET ANNUAL Mungret College, LIMERICK Post free 3/6 Price 3/- PERHAPS as a Nation we may congratulate ourselves on the unity of effort which I to make the festival of An Tostal a success. We may likewise regret that such co-operation is not more with us. Our national energies are not combined to work for the more material welfare of the Country. Lip service is paid to Christian principles but we do live them fully. We quarrel over trifles, we neglect important issues. Sectional interests use our energy, and we are content to follow the pattern of other non-Christian states. Today outposts of Christianity grow fewer, yet the population of Ireland tends to dwindle. We must build up a state completely based on Christian Social principles, where our youth may have the opportunity to work, and live in an atmosphere in harmony with their faith. This is the most serious problem before us. Perhaps the outstanding event of the year was the elevation of the Primate of All Ireland to the College of Cardinals and we share in the rejoicing at the honour conferred on our friend. Last year's status took from us Fr. Scallan, Messrs Cox and Cremins, and Br. O'Brien. Each of them we thank for their work for the College in their individual spheres. In their place we welcome Fr. M. Erraught, Messrs Cullen and Woods and Br. Kavanagh. In the year we suffered a severe loss in the death of Fr. McElligott. To him, Mungeret and past pupils owe much. We welcome in his place Fr. J. Stephenson, who previously spent some years here. We are glad also to have Fr. A. Cooney, an old boy, who has joined us recently. Due to Fr. Rectors' initiative many improvements have been effected in the College in the past year. A new well has been sunk which will improve the supply of water. Along the sacristy corridor six new chapels have been constructed by shifting the outer wall of the corridor and whole heating system has been extended and leaves little to be desired. It now operates on oil. The lower and upper corridors together with the Chapel have been painted. In conclusion I wish to thank the Editors of the Irish Independent, the Irish Press, the Irish and Personal and the Waterford News for the loan of Blocks. To our Printers we are under an obligation for their patient cooperation. Finally I wish to convey my gratitude to Leo Hickey and the Diarists for their much appreciated help; to Fr. Rector, and others who made easier the labours of an Editor. What has Architecture to offer me? By T. O'Sullivan, B. Arch., A.R.I.B.A. (1939-42) Yes, like all you Mungret boys, I have traversed the various walks, gave my share of time to games and cheerily discussed future projects with my companions. Each of us had his own ideas; some preferred farming; others business; a good number felt the call of the religious life. Then the professions: how did one react to them? Their merits and demerits were a headache to solve. In some cases, of course, the boys whose fathers were doctors, often followed in parental footsteps, and similarly the sons of an Engineer or a Lawyer had already leanings towards these professions. Then there were the few who had no definite ideas, and I, being one of these, made a last-minute decision and took the bold plunge for Architecture. I say bold, because I was absolutely ignorant of what it entailed or what the future offered. Personally I am glad of my choice, as experiences were many and varied, both as an Undergraduate in the School of Architecture and now in the battle of life. Although it is a strenuous course of five years, with long hours of tedious work and all too often burning the midnight oil trying desperately to solve a design problem, nonetheless these penniless college days are the highlights of all professions. It would be wrong to minimise the difficulty of becoming an Architect—and to become a good Architect is relatively more difficult—yet, despite these truisms, the schools and institutions are producing more than the profession can absorb and this, of course, makes the life hazardous from the remunerative angle—an angle that to any young man becomes all-important when he has qualified. Besides the financial hazard attached to the profession there are many others. While the Doctor buries his mistakes, and in time the world may forget the Lawyer's, those of the Architect form a permanent part of the landscape for generations. Then again, the newly qualified Architect enters the arena of the business world much like the proverbial "chicken fresh from the egg"—as an old-seasoned Architect of my acquaintance always said of us Graduates. Few people will care to entrust him with the sole charge and design of a permanent building unless he has already "won his spurs" by carrying off the prizes in Architectural competitions for new buildings which will have made his name in architectural circles. This is one of the reasons why so many young Architects enter the services of the Government and of the Local Authorities. These services are by no means to be despised and offer plenty of scope for experience and very often most interesting work. They save the young Architect from the almost certain shipwreck of entering private practice without sufficient capital. Private practice today for the young Architect is almost impossible, unless, as the old phrase has it, "money is no object." The main reason for this is that the "trade cycles" have him at their mercy; the busy years of building activity might be followed by years of virtual unemployment. The cost of becoming an Architect varies, as also does the method. Most students prefer to enter a School of Architecture and to obtain a Degree on the qualifying examination. Others become apprenticed to practising architects and receive a diploma on qualifying. This diploma is issued by the Royal Institute of Architects of Ireland or by the Royal Institute of British Architects, depending on which course the student has chosen. These courses take a minimum of three or four years and examinations may be taken twice yearly. There is only one School of Architecture in Ireland and that is at University College, Dublin. On entering University life one stands on one's own feet for the first time and can make a go of it or fail hopelessly in the attempt, depending solely on one's choice of company. How often are you told this by your teachers and how often were we told the self-same thing; yet it is only now that I have qualified I realize it contained the only secret to success. In the first year you begin by drawing and learning the finer points of the classics, making a historical study of architecture and its developments and finding out the first principles of construction. Physics and Maths—physics are also part of the first year course. In the following years your ideas become developed from the study and examination of buildings and gradually you begin developing your ideas in the design of the contemporary style. Next in importance, and as a gradual development from these preliminary studies, follows the study of the history of architecture and of the various methods of construction, adding to these latter the subjects Colour Decoration, Chemistry, Archaeology, Engineering, Surveying, materials and their properties, and finally Ethics or Professional Practice. One of the most important subjects in Architecture is Art and the architectural student must attend twice weekly at the National College of Art, and strangely enough, the fact that Architecture is an Art—and a very fine Art—is a point that is continually missed in present-day debates. The attempted evasions in this matter are varied and subtle but it is enough to point out here that Architecture is not planning, not science, not common-sense, not even design, but a different thing altogether—in fact, an Art. Art these days is not getting the prominence it deserves and not enough of it is taught in the Architectural schools. Its place is taken in a makeshift way by taste. This plunges us rashly into another generalisation. Art may be termed as having good ideas, whereas taste is knowing good ideas; so in this sphere a student's career might become lost without the valuable safeguards of his Professors' guidance, the reference libraries and the study of the acknowledged masters in the art who have gone before him. Lest the hazards may now seem to be too formidable, remember the opening words of Dr. Arthur Colohan's poem which appeared in our Annual of 1950: "If you have only faith in yourself you can go as far as you dream. You can force a way down the longest road, however hard it may seem." "Which is it to be?" asked Albert, "two days in 'bus and train, or a fifty mile stroll?" After three weeks of tramp-steamer, ferry, train, 'bus and motor boat I had no doubts on the question. "I prefer the blisters on my feet," said I. We were sitting in the kitchen of a log farmhouse at the head of one of the long lake valleys that run north-west through Swedish Lapland to the Norwegian border. For the past four days we had splashed along the shore of the lake in a small motor-boat mapping and photographing the farmhouses, water-mills and fishing-stands that were to be flooded by the new dam. The Swedes, who are proud of their past, were making sure that a record of the old simple life of the valleys would remain after the great hydro-electric plants had changed conditions here in the North. Fifty miles across the mountains lay the other lake valley which we were to survey, and hence the question. By courtesy of Across the Ritsemijokk river is Mount Akka, one of the most beautiful mountains in Lapland. Parts of it are covered with perpetual snow. Suddenly we were on the rim of a plateau and saw the trout lake below us, all too soon, as the sun was well down. The Laps were still fishing, throwing their nets into the water and hauling out trout two or three pounds in weight. It was their preserve; the trout were dried for winter food. The man in charge, an elderly weather-beaten Lap, welcomed us courteously and invited us to sup on the pink trout, fresh broiled, and boiled potatoes, with him and his three wives. "He is a rich man," Albert whispered to me. "He owns a herd of three hundred reindeer." We drank strong black coffee, flavoured with salt, and smoked and talked until dark. We spread our sleeping bags on two of the bunks in the fisherman's house. "It is a good road, well marked," said our host in the morning. This information cheered me, but not Albert. "The Laps' idea of a good road is not the same as ours. You'll see," said he. We saw. Every three or four hundred yards there was either a stone or an upright post, and that was all. No paving, not even a path. And this country was quite different to yesterday's, full of gorges, cliffs, and rivers. The marks led over and around these in a track which turned and twisted like a demented eddy. Hour after hour we scrambled over screes, slid down slopes, across streams and forced our way through thickets. Towards evening we came to a small lake, and the Laps told us that we were near the end of the journey. of the puzzle on to the smooth slope of a hill and looked over a long reach of pine forest to the lake for which we were heading. By now our packs were lightened by every bite of rations but heavier by two fine pairs of reindeer horns picked up at a deserted herding camp, and meant as presents for Albert’s children. Beyond the forest was the river which fed the lake, and on the other side of this was a road and several farms. We had to be across the river before dark, so we hurried through the forest. On the river bank we came upon a group of six men, four small Laps and two tall Swedes, all with rifles. “Good evening, gentlemen, have you seen a bear?” “No, thank heaven,” said I. “They are harmless if you don’t annoy them,” said Albert. “Don’t be so sure of this one. He crossed the river last night and killed a cow,” said the Lap who led the party. The hunters moved off up the river, and we moved even faster down towards the lake. At the ferry we lit a fire, but no boat came. Was the ferry-man asleep or bear-hunting? If our prayers for his future were heard, as we waded bare-legged through a hundred yards of the bitter snow water of the ford, his sleep was little and the bear’s supper assured. We rubbed the circulation back into our frozen feet and put on our boots. “And now for a farmhouse, hot coffee, a telephone and a taxi,” quoth Albert. “Telephone? Taxi?” said I, round-eyed. “Just that,” said Albert, “reindeer and bears on one side of the river, telephones and taxis on the other—that is Lapland to-day.” The Northern Lights were flaming in the sky as we drove down the valley to the hotel. By courtesy of] Shooting the rapids of a Lapland river. A venture that requires skill and daring First Club 1952-'53 J. Harnett, K. Cantwell, J. Lane, P. D. O’Connor, T. Pierce, N. Moran, G. McDonagh, T. Toahan, J. Loh, P. Doherty, D. Gunning, F. Terry, S. Connolly, J. O’Byrne, B. Silke, W. Costello, K. Buckley, W. Sheehan, R. Harris, R. Cassidy, C. Hennessy, D. O’Connor, E. Carey, T. Murphy, R. McDonald, P. Drew, P. Byrne, J. Nolan, C. Morgan, L. Smyth, J. M. Murphy, M. McDermott, T. O’Neill, E. Cassidy, P. Harnett, G. Moynihan, L. Higgins, N. Hickox, R. Fr. Brennan, S. J., E. Garys, C. Ryan, M. Keyes, M. Coggrave, D. Garland. ## Public Examinations 1952 ### LEAVING CERTIFICATE \| Name \| Level \| Subjects \| \|---------------\|-------\|--------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Beggan G. \| Hons. \| Irish, Latin, Mathematics. Pass: English, French, History, Geography. \| \| Bourke M. \| Hons. \| History. Pass: Irish, English, Latin, Geography, Mathematics. \| \| Cahill G. \| Hons. \| Irish, Latin, French, History. Pass: English, Mathematics, Drawing. \| \| Cusack J. \| Hons. \| Irish. Pass: English, Latin, History, Geography, Mathematics. \| \| Deasy T. \| Hons. \| Irish, Geography. Pass: English, Latin, History, Mathematics. \| \| Fahy J. \| Hons. \| Irish, Latin, French. Pass: English, Mathematics. \| \| Finnerty T. \| Pass. \| Irish, English, Latin, French, History, Mathematics. \| \| Flanagan P. \| Pass. \| Irish, English, Latin, French, History, Mathematics. \| \| Flannelly E. \| Pass. \| Irish, Latin, History, Geography, Mathematics. \| \| James B. C. \| Hons. \| English, Latin, French, History, Mathematics. Pass: Physics. \| \| Kingston B. \| Pass. \| Irish, English, Latin, French, History, Mathematics, Drawing. \| \| McCabe K. \| Pass. \| Irish, English, Latin, History, Geography, Mathematics, Drawing. \| \| McCarthy M. \| Pass. \| Irish, English, Latin, Commerce, History, Mathematics, Drawing. \| \| Moore J. \| Hons. \| Irish, Latin, French, Mathematics. Pass: English, Drawing. \| \| Nolan D. \| Hons. \| Irish, English, Latin, French, Italian, History, Geography, Mathematics. \| \| O'Brien R. \| Pass. \| Irish, English, Latin, Commerce, History, Mathematics. \| \| O'Connell J. \| Pass. \| Irish, English, Latin, French, History. \| \| O'Connor C. \| Hons. \| Latin. Pass: Irish, English, French, History, Mathematics. \| ### PUBLIC EXAMINATIONS 1952 \| Name \| Level \| Subjects \| \|---------------\|-------\|--------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| O'Connor M. \| Hons. \| English. Pass: Irish, Latin, History, Mathematics. Pass Certificate. \| \| O'Shea M. \| Hons. \| Irish. Pass: English, Latin, Geography, Mathematics, Drawing. Pass \| \| Page D. \| Hons. \| English, Latin, History, Geography. Pass: Irish, Mathematics. Honours \| \| Parkinson I. \| Pass. \| Irish, English, Latin, History, Geography, Mathematics. Pass Certificate.\| \| Parkinson R. \| Pass. \| Irish, English, History, Geography, Mathematics, Drawing. Pass Certificate.\| \| Phillips V. \| Hons. \| English, History, Geography. Pass: Irish, Latin, Mathematics. Honours \| \| Pierce M. \| Pass. \| Irish, English, Latin, French, History. Pass Certificate. \| \| Pierce J. W. \| Pass. \| Irish, English, Latin, Geography, Mathematics, Drawing. Pass Certificate.\| \| Ryan A. \| Hons. \| Irish, English, Latin, French, History. Pass: Mathematics. Honours \| \| Ryan H. \| Pass. \| Irish, English, History, Geography, Mathematics. Pass Certificate. \| \| Scanlan J. \| Hons. \| Irish. Pass: English, Latin, History, Geography, Mathematics. Pass \| \| Silke D. \| Pass. \| Irish, English, History, Geography, Mathematics. Pass Certificate. \| \| Tansey J. \| Hons. \| Irish, English, Latin, History, Geography. Pass: Mathematics, Drawing. \| \| Toal J. \| Pass. \| Irish, English, Latin, History, Geography, Drawing. Pass Certificate. \| \| Young L. \| Hons. \| Irish, English. Pass: Latin, French, History, Mathematics. Pass Certificate.\| ### INTERMEDIATE CERTIFICATE \| Name \| Level \| Subjects \| \|---------------\|-------\|--------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Buckley D. \| Hons. \| English, Latin, History and Geography, Mathematics. Pass: French. Honours Certificate.\| \| Buckley K. \| Hons. \| English, Latin, History and Geography, Mathematics. Pass: French, Drawing. Honours Certificate.\| \| Burden R. \| Hons. \| Mathematics. Pass: Irish, English, Latin, French, History and Geography. Pass Certificate.\| \| Carey E. \| Hons. \| English, Latin, French, History and Geography, Mathematics, Drawing. Pass: Irish. Honours Certificate.\| O'Rourke J. ... HONS.: Irish, English, Latin, French, Mathematics. PASS: History and Geography. HONOURS CERTIFICATE. Roche Kelly H. ... HONS.: English, Mathematics. PASS: Irish, Latin, French, History and Geography. PASS CERTIFICATE. Scanlan C. ... HONS.: English, Latin. PASS: Irish, History and Geography, Mathematics. PASS CERTIFICATE. Silke B. ... HONS.: Irish, English, Latin. PASS: History and Geography, Mathematics. HONOURS CERTIFICATE. Watson A ... PASS: Irish, English, Latin, History, and Geography, Mathematics Drawing. PASS CERTIFICATE. MATRICULATION The following qualified for Matriculation 1952: Boggan G. Finnerty T. Nolan D. Parkinson L. Bourke M. Flanagan P. O'Brien R. Pierce J. W. Cahill G. James B.C. O'Connell J. Phillips V. Curry P. Kingston B. O'Connor C. Ryan A. Cusack J. McCabe K. O'Connor M. Ryan H. Deasy T. McCarthy M. O'Shea M. Scanlan J. Fahy J. Moore J. Page D. Tansey J. Young L. PREFECTS OF THE HOUSE STANDING: M. Keyes, L. Hickey, G. Moynihan, C. Ryan. SEATED: E. Guiry, N. Hickey (Capt.). ### MUNGRET ANNUAL History and Geography ... McKenna J. Mathematics ... Walsh J. G. History and Geography ... Murphy N. Mathematics ... Connell N. --- #### INTERMEDIATE CERTIFICATE - 1st YEAR A. \| Subject \| Name \| \|--------------------------\|---------------\| \| Aggregate \| O Driscoll M. \| \| Religious Knowledge \| O Driscoll M. \| \| Irish \| O Driscoll M. \| \| English \| O Driscoll M. \| \| Latin \| O Driscoll M. \| \| Irish \| O Driscoll M. \| \| History and Geography \| O Driscoll M. \| \| Mathematics \| O Driscoll M. \| --- #### INTERMEDIATE CERTIFICATE - 2nd YEAR B \| Subject \| Name \| \|--------------------------\|---------------\| \| Aggregate \| Corcoran P. \| \| Religious Knowledge \| O Mahony J. \| \| Irish \| Kenneally S. \| \| English \| O'Carroll H. \| \| Latin \| Wallace M. \| \| French \| Wallace M. \| --- #### CLASS LEADERS C. Mitchell, L. Hickey, M. J. Walsh, J. Woods, M. Keyes, D. Buckley, A. Podhradzky, J. Carroll. P. Corcoran, P. Quirke, M. O'Driscoll. --- #### Royal Irish Academy of Music Results \| Name \| Instrument \| Grade \| Result \| \|--------------\|------------\|-------\|--------\| \| Nolan D. \| Piano \| VIII \| 1st Hons. \| \| O'Connell J. \| Piano \| VIII \| 2nd Hons. \| \| Curry P. \| Piano \| VI \| Pass \| \| Hickey L. \| Piano \| VI \| 2nd Hons. \| \| James B. C. \| Piano \| VI \| 1st Hons. \| \| Keyes M. \| Piano \| VI \| 2nd Hons. \| \| Hickey N. \| Piano \| V \| Pass \| \| Costello W. \| Piano \| III \| 2nd Hons. \| \| Hardiman B. \| Piano \| III \| 2nd Hons. \| \| O'Higgins M. \| Piano \| II \| Pass \| \| Hennessy V. \| Piano \| II \| 2nd Hons. \| \| Keyes R. \| Piano \| II \| 2nd Hons. \| \| Morgan C. \| Piano \| II \| 2nd Hons. \| \| O'Carroll B. \| Piano \| II \| 2nd Hons. \| \| O'Carroll P. \| Piano \| II \| 2nd Hons. \| \| Woods J. \| Piano \| II \| 2nd Hons. \| \| Dolan N. \| Piano \| I \| Pass \| \| Dunne F. \| Piano \| I \| Pass \| \| Garland B. \| Piano \| I \| Pass \| \| Guiry E. \| Piano \| I \| Pass \| \| Kelly Jr. \| Piano \| I \| Pass \| \| Kelly Jos. \| Piano \| I \| Pass \| \| O'Brien F. \| Piano \| Prel. \| 1st Hons. \| \| O'Brien P. \| Piano \| Prel. \| 1st Hons. \| \| O'Connor D. \| Piano \| Prel. \| 2nd Hons. \| \| Hardiman B. \| Violin \| I \| 1st Hons. \| THOSE present at Munget this year witnessed the turning of another page in Munget's history on Thursday the 14th of October. The occasion was that of the Silver Jubilee of the years spent here by two well-known figures in the school, Nurse Corrigan, and Jack O'Brien, Esq. To mark the occasion a Play-Day was given by Father Rector. In the evening Messrs. O'Brien, T. Conway, D. Guina, M. McCarthy, Dr. Roche-Kelly and Mr. Jorgensen were entertained to dinner by the community. Father Rector paid a graceful tribute to Mr. O'Brien who suitably replied. Shortly afterwards the College assembled in the theatre for the occasion. The music rose as the Jubilarians entered. First he congratulated the Jubilarians on the boys' behalf, and thanked them for their years of faithful service to Munget. He expressed the boys' gratitude to the nurse for the way she tended to their ailments, major and minor. Then he went on to thank Mr. O'Brien, who, he said, was not only a teacher, but was always known as the friend of the Munget boy. He told the two people concerned of the promise of the boys to offer up 600 Masses, 600 Holy Communions, and 600 Rosaries for their intentions; he then presented a cheque to the Nurse and a mantle-clock to Mr. O'Brien as gifts from the boys and amidst rousing cheers, retired. Father Rector then addressing the house reminded those present that this "For your presents I am very grateful, and it is now my turn to thank Father Rector on your behalf I'm sure, for the way in which this occasion was recognised and celebrated." "Twenty-five years is a long time to look back on. I look back on it as twenty-five years of pleasant work, pleasant relations with everyone, both Community and boys, and I feel not one minute older." Amidst loud applause Mr. O'Brien ended and gave way to Father Hughes who spoke for Nurse Corrigan. "The Nurse has honoured me," he said, "by asking me to speak on her behalf. She wishes me to express her gladness and thanks to Father Rector and Community for the way in which her Silver Jubilee was recognised, and you boys for your presents, especially the Spiritual Bouquet. We all know what the Nurse does for us, but do we ever think that she also prays for us? To show how she appreciates your prayers she has decided to present your cheque to Father Rector to send to the Irish Jesuit Mission in Rhodesia. It is your gift so that it will not be one jubilee, but a spiritual anticipation of the jubilee that we may all make in Heaven." The proceedings then closed with three rousing cheers for Mr. Jack O'Brien and Nurse Corrigan. A Link with an Irish Family of the Sixteenth Century In Gibson's History of Cork, Vol II, we find the name of William Terry as Mayor of the City in the year 1505. In succeeding years the name appears about thirty-six times in the list of names and sheriffs. The last occasion it appears is in 1678, when a Richard Terry was Sheriff. In 1754, a historical sketch of the family was made by Don Joseph Justo de Aguirre, Chronicler and King of Arms to King Ferdinand VI. He traces here a settlement of the family in County Cork, though he does not state whether their origin is situated. In the manuscript he makes mention of a Dominick Terry who became Viscount of Limerick* in 1631, with large estates scattered around Co. Clare. The seventeenth century saw the advent of Cromwell, and conditions became difficult for Irish Catholics. Dominick Terry's grandsons belonged to the old Faith, and their estates were confiscated. There were four brothers in all, and they joined "The Flight of the Wild Geese," and linked their fortunes with foreign lands. Of the four founded a wine business which his direct descendants control today and have large business connections with Europe. The arrival of Dominick and William Terry seems to have created a stir in Spanish Royal circles, for we find Ferdinand VI making them "Noble of Blood" by Royal Cedula in 1757. The reason given was that their ancestors were in Ireland, and that they were connected with various aristocratic families. In 1780, we find Don Ramon Terry registering a coat of arms in Spain and Dublin, with the motto, "E Cruce Leo." This coat of arms is descendants in Cadiz to have had close con ruling Spanish family, they later become Mar In the ancestral home trace the history of the varied changes back to We feel honoured ting at Mungret, Fer descendant of that who left Ireland so mat that great band of Ir Wild Geese. Pioneer Total Abstinence Association of the Sacred Heart Working Council 1952-1953. President: M. Keyes Secretary: E. Guiry Treasurer: P. O'Rourke Councillors: E. Flannelly, J. Toal, D. Buckley We are glad to record that the Pioneer centre continues to flourish. The Working Council met on the second Tuesday of every month without exception. The procedure laid down in the "Instruction" is followed exactly. The zeal and competence merits high commendation. A general reception, with Mass and Sermon was held on Dec. 7th. 25 were received as Pioneers and 10 as Probationers. Others were received before the Christmas holidays, and from time to time during the year. On Monday March 16th the Council and the Fr. Director attended the splendid Rally for schools in the Savoy Cinema which followed Sunday's Rally for grown ups. His Lordship the Bishop graciously presided. Fr. Doherty's vibrant appeal for real Pioneers of the Sacred Heart, real Apostles of prayer and sacrifice, surely touched a responsive chord in many a young and ardent heart. His Lordship then addressed his young flock. The Rally concluded with a bright entertainment provided fittingly by youthful artistes and artists. The Council were quick to seize the opportunity of capturing Fr. Doherty for a rally of our own, which he gladly promised to give at a later date. Our Rolls record his name on the 21st November 1953 as a Pioneer in the Apostolic School. Our minutes for 20th of April 1953 and his position as Assistant Central Director, together with his recent year and a half's work founding the Pioneers in Australia bear witness to 30 years' loyalty and devotion of a Mungret Pioneer. May it be an inspiration to many another. The Juvenile Total Abstinence Association is under the aegis of the Pioneers. It meets once a month in the Community Chapel. Its present Prefects are Joseph Kelly and Kevin Garland. Donal Buckley, the youngest member of the Pioneer Council is the liaison officer. His predecessor Michael Keyes, is now President of the Council. The personnel of the J.T.A.A. changes rather rapidly as its members have an insuppressible habit of attaining the age of fourteen, to which they join the excellent habit of becoming Probationers. May Our Divine Lord continue to bless with abundant graces this work so dear to His Sacred Heart. The Social Study Circle many members had become "The Past" that the Circle seemed to have contracted to two points, the Father Director and the Only Surviving Member. Both were unruffled, feeling sure that the spirit of the Circle survived and that neither nor human beings, but mathematicians alone, count by mere numbers. the first meeting an unprecedented number were present, many "just to see," the second meeting the number was considerably less, and eventually the Circle settled down into a small but fairly representative number who were as firm as the Rock of Cashel. This year the matter was approached more from the practical and concrete than from a theoretical viewpoint; existing problems and organisations were examined. Thus our first meeting dealt with "A Factory where the Catholic Ideal is Actually in Practice." PIONEER AND SOCIAL STUDY OFFICIALS ASCENDING BY STEPS. By the Rev. W. Stephenson, S.J. (1895-98). Clonmore and Reynolds. This is a little volume of readings for retreat time, but suitable for other times also. It contains much matter that is important not only for retreat time but for everyday life. The subjects are dealt with in a practical way, the style is simple, and clear and convincing. As usual Father Stephenson makes very effective use of the divine words of Holy Scripture. It is a precious little handbook to have by one, as it is the fruit Our Conference resumed activities after the Summer holidays with a membership of twenty four. We had assigned to our Conference one permanent case that of a poor old woman living by herself whom we supplied with provisions from a local shop. We wish to thank the officials of the school and members who organised a Sale of College Colours which greatly helped to increase our funds. To the boys of the College we are also grateful for their generous support to our funds and to the anonymous donors to our poor-box. Owing to the difficulties inseparable from a Conference in a boarding-school the scope of our work was necessarily limited. The chief aim of the Conference was to try and acquaint the members with the problems of poverty which they may come across when they leave school and to instil into them the spirit of the Society and to fit themselves to become enthusiastic workers afterwards in some senior Conference of the Vincent de Paul Society. APOSTOLIC OFFICIALS T. Acton, J. Toal, P. O'Rourke, D. Page T. Deasey, M. O'Farrell, D. Kavanagh. --- CHRISTMAS TERM SEPTEMBER 9th—We try to be of interest; We write the year's events; We offer all a joke or two; We hope there's no offence. In a creepy crawly fashion, In a speed as slow as snail, In a bus, or bike or motor-car, In a mind that's sick and frail. We wend a windy wobbly way, We gaze at all the trees, We hope it is much farther, We tremble at the knees. The "home from home" before us, The aspect's dark and drear, The Prefect's shaking hands with us, My inside's feeling queer." 10th Sept.—"Benches are as hard as old, Classrooms are no longer cold, Corridors are a shining gold, The lights are dazzling to behold. The Altars are increased sixfold, First Prefect still is on Patrol, Hark! alas! the bell doth toll, And Father Murphy calls the Roll." 11th—A game of hurling just to cheer us up. But alas— "The summer made us heavy, And not quite up to form, Whod blame us if we grumble, As we lug out in the dorm. We feel a little awkward, A-trotting to the game, Some naughty boys, they mutter low, 'It's all a rotten shame.'" 12th—Parents' permission to smoke! The tobacco tastes the same! 13th—"It's a flying saucer," "It is not. It's a space-ship from Mars." "It's not. It's a secret Russian Fighter." But no, it turns out to be only Father Fitzgerald's latest toy,—a kite. 14th—John Stokes, whom some of us remember sitting at the Prefect's table, returns for a short visit, and invited to a gentle game:— "Come on now, dear John, take part in a game." "Well really, I'd love to, but still just the same, So long since I played, and I ain't got my kit, And between you and me I don't want to get split." 15th—Congratulations to Noel Hickey, Eric Guiry, Leo Hickey, Colm Ryan, Gerald Moynihan and Michael Keyes, our new prefects. We feel sure that they will fill their positions admirably. Michael throws a party in the dorm. Noel will ask for anything,—and Eric will get it. 16th—Father Maguire opens the Retreat to-night. We get a half-day to rest before it. "More things are wrought by prayer than this world dreams of." 17th—"It's" . . . Silence. 18th—"I" . . . Silence. 19th—"But" . . . Silence. 20th—"It was very . . ." "I'm still . . ." "We'll never . . ." "He was . . ." "But still . . ." Well, we take a Free Day to say it all. 21st—We hear that Joe Fahy is contemplating joining the staff of a Western Newspaper. We are proud to record that as a very very small boy he started his career on the staff of the Mungret Annual. 22nd—National mobile X-ray unit visits us to see whether we're really ready for a hard year before us. The new fat boy in 3rd year finds some difficulty in fitting into the machine. No examination necessary to see what's wrong with him! Eating too much! One of the staff suggests having a look at the inside of our heads. 23rd—Half Day for our new Prefects. I "Our Eric is a cheery chap, His face is never gloom, But now he is no longer that, Cause someone bit his thumb." II His prefectory duties, He strives valiantly to bear, But when it comes to serving shop, His appetite's still there." 24th—Father Hughes tries new boys for the choir. The cement factory workers are wondering why so many fog horns are blowing—and no fog. 25th—"Oh, it's nice to get up in the morning . . ." but not at ten to seven! 26th—Our Chinese friend, Jimmy Loh, —short for Lo Chung May—gives a demonstration of the use of chopsticks at table 9. The rice, however, isn't used to this kind of treatment, and Ned Ca——y presents W. Co——t—llo with a mouthful from the other end of the table. 27th—Keen hurlers are not quite sure whether it's the ball or a hailstone they're hitting. 29th—Apostolics welcome their past pupil, Father Hartigan to the hut. They hear of the fun he had in 1939. 30th—To a new-comer who thinks he is going to have a rosy time here, we pessimistically say: "Yes, and sometimes you'll be in the red." OCTOBER 1st—Experienced hands wanted. Qualification: Must know the difference between a stone and a spud. Once again potato-picking starts: "The brave, brave hearts face frost and cold, Their work is nice and slick, Anything you can do, I can do better" B. Leonard, T. Costello, B. Garland and P. Kelly do a circuit turn. With football-boots and jerseys old, The Winter's "Spuds" they pick. But the bravest hearts of all—we say, Brave their class again to-day." 2nd—A slight accident. "Loud thump, Tears shed, Large bump, Victor's head." 4th—Father Rector visits us in the study, and tells us that this is the 25th anniversary of Mr. O'Brien and Nurse Corrigan in Mungret. We are to have a Play-Day in their honour on Tuesday week. He also tells us to trust out braces, if necessary to put on a belt, and to take our hands out of our pockets. 5th—"My goodness me, I do declare, So many boys for the Infr. But the answer is quite clear, Exams again have started here." Father W. Stephenson, S.J. pays a visit to the Apostolics' hut. 6th—A heated argument between Jim Cr——e and Jim Doy——e concerning the value of certain sta——mps ends in stamping their feet. 7th—Small boys' letters being censored for fear their people may think that their son is writing to them in Esperanto. Example: Dear Mum, I'm right in this now two sea that I'me well Dispute at home as to whether he is to go in to see his grandmother had to admit that she was the same person as he had buried last term! 6th—First Monthly play-day. The lucky ones of us go to town. The less lucky ones go for a long long walk. Pictures to-night: "Where no Vultures Fly." 10th—Father Peter O'Leary whom our elders remember as second prefect of the Apostolic school, says Mass for us this morning. He even remembers some of us—the little boys who used to distract him when he said the Rosary in Irish. 11th—"Bon Voyage" to Father Peter on his journey to Wagga-Wagga, Australia. Philosophers are off late study in his honour. 12th—Near the end of this round in the Doctor Keane Cup. To-day the Redemptorists' team have turned up. "The Redemptorist school came out set for the fray. But we soon showed these chaps what is meant by good play. The game started well, but it then faded out, The scores came so quick, we were too tired to shout. The star we may say without much hesitation, Was the goal-umpire "Colm" who caused a sensation, The other said 'Wide,' but he raised a hand, "Oh no, it's a seventy" and took up his Makes no difference where you are You can wish upon a star' Hilary Fanning and Michael O'Farrell "I'm not sure," said he, "so leave things as they are." And that is the story of Colm our star." 13th—A hurley which Patsy O Co——ell happens to be holding descends with some violence on Tim Cost——ll——e's head. Tim says he crash landed. 14th—Play-Day in honour of the Silver Jubilee of Mr. O'Brien and Nurse Corrigan to-night before show our appreciation have done for Mungret We wish them luck, And happiness thr We make a gift, an (And pray that no class!) 18thMUNGRET ANNUAL MARMADUKE AT COLLEGE Going to Study Coming from Study To the Prefect's Office Going to bed 1st Place in Exam. Time for Dinner Dead Cert for Town Leave Smoke to-night And the manner is not on your head. In this case everything wasn't quite right; We snored with an odd sleepy mumble, In deepest obscurest duskiest night Then a CRASH, and a tumbling rumble. We're up, and we're out, we're all awake now— We hasten with wondering tread, But the cause of this wakeful nocturnal row, Was Michael falling out of the bed. 17th—A batch of horses visit us during the night and stay until after breakfast. Our trustiest cowboys Dare-Devil Dick and Dead-Shot Martin have the situation well in hand. "In the wild woolly West, The boys are the best, To deal with wild horses they say, But here in this school without lariat or mule, Wild horses are only child's play." 18th—The Rugby season opens. All new-comers flock to watch. One small boy remarks: "What are all those fellows over there bending down, looking for?" 19th—We often hear of our past pupils who are outstanding in different ways; but we seldom hear of those who spend some time in gaol. To-night, however, we have a visit from an ex-convict. He is none other than Father Thornton S.J. who tells us of his dreadful experiences amidst the Communists in China. 20th—Play-Day with walks. Most of the new boys of Third club are very keen to see Carrick-a-Ghunmall castle. After some argument Mr. Cullen heads towards it, but loses most of his "enthusiastic" followers on the way. But they'll turn up in time for dinner. 21st—A sad tale starkly told: When a certain member of First Club—sick now—was shaving this morning he forgot that his mouth was open, so he washed his teeth with shaving cream and a shaving brush. 22nd—Some of us are still a bit raw at the rugby. "Rugby has started, the hurleys are gone, Some old hands at the game and some new ones come on, They have a lesson on how the thing goes, —But in Rugby jersey—not their best Sunday clothes. The ball is an egg—but an egg to be "dropped," The man with the ball must always be stopped, Unless he's your friend then you follow up fast, And before you are tackled you must always have passed. Then you get the ball and you kick it for touch, This is a good plan but don't do it too much, In scrums you must push with your weight and your might, Now let's have a game, and remember: Don't fight." 23rd—Apostolics' leagues begin. Dr. Roche-Kelly anticipates more work. 24th—"Water, water up above, And none is coming down, There's hardly any in the stream, And none upon the ground. Water, water up above, There's plenty in the sky. The ducks have left their empty ponds; And taught themselves to fly. Water, water up above, What a catastrophe, We've barely what'll do to make, A 'dacent' drop of tea." 25th—Trials for tackling start to-day in the J.C.T. games. "Get your man and get him low, Grasp him, pitch him to the ground, Bury him if he be foe, And tell your forwards to rally round. So if on the team you wish to be, Tackle all 'cept the referee." 26th—The E.S.B. start excavations. The hole in the library ceiling gives some people a chance of pouring water down on the favourite pals. There seems to be a baling out process from 2nd Club dorm. 27th—A chance for us to show our first aid skill. "The glinting steel stands bare and ready, Brandished by an arm that's strong and steady, The cold keen blade flames flashes blue, The edge is shining sharp and true." It's wielded high and raised aloft, Then swift upon a throat so soft. Of olden days I am not raving, It's Martin—he has started shaving! 28th—The Social Study Circle were very glad to have a talk on Muintir na Tire last night from Mr. Liddy secretary of the association. Now Father Brenan is afraid we may open a co-operative store as a result and ruin his trade. 29th—New fluorescent lighting in study hall. 'Oft in the study hall, Ere studies' chain has bound me, Fond memory brings the thought of dimmer lights around me: The sleep, the snooze of former days, The engine's life now broken, The soft light's gone, The glare that's on, The E.S.B.'s new token.' 30th—"He blinked his eyes, In sheer surprise, His hair did stand on end, What could this be, That he did see A-coming round the bend Some monster great, Come through the gate, I'd better not be seen, Don't worry Dan, It's the postman, Heaped up for Hallowe'en." 31st—At the first stroke of the 3 o'clock bell—outside the class door, At the second stroke of the bell—outside the hall-door At the second stroke—inside the car door And adieu, till to-morrow evening. Raymond is quick with his left and his right, Dermot is steady but is rather too light, His fists are like pistons and Raymond is sore. But his fine hefty stamina still counts for more. Now they are into a tight-gripping clinch, Receiving and giving with never a flinch. —But stop! here's the prefect come into the hall, The heroes shake hands,—that's the end of it all. 4th—Father Brenan shows us the cups for tackling. Hillary Fa———g rubs his hands in anticipation. 5th—Seniors play Clann William, but we are beaten 25-14. Little hope of a return match. "It's a long way to Tipperary." 6th—Sixth Year drawing class are introduced to a new way of showing their artistic skill,—charcoal. One result: I spy a sooty chimney-sweeper, His face as black as coal,—but deeper. His hands the hue of the Ace of Spades. His clothes of varied darkish shades, 6th— "Slowly silently they sneak, In dread suspense they dare not speak, From left to right they glance in fear, At every sound each cocks his ear. Like little mice they go to bed, And in the clothes each hides his head, You wonder why they're so off form, There are no lights in 3rd Club dorm." 7th—Owing to housing shortage the "small dormists" have had to wait till now to get their block of flats. "Swiftly and loudly the nails thudded in, The carpenter hummed as he worked with a grin. One final big wallop, home went the last nail, So those with short pants can sleep without fail." 8th—We all agree that the new study lights are more interesting to study than the old ones. Richard C———y sees study life in a new light: "They also serve who only sit and wait. 9th—in 3.4 French class: Give me the present of the verb to laugh je laughe, tu cackle, il grin, nous roarons, vous splittez, ils barst. 11th—Poor little Jimmy. 16th—An unsuccessful operation on Senior Apostolic pitch. Two surgeons try to amputate P. J. Go——n's finger with two hurleys, and they almost succeeded. 17th—T. O'Neill, whom the E.S.B., often consults says that one of the new gadgets they are installing is an electric switch on Masters' desks to give an electric shock to sleepy pupils. 18th—"It's either an earthquake, or the cement factory is falling down" was the unanimous verdict. But they were wrong. It was the Irish debating Society in session. At last the Chairman solved the problem by saying that no more than three people could talk at the one time.... 19th—Father MacDonald, trying—vainly—to make 6.4 learn their formulae reminds them how awkward it would be if they had to look up the catechism every time they wanted to bless themselves.... 20th—Preliminary Munster trials held here to-day. Congrats. to the five who played so well. 21st— Matches, matches burning bright, They vanish at dinner, But we eat them at tea. 24th—Martin Curran is afraid Santa Claus will never get down the funnel of the Untala. He sets sail for Africa on December 24th. 25th—Happy Birthday to Michael K——! His birthday inspires a sudden thought: Michael has brought another brother, And so, at this epoch, It seems we have three fine strong "Keyes," But we haven't any "Locke." 26th—Father Kelly says that Dan He——y will never need a light on his bike at night if he keeps wearing the tie he has on. 27th— "He rules there at night, A familiar sight. Keeping them quite, By using his might, He'll stop any fight, By outing the light. Leo's his name, you know him to be, The Prefect in charge of the Library." 28th—No maths. class for 6.4; at least, Father MacDonald leaves us to and they have a good game. They win 14-8. 'Should auld acquaintance be forgot Or new ones must we find, The Past have come—a hefty lot And left their mark behind.' DECEMBER 1st.— A time comes in everyone's life,—so they say, When our tired brains become a bit hazy, And so it occurred that poor Michael to-day, In class seemed a tiny bit crazy. 'Twas History,—or that's what he seemed to intend, And Belfast was being beaten once more. She called out for help, but all they could send, Was ten "Corpses," instead of ten "corps." 2nd—Debate at table 7 on the question of tourists teaches us: The American "guy," Wears a flashy tie, A hat with wide brim, Nice and trim. A bright blue suit, With a strange cut to't. His cig-case, too, Looks fine and new. Long sleek car, And odorous cigar. Socks a pinkish shade; Wallet strongly made. But we're always surest, Of the American tourist, By camera-case around collar, And the sight of the dollar. 3rd—Play-Day in honour of St. Francis Xavier. To-day is the fourth centenary of his death. We hope that Father Rector remembers that. We present Mr. Jorgensen with a little gift to thank him for coming to show us the pictures throughout the term. 4th—We welcome back our old friend, Jim Moran. He agrees to referee 3rd Club games. God help him. The new look has hit the Avenue. A new Morris Minor appears every morning. 5th—Our Spanish guest is making rapid progress at English. Many queer pronunciations are heard from 3A. 6th—No light in the library. Leo Hi—y's acrobatics on chairs and tables fail to throw any light on the matter. 7th— Sunday comes but once a week, And with it comes some extra sleep, But later on a hard exam... And after that, perhaps, "slam, slam." 8th—Feast of the Immaculate Conception. Play-Day. Sodality reception. Congratulations to new members. They all go to town to celebrate. J.C.T. v Crescent. We lose 6-3. Con Foley and J. McMahon come back to talk over old times. 9th— Albertus is a blondie boy, And has a lovely fringe, But when the "barber" cut it off, How loudly did he whinge. 10th—A few Apostolics who went to the doctor and forgot to report to the nurse, nearly had to go to the doctor again. 11th—To-day Mungret suffered a loss as severe as any in her history, —not in a match, not in exams., not in debates,—but in the death of Father McElligott, who always loved Mungret, and who did so much to make Mungret what it is. We are all very sad at our heavy loss; but we rejoice that we have yet another intercessor before God's throne. R.I.P. 12th—Masses for the Dead are celebrated all over the house. We visit the remains ; and pray that Father McElligott's soul may continue to help us in Heaven, as he has been doing in all his years here. The remains are removed to the Chapel during late study. 13th—Solemn Requiem Mass celebrated at ro o'clock. Father Provincial presides. After Mass we walk in funeral procession to the cemetery, where we offer prayers for the happy repose of the soul of Father McElligott, S.J. We offer our deep sympathy to the Steward, Mr. D. Sheehy, whose brother's funeral also takes place to-day. 14th—The J.C.T. draw, 6-6, with the Scouts. A few flakes of snow fall, and we hope that the ice goes before Wednesday. Xmas approaches. Rumour has it that some of the Philosophers are asking Santa Claus to send them an easy exam. 15th—First presentation of "Paul Jones," is a great success. We all enjoy it immensely. And we are sincere in our applause for Father Hughes who produced it. Father Rector announces that the Captains have won their fight for an extra day on to the Christmas vac., in honour of the fourth centenary of the death of St. Francis Xavier; although in the first round of the fight he knocked Noel out for an Appendix, from which he has not recovered yet. 16th—We visit the dusty trunk-rooms to get our cases for going home. We're packing in boxes and cases and trunks, Pullovers and stockings and boots, For to-morrow we're going home for the vac., We must have pyjamas and suits. 17th—The last day! The opera tonight is even better than on Monday. Most of us go home. 'Tis a day that is long awaited, One very much contemplated, A day that fills our hearts with joy A carefree one for every boy, With hearts dilated, agitated, Xmas ahoy, O Boy! Perhaps the most interesting event in art circles last year was the Autumn Exhibition of Epstein's works at the Tate Gallery, London. It was the first occasion on which a comprehensive collection of his sculptures was shown. In modern times few sculptors have been the centre of so much controversy, yet when the clamour has died down, and allowance made for some bizarre ventures, Epstein emerges as one of the great sculptors of our time. Jacob Epstein was born in East Side, New York, in 1880, of Russian-Polish parents. After devoting himself for a time to sculpture, 1902 found him in Paris, where he studied for three years. In response to an invitation he went to London, where except for some brief visits to New York, he has since resided. In 1907 came his first big commission, when he was entrusted with the carving of the eighteen figures on the British Medical Association Building in Agar St., London. Epstein encountered his first skirmish with the art critics on account of his rather original designs. A long correspondence ensued in the press. The work was, however, finally vindicated. Twenty-seven years later the battle was renewed when the building changed ownership. The problem eventually was solved by the disintegration of the stone, which necessitated removal. Before considering them in detail, if we take a comprehensive view of his works, Epstein must be considered as the most stimulating and provocative sculptor of the English-speaking world. He is original also in the best sense of the word. His work may be divided into two classes—his controversial large scale figure pieces, and his portraits. Visitors to the Exhibition of Sculpture by artists of the last fifty years at Battersea Park in 1951 had an opportunity of becoming acquainted with, and perhaps baffled by, the abstract designs of contemporary sculptors. In the work of Henry Moore, Maurice Lambert, F. McWilliam and Barbara Hepworth, to name but a few, proportion and representation are sacrificed to concentration on line and suggestion of space. Epstein did not altogether escape the influence of these tendencies, but it was a passing phase. As he confessed later, the excitement one gets from these productions is far removed from aesthetic experience. His early work "Rock Drill," the "Mother and Child" of 1913, his "Venus" of 1912, and the impressionistic study "Two Doves" of 1913 belong to this period. We may refer here also to "Genesis," which was executed in marble in 1929-31. It was through this work that many first heard of the name of Epstein. It scarcely encouraged them to make further acquaintance. It is one of the strange conceptions of the sculptor. It lacks refinement, yet does not compensate by strength. It enlarges limbs without achieving effect, though one's idea of a sculptural representation of Genesis may be rather ill-defined. Epstein's vision remains repellant. The "Rima," part of the Hudson Memorial in Hyde Park has also been criticised for its concentration on repeating surfaces at the expense of representation. To give some idea of this aspect of Epstein's work, we reproduce two works: Still the figure seems isolated from the surrounding architecture. The principal figure is in strong contrast to Drury's sensitive and attractive work, "Spirit of Night," and has evoked divergent views from critics. It is pleasant to turn to the more appealing section of Epstein's sculptures—his portraits. They reveal an artist who has studied in all schools, and yet one whose genius has developed on its own lines. Epstein is original not imitative. His subjects have been almost as varied as the characters of Shakespeare's plays, if we exclude the villains, and his touch has been as sure. He combines an extraordinary sensitiveness with strength and ruggedness of texture as in "Joseph Conrad"—a superb study. "Vaughan Williams" is another fine example in this respect. In "Esther," "Isobel" and "Morna" we find a softer outline, more lyrical grace and smoother texture. The "Madonna and Child" of 1954 which is being erected on the Convent of the Holy Child Jesus, Cavendish Square, is an interesting study. It was at the invitation of the architect that Epstein undertook this work. The "Visitation," executed in 1926, is now in the Tate Gallery is another beautiful work. Epstein himself took part in this work, and it shows the spirit grace and beauty of line. There is interpretation in the features, an note is conveyed by the posture. The mark of sincerity pervades the dress. The figure of the Child appears to be a child of the Madonna. The countenance conveys a strained expression, however, eyes too dilated, of the hair falling down. The "Visitation" executed in 1926, is now in the Tate Gallery is another beautiful work. Epstein himself took part in this work, and it shows the spirit grace and beauty of line. There is interpretation in the features, an note is conveyed by the posture. The mark of sincerity pervades the dress. The figure of the Child appears to be a child of the Madonna. The countenance conveys a strained expression, however, eyes too dilated, of the hair falling down. By courtesy of [Arts Council of Great Britain] Ralph Vaughan Williams, 1950 Senior Apostolic Debating Society FIRST DEBATE Motion: That Agriculture is more advantageous to Ireland than Industry. Government . . P. Flanagan, M. Walsh Opposition . . E. Flannelly, C. Mitchell Mr. Flanagan opened the debate and showed that Ireland is mainly an agricultural country. In foreign trade she is generally classed as a non-industrial nation. The production, processing, and transport of agricultural goods are important for employment but all this should be subordinate to agriculture. Tillage adds to the beauty of a naturally beautiful country. He considered that the farming life was a more healthy one for our people. Mr. Flannelly, replying for the opposition, pointed out that the high costs of food would seem to indicate that as an agricultural country Ireland had not been successful. He did not think that the soil was very suitable to agriculture—and reminded us of the bogs of Clare—the rocks of Galway and the mountainy stretches of Mayo. In his view an industrial policy would solve the problem of emigration. We have the means of industrialisation—man power and electricity from natural resources (peat). Why not therefore give our people a life that was more regular and a position that was more secure. Mr. Walsh considered two main ills of our country—the decrease in population and the low national income. If the government fostered energetically a farming policy then, by drainage and reclamation, more land would go under tillage and help to solve our main ills. Mr. Mitchell concluded the debate by considering the value of exporting dead rather than live stock. This policy would give rise to various home industries e.g., woollen; processed meat factories. Our best plan would be industrialised agriculture. The Government won by 20 votes to 7. SECOND DEBATE Motion: "That Abstinence should be advocated rather than Temperance." Government . . J. Cusack, T. Gorman Opposition . . J. O'Brien, P. Collins. Mr. Cusack, opening the debate, showed that the evil was not in alcoholic drink itself but only in the abuse. He felt, however, that many cannot drink without going to excess. The fall of our First Parents left in us an inclination to evil and thus it was difficult for those who took alcoholic drink to remain temperate. He pointed out how much money could be saved for more useful purposes. Mr. O'Brien emphasised the value of breweries and distilleries to the country. In days of unemployment their need could not be ignored. Moreover in these days when life was so difficult for so many why should they be deprived of the legitimate pleasure of drink. Prohibition had not brought many blessings to America. Mr. Gorman showed how difficult it would be to have any fixed and stable principles for "Temperate Drinkers." To tell the drinker "to be moderate" was useless. Mr. Collins held that most drinkers were moderate and that there was no need in this country to urge complete abstinence. The Government lost their motion. MUNGRET ANNUAL THIRD DEBATE Motion: "That the G.A.A. ban should be abolished." Government . . R. Davern Opposition . . D. Page Mr Davern said that there was a time when this ban was patriotic but that it could no longer be considered a patriotic weapon now. It interfered with the liberty of the individual, and was now causing much confusion and misunderstanding, all of which tended to destroy rather than strengthen the unity of the people. Mr. Page gave an account of the origin of the ban and held that it was more needed today than ever. To give Foreign games a free reign would strike at the very core of nationality. No vote was taken as an extempore debate followed. SENIOR APOSTOLICS BACK ROW: R. Davern, J. Cusack, J. O'Brien, C. Mitchell, B. Dempsey, T. Murphy, D. Lyons, S. McGough, P. Stanley, C. Mulvihill, B. Long, J. Toal, P. Flanagan, E. Flannelly, C. O'Connor, P. Collins, P. Gorman, M. Walsh, P. O'Rourke, P. Lynch, D. Page, M. O'Farrell, T. Acton, D. Kavanagh, Rev. J. T. Kelly, S.J., Rev. B. Woods, S.J., T. Deasy, P. Reilly, M. Hoare. The Academy Prize was awarded to T. ACTON JUNIOR APOSTOLICS BACK ROW: M. Long, M. Padian, A. Delaney, J. Rooney, P. Cashman, A. Rooney, P. Quirke, J. O'Donnell, J. McCloskey, F. O'Sullivan, N. Connell, P. Corcoran, P. Molloy, K. McCarthy, J. Downing, J. McKenna, H. Kelly, S. Quinlivan, M. Wallace, J. Dennison, S. O'Rourke, T. Deasy, Rev. J. A. MacSeumaist, S.J., M. Killen, J. Carroll, P. McGrath. Cumann na Gaeilge Reactaire: An tAc, O Curratin, C.F. Rúnaí: S. O Liam. Coire: An Rúnaí, U. MacConcailta, S. MacDonncha. Ó bhíonn mairt agus bhíonn fáilte ar an Cumann. Leanann an bhóithreacht ar na gnáth eoiríochtaí agus bhí eisíochtaí maic le roinnt uimhir. D'fhan an ceol uibhreacht agus an ceol-choiréil na cinní bhuíochtaí ar an Saoráin ar na nádair, is motha, mar phróiseas curio páirte agus ón tuilleadh eoiríochtaí. Seo d'éirítear agus tá an cumann ina chéile go dtí an eoiríocht pheirce na céile, agus bhí gairmheoir an luce eoiríochta a fhorbairt ón bhéarla. Leanann an tSápa cum eoiríochtaí lenaigh na Sairche, agus bhíonn eoirí an Fáinne ón cap éir na Cárca, P. O Náirpeala, C. O Mórgam, C. O Náodara. Leighinn an tSápa grinn ar Oide Feile Phádraig, agus téipíonn an áir eis feile taimhige. Molann Comhdáil Náirpeala na Sairche an bháinleach mar meán eoiríochta cum eoiríochtaí camraí na Sairche agus is féin cumraí an tSápa i bhfín. An pháirte a bhíonn ar na talta i ngrámaíochtaí an mheánsaí na Sairche agus go mhaithlúchtaí gur se táinseachtaí na cumraí. Tá cáil ar an eoiríochtaí pheirce na hArdair na Sairche agus an tSápa, agus an tSápa féin, agus ní amhain a bhainneann fé leasair ar m'obair bhoga na tíortha eile. Don spáma gur fia a léiríonn, bhíonn an tSápa cum eoiríochtaí agus bhíonn pheirce na tíortha tré Sairche annamh, bhíonn tionchar mór as an obair uile ar agné an talta, mar aonar ar tré Sairche a phróiseasúil p'ar an tSápa, Fóirme Diospóireachta P. O Náirpeala, U. O Siota, S. O Concailltais, C. O Teacáin, M. MacAona, C. O Náodara, C. O Káora, S. O Deirne, S. O Móntecipe, S. O Náirpeala, P. O Mórgam, S. O Muineacháin, C. O Carane, S. MacDonncha, S. O Liam, An tAc, S. O Cupparáin, C.F., U. MacConcailta, L. O Nici, R. Na Néarcaio. THE RETREAT FOR THE PAST The week-end retreat for the past was held this year in Milltown Park in February. All who were present were happy to have had the opportunity of attending. Those leaving Mungret this year, and wishing to make the retreat next year should communicate with Rev. D. Reid, S.J. PAST v. PRESENT MATCH ON Sunday, November 30th, a pleasant re-union took place when the Past travelled to play the College in the annual fixture. A representative selection from various clubs turned out for the Past, and a very keen game resulted. The visitors had the advantage of weight in the scrums, and this, with more experienced backs, turned the scale. The College team, however, anxious to repeat their victory of the previous year, played with determination. In the opening stages The Past won the ball in the tight, and Keane got the ball away in good style to O'Shea. Holland and Nestor handled well, but close tackling by Hickey and Moynihan saved the home team's line. After ten minutes play, however, the Past broke away. Nestor got possession and passed inside to O'Shea, who timed his pass well to M. O'Connell, who crossed for a score near the posts. Keane converted. Close play followed, and Keyes and Hickey opened up for the College, but close marking by Maguire and Holland prevented a score. Near the visitors' twenty-five the Present were awarded a penalty, and Keyes landed a penalty goal. The Past attacked with the kick off, and Nestor and O'Connor brought play up to the College line, but the ball went into touch. In the line-out, Hayes got possession, and flung himself over for a try. The kick at goal failed. Shortly after The Present were penalised between their twenty-five and half way, and Joe Keane landed a fine penalty goal. At half-time the score was, The Past: 11 points, The Present: 3 points. On the resumption the College forwards started with a great burst, led by O'Connell, Ryan and Brady. They were checked, however, by Murphy who played a cool and steady game at full back. The Present, however, kept up the attack, and at midfield Garland picked up a loose ball, dummied and parted to Moynihan. In a fine run, the winger cut inside, beat two defenders, and crossed to a score near the posts. Keyes converted. Some sweeping forward rushes by the visitors, led by the O'Connell brothers, Moore and Hayes, followed. O'Carroll and Hickey, however went down gallantly on the ball and saved some dangerous attacks. On a few occasions a little later the College got possession in the tight, but O'Carroll was harrassed by Fahy and A. O'Connell who broke quickly. After some exciting movements, play shifted to the College twenty-five. Here a scrum took place, and the Past got possession. Keane elected for the blind side, and sent out to O'Shea, who in a clever run, beat the opposition to add another try, which was unconverted. The Past: 14 points; The Present: 8 points. The Past were represented by M. Murphy (full-back), J. Nestor, J. Holland, C. Maguire, T. O'Connor (threequarters); W. O'Shea, J. Keane (halves); M. O'Connell, N. O'Connell, M. Hayes, J. Fahy, also present: S. Dillon, K. O'Brady, P. Burke, C. Keneally, P. McKeown, L. Rae, B. Fitzgerald, P. McDonagh. CHARACTERS Paul Jones (The Celebrated Nautical Hero) . E. FLANNELLY Rufino de Martinez (A Spanish Naval Officer) . B. SILKE Bicoquet (A St. Malo Worthy) . B. BUCKLEY Don Trocadero (Spanish Governor of the Island of Estrella) . D. BRADY Kestrel (Skipper of a Yankee Privateer) . D. GARLAND Bouilabaisse (An Old Smuggler) . W. COSTELLO Petit Pierre (His Son) . K. GARLAND First Lieutenant . J. MURPHY Fernando (Chamberlain to Don Trocadero) . D. GARLAND Yvonne (Niece of Bicoquet) . V. HENNESSY Chopinette (Wife of Bouilabaisse) . P. TWOHIG Malaguena (Sister of Rufino) . D. BUCKLEY Chorus of Village Maids, Ladies of St. Malo and of Estrella: P. CASHMAN, J. DENNISON, J. DOYLE, A. FANNING, M. FITZGIBBON, A. KNOTT, N. MURPHY, J. ROONEY, D. SHEAHAN. Chorus of Fishermen, Sailors, Gentlemen: N. DOLAN, T. GORMAN, P. HARNETT, C. MORGAN, P. O'BRIEN, B. O'CARROLL, H. KELLY, P. O'CONNELL, D. J. O'CONNOR, P. O'CONNOR, B. GARLAND, P. O'CARROLL. "Paul Jones" was the choice of opera for the end of the Christmas term. Although intended for adult actors, it was quite capably performed by a youthful but whole-hearted cast. There were few dull moments; and the costumes, improved lighting, and scenery all contributed to a colourful production. The most captivating item of music in the evening's performance was the Barcarolle in Act I, sung by E. Flannelly, W. Costelloe and K. Garland. This is by far the best piece of harmony written by Planquette in the work, and it is strange that he never rises to the same heights afterwards in the score. The trio gave a colourful rendering, and made the occasion memorable for the listener. The stage setting of early dawn in Act II struck a new note, though the transition of lights was somewhat abrupt. Here "Capitaine Ola" was pleasingly rendered by B. Silke and troup of officers. Act III also opened in an impressive fashion. The solo singing of Desmond Brady and the chorus of "For Affairs of State" and "Viva Trocadero" was one of the most attractive parts of the opera, and richly deserved the encore. Another well rendered chorus in the same act was the "King of the Mosquitos." The "Maidens of St. Malo" in the first Act has an attractive melody, and was appealingly sung. For many of the audience the roles played by W. Costelloe and K. Garland were the highlights of the evening, and certainly contributed much to the general success. K. Garland seemed made for the part, and particularly so as the young Indian. W. Costelloe's general acting and his singing of "The Lassies" and the Indian song left little to be desired and received hearty applause. The leading role of Paul Jones was played by E. Flannelly, and his performance gave much pleasure. His voice has improved from the previous year, and developed a richer and mellower quality. Victor Hennessy had again the leading soprano role, and his voice proved an effective contrast to Rufino's in recitative passages. His voice was heard to the best advantage in the effective trio with D. Buckley and P. Twohig in the song "O'er Ocean Gleaming." Tribute must be paid to B. Silke who gave a very finished performance in a difficult role. D. Brady showed himself at home on the stage, and was a distinct success. D Garland was excellent in the part of the Yankee skipper, and his voice has a very pleasant quality. P. Twohig was good also as Chopinette. B. Buckley and J. Murphy deserve congratulation on their performance also. Praise must be given to Professor Guina for a polished violin accompaniment and to the Rev. J. Marmion for his excellent accompaniment on the piano. Our costumes as usual are due to the good taste of our kind helpers, Mrs. Griffin and Miss Godfree, and our thanks are due to Mr. Doran for his artistic work on the scenery. Mungret feels honoured by the Papal Dignities which were conferred on six of the Past in the Diocese of Mobile last year. We send our warm congratulations to Monsignor J. R. O'Donoghue, Monsignor P. Cullen, D.D., Monsignor T. Cullen on being named Protonotary Apostolic, and to the Right Rev. D. Harnett, D.D., and the Right Rev. T. Pathe on being elevated to the rank of Domestic Prelate. We noticed that Matt Kennedy (27) who is Hon. Sec. of the Hunt organised some successful Hunter Trials for the An Tostal celebrations in Ennis. We congratulate Brother John A. Kelly on the celebration of his Golden Jubilee last November. Br. Kelly who was former Provincial of the Christian Brothers in America, is now in Iona Preparatory School in New Rochelle, New York. Michael J. Hargrove, M.I.A.A., F.A.L.P.A. (12) who has a high reputation in auctioneering circles in Dublin, retains all his old interest in Mungret. Brendan O'Connell (49), if we may say so, seems to have got a good start in the College Debating Society, for he seems to have been winning medals since he left us for public speaking. We congratulate him on winning the silver medal at the Solicitors' Apprentices' Debating Society, and on winning a trophy at a competition held recently by the Cork County Macra na Feirme at Watergrasshill. P. Hayes (37) who is now living in Clontarf, spent some of the war years at Southampton with the firm of Thornycroft. Later he was with Harland and Woulf in Belfast, and is now draughtsman and designer with the Liffey Dockyard Shipbuilding and Repairing Company. Last year he had the pleasure of seeing the first ship launched, the Isolda. We were glad to hear recently from Matt Kelly (33) who is happily married in Hayes, Middlesex. Matt is now senior draughtsman in the Faircy Aviation Co. He is hoping to pay a visit to Ireland and Mungret in summer. Father Michael Hayes (37) of Ogonello, Co. Clare, is now Curate in Milltown, Dublin. I suppose we need hardly add that Father Michael is in close contact with his neighbours in Milltown Park. Father J. A. Sheil, S.J. (10) is now back in India. In a recent letter he said he was busy giving a retreat to priests in Allahabad. All through the last war he was chaplain in the British Indian Army. We offer our congratulations to Vincent O'Brien (30) on the coveted distinction of training the winner of this year's Grand National. He has had many other successes also in the racing season. We were glad to get some news of Dr. Michael Cleary (14) from one of the family who paid us a visit. Dr. Michael has been in Sheffield for about twenty-seven years, and built up a very successful practice in addition to work at various institutions. He does some farming also, and is a keen fisherman and shot. We congratulate Sarsfield O'Connor (46) on his appointment as Manager of the Ballinstone branch of the Kilmallock Co-operative Creamery. Sarsfield took his diploma at U.C.C. We notice by the press that P. J. Dunne (85) performed the opening ceremony and hoisting of the An Tostal flag at New Ross. We thank him for the historical volume which he recently sent us. We hear that Jim Finneran (45) is a successful campaigner for funds for the mission work of his brother Father Paddy (33) who is in the Jesuit Mission in Hong Kong. We thank another old friend in Hong Kong, W. Fitzgibbon (93) for the periodicals which he has been sending. We offer our congratulations to an old friend of Munget, Father Willie Lillis (10), on being appointed Parish Priest at Aughrim, Co. Wicklow. We are glad to recall three brothers who were here thirty years ago, and have attained distinction in their own spheres: Father Andrew O'Reilly, S.J. (19) who is a well-known member of the Jesuit Community in Galway, Jack (23) who is in the National Bank at Mullingar and Dr. Eddie (20) who is at Wallasey in Cheshire. Dr. Eddie has many pleasant memories of Munget, and also many amusing ones. During his time the change over from soccer to Rugby occurred, and Lord Emly was a frequent visitor to College functions. A fourth brother, Dr. George is Medical Attendant at Clongowes. Very Reverend P. J. Glynn (36) was recently appointed Rector of the Sacred Heart College, Ballinafad, Co. Mayo. Paddy Lawlor (40) is now in Australia, and took a prominent part last October in big Irish celebrations. Congratulations to Tim Geary (49) on obtaining his Diploma in Dairy Science. While in college Tim took an active part in academic activities. He is now Manager in Garryduff Creamery, Newcastle. Our sympathy goes to Bishop Boyle (20) whose diocese suffered a severe blow when St. Peter Claver church and schools were totally destroyed in the recent riots in East London. Four hundred children have to be accommodated and at present many classes are being held in the open. Dr. Kevin McCormac (42) is now working at Nt-ambya Mission Hospital, Kampala, the largest Catholic hospital in East Africa. (Opened by Mother Kevin of the Franciscan Missionary Sisters of Africa.) We see by the press recently that Willie McNamara (39) was appointed General Secretary of the Vocational Educational Officers' Organisation. We are sure that he will make a success of it. Brother R. Lonergan, O.M.I. (22) is now in Belcamp, Raheny. We offer our good wishes for success to John Crowe (21) in the tannery which he is planning to construct in Killaloe, to relieve local unemployment. In addition to his large family business he is also a Director of the Limerick Shoe Co. His son, Jim, is in Munget. John Breen (18) of Cahircinlish is in the Provincial Bank, Ennis. Colm Moran (47) is in the Munster and Leinster Bank, Roscrea. Jack Tuomey, B.E. (42) has been engaged during the past year in the big reconstruction work on Fenit Pier. Niall Nestor, B.E. (43) is now with a large contracting firm in Birmingham. Niall has to start work at dawn, and we are sure he is grateful for the early rising habits he cultivated at Munget. We are sorry to hear of Desmond Noel Fitzgerald's (47) illness. He is at present in hospital in Cork. Prior to his illness he was working at Messrs. G. F. Bourke's, Henry St. We were glad to have a visit recently from Jim Byrne (47) during his honeymoon. Jim is farming near Clonmel. Raymond Barry (18) paid a visit recently to Ireland. Since leaving Munget he has been in many parts of the world, and was a Commando in the last war. He has often been featured in the American press as a Rugby footballer, and is now Sports Coach in California. He has been very active also in youth movements. Walter Farrell (12) who spent fifteen years in the Merchant Navy after leaving Munget has been in nearly every part of the world except Australia. Originally came from Waterford, he has been living many years in Limerick, and has his own business in Janeboro. Among our visitors during the year we were glad to see Father Eugene Hannon ('39) and Father Eddie Hartigan ('39). Some of our Lough Derg pilgrims met another Mungret man last June, Michael Power ('19). Michael lives at Ballyduff House, Kilmeedan, near Dungarvan, and is a large farmer. On the same pilgrimage when one of our boys, Tom Boyle developed appendicitis and was brought to Ballyshannon Hospital, the resident doctor turned out to be an old Mungret man Dr. McNamee ('32). We offer our congratulations to Ward Fleming ('49) on coming second in the Liffey swim. According to newspaper reports he is now perfectly restored to health. Tom Fitzsimons ('25) is not far away from us near Foynes. He is a butcher and also farms. P. Kirby ('24) is farming near Bruff. We were glad to receive a visit from Frank McAlister ('18) recently. Frank is a wholesale motor factor in Capel St., Dublin. Morgan O'Brien ('27) is engaged in farming at Garryspillane. Frank Considine ('26) is in England and engaged in the wool trade. Cecil O'Shaughnessy ('17) Hon. Sec. of the Bohemians' Musical Society, entertains some of the guests at the Silver Jubilee of the Society at the Gresham Hotel. At Henry ('43) who got his final medical examination last autumn is now in practice in Croydon. Maurice Noonan ('46) who also qualified as a doctor last year is at present House Surgeon in St. Vincent's Hospital Dublin. Esmonde White ('27) is a solicitor in Maryborough. Eddie Irwin ('28) is in the Munster and Leinster Bank, O'Connell Street. His brother Carthage ('26) is in business in Dublin. Their nephew Tom is with us in Mungret. Father Michael McCarthy ('28) is working in the Middlesborough Diocese and is stationed at Rise Hall, Skirlaugh, Yorks. Mungret is represented on the staff of Terenure College by Joe Griffin ('18). Joe comes from the West of Ireland. Tom Hogan ('17) who manages a large shop in Fethard, was a noted hurler in his time and trained many Tipperary teams. Tom still teaches the younger generation how to handle a camán. Dr. J. McCarthy ('21) who spent many years in England, is now in practice in Kilarney. Also in Co. Kerry is T. O'Meehan ('18) who is a dentist in Kenmare. His brother Cyril is an engineer in the E.S.B. in Dublin. Father Denis Vaughan, C.C., D.D. ('20) is stationed in Blackrock, Dublin. Father Denis in his earlier days was a great hurler. He is a very active worker in youth movements. Father J. Normoyle, O.C.R. ('21) passed through Limerick some months ago on a sad errand—the death of his mother. We offer him our deep sympathy. Father Joe is in Mount Mellray. John O'Brien ('21) is farming at Grafa near Ballylongford. We had the pleasure recently of a visit from an old friend, Canon Michael O'Sullivan ('19) of St. Aloysius, Liverpool. Canon O'Sullivan had the great pleasure of seeing the new church he had built consecrated last June. Father Dan Mulvihill (1947-'49) was ordained in Kansas on March 3rd. Father Mort Danagher (1947-'49) who was ordained in March is now at Fort Lauderdale. Father J. O'Connor (1941-'48) left for Australia in December and is now stationed in Gurdagai. He is becoming acclimatised to his new surroundings. Sometimes he has to drive a distance of twenty miles to say Mass in an outlying church. Father Peter O'Leary (1946-'48) has also gone to Australia and at the time of writing was stationed at the Bishop's House in Wagga Wagga. Father Frank McHale (1945-'47) is in New Zealand and stationed at St. Benedict's Presbytery, Newton, Auckland. Father Liam O'Connor, C.S.Sp. (1938-'43) is at present at Kimmage completing his fourth year of Theology. Father Raymond Mullins (1942-'48) left for America last autumn and is now at St. Anthony's Church, Mobile. Father Tom Nunan (1947-'49) was ordained in Rome in February, and is completing his studies there at present. J. Sheehy, M.R.C.V.S. ('24) who was attached to the Department of Agriculture has now retired. We had the good fortune last September to meet Father John O’Hea ('24) in Dublin. Father John was back on holiday from Australia. Stephen Stack ('49) is now in U.S.A. Tom Broderick ('49) from Listowel is in the Veterinary College. Seamus McInerney ('30) who passed his final dental exam. last year now occupies a post in Cheltenham. Michael Maguire ('44) who also got his degree in dentistry left last December to take up a position in Saskatchewan, Canada. Jack Delaney ('19) is another old Mungret man living in Fethard. Jack in his time was a keen hurler. He farms on a large scale. Charlie McCarthy ('28) has a farm in Kilmallock. Dr. George O’Mahony ('27) is a Dr. Eddie Lyons ('29) who lived in the shadow of the Galtees is now in Barnsley. P. McInerney ('23) is farming in an extensive way near Clarecastle. Father Tom Power ('22) is stationed at St. Mary’s, Clonmel. Dr. Michael Murphy ('12) who is a well-known personality in Clonmel, recently became very ill. Our readers’ prayers are asked for his recovery. We offer our congratulations to Paddy Conway ('45) of Rathkeale on passing his final solicitor’s examination. We offer our congratulations to C. Kenneally ('46) on his appointment as Manager of Cruises Royal Hotel last June. The above photograph was taken on the occasion of a recital by the Irish tenor, Dermot Troy, at the hotel. In the picture also is the Mayor of Limerick (Mr. K. Bradshaw) and some friends. P. Cahir ('24) is farming near Corofin in Co. Clare. We offer our congratulations to Tom Mulcair ('48) on getting his engineering degree last autumn. He has taken up a position in England. Dan O'Connor ('50) is apprenticed to the engineering staff of Post and Telegraphs. Another Munget man in the Post Office is Frank Blackburne ('49). We met Gerald Fox ('38) in Dingle around Christmas. Gerald is now married and has a guest house. Eugene Spillane ('48) is now in the Forestry Dept. in Cork. His brother Paddy is employed by the Kenmare Urban Council. Among the loyal friends of Munget are the four Hayes brothers, who are held in high esteem in their native Limerick, where they have a long established garage. They are Jim ('20), John ('24), George ('25) and Tom ('21). Tom helped Father Saul, S.J. (R.I.P.) to found the first Fáinne class. In his school days he with Con O'Neill ('21) now in the Dept. of Education, had the unusual distinction of being sought after by the British Forces and had to make a temporary getaway with the Prefect of Studies co-operation. We hear David Crowley ('47) has returned to Cork and taken over a wine and spirit establishment. Tom Lane ('50) is now attached to one of the Air Companies at Rineanna. Bernard Coen ('22) of Gort is an old friend of Munget. He has one of the largest business establishments in the West of Ireland. Besides the family business he is a Director also of the Castle Mills at Ballinasloe. We had a welcome visit a short time ago from Jack Hall ('26). Jack occupies an important position with the Yorkshire Assurance Co. He can look back on a great record of seventeen years with the Limerick Boat Club, during which he gained almost all the trophies in Irish Rowing. Eddie Costello ('26) is engaged in farming near Kilmallock. Dominick Forde ('20) is on the staff of the Limerick County Council. We were glad to have even a short visit from Father R. Harris S.J. ('22) Superior of the Mission in Hong Kong, during his stay in Ireland. J. McDonnell ('20) is engaged in the Cycle trade in his native Broadford, Co. Clare. We offer our congratulations to Michael Healy ('49) on getting a degree in Commerce last summer. Michael is now engaged in the family business in Roscrea. We send our best wishes to Father George Keyes ('25) on the building of the new Church which he has undertaken in St. Barnabas Parish, East Lake, Birmingham U.S.A. Recently we had the pleasure of meeting an old friend R. Cohen ('50) in Limerick. Richard is now engaged in farming in his native place Gort. John Stokes ('49) who seldom fails to come and see us when on holidays, is now studying Theology in Maynooth. Father E. Booth S.J. ('38) is due to leave for the Rhodesian Mission, and Mr. F. Deignan S.J. ('46) for Hong Kong in this summer. We send our warm wishes to both. We are glad to see Tom Mitchell ('27) when he comes to Munget. He is a Solicitor in Hospital, and is held in high esteem. His son Matt is now with us. Sean Stephenson ('49) has a good position with an Insurance Company in Dublin. Boys of Last Year B. C. James, K. McCabe, M. O'Connor, A. Ryan are at St. Mary's, Emo, Portarlington. V. Bane and D. Murphy are at St. Patrick's College, Thurles. D. Cashman, D. Morrissey, and J. Power are at All Hallows. S. O'Connor is at St. Patrick's Carlow. C. Friel is at Kenrick Seminary Mo. Business: T. Finnerty in Limerick. P. Locke in Ballina. L. Parkinson in Sligo. R. O'Brien in Tuam. D. Silke in Galway. M. Murphy in Newcastlewest. J. O'Carroll in Bundoran. S. Guiney in Dublin. C. Scanlon in Cork. Army: Cadet M. O'Shea Air Force: Cadet R. Parkinson. Journalism: J. Fahy. Teaching: G. Beggan at St. Patrick's Training College Drumcondra. Farming: A. Watson. Law: B. Kingston. Engineering: J. Pierse. Medicine: J. O'Connell. At U.C.D.: Arts: D. Nolan. Dentistry: J. Scanlon. Medicine: P. Curry, M. McCarthy. Veterinary: H. Ryan. U.C.C.: Law: V. Phillips, L. Young. U.C.G.: Engineering: J. Moore. Marriages We offer congratulations and wish many years of happiness to the following, and other Old Mungret men who were married during the year: Austin Gleeson to Miss Margaret O'Meara. William Callanan to Miss Alice Sweeney. Con O'Rourke to Miss Rennie O'Shea. James Cotter to Miss Kathleen Hayes. Gerald Foley to Miss Rita Quirke. Patrick Kiely to Miss Noreen Daly. Peter Sheehy to Miss Mary Watson. Brendan Coffey to Miss Marie Stack. Brendan O'Connell to Miss Nora Murphy. Lt. Ronald Le Bas to Miss Alice Counihan. Tom O'Sullivan to Miss Majella Kelly. Denis Merritt to Miss Eugenie Beatty. George Bennet to Miss Mary O'Connell. Michael Barry to Miss Cecily Coldrick. Dr. Raymond O'Beirne to Miss Christina Ryan. James Byrne to Miss Cecilia Slattery. Dermot Slattery to Miss Mabel Watters. John Wray de Courcy to Miss Sheila Gorevan. The Sodality of Our Lady Director: Rev. D. Mulcahy, S.J. Prefect: L. Hickey. Assistants: C. Ryan, E. Guiry. Sacristan: N. Hickey Members from last year: S. Connolly, E. Curry, P. Doherty, E. Guiry, P. Harnett, C. Hennessy, L. Hickey, N. Hickey, M. Keyes, C. Morgan, G. Moynihan, P. D. O'Connor, T. O'Neill, J. Pierce, C. Ryan, T. Teahan. Received on 8th December, 1952: K. Buckley, E. Carey, R. Harris, M. MacDermott, R. MacDonald, J. F. Murphy, J.J. Murphy, J. M. Murphy, J. Nolan, J. O'Byrne, B. O'Carroll, B. Silke. Received on 10th May, 1953: P. Cash, E. Cassidy, N. Dolan, P. O'Connell. Though fewer in number than in recent years, the Sodalists of Our Lady have not decreased in fervour. Sincerity and fidelity are essential in a College Sodality. The Sodality is a stepping stone to one thing only, and that is holiness. This is stressed especially during the time of probation so that candidates may be sincere in seeking admission to the Sodality of Our Lady. Fidelity to the Sodality Way of Life as manifested in the rules seems to be aimed at by the Sodalists during the year, if one may judge by their endeavours to observe that cardinal rule which lays down the practice of a quarter hour's mental prayer daily. Our meetings were held regularly on Saturday evenings, preceded by the Sodality Dialogue Mass in the morning in the Domestic Chapel. Sincerity and fidelity, now and later, in Sodalists of the Mother of God will certainly keep them close to Christ and Mary. Sodality of the Holy Angels Prefect: P. O'Grady. First Assistant: M. Machen Sub-Prefect for Junior Section: J. Kelly. Sacristan: J. Hickey. Second Assistant: D. Buckley. Members from Last Year: N. Dolan, D. Garland, M. Machen, P. O'Carroll, P. O'Grady, D. Buckley, R. Burden, R. Cassidy, T. Costello, M. Clery, F. Dunne, J. Enright, R. Ferguson, B. Forkan, B. Hardiman, D. Healy, J. Hickey, J. Keating, John Kelly, P. Kelly, N. MacCarthy, J. McGowan, F. O'Brien, P. O'Brien, R. O'Connor, T. Watson, A. dePodhradszky, H. Roche-Kelly, J. Kelly, B. Garland, P. Dwane, M. Fitzgibbon, W. Gilbourne, V. Hennessy, R. Keyes, P. O'Connell, C. O'Grady, D. Punch, P. Twohig, Jas. Woods. Received December 7th: L. Murphy, D. J. O'Connor, F. Corry, J. Doyle, P. Horgan, B. Leonard, P. Sheehy. Members of the Holy Angels' Sodality continue enthusiastically their regular attendance at Weekly Meetings during the year. The Senior and Junior branches met separately, under the direction of Father Hughes and Father Cusack. By striving as perfectly as possible to live up to their high ideals, the members aim at maintaining a high standard in every department of the life of the College. The talks were of a practical nature, stressing the need of practical holiness as exemplified in the tone of their everyday lives and preparation, not only for admission into Our Blessed Lady's Sodality, but for the future ahead. F. O'Brien, P. O'Carroll, E. Cassidy, E. Flannelly, L. Hickey, S. O'Rourke EASTER TERM JANUARY Wed. 14th.—Once more the doors open their welcoming arms to receive us, and here we are. "Alas this hour of woe has come, This hour—a fateful one for some, We see the walls and gates once more, A bitter reminder that the vac. is o'er These dark grey walls and dark grey towers, At the sight of which my poor heart cowers, Are now the extent of my domain, —A place where I must suffer pain." Thurs. 15th.—Past Philosophers, D. Murphy and D. Morrissey, at present doing theology in Thurles, pay us a visit. Sat. 17th.—Thick fog this evening, a climate which appeals to many, for there is quite a big crowd on the track. The smoke is nearly as bad as the fog! Sun. 18th.—John Keely using one eye to watch the seniors and the other to watch the J.C.T. has no eye for the ball which strikes him from 3rd. Club pitch. Tue. 20th.—Games on blackboard in 5A classroom, quite exciting too. Referee has to get a few helpers to break up the scrums. All exhausted after a tough game. Wed. 21st.—Strange noises heard from "O noble hall of quiet, What is amiss down there to-night? There are shouts which pierce my ears, And methinks I hear—yes—even cheers; I wonder what is wrong down there; And for the jokers I say a prayer: —I'm a mug without a doubt— I might have guessed, the lights are out! Thur. 22nd—I.C.T. returning from Glenstal have a rough journey. "My spleen's upside down, my kidneys are wrong, My liver's jumped up where my heart should belong; My backbone's so mixed that I sit when I kneel, All on account of our automobile. Fri. 23rd—We welcome our new lay master, Mr. O'Regan, who is going to teach us Irish, French and Maths. Sat. 24th—Bicycle owners hold a conference and form a Trade Union. They decide to charge 1/- for a loan of bikes in future. Everything is going up these days. Sun. 25th—"To Town we go—to Limerick town, To play a match—to win a crown. But Crescent are so strong and keen, We lose the match by nil—fourteen. Tue. 27th—Fr. Mulcahy finds it hard to rouse the J.C.T. to life in a practice match. However, Teddy found the solution. A pin in the scrum makes such a difference.... Wed. 28th—Tom P---r thinks he sees someone trying to lasso a wild steer but it is only some of the seniors skipping in training. Thurs. 29th—The walls covered with painter's plaster look as if they have the measles. Optimists hope that it is not a bad omen, but pessimists say that anything can happen this weather. "Now that these Vols. do begin For the rest of the school year Thick soup is what I find I am in I'm 'in the red', I fear. I'm not doing well in class just now, And I may be asked to stay, Quite of my own free will, of course, While others hit the hay." Sat. 7th—A lad feeling sickish came down by the Bell And over the railings he leaned till he fell; He turned twice over, and fell to the ground, And hopped up again with a terrible bound. Wed. 4th—Of course this talking mule is the source of many discussions in some quarters. "A horse which talks, And has a name— But then of course Kevin does the same. Fri. 6th—Distraction in study: "Born to study, born to swot, Some are, it is true— Michael, for instance, "pounds" a lot, But I don't,—do you?" Everyone rushed; nobody tarried And into the Nurse, poor Ned H-r-y we carried. Those who came late asked "Please tell us who fell?" And were told 'twas poor Ned who fell down by the bell.' FEBRUARY Mon. 2nd—Hearty congratulations to Brother Sullivan on the occasion of his taking his final vows. Half day in his honour, and very enjoyable film shown, "Francis, the talking mule." "The flu has just come And it won't go away It's hard to get rid Of a bad thing, they say. A few are quite sick But others are not But it's O.K. by me There are sleeps For the lot. Tue. 3rd. Voluntaries start. "Give us a look" And a certain cubicle had gathered then Some food and some (light) beverages— all right. Until the night was broken by the laughs of men Who should have been asleep, and when Funny jokes come forth in hilarious yell And more repeated—then still more again, And all were merry as the dinner bell, But hush! Hark! six deep blows strike like a rising knell!" Fri. 13th— We roll into the refectory Expecting eggs to see, When yes, — oh goodness me! 'Tis fresh salmon from the sea. I wonder had the change to salmon anything to do with the presentation of a fishing-rod to Dr. Roche-Kelly? Sat. 14th— "A young lad called Austin had plenty of hair, Curls in profusion had he. But alas! now his curled locks are not there The scissors he used, — plain to see." Sun. 15th—In 3A history class: "Who was the best liked of the English kings? Bright Boy: "The merry Monarch. Mon. 16th— "See the glow-worms all so bright In the darkness of the night They never looked so red to me Shucks, it ain't no mystery The fag ends have begun to light." Tue. 17th—Fr. Minster: You can go to class. You have no temperature. Boy: No temperature, then lay me out. Wed. 18th—Preparations in full swing for Thursday's match. "For oft when on my couch I lie" P. Kelly has a quiet read "You'll have to shout lads," says P.D., "For we are the Munget S.C.T., Let Pres. know we're here to-day To take that Munster cup away. Thurs. 19th—To-day our Seniors fought very hard against Pres. Cork, in Thomond Park in the first round of the Munster Cup, but we lose 9—6. Some supporters are going to be hoarse for a few days, and it is no wonder so many visit the Nurse with sore throats. Fri. 20th—It looks as if Hollywood is on location here to-day. A horde of newspapermen and photographers want to photograph our four foreign friends, Munget in the news. Sat. 21st— Peter's a wonderful billiard-player, He's an expert at using the cue. He gets canons and pots, and 'in-offs' And things you or I couldn't do. One day he was better than usual, The ball he hit such a fine blow That it left the green cloth far behind it, And right through the window did go. The prefect was asking some questions: "Did you break the window with that ball!" "Oh, no, Father." Peter sang sweetly, "Only the glass part,—that's all." Mon. 23rd—" Would you mind paying a little attention!" "But Father, I'm paying as little attention as I can." Wed. 25th—Some J.C.T. players get their first and last impressions of Cork to-day when they travel to play Pres. They were beaten 6—0. Thurs. 26th—Monthly Play-Day. They say that Fr. Rector has gone against all his principles by bringing "Whiskey gabore" into the school. But, alas! only on the films. MARCH. Sun. 1st—Charles: We had the Dean for dinner to-day. Mick: What Dean? Charles: The Sardine. Mon. 2nd—Prefect to Peter found somewhere where he shouldn't be: "Well?" "Yes, Father. Very well, thanks." Tue. 3rd—Our electricity is cut off today. Wed. 4th—The principle of not letting your right hand know what your left hand is doing can be taken too seriously: A member of 2nd Club appears with one black shoe, and the other one brown,—even with the new lights . . . Thurs. 5th—When Fr. Minister asked Gerry McD— whether he had yet reached the use of reason, it started a very vehement discussion on the subject at the table. Which side won . . .? Sat. 7th—German sounds, German noises, and German talk heard in the middle of the night. It turns out to be Herr Von Finbar trying to persuade Herr Horgan that Herr Adolf is still alive. But what a time to do it! Sun. 8th—A novelty in picture showing. We are shown what life in Greenland is like while Mr. Jorgensen commentates over a 'mike.' Tue. 10th—Under 15 practice. Tom finds Davey's knee very hard on contact with his face. However after 'a stitch in time' he will recover. Wed. 11th—Prizes for Mission Raffle make their appearance. "There're razors for the ancient men, And jumpers of best make; And there I see a pencil and pen, Besides that lovely cake. Lots of chocolate boxes also, Amid the apples galore." Sat. 14th—It's a pity Horace didn't have to study his poems,—then he mightn't have written so many. Sun. 15th—It seems that Michael K--y-s has already started decorating his cubicle for An Tostal with his pyjamas forming the centrepiece—or maybe it's only that he forgot to make his bed this morning. Tues. 17th—St. Patrick's Day. We thank Fr. Mallin for an eloquent sermon. Silence is golden, but more so for some when others talk Irish. Father Minister has a job stopping the midday meal rush. In any case D - n He - ly got in first. Ramle to-night. Excellent Irish Play 'Beirt na Bodhaire Breige.' Congratulations to Fr. Curran and the cast. Brian S - - ke says Chicken is the best diet for Actors. Wed. 18th—Fr. MacSeamais turns to Burke but the U.C.T. are a little slower. Yes, I think 'tis worth a chance. So Here, Paddy.—give me four." Thurs. 19th—Shakespearian Recital tonight which we all enjoy. Fri. 20th—We are measured for our new blazers. The Firm's representative brings a second tape which comes in useful for Ned's waist. Sat. 21st—H. F - nn - ng "What's cookin'?" L H - ck - y. "Don't use that expression." H. F - nn - ng "All right, What's fryin'?" Sun. 22nd—Final of the under 17 Shield. The game ends 8 pts. all, but Crescent win the Shield on points. Mon. 23rd—Two donkeys invade the College ground at three o'clock: "Two lively donkeys, colour grey Invaide our sacred ground, But Watson and Kelly very gay Race the donkeys round Mossy Clery has a go And pats the smaller one But dinky donk. lashes out And Mossy nearly takes the count." Wed. 25th—Annual Photographs today "Like mummy's darlings in a row With spotless clothes and flashy show The Mungret beauties posed in style With necks erect and glowing smile." Thurs. 26th—Final of Third Club Leagues. Paul O'Carroll's team scores a clear cut victory over Joe Kelly's J.C.T. match against Crescent. We show our proper form and win 18-3. Sun. 29th—City Cup Final at Thomond Park. "They trip along To echoing song, Past their own They see the prize, With chins held high They'll do or die We wish them luck or the City Cup... Crescent had the luck and win 11 - 6. Mon. 30th—Niall MacCarthy gets the prize for Tackling. "He got his man He got him low He got his trial Cause he did so He got the prize And the fame I know And all because He tackled low." First Club Medal Debate. We offer our congratulations to the winner, Leo Hickey. April 1st.—Homeward Bound. Strange we don't get an extra week's holiday to help to make An Tostal a success. FINALE We offer our sincere congratulations to our Musical teacher, Professor D. Guina on a distinguished recital of Haydn's Passion by The Limerick Oratorio and Choral Society which he conducted at the City Theatre. Dr. Morgan Lane In the 1890's there came to Mungret a boy, called Morgan Lane. After passing First Arts, he departed to take up medical studies. Since those far away days, he has spent over forty years in Australia. Yet he has always treasured the memory of Mungret, for last summer his son who has been taking out many post-graduate medical and surgical degrees in London, came under special mandate to see his father's old school. After leaving Mungret, Morgan Lane took out his medical degree with distinction in Queen's University, Cork. He then spent some time in private practice in Hereford, and later did post-graduate courses in London. His brother Even though the oratory during this year's sessions may not have reached the exceptionally high standard set last year, nevertheless as we review our meeting of 1952-'53 we cannot but feel gratified at the efforts, the interest, and the results. The majority of the members of the Debating Society did speak—and this in itself is an achievement; care was manifested in the preparation of speeches; and the House was always helpful and alert. By way of experiment we held one 'Professional Debate' in which eight speakers presented their views on different professions. These, along with extempore additions from the House, proved most interesting. Once again the Final Debate, as well as being keenly contested by the best of our orators, rose to great heights. The material (we insist on it being the speaker's own), the argument, and the presentation won great praise from all present. To Father Rector, Father Kelly, and to Father Erraught, who adjudicated at the Final Debate, the gratitude of the Debating Society is due. Illness kept our secretary, E. Curry, away from our meetings for most of the season. We missed his help and his voice. SPEAKERS IN FINAL DEBATE FIRST SESSION: 8th. October, 1952. Motion—"That the Catholic life of our country is not as virile today as in the past." Government: G. Moynihan, P. Harnett, J. F. Murphy, J. Nolan. Opposition: W. Costello, P. Byrne, E. Guiry, S. Connolly. Motion lost by 6 votes. SECOND SESSION: 12th. November, 1952. Motion: "That great soldiers have done more for the world than great statesmen." Government: B. O'Carroll, M. Cosgrove, J. Pierce, W. Costello. Opposition: E. Cassidy, C. Ryan, J. Moran, K. Buckley. Motion lost by 5 votes. THIRD SESSION: 10th. December, 1952. Motion: "That the precautions taken to secure safety on the roads in Ireland are adequate." Government: M. MacDermott, E. Carey, P. Cash, P. Devoy. Opposition: D. Brady, P. Doherty, D. O'Connor, R. MacDonald. Motion lost by 7 votes. FOURTH SESSION: 10th. February, 1953. "Professional Debate" Doctor—J. Loh; Engineer—R. Harris; Journalist—L. Hickey; Lawyer—N. Dolan; Politician—J. J. Murphy; Teacher—C. Morgan; Scientist—D. Gunning; Soldier—K. Cantwell. FIFTH SESSION: FINAL DEBATE: 30th. March, 1953. Motion: "That the world is approaching its darkest age." Government: S. Connolly, N. Hickey, E. Cassidy, J. Nolan. Opposition: W. Costello, P. Byrne, L. Hickey, C. Ryan. Voting: For the motion 46 votes; against 36. Motion lost by 18 votes. In the course of the year, Second Club Debating Society held quite a number of meetings. These revealed an abundance of fluent and natural speakers, who worked hard and were very enthusiastic. On the whole it can be said that the Society had a very successful year. SECOND CLUB DEBATE MEDAL D. Buckley For the second meeting in November we discussed the motion that "The advantages of Partition outweigh its disadvantages." Government: M. Walsh, F. O'Brien, D. Buckley. Opposition: P. Cassidy, T. Watson, T. Donohoe. Motion defeated by a large majority. In February we held a hat debate which proved to be a great success. Among the motions discussed were: "Sunday exams. are a better system than end of term exams." —Motion carried. "Day schools are superior to boarding schools"—Motion carried. "Secondary Education should include the teaching of trades in the curriculum."—Motion lost. "Foreign games should not be played in Irish schools."—Motion lost. Among the speakers were H. Roche-Kelly, B. Buckley, T. Costello, B. Hardiman, F. O'Brien, T. Watson and T. Donohoe. In March for our final debate the motion was that "American ideas and methods have done harm to civilization" Government: H. Roche-Kelly, T. Donohoe, J. Smith, T. Watson. Opposition: D. Buckley, T. Costello, B. Hardiman, B. Buckley. Fr. Cusack very kindly consented to adjudicate. The medal was awarded to D. Buckley. The Third Club Debating Society maintained the high standards set in previous years. At no time was there any difficulty in finding speakers for debates and quite a number of new members made their debut. The interest and enthusiasm of the Society was apparent in the large attendance at the meetings and also in the number of speakers from the house. Among the motions debated were: "That Munster is the premier province of Ireland." "That the farmer has done more for Ireland than any other individual." At the end of November, a "rocket" debate resembling the "balloon" debate of two years ago provoked much interest. This time the speakers represented various professions instead of famous men. In the final debate several of our best speakers discussed the motion "That day schools are superior to boarding schools." The speakers were: F. Corry, Joe Kelly, P. Twohig, J. G. Walsh for the opposition; R. Keyes, P. Dwane, N. Murphy and A. Fanning for the Government. After a keen debate the motion was defeated. Debate Medal—Neill Murphy. Those who wish to have Mungret Annual sent to them should send their name and address to the Rev. Editor, Mungret College, Limerick. Annual Subscription 3/6 post free. Five Year Subscription 15/-. Life Subscription £3 10s. Past numbers (unless out of print) can be had on application to the Editor. Dr. H. Roche-Kelly February 11th a Play-Day was held to the boys in honour of the Jubilee of Dr. Roche-Kelly. Among, besides the chief guest, the House, opened the speech of welcome to the doctor on behalf of the boys. He reminded us of the fact that the doctor had been here in A College of The Church Universal AUSTRALIAN EXPERIENCES By FATHER P. DOHERTY, S.J. (1922-'24) It won't be so cold as this in Melbourne!" exclaimed the priest who was escorting me to the London plane at Collinstown. The gentleman immediately in front of us wheeled round. "Who's going to Melbourne?" he asked in surprised tone. "I am," I said eagerly; "are you coming too?" "I have just returned from there," replied this young doctor, a past pupil of Crescent College; "I hope to go back again soon." On the way to London he gave me his impressions of Australia. "Once you settle down," he said, "you will grow to love the Australians." As the following year unfolded itself, I found myself in full agreement with all his favourable opinions of the "Land of sunshine." Little did I expect, however, on that evening of December 5th, 1930, that my adieu to Melbourne, some fifteen months later, would be one of the hardest farewells of my life. Since my return many people have expressed surprise at my admiration for Australia. "They don't all like it," I am told. Oddly enough, some of these criticisms can be traced to articles in cross Channel newspapers. England is beginning to recede from the temples, since he was a youngster in Junior Grade in 1924! Some time later I spent a wonderful week with Father Albert in his country parish of Trentham, Victoria, before his promotion to the Melbourne suburbs. We kept very late hours that week, re-living schooldays separated from the present by a gap of thirty years. influence of the late Father Freddy Cuffe, S.J. Many of Mungret's past pupils are Jesuits in the Australian Province. First to greet me, when I reached the land of the sun, was Father Tom Barden, Rector of the Jesuit College in Perth. I reminded Father Tom of the day in September, 1922, when we both left Dublin, via Athenry, on a roundabout first journey to Mungret during the disturbed days of the Civil War. When, at long last, we had arrived at the gates of Mungret, we felt like travelled men who had seen a bit of life! For both of us it was but the first of many long and roundabout journeys. At the gates of St. Louis College, Perth, stood the portly figure of Father John Williams. Gone indeed are the ascetic lines and emaciated appearance that I had always associated with John! But the welcoming smile is more genial than ever and, when I had my farewell chat with him, just twelve months ago, I found myself talking to the same grand person whom I sat beside for the Junior Apostolics' photo in 1924 and whom, thank God, no passage of time could change. In Richmond, Victoria, I spent a year under the same roof with Father Michael Morrison. Between army and Australian experiences, Mick has seen quite a lot of life in the past decade, and has been in close contact with death too. He was the first chaplain to enter Belsen concentration camp towards the end of the war. From Father Morrison's room in the Richmond presbytery, one can see the dome of the chapel of Xavier College. At Xavier, Father Michael O'Mahony is now a familiar—I had almost dared to say a "venerable"!—figure, for he laboured there as a scholastic in the pre-war years and has been there ever since his return to Australia in 1946. With him is Father Dan Fitzpatrick who is quite an expert at teaching chemistry and does a good deal of preaching in his spare time. With these two men I had a glorious fortnight's holiday along the Victorian seaside shortly after my arrival in Australia. I shall always remember the unrelenting feud that went on, day and night, between Father O'Mahony and the mosquitoes! Another great Mungret man, whom I saw, alas! only too rarely, was Father Con Finn who has made a great name in university circles in Adelaide. I could chatter on endlessly about these and other Irishmen who came and saw and were conquered by Australia. I might as well end this ramble near its starting point—at Tilbury Docks, in fact. I was not long on board the S.S. Himalaya, on the way down the English Channel, when I was greeted by a very charming young priest—another Mungret man—Father Dan Boylan of Portlaoighse and Ballarat Cathedral. Father Dan was returning to base after a holiday at home. An ideal companion for a long sea journey, he painted a colourful and very impressive picture of Australia as he had known it for some twelve years. Yet not even the masterpiece of an artist could portray the full splendour of the masterpiece of Divine artistry which I was to see with my own eyes for fifteen wonderful months. --- The Mission Society OFFICIALS (1952-'53) E. Carey P. O'Grady M. Fitzgibbon J. Harnett A. de Podhradszky R. Keyes The missions are the front-line trenches of the Church. Those who go on the missions must fight a battle to save men's souls. They have to grapple with all the forces of paganism. They need and deserve our support. Every soldier at the front needs a dozen men behind the lines—working hard to keep him there. Success or failure may well depend on support from the home-land. The Mission Society tries to give, in some small way, that much-needed support to the foreign missions. During the past year two raffles and a collection were held, enabling financial help to be sent. Great thanks are due to all those who sold tickets, or otherwise helped to make these enterprises a success. Stamp-collecting and sorting, the traditional ways of helping the missions, were also maintained. Missionary periodicals were supported and circulated throughout the year; and, it is hoped, helped to stimulate members to prayer—our very best means of supporting the missions. On Mission Sunday, Father J. Thornton, S.J., gave us an interesting lecture on his experiences as a missionary in China under Communist rule. In December, a film was shown dealing with the work of Irish missionaries in Nigeria. --- EXCHANGES The Editor gratefully acknowledges the receipt of the following College Magazines: The Belvederian; The Clongowesian; Rockwell Annual; Castleknock Chronicle; The Lantern; The Mary Immaculate Training College Annual; The Mountaineer; St. Aloysius College Annual (Mangalore); Loyola College Annual (Montreal); The Patrician (Melbourne); The Xavierian; The Alma Mater (Sydney); The Harvester (Kenmore); The Eagle (Claremont, W.A.); The Aloysian (Sydney); The Star (Hong Kong); The Petrean; The Ratcliffian; Blackrock College Annual; St. Joseph's Magazine; St. Patrick's Annual (Jaffna); Baeda Gleanings; Bishop Foy School Annual. Portacelli-Villasis. Sodality of Our Lady and St. Francis Xavier Apostolics Director: Rev. D. MacDonald, S.J. Prefect: M. O'Farrell 1st Assistant: P. O'Rourke 2nd Assistant: M. Hoare Sacristan: D. Page. Members from Last Year: T. Acton, P. Collins, J. Cusack, T. Deasy, B. Dempsey, P. Flanagan E. Flannely, T. Gorman, M. Hoare, D. Kavanagh, M. Killeen, S. McGough, C. O'Connor, M. O'Farrell, P. O'Rourke, D. Page, J. Toal, P. Stanley. Received on December 8th: B. Long, S. O'Rourke A. Delaney. Received on May 10th: P. McGrath, J. Carroll. The usual weekly meetings were held on Saturday nights, the Little Office of Our Lady was recited and an instruction given by the Director. Hardly any external activities are possible for this Sodality. Zealous preparation for the future apostolate in the priesthood in foreign lands holds pride of place. If future work for souls is to be fruitful, all the helps and graces available now must be utilised and high ideals nourished. Studies too, are pursued more zealously through the spirit of Our Lady's Sodality which gives added inspiration. Our Lady looks for special devotion from her Sodalists. SODALITY OF OUR LADY AND ST. FRANCIS XAVIER BACK ROW: P. Stanley, J. Toal, M. Killeen, A. Delaney, T. Acton, C. Mitchell, B. Long, B. Dempsey, T. Gorman, E. Flannelly, S. O'Rourke, P. Collins, J. McGough, C. O'Connor, P. Flanagan, J. Cusack, T. Deasy, M. Hoare, M. O'Farrell, Rev. D. MacDonald, S.J., P. O'Rourke, D. Page, D. Kavanagh Obituary REV. WM. McELIGOTT (1928-'29) JAMES HENNESSY (1908-'11) RT. REV. MGR. MAURICE REDDEN (1893-'99) DR. ARTHUR N. COLAHAN (1901-'04) DR. P. G. DALTON (1930-'32) REV. JAMES BYRNES (1903-'10) REV. PATRICK BRESNAHAN (1893-'99) REV. JOHN BUCKLEY (1891-'96) DR. PATRICK S. FLAVIN (1905-'08) JOHN A. FOGARTY (1905-'08) BR. JOHN GUERIN (1914-'17) MARTIN S. BREEN (1905-'11) DENIS HENNESSY (1912-'14) FRANK CLUNE (1913-'14) BERNARD G. TRACY (1900-'04) At the outbreak of the 1914 War he brought back to the Xaverian Brot School at Mayfield Sussex. In 1917 entered the British Civil Ser Between then and 1921, he seem have taken part in the Anglo-Irish for he was decorated later with Cogadh na Saoirse Medal. It was probably during those years, that he lea to speak fluently his Kerry Irish. After the ratification of the Treaty was transferred to the newly created Irish Civil Service. He worked in Land Commission until his entrance into the Society of Jesus. Among staff of the Land Commission he had many friends; to these the news of his death came as a great shock. In 1928 he came to Mungrret to study Latin, and in the following year entered the Society. The years 1933-35 saw him back in Mungrret as Second Club Prefect. After Philosophy he spent a year as First Prefect 1936-37. In 1942, two years after his Ordination, he became Prefect for another year. He showed absorbing interest as a Prefect, in all who came under his charge. In matters of discipline, he retained friendship of boys long after they had left Mungret. His love of music led him to help many boys who were studying it. He had a critical appreciation of music in its various forms, and was himself an accomplished pianist. Those who were intimate with him will remember his half humorous pretence of being a mere amateur. In 1944 he was appointed assistant procurator of the college, and he fulfilled the onerous duties of his office until his death. The war years brought him many difficulties, but his skill and patience brought us through with the minimum of inconvenience. Fr Rector's tribute to his work, at the close of the term in December may well be quoted: "All the improvements we see around us in Mungret are due principally to Fr Liam's careful husbanding of our resources in those difficult times. He can in no slight way be numbered among those 'Men who made Mungret.'" Methods of teaching were of keen interest of him. Those who were taught by him in Mungret have a vivid recollection of his energy, vitality, and earnestness. French was a favourite subject of his, but he cheerfully admitted that his efforts to teach French pronunciation were not a complete success. He had a paternal interest in the boys who came to the College from foreign lands after the war. He made a study of Magyar, Polish and Russian languages to tide these newcomers over the linguistic difficulties they experienced. During all the years he was in Mungret, he lived for the College. He was a familiar figure among the boys helping, encouraging, and cheering them with that humourous playfulness that still remains a precious memory. It is perhaps for his charming sense of humour, and spirit of innocent fun that he will be especially remembered. During his life in the Society, it might be said that he was never free from ill health. Nervous strain and insomnia were his constant Cross. To these in the last years of his life, was added the blood pressure, which was destined to prove fatal. Some time before his condition became critical, the doctors ordered him complete rest. In those last weeks, though he could not see much hope of recovering his former health, he retained his old spirit of cheerfulness, and talked lightheartedly of the future. On December 11th the end came suddenly, and he passed peacefully away fortified by the rites of Holy Church. J. HENNESSY (1908-11) When on the night of December 17th, after the last performance of the College Opera, James Hennessy bade farewell before setting out for home with his family, few of us thought that we should never see him alive again. Mungret formed part of his life, and he came and went as an old familiar friend. To many he was a business man of high integrity, to others a public figure for whom the interests of New Ross were foremost, yet to those who knew him intimately, he was above all a father devoted to his family. Quiet and unassuming, he had a quick interest in the hobbies and pursuits of youth. Perhaps it was this simplicity, and naive charm of character which endeared him to many. As Chairman of the Harbour Commissioners, he was active up to the time of his death, in trying to obtain better shipping facilities for New Ross. He did much also to bring new industries to his native town. When the firm, Steele and Co., started, he became one of the largest shareholders. His devotion to the interests of Haughton Hospital was well known to his colleagues. Few could claim so assiduous an attendance at Board Meetings. This, however, was but an aspect of his charity towards all those who needed help. Montreal to do his course in Theology. He was ordained at Manchester in 1902 by Bishop Bradley and then went to Rome to study for his D.D. which he took in 1904. His first appointment was to the Church of the Immaculate Conception, Nashua and in 1907 he was sent to St. Mary's, Dover, where his brother, the late Father Tom Redden was also a curate. He was appointed parish priest of St. Peter's in Peterborough and served there for 16 years, till in 1922 he went as Pastor to St. Thomas Aquinas in Derry. In 1945 Bishop Brady appointed him Pastor of St. Patrick's, Nashua. In 1950 he was awarded the honorary degree of doctor of letters from the College of St. Anselm's, Manchester. Monsignor Maurice was looking forward to the Golden Jubilee of his ordination which he was due to celebrate in June, but death came unexpectedly as the result of a cerebral haemorrhage while he was at lunch in his rectory on March 23rd, 1952. R.I.P. DOCTOR A. N. COLAHAN (1901-04) On September 9th, there passed away in Leicester Royal Infirmary where he had often visited, personality familiar to patients and staff—Doctor Arthur Colahan. Born in 1886 in Galway, whose name he was destined to make known across the seas, he belonged to a family long associated with medicine. Both his grandfather and father had held the Chair of Materia Medica in University College, Galway. Following the family tradition, Doctor Arthur lectured for a period in the same Faculty. During the First World War, he joined the Royal Army Medical Corps, and served with the rank of Captain. When the Peace Treaty was made he practised for a while in Dublin, and then went to England. Around 1930, he settled in Leicester, and specialised as neurologist. Music was one of his early loves, and when at school in Mungrct he had often figured in the College entertainments. Song writing later became a hobby of his. In 1926, after his brother had been drowned there he composed the song, which was to become famous throughout the English speaking world—'Galway Bay.' It was not, however, until 1948 that it was published, and then only through the persuasion of friends. Over 50,000 copies were published in England, and more than twice that number in America. He wrote 'Astoreen Bawn' and 'The Claddagh Ring' also, but they did not become so widely known. Doctor Arthur was not a man who made friends easily, but those with whom he was intimate, appreciated his friendship as something genuine. He was a man of high principles and deep reserve. He was fond of recalling phrases from the Spiritual Exercises of St. Ignatius in his letters. Throughout his life, he retained a strong affection for Mungrct and his native County. When a short notice about him appeared in the Annual of 1950, he wrote to the Editor, 'You have made me very grateful, and may I say, very proud.' He had planned to visit Ireland and Mungrct the same year, but difficulties intervened. After his death, the body was brought back to his native city. After Solemn Requiem Mass in Galway Cathedral, Dr. Colahan was laid to rest in the family burial ground. We mourn the passing of a valued friend and a distinguished past student. To his widow and relatives we offer our deep sympathy. R.I.P. DR. R. G. DALTON (1930-32) THE untimely death of Gerry Dalton at the early age of thirty-seven aroused among his friends, and they were many, poignant feelings of sorrow, sympathy and regret. There was sorrow at the passing of a much admired friend; sympathy for his young wife and three children; regret that a promising career in the medical profession was so untimely ended. Born in Carrick-on-Suir Gerry came to Mungrct in 1930. On leaving in 1932 he took up Medicine at U.C.D. He qualified in 1939 and spent periods at the Mater Hospital and the Eye and Ear Hospital doing ear, nose and throat work. In 1941 he joined the Army Medical Staff and was stationed at St. Brictin's Hospital, Dublin, as Ear, Nose and Throat Surgeon. In that year too he married Miss Noel S. Barrett of Cork. Resigning his Army Commission, he was appointed, in March, 1945, Assistant Ear, Nose and Throat Surgeon at Jervis Street Hospital, Dublin, and opened consulting rooms at 36, Merrion Square. The years that followed were divided between hard work in building up his practice and interest in his home. In both spheres he was ideally happy and successful. His bright personality and generous nature endeared him to all who met him. Beloved by his family, respected by his colleagues, admired by his friends, he seemed to have laid the foundations of a happy and successful future. Then came tragedy. In January, 1951, he underwent an operation and it was discovered that he was suffering from a disease that medicine might alleviate but could not cure. Lingering on in pain and suffering for eighteen months School where he remained for seven years. After completing his theological studies in the Propaganda College Rome, he was ordained to the Priesthood in 1914. He spent the first years of his priesthood as a missionary in Johannesburg. He was then sent to Brooklyn, and in recent years attached to the Church of Our Lady of Solace. He was assistant pastor here, until death came. During his time at the Church of Our Lady of Solace, he endeared himself to his parishioners, by his zeal and interest in their welfare. He was a well known figure to the schoolchildren, to whose spiritual upbringing he gave much care. Over fifty priests were at the Solemn Requiem Mass in the Parish Church. Father Bednartz in an eloquent sermon paid a high tribute to the zealous priest. R.I.P. FATHER PATRICK BRESNAHAN (1893-99) FATHER Patrick Bresnahan was one of the pioneer priests of Florida and a link with the frontier days. For most of the five or six years after his ordination there were only eleven priests in Florida, and Father Patrick spent his nights in the open after a hard day on horseback along the back trails of the state. He was born at Castle Conyers, Charleville, on February 26th 1897 and came to Mungrct in '93. He went to the North American College Rome in '99 where he got the Second Medal in Moral Theology. He was ordained in 1903 by Bishop Kenny in the Cathedral of St. Augustine, and then spent a short period at the Missionary House attached to the Catholic University of Washington in preparation for his work as a missionary priest. Father Patrick filled many parishes in the diocese till, owing to ill-health, he retired from the parish of St. Joseph's, Loretto in 1946. In 1937 he had already published his book "Seeing Florida with a Priest"—a book which gives us a good picture of hardships of the missionary of the early days in Florida. Death came peacefully to this great servant of the Church at St. Vincent's Hospital, Jacksonville on May 22nd 1952. May he rest in peace. FATHER J. BUCKLEY S.J. (1891-'96) NEWS reached Ireland in January of the death of Father John Buckley S.J., after a long life of service in many mission fields. Born in 1775 in Rathmore, Co. Kerry, he came to Mungret in 1801 where he spent five years. He then joined the New Orleans Province of the Society of Jesus. As a scholastic he taught English in the Spanish College in Cuba. He completed his theological studies at St. Louis University, where he was ordained in 1900. As a priest he taught successively at Shreveport La., Augusta, and Loyola University. In 1916, the English Province were looking for volunteers to work in British Guiana, and Father Buckley immediately offered his services. In this difficult mission he laboured until 1920, when the English Jesuits, freed from war duties, were able to resume the work. Father Buckley was then assigned to parish work in El Paso, and later in Tampa and Mobile. During World War II, though he was not a young man, he volunteered for war time duties in Jamaica, and was accepted. When peace came he returned to El Paso, and then came another appointment—chaplain to the new St. Joseph's Hospital at Augusta. This was destined to be Father Buckley's last assignment. Though affected with a weak heart, he remained active to the end, till God called him to a well earned reward. To his sisters, Mother Brendan of the Presentation Convent, Rathmore, and Mother Finian of Liverpool we offer our deep sympathy. R.I.P. DOCTOR P. S. FLAVIN (1905-'08) ON March 7th the death took place at his residence Rock House, Youghal, of Doctor Patrick Flavin. After leaving Mungret he studied at U.C.D. and qualified in Medicine. In his College and Undergraduate days he was a keen footballer and athlete, and won a number of sports' trophies. After qualifying, he went to England. Here he worked in a number of districts before finally settling down in Camberwell, London, where he remained until his retirement in 1947. His time in London involved strenuous years of war work at A.R.P. stations and rest centres, and the strain told on his health. His chief hobby was motoring, which seemed to hold a peculiar fascination for him. To his widow, sister and brothers we extend our deep sympathy. R.I.P. BROTHER J. GUERIN S.D.B. (1914-'17) THE death took place on January 24th of Brother John Guerin, at St. Joseph's Private Nursing Home, Hackney, after a long illness patiently borne. Some years after leaving Mungret, John Guerin, as he was then, decided to give his life to the service of God. He thought first of the Mill Hill Fathers, with whom he spent some time. Soon, however, he felt that God called him elsewhere, and in 1923, he entered the Salesian House at Farnborough. The following year he did his Novitiate at Cowley, Oxford. After his profession he became Assistant Procurator. His abilities were shown in this Office, and he was retained in this work until his illness in 1951. He was treated in various Nursing Houses during the following year. He gradually lost strength, however, and a happy and holy death brought his sufferings to an end. To his brother, we offer our sincere sympathy. R.I.P. He was also an ardent fisherman, and an excellent shot. He was also a member of the Lismore Race Committee. During the war he served as Battalion Q.M.C. in the F.C.A., serving from its inception in 1939 until 1946. He also took a keen interest in amateur theatricals, and was an accomplished performer on the stage. No concert was ever complete without him. He was always ready to oblige whatever organisation required his services, and it is fitting that he died immediately after doing his turn at a charity concert. His personality and ability made him a well known figure everywhere, and his death came as a great shock to the whole community. To his widow we offer our sincerest sympathy. R.I.P. J. A. FOGARTY (1905-'08) THE sudden death of John Fogarty of the National Bank, Lismore on November 7th, was the cause of general regret throughout the town. He was born in Bruff, Co. Limerick, in 1891. After leaving Mungret he entered the Bank. Before being transferred to Lismore, where he served for 31 years, he worked in Kilkenny, Galway, Limerick and Limavady. He was a very keen sportsman, having played golf, cricket, tennis and hockey. By Courtesy of] [The Waterford News Martin S. Breen MARTIN S. BREEN (1905-'11) IN the death of Martin Breen on November 13th, Waterford lost one of its leading personalities in the civic, business and sporting life of the City. After fighting a long battle with illness he died at the comparatively early age of 57. He was a man of dynamic energy, as his many business interests, and other activities bear witness, yet he had also a rare capacity for friendship, and a keen sense of humour. Perhaps by many he will be best remembered for his work in Waterford's Infirmary. Appointed Master over twenty years ago, he devoted himself to its welfare. The staff, and many patients will not easily forget his kind assistance in their difficulties. His position in the business life of his native City is best shown in the fact that he was chairman of the Harbour Board for 19 years. He was also a Past President of the Chamber of Commerce, and of the Associated Chambers of Commerce of Ireland, Owner of the Bridge Hotel and Director of the Imperial Hotel, Kilkenny, he was proprietor also of other large scale businesses. In addition he had big interests in Cinemas in Waterford, Tramore, Wexford, New Ross, Nenagh, Kilkenny and Limerick. Sport also claimed much of his attention. He was keenly interested in racing and ran horses at local fixtures. He was a past member of the Rugby, and Boat Clubs. As first Chairman of the Association Football Club, he did much to put it on a firm foundation. His funeral, the largest seen in Waterford for many years, was a fitting testimony to the high esteem in which he was held. To his widow and family we offer our deep sympathy. R.I.P. D. HENNESSY (1912-14) We regret to record the death of Frank Clune which took place at his residence, 'The Priory' Clancy Strand, on Wednesday April 29th. For the past ten years he had been secretary of the Limerick Race Company and had effected many improvements at Greenpark. In former years he was a member of the I.R.A., and was interned for a period. Kind and courteous in manner, he possessed at the same time a capacity for organisation, and an ability for getting a job done quietly and unobtrusively. To his sisters and brothers we offer our deep sympathy. R.I.P. F. CLUNE (1913-14) Bernard J. Tracy was born on May 20th, 1879, at Williamstown, Co. Galway. He attended the National School in his native town, and after his graduation from there worked for some time with his father in his occupation as Land Surveyor and Civil Engineer. He entered Mungret in September, 1900, and after his Matriculation in June 1901, followed the Honours Course in the First and Second Arts of the Royal University. He obtained the B.A. Degree in the examinations of June, 1904. During his last years in Mungret he was Secretary of the Sodality of B.V.M. and he died within the Octave of the Feast of the Immaculate Conception. In September of 1904 he left for the United States, and entered the New York Law School, where after a distinguished course of two years he graduated with high honours, having obtained the Degree of LL.B. Shortly after obtaining his Law Degrees, he became associated with the Lawyers Title and Guaranty Co., 160 Broadway, New York City, where he remained until his retirement in 1942. Since then his health had been rather poor, and in the Fall of 1951 he was compelled to enter the New York Hospital, situated at East 68th St. and York Ave., New York City, where he remained from September, 1951, to March, 1952, in the meantime submitting to two severe operations. He seemed to improve for some months after leaving the hospital until the following September, when he had a recurrence of the old malady, and was forced to submit to another severe operation. He never recovered from the effects of the latter. His illness was both prolonged and painful, and he bore his trials with great patience, until finally on Saturday evening, December 13th, God was pleased to call him to himself. He was buried on Wednesday, December 17th with Solemn Requiem High Mass from the Church of St. Thomas Aquinas, New York, with interment in St. Raymond's Cemetery. To his brother, Rev. Patrick C. Tracy, Pastor of the Immaculate Conception Church, Wellsville, New York, who was with Bernard simultaneously in Mungret, and with him also in his last illness, we offer our deep sympathy. R.I.P. CONDOLENCES We offer our deepest sympathy to:— B. Coffey on the death of his father. G. O'Gorman on the death of his father. Fr. E. O'Sullivan S.J. on the death of his mother. Frs. Tim and Sean Murphy on the death of their father. Fr. W. O'Regan on the death of his father. J. Ruddy on the death of his mother. M. Hayes on the death of his brother. J. Mamix on the death of his father. V. Hennessy on the death of his father and uncle. Brian Deady on the death of his wife. ALTHOUGH we have not on our shelves all the trophies of last year we had a fairly good season in Hurling and Rugby. N. Meenan and N. Hickey were elected captains of Hurling, and both have done much to inspire the team to keep up the standard which we attain the Dr. C. T. Cup. Mount St. Alphonsus entered for the competition and we welcome them most heartily. We started Rugby on 9th October with G. Moynihan and M. Hickey as captains, who have both fully justified their election by splendid play. The Preliminary Ties were held here on 20th November and the team were selected for the final trial. G. Moynihan, D. Garland, P. O’Connell and N. Meenan, who was a sub. for the first match, played in the second. We were again defeated by Presentation, Cork, in the Senior Cup, and again the margin was but three points. The result was a shock to the J.C.T., who lost by six points. It must be said of the juniors that they improved beyond recognition during the season, and it was only in the final, the Camogie Cup match against the Crescent, that they really showed what they could do. Their captain, Niall McCarthy, was a constant inspiration and example to us all. We played a large number of friendly matches here during the season against Garryowen, Young Munster, Shannon, Clancarney and others, but our best display came against St. Joseph’s, Galway, in which our team was magnificent. The J.C.T. played St. Mary’s Scouts, Glensael and Belvedere, distinguishing themselves in only just getting under to an older and heavier Belvedere fifteen. DR. KEANE CUP MUNGRET v. ST. MUNCHIN’S 5th October 1952 At Mungret. We had our first match of the season against St. Munchin’s who were our most serious rivals last year for the Dr. Keane Cup. St. Munchin’s got off to a good start and went quickly ahead, leading with goals from Roche, Murphy and Clifford, in spite of the efforts of our excellent goalkeeper, Jim Mulcair. Then after a shaky start Mungret began to settle down and gradually worked their way ahead before half-time with scores from N. Hickey and M. Keyes. Half-time score: Mungret, 3 goals, 5 points; St. Munchin’s, 3 goals, 8 points. In the second half the teams were very evenly matched and there was never a big gap between the scores. Very early in the game St. Munchin’s were two point up, and we thought we were beaten, but just at the end we equalised to leave the match a draw. Result: Mungret, 4 goals, 9 points; St. Munchin’s, 4 goals, 9 points. DR. KEANE CUP MUNGRET v. MOUNT ST. ALPHONSUS 12th October, 1952 At Mungret. Mount St. Alphonsus entered for the Dr. Keane Cup for the first time this year, and while they put up a valiant fight they lacked experience in match play and the confidence it brings. Considine opened the scoring for Mungret and his goal was followed up by four more goals and four points to which only one point came in reply before half time. Half-time score: Mungret, 5 goals, 4 points; Mt. St. Alphonsus, 0 goals, 1 point. The beginning of the second half was more lively than the first. Mungret had scored in the half the others seemed to lose heart and the marking became rather weak, though Long, who was the outstanding player on the side, continued to play very well. For Mungret, N. Hickey had a field day, scoring 5 goals and 7 points. Other scorers were N. Meenan, J. Considine, J. O’Byrne, G. Moynihan, M. Keyes. Result: Mungret, 12 goals, 10 points; Mt. St. Alphonsus, 1 goal, 1 point. RUGBY MUNSTER SENIOR SCHOOLS’ CUP MUNGRET v. PRESENTATION (CORK) At Thomond Park 19th February We were unfortunate in being beaten by mungret by three points in the first round of the Cup. The main reason for the defeat was a very slow start of the Mungret team. We allow Presentation to dictate the type of play all through the game, and we were unable to get our game tight, which was the one thing that we did want, as our advantage was in our backs, we were dangerous whenever they got the ball. Our visitors were three points ahead (a waste due to fumbling and hesitation on our part). It looked like half-time to be down 9 points, but there was the majority of our shots went wide. Even N. Hickey was weak in his usual accurate form. O’callan, Noel Moynihan and all he could do for his players well it was not quite well enough. Half-time score: Mungret, 2 goals, 3 points; C.B.S., 2 goals, 1 point. The wind was too much for us as the second half and though there was no rout it was all we could do to hold the home team down to 2 goals and 2 points, to which we made no reply. Final score: C.B.S., 6 goals, 3 points; Mungret, 2 goals, 3 points. SENIOR HURLING TEAM N. Dolan, J. J. Murphy, T. Gorman, G. Moynihan, P. Collins, P. O’Connell, P. Mulcair, J. Harnett, D. O’Connor, N. Hickey, N. Meenan (Capt.), M. Keyes, P. Doherty, P. O’Grady, R. Davern. an immediate change in play after the interval. From the beginning of this half we had the better of the encounter and held from the majority of the scrums and line-outs, but the ball did not travel across the three-quarter line with sufficient speed, and the centres made the mistake of kicking too much. In spite of this we had the advantage, and M. Keyes kicked a penalty goal for 3 points. Shortly after G. Moynihan crossed over far out for a very good try. Just before full time a long shot at goal just went wide. Our best players were G. Moynihan and M. Keyes among the backs, and P. O’Connell, N. Meaney and C. Ryan, of the forwards. Result: Presentation College, 9 points; Munget 6 points LIMERICK SCHOOLS’ CUP MUNGRET v. ST. MUNCHIN’S At Thomond Park 25th March, 1953 We were in some trepidation about the state of the ground for this match. There had been no rain for many weeks and the ground was like concrete. There were, however, no injuries of any type. We kicked off with the wind and for some time there was little advantage for either side. St. Munchin’s were heeling the ball more often than we were, but they made little use of it. Then after about ten minutes G. Moynihan went over far out for a try, and repeated the process again shortly after. St. Munchin’s pressed for a while but still could not get over though Cowper had some good runs. M. Keyes kicked a penalty goal for 3 points. Shortly after D. Garland crossed over far out for a very good try. Just before full time a long shot at goal just went wide. Our best players were G. Moynihan and M. Keyes among the backs, and P. O’Connell, N. Meaney and C. Ryan, of the forwards. Result: Presentation College, 9 points; Munget 6 points LIMERICK SCHOOLS’ CUP FINAL MUNGRET v. CRESCENT At Thomond Park 29th March, 1953 We had hoped to retain the Cup this year, but we must admit that on the day’s play Crescent deserved their win, as our team only showed its best form for a short while near the end of the first half, and lacked the necessary drive to keep up the pressure for another tenth of time. We started slowly—much too slowly—and Crescent got over for a try from a loose maul, and a penalty goals, which was converted. The game then became more lively, but Crescent had got another try before we really warmed up. For the remainder of the first half we dominated, and decreased the lead to two points with two fine penalty goals by M. Keyes. We expected more in the second half when we had some advantage from the wind, but we did not get it. There were a few occasions when we threw away scores by knocking on, and lack of determination. Near the end Crescent got another try far out from a kick ahead which should have been prevented. Result: Crescent 11 points (1 goal, 2 tries); Munget 6 points (2 pen. goals), too often. Near the end of the first half Noel Hickey had a good try from a kick ahead. The second half was more lively, and after we had threatened the Crescent goal on a few occasions they came up and got a try very far out. Shortly after M. Hickey had a fine score after a short kick ahead and M. Keyes put him ahead with the kick. The Crescent were not beaten yet and near full time they got a last score from a loose maul to win the match. The game was really and exciting but our forwards had not enough drive or push in the scrums. The backs were good but only P. O’Connell and M. Machen were really good among the forwards. Result: Crescent, 9 points (3 tries); Munget 8 points (1 goal, 1 try). UNDER 17 LEAGUE GLENSTAL v. MUNGRET Played at Glenstal. Sunday, 3rd November, 1952 The match was played under excellent conditions in bright sunshine. In the early stages the Munget team had the ball more often than Crescent from their scrums and line-outs, but their backs failed to make use of it, and showed little power of attack. When Crescent got the ball, looked more dangerous but spoiled some fine chances by wild passing and kicking. After about twenty minutes O’Connor crossed over far out, the kick at goal just failed. Shortly after equalized with a penalty goal. Second half showed the Munget forwards more lively and got possession from the line scrum. Their back line showed some, though the tendency to kick too much was still apparent. However Silke had a good handling of the touch-line and then of the posts. Garland then had a soft miskick from behind the posts by one of the forwards which slipped through behind and looked to be gathered and touched. O'Connor too had one other try. Result: Munget, 12 points; Glenstar, 3 points. UNDER 17 LEAGUE MUNGRET v. ST. MUNCHIN'S At Munget. Sunday, 7th December, 1952 Munget had an easy victory over St. Munchin's. In the beginning St. Munchin's were kept in their own half and lacked the necessary fire-power to attack. The main danger was in the wingers' back lines, where Munget were able to pierce the defences frequently. Little was made to prevent the frequent catches of the out-half. M. Keyes, with half two tries, one penalty goal and two converts. Others to score were N. McCarthy, P. Cash, K. Buckley, P. O'Connor, B. Silke. In the second half St. Munchin's boys did some attacking when D. Kenny was moved into the out-half position, but the back line could not get over. Result: Munget, 28 points (2 goals, 1 pen. goal, 5 tries); St. Munchins, 0. UNDER 17 LEAGUE MUNGRET v. CRESCENT At Munget. 22nd March, 1953 We had been beaten by the Crescent by 1 point in the match before Christmas and today they had ourselves defeated Glenstal and St. Munchin's. To draw the competition we would have had to win to-day. Instead the result was a draw. Conditions were perfect for the game, as the ground was very hard and dry, though there was a fair amount of grass on the field. The match was played in the afternoon. We suffered again from the beginning it was clear that it was going to be a good hard match. The ball was being heeled fairly equally by both packs and the backs. The Crescent scored and came near scoring. Then at last near the end of the first half B. Silke got over for a great try which M. Keyes converted with an excellent kick, seeing to have upset us. Our out-half and captain, Neil McCarthy, though he was by far our best back, kicked too much during the first half. Our forwards had not the drive that would have enabled them to get over, except with the exceptions of T. Watson and W. Landon. The second half started better and we looked like scoring, but occasionally hit by N. McCarthy, just too wide. Near the end, Presentation were pressing again, and crossed our line again. Result: Presentation College, 6 points; Munget, 0. CANNOCK. UNDER 16 MUNGRET v. CRESCENT 8th December, 1955 The match was played in a drizzle and never realized a very high standard on either side. The Crescent back line was somewhat stronger than ours, but we had a slight territorial advantage throughout most of the game due to the same reason as the forwards. The Crescent went ahead after about a quarter of an hour with a penalty kick by Cross, but after that there was little between the teams. In the second half Munget started strongly, but failed to get over. Then the Crescent brought the ball back and increased their lead by a score from a loose maul. The kick at goal failed. The last Munget's efforts were rewarded and Pete O'Connor got over for a try. In the latter stage of the game the Crescent were more on the attack. and seemed to last the race better. For Munget N. McCarthy was the most dangerous back, and D. Buckley and E. Cassidy were the liveliest forwards. Result: Crescent, 6 points; Munget, 3 points. CANNOCK CUP MUNGRET J.C.T. v. CRESCENT J.C.T. 26th March, 1953 The Juniors were quite determined to end the season on a high note, and certainly did so, as we expected a very hard match, but the Crescent seemed to have lost their punch. The ball was hooked early, really by both teams, but the Munget backs were always much more dangerous, and were set in motion well by their captain, Ned McCarthy. The first try for us was James Woods, and N. McCarthy put over a very good kick. The next, shortly after, came from a burst through by E. Cassidy, which was also converted. This ended the scoring for the first half. Crescent kicked off with the wind in the second half, but though they got near us, they never seemed able to penetrate the defences. Teddy Watson, who had a good game burst over for a good try, due to quick following up again corners, and Peter O’Carroll scored our second. It was a good game, and the Juniors played better than they ever had before. Result: Munget, 18 points (3 goals, 1 try); Crescent, 6. RUGBY — UNDER FOURTEEN K. Garland, J. Flanagan, F. McGowan, K. Madden, E. Walsh, M. F. Keyes, M. Mitchell, A. Fanning, M. O’Driscoll, R. Buckley, D. Sheahan (Capt.), N. Murphy, B. Leonard, H. Fanning, P. Collins. THIRD CLUB GAMES RUGBY The Rugby season is over and were we to judge success by the winning of cups, the season was hardly a success. We lost our Under 15’s and the Under 14’s were beaten by Crescent, but in both matches they fought hard battles and in the determination shown lies the measure of our success. The Munget side is particularly deserving of praise for some excellent passing movements by the backs and for the generally high quality of their Rugby. Just to mention two of the Kilkenny games, we provided some of the best matches of the year. They were played with grim determination—each one giving of his best—but always they provided a spectacle. The interest in these matches was not confined to Third Club and we rarely played without our quota of First and Second Club supporters. CANNOC CUP UNDER 15’s v. CRESCENT On Sunday, March 8th, once again our Under 15 team met Crescent in the Cannock Cup. At the kick-off Crescent surprised us out twenty-five, and found touch almost on the line. Then J. O’Sullivan backed it by a try. Madden made a fine dash up the Crescent twenty, but again failed to score. Then near half-time Crescent were awarded a free kick just outside our twenty-five and, following the goal, Brian Cross, the Crescent captain, put the ball over with ease. Thus the fortunes wavered to and fro. Before the half-time interval they were ahead with a drop goal by Crescent captain. Crescent led 6-0 at half-time. After the kick off J. Woods found touch just on the Crescent line, but again we failed to score. Then near full-time whistle Joe Kelly and P. O’Carroll started a back movement which very unluckily ended in a free to Crescent. Crescent, 6 pts.; Munget, 0. THIRD CLUB TOURNAMENTS BILLIARD CHAMPIONSHIP 1. Peter Murnaghan. 2. Joe Kelly. TABLE TENNIS CHAMPIONSHIP 1. Joe Kelly. 2. Paul O’Carroll. UNDER 14’s v. CRESCENT Marcus Keyes fielded excellently and safe touch gave the Crescent half-play most of the time in the Crescent half but a back movement nearly ended in a score, ever, the half-time whistle went with. At the kick-off Woods forced a touch line and scored from the position. The converted. Shortly afterwards they start back movement and after a race for th Geary managed to beat the defenders. Before full time our visitors crossed the li Crescent, 11 points; Munget 0. HURLING Our Hurling season is divided into two periods—the first extending from September to mid October and the second from October to June. In November we found that many of our best players had moved up to Second Club. We must wait until the season re-opens to discover what the new men of this team skill and we look forward to testing that skill in our match with St. Ignatius, Galway. CORBOY CUP TENNIS CHAMPIONSHIP 1952 N. Hickey Captain of the College ## College Staff and Roll ### 1952 Seventy First Academical Year 1953 #### Rector Very Rev. F. Joy, S.J. #### Superior Apostolic School Rev. J. T. Kelly, S.J. #### Prefect of Studies Rev. M. Murphy, S.J. #### Vice-Superior Apostolic School Rev. J. A. McSeannais, S.J. #### Spiritual Father Apostolic School Rev. D. MacDonald, S.J. #### Spiritual Father Lay School Rev. D. Mulcahy, S.J. #### Prefect of Discipline Rev. R. Brenan, S.J. - Rev. P. Coffey, S.J. - Rev. M. Corbett, S.J. - Rev. J. Cusack, S.J. - Rev. P. Cusack, S.J. - Rev. B. Cullen, S.J. - Rev. A. Ennis, S.J. - Br. P. Brady, S.J. - Br. J. Kavanagh, S.J. #### Lay Masters - T. Conway, Esq. - M. McCarthy, Esq. - D. Guina, Esq. - J. O'Brien, Esq. - M. Regan, Esq. #### Medical Adviser H. Roche Kelly, Esq., M.B. B.A.O., B.C.H. #### Resident Matron Miss M. Corrigan #### Captain of the School N. Hickey #### Minister Rev. B. Brennan, S.J. #### Prefect of Discipline Rev. J. Fitzgerald, S.J. - Rev. M. Erraught, S.J. - Rev. J. Hughes, S.J. - Rev. A. Naughton, S.J. - Rev. F. Paye, S.J. - Rev. B. Woods, S.J. - Br. T. Murphy, S.J. - Br. E. O'Sullivan, S.J. #### Dental Surgeon G. Hartigan, Esq., L.D.S. #### Prefect of the Sodality L. Hickey #### Philosophy Second Year - Acton, T. - Heare, M. - O'Farrell, M. - Kavanagh, D. - O'Rourke, P. - McGough, J. First Year - Cusack, J. - Davern, R. - Lyons, D. - Page, D. - Deasy, T. - O'Brien, J. - Rolly, P. - Flanagan, P. - O'Connor, C. - Toal, J. #### Leaving Certificate Second Year A. Lay Boys - Costello, W. - Curry, E. - Lane, J. - Morgan, C. - Hickey, L. - McDonagh, G. - Ryan, C. - Hickey, N. - Meaney, N. Apostolics - Dempsey, B. - McGrath, P. - Gorman, T. - Killeen, M. - Long, B. #### Leaving Certificate Second Year B. Lay Boys - Brady, D. - Byrne, P. - Doherty, P. - Curry, E. - Moynihan, G. - Pierse, J. - Woods, J. - Considine, J. - Harnett, J. - Toshan, T. - Cosgrove, M. - Hennessy, C. - Terry, P. Apostolics - Mitchell, C. - Stanley, P. #### Leaving Certificate First Year A. Lay Boys - Buckley, K. - Connolly, S. - McDermott, M. - Nolan, J. - Curry, E. - Harris, R. - Machen, M. - O'Byrne, J. - Silke, B. - Cash, P. - Hickey, J. J. - Moran, T. - O'Carroll, B. - Cassidy, E. - Keyes, M. - Murphy, J. F. - O'Connor, P. Apostolics - Collins, P. - Gorman, P. #### Leaving Certificate First Year B. Lay Boys - Buckley, D. - Cartwell, K. - Loh, J. - MacDonald, R. - Murphy, J. M. - O'Neill, T. - Devoy, P. - Mukate, J. - SriChandra, W. - Gunning, D. - Murphy, J. J. - Thompson, L. ### MUNGRET ANNUAL #### Apostolics Malvihill, C. #### INTERMEDIATE CERTIFICATE Fourth Year A. Lay Boys - Buckley, B. - Dunne, F. - Murphy, M. - Roche Kelly, H. - Burden, R. - Costello, T. - O'Brien, F. - Smith, J. - Dulan, N. - Hardiman, B. - O'Connor, P. - Wylie, M. #### Apostolics - Carroll, J. - Delaney, A. - Murphy, J. - Dennison, J. - O'Rourke, J. - Lynch, P. #### INTERMEDIATE CERTIFICATE Fourth Year B. Lay Boys - Cassidy, R. - Healy, D. - O'Higgins, M. - Enright, J. - Kelly, P. - de Padhiradszky, A. - Forkan, B. - O'Connell, P. - Smyth, L. - Garland, D. - O'Connor, R. - Watson, T. #### Apostolics - J. Clancy. #### INTERMEDIATE CERTIFICATE Third Year A. Lay Boys - Curry, F. - Hennessy, V. - McGowan, J. - Murphy, L. - Dawson, P. - Keating, J. - McTigue, U. - O'Brien, P. - Twohig, P. - Fitzgibbon, M. - Keyes, R. - Murnaghan, J. - O'Carroll, P. - Woods, J. - Garland, D. - Lundon, W. - Murnaghan, P. - O'Connell, J. #### Apostolics - Downing, J. - Kelly, H. #### INTERMEDIATE CERTIFICATE Third Year B. Lay Boys - Clerv, M. - Kelly, Jn. - O'Connor, D. - Ferguson, R. - Kelly, Joe. - O'Grady, C. - Gilbourne, W. - McDermott, M. - O'Sullivan, J. - Horgan, P. - Mannix, T. - Sheehy, P. #### Apostolics - Cashman, P. - McKenna, J. - Quirke, P. - Padian, M. - Rooney, J. - O'Driscoll, J. - Walsh, M. --- ### COLLEGE STAFF AND ROLL #### INTERMEDIATE CERTIFICATE Second Year A. Lay Boys - Blackey, R. - Corrigan, N. - Donnell, B. - Sheahan, D. - Duggan, B. - Harty, E. - McGowan, F. - Walsh, E. - Donagun, R. - Higgins, H. - McDonnell, K. - Walsh, J. - Fanning, A. - Keyes, M. - Maguire, P. - de Ciarac, G. #### Apostolics - Connell, N. - Corcoran, P. - McCarthy, K. - Rooney, A. - Sullivan, P. - McCloskey, J. #### INTERMEDIATE CERTIFICATE Second Year B. Lay Boys - Collins, P. - Hughes, R. - Mitchell, M. - Culshaw, P. J. - Kennedy, J. - Punch, D. - Garland, K. - Knott, A. - O'Driscoll, M. - Spillane, T. - Goggin, P. - Madigan, T. - O'Mahony, J. #### Apostolics - Long, M. - Molloy, P. - O'Donnell, J. - Waiface, M. #### INTERMEDIATE CERTIFICATE First Year A. Lay Boys - Harden, J. - Tomkins, S. - Crowe, J. - Flanagan, J. - McEachan, D. - Culshaw, P. A. - Harty, C. - Power, T. - Doyle, J. - McMahon, D. ## CONTENTS \| Title \| Page \| \|----------------------------------------------------------------------\|------\| \| What Has Architecture to Offer me? \| 5 \| \| Across the Fjaell \| 9 \| \| Public Examinations \| 14 \| \| Class Leaders \| 19 \| \| Royal Irish Academy of Music Results \| 24 \| \| Our Librarians \| 22 \| \| A Link with an Irish Family of the 16th Century \| 24 \| \| Pioneer Total Abstinence Association of the Sacred Heart \| 27 \| \| Social Study Circle and Book Reviews \| 38 \| \| Society of St. Vincent de Paul \| 30 \| \| O.U.S.O.U.—Christmas Term \| 31 \| \| The Sculpture of Epstein \| 45 \| \| Apostolic Debating Society \| 50 \| \| Literary Debates \| 53 \| \| Comórtas na Scéise \| 54 \| \| Beoga na Dáilseir Déise \| 56 \| \| Past v. Present Match \| 58 \| \| Paul Jones \| 59 \| \| An Rangairc Tíre agus Ábhc na Dáilseir Déise \| 62 \| \| The Past \| 64 \| \| Marriages \| 76 \| \| Sodality of the Blessed Virgin Mary \| 77 \| \| Sodality of the Holy Angles \| 78 \| \| O.U.S.O.U.—Easter Term \| 79 \| \| A Friend of Ireland in the Land of the Southern Cross \| 87 \| \| First Club Debating Society \| 89 \| \| Second Club Debating Society \| 91 \| \| Third Club Debating Society \| 93 \| \| Dr. H. Koché Kelly \| 94 \| \| A Vision of the Church Universal \| 96 \| \| Mission Society \| 99 \| \| Sodality of Our Lady and St. Francis Xavier \| 100 \| \| Obituary \| 101 \| \| Condolences \| 109 \| \| Games \| 110 \| \| College Staff and Roll \| 118 \| --- Head Office: COLLEGE GREEN DUBLIN Every description of Banking Business including Foreign Exchange is transacted. Letters of Credit and Travellers Cheques issued. The Bank also undertakes the Offices of Executor and Trustee London Agents: LLYODS BANK LIMITED, 72 LOMBARD STREET, LONDON, E.C.3. --- Support Our Advertisers A. Staehli Hairdresser 41 Cecil Street, Limerick WELLA, EUGENE, McDONALD and WIRELESS PERMANENT WAVING ★ TINTING A SPECIALITY Phone 286 BURN TEDCASTLE'S COALS ONLY BEST QUALITIES STOCKED IN HOUSE, STEAM AND ANTHRACITE COALS. BEFORE TRYING ELSEWHERE TRY US. Special Quotations to Institutions, Industrial Concerns and Hotels Your Enquiries Solicited and promptly attended to Tedcastle, McCormack & Co. Ltd. COAL MERCHANTS DOCK ROAD, LIMERICK Phone 92. Grams: "Tedcastle." When Ordering Please Mention this Journal Convent of the Faithful Companions of Jesus Laurel Hill, Limerick BOARDING SCHOOL and DAY SCHOOL Buy Irish Chocolate and Confectionery and buy the Best—By URNEY, and remember Any time is URNEY time. BRENNAN INSURANCES LIMITED IT WILL REPAY YOU TO CONSULT US BEFORE Renewing Your Insurances Insurance Brokers 1, 2 and 3, WESTMORELAND STREET DUBLIN Telephone: Foxford 4, Telegrams: "Providence, Foxford" PROVIDENCE WOOLLEN MILLS (Under the care of the Sisters of Charity) NUNS' SERGES and NUNS' SHAWLS A SPECIALITY MEN'S WEAR Botany Suitings, Serges, Cheviots Fleece Cloths, Scarfs, etc. etc. LADIES' WEAR Coatings, Costume Cloths in Art Shades Tweeds, Dressing Gowns, etc. PURE WOOL BLANKETS Specialists in PURE WOOL RUGS in large varieties of Check and Plain Colours FOXFORD — CO. MAYO Enquiries Solicited Wm. B. FITT & CO. M.I.A.A. Auctioneers and Valuers Land, Livestock, House Property, Furniture and Agricultural Auctions undertaken. Valuations made for Probate, Transfer and Insurance, etc. Inventories made and checked THE PADDOCKS, LIMERICK Weekly Cattle and Sheep Markets Tuesdays, at 12 o'clock—In-calf Heifers and Dairy Cows. Wednesdays, at 11 o'clock—Fat Stock, aged and young, Cattle, Calves and Sheep. Stock sent for sale taken off, sold and attended to. Stock held over for purchasers and loaded. Commissions executed. Wm. B. Fitt & Co., M.I.A.A. AUCTIONEERS & VALUERS 46, O'CONNELL STREET, LIMERICK Phone: Limerick 68 and 137 E. M. Halpin & Co. Sugar and Tea Importers 23 Upper William Street, LIMERICK Dan O'Connor LTD. "Established Over a Century" FOR Bacon, Butter, Groceries, Confectionery, Flour & Feeding Stuffs UPPER WILLIAM STREET LIMERICK Phone 398 FOR CHOICEST WINES, LIQUEURS and WHISKEY Call to: Gerald Kelly GENERAL MERCHANT Borrisokane CO. TIPPERARY SPORTS EQUIPMENT FOR ALL GAMES AND SPORTS Tennis, Rugby, Football, Handball, Hurling. Indoor Games, Sportswear and Sportsfootwear. Distributors to all the Leading Clubs and Colleges. Nestor Bros. 28 O'CONNELL STREET LIMERICK Estd. over 100 years. Phone 96 J. P. NEWSOM & Co., Ltd. 20 21 WILLIAM STREET LIMERICK Phone: 202 & 682 (2 lines) CLEEVES TOFFEES ABSOLUTELY PURE DELICIOUS FLAVOURS CLEEVES CONFECTIONERY (Limerick) LIMITED LIMERICK When Ordering Please Mention this Journal ALTAR CANDLES 75%, 65% and 25% of Beeswax bleached at our own works. SHRINE CANDLES, CHARCOAL — INCENSE, NIGHT LIGHTS — Sanctuary Oil a Speciality Lalor Limited Offices:— 14 LOWER ORMOND QUAY, DUBLIN Factory & Blaschworks: GREAT STRAND STREET, DUBLIN Telephone No. 21536. Telegrams: "Beeswax, Dublin." Irish Trade Mark No. 6411. N.B.—Our Mass and Altar Candles are recommended and used by the Hierarchy. J. H. ROCHE & Sons Limited 42, 46 Upr. William Street and Pike's Row, LIMERICK WHOLESALE FLOUR MILLS OFFICE, PROVISION AND CORN STORES Linseed-Whole and Crushed and Cattle Feeding Cake of all Descriptions MILLERS AND GRAIN MERCHANTS M. J. O'Connor LADIES' and GENTS' Hair Dressing 36 O'CONNELL STREET LIMERICK You Cannot do Better than send your orders for Ironmongery to the oldest Hardware Firm in the South. Everything for the Builder, the Farmer, the Mechanic and the Housewife. P. MOLLOY & Sons LTD. BUILDERS and JOINERY MANUFACTURERS CHURCH AND SCHOOL FURNITURE, SEATS, &c. William Lloyd 106 GEORGE STREET, LIMERICK Pure and Well Matured Wines and Spirits at Lowest Prices Phone: 250 SEED Specialists Stirling, Scotland 1760 57/58 Dawson St., Dublin 1843 Pembroke, Carlow 1931 W. DRUMMOND & SONS LTD. Seedsmen & Nurserymen SPORTS GOODS of EVERY DESCRIPTION Agents for ROYAL ENFIELD PHILLIPS and other Cycles LIMERICK Sports Store 10 WILLIAM STREET LIMERICK Phone 972 THE NATIONAL BANK LIMITED 34 & 35 COLLEGE GREEN, DUBLIN 13 OLD BROAD STREET, LONDON A COMPLETE BANKING SERVICE AFFORDED INCLUDING THRIFT DEPOSIT ACCOUNTS FOREIGN EXCHANGE INCOME TAX EXECUTOR AND TRUSTEE Full particulars of All Services obtainable at any branch of the Bank or by direct application to its principal Office. 270 Branches and Sub-Offices throughout Ireland and the chief Irish districts in Great Britain. Agents and Correspondents Throughout the World. Support Our Advertisers IRWIN BROS. JEWELLERS & OPTICIANS MAKERS OF WATCHES AND CLOCKS Solid Silver and Electro Plate ★ DESIGNS AND EXCLUSIVE PATTERNS IN JEWELLERY ★ 22 PATRICK ST., LIMERICK Irish Messenger of the Sacred Heart Monthly, 3d. Post Free 4½d Annual Subscription - 4/6 Madonna Monthly 3d. Post Free 4½d Annual Subscription - 4/6 TIMCHÉ CROÍDE NAOMHCA ROSA Quarterly 3d. Post Free 4½d Annual Subscription - 1/6 Irish Messenger Office 4 GREAT DENMARK ST. DUBLIN, C.16. When Ordering Please Mention this Journal Gorevan Bros., Ltd. GENERAL DRAPERS and HOUSE FURNISHERS - We specialise in all classes of Furniture, Beds and Bedding, House Linens, Blankets and Sheets, Gent's Underwear, Hosiery, Boots, shoes, etc. OUR HARDWARE DEPARTMENT IS REPLETE WITH LARGE VARIETIES OF CHINA, GLASS and ALUMINIUM WARE Orders for College and Athletic Outfits carefully attended to. 1, 2, 3, & 4 LR. CAMDEN STREET, 13, 14, 15, 16 & 17 MONTAGUE ST., DUBLIN Telephone 52276-7 A DEPENDABLE PHARMACY LET US DISPENSE YOUR PRESCRIPTIONS We have an up-to-date dispensary fully stocked with the purest drugs and medicines. Every prescription is dispensed under the direct supervision of a fully qualified and experienced chemist. John Laird & Co. The REXALL Pharmacy 118 O'CONNELL STREET LIMERICK ● We are always at your service. ● Reliability is our constant aim. MAKE VACATION SNAPS LIVE: Let us outline them and then tell all the details you had passed by. Enlargements from you to friends and family. We have many types of Cameras and all photographic materials stocked. We have a prompt developing service—films left in before 10 a.m. for developing ready same day. 'PHONE YOUR REQUIREMENTS: Whatever you require — Phone us. Our Telephone Number is No. 7. Support Our Advertisers SCHOOL COLOURS ★ BLAZERS ★ BADGES ★ TIES ★ SCARVES ★ SPORTSWEAR - QUOTATIONS - ON APPLICATION H. LAWSON & CO., LTD. (W. J. O'BRIEN) METROPOLE BUILDINGS CORK Phone 21917 THE EDUCATIONAL COMPANY OF IRELAND LTD. BOOKS STATIONERY EQUIPMENT Head Office and Factory 89 TALBOT STREET DUBLIN. THE CABROL ROMAN MISSAL In Latin and English for Every Day of the Year. BINDINGS Cloth.......................... 22/- Leather (Limp)............. 32/- Morocco (Limp)............. 42/- White Rexine............... 45/- The Talbot Press, Ltd. 89 TALBOT STREET, DUBLIN. BEE MOYNIHAN & CO., LIMITED 2 O'Connell Street, Limerick JEWELLERS, SILVERSMITHS and OPTICIANS ★ SPORTS PRIZES, CUPS, MEDALS, AND LUCKY ENGAGEMENT and WEDDING RINGS Telephone 385 IRISH-MADE GOODS A SPECIALITY YOU CAN WINE AND DINE ON THE BEST at the CENTRAL HOTEL MARKET SQUARE, ROSCREA Cuisine par Excellence Phone: Roscrea 32 Spacious Lounge Bar Proprietress: Mrs. M. Curry Support Our Advertisers GOOD SHEPHERD CONVENT VESTMENT DEPARTMENT LIMERICK Vestments, Dalmatics, Altar Linens, Albs, Benediction and Preaching Stoles. Humeral Veils, Surplices. YOUR KIND ENQUIRIES INVITED When Ordering Please Mention this Journal BLACK ABBEY CO-OPERATIVE AGRICULTURAL AND DAIRY SOCIETY, LIMITED, ADARE, Co. Limerick Phone: Adare 17 Manufacturers of CHOICEST CREAMERY BUTTER 1 Lb. Rolls a Speciality We are winners of numerous prizes at all the different Dairy Shows in Ireland W. F. McNamara Ltd. AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS GENERAL ENGINEERING FANCY GATES AND RAILINGS SCHOOL DESK STANDARDS CASTINGS OF ALL KINDS SHANNON FOUNDRY LIMERICK Telephone 48 CANNOCKS (Limerick) CLERICAL TAILORING SPECIALISTS and GENERAL DRAPERS COMPLETE HOUSE FURNISHERS, Etc. MODERATE PRICES THROUGHOUT CANNOCK & CO., LTD., LIMERICK Modern Plant & Capable Staff for THE PRODUCTION OF BOOKWORK, PERIODICALS, MAGAZINES, AND GENERAL PRINTING JOHN ENGLISH & CO., LTD., PRINTERS :: WEXFORD Support Our Advertisers Gings Stores Ladies' and Gents' Evening Wear on Hire FANCY DRESS COSTUMES CARNIVAL NOVELTIES BALLROOM DECORATIONS PRICE LISTS FREE Contractors to all Schools, Convents and Colleges for Play and Opera Requirements 3 DAME STREET (3 doors from City Hall) Phones: 51407, 53589 JOHN CLUNE, LTD., LIMERICK THOMOND PLUG: The Best on the Market. KINGORA PLUG: Second only to Thomond and Sarsfield. XL TWIST: Ireland's Best. Every Cut Branded Clune's XL. IRELAND'S PRIDE FLAKE, SARSFIELD MIXTURE, Etc., Etc. ALL MADE ENTIRELY FROM BEST AMERICAN LEAF Phone: 597 Telegrams: "Toomey, Minerals, Limerick." TOOMEY'S Mineral Water Manufacturers and Wholesale Bottlers DENIS TOOMEY 35 UPPER WILLIAM STREET, LIMERICK When Ordering Please Mention this Journal THE SOUTH OF IRELAND PUBLICATIONS The Cork Examiner The Evening Echo Cork Weekly Examiner Publishers: THOMAS CROSBIE & CO., LTD. Circulation covers the whole Province of Munster and most of Southern Ireland. Private Wires between London, Manchester, Dublin and Cork. LATEST AND BEST GENERAL AND IRISH NEWS REPORTS First-class Sporting Service, Reports and Results Advertising Rate Card on application Chief Offices: 95 PATRICK STREET, CORK, Ireland. DUBLIN—74 Great Street. LONDON—Fleet House, 58 Fleet Street, E.C.4. LIMERICK—61 Catherine Street. WATERFORD—113 The Quay. Phones: Cork 23181 (4 lines). Dublin Ed. 78830, Com. 70003. Limerick 495. Waterford 4216 London Central 5793 4. ESTABLISHED 1830 JAMES MCMAHON LTD FOR BLOCK FLOORING Compared favourably in price with ordinary Softwood Flooring, taking costs, joists, covering etc., into consideration. ENQUIRIES INVITED ST. ALPHONSUS ST. LIMERICK Phone No 89 (3 lines) Grams: "Importer" Support Our Advertisers THE TORPEDO BOOK-KEEPING TYPEWRITER DUAL FEED Its Special ADVANTAGES 1. Exceedingly easy and quick interchangeability of four different lengths of carriage. 2. New or 6-column Key-set Selector, if desired up to 16 columns including Selector Key. 3. Ideal Segment Shift instead of Carriage Shift. 4. Touch Selector for adjusting machine to individual touch. 5. 92-character Keyboard. 6. Fivefold Line Spacing with convenient Line Space Lever. 7. Clear Legible Carbon copies. 8. All controls are visible and accessible from the front. 9. Perfect Registration of forms. The principle of Dual Feed means that an additional paper feed has been incorporated into the carriage, which enables two separate sets of forms to be fed into the machine, each set being controlled independently of the other. It is possible to move either sheet at the same speed or at different speeds, or in different directions, or they can be linked together and moved simultaneously. This Typewriter can also be used for ordinary correspondence. Guaranteed First-class Mechanical Service and a supply of Spare Parts. SOLE AGENTS Messrs. T. G. Garland Ltd. OFFICE EQUIPMENT When Ordering Please Mention this Journal Telephone No. 77724 Telephone No. 433 Wm. B. Smith SEED MERCHANT LIMERICK Farm and Garden Seeds, Pedigree Seed Grain, — Farm Implements, Artificial Manures — Specialists in RYE GRASS, NATURAL GRASSES, CLOVERS ROYAL EXCHANGE ASSURANCE DUBLIN OFFICE OPENED IN 1722 ALL INSURANCES NECESSARY FOR THE HOME AND BUSINESS TRANSACTED ON MODERATE TERMS Full information should be obtained from the Manager: H. DESMOND LEGG, 5 COLLEGE GREEN, DUBLIN, C.1. Local Director: Gordon F. Joyce Tel. 76708 District Offices: CORK : 18 South Mall. Tel. 1038. LIMERICK : 64 O'Connell St. Tel. 529 Support Our Advertisers At Your Service for: DISPENSING AND ALL MEDICAL SUPPLIES Stockists of PURE DRUGS — SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS, PHOTOGRAPHIC SUPPLIES, FAMILY REQUISITES, and ALL VETERINARY MEDICINES — Chiropody Department — — Oculists’ Prescriptions Dispensed — POWER & MANGAN (M. Power, M.P.S.I., Ph.C., Prop.) THE CENTRAL PHARMACY 129, O’CONNELL STREET, LIMERICK Phone 326 William Wallace & SONS SHOE FACTORY High-Class Ladies’ and Gents’ Boot and Shoe Repairs ONLY BEST MATERIALS USED And Repairs left in the morning can be had same evening — ALL REPAIRS BY POST WILL BE RETURNED POST FREE IT WILL PAY YOU TO TRY US 2 and 3 LR. HENRY STREET LIMERICK James Duffy & Co. LTD. 38 WESTMORELAND STREET DUBLIN Established 1830 When Ordering Please Mention this Journal At your Service for— DRUGS & COSMETICS, VETERINARY PREPARATIONS, OILS and PAINTS, GARDEN and FARM SEEDS and IMPLEMENTS, HARDWARE, CHINA and GLASS, ELECTRIC and WIRELESS GOODS, GROCERIES, STATIONERY and FANCY LINES, CARPENTERS’ TOOLS, PLATE GLASS, Etc. J. & G. BOYD LIMITED LIMERICK AND CLONMEL Make Your Reservation in Advance at Royal George Hotel LIMERICK Phone: Limerick 74 H. & C. Water - all Bedrooms - Central Heating Meals—Table d’Hote or a la Carte Full Service Garage adjoins Hotel Officially appointed R.I.A.C. and A.A. 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Elverys DUBLIN and CORK For All the Latest Books For High-class Stationery For Everything for Schools O'MAHONY & CO., LTD., 120 O'Connell Street :: Limerick Phone 230 P.HAYES & CO. LTD. (Directors: P. Hayes, M. Ryan) • WHOLESALE and RETAIL HOUSE FURNISHING and HARDWARE MERCHANTS • 9 WILLIAM STREET, LIMERICK Telephone 157 MEET YOUR FRIENDS AT THE SAVOY CINEMA and RESTAURANT • FIRST for CHOICEST FOOD EXCELLENT SERVICE • BEDFORD ROW LIMERICK Phone 571 For all that is best in PRINTING, RULING, LOOSE LEAF WORK, BOOKBINDING • Send your Inquiries to THE Limerick Leader LIMITED LIMERICK FOOTWEAR SPECIALISTS • We are stockists of all leading brands of Footwear made by the finest craftsmanship in latest designs and colours. We also offer a Complete Repair Service • JOHN DUGGAN & SONS 27 PATRICK STREET LIMERICK When Ordering Please Mention this Journal Support Our Advertisers Telegrams: "Daly's Bakery, Limerick." Phone 207 seásan ó dálais High-Class Confectionery Reception Cakes a Speciality Bácair Spáro Sáinreál, Luimnig T. C. CARROLL & SONS LTD. WHOLESALE and RETAIL STATIONERS LEATHER GOODS — FANCY GOODS COMMERCIAL STATIONERY FOUNTAIN PEN SPECIALISTS 122 O'CONNELL STREET LIMERICK TODD'S of LIMERICK COLLEGE & SCHOOL OUTFITTERS Clerical Tailoring a Speciality The Largest Drapers and HOUSE FURNISHERS in the South WILLIAM TODD & CO., LTD., LIMERICK When Ordering Please Mention this Journal Support Our Advertisers SILKE & SONS LTD. GALWAY HIGH-CLASS BAKERS & CONFECTIONERS Phone: GALWAY 39 WEDDING CAKES * BIRTHDAY CAKES CAKES FOR ALL OCCASIONS Specially Made to Order EAT AND ENJOY OUR DELIGHTFUL WHITE BREAD We are Sole Agents in Galway and District for MERVILLE ICE CREAM and MERVILLE CHOC ICES DAILY VAN DELIVERIES.—If our representatives do not call on you, kindly drop us a Postcard or Phone Galway 39. DIRECT FRUIT IMPORTERS WHOLESALE SWEET AND CHOCOLATE FACTORS NOTE ADDRESS: Wholesale Stores and Offices—WILLIAM ST. WEST Retail Branches: WILLIAM ST. DOMINICK ST. WILLIAM ST. WEST When Ordering Please Mention this Journal the better boot for better play Hallidays sports footwear is made from the stoutest leathers available but because of their remarkable action-free construction they are light and supple in wear and require only a minimum of 'breaking in.' That's why most players specify Hallidays. Available from shoe stores and sports outfitters SPORTS BOOTS JOHN HALLIDAY & SON LIMITED, DUNDALK Support Our Advertisers Louis de Courcy M.I.A.A. Auctioneer, Valuer, and Live Stock Salesman Weekly Markets at Limerick Cattle Market, as follows: Tuesdays: Fat Cattle and Sheep 12 o'clock noon. Saturdays: Dairy Cows, in-Calf and Calved Calves, Aged and young Store Cattle. Auctioneer to Irish Land Commission and Receiver by Appointment to the High Court. Auctions and Valuations carried out in any part of the country. City Offices and Salesrooms: 7, Glentworth Street ~ LIMERICK Phone - 589 and 974 FRANCIS SPAIGHT & SONS LTD. TIMBER IMPORTERS AND BUILDERS' and PLUMBERS' MERCHANTS Established 1815 Building Materials of every kind - House- hold Hardware - Wallpapers - Paints, Brushes and Glass - Agricultural Machinery Garden Tools - Seeds and Manures, etc. Head Office and Showrooms: Bedford Row and Henry St., LIMERICK Timber Yard and Saw Mills: Dock Road ~ Limerick Telegrams: "Spaight, Limerick." Telephone: Limerick 17 & 235 Irish Monthly (Founded by Fr. Matt Russell, S.J., 1873) Annual Subscription 14/- (post paid) Single issues 1/- Editor's Office: 35, Lower Leeson Street ~ Dublin When Ordering Please Mention this Journal 1873—1953 Writing for you INFORMATION : CRITICISM DISCUSSION ★ SOCIOLOGY ★ POLITICS ★ WORLD AFFAIRS ★ RELIGION ★ EDUCATION ★ LITERATURE ★ ART ★ SCIENCE ★ ECONOMICS ★ THE IRISH SCENE ★ MUSIC ★ REVIEWS OF BOOKS MATTHEW HALL & CO. LTD. SOME OF OUR CONTRACTS MUNGRET COLLEGE, LIMERICK ST. PATRICK'S COLLEGE, MAYNOOTH ST. KEVIN'S INSTITUTE, DUBLIN TERENURE COLLEGE, DUBLIN UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, CORK ST. PATRICK'S INSTITUTION, WATERFORD ST. MARY'S SCHOOL, LIMERICK DOMINICAN CONVENT, WICKLOW CONVENT OF MERCY, DRIMNAGH ST. COLUMCILLE'S HOSPITAL, LOUGHLINSTOWN DROGHEDA COTTAGE HOSPITAL GALWAY REGIONAL HOSPITAL ESTD. 1848 MATTHEW HALL AIR CONDITIONING HEATING SANITATION 29 Westland Row, Dublin Telephone 651612,3 LONDON GLASGOW MANCHESTER LIVERPOOL BELFAST NEWCASTLE CARDIFF COVENTRY WEST INDIES GIBRALTAR SOUTH AFRICA RHODESIA Support Our Advertisers AT YOUR SERVICE For 24 hours a day all through the year—workdays, holidays, Sundays alike—electricity is at your service. It produces light, heat and power at the touch of a switch. It is the servant to more than 400,000 Irish homes, farms, shops, offices and factories where it provides light, cooks food, washes clothes, heats water, warms rooms, drives machinery and does many more manual tasks easier and better and cheaper than any other medium. ELECTRICITY SUPPLY BOARD When Ordering Please Mention this Journal ORDER YOUR FAVOURITE MAGAZINES From MULLANY'S CONFECTIONERS, TOBACCONISTS & NEWSAGENTS 2 & 3 BEDFORD ROW LIMERICK Phone 391 It's the little things that Count Many a good man's temper snaps with his shoe lace! Little things can be annoying. The man in doubt, realising the importance of these "little things" will depend only on the most up-to-date equipment and the co-operation of a competent Limerick staff to ensure they won't be overlooked. For Collection and Delivery Service, RING 793 (Private Branch Exchange) THE Gaeltacht - LIMERICK'S OWN CLEANERS TO SERVE YOU 5 CITY BRANCHES Daniel O'Sullivan & Sons (Limerick) Ltd. ★ RUBBER FLOORING FLOOR AND WALL TILING JOINERY AND PLYWOODS ★ 4, O'CURRY STREET LIMERICK CAFFREY'S COLLEGE 109 ST. STEPHEN'S GREEN, DUBLIN Phone 51141. DAY CLASSES - POSTAL TUITION NIGHT CLASSES for LEAVING CERTIFICATE, Final Hons. MATRICULATION, S.U.I. DUBLIN CORPORATION 640 Successes at above since 1930. Commercial and Secretarial College for Girls. Shorthand, Type-Writing, Book-keeping, Banks, E.S.B., Civil Service, Business, Lady Clerkships in Guinness's Brewery. Good News for Teachers and Students - We can supply Helps and Aids - Model Answers and Solutions to books prescribed for, and papers set for Matriculation, Leaving Certificate, Intermediate Certificate, Preparatory College, County Scholarship. Terms and Prospectus Free, from Principal: P. GAFFREY, B.A., H.Dip. 51141 Up-to-Date Plant! Skilled Craftsmen! Efficient Organisation! THAT'S OUR COMBINATION Result Good Printing When placing printing orders take advantage of our superior Modern machinery, of the latest type, and our highly skilled staff ensure satisfaction. Furthermore, our deliveries are speedy, and— ON TIME The City Printing Company DALTON BROS. "Service with Speed" Printers, LIMERICK When Ordering Please Mention this Journal For all HARDWARE GOODS and CREAMERY REQUISITES TRY STEPHEN F. STOKES LOWER CECIL STREET LIMERICK • PERSONAL ATTENTION TO ALL ORDERS and ENQUIRIES Phone: 579 W. G. PEACOCKE :: OILS, PAINTS, BRUSHES :: GALVANIZED GOODS, CHANDLERY BEESWAX CANDLES, 75%, 65%, 25% SHRINE CANDLES SANCTUARY OIL - NIGHT LIGHTS - WICKS and FLOATS CHARCOAL - INCENSE - TAPERS 66 William Street .:. Limerick Phone 214 Support Our Advertisers Two years ago Irish Jesuits went to Northern Rhodesia to spread the Faith in a territory as large as Ireland. To-day, twenty-seven of our missionaries are working there. At Chikuni, our central mission house, there is a school for three hundred boys and a training college for African teachers. In the surrounding country, three new mission stations and chapels are being erected. Fifty villages and a leper settlement have come under our spiritual care. Our missionaries are urgently in need of funds to develop this new mission entrusted to them. All contributions will be most gratefully received. Jesuit Foreign Missions MILLTOWN PARK, BALLSBRIDGE, DUBLIN (Phone 93971) \| Advertisement \| Page \| \|---------------------------------------------------\|------\| \| Black Abbey Co-Operative Agricultural and Dairy Society, Ltd., Adare \| xvi \| \| Boyd, J. & G., Ltd., Limerick \| xxiii\| \| Brennan Insurances Ltd., Dublin \| iv \| \| Caltex (Ireland) Ltd., Dublin \| xxxviii\| \| Caffrey's College, Dublin \| xxxvi\| \| Cannocks Ltd., Limerick \| xvii \| \| Carroll, T. C. & Sons, Ltd., Limerick \| xxix \| \| Central Hotel, Roscrea \| xv \| \| Cleeves Confectionery Ltd., Limerick \| vi \| \| Clerys Ltd., Dublin \| xxiv \| \| Clune, John, Ltd., Limerick \| xviii\| \| City Printing Co. Ltd., Limerick \| xxxvi\| \| Convent of the Faithful Companions of Jesus, Limerick \| iii \| \| Courcy, Louis de, Limerick \| xxxii\| \| Drummond's Seeds, Dublin and Carlow \| viii \| \| Duffy, James & Co. Ltd., Dublin \| xxii \| \| Duggan, John & Sons, Limerick \| xxvii\| \| Electricity Supply Board Ltd., Dublin \| xxxiv\| \| Elvery's Dublin and Cork \| xxvi \| \| English, John & Co. Ltd., Wexford \| xvii \| \| Fitt, Wm. B. & Co., Limerick \| v \| \| Fitzgerald Bros., Askeaton \| xiii \| \| Foilseacáin Rialtais, Baile Ata Cliath \| iii \| \| Garland, T. G., Ltd., Dublin \| xx \| \| Gings, Dublin \| xviii\| \| Good Shepherd Convent, Limerick \| xvi \| \| Goodwin & Co. Ltd., Limerick \| xxv \| \| Gorevan Bros. Ltd., Dublin \| x \| \| Greene & Co., Dublin \| xii \| \| Griffin's Nurseries, Ballinacurra \| xxv \| \| Hayes, P. & Co., Ltd., Limerick \| xxvii\| \| Hall, Matthew, Dublin \| xxxiii\| \| Halliday, John & Son, Ltd., Dundalk \| xxxi \| \| Halpin, E. M. & Co., Ltd., Limerick \| v \| \| Hayes, Denis, Limerick \| xxv \| \| Irish Jesuit Missions, Dublin \| xxxix\| \| Irish Messenger Office, Dublin \| x \| \| Irish Monthly, Dublin \| xxxii\| \| Irwin Bros., Limerick \| x \| \| Kelly, Gerald, Borrisokane \| vi \| \| Laird, John & Co., Limerick \| xi \| \| Lalor, Ltd., Dublin \| vi \| \| Lawson, H. & Co., Ltd., Cork \| xiv \| \| Limerick Sports Stores, Limerick \| viii \| \| Lloyd, Wm., Limerick \| viii \| \| Lucan Dairies \| xxxvii\| \| Molloy, P. & Sons, Ltd., Limerick \| viii \| \| Moynihan, Bee & Co., Limerick \| xv \| \| Mullany, Ltd., Limerick \| xxxv \| \| McMahon, James, Ltd., Limerick \| xix \| \| McNamara, W. F., Ltd., Limerick \| xvi \| \| National Bank, Ltd. \| ix \| \| Nelson, Wm. & Son, Ltd., Limerick \| xii \| \| Nestor Bros., Limerick \| vii \| \| Newsom, J. P. & Co., Ltd., Limerick \| vii \| \| O'Connor, Dan, Ltd., Limerick \| vi \| \| O'Connor, M. J., Limerick \| vii \| \| O Dálaig, Seagan, Luimnig \| xxviii\| \| O'Mahony & Co., Ltd., Limerick \| xxvi \| \| O'Sullivan, Daniel & Sons, Ltd., Limerick \| xxxvi\| \| Peacocke, W. G., Limerick \| xxxvii\| \| Power & Mangan, Limerick \| xxii \| \| Powers Seeds, Ltd., Waterford \| xxiii\| \| Providence Woollen Mills, Foxford \| v \| \| Roche, J. H. & Sons, Ltd., Limerick \| vii \| \| Royal George Hotel, Limerick \| xxiii\| \| Royal Exchange Assurance \| xxi \| \| Royal Hotel, Tipperary \| xiii \| \| Silke & Sons, Ltd., Galway \| xxx \| \| Smith, Wm. B., Limerick \| xxi \| \| Solus Teo, Bray \| xxxviii\| \| Spaight, Francis & Sons, Ltd., Limerick \| xxxii\| \| Staehli, A., Limerick \| ii \| \| Stokes, Stephen F., Limerick \| xxxvi\| \| Tedcastle, McCormack & Co., Ltd., Limerick \| ii \| \| The Educational Co. of Ireland Ltd., Dublin \| xiv \| \| The Gaelthact Cleaners Ltd., Limerick \| xxxv \| \| The Hibernian Bank Ltd. \| i \| \| The Limerick Leader Ltd., Limerick \| xxvii\| \| The Savoy Cinema & Restaurant, Limerick \| xxvii\| \| The South of Ireland Publications Ltd. \| xix \| \| Todd, Burns & Co., Ltd., Dublin \| xxxvii\| \| Toomey, Denis, Limerick \| xviii\| \| Todd, Wm. & Co. Ltd., Limerick \| xxix \| \| University College, Cork \| xi \| \| Urney Ltd., Tallaght \| iii \| \| Wallace, Wm & Sons, Limerick \| xxii \|
The television technician becomes MR. BIG when the TV set goes bad February • 1954 NO.1 CHOICE of ALL Fixed Composition Resistors by almost 3 to 1* Not Claims! Not Predictions! But Plain Facts! Unbiased, authoritative, independent surveys (made regularly since 1930) show IRC BT RESISTORS to be the Service Technicians' choice by a continually increasing margin. Today, BT RESISTORS are preferred over the total of all other brands combined! Ask for IRC BT's... Most Service Technicians Do! INTERNATIONAL RESISTANCE COMPANY 425 N. Broad Street, Philadelphia 8, Pa. In Canada: International Resistance Co., Ltd., Toronto, Licensee TECHNICIAN & Circuit Digests TELEVISION • ELECTRONIC • RADIO • AUDIO • SERVICE FEBRUARY, 1954 Problems Ahead, Outlook Good ........................................... 21 "Tuning in the Picture" .................................................. 22 More About Color TV Fundamentals ............ Peter Orne & Sol Heller 24 Servicing AC-DC Radios .................................................. M. G. Goldberg 27 Hi Fi Guide to Pickup Arms and Cartridges .......... Harry Mileaf 28 What's Wrong with Carbon Tet? ......... Harry E. Shulman & Murray Jelling 31 Troubleshooting Drift in Television Receivers ........ Philip Thier 32 Eliminating Tweet Interference ......................... Cyrus Glickstein 35 Modern Russian TV Receiver ........................................... 36 Rx for Ailing CRTs ...................................................... 38 New Components .......................................................... 45 Audio and Hi-Fi Items .................................................... 47 Technician's Lighter Side ............................................... 48 Keep Your Eyes on Profits! ............................................. 51 Manufacturer's Changes in TV Sets ....................... 58 Circuit Digest Cumulative Index ................................. 69 CIRCUIT DIGESTS (See pages following p. 72) ADMIRAL: Chassis 20A2, 20AZZ, 20D2 GENERAL ELECTRIC: "EE" Chassis MAGNAVOX: Chassis 108A Series RAYTHEON: Chassis 21T11 WESTINGHOUSE: Chassis V-2250-1 DEPARTMENTS Letters to the Editors .................................................. 14 Color Shorts .............................................................. 40 Shop Hints ................................................................. 41 New Products ............................................................. 42 New Books ................................................................. 63 Service Ass'n. Reports .................................................. 53 Calendar of Coming Events ........................................... 53 "Tough Dog" .............................................................. 54 Mfrs. Catalogs & Bulletins ........................................... 60 CALDWELL-CLEMENTS, INC. Publication Office, Bristol, Conn. Editorial/Business Offices 480 Lexington Ave., New York 17, N. Y., Tel. Plaza 9-7880 Publishers also of MART and TELE-TECH & ELECTRONIC INDUSTRIES Reg. U. S. Patent Office Copyright by Caldwell-Clements, Inc., 1954 Merit devotes their undivided attention to service requirements for transformers and coils. THERE is no competition for the time and effort of Merit engineers and production, whose sole responsibility is to design and produce what the service field wants and needs when it is needed. Merit--exclusively for service. Merit actively aids in service. Merit transformers and yokes retain actual operating characteristics of the original components but design improvements simplify replacement installation. Merit installation instructions are more complete than any others available. Merit's is the most complete replacement catalog and the Merit replacement guide is ahead of service requirements. Merit transformers are tape marked for quick positive identification. Find Merit's complete line listed in John Rider's Tek-File and Howard Sam's Photofacts and Counter Facts. originated by Merit. It is the Merit policy to simplify Service. Merit has proved it is possible for one transformer to serve a multiple purpose -- that is replace more than one particular unit without sacrificing the essential operating efficiency of any of the various original components. Exact replacements are included in the Merit line only when substitution would complicate replacement labor. A stock of Merit replacements is always live -- there are no dust-catchers in the Merit line. 4 Chicago, Hollywood, Hollywood. 3 modern plants prove Merit means: Service needs service. Wherever the customer is located there is a Merit plant dedicated to turning out service requirements fast for his area. The whole country is Merit's backyard and all customers are preferred. Admiral ALL-CHANNEL UHF ANTENNAS Admiral BOW TIE Lowest cost ever for a quality UHF antenna. Gets excellent reception in good signal areas on any of the 70 UHF channels. Each antenna furnished with stacking bar. Mast mounting brackets included. Mast not included. No. AN65A—Deluxe—Shipped completely assembled. Suggested list price.......................... $5.95 No. AN65B—Standard—Similar to above, smaller reflector screen. Shipped knocked-down. Sug. list price... $3.95 Admiral CORNER REFLECTOR Recommended for troublesome locations where ghosts, reflections and interference are encountered. High gain, 14db. Front to back ratio 15 to 1. Assembled, ready to put up. Mast mounting bracket included. Mast not included. No. AN56A—One bracket mounting. Suggested list price.......................... $11.25 No. AN56B—Same as above, front mounting. Suggested list price.......................... $11.25 INDOOR UHF ANTENNAS Admiral Super Recommended for troublesome locations. Exceptionally high gain... over 7 db... excellent ghost suppression. Only 12 inches wide. Weighted and felt padded base. No. 94A10-6—Complete with lead-in. Suggested list price... $12.95 Admiral Target Smartly styled in rose-gold colored anodized aluminum with mahogany phenolic base. Stands only 10 inches high. Base is weighted and felt padded... can be placed on top of receiver... picks up all UHF channels. No. 94A10-7—Complete with lead-in. Suggested list price... $4.95 HIGH GAIN LOW COST You'll make an extra profit on every installation using these high gain UHF antennas. Ask your Admiral distributor about the extra large discounts from the list prices quoted here. You'll be giving your customer extra value, too! All these antennas are finest quality... made with aircraft aluminum antenna elements and vibration-proof reflectors. "A-frame" insulators provide plenty of free air space around elements. The units have high mechanical strength and low resistance. They are double plated for extra resistance to weathering... first zinc plated, then dipped in zinc dichromate which gives them a beautiful gold finish. These antennas can be easily fastened to existing masts and towers. Order by part number from your Admiral distributor. Ask your Admiral distributor for FREE CATALOG with complete line of Admiral TV antennas and accessories Admiral Corporation Accessories and Equipment Division, Chicago 47, Illinois TECHNICIAN • February, 1954 SERVICE DEALERS! Here’s another sensational Raytheon first. It’s a different kind of flashlight that sheds a new light on Radio-TV servicing — makes it faster, easier, more profitable. RAYTHEON BROW-LITES are available through your Raytheon Tube Distributor. Ask him how to get a supply for you and your men. Here’s why Service Dealers from coast to coast are hailing the RAYTHEON BROW-LITE: - FREES BOTH HANDS — work is easier, faster - DIRECTS LIGHT AUTOMATICALLY — you see what you look at in a clear, bright light - USES STANDARD PARTS — 1½ volt penlite batteries and 3 volt penlite bulb - ANYONE CAN USE IT — fits easily above glasses - EASY TO CARRY — folds compactly to pocket size - REPLACES FLASHLIGHTS — easier, safer to use - DURABLE — made of rugged plastic RAYTHEON MANUFACTURING COMPANY Receiving Tube Division Newton, Mass., Chicago, Ill., Atlanta, Ga., Los Angeles, Cal. RAYTHEON MAKES ALL THESE: RECEIVING AND PICTURE TUBES • RELIABLE SUBMINIATURE AND MINIATURE TUBES • SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES AND TRANSISTORS • NUCLEONIC TUBES • MICROWAVE TUBES TECHNICIAN • February, 1954 the newest addition TR-4 TR-4... the de-luxe HEAVY DUTY rotor complete with modern design meter control dial cabinet, using 4 wire cable ........ 53.95 CORNELL-DUBILIER SOUTH PLAINFIELD, NEW JERSEY to the family of CDR Rotors CDR ROTOR the ultimate in heavy duty Rotors incorporating all the fine features that have made the TR-2 outstanding plus these fine features: Handsome Meter Dial Cabinet * Uses 4 Wire Cable TR-12...a special combination value consisting of complete rotor, including thrust bearing...handsome modern design cabinet with meter control dial, 4 wire cable 47.95 TR-2...the Heavy-Duty rotor, complete with "Compass Control" cabinet having illuminated "perfect pattern" dial... 49.95 TR-11...the all-purpose rotor with handsome modern design cabinet with meter control dial, uses 4 wire cable 44.95 THE RADIART CORPORATION CLEVELAND 13, OHIO over 100,000 already installed! CHANNEL MASTER'S fabulous CHAMPION* the world's most powerful all-channel VHF antenna —OUT-PERFORMS AND OUT-SELLS THEM ALL! Never before in the history of television has an antenna received such an overwhelming reception. Channel Master's CHAMPION — in a few short months — has rocketed to the top as the nation's most-wanted, best-selling, best-performing VHF antenna! CHAMPIONSHIP Performance: Only the CHAMPION has the unique new "Tri-Pole", a triple-powered dipole system in which the Low Band dipole also functions as three dipoles tied together, in phase, on the High Band. All-aluminum. Assembles faster than a 5-element Yagi! The CHAMPION is another great contribution of the Channel Master Antenna Development Laboratories. CHAMPIONSHIP Promotion: The CHAMPION is the antenna America knows best! • Publicized in leading magazines! • Outstanding dealer Cooperative Advertising Program! • Free newspaper mats, window streamers and TV film commercials! THE STACKED CHAMPION PROVIDES: 11-13 DB High Band gain 6½-7½ DB Low Band gain \| Model No. \| Description \| List Price \| \|----------\|----------------------\|------------\| \| 325 \| Single Bay \| $20.83 \| \| 325-2 \| 2-Bay \| $42.36 \| \| 325-3 \| 4-Bay \| $58.89 \| \| 325-3 \| 3 Separate Stacking Harnesses \| $11.11 \| \| 325-5 \| 2-Bay Harness \| $2.08 \| \| 325-5 \| 4-Bay Harness \| $4.17 \| CHANNEL MASTER CORP. ILLINOIS, N. Y. WORLD'S LARGEST MANUFACTURER OF TELEVISION ANTENNAS pat. pending TIE SEPARATE ANTENNAS TO ONLY ONE TRANSMISSION LINE CHANNEL MASTER inter-action filters Only Channel Master filters are permanently sealed in a block of moisture-proof, high melting-point electrical wax, locked in an attractive styrene case. - Single lead - No switching - No signal loss - No inter-action, effective isolation. VHF only TENNA-TIE model no. 9033-A Use with leads of any length! New, specially designed High and Low Pass filters entirely eliminate the need for critical lead lengths! This new, extremely effective circuit makes the TENNA-TIE the most effective filter of its type now available. — only $3.50 VHF-UHF ULTRA-TIE model no. 9034 JOINS — separate VHF and UHF antennas for use with a single lead. SEPARATES — VHF and UHF signals at the set or converter where separate terminals are provided. "Free-space" terminals, new low price — $3.75 VHF-UHF TRIPLE-TIE model no. 9035 Ties together all three TV reception bands: 1. Low Band VHF 2. High Band VHF 3. All UHF High and low Pass filters enable the Triple-Tie to adapt all Hi-Ls VHF installations to UHF — quickly and effectively. "Free-Space" terminals for perfect all-weather UHF reception. new low price— $4.86 THE ANTENNA IN COLOR TELEVISION by Harold Harris, Vice President, Sales and Engineering Now that color telecasting is a reality, we will see an ever-increasing flow of color sets to the consumer. Although much is being said and written on the subject of color sets, many unanswered questions remain about the role of the television receiving antenna in color television. Will present antennas work on color? Will a special antenna be needed? The results of thorough laboratory and field tests made by engineers of the Channel Master Antenna Development Laboratories show that practically all present TV antenna types will perform satisfactorily on color. Gain variations as high as 3 DB across one channel can be tolerated. When this figure is exceeded blurring or smearing of the picture may occur. Although there are certain antennas on the market which do have excessive gain variation, this is not the case of the vast majority of present installations. There are also indications that fringe area color reception may be more critical. This may necessitate the use of fringe area antennas in areas closer to the TV station. In the nation's most advanced television research laboratory, Channel Master antennas have always been designed for full band width and minimum variation in gain on any one channel. For this reason, every Channel Master antenna which you have installed in the past, as well as the ones you install today, will provide reception of outstanding quality when color TV comes to your area. Channel Master antennas were the antennas selected for the tests which led to the F.C.C.'s approval of the National Television Standards Committee color system. Copyright 1954, Channel Master Corp. THIS BOOK HELPS YOU Make Increased Profits Get this ONE DOLLAR book FREE with your next 25-TUBE PURCHASE This newest, most helpful book on UHF conversions is yours free when you buy 25 RELIATRON receiving tubes or one picture tube from your Westinghouse Distributor. This vital handbook covers conversion data, tuners and converters, antenna installations, channel frequency charts, station coverage, and many other necessary, conveniently arranged facts you will need. There’s a gold mine in UHF conversions. And this book will help you make the most out of the biggest profit opportunity since television came alive. Get this dollar value for no extra charge with your next order of 25 tubes! See your nearest Westinghouse RELIATRON Tube Distributor for your copy of this new “how to do it” book that will build your profits. Act Now for UHF PROFITS YOU CAN BE SURE...IF IT’S Westinghouse RELIATRON TUBES WESTINGHOUSE ELECTRIC CORPORATION, ELECTRONIC TUBE DIVISION, ELMIRA, N.Y. PROVED from coast to coast In every UHF area, Mallory Converters bring clear, trouble-free all-channel reception to thousands and thousands of families. Make sure your customers get this PROVED PERFORMANCE. Mallory UHF Converter Prove to yourself that the Mallory Converter can be a profit-maker for you. Ask your Mallory distributor for details on the Mallory 88 Converter. It's a fast-seller... easy to install... and performance is outstanding. CAPACITORS • CONTROLS • VIBRATORS • SWITCHES • RESISTORS RECTIFIERS • POWER SUPPLIES • FILTERS • MERCURY BATTERIES APPROVED PRECISION PRODUCTS P. R. MALLORY & CO., INC., INDIANAPOLIS 6, INDIANA WHY IT'S BETTER BUSINESS TO REPLACE WITH Astatic Crystal Pickup Cartridges IN APPROXIMATELY 75 percent of all cases, the original crystal pickup cartridge for which you are supplying the replacement will be an ASTATIC! The record player manufacturer's highly skilled engineers have carefully selected each Astatic Cartridge because . . . down to the last detail . . . its performance characteristics match the requirements of the particular player or changer. Thus, for finest results, the serviceman replacing the cartridge must again match these requirements. AND ONLY THE PRECISION-BUILT, RECOMMENDED ASTATIC REPLACEMENT CARTRIDGE WILL DO IT. And, despite quality results, cost is almost invariably lower. One way or another, a substitute cartridge is bound to fall down. It is not sound business to stake your reputation on such substitutions. Beware particularly of claims that ALL cartridge replacement needs can be filled by six or eight magic models. Actually, it takes an absolute minimum of 24 different cartridge models to meet all of today's requirements. The far-sighted jobber or dealer, knowing that what is good for the record-playing public is good for him, sees to it that the kind of cartridge originally intended is used on all replacements. Usually, too, he MAKES DOUBLY SURE OF BEST RESULTS BY RELYING ON ASTATIC CRYSTAL CARTRIDGES. NEW STEEL STORAGE CABINET AND DISPENSER FOR ASTATIC CRYSTAL CARTRIDGES THERE ARE ADVANTAGES for everyone because jobbers dispense Astatic Crystal Cartridges from this handsome, rugged steel cabinet. No one — dealer, serviceman or record player owner — ever gets an Astatic Cartridge which has grown old from being accidentally knocked back and forth in the shelf. This can't happen to Astatic Cartridges because new stock is put in the cabinet by feeding into the top of each bin . . . and the cabinet dispenses the oldest cartridge first, from the bottom of the bin. To make sure that everyone enjoys these advantages, the cabinets are given to Astatic Jobbers entirely free of charge, and without a single string attached or special purchase to be made. Attractively finished in light grey Hemmerlin, this truly fine cabinet keeps all Astatic Cartridges together and permits taking accurate inventory at a glance. It is designed to stand solidly on the counter, on the shelf, hang on the wall, or even stack securely when two or more are used. Included is a handy Rollafax cartridge replacement chart, which attaches to the top of the cabinet and works like a miniature window blind. Note that the bottom cartridge in each bin always protrudes, for quick, easy grasping. EXPORT REPRESENTATIVE 401 Broadway, New York, N. Y. Cable Address: ASTATIC, New York THE Astatic CORPORATION CONNEAUT, OHIO IN CANADA: CANADIAN ASTATIC LTD. TORONTO, ONTARIO LETTERS To the Editors Author In Error, He Says Editors, Technician: We would like to call your attention to considerable misinformation which appeared in the article V.H.F. Antenna Installation Problems, in your December issue. (1) The author describes at length "oscillating lines." It is well known that two conditions are necessary for sustained oscillation—a feed-back path and energy amplification. Since there is no amplification of energy in an antenna or its transmission line, oscillation cannot exist outside of the television set. One should not confuse the "gain" of an antenna with amplification, or the reflections in a transmission line due to mismatch with oscillation. In Channel Master's wide experience with TV antenna installation problems, we have never heard of "oscillating lines." (2) In the second paragraph, the author advocates the use of an open-ended stub across the antenna. The stub is cut to an effective quarter-wave length at the channel frequency which is to be improved. It is well known that a quarter-wave length open-ended stub is almost exactly equivalent to a short-circuit. It is obvious, then, that placing this stub across the antenna as described will almost completely eliminate reception for the channel one is trying to improve. (3) In the third paragraph, the author suggests using an attenuating pad to eliminate "ghosts." When "ghosts" are due to reflections in the transmission line, due to mismatch at its ends, the use of a pad will help. However, in the case of "ghosts" due to multipath reception, the ratio of the direct signal to the reflected signal is not changed by a pad. Therefore a pad will not help at all to reduce "ghosts" due to multipath reception. Furthermore, the formula given in this paragraph will not give the straight line distance to the reflecting obstacle; it will give the difference in total path lengths of the direct and reflected signals. We hope this clears up the errors in your otherwise excellent periodical. Julius Green Antenna Laboratory Channel Master Corporation Ellenville, New York Free Tube Checking Again Editors, Technician: I have been an ardent reader of your magazine and still regard it as one of the top magazines in our profession. In the November edition, I read several articles on charging for tube checking. I realize that this is a pro and con affair, but the following is one technician's view point: One of the most imperative qualities (Continued on page 18) Now... only $149.50 the popular RCA WO-88A featuring... ✓ Voltage-Measuring Facilities ✓ "Plus" and "Minus" Sync ✓ High-Input Resistance ✓ Low-Input Capacitance Check these "extra" features - Direct-coupled vertical amplifier - 5" Cathode-ray tube with magnetic shield - 60-cycle sweep with wide-angle phasing control - Frequency-compensated attenuators - "Voltmeter-type" vertical attenuator - "Voltmeter-scale" type graph screen - 1-volt peak-to-peak calibrating voltage - 'Scope is completely stable—even at maximum sensitivity of 25 millivolt-per-inch - Quick "recovery" time, freedom from line "bounces" - Completely shielded input cable eliminates hum and noise pickup Specifications— - Deflection Sensitivity: (vertical amplifier) 25 rms millivolts or better per inch. - Vertical-Amplifier Frequency Response: Flat from dc to 100 Kc; within —3 db at 500 Kc; within —10 db at 1 Mc. - Input Resistance and Capacitance: 10 megohms and 9.5 uuf with WG-216B Low-Capacitance Probe. - Sweep-Circuit Frequency (four ranges): 15 cps to 30 Kc. - Square-Wave Response: Negligible tilt and overshoot. - Average Rise Time (Vert. Amp.): 0.5 microsec. - Power Supply: 105-125 volts, 50-60 cycles. - Size 13½" high, 9" wide, 16½" deep. Weight only 25 lbs. (net). The WO-88A has built-in voltage calibrating facilities which permit simultaneous waveshape display and peak-to-peak voltage measurements. Frequently, the shape of the TV waveform under observation will be correct but its amplitude will be low and, consequently, cause improper operation. Therefore, a TV 'scope is complete only if it can measure the peak-to-peak voltage of the displayed waveform. Check this feature on the "88"! On the WO-88A, sync polarity may be reversed instantly by simply clicking a front-panel switch. This feature is important because TV pulses may be either positive or negative, depending upon where the 'scope is connected. To avoid waveshape "jitter" or distortion, use a 'scope which will "lock in" readily on all types of TV waveforms. Check this feature on the "88"! When you use the low-capacitance probe supplied with the WO-88A, the over-all input resistance is raised to 10 megohms! Because many TV circuits are extremely sensitive to resistive loading, normal circuit operation may be seriously disrupted by loading of the average 'scope. With the low-capacitance probe, however, loading problems are minimized. Check this feature on the "88"! In addition, the low-capacitance probe supplied with the WO-88A decreases the over-all input capacitance to less than 10 uuf! Excessive capacitance loading can cause the horizontal oscillator to change frequency or stop oscillating. When the WO-88A is connected, the low over-all input capacitance leaves receiver operation essentially unaffected. Check this feature on the "88"! Get full details today from your RCA Distributor or clip coupon and mail to: RCA Commercial Engineering Section B46W, Harrison, N. J. Please send me your new folder on the RCA WO-88A Oscilloscope. NAME_____________________________________ ADDRESS___________________________________ CITY_________________ ZONE________ STATE______ GET BETTER THAN NEW-SET PERFORMANCE WITH CBS-HYTRON MIRROR-BACK SCREEN Mirror-Back (aluminized) screen mirrors all the light output to the viewer. Offers: Brighter pictures. Greater contrast. Better resolution. Reduced strain on other components. Full effective anode potential. Prevention of cross-burns. And longer life. For greater customer satisfaction ... more profit, replace with original CBS-Hytron Mirror-Back tubes. Many types now available. WITH CBS-HYTRON BLUE-WHITE SCREEN Ever notice how a shirt laundered with bluing appears whiter? With the CBS-Hytron Blue-White screen, whites are whiter; blacks, blacker. Expanded gray scale gives noticeably sharper pictures in fringe areas. No wonder CBS-Hytron's original Blue-White screen has become the universally preferred standard. Your customers, too, will prefer Blue-White screens. WITH CBS-HYTRON SMALL-SPOT GUN Smaller the spot produced by electron beam, sharper the picture. New lens focusing system of CBS-Hytron Small-Spot Gun reduces spot size 30 per cent. Prove it. Replace with a new CBS-Hytron Small-Spot tube. See, yourself, the superior resolution. Profit more. Combine all three: CBS-Hytron Mirror-Back ... Blue-White Screen ... Small-Spot Gun. Get and give that better-than-new-set thrill! LOOK TO CBS-HYTRON FOR COLOR, TOO! New CBS-Colortron stresses simplicity. Offers many advantages: Simpler construction. Fool-proof assembly. Lower cost. Lighter weight. Adaptability to mass production in large sizes. Improved contrast. Simplified focusing ... circuitry ... adjustment. Resistance to overload. Greater stability. All stemming from unique spherical mask and face plate. You'll appreciate these advantages when you start servicing color TV. FREE CATALOG ... CBS-HYTRON BUSINESS BUILDERS Describes all CBS-Hytron Business Builders to date: Certified Quality Service tags, streamers, decals, illuminated and flange signs, clocks, postal cards, and ad mats. The famous CBS-Hytron service tools. Technical literature. Price lists. Special offers. Get your Business Builders Catalog, PA-37, today ... from your distributor, or direct. NEW ... FREE CBS-COLORTRON DATA For a look into the future, get complete advance data on the new, revolutionary CBS-Colortron: Construction ... operation ... application ... installation and adjustment ... electrical and mechanical data. FREE ... from your CBS-Hytron distributor ... or direct. CBS-HYTRON Main Office: Danvers, Mass. A Division of Columbia Broadcasting System, Inc. A member of the CBS family: CBS Radio - CBS Television Columbia Records, Inc. - CBS Laboratories - CBS-Columbia - and CBS-Hytron RECEIVING • TRANSMITTING • SPECIAL-PURPOSE • TV PICTURE TUBES • GERMANIUM DIODES AND TRANSISTORS TECHNICIAN • February, 1954 What can you believe in Antenna Claims? Every claim for all-channel antenna performance should be supported by facts, and not "sales talk." With facts to follow, you guard your reputation for integrity. Facts are what you get from DAVIS... indisputable proof of performance, furnished by an impartial outside authority: Microwave Engineering Company, of Los Angeles, who are recognized experts on antenna research and testing. Write for all the data which Microwave Engineering has developed on the DAVIS antenna. You'll see performance characteristics which are actually certified... data you can count on! Remember, it's the picture on the TV set that pays off in customer satisfaction. A DAVIS picture must please you—our antenna is guaranteed to be the best all-channel unit you can buy... guaranteed to please or your money is refunded by the factory. Send the coupon for facts on the DAVIS antenna. Sold through your electronic distributor... THE BACKBONE OF YOUR INDUSTRY. DAVIS ELECTRONICS America's Fastest Growing Antenna Manufacturer DAVIS ELECTRONICS • P.O.BOX 1247 • BURBANK • CALIFORNIA Factories in; BURBANK, CALIF., CHICAGO, ILL., SILVER SPRINGS, MD. MAIL THIS COUPON TODAY: DAVIS ELECTRONICS, Box 1247, Burbank, Calif. Gentlemen... send me the following: ☐ Technical data and complete information on the new SUPER-VISION ANTENNA ☐ Name and address of NEAREST JOBBER COMPANY NAME__________________________________________ MY NAME_______________________________________________ ADDRESS_________________________________________________ CITY______________________STATE_______________________ (Continued from page 14) in my estimation for a successful technician, is the love of the business and also not to be too arrogant in helping the average customer. I honestly believe that this article regarding charging for testing tubes will tend to make some of the servicemen a little too independent, in charging for everything they do for a customer. There are things that come up daily in our profession that have to be handled discreetly, such as replacing a male plug on a lamp or fixing a lady's iron. All these little things tend to obtain good will, something that would normally cost you a good sum in advertising. I have been in business for over fifteen years, never made a fortune, but have always been busy and have made a good living. I believe in the old creed, when a customer asks you to do anything you should be honored that he asked you, also... charge according to the job. I hope that in one of your editorials you will try to educate the newcomers in our profession to follow this creed a little. I still think that, with a customer's respect... and good workmanship, a serviceman can charge a little more and still be well ahead of the fellow who is arrogant and charges for even a washer or maybe to just dust off a chassis. GEORGE E. FOGLEMAN Fogleman Radio & TV Service 1721 Fort Davis Street, S.E. Washington 20, D. C. Likes Price Editorial EDITORS, TECHNICIAN: Your article in the December issue, "Don't Be Afraid to Charge a Good Price!" was wonderful. I am conceited enough to say that that has been my exact feeling and policy. L. WALTON Broadway Radio Service 7 East 19th Avenue Gary, Indiana Cut-Throat Competition EDITORS, TECHNICIAN: I receive TECHNICIAN magazine every month, and look forward to every edition, for it has given me so much help. There has opened up a wholesale house in Washington, Pa. They have been running ads in all the papers describing the wholesale prices of all our parts, and at the bottom of these ads they state this—Wholesale to All. It makes me have a red face when a customer of mine prices an antenna from me and I tell him the list price for it; then he comes right back with the newspaper ad showing me the same antenna at half the cost. Some of the prices are even lower than I can buy for wholesale. What is the solution to this problem? LARRY J. STULL Stull's Radio & TV Marianna, Penna. AN OUTSTANDING NEW PATENTED DEVELOPMENT The Great New FINCO® Series '500' UHF ANTENNAS (All Aluminum Construction) FINCO 502 Patent No. 2,566,287 Other patent applied for. Canada Patent No. 496,735 (14-bay unit obtains up to 50% additional voltage gain over Model 502) Outperform DOUBLE CORNER REFLECTORS AND DOUBLE COLINEARS ACROSS THE ENTIRE UHF BAND! Write today for authentic technical data. THE FINNEY COMPANY, Department T-25 4612 St. Clair Avenue • Cleveland, Ohio Send complete information on FINCO Series '500' UHF Antennas Send complete information on advertising program NAME ____________________________________________________________ FIRM ____________________________________________________________ ADDRESS _________________________________________________________ CITY ___________________________ STATE _________________________ RADIO / NEWSPAPER / MAGAZINE / TV Write today — find out how you can participate in the antenna industry's most powerful advertising campaign at no cost to you. Another Outstanding Service Success Story... with SYLVANIA! From Basement Repair Shop to prosperous Service Business... featuring Sylvania Tubes, Parts and Promotion Programs! The steady and substantial growth of the Ball Television and Radio Service, from basement shop to the large handsome brick building, shown below, is a tribute to the fair practices and alert policies of the owner, Mr. Ted Ball. Says Mr. Ball: "My men are as skilled and experienced as any you'll find anywhere, and each is instructed to do the best job possible with the best of parts...and that, of course, includes Sylvania Tubes." Ted Ball is another important Radio-TV Service Manager that appreciates the quality performance, dependability, and the nation-wide high reputation of Sylvania products. Mr. Ball also knows about the business-boosting power of Sylvania's promotion and display offers. Find out how Sylvania can step up your business. Your friendly Sylvania Distributor is ready and anxious to give you full cooperation. Call him today. SYLVANIA Sylvania Electric Products Inc., 1740 Broadway, New York 19, N.Y In Canada: Sylvania Electric (Canada) Ltd., University Tower Bldg. St. Catherine St., Montreal, P.Q. LIGHTING • RADIO • ELECTRONICS • TELEVISION TECHNICIAN • February, 1954 Problems Ahead, Outlook Good As we go into the second month of the new year, we get a clearer picture of what's ahead for the technician during the remaining months. In taking this look ahead we can foresee a phenomenal growth for the service industry, as pointed out in last month's editorial. Color-TV is on the way. Hi-Fi is growing by leaps and bounds, and maintenance of a record number of B & W sets, radios, phonos and recorders spells big business in anybody's language. Year by year servicing revenue will grow in this restless industry which is always bringing out something new, exciting and different to challenge the ingenuity, skill and know-how of the technician. Yes, '54 looks like another busy year for the men who keep the home folk happy, maintaining the equipment so many millions depend upon for daily entertainment, education and enlightenment. '54 can be a year of greater profits and expansion for the technician-dealer who wisely meets the challenges that lie ahead. But there will be problems which the service department must face. Tight Money Will Affect Service Operations Many of such problems will come about as the result of a more or less tough market in retail selling, which is likely to be reflected in tighter money conditions at the service business level. For instance, folk are hanging onto their money for dear life, and this will cause more haggling over service bills. Then, too, the gyps will intensify their efforts to increase their take, and more of them may be operating. Customers may be a little slower in paying bills, and there may be a rise in the number of dead-beats. Safe Method to Build Profits and Good-Will All of the foregoing doesn't mean that servicing revenue will be down. On the contrary, 1954 bids fair to be the biggest year the industry has ever had. But '54 also looks like a year when the service department must watch its financial step every inch of the way. It must guard against accumulating bad accounts, it must fight to sell good, honest service at honest prices, and it must maintain prestige, profits and customer good will. Also, advertising should be kept up or initiated, in this rather slippery period, to retain old business and add new trade. Never was there a time more suited to advertising your service business. The profit-minded technician-dealer needs to sell faith in the country to his customers these days, when all too many self-appointed dispensers of gloom are predicting financial chaos in the midst of the greatest prosperity the nation has ever known. The future of the service business was never brighter, but smart owners and managers realize that '54 isn't a year for coasting or resting on one's laurels. It's a year for hard work, hard-boiled supervision and the will to meet and lick the problems which appear to be in the offing. GREATEST ERA AHEAD FOR SERVICE BUSINESS, and we're not fooling! Never before in the history of this industry has the opportunity for increasing service volume been so promising. Color TV, of course, leads this opportunity parade, with Hi-Fi following closely on its heels. By the end of this year, more than 100,000 (perhaps many more) color sets will be in consumers' homes, and their installation and maintenance, while posing many a problem, will be a stimulating (and profitable) challenge to the technician. AND THIS 100,000 OR MORE COLOR SETS is nothing but a trickle preceding the production deluge on the way, because in 1955 several million color receivers will in all likelihood be in use by consumers, with total TV sets in homes and public places probably reaching a figure of 40,000,000! HI-FI IS ON THE WAY, TOO, and it's moving fast toward the high places, presenting hundreds of opportunity angles for the service industry to capitalize on. Service and installation will involve components, complete instruments, phonos, tape recorders, phono needles and a wide variety of accessories. The sale of custom-installed Hi-Fi units alone may well ring up a total of $220,000,000 this year. "How many volts you figure that was, Perkins?" ON THE BUSINESS FRONT: Repair business fell off sharply after Xmas in the metropolitan New York area for reasons no one can accurately pinpoint, though one large service outfit says people are hanging onto their money for dear life, and are willing to tolerate poor reception until they've recovered from holiday expenditures. . . . Small-town dealers loaded with accounts receivable in many sections of country had better get out and collect their dough. Big-city service organizations carrying only small number of charge accounts, because of C.O.D. policy most insist upon. . . . Dealer credit situation has improved in most localities over last Summer, distributors in large cities report. SOME TECHNICIANS IN CERTAIN UHF AREAS are selling plenty of converters by simply demonstrating the units in the home. Where good reception is obtained, such demos result in speedy sales. Converter "price-war" which broke out in Milwaukee has ended. HIGH UHF CONVERSION FEES in some areas are drawing grumbles from set owners and managers of new UHF stations alike. Consumer complaints to the stations state that some servicers ask $75 or more for adjusting or adapting a set to receive a new UHF channel. This practice hurts both the technician and the station, UHF station operators claim. Some directors of new UHF stations are cooperating with service dealers and technicians in planning inexpensive conversion techniques, and in bringing this information to the public. Checking with the UHF station in your area re its recommendations as to the best and cheapest technique would be a good idea before going ahead with conversions. TRENDS IN THE OFFING as we go into the second month of the new year: More and more customers will ask YOU about Color-TV, and for the sake of good public relationship you must have intelligent answers on the tip of your tongue. . . . Plenty will ask about Hi-Fi, too, and while this subject is a bit complicated for the layman to understand, try to explain in simple language. . . . '54 promises to be a year of stiffer competition for the service dollar. TECHNICIAN editors predict a slight increase in the number of servicing outlets. SEVERAL DEPARTMENT STORE service set-ups have been making headway in some of the large cities, gaining business chiefly through reputation, and solicitation of large customer lists. Trend could spread this year, offering the independents some very real competition. MANPOWER SITUATION EASING in some heavy industrial centers, but still very tight in New York, parts of California and in most of the South. Some suburban New York shops paying $100 a week to TV servicers with very little experience. DIPLOMACY by servicers is becoming more important than ever, field reports say. With the trend away from service contracts toward individually-billed service calls, set owners are less critical of secondary deterioration in receiver performance. They usually wait for major breakdowns before hollering "Uncle." As a result, more calls than ever involve multiple troubles. Complete overhauls bring squawks over high bills. Repair of major defect alone raises complaints of incompetent work. Either way, the technician is left holding the bag. Getting to be like the radio days when more than half the sets in use were in need of repair. PIX TUBE OUTLOOK FOR '54. Almost one in every seven TV sets in use today will require a new picture tube in 1954, according to J. Milton Lang, general manager of the G-E Tube Department. Market research indicates a need for over four million replacement picture tubes. Over 27 million sets are now in use throughout the country. Lang said the high replacement tube figure represents a normal development, with so many sets growing older. The four-million plus figure is the highest of any year to date, and is expected to top the 1953 requirement by about 50 per cent. Despite the advent of color TV, the industry should produce about 5,200,000 additional picture tubes for new black-and-white sets, Lang estimated. The need for initial equipment monochrome tubes will come in large measure from opening up of new market areas, and from continuing consumer demand for the larger picture sizes and lower prices of high-quality black-and-white receivers. Lang believes color picture tubes should make up about two per cent of the industry's total CRT output in '54. REMEMBER 'WAY BACK WHEN pre-war TV antennas were of the "pitchfork" type? . . . When, during the transmission-line shortage some of you fellows had to use solid-conductor cable which came from abroad? . . . And those days when the predecessors of the present dollar-a-call boys charged a half a buck? . . . Can you recall, too, the ion "spots" on many pix tubes? the "diathermy-interference" craze? The era of magnifiers and filters? SALES RESISTANCE TO B & W TV, on part of consumers adopting a "wait and see" attitude on color, is in for a major assault by manufacturers. Most top set producers are announcing 21-in. black and white sets to sell below $200, representing drastic price cuts in their former lines. Other leaders are expected to follow. Confidential sources say these new lines, streamlined in design for low pricing, have been on paper for some time. Seems the industry—or at least part of it—anticipated B & W resistance with advent of color, and is all ready to meet the challenge. YOU MUST HAVE SOMETHING ON THE BALL to stay in business. Motorola's Service Dept. calls attention to a recent government report that vividly illustrates the need for good management and good business control. The report states that only twenty eight concerns out of every hundred started were going concerns after five years of operation. The following shows the average trend per hundred business ventures: \| Year of Operation \| Failures \| Remaining \| \|-------------------\|----------\|-----------\| \| 1st \| 32 \| 68 \| \| 2nd \| 18 \| 50 \| \| 3rd \| 12 \| 38 \| \| 4th \| 6 \| 32 \| \| 5th \| 4 \| 28 \| These statistics deserve your serious thought. Are you taking steps to insure that YOU will still be in business five years from now? SAME OLD CHASSIS!—The doctor complained bitterly about the $18.75 charge for repairing his TV set. "My TV is certainly not as complicated as a human being. I spent six years in college," he said to the technician, "and two years as an interne before I practiced any medicine. But I can't get any fees like that for my work." "In TV," replied the TV technician, "we have a couple of thousand models to deal with. Every year each manufacturer brings out at least one new model. We've got to have a big library of technical information and attend many meetings to keep up to date. But you, doctor, still work on the same model you studied in school."—Sterling Intercom, Houston, Tex. WHEN A TECHNICIAN BUILDS UP A REP AS A GENIUS in his community, whether he's the owner or the service manager, he finds himself in a tough spot as the business expands because everybody and his brother wants this particular "wizard" to PERSONALLY service the ailing sets. Naturally, this just can't be done when there's a big volume of work. Best thing to do in such situation is to "build up" other good technicians in the organization, "selling" them to the customers via direct-mail, over the phone and in personal contacts. HARD-BOILED SIGNS, such as "Not Responsible for Sets Left After 30 Days," "All Work Strictly Cash," and the like, do more harm than good, since they antagonize customers, and don't mean anything legally anyway. Better put up some reading, "All Work Guaranteed," "We Use Finest Parts," "Best Test Equipment," "Our Technicians Are Highly Skilled Specialists," etc., to build good-will and inspire confidence in your service department. SOME RANDOM THOUGHTS IN THE FIELD: TV antenna makers are more competitive-minded than any other folk in the business. . . . There's been a definite decline in number of people bringing tubes into shops for testing. This activity was at its height during the Depression. . . . Even if they can't understand 'em, people like to get itemized bills for service. More About Color TV Fundamentals How the Eye Sees Color. What "Q," "Y" and "I" Signals Are. Sub-carrier Modulation Explained By Peter Orne and Sol Heller Managing Editor, TECHNICIAN • Last month, we tried to clarify how room was found in the black-and-white spectrum for color signals. In this month's article, we will review the next problem surmounted by NTSC researchers—i.e., their determination of the minimum information required to obtain a satisfactory color picture. The problem was briefly discussed in the Oct. '53 issue of TECHNICIAN (Serviceman's Analysis of the New TV Color System), and will be considered in greater detail in this piece. The less information that has to be transmitted in addition to the luminance information (luminance refers to the color signal component that corresponds to the black-and-white video signal) the less chance there will be of interaction taking place among the different signals sent out. In order to determine the minimum bandwidths to which color signals could be reduced, many investigations were made into how well the eye sees small areas of color. The result of these investigations may be summed up as follows: The eye cannot see color—i.e., distinguish between colors or black-and-white—when the object inspected is very small (see Fig. 1C). The eye has "three-color" vision, on the other hand, for large objects (Fig. 1A). "Three-color vision" means that we can, by mixing lights of three colors in the proper amount, cause the eye to see practically any color. This duplication is called color matching. There are many ways of obtaining a color match. Almost any three widely-separated colors may be used (as we shall see later). In the color picture tube, red, green and blue lights (given off by phosphors on the screen) are employed for this purpose. How about cases that fall in between the extremes of no color and three-color vision—i.e., the instances when medium-small objects are being viewed? What the average person sees in these instances may be reproduced by the mixture of two colors (see Fig. 1B). Some color-blind people, incidentally, see both large and medium-sized objects in this way. In viewing medium-small objects, most of us readily differentiate between cyan (a bluish green) and orange. Blues and greens, however, look like cyan, and reds and yellows look like orange. We can experience this effect if we try to match a single fine strand of colored thread to a correspondingly-colored spool of thread. It appears, therefore, that we need three components of information to get proper coloring for large areas; two pieces of information are required to get satisfactory color on "medium-small" areas; we only need to know the luminance for very small areas. "Q", "Y" and "I" Signals The way we see small detail, in monochrome that is, and the fact that we want a compatible system, makes it necessary that one of the components be the luminance or "Y" signal. From the fact that we can distinguish cyan and orange best in medium-small areas, it would be an advantage to choose as one of the other components of information a signal that distinguishes between these colors. This signal is called the "I" signal. For large areas, where the eye can distinguish between all colors, another piece of intelligence must be added which is called the "Q" signal. This signal distinguishes between green and purple. If the information present in the "I," "Q" and "Y" signals is combined, any visible color can be effectively reproduced, thus permitting "three-color" viewing. Summing up: "Y" is the luminance information; it is transmitted for the full 4 mc. "I" is the information that can tell cyan from orange, and is transmitted to 1.5 mc. "Q" is the information that, in conjunction with the "I" and "Y" signals, provides the three components for "three-color" vision; it is transmitted for only .5 mc (see Fig. 2). Readers may wonder why the colors in Fig. 1 are grouped in a horse-shoe form. The theory behind this may be summarized as follows: Any color can be reproduced by mixing three colors together. The three colors used are known as the primaries of the system. The only restriction regarding the choice of colors is that a primary color must not be reproducible by any mixture of the other two primaries. Color Designation Systems Visible colors can be represented in different ways. Most readers are probably familiar with the fact that colors can be designated by their wavelength. Scientists concerned with the study of color have found it convenient to use another method of representing visible colors. They (arbitrarily) choose three colors that are supersaturated—i.e., unmixed with white—and define any other color by giving the amount of each supersaturated color necessary to reproduce it. The supersaturated or reference colors are non-existent in nature and cannot be seen by the eye. They provide arbitrary standards for comparing colors. One of the reference colors is so chosen that its amount affects only the brightness (not the hue or saturation) of the color to be defined. The other two colors are capable of representing any definite color (except with respect to brightness). The system is essentially the same as the one used in color TV, in which two signals—"Q" and "I"—determine the color, while the third one—"Y"—reports on its brightness. When such a diagram is made, it is found that visible colors fall into an area that looks like an inverted horse-shoe. The nearer we come to the center of the horse-shoe, the less saturated the colors get—i.e., the whiter they get. The area at the center is what most people consider white. Subjective Aspects of Color Color is subjective—that is, different people give different names to the same shade of color. In addition, colors look different when their surrounding color is changed. White is a wide area (in Fig. 1) because desaturated shades of any color (i.e., color mixed with white) will look white if looked at for some time without comparison. This is the reason, incidentally, that the shade of white used on a black-and-white CRT screen turned out to be much less important than originally expected; only when a number of B & W sets are put next to each other does the difference in screen whiteness become apparent. A final note on the horse-shoe patterns of Fig. 1: There are actually no sharp divisions between colors, such as those that seem to be present in these sketches. Different With the problem of how much color information to transmit surmounted, the next difficulty that arises is how to transmit two different pieces of color information, "Q" and "I," on one subcarrier. If we could use two different subcarriers, "Q" could be modulated on one and "I" on the other. This is effectively done, but the two carriers are at the same frequency. Since this may sound like double talk, let's see whether we can clear it up. Mechanical Analogy Assume that two transparent sections of glass are available (Fig. 3A). On one of them are printed the words READ THIS; on the other, NOW WHAT. Suppose we get our favorite glasscutter to join these two pieces of glass at right angles, as shown in Fig. 3B. If we look at this combination from one angle (Fig. 3B), we can see the words READ THIS. If we look at it from another angle (Fig. 3C), we can read the words NOW WHAT. If we look at the unit from the angle shown in Fig. 3D, however, we can decipher neither phrase, since one set of words falls over the other, obscuring both groups of words. An analogous situation is present with respect to the use of the color subcarrier. The "Q" signal (similar to READ THIS) is modulated on the color subcarrier (equivalent to one glass section); the "I" signal (similar to NOW WHAT) is modulated onto the subcarrier after the latter has been shifted in phase 90° (or quadrature-shifted). The second glass section, which makes an angle of 90° with the first one, may be compared to the phase-shifted color subcarrier. If the exact phase of the carrier when the signal was modulated onto it is known, the modulation can be removed or detected (just as the glass sections can be read, if we know the angle to read them by). This type of detection is known as synchronous detection. It requires exact knowledge of the subcarrier phase; a subcarrier sync burst is transmitted after each regular horizontal sync pulse as a phase reference for the receiver, to provide this desired phase information. --- AND WAS HIS FACE RED! Technician we know was asked to install an outdoor antenna on the roof of a fourteen-story building in New York. Job took almost all day because the superintendent insisted on lead-in being fastened to outside wall at each floor. This necessitated going into each apartment from top to second floor (and finding the super each time another floor was reached.) New antenna set-up provided a mediocre picture, which owner didn't squawk about since most tenants on his particular side of the building got poor reception also. The pay-off: A few weeks later the owner called the TV man and said that an outdoor aerial which he'd purchased solved his problem, bringing in an acceptable picture. "For years I broadcast my morning setting up exercises—did fine—then they put me on TV" Servicing AC-DC Radios Part 3. Odd Fading Case. Locating Intermittent Filaments Quickly By M. G. Goldberg • An intermittent in any receiver is somewhat of a headache, but a periodic fading or cut-out in an ac-dc receiver is even worse, because these receivers cost the customer comparatively little; service charges must therefore be kept low, and any job which consumes a lot of bench time means money lost. Let's consider a case in point. The output of this 5-tube set dropped just enough to be annoying several times during a program, cutting in and out with a volume change of 15 or 20%. After trying all new tubes and making other tests, the trouble was finally narrowed down to the second i-f and detector circuits illustrated in Fig. 1. During the fading period, the frequency of the received station remained constant (the oscillator didn't shift); the tone was not appreciably affected, and there was no click when the set cut in and out. Connecting the scope input cable to points A, B, and C in turn showed no change in response during the fading; with the scope connected from point D to chassis ground, however, the set did not cut out. The connection just cited was made several times, with the same result. The writer finally concluded that the small capacitor marked "X" in Fig. 1 (a 50 mmfd unit) was opening and closing periodically. With the scope disconnected and the capacitor open, the i-f signal was not sufficiently bypassed, causing the audio output to drop. With the scope connected, however, the 75 mmfd capacitance of the latter's input cable was more than sufficient to substitute for capacitor "X" in the circuit, and no fading was therefore noticeable. Intermittent heaters in ac-dc receivers are often troublesome. An undue amount of time may be wasted in determining which tube in the series string is opening up. This applies especially to receivers in which the trouble occurs only spasmodically, and then for only a few seconds at a time. Naturally, the technician can't spend an hour or two on one of these low-priced sets, waiting around for a heater to open. The writer has worked out a simple and speedy system for locating the defective tube in such cases, without spending more than a few minutes of bench time on the job. Let's refer to Fig. 2A. Here we have a conventional 5-tube heater string in which an intermittent filament is present—one which won't stay open long enough for a routine check, and which cuts out perhaps only three or four times during an hour's program. Note the two ac voltmeter connections. One meter (VM-1) is attached across the two higher voltage heaters; the other connects across the three lower voltage filaments. Place the meters where they can be readily seen and turn the set on, then go to work on another bench job. As long as the continuity of the heater circuit is intact, VM-1 will read approximately 85 volts; VM-2 will read about 35 volts. When the cutout occurs, attracting the serviceman's attention, a glance at the meters will reveal that one meter is now indicating practically full line voltage, while the other has dropped to zero. Assume that VM-1 has gone to zero and VM-2 to full line voltage, on the first fade. This means that the intermittent is in one of the 12-volt heaters. Now connect the meters as shown in Fig. 2B. If, on the next fade, both meters go to zero, it will prove that the 12SA7 is the bad tube. On the other hand, if one of the meters goes to zero, while the other reads full line voltage, the defective tube will be the one across which full line voltage is measured. This simple arrangement checks all five tubes in only two fades, and almost makes child's play out of what could be a time-consuming headache. If, on the first fade, VM-1 goes to full line voltage (Fig. 2A) while the VM-2 reading drops to zero, connect one meter across each of the two higher voltage heaters for the 2nd test. By Harry Mileaf This article deals with the installation, service and replacement of the arm and the pickup cartridge, and also considers the part these units play in the overall operation of a Hi Fi system. Information useful in setting up an installation, or checking and improving an installation in use, will be presented. The pickup arm and cartridge determine, in part, the fidelity of record reproduction and longevity of records; they should be periodically checked to insure proper operation of the Hi Fi system. Outlined below are the pickup arm and cartridge characteristics we are going to discuss in this piece. Pickup Arm: 1. Tracking. 2. Weight. 3. Resonance. Pickup Cartridge: 1. Weight. 2. Frequency response and output. 3. Stylus (needle). Pickup Arm Tracking. This is a little-understood cause of distortion and wear in a record player. Tracking is the term applied to the manner in which the pickup needle rides in the record's grooves. Fig. 1 illustrates proper and improper tracking. Fig. 1A shows the needle properly tracking the groove; it is seated firmly, applying equal pressure to both sidewalls of the groove, and follows the lateral deviation of the groove with fidelity. Providing that the stylus itself is in good condition, poor tracking, as shown in B and C of Fig. 1, can be caused by poor tangency, binding, and improper turntable leveling. Tangency. The needle shown in Fig. 1A is properly seated only when it is in line with the tangent of the groove in which it is riding. In other words, if a line is drawn from the pivot point at the base of the tone arm to the stylus tip (see Fig. 2), the needle is properly seated only when this imaginary line is at right angles to a radius of the record. Due to design of the pivoted pickup arm, the needle travels along an arc across the record; because of this, the arm cannot maintain true tangency on all of the grooves, as indicated in Fig. 2. The difference between the needle direction and the tangent line is called the tracking error angle. Good tracking is provided for at the center portion of the record's grooves, to keep the overall error angle at a minimum. For example: If the pickup arm produced a total tracking angle change of 8 degrees across a record, and was set for perfect tracking at the starting grooves, it would produce an 8-degree tracking error at the end of the record. To prevent such a large tracking error angle, the arm is set for perfect tracking at the center of the record. The error now introduced is app. -4 degrees at the beginning of the record, and +4 degrees at its end. ![Fig. 3—Use of an offset head (one not in line with the arm) and proper location of the pivot, cause the needle to finish its travel at a point above the center of the record. This "overhang" reduces the tracking error.](image) The total tracking angle variation is still 8 degrees, but the maximum error is brought down to 4 degrees. Methods used to minimize this problem include use of a longer arm, use of an offset arm, and location of the arm's pivot point so that tracking error is minimized. With a longer arm, the arc traveled by the pickup is reduced; the overall tracking angle variation is, as a result, reduced too. Reduction of the travel arc, and consequently the tracking error, is also achieved by offsetting the head, and locating the pickup arm pivot in such a way as to produce an "overhang" (see Fig. 3). Record players nowadays use varied combinations of phono arm length, overhang, and offset to improve tracking. When a phono installation is being made, or an arm is replaced, careful attention should be given to the location of the pivot point, to prevent introduction of an incorrect overhang. The average amount of overhang is about $ \frac{3}{8} $ inch. When improper tangency is introduced, the needle and the walls of the record's grooves will wear prematurely; excessive needle-talk and distortion will also be heard. Binding. It is very important for the pickup arm to ride freely across the record. The pickup needle will track poorly and ride the walls of Types of Pickups; Installation and Service Considerations the grooves if it resists the lateral pressure of the grooves due to a bind (see Fig. 1C). Besides introducing excessive needle-talk and distortion, this condition causes premature record wear. Lubricate the pickup arm pivot shaft regularly so that it can ride freely, and check to make sure that no mechanical obstructions are preventing a free side-to-side movement. Turntable Leveling. If the turntable is not level, the downward pressure of the needle will not be applied perpendicular to the plane of the turntable. Instead, the pressure will be applied to the sidewall of the groove in the direction of the turntable angle, as shown in Fig. 4. This condition will produce the poor seating shown in B and C of Fig. 1, and cause wear and distortion. It is wise for this reason to check that the turntable or its mounting board, and the surface the record player will sit upon, are level. It is important to note that the needle must be perpendicular to the earth's surface to seat properly. Check the pickup arm or cartridge mountings, to make certain they maintain the needle in this position. (Such a test may often be made by placing a pocket mirror, whose thickness approximates that of a record, on the turntable, and allowing the stylus to rest on the mirror. If the needle is truly perpendicular at the point of contact, it will appear to be in line with its reflected image from any angle. Any angular deviation present will become obvious, since such a deviation appears exaggerated when the needle's reflection is compared with the needle.—Ed.) Weight. The weight of the pickup arm is a critical factor for the following three important reasons: Vertical Compliance. Proper vertical compliance requires that the pickup needle follow the vertical modulations present in the record's grooves without reproducing any unwanted signals. The biggest vertical modulation problem is the result of "pinch effect." A consideration of how this effect develops will help to explain it. The width of a groove in the record depends on the width of the cutting stylus making the groove. Since the cutting stylus (unlike the playback stylus) has a flat face, the groove it makes will be as wide as the stylus only when the stylus is cutting in the same direction the groove is traveling (Fig. 5A). When modulation is applied to the cutting stylus, it swings back and forth, and the angle it makes to the direction of groove travel changes. The effective width of the stylus thus decreases, and the width of the groove it makes is reduced (Fig. 5B). Note in C and D of Fig. 5 that when one sine wave is cut laterally, the groove develops two cycles of width change. This change in width causes the pickup needle to rise and fall as it rides the record's grooves (5E). If the pickup arm is too light, it will jump and skip grooves as the pickup needle contacts the pinched portions of the grooves. If the pickup arm is too heavy, the cartridge will tend to move excessively up and down when it rides in the pinched portions of a groove, causing appreciable second harmonic distortion. Cartridge Output vs Pickup Arm Weight. If the pickup arm is too light, there will not be enough lateral pressure applied to the cartridge, and the output level will be lower than normal. If the arm is too heavy, too much pressure is applied, and considerable amplitude distortion will result (since the arm has too much inertia to follow lateral groove deviations faithfully). Record Wear. If the pickup arm is too heavy, the needle will apply too much pressure to the grooves' walls and wear them prematurely. Conversely, if the arm is too light, it will bob up and down and also cause unnecessary wear. As we can see, the weight of, or the pressure adjustment on, the pickup arm, is an important factor when its replacement is necessary. The required stylus pressure depends on the type of cartridge being used. Information regarding this characteristic is supplied by the manufacturer. It is advisable to check the weight carried by the pickup needle periodically, or when a replacement is made, to be sure that the proper pressure is being applied. Needle pressure gauges for this purpose can be obtained for a dollar or two. If the pressure being applied is not in accordance with cartridge specifications, it should be suitably adjusted. The better grade pickup arms provide counter-balance springs or sliding weights that are adjustable; some provide thumbscrew or screw-driver adjustments that are easily accessible. The average amount of pressure required for the LP cartridge is 5 grams; it is between 10 and 15 grams for standard cartridges. Dual-speed arms with only one pickup needle should strike a happy medium. It is always better to have two pickups for this reason. Pickup Arm Resonance. Since the pickup arm has mass, it also has, unfortunately, a physical resonant frequency. In many of the arms on the market, this resonant frequency falls within the audible range. The longer the arm, the lower the resonant frequency. The type of material the arm is made of also determines its resonant frequency. In the majority of pickup arms, the cartridge is securely attached to the arm. Thus, any motion of the pickup needle is indirectly coupled to the arm, and physical oscillation of the arm occurs. If such arm vibration is objectionable, the arm can be replaced with one that resonates outside the audio range, or with an arm that provides for damping of the resonant oscillations. It is important to note that some manufacturers use arm resonance to boost the bass response. Cartridge Weight. The weight of the pickup cartridge is important because of the same considerations presented during our discussion of pickup arm weight. It is recommended that the pressure of the pickup arm assembly be suitably adjusted when the weight of the replacement cartridge requires more or less pressure than the original. Cartridge Frequency Response and Output. These are the two most important factors determining the value of a pickup cartridge. Unfortunately, these characteristics are usually inversely proportional. If we change a cartridge to obtain more gain, the frequency response range narrows, and vice versa. The crystal cartridge has the highest level of output, but also the poorest high-frequency response. The average crystal cartridge delivers about one volt, but its treble response may only extend to a few thousand cycles. Some cartridges have frequency capabilities well beyond the audio range, but their output is measured in millivolts. The newer ceramic cartridges can deliver between .1 to .5 v at 10 to 15 kc, which is considerably better than a happy medium. Two other types of pickups sometimes employed are the frequency-modulation and strain-sensitive pickups. These pickups have desirable characteristics, but their major disadvantage is that they require auxiliary circuits for their operation. Where economy is a factor, they are not often considered, despite their marked advantages. If the response of a crystal cartridge is considered inadequate, a switch can be made to a ceramic or magnetic-type pickup. A preamplifier is required when a magnetic pickup is substituted for a crystal type, unless the amplifier present provides a low impedance input for use with a magnetic cartridge, and can deliver enough gain to compensate for the magnetic cartridge's low output. A ceramic cartridge is a high-impedance device, and can be substituted for a crystal cartridge without the necessity of adding a preamplifier. The cheapest method of improving the frequency response of a crystal cartridge is by way of frequency compensation. Compensation controls and networks are sold for this purpose, and are comparatively cheap. Fig. 6 shows one compensation network that can be made up and used with a crystal cartridge to improve performance. (The components incorporated in such a network will depend on the frequency characteristic of the uncompensated crystal. The manufacturer of the cartridge will generally provide a response curve and/or recommend a compensating network. It should be noted that there are practical limits with respect to how much compensation can be provided.—Ed.) Other Cartridge Characteristics. Crystal cartridges are affected by variations in temperature and humidity. Magnetic and ceramic types, (Continued on page 56) What's Wrong with Carbon Tet? An Engineer and a Chemical Consultant Present the Case Against an Old Service Standby. BY HARRY E. SHULMAN AND MURRAY JELLING, PH. D. • Several articles have been written during the past two years on the use of carbon tetrachloride as a cleaner for controls and tuners. Having devoted a considerable amount of time to this subject, we believe it would be enlightening to the serviceman to explain what happens when carbon tetrachloride is used, and to list its disadvantages. Also, as improved cleaners have been developed, an explanation of their action and the methods by which they should be applied should be valuable to the serviceman. Under no circumstances should carbon tetrachloride be used on electronic parts. Controls are usually lubricated, and carbon tetrachloride is such an excellent solvent that the lubricant is completely removed. The part may be in working order for a day or two, but the removal of the lubricant leads to frictional wear, and the trouble will appear and remain thereafter. In addition, carbon tetrachloride causes corrosion. Even traces of this solvent will react with moisture and produce hydrochloric acid. Moisture is present in the air, and the cooling effect of the carbon tetrachloride as it evaporates will cause condensation on the metal surface. The absence of the lubricant, and the presence of the moisture and the acid, will cause corrosion of the metal, leaving a white film. This is probably zinc oxychloride, as the metals present are generally zinc alloys. This film and the corrosion will affect the characteristics of the control, and lead to more trouble than existed before the part was cleaned. Cleaners have recently been developed which eliminate these difficulties. Essentially these are based on several ingredients. 1. A solvent is used which is an excellent cleaner, but is non-corrosive in contrast to carbon tetrachloride. The evaporation rate is slower, which reduces the tendency for cooling and condensation of moisture on the metal surface. 2. A lubricant is incorporated. This is left as a thin film to replace the original lubricant, which has been removed during the cleaning. It should be noted that gradual removal of lubrication and consequent deterioration has been going on during the years the control has been in operation. 3. A corrosion preventative is present to insure the protection of the unit after the servicing. 4. A conductor is incorporated to counteract any resistance introduced by the lubricant. This ingredient should not, of course, affect the characteristics of the component part. One manufacturer uses a material known as "Metacote" to impart this property to his product (Mute-Tone). An efficient product should contain ingredients to perform all of the above functions in an expedient manner for the serviceman. The product should be supplied with a dropper attachment, and the serviceman should be equipped with a small brush, a cloth, a pipe cleaner, and a toothbrush, so that all types of controls may be cleaned easily and properly. Cleaning Controls In applying the cleaner to controls, such as volume, horizontal hold and contrast potentiometers, a few drops from a dropper are permitted to fall on the spaces around the pot terminals; the knob is then turned back and forth several times. This procedure will usually clean the dirty control effectively. In most cases the control may be cleaned without removing the chassis from the cabinet. This is done by tilting the cabinet, and allowing a few drops to run down the control shaft into the control. After a few turns of the knob, the control is cleaned. Cautions on Cleaning Tuners Greater care must be exercised in cleaning tuners. When cleaning wafer-type tuners, an excessive amount of the cleaner must not be permitted to be absorbed by the wafer material, as this may cause the tuner to drift. This caution is especially applicable in the case of some RCA tuners. The proper method is to use an artist-type paint brush or a pipe cleaner, and only apply the cleaner to the contact areas of the wafer switch. This procedure is effective, and permits use of the unit for a considerable length of time before servicing is again required. Application of the cleaner by spraying should be avoided, as this method cannot be restricted to the contact areas alone, and a definite drift is apt to follow such improper cleaning. On the Standard Coil type tuner, the use of a cloth was found effective. A small quantity of the cleaner was placed on the cloth, and the contact areas were rubbed. After a few complete revolutions of the tuner, the contacts were cleaned and lubricated. On the Zenith type tuner it was found that the use of a toothbrush was the most efficient method of servicing the contact areas. Regardless of the method of application, carbon tetrachloride was found to be a detriment to servicing controls and tuners. This cleaner may eliminate the trouble for a short time, usually a day or two, but the trouble returns and servicing is required again. This type of servicing is of course unsatisfactory, as it is time-consuming and causes a loss of confidence in the serviceman. Since improved cleaners are now readily available, servicemen should make use of them. Drum of Zenith turret tuner. Stationary contact surfaces may be cleaned with toothbrush. Troubleshooting Drift Tests and Remedies for a Tough By PHILIP THIER • One of the most difficult TV service jobs, perhaps, is the correction of frequency drift in tuners. The simplest cases of drift are caused by faulty oscillator tubes. These may have loose elements, causing the inter-electrode capacitance to change periodically just enough to shift the tuner all over the selected channel. A quick tube replacement, followed, if necessary, by a slight realignment, will clear up the problem in such a case. The more difficult cases, those which drive the serviceman to distraction or into a defense job, will be considered in this article. Let's consider first the complaint which was made to the serviceman as follows: "I was peacefully sipping an after-dinner highball and watching the news on Channel 4. Suddenly both picture and sound faded out. By the time I got to the set to see what was wrong, the picture and sound began to come back on. But you better come on over quick. It wasn't 4 that came up—it was 5. Either that set is changing channels by itself or else I'll have to change my brand of liquor." Well, he didn't have to change his brand. There was enough drift in the tuner to shift the reception clear over to another channel. When he made the home call, the serviceman found the tuner set on Channel 4; Channel 5 sound was coming through strong, but the (Channel 5) picture was weak and snowy. At first inspection, the technician reasoned that the oscillator tube was at fault. Its replacement, however, brought no improvement. The chassis was then taken into the shop. The set, it was found, used a turret tuner with structural features peculiar to this particular make of receiver. In electrical design, however, it was similar to the general run of commercial turret tuners. Bench tests on the receiver revealed only front-end misalignment. After realigning the set, it was kept in operation for a few hours to see if the drift recurred. It did not, so the set was returned to the customer. The following day, the set was back in the shop with the original complaint. This time the tuner was cleaned thoroughly before being realigned. The set was operated on the bench for three hours, but no drifting occurred. A cardboard box was then placed around the chassis, to simulate the poor ventilation present when the set was in its cabinet. In a few minutes, the tuner began to drift all over the band. Following Up Clue An important clue had been discovered. What particular component, however, was at fault? One lead that seemed worthy of follow-up was the fact that in each alignment, the same two trimmer condensers required the major adjustment. These were in the oscillator and mixer circuits. A detailed test and inspection of the trimmers and all other components in the two circuits resulted in the conclusion that there must be an easier way to make a living. All parts tested good. The mechanical assembly of the tuner next received careful inspection. The close, detailed scrutiny paid off by revealing the trouble. All trimmers used in the tuner were of the "top-hat" or tubular type (see Fig. 1); after adjustment, such units are covered with glue to hold them in place. It was previously indicated that a rise in temperature was linked with the oscillator drift. Normal expansion of the condenser material (due to heat) could not cause so drastic a change of frequency. What about abnormal expansion, however? To check on this phase of the matter, the "top-hat" position with respect to the center body of all the trimmer capacitors was marked; the chassis was then operated inside the cardboard box. After the drift had occurred, a definite change of position of the "top-hat" was observed on the two trimmers previously referred to. It now became apparent that the glue holding these two "top-hats" in position was at fault. Most likely the trimmers had been adjusted in some previous repair, and the serviceman had been careless in his choice of a proper bonding agent. (It is very important that the bonding agent used in tuners be of such composition that it will not expand or contract to any considerable degree with temperature changes. The compound must also be an excellent insulator at high frequencies, as well as for fairly high dc potentials.) The old glue on the tuner was removed; after alignment, a good quality polystyrene-base coll dope was used to lock the trimmers in place. The trouble was now cured to the satisfaction of all concerned. This case history has been presented in detail to illustrate just how obscure tuner troubles can be. It also was intended to demonstrate a useful method for locating the trouble. Tubular Capacitors The "top-hat" trimmer used in the tuner we have been discussing is just a special form of tubular capacitor. Another kind of tubular capacitor is illustrated in Fig. 2. Because they can be made to cover a wide capacitance range from a fracin Television Tuners Service Problem. Case Histories tion of a micro-microfarad on up, tubular trimmers are being incorporated in TV tuner design more frequently, now that UHF is here. In the "top-hat," the outside case is movable and the center is used for mounting. The other type of tubular trimmer is supported by the spring clip at the top; the center slug is movable. The usual practice with both types is to cement the movable part at the adjusting screw, after appropriately setting the screw. Hence, many tuners besides the one previously described may be caused to drift by tubular trimmers that have been "gummed up" with a poor grade of glue. Widespread use is now being made of insulated terminals as tie-points or feed-throughs to facilitate wiring. In tuners, the feed-throughs (see Fig. 3) are used to bring connections through shield plates and cans. A one-sided terminal may be used when a tie-point is needed and it is inconvenient to use a spare lug on a tube socket, or when no such spare lug is available. The glass insulator on such terminals may break, with the terminal shorting to chassis, but this is rare (as well as obvious). More often, the glass will crack, due to the application of excessive heat in soldering, or because of over-energetic tapping during a search for loose connections. Similar in appearance to the feed-through terminal is the feed-through capacitor (see Fig. 4). This unit is used in TV tuners to bring the B+ lead through the tuner shield, or through shield plates between stages. It serves the dual purpose of feed-through terminal and bypass capacitor. The insulating material employed is a ceramic which also serves as the dielectric material of the capacitor. As in the case of the feed-through terminals, the ceramic can be damaged by excessive heat or mistreatment. Breaking the ceramic will result in a short; the defect is readily apparent to the eye. In both the terminal and the capacitor, the main source of trouble lies in cracked insulation. Dust and Dirt Troubles These cracks, which usually extend from center post to the mounting ring or screw, as the case may be, become filled with dust and dirt in a very short time. Now, dust in a TV receiver is composed largely of metallic particles. Although these particles are bunched together loosely and provide a poor or, at best a varying resistance path for dc, they will act as a series-connected string of capacitors to ground, causing loss of r-f, oscillator or i-f signal voltage. If the terminal is carrying i-f signal, the capacitance introduced by the metallic particles may affect the plate circuit of the mixer stage or the grid circuit of the first i-f stage (see Figs. 4, 5). Since this stray capacitance does not remain constant, its detuning effects on the mixer and i-f stages will not be constant either, and fading or drift will become evident. A loss of synchronization may be present as well. Incidentally, a cracked tube socket in the tuner can produce the same adverse affects on reception. A varying resistance path instead of a varying capacitance to ground may be the problem encountered when a feed-through capacitor is cracked and the crack becomes filled with dirt. Since the feed-through capacitor is used to bring B+ voltage through the shield, the varying leakage path introduced in the case just cited will tend to cause the plate voltage of the oscillator tube to vary. This may cause undesired changes in oscillator frequency, and the receiver will, in consequence, exhibit drift. To locate cracks, brush the insulation with carbon tetrachloride. If any cracks exist, they will show up as dark streaks, while the rest of the insulation will remain clear. It is extremely important to replace any resistor in the front end which may have become even slightly overheated due to a short circuit. Any excess heat will cause the insulating material around the resistive element to crack. This, in effect, places another resistor in parallel with the overheated one. Since this "effective resistance" is usually of a varying nature, tuner stability will be seriously affected. A cracked resistor will also exhibit varying capacitance characteristics. (Carbon and composition resistors have an appreciable distributed capacitance whose shunting effect varies with frequency—Ed.) The instability thus caused becomes more pronounced as the frequency increases. A defective resistor of the kind just described is one of the things to look for when a set drifts on the higher channels (7 to 13) but not on the lower ones. Some servicemen may replace a shorted condenser and make no tests for further damage, to get the set out of the shop quickly. Such haste is not good business practice. A little extra care and time spent on the repair will prevent a costly call-back later on. Replacement Cautions Whenever any part replacement is made in a tuner, the new part should be placed electrically and mechanically exactly as the set designer intended. An effective method of doing this is to sketch the exact placement of the defective part before removal. Lead length and dress must be kept the same. A straight wire 0.04 inch in diameter and four inches long has an inductance of 0.1 microhenry. At standard broadcast frequencies, this inductance is negligible; at 100 mc, however, it represents an impedance of about 65 ohms. The choking effect of such an impedance is obvious. Under certain circumstances, a TV receiver will exhibit symptoms of tuner drift, yet no defect can be found in the tuner. This is especially common in receivers using selenium rectifier power supplies. These rectifiers are often sectioned, to supply different voltages to various parts of the set. A common fault in selenium rectifiers is that the output voltage will vary if the oxide element is slightly defective. Plate Voltage Changes Should this occur in the rectifier section supplying the tuner, the varying oscillator plate voltage that results will tend to produce corresponding variations of local oscillator frequency. Other stages, of course, will also be affected, but the oscillator-caused symptoms will generally be the most noticeable. A vacuum-tube voltmeter connected to the tuner B+ supply line will indicate any voltage fluctuations, helping identify this kind of trouble when present. Poor power supply regulation may cause the set to be unstable or drift during the first fifteen minutes or half-hour after it is turned on, with receiver stabilization occurring afterward. This source of drift, incidentally, is an often overlooked one. Monitoring the B+ line with a voltmeter, as in the preceding case, will help localize the trouble. Replacing the rectifier or filter condensers (when tests confirm that they are defective) will eliminate drift caused by such component defects. To avoid introducing drift into a tuner when it is being serviced, observe the following precautions (in addition to others previously cited): When making soldered connections, use as little solder as possible. At high frequencies, a glob of solder may act as a capacitor. A cold-soldered joint may become intermittent, and will always add resistance to the circuit. Keep the soldering iron hot and use a high silver content solder (if obtainable). Any rosin flux present must always be removed from the connection, as it introduces a very low resistance shunt path at very-high and ultra-high frequencies. The most valuable commodities the service technician has to sell are his time and knowledge. To make better use of both when troubleshooting drift, the following pointers should be kept in mind: 1. In searching for the cause of trouble, remember that defects in receiver sections other than the tuner can cause drift. 2. Since even a tube replacement in the tuner may necessitate re-alignment, it is recommended that all tuner repairs be done in the shop. 3. A very thorough mechanical inspection of the entire tuner assembly should be made when troubleshooting drift. 4. Careful and precise electrical tests of all circuits in tuner are also recommended. 5. Replace defective parts with exact duplicates, maintaining the original physical placement and lead dress. 6. Precision alignment is advisable. Obtain the set manufacturer's recommended alignment procedure, if possible. 7. Before returning set to customer, keep it in operation on the bench for a few hours. This will help prevent costly callbacks. "Conditions of Repair" Card One of the novel ideas of Bonded TV Service, Inc., of Belmont, Mass., is a printed "conditions of repair-service" card which has been widely copied throughout the Massachusetts area. The card is printed on both sides. It reads: "Conditions of this repair service. Be certain that your set has been adjusted to your satisfaction before our serviceman leaves. Recalls will not be allowed for adjustments. "Since many circuits and tubes combine to make up the picture and sound, we cannot assume responsibility for future breakdowns, even immediately after repair is made. "Parts and tubes used in the repair are guaranteed for one year and will be replaced without charge, except for service, provided Bonded TV Service Co. is called to re-service set at regular charges. "It will be assumed that the repair has been properly made, unless our main office is notified to the contrary within two days." Another "first" by Bonded was the origination of service advertising on the TV page of Boston newspapers, and visual advertising over TV Station WBZ-TV once a week. Bonded operates on a strictly cash basis. "Credit does not work in this business," manager Widisky said. My Competitor My competitor does more for me than my friends will do. My friends are too polite to tell me what I ought to know. My competitor makes me efficient, diligent and attentive. He makes me work and search for new ways to improve my service. My competitor would take my business away from me, if he could. This keeps me constantly alert to protect what I have. If I had no competitor, I would be lazy, incompetent and independent. I need discipline. I like my competitors. They have been so good to me. —Sales Story Eliminating Tweet Interference Part 2 of a Series on Lead Dress Troubles BY CYRUS GLICKSTEIN The most important video defect which can be caused by lead dress is tweet—an r-f interference pattern generated internally in the receiver. The tweet frequency is a harmonic of the video or sound i-f carrier. This harmonic is fed from the video detector back to the tuner, beats with the incoming picture or sound r-f carrier, and causes an interference pattern to be visible on the screen. The tweet pattern is usually a continuously changing one. It can generally be distinguished from external interference by a simple test. Vary the fine tuning control. If the TVI pattern seen changes from thin diagonal or vertical lines, to broad horizontal lines, and back to diagonal lines, as the fine tuning is slowly varied (see photos), the interference pattern is probably due to an internally-generated tweet. To verify this, figure out whether any harmonic of either the sound or picture i-f is close in frequency to either the sound or video r-f carrier, on the channel(s) where the interference is present. If it is, a tweet is probably the cause of the TVI. In most cases, the tweet is caused by pickup of the i-f harmonic in the section of transmission line between the antenna terminals and the tuner. The trouble may be due to the insufficient spacing of this antenna lead-in from audio or video i-f stages, particularly the video detector. If moving the lead-in reduces the tweet symptoms seen on the screen, it is advisable to staple the lead-in along the top of the cabinet, as far from the video i-f section as possible. It may be necessary to lengthen the lead-in, to obtain the maximum reduction in interference. If the tweet is not caused by pickup in the antenna lead-in, it is advisable to determine whether it is originating in the sound or video i-f section. This can be done, as described previously, by simply checking mathematically — determining whether the sound or video i-f harmonic falls in the channel tuned in. Another check consists of removing the first sound i-f tube and noting if the tweet effect disappears. If it does, it is originating in the sound i-f section. Possible procedures for clearing up tweet interference originating in the sound i-f section include the following: a) Check sound i-f and discriminator transformer shield cans and wiring. The cans should be tight in place and well grounded to the chassis. b) Lead dress in the discriminator stage, especially that of discriminator transformer wiring, should be short and direct. c) All bypass capacitors in the sound i-f section should have leads as short as possible; the capacitors themselves should be dressed close to the chassis. For clearing tweet interference originating in the video i-f section, the following is recommended: a) Try shielding the 4th video i-f, video detector, and video amplifier stages, when such shielding is absent. b) Wires from the video detector circuit should be short, dressed close to the chassis, and away from other wiring. c) Determine, by bridging and resistance tests, whether bypass condensers in the 4th picture i-f plate circuit, the r-f bias circuit, and the video i-f plate and screen circuits are in good condition. d) An outdoor antenna should be tried on receivers using built-in antennas, since the outdoor unit provides a better signal, less susceptible to interference. A built-in antenna is apt to pick up more tweet interference than an outdoor one. In the case of particular receiver models, where the tweet problem is present in aggravated form, service bulletins of the set manufacturer should be consulted. Modern Russian TV Receiver Diagram and chassis photos provided by U. S. Air Force offer American technicians opportunity to compare Soviet and American designs. The late-model Russian TV set whose schematic is shown on this page is known as the "Leningrad" T-2. It is a single-channel job using 32 tubes. Set would sell for about $400 in the United States. Picture tube has an 8-in. screen which emits a green light. A. C. Omberg, Engineering Director of Bendix Radio Division, Baltimore, Md., recently demonstrated this set during the course of an interview with T. White of WBAL-TV. Separate power supply and AM tuner chassis are used in the T-2. Sound system present is a split-carrier; sound take-off point is at the plate of the converter. Circuitry seems very similar to that present in American bourgeois receivers. (Note Equivalent Tubes chart, bottom of this page.) (Above) Rear view of Russian receiver's interior 1. & 2. Manufacturing mark 3. AM tuner serial No. 4. Hi-V Diode Access Door 5. 90° Antenna Connector 6. Manufacturer's Mark 7. TV chassis serial No. 8. Interlock, Female Conn. 9. Power supply serial No. 10. Source voltage selections 8. 15KV clear plastic cap. 9. Tapped resistor, R121 10-12. Manufacturing mark 13. Vert. Lin. (upper) control (Above Right) Front quarter view of the television chassis 1. & 2. Manufacturing mark 5. Focus coil 6. Deflection coils 7. Manufacturing mark (Right) Exploded view of CRT assembly 1. Retaining Ring 2. Manufacturing Mark 3. High Voltage Contact 4. Tube Type 5. Manufacturing Mark 6. Retaining Spring 7. Hair Felt Pad 8. Safety Glass 9. Molded End Plate for Ailing CRTs Soldering Cure for CRT When a picture tube filament seems open, many servicemen will replace the crt with a new one. A wiser procedure is to first use a very hot soldering iron on the prongs of the picture tube itself. A high resistance joint, or oxidation on these filament prongs, may be the cause of the crt filament not lighting. Heating up the prongs will return the tube and set back to normal in such a case.—Gelman’s TV, Philadelphia, Penna. Socket Replacement Here is a hint which may be of value in servicing early 1951 RCA models, such as 6T53 through 6T87 sets. Customer’s complaint: sound but no raster. I find no glow at the crt filament. After a slight movement of the crt socket, the tube lights and the set works ok for a day, a week, or sometimes a month. Then another call. The rear of the socket is removed, the leads are resoldered, and the pin contacts are tightened. A few days later the same trouble occurs. I repeat the same procedure. Then I run a little Lubriplate or Walscolube in the socket contacts, hold a hot iron against the tube pins to make sure contact here is ok and reassemble the socket. A month goes by and the same thing happens. In disgust, I replace the socket. I tell the customer if the same thing happens it is undoubtedly the pix tube and leave. No more calls. This, of course, happened only on the first job of this type. Since then I have replaced almost a dozen sockets on the first visit, with no callbacks. Seems that, regardless of how tight the contacts are around the heater socket contacts, a microscopic layer of corrosion develops, and a slight rise in resistance prevents full current flow to the heater. One jobber here has run out of sockets lately, pointing up the prevalence of this trouble.—M. G. Goldberg, St. Paul, Minnesota. Rebasing Technique Ever have a picture tube base come off in your hand when removing the socket? There is a solution to this problem that will probably result in a better connection than the original bond between the glass bulb and the tube base. Carefully remove any remaining leads from the socket and clean them as close to the bulb as is possible, then solder three-inch tinned no. 18 wire leads to the original ones. Clean all residual glue from the base, and remove solder from the pins. Drill a $ \frac{3}{32} $-in. hole in the flat portion of the keyway of the base, and thread the tinned leads through the proper pins, pulling the base down tight on the bulb. Then bend wires over the pins, as shown in the figure, to hold the base in that position. Place tube on floor, face down, and pour hot sealing wax in the hole drilled in the keyway, until it completely fills the interior of the base. Then solder pins, and clip off excess wire. When the sealing wax is hard, the tube base should be able to support the entire weight of the picture tube, the strain now being on the exhaust tube in the center of the base.—Walter C. Souders, Ambler, Penna. More on Rebasing Many technicians of my acquaintance go about rebasing a picture tube with trepidation and lack of proper technique. The tube usually belongs to a customer. When the base inadvertently comes off during handling, the shop owner is responsible for an expensive component. It must be remembered that the five leads coming out of the crt are fairly tender copper-oxide coated leads. To feed these through the pins of the base, the average technician first heats the prongs of the base and shakes off the solder. Then he tries to thread the five leads thru the five prongs. In many cases these wires are so short that one can’t be quite sure that they are actually through the base pins. In such a case, file these base pins down a little, as indicated in the sketch. When the crt leads are finally threaded through the proper base pins they will now be actually seen protruding. You can believe me that this is quite reassuring. I have shown several of my friends just how I do it and the invariable comment is: “Boy, this sure is a swell way of doing it. It takes me twice as long the other way and I am never sure that all the leads are actually in the proper base pins and firmly soldered. This way you can see what you are doing.” Here are details on the procedure: File down the base prongs about $ \frac{1}{32} $ of an inch. That will effectively remove all of the solder from the hollow prongs. Carefully clean the leads with fine sandpaper. Remove all excess dried cement from the inside of the base. Now carefully thread the leads through the prongs of the base. They will not only show but will actually come out of the prongs about $ \frac{1}{32} $ of an inch. Pull the base back just a trifle. Apply service cement both to the base and the glass sparingly. Allow it to stay for about two or three minutes. Then push the base up snugly against the glass. Allow about half an hour to dry. Solder leads to prongs. With a fine file, remove excess solder.—B. O. Riis, Miami, Florida. Prescriptions for C-R Tube Service Problems. Removing Faults, Replacement, Reactivation Arcing Remedy If corona or arcing is experienced at the anode button, it is probably due to an accumulation of dirt, or the effect of a corroded rubber suction cover. The following procedure is recommended to eliminate the trouble. 1. Disconnect the anode lead from the tube. 2. Clean the area around the anode button with carbon tetrachloride or a scouring compound. 3. Add a protective coating. It has been found that the use of Crosley Appliance Polish (part number 81527) after the surface has been cleaned will give this protection. As an added precaution: If the original anode connector is without a suction cover, thus permitting free accumulation of dirt, or if it has a rubber cover, which could be the source of present or future trouble, a new anode connector and lead assembly should be used to replace the original assembly. This new assembly should have a neoprene suction cover which will resist corrosion and prevent accumulation of dirt around the anode button. If this procedure is followed, re-occurrence of problems of this kind will be held to a minimum.—(courtesy Crosley Service Dept.) Rapid CRT Replacement This technique, which I have used often, may be of help to other technicians who service RCA 21-in. receivers. We have had many 21AP4 picture tubes go negative or lose emission, thus making replacement necessary within the first few months after the set was sold. Ordinarily the chassis has to be pulled to replace the tube, but the method I use is faster and easier. After disconnecting the high voltage cable, crt socket and ion trap, remove the two $ \frac{3}{4} $-in. screws holding the supporting bracket for the deflection yoke to the top of the cabinet. You can then remove the supporting bracket by tilting it to the left just enough to clear the top of the cabinet; then you slip it off over the neck of the tube. After this is done, you can remove the picture tube by turning its face or front to the left (away from the high voltage cage). The new tube can then be installed in a matter of minutes, without removing the chassis. Usually the only adjustment that need be made after reinstalling the yoke assembly is the correct placement of the ion trap.—Wallace Cantoni, Landisville, N.J. Removing Internal Shorts A cathode-ray tube occasionally develops a grid-to-cathode short; such a short may be intermittent. This trouble may be hard to locate, and it is often solved by replacing a costly picture tube. I have found that of all low-emission picture tubes can be restored. I can't confirm or deny this statement but, with my method (no special equipment required), we can settle for a 30% figure. Only two items are required: An ordinary tube checker, to supply a variable source of heater voltages; and a TV chassis, to supply a dc source of from 25 to 60 volts. (Some receivers provide a variable dc voltage on their brightness controls, ranging from zero to 120 v or more. On Philco 50T1401 and similar sets, for instance, 0 to 155 volts is available at the brightness control.) Consider the grid-cathode assembly of the electron gun to be a diode. Tie one heater leg to the cathode; then tie this junction to ground. Impress 25 to 60 volts on the grid. Keep this voltage as close to 25 volts as possible, because ion bombardment of the cathode may occur at higher voltages, if the vacuum is not tight. Connect the heater leads to any convenient pair of heater pins in the tube checker, but make sure the ungrounded heater lead is not grounded internally in the tube checker. Then use following procedure: (Continued on page 64) INSTALLATION procedure for color TV receiver was demonstrated by RCA personnel at conference called shortly after FCC announcement on NTSC standards. Color pix tube was not mounted on chassis, as is usual with B & W sets. The tube, packed in a separate carton, had to be mounted in the cabinet. Unlike conventional crt, the color tube must be oriented for a single correct position; the built-in mask must be aligned with the cabinet opening and the blue gun in the neck of the tube must be uppermost with respect to red and green guns. THE HI-VOLTAGE regulation adjustment will have to be made (screw-driver control) with a meter when the receiver is installed, as correct hv value is important to proper beam convergence and color registry. A good B & W pix is the next thing the receiver is set up for. Carried out with a linearity or dot generator, or special convergence checker, this procedure prevents B & W pix from being marred by color ghosts. COLOR PURITY ADJUSTMENTS are then separately made for the individual primary colors, to insure uniform saturation for each across the entire crt screen. Then the balancing controls for each primary are manipulated, so that all three together give a uniformly grey raster. Saturation adjustments, made next, may depend on individual judgment. If they are set too high, however, the excessive signal present may overdrive the crt, causing color distortion as well as possible tube damage. RECEIVERS may be hinged on top to facilitate picture tube installation and access to controls. The front panel of one proposed commercial model features more than 20 controls. No octopus should have any trouble learning how to adjust his color receiver! The fine tuning knob, an often neglected control with modern tuners, will become more important. Relatively minor deviations in receiver tuning may suppress the 3.58 mc color subcarrier, seriously affecting color reproduction. In switching from one channel showing a color program to another, the set owner may have to readjust fine tuning regularly. Chroma and phasing controls may also have to be readjusted with every switch-over to another channel, to compensate for minor differences in transmission. Improper phasing may result in wrong-color reproduction (red for blue, blue for green, etc.). SERVICE CONTRACTS, informed sources say, are expected to cost about three or four times more for color sets than for B & W receivers. First-year contracts should fall between $170 and $300, app. These figures, of course, represent an early condition. Contract charges should fall in a year or two, as was the case with initially high B & W contract costs. THE LAWRENCE COLOR TUBE, employing a single electron gun, may get a bigger play in '54. A step-up in output of this crt was foreshadowed with the addition of new grid-producing facilities by the Chromatic Television Laboratories of California. Grids have been a principal bottleneck in the production of Lawrence tubes. An annual total output of more than 25,000 grids was forecast for the new facilities, with production starting by the end of March. The grids will be used in the manufacture of 21- and 24-in. color pix tubes. The Lawrence design is said to pave the way for these large-screen tubes. Thomas Electronics of Passaic, New Jersey, manufacturer of conventional B & W crts, will handle the fabrication of the color tubes themselves, under a recent licensing agreement. COLOR SERVICE SCHOOLS and clinics have already been started by at least three manufacturers. Westinghouse claims the first service school (December) at its plant in Metuchen, N.J. All of the Westinghouse key field service personnel took part in classroom and laboratory sessions. Subjects covered included: the study of color; composite color signals and their function; transmitter requirements and variables; basic receiver design; and adjustment of color receivers. BUFFALO was chosen by Sylvania for its first color service school in January. Field clinics to train Sylvania dealer-servicemen are now in the works. The first RCA color clinics, each consisting of four days of intensive instruction and demonstration, were held for the benefit of receiving set licensees. New York and Chicago were the sites for the first two such clinics in January. The Los Angeles clinic begins on February 8. Similar clinics for service groups will be held in 65 key cities throughout the country, starting early this month. RETMA is now working on a color-TV lecture program for technicians. The program, as now proposed, will be offered to sponsoring organizations as a package deal. The package will include: a lecture text; an illustrated booklet, on which the lecture is based, to be distributed to audiences at the time of the lecture as a study guide and reference text; a series of 35 mm strip films to supplement and illustrate the lectures; and a lecturer's guide pamphlet recommending procedures and techniques for most effective use of the lecture material. DR ALLEN B. DU MONT foresees 21-in. color sets at $500 each, but does not believe this point will be reached for at least three years. He anticipates limited-quantity production of color-TV in general until 1956. He believes cost factors will block an immediate swing to color. Full integration may take 10 to 20 years. HOME STUDY COURSE IN COLOR TV for technicians already versed in B & W circuitry and service will be offered by RCA Institutes of New York City. Consisting of nine lessons, the course will cover the following subjects: Introduction to Color TV; Principles of Light and Color; The Color TV System; Receiver Principles; Color Picture Tubes; Receiver Circuitry; Setup and Adjustment Procedures; Alignment and Servicing; and Special Test Equipment. For a bulletin describing the course, write to Home Study Department, RCA Institutes, 350 West 4th Street. New York 14, N.Y. COLOR ISN'T ALL—A recent Comedy Hour show was telecast in color. A follow-up of New York TV columnists who viewed the program on color sets produced interesting results. When the show lagged, bored reviewers tuned out the picture—in favor of B & W programs that held greater interest. Preventing Instrument Damage Plastic or wood cases of various test meters are so smooth that the instruments are easily pulled from the bench during use. A few layers of adhesive tape placed on the bottom of the case will often remedy this kind of trouble. Tape also may be installed in a criss-cross manner to further prevent slipping. —H. Leeper, Canton, Ohio. Safety Glass Removal If you have ever had to take out a safety glass to clean a dirty picture tube, and found to your horror you had chipped or broken the glass with a screw-driver, you will appreciate this time and money saver. I use a suction-cup dart from a child's toy gun. Simply moisten the rubber (after removing screws which hold the glass) and press the cup onto the top center of the glass (see illustration). Pull outward, at the same time holding the bottom of the glass with your free hand. Note: This works equally well with safety glasses that swing out from the bottom. On these press the rubber onto the bottom center, and hold the top with the free hand, pulling outward on the suction cup. —J. L. Mancini, Winthrop, Mass. Gimmick for Chassis Carry Sometimes the edges of a heavy TV chassis dig into the hands when the chassis must be carried any great distance. I got around this by making two cushions for my hands. These were made by cutting two 5-in. pieces from a rubber garden hose. The units were sliced lengthwise down the middle on one side. When slipped over the bottom edge of a chassis on either side, they tend to make good soft grips. They take very little room in the service kit and can be slipped off and on in a second.—H. A. Wahl, Redondo Beach, Calif. Truck Accident Prevention Several of our men were involved in accidents as they opened the doors of their service cars or trucks. This happened when approaching motorists ran into the truck doors in the dark. We solved this problem by attaching narrow strips of reflecting tape just inside each door along the edge. When the doors are opened at night, the tape is visible to oncoming autoists, and accidents are thus avoided.—H. J. Miller, Sarasota, Florida. Deodorizing Receivers It may sound strange, but some receivers have to be deodorized. This writer had to replace a burned-out power transformer. The job turned out quite well, except that the customer objected to the burnt odor that persisted despite a thorough clean-up attempt. Finally I hit on a very simple method that really worked. Reasoning that even a perfume does not smell when properly corked, I corked the burned areas by spraying two coats of plastic spray (Krylon) over the discolored areas. The smell disappeared. Do you have a customer allergic to odors of burned transformers, resistors, and selenium rectifiers? Try this method, it works!—B. O. Riis, Miami, Florida. Dynamic Condenser Check In many instances, condensers short only under load, and check ok when out of the circuit. When such a condition seems to be present, I use a voltmeter in series with the suspect part, as shown in the illustration. If the capacitor is shorted, a dc current flows through it and through the resistance of the meter. This sets up an IR drop, and the meter needle will swing up, verifying the existence of the short.—J. L. Mancini, Winthrop, Mass. Chassis Supports Large C clamps make ideal chassis supports. They take up little room, adjust to many sizes of chassis, are inexpensive, and they may often be used where other chassis supports cannot be employed. Much time can be saved by their use, and needless damage avoided.—Joseph Amorose, Richmond, Va. Fretco UHF-VHF ANTENNA The Mi Tee Ray Screen, model MR S, is said to have high gain from Channels 2 to 83. A 50:1 front-to-back ratio provides discrimination against ghosts. Insulators of high dielectric strength prevent signal loss. Construction withstands wind and ice. Antenna comes pre-assembled but collapsed. List price, $7.25. Fretco, Inc., 406 N. Craig St., Pittsburgh 13, Pennsylvania.—TECHNICIAN Telco UHF-VHF DOUBLE V This stack-type antenna, cat. no. 9010, can be used for UHF, VHF or both in primary and secondary signal areas. Adjusts to angle spacings of 50, 70, or 90 degrees, and has high directivity. Ruggedly constructed to withstand wind, ice and snow, the antenna is said to install easily. List price, $6.95. Television Hardware Mfg. Co., Rockford, Ill.—TECHNICIAN Bogen UHF ANTENNA WIRE This single-wire transmission line is said to have low loss, low interference susceptibility, all-weather performance characteristics, and low radiation. Since swinging of line does not affect signal, only two standoffs with no intermediate supports are necessary. Two matching units ("Launchers") are required per installation, one each at antenna and receiver, to match to the short lengths of 300-ohm line used at these ends. The wire, called G-Line, is available in 150-ft. length, in kit with 2 launchers and 2 standoffs; list, $38.25. Wire alone available on 500-ft. reel for $32.50. David Bogen Co., 29 Ninth Ave., New York 14, NY—TECHNICIAN Telkor UHF ANTENNA Engineered for high gain on all UHF channels, model 14283 discriminates against ghosts and interference, has a high front-to-back ratio, and is recommended for all-weather use. Terminals are located in free space to reduce leakage. Shipped pre-assembled. Suggested list price, $8.50. For extreme fringe locations, order stacking kit 14283K. Telkor, Inc., Elyria, Ohio.—TECHNICIAN Safety LADDER BELT Dangerous falls from ladders during antenna installation are said to be averted by this climber's safety device. One end of chain fastens to climber; the other end slides along rail fastened to ladder as climber goes up. If climber slips, device is said to lock against rail within 7 in. of spot where fall begins. Unit designed to be jam-proof, operate in all weather, and adapt to all types of ladders. Safety Tower Ladder Company, P.O. Box 1052, Burbank, Calif.—TECHNICIAN Telrex UHF ANTENNA Model 84 UHF, a single-unit, conical-V beam, 4-bay array, is said to give 2 to 6 db more gain than conventional 2-bay units. Designed for fringe-area UHF use, the array is pre-assembled for rapid installation and may be easily added to existing VHF antennas. Light weight, rugged construction and negligible wind resistance are also featured. Telrex, Inc., Asbury Park, N.J.—TECHNICIAN Falcon VHF ANTENNA The Falcon 88, a conical-yagi type antenna for all-channel VHF use, is said to provide good line match, sharp directivity, high forward gain and absence of minor lobe response. The array feeds into a single 300-ohm line. Quick assembly, sturdy construction and low cost are also featured. Phasing bars available for stacking. Falcon Electronics Co., Quincy, Illinois.—TECHNICIAN Related Products and Hardware; Boosters, Tuners and Filters Drake UHF TVI FILTER Designed especially for use in UHF reception, the UHF-300-HP high-pass filter attenuates interference caused by images and spurious signals from VHF stations, oscillators of other television receivers and UHF converters, signals at intermediate frequencies, and others in the region below 450 mc. List price $3.25. R. L. Drake Co., 11 Longworth Street, Dayton 2, Ohio.—TECHNICIAN SIC TVI FILTER High-pass filter model HP2 is made to pass all UHF channels from antenna to receiver with less than 1 db attenuation, but to provide 45 to 50 db of rejection for VHF signals. Eliminates many types of TVI peculiar to the UHF range, including interference from Channel 5 or 6 signals on double-conversion UHF systems. Service Instruments Co., 422 S. Dearborn St., Chicago, Ill.—TECHNICIAN Bogen UHF BOOSTER Model UHB booster provides gain of 8 to 13½ db across UHF band, channels 14 to 83 inclusive. Noise figure varies from 11 to 15 db. The tuning knob is the only control, as the booster is turned on and off by a relay operated by the TV receiver. List price, $41. David Bogen Co., 29 Ninth Avenue, New York 14, N.Y.—TECHNICIAN TeleMatic SIGNAL EQUALIZER The Automatic Signal Equalizer, model AT-25, is intended for locations where low-frequency VHF channels may be strong enough to overload the receiver, whereas high frequency channels are not strong enough to permit constant attenuation at the antenna input. Maximum attenuation is provided on the low band, minimum on the high band, without upsetting antenna-receiver impedance match. No controls or switches need be manipulated. List price, $4.95. Tele-Matic Industries, Inc., One Joralemon St., Brooklyn, N.Y.—TECHNICIAN Anchor UHF-VHF TUNER The TV 900 tuner is a 12-position turret tuner for which individual channel segments are available separately. Any group of 1 to 12 channels, UHF, VHF or a combination of both, may be installed in any sequence to meet the needs of a particular location. Original installation or replacement of channel segments is said to be rapid and to require no special procedures or test equipment. No extra crystals or converter strips needed on UHF. Single conversion principle is used on Channels 2 to 83. Anchor Radio Corp., 2215 South St. Louis Ave., Chicago 23, Ill.—TECHNICIAN HP TELESCOPIC MASTS Zip Up telescoping mast kits are available in heavy-duty sets (16-gauge) or economy sets, to make masts in sizes of 20, 30, 40 and 50 feet. Individual mast sections are 10 in. long. Snug fit prevents wobble. Kits furnished with accessories including guy rings and bolts. Haydon Products Corp., 1801 Eighth Ave., Brooklyn 15, N.Y.—TECHNICIAN Insuline STAND-OFF Made to accommodate all types of standard TV transmission lines, this strap-type stand-off uses a low-loss polyethylene grommet and features an adjustable strap to mount on any pipe diameter from ¾ in. to 1½ in. It is quickly tightened in place with a captive tension nut. Insuline Corp. of America, Long Island City, New York.—TECHNICIAN JFD ANTENNA ACCESSORIES The Pal stand-off, for all types of antenna wires, avoids the use of a metal ring surrounding the lead-in. This measure prevents development of standing waves, which may interfere with TV reception in sensitive installations. Lightning arrestor model AT120, the Lightning Sentry, includes a resistor network and two replaceable fuses. The network bypasses interfering static charges as well as lightning. The replaceable fuses protect the arrestor itself against damage by strong lightning charges. List price, $4.75. JFD Mfg. Co., 6101 16th Ave., Brooklyn 4, N. Y.—TECHNICIAN Imperial GUY WIRE This guy wire is made of 7 strands of 18-gauge pure aluminum and uses a closely-knit twist for added strength. Wire is guaranteed against rust, tarnish and salt-air deterioration. Stretch yield is approx. 3%. Packaged in 100-ft. continuous coils, 1000-ft. cartons and 1000-ft. metal spools. Imperial Radar & Wire Corp., 820 E. 233rd Street, Bronx 66, N.Y.—TECHNICIAN ASD TUBE CHECKER Model TV-20, a time-saving tube checker, uses 20 connected sockets to facilitate testing. Developed particularly for TV servicers, the checker needs no roll chart, minimizes set-up procedure and features portability. Other characteristics: automatic line compensation, high sensitivity to leakage, positive gas detection circuit. Net price, $124.50. American Scientific Development Co., P.O. Box 104, Fort Atkinson, Wisconsin.—TECHNICIAN Insuline TEST LEADS This pair of leads, intended for use with standard test instruments, has heavy lucite handles 5 in. long and 3/8-in. in diameter. The leads furnish protection against high ac and dc voltages. The ends are fitted with small chucks which take phonograph-needle test tips, useful for probing crowded connections and piercing insulation of wires without damage. Handles are colored red and black, respectively, and carry 45-in. lengths of flexible leads with molded right-angle phone-tip plugs. Catalog number, 304; price, $1.65. Insuline Corporation of America, 3602 35th Ave., Long Island City, N. Y.—TECHNICIAN Scala DEMODULATOR PROBE A voltage-doubling crystal demodulator probe for use with scope or vtvm in TV alignment and troubleshooting, the BZ-4 probe provides increased utility in signal tracing low-level i-f stages, and in calibrating generators against crystal-oscillator harmonics. A high degree of 60-cycle hum rejection permits effective tests in heater, agc, and dc supply lines for the presence of spurious high-frequency voltages. Can be used to localize dead or weak i-f stages, calibrate the base line of a scope, demodulate a video-amplifier sweep response curve, check the output of a sweep generator, and to test for sync-buzz pulses in a 4.5-mc. sound channel. Useful to 150 mc. Priced at $10.75, complete with coaxial lead and instruction book. Scala Radio Co., 2814 19th St., San Francisco, Calif.—TECHNICIAN Superex CRT TEST ADAPTER Designed for use with any make tube tester and all picture tubes, this adapter features simplicity of operation. One end plugs into the tube checker. The other end connects to the crt, which need not be removed from cabinet. Price, $3.95. Superex Electron. Corp., 23 Atherton St., Yonkers, N.Y.—TECHNICIAN RCP HV PROBE The HVMP-2 high-voltage multiplier probe lead extends the range of the manufacturer's model 655 peak-to-peak vtvm on dc volts. Meter scale readings are multiplied by 100 with the probe. Complete with multiplier resistor and terminations, the probe is of the heavy-duty type with a safety barrier. Priced at $8.95. Radio City Products Co., Inc., 152 West 25 St., New York, N.Y.—TECHNICIAN GI SMALL PARTS CABINETS The line of See-Thru drawer cabinets has been developed for visible filing and storage of small parts in service shops and home workshops. The spill-proof drawers are made of clear guaranteed plastic; welded all-steel cabinets are used. Adjustable drawer dividers and identification labels are provided. Models available with from 8 to 128 drawers, with extra-size or metal drawers, and with carrying handles for portability. Over 750 combinations can be supplied to suit user's requirements. General Industrial Co., 5738 N. Elston Ave., Chicago 30, Ill.—TECHNICIAN Windsor TUBE CADDY Although this fold-out caddy, the Carry-All, is built for portability, it provides space for meters and other tools necessary in on-the-spot home servicing, as well as for tubes. The caddy may be obtained free on a tube purchase deal, or bought outright ($14.95). Further details from Windsor Electronic Tube Co., 1515 Sheepshead Bay Road, Brooklyn 35, New York.—TECHNICIAN IRC POWER RESISTORS Type PW-7 and PW-10 power resistors, rated at 7 and 10 watts respectively, are useful in many radio and TV applications. Type PW-7 available from .51 to 5100 ohms, PW-10 available from 1 to 8200 ohms; tolerances, 5% and 10%. Manufacturer's ratings show favorable performance with respect to humidity, load life, overload and effects of soldering. International Resistance Co., 401 N. Broad St., Philadelphia 8, Penna.—TECHNICIAN GE SOCKET WRENCH SET This space-saving socket wrench set has been developed for radio-TV service technicians. The two tools, each with four heads mounted in the shape of a cross, replace 8 individual hex-head wrenches. Made of chrome-plated hardened steel; sizes clearly marked. Available through GE tube distributors. Tube Dept., General Electric Co., Syracuse, N.Y.—TECHNICIAN Daven ATTENUATORS Series 154 fixed attenuator pads are available in either T or balanced H networks. Units are available in losses up to 100 db with a wide range of input or output impedances. Maximum power dissipation, 1 watt; Accuracy, ±2%. Common applications: to equalize incoming signal levels, to change impedance, to combine 2 or more incoming lines into a single line, or to equalize the outputs of several speakers connected to a common source. Daven Co., 191, Central Ave., Newark, N. J.—TECHNICIAN Halldorson FLYBACK Flyback transformer FB412 is designed as an exact replacement for Part No. C-201-21025-1 in 84 models and chassis of Airline, Raytheon and Truetone TV receivers. The unit features a variable-gap width control, tapped agc winding and a special mounting base. Halldorson Transformer Co., 4500 Ravenswood Ave., Chicago 40, Ill.—TECHNICIAN Stancor FLYBACKS These four flyback transformers for Philco receivers are exact replacements, according to the manufacturer. A-8220 replaces Philco part 32-8565, used in 14 models and chassis; A-8221 replaces 32-8555 in 29 models and chassis; A-8222 replaces 32-8533 and 32-8534 in 38 sets; and A-8223 replaces 32-8572 in 15 sets. All chassis involved were manufactured in 1952 and 1953. The replacement units have choke coils, resistors, and capacitors wired to the terminal boards. Three exact-replacement flyback transformers cover 91 Motorola models using 52 chassis. Stancor part number A-8224 replaces Motorola flybacks 24C711285, 24C711285-A, and 24C721290 in 56 models. A-8225 replaces 24K712193 in 15 models. A-8223 replaces 24K721301C and 24K271517C in 20 models. Each unit has a horizontal centering pot, variable gap width control and a socket for a 1B3 rectifier. Added to the original design are a corona ring on the tube socket and a reinforced terminal board to withstand the strain of inserting or removing the 1B3 tube. Chicago Standard Transformer Corporation, Standard Division, Addison and Elston, Chicago 18, Illinois.—TECHNICIAN Int'l SELENIUM RECTIFIERS Special-type selenium stacks, designed for the anticipated power supply requirements of color TV receivers, are available for capacitive loads of 600, 700 and 750 ma. Maximum input voltage ratings are 130, 172 and 195 volts rms. Special construction affords lower forward drop, lower temperature rise and longer life. International Rectifier Corp., El Segundo, Calif.—TECHNICIAN EFCON CAPACITORS Type MH plastic film capacitors feature special design for close tolerance, miniature size, moisture resistance, high insulation resistance and low dielectric absorption. Available in tolerances of ±1%, ±2%, ±5% and voltage ratings of 200, 400 and 600 v dc in any value from .01 to 1 mfd. Hermetically sealed in metal tubular cases. Electronic Fabricators, Inc., 682 Broadway, New York 12, N.Y.—TECHNICIAN Sprague CAPACITORS, PC's Replacement ceramic capacitors and Bulplate printed circuits are being furnished in clear molded polystyrene boxes. The re-usable containers reveal both contents and ratings of units at a glance. Snap locks on the hinged lids eliminate spilling. These compact boxes are space savers for storing small parts. Sprague Products Co., Marshall St., North Adams, Mass.—TECHNICIAN No-Noise CONTACT SPRAYER No-Noise contact and volume control cleaner is now being made available in spill-proof 6-oz. pressure spray cans, for service technicians who find this type of container more convenient. The cleaner is also available in 2-oz. and 8-oz. bottles, and quart cans. Electronic Chemical Corp., 813 Communipaw Ave., Jersey City 4, N.J.—TECHNICIAN Tubes and Tube Equivalents Radio and TV Types; CRT's, Crystal Diodes and Transistors Sylvania 12-Volt Car Radio Tubes In line with the trend toward 12-volt automobile batteries, a full complement of 12-volt tubes is available for use in parallel-heater circuits in automobile radios. Except for filament ratings, they are equivalent to their 6-volt prototypes; e.g., the 12BA6 is similar to the 6BA6, r-f or i-f amplifier. Others in the line: 12BD6, r-f amplifier; 12BE6, converter; 12AV6, 2nd detector and audio amplifier; 12X4, rectifier. Audio output tubes include the 12AQ5 and 12V6GT. Sylvania Electric Products, Inc., 1740 Broadway, New York 19, N. Y.—TECHNICIAN RCA 6BY6, Crystal Diodes The 6BY6 is a 7-pin miniature pentagrid amplifier for use as a gated amplifier in TV receivers, especially as a combined sync separator and clipper. Six types of crystal diodes, germanium point-contact type, are of sealed-in-glass construction: IN34-A—general-purpose type intended for low-power rectification as in isolating, clipping, and switching circuits. IN38-A—large-signal type useful in clamping circuits. IN54-A—high-back-resistance type intended for clipping circuits, high-impedance hv probes, dc restorers, and high-impedance detectors. IN55-A—large-signal type with high peak inverse voltage rating. Especially useful in clamping circuits, dc restorers and hv probes. IN56-A—high-conduction type useful as limiter in FM circuits. IN58-A—similar to IN55-A but with a lower peak inverse rating. Tube Department, Radio Corp. of America, Harrison, N.J.—TECHNICIAN CBS 21FP4C This aluminum-backed, all-glass, rectangular crt uses low-voltage electrostatic focus, electromagnetic deflection, a grey-glass cylindrical faceplate and a single-field ion-trap magnet. Outer conductive coating, when grounded, may be used as hv filter capacitor. Typical hv value, 14kv. CBS-Hytron, Danvers, Mass.—TECHNICIAN CBS Beam-Power Amplifier A direct replacement for the 6BQ6-GT, said to be more ruggedly designed for longer life and operation beyond the limits of the 6BQ6, is the 6CU6. Intended for use in horizontal output stages, as well as in audio-amplifier and class C r-f applications. Socket, plate cap and basing arrangement follow the 6BQ6. CBS-Hytron, Danvers, Mass.—TECHNICIAN GE 6BJ7, CRT's Type 6BJ7 is a miniature triple-diode, designed for use in color TV receivers to reduce tube complements. May be used as dc restorer for three signal channels. Each diode section is similar to diode section of conventional 6AL5. 21ACP4 and 21ACP4-A (aluminized) are all-glass rectangular crt types using 90-degree horizontal deflection angles. Wider angle makes possible reduction of overall length to 20 in., reducing size of cabinet required for receiver. Typical 2nd anode voltage: 16kv. General Electric Tube Department, Schenectady 5, N.Y.—TECHNICIAN CORRECTION Author Kesgen writes in to say that P-1, in his article, Audible Alarm for Servicing Intermittents (Jan. '54 TECHNICIAN), should have been listed as 10 meg, not 1 meg. W-Z TV HEARING AID This auxiliary speaker, specially designed for the hard-of-hearing, permits TV viewing at normal distances from the receiver without loss of sound. Leads from the auxiliary speaker clip to the leads from main speaker. Auxiliary unit may be hooked over shoulder of listener or back of chair. Price, $13. Wright-Zimmerman, New Brighton, Minnesota.—TECHNICIAN Cabinet SPEAKER HORN KITS Kits incorporating the Klipsch corner-horn enclosure design are available in unfinished birch. The compact cabinets achieve large-enclosure performance on low frequencies by using back-loading to increase path length. Kits K-12 and K-15, for 12-in. and 15-in. speakers, respectively, each provide an extra port for mounting a tweeter or other auxiliary speaker. Kits include hardware, pre-cut baffle, and instructions for assembly and finishing. G. & H Wood Products Co., 75 North 11th N. Y.—TECHNICIAN Kloss SPEAKER SYSTEM This small-size complete speaker system makes high-fidelity performance possible at a low cost; based on the original Baruch-Lang design. Employing four 5-in. speakers in a wedge-shaped housing little more than a foot high and less than 20 in. wide, the system may be mounted anywhere on the floor or ceiling or in the corner between two walls. Corner-mounting is not essential for wide range and low distortion. Available in output impedance of 4 or 16 ohms. May be obtained direct from manufacturer for $19.95. Kloss Industries, 10 Arrow Street, Cambridge, Mass.—TECHNICIAN Utah HI FI SPEAKER SYSTEMS One single-speaker and several multiple-speaker systems are available as follows: model HF100, 12-in. speaker and cabinet, response from 30 to 10,000 cps; model HF300, 10-in. woofer plus tweeters in cabinet, response from 30 to 15,000 cps; Quartet model, 12-in. woofer plus tweeters in corner enclosure, response from 30 to 15,500 cps; Chordette model, 8-in. woofer plus tweeter in bookshelf or end-table enclosure. Utah Radio Products Co., Inc., Huntington, Ind.—TECHNICIAN Masco TAPE RECORDERS Models 53 and 53R (with and without radio) are dual speed, dual track tape recorders featuring fast forward and rewind speeds and two-motor drive. Response at 7.5 in. per second: 80 to 8500 cps, with wow and flutter less than 0.3%; response at 3.75 ips, 80 to 5000 cps. Inputs for mike, radio, and phono; outputs for external amplifier or speaker. Timing indicators, push-button operation and monitoring switch are also provided. Mark Simpson Mfg. Co., 32-28 49th Street, Long Island City 3, N. Y.—TECHNICIAN Lorenz WOOFER and TWEETER The Lorenz woofer and tweeter are designed to be used in combination for a wide-range speaker system. Also available are a high-pass filter to match the two speaker units and a choice of cabinets to house the three components comprising the system. Kingdom Products Ltd., 23 Park Place, New York 7, N.Y.—TECHNICIAN Craftsmen HI FI FM TUNER An FM tuner said to meet the highest Hi Fi requirements, model C900 features high sensitivity and stability with low distortion. Some features: sensitivity of 1 microvolt for 20 db quieting; amplified, continuously variable AFC for optimum control of strong and weak signals; less than .05% intermodulation distortion through entire receiver. Three controls are provided: AFC, off-on-volume, and tuning. Net price, $99.00. The Radio Craftsmen, Inc., 4401 N. Ravenswood, Chicago 40, Ill.—TECHNICIAN Webcor TAPE RECORDER Following the success of its 3-speaker phonograph, Webcor-Chicago is producing a 3-speaker tape recorder, model 2030, to give wide-angle dispersion of sound throughout the listening area. One 4-in. and two 6-in. speakers are used to disperse sound so that high-frequency dead spots are avoided. Construction of one-half inch wood veneers lowers cabinet resonance, thus improving bass response. List, $143.70. Webster-Chicago, 5610 W. Bloomingdale Ave., Chicago 39, Ill.—TECHNICIAN Brook HI-FI AMPLIFIER A small-size single-chassis amplifier and control unit, model 22A provides response within 1 db from 20 to 20,000 cps with 10 watt output at negligible distortion. Five input channels are featured for tuners, TV, recorder and phono cartridge; four output impedances from 2 to 16 ohms. Controls: channel selector, record equalizer (6 positions), bass, treble, compensated loudness, and on-off power. Brook Electronics, Inc., 34 DeHart Place, Elizabeth, N.J.—TECHNICIAN Scott HI-FI CONTROL UNIT Model 121-A Dynaural Equalizer-Preamplifier is a self-powered remote control unit for broadcast or home sound systems. Record compensation is provided by separate, continuously-variable bass turnover and treble roll-off controls. Built-in Dynaural Noise Suppressor dynamically discriminates against turntable rumble and record scratch with minimum effect on musical frequencies. Also featured: Variable high-frequency cut-off filters, separate bass and treble tone controls, 8-position input selector, and separate input level controls. Compensated loudness control may be switched to operate as flat volume control. H. H. Scott, Inc., 385 Putnam Ave., Cambridge 39, Mass.—TECHNICIAN Technician's Lighter Side Obscure Threat Dept. Joe Thomas, one of our service friends, was telling us how he collected some long overdue bills. Customers to whom Joe had mailed strings of letters, some gentle and others stern and purposeful, had blandly ignored the requests for immediate payment. Several hundred dollars was involved, and Joe was not disposed to overlook the matter. One day a man came around and offered to collect the sums due, in return for a percentage of the take. "Fine," said Joe. "You collect, and I'll pay you 20% of the total you bring in." Within 3 days, checks adding up to $280, or about 90% of the money owed Joe Thomas, were received in the mail. Joe was curious about his collector's technique. "Tell me, whatever did you do that made that money roll in so fast?" he asked, when he had paid the man his $56. "Just wrote 'em a letter," replied the collector. "One letter?" asked Joe. "I wrote them at least five letters! What did your letter say?" "I'll read ya one," said the collector. He took a piece of paper out of his pocket and read: Dear Mr. Best: You owe the Joe Thomas Radio Service $15. If you don't send in a check for this sum in 48 hours, you'll be surprised at what'll happen. Yours truly, etc. We don't recommend the technique, but it does point up the value of a fresh approach to one's problems... Reward of Virtue (180 Degrees Out of Phase) A small-town radio shop owner—let's call him Mac—called one of his technicians into his little office for a heart-to-heart talk the other day. "You know, the customers like you very much," said Mac. "Thank you," beamed the technician. "Practically every customer you've visited in the month you've been here has had glowing things to say about you." The technician's beam became beam-powered. "They say you do wonderful work. You're courteous, competent, and thoroughly reliable." The serviceman's smile expanded further. Thoughts of the raise that seemed imminent weaved through his mind like 60-cycle hum. "In fact," concluded the boss, "you're getting so popular with the customers, in a few months you might be able to start a business of your own, and take them all away...so I'm forced to fire you." Think and Grow Poor You probably never heard about the owner of a large TV-radio shop who was much impressed with the numerous signs marked THINK that he saw in the plush front offices of a factory he was visiting. Some time later, the merchant decided to install similar signs in his own establishment. Several days after the signs had been posted in prominent parts of the store, a friend came in to visit. "How'd that plan of yours work out?" asked the friend. "You know, that idea of sticking up THINK signs all over?" "Not so good," sighed the shop owner. "The first day they were up, three people who walked in with small radios they wanted fixed looked at the signs, thought a moment, then walked out again. The second day my chief serviceman told me that after thinking it over, he would like a partnership in the business. To top it all off, my landlord came in today, and after glancing at the signs, told me it was about time he raised my rent." Have you had any amusing experiences during the course of your servicing work? Why not write them down and send them in? TECHNICIAN will pay $5 for acceptable anecdotes of this kind. Address Editor, Technician's Lighter Side, TECHNICIAN, Caldwell-Clements, Inc., 480 Lexington Ave., N.Y. 17, N.Y. INTRODUCING the greatest advance in Conical antennas...it's the all-new WALSCO Imperial. Featuring a new "barrier disc" insulator with 2 inches of air space between the terminals to prevent shorts. Soot deposits, dirt, moisture, salt, etc., cannot affect this insulator. The WALSCO Imperial will therefore maintain lasting high gain performance anywhere, regardless of weather conditions. Contact surfaces and terminals will never rust or oxidize. Front end hardware is stainless steel to prevent corrosion losses permanently. Front end elements are pre-assembled to holding plates which are fastened to the insulator with one wing nut. Less than 2 minutes to assemble. Guaranteed lasting high gain on all VHF channels WALSCO ELECTRONICS CORPORATION 3602 Crenshaw Blvd., Los Angeles 16, Calif. Now ready to join the fastest-growing and fastest-selling antenna line in the United States is a new AMPHENOL VHF antenna. Designed to supplement the fabulous INLINE* for VHF reception, the new CONICAL antenna will give true-picture reception in every VHF signal area: major, fringe and long-distance. Gain and directivity have been engineered to the high AMPHENOL standards that have set the quality goal for the entire industry—craftsmanship attention to the small but important details make the CONICAL another example of AMPHENOL's fine antenna work. AMPHENOL CONICALs are available in single, two and four bay models. The stacked models use unique phasing harnesses for extra gain. The CONICAL may be obtained in packaging that contains all the necessary stacking equipment or else the individual antenna may be purchased one or two to a carton. In addition, the single bay CONICAL is available in a complete antenna installation kit. All elements of the CONICAL are constructed of sturdy, long-lasting seamless aluminum tubing — assuring rust-free years of top performance. Reissue U.S. Patent 23,273 High gain of the CONICAL is illustrated in the gain charts for single, two bay and four bay models. Measured in accordance with proposed RETMA standards, the charts also show the desirable flatness of the gain. AMERICAN PHENOLIC CORPORATION • Chicago 50, Illinois Keep Your EYES on Profits! Now's the Time to Make the Service Department Pay Too many dealers are willing to operate their businesses on the premise that the service department is merely a feeder for sales, and shouldn't be expected to show a profit. Here and there, because of certain unusual conditions, the premise just mentioned may be sound to the extent that a few dealers find it impossible to rack up profits on service work, some going in the red with still others managing to operate on a break-even basis. But it's a truly unusual case where an owner is justified in resigning himself to this state of affairs before he has explored every avenue of possible profitable operation in his service department. TECHNICIAN'S editors have prepared this article with a view toward pointing out a number of reasons why profits get devoured in many service departments. The editors are also suggesting some remedies to help those owners and managers who want to eagle-eye their operations in an all-out endeavor to make money. Do these conditions prevail in your service department? Inadequate Charges: A most common reason for in-the-red operation. Remedy: Review your charging formula. Don't be afraid to ask fair prices for your work. Overboard Overhead: Do you have shirkers or time-wasters on your payroll? Do you have too much help? How do you keep men busy during slack periods—when the overhead continues to roll along? Does someone in authority assign the bench work and outside calls? Are outside calls routed efficiently in order to save time and cut down vehicle expense? Remedy: Fire the hopeless drones, "re-sell" the good men, who may have fallen into bad habits, on the necessity for doing a full day's work. Have someone lay out each man's job for the day, and plan outside call routes carefully. Be sure to keep men busy when things are slow. They can clean up the shop, rearrange stock etc., during these intervals. Sketchy Estimating: Almost all shops are called on to estimate a great many of the repair jobs that come in. Do you have a realistic, profit-slanted method for quoting? If you use a hit-and-miss technique you'll get plenty of headaches. If you "forget" how much you told Mrs. Jones that job would be, you may wind up behind the eight-ball. If, for instance, you bill her for more than quoted, you may lose her as a customer. On the other hand, "forgetting" may result in a loss to you. Remedy: Make out a simple "estimating slip" on every job, or fill in the amount on a service order. Spend a little extra time trying to make an accurate estimate. It'll pay off. Inefficient Record-Keeping: Do you lose money through failure to include all labor and parts on some jobs? Does the department lose money through failure of employees to charge out all tubes, components or time on some repairs? Do your bills go out promptly? Are collections followed up efficiently, or are accounts receivable allowed to die of old age in the ledgers? Remedy: If some or all of the foregoing conditions exist in your department, do something about it! For instance, hire an accountant (part time) to set up a good system, and insist that every man in your employ keep an account of time, tubes and other components. (Many shops charge parts and material against those employees who "draw" such supplies out of inventory.) Sloppy Buying: This can be put into two categories: 1. Overbuying, and 2. Underbuying. In the first instance, carelessness is usually to blame for buying too much stock, or going overboard in ordering too many slow-moving items. In the second case, hand-to-mouth purchasing is usually alibied with the excuse that the person responsible for this important chore of buying is too busy. Obviously, buying too heavily ties up good money in inventory, while buying in inadequate supply ties up too many jobs and discourages technicians. Remedy: Resolve to buy more carefully, making "need" lists which should be checked against stock on shelves and in servicers' hands. Not Enough Customers: No service department head should be satisfied with the amount of business it's presently doing. The objective should be to expand, to keep adding new customers in order to prevent lulls in work, and to compete with what may be an increased number of service set-ups coming into the field this year. Remedy: Advertise consistently, even if small space is used in directories and in newspapers. Use direct-mail pieces to solicit new customers, and to keep your name before the old ones. The profit-minded dealer not only renders service—he sells it, too. Start a clean slate, in this second month of the new year, and a firm resolution to show profits from your service and installation. Many dealers are making fine livings because they watch every penny, and chop out the dead wood. It can be done in almost every shop. Why not try to make more money in your business? $5600 in Prizes ...easy to win 503 Prizes! $2000 - 1st prize $500 - 2nd prize, $100 - 3rd prize 100 - $10 prizes, 400 - $5 prizes HOW TO WIN To win one of these 503 prizes all you have to do is complete in 25 words or less "I like Pyramid capacitors because______" You fill in this statement on a Pyramid contest entry blank which can be obtained from any electronic parts jobber selling Pyramid capacitors. You have this entry blank countersigned by your jobber or one of his salesmen and forward it to us attached to a Pyramid Dry Electrolytic Capacitor box top—the top being the part which carries the description of the item. There is no limit to the number of entries which you may make in this contest but each entry must be accompanied by a box top. Full rules for the contest appear on the entry blank. It's so easy. Here is the kind of statement that might win: "I like Pyramid capacitors because they always check out perfectly and don't deteriorate and so I know I won't have to call back at my expense." "I like Pyramid capacitors because the line is so complete that I can always get what I need and don't have to worry about an off-brand capacitor." PYRAMID FEATURES: 1. Only one quality—the best at no premium. All Pyramid capacitors are made of materials commanded by rigid military specifications. 2. All Pyramid capacitors are non-hygroscopic. 3. Highest quality insulator material used in all production results in low leakage factor. 4. Exclusive non-contamination technique guarantees close tolerances and no deterioration. Peak performances for life. 5. Pyramid capacitors operate unchanged at ambient temperature of 85 centigrade. 6. Designed by service technicians across the country for their requirements. 7. Individually packaged for protection. 8. Permanently legible, high visibility ratings on each item. 9. 100% absolute electronic inspection before shipment. Pyramid is in its 10th year as a leading manufacturer of high-quality capacitors. PYRAMID ELECTRIC COMPANY 1445 HUDSON BOULEVARD NORTH BERGEN, N. J. Calendar of Coming Events Feb. 4-6: The Audio Fair, Alexandria Hotel, Los Angeles, Calif. Feb. 8-12: Western Winter Radio-Television & Appliance Market, Western Mart, San Francisco, Calif. Mar. 22-25: Institute of Radio Engineers National Convention, Waldorf-Astoria Hotel, New York. Exhibits, Kingsbridge Armory, Bronx, New York. May 17-20: Electronic Parts Show, sponsored by Association of Electronic Parts & Equipment Manufacturers; West Coast Electronic Manufacturers Association; Radio-Electronic-Television Manufacturers Association and National Electronic Distributors Association and Sales Managers Club (Eastern Group), Conrad Hilton Hotel, Chicago, Ill. June 15-17: Radio - Electronic - Television Manufacturers Association Convention, Palmer House, Chicago, Ill. Sept. 30-Oct. 2: High Fidelity Show, International Sight and Sound Exposition, Palmer House, Chicago, Ill. Oct. 13-16: The Audio Fair, Hotel New Yorker, New York. NATESA Award to GE The National Alliance of Television and Electronic Service Associations, 5908 S. Troy St., Chicago, Ill., presented a fifth award to the GE Tube Department for its public relations program in behalf of the TV service industry. Bertram L. Lewis, eastern vice-president of NATESA, made the presentation of the "Friends of Service Management" plaque to John T. Thompson, sales manager of the GE Tube Department. Frank J. Moch, Chicago president of NATESA, was present. The award cited GE for "outstanding service to TV service management in creating better customer relations." Other GE awards came from Associated Radio and Television Service Dealers of Columbus, Ohio; Federation of Radio Servicemen's Associations of Philadelphia; and Radio Technicians Guild of Boston. ARTSNY Fetes Liebowitz Officers and directors of Associated Radio-TV Servicemen of New York, 165 E. Broadway, their wives and some friends surprised Max Liebowitz, ARTSNY president, with a testimonial dinner. Speakers extolled Liebowitz' judgment in evaluating proposed licensing laws, his reputation for fair dealing and his role as "emancipator of the radio-TV service profession." After the testimonials, the president was presented with a gift. In his own speech, Liebowitz asked for greater active support of the association by its members. He said, "You cannot continuously help people who will not help themselves." The president-founder was encouraged by the fact that he was getting more cooperation from more people in 1953 than in the two preceding years. With the growth of associations, he found the outlook for the service profession becoming brighter. NEDA Grows According to the national office of the National Electronic Distributors Association, the following parts distributors recently joined the organization. Members are listed with respective chapter affiliation: Burton S. Phillips, Electronic Center, Inc., Minneapolis, Minn. (Minnesota); Henry Lynch, Friday-Lynch Radio Co., Ottumwa, Ia.; W. B. Smith, Sidles Co., Omaha, Neb.; Norman "Scotty" Cameron, the Cameron Co., Rock Island, Ill. (all three in the Iowa-Nebraska Chapter); Dennis J. Hightower, H&L Radio Supply Co., Fort Worth, Tex. (North Texas); and Albert J. Kernerman, Glendale Electronic Supply Co., Detroit, Mich., as well as Joseph F. Keesee, Radio Supply & Engineering Co., Inc., Detroit, Mich. The organization also reports that it is currently engaged in revising the 1953 NEDA Battery Index, with the new edition expected early in 1954. Over 6500 copies of the index have been mailed out on past requests, confirming a need for such a cross-reference work. An increasing number of battery manufacturers are cooperating by including NEDA battery numbers on charts, labels, and cartons. Copies of the 1953 index are still available, in the meantime, on request. Address National Electronic Distributors Assoc., 228 N. La Salle Street, Chicago 1, Ill. (Continued on page 67) GE's J. T. Thompson accepts plaque from B. L. Lewis, NATESA V.P., as pres. F. Moch watches. WILL YOU HELP US? ... By giving us the name of the technical association to which you belong? We'd like this information as part of an editorial survey which we're conducting. Service Association: ............................................... Address ........................................................................... Manager or Recording Secretary's Name: ....................... Phone: ........................................................................... Your Name: .................................................................... Your Address: ................................................................. Please mail the filled-out coupon to Associations Editor, TECHNICIAN, 480 Lexington Avenue, N.Y.C. 17, N.Y. "Difficult Service Jobs Described by Readers" Intermittent Pix Pulling The complaint was "picture snaking" and increased contrast after the set was on for about forty-five minutes. The symptoms seemed to indicate an agc defect. First, I checked all i-f, tuner, and agc tubes. They checked ok. Next I pulled the chassis on the floor and left the set on for what seemed like a long time, but it played ok. I did not care to wait too long in the customer's home with the chassis on the floor, so I brought it to the shop. I set it up on the bench with a meter on the agc line. The set played all right for two days! I called the customer and explained that the set was working normally in the shop, and that I had not found anything wrong with it. The customer requested that the set be brought back to her home. About forty-five minutes after I returned the set, the customer called and complained of the same trouble. I told her to leave the set on, and I would be right over. When I arrived, the set was pulling horizontally, although not very badly. "The longer it is on, the worse it gets," the set owner commented. I shut off the set in order to pull the chassis out of the cabinet to check voltages. Then I put the set on the floor and turned it on. It played fine. No pulling—just a darned good picture. It seemed impossible that the TV cabinet should cause the picture to pull, yet the picture "snaked" only when the set was in the cabinet. I decided to leave the set on the floor for a while. The customer, who fortunately was a very understanding person, asked if I could set the TV receiver right side up for a while, so her son could see a program he was interested in. Upon turning the set in a right-side-up position—heretofore I had always had it on its side so that I could check voltages—the set started to pull. At first it was pulling just a little, but within an hour the set was pulling badly and contrast had increased noticeably. I tipped the set sideways for just an instant, in order to clip my vtvm on the agc line. The agc voltage was normal! Next I placed the chassis between two chairs (see sketch A). This enabled me to check voltages while the set was in an upright position. After a considerable amount of checking I found that the trouble was caused by a 2.4k video plate load resistor (see sketch B). The resistor was badly charred, but only on one side—the side that was facing the chassis. When the set was in the normal upright position, the heat would rise up against the chassis, causing the resistor to over-heat and go up in value (sketch C). With the increase in resistance of the video plate load resistor, the contrast would increase, and some of the video voltage would get into the sync, causing the picture to pull horizontally.—F. Mattioli, Madison, Wisconsin. The Mysterious 6AG5 When I was called in to service this set in the owner's home, she informed me that she had previously called several technicians in to repair the receiver. About a week or so after they fixed it, the set would go bad again. The raster was ok, but there was no video. The owner informed me that a tube in the back of the set with a metal shield around it (6AG5, 4th video i-f) had been found broken, and required replacement several times. Nobody, it seems, had been able to discover why the tube was breaking repeatedly. I looked, and sure enough the 6AG5 was broken again. I took the shield off and made small holes in it for air ventilation (see sketch); then I replaced it over a new tube. My reasoning was as follows: the ventilation would prevent the tube from getting too hot, expanding and finally breaking. The diagnosis was apparently correct, since the set has been working for two months now without a complaint.—Gelman's TV, Philadelphia, Penna. Executive ability is deciding quickly and getting somebody else to do the work. —J. C. Pollard See your answer with the PRECISION ES-500A HIGH SENSITIVITY - WIDE RANGE 5" OSCILLOSCOPE PUSH-PULL VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL AMPLIFIERS 20 mV PER INCH "V" SENSITIVITY - 150 mV PER INCH "H" SENSITIVITY SERIES ES-500-A affords the ultimate in performance, visibility and operational flexibility at moderate cost. PRECISION engineers have incorporated every necessary feature which they found to be required to meet the needs of the rapidly advancing art of electronics, A.M., F.M., and TV. SUMMARY OF IMPORTANT FEATURES ★ Push-Pull Vertical Amplifier — High Sensitivity. Wide Range. Voltage Regulated. 20 millivolts (.02v.) per inch deflection sensitivity. 10 cycles per second response. 2 megohm input resistance. Approx. 22 mm. input capacity. ★ Compensated Vertical Input Step Attenuator—X1, X10, X100. ★ Direct Peak to Peak Voltage Checks thru use of internal, semi-square wave regulator and calibrated scale. ★ Vertical Phase-Reversing Switch. Non-frequency discriminating. ★ Push-Pull, Extended Range. Horizontal Amplifier—150 Millivolts (.15 v) per inch deflection sensitivity. 10 cycles to 1 MC response at full gain. 20 mV per inch for 20 mm. input. ★ Linear Multi-Vibrator Sweep Circuit—10 cycles to 30 KC. ★ Amplitude Controlled. Four Way Synch. Selection: Internal Positive, Internal Negative, External and External. ★ Sync. Axis Motorized. Input facility for blanking, timing, etc. ★ Internal, Phasable 60 cycle Beam Blanking for elimination of alignment retrace; clean display of sync. pulses, etc. ★ Sweep Phasing Control for sinusoidal line sweep usage. ★ Dual Horizontal and Vertical Plate Connections. ★ High Intensity CR Patterns through use of adequate high voltage power supply with separate 2X2 rectifier. ★ The Circuit and Tube Complement: 6CB6 "V" cathode follower, 6CB6 amplifier, 6CA6 integrator, Push-Pull 6J8 "H" V. def. amp., 7N7 "H" H. amplifier and inverter, Push-Pull 6AU6 "H" driver, 7N7 Multivibrator, linear sweep oscillator, 5Y3 low voltage rectifier, 2X2 high potential rectifier, VT150 modulation SCR, 7A CR Tube. ★ Four-Way Sub-Type Input Terminals. Tethered alligator plugs, phone tips, bare wire or spade lugs. Matches SP-5 Probe Set cable connector. ★ Light Shield and cross-ruled Mask, removable and rotatable. ★ Extra Heavy-Duty Construction and components. ★ Heavy Gauge, Etched-Anodized, No-Glare, Aluminum Panel. ★ Fully Licensed under Western Electric Co. patents. Series ES-500A: In louvered, black-ripple, heavy gauge steel case. Size 8¼" x 14½" x 18". Complete with light shield, calibrating mask and comprehensive instruction manual. NET PRICE $173.70 Series SP-5 — OSCILLOSCOPE TEST PROBE SET FOR TV SIGNAL TRACING, ALIGNMENT, TROUBLE SHOOTING AND WAVEFORM ANALYSIS ★ Specifically engineered for use with PRECISION Cathode Ray Oscilloscopes, Series ES-500 and ES-500A. ★ Includes four of the most important test probes for general purpose, as well as specialized uses: 1. HIGH IMPEDANCE—LOW CAPACITY PROBE 2. SIGNAL TEST—CRYSTAL PROBE 3. RESISTIVE—ISOLATING PROBE 4. SHIELDED DIRECT PROBE ★ Each probe is specifically engineered for efficient application to the special test problems requiring its use. ★ Distinctively colored heads and individual labelling permit easy identification of each probe. ★ A single universal, multi-purpose socket accommodates each probe through a quick-change, self-shielding connector. ★ A specially-designed, shielded plug provides for positive cable attachment to the ES-500 and ES-500A Vertical input posts. ★ Each probe and its wires in a patented clip-on tip which frees both hands of the operator. Series SP-5, in custom-designed, vinyl-plastic, carrying case, complete with four probe heads, universal coaxial cable, and detailed operating instructions. NET PRICE $23.50 PRECISION APPARATUS COMPANY, INC. 92-27 HORACE HARDING BLVD. • ELMHURST, L. I., N. Y. EXPORT DIVISION: 458 BROADWAY, NEW YORK CITY U.S.A. • CABLES—MORHANEX CANADIAN SALES DIVISION: ATLAS RADIO CORP. LTD., 360 KING ST. W. TORONTO 28, ONTARIO on the other hand, can withstand wide variations without any ill effects. This is the main reason that magnetic and ceramic units have longer lives. Another characteristic worth considering is the cartridge's response to vertical modulation. Such modulation is the result of the cartridge translating the vertical movements of the stylus into electrical signals. Vertical modulation should be kept at a minimum for high-fidelity reproduction. Some pickups, such as the variable-reluctance and other magnetic types, are relatively insensitive to vertical stylus movements. These cartridges depend for their output voltages on the transfer of flux from the pickup cantilever (see Fig. 7) to the pole pieces of the coils. When the cantilever moves laterally, getting closer to one pole piece than the other, proportional currents are induced in each coil, and an output voltage is developed. When the cantilever moves vertically, however, the distance between the cantilever and the pole pieces does not change, and no output voltage develops. Choosing a Cartridge.* As we can see, the various types of cartridges have their advantages as well as their disadvantages. The type of cartridge used is determined by the budget. It does not pay, of course, to choose a cartridge that has a wider frequency response than the amplifier with which it is used. Before a cartridge is replaced in a Hi Fi system, check its characteristics to see that it will give performance equal to, or better than, the original cartridge. (When a change-over is being made from one type of pickup to another, anything in the amplifier's input circuit that is intended for specific use with the original type of cartridge may have to be altered or removed to match the new unit. This applies to input impedance, as well as to preamplifiers, equalizers and compensating networks.—Ed.) The Stylus. Some of the information provided on needle selection may seem to concern the set owner more than the serviceman; the data presented should, however, help the technician answer questions he may be asked. The prime function of the pickup needle (or stylus, as it is more accurately called) is the transfer of the lateral movement of the record's grooves to the pickup cartridge. Diamond-point needles are probably the best investment from the user's standpoint. Even though they cost more initially, they are good for a couple of thousand playings on fine-groove discs, whereas the sapphire-tipped needle is good only for a few hundred. Less distortion and less record wear is produced by the diamond-point needle, and its life is also longer. Needles should be checked periodically to see whether wear has developed. Fig. 3B shows a worn needle point that will not track the grooves properly, thus introducing record wear. A worn needle also introduces excessive needle-talk and distortion. Magnifying lenses made for this purpose should be used to thoroughly inspect the needle tip. An unfortunate mistake to be avoided by servicemen is the interchanging of standard and LP needles. The LP needle has a 1-mil point; the standard needle has a 3-mil point. Fig. 9 illustrates the poor seating that is produced when these needles are interchanged. The LP needle rests at the bottom of the standard groove and does not follow lateral motion properly. This causes an excessive amount of surface noise and distortion. The standard needle, on the other hand, rides too high in the LP groove and has, in consequence, a tendency to skip and wear the walls of the grooves. Another important factor in the replacement of a pickup needle that may be overlooked is its shape. If the wrong type of needle is used as a replacement, the pickup arm overhang may be changed considerably (see Fig. 10). Pickup Assembly Replacement Cautions. The various parts of the pickup arm assembly have definite requirements. When any part replacement is necessary, or an improvement in operation is desired, check the overall characteristics of the replacement against the characteristics of the associated elements in the system. Du Mont Unveils New Dual-View TV Set A television receiver which shows two TV programs on one screen while permitting two audiences to view their choices simultaneously was introduced by Allen B. Du Mont Laboratories, Inc. The receiver is known as the "Du Mont Duoscopic." The receiver can tune in any two TV programs from any stations within range. This means a husband may view one program, while his wife watches another. A press gathering at the preview demonstration, using polaroid glasses, saw a particular program at one moment and then, by merely reversing the glasses, became observers of a different telecast. With personalized ear pieces and convenient remote control audio units, the press group heard and saw any of two programs they desired. Whenever an individual wishes, he can independently switch to another channel. The remote-control sound system makes possible audio synchronization with the channel change. Audio volume can be lowered or raised to accommodate the listener's preference. New Fields for Webcor Webcor, manufacturer of phonographs and magnetic recorders, today entered two new industries with the announcement of its first radio and the first of a series of musical recordings on tape. The new Webcor radio is a five-purpose clock-radio called the "Quintet." It features a plug for attaching a tape recorder to make recordings of radio shows. It will also permit plugging in of a record changer and will turn appliances on or off automatically. Pyramid Prize Contest A contest for servicemen that offers $5600 in cash prizes has been announced by the Pyramid Electric Company of North Bergen, N.J. The contest will begin Feb. 1 and will continue until the end of April. First prize will be $2,000. The second and third prizes are $500 and $100, respectively. In addition, there will be 500 other cash awards. The contest entails completing the sentence, "I like Pyramid capacitors because . . ." in 25 words or less. Entry blanks for the contest will be available through jobbers, who will countersign each one submitted. Duplicate awards will be granted to the lucky jobbers whose servicemen win prizes. Each entry in the competition must be accompanied by the top of a box from a Pyramid dry electrolytic capacitor. IT'S MILLER TV, FOR THE World's Largest Selection of TV Antennas MILLER TELEVISION CO. JOHN MILLER "The Man Who Knows" TV ANTENNAS FOR ANY RECEPTION CONDITION Why stock antennas from 10 manufacturers—when no matter what the reception problem, there's a Miller antenna that does the job. WE OFFER THE WORLD'S LARGEST SELECTION OF TV ANTENNAS . . . you name it, we have it. As the West's pioneer TV antenna manufacturer, builder of one million antennas since 1948, we guarantee you TOP QUALITY at a REALISTIC PRICE. Compare this Value . . . this Price! CONICAL KIT $19.50 LIST $9.75 LIST A Typical Miller Value Conical Kit includes 10 element conical, 6-foot, 1 1/4" aluminum mast, base, guy ring, 30' of stranded, galvanized steel guy wire, 50' of 300 ohm lead-in line, mast stand-off, 3 wood stand-off insulators, 3 screw eyes, instruction sheet. Now priced at only $9.75 list. Write for FREE CATALOG Shows World's Largest Selection Miller TELEVISION CO. 2840 Naomi, Burbank, Calif. Gives Complete Information on World's Largest Selection of TV Antennas. Gives our Realistic Prices. Just Off Press. Write for Your Free Copy Today! Name Company Address City & State Mfrs. Changes Recent Design Alterations Linearity Improvement in '54 Crosley Sets Several of the changes that have been made in Crosley's custom and deluxe line of 17 in. and 21 in. television receivers to improve horizontal linearity are described below (see schematic). The code letters used on chassis incorporating this change are also given. Chassis with earlier code letters do not have the change. \| Code \| Description \| \|------\|-------------\| \| 402 \| CODE E \| \| 402-1\| CODE F \| \| 402-4\| CODE B \| \| 402-5\| CODE A \| \| 403 \| CODE E \| \| 403-1\| CODE D \| \| 404-1\| CODE C \| \| 404-5\| CODE B \| \| 405 \| CODE D \| \| 405-1\| CODE D \| \| 410-1\| CODE B \| Although the published parts lists still apply to early production chassis, the following list gives the new parts used in the chassis incorporating this change. The symbol numbers are given in two columns to permit quick reference to the schematic in either bulletin. \| SYMBOL NUMBER \| PRIOR TO CHANGE \| INCORPORATED IN CHANGE \| \|---------------\|-----------------\|------------------------\| \| Bulletin No. 459 \| Bulletin No. 465 \| Part No. \| Description \| Part No. \| Description \| \| C159 \| C161 \| 137499-34 \| Capacitor, 560 mmf., 10%, 500 v., Mica \| 144675-2 \| Capacitor, .005 mmf., 500 v., Disc Ceramic \| \| C162 \| C163 \| 154988 \| Capacitor, 120 mmf., 10%, 3KV, Mica Ceramic \| 157046-1 \| Capacitor, 100 mmf., 10%, 3KV, Disc Ceramic \| \| R172 \| R182 \| 39374-55 \| Resistor, 300,000 ohm, 10%, ½ watt \| 39374-57 \| Resistor, 470,000 ohm, 10%, ½ watt \| Horizontal Instability in Stewart-Warner Sets If you encounter critical horizontal hold action on any current Stewart-Warner TV receivers, it is suggested that you specifically follow the procedure we are going to outline. By so doing, you will be able to obtain horizontal holding action that remains within the range of the front panel hold control. 1. Check to see that condenser 131 is a silver mica unit, 820 mmfd, ±5% tolerance. This condenser is Stewart-Warner part No. 512-547. It is already incorporated in all receivers except those 9300 series sets that do not include the letter "H" in the series coding at the rear of the chassis. 2. Check to see that condenser 130 is other than a Sangamo type... in TV Sets in Television Receivers (red body). This .01 mfd condenser should be the type supplied under Stewart-Warner part No. 512311—do not use a substitute. The correct type is already incorporated in all (except the 9300 series) that do not include the letter "R" in the series coding on the rear of the chassis. 3. If the receiver has a "horizontal range" trimmer condenser, it should be screwed closed. 4. If a 6SN7GTA tube is used as the horizontal afc-blocking oscillator, replace it with a 6SN7GT. 5. Turn the receiver on and allow it to operate for fifteen minutes. 6. Set the horizontal hold control on the front of the receiver to its counter-clockwise position. 7. Remove the 6BE6 gated sync separator tube from its socket. This will cause the receiver to lose both horizontal and vertical sync. 8. If it was necessary to replace the No. 130 .01 condenser (step 2) you will probably find the receiver to be pretty far off horizontal frequency. This should be corrected by adjusting the bottom slug of the Synchroguide transformer until the picture "hunts" horizontally. In other words, the picture will remain intact and slide from side to side across the screen, but will not break into diagonal lines. If you did not replace the .01 condenser, the bottom slug of the Synchroguide transformer should not be adjusted. In this case, only the top slug need be adjusted until the hunting condition is obtained. 9. Plug the 6BE6 tube back into the socket and set the front control of the receiver to the center of its range. The picture should now remain in horizontal sync when switching channels and also remain within the range of the horizontal hold control. Sentinel TV Receiver Changes To eliminate possibility of drive lines appearing on picture, and to reduce effect on size of horizontal hold coil adjustments, make the following change (in Models 454, 455, 456, 457, 464, 465, 466, 500, 511, 512, 513, 515, 520, 521, 522, 523 and 525): Replace C-58 (a 680 mmfd fixed mica capacitor, at plate of horizontal oscillator) with a 470 mmfd fixed mica capacitor, ±10%, part no. 23E3500–40. To increase vertical size and vertical linearity control range in models 532, 542, 554, 562 and 564: If R-106 (a 270-ohm 1 watt resistor) is connected to the output side of the filter choke, connect it to the input side of the filter choke instead. This can be done simply by removing the 270 ohm 1 watt resistor from its physical position on the tie lug located in center of chassis, and connecting this resistor across the C-84 input filter condenser sections—40 mfd (half moon) and 40 mfd (square). Vertical Line in Emerson 27-in. Sets A vertical white line may appear in the picture on some 27-in. sets (chassis 120179-B, 120205-B) due to overdrive of the horizontal output tube. In the event that readjustment of the horizontal width coil, changing the 6BQ6 horizontal output tube or changing the 6W4GT damper tube does not eliminate this overdrive bar, change the value of R-74 from 330k ½ watt to 390k ½ watt. This resistor is connected to pin no. 5 of the 6SN7 horizontal oscillator. 120179-B chassis incorporating this change are coded Triangle C; 120205-B chassis, Triangle B. ...WHEN CUSTOMERS HAVE NO COMPLAINTS Tung-Sol never lets up on keeping quality up. That's why customers make fewer complaints about Tung-Sol tubes. TUNG-SOL® dependable RECEIVING TUBES TUNG-SOL makes All-Glass Sealed Beam Lamps, Miniature Lamps, Signal Flashers, Picture Tubes, Radio, TV and Special Purpose Electron Tubes and Semiconductor Products. MFRS’ Catalogs & Bulletins Hi-Fi, Audio Catalogs Five recently published catalogs present comprehensive listings of audio and Hi-Fi equipment and components for use in the home and on the professional level. Amplifiers, speakers, tape recorders, equipment housings and enclosures, microphones, record players, pickups, tuners, audio test equipment and binaural gear are some of the types of items covered. Audio Guide, Catalog T-54, 128 pages, is available from Terminal Radio Corporation, 85 Cortlandt Street, New York 7, N. Y. High Fidelity Sound Equipment 1954, 58 pages, is available from Hudson Radio and Television Corp., 48 West 48th Street, New York 36, N. Y. 1954 High Fidelity, Audio Equipment, 96 pages, is available from Sun Radio & Electronics Co., 650 Sixth Avenue, New York 11, N. Y. High Fidelity Music System Components, Catalog No. 454, 48 pages, is available from Lafayette Radio, 100 Sixth Avenue, New York 13, N. Y. 1954 Audio Handbook, 104 pages, is available from Arrow Audio Center, 65 Cortlandt Street, New York 7, N. Y. Understanding High Fidelity is a two-part, 50-page booklet the first part of which attempts to explain the how and why of quality reproduction in the home. The roles of the various parts of the system are discussed. The second part is a guide to the selection and installation of components. An appendix includes a glossary of Hi-Fi terms and a bibliography. Price, 25 cents. Available from David Bogen Co., 29 Ninth Ave., New York 14, N. Y. Mail Order Catalogs Recently published mail order catalogs listing electronic equipment and components, replacement parts and associated gear are available from Radio Shack Corporation and Newark Electric Company. Both catalogs are fully indexed and illustrated, and cover test equipment, audio and amateur gear, batteries, tubes, relays, books, connectors, wires, switches, power supplies, replacement resistors, inductors and capacitors. In addition to the main product index, the Radio Shack book has a manufacturer’s index. Both catalogs include order forms and instructions for ordering. Radio Shack Catalog 54, 226 pages, is available from Radio Shack Corporation, 167 Washington Street, Boston 8, Mass. Newark Catalog No. 56, 194 pages, available from Newark Electric Company, 223 West Madison Street, Chicago 6, Ill. Federal Selenium Handbook Design, application, specifications and circuitry are covered in the second edition of Federal's Selenium Rectifier Handbook. The 80-page booklet lists selenium rectifiers for radio and TV applications, and also covers rectifier designs and power supply circuits for use with audio amplifier, radio, and intercom systems, as well as other dc power supplies. Servicing information includes troubleshooting tables to help the technician in checking selenium rectifiers for specific troubles, as well as diagrams for setting up rectifier tests in the repair shop. Price, 50 cents. Available through distributors, or write to Federal Telephone and Radio Company, 100 Kingsland Road, Clifton, New Jersey. Jerrold Folder on Community TV Antennas A catalog folder has been issued by Jerrold Electronics Corporation, 26th & Dickinson Streets, Philadelphia, Pa., covering their new five-channel community antenna system. This new engineering development uses the present Jerrold series W equipment which distributes TV signals from three stations. New K series equipment is added to distribute two extra channels. The new catalog folder, titled "Jerrold's Five-Channel Community Antenna System," is available upon request. Miller Coil Replacement Guide The latest Miller TV Technician's Coil Replacement Guide, No. 154, is available through leading parts distributors throughout the country. This 20-page catalog lists, by set manufacturer and part number, equivalent Miller replacements for chokes, coils and transformers used in video and sound i-f, r-f, discriminator, sync and sweep circuits; also listed are peaking coils, ion traps and adjustable inductive controls. J. W. Miller Co., 5917 South Main Street, Los Angeles 3, Calif. CRT Comparison Wall Chart The TV Picture Tube Division of Sylvania Electric Products Inc. has released a new version of its handy (Continued on page 62) Catalogs & Bulletins (Continued from page 61) "TV Picture Tube Comparison Chart." The new free wall chart, brought up to date, can be obtained from the Sylvania Advertising Distribution Department, 1100 Main Street, Buffalo, N.Y. Data on more than 160 different CRT types is available at a glance. Added informational features in this new chart include ion trap listings and base diagrams. Face, body, focus, deflection angles, basings, and length-inches data on all tubes are also included. B-T TV Calculator Blonder-Tongue Labs is offering a free "TV Calculator" to TV service dealers and TV technicians. The calculator contains a scale for instant conversion of decibels to voltage gain; charts and diagrams describing various strengths of attenuator pads; a convenient channel-megacycle scale, and a table to compute TV transmission line losses at VHF and UHF channel frequencies. Available on request from Blonder-Tongue Laboratories, Inc., 526-536 North Avenue, Westfield, New Jersey. RMS UHF Antenna Bulletin Indoor and outdoor UHF antennas including yagis, bow ties and corner reflectors, are described in a six-page bulletin. Also covered are lightning arrestors and other accessories for UHF installations. Obtain copies direct from Radio Merchandise Sales, Inc., 2016 Bronxdale Ave., New York 62, N.Y. EICO Instrument Catalog The 1954 EICO Catalog lists and illustrates the complete line of EICO instruments obtainable in kit form (30 items) or factory-wired (33 items). The 12-page booklet, in addition to showing each item, breaks data down into features, specifications and applications for every listing, thus providing easy reference. Available free to TECHNICIAN readers from Electronic Instrument Co., Inc., 84 Withers Street, Brooklyn 11, New York. RMS Antenna Catalog Catalog No. 55, 32 pages, describes the manufacturer's complete line of antennas and accessories. Fully indexed by product groupings, the catalog includes information on packaging and shipping weights. A gain reference chart is also present. The booklet is 3-hole punched for easy filing in binders. It can be obtained from RMS, 2016 Bronxdale Ave., New York 62, N.Y. Say you saw it in TECHNICIAN. CBS Advertising Aids Four new business builders are being offered by CBS-Hytron to service-dealers to help them tie in with the nationally advertised Certified Quality Service program. These CQS sales aids are: An illuminated plexiglass sign for indoor use, a metal flange sign, direct-mail postal cards, and ad mats. All four sales aids are available through CBS-Hytron distributors. The illuminated sign is intended to serve as a night light, as well as a display for daytime use. The postal cards offer copy tying in with the Life-Post advertising on Certified Quality Service. They are printed on government postals, with the dealer's own three-line imprint, and are available at a nominal cost. The ad mats are purposely small, so that a service-dealer can afford to use them over and over. The mats may be obtained free. NEW BOOKS PRACTICAL COLOR TELEVISION FOR THE SERVICE INDUSTRY. Published by RCA Service Company, Inc., Camden, New Jersey. 64 pages; $2.00, paper bound. This profusely illustrated "first" in color-TV books (100 illustrations, many in full color) covers its subject in three sections. Section I begins with color principles, and includes definitions of many new terms the service technician will be confronted with. The visible color spectrum is also analyzed and broken down with respect to primary colors. The development of the transmitted color signal is next examined in detail. An overall consideration of the compatible TV color system is then presented, followed by a study of the three-gun color tube. Section II begins with a basic circuit description of a typical color receiver, and follows up with a detailed section-by-section analysis. The third section, largest in the book, offers practical information for service and installation. Information on test equipment and alignment is presented, as well as instructions to be given to the customer. Appendices to the book include a glossary of the many new terms that will enter the technician's vocabulary, a bibliography, and a complete schematic (fold-out insert) of the receiver on which the book is based. Full-color photographs of pictures seen on the CRT screen during various conditions of defective operation and misadjustment are very striking, and should prove most helpful to the technician. HOW TO TROUBLESHOOT A TV RECEIVER, by J. Richard Johnson. Published by John F. Rider, Inc., 480 Canal Street, New York 13, N.Y. 128 pages; $1.80, paper bound. Some of the topics considered in this book are: getting the most out of TV service data; preliminary observations and checks—the troubleshooting approach; use of test patterns in troubleshooting; and interpretation of distortion in the picture or raster. Tubes, tools, equipment and accessories are dealt with from a practical viewpoint. Tables in these sections are intended to guide the novice technician in assembling. (Continued on page 65) Be Sure to See Page 73 CIRCUIT DIGESTS Built for SERVICE RCA SPEAKERS Symbol of superior speaker performance HAVE YOU TRIED one of the new RCA Gold Label Speakers? Your customers will be impressed by the improvement made in their sets when you use these outstanding replacement speakers. Now available from your near-by RCA Distributor. Look for the gold label when you buy. RADIO CORPORATION of AMERICA ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS HARRISON, N.J. Rx for Ailing CRTs (Continued from page 39) 1. Flash heater at 12.5 volts for 20 seconds. 2. Age heaters at 7.5 volts for 5 minutes. 3. Repeat steps 1 and 2 three times. 4. Age for two hours at 6.3 volts, continuing to maintain B+ voltage on the grid. 5. Test the picture tube; repeat steps 1 to 4 if necessary. If emission is satisfactory after the fourth step, do not repeat to get "just a little more" because, during oxidation of the cathode powder several microns of gas are released. On old tubes, the amount of getter material remaining may not be sufficient to absorb all the released gas.—Paul Leichter, Philadelphia, Penna. Focusing Electrostatic CRT's The quality of the picture on any television receiver is to a large degree determined by the sharpness of focus of the electron beam. What can be done to improve this focus—particularly on the self-focusing (electrostatic) tubes, such as we use in the 9300 series of Stewart-Warner receivers? On these sets, no external focus control of any kind is present. The focus of the tube is, however, very much affected by the setting of the ion magnet—and there is only one correct setting for this magnet. First, it should be adjusted for maximum brightness. Within this range of maximum brightness, there is only one point of optimum focus. To obtain this point of best focus, adjust the brightness level to normal with the brightness control, and set the tuner off channel. Observe the line structure of the raster on the screen while making slight adjustments of the ion trap. You will find that there is one point at which the scanning lines appear most sharp. In obtaining this point of best focus, be sure that you do not reduce brightness. In the event that good sharp focus cannot be obtained even after careful ion trap adjustment, it is suggested that the ion trap be reversed. To do this, slide it off of the tube, turn it over and slip it back on. The magnet should be placed diametrically opposite its original position. By careful readjustment, you should now be able to obtain good, sharp focus.—(courtesy Stewart-Warner) Intermittent Pix The complaint was an intermittent picture on an Emerson Model 690B. Upon loss of picture, symptoms of poor ac filtering appeared—i.e., a dark screen except for a 3-in. band of white across it was present. By checking with a scope, I found video at the grid of the 6AC7 video amplifier, but none at the plate. Pulling the socket off the picture tube made the signal appear at the video amplifier plate. The trouble was a cathode to filament short in the 19AP4 picture tube.—(courtesy Sylvania News) Servicer Runs for Congress Carroll S. Shaw, TV specialist, 5814 Hallandale Beach Boulevard, Hollywood, Fla., whose TV repair shop on wheels was described in Nov. TECHNICIAN, writes us that he has announced his candidacy for Representative in Congress from Florida. (Two years ago Mr. Shaw was a candidate for the Florida state legislature.) Mr. Shaw also adds: "I am starting a weekly paper here in Hollywood, and only hope I can make as much on it as I do in TV service. As I spend so much time doing service, I will not have time to campaign, so I am going to sell my TV business. I hope I will not be sorry." New Books (Continued from page 63) equipment and parts stock for various needs. Minimum essentials and optional additions appear in these lists. GUIDE TO AUDIO REPRODUCTION, by David Fidelman. Published by John F. Rider, Inc., 480 Canal Street, New York 13, N. Y. 240 pages; $3.50, paper bound. For those who wish to acquire a background in the principles and techniques of sound reproduction, but who are not and do not wish to be audio specialists, this introductory book should be of considerable help. Not a layman's tract on Hi-Fi, the volume requires basic familiarity with the principles and components of electronic circuits. Beginning with the theory of sound and musical instruments, the author proceeds to the design and construction of components of quality sound systems, and the assembly of complete systems. Theory of operation, practical circuits and networks, and enclosure construction are considered. Measurement techniques and servicing procedures are also included. Mathematical considerations are simplified and kept to a minimum. TV-RADIO SERVICE LIBRARY HERE IS LATE INFORMATION IN A HANDY FORM FOR RADIO AND TELEVISION REPAIRMEN, SERVICEMEN AND STUDENTS 2 VOLS. $6.00 PAY ONLY $1.00 AUDELS TV-RADIO SERVICE LIBRARY—Highly Endorsed—1001 Facts. Over 1552 Pages—625 Illustrations—10 Diagrams of Parts. Presents Important Subjects of Modern Radio-Television Industry—Electronics, FM, Public Address Systems, Auto, Marine & Aircraft Radio, Broadcasting, TV, UHF, etc. IT PAYS TO KNOW! The Basic Principles—Construction—Installation—Operation—Repairs—Trouble Shooting. Shows How to get Sharp, Clear Pictures—Inrush Aerials—How to Test. Explains Color Systems, Methods of Coupling, etc. Includes Ultra High Frequency (UHF) TV—VHF—Quick Repair Reference & Home Study. Tells How to Solve T.V. & Radio Troubles—Answers Your Questions. Get this Information for Yourself, 7 DAY TEST—ASK TO SEE IT! --------MAIL ORDER-------- AUDELS Publishers, 25 W. 20th St., N.Y. 10, N.Y. Mail AUDELS TV-RADIO SERVICE LIBRARY 2 Vols. $6 on 7 days free trial, if O. K. I will remit $1 in 30 days and $1 monthly thereafter. I enclose $1.00 now. Send me these books. Name_____________________________________ Address___________________________________ Occupation__________________________________ Employed by_______________________________ Yes, the industry's greatest TV-electronic parts show will be held in two places simultaneously. — In CHICAGO, May 17-20, when parts, accessories and test equipment will have the spotlight at the Conrad Hilton Hotel. — In TECHNICIAN, May issue, destined to be the Greatest TV-Electronic Show on Paper. Why the Greatest Show on Paper? Because the many exclusive features planned for the May issue will surpass anything that has been done by O. H. Caldwell and M. Clements over the past 30 years. The Caldwell-Clements directories, color charts and special issues have always eclipsed anything attempted by publishers in this industry. In several respects, this TECHNICIAN Show on Paper will be more helpful than the show in Chicago, because: 1—Many key men among the busy parts distributors will not be able to see the Chicago show, and can only READ about it. 2—TECHNICIAN serves the CUSTOMERS of the parts distributors (the technicians and service managers) as well as the distributors themselves. These technicians and service managers are also vitally interested in new developments but cannot attend the show. 3—TECHNICIAN'S 50,000 circulation includes more professional servicemen and service managers than any other service trade publication—actually over 45,000. PLAN NOW TO PUT YOUR MOST EFFECTIVE ADVERTISEMENTS IN TECHNICIAN Caldwell-Clements, Inc., 480 Lexington Avenue, New York 17, N.Y. Yes, TECHNICIAN's May Issue will be the GREATEST SHOW ON PAPER Ass'n. Reports (Continued from page 53) LIETA Annual Report The Long Island Electronic Technicians Association, 88 Fourth St., Oceanside, N.Y., organized in June of 1953, has published its first annual report. Included in the paper are the program and policies of the association, which incorporates a code of ethics subscribed to by all LIETA members. The code covers employment of qualified personnel for servicing, avoidance of false claims and false advertising, standard guarantees, use of quality replacement parts in servicing, prompt and efficient servicing and treatment of customers in an equitable manner. In reporting on its other activities, LIETA discusses public service and public relations programs, monthly technical forums sponsored by the association, its own employment exchange, and its own technical library. On the agenda for future programs are liability insurance and hospitalization benefits for members, and education of the public to the technician's role in the community. RCA TV DEFLECTION COMPONENTS To restore original performance, use original RCA TV Components . . . used by leading TV set manufacturers who recognize that RCA Deflection Components set the engineering standards in the industry . . . and they cost no more! GET YOURS FROM YOUR LOCAL RCA DISTRIBUTOR THE HICKOK ELECTRICAL INSTRUMENT CO. 10523 DUPONT AVE., CLEVELAND 8, OHIO VHF-UHF Marker Generator - Crystal controlled frequency coverage from 4.25 to 225 mc on VHF — harmonic output on UHF. - Optically magnified screen permits most accurate marker setting. - Write for technical details . . . RADIO CORPORATION of AMERICA ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS HARRISON, N.J. ONE HALF MILLION SOLD! Original Snyder PHILADELPHIA UHF 3D VHF Directronic PORTABLE TV ANTENNA New Low Price! 795 FORMERLY 995 RETAILLED WITH A 5-DAY MONEY BACK GUARANTEE SNYDER SNYDER MFG. CO., PHILADELPHIA 40, U.S.A. • BELLEVUE TUBE MILL, INC., PHILADELPHIA 40, U.S.A. SNYDER ANTENN-GINEERS LTD., TORONTO, CANADA • WORLD EXPORT: ROBURN AGENCIES, INC., N.Y. TECHNICIAN • February, 1954 Circuit Digest Index (Continued from page 69) OLYMPIC Chassis TK: Models 17T40, 17T48, 17C44, 17K52, 17K42, 17K50. Chassis TL: Models 20T46, 20T47, 20C46, 20C52, 20C53, 20D41, 20K43, 20K50 30 Chassis TMTN: Models 17T56, 17C57, 17K55, 21T58, 21T59, 21T70, 21T74, 21C65, 21C68, 21C70, 21C78, 21D60, 21D64, 21K61, 21K62, 21K63 68 PACKARD-BELL Chassis 2720: Models 2721, 2722. Chassis 2710: Models 2723, 2724 60 PHILCO RF Chassis 91, Deflection chassis J-1 used in 1853 Code 156: Models 2269, 2270, 2271, 2273, 1853, 1853L, 2127, 2266, 2268, 2266, 2266, 2267 5 RF Chassis 81, Deflection Chassis H-1: Models 1853, 1856, 1826, 1830, 1852L, 2125, 2125L, 2152, 2152L, 2226, 2227, 2262, 2267, 2272L 22 R-F chassis 97, Deflection chassis J-7: Model 2760 47 All-Speed Record Changer: Model M-24 29 R-F Chassis R-201, Deflection Chassis D-201: Models 4308, 4110, 4108, 3104, 4008 69 RADIO CRAFTSMEN AM-FM Tuner C-800 28 RAYTHEON Chassis 17T1: Model M1733A, C1755A, C1736A. Chassis 17T2: Model M-1754A. Chassis 21T1: Model M-2107A, C-2106A, C-2110A, C-2111A. Chassis 21T2: Model C-2109A 16 UHF Tuner 54 Chassis 21T3: Models UM-2123, UM-2134, UM-2135, UM-2136, UM-2189, UM-2141, UM-2142, UM-2144, UM-2146 94 Chassis 21T11: Models M-2131A, C-2137A and C-2138A 114 RCA VICTOR Chassis KCS72: Models 17T200, 17T201, 17T202, 17T211, 17T220 6 UHF Selector Chassis KCS70: Model U70 42 Chassis KCS78 or KCS78B: Models 17-T-301, 17-T-302, 17-T-302U, 17-T-310, 17-T-310U 48 UHF Selector Model U2: Chassis KCS79 55 Circuit Digest No. Chassis KCS81: Models 21-D-305, 21-D-317, 21-D-326, 21-D-327, 21-D-329, 21-D-330, Chassis KCS81B: Models 21-D-321, 21-D-317U, 21-D-326U, 21-D-327U, 21-D-328U, 21-D-329U, 21-D-330U 67 Chassis KCS83C: Models 21-S-364, 21-S-362; Chassis KCS83D: Models 21-S-364U, 21-S-362U 90 Chassis KCS77D, KCS77H: Models 27-D-382U, 27-D-383U, 27-D-384U 103 REGENCY UHF Converter Model RC-600 73 SENTINEL Chassis 118: Models 454, 1U-454, 455, 1U-455, 456, 1U-456, 457, 1U-457 18 Models 1U-532, 1U-552, 1U-554 85 Models: 1U-581, 1U-582, 1U-584, 1U-585 108 SHERATON Chassis 260XL: Models T1750, T2150, T1755, T2120, T2155, C2125 81 SPARTON Chassis 25D213: Models 5342, 5343, 5382, 5383, 5384, 5386, 5390, 5391 24 Chassis 27D213: Models 5343A, 5343A, 5384A, 5384A, 5385A, 10352, 10553 40 Chassis 29U213: Models 22512, 22813, 23322, 23323 71 Kingston UHF Converter 105 STANDARD COIL Tuner Models TV-1532, TV-2232 86 STEWART-WARNER Chassis 9210: Models 9210-C, 21T-9210A, 21C-9210C 34 Models: 24C-9370A, 24C-9370AB 109 STROMBERG-CARLSON Chassis 421 series: Models 421 TX, 421 CM, 421 CDM 19 521 Series: Models 521T, 521TO, 521CM, 521CDM, 521C5M, 521C50, 521C5Dee 66 Chassis 621A series 110 SYLVANIA Chassis 1-508-1, 1-508-2: Models 172K, KU, M & MU; 175B, BU, LU, M & MU; 176B, P, PB, LU, M & MU; 177B, BU, M & MU; 178B, BU, M & MU 12 Chassis 1-504-1, 1-504-2: Models 105D, 105E, 105M, 105MU. Chassis 1-510-1, 1-510-2: Models 120B, 120BU, 120M, 120MU, 126B, 126BU, 126L, 126LU, 126M, 126MU 35 Circuit Digest No. Chassis 1-509-1, 1-509-2: Models 187B, BU, M, MU 41 UHF Converter Models C31M, C32M, C33M 87 Chassis 1-518-1, -2, -3: Models 175-18, 372, 373, 376, 376, 377 97 TRAV-LER Chassis 36A2: Models 217-32, 217-33, 220-35, 221-36 27 TRUETONE Model 2D144A 61 Chassis 21T2A: Model 2D1326A 98 MONTGOMERY WARD Manual 4107A: Model 25WG-3056A 36 Auto Radio, Model 35BR-6786A 93 WEBSTER-CHICAGO Webcor Model 210 Tape Recorder 62 WESTINGHOUSE Chassis V-2297-1: Model H-706T16. Chassis V-2220-1: Model H-708T20 11 Model H-803 all channel UHF Tuner 56 Chassis V-2208-1: Model H-716T17 63 Chassis Assembly V-2233-4; Models H-746K21, H-747K21 78 Chassis V-2243-1: Models H-770T21, H-771T21, H-772T21, H-773K21, H-774K21, H-776K21, H-776T21 99 Chassis Assembly V-2250-1: Models H-816K24 and H-817K24 115 ZENITH Chassis 19K22: Models K1812E, K1812R. Chassis 19K20: Models K1815E, K1815R, K1820E, K1820R, K1846E, K1846R, K1850E, K1850R, K1852E, K1852R, K1856E, Models K220R, K2258R, K2286R, K2288E. Chassis 21K20: Models K2230E, K2230R, K2240R, K2240E, K2248R, K2263E, K2266, K2266R, K2267E, K2268R, K2270R, K2270R, K2287R, K2290R, K2291E 7 VHF-UHF Turret Tuner 57 Portable Radio Chassis 5142: Model L507 79 Chassis 25L50: Models L2971R, L2572R, L2573E, L2574R, L2575E, L2592R, L2593H, L2876E, L2878R, L2878R, L2879E, L2894HU 88 BASIC ALIGNMENT DATA 8 Copyright 1954 by Caldwell-Clements, Inc. ADVERTISERS INDEX FEBRUARY, 1954 Admiral Corp. ........................................... 6 American Phenolic Corp. .............................. 50 Astatic Corp. ............................................. 14 Audel Publishers ......................................... 65 Brach Manufacturing Corp. ............................ 60 CBS-Hytron Div. Columbia Broadcasting System, Inc. . 16 Caldwell-Clements, Inc. .................................. 66 Channel Master Corp. ................................. 10, 11 Cornell-Dubilier Electric Corp. ....................... 63 Davis Electronics ........................................ 17 Finney Co. ................................................ 19 Fretco, Inc. .............................................. 71 General Industries Co. ................................. 64 Granco Products Inc. .................................... 18 Hickok Electrical Instrument Co. ..................... 67 International Rectifier Corp. .......................... 65 International Resistance Co. .......................... Cover 2 Kester Solder Co. ........................................ 71 Mallory & Co., Inc., P. R. ............................. 13 Marit Coil & Transformer Corp. ....................... 2-5 Miller Television Co. .................................... 57 Philco Corp. .............................................. 72 Precision Apparatus Co., Inc. ........................ 55 Pyramid Electric Co. .................................... 52 Radiart Corp. ............................................. 8, 9 Radio City Products Co., Inc. ........................ 61 Radio Corp. of America ................................. 15, 63, 65, 67, Cover 4 Raytheon Manufacturing Co. ........................... 7 Rider Publisher, Inc. John F. .......................... 67 Snyder Manufacturing Co. .............................. 68 South River Metal Products Co., Inc. ................. 61 Sprague Products Co. ................................... Cover 3 Sylvania Electric Products Inc. ....................... 20 Tech-Master Products Co. ............................. 62 Tung-Sol Electric Inc. .................................. 58, 59 United Catalog Publishers, Inc. ....................... 60 Walsco Electronics Corp. .............................. 49 Westinghouse Electric Corp. .......................... 12 While every precaution is taken to insure accuracy, we cannot guarantee against the possibility of an occasional change or omission in the preparation of this index. TECHNICIAN • February, 1954 NOW! Use Your Present Signal Generator for UHF! NEW! PHILCO Signal Generator Adapter (VHF to UHF) Individually Calibrated For Extreme Accuracy Now produce UHF signals for TV receiver tests at a fraction of the cost of a UHF generator. Individual calibration guarantees extreme accuracy of UHF frequency. Any VHF signal generator output at 60 MC is converted by the PHILCO Model G-8000-C to UHF. The VHF sweep or marker signal beats against the UHF oscillator, producing UHF signals with the same characteristics as the VHF input signal. It's economical...it's a PHILCO exclusive! Look at These Philco Features... 1. The VHF signal generator output attenuator controls the UHF output signal level. 2. Precision Vernier Dial for accurate re-settings. 3. Each unit is hand calibrated. 4. Functions as an external UHF converter by connecting UHF antenna transmission line to generator's output terminal and connecting lead to TV receiver tuned to 60 MC Channel 3. 5. High UHF levels, excellent stability, no drift. AVAILABLE THROUGH YOUR PHILCO DISTRIBUTOR ON A NEW SPECIAL PAYMENT PLAN Take advantage of the great SHARE and PROFIT Program on Philco Receiving Tubes Parts and Accessories NOW AT YOUR PHILCO DISTRIBUTOR PHILCO ACCESSORY SHARE and PROFIT PROGRAM SPRING SEASON 1954 (92 total pages in this issue, including Circuit Digests Section) TECHNICIAN • February, 1954 WAVEFORM DATA* Waveforms are shown on the control panel only to the right, all other controls are in normal position except D5 Range Finder control which is set for maximum range. A slight increase adjustment of the D5 Range Finder control will cause waveform distortion. Waveforms at video and sync stages obtained with transmitter signal applied to antenna terminals. The oscillator sweep is adjusted for 30 cycles (which is control of the horizontal frequency) so that two pulses appear on the screen. The peak-to-peak voltage of the sync pulses should be approximately 10 volts. Check the oscillator and parts interchange. FUSE LOCATION The horizontal output circuit is fused with a 5 amp, 250 volt fuse, part number 6AA4.3 which is located on the top side of the chassis. --- NOTE: To read schematic for 20A2 and 20A2Z chassis, use sections in heavy dotted lines and connect appropriate points indicated in text used etc. --- SCHEMATIC NOTES Rin numbers are rubber stamped at the rear of the chassis. (6) (7) (8) etc. indicate alignment points and alignment convenient. --- RADIO-PHONO SECTION --- 20A2 & 20A2Z CHASSIS --- CIRCUIT BELOW DOTTED LINE FOR 20A2 & 20A2Z CHASSIS --- TV TUNER 94Q46-4 --- ADMIRAL ANTENNAS AND TRANSMISSION LINES The input impedance of this receiver is 300 ohms balanced between antenna terminals. When connecting an external antenna for VHF reception, use a then-flat transmission line such as Admiral 20A2Z or similar type. For VHF and UHF reception, use 300 ohm tubular transmission line such as Admiral 20A2Z or similar type. For UHF reception in areas of high humidity or high salt content, use 210 ohm coaxial transmission line such as Admiral 20A2Z. In VHF installations where the transmission line passes through areas of heavy electrical interference, the use of 75 ohm flat coaxial transmission line will help reduce the interference. When using 75 ohm coaxial transmission line connections, connect the shield of the coaxial cable to the outer conductor to either antenna terminal; use the terminal which gives the best modulation and picture signal strength. In all signal areas, the use of coaxial cable should be avoided. For indoor television installations, we recommend any of the following antennas which may be obtained from your Admiral distributor: Antenna AN500 (singleagi) or AN501 (twinagi) provides excellent all-channel reception for VHF channels in most metropolitan or suburban locations. Antenna AN502 (quadagi) provides excellent all-channel, excellent all-channel reception for VHF and UHF channels if the antenna is located within 20 miles of the transmitter. For all channel UHF reception only, within 20 miles, use antenna kit AN504 (three tie and reflector). For long range reception up to 100 miles, use antenna AN505 (four tie and reflector). Each kit contains detailed installation instructions. Complete information on these antennas, including map of particular areas, radiation patterns, etc., is given in the "Admiral Antenna Catalog." --- ADJUST VHF CHANNEL SLUGS For purposes of simplicity, in these instructions, the VHF receiver's Channel Selector will be called Local Channel Selector and the VHF Fine Tuning control will be called Fine Tuning tab. Individual VHF channel slug adjustment for each VHF station reception should be made before shipping or servicing. If this adjustment is properly made, it is possible to tune from one VHF station to another by turning the Local Channel Selector. After making the individual slug adjustment, best picture and adequate sound will be located at the center of the center (half rotation) of the range of the Fine Tuning tab. VHF channel slug adjustment can be made without removing the set from the cabinet. Adjust as follows: a. Turn the set on and allow 15 minutes to warm up. b. Set the Local Channel Selector for station, set other controls for normal picture and sound. c. Set the Fine Tuning tab at center of its range by rotating it one-half turn. d. Remove the Channel knobs and Fine Tuning tab. e. Insert a small screwdriver or similar tool adjacent to the channel tuning shaft on the front panel illustration. With the tool held against the shaft, carefully adjust the channel slug for best picture. (Note that this may require a half rotation.) The tool is located so as to be sure that the Fine Tuning tab is set at the center of its range before adjusting the channel slug. If the tool is tight against the shaft, no effort will be required; turning the slug will cause the tool to fall onto the shaft. If the tool falls onto the coil, remove the chassis from the cabinet and remove the coil from the tuner drum. Move the slug retaining spring aside, lightly tap the slug with a soft hammer and replace spring. Replace and reset slug retaining spring. CAUTION NOTICE The regular B+ voltages are dangerous and precaution should be taken when the chassis is removed from the cabinet for service. The high voltage supply (150,000 volts) at the picture tube will give an unpleasant shock to anyone who touches it. A pair of rubber gloves or heavy household insulating rubber reactions to otherwise harmless shocks have been known to cause injury. Always disconnect the picture tube before servicing the chassis. The high voltage generating circuitry is extremely dangerous and extreme caution should be observed. The picture tube is highly evacuated and if broken, glass fragments will be violently expelled. When handling the picture tube always wear goggles. --- INTRODUCTION The following alignment data is divided into two separate procedures because of the extremely high adjacent channel trap attenuation, the conventional method of setting traps in the 400-cycle range becomes difficult. Hence all traps shall be pre-set by means of a sweep generator modulated signal and adjusted for minimum signal output. The second portion of this procedure involves the setting of traps in the 400-cycle range with conventional means by the application of a sweep generator modulated signal. In order to minimize the usual precautions regarding warm-up time, equipment lead dress and generator output cable termination. --- TRAP ALIGNMENT GENERAL: As noted above, an AM signal is required for trap alignment. In some cases, the technician will require a suitable AM signal generator available. It should cover the range of 3 to 48 megacycles as these frequencies are used for transmitting 400-cycle modulation. When this type of signal is used, the technician may observe the 400-cycle 400-cycle signal as observed on the oscilloscope. Owners of General Electric sweep alignment equipment may obtain the necessary frequencies and carrier frequencies by a simple manipulation of the sweep control. Those technicians who do not have either of the above equipment available will set the traps by using a 4.5 mc test signal with the exception that the video amplifier 4.5 mc trap (L60), the traps will be set with the 4.5 mc test signal without any changes. The above-mentioned 4.5 mc trap may be swept through the 400-cycle range. This 4.5 mc sweep signal should be used in step 3, below. The traps should be set with the 4.5 mc test signal. The 4.5 mc which should be crystal marker calibrated. Obtaining AM Output From G-1 Sweep Equipment The General Electric G-1 Sweep Generator will provide 400-cycle amplitude modulated sweep signals with full signal strength as follows: 1. Turn the sweep generator sweep width control fully counter-clockwise. This will provide a steady (zero sweep) carrier. 2. Turn the marker generator "on" and set the dial to the desired frequency (+/- 50.0 mc, +/-.5 mc or +/-.1 mc). 3. Slowly tune the sweep generator through the 400-cycle range. As the 400-cycle carrier is approached, a strong beat signal will be observed on the oscilloscope. At this point, zero beat condition will be nulling, on each side of the 400-cycle carrier. The sweep generator back-and-forth frequency drift may be noted. If this drift is insignificant and may be disregarded. 4. Turn off the marker output. 5. Apply this AM signal according to the instructions given below. 6. The signal observed on the oscilloscope appears as the parallel lines. When the traps are properly set, the parallel lines on the oscilloscope will be at a minimum. NOTE: It may be necessary to adjust the output of the sweep generator and maximum oscilloscope gain to observe proper trap tuning. NOTES: 1. Remove V121 plate cap. Temporarily connect a 200-ohm, .05-watt resistor from V-205 to chassis. 2. Remove V139 from its socket. 3. Turn the Volume control to minimum and the Brightness control to maximum. Turn the Brightness control fully counter-clockwise. 4. Set Channel Selector to channel 11 position. Turn the Volume control to its maximum counter-clockwise position. 5. Connect oscilloscope to test point #5 (pin -1). 6. Allow receiver and test equipment to warm up for 30 minutes. Refer to figure 4 for trimmer location. Align. --- STEP \| AM-GENERATOR INPUT PINS \| AM-GENERATOR FREQUENCY \| ADJUST FOR MINIMUM OUTPUT \| REMARKS \| \|--------------------------\|------------------------\|---------------------------\|---------\| \| Test Point #1 \| 41.75 mc \| L153 \| \| \| \| 47.25 mc \| L153 \| \| \| \| 36.0 mc \| L152 \| \| \| Test Point #4 \| 4.5 mc \| L160 \| \| TRAP ALIGNMENT CHART STEP \| CONNECT G-1 SWEEP GENERATOR \| ADJUST \| INDICATE I-F PULSE \| REMARKS \| \|------------------------------\|--------\|-------------------\|---------\| \| Into Test Point #2 \| 7151 \| For proper 42.0 mc resonance. \| Take indicated adjustments to obtain maximum gain condition. \| \| 400.0 mc, Center Frequency \| 7152 \| For proper +/- 5 mc resonance. \| Curve must extend beyond 45.0 mc. \| \| approx. 4.0 mc, Width approx.\| 7153 \| For zero beat condition. \| Peak of curve may extend beyond 45.0 mc. \| \| 10 mc \| \| \| \| STEP \| CONNECT G-1 SWEEP GENERATOR \| ADJUST \| INDICATE I-F PULSE \| REMARKS \| \|------------------------------\|--------\|-------------------\|---------\| \| Into Test Point #1 and connect thru 100 ohm resistor. \| 7154 and 7155 \| For maximum gain and proper marker position. \| Take maximum gain and proper marker position. Peak of curve should extend beyond +/- 5.0 mc marker. \| \| Sweep freq. 400.0 mc, Sweep width approx. 10 mc. \| \| \| \| STEP \| CONNECT G-1 SWEEP GENERATOR \| ADJUST \| INDICATE I-F PULSE \| REMARKS \| \|------------------------------\|--------\|-------------------\|---------\| \| Into 8-B Power Input thru balanced 100 ohm line and connect to test point #2-13. Sweep within approx. 10 mc. \| 7166 (8-B Tuner) \| Align for proper "tilt" on channel 11. \| Take indicated adjustments so that each channel will have more than 20% "tilt" with the 4.5 mc test signal to provide the proper sound and picture I-F markers. \| \| 4.5 mc, Sweep width approx. 10 mc. \| \| \| \| STEP \| CONNECT G-1 SWEEP GENERATOR \| ADJUST \| INDICATE I-F PULSE \| REMARKS \| \|------------------------------\|--------\|-------------------\|---------\| \| Into 8-B Power Input thru balanced 100 ohm line and connect to test point #2-13. Sweep within approx. 10 mc. \| 7166 (8-B Tuner) \| Align for proper "tilt" on channels 8-8. Check each channel. If marker amplitude is correct, each channel will have no more than 20% "tilt" with the 4.5 mc test signal to provide the proper sound and picture I-F markers. \| Take indicated adjustments so that each channel will have more than 20% "tilt" with the 4.5 mc test signal to provide the proper sound and picture I-F markers. \| \| 4.5 mc, Sweep width approx. 10 mc. \| \| \| \| NOTES: 1. Turn Picture Contrast control to minimum. 2. Connect oscilloscope to test point #3 (junction of test leads). Correct any error as test point #3 in publication 5-177. 3. Apply a negative 6-volt battery bias voltage to test point #3. Connect positive lead of battery to chassis. 4. Calibrate the vertical gain of the oscilloscope to provide a 1-inch deflection with applied 400-cycle signal. 5. Note that the following procedure uses +/- 50 mc as 100% reference point. Maintain the sweep generator frequency within +/- 50 mc of the marker amplitude equals 2 inches. Align as follows: WARNING At all times during operation the chassis is at 125 volts DC potential above ground and if also may be at the line voltage potential depending on how the line card plug is inserted in the power receptacle. Extreme caution must be observed when working with the chassis outside the cabinet and when power is applied to the receiver with the cabinet back removed. SEVERE SHOCK may result from contact with chassis. An isolation transformer between the line plug and power receptacle must be used when service is required, or when an AC line shock hazard. Damage to the receiver and test equipment may result without the use of an isolation transformer. --- REPLACEMENT PARTS LIST \| Ref No \| Part No \| Description \| \|--------\|---------\|-------------\| \| C200 \| BG-1492 \| 1000 mfd. ceramic disc \| \| C202 A \| BG-1474 \| 0.20 mfd. dual trimmer \| \| C203 \| BG-1486 \| 1000 mfd. ceramic disc \| \| C204 \| BG-1475 \| 0.005 mfd. ceramic disc \| \| C205 \| BG-1476 \| 0.005 mfd. ceramic disc \| \| C206 \| BG-1477 \| 1000 mfd. ceramic disc \| \| C207 \| BG-1478 \| 1000 mfd. ceramic disc \| \| C208 \| BG-1479 \| 1000 mfd. ceramic disc \| \| C209 \| BG-1480 \| 1000 mfd. ceramic disc \| \| C210 \| BG-1481 \| 1000 mfd. ceramic disc \| \| C211 \| BG-1482 \| 1000 mfd. ceramic disc \| \| C212 \| BG-1494/2 \| 1 mfd. ceramic disc \| \| C213 \| BG-1495/2 \| 1 mfd. ceramic disc \| \| C214 \| BG-1496/2 \| 1 mfd. ceramic disc \| \| C215 \| BG-1497/2 \| 1 mfd. ceramic disc \| \| C216 \| BG-1498/2 \| 1 mfd. ceramic disc \| \| C217 \| BG-1499/2 \| 1 mfd. ceramic disc \| \| C218 \| BG-1500/2 \| 1 mfd. ceramic disc \| \| C219 \| BG-1501/2 \| 1 mfd. ceramic disc \| \| C220 \| BG-1502/2 \| 1 mfd. ceramic disc \| \| C221 \| BG-1503/2 \| 1 mfd. ceramic disc \| \| C222 \| BG-1504/2 \| 1 mfd. ceramic disc \| \| C223 \| BG-1505/2 \| 1 mfd. ceramic disc \| \| C224 \| BG-1506/2 \| 1 mfd. ceramic disc \| \| C225 \| BG-1507/2 \| 1 mfd. ceramic disc \| \| C226 \| BG-1508/2 \| 1 mfd. ceramic disc \| \| C227 \| BG-1509/2 \| 1 mfd. ceramic disc \| \| C228 \| BG-1510/2 \| 1 mfd. ceramic disc \| \| C229 \| BG-1511/2 \| 1 mfd. ceramic disc \| \| C230 \| BG-1512/2 \| 1 mfd. ceramic disc \| \| C231 \| BG-1513/2 \| 1 mfd. ceramic disc \| Capacitors \| Ref No \| Part No \| Description \| \|--------\|---------\|-------------\| \| R200 \| 981-74 \| 4700 ohm 10 watt 10% \| \| R201 \| 981-75 \| 10K ohm 10 watt 10% \| \| R202 \| 981-76 \| 10K ohm 10 watt 10% \| \| R203 \| 981-77 \| 10K ohm 10 watt 10% \| \| R204 \| 981-78 \| 10K ohm 10 watt 10% \| \| R205 \| 981-79 \| 10K ohm 10 watt 10% \| \| R206 \| 981-80 \| 10K ohm 10 watt 10% \| \| R207 \| 981-81 \| 10K ohm 10 watt 10% \| \| R208 \| 981-82 \| 10K ohm 10 watt 10% \| \| R209 \| 981-83 \| 10K ohm 10 watt 10% \| Resistors \| Ref No \| Part No \| Description \| \|--------\|---------\|-------------\| \| C300 \| BG-1492 \| 1000 mfd. ceramic disc \| \| C302 \| BG-1474 \| 0.20 mfd. dual trimmer \| \| C303 \| BG-1486 \| 1000 mfd. ceramic disc \| \| C304 \| BG-1475 \| 0.005 mfd. ceramic disc \| \| C305 \| BG-1476 \| 0.005 mfd. ceramic disc \| \| C306 \| BG-1477 \| 1000 mfd. ceramic disc \| \| C307 \| BG-1478 \| 1000 mfd. ceramic disc \| \| C308 \| BG-1479 \| 1000 mfd. ceramic disc \| \| C309 \| BG-1480 \| 1000 mfd. ceramic disc \| \| C310 \| BG-1481 \| 1000 mfd. ceramic disc \| \| C311 \| BG-1482 \| 1000 mfd. ceramic disc \| \| C312 \| BG-1494/2 \| 1 mfd. ceramic disc \| \| C313 \| BG-1495/2 \| 1 mfd. ceramic disc \| \| C314 \| BG-1496/2 \| 1 mfd. ceramic disc \| \| C315 \| BG-1497/2 \| 1 mfd. ceramic disc \| \| C316 \| BG-1498/2 \| 1 mfd. ceramic disc \| \| C317 \| BG-1499/2 \| 1 mfd. ceramic disc \| \| C318 \| BG-1500/2 \| 1 mfd. ceramic disc \| \| C319 \| BG-1501/2 \| 1 mfd. ceramic disc \| \| C320 \| BG-1502/2 \| 1 mfd. ceramic disc \| \| C321 \| BG-1503/2 \| 1 mfd. ceramic disc \| \| C322 \| BG-1504/2 \| 1 mfd. ceramic disc \| \| C323 \| BG-1505/2 \| 1 mfd. ceramic disc \| \| C324 \| BG-1506/2 \| 1 mfd. ceramic disc \| \| C325 \| BG-1507/2 \| 1 mfd. ceramic disc \| \| C326 \| BG-1508/2 \| 1 mfd. ceramic disc \| \| C327 \| BG-1509/2 \| 1 mfd. ceramic disc \| \| C328 \| BG-1510/2 \| 1 mfd. ceramic disc \| \| C329 \| BG-1511/2 \| 1 mfd. ceramic disc \| \| C330 \| BG-1512/2 \| 1 mfd. ceramic disc \| \| C331 \| BG-1513/2 \| 1 mfd. ceramic disc \| Capacitors \| Ref No \| Part No \| Description \| \|--------\|---------\|-------------\| \| R300 \| 982-74 \| 4700 ohm 10 watt 10% \| \| R301 \| 982-75 \| 10K ohm 10 watt 10% \| \| R302 \| 982-76 \| 10K ohm 10 watt 10% \| \| R303 \| 982-77 \| 10K ohm 10 watt 10% \| \| R304 \| 982-78 \| 10K ohm 10 watt 10% \| \| R305 \| 982-79 \| 10K ohm 10 watt 10% \| \| R306 \| 982-80 \| 10K ohm 10 watt 10% \| \| R307 \| 982-81 \| 10K ohm 10 watt 10% \| \| R308 \| 982-82 \| 10K ohm 10 watt 10% \| \| R309 \| 982-83 \| 10K ohm 10 watt 10% \| Resistors \| Ref No \| Part No \| Description \| \|--------\|---------\|-------------\| \| L302 \| 15A-1473 \| Ferrite choke coil \| \| L303 \| 15A-1474 \| Ferrite choke coil \| \| L304 \| 15A-1475 \| Ferrite choke coil \| \| L305 \| 15A-1476 \| Ferrite choke coil \| \| L306 \| 15A-1477 \| Ferrite choke coil \| \| L307 \| 15A-1478 \| Ferrite choke coil \| \| L308 \| 15A-1479 \| Ferrite choke coil \| \| L309 \| 15A-1480 \| Ferrite choke coil \| \| L310 \| 201-15408 \| RF choke coil \| \| L311 \| 15A-1481 \| Ferrite choke coil \| \| L312 \| 15A-1471 \| Peaking coil \| \| L313 \| 15A-1472 \| Peaking coil \| \| L314 \| 15A-1473 \| Peaking coil \| \| L315 \| 301-30314 \| Peaking coil \| Chokes, Transformers, Coils \| Ref No \| Part No \| Description \| \|--------\|---------\|-------------\| \| L302 \| 15A-1473 \| Ferrite choke coil \| \| L303 \| 15A-1474 \| Ferrite choke coil \| \| L304 \| 15A-1475 \| Ferrite choke coil \| \| L305 \| 15A-1476 \| Ferrite choke coil \| \| L306 \| 15A-1477 \| Ferrite choke coil \| \| L307 \| 15A-1478 \| Ferrite choke coil \| \| L308 \| 15A-1479 \| Ferrite choke coil \| \| L309 \| 15A-1480 \| Ferrite choke coil \| \| L310 \| 201-15408 \| RF choke coil \| \| L311 \| 15A-1481 \| Ferrite choke coil \| \| L312 \| 15A-1471 \| Peaking coil \| \| L313 \| 15A-1472 \| Peaking coil \| \| L314 \| 15A-1473 \| Peaking coil \| \| L315 \| 301-30314 \| Peaking coil \| Miscellaneous \| Ref No \| Part No \| Description \| \|--------\|---------\|-------------\| \| 2D-22151 \| Chassis built bracket \| \| 2D-22152 \| Chassis built bracket \| \| 15C-14007 \| T.p.m. tube socket \| \| 201-15403 \| 100 ohm potentiometer \| \| 158-10440 \| RF power socket \| --- SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM --- Models: M-2131A, C-2137A & C-2135A The horizontal ringing coil (L400) should be adjusted as follows: 1. Short out the ringing coil with a short jumper wire. 2. Set the horizontal hold control to the middle of its range and leave it in this position during the steps that follow. 3. Connect a 500 ohm resistor in the No. 2 grid circuit of the horizontal multivibrator, so as to ensure the TV will not oscillate. 4. With the receiver tuned to a TV station, adjust C41 located on the rear of the chassis for a 1 volt deflection on the screen. The ring frequency is approximated but not quite reached at one extreme of C41's adjustment. Now turn the horizontal hold control slightly to one side of midpoint and then back again. The receiver should pull into horizontal synchronization with the channel. 5. Remove the jumper from across the ringing coil. Adjust the ringing coil for a 1 volt on the meter, and check the adjustment by switching to another channel and then back again. The receiver should pull into horizontal synchronization with all channels. ALIGNMENT IF AMPLIFIER TUBE To adjust the tubes in the common IF transformers a special tool is required. This tool must fit into the slot in the transformer. If an improperly designed tool is used, the transformer will cause shipping of the slug. COMMON IF ALIGNMENT PROCEDURE The common IF system uses over-coupled IF transformers to obtain the required band width. In the alignment procedure type 6J5 or 6J6 dual-triode stage-by-stage alignment is used. A sweep generator is used to generate the signal which is applied to the coils, and an oscilloscope (sawtooth) is used to provide good frequency indications on the curve. With some of the IF transformers, peaks may be obtained when the slug is turned counterclockwise. If a transformer is badly out of adjustment, it is advisable to remove the slug completely and turn it as far as possible before beginning alignment. Then turn the slug back to the point where the peak is obtained. This procedure is recommended to obtain the correct peak rather than the maximum response which is sometimes obtained when the slug is turned farther clockwise. THE ALIGNMENT FREQUENCY TO BE SET IS GIVEN IN THE FOLLOWING STEPS: 1. To avoid undesirable response during alignment, remove the RF amplifier tube from its socket and rotate the channel selector to channel 13. 2. Connect the vertical input of the oscilloscope to the element labeled "Sweep" (Fig. 3) through the network shown in Fig. 5. The oscillator is set to the frequency of the sweep (grounding) output from the sweep generator. The oscillator is connected to the control on the oscilloscope to the "on" or "off" position. 3. Connect the negative terminal of a 9 volt battery to the "B" terminal of the IF amplifier and connect the positive terminal to chassis ground. 4. Connect the output of the sweep generator to the sweep generator output so that the two signals are applied to the same IF amplifier and the same tubes that follow. Some sweep generators have facilities for applying the sweep signal directly to the IF amplifier. With Jar sweep generators, the marker generator is used to drive a pair of low turns of insulated wire around the center conductor of the coaxial cable. The coaxial cable is then connected to the marker generator to this wire. The loose coupling obtained makes it necessary to use a high impedance marker signal indicator will furnish IF response curves. 5. Adjust the sweep generator for a center frequency of 15 mc. with a sweep deviation of 10 mc. 6. Connect the high side of the sweep generator output to the grid of the 1st IF amplifier (common IF transformer), T302, until the all mc. marker falls on the top of the response curve of the 1st IF amplifier. Connect the ground side of the cable to the ground point for the 1st IF amplifier tube. Keep the leads from the cable as short as possible. 7. Detune the plate circuit of the 1st and 2nd IF amplifiers by attaching alligator or similar type clips to the plate circuits of the 1st and 2nd IF amplifiers. Use CARE TO AVOID SHOCK. This step is necessary to prevent distortion of the signal that is applied to the 2nd IF grid. 8. Adjust the oscilloscope vertical gain and the sweep generator sweep deviation to obtain a good curve on the oscilloscope. To avoid a distorted curve, the receiver should be adjusted for maximum IF amplifier gain and only enough sweep amplitude to obtain a good curve. 9. Set the marker generator to 15 mc. with the output attenuated until the marker pip is barely visible on the screen. Connect the marker generator to the center of the flat response region, the 6J5 or 6J6 IF amplifier. Adjust the marker generator to 15 mc. and adjust the primary and secondary of T302 if necessary to obtain a symmetrical response curve. 10. Remove the detuning clips that were attached in step 7. 11. Disconnect the sweep generator from the grid of the 1st IF amplifier. 12. Connect a signal generator that has an output of .02 volts or higher to the grid of the 1st IF amplifier. Connect the output of the signal generator to the common IF transformer, T302, until the all mc. marker falls on the top of the response curve of the 1st IF amplifier. 13. Connect the high side of the sweep generator output to the plate central grid of the 2nd IF amplifier. Connect the ground side of the cable to the chassis ground point. Adjust the sweep generator so a sine wave response is visible on the oscilloscope. 14. Adjust the adjacent channel sound trap, L50, for maximum response on the oscilloscope. 15. Adjust the adjacent channel sound trap, L50, for maximum response on the oscilloscope. NOTE: IF A SIGNAL GENERATOR IS NOT AVAILABLE, THE RESPONSE CURVE OF THE 1ST AND 2ND IF AMPLIFIERS WITH A PIP OF 15 MC. AND 10 MC. SWEEP CAN BE ADJUSTED BY TUNING THE RECEIVER TO THE CHANNEL ON WHICH THE PIP IS CENTERED. THIS METHOD IS NOT AS ACCURATE AS USING A SIGNAL GENERATOR. FULL ADJUSTING THE PIP TUNING CONTROL TO ITS COOLEST POSITION WILL GIVE THE BEST RESULTS WHEN THE ADJACENT CHANNEL SOUND INTERFERENCE IS MINIMIZED. 15. Attach a detuning clip to the plate of the 1st IF amplifier. Detune the 1st IF amplifier to obtain a symmetrical response curve using the calibrated signal generator connections. 16. Connect the high side of the sweep generator output to the plate central grid of the 2nd IF amplifier. Connect the ground side of the cable to the chassis ground point. Adjust the sweep generator so a sine wave response is visible on the oscilloscope. 17. Adjust the adjacent channel sound trap, L50, for maximum response on the oscilloscope. 18. Make certain that the curve corresponds to Fig. 3. If not, adjust the 1st IF amplifier so that the flat response region (14.525 mc. and 14.775 mc.) must have equal heights, and the 15 mc. and 15.125 mc. peaks are equal. Then re-adjust the primary and secondary of T302 if necessary. 19. Remove the detuning clip from plate of the 1st IF amplifier. 20. Move the sweep output connection from the grid of the 2nd IF amplifier to the grid of the last IF amplifier, and move the ground side of the cable to the chassis ground point. The setting of L50 will affect the response curve of the 2nd IF amplifier tube. 21. Connect the high side of the sweep generator output to the plate central grid of the 2nd IF amplifier. Connect the ground side of the cable to the chassis ground point. Adjust the sweep generator so a sine wave response is visible on the oscilloscope. 22. Detune L50 located on the tuner by rotating the detuning screw. The detuning of L50 (at the setting of L50) will affect the waveform in the following steps. (Continued on reverse side) Alignment Charts The information in these charts is condensed from the foregoing detailed information as a convenience to the service technician. It is recommended that the detailed information be studied before using the charts. COMMON I-F SECTION Route the channel selector to channel 13. Connect the oscilloscope to the video test terminal, point "B" on Fig. 3, through the decoupling network shown in Fig. 5. Connect 0.5 volt battery to the AGC line, point "A" on Fig. 9. Couple the marker generator output to the sweep generator output. In the steps that follow, move the marker to check the response curve at the frequencies indicated on Fig. 8. \| Step \| Alignment Signal \| Remarks \| Adjust \| \|------\|------------------\|---------\|--------\| \| 1. \| Remove the RF amplifier tube. \| \| \| \| 2. \| 44 mc. sweep to 2nd IF grid. \| Connect decoupling clips to 1st & 2nd IF plates. \| Freq. of 1300 cps max. response on set; set T100 for symmetrical case shown in Fig. 6A. \| \| 3. \| 47.25 mc., unmodulated. \| Use sufficient signal to produce a narrow response on oscilloscope. \| 302 for min. response on set. \| \| 4. \| 44 mc. sweep to 1st IF grid. \| \| \| \| 5. \| 44 mc. sweep to 1st IF grid. \| Decouple L100 before adjusting T300. \| Freq. of 1300 cps max. response on set; set T100 for symmetrical case shown in Fig. 6A. \| \| 6. \| 44 mc. sweep to 1st IF grid. \| \| \| \| 7. \| Replace the RF amplifier tube. \| Freq. matching earthed circuit and 1301 for max. dc. marker amplitude. See Fig. 6C. \| SOUND I-F SECTION AND 4.5 MC. TRAP Connect the signal generator to the video test terminal (point "B" on Fig. 3) through 0.001 mfd. capacitor. \| Step \| Signal Gen. \| VTVM Connections \| Remarks \| Adjust \| \|------\|-------------\|------------------\|---------\|--------\| \| 1. \| 4.5 Mc. FM modulated \| Connect probe to point "C" (see Fig. 3) and connect lead to chassis. \| Use strong signal from generator. \| L300 for minimum voltage drop. \| \| 2. \| 4.5 Mc. FM modulated \| Access volume control \| Use strong signal from generator. \| L200 for maximum output. \| \| 3. \| Same as step 2 \| Same as step 2 \| Use weakest signal from generator. \| L200, L201 and L202 for maximum output. \| \| 4. \| 4.5 Mc. Am 50% Mod. \| Same as step 2 \| Input with zero signal increase as adjustment is made. \| Operating control for fig. 10. \| SOUND SYSTEM LOCATION The removed oscillator (1340 or 1350 crystal) and its associated components are located in the 3rd IF transformer housing. The crystal, L104 and C111 can be replaced without removing the 3rd IF transformer. The replacement should be exactly the same as the original crystal. The crystal holder must be carefully applied to the correct dimensions. In the event that the oscillator crystal is not available, a suitable replacement may be used for this adjustment. This control determines the frequency of the oscillator. The oscillator is tuned to its correct setting is normally about mid-position. DO NOT USE TESTING CONTROL AT ITS MID-POSITION. DO NOT USE TESTING CONTROL AT ITS MID-POSITION. SOUND ALIGNMENT PROCEDURE 1. Connect the high side of the signal generator to the video test terminal (L1-L10 on Fig. 3) through a 0.001 mfd. capacitor, and ground the low side to the chassis. 2. Adjust the signal generator to 4.5 mc. (unmodulated). This frequency is very important. If a crystal oscillator's signal generator is used, the oscillator should be checked with an accurate frequency meter. 3. Connect the common lead of the VTVM to the chassis and couple the other probe to the outside of the CRT. This point is shown as point "C" on Fig. 3. Connect the probe to the chassis and adjust the 4.5 mc. probe until a blocking action occurs. 4. Using a strong 4.5 mc. signal, adjust the 4.5 mc. trap, L104 for minimum indication on the meter. SOUND ALIGNMENT PROCEDURE The sound system can be aligned using either locally generated signals or a received TV signal. Since the sound system is part of the overall processing equipment, it will be described first and will be followed by a description of the general alignment procedure. To use an "air" signal for alignment: 1. Tune the receiver to a TV station and connect an attenuator between the receiver and the antenna so that the strength of the signal can be varied from weak to strong. 2. Set the quieting control (K102) located on the back of the chassis approximately to its mid-position. 3. Apply a 4.5 mc. FM signal modulated approximately 50% to the input of the sound system. 4. Beginning with a very low signal level, increase the generator output, while rotating the quieting control clockwise. Continue increasing the signal until the VM output across the volume control dips to 1300 cycles per second. As the quieting control is rotated, set the quieting control for zero output at this signal level. 5. Apply a 4.5 mc. AM signal modulated approximately 50% to the input of the sound system. 6. Beginning with a very low signal level, increase the generator output, while rotating the quieting control clockwise. Continue increasing the signal until the VM output across the volume control dips to 1300 cycles per second. As the quieting control is rotated, set the quieting control for zero output at this signal level. capacitor replacements FOR SETS OF THE MONTH ADMIRAL CHASSIS 20A2, 20A2Z, 20D2 \| Symbol No. \| Rating Mf @ WVDC \| Admiral Part No. \| Sprague Replacement \| \|------------\|-----------------\|------------------\|---------------------\| \| C206 \| 4 @ 50 \| 67A4-9 \| TVA-1303 \| \| C207 \| 60+40@350/60@200/20@150 \| 67C15-23 \| TVL-4609 \| \| C409 \| 80@350/100@50 \| 67C15-22 \| TVL-3722 \| \| C410 \| 20@475 \| 67A21-1 \| TVA-1804 \| MAGNAVOX MODELS CT401A, ETC. \| Symbol No. \| Rating Mf @ WVDC \| Magnavox Part No. \| Sprague Replacement \| \|------------\|-----------------\|-------------------\|---------------------\| \| C106 \| 4 @ 50 \| 270027-10 \| TVA-1303 \| \| C110 \| 20@350 \| 270027-20 \| TVA-1408 \| \| C215 \| 2 @ 50 \| 270027-22 \| TVA-1301 \| \| C413 \| 10@350 SP. \| 270027-23 \| R-146B \| \| C501 \| 70+40+10@350/50@50 \| 270021-52 \| TVL-4659 \| \| \| \| \| TVA-T308 \| \| \| \| \| TVL-4620 \| \| \| \| \| TVA-T613 \| \| C502 \| 20+10+5@350/60@200 \| 270021-51 \| TVA-1303 \| \| PC301 \| Integrator Plate \| 250186-1 \| 101C1 \| GENERAL ELECTRIC "E E" Chassis \| Symbol No. \| Rating Mf @ WVDC \| G. E. Part No. \| Sprague Replacement \| \|------------\|-----------------\|----------------\|---------------------\| \| C210 \| 1 @ 50 \| RCE-090 \| TVA-1300 \| \| C302 \| 1 @ 50 \| RCE-090 \| TVA-1300 \| \| C320 \| 1 @ 50 \| RCE-090 \| TVA-1300 \| \| C401 \| 90+10@350 \| RCE-154 \| TVL-2637 \| \| C402 \| 30+20@350/100@75 \| RCE-155 \| TVL-3629 \| \| C403 \| 40+20+5@350/10@25 \| RCE-156 \| TVL-4621 \| Note: C210 may also be 10MFSOV (G.E. #RCE-169). Use Sprague TVA-1304 to replace. RAYTHEON CHASSIS 21T11 \| Symbol No. \| Rating Mf @ WVDC \| Raytheon Part No. \| Sprague Replacement \| \|------------\|-----------------\|-------------------\|---------------------\| \| C402 \| 100+10@300/40@50 \| 8C-22523 \| TVL-3574 \| \| C414 \| 20@300/TO@75/10@15 \| 8C-22594 \| R-1497 \| \| C428 \| 100@150 \| 8C-22285 \| TVA-1430 \| \| C439 \| 100@150 \| 8C-22286 \| TVL-1423 \| \| C503 \| 50@450 \| 8C-22544 \| TVA-1713 \| \| C442 \| Integrator Plate \| 17A-22376 \| 101C1 \| Sprague makes more capacitors...in more types...in more ratings...than any other capacitor manufacturer. Send 10c for 48-page TV Replacement Capacitor Manual to Sprague Products Co., 65 Marshall St., North Adams, Mass., or get it FREE from your Sprague distributor. NEW! SPRAGUE "T-C" RULE Use this handy pocket-size Sprague Temperature Coefficient Rule to find quickly the values of stock N750 and NPO type ceramic capacitors to connect in parallel to equal a capacitor of desired intermediate temperature coefficient of the required capacitance. COLOR CODE CHARTS Complete charts for color codes on all types of ceramic capacitors are on the back face of this rule. Get your Sprague "T-C" Rules now from your Sprague distributor, or directly from Sprague Products Company, 65 Marshall Street, North Adams, Massachusetts. They're only 15¢ each. $50,000 "TELL & SELL" CONTEST For Dealers and Servicemen* who use RCA Tubes 1954 DeSoto Automatic "Hard-Top"—170-H.P. 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A case report of pyogenic sacroiliitis in a 9-month-old child Sarah Thomas, Saira Haque, Trisha Radia King’s College Hospital NHS trust, London, UK. Corresponding author: Sarah Thomas. King’s College Hospital NHS trust, Denmark Hill, London SE5 9RS, United Kingdom. Email: firstname.lastname@example.org How to cite this article: Thomas S, Haque S, Radia T. A case report of pyogenic sacroiliitis in a 9-month-old child. Arch Clin Cases. 2022; 9(3):108-111. doi: 10.22551/2022.36.0903.10213 ABSTRACT A very rare condition, pyogenic sacroiliitis is responsible for 1-2% of all osteoarticular infections in children. Diagnosis is often delayed in the pediatric population due to non-specific signs and symptoms during presentation, difficulty in assessing the joint, more common differential diagnosis and low yield diagnostic findings in conventional radiography. A delayed diagnosis of this condition can lead to permanent joint damage. A 9-month-old presented to the emergency department with a history of fever, being unsettled and clingy along with refusal to weight bear over the past few days. On initial assessment, she was found to be tachycardic and afebrile with abnormal posture of her left leg held in external rotation at the hip joint. On examination, she refused to weight bear, presented with alternating tenderness of her left and right hip joints and spinal tenderness at the L5 position. Investigations done showed slightly raised inflammatory counts, normal hip and pelvic radiographs, normal hip ultrasound and blood culture growing staphylococcus aureus and Magnetic Resonance Imaging spine showing right sacroiliitis leading the diagnosis of pyogenic sacroiliitis. This case report highlights the importance of examination of the back and the importance of avoiding fixation error by history. Although rare, clinicians should consider the diagnosis of sacroilitis in children who present with fever, being unsettled with decreased and painful movements around the pelvic region. KEYWORDS: pyogenic sacroilitis; osteo-articular infection; FABER test; 99Tcm-MDP bone scan; transient synovitis; septic arthritis BACKGROUND A very rare condition, pyogenic sacroiliitis is responsible for 1-2% of all osteoarticular infections in children [1,2]. Diagnosis is often delayed due to non-specific signs and symptoms during presentation, difficulty in assessing the joint, more common differential diagnosis and low yield diagnostic findings in conventional radiography [3,4]. A delayed diagnosis of this condition can lead to permanent joint damage. The diagnosis is made with Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) scan of the spine [5-7] and the causative agent is identified by blood culture with the most common organism in the pediatric population being Staphylococcus aureus [8]. In response to antibiotic treatment, symptoms and healing begin to regress within a short period of time [1]. This is a case report of a rare presentation of pyogenic sacroiliitis diagnosed and managed in an infant. It focuses on the difficulties in making this diagnosis in a child of the non-verbal age group, the importance of examining the back when children present with tenderness around the pelvic region, usefulness of various imaging modalities and avoiding fixation error by history. Informed written consent has been obtained from mother of the infant. CASE PRESENTATION A 9-month-old infant consulted the pediatric emergency department with a history of fever, being more unsettled and clingier than normal over the past few days. On initial assessment, she was found to be afebrile and unsettled with normal systemic and joint examination. Initial investigations demonstrated slightly raised inflammatory markers with a normal white cell count. (Hb – 115 g/L, WCC– 15.47 × 10⁹/L, Plt – 308 × 10⁹/L, C-Reactive Protein – 36mg/L). A diagnosis of viral illness was made and she was discharged home with adequate safety netting advice and daily reviews by the hospital at home team. Two days later, she was referred back to the emergency department by the hospital at home community team as she was refusing to weight bear and started crying every time someone tried to make her stand or bounce her. Prior to this, she used to stand/bounce with assistance and ‘side step’ with support. On assessment, she was found to be tachycardic along with features of poor perfusion and on examination, her left leg was found to be held in abduction and external rotation at the hip joint and she was observed to be distressed during the examination of her pelvic region. Initial blood investigations done showed raised inflammatory markers with neutrophilic leukocytosis (WCC – 29.42 × 10⁹/L, Hb – 102 g/L, Plt – 563 × 10⁹/L, CRP – 58 mg/L, ESR – 40mm/1h). A pelvic and hip radiograph was performed which demonstrated normal bone density, no fracture and no destructive bony pathology. She was adequately resuscitated and stabilized in the emergency department and started on management for septic arthritis with antibiotics which consisted of intravenous ceftriaxone. This was done in view of the raised inflammatory counts (ESR & CRP) and clinical presentation. Once on the ward, she was reviewed by multiple teams which included the orthopedic team, general pediatric team, physiotherapists who found her to have non-specific features such as alternating pain of her right and left hip joints on movement with each day and advice was sought from radiologists and microbiologists for her management. As she continued to be unwell with no clear focus and raised inflammatory counts, we suspected septic/arthritis/osteomyelitis and were looking for the best imaging modality. Subsequent imaging of her joints included an ultrasound of both hip and knee joints was normal. There was no joint effusion and no abnormal synovial thickening. No abnormal vascularity was demonstrated. The soft tissues anterior to the femora were normal with no subperiosteal collection. An abdominal ultrasound scan performed at the same time was normal with no focal masses, no hepatosplenomegaly and no intra-abdominal or pelvic source of infection identified. As part of her work up, further investigations such as, an autoimmune work up, ECG, urine dipstick and urine MC&S which were all performed and returned as normal. It was clear with her inflammatory marker rise and fevers, there was a possible bacterial infection somewhere. A new team took over the care over the weekend and besides examining her joints and limbs also proceeded to examine her back which revealed her to be tender over the spinal process at the L5 level with normal passive examination of her hips. This team proceeded to undertake further imaging with an MRI scan of her spine and pelvis under general anesthesia which showed the scan of the spine to be normal. However, the scan of the pelvis demonstrated the abnormal right sacro-iliac joint, periarticular marrow oedema, thickening of the joint capsule with extracapsular oedema tracking anteriorly along the posterior margin of the iliopsoas muscle. The edema also tracked posteriorly into the right gluteal muscles. No drainable collection was identified following contrast administration. (Figure 1). During that same time, her blood culture was reported to be growing staphylococcus aureus and these findings led to a diagnosis of the rare condition of acute pyogenic sacroilitis. After discussion with the microbiologists, she was started on treatment for this condition which consisted of flucloxacillin for a total of 6 weeks (two weeks intravenous and four weeks oral) along with appropriate physiotherapy to which she responded very well. A repeat set of blood investigations done a week later showed a lowering of her inflammatory markers (WCC – 12.31 × 10⁹/L, Hb – 141 g/L, Plt – 488 × 10⁹/L, CRP < 1 mg/L, ESR – 5 mm/1h). She was also followed up in outpatient clinic a few weeks later and showed a rapid progress in her recovery. She did not have any further temperature spikes and started weight bearing once again with no pain or tenderness around her pelvic region. Fig. 1. Sagittal T1 and T2-weighted sequence of the lower thoracic and lumbo-sacral spine demonstrate normal bone marrow signal and normal intervertebral disc spaces. Axial T2-weighted sequences of the pelvis demonstrate thickened, edematous anterior joint capsule of the right sacro-iliac joint with anterior extracapsular oedema tracking along the posterior margin of the iliopsoas muscle. Further oedema extends posteriorly towards the right gluteus minimus and medius muscles. Peri-articular marrow edema is seen on the iliac side of the right sacroiliac joint and no erosions demonstrated. DISCUSSION An extensive literature review was conducted by Schaad et al regarding 77 children with pyogenic sacroiliitis from 1941 to 1979 [3]. In a series of 33 cases of pyogenic sacroiliitis, Wu et al. identified 11 cases younger than 15 years old [4]. Eight patients with sacroiliitis that were identified between 2000 and 2005 were reviewed by Wada et al [9]. According to Molinos Quintana et al., 11 patients under the age of 14 years were diagnosed with pyogenic sacroiliitis during the eight years 2002-2010 [10]. From a literature review of 20 cases of sacroiliitis in preschool children, Alcobendas et al. found that refusal to sit was the most presentation of this condition [11]. Pyogenic sacroiliitis is a very rare under-recognized osteo-articular infection in the pediatric age group which usually affects children of the older age group [1,2]. It is quite exceptional to occur at a young age such as 9 months [12]. The diagnosis to this condition was slightly delayed in our child due to clinical and epidemiological characteristics that complicates the diagnosis such as being afebrile during presentations, initial response to analgesia and the slow rise in her inflammatory markers [1,9,13,14]. A clinical examination of the back is particularly difficult, especially if the child is not yet able to speak [1,15]. The Patrick or FABER test (Flexion, ABduction, External Rotation) which can usually be used for determining pain at the sacroiliac region could not be used in this case due to the age our patient which also indicates the difficulty in diagnosis of this condition in younger age groups [2]. Moreover decreased weight bearing at this age is usually caused by other more common conditions such as transient synovitis and septic arthritis [5] for which this child was investigated as well. This condition was diagnosed with an MRI scan of her spine and pelvis. MRI is the imaging technique with the highest sensitivity (100%) and specificity (100%) for the diagnosis of pyogenic osteomyelitis [6-8]. It detected the degree of oedema and inflammation indicative of infection and also helped plan management because of the absence of local abscess formation and spinal involvement which is important in the decision of surgical intervention [16,17]. The other modes that have been previously discussed for the diagnosis of this condition are Plain Xray and Ultrasound that can be used to exclude effusions at the joints. There is a high degree of sensitivity to 99Tcm-MDP bone scans for bone and joint sepsis, but they lack specificity due to the fact that other conditions may cause increased uptake in the sacroiliac joints similar to other nuclear medicine scans which lack the sensitivity of an MRI scan for this condition [2,19]. Staphylococcus aureus which was isolated from the child’s blood culture was the main causative organism for this condition [8]. It has also been reported that children have developed sacroiliitis caused by Staphylococcus epidermidis, Streptococcus (Group A, B), Citrobacter freundii, Salmonellas, Bacillus subtilis, and Escherichia coli [1,18]. While symptoms rapidly disappear with appropriate antibiotic therapy and management, very few patients require surgical intervention despite their young age and delayed start of treatment [1,15]. CONCLUSION This case report highlights the importance of examination of the back and the importance of avoiding fixation error by history. Although rare, clinicians should consider the diagnosis of sacroiliitis in children who present with fever, being unsettled with decreased and painful movements around the pelvic region after ruling out more common conditions such as septic arthritis of hip joints and transient synovitis. Consent for publication Written consent obtained from mother of child. Availability of data and materials The data that support the findings of this study are available from authors, but restrictions apply to the availability of these data and are not publicly available. Data are however available from the authors upon reasonable request and with permission of patient’s guardian/parent. Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Funding No funding body. REFERENCES 1. Leroux J, Bernardin I, Grynberg L, et al. Pyogenic Sacroilitis in a 13-Month-Old Child: A Case Report and Literature Review. Medicine (Baltimore). 2015; 94(42):e1581. doi: 10.1097/MD.0000000000001581. Erratum in: Medicine (Baltimore). 2015; 94(52):e8190. 2. Ford LS, Ellis AM, Allen HW, et al. Osteomyelitis and pyogenic sacroilitis: a difficult diagnosis. J Paediatr Child Health. 2004; 40:317-319. doi: 10.1111/j.1440-1754.2004.00372.x. 3. Schaad UB, McCracken GH, Nelson JD. Pyogenic arthritis of the sacroiliac joint in pediatric patients. Pediatrics. 1980; 66:375-379. doi: 10.1542/peds.66.3.375. 4. Wu M-S, Chang S-S, Lee S-H, et al. Pyogenic sacroiliitis: a comparison between paediatric and adult patients. Rheumatol Oxf Engl. 2007; 46:1684-1687. doi: 10.1093/rheumatology/kem201. 5. McPhee E, Eskander JP, Eskander MS, et al. Imaging in pelvic osteomyelitis: support for early magnetic resonance imaging. J Pediatr Orthop. 2007; 27:903-909. doi: 10.1097/bpo.0b013e31815a6d16. 6. Bigot J, Louville D, Chary-Valckenare R et al. Determination of the best diagnostic criteria of sacroilitis with MRI. J Radiol. 1999; 80: 1649-1657. 7. Hallioglu M, Kleiman MB, Siddiqui AR, et al. Osteomyelitis and pyogenic infection of the sacroiliac joint. MRI findings and review. Pediatr Radiol. 1994; 24:333-335. doi: 10.1007/BF02012119. 8. Taylor ZW, Ryan DD, Ross LA. Increased incidence of sacroiliac joint infection at a children's hospital. J Pediatr Orthop. 2010; 30:893-898. doi: 10.1097/BPO.0b013e3181fbefe5. 9. Wada A, Takamura K, Fujii T, et al. Septic sacroiliitis in children. J Pediatr Orthop. 2008; 28:488-492. doi: 10.1097/BPO.0b013e31816d7214. 10. Molinos Quintana A, Morillo Gutierrez B, Camacho Lovillo MS, Neth O, Obando Santaella I. Pyogenic sacroiliitis in children: a diagnostic challenge. Clin Rheumatol. 2011; 30(1):107-113. PMID: 20706753. doi: 10.1007/s10067-010-1549-5. 11. Alcobendas RM, Loza SM, Camba AR, Gascon CU, Rey CC. Sacroilitis in Preschool Children: A Case Series and Review of the Literature. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2020; 39(9):e272-e274. PMID: 32427647. doi: 10.1097/INF.0000000000002691. 12. Chiu CH, Lin TY, Hung PC, et al. Pyogenic sacroiliitis in children: report of three cases. Zhonghua Minguo Xiao Er Ke Yi Xue Hui Za Zhi J Zhonghua Minguo Xiao Er Ke Yi Xue Hui. 1992; 33:313-321. 13. Abbott GT, Carty H. Pyogenic sacroilitis, the missed diagnosis? Br J Radiol. 1993; 66:120-122. doi: 10.1259/0007-1285-66-782-120. 14. Shanahan MD, Ackroyd CE. Pyogenic infection of the sacro-iliac joint. A report of 11 cases. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1985; 67:605-608. doi: 10.1302/0301-620X.67B4.4030859. 15. Komatsu H, Nojiri H, Sogo T, et al. Sacroiliitis infected with group A streptococcus in a child presenting with confusion and combative-ness. J Infect Chemother Off J Jpn Soc Chemother. 2009; 15:328-330. doi: 10.1007/s10156-009-0709-5. 16. Aprin H, Turen C. Pyogenic sacroiliitis in children. Clin Orthop. 1993:98-106. 17. Doita M, Yoshiya S, Nabeshima Y, et al. Acute pyogenic sacroiliitis without predisposing conditions. Spine. 2003; 28:E384-E389. doi: 10.1097/01.BRS.0000092481.42709.6F. 18. Perez A, Padilla E, Marco A, et al. Pneumococcal sacroiliitis in a 4-year-old boy. Scand J Rheumatol. 2008; 37:310-312. doi: 10.1080/03009740801908019. 19. Sueoka BL, Johnson JE, Enzenauer R, et al. Infantile infectious sacroiliitis. Pediatr Radiol. 1985; 15:403-415. doi: 10.1007/BF02388361.
WIRELESS WEEKLY Broadcast Programmes a Week in advance VOLUME 9 NUMBER 24 In the Air and On the Air Friday, April 8, 1927. Price Threepence Are You Building a Good Set at the Lowest Possible Cost? NOT unless you are making use of the following: PILOT VERNIER DIALS— - Pilot Kilograd Dial, 10-1 vernier £0 6 9 - Pilot 4 inch Bakelite Dials 3 3 0 PILOT CONDENSERS— - Straight Line Broadcast. - No. 9108, 8 plate 20 10 6 - No. 9113, 13 plate 0 11 3 - No. 9117, 17 plate 0 12 6 - No. 9123, 23 plate 0 14 6 - Straight Line Frequency aluminium plate, from £0 10 0 - Straight Line Brass, from 0 10 6 - Pilot Universal Fitall Socket 0 2 0 - Pilot Bakelite Standard 201A Socket 0 2 6 PILOT RHEOSTATS— - No. 806, 6 ohms rheostat £0 3 6 - No. 910, 10 ohm rheostat 0 3 6 - No. 920, 20 ohm rheostat 0 3 6 - No. 930, 30 ohm rheostat 0 3 6 Pilot Jacks, from £0 2 3 PILOT ISOGRAD MOULDED CONDENSERS— - .001 0 2 8 - .002 0 2 8 - .006 0 3 8 - .0005 0 2 6 - .00025 0 2 6 - .00025 with clips 0 2 9 - Hoosick Bakelite Rheostat, with White Arrow knobs, 6 ohm 0 3 8 - Hoosick Standard Rheostat, with White Arrow knobs, 30 ohm 0 3 6 - Hoosick Standard Bakelite sockets of all types: round base and standard panel type 0 3 6 - Hoosick Universal sockets for UV or UX type valves 0 2 3 - Hoosick 4 inch Bakelite Dials 0 3 0 - Hoosick 4 inch Composition Dials 0 3 6 MUTER FIXED RESISTANCES. CONDENSERS. All Capacities from: - No. 600, capacity, .00015 £0 2 3 - No. 601, capacity, .0001 0 2 3 - No. 605, capacity .00025 0 2 3 - No. 606, capacity .00025, with mounting, up to 0 2 6 - No. 650, capacity, .01, at Muter Leaks, all capacities 0 5 6 Muter Fixed Rheostats, all types £0 3 3 MUTER TRANSFORMERS— - Transformers, 5-1 and 33-1 £0 15 0 - Shock-proof Phone Plugs, with spring grip 0 3 0 Also 3 stage Resistance Coupled Amplifier £2 15/ MACK MOULDING BAKELITE SOCKETS— - Standard 201A Sockets £0 2 3 - UX Type Socket 0 2 3 - Universal Socket 0 1 9 When you have completed the set, give your customers the best results by fitting them out with— Ray-O-Vac Batteries and Continental Valves. Sole Agents; United Distributors Limited 72 CLARENCE STREET, SYDNEY 109 Collins St., Hobart. Cr. Jervois Quay and Harris 664 Bourke St., Melbourne 27 Chesser St., Adelaide. 343 Queen St., Brisbane, Sts., Wellington, N.Z. 26 Queen St., Perth. 66 Charles St., Launceston, Tas. PRICE REDUCTION The A.W.A. Audio Frequency Transformer Known throughout Australia for its Amplification and Lack of Distortion Now Reduced to 18/- The Keenest Transformer Value in Australia to-day. A.W.A. have spared no effort to produce a thoroughly efficient audio Transformer. Each Transformer is subject to 1,000 volts insulation test between windings and casings, and between the windings themselves. Low self-capacity and the special arrangement of primary, and secondary coils give uniform amplification over the whole band of useful frequencies. Made in two standard ratios 5—1 and 3½—1. AT ALL RADIO DEALERS OR AT Amalgamated Wireless (Australasia) Ltd. 47 York St., Sydney 167-9 Queen St., Melbourne Bower's Buildings, Charles St., Adelaide King & King Chambers Queen St., Brisbane A.W.A Audio Transformer The Realism of Perfect Rendition Listening to this Gilfillan radio you find it hard to believe the broadcasters are not actually in your home! You will hear all the subtle overtones and shadings of voice or instrument that give music its truest charm. HARRINGTONS GILFILLAN 1927 NEUTRODYNE Simplicity of operation, selectivity, fidelity to tone, every-day dependability for perfect results — these are reasons why you should investigate the Gilfillan 1927 Neutrodyne. If you cannot call for a demonstration, write for full particulars to Harringtons LTD Goodwill Built on Public Confidence since 1889. 386 George Street, Sydney Also at Newcastle, Katoomba, Melbourne, Brisbane, Adelaide, Wellington, (N.Z.), Auckland (N.Z.). and it’s so easy to own this finer radio! If you now own a receiving set you may trade it in with Harrington’s, as part payment on a Gilfillan, the balance being paid by small weekly amounts. Or you may pay a deposit and the balance the easy Harrington way. In either case you secure immediate ownership. Act to-day! £10 DEPOSIT — balance in small weekly sums The Selfish Listener "As a licensed listener, who has paid his fees," said an indignant voice over the telephone at 3LO recently, "I demand that you cut out certain parts in the programmes and substitute others to my liking." Fortunately for the owner of the voice, this was only said per medium of the telephone; it is seldom, if ever, that such a self-centred listener invades the highest heights of a broadcasting company, but the spirit at least is willing, and it is astonishing how many forget that there are two hundred and forty-nine thousand, nine hundred and ninety-nine other listeners whose tastes differ some way or other from his or her own. Just imagine this big crowd if it were confined to one or even four cities, instead of as it is scattered over half Australia. Not all the different places of entertainment in Sydney could possibly hold that vast multitude, and if on any given night you could distribute them amongst the available halls according to their own pleasures, you would find some at the Conservatorium, enjoying a classical concert; some at the Tivoli, revelling in a variety show; others at the Theatre Royal; yet others at the Stadium, and quite a surprising number at some serious lecture or other, while still further crowds would be gathered at the motion picture theatres and jazz palaces. Yet, when into all these homes wireless makes its unobtrusive entry, and we have informed listeners beforehand what the programmes are to be, it is well that selfish folk should pause and consider what happens. The great majority of listeners-in are reasonable folk, who realise that the programmes are as good as can be got together by very busy and efficient staffs at the main broadcasting stations, who work day and night on material that it would be difficult for any other organisation to get together or to handle better. Wireless is a boon that we require to make use of with understanding and unselfishness. It is not the same as a concert or a variety show or any other entertainment for a section of the people. It is for ALL the people, and if among ALL there are some that find it at a certain time uninteresting to themselves, they must merely reflect amiably, to themselves and others: "Oh, well, let us hope others are enjoying this item, or, at any rate, if others aren't, the broadcasting company will soon find out and alter it." If you only consider to yourself for a moment that it takes all sorts to make a wireless world, that the so-called programmes are really more like a varied repertoire, or a menu, from which you must pick out some items and leave others, according to your taste; and that the broadcasting company by your leave knows quite a lot more about the varied tastes of its big public audience, than you alone can possibly know, then, indeed, you will not be a selfish listener and yet may materially assist the broadcasters with kindly suggestions. WHEN 3LO was forced to go off the air last Thursday hundreds of listeners tried for 2FC. Among the reports received by that station are 14 from crystal set owners in Melbourne. ON A RECENT Sunday night 3LO abruptly cut short a most interesting programme promptly at 10 o'clock, in deference to amateur transmitters who regard after 10 p.m. Sundays as sacred to their own activities. Owing to a prolongation of the service broadcast on that evening from St. Paul's Cathedral, the studio programme from 3LO on that date was delayed, and several important items as advertised would have occupied a full half hour extra. THE CONTENDING PARTIES in the U.S. Senate have reached a compromise on the vexed question of the control of radio. It is understood that an independent commission will exercise control for a year, after which the commission will deal only with matters of appeal or controversy, the administration passing into the hands of the Chamber of Commerce. IN MELBOURNE SPORTS CIRCLES great interest attaches to the feat of Ivan Stedman, who recently established a new swimming record in connection with the 220 yards breast stroke, accomplishing it in two and two-fifths seconds less than the previous holder of the record. This achievement entitled Stedman to the possession of a Silver Cup awarded by 3LO, which was duly presented to him. It may not be generally known that 3LO has agreed to donate a Silver Cup valued at £5 5/- to the competitor who establishes a new record in any form of sport—running, jumping, swimming, etc., during the year 1927. The idea is to foster and maintain a love of competitive sport amongst young athletic Australians. PASSING OUT of the Queensland Insurance building one night recently the Director of 4QG met an excited crowd on the opposite side of the street hot on the trail of murder, so they told him. They had heard several revolver shots and were endeavouring to locate from what direction they had come. Another shot was heard, and enlightenment dawned on the 4QG man. He reminded the crowd that 4QG was situated on the roof of the building opposite, also that this was the night when Uncle Ben and Uncle Jim were racing for the much coveted prize, the Green Trousers, and that the reports they heard were from the starter's gun. Uncle Ben won, by the way, but only after an exciting finish. THE NEW HOBART STATION, 7ZL, will shortly be on the air with a power of 3 kw., according to advices from the Associated Radio Co., Melbourne. 7ZL is modelled on the same lines as 3AR. THE LATEST ADDITION to the stations operated by the Radio Broadcasting Company of N.Z., Ltd., is winning golden opinions in the Dominion. The writer of the wireless comments in one evening paper in Christchurch, speaking of 3YA, said three times in the last fortnight that the local station was so good that he listened to the entire programme and apologised for not being able to comment on other stations. WHAT IS BELIEVED to be the world's smallest wireless transmitter has been tested with success by the United States Marine Corps aviators. The transmitter, which embodies quartz control, weighs 5½ lb., is 9-inches high, and 10-inches from front to rear. Operated in an aeroplane, it has been heard at distances up to 250 miles. MR. J. A. BOYD of "Malo," Thabestrin, Ruby Mines District, Upper Burma, writes to 2FC as follows:—"On Saturday evening, February 19, I received on my wireless set on 442 metres, a number of dance band items interspersed with poetry and items by an entertainer. I shall be more than glad if you will kindly let me know if this was your station. My set is situated in Upper Burma, 100 miles north of Mandalay and the reception of which I have just mentioned, came through clear and strong, though plus S were bad that night, and spoilt the reception of speech to some extent." On reference to the Station's logs, the management of 2FC find that on February 19 the 2FC Dance Band played a number of items, and between these entertainments Mr. Robert Turner interpolated a number of short renditions on the lines of Milton Hayes. EVERY MAN HIS OWN JAZZ BAND. Above we glimpse into the home of the conservative Switzer-Jones, at Point Piper, whose quiet life has been absolutely revolutionised by the individual receiving set. Now, classic Priscilla may dance as she pleases, with her du-longs and friends, while Aunt Elizabeth does nothing in her apartment, which looks turns her thoughts to higher things. The cult is spreading, too. If pausing at the door of the local dance hall room...you are amazed to see a couple walking around the room in complete silence, don't you and put your head under the tap...In a Berkshire (England) hotel 20 couples danced recently to radio music, unheard by the audience spread out in each dance hall, unconscious headphones through which he or she heard the phantom strains from the distant orchestra. I Go In the Air and On the Air By E. J. Van de Velde As a result of touring Australia by aeroplane in search of material for novel travel talks, Mr. Van de Velde has become an enthusiastic airman as can be seen by this article. Well, I have been up again and, if I could have my way, it would become a habit. For a first-class all-round dyed-in-the-wool ding-dong A.L. pastime, this flying has got everything I know heat to a frazzle. I have tried most things, from broadcasting to courting grass widows, and from using public telephones to making wireless sets, and they all leave me cold, but flying. Can you remember in the early days when you first brought in KGO? Remember the thrill you got when on those special nights you faintly heard: "Hello, Australia! Hello, Hello, KGO speaking." Well, it's like that only flying is real—it is the only thing I have ever tackled that you do not have to lie about to make it interesting, and I suppose that is because it is new and so far only the truthful ones have flown. When it becomes cheaper and we can buy planes for a few pounds, no doubt we will hear of a pal from Bink who will say: "Excuse me for ten minutes, old man, I am just going to take this bucket of water up 25,000 ft for the ice chest"; just as our more enthusiastic radio friends these days say: "Pop in to-night, E.J., and I'll let you listen to 3LO on three valves." Some of you might remember last year I flew to Melbourne in a big D.H.50—well, this time I went up in a Curtis Comet. The wireless comparison is the Super-Het, and the Harkness Reflex. I wanted to have a look at Sydney from above, so I called on Mr. S. L. Tyler, one of Sydney's best all-round sports. He has one of everything a gentleman should have—a car, a yacht, an aeroplane, etc. I explained how my style was cramped by having to describe Sydney as seen from tram cars, from 2FC. I also pointed out how utterly impossible it was for one gentleman to ask another for a fly. Well, S.L.T. is a sport, for, to save me any embarrassment, he immediately said, "I'll give you a very first fine day, Van." He did, too. Some flight—85 miles in 51 minutes, and all over Sydney and suburbs. You heard all about it from 2FC on April 4. These Curtis Comets are nifty see buses alright, and 5000 feet up is only a question of a few moments with them. How different it all looks from up above. I could not even recognise any of the well-known pubs; and you can't see Sydney any more for buildings—why, there are buildings everywhere. Population spoils most towns; fortunately, you can't see them from 5000 feet, neither can you hear nor smell them. Away up in heaven with only a few clouds and wireless waves around you is the place for peace and happiness—no telephones, no dust, no creditors, or policemen—go where you like, up or down or sideways. If you do meet another plane you have four sides to pass him on—in fact, you can go right around him and get on the other side without passing him at all, not like earthly motorists who have two sides to pass on, one unlawful and the other under repair. But, there, coming to the serious aspect, there is a message for you in this. You who delve in the mysteries of wireless have a fair knowledge of how very rapidly the world is moving these days—you have seen extraordinary things happen in the wireless world within the last five years. As it is in wireless so it is in aviation, and the nation which becomes air-minded first will have an enormous poll over all others. "Rule Britannia" must go farther than the ocean—it must include the wireless waves and the air; it is up to us. NOTE: Reproduced on our cover this week is a photograph of the city as seen from an aeroplane, 1000-feet above Circular Quay, taken by Mr. Van de Velde. Enlargements of this will be sent to all readers guessing correctly the location of a station of Sydney photographed from the air and reproduced in our last issue. Thousands write to 2FC about Duke No single broadcast transmission in the history of radio in Australia has aroused so much enthusiasm among listeners-in as that made by 2FC describing the arrival of the Duke of York at Sydney. More than two thousand congratulatory letters had been received by 2FC as a result of the description of the arrival of the Duke of York. Letters and telegrams are still pouring in to 2FC, congratulating that Station on the wonderful service rendered to listeners in all parts of the Commonwealth, in connection with the subsequent festivities. The letters all breathe the same spirit—"How wonderful was the whole transmission; how great a boon to those unable to see it themselves, and finally, How did you do it?" Ask the tired staff of 2FC how they did it, and if they can summon enough energy they will stagger you with the wealth of detail. Suffice it is to say that the whole transmission during the past few days was carried on without one break. Five announcers, all working from different points, five engineers and seven operators were required. These were all posted to different vantage points, so that a continuous description could be given. This does not include the staff operating at Penman Hills and also at La Perouse, where the relay from 3LO, "Hunter," was picked up and sent on to the Studio. In involved also the use of five separate amplifiers for outside work, and necessitated the use of telephone lines covering in all sixty miles, all of which were linked up through the various exchanges to the central receiving point—the Studio—and then sent on by long line to Penman Hills, and broadcast. Here is a typical letter: "Dear Sir,—Just a short note to let you know that we thoroughly enjoyed the broadcasting of the arrival of the Duke and Duchess of York. Your announcers were so distinct and entertaining that we almost imagined that we were actually standing there enjoying it all with you. Band music and choir also came through beautifully. We received it through 3LO as we have only a 2 valve set and cannot reach you direct. So once again thanking you for the pleasant 1½ hours we spent this morning, and wishing your Station every success it deserves." Yours faithfully, Mrs. Ethel Donald, "Closeturn," Surry Hills, Victoria." Looking on the other side of the picture, one realizes more clearly the keen pleasure experienced by listeners who were confined to their beds through illness, inmates of the various hospitals and institutions, and those who are blind. The opportunity is taken of reprinting a letter from a blind listener who gives us all an idea of what a wonderful boon radio is to those who have been deprived of their sight: "Sir,—As a blind listener I wish to thank you for the excellent transmission of all the proceedings of the arrival of the Duke and Duchess of York last Saturday. It was truly excellent and could not be surpassed. Also for yesterday's transmission from St. Andrew's Cathedral, for which I give you my warmest thanks and hope that you may long be spared to give such splendid transmissions.—J. H. Gain." The various ceremonies attended by the Duke of York were all covered extensively by 2FC. Not an opportunity was missed of placing the microphone where a crowd had collected. It was expected that on Sunday morning, March 26, when His Royal Highness visited Prince of Wales Hospital, Randwick, he would be heard on the air for the first time when he replied to the address tendered to him, but these plans went awry. In the excitement the aldermen were duly presented to the Duke, who then proceeded to enter the Hospital, walking away from the faithful microphone. The 2FC announcer was not able to hurry after the Royal party, but the gentleman to whom the presentation of the address was entrusted suddenly realised he had not fulfilled his mission, hurried after the Duke, and was able to make the presentation before the Hospital was entered. All this was, of course, unfortunately lost to listeners. However, an opportunity came on Tuesday, March 28, when the Duke made his first air speech, replying to his toast at the luncheon given to him by the Returned Sailors' and Soldiers' League. The broadcasting of the gala performance from Her Majesty's Theatre was a memorable occasion. A description of the crowds outside the theatre, the arrival of the Royal party, and the fanfare of trumpets was carried to listeners with wonderful realism. Our Melbourne correspondent gives his impressions of the transmission as relayed in Victoria by 3LO from 2FC together with a note on 3LO's preparations to broadcast the Duke of York on his arrival in Melbourne. Some concern was expressed recently at the Wireless Commission as to the possibility of successful relaying of messages from long distances by means of land lines, but the highly satisfactory work done in sending from Sydney to Melbourne the full account of the arrival of the "Renown" must lay all doubts on that score for ever at rest. No such strain as was imposed by the 600 miles of telephone line is ever likely to be experienced on the everyday work of a relay station, or, as the accurate phrase nowadays to call it, a regional station for the daily service of a country centre. The actual work of the Sydney-Melbourne relay was excellently described in the following message broadcast from 3LO, Melbourne, at the conclusion of the feat: "That concludes the transmission relayed from Sydney of the arrival of the Duke and Duchess of York." It is generally acknowledged that the broadcasting of the description of the arrival of their Royal Highnesses was the most successful radio feat ever accomplished in Australia. The first part of the description was made from the bridge of the s.s. "Hunter" in the Sydney Harbor. This was relayed by wireless to a receiving set on shore and then impressed upon a landline to station 2FC. There it was divided, part being broadcast direct by 2FC and the other half being sent by the new carrier wave system over a telephone line to 3LO, and thence broadcast at Braybrook. The second part of the description was made from Man-o'-War steps, Farm Cove, and the concluding part from the Strong Post of 2FC, in Macquarie Street, Sydney. Great credit is due to the staff of 2FC and the P.M.G.'s Department for the manner in which the whole of the relaying was accomplished. At the hour when 3LO took up the description of the arrival of the Duke and Duchess of York in Sydney, there probably was a majority of women listening-in, and the announcer in Sydney provided much amusement when he attempted the description of Continued on page 15. IT'S ALL IN THE AIR Coming Features in the Broadcasting Programs GARDENING TALKS: The talk on gardening by "Redgram" (Mr. J. G. Lockley) will be placed at 12.30 on Saturday morning instead of 11.15. COOKING TALKS: Owing to the operation of the new schedule of sessions from 2FC which began Monday, April 4, cooking talks will be given on Tuesday, Wednesday and Friday at 9.45 p.m. CLASSIC MUSIC: Lovers of good music will appreciate the recital which Madame Evelyn Grog and Mr. Henri Staal have arranged, to be broadcast from 2FC on Sunday evening, April 17. 3LO TO BE RELAYED BY 2FC: The evening of Tuesday, April 12, at 2FC will be given up to the relaying of a 3LO programme, so that listeners in N.S.W. who have not sets suitable for interstate reception will have an opportunity of hearing programmes of which "The Garden City of the South" boasts. 2FC HOSPITAL PARTY: This indefatigable body have found yet another institution to entertain. On Wednesday, April 13, the Girls' Industrial Home, Parramatta, will be the brighter for an hour's merrymaking, in which Miss Peggy Dunbar (contralto), Miss Heather Harding (soprano), Miss Kathleen Stollery (mezzo), Mr. Rus Garling (Director and general entertainer), Laurence Halbert (baritone), Brunton Gibbs (eloquentary items), and Mr. Horace Keats at the piano, will participate. The mysterious "Smith Family," who have so many acts of kindness to their credit, will be responsible for the transport of the party. JULES VAN DER KIER, the famous cellist, who broadcasts from 2FC as a member of the new Instrumental Trio. His partners are Alexander Suvorovsky, pianist, and Miss Daisy Richards, violinist. The trio will be 2FC's chief medium for classical music and has been brought into existence through the temporary abandonment of the Sydney Instrumental Trio.—Lionel Lawson, violinist; Lindley Evans, pianist, and Gladstone Bell, cellist—while Lindley Evans tours Australia as accompanist to Dame Nellie Melba. RANDWICK AUTUMN MEETING: 2FC staff, consisting of five, will be at Randwick for the four big days of the "Sport of Kings" at Easter, and a special racing session will be given from 7.30 until 8 dealing with attendance, and the dresses. The 2FC Racing Commissioner will, of course, describe in running the races in the afternoon. TOWARDS THE CLOSE of last year 4QG included in many of its programmes popular song numbers played by the Studio Orchestra, the refrain being sung by a baritone to the accompaniment of the orchestral music. These popular items were appreciated by listeners, and in response to numerous requests, they will be included in future programmes as a weekly feature. Each Wednesday night, two of the latest popular song publications will be played by the Studio Orchestra with vocal refrain. UNIVERSITY CELEBRATIONS: "Commencement" will be celebrated by the Melbourne University students with the same vigor, originality and ceremony as usual, and 3LO, with memories of the popularity of last year's functions, will broadcast the main items in the celebrations of 1927. Debates, Conservatorium concerts and the inevitable frivolities will all have the attention of 3LO. "THE MAID OF JAPAN": Miss Vivia de Loitte, the well-known soprano, has written a little operetta—"The Maid of Japan," which will be produced at 2FC on Thursday, April 14. Miss de Loitte will take the soprano part, Mr. Fred Harman the baritone part, and Mr. Robert Turner will appear in character work. An orchestra is being specially trained, under the able direction of Miss de Loitte. THE NEW ANTHEM: The new Australian National Anthem which 3LO, Melbourne, introduced to the public, seems to have met with general approbation. Commenting on the anthem, one of Melbourne's foremost musical critics states: "You cannot impose a National Anthem on a free people if it is not willing. But something that sounded very much like the sort of thing that Australia has been waiting for was broadcast from 3LO last night, and it tuned itself irresistably into the brains of hundreds of thousands before soloist, chorus and band were done. Many there must have been that wanted to rise and sing the vigorous and dignified measure which William G. James has woven on the foundation of some bold and not over assertive patriotic verses by C. J. Dennis, under the title of "Australia, O thou Favored Isle." One thousand copies of the anthem are to be made available to the public by 3LO, each state in the Commonwealth being allotted a certain number, the applications being granted on the first come-first served policy. GOOD FRIDAY: In the morning, the Church Service will be taken from St. Andrew's Cathedral, and 2FC listeners will appreciate a further opportunity of hearing Miss Lillian Frost at the organ, in the afternoon. GOOD FRIDAY NIGHT CONCERT: Following the arrangement made at Christmas time, whereby 2FC was responsible for an excellent programme from the Lyceum Theatre, the proceeds of which went to the new building, the Sydney Night Refuge, which is under the control of the Central Methodist Mission, on Good Friday night, it is proposed to arrange a similar concert. The following artists have been engaged, and an excellent programme is anticipated: Miss Virginia Bassetti (contralto), Norman Janson (baritone), Miss Joyce Hadley (soprano), the Sydney Harmonic Choir, under the baton of Mr. W. Bourne, Brunton Gibb (bassoonist), Charles Stephens (tenor) and the Austral Trio (Alexander Sverjensky (pianist), Miss Daisy Richards (violinist), and Jules Van der Kiel (cellist). Mr. Ewart Chapple will be at the piano. EASTERTIDE: During Eastertide arrangements have been made by 3LO to broadcast the well-known Easter cantata, "Olivet to Calvary," in which the following prominent soloists will take part:—Mr. J. Alexander Brown, bass; Mr. Percy Blundell, tenor), and Mrs. Strickland, soprano. They will have the assistance of the Nicholson Street Methodist Choir, which will sing under the capable baton of Mr. Hillier. On Good Friday Stainer's "Crucifixion" will be broadcasted from St. Paul's, and, for the Studio programme, Mr. James has arranged a series of musical selections suitable to the day. There will be excerpts from "Elijah," in which the principal solo parts will be taken by Madame Elsie Davies and Mr. J. Alexander Brown. MR. FRITZ HART: Another old friend to make his re-appearance at the Studio is Mr. Fritz Hart, who has just completed another of his delightful series of "talks" which he intends to broadcast from 3LO for the benefit of music lovers of all ages. With this object in view, he has prepared some very attractive "Lecturettes" especially for the Children's Hour—in which he will combine the theoretical and practical side of music in a most interesting manner. As is usual on these occasions, he will have the assistance of the Conservatorium students, to illustrate his remarks with both song and instrumental solos. THE FOOTBALL SEASON: Now that the football season is upon us, enthusiasts of this game (Australian Rules) will be glad to know that arrangements are being completed to transmit graphic descriptions of the principal games held round and about Melbourne. It is to be hoped that Mr. Ted Collins will be available to fill the post of announcer for 3LO, for what Mr. Collins does not know about this "gentle sport" is not worth knowing, and listeners may rest assured that matches described by this devotee of the game will be true to detail, and that nothing will be lost in the telling. IF THERE IS ONE thing the English nation can and should be proud of from a musical point of view, it is the support and encouragement the British peoples gave to Handel. To the present day, any work of his is assured of an appreciative audience and listeners to 4QG will be glad to learn of the forthcoming broadcasting of excerpts from the "Messiah" (one of his best known works) at the hands of the City Tabernacle Choir, during its special Easter Festival, on April 13. WITHOUT THE MARTIAL STRAINS of band music even great State occasions would lose something of the stirring effect one associated with them, so listeners to 4QG will enjoy a wealth of band music during the forthcoming visit of their Royal Highnesses, the Duke and Duchess of York; and those not fortunate enough to be attending the various functions connected with the visit, need not despair, as 4QG has spared no effort to cater for their needs. Can You READ a CIRCUIT Diagram? To the newcomer to radio a circuit diagram is the mystery of mysteries. Its symbols resemble a picture puzzle. This article explains how that puzzle may be solved revealing a new science of fascinating interest. From the correspondence we receive it is certain that many radioists are not familiar with the symbols employed to denote certain parts of apparatus which are put together to make a wireless receiver. This is certainly regrettable as the circuit diagram is perhaps the most interesting of all, and when properly understood the prospective constructor is able to judge the value of a circuit for himself. He is able to tell if a circuit is selective—he is able to judge a layout, and as time proceeds the constructor is enabled to gauge the number of turns required under given circumstances in a circuit to cover the wavelengths of the stations desired. To acquire a good working knowledge of symbols is only a matter of an hour's concentration or careful thought. Once mastered the average person will not at all be worried or concerned with a back of panel wiring diagram. Most advanced enthusiasts will not consider a back of panel wiring diagram—the circuit conveys more to them even from the point of view of wiring. It is so simple to wire up a receiver from the circuit diagram when one knows how. Again from the point of view of giving more information to readers it suits our purpose to publish a circuit diagram where it is sometimes not possible to draw out a back of panel wiring diagram. Experimental circuits are always full of interest and were the circuit of one or two experimental receivers published each week many constructors would appreciate them and thereby gain further knowledge. This article, it is hoped, will pave the way for a better understanding, and readers are advised to study it carefully. Firstly look at and carefully study the symbols drawn on this page. Let us discuss them as we go along. Take No. 1, which is simply a straight line and known as a conductor. A conductor can be many things, but for the purposes of this article a conductor is best described as a piece or length of busbar or spaghetti covered wire, or any wire for that matter. It is known that busbar or wiring wire is used to join two or more parts together, and that there is quite a quantity of connections in the average set depending on the magnitude of the set in question. Now it is understood again that some of these busbars join and some cross without touching or joining. This effect is drawn and shown in Nos. 2 and 3 with the description alongside. No. 4 is a fixed condenser, quite a common commodity and is symbolical of the plates and also the dielectric. The dielectric is that material which separates the two or more plates of a fixed or a variable condenser. In a fixed condenser this dielectric usually takes the form of mica or waxed paper—sometimes it is air, but very seldom in this country are air dielectric fixed condensers available. The condenser plates themselves usually consist of tin foil or brass foil, and fixed condensers are used in many parts of a radio receiver. They are always drawn as shown in No. 4. A variable condenser is very similar to a fixed condenser in the symbol as may be seen in No. 5. Here we have the same two lines, but this time there is an arrow drawn through indicating that the condenser is variable in its properties. No. 6 is another form of drawing a variable condenser, the arrow pointing out the moving plates. It is well worth repeating here that a golden rule when connecting up variable condensers is to join the fixed plates or vanes to the grid of the valve or the grid circuit. This overcomes body capacity to a marked extent. Body capacity is that effect which is produced when a hand is brought near to a dial to tune a condenser. As the dial is approached a quacking or whistling or oscillating effect arises, thus making accurate tuning difficult. So remember to connect fixed plates to grid and moving plates to earth. The aerial and earth (Nos. 7 and 8) are well known to everyone, it is hoped. Sometimes the aerial is shown as a drawing of a single wire aerial and the earth as a connection to a water pipe. Now No. 9 may cause a little thought, but really it shouldn't. This is a coil or, as it is frequently referred to, an inductance. A coil, as we know, takes many forms—it may be a honeycomb coil, toroidal coil, or it may be a solenoid coil—a solenoid coil is the description given to a coil wound one turn next to the other and alongside. A practical example is the old slider crystal coil or loose coupler crystal coils, or Neutrodyn coils, or Harkness Reflex coil, or transformer coils—in fact, any wire wound in coil form is denoted in a circuit like the drawing shown in No. 9. Many variations are available as will be shown later on, but understand now that this inductance or coil seems to be the stumbling block in reading a circuit. Stop right now and get to know it. It is important! No. 9 is a coil—and is always drawn as a spiral. The next example—No. 10—denotes two coils, one close to the other. Coupled coils is the designation, and coupled coils are common in a wireless set. Think of the old loose coupler again, where one coil slides inside another coil. The outside coil is usually known as the primary coil and the inside one as a secondary coil. Again the Harkness Reflex—I mention this because it is a popular receiver—we have coupled coils—a primary and a secondary, the primary in this instance being wound over the secondary. Think again of the well-known PI circuit where we have two coils in front of the panel, one coil being fixed in position and the other variable in relation to the fixed one—that is to say, one coil swings to or from the other. This is coupling, and when one coil is kept close to the other it is known as tight coupling, when away it is known as loose coupling. In coupling when one coil is near to another coil and the winding running in the same direction, if one coil is charged with an alternating or pulsating current the adjacent coil, although not conductively coupled or joined to the first coil in which the energy is flowing, the second coil picks up some of the energy from the first coil, and this energy will flow around a circuit connected to the second coil. This is known as inductive coupling as has been explained before. Coupling of coils is usually introduced into radio receivers to provide selectivity and also feed back. More could be said about this, but it merits an article on its own. Still realise that when two coils are drawn close to one another and both coils running alongside each other coupling is introduced and we have coupled coils as shown in No. 10. The crystal detector so well known is usually drawn as shown in No. 11. The crystal detector comprises a crystal and a catwhisker resting on the crystal, such as the usual type known as the Harlie, which has a variable cat whisker, or the Carborundum, which has a fixed steel catwhisker. The Perikon detector or the Lion Micro or Lion Maxtone consists of two crystals, one resting on the other. All crystal detectors are drawn in the fashion depicted by No. 11. No. 12, phones, cannot be mistaken for anything else, so may be dismissed quickly as they are so easily recognisable. The single circuit jack of No. 13 may not be so easily recognisable, but is simple nevertheless. Compare it with the double circuit jack of No. 14. There are four connections for the double circuit jack, the two inside ones being usually connected directly to the primary of the transformer. The top outside contact is invariably connected to the plate of the valve and the top inside one to the plate of the transformer. The bottom inside on the other hand is joined to the B-plus of the audio transformer, whereas the outside bottom contact is connected to the B-plus of the battery, or to some conductor which finally reaches there. Speaking of audio frequency transformers brings us to No. 15, the symbol describing one of the popular adjuncts. Here again we have two coils coupled or inductively coupled to one another. One coil is the primary, and one is the secondary. The secondary is invariably connected across the grid and filament of the ensuing valve, the primary being linked up as described in the previous paragraph, or without the A.C. jack from the plate of the preceding valve to the B-plus of the battery. The lines drawn between the coils denote the iron core on which the coils are wound, and by these lines do you know an audio from a radio transformer. The radio transformer is drawn as No. 10. Coupled coils as a radio transformer merely have an iron core. This iron core serves a useful purpose, as it keeps the energy within the coils themselves, thereby preventing it from escaping out into space and consequently going to waste. The core consists of laminations of soft Swedish or charcoal iron. No. 16 is easily recognisable as a terminal at the end of a conductor. Terminals we know are invariably mounted on a terminal board arranged at the back of a set. Now we come to the valves—No. 17. In all "W.W." drawings the valves are drawn in a circle. On the top there is the plate or anode of the valve with the grid immediately below it. The grid is that "corrugated" line, similarly drawn to a resistance, and the filament below again is represented with the arc. Looking at the bottom of a valve we find there are four pins, two for the filament, one for the grid, and one for the plate. Now do you recognise them in the symbol drawn? Not too difficult, is it now? Look at your set, pull out a valve and examine the valve socket. There you see four connections marked G (grid), P (plate), F (filament) and E (filament) again. Look now at the pins on the bottom of your valve base, carefully place the valve back in the socket and note the contact. Compare in your thoughts the connections for the valve socket with the symbol 17. Simple, after all, isn't it? Let us take No. 19 before No. 18. This represents a resistance. A grid leak is a resistance and a rheostat is a variable resistance (No. 18). A potentiometer is a resistance variable, of course, such as No. 18, but here three connections are required, one at the top of the resistance, one at the bottom, and one variable such as the arrow head. The rheostat, of course, only has two connections, one to the filament of a valve and one to the A battery, or to a conductor, which finally reaches the A battery, perhaps through a battery switch but nevertheless reaching the A battery in the end. A fixed resistance is frequently connected across the secondary of a transformer to stop humminess, and again as in No. 20 a grid leak is drawn as a resistance. The arrow head indicates if a resistance is variable. Sometimes a grid leak is taken from the grid of a valve to the positive of the A battery, or occasionally to the negative of the A battery. Turn up page 17 of last week of "W.W." and consult the circuit diagram of the Cockaday. Here is an instance when R2, the grid leak, is connected from the grid of the valve to F negative or A negative, for we know that the A battery is concerned with the filament (F) heating. No. 20 has already been discussed from the point of view of the grid leak. The fixed condenser is seen in this symbol—this condenser being .00025 mfd or .0005 mfd. It is always found preceding the detector valve, rarely elsewhere excepting in the Mowflex receiver described in "W.W." 24/1/27 where one of the radio frequency valves had a grid condenser and grid leak to stabilise it. This incidence is very rare. Screened coils are becoming popular nowadays, and we have in No. 21 the usual method of drawing a screened coil or screened coils in the circuit diagram. The dotted lines around the coils denote the screen. Sometimes the coils—coupled coils that is to say—are shown one above the other and not alongside. This makes no difference and invariably indicates that both coils are wound on the same tube. Sometimes this is used for convenience of drawing. Remember that now. Now we come to two symbols seldom seen—No. 22 and No. 23. No. 22 as marked is a single impedance unit invariably consisting of the secondary of an audio transformer, although there are some specially constructed units of this type on the market to-day. Again is the iron core to be seen as is the case in No. 23, this being a double impedance unit. Here again we have the coupled coils, core and fixed or bypass condenser. Look closely and then turn to the constructional article in this issue and see just how they are used. See the relation to the other parts of the circuit—note the similarity to the audio frequency transformer. Last on the list is the battery switch No. 24. This is self explanatory and is sometimes drawn merely as a cross in one of the A battery leads. It is easily known. Now that comprises most of the popular symbols used in receiving circuit diagrams. One or two of the lesser used symbols are not shown, such as a variometer, buzzer, etc. Seldom are they used in our pages, so they are omitted. Still this lesson is worth while, so let us take a few examples. The ordinary loose coupled crystal, so popular some years ago, is to be seen. Think of the symbols now. Look at the aerial and the earth with a coil or inductance between them. Visualise this coil in your mind. Now the secondary coil with all the taps operated on by a switch. Can you pick out the crystal detector and the phones. Note how they are joined together with conductors. Simple, after all. Now the standard three coil regenerative receiver. Pick out the aerial and the aerial or primary coil which is joined to the earth. So far, so good. Next the secondary or grid coil with the arrow running through it from the primary to the reaction or tickler or regenerative coil. Do you see how the secondary coil, coupled to the primary coil, is tuned by a variable condenser which is connected directly across, or in parallel with the coil. The grid condenser and grid leak is quite conspicuous—look at it. See the valve, the rheostat and the 'phones. Note the terminals. Run back over the symbols and number each coil, condenser, etc., with the numbers alongside the symbols. This will help you. Study it carefully; it is well worth while. One of the most popular circuits of recent years—the single valve Reinartz. The accompanying article explains how the novice can follow its symbols. The Safety Valve A department in which readers are invited to relieve their feelings by commendation or condemnation of broadcasting stations and their programmes. All letters must be addressed to "The Safety Valve," Wireless Weekly, 51 Castlereagh St., Sydney. CALLED TO ORDER. Dear Sir,—Attention, Mr. Jennings and Mr. T. J. Swain. Our broadcasting stations are doing their best, and we get a fair issue of all classes of music—heavy, middle, light and featherweight. You must admit that you have never heard two programmes alike from 4QG, 3LO, 2FC and 2BL, have you? Isn't that variety?—just what we want? I think you get a fair issue of your beloved classics split up between soprano, bassos, contralto, trios, quartettes, and bands. Yours, etc., "BANJO PATT." Forest Lodge, Sydney. IN DEFENCE OF 2FC. Dear Sir,—The 2FC announcer could not be improved on, and I don't care who says otherwise. His voice is clear and his manner of address most pleasing. The 2FC Dance Band and Mr. Len Maurice don't come on often enough. Much has been said as to the 3LO "superiority." I question this, and, personally, have found that 3LO is not nearly so clear as either 2FC or 2BL, although I expect this, since 3LO is much farther away. The plays that 2FC broadcast are enjoyed by country listeners, and they come over the air well. No one should expect the voices of the actors to sound as clearly as those of the studio actors, since they are playing to a house and cannot stay near the microphone all the time. The Speedway programme appeals to me as it does to many country listeners—we like the Stadium, too. I sincerely hope that 2FC and 2BL will take no notice of the letters re altering their wavelength. They might please a few, but they would certainly lose a lot of their popularity in far outback districts. Satisfied people refrain from writing, and thus are deemed to be in the minority. Yours, etc., J. H. Mc. Byron Bay. REBUKED! Dear Sir,—Re "J.G.P." ("W.W.", March 18), not 2 per cent, but 18 per cent of country listeners-in are interested in Speedway doings on Saturday nights. We being farmers ourselves and working among farmers, know the feelings of the average farmer towards Speedway doings. Imagine our disappointment when some young friends of ours, after coming ten miles for the purpose of being entertained at Maroubra, and other Speedways, were informed that a person, possibly a banana grower from Murwillumbah, thought Speedway results uninteresting. Could there be anything more real to a possible buyer of a wireless set than the roar of indoor cycles and cars racing at 90 and 95 miles per hour round Maroubra, or to hear the description of a crash on the Speedway Royal? Yours, etc., THE TWELVE DISAPPOINTED SPEED ENTHUSIASTS. Lake Albert. TIN SETS AND JAZZ. Dear Sir,—The cries against classical items and playlets all spring from those who possess "ordinary" receiving sets, using valve detectors; these people do not get true reception of classical items, and can hardly hear one word clearly when a playlet is on, hence the squalls. Naturally jazz stuff and anything that happens to suit these tiny sets, is appreciated by the owners. It is up to the broadcast stations whether they will pamper the unfortunate majority, by giving them jazz and other such rubbish, or put on respectable programmes that can be enjoyed by true music lovers, and while tending to enhance the general public's appreciation of good music, give broadcasting another impetus, upholding progress against deterioration. While it is admitted that 2FC commands the best talent, that station cannot hold a candle to 2BL for consistent and never varying quality of transmission, from a technical standpoint. Some of the best programmes from 2FC are considerably spoilt, in my opinion, by badly controlled modulation, while the engineers and operators of 2BL deserve very great credit for the quality of their output. Yours, etc., "TRUE RECEPTION." Albionford Point. APPRECIATES SPEEDWAY ITEMS Dear Sir,—I find it hard to understand J.G.P.'s ("W.W.", 18/3/27) view of Speedway items. Recently I tuned in 4QG just as the motor bike racing started. My parents were about to go for a walk, but when they heard 4QG's announcer they stopped throughout the evening, and we all thoroughly enjoyed it. When 4QG finished, I tuned in the motordrome from 3LO and we had another exciting item. I have some wireless friends and they all appreciate the Speedway's items. Yours, etc., W.E.G. Rockhampton. DOWN AMONG THE SOPRANOS. Dear Sir,—The alternation of male and female voices for a whole evening is tiring to listen to. There is, in my opinion, far too little instrumental solos and band music, on week evenings, especially at 2BL. One rarely hears a true classical instrumental solo for violin or piano. I believe they would be more appreciated than many correspondents would lead one to believe. I would suggest that the best way to decide as to most suitable programmes for all concerned would be to make a person fill up a preference card when applying for his licence. The stations would then know definitely, from all those having licences, the order of their preferences for jazz, band, orchestra, solo work, lectures, etc., and so could cater accordingly. Why do most stations run on the same lines—Why not a different station for a different class of programme? Yours, etc., W.G.S. Cardiff. 3LO Prepares for Royal Visit the Duchess's dress. For any man to attempt such a feat at any time is an heroic deed, but he handled the subject with confidence and unconventional style. "Pink all over" was his first observation, and then he added that the Duchess was wearing a pink feather-boa "or some fluffy affair" around her neck. However, in his own style he made an excellent description of her costume. From start to finish the story of the arrival was a triumphant delight. Much credit is due to the engineering staff which supervised the land line relay. Reception in Melbourne was remarkably clear. When the "Renown" enters The Heads at the entrance to Port Phillip on April 21 the event will be broadcast in the first place from a steamer carrying with it the portable transmitter some time ago designed by the Studio Manager of 3LO. This efficient little set made its debut in tests from an aeroplane during the Cobham visit and gave a good account of itself under trying conditions, although circumstances precluded it from being heard on any regular transmission at that time. It will, however, make its bow to the public under auspicious conditions when their Royal Highnesses arrive. Its messages will be picked up on shore and relayed by land line to the studio of 3LO, and there amplified and sent on to the broadcasting station at Prahran. The whole procedure will be similar to that carried out with such success on the arrival at Sydney. YOU CAN'T BEAT a youngster for throwing out a hint diplomatically, according to a nurse at the Brisbane Children's Hospital, who tells the following story: "You can imagine how the smiles leave the faces of our youthful listening patients when the market reports come sparkling through the air," she says. "I was surprised a day or two ago when one young boy failed to discard the 'phones when 'Markets' was announced. "Now, old man, off with the headphones," I ordered, "you have no interest in market prices." "Please, nurse," he said, "I want to listen to the price of onions!" "But why do you want to know the price of onions?" I exclaimed, surprised. "Because I am very fond of onions, nurse, and I haven't had any since coming to hospital. I was wondering whether they were too dear." BALDWIN SPEAKERS BALDWIN SPEAKERS £3/3/- Height 17in; Diameter of Flare 10in.; Weight 6-lb., including 5-ft. cord. Concert Size, Gold or Silver finish, £5/5/- TONE, VOLUME AND PRICE. In the new BALDWIN SPEAKER, product of the famous Nathaniel Baldwin, whose Telephones and Loud Speakers have long been recognised as the Best in Radio. The Baldwin Speaker answers the demand for a scientifically correct instrument, that gives fine tone and handles the volume, that pleases in appearance and satisfies the critical with its performance. All the low notes of the organ - the high, sweet notes of the violin, are reproduced without distortion on volume and power amplification. The price is right. FOR SALE AT ALL DEALERS. (COUNTRY AND INTERSTATE DISTRIBUTORS WANTED.) MANUFACTURERS PRODUCTS PTY. LTD. SPECIALISTS IN ALL STYLES LOUD SPEAKERS. Sole Distributors for Nathaniel Baldwin Products for Australasia: CHALLIS HOUSE, SYDNEY Comparing B.B.C. (Eng.) and the B.C.A. (Aust.) I WAS interested to learn from the cables a short time ago that the British Broadcasting Company had determined to try duplicated programmes from the one station. This innovation, necessitating two distinct wavelengths, will be watched with interest. Its possibilities are enormous. Two irreconcilable parties exist among listeners. They may be divided for the sake of convenience into highbrows and lowbrows, with the proviso that those phrases are not mutually exclusive. A highbrow at 7 may be a lowbrow at 8. He faster differ. Similarly a man who thinks a broadcast fight is the chief item on a programme may well delight in a Beethoven symphony by way of contrast. Still, broadly speaking, people of cultured taste have definite likes and dislikes, while the average man or woman will feel bored at having to listen to high-class entertainment. 3LO, as I remember, discussed some time ago the possibility of putting out two simultaneous programmes. Technical difficulties there were, but nothing insurmountable. It is very likely that if the English experiment results in satisfying the grumblers, who are the same in all parts of the world, 3LO will follow suit. One way of utilising two wavelengths would be to put all speakers on the one length, so that the large army of subscribers who cannot bring themselves to listen to lectures may tune in to musical programmes only. The defect, however, of this arrangement would be that high-class and ordinary music would be shot out to the same audience. A better way would be the preparation of two distinct programmes, mixed in their items as at present. The one would be similar to a chamber concert and a lecture-room as to its speakers; the other would be a frankly popular entertainment. Both would make provision for church services, which all classes seem to enjoy and require. GOOD MUSIC. Speaking of good music, 3LO has made a start in giving fine concerts, lasting half an hour. The first has already been held, when Louis Hattenbach, one of our best cellists, gave a recital with the help of a fine singer. These musical half-hours are to be continued. Arrangements have been made as well with the University Symphony Orchestra to give a good concert once in about two months. Professor Bernard Heine is to conduct. The approach that some musicians make of being starved for the best music will soon have no foundation. Every programme, it is hoped, will soon carry a proportion of this class of music. BRITISH COMPLAINTS. It is singular to hear from England complaints that broadcasting is hurting the business of the theatres and music-halls, which are antagonistic to them. Quite the opposite effect has been heard here. I should dearly like to test the bona-fides of the English theatre managers. It could easily be done. Let the B.B.C. write to objectors telling them that it proposed to confine broadcasting of plays and music-hall numbers to half a dozen theatres. The attitude of objectors would change. They would weigh the advertisement to be given to rivals against the imaginary loss sustained by themselves owing to broadcast performances. The truth is that before broadcasting became common, business in London theatres had become very "rocky." After the war there was a reaction, and theatres that had been run by actor-managers who knew a good play and how to present it were driven out of business by commercial men, who knew nothing of the theatre but that it had made fortunes for others during the war. It was a frank speculation on their part, and many made money by securing leases on theatres and "spec'ing" them to third, fourth and fifth parties at increasing rents. Add to this that they frequently put on wretched shows, because they wanted to oblige beautiful but poor actresses, that they knew nothing of plays, and thought that expensive display would excuse bad pieces, and you have a far truer explanation of empty houses than broadcasting. It is piquant, now that the B.B.C. is run by the Government to hear loud squealing by the artists that they are underpaid. Government control has been loudly advocated here by some artists who think that under it they can demand big fees. Perhaps they may change their tune when they read that English artists are thinking of going on strike for better pay. On the other hand, some artists are honest enough to admit that they are getting through broadcasting fees for ten minutes a night equal to those they formerly got in a music hall or a theatre for a full night's work. It has helped to keep a roof over the heads of some artists for whom little work was offering otherwise. GREAT EVENTS AHEAD. Apart from the big broadcasting feats to be tried out over the visit of the Duke and Duchess, I hear that 3LO has already in hand arrangements for broadcasting a full description of the classic river event of the year, the Public Schools Boat Race in May. This year the event takes place at Geelong on the Barwon, and from the first crack of the starter's pistol to the end of the great contest, an expert will describe the progress and the shifting fortunes of the day. Thousands of people are attracted to see this race. A hundred thousand more cannot be there, and will listen with beating hearts to hear a description and a result they once would have had to wait a day or more to learn. It's Hard To Believe A Really High Grade Loudspeaker for "THE TRUEMUSIC JUNIOR" stands 12 inches high, the horn is of copper, finished art brown, the unit is adjustable, and is wound to 4000 ohms. The tonal quality is equal to many Speakers at 6 times the price, and the volume is amazing. (Old Price, 60/-.) BUILD THE 3 VALVE HARKNESS REFLEX This set is described in this issue of Wireless Weekly. It dispenses with the crystal and reproduces with wonderful tonal quality. PARTS REQUIRED \| Item \| £ \| s. \| d. \| \|----------------------------------------------------------------------\|----\|----\|----\| \| 1 Bulbelite Panel, 18 x 7 x 3-16. Price \| 0 \| 10 \| 6 \| \| 2 S.L.F. Advance Condensers, .0005, each \| \| \| \| \| 10 6 \| \| \| \| \| 2 Large Black Engraved Dials, each 2/3 \| 0 \| 4 \| 6 \| \| 1 Advance Midget Condenser, .0005 \| 0 \| 6 \| 6 \| \| 3 Black Base Standard Valve Sockets, each 1/3 \| 0 \| 5 \| 3 \| \| 1 Midget Single Circuit Jack \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| \| 1 H and H Battery Switch \| 0 \| 2 \| 9 \| \| 2 Ediswan Transformers, each, 1/6 \| 1 \| 7 \| 0 \| \| 2 5in. Lengths of 3in. Diameter Radion \| \| \| \| Tubing, each 4/2 \| 0 \| 8 \| 4 \| 1 1-lb. Reel 24 D.C.C. Wire \| 0 \| 1 \| 7 \| 1 Terminal Board, Engraved \| 0 \| 2 \| 3 \| 1 High-grade 0001 Fixed Condenser, "Sangamo" \| 0 \| 2 \| 3 \| 2 30 ohm Ajax Rheostats, each 1/10 \| 0 \| 3 \| 8 \| 1 Grid Condenser, .00025, with Clips, "Sangamo" \| 0 \| 3 \| 3 \| 1 2 megohm Gridleak \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| All Goods are Covered by a Money-back Guarantee. Rheostats: The De Jur, Highest-grade, 30 of 10 ohms. \| 0 \| 3 \| 9 \| Potentiometers: Ajax, 400 ohms, 2/6; De Jur, 400 ohms \| 0 \| 4 \| 9 \| Valve Sockets: For UV199 Type Valves \| 0 \| 1 \| 6 \| UX Valve Sockets: Brown, 2/; White Porcelain \| 0 \| 2 \| 6 \| H. and H. Valve Sockets: Suit Standard 201A or UX Valves \| 0 \| 4 \| 0 \| Ediswan Audio Transformers: Greatly Reduced \| 0 \| 13 \| 6 \| Celatsite Wire: Insulated, Flexible, for wiring sets, per 25ft. carbon \| 0 \| 4 \| 9 \| Glacite Wire: Insulated, Buswire, per carton of 3 2ft. lengths \| 0 \| 1 \| 8 \| Loop Aerial Wire: In Various Colors, per 100ft. coil \| 0 \| 4 \| 0 \| Karas Harmonik Transformers: The best made \| 1 \| 14 \| 9 \| Karas Orthometric Condensers: .00025, .00027, .00027, .00025 \| 1 \| 14 \| 9 \| COUNTRY CLIENTS.—We Pay Carriage on all orders of 10/- and over, except Batteries, Loudspeakers, Cabinets and Value Payable Post Parcels. ALL GOODS CARRY A GUARANTEE OF SATISFACTION, OTHERWISE MONEY RETURNED. "YOURS FOR LOWER PRICES." The Economic Radio Stores 25 New Royal Arcade, Sydney. Phone M 3049 Branches:— PARRAMATTA: Corner Church and Macquarie Streets. Phone UW. 9661. NEWCASTLE: 569 Hunter Street West. Phone: New. 1622. How to Make A Three Valve Harkness Reflex Distance — Volume — Economy In "Wireless Weekly" for October 15 there was described the constructional details of the Harkness Reflex receiver. This receiver—"The Sweetest and Loudest I have ever heard"—proved so popular that we sold out of that issue. Stacks of congratulatory letters have been received from many readers who constructed the set. A few met with slight trouble with the crystal detector, brought about mainly through not having sufficient B battery on the plates of the valve or through the injudicious use of the rheostat. In most instances this has been overcome. Some radioists have a decided dislike for a crystal detector, and this is hard to understand provided, of course, the crystal detector used is a good one of the variable type. The crystal detector plays a most important part in the selectivity of the receiver—some spots on the crystal being of little use for reception of long distance stations, and some being ideal for this purpose. The crystal detector is the main spring of the whole receiver. The receiver being described to-day is really the latest Harkness Reflex, but this time employs a valve as the detector. This provides a very flexible arrangement which will be extremely popular all round. Many there are who do not understand just what a reflex set is. Reflex sets are popular the world over for many reasons. Firstly, one valve does the work of two, and, secondly, as a corollary the cost of upkeep is much less. A and B batteries last much longer, and the cost of renewals of valves, etc., is lessened. Thus appealing to the pocket, the reason for their popularity is thus evident. The Harkness Three is no exception to the rule. Come along and follow out the circuit diagram—this will be good practice following on the symbol article of this week, and will also show just how with three valves a four valve output is obtained. Four valves we know will give wonderful loud speaker volume. The aerial energy flowing through the primary (P.) of Radio Frequency Transformer 1 (R.F.T.1) is conveyed inductively to the secondary of R.F.T.1, tuned and is then impressed on the grid of the radio frequency valve 1. This valve in its functioning transfers this amplified energy to the primary (P.) of R.F.T.2, coupled to the secondary and impressed on the grid of the detector valve V2 where it is detected. After this we have audio frequency—that is, sounds can be heard if the earphones were connected in the circuit at this stage. As this is not loud enough for a loud speaker the energy is next fed back through the secondary of R.F.T.1, and from thence to the grid of the first valve V1. Here it is applied to the plate of this valve, and being at audio frequency will not actually actuate the secondary of R.F.T.2 but simply flow through the primary, then along to the primary of A.F.T.2. The secondary of this A.F.T.2 picks up the energy and carries it to the valve V3, through it, to the loud speaker jack. Hence we have one stage of radio, a detector and two stages of audio, the first valve being the reflex valve, doing double work. Although this valve does double work it does not necessarily follow that it will wear out before either of the other valves. Some folk think so, but it is a fallacy; forget about it. Reflexing is the American term for this principal, and in Britain it is known as Dual Amplification. Still keeping the circuit diagram in front of you notice that one rheostat is provided specially for the detector valve, whereas one controls the reflexing valve and the audio valve together. If valves such as UX201a—consuming .25 of an amp each are used then rheostat R2 should be either 6, 8, or 10 ohms as this rheostat must carry ½ an amp, ¼ for each valve, so that if the usual 30 ohms rheostat is used it will generally heat up. The 30 ohms Cutler Hammer rheostat used by ourselves will conveniently carry this ½ amp without any trouble, but there are some other makes which won't do this. Remember this now! Of course, if desired a Banchot of 1 an amp. capacity may be substituted for R2, this being a matter of choice. From the point of view of selectivity this receiver is splendid. Instancing this we have the aerial loosely coupled to the grid coil and the output of V1 loosely coupled to the grid coil of V2. Loose coupling is a means to selectivity, and this is available in this receiver as may be seen. An additional means of obtaining selectivity is by including a .0001 fixed condenser in series with the aerial lead or occasionally the earth lead. This applies to all sets. The shopping list for the parts for the Harkness Threg reads as follows: 1- Dilecto or Radion Panel 18x7x3.16th. 2-.0005 m.f.d. Advance S.L.F. Condensers. 2-3-inch or 4-inch Dials. 1-Advance Midget Condenser 000005. 3-H. and H. Valve Sockets. 1-H. and H. S.C. Jack. 2-Igranic A.F. Transformers, 1-5 to 1 and 1-8 to 1. 2-5-inch lengths of 3/16inch Dilecto or Rudlon Tubing. 4-ozs. No. 24 D.C.C. Wire. 1-Terminal Board with 10 terminals. 2-.0001 Igranic Fixed Condensers. 2-30 ohms C. H. Rheostats. 1-Dublier .00025 Grid Condenser. 1-2 meg. Grid Leak. 1-H. and H. Battery Switch. 1-Basenhurst 17x8x8. Wiring wire, screws, etc. Remember that the efficiency of any receiver depends on the quality of the components. The parts enumerated above have been selected specially for this receiver and will assuredly produce excellent results, but while at the same time it is not absolutely necessary to adhere strictly to the brands of materials used, the valves specified should not be departed from in any way. Don't write asking for information on the number of turns of wire necessary to work in conjunction with a .001 or a .00025 m.f.d. variable condenser as we only build one set, and to satisfactorily supply this information a separate receiver would have to be built and tried. If it is desired to employ different sized variable condensers to those specified then try out for yourself—experiment a bit—the results are often interesting. This week instead of photographs we have resorted to perspective drawings which will show the layout of the different components. Adhere to this layout as far as is practicable and an excellent receiver will be the result. Once again coil winding is required. To most people this appeals, first it is a pleasant occupation and secondly the cost is much lower than when the coils are purchased ready made. It so happens this time that ready-made coils are not available, so commence winding now. At a distance of ½ an inch from one end of the tube drill a hole large enough to allow a contact stud to fit through. Push this stud through the hole from the inside so that the head of the stud is inside the tube. Bare about one inch of the end of the 24 D.C.C. wire and clamp it under the nut of the contact stud, then wind on 50 turns of wire, each turn close to its neighbour. Finish off by clamping the bared end underneath the nut of a contact stud fitted in the already prescribed manner. The beginning and the end of this coil should be level on one side of the tubing. On the opposite side of the tube and a ¼ of an inch from the end of the last winding provide another contact stud, and from this stud wind 15 turns of the same gauge wire, finishing off under a contact stud as before. Thus we have a tube with two coils wound in the same direction, one of 50 turns and one of 15 turns, with a ¼ of an inch space between the two windings. Two of these units are required—so when one is finished build another of exactly the same dimensions. On the end of one former—the 15 turns end fit a small bracket such as a grid leak clip in order that this unit may be screwed to the baseboard. The other former is secured to the baseboard by means of two small pillars ¾ of an inch high. These pillars may conveniently be the tops of the wander-plugs supplied with Eveready B batteries. A hole should be drilled right through the length of the pillar, and also a hole should be provided at each end of the former in such a position that when the former is screwed down to the baseboard the connections for the 50 turns or secondary portion of the coil is facing the variable condenser. The primary connections, of course, will face the back, just where the aerial and earth terminals are on the terminal board. This manner of mounting will save much wiring. Next mark out the panel. This is quite a simple matter. The Cutler Hammer rheostats are of the one hole mounting type, which is a blessing. The Advance condensers on the other hand require fixing screws, and, unfortunately, no drilling template is provided. However, make a template from a portion of the cardboard box in which the condenser comes to you. Use one whole side of the box and in the centre, using a lead pencil, pierce a hole just big enough to allow the spindle of the condenser to slip through tightly. Remove the three fixing screws and press this cardboard tightly over the spindle and right back to the condenser. Press against the pillars of the fixing screws and with a sharp pencil make a neat little hole right in the centre of the pillars. Now you have a template which may be placed in position on the panel and centre punched. Drill the panel, remembering the golden rule that a high speed and light pressure accomplishes much. The holes for the fixing screws for the condensers are to be countersunk, so failing a reamer use a larger sized drill, but don't be absent-minded and drill right through. Only go about half way. Assemble the components on the panel, firstly the switch, then the jack, the two rheostats with the terminals of such facing each other, and then the variable condensers. Fix the panel temporarily to the baseboard and plate the positions for the components. Note the previous description of mounting the coils, also the fact that the valve sockets are not in line but are staggered. Study the back of panel wiring diagram carefully and follow out as suggested. Remember that R.F.T.3—that one with the bracket on the bottom—is fitted very close to the chassis with the secondary connections facing condenser C2. The neutralising condenser is alongside R.F.T.1. This layout is a very good one. Remove the panel and commence the wiring. Bimbar, Fort and Chelmsford wire may be used, or 20 D.C.C. wire run through varnished cambric spaghetti. Bimbar is a little more difficult to run than the others. The back of panel wiring diagram will clearly show the wiring, and, taken in conjunction with the circuit diagram as a check, this pleasant job may be proceeded with. Mark off each wire as it is entered into the set and remember when soldering to solder neatly. Wire as far as is possible before screwing the panel to the baseboard, and then finalise when this is done. When the wiring has been completed check over very carefully and then insert the valves in their sockets. On actual test Midland P.M.4 valves were used to advantage, although almost any other make of valve may be used. Hook up the aerial to terminal A1 and the earth to the E terminal. Link up the A battery to its respective terminals and the B battery also. Twenty-two to 30 volts will prove ample for the detector and 90 for the audios, but if a higher voltage is required for the amplifier valves a suitable C battery must be used. Be guided in the choice of C battery by the information contained in the pamphlet supplied with the valves used. Plug in the speaker and pressing the battery switch to the ON position, gradually turn up the rheostats. Slowly rotate both dials until a station is heard. Most probably a loud howl will be heard when both condensers tune their respective circuits to the same wave length. Don't be worried over this as it only indicates that the neutralising condenser needs to be adjusted. Using a pencil, adjust this neutralising condenser until the howl disappears. Again, if the reception is raucous a variable grid leak connected across the secondary of one or both audio transformers will rectify this immediately. One side of this resistance is joined to L8 and the other side to O.S. of the transformer transformers. If the receiver is not sufficiently selective transfer the aerial from A1 to A2 and retune slightly. This often has the desired effect. The volume of this receiver is sufficient for all purposes. Careful tuning will resolve 4QG and 5CL and also 4LO, but careful tuning it must be. These three stations were heard nicely on the speaker at Marrickville on the standard aerial of 78 feet length overall. Further test results will be given in next week's issue. For three valves this receiver is a wonder. We have every faith in it, and we know that in time it will rival its confrere, the Harkness Two, in popularity. Don't hesitate to build it—go right ahead, and then learn that you have the maximum output that is possible for three valves. --- Can You Read a Circuit Diagram? Continued from page 11 Come along now to the popular Remarix single valve receiver. Once again the primary coil (a) is seen connected to the aerial and earth. Coupled to this is the secondary of grid coil (ba), tuned with a variable condenser D (No. 5 on the chart). Reaction coil (ca) is joined to the bottom of secondary coil (ba). The other end of this reaction coil is connected through another variable condenser (D) to the plate of the valve (g). The grid of the valve is marked F and the grid condenser and leak—No. 20 on the chart—is marked (e). A and H denote the filament of the valve—turn to No. 17 now and read the accompanying paragraph. Can you clearly understand it? Look at the choke coil (ja) and the 'phone K and the terminals L. The rest are conductors; see how some join and others cross. Consult the chart again and pick each out. Study it carefully. On the Karns Equamatic Receiver, pick out the valves, the condensers, the coils, the D.C. jack, the transformers, the S.C. jack, the single interference or retard coils, the aerial, and the rheostats. Note the relation of one part to the other. Mark off in numbers with the chart. Familiarise yourself thoroughly with all the signs, turn back to the Cocknay receiver in last week's issue. Compare each symbol with the photographs, and also the back of panel wiring diagram. Turn back other copies, get a good understanding and then don't forget them. Keep this issue by you at all times for reference, and infinite pleasure is in store for you once it is gained. It is worth it—see for good knowledge of a circuit diagram yourselves. --- Radio has, it is reported, accomplished the formerly impossible feat of bringing a parliamentary orator in full swing. The speeches in the Diet of Finland are broadcast for the popular benefit, and one long-winded orator who was "talking for Buncombe" reached his mark. He was suddenly interrupted by a long-distance telephone call from indignant constituents with a warning that he was wearing out his popularity by his lack of terminal facilities. The astonished statesman at once yielded the floor. ROUBLE SHOOTING in your receiver is likely to reveal a dozen little faults which when remedied improve reception considerably. Try for external faults—battery, earth and aerial connections—first, then the valves and transformers. Nine out of ten listeners leave it at that omitting to examine the valve sockets, rheostats, and even their headphones. They are careless, for in these three parts are to be found many small faults. The best thing to do is to throw them out and replace with EMMCO. Good reception is then ensured and there is no need for trouble shooting. EMMCO RHEOSTAT. Constructed with the new style metal frame and with a bakelite knob. The double inside grip of the sliding arm ensures continuous contact and a firm grip, making its adjustment even and sure the whole way round. PRICE, 5/6. EMMCO HEADPHONES. Every detail is manufactured to the highest standard of efficiency. A light spring head-band, with sliding adjustment on each earpiece, enables them to be worn with the utmost comfort. PRICE, 21/-. EMMCO VALVE SOCKET. Made of moulded bakelite, the Emmco valve socket is adaptable for all standard valves, UX or UV type. Springs make positive contact and cannot become displaced by long usage. PRICE, 4/6. EMMCO PARTS AT ALL RADIO DEALERS Made in Sydney by the Electricity Meter Manufacturing Co. Ltd. Sydney, N.S.W. New Additions to COLMOVOX TWO-VALVE RECEIVER. This is a receiver which gives highly satisfactory loud speaker reception up to a distance of 50 miles. For greater distances, only 'phone' reception is guaranteed. The two valves provide one as detector and one stage of Audio Frequency Amplification. Finished in a nicely polished Maple Cabinet of dimensions 18 inch by 10 inch by 10 inch deep, and complete with two valves, 4-volt 40 amp. Accumulator, and Brandies Table Talker Speaker, 60-volt High Tension "B" Battery, Aerial and Earth Wire, Battery connections, Lightning Arrester and Insulators. CASH PRICE: DEPOSIT: WEEKLY: £16/10/- £3/8/- 5/- COLMOVOX THREE-VALVE RECEIVER. This Receiver is very similar to the above Two-valve Colmovox, but in addition has one extra stage of Audio Frequency Amplification, which enables it to give highly satisfactory broadcast loud speaker reception over distances of 500 miles. Finished in a nicely-finished Maple Cabinet 21 inch x 10 by 10 inch deep and complete with Three Valves, 4-volt 40 amp. Accumulator, Brandies Table Talker Speaker, 64-volt High Tension Battery, Aerial and Earth Wire, Battery connections, Lightning Arrester, and Insulators. CASH PRICE: DEPOSIT: WEEKLY: £20/10/- £5/- 6/- THREE VALVE. COLVILLE-MOORE WIRELESS SUPPLIES COLMOVOX Colmovox Lines COLMOVOX FOUR-VALVE RECEIVER. A highly efficient long distance Receiver. The four valves provide two stages of Radio Frequency Amplification Detector Valve and one stage of Audio Frequency Amplification. A Receiver of exceptional merit and so priced that it is within the reach of the pockets of every one. The 21 x 10 x 10 inch deep cabinet is of nicely polished Maple and complete with Four Valves, 6-volt 50 amp. Accumulator, 84-volt High Tension Battery, Amplion Loud Speaker, Aerial and Earth Wire, Battery Connections, Lightning Arrester, and Insulators. CASH PRICE: DEPOSIT: WEEKLY: £27. £6. 9/- FOUR-VALVE COLMOVOX FIVE-VALVE RECEIVER. A Nostradyme Receiver of wonderful significance designed to give maximum volume over great distances. The five valves provide two stages of Radio Frequency Amplification, Detector Valve and two stages of Audio Frequency Amplification. The cabinet is of nicely polished Maple of 21 x 13 x 12 inches deep and complete with Five Valves, 6-volt 50 amp. Accumulator, 2 Large Capacity 45-volt High Tension Batteries, Amplion Super Loud Speaker, Aerial and Earth Wires, Battery Connections, Lightning Arrester and Insulators. CASH PRICE: DEPOSIT: WEEKLY: £33 10/-. £7 7/-. 11/4. Complete instructions for erection and operation together with calibrated tuning chart supplied places the owner on the same footing as the experienced listener, enabling him to tune in immediately and without any previous knowledge, to all Australian "A" class stations. GUARANTEED TWELVE MONTHS. LTD., 10 Rowe Street, Sydney. B 2261 COLMOVOX NEW 6 VOLT VALVES A C09 .06 amp Superb Detector and General Purpose Valve B 605 .1 amp Power Valve and Low Impedance R.F. Amplifier. MIGHTY "MINIWATTS"! COMPANIONS IN ECONOMY. Each with the new power-plus filament—there is none stronger These new Six Volt "Miniwatts" slip right into the Sockets where there are now perhaps wasteful old types—and your batteries last four times longer. You'll arrive at the greater distance, volume and sweet clear tone. UNFAILING "A & B" POWER FOR EVERY RADIO No. 450. FAMOUS PHILIPS "Full-wave" 1.3 amp, 6-volt Charger—which keeps your "A" battery always at "peak." It is automatic, silent, and fool-proof. No. 372. FAMOUS PHILIPS H.T. SUPPLY UNIT which eliminates "B" Batteries and supplies steady smooth plate current direct from the A.C. mains without ham! Proven reliable in the hands of thousands of satisfied users. FROM ALL DEALERS. PHILIPS You hear the whole Band Brilliant and beautiful—every instrument clear—like a silver bell. As though the whole band comes marching right into your home—that's how natural your Radio reception can be to-day. Famous Philips scientists have now perfected a new natural tone Loud Speaker—giving realism to Radio beyond belief! It is already a world-wide success. A patented Balanced Magnet System actuates a full floating cone of improved acoustic properties giving flawless reproduction throughout a greatly increased tone range. The whole mechanism is fully protected by a housing of pleasing design with a choice of several striking colours. No adjustment is necessary—there is nothing to get out of order—and the apparatus is guaranteed by Philips as long as the seals remain unbroken. A co-product of Famous Philips Valves, "B" Eliminators and Battery Chargers. PHILIPS NATURAL TONE LOUDSPEAKER THE NEW AND IMPROVED WONDERTONE IV. HOME CONSTRUCTION RECEIVER is the result of exhaustive experiments to place before the Australian public a Receiver that does not require any technical knowledge whatever to build. With our new and simple building instructions, a boy of 7 can build it. Furthermore, the circuit employed is especially designed for the combination of simplicity of Control—Distance—Volume—Clarity—and Selectivity. No jamming of Stations with the new and wonderful "Wondertone" H.C.IV., and no special tools are required, only a screw-driver and pliers. The connecting wires are all cut and prepared to the required lengths, and by following the instructions it is impossible to make a mistake. Easy to Build Illustration of a completed "Wondertone" H.CIV Receiver. Complete parts ready to build. Assembled, Wired and Tested ready for use. "Wondertone" H.C.IV., parts ready to assemble, with 60 Ampere Hour Accumulator £19 17 6 £21 17 6 "Wondertone" H.C.IV., parts ready to assemble, with Dry Cell "A" Battery £17 12 6 £19 12 6 "Manhattan" Loud Speaker, suitable for "Wondertone" IV. £1 3 6 The Components include everything necessary for a complete Receiver such as Stained Maple Cabinet, Bakelite Panel, drilled and engraved, heavy duty "B" Battery, Accumulator or Dry "A" Battery, "C" Battery, "D" Battery, Voltmeter, Hydrometer (for Accumulator), Headphones, Battery Connecting Cable and Aerial Equipment, Blue Print Diagram and Building Instructions. SEND FOR ILLUSTRATED LEAFLET. Your Own Set Re-wired by Experts—Prices on Application. Wiles Wonderful Wireless and Electrical Stores Pitt and Goulburn Streets, Sydney. Branch: 23 Pitt St., Near Circular Quay. Branch: 384 Pitt St., near Goulburn St. Mail Order Dept.: 60 Goulburn Street. Friday, April 8 2FC, SYDNEY Farmer's Broadcasting Service. Wave Length, 442 Metres. MIDDAY SESSION. 12 noon.—"Big Ben" and announcements. 12.30 p.m.—Stock Exchange: First Call. 12.35 p.m.—Official Weather Forecast, Rainfall, Temperatures, Astronomical Memoranda, Shipping Intelligence, Mail Services. 12.45 p.m.—Studio Music. 12.50 p.m.—"Sydney Morning Herald" News Service and Cables. 12.55 p.m.—Studio Music. 12.55 p.m.—A talk on "Home cooking and recipes" by Miss Ruth Furst. 12.55 p.m.—Miss Anne Luciano, soprano—"Winged Birds of Summer." 1.0 p.m.—"Big Ben" Weather Intelligence. 1.1 p.m.—"Evening News" Midday News Service. Producers' Distributing Society's Report. 1.20 p.m.—Studio Music. 1.25 p.m.—Stock Exchange, second call. 1.30 p.m.—Marching Music for School Children. 1.40 p.m.—Studio Music. 1.45 p.m.—Miss Anne Luciano, soprano—"I Love the Mounts (Hibben)." 1.50 p.m.—Studio Music. 2.0 p.m.—"Big Ben": Close Down. AFTERNOON SESSION. 2.0 p.m.—"Big Ben" and Programme Announcements. 2.10 p.m.—Music from the Studio. 2.10 p.m.—Mr. S. H. Bowden will give a talk. Subject: "The Theatre—the stream of pleasure." 2.25 p.m.—Mr. Cliff Hanney, violin solo, "Indian Lament" (Dvorak-Kreisler). 2.50 p.m.—Marching Music for School Children. 2.50 p.m.—From Farmer's Tea Rooms: Miss Eileen Moreau, mezzo, "Fair Moon" (Lewani). 3.10 p.m.—From the Studio, Mr. Cliff Hanney, violin solo, "Midnight Rilles" (Heuberg-Kessler). 3.15 p.m.—Miss Katherine Beverley, soprano, "If We Sailed Away" (Phillips). 3.20 p.m.—"Big Ben": From Farmer's Tea Rooms: Miss Ethel Muller, contralto, "The Dawn" (D'Harcourt). 3.30 p.m.—"Big Ben": by Mr. Everett Chepple. 3.30 p.m.—From Farmer's Tea Rooms: Miss Eileen Moreau, mezzo, "At Dawning" (Cadamus). 3.35 p.m.—Studio Music. 3.40 p.m.—Miss Katherine Beverley, soprano, "Ye San" (Finzi). 3.45 p.m.—Studio Music. 3.45 p.m.—From Farmer's Tea Rooms: Miss Ethel Muller, contralto, "Violeta" (Roma). 4.15 p.m.—Stock Exchange, third call; Studio Music. 5.0 p.m.—"Big Ben": Close Down. EARLY EVENING SESSION. 5.45 p.m.—The Chimes of 2FC. 5.50 p.m.—"The Hello Man" Talks to the Children. 2.30 p.m.—A Serial Story for the Older Ones. 6.10 p.m.—From Farmer's Oak Dining Hall (meals and instrumental forms). 7.0 p.m.—"Big Ben": Last Minute Sporting Information by the 2FC Racing Commissioner. 7.10 p.m.—Dalgetty's Market Reports (wool, wheat and stock). 7.30 p.m.—Fruit and Vegetable Markets. 7.40 p.m.—Weather and Shipping Intelligence. 7.45 p.m.—Late Evening News" News Service. NIGHT SESSION. 8.10 p.m.—The Programme Announcement. 8.15 p.m.—A Talk by Mr. E. J. Van de Velde (Silberst): "How to Photograph Animals." 8.30 p.m.—"Big Ben": From the Lyceum Theatre, Pitt Street, Sydney—Orchestral Items and Vocal Act. 8.35 p.m.—From the Studio: Miss Mabel Batchelor, soprano. 9.0 p.m.—"Big Ben": "Mile 10" (Galloway). 9.15 p.m.—"The Spring Morning" (Nevins). 9.25 p.m.—A Talk by Mr. W. F. Kay (the third in the series), Robins: "Immortality of the Species: The Origin of Genes." 9.38 p.m.—"Big Ben": From the Lyceum Theatre, Pitt Street, Sydney—Orchestral Items and Vocal Act. 9.45 p.m.—From the Studio: Miss Mabel Batchelor, soprano, "O Seaview Her Ma" (Gluck), with flute obbligo by Mr. E. W. Garfield. 10.0 p.m.—Mr. Les Coney, comedian, "I'm Fond of Bristol's Next Milk" (Long). 10.10 p.m.—Mr. Harold Tollemache, baritone, (a) "Out of the Mist" (Sutherland). (b) "The Last Hour" (Hawthorne). 10.20 p.m.—Mr. E. W. Garfield, flute solo. 10.25 p.m.—An Act from the Tivoli Theatre, Castlereagh Street, Sydney. (By permission of Tivoli Theatre Ltd.) 10.32 p.m.—From the Studio: Miss Mabel Batchelor, soprano, "Advance" (Gowan). 10.35 p.m.—Miss Eileen Davie, xylophone solo, "Where Did You Get Those Eyes." 10.38 p.m.—"Big Ben": Mr. Harold Tollemache, baritone, "Melody of Home." 10.45 p.m.—From the Lyceum Theatre, Pitt Street, Sydney—Orchestral Items. 10.50 p.m.—From the Studio: Mr. Les Coney, comedian, "A British Date" (Long). 10.52 p.m.—Miss Edna Davis, xylophone solo, "To-night," "My Night With Italy." 10.55 p.m.—"Big Ben": "Yankee Doodle." 10.55 p.m.—From the Wentworth Cafe, Church Hill, Sydney: The New Wentworth Symphony Dance Orchestra in popular numbers. 10.55 p.m.—From the Studio: Miss de Courcy Brewer, "Celebrity Records: Late News, and Announcements. 11.0 p.m.—"Big Ben": Close Down. National Anthem. 2BL, SYDNEY Broadcaster's Ltd. Wave Length, 363 Metres. Friday EARLY MORNING SESSION. 7.15 a.m.—G.P.O. Clock and Chimes. 7.16 a.m.—Metropolitan weather forecast. 7.27 a.m.—Musical programme from the Studio. 7.30 a.m.—Physical training and health exercises. 7.40 a.m.—G.P.O. Clock and Chimes. 7.41 a.m.—Hints on Health. 7.45 a.m.—Physical training and health exercises. 7.45 a.m.—G.P.O. Clock and Chimes, 7.46 a.m.—Weather report. 7.47 a.m.—Broadcasters special news service. 8 a.m.—G.P.O. Clock and Chimes; close down. MORNING SESSION. 10 a.m.—G.P.O. Clock and Chimes. 10.1 a.m.—Weather report. 10.2 a.m.—Musical programme from the Studio. 10.25 a.m.—News service from the "Daily Telegraph." 10.30 a.m.—Musical programme from the Studio. 11 a.m.—G.P.O. Clock and Chimes. 11.15 a.m.—News service from the "Daily Telegraph." 11.17 a.m.—Fish Market report. 11.19 a.m.—Vegetable Market report. 11.21 a.m.—Fruit Market report. 11.25 a.m.—From Dairy Farm, and Egg and Poultry Market reports. 11.28 a.m.—London market quotations. 11.29 a.m.—Ships in and out by wireless. 11.31 a.m.—Information re Interests and Connections. 11.33 a.m.—Shipping information—arrivals and departures. 11.35 a.m.—Women's Session: Talk by Miss Margaret Varley, Broadcaster's Women's Section Authority, "Greening." 11.40 a.m.—Social notes by Mrs. Jordan. 11.55 a.m.—Mrs. Jordan replies to correspondents. 12 p.m.—Talk on "Feeding the Family" by Mrs. Jordan. 12.30 a.m.—G.P.O. Clock and Chimes. 12.40 p.m.—Sydney Stock Exchange calls. 12.45 p.m.—"Big Ben": Newspaper news service. 12.45 p.m.—Hilary's Instrumental Quartet: direction, Gary Cantling. 1.00 p.m.—G.P.O. Clock and Chimes. 1.10 p.m.—Weather report. 1.15 p.m.—Stock Exchange calls. 1.30 p.m.—News from the "Sun." 1.45 p.m.—Musical programme from the Studio. 2 p.m.—G.P.O. Clock and Chimes; close down. AFTERNOON SESSION. Having information broadcast by courtesy of the "Sun." 2 p.m.—G.P.O. Clock and Chimes. 2.1 p.m.—Weather report and forecast. 2.20 p.m.—Social notes from the "Sun." 2.30 p.m.—News from the "Sun." 2.35 p.m.—Civil Service Stress Trio: direction, Miss de Courcy Brewer. 2.50 p.m.—G.P.O. Clock and Chimes. You can Recharge a Philco for a few pence. 3:11 p.m.—News from the "Sun." 3:45 p.m.—Musical programme from the Studio. 4 p.m.—G.P.O. Clock and Chimes. 4:10 p.m.—STUDIO ORCHESTRA: Stage Trio. 4:15 p.m.—Serial Stories. 4:40 p.m.—G.P.O. Clock and Chimes. 4:50 p.m.—Musical programme from the Studio. 4:45 p.m.—Producers' Distributing Society's Fruit and Vegetable Market report. 4:50 p.m.—Shipping information when available. 4:52 p.m.—Day's racing results on race days. 4:58 p.m.—News from the "Sun." 4:58 p.m.—Reports of night's programme. 5 p.m.—G.P.O. Clock and Chimes, close down. EARLY EVENING SESSION 5:45 p.m.—G.P.O. Clock and Chimes. 5:46 p.m.—Little Nellie and Dandy Long-legs will entertain the kiddies. 5:49 p.m.—The pupils of Miss Monica Scully will entertain the kiddies. 5:49 p.m.—Musical programme from the Studio. SPECIAL COUNTRY SESSION 9 p.m.—G.P.O. Clock and Chimes. Australian Government, Land and Finance Co.'s report. Weather report and forecast. Stock Exchange information. Producers' Distributing Society's Fruit and Vegetable Market report. Grain and Fodder report ("Sun"). Dairy Produce report ("Sun"). 5:15 p.m.—News from the "Sun." 5:20 p.m.—Talk on "Gardening Science" by Mr. Cooper, Park Superintendent, City Council. 5 p.m.—G.P.O. Clock and Chimes. Broadcaster's Trio. 5:45 p.m.—Madame Phyllis Howe (soprano). 5:49 p.m.—Mr. Albert Carville (tenor). 5:52 p.m.—Broadcaster's Trio. 5:57 p.m.—Miss Ethelton (violin) (Accompanist). 5:58 p.m.—Mr. Walter Chamberlain (contralto). 5:59 p.m.—Miss Nellie M. Ferguson. 6 p.m.—Resume of following day's programme. Weather report and forecast by courtesy of Mr. G. T. Mason, Govt. Met. 5:49 p.m.—G.P.O. Clock and Chimes. Broadcaster's Trio. 6:11 p.m.—The Sporting Editor of the "Sun" will talk on the prospects of Saturday's racing. 6:11 p.m.—Madame Phyllis Howe. 6:15 p.m.—Mr. Albert Carville. 6:16 p.m.—Gilber and Chinnery. 6:17 p.m.—Broadcaster's Trio. 6:18 p.m.—Miss Ethelton (violin) (Accompanist). 6:19 p.m.—Mbs. Theresa Heaton. 6:20 p.m.—Miss Nellie Ferguson. 6:10 p.m.—The Ambassador Dance Band broadcast from the Ballroom in the Ambassador. During the intervals between dances news reports by courtesy of the "Sun" will be broadcast. 12 midnight—G.P.O. Clock and Chimes. National Anthem. 3LO MELBOURNE Broadcasting Co. of Aust. Wave Length, 371 Metres. Friday. MIDDAY SESSION FROTH AND BROTH THE STUDIO ORCHESTRA HUMMEL'S SERENADERS "CHECK" HAYES, the Talkative Chap. C. RICHARD CHUDD, flute. TAYLOR AND SUMMERS, English comedians. ANNOUNCER—MAURICE DUDLEY. Accompaniment—AGNES FORTUNE. 12 noon—Time signal. British official wireless news from Rugby. Reuters' and the Australian Press Association cables. "Argus" and "Herald" news services. 12:10 p.m.—CARTHY BROS. in "Songs and Impressions." 12:40 p.m.—Stock Exchange Information. 12:50 p.m.—HUMMEL'S SERENADERS: Quartet—"I cannot pardon for double." Zither—Humphrey, Dolly Burnett, Reen Millar, and Hugh Huxham. Bass solo—"If winter comes." Reen Millar. Studio Orchestra—"Allegretto from Piano Sonata" (Schubert). Duet—"Dear old dear." Hugh and Edith Huxham. Agnes Fortune, piano; "Razoumoff Prelude" (Glinka). Operatic Quartet—"Marmora." Serenade Quartet. 1:10 p.m.—Weather report. 1:20 p.m.—THE STUDIO ORCHESTRA: Overture—"The Lyre of Gold" (Brahms). 1:30 p.m.—"CHECK" HAYES, the Talkative Chap. 2:10 p.m.—"Comics and sketches." 2:37 p.m.—THE STUDIO ORCHESTRA: "Polska Mazurka" (Armenian). 2:47 p.m.—C. RICHARD CHUDD, flute: Uncertain Melodies. 2:52 p.m.—TAYLOR AND SUMMERS, English comedians. Radio Rums. 3 p.m.—Close down. 6:10 p.m.—AUTUMN GARDEN WEEK Lecture, Mrs. W. H. Baldwin: "Palm for house and garden decoration." AFTERNOON SESSION SPEAKER—AL FAIT. MRS. MAHOMED THE STUDIO ORCHESTRA MARCH OF THE AMERICAN INDIANS. ARTHUR DOUGLAS, comedian. WALTER SMITH, comedian. FREDA NORTHCOATE, soprano. ANNOUNCER—MAURICE DUDLEY. Accompaniment—AGNES FORTUNE. 6:10 p.m.—STUDIO ORCHESTRA: "Flowers" (Wedding) (Mozart). 6:10 p.m.—"ALL FALL" will give a "Fashion Talk." 6:10 p.m.—MRS. MAHOMED. 6:10 p.m.—FREDA NORTHCOATE, soprano: "Sing, little bit." "Anne Hathaway." 6:22 p.m.—STUDIO ORCHESTRA: "Airante from Violin Concerto" (Rossini). 6:27 p.m.—ARTHUR DOUGLAS, comedian: "She'll be the best for me!" (Lander). 6:30 p.m.—STUDIO ORCHESTRA: Selection—"La Boheme" (Puccini). 6:35 p.m.—AUTUMN GARDEN WEEK Lecture, Mrs. W. H. Baldwin: "Ballooning." 6:40 p.m.—FREDA NORTHCOATE, soprano: "Smurfettes" (Lewes). "Seagull Ode" (Bruckner). 6:45 p.m.—WALTER SMITH, comedian: "The Hardy Nonesuch" (Hound). 6:50 p.m.—FREDA NORTHCOATE, soprano: "Rose Adagio" (Faure). "The Ash Grove" (Oberon). 6:55 p.m.—MRS. M. CALLAWAY MAHOMED: "Love in Modern Life." 6:40 p.m.—"Herald" news service. Stock Exchange information. 6:45 p.m.—Close down. EVENING SESSION 6:40 p.m.—CHILDREN'S HOUR—Answers to letters and birthday greetings. 6:45 p.m.—HUMMEL'S SERENADERS: Homework Quiz—"We wonder why." Edith Huxham, Dolly Burnett, Reen Millar, and Hugh Huxham. All about a rabbit." The Serenaders. 6:55 p.m.—"BILLY BUNNY" has a new story about the "Bunny Family." 6:10 p.m.—CAPT. DONALD MACLEAN will tell us about "Brave and the Treasure of the World." 6:55 p.m.—"BILLY BUNNY" story for the younger children. "Tanglewood Tales." 6:55 p.m.—"Arts" and "Herald" news service. Weather synopsis. Shipping movements. 6:55 p.m.—Fish market reports. By J. R. Barrett Ltd. 6:55 p.m.—Market reports. 6:55 p.m.—Market reports of fruit, by the Victorian Fruitgrowers' Association, compiled by the "Fruit World," exclusive to 3LO. Market prices of Oranges and Lemons by the Victorian Central Citrus Association Pty. Ltd. NIGHT SESSION POPULARITIES Homework—MR. W. C. RUGG. MR. W. A. EDWARDS. MR. R. A. LOVE. CARICATURES THE STUDIO ORCHESTRA. COLLINGWOOD CITIZENS' BAND GRACE JACKSON, contralto. WALTER SMITH, comedian. "CHECK" HAYES, the Talkative Chap. ELISE DAVID, soprano. MOANA LIO DUO, Hawaiian instruments—Hula. THE CELEBRITY FOUR CARTHY BROS., comedians. ANNOUNCER—ALFRED ANDREW. Accompaniment—AGNES FORTUNE. 7:15 p.m.—Under the auspices of the Department of Agriculture, Mr. W. C. Rugg, Poultry Inspector, will give a "Selection of Breeding Poultry." 7:30 p.m.—STUDIO ORCHESTRA: Selection—"No, No Nanette" (Younghusband). 7:40 p.m.—GRACE JACKSON, contralto: "Angela Magnificata" (Handel). "Kings of Thieves" (Massenet). 7:45 p.m.—WALTER SMITH, comedian: "Carnival of Venice" (Levy). 7:55 p.m.—"CHECK" HAYES, the Talkative Chap. In Friedman Mood. 8:15 p.m.—AUTUMN GARDEN WEEK Lecture, Mr. W. H. Baldwin: "The Value of Garden Week to the Community." 8:15 p.m.—COLLINGWOOD CITIZENS' BAND: "Rumba." 8:20 p.m.—COLLINGWOOD CITIZENS' BAND: Novelties. "A Day on a Farm." 8:25 p.m.—THE CELEBRITY FOUR, under direction of Mr. W. G. JAMES: Finale—"Au Le Boheme" (Puccini). Song—"Villa"-"Merry Widow" (Lehar). 8:30 p.m.—ELISE DAVID, soprano: "Aria—"La Gioconda" (Ponchielli). 8:25 p.m.—MOANA LIO DUO: "Rumba" and Melodies. "Beneath Thy Windows." 8:30 p.m.—COLLINGWOOD CITIZENS' BAND: Novelties. 8:40 p.m.—THE CELEBRITY FOUR, under direction of Mr. W. G. JAMES: Finale—"Au Le Boheme" (Puccini). Song—"Villa"-"Merry Widow" (Lehar). 8:45 p.m.—"Trek Here and There" (Vernon). 8:45 p.m.—STUDIO ORCHESTRA: "A Russian Panza" (Dino Lanze). 8:50 p.m.—MR. D. K. LOVE will give a Technical Talk. 8:15 p.m.—COLLINGWOOD CITIZENS' BAND: "Prelude and Mazurka from Copelia." Cornet solo—"Easter Flowers." 8:50 p.m.—GRACE JACKSON, contralto: "Suite of the Marching Band" (Allibone). "I Love You Truly" (Handy). 8:55 p.m.—MOANA LIO DUO: "Hello, Aloha." "Barefoot." 8:42 p.m.—CARTHY BROS.: "Song and Impersonations." 9:22 p.m.—"CARDIGAN"—Mr. H. A. Wolfe, Sporting Editor of the "Argus" and "Australian," will speak on Saturday. 10:25 p.m.—COLLINGWOOD CITIZENS' BAND: Trombones solo—"Lead Me Your Aid." Schubert, A. Thorn. "In Celine Cool." 10:30 p.m.—"Argus" news service. British official wireless news from Rugby. Announcements. 10:32 p.m.—STUDIO ORCHESTRA: Selection—"Maid of the Mountains" (Franz Simon). Friday, 8th April, 1927. ELISIE DAVIES, soprano: "Och did mai doles arder" (Hilbeck). "Trade Song" (Schubert). COLLINGWOOD CITIZENS' BAND: March: "Rattling Bass Player." Intermezzo: "Dreamland Belles." Royal Automobile Club of Victoria. Meteorological information. Announcements. OUR GREAT NIGHT: "Dietetics—The salt and fancy the sugar of life; the one preservative, the other sweetens it." Beever. JON ARONSON AND HIS SYNAPSE-SINGING-ZYCHONISTS: "Amerz" (Ergenek). "I wish I had my old gal back" (Yellow). "Bye, Bye Blackbird" (Dixon). "Teach me no night with baby" (Meyer). "Melodious" (Baker). "In a little Spanish Town" (Wayne). "Burgundy" (Malin). "Me Too, Ho-Ho-La-La" (Woods). "Ho, Ho, the Moon" (Brown). "Alma" (arr. Berger). "That's Way I Love You" (Donaldson). "The Village Blacksmith" (Moore). "Am I wasting my time" (Baker). "Rose of the Glade" (Stevens). "You're Goin to Black Shufflin'" (Spark). "Let's talk about my sweetie" (Kahn). "I wish you were jealous of me" (Rowell). "That Samson and Delilah Melody" (Greg). GOD SAVE THE KING. DUKE OF YORK'S VISIT. GRAND STATE RECEPTION. The State Reception to their Royal Highnesses the Duke and Duchess at York, which will be held at Parliament House, will be relayed. From Parliament House: State Reception to the Duke and Duchess' Band March from the lawns—description and presentation of guests to their Royal Highnesses. Musical programme arranged by R.B.S., and including the following:—Selection, "The Merry Widow" (Actors), selection, "The Ball of the New Year" (Kennedy), selection, "A Ballad Salad" (Audience popular numbers) (a.) Alwyn (Berlin), (b.) The Young Green Hat (Hoffman), (c.) The Studio Orchestra—selection, "Mad of the Mountains" (Morgan), the 4th Studio Orchestra—selection, "The British Lion" (Hornby), the BBC Radio Orchestra—soprano solo, (a.) "Indian Love Call" (Kendall Finch), (b.) "Threatened" (Owen). Miss Mary Hutton has selected "There's a Land" (Allison), (b.) "I'm From Somerset" (Sanderson), Mr. Stanley Tamblyn. Approximately—From the Studio: "The Daily Mail" News; Weather News; Clear Down. 5.00 p.m.—God Save the King. 6WF, PERTH Westralian Farmer's. Wave Length, 1250 Metres. Friday 12.30 p.m.—Tune in. 12.35 p.m.—First Local News Bulletin. Market reports. Cables. 1 p.m.—Time signal from Perth Observatory. 1.1 p.m.—Weather notes supplied by the Meteorological Bureau of Western Australia. 1.30 p.m.—STUDIO QUINTETTE. 1.45 p.m.—Close down. 2 p.m.—Tune in. 2.35 p.m.—Musical programme. 3 p.m.—Close down. 3.30 p.m.—Close down. 4.30 p.m.—Time signal from Perth Observatory. 4.35 p.m.—Musical evening for the Kids by Aunt Kate and Uncle Henry, Betty, Perry and Duffy. 5.30 p.m.—Check and share intelligence. Market reports. Cables. News supplied by courtesy of "The West Australian" Newspaper Co. 5.45 p.m.—Talk: "Books of the month" by Mr. J. F. Hainstone. 6 p.m.—A RELAY. Lecture Night: "The Sonata and its Development" by MRS FLORENCE HODD, L.R.A.M. and assisting Artists. 6.30 p.m.—From THE STUDIO. 6.35 p.m.—"Gardening Notes" by MR. E. A. HUGHES. Re-entertaining Meers, Dawson & Harrison. 7 p.m.—From the Arcadia Cafe—Orchestral numbers. 7.45 p.m.—Station announcements. 8 p.m.—Close down. Saturday, April 6 2FC, SYDNEY MIDDAY SESSION. 12.30 p.m.—The chimes of 2FC and programme announcements. 12.35 p.m.—Music from the studio. 12.40 p.m.—Talk on Gardening by Mr. C. J. LEWIS ("Hello Man"). 1.10 p.m.—"Big Ben." Weather intelligence. Stock Exchange information. 1.30 p.m.—"Evening News" Sunday news service. Commercial news. 1.45 p.m.—Studio music. 2 p.m.—"Big Ben." Close down. AFTERNOON SESSION. 1.30 p.m.—"Big Ben." Studio music. NOTE: During the afternoon results of the Warwick Farm race will be given. FROM THE WENTWORTH CAFE, CHURCH HILL, SYDNEY: Items by the Wentworth Symphonic Dance Orchestra, under the baton of Mr. Frederick Langton. Interpreted by musical items from the studio. 4.30 p.m.—Complete resume of the afternoon's sporting events, including cricket, tennis, golf, swimming, racing, etc. 5 p.m.—"Big Ben." Close down. EARLY EVENING SESSION. 5.45 p.m.—The chimes of 2FC. 6.00 p.m.—The "Hello Man" talks to the children. 6.30 p.m.—A serial story for the older ones. 6.40 p.m.—Dinner music. 7.30 p.m.—"Big Ben." Complete resume of the day's sporting events. 7.30 p.m.—"Evening News" late news service. 7.45 p.m.—Weather intelligence. Studio music. NIGHT SESSION. 7.40 p.m.—Programme announcements. 7.45 p.m.—A talk by Miss Mabel Webb about "Meet Me in St. Louis." 8 p.m.—"Big Ben." FROM THE CRYSTAL PALACE THEATRE, GEORGE STREET, SYDNEY: —Reels by the Orchestra, under the baton of Mr. Harry Stone. 8.10 p.m.—FROM THE STUDIO, Mr. Oliver King, banjo: —"New Phœnix Strut in the West" (Arras). 8.15 p.m.—Mr. Cliff Arnold, novelty pianist: —"In Golden Days" (Bartlett). 8.20 p.m.—Miss Virginia Bassett, mezzo: —"In golden days" (Bartlett). 8.25 p.m.—Mr. Oliver King, banjo: —"I'm Gonna get a man a horse he can ride" (Head). 8.30 p.m.—Mr. Cliff Arnold, novelty pianist: —"I'm Gonna get a man a horse he can ride" (Head). 8.35 p.m.—Mr. George Thompson, wind bass: —"I'm Gonna get a man a horse he can ride" (Head). 8.40 p.m.—Mr. George Thompson, wind bass: —"I'm Gonna get a man a horse he can ride" (Head). 8.45 p.m.—Mr. George Thompson, wind bass: —"I'm Gonna get a man a horse he can ride" (Head). 8.50 p.m.—Mr. George Thompson, wind bass: —"I'm Gonna get a man a horse he can ride" (Head). 8.55 p.m.—Mr. George Thompson, wind bass: —"I'm Gonna get a man a horse he can ride" (Head). 9 p.m.—"Big Ben." FROM THE CRYSTAL PALACE THEATRE, GEORGE STREET, SYDNEY: —Reels by the Orchestra, under the baton of Mr. Harry Stone. 9.10 p.m.—FROM THE STUDIO, Mr. Oliver King, banjo: —"I'm Gonna get a man a horse he can ride" (Head). 9.15 p.m.—Mr. Cliff Arnold, novelty pianist: —"I'm Gonna get a man a horse he can ride" (Head). 9.20 p.m.—Mr. George Thompson, wind bass: —"I'm Gonna get a man a horse he can ride" (Head). 9.25 p.m.—Mr. George Thompson, wind bass: —"I'm Gonna get a man a horse he can ride" (Head). 9.30 p.m.—Mr. George Thompson, wind bass: —"I'm Gonna get a man a horse he can ride" (Head). 9.35 p.m.—Mr. George Thompson, wind bass: —"I'm Gonna get a man a horse he can ride" (Head). 9.40 p.m.—Mr. George Thompson, wind bass: —"I'm Gonna get a man a horse he can ride" (Head). 9.45 p.m.—Mr. George Thompson, wind bass: —"I'm Gonna get a man a horse he can ride" (Head). 9.50 p.m.—Mr. George Thompson, wind bass: —"I'm Gonna get a man a horse he can ride" (Head). 9.55 p.m.—Mr. George Thompson, wind bass: —"I'm Gonna get a man a horse he can ride" (Head). 10 p.m.—"Big Ben." FROM THE CRYSTAL PALACE THEATRE, GEORGE STREET, SYDNEY: —Reels by the Orchestra, under the baton of Mr. Harry Stone. 10.10 p.m.—The ABC Studio Dance Band, with the popular baritone, Mr. Len Maurice (Conductor, Mr. Eric Pearson). 10.20 p.m.—Miss Virginia Bassett, mezzo: —"In golden days" (Bartlett). 10.25 p.m.—Mr. Wally Baynes, comedian: —"I'm Gonna get a man a horse he can ride" (Head). 10.30 p.m.—Mr. Cliff Arnold, novelty pianist: —"I'm Gonna get a man a horse he can ride" (Head). 10.35 p.m.—Mr. George Thompson, wind bass: —"I'm Gonna get a man a horse he can ride" (Head). 10.40 p.m.—Mr. George Thompson, wind bass: —"I'm Gonna get a man a horse he can ride" (Head). 10.45 p.m.—Mr. George Thompson, wind bass: —"I'm Gonna get a man a horse he can ride" (Head). 10.50 p.m.—Mr. George Thompson, wind bass: —"I'm Gonna get a man a horse he can ride" (Head). 10.55 p.m.—Mr. George Thompson, wind bass: —"I'm Gonna get a man a horse he can ride" (Head). 11 p.m.—"Big Ben." National Anthem. Close down. 2BL, SYDNEY Saturday. EARLY MORNING SESSION. 7.15 a.m.—G.P.O. Clock and Chimes. 7.16 a.m.—Metropolitan weather forecast. 7.17 a.m.—Musical programme from the Studio. 7.18 a.m.—Physical training and health exercises. 7.20 a.m.—G.P.O. Clock and Chimes. 7.21 a.m.—Hints on health. 7.25 a.m.—Physical training and health exercises. 7.30 a.m.—G.P.O. Clock and Chimes. 7.45 a.m.—Weather report. 7.47 a.m.—Broadcaster's special news service. 8 a.m.—G.P.O. Clock and Chimes. Close down. MORNING SESSION. 11 a.m.—G.P.O. Clock and Chimes. 11 a.m.—Weather report and forecast by courtesy of the Govt. Met. 11.15 a.m.—"Sydney Daily Telegraph" news service. 11.30 a.m.—Women's Section, conducted by Mrs. Jordan—social notes. 11.40 a.m.—Mrs. Jordan replies to correspondence. 11.40 a.m.—Talk on "Simple Cooking for Children" by Mrs. Jordan. 12.30 p.m.—Musical programme from the Studio. 12.45 p.m.—News from the "Sun" Clubs Edition. 12.45 p.m.—G.P.O. Clock and Chimes. 12.50 p.m.—London musical quotations. 12.55 p.m.—Long call by wireless. 12.55 p.m.—Weather report and forecast. 12.55 p.m.—Shipping information—arrivals and departures. 12.50 p.m.—Information re Interstates and Overseas Mail. 12.45 p.m.—News from the "Sun." 12.45 p.m.—G.P.O. Clock and Chimes. 1.15 p.m.—Musical programme from the Studio. 1.30 p.m.—News from the "Sun." 1.30 p.m.—G.P.O. Clock and Chimes. 2.30 p.m.—Musical programme from the Studio. 2.45 p.m.—News of the day. Lacrosse, Hockey, Golf, Boats, Turfing, Baseball. During the afternoon sporting information will be broadcast by courtesy of the "Sun" Newspaper, accompanied with musical programmes from the Studio. 3.45 p.m.—Resume of night's programme. 4 p.m.—G.P.O. Clock and Chimes. 4.15 p.m.—Results of day's racing. 4.30 p.m.—Close down. EARLY EVENING SESSION. 5.15 a.m.—G.P.O. Clock and Chimes. 5.45 a.m.—Uncle George and the children's Bridge will talk to the kiddies. 6.45 a.m.—Musical programme from the Studio. 7.15 p.m.—Result of all sporting information, including Racing, Boats, Tennis, Swimming, Sailing, Athletics, by courtesy of the "Sun." 7.30 p.m.—Country news from the "Sun." 7.30 p.m.—G.P.O. Clock and Chimes. 8.15 p.m.—Musical concert, including the following artists: King's Mandolin Orchestra. Miss Phyllis Atkinson (mezzo soprano), Mr. Wally Baynes (baritone). Tales by Brinsley. During the evening the main events at Mascot Raceway will be broadcast. 10.15 p.m.—The Ambassadors' Dance Band from the Ballroom of the Ambassador Hotel. During the intervals between dance news reports by courtesy of the "Sun" will be broadcast. 10.45 p.m.—G.P.O. Clock and Chimes. National Anthem. 3LO MELBOURNE Saturday. MORNING SESSION. MUSIC HATH CHAMBS. THE STUDIO ORCHESTRA. MARY CLAXTON, Soprano. DOROTHY ROXBURGH, Viola. ARTHUR DOUGLAS, Comedian. THELMA READY, Banjo. MAXIMUS SERENADERS. CARTHY BROS., Announcer MAURICE DUDLEY. Accompanist AGNES PORTER. 11 a.m.—STUDIO ORCHESTRA: Overture "Lindström" (Belin). 11.10 a.m.—MARY CLAXTON, soprano: "The Rainbow Child" (Culveridge-Taylor). "Go Daisies" (Rover Quilter). 11.15 a.m.—DOROTHY ROXBURGH, Viola: "Romance" (Paul Jané). "Kissme" (Paul Jané). 11.20 a.m.—STUDIO ORCHESTRA: "Pastoral" (Purcell). "Humoresk" (Mozart). 11.34 a.m.—ARTHUR DOUGLAS, Comedian: "The Wedding of John McLean" (Douglas). 11.41 a.m.—THELMA READY, Banjo: "Come Along" (Sanderson). 11.49 a.m.—STUDIO ORCHESTRA: "Snake Charmer" (Siegfried). 12 noon—Time signal. British official time. News from Hugo Reuter's staff of the Australian Press Association: "Clarke Argus" and "Herald" news services. 12.20 p.m.—STUDIO ORCHESTRA: Anthemette from G. Minor Symphony" (Beethoven). 12.30 p.m.—THELMA READY, Banjo: "Negro Melodies." 12.37 p.m.—Stock Exchange information. 12.40 p.m.—MAXIMUS SERENADERS: Quartette "The Sixty Pence" (Dunne). Eddy Huxley, Dulcy Harbert, Reni Miller, Hugh Huchman. Bass solo, "Cape St. Vincent" (Henn Millar). Tunes: "Percy Gallo," "Serenade" (Frank Bridges). Humorous Quartet: "The tale of a Flea." The Serenade Quartette. Soprano: "A walk in the wood" (Arthur Rushan). Radio Orchestra: "The Sleeping Beauty" (Respighi). Operatic Quartet, "Il Ratto" (Rossini). The Serenade Quartette. 1.15 p.m.—STUDIO ORCHESTRA: Chimney Recollections" (Bimmermann). 1.18 p.m.—Weather report. 1.20 p.m.—MARY CLAXTON, Soprano: "The Rainbow Child" (Culveridge-Taylor). "Kissme" (Paul Jané). 1.25 p.m.—CARTHY BROS.: "Song and Improvisation." 1.30 p.m.—THELMA READY, Banjo: Popular Overture. 1.40 p.m.—STUDIO ORCHESTRA: Selection "Habert of Seville" (Rossini). 2 p.m.—Close down. Results of Races held at Yea, Nulli and Traralgon will be given as they come to hand. 2.30 p.m.—Description of Hardie Rawl. Sandown Park by "Musket" of the "Sporting Globe." AFTERNOON SESSION. JOE ARONSON AND HIS SYNCO-SYMPHONISTS. 2 p.m.—Description of Two Year Old Handicap, Sandown Park, by "Musket" of the "Sporting Globe." 3 p.m.—JOE ARONSON AND HIS SYNCO-SYMPHONISTS: "Thinking of you" (Ask). "Just a bird's eye view" (Donaldson). "Give me more kiss" (Owen). "A cup of coffee, a sandwich and you" (Meyer). "Sambobaby's Lament" (Davis). "Baby Face" (Ask). "Something in the air of the bells" (Briss). "Mary Lou" (Owman). 3.30 p.m.—Description of the Sandown Plate by "Musket" of the "Sporting Globe." 3.45 p.m.—JOE ARONSON AND HIS SYNCO-SYMPHONISTS: "The more we are together" (Campbell). "Ruffneffness" (Barry). "Demolition" (Gunsky). "Let's all help Ford" (Leslie). "Sweetheart" (Owen). "The Original Blank Bottom" (Trenbergen). 4 p.m.—Description of Sandown Park Handicap, by "Musket" of the "Sporting Globe." 4.45 p.m.—AUTUMN GARDEN WEEK Lecture, Mr. T. H. Bruna: "Dahia Culture." MAGNAVOX "The Enduring Name in Radio" If you do not possess one of the wonderful MAGNAVOX Receivers-----get the utmost results out of your set by using the wonderful MAGNAVOX Accessories A VALVE that will not only give more power to your Set, but permits the greater volume without distortion. That means you also reach more stations. At all times it makes reception sharp-cut, clear, distinct. In long-life, in quality of performance and manufacture, MAGNAVOX VALVES give you full satisfaction. 201-A Type Valve 10/6 171-Type Power Valve 25/- The New Magnavox Cone Speakers Made under exclusive Magnavox patents, the new Magnavox Cone Speaker is a history-making achievement quite as marvellous as the original radio loud-speaker, which was also a MAGNAVOX. The New Cone reproduces the entire tonal scale—and does it with realistic fidelity. It reproduces every instrument, every note, every intonation with magical realism. The "Cornell" Model £3/15/- (As Illustrated) The "Cornell" stands pre-eminent as the highest grade yet the most reasonably-priced Speaker on the market today. Artistic non-resonant metal finish, 11in. high, 9¼-in. wide and 4½d. deep. The "Stanford" Model £5/10/- Finished in two-toned Mahogany Cabinet, 10¾in. high, 15 3-8in. wide, and 6¾in. deep. See and hear them demonstrated in Our Special Audition Rooms. Profusely illustrated Booklets free on request Mick Simmons Ltd. "The World's Greatest Sports Store" Headquarters: HAYMARKET, SYDNEY And at BRISBANE 4:30 p.m.—JOE ARONSON AND HIS SYN- COPIATING SYMPHONISTS: "Hello Little Girl of My Dreams" (Bebb). "By the Sign of a Rose" (Fields). "Sundown" (Miller). 4:39 p.m.—Description of Sandown Puts, by "Market" of the Sporting Globe. 4:45 p.m.—JOE ARONSON AND HIS SYNCO- SYMPHONISTS: "Angry" (Brunini). "I Wish I Had my old gut back" (Tellen). "Bye-bye Blanche" (Blanci). 4:48 p.m.—Herald news service—Stock Exchange information. 5 p.m.—Description of "Evil Weller, Sandown Park, by "Market" of the Sporting Globe." Close down. EVENING SESSION 5:30 p.m.—Sporting results. 5:40 p.m.—CHILDREN'S HOUR. Answers to letters and birthday greetings. 5:50 p.m.—GRACE JACKSON, Contralto, "Come back, Jean" (Charlier). 6 p.m.—SALAMAN DANCE. 6:2 p.m.—LITTLE MISS KOOKABURRA is wondering whether her little friends remember the dugout Rags. Well, he's getting ready for the Spring Hillbillies and he wants her to tell again about Rags, the tall, bush giant who changed his coat to another color." 6:12 p.m.—GRACE JACKSON, Contralto, has two more little songs in sing to the chil- dren. 6:18 p.m.—LITTLE MISS KOOKABURRA will tell her biggest Kookaburra stories and members the next instalment of "Cards of Hollywood School" (Where is Cathy?). 6:33 p.m.—Argus" and "Herald" news ser- vices. Weather information. Actual Mail Information by the Australian Aerial Ser- vice, Ltd. 6:40 p.m.—Stock Exchange information. Overseas shipping. 6:52 p.m.—Fish market reports by J. R. Baxter Ltd. 6:59 p.m.—Market reports by the Victorian Fruit Growers' Co-operative Co., Ltd. Haymarket store sales. Potatoes and Onions. Market prices of Oranges and Lemons by the Vic- torian Central Citrus Association Pty. Ltd. Fruit market report of the Victorian Wholesale Fruitgrowers' Association, compiled by "The Fruit World," exclusive to ILG. NIGHT SESSION Speakers MR ED. SIMMS MR E. E. PESCOTT. I. D. LEACH. MR A. W. JACKSON. MR R. H. POULTER. MALVERN TRAMWAYS BAND Conductor, H. Shure. ELISE DAVIES, Soprano. TAYLOR AND SUMMERS, English Comedian. GRACE JACKSON, Contralto. MOANA LIA DUO. ARTHUR DOUGLAS, Comedian. ONE ACT PLAY Announcements ALFRED ANDREW AGNES FORTUNE 7:10 p.m.—MR ED SIMMS, Secretary Com- monwealth Railways, "Travelling on the Trans-Australian Rail- way." 7:30 p.m.—ME E. E. PESCOTT (Australian, Dances, and Everlastings.) 7:45 p.m.—I. D. LEACH (Choruses and Night Birds.) "MUSIC IS THE POETRY OF THE AIR" From—AUTUMN GARDEN WEEK Lecture, MR R. H. POULTER. "How to grow Carnations." 7:55 p.m.—MALVERN TRAMWAYS BAND Selections—"Harry Lauder's Songs" (by Bunnett). (Humor). 8 p.m.—ELISE DAVIES, Soprano. "Recitative and Aria from Faust" (Gounod). 8:10 p.m.—ONE ACT PLAY Mrs Maurice Dudley and Mr. Chas. Dyson. 8:30 p.m.—MALVERN TRAMWAYS BAND Descriptive Sketch, "Down the Mississippi" 9 p.m.—TAYLOR AND SUMMERS, English Comedians. "Pot Pourri." 9:10 p.m.—GRACE JACKSON, contralto, in the "Cub Section." "Jeunesse." 9:17 p.m.—MOANA LIA DUO: "La Paloma." "Always." 9:24 p.m.—MR. A. W. JACKSON will speak on the Semi-finals of the Australasian Four- men's Challenge Shield—Golf. March—"Four Horse Soldiers" (Hurrell). 9:30 p.m.—MALVERN TRAMWAYS BAND: Waltz, "Chant d'Automne" (Jollet). 9:40 p.m.—ARTHUR DOUGLAS, comedian. "The Wages of the Kilt" (Lauder). 9:50 p.m.—Actual new service British offi- cial Wireless news from Hughly. Meteorolo- gical information. 10 p.m.—MALVERN TRAMWAYS BAND: from "Intermezzo," "Flying Arrow" (Holmes). March, "Intermezzo" (Halle). 10:10 p.m.—ELISE DAVIES, soprano "Ace Maria" (Alagna). 10:20 p.m.—GRACE JACKSON, contralto "Kneehems March." "Rose of Walkirk." 10:30 p.m.—GRACE JACKSON, contralto "Benjamin" (of Handel). "My Lord of Dreams" (Winne). 10:35 p.m.—MALVERN TRAMWAYS BAND March, "Garde du Corps" (Hall). 10:45 p.m.—ARTHUR DOUGLAS, comedian "They call me 'Billy Willie'" (Douglas). 10:50 p.m.—All Sporting Results Announce- ments. 11 p.m.—HIS GREAT THOUGHT. "Right reason is stronger than force." —JAMES A. GARFIELD 11 p.m.—JOE ARONSON AND HIS SYN- COPIATING SYMPHONISTS "We'll all be Happy" (Foxxell). "Pleasant Friend." "Blowing Off Steam" (Davies). "No Foolin'. "Julius Love Call" (Priml). "Hungry Man" (Trami). "Gimme a Little Kiss Will Ya Hub?" (Tisch). "Are You Today, Lady?" (Bellard). "Princess Betty's Lullaby" (Stowham). "Fire, Fire" (Gary). "Katinka" (Tobias). "Precious" (Whiting). "Negroan Waltz" (Zawacki). "Sing, Sing" (Howard). "Hi, Diddle, Diddle" (Coen). "At Peace with the World" (Berlin). "Smile a Little Bit" (Schwab). "Baby Face" (Swiss). 11:40 p.m.—GOD SAVE THE KING. NIGHT SESSION 7:30 p.m.—Greeting Notes by "Tiller." 7:40 p.m.—Advertisements. 7:45 p.m.—From the Observatory Standard Time signal. 7:45 p.m.—Lecture Session. A gardening talk, "Sweet Peas," by Tectona. NATIONAL SPEEDWAY—LENNON'S BALLROOM. 8 p.m.—From the National Speedway— Motor Cycle Races. 9:30 p.m.—From Lennon's Ballroom. Dance Music. 10:00 p.m.—From the Studio: "The Sunday Mail" News Service, Weather News, Close Down. 5CL, ADELAIDE Saturday MORNING SESSION 11 a.m.—G.P.O. chimes. 11:15 a.m.—Recital on Reproducing Sensors and Automatic Reproducers. 11:30 a.m.—Adelaide news service. 11:45 a.m.—Sensors and Autophone record con- tinued. 12 noon—G.P.O. chimes and close down. AFTERNOON SESSION 12:45 p.m. Running description of Victoria park races, interspersed by interval sporting results and recitals on the new reproducing Emma and Automatic reproduc- ers. 1:30 p.m.—Close down. EVENING SESSION 5 p.m.—G.P.O. chimes. 5:15 p.m.—Opening music broadcast by Covent Garden Orchestra. 6:40 p.m.—Market reports. 6:50 p.m.—Sporting results. 7:50 p.m.—Recital from the Radio Exhibition: Bettison's concert, arrangements and works of 5CL. Finals of singing, elocutionary, and mandolin competitions. 8 p.m.—Greeting by Mr. Charles Smith, Bandmaster, and Miss Sheila Wallace, Senior solo, Mr. H. Taylor, song, Miss Gwen Culhane, song, Mr. Lionel Clark, selection, Holmes Smith's Band, homophonic song, Mr. Art. Neill, selection, Miss Gwen Culhane, song, Mr. Don Williams, selection, Holms Smith's Band, song, Mr. Lionel Clark. 9 p.m.—Programme. The audience will be invited to hear the broadcast by the Radio Exhibitor, Associated Management of Central Broadcasters Ltd., to conclude the exhibition, with dancing. 11 p.m.—G.P.O. chimes, and close down. 6WF, PERTH Saturday 12 noon—Time in. 12:15 p.m.—Musical programme, including radio-force selections by Mr. Leslie Jordan. 12:45 p.m.—First local news bulletin. Market reports. Closures. 1 p.m.—Time signal from Perth Observatory. 1:15 p.m.—Weather notes supplied by the Meteorological Bureau of Western Australia. 1:30 p.m.—Close down. 6:45 p.m.—Time in. 6:45 p.m.—Uncle Perry with the Radio Bird. 6:55 p.m.—Children's story, "Real Australia," introducing "Professor Koomburra," told by Ainslie Noyes. 7:10 p.m.—Sports results supplied by courtesy of "The Mirror" Newspaper Co. 7:30 p.m.—Market reports. Cables. News supplied by courtesy of "The West Australian" Newspaper Co. 7:45 p.m.—Talk. 8 p.m.—Time signal from Perth Observatory. 8:1 p.m.—Weather notes supplied by the Meteorological Bureau of Western Australia. Reasons why you should USE VOLTON BATTERIES 22/6 each 1. Practical tests have shown the Volton Batteries to be the most economical. 2. Volton Batteries are guaranteed by your local Dealer as being the true Triple Capacity 45 Volts. Your Dealer will test every Battery before you purchase. 3. Volton Batteries are fitted with spring clips at each reading—there are no terminals to lose. 4. Volton Batteries, due to their sturdy construction, long life, and dependability, eliminate all battery trouble. 5. Volton 45 Volt, triple capacity, standard size, as illustrated—cost you only 22/6 each—Why pay more? 6. Because the following Practical Radio Experts of Sydney stock and recommend their use—Ask their advice. Australian Wireless (Radiar) Butler Bros., Ltd. (Brisbane) Colville Moore Wireless Supplies. Cullen, E. R. David Jones, Ltd. Economic Radio Stores. Guthridge & Day Pty., Ltd. (Melbourne). Hamilton & Baker. Howell's Radio. Keogh Radio. Maling, W., and Son. Mick Simmons, Ltd. Radio & Electric Company. Radio House. Swains, Ltd. Slingaby & Coles. Wallace, Miss F. V. Wiles, W. Harry. Farmer & Co., Ltd. VOLTON VOLTMETERS Double Range Wireless Volt Meters—English Make It is quite impossible to check the Voltage of the Accumulators on a Voltmeter having a range suitable for testing a Dry Battery, and in the ordinary course two instruments are required. We have designed the above instrument to obviate the necessity of having two instruments. PRICE 12/6 EACH Volton Sub Panel Brackets at 3/6 per pair. SOLE DISTRIBUTORS FOR AUSTRALASIA Weldon Electric Supply Co. Ltd. 352 KENT STREET - SYDNEY Phone City 6361-2 MUSICAL EVENING. 6.30 p.m.—Musical programmes, including arias. 10 p.m.—Second local news bulletin, supplied by courtesy of "The Daily News" Newspaper Co. Sport results supplied by courtesy of "The Mirror" Newspaper Co. Ships within range announcement. 9.30 p.m.—Close down. Sunday, April 10 2FC, SYDNEY MORNING SESSION 8.50 a.m.—The chimes of 2FC and programme announcements. 10.55 a.m.—The bells of St Mark's. 11 a.m.—From St Mark's Church of England, Darling Point. The morning service. Preacher, The Rev. E. Howard Lee. 12.15 p.m.—From the Studio—News items. 12.30 p.m.—Close down. AFTERNOON SESSION 2.55 p.m.—Programme announcements. 3 p.m.—From the Congregational Church, Clarendon Street, Petersham. Gounod's Choral Masterpiece, "Mors et Vita," Part One. Performers— Miss Millie Hughes, soprano. Miss Marjorie Humphries, contralto. Mr. Myerwyn Phillips, tenor. Mr. Olive King, basso. Conductor and musical director, Mr. Christian Hellerman. 4.45 p.m.—From the Studio—Miss Millie Meyer will continue her talk on Palestine, taking as her subject "Damascus." 4 p.m.—"Big Ben." Close down. EVENING SESSION 6 p.m.—"Big Ben" and programme announcements. 6.30 p.m.—Mr. Lionel Lawson, violinist. 6.45 p.m.—Miss Margaret James, soprano: (a) "Sing, Sing" (Kerners). (b) "I've Married" (Black-Gummers). 7.20 p.m.—Captain Fred Aarons—A talk on the Mission Home. 8.30 p.m.—Mr. Lionel Lawson, violinist. 8.45 p.m.—Miss Margaret James, soprano: "Bunt Song" (Ware). 8.50 p.m.—From the Congregational Church, Pitt Street, Sydney. Organ solo by Miss Lilian Fowle. 7.30 p.m.—Evening service, conducted by the Rev. T. E. Roth. 8.30 p.m.—From the Band Rotunda, Manly Beach— A concert programme arranged by the Manly Municipal Band, under the baton of Mr. J. Phebyou. 8.50 p.m.—From the Studio: Miss Alice Prowse, contralto: (a) "Sowing low sweet Christus" (Darling). (b) "O, my love from the fields" (Braasch). 8.55 p.m.—Captain Frank Hurley will give his second adventure talk, "The Cross and the Savage." Note.—Captain Hurley has visited practically every mission station in Papua and Dutch New Guinea. He will speak of his work done at the various missions, and give a glimpse of mission life in the more remote and lonely outposts. During this descriptive talk, opportunities will be found to include suitable manifest items arranged by Mr. Horace Knuts, in conjunction with Captain Hurley. 10.22 p.m.—Miss Alice Prowse, mezzosoprano: (a) "Fairy love-song" (Kennedy-Fraser). (b) "Flower-fever" (Wellesley). 10.30 p.m.—Close down. At the Piano (Sunday night only), Mr. Horace Knuts. 2BL, SYDNEY Sunday. 10.45 a.m.—Special news service. 11 a.m.—Service broadcast from St John's Church of England, Handwick. 12.30 p.m.—Special news service. 4 p.m.—Organ Festival. 6.00 p.m.—Bible Class, conducted by Mr. W. Cairo' Bradley. 6.15 p.m.—P.O. Clock and Chimes. Close down. 5.45 p.m.—Children's Service. 7 p.m.—Service Broadcast from Uniting's Presbyterian Church. 8.30 p.m.—From the Studio: Miss Winifred Jenner (mezzo soprano): 8.37 p.m.—Duetts by Morris and Charlton. 8.52 p.m.—Miss Grace Smith (contralto): 9.10 p.m.—P.O. Clock and Chimes. (Announcement of following day's programme.) Weather report and forecast by courtesy of Mr. C. J. Marsh, Govt. Meteorologist. 9.5 p.m.—Broadcasters' Trio. 10.15 p.m.—Mr. Frank Lee (tenor). 10.30 p.m.—Miss Hester Burdett (soprano). 10.35 p.m.—Miss Winifred Jenner. 10.40 p.m.—Broadcasters' Trio. 10.46 p.m.—Miss Grace Smith. 10.50 p.m.—P.O. Clock and Chimes. 10.55 p.m.—P.O. Clock and Chimes. 10.55 p.m.—Answers to Letters and Birthday greetings. 11.10 p.m.—"BILLY BUNNY": "The Life of Gordon." 11.45 p.m.—Close down. NIGHT SESSION 8.50 p.m.—BELLS FROM ST. PAUL'S CATHEDRAL. 9 p.m.—SERVICE FROM WESLEY CENTRAL MISSION, Conducted by REV. C. IRVING BENSON: Introit: "The Lord is in His Holy Temple." Prayer: "The Outer Gate." Hymn: "Let God Be Here, Let us Adore." Prayer: "The Inner Court." Lesson: "St. Luke, Ch. 23." Intercessions and Offering... Hymn: "Man of Sorrows." Short Sermon. THE CRUCIFIXION (Chorus): And they came unto a place called Gethsemane (Tenor Solo). The Aroma (Bass Solo and Chorus). Processional to Calvary (Chorus). And When They Were Come (Bass Recit.). The Mystery of the Divine Humiliation (Hymn). He Made Himself of no Reputation (Recit.). The Majesty of the Divine Humiliation (Tenor Solo). And as Moses Lifted up the Serpent (Bass, Hymn). "God so Loved the World" (Chorus). Litany of the Passion (Hymn). Jesus said: "Father, forgive them" (Tenor Solo). So Thou Lifting Thy Divine Petition (Recit.). The Mystery of Intercession (Hymn). And One of the Malefactors (Recit. and Solo). The Adoration of the Crucified (Hymn). When Jesus Therefore Saw His Mother (Tenor and Bass). Is it nothing to me? (Mass). The Awe of the Crucified (Chorus). After this Jesus knowing that all things should be accomplished (Tenor Solo). "For the Love of Jesus" (Hymn). Benediction. Sevenfold Amen. FROM THE STUDIO— 8.30 p.m.—BRISBANE CITY BAND: Overture: "Chorus in Love" (Warner). 8.40 p.m.—GEORGE FINDLAY, Pianoforte Recital (Winner of 2LO Exhibition): Etude in A Major (Chopin). "Music Brings a Smile" (Chopin). 8.47 p.m.—MORA NUGENT, Soprano (Winner of 2LO Exhibition): "Pal ploare en rees" (Bizu). "Je ne sais pas" (Grieg). 8.54 p.m.—ALFRED ACKLAND, Violin (Winner of 2LO Exhibition): "First Movement of Sonata" (Grieg). 9 p.m.—MISS STEPHANIE DESTE, "Wanda" of the "Wanda Magic" Company (by permission of J. C. Williams Ltd.): French, "L'Andalousie" (Alfred de Munn); "Song of Hawaiai" (Honegellier). "First Chapter of the Second Book of Solomon." 9.10 p.m.—BRISBANE CITY BAND: Bohemian Suite: "The Appeal." "The Chievan." "The Tarantella" (Hume). The Best Sets Deserve The Best Parts STAND 37 EXHIBITION "Advance" Radio Parts Lead in Quality and Prices. Since the inception of our business it has been our policy to give better parts for less money, and to increase our markets and output in order to reduce our selling cost to the buying public. This has been done now in numerous cases. The popular demand for our goods has forced us to make a big increase in our plants, and also employ more hands. You get the best at lowest prices, and are supporting an ever-growing Australian industry. Rear Panel Mounting Vernier Dial Price, 7/6 The Advance Rear Panel Mounting Vernier Dial has been designed to eliminate that clumsy dial that has ruined the appearance of many sets in the past. Our new high finished bezel with only a black knob gives the set a professional appearance. Bring your old set up to date, and install this Rear Panel Dial. Supplied with new bezel finished in gold, silver or bronze. Drilling template supplied. Don't go wrong. Price, 7/6 "Advance" Audio Frequency Transformer This Transformer has been designed to build up the minimum of detected broadcast signals to a true reproduction of the transmission, to increase the strength of signals without disturbing the natural quality of the sound. Every "Advance" Transformer is carefully inspected and tested at the factory before being packed, and is guaranteed to be electrically and mechanically perfect. Made in ratios of 2:1, 3:1, 5:1, etc., Price 17/6 MIDGET and NEUTRALIZING CONDENSERS The Advance Midget Condenser has all the characteristics that have made Advance Condensers famous. This Midget has soldered non-corroding brass plates supported by minimum of dielectric, and finished with a nicely moulded bakelite knob. The Neutralizing Condenser of the same construction as above, complete with base, metal mounting and bakelite knob. Correct capacity for neutralising and balancing condensers. Midget II Plate — 8/6; Neutralizer 3 plate 4/6 Rheostats 6, 10, 20 and 30 ohms 3/- Potentiometers 200 and 400 ohms, 2/6 Rheostats and Potentiometers This metal shielded air cooled rheostat is of the same quality as all other Advance products. There are of any resistance, and a perfect resistor area under all that is desirable in the rheostat is embodied in this unit. The Potentiometers have the same features and characteristics as the rheostats, made in 200 and 400 ohms. UX or UV Porcelain Tube Sockets The Advance Low Loss Porcelain Tube Socket has been designed to meet the requirements required for use with either UX or UV type of tubes. Spring contacts of phosphor bronze, with silver wire contact points, ensuring thus housing the perfection of contacts. The porcelain base insures that perfect insulation that is ideal for radio purposes. Price 2/5 Knife Switch with Arrester A necessary adjunct to all receivers, being tested by the Melbourne University, and passed by the Fire Underwriters' Association. It combines aerial and earthing switch with lightning arrester. Price 2/2 Improved Straight Line FREQUENCY CONDENSER This condenser is an improved Simplot Line Frequency, having solid spacing bars with an entirely new means of perfect insulation. Receives all broadcasting stations exactly over the receiving dial in exact step with the transmitting frequency. Eliminates bunching of stations and increases selectivity. PRICES: - 0025. p 9 - 0035. 10/ - 005. 16/6 Lightning Arrester, 2/6 A separate unit when switch with greater is not required; also passed by the Melbourne University and Fire Underwriters' Association. HARRINGTONS, SYDNEY ### 4QG, BRISBANE Sunday. #### MORNING SESSION. CHURCH SERVICE. The complete Morning Service will be relayed from the Albert Street, Methodist Church. 11 a.m.—Church Service. 2.30 p.m.—Close down. #### AFTERNOON SESSION. BAND CONCERT. The Concert (broadcast by the Brisbane Citizens' Band (conductor: Mr. G. Holmes)) will be relayed from the Botanic Gardens. 1.15 p.m.—March, "Haweswood" (Blumer); overture, "Mauritius" (Walton); current side, "Zeke" (Coles); Mr. W. Holmes (Australian Champion); tone poem, "Lamplight" (Newbuthal). INTERMISSION. Temporarily—"Unfinished Symphony" (Schubert); descriptive fantasia, "Smithy in the Woods" (Michaelis)—symphony (illustrating a smithy at work) in four sections: (I) "Night Time," (II) Early Morn with the gackoo and lark call, and new lowing; (III) "At the Brook," lash, curcio and running water, and the morning dew; (IV) striking day and the smithy has its morning prayer. (ii) "Smithy at Work"—march, accompaniment, etc. Hymn selected: march, "Australasian" (Blumer). 4.30 p.m.—Close down. #### NIGHT SESSION. CHURCH SERVICE. The complete Evening Service will be relayed from the Albert Street Methodist Church. 7.30 p.m.—Church Service. 8.30 p.m.—Benediction. #### BAND CONCERT. At the conclusion of the Church Service the Concert (broadcast by the Brisbane Municipal Band (conductor: Mr. E. Jackson)) will be relayed from Wickham Park. The programme will include: Overture to "Rienzi" (Wagner); selection from "Die Fledermaus" (Vereil); "Peer Gent Suite" (Grieg). 8.30 p.m.—Close down. --- ### 6WF, PERTH Sunday. 10.45 a.m.—Tune in. 11 a.m.—Morning service, relayed from the Salvation Army Citadel, Pier Street, Perth. 11.15 p.m.—Tune in. 12.15 p.m.—Mr. Col. Le Souef, will give a short talk on realities of the Sea. 1.10 p.m.—R.S.L. Band and Vocal Concert, relayed from Zoological Gardens, South Perth. Conductor, Mr. Geo. S. Mellor. 6 p.m.—Close down. 7.30 p.m.—Tune in. 7.45 p.m.—Children's bedtime music. 7.50 p.m.—Evening service, relayed from the Wesley Church, Perth. Preacher, Rev. J. W. Grove, M.A., LL.B. 8.00 p.m.—Perth City Band and Vocal Concert, relayed from the Government Gardens, Perth. Conductor, Mr. W. A. Halvorsen. --- ### Monday, April 11 #### 2FC, SYDNEY MIDDAY SESSION. 11.30 a.m.—From the Royal Agricultural Showgrounds, Sydney. Results of the judging will be given of the various entries, direct from the grounds. 12 noon—"Big Ben" from the Studio. Programme announcements. 12.30 p.m.—Stock Exchange, first call. 12.38 p.m.—Official weather forecast, rainfall, temperatures, astronomical memoranda, and miscellaneous mail services. 12.55 p.m.—Studio music. 12.55 p.m.—Summary of "Sydney Morning Herald." New service and cabers. 12.58 p.m.—Studio music. 1.05 p.m.—Miss Thelma Mitchell, mezzo. 1.10 p.m.—"Big Ben." Weather intelligence. 1.15 p.m.—"Evening News" midday news service. Producers' Distributing Society's report. 1.20 p.m.—Studio music. 1.25 p.m.—Stock Exchange, second call. 1.30 p.m.—Marching music for school children. 1.40 p.m.—Miss Thelma Mitchell, mezzo. 1.45 p.m.—Nuptial Music. 2 p.m.—"Big Ben." Close down. #### AFTERNOON SESSION. 3 p.m.—"Big Ben" and announcements. 3.30 p.m.—Studio music. 3.30 p.m.—Description of the first day of the Royal Agricultural Show, with results of the various entries, direct from the grounds. 3.40 p.m.—Marching music for school children. 3.40 p.m.—From Farmer's Tea Rooms.—Miss Doris Rutter, soprano: "The Jay Bird" (Barcaro). 3.45 p.m.—Studio music. 4 p.m.—From Farmer's Tea Rooms.—Miss May Craven, mezzo: "The Swallows" (Cowen). 4.50 p.m.—Studio music. 4.50 p.m.—Miss May Jackson, soprano: "The Fair Swiss Belle." 1.20 p.m.—From Farmer's Tea Rooms.—Miss Doris Rutter, soprano: "Our Way Street" (Tibout). 5.15 p.m.—Instrumental and vocal recital by Venetian Trio and following artists—Miss Katie Younger (violinist), Mr. Ted Jenkins (piano), Miss Lila Taylor. 5.40 p.m.—G.P.O. chimes. 6 p.m.—Mr. P. H. Nicholls will talk on "Victor Hugo." 6.10 p.m.—G.P.O. chimes and close down. --- ### 5CL, ADELAIDE Sunday. #### MORNING SESSION. 11 a.m.—G.P.O. chimes. 11.15 a.m.—Relay from Black Forest Baptist Church. 11.15 p.m.—Close down. #### EVENING SESSION. 6.30 p.m.—G.P.O. chimes. 6.45 p.m.—Sunday stories for children. 7 p.m.—G.P.O. chimes. 7.15 p.m.—Radio from St. Bartholomew's Church. 8.15 p.m.—Instrumental and vocal recital by Venetian Trio and following artists—Miss Katie Younger (violinist), Mr. Ted Jenkins (piano), Miss Lila Taylor. 8.40 p.m.—G.P.O. chimes. 9.15 p.m.—Studio music. 9.40 p.m.—From Farmer's Tea Rooms.—Miss May Craven, mezzo: "When Celia sleeps" (Elliot). 9.45 p.m.—Studio music. 9.48 p.m.—Stock Exchange, third call. 9.57 p.m.—Miss May Jackson, soprano: "The Splendour of the Merl" (Sanderburg). 10 p.m.—"Big Ben." Close down. --- ### EARLY EVENING SESSION. 6.45 p.m.—The chimes of 5WC. 6.50 p.m.—The "Trish Man" talks to the children. 6.50 p.m.—A story for the older ones. 6.50 p.m.—Studio music. 6.50 p.m.—"Big Ben." Late morning news. 7.10 p.m.—Daly's market reports (wheat, wheat, and stock). 7.15 p.m.—Fruit and vegetable markets. 7.20 p.m.—Weather and shipping intelligence. 7.30 p.m.—Stock Exchange. 7.45 p.m.—Late Evening News" news service. #### EVENING SESSION. 7.40 p.m.—Programme announcements. 7.45 p.m.—The 2FC Studio Dance Band, conducted by Mr. Eric Pearce. For "Fred" "Singie a little bit" (Schoen). Waltz: "A message from Missouri" (Chester). 8 p.m.—"Big Ben." From the Haymarket Theatre, George Street, Sydney. Items by the Orchestra under the baton of Mr. Sinclair Porter. 8.12 p.m.—From the Studio.—Miss Mabel Batchelor, soprano: "Rockwell's" (Ashby). 8.20 p.m.—Mr. Arthur Ash, flute solo. 8.24 p.m.—Mr. Eric Langner, well-known actor, will give a talk on some humorous incidents in connection with shucking trips. 8.35 p.m.—The 2FC Dance Band, under the baton of Mr. Eric Pearce. Fox Trot: "Temporary" (Ruby) (Friend). 8.40 p.m.—Mr. Ad. Cree and his Merry Makers make their initial bow at the Studio. Opening chorus: "A Merry Little Party" (Cross). The Company. 8.45 p.m.—Mr. R. A. Bartleman, baritone: "The song of the homeward bound" (Clarke). 8.47 p.m.—Miss Jennie Cree and Mr. A. Cree: Humorous Duet: "Koalahe." 8.50 p.m.—Miss Mabel Batchelor, soprano: "Carmen" (Wolf). 8.54 p.m.—Mr. Norman Leslie, entertainer: "Too many girls" (Western). 9 p.m.—Miss Mabel Batchelor, soprano: Miss Jennie Cree, and Mr. R. A. Bartleman, baritones. 9.10 p.m.—"Irish Counfle Melodies." 9.10 p.m.—"Scotland versus England," Misses Cree and Leslie. 9.25 p.m.—Miss Jennie Cree, humor at the piano: "Topsy." 9.34 p.m.—Miss Mabel Batchelor, soprano, and Mr. R. A. Bartleman, baritones: "You here, feel there" (Messager). 9.45 p.m.—Mr. Ad. Cree, Scotch humorous song, "Where, tell me, where?" (Cameron). 9.52 p.m.—Mr. R. A. Bartleman, baritone: "The Flying Chaser" (Liambert). 9.57 p.m.—Musical sketch, "Our Debating Society," The Company. 9.58 p.m.—Mr. Rue Garling and his new friends, Mr. and Mrs. Gluck. 10.10 p.m.—"The Colonel's March"—"The Old Top Hat" (Young). The Company. 9.45 p.m.—The Manager's Speech (with a few interruptions), Mr. Ad. Cree. 9.52 p.m.—Finale—"Goodbye," The Company. The WONDERFUL P.M. FILAMENT The unbreakable Filament which defies the roughest handling. The mechanical strength of the Mullard P.M. Filament can be gauged by the fact that whereas the ordinary filament will barely support one valve the P.M. Filament will support four. This difference is due to the special metal core in the P.M. Filament which is so tough that it can be tied in knots after 1000 hours' life. The P.M. Filament is set around 5 strong resilient hooks and is free from tension, sag or danger of displacement during the long life of the valve. Every feature of the wonderful P.M. Filament has a superiority of its own and each feature is developed at the expense of another. You have the low current consumption of one-tenth ampere with the consequent low accumulator charging upkeep cost. Many times greater emission surface than that of an ordinary filament, giving a wide range of power free from microphonic disturbance. There will be something lacking in your radio reception until you get the valves with the MULLARD WONDERFUL P.M. FILAMENT. Mullard THE MASTER VALVE All Mullard Valves are manufactured at Mullard Works, London, England. OBTAINABLE FROM EVERY RADIO DEALER IN AUSTRALIA. Advertisement of the MULLARD WIRELESS SERVICE CO. LTD., "MULLARD HOUSE", Denmark Street, London S.W. 2 England. 10 p.m.—"Big Ben." From the Haymarket Theatre, George Street, Sydney. Issued by the theatre, under the patron of Mr. Stanley Porter. 12.15 p.m.—From the Studio.—The RFD Dance Band, conductor, Mr. Eric Pearce. Fox Trot "Millenium Joy." 12.30 p.m.—By the Haymarket Operatic Orchestra of 26 members. Conductor, Mr. Stanley Porter. 12.30 p.m.—The RFD Dance Band: (a) Fox Trot, "You should see my Towne" (Nelson). (b) "The Sleep," "Schubert is back again" (Piano). (c) Fox Trot, "My Poppin' Power" (Mark). (d) Fox Trot, "Prescott" (Fetterman). (e) Fox Trot, "Calling me home" (Monroe). 11 p.m.—"Big Ben." National Anthem. Close down. 2BL, SYDNEY Monday. 12 noon—G.P.O. Clock and Chimes. 12.15 p.m.—Special Ocean Forecast for Shipping. 12.30 p.m.—Weather forecast. 12.45 p.m.—Hobart Market report. 12.50 p.m.—Fish Market report. 12.55 p.m.—Fruit Market report. 12.55 p.m.—Dairy Farm Produce Market report. 12.55 p.m.—Produce Market report. 12.55 p.m.—Farm Produce Market report. 12.57 p.m.—Shine in call by wireless. 12.58 p.m.—State Interstate and Overseas Traffic. Shipping intelligence and departures and movements of important vessels. 12.58 p.m.—Stock Exchange calls. 12.59 p.m.—News service. 12.59 p.m.—G.P.O. Clock and Chimes. 12.59 p.m.—"Big Ben." 12.59 p.m.—Hillier's Instrumental Quartet; direction, Cyril Castling. 1.00 p.m.—G.P.O. Clock and Chimes. 1.01 p.m.—Weather report (Metropolitan). 1.02 p.m.—Weather forecast. 1.02 p.m.—State weather forecast. 1.03 p.m.—Stock Exchange calls. 1.03 p.m.—"Sun" Newspaper News service. 1.05 p.m.—Musical programme from Studio. 1.05 p.m.—G.P.O. Clock and Chimes. 1.05 p.m.—Musical programme. 1.10 p.m.—Social notes from the "Sun." 1.16 p.m.—News from the "Sun." 1.20 p.m.—Musical programme from the Studio. 1.20 p.m.—"Kangaroo" news service. Shipping, movement and social notices. 1.24 p.m.—Musical programme from the Studio. 1.30 p.m.—G.P.O. Clock and Chimes. 1.30 p.m.—News from the "Sun." 1.30 p.m.—"Big Ben." 1.30 p.m.—WOMEN'S SESSION. Talk on "Sports" by Miss G. Vandy, Broadcaster, Women's Sports Authority. 2.40 p.m.—Social notes by Mrs. Jordan. 2.50 p.m.—Mrs. Jordan replies to correspondence. 3.00 p.m.—Talk on "Tender Fash" by Mrs. Jordan. 3.15 p.m.—Musical programme from the Studio. 3.15 p.m.—Shipping information. 3.20 p.m.—Racing resume. 3.20 p.m.—G.P.O. Clock and Chimes. 3.20 p.m.—News from the "Sun." 3.25 p.m.—Producers' Distributing Society's Vegetable Market report. 3.47 p.m.—Producers' Distributing Society's Vegetable Market report. 3.49 p.m.—Racing resume. 3.50 p.m.—Resume of night's programme. 3.55 p.m.—Announcements. 6 p.m.—G.P.O. Clock and Chimes; close down. EARLY EVENING SESSION. 5.45 p.m.—G.P.O. Clock and Chimes. 5.45 p.m.—Uncle George and the kids. 6.00 p.m.—Musical programme from the Studio. SPECIAL COUNTRY SESSION. 7 p.m.—G.P.O. Clock and Chimes. Australian Mercantile, Land and Finance Co., report. Weather report. Producers' Distributing Society's Fruit and Vegetable Market report. Special Exchange reports. Grain and Flour report ("Sun"). Daily Produce report ("Sun"). Producers' newspaper report on London Hatter Market. 7.30 p.m.—Country news from the "Sun." Close to resume. 7.45 p.m.—Corporal Williams will speak on his reminiscences as "The Autograph King." EVENING SESSION. 8 p.m.—G.P.O. Clock and Chimes. Broadcaster's Touring Choir. 8.15 p.m.—NEWTOWN HAND broadcast from Industrial Hall, Newtown. 8.20 p.m.—Mr. Roy Harrison (comedian). 8.30 p.m.—Miss Winifred Jenner (soprano). 8.37 p.m.—Mr. H. Hinchcliffe (baritone). 8.44 p.m.—Miss Mary Neal (mezzo soprano). 8.51 p.m.—Miss Mab Fotheringham (soprano). 8.55 p.m.—Resume of following day's programme. Weather report and forecast by courtesy of Mr. C. E. Moss, Govt. Meteorologist. 8.55 p.m.—G.P.O. Clock and Chimes. 9.00 p.m.—Newtown Hand. 9.00 p.m.—Stan Hudson and A. J. Lawrence in Musical and Comedy turns. 9.04 p.m.—Miss Winifred Jenner. 9.04 p.m.—Miss Mary Neal. 9.04 p.m.—Mr. Roy Harrison. 9.05 p.m.—Mr. Roy Harrison. 9.10 p.m.—Miss Mary Neal. 9.15 p.m.—Miss Mab Fotheringham. 9.10 p.m.—The Ambassadors' Dance Band. 9.10 p.m.—Radio Station of the Ambassador. During the intervals between drama news reports by courtesy of the "Sun" will be broadcast. 9.15 midnight—G.P.O. Clock and Chimes. National Anthem. Close down. 3LO, MELBOURNE Monday. MIDDAY SESSION. Accompanist — AGNES FORTUNE Announcer — ALFRED ANDREW "A DARK OF SCORCH." 12 noon—Time Signal. British Official Wireless News from Rugby. Broadcasts by The Australian Pressmen Association. Cables: "Argus" and "Herald" news service. 12.30 p.m.—JEAN E. GRIFFITHS, Soprano: "O! Love from Thy Power" (Samson et Dalila) (Verdi). "Opale Ode" (Henshaw). 12.30 p.m.—STUDIO ORCHESTRA: "Ritualism in America." 12.40 p.m.—Stock Exchange information. 12.40 p.m.—ARTHUR DOUGLAS, Comedian: "The Hoban Postman" (Dubois). 12.57 p.m.—STUDIO ORCHESTRA: Ballet Music from "La Reine de Saba." 12.57 p.m.—HILLIARD'S SERENADES: Quartet: "Pendu." EDITH HUXHAM, DOLLY BURDETT, HENN MILLAR, HUGH HUXHAM, Contralto Solo: "Summer Rain;" Piano: "Cecilia." STUDIO ORCHESTRA: "Romanze" (Gibbons). Song: "Sorry, Oh It's Been Alright;" EDITH HUXHAM. Quartet: "Boats." THE SERENADER QUARTETTE, AGNES FORTUNE, Piano: "A Lament" (Gibbons). Quartet: "The Serenade." THE SERENADER QUARTETTE. 1.00 p.m.—Meteorological information. Shipping intelligence. Weather forecast for Victoria, Tasmania, South Australia, and N. South Wales. Ocean forecast. River reports. 1.15 p.m.—STUDIO ORCHESTRA: "The Brougham Petticoat" (Phelan). 1.45 p.m.—HUGH GUNNISON, Violin: "Heliodor" (Van Geem). 1.45 p.m.—STUDIO ORCHESTRA: "Waterloo" (Duke). 2 p.m.—Close down. AFTERNOON SESSION. Accompanist — AGNES FORTUNE Announcer — ALFRED ANDREW "ART AND CRAFT." 4.00 p.m.—ATLANTIS OPERA COMPANY: "Major Mac" (Lassalle). 4.15 p.m.—DOROTHY SILKY: Humorists. 4.21 p.m.—JEAN E. GRIFFITHS, Soprano: "To love the music" (Balesca). "The Overcoat" (Verdi). 4.32 p.m.—ORGAN RECITAL BY DR. FLOYD. Transmitted from St. Paul's Cathedral: "Elsa's Bridal Procession to the Cathedral" (Traverser) (Wagner). "Bride's March" (Traverser) (Wagner). "The Question" (Wolkenstohne). "The Answer" (Wolkenstohne). 4.42 p.m.—Two Old Church Tunes, illustrating special varieties of Organ tone. 4.42 p.m.—STUDIO ORCHESTRA: First Courtship" (Lindoro). 4.46 p.m.—ELSIE DAVIES, Soprano: "Aria" ("Il Barbiere" (Verdi). 4.51 p.m.—CHARLES HERMAN: "Girl Doctor"—remarks about a doctor's duties. Piano solos. 4.52 p.m.—ELIZABETH RIVIER, Soprano: "O! Love from Thy Power" "In your looking glass" (Demarzi). 4.58 p.m.—STUDIO ORCHESTRA: White Heather" (Pell). 4.58 p.m.—FLORA FELL, Inspector of Schools, Education Department: "Domestic Economy." 4.58 p.m.—Herald news service. Stock Exchange information. 5 p.m.—Close down. EVENING SESSION. 4.40 p.m.—CHILDREN'S HOUR. Answers to letters and birthday greetings. 4.50 p.m.—MAISIE HELL, Soprano, will sing to the School Children: (ELIZA BRADSHAW, Accompanist). 4.52 p.m.—"Little Miss Koakaburra" is going to tell her dear little Koakaburrales how "Maggie" tried to give Dolly a birthday present. 4.52 p.m.—ARTHUR DOUGLAS, is a very funny man—see if you don't laugh at him. 4.59 p.m.—"Little Miss Koakaburra" will tell her bigger and smaller brothers some more about Camp of Hope School. The gipsies threaten Carol! Look out for a lovely Easter Story next Saturday. 4.58 p.m.—"Argus" news service. "Herald" news. Weather synopsis. Shipping movements. 4.58 p.m.—Stock Exchange information. 4.58 p.m.—Fish Markets reports by J. R. FORSYTH, Ltd. 4.58 p.m.—River reports. 4.58 p.m.—Market reports by the Victorian Producers' Co-operative Co. Ltd., Hammersheep sales. Poultry, Grain, Hay, Cheese, Straw, Juice, Dairy Produce, Pristones and Grains. 4.58 p.m.—Market prices of Oranges and Lemons by the Victorian Central Citrus Association Pty. Ltd. Fruit Market reports by the Victorian Wholesale Fruitgrowers' Association, compiled by the "Fruit World," exclusive to 3LO. NIGHT SESSION. Accompanist — AGNES FORTUNE Announcer — MAURICE DUDLEY 7.15 p.m.—Under the auspices of the Devonport Australian League, MR. THOMAS RUST, former Chief President of the A.N.A.: "What of Our Boys?" 7.30 p.m.—MR. F. C. H. TAYLOR: School Life and Sport. Silence, Please! Put a stop now and forever to those "B" battery noises Tobes do it for you TOBE BI-PASS CONDENSERS are an ABSOLUTE ESSENTIAL for all Bi-pass work. In addition, they are used in the construction of almost every type of "B" Battery eliminator manufactured in the United States. In this capacity, TOBE Filler Condensers and the TOBE B BLOCKS have come to represent a definite standard of high quality. TOBE MEANS good condensers. If YOU build a B-Eliminator, use the TOBE B BLOCK. It saves you much time and wiring, and saves you money, too. It is possible to get something resembling speech and music from a Radio set not equipped with good condensers—but TRUTHFUL reproduction is impossible without them. Therefore, ask your dealer for TOBE. IF YOUR DEALER DOES NOT YET STOCK THESE PARTS, WRITE TO US DIRECT United Distributors Limited WHOLESALE ONLY 72 Clarence Street, SYDNEY 343 Queen St., 27 Cheeser St., 26 Queen St., Cr. Jervois Quay & Harris St., 66 Charles St., BRISBANE. ADELAIDE. PERTH. WELLINGTON, N.Z. LAUNCESTON, Tas. 664 Bourke St., MELBOURNE 7.45 p.m.—Under the auspices of the Department of Agriculture, MR. J. M. WARD, Superintendent of Horticulture: "Propagation and Selection of Fruit Trees." "Music Washes Away from the Soul the Dust of Everyday Life." 8 p.m.—STUDIO ORCHESTRA: Selections from "Pine" (Schubert). 8.10 p.m.—BILLEE LOCKWOOD, Soprano: Aria, "La Boheme" (Mendt) (Puccini). 8.15 p.m.—TAMA TIERMAN, Cello: "The Broken Melody" (Brahms). 8.24 p.m.—JAKE KEARNS will introduce himself as "The Cricketer," and "One of the Boys." 8.31 p.m.—ELSA LEWIS, Gipsy Violinist: "Oriental" (Corelli). 8.45 p.m.—STUDIO ORCHESTRA: Selections from "Faust." 8.45 p.m.—BILLEE LOCKWOOD, Soubrette: "Old Chap." "Why Wants a Bad Little Boy." 8.55 p.m.—STUDIO ORCHESTRA: "The Kingdom of Flowers." 9 p.m.—UNIVERSITY CONSERVATORIUM Orchestra conducted by PROFESSOR BERNHARD HEINZE: Pianoforte, "Moonlight Sonata" (1st movement) (Beethoven). Vocal: The Rose Entwines the Nightingale" (Humaky-Korsakoff). CARRIE CAIRNDUFF, Pianoforte: "Black Key Study" (Chopin). "Butterfly Study" (Chopin). "Hungarian Dance" (Brahms). Vocal: in "Rose Softly Blooming" (Spohr). (b) "Cuckoo" (Marvin Shaw). CARRIE CAIRNDUFF, Pianoforte: "Liederbuch" (Lorti). "Water Wagtail" (Gerald Scott). "Danza Negra" (Carl Scott). 8.40 p.m.—MAXWELL CAREW will entertain you with: "The Merry-go-Round" (Yodel Song). "Long Skirts." 10 p.m.—British Official Wireless News from Rugby Sporting Personalities: MR. W. FAWCETT, Sec. Victorian Swimming Association: "His remarkable career." 10.10 p.m.—ELSA DAVIES, Soprano: Song, "My King" (D'Albert). "La Partida" (D'Alverez). 10.17 p.m.—ELSA LEWIS, Gipsy Violinist: "Ave Maria" (Schubert-Wilhelm). "Hungarian Dance" (Brahms). 10.24 p.m.—STUDIO ORCHESTRA: "Quartet for Clarinet and Strings" (Max Heger). 10.30 p.m.—BILLEE LOCKWOOD, Soubrette: "Why Couldn't it be Poor Little Me?" "Why Couldn't it be Poor Little Me?" 10.47 p.m.—STUDIO ORCHESTRA: "Symphonette" (Berger): "How much easier do we find it to recommend a good action than to imitate it"—Agen. 11 p.m.—OUR GREAT THOUGHTS. 10.47 p.m.—Argus news service Announcement: "War in Poland." 11.1 p.m.—JOE ARONSON AND HIS SYNCPATING SYMPHONISTS: "That Samson and Delilah Melody." "You've got to Walk Shuffle." "Rosa Coeur." "Am I Waiting My Time." "The Village Blacksmith Owes the Village Now." "Tell Me Why I Love You." "Aloha Dee." "Hi, Ho, the Merry." "Me Too Bo-Bo Ha-Ha-Ha." "Burgundy." "In the Old Spanish Town." "To-night's My Night with Baby." "Bye, Bye, Blackbird." "I Wish I Had My Old Gal Back." "Angry." 11.40 p.m.—God Save the King. 10 p.m.—Market Reports; Weather information supplied by the Commonwealth Weather Bureau; News Service supplied by "The Daily Mail" and "The Daily Standard." 1.30 p.m.—From Hotel Carlton: Lunch Music played by Hotel Carlton Symphony Orchestra. 1.30 p.m.—From the Observatory: Standard Time Signal. 2.40 p.m.—Close Down. AFTERNOON SESSION 2.30 p.m.—From Hotel Carlton: Afternoon Tea Music played by Hotel Carlton Symphony Orchestra. 4.15 p.m.—From the Studio News Service supplied by "The Telegraph." 4.30 p.m.—Close Down. EARLY EVENING SESSION 6.00 p.m.—News Service supplied by the "Daily Standard." 6.30 p.m.—The Children's Session—Stories by The Sailorman. 7.0 p.m.—Market Reports; Stock Reports; Lectures on "Park Delicacies" by Mr. E. J. Sheldon (Instructor in Pig Raising). 7.30 p.m.—Weather News; Announcements. 7.45 p.m.—Standard Time Signals. NIGHT SESSION 7.45 p.m.—Lecture Sessions—"Roads and Town Planning" by Mr. R. A. McInnes (Chairman Executive Committee, Town Planning Association of Queensland). DUKE OF YORK'S VISIT. MAYORAL RECEPTION AT NEW FARM PARK The Mayoral Reception to their Royal Highnesses the Duke and Duchess of York will be received from New Farm Park at 6 p.m.—From New Farm Park: Mayoral Reception. Description of the Garden Party, decoration and illuminations; Band Music. 10.10 p.m.—From the Studio: "The Daily Mail" News; Weather News; Close Down. 5CL, ADELAIDE Monday. MORNING SESSION 12 noon.—G.P.O. chimes. 12.1 p.m.—Recital on the Autotone Reproductor and the New Reproducing Sonora. 12.30 p.m.—Australian news service. 12.50 p.m.—Market reports. 1 p.m.—G.P.O. chimes. 1.1 p.m.—Musical programme continued. 2 p.m.—G.P.O. chimes and close down. AFTERNOON SESSION 3 p.m.—G.P.O. chimes. 3.1 p.m.—Orchestral selections from Maple Leaf Café. 3.45 p.m.—From the Studio: New Reproducing Sonora and Autotone Reproducing Sonora. 4 p.m.—G.P.O. chimes. 4.1 p.m.—Recital from the Arcoona Café—Orchestral numbers. 4.30 p.m.—Station announcements. 5 p.m.—G.P.O. chimes and close down. EVENING SESSION 6 p.m.—G.P.O. chimes. 6.1 p.m.—Dinner music broadcast by Covent Garden Orchestra. 7 p.m.—G.P.O. chimes. 7.30 p.m.—Market reports. 7.40 p.m.—Philatelic culture talk by Mr. Noel Hubbin. 8 p.m.—G.P.O. chimes. Programme supplied by Messrs. S. A. Chance & Co., Ltd. 8.1 p.m.—Song, Mr. Harry Wordin. 8.5 p.m.—Selection, S.A.E. Band. 8.20 p.m.—"Twinkler's" original humorous tale. Friday, 8th April, 1927. 8.40 p.m.—Song, Miss Ethel Lampe. 8.56 p.m.—Section, S.A.R. Band. 9.04 p.m.—Recitation, Mr. Charles Carter. 9 p.m.—G.P.O. chimes. 9.1 p.m.—Weather report. 9.3 p.m.—Dalgety's wheat report. 9.40 p.m.—Banjo solo, Miss Langley. 9.50 p.m.—Song, Mr. Harry Wordin. 9.54 p.m.—Banjo solo, Mr. Seth Smith. 9.58 p.m.—S.A.R. Band selection. 10 p.m.—G.P.O. chimes. 10.1 p.m.—"Advertisement" news service. 10.15 p.m.—S.A.R. Band. 10.30 p.m.—Banjo, Mr. Harold Wordin. 10.34 p.m.—Banjo solo, Mr. Seth Smith. 10.38 p.m.—Song, Miss Ethel Lampe. 10.42 p.m.—Pianoforte solo, Miss Langley Naylor. 10.46 p.m.—Recitation, Mr. Charles Carter. 10.52 p.m.—Song, Mr. Harry Wordin. 10.56 p.m.—Banjo solo, Mr. Seth Smith. 11 p.m.—G.P.O. chimes and close down. 6WF, PERTH Monday. 12.30 p.m.—Tune in. 12.35 p.m.—First local news bulletin. Market reports. Cables. 1 p.m.—Time signal from Perth Observatory. 1.1 p.m.—Weather notes supplied by the Meteorological Bureau of Western Australia. 1.2 p.m.—Studio Quintette. 2 p.m.—Close down. 3.30 p.m.—Tune in. 3.35 p.m.—Musical programme. 4 p.m.—Studio Trio. 4.30 p.m.—Close down. 4.45 p.m.—Close down. 4.50 p.m.—Children's bedtime stories by Uncle Henry and Duffy. 7.20 p.m.—Stock and Share intelligence. Market reports. Cables. News supplied by courtesy of "The West Australian" Newspaper Co. 7.45 p.m.—Talk: "Bee Keeping," by Mr. C. Wallshaw, under auspices of the Bee Keepers' Association. 8 p.m.—Time signal from Perth Observatory. 8.1 p.m.—Weather notes supplied by the Meteorological Bureau of Western Australia. 8.2 p.m.—From the Studio. Musical programme, including arias. 9.30 p.m.—Health talk by Dr. H. S. Hatton, of the Hatton School of Physical Culture. 10 p.m.—Second local news bulletin, supplied by courtesy of "The Daily News" Newspaper Co. 10.30 p.m.—Close down. Tuesday, April 12 2FC, SYDNEY MIDDAY SESSION. 11.40 a.m.—From the Royal Agricultural Showground, Sydney. Results of the judging will be given of the various entries, direct from the Grounds. 12 noon—Big Ben, and announcements. 12.15 p.m.—Stock Exchange, first call. 12.2 p.m.—Official weather forecast, rainfall, temperatures, astronomical memoranda, shipping intelligence, mail services. 12.15 p.m.—Studio music. 12.25 p.m.—Summary of "Sydney Morning Herald" news service and cables. 12.35 p.m.—Studio music. 12.55 p.m.—Miss Margot Lescaut, soprano: "Heart's Desire" (Olimpia). 1 p.m.—"Big Ben." Weather intelligence. 1.3 p.m.—"Evening News" midday news service. Producers' Distributing Society's report. 1.20 p.m.—Stutter music. 1.30 p.m.—Stock Exchange, second call. 1.30 p.m.—Marching music for school children. 1.40 p.m.—Miss Margaret Lessam, soprano: "Juno Raptore" (Mendelssohn). 2 p.m.—"Big Ben." Close down. AFTERNOON SESSION: 2 p.m.—"Big Ben." From the Royal Agricultural Showgrounds. Descriptions of the show, and moving pictures will be shown direct from the grounds. 3 p.m.—Marching music for school children. 3.15 p.m.—From Farmer's Tea Rooms—Miss Marjorie Humphreys, contralto: "Guess you know" (Brahm). 4.45 p.m.—A talk on house cooking and recipes, by Miss Ruth Forst. 4 p.m.—From Farmer's Tea Rooms—Mr. Frank Buchan, baritone: "Will of the Wisp" (Shakespeare). 4.45 p.m.—From the R.A.S. Grounds.—Further descriptions of the show. 4.15 p.m.—From the studios—Miss Nellie Andrews, soprano: "From dropped a song into my heart" (Kreisler). 4.15 p.m.—From the R.A.S. Grounds. Descriptions of the Easter Show. 4.30 p.m.—From Farmer's Tea Rooms—Miss Marjorie Humphreys, contralto: "The Amber Cloud" (Tosti). 4.30 p.m.—Descriptions of the show, direct from the R.A.S. Grounds, Sydney. 4.35 p.m.—Miss Nellie Andrews, soprano, will sing from the studios "Blasmati" (Puccini). 4.40 p.m.—From Farmer's Tea Rooms—Mr. Frank Buchan, baritone: "Caribean Bay" (Adler). 4.45 p.m.—Stock Exchange, third call. 4.45 p.m.—Descriptions of the show, direct from the R.A.S. Grounds. 5 p.m.—"Big Ben." Close down. EARLY EVENING SESSION: 6.45 p.m.—The Chimes of 2BL. 7.00 p.m.—The "Hello Ben" talks to the children. 8.00 p.m.—A serial story for the older ones. 8.40 p.m.—Dinner music. 9 p.m.—"Big Ben." Late sporting information. 7.10 p.m.—Haight's market reports (wheat, wheat and stock). 7.15 p.m.—Fruit and vegetable markets. 7.20 p.m.—Weather and shipping intelligence. Stock Exchange. 7.30 p.m.—Late "Evening News" news service. NIGHT SESSION: 7.55 p.m.—Announcement of a relaying of a complete programme over a land line of 490 miles from 2LO, Melbourne, by arrangement with the Broadcasting Company of Australia Pty. Ltd. Note.—This will be the first occasion in which complete programming has been relayed between two States, and will give listeners in N.S.W. an opportunity to hear 2LO if they do not possess a receiving set of sufficient strength to receive the transmission ultra-long wave. 8 p.m.—Malvern Tramways Band: March, "The Black Knight" (Bimmer). Overture, "The Bohemian Girl" (Halé). 8.10 p.m.—Elise Davies, soprano: "Prayer—La Tenece" (Puccini). 8.17 p.m.—Max H Currie, comedian: "What do you do?" Parody: "I passed by your window." 8.24 p.m.—Malvern Tramways Band: Waltz, "Will o' the Wisp" (Barbi). 8.34 p.m.—Billie Lockwood, soprabre: "Ain't yer Jim?" Impression of "Les Wite," "We've got a servant." 8.40 p.m.—University Dramatic Society: "Passion, Poison and Infatuation" (Shaw). 9.00 p.m.—Malvern Tramways Band: Selection, "La Traviata" (Verdi). 9.12 p.m.—Taps, National & Branch of Irish "Fuddy McCarthy." Parody: "Killearnery." Parody: "Wearing of the Green." 9.30 p.m.—Hughie and Brothers: Humorous Quartet: "The more we are together" (Campbell). Edith Hartman, Dolly Burridge, Reep Miller, and Hugh Hartman, bass solo: "The Open Road." Harpist: Miss Lewis, piano: substitute: "Japanese Cherry Dance." Tugboat Quartet: To "1000" New York. Edwin "A perfect day" (James Bond). Edith Hartman, Hugh Hartman. Ellie Lewis, piano: substitute: "Narcissus" (Niven). Opera Quartet: "The Overture to William Tell" (Rossini). (See to music.) The Recorder Quartet. 10.2 p.m.—News service. 10.12 p.m.—Malvern Tramways Band: Selection, "The Mikado," No. 2 (Sullivan). 10.22 p.m.—Billie Lockwood, soprabre: "Walking around in circles." "Happy and crowy." 10.29 p.m.—Elise Lewis, piano: substitute: "Andantino" (Kreisler). "Draw to me only with thine eyes" (arr. Quilter). 10.32 p.m.—Malvern Tramways Band: Two step, "Pay in America" (Eden). March, "The Nation's Return" (Rimsky). 10.40 p.m.—Elise Davies, soprano: Song, "Mia Piccettola" (Gomes). "Mind of the Mountains—Love will find a Way." 10.50 p.m.—News service. Sporting notes by "Olympus." 11 p.m.—Our Great Thought. 11.40 p.m.—Joe Arrowsom and his Synopting Symphonists. 11.40 p.m.—God Save the King. 2BL, SYDNEY Tuesday. DAY SESSION 12 noon—G.P.O. Clock and Chimes. 12.1 p.m.—Special ocean forecast for shipping. 12.2 p.m.—Weather forecast. 12.4 p.m.—Rabbit market report. 12.4 p.m.—Fish market report. 12.5 p.m.—Vegetable market report. 12.5 p.m.—Fruit market report. 12.10 p.m.—Dairy farm produce market report. 12.15 p.m.—Poultry market report. 12.15 p.m.—Farm produce market report. 12.15 p.m.—Prices in each trading region. 12.19 p.m.—Mail, interstate and overseas. 12.21 p.m.—Shipping, arrivals and departures and movement of important ships. 12.23 p.m.—Sydney Stock Exchange calls. 12.26 p.m.—"Spitfire" newspapers news service. 12.26 p.m.—G.P.O.—Clock and chimes. 12.31 p.m.—News from the "Sun." 12.45 p.m.—Hillier's Instrumental Quartet. Direction, Carol Czitlin. 1.00 p.m.—G.P.O. Clock and Chimes. 1.15 p.m.—Meteorological weather report. 1.20 p.m.—Ocean forecast. 1.33 p.m.—State weather forecast. 1.34 p.m.—Sydney Stock Exchange calls. 1.47 p.m.—News from the "Sun." 1.48 p.m.—Musical programme from the Studio. 2 p.m.—G.P.O. Clock and Chimes. 2.1 p.m.—Musical programme from the Studio. 2.11 p.m.—Social notes from the "Sun." 2.16 p.m.—News from the "Sun." 2.25 p.m.—Musical programme from the Studio. 2.30 p.m.—Information service. Mails, shipping, amusement and social notices. 2.44 p.m.—Musical programme from the Studio. 2.50 p.m.—G.P.O. Clock and Chimes. 2.58 p.m.—News from the "Sun." 3.15 p.m.—Civil Service Stores Trio. Direction, Miss de Courcy Brenner. 3.30 p.m.—Women's Session. Social notes by Mrs. Jordan. 3.45 p.m.—Mrs. Jordan replies to correspondents. 3.49 p.m.—Talk on "Toilet Talk," by Mrs. Jordan. 4 p.m.—G.P.O. Clock and Chimes. 4.1 p.m.—Civil Service Stores Trio 4.15 p.m.—G.P.O. Clock and Chimes. 4.16 p.m.—Social notices. 4.30 p.m.—G.P.O. Clock and Chimes. 4.31 p.m.—News from "Sun." 4.45 p.m.—Producers' Distributing Society's fruit market report. 4.47 p.m.—Producers' Distributing Society's fruit market report. 4.49 p.m.—Resumes of news. 4.52 p.m.—Resumes of night's programme. 4.55 p.m.—Announcements. 5 p.m.—G.P.O. Clock and Chimes. Close down. EARLY EVENING SESSION. 5.45 p.m.—G.P.O. Clock and Chimes. 5.48 p.m.—Uncle George and the kiddies. 6 p.m.—The pupils of Mrs. Monica Scully will entertain the kiddies. 6.40 p.m.—Musical programme from the Studio. 7 p.m.—G.P.O. Clock and Chimes. SPECIAL COUNTRY SESSION. Australian Mercantile, Land, and Finance Co.'s report. Weather report and forecast. Stock Exchange reports. Fruit and vegetable Society's fruit and vegetable market report. Dairy produce report ("Sun"). Grain and fodder report ("Sun"). 7.13 p.m.—Country news from the "Sun." 7.30 p.m.—Talk on "The Motor Car," by Mr. Martin. 8 p.m.—G.P.O. Clock and Chimes. Broadcasters' Topics: Chorus. 8.3 p.m.—Broadcasters' Miniature Orchestra, under the direction of Mr. J. Knight Bartlett. 8.10 p.m.—Miss Heather Kinnaird, contralto. 8.20 p.m.—Mr. Raymond Beatty, basso. 8.27 p.m.—Mr. Stan Cartell, comedian. 8.34 p.m.—Miss Millie Hughes, soprano. 8.41 p.m.—Mr. David Smith, baritone. 8.48 p.m.—Mr. Henri Peur, pianist. 8.55 p.m.—Resumes of following day's programme. Weather report and forecast by courtesy of Mr. Mars, Government Meteorologist. 9 p.m.—G.P.O. Clock and Chimes. 9.1 p.m.—Broadcasters' Miniature Orchestra. 9.18 p.m.—Guest (Miss Millie Hughes and Mr. Raymond Beatty). 9.17 p.m.—Miss Heather Kinnaird. 9.24 p.m.—Mr. Raymond Beatty. 9.31 p.m.—Broadcasters' Miniature Orchestra. 9.41 p.m.—Miss Millie Hughes. 9.48 p.m.—Mr. Henry Peur. 9.58 p.m.—Mr. Stan Cartell. 10.6 p.m.—Mr. David Smith. 10.12 p.m.—The Ambassadors' Dance Band broadcast from the ballroom of the Ambassadors. During the intervals between dances, news items, by courtesy of the "Sun" will be broadcast. 12 midnight.—G.P.O. Clock and Chimes. National Anthem. Special Prices ON RADIO PARTS FROM The Australian Wireless Co. Ltd. 140 CASTLERAUGH STREET, SYDNEY. \| Potentiometers \| s. d. \| \|----------------\|------\| \| Igranic, 30000 ohms \| 7 3 \| \| Magnus, 200 ohms \| 3 6 \| \| Frost, 200 ohms \| 4 6 \| \| Shop soiled \| 2 6 \| \| Coil Plugs \| s. d. \| \|------------\|------\| \| Miscellaneous \| 0 6 \| \| Shop soiled \| 0 4 \| \| Rheostats \| s. d. \| \|-----------\|------\| \| Hoosick, 30 ohms \| 2 2 \| \| Pinnacle, 30 ohms \| 2 2 \| \| Shop soiled \| 1 6 \| \| Resistances \| s. d. \| \|-------------\|------\| \| Resistance Amplifiers \| 1 0 \| \| Muter Single \| 7 8 \| \| Muter 3-Valve \| £2 6 0 \| \| Sockets \| s. d. \| \|---------\|------\| \| Frost, 3 gang \| 11 6 \| \| Crossley (Pore.) \| 1 2 \| \| Crossley (Bak.) \| 1 2 \| \| Shop soiled \| 0 9 \| \| Dials \| s. d. \| \|-------\|------\| \| Magnus, 3in. \| 0 11 ½ \| \| Accurateine \| 17 3 \| \| K.K., 3in. \| 3 6 \| \| K.K., 4in. \| 5 0 \| \| Shop soiled \| 6 \| \| Filkoleaks \| s. d. \| \|-----------\|------\| \| Filkostats \| 7 9 \| \| Crystal Parts \| s. d. \| \|---------------\|------\| \| Detector Outfits \| 0 3 \| \| Azax " " \| 0 4 \| \| Misc. " " \| 0 3 \| \| Detector Arms \| 0 3 \| \| Spring Detector Arms \| 0 3 \| \| Sliders (metal) \| 0 3 \| \| " (Bakelite) \| 0 3 \| \| Crystal Cups \| 0 4 \| \| Insulators \| s. d. \| \|------------\|------\| \| Pyrex (Glass) \| 2 8 \| \| Jacks \| s. d. \| \|-------\|------\| \| Saturn, S.C. \| 2 8 \| \| Marco, D.C. \| 2 0 \| \| Lightning Arrestors \| s. d. \| \|---------------------\|------\| \| Filko \| 5 6 \| \| Switches \| s. d. \| \|----------\|------\| \| Frost Push-Pull \| 1 11 \| \| Framingham Series \| 1 6 \| \| Fada Rotary Switch \| 0 6 \| \| Soldering Outfits \| s. d. \| \|------------------\|------\| \| Clinton Wonder \| 1 0 \| The Australian Wireless Company Limited 140 Castlereagh Street, SYDNEY, Manufacturers of the Famous RADIAIR RECEIVING SETS 3LO, MELBOURNE Tuesday. MIDDAY SESSION. Accompanists ........ AGNES FORTUNE Announcer ........ ALFRED ANDREW "TO A YOUNG HEART EVERYTHING IS FUN." (Duchamp) 12 noon—Time Signal. British Official Wireless news from Rugby, Reuters and The Australian Press Association Cables. "Argus" and "Herald" news services. 12.05 p.m.—JACK KEARNS. Comedian will recite, sing and hummus about "Four and Nine" and "TH Come Back." 12.10 p.m.—STUDIO ORCHESTRA: "Magic Finite" (Mozart). 12.40 p.m.—Stock Exchange information. 12.50 p.m.—MAITIE BELL, soprano: "My Turn" (Auburn). "The Silver Swan" (Rubens). 12.57 p.m.—STUDIO ORCHESTRA: "The Beauty Prize" (Kern). 1.10 p.m.—BILLY LOCKWOOD, Southerner: "Ooh! Ooh! Ooh!" "Then Clough 'em Young." 1.18 p.m.—CHAS. SHERMAN: " Hebrew Humor and Song." 1.20 p.m.—Meteorological information. Shipping intelligence. Weather forecast for Victoria, Tasmania, South Australia and New South Wales. Ocean forecast. River reports. 1.25 p.m.—STUDIO ORCHESTRA: "The Red Coat" (Lefebre). 1.30 p.m.—BILLY LOCKWOOD, Southerner: "We've got a New Baby at Our House." "Pretty Little Baby." 1.40 p.m.—RICHARD CHUGG and FRANKLIN STONHAM: "Duo for Flute and Clarinet" "Tarantelle" (Safrit-Sarrazin). 1.49 p.m.—MR. CHAS. W. JOYCE. State Secretary, Returned Sailors and Soldiers Imperial League of Australia (Victoria), will speak on: Why this Year's Anzac Appeal should be Supported. 2 p.m.—Close down. Result of Seymour Races will be given as they come in hand. Accompanists ........ AGNES FORTUNE Announcers ........ ALFRED ANDREW "DANCE AND BE MERRY." 3 p.m.—JOE ARONSON AND HIS SYNCO-PATING SYMPHONISTS: "Jamboree." "By the Sign of a Rose." "Hello, Little Girl of My Dreams." 5.3 p.m.—AU FAIT will give a Fashion Display. 1.24 p.m.—JOE ARONSON AND HIS SYNCO-PATING SYMPHONISTS: "The Original Black Bottom." "Hello, Alone." "Let's Have a Party Dance." "Conundrum" Waltz. 2.35 p.m.—VIOLA JOHN, Soprano: "Tonight" (Napoleon Sarrazin). "Happy Days" (Walter Scott). 2.41 p.m.—JOE ARONSON AND HIS SYNCO-PATING SYMPHONISTS: "Happy-days" Piano Solo. "The More We Are Together." "March of the Minstrels." 3.31 p.m.—ELSA LEWIS, Gipsy Violinist: Selections "La Traviata." 4 p.m.—JOE ARONSON AND HIS SYNCO-PATING SYMPHONISTS: "Take a Long Walk of the Belle." "Baby Face." "Homebody Lament." 4.06 p.m.—JOHN HUGHES, Comedian: "She is but a Rose" (Landor). 4.11 p.m.—JOE ARONSON AND HIS SYNCO-PATING SYMPHONISTS: "A Cup of Coffee, a Sandwich and You." "Just a Little Kiss." "Just a Bird's Eye View." 4.27 p.m.—MATRON MORELAND: "Infant Welfare." 1.37 p.m.—JOE ARONSON AND HIS SYNCO-PATING SYMPHONISTS: "Thinking of You." "Hi, Diddly Diddle." "Precedent." 4.35 p.m.—"Herald" news service Stock Exchange information. 5 p.m.—Close down. EVENING SESSION. 3.45 p.m.—CHILDREN'S HOUR. Answers to Letters and other Questions. 4.55 p.m.—STUDIO ORCHESTRA: Children's Overture. 6.2 p.m.—MARY GUMLEAF. Poems "The Lost Girl," "The Plain Pursuer," Story for the Weeest ones, "The Story of the Clock." 6.10 p.m.—CAPT. DONALD McLEAN will tell us of his experiences about: "Death Attack on the Treasure Trail at Panama." 6.35 p.m.—"Argus" and "Herald" news service Weather synopsis. Shipping reports. 6.47 p.m.—Stock Exchange information. 6.52 p.m.—Fish Market reports by J. R. Horne. 7 p.m.—River reports. 7.55 p.m.—Market reports by the Victorian Producers' Co-operative Co., Ltd.: Dairy Produce, Potatoes and Oranges. Haymarket Sheep sales, Poultry, Grain, Baraw, Hay and Jute. 8 p.m.—Market prices of Oranges and Lemons by the Victorian Central Citrus Association. Fruit Market reports by the Victorian Wholesale Fruiturers' Association, compiled by the True Word, exclusive to 3LO. NIGHT SESSION. Accompanists ........ AGNES FORTUNE Announcers ........ MAURICE DUDLEY 7.15 p.m.—REV. R. C. NICHOLLS: "Word Among Boys." 7.30 p.m.—Under the auspices of the University of Melbourne Board, MR. W. KERR, M.A., Senior Lecturer in Classics at the University: "The Beginnings of Ancient Athens." 7.45 p.m.—MR. E. HOWORTH, Coach Victorian Interstate Eight: "Preparation of an Interstate Crew for King's Cup." THIS PROGRAMME IS TO BE RELAYED BY 3TC SYDNEY. TO OUR FRIENDS ACROSS THE BORDER—WE EXTEND THE HAND OF FRIENDSHIP." 8 p.m.—MALVERN TRAMWAYS BAND; March, "The Black Knight" (Hummel). Overture: "The Bohemian Girl" (Bailie). 8.10 p.m.—ELSA LEWIS, Soprano: "Piazza" (Verdi). 8.17 p.m.—MAXWELL CAREW, Comedian: "How do you Do?" Patter. "I Passed by Your Window" (Parody). 2.47 p.m.—MALVERN TRAMWAYS BAND; Waltz, "Whi o' the Wisp" (Burns). 2.54 p.m.—BILLY LOCKWOOD, Southerner: "Aint yer, Jim." Interlude of Leo White in "We've got a Serenade." 3.48 p.m.—UNIVERSITY DRAMATIC SOCIETY: "Pantomime, Polonax, and Petrification." By BERNARD SHAW. 9.20 p.m.—MALVERN TRAMWAYS BAND; Selection, "La Traviata" (Verdi). 9.25 p.m.—JACK KEARNS, in Sketches of Irish: "Paddy McCarthy." "Killarney" (Parody). "Wearing of the Green" (Parody). 9.30 p.m.—HUGH HUXHAM'S SERENADERS: Hungarian Quartet, "The More we are Together" (Campbell). EDITH HUXHAM, DOLLY MURPETT, RENN MILLAR, HUGH HUXHAM Hansard, in "Open Road." RENN MILLAR. ELSA LEWIS, Gipsy Violinist: "Japanese Cherry Blossom." Topical Quartette, "In K.A." (new version) Immel, EIGHTH AND DRUG BURHAM, "A Perfect Day" (Gavotta-Band). ELSA LEWIS, Violinist: 21 "Scarletta" (Savin). Operatic Quartette: "The Overture in William Tell" (Rossini) (See to Words). THE SERBANADER QUARTETTE. 10.30 p.m.—British Office Wireless News from Rome (Announcement). 10.42 p.m.—MALVERN TRAMWAYS BAND Selection, "The Minstrel," No. 2 (Sullivan). 10.57 p.m.—RILLIE LOCKWOOD, Soprano: "Walking Singing in Circles" "Happy and Crazy." 10.59 p.m.—ELSA LEWIS, Gipsy Violinist "Amadante" (Kreisler). "Drink to me only with thine eyes" (Arr. by Weber). 10.58 p.m.—MALVERN TRAMWAYS BAND Two Steps, "Pan in America" (Eden). March, "The Village Bellboy" (Rimmer). 10.59 p.m.—ELSA DAVIES, Soprano: "Me Piantella" (Gounod). "Maid of the Mountains, Love will Find a way." 10.58 p.m.—"Argus" News service. Weather forecast. Announcements. Sporting Notes by Olympian. 11 p.m.—OUR GREAT THOUGHTS: "Joy in one's work is the commencement of all happiness" (Bryant). 11.1 p.m.—JIM ARONSON AND HIS SYN- COPATING SYMPHONISTS: "Baby Face." "At home with the world." "Hi diddle diddle." "Neapolitan Nights." "Freedom." "Kathleen." "Fire, Fire, Fire turn the hose on me." "Princess Betty's Lullaby." "Any one-day lady." "Come Little Kiss Will Ya?" "Rose Marie." "Italian Love Call." "No Feeling." "Blowin' Of Steam." "Hi, Ho, Ho, Morris." 11.48 p.m.—God Save the King. 4QG, BRISBANE Tuesday. MIDDAY SESSION. 1.0 p.m.—Market Reports; Weather Informa- tion; News Service supplied by "The Daily Mail" and "The Daily Standard." 1.15 p.m.—From Hotel Carlton: Lunch Music from the Lounge, played by Hotel Carlton Symphony Orchestra. 1.58 p.m.—From the Observatory: Standard Time Signal. 2.0 p.m.—Close Down. AFTERNOON SESSION. 2.30 p.m.—PROGRAMME OF MUSIC FROM THE STUDIO: Duo Art selections. "Bread of Roses" (Clarke); Aesthetic Vocal- ists' selection (in violin solo, "Saltarelle" (German), Miss Peggy O'Keefe, singing, "At Peace With the World" (Berlin), Mr. Harry Bulka, Duo Art selections, "Autumn" (Chamade); Aesthetic Vocalists' selections: (a) From "The Whomper" (Stuart), Royal Troopbandora, (b) Rouse solo, "Out in the Deep" (Lohr), Mr. Malcolm McEachern; Duo Art selection, "Country Macartha" (Larraght); Aesthetic Vocalists' selections: (a) orchestral "La Tangu du Roi" (Mack- derm), Moucheffet's Orchestra, (b) soprano "Duin Lamert" (Parrott), Miss Olga Hale; Duo Art selection, "Merrymakers Dance" (Sierman). 2.45 p.m.—The Telegram News. 2.50 p.m.—Close Down. SPECIAL TRANSMISSION DUKE OF YORK'S VISIT The service was arranged by the Returned Soldiers and Soldiers' Imperial League of Australia in connection with the visit to Brisbane of Their Royal Highnesses the Duke and Duchess of York will be relayed from Toowong Cemetery. Ever-Ready Radio Batteries are Always Ready The New Ever-Ready No. 126 or A, B, or C Battery Price .......................... 2/9 One of a group of radio batteries. Useful in wireless, lighting, and amplification. Size, 3½ x 4 x 1¼. Most useful for bells, telephones, burglar alarms, medical coils, etc. With three brass terminals. Voltages 1.5, 3 or 3.5 volts. Useful for all wireless purposes as well as general utility. The "Standard" "A" Radio Battery. Price ......................... 9/- The Ever-Ready "Standard" "A" Battery (No.126), 4.5 volt, specially designed for commercial operation of 1, 2, or 3 valves, taking .08 amperes at 3 volts. For sets with four or more valves, the most economical service is obtained by using two "Standard" "A" Batteries connected in parallel. If unobtainable locally, write for address of nearest source of supply to The Ever-Ready Co. (Gt. Britain) Ltd. 163 Pitt Street Sydney The oration will take the form of a service in memory of the sailors and soldiers killed during the war, and will be held at the Stone of Remembrance. 2:30 p.m.—From the Townsvy Cemetery—Returned Sailors and Soldiers' Ceremony. 6:15 p.m.—Conclusion. EARLY EVENING SESSION. 6:15 p.m.—"Daily Standard" News; Announcements. 6:40 p.m.—The Children's Reading—Stories by Uncle Ben and Uncle Jim. 7:00 p.m.—Market Reports—Stock Reports. Lecturers—"The Propagation of Plants"; Mr. G. Williams (Acting Director in Fruit Culture). 7:20 p.m.—Weather News; Announcements. 7:45 p.m.—Standard Time Signal. NIGHT SESSION. 7:45 p.m.—Lecture Session—"Cornet Lamentation Tally-Ho" (by J. H. C. Macpherson). STANDARDS ORCHESTRA. The first portion of to-night's programme will comprise the playing of Stainer's Crucifixion from St. Andrew's Church of England South Brisbane. 8 p.m.—From St. Andrew's. "Stainer's Crucifixion." St. Andrew's Church of England South Brisbane. Mrs. E. W. Caldec (soprano), Miss E. Ling (soprano), Mr. W. G. Ashlin (tenor), Mr. R. J. Tucker (bass) organist and choirmaster, Miss E. M. Taylor. 8:30 p.m.—From the Studio—Metropolitan Weather Forecast. 9:45 p.m.—Monochrome solo, selected, Mr. A. Sharman; piano duet, selected, Sigmar Unger and Miss Dorothy Stewart; monochrome, "The Water"; Miss Ellen McLennan; organ piece, selected, Arthur Sherman; monochrome, "Your Eyes Have Told Me So"; Harald, Eugenia Clift; soprano solo, "Amarella"; Miss Ellen McLennan; pianoforte solo, selected, Mr. Arthur Sherman. 10:30 p.m.—From the Studio—"The Daily Mail News"; Weather News; Close down. 5CL, ADELAIDE Tuesday. MORNING SESSION. 12 noon—G.P.O. chimes. 12.15 p.m.—Automatic Reproducer and New Reproducing-Sonica records. 12:30 p.m.—"Advertiser" news service. 12:45 p.m.—Market reports. 1 p.m.—G.P.O. chimes. 1.15 p.m.—Musical programme continued. 2 p.m.—Close down and close down. AFTERNOON SESSION. 3 p.m.—G.P.O. chimes. 3.1 p.m.—Relay from Maple Leaf Cafe—Orchestral selection. 3.45 p.m.—Sonora selections from the studio. 4 p.m.—G.P.O. chimes. 4.1 p.m.—Relay from the Arcade Cafe—Orchestral selection. 4.45 p.m.—Station announcements. 5 p.m.—G.P.O. chimes and close down. EVENING SESSION. 6 p.m.—G.P.O. chimes. 6.1 p.m.—Dinner music broadcast by Covent Garden Opera. 6.15 p.m.—G.P.O. chimes. 7 p.m.—Close down. 7.15 p.m.—Boutique stories. 7.30 p.m.—Market reports. 7.45 p.m.—Beautiful talk by "Dennis." 8 p.m.—G.P.O. chimes. 8.1 p.m.—Overture 5CL Orchestra. 8.15 p.m.—Song, Miss Dulcie Evans. 8.20 p.m.—Selection, Mr. W. L. Rowett. 8.25 p.m.—Selection, Mr. W. G. Ashlin. 8.30 p.m.—Selection, Mr. Roy Piersey. 8.35 p.m.—Duet solo, Mr. Roy Piersey. 8.40 p.m.—Monochrome, Mr. Roy Piersey. 8.45 p.m.—Selection, Mr. W. L. Rowett. 8.50 p.m.—Song, Miss Dulcie Evans. 8.55 p.m.—Market reports. 9 p.m.—Close down. 9.1 p.m.—Orchestra, "Dancing without regard." 9.4 p.m.—Song, Mr. Roy Piersey. 9.5 p.m.—Selection, 5CL Orchestra. 10.15 p.m.—Song, Miss M. McNeil. 10.25 p.m.—Recital, Mr. W. L. Rowett. 10.35 p.m.—Selection, 5CL Orchestra. 10.45 p.m.—"Big Ben" news service. 10.55 p.m.—Song, Miss Dulcie Evans. 11 p.m.—Close down. 6WF, PERTH Tuesday. 12.30 a.m.—Time in. 12.35 p.m.—First local news bulletin. Market reports. Cables. 1 p.m.—Time signal from Perth Observatory. 2.1 p.m.—Weather notes supplied by the Meteorological Bureau of Western Australia. 2.30 p.m.—Studio Trio. 2.45 p.m.—News. 2.55 p.m.—Time in. 3 p.m.—Musical programme, including pianoforte selections by Mr. Leslie Andrews. 3.15 p.m.—Studio trio. 3.45 p.m.—Close down. 4 p.m.—"Stories for Tiny Tots" by Anne Kain. 4.1 p.m.—Uncle Leslie will talk to the boys. 4.30 p.m.—Stock and Share intelligence. Market reports. Cables. News supplied by courtesy of "The West Australian" Newspaper Co. 4.45 p.m.—Time signal from Perth Observatory. 5.1 p.m.—Weather notes supplied by the Meteorological Bureau of Western Australia. 5.2 p.m.—Band Night. Conducted by the Perth City Band. Conductor, Mr. W. A. Halsey. 5.30 p.m.—Second local news bulletin, supplied by courtesy of "The Daily News" Newspaper Co. 6 p.m.—Close down. Wednes., April 13 2FC, SYDNEY MIDDAY SESSION. 12 noon—"Big Ben" and programmes announced. 12.15 p.m.—Stock Exchange, first call. 12.30 p.m.—Official weather forecast, rainfall, temperatures, astronomical memoranda, shipping intelligence, mail services. 12.45 p.m.—Studio music. 12.50 p.m.—Summary of "Sydney Morning Herald" news service and cables. 12.55 p.m.—Studio music. 12.55 p.m.—Miss Annie Payne, news: (a) "The swan bent low to the lily" (b) "Mademoiselle" (c) "Good Morning" (Group). 1 p.m.—"Big Ben" and weather information. 1.3 p.m.—"Evening News" miliary news service. Publisher's Distributing Society's report. 1.45 p.m.—Studio music. Also the speeches of the official luncheon at the R.A.B. Grounds, Sydney. 1.45 p.m.—Stock Exchange, second call. 2 p.m.—Marching music in school children. 1.45 p.m.—Miss Annie Payne, news: "The ships of Ararat" (Group). 1.45 p.m.—Studio music. 2 p.m.—"Big Ben." Close down. Note.—The speeches at the official opening of the Easter Show will be transmitted direct from the Royal Agricultural Showgrounds, Sydney. AFTERNOON SESSION. 3 p.m.—"Big Ben" and programme announcements. 3.30 p.m.—A vocal and pianoforte recital arranged by Mr. Rex de Castro-Rego: Songs (a) "Bush night song" (James); (b) "The Chant of Wod" (Fenner). Miss Clarice West. 3.49 p.m.—Pianoforte: "Hungarian Dance, No. 6" (Brahms). Miss Nellie Fairburn. 3.51 p.m.—Pianoforte: (a) "Sylvia" (Spohr). (b) "Tally Ho" (Leon). Mr. Stanley Clarkson. 4.12 p.m.—Pianoforte: Waltzes Nos. 1, 2, 8, and 15 (Brahms). Miss Lydia Dunn. 4.17 p.m.—Song: "Caro mio Ben" (Giovanini). Miss Marion Wheeler. 4.30 p.m.—Marching music for school children. 4.48 p.m.—From Farmer's Tea Rooms—Miss Florence Grant, soprano: "The Melody of Life" (Leigh) (with violin obbligato by Mr. Herbert Wardle). 4.51 p.m.—From the Studio—Pianoforte suite: "Sonata Appassionata" (Beethoven). Miss Ida Teur. 4.56 p.m.—A talk on home cooking and recipes by Miss Ruth Furse. 4.58 p.m.—Song From Farmer's Tea Rooms—Miss Peggy Dunbar, contralto: "Home hath no home without you" (Loeb). 4.55 p.m.—From the Studio—Song: "Elow's Vision" from "Lohengrin" (Wagner). Miss Dorothy Morgan. 4.10 p.m.—Studio music. 4.29 p.m.—From Farmer's Tea Rooms—Miss Florence Grant, soprano: "Bing, sweet bird" (Gane). 4.40 p.m.—From Farmer's Tea Rooms—Miss Peggy Dunbar, contralto: "Country Folk" (Brube). 4.45 p.m.—Stock Exchange, third call. 4.48 p.m.—Studio music. 5 p.m.—Close down. EARLY EVENING SESSION. 5.46 p.m.—The Chinese of 2FC. 5.50 p.m.—The "Hello Man" talks to the children. 6.15 p.m.—From the Girls' Industrial Home, Parramatta: Uncle Ray and "Jerry" will entertain the children. 6.40 p.m.—Dinner music. 7 p.m.—"Big Ben." Late sporting information. 7.10 p.m.—Daily's market reports (wool, wheat and stock). 7.18 p.m.—Fruit and vegetable markets. 7.30 p.m.—Weather and shipping intelligence. Stock Exchange information. 7.35 p.m.—Late "Evening News" news service. NIGHT SESSION. 7.40 p.m.—Programme announcements. 7.45 p.m.—Mr. R. R. Blake will deliver his popular talk on "The screen as a career for a girl." 8 p.m.—"Big Ben." From the Lyceum Theatre, Pitt Street, Sydney. Orchestra plays. 8.10 p.m.—From the Concert Hall of the Girls' Industrial Home, Parramatta: A programme by 2FC artists. Rae Garling introduces the company. Community singing. 8.14 p.m.—Miss Heather Harding, soprano: "Indian Love Call" (Primi). FARMER'S High-Grade Accessories Guaranteed to give Lasting Service. BRANDES' Variable Condensers Special Vernier Adjustment. Brandes' S.L. Frequency Condenser, .0005 M.F., with special vernier adjustment. A most efficient and reliable apparatus. Price .... 39/- British-made Voltmeters Double-Reading. Voltmeters of finest English make; double reading, 0 to 10, and 0 to 100 volts. Price, each ............ 12/6 Much more accurate, yet quite as keenly priced as other makes. "Radiokes" Kit Complete with Diagram. "Radiokes" Kit, specially made for use with the Browning Drake Circuit, complete with explanatory diagram. Price ............... 42/- "Rayton" Headphones. "Rayton" Headphones, with special adjustable diaphragm; 4,000 ohms. Per pair .. 15/9 "All-American" Transformers. When adding that extra stage of Audio Frequency, use "All-American" Transformers, and note the clarity of the reproduction. Price ............... 30/- "Belling Lee" Bakelite Terminals. "Belling Lee" bakelite Terminals; negative and positive A, B, and C, clearly engraved; British-made. Price ............... 10d. ea. Wireless Department, Ground Floor. FARMER'S, SYDNEY Box 497 AA, G.P.O. Farmer's do not Pay Carriage on Wireless Goods. 4 ways to better your set De FOREST DL3 . . 13/- Dull Emitter DL4 . . 13/6 RF DL5 . . 11/- Det. Audio DL7 . . 24/- Power Audio AUDIONS. International Radio Co. Ltd. 200 Castlereagh Street. SYDNEY 91-93 Courtenay Place, Wellington, N.Z. 2.16 p.m.—Mr. Brunton Gibb, educationalist: "Mr. Higgins on History" (Gibbs). 8.22 p.m.—An item by the Smith Family. 8.34 p.m.—Miss Perry Dunbar, contralto: "They Steal." 8.48 p.m.—Master Lionel Hickey, violin soloist: "La Marseillaise" (Marseillaise march), "Air Concerto Opus 76" (Berlioz). 8.54 p.m.—Mr. Laurence Halbert, baritone. 8.40 p.m.—An item by the Smith Family. 8.44 p.m.—Mr. Max Carling and "Jerry" in "Aventurine" (Bartlet). 8.50 p.m.—Miss Kathleen Stollery, mezzo: "Through you" (Poncet). 8.51 p.m.—Mrs. Brunton Gibb, elementary: "The Duke of York" (Squires). 9 p.m.—A broadcast from the Girls' Industrial Home, Parramatta. The second part of the ITC concert programme. Duet by members of the Smith Family. 9.5 p.m.—Master Lionel Hickey, violin soloist: (a) "The Wabash" (a violin transcription) (Hickey). (b) "Manju" (Nipponese). 9.19 p.m.—Miss Kathleen Stollery, mezzo: "Something to remember" (Housset). 9.27 p.m.—Miss Peggy Dunbar, contralto: "Balalaika" (Lang). 9.30 p.m.—Mr. Laurence Halbert, baritone solo. 9.34 p.m.—Miss Heather Harding, soprano: "Love name calling" (Zamorski). 9.38 p.m.—From the Studio.—Mr. Gratian Smith will continue his book reviews. 9.49 p.m.—From the Lyceum Theatre, Pitt Street, Sydney: Orchestral items. 9.56 p.m.—From the Studio—Miss Shirley Cooke: Songs at the piano. 10.4 p.m.—From the Lyceum Theatre, Pitt Street, Sydney: Orchestral items. 10.15 p.m.—From the Studio—Miss Shirley Cooke: Songs at the piano. 10.20 p.m.—From the Lyceum Theatre, Pitt Street, Sydney: Orchestral items. 10.36 p.m.—From the Studio—Miss Shirley Cooke: Songs at the piano. 10.40 p.m.—From the Westworth Cafe, Church Hill, Sydney: Items by the new Wentworth Symphonic Dance Orchestra, conducted by Mr. Frederick Leighton. 10.55 p.m.—Late news. 11 p.m.—"We've Been." National Anthem. Close down. 2BL, SYDNEY Wednesday. DAY SESSION 25 noon—G.P.O. Clock and chimes. 12.1 p.m.—Special ocean forecast for shipping. 12.15 p.m.—News from the "Sun." 12.25 p.m.—Talk by Dr. Morris. 12.30 p.m.—G.P.O. Clock and chimes. 12.31 p.m.—Sydney Stock Exchange calls. 12.35 p.m.—Fish market report. 12.36 p.m.—Vegetable market report. 12.38 p.m.—Fruit market report. 12.40 p.m.—Dairy Farm Produce market report. 12.44 p.m.—Ships in call by wireless. 12.45 p.m.—G.P.O. Clock and chimes. 12.48 p.m.—News from the "Sun." 1 p.m.—Anthony Horner's Pianoforte Recital. 1.10 p.m.—G.P.O. Clock and chimes. 1.31 p.m.—Sydney Stock Exchange calls. 1.32 p.m.—Ocean forecast. 1.35 p.m.—State weather forecast. 1.36 p.m.—News from the "Sun." 1.45 p.m.—Musical programme from Studio. 2.11 p.m.—Social notes from the "Sun." 2.16 p.m.—News from the "Sun." 2.20 p.m.—Musical programme from the Studio. 2.26 p.m.—Information service (Mail—Shipping—Amusement—Social Pictures). 2.44 p.m.—Musical programmes from the Studio. 3 p.m.—G.P.O. Clock and chimes. 3.1 p.m.—News from the "Sun." 3.15 p.m.—World Story. 3.15 p.m.—WOMEN'S SESSION. Talk on "Crickets" by Miss G. Varley, Broadcaster's Women's Sports Authority. 3.30 p.m.—Social notes from Mrs. Jordan. 3.50 p.m.—Mrs. Jordan replies to correspondents. 3.55 p.m.—Musical programmes from the Studio. 4 p.m.—News from the "Sun." 4.15 p.m.—Musical programmes from the Studio. 4.27 p.m.—Bearing resume. 4.35 p.m.—G.P.O. Clock and chimes. 4.41 p.m.—News from the "Sun." 4.45 p.m.—Broadcaster Distributing Society's Fruit market report. 4.47 p.m.—Producers' Distributing Society's Vegetable market report. 4.49 p.m.—Racing resume. 4.55 p.m.—Announcements. 5 p.m.—G.P.O. Clock and chimes. Close down. EARLY EVENING SESSION 5.47 p.m.—G.P.O. Clock and chimes. 5.48 p.m.—Little Willie and Daddy Long Legs will entertain the kiddies. 6.49 p.m.—Musical programme from the Studio. SPECIAL COUNTRY SESSION 7 p.m.—G.P.O. Clock and chimes. Australian Mercantile Land and Finance Co.'s Report. Weather report by courtesy of Government Meteorological Bureau. Producers' Distributing Society's fruit and vegetable market report. Stock and station reports. Grain and fodder market. Dairy Produce report. "Sun." 15 p.m.—Country news from the "Sun." 15.30 p.m.—Talk by a member of the St. John's Ambulance Broadcasters. 8 p.m.—G.P.O. Clock and chimes. Broadcasters' Topical Chorus. 8.10 p.m.—Miss Norma Oatting (Tenor). 8.14 p.m.—Miss Amy Oatting (Contralto). 8.17 p.m.—Broadcasters' Trio. 8.20 p.m.—Duet (Miss Ward and Mr. Lewis). 8.23 p.m.—Mr. Dud Osborne (Descriptive Vocalist). 8.39 p.m.—Miss Doris Ward (Soprano). 8.45 p.m.—Mr. Bert Warren (Comedian). 8.54 p.m.—Resume of following day's programme. Weather report by courtesy of Government Meteorological Bureau. 9 p.m.—G.P.O. Clock and chimes. 9.1 p.m.—Mr. Peter Sutherland (Bass). 9.18 p.m.—Broadcasters' Trio. 9.20 p.m.—Mr. W. E. Lewis (Baritone). 9.23 p.m.—Duet (Miss Oatting and Mr. Sutherland). 9.28 p.m.—Mr. Norman Wright. 9.30 p.m.—Broadcaster's Trio. 9.43 p.m.—Duet (Osborne and Bert Warren). 9.55 p.m.—Miss Amy Oatting. 10.05 p.m.—Mr. W. E. Lewis (Baritone). 10.10 p.m.—Miss Doris Ward. 10.15 p.m.—Mr. W. E. Lewis. 10.20 p.m.—The Ambassadors' Dance Band broadcast from the Ballroom of the Ambassadors. During the intervals between dances, news reports by courtesy of the "Sun" will be broadcast. 12 midnight—G.P.O. Clock and chimes. National Anthem. 3LO, MELBOURNE Wednesday. LENTEN SERVICE Announcer........... ALFRED ANDREW. Accompanist......... AGNES FORTUNE. 12 noon—Time Signal. British Official Wireless news from Rugby, Reuters and The Australian Press Association Cables. Stock Exchange information. "Argus" and "Herald" news services. 10.25 p.m.—SPECIAL LENTEN MID-DAY SERVICE transmitted from St Paul's CATHEDRAL. 12.35 p.m.—JOE ARONSON AND HIS SYNCOPIATING SYMPHONISTS: "Up the River" (Rich). "In the Woods of Old Smokey" (Lieuance). "That's My Girl" (Davis). 1.15 p.m.—ARNOLD ASHWORTH, Baritone: "Landrate Hill" (Wellesby). "Oh, Let the field ground," from Tennyson's "Maud" (Gounod). 1.12 p.m.—JOE ARONSON AND HIS SYNCOPIATING SYMPHONISTS: "I Want a Parade for Daisy" (Roat). "Tell Me Why" (Davy). "Ho, Ho the Merry" (Brown). 1.22 p.m.—WEATHER REPORT. 1.27 p.m.—JOE ARONSON AND HIS SYNCOPIATING SYMPHONISTS: "You Need Someone to Love" (Wilson). "How Many Times" (Berlin). "Roses" (Britt). 1.30 p.m.—ARTHUR DOUGLAS, Comedian: "There's Maggie and There's Jeannie" (Fyfe). 1.44 p.m.—JOE ARONSON AND HIS SYNCOPIATING SYMPHONISTS: "Damien the Piano" (Coffey). "Speech" (Friend). "It Make You Happy" (Davidsen). 1.54 p.m.—CHARLES SHERMAN, Entertainer: "Stop that Rive." Humorous Talk on "Marriage." Song, "Mabel." 2 p.m.—Description of Mordle Race, Moonee Valley, by "Musket" of the Sporting Globe. Close down. 2.30 p.m.—Description of Two-Year-Old Handicap, Moonee Valley, by "Musket" of the Sporting Globe. AFTERNOON SESSION, Announcer ........... ALFRED ANDREW Accompanists ......... AGNES FORTUNE 3 p.m.—Description of Weller Plate, Moonee Valley, by "Musket" of the Sporting Globe. 3.5 p.m.—STUDIO ORCHESTRA: "Poppy Selection" (Samuel). 3.15 p.m.—THE SERENADERS: Quartet: "Hi Diddle, Diddle." EDITH HUXHAM, DOLLY PURDETT, RENN MILLAR, H. HUXHAM. Bass Solo: "Raven Rango"; RENN MILLAR. Studio Orchestra: "Nuit d'Amour" (Niels). Quartette: "Clarice." THE SERENADER QUARTETTE: Contralto Solo: "The Last Word;" DOLLY BURDETT. Studio Orchestra: "Brave Little Tailor" (Carl). Quartette: "The Bandit"; THE SERENADER QUARTETTE: 3.40 p.m.—Description of Victorian Club Handicap, Moonee Valley, by "Musket" of the Sporting Globe. 3.45 p.m.—BILLEE LOCKWOOD, Soubrette: "Cecilia." "Silver Threads among the Gold" 4.12 p.m.—STUDIO ORCHESTRA: "Rumba March" (Purcell). 4.20 p.m.—Description of April Trial Handicap, Moonee Valley, by "Musket" of the Sporting Globe. 4.25 p.m.—BILLEE LOCKWOOD, Soubrette: "I've Got Nobody." "Knew Deep in Daister." 4.30 p.m.—ALBA ZACUTTI, Elocutionist: "Billie Ray." "He First Long Trouser." 4.40 p.m.—"Horizon" news service. Stock Exchange Information. RADION comes cut accurately to any size you require by grinding machines, which give it a finished edge unobtainable on any other panel. The Airzone 500, the 3-Stage Purity Amplifier, The Atlas and many others too numerous to mention, 1d. to 1½d. per square inch. RADION TUBING, 2in., 2½in., 3in., 3½in. or 4in. in diameter, any length up to 30 inches, in prices of 8d., 9d., 10d., 11d. and 1/- per inch. RADION No. 2 SOCKET. A universal socket, fits either UV or UX Valves, 3/6. International Radio Co. Ltd. 200 Castlereagh Street, Sydney 91-93 Courtenay Place, Wellington, N.Z. MISCELLANEOUS Song, "The Lord is My Light" (Allison); duet, "Trysting Place" (Sauer); chorus, "Here Are the Departed" (Spohr); song, "There Is a Green Hill" (Saunders); song, "Christians Triumphant" (Koontz); chorus, "Great and Wonderful are all Thy Works" (Spohr). STUDIO CONCERT 8.30 p.m.—From the Studio: Metropolitan Weather Forecast; Overture, "The Golden Wand" (Lauridsen); the Studio Orchestra conducted by Mr. J. R. Featherstone; recital, Bar, The Fox Hunt" (A. Cullen Devie), Mr. J. C. Denney, soprano solo, Little Brown Owl" (Sanderson), Miss Jill Mann, 2 thoughts, 1 thought, 1st William Lister, "For Each Other"; melodic, "Circuits" (Tennant), the Studio Orchestra; contralto solo, "Tonight" (Zardis), Mr. Donald Brown, baritone solo, "In the Garden" (Amphlett), Miss Fee Todd, soprano solo, "Narcissus," Miss Kiesew, McLean; yodel, "Dream Life" (Young), the Studio Orchestra; soprano solo, "Bessava, Nel Silenzio" (Donizetti), Miss Jill Mann; one-step, "That Flying Bug," the Studio Orchestra. 10.15 p.m.—The "Daily Mail" News; Weather News; Close Down. 5CL, ADELAIDE Wednesday. MORNING SESSION. 8.30 a.m.—G.P.O. chimes. 9.15 a.m.—Recital from the New Reproducing Singer, and the Autostere Reproducer. 10.30 a.m.—"Advertiser" news service. 12.30 p.m.—Market reports. 1 p.m.—Musical programme continued. 2 p.m.—G.P.O. chimes and close down. AFTERNOON SESSION. 8 p.m.—G.P.O. chimes. 9.30 a.m.—Recital from the Maple Leaf Cafe—Orchestral selections. 9.45 a.m.—Recital from Studio—Autostere Reproducer and New Reproducing Singer recitals. 4 p.m.—G.P.O. chimes. 4.1 p.m.—Recital from the Arcadia Cafe—Orchestral selections. 4.45 p.m.—Station announcements. 6 p.m.—G.P.O. chimes and close down. EVENING SESSION. 6 p.m.—G.P.O. chimes. 6.15 p.m.—Dinner music by the Corbett Gardens Restaurant. 6.30 p.m.—Meeting adjourn. 7.30 p.m.—Market reports. 7.45 p.m.—Boy scouts corner. 7.50 p.m.—Engineering's scientific talk. 8 p.m.—G.P.O. chimes. 8.15 p.m.—Broadcast from All Souls' Church, St Peter's, Oliver to Calvary (J. H. Mooney) Mr. H. H. Prince (host), Mr. J. F. Winter (host), Mr. Bill Horner, Miss M. Tippett (organist), Miss Jean Taylor, A.M.U.A. (pianist). 9.15 p.m.—Recital from the Studio by Miss Hilda Wheeler's concert party. 10 p.m.—G.P.O. chimes. 10.1 p.m.—"Advertiser" news service. 10.15 p.m.—Concert. 11 p.m.—G.P.O. chimes and close down. 6WF, PERTH Wednesday. 12.30 p.m.—Tune in. 12.35 p.m.—First local news bulletin. Market reports. Cables. 1 p.m.—Time signal from Perth Observatory. 1.1 p.m.—Weather notes supplied by the Meteorological Bureau of Western Australia. 1.2 p.m.—Studio Serenade. 2 p.m.—Close down. 1.30 p.m.—Tune in. Now! Brandes "Aristocrat" Condenser 501 Yermor that Completes Brandes As Usual Leads 0005 S.L.F. 0003 30/- International Radio Co. Ltd. 200 Castlereagh Street, SYDNEY 91-93 Courtenay Place, Wellington, N.Z. Thursday, April 14 2FC, SYDNEY MIDDAY SESSION. 12 noon—"Big Ben" and Announcements. 12.30 p.m.—Stock Exchange, First Call. 12.40 p.m.—Official Weather Forecast; Rainfall, Temperatures; Astronomical Memoranda, Shipping Intelligence; Mail Services. 12.50 p.m.—Marching Music for School Children. 12.55 p.m.—Summary of "Sydney Morning Herald" News Service and Cables. 12.58 p.m.—Studio Music. 12.59 p.m.—Lead minute sporting information by the 2FC Racing Commissioner. 12.55 p.m.—Miss Diana Booth, soprano, "Waltz in A Minor" (Alfred Hult). 10 p.m.—"Big Ben" Weather Intelligence. 10 p.m.—Evening News; Midday News Service; Producers' Distributing Society's News. 12.50 p.m.—Studio Music. 12.50 p.m.—Stock Exchange, second call. 1.10 p.m.—Marching Music for School Children. 1.10 p.m.—Miss Diana Booth, soprano, "The Dancing Lesson" (Cherub). 1.15 p.m.—Studio Music. 2 p.m.—"Big Ben." NOTE.—A description will be given of the equipment at the Royal Theatre, behind H.M.S. "Huron," bound for Hobart. The "Huron" is due to pass shortly after 1 p.m. today. Close down. AFTERNOON SESSION. 3.30 p.m.—"Big Ben," and Programme Announcements. 3.40 p.m.—Recital by the pupils of Miss Grace Stafford. 3.45 p.m.—Items by Miss Emily Stuart, contralto, "At Dawn" (Cushman). 3.50 p.m.—Items by Miss Grace Stafford's Pupils. 3.50 p.m.—Marching Music for School Children. 4 p.m.—FROM FARMER'S TEA ROOMS, Miss Jeanette Rooney, contralto, "The Forsyth Tree" (Quilter). 4.10 p.m.—Items by Miss Grace Stafford's Pupils. 4.15 p.m.—"Big Ben." FROM FARMER'S TEA ROOMS: Miss Dorothy Rose, soprano, "You in a Cloudy Day" (Clarke). 4.15 p.m.—Items by Miss Grace Stafford's Pupils. 4.15 p.m.—Studio Music. 4.20 p.m.—FROM FARMER'S TEA ROOMS: Miss Jeanette Rooney, contralto, "Sunday" (Hirsham). 4.25 p.m.—Studio Music. 4.30 p.m.—Miss Marry Stuart, contralto, "Falling Roses" (Lambert). 4.40 p.m.—FROM FARMER'S TEA ROOMS: Miss Dorothy Rose, soprano, "My Dreamland Dream" (Philipp). 4.45 p.m.—Stock Exchange, third call. 4.47 p.m.—Studio Music. 4.50 p.m.—"Big Ben": Close Down. EARLY EVENING SESSION. 5.40 p.m.—"The Chimes of 2FC." 5.50 p.m.—"The 'Hello Man'" Talks to the Children. 6 p.m.—A Serial Story for the Older Children. 6.10 p.m.—"Big Ben": Late Sporting Information. 7.10 p.m.—Daily Market Reports (Wool, Wheat and Stock). 7.10 p.m.—Fruit and Vegetable Markets. 7.20 p.m.—Weather and Shipping Intelligence. 7.30 p.m.—Late "Evening News" News Service. NIGHT SESSION. 7.40 p.m.—The Closure of 2FC and Programme Announcements. 8.10 p.m.—A Talk by the Technical Editor of "Wireless Weekly." 8.30 p.m.—FROM STUDIO AND BROADCAST FOR THE FIRST TIME A MUSICAL PLAYLET, "MAID OF JAPAN," Lyrics and Music by Miss Vivia de Lautte. DRAMATIS PERSONAE. Sir Preston Vesey Robert Turner Harry Vesey (his nephew) Fred Harmon Marie Vesey (his daughter) Vivia de Lautte SCENE: A Garden near Tokyo. Overture and Musical Numbers by Miss de Lautte, Brenner's Trio. MUSICAL NUMBERS: Overture. Song, "In Old Japan," Miss Vivia de Lautte Song, "My Cherry Blossom Girl," Mr. Fred Harmon, baritone. Interlude, "When Time Hand Is Cold," Mr. Fred Harmon, and Miss Vivia de Lautte. Finale, "Come Away With Me," Miss Vivia de Lautte and Mr. Fred Harmon. 8.50 p.m.—Mr. Eric Pearson, Director of Radio cartoon and graphic drawings. 8.40 p.m.—The 2FC Studio Dance Band, conducted by Mr. Eric Pearson, Fox-Trot, "I'm a Little Teapot." 8.50 p.m.—Captain Frank Hurley in his third adventure talk—"A Whaling We Will Go," being a descriptive talk about whales, whaling and the activities of Hurley's hunting and scientific experiences which he happened his first whaler. (Referred by Mr. Lawrence (Handley). 8.50 p.m.—Miss Ellen Boyd, contralto, "On the Rocks" (Kubly). 8.42 p.m.—The 2FC Dance Band, with the popular Larkins, Mr. Les Maurice. 8.45 p.m.—Doctor John (John Hodgson) (Pianist). 8.45 p.m.—Fox-Trot, "Mandy" (Herbert). 8.52 p.m.—Mr. Robert Turner, Entertainer. 8.55 p.m.—Mr. Frank Dunne, comic, "Where'd You Get Those Eyes?" (Dunne). 10 p.m.—"Up Hen," Miss Ellen Boyd, contralto. 10.10 p.m.—"Just a Cutting Song" (Handley). 10.15 p.m.—The Melody Makers Moon" (Stoneham). 10.2 p.m.—The 2FC Dance Band, conducted by Mr. Eric Pearson, Fox-Trot, "My Girl Friend," (Bennett) (Flute). 10.14 p.m.—Mr. Fred Harmon, baritone. 10.18 p.m.—The 2FC Dance Band: Fox-Trot, "How Could Red-Hillies-Head" (Handley). 10.24 p.m.—The 2FC Dance Band, contralto, "Gentle" (Flute). 10.28 p.m.—Late News and Announcements. 10.32 p.m.—The 2FC Studio Dance Band, with the popular Larkins, Mr. Les Maurice in the following numbers: Fox-Trot, "Big Eye Blackbird" (Dinant) 10.36 p.m.—"Twilight" (Hamilton) Fox-Trot, "Thinking of You" (Donaldson). 10.40 p.m.—Fox-Trot, "Then All the World is Mine" (Lloyd). 11 p.m.—"Big Ben": National Anthem. Close Down. 2BL, SYDNEY Thursday. DAY SESSION 10:30 a.m.—G.P.O. Clock and chimes. 10:31 a.m.—The reception of Their Royal Highnesses the Duke and Duchess of York to the Royal Agricultural Show, will be described. 11 a.m.—G.P.O. Clock and chimes. Close down. 12 noon.—G.P.O. Clock and chimes. 12.30 p.m.—Special weather forecast for shipping. 12.45 p.m.—Weather forecast. 12.55 p.m.—Rabbit market report. 12.58 p.m.—Fruit market report. 12.58 p.m.—Vegetable market report. 12.59 p.m.—Fruit market report. 12.59 p.m.—Dairy farm produce market report. 12.10 p.m.—Poultry market report. 12.15 p.m.—Farm produce market report. 12.16 p.m.—Shipping unit by telegraph. 12.18 p.m.—Mail—Inter-State and Overseas. 12.21 p.m.—Shipping—Arrivals and departures. 12.23 p.m.—Sydney Stock Exchange calls. 12.25 p.m.—News from the "Sun." 12.26 p.m.—G.P.O. Clock and chimes. 12.26 p.m.—News from the "Sun." 12.25 p.m.—Millers' Instrumental Quartet—direction, Gary Caulfield. 12.30 p.m.—G.P.O. Clock and chimes. 12.31 p.m.—Sydney Stock Exchange calls. 12.32 p.m.—Weather report. 12.36 p.m.—Description of the Departure of Their Royal Highnesses, The Duke and Duchess of York. 1 p.m.—G.P.O. Clock and chimes. 1 p.m.—Musical programme from the Studio. 2.10 p.m.—Social notes from the "Sun." 2.16 p.m.—News from the "Sun." 2.26 p.m.—Musical programme from the Studio. 2.36 p.m.—Information service Mail, Shipping, Amusement and Social Fixtures. 2.44 p.m.—Musical programme from the Studio. 3 p.m.—G.P.O. Clock and chimes. 3.1 p.m.—News from the "Sun." 3.10 p.m.—Social notes. 3.16 p.m.—WOMEN'S SESSION. Social notes by Mrs. Jordan. 3.45 p.m.—Mrs. Jordan replies to correspondents. 3.55 p.m.—Talk on "Easter Parties," by Mrs. Jordan. 4.10 p.m.—Musical programme from the Studio. 4.20 p.m.—Shipping information. 4.27 p.m.—Racing resume. 4.30 p.m.—G.P.O. Clock and Chimes. 4.31 p.m.—News from the "Sun." 4.40 p.m.—Producers' Distributing Society's fruit market report. 4.45 p.m.—Producers' Distributing Society's vegetable market report. 4.48 p.m.—Racing resume. 4.52 p.m.—Resume of night's programmes. 4.55 p.m.—Announcements. 5 p.m.—G.P.O. Clock and Chimes. Close down. EVENING SESSION 5.45 p.m.—G.P.O. Clock and Chimes. 5.46 p.m.—Little Willie and Daddy Long Legs will entertain the kiddies. 6.20 p.m.—Musical programme from the Studio. SPECIAL COUNTRY SESSION 7 p.m.—G.P.O. Clock and Chimes. Australian Mercantile, Land and Finance Co.'s report. Weather report, by courtesy of Government Meteorologist. Producers' Distributing Society's fruit and vegetable market report. Stock Exchange reports. Grain and fodder report ("Sun"). Dairy produce report ("Sun"). 7.10 p.m.—Country news from the "Sun." 8 p.m.—G.P.O. Clock and Chimes. Broadcaster's Topical Chorus. "There's just this about it—— I'm through experimenting with Batteries." If you want to stop worrying about your radio set Now and Forever, just buy yourself a "Philco"— Of course everyone knows that more than half the trouble with radio sets lies in the batteries. Cheap dry batteries are always distinguishable by the buzz, roar and crackle—sometimes mistaken for "static." Using a Philco battery these noises are conspicuous by their absence. Moreover, besides giving superior performance, the Philco Re-chargeable Battery is far cheaper to own. Given an average usage of two hours each night and a re-charge at home every three to five months it lasts indefinitely. Get your "Philco" now! From any high-class radio dealer. Wholesale: New System Telephones Pty. Ltd. 280 Castlereagh Street, Sydney 25 Queen's Bridge Street, Melbourne Charles Street, Adelaide PHILCO DRYNAMIC RADIO BATTERIES N.S. 42 Hiler and Higher Amplification 3LO, MELBOURNE Thursday. MID-DAY SESSION. Announcer ........ ALFRED ANDREW Accompanists ........ AGNES FORTUNE 12 noon—Times Signal. British Official Wireless News from Rugby. Results and The Australian Press Association Cables. "Argus" and "Herald" news services. 11.30 p.m.—HUGHAM'S SERENADERS: Quartette: "Indian Moon." Fifth: RICHARD HUXHAM, BOLLY BURDETT, RENN MILLAR AND HUGH HUXHAM. Solo Solo, "The Old Man." RENN MILLAR. Studio Orchestra: "Song of the Zanzibar." Quartette: "Rose and Liza." THE SERENADEN QUARTETTE. Choir Quartette: "There's a Wedding to-night." THE SERENADEN QUARTETTE. Studio Orchestra: "Jolly Rubbers" (Simp.) Quartette: "Baalsham." THE SERENADEN QUARTETTE: 12.45 p.m.—Stock Exchange information. 12.50 p.m.—STUDIO ORCHESTRA: "The Cough of Baghdad." 1 p.m.—MR. A. P. KERR, Singer: "The Valley of Lancaster" (Handel). A Dream (Dunne). 2 p.m.—ARTHUR DOUGLAS, Comedian: "Mind Your Wares" (Shaw). 2.14 p.m.—WILLIAM DIXON, Entertainer: 1.30 p.m.—STUDIO ORCHESTRA: "Valse Romantique" (Duree). 1.30 p.m.—HUGH LOCKWOOD, Singer: "Roses Are the Little Baby." "You've got to know How." 1.47 p.m.—CHARLES SHERMAN, Entertainer: "Sweet William." 1.47 p.m.—STUDIO ORCHESTRA: "Vive la Danse" (Flack). 1.52 p.m.—MRS. A. PIKE, Soprano: "O Sole Mio" (Cimarosa). "The Old Stone House" (Bravo). 2 p.m.—Close down. AFTERNOON SESSION. Announcer ........ ALFRED ANDREW Accompanists ........ AGNES FORTUNE 3.40 p.m.—STUDIO ORCHESTRA: "Good Far Truth" (Mozart). 3.10 p.m.—JACK KEARNS, Comedian In Sticks of Spears (without the Soda): "Sparks of Argyll." "Comin' thro' the Rye." 3.17 p.m.—ELSIE DAVIES, Soprano: "Love Me" (Gounod). 3.24 p.m.—STUDIO ORCHESTRA: "Sunshine and Roses" (Borch). 3.30 p.m.—ELSA LEWIS, Violinist: "Serenade" (Godard). "The Love Song." 3.37 p.m.—ARTHUR DOUGLAS, Comedian: "Mary of Argyll." 3.44 p.m.—STUDIO ORCHESTRA: "The Crusaders" (Bellman). 3.54 p.m.—AGNES FORTUNE, Piano: "Early News" (Terry). Selections. 4 p.m.—STUDIO ORCHESTRA: "Parade of Tin Soldiers." 4.10 p.m.—MISS FRANCES FRASER: Fortis—Merchant of Venice (Shakespeare). 4.40 p.m.—"Head" news service. Stock Exchange information. Auto-Answer for Epsom Races, Saturday, 14th April. 4.46 p.m.—EVENING SESSION, transmitted from ST. PAUL'S CATHEDRAL. 0.00 p.m.—Close down. EVENING SESSION 5.40 p.m.—QUINN'S GARDEN: Answers to Letters and Birthday Greetings. 5.55 p.m.—MARY GUMBAFF: Poems: "The Fairies' Picnic." "The Happy Boy." Sleepers for the Latest news: "The Dolly's Tea Party." 6.5 p.m.—MARY CLAXTON, Singer, with three love songs to the children. 8.11 p.m.—CAPT. DONALD MACKAN will tell you about: "How Drake captured the Treasure at Nombre de Dios." 8.27 p.m.—MARY CLAXTON will sing just once again. 8.35 p.m.—"Argus" and "Herald" news services. Weather synopses. Shipping movements. 8.47 p.m.—Stock Exchange information. 9.02 p.m.—Fish Market Reports by J. M. Werrett, Ltd. 9.10 p.m.—River reports. 9.18 p.m.—Market reports by the Victorian Producers Co-operating Co., Ltd. Haymarket, Sheep sales. Poultry, Grain, Hay, Straw, Live Stock, Fruit, Vegetables, Fish, Oysters. 10 p.m.—Market reports of Fruit by the Victorian Fruitgrowers' Association, compiled by "The Fruit World," exclusive in 3LO. Market prices of Oranges and Lemons by the Victorian Central Citrus Association Pty., Ltd. NIGHT SESSION "COME KNIT HANDS AND BEAT THE GROUND." Announcer ........ MAURICE DUDLEY Accompanist ........ AGNES FORTUNE 7.15 p.m.—MR. C. H. SLOCOMBE will talk on "Hints on obtaining photographic records of the Royal Visit." 7.30 p.m.—MR. A. W. JACKSON: "Golf." 7.40 p.m.—MISS YVONNE BANYARD, now appearing as Lady Jane in "Rose Marie," will speak from her dressing-room after a quotation of J. C. Williamson, Ltd. 8 p.m.—JOE ARONSON AND HIS SYN- COPATING SYMPHONISTS: "The Royal Serenaders" (Stanton). "There's a Little Garden in the Sky." "There ain't no more in my baby's arms" (Kahn). 8.1 p.m.—HUGHAM'S SERENADERS: Quartette: "Madeline" (God. Del.) EDITH HUXHAM, BOLLY BURDETT, RENN MILLAR, HUGH HUXHAM. 8.14 p.m.—JOE ARONSON AND HIS SYN- COPATING SYMPHONISTS: "Thinking of You" (Ash). "Perfume of the Past" (Mayson). "We Don't Want to get Married" (Stern). 8.21 p.m.—HUGH LOCKWOOD, Singer: Impression of "Wee George Wood." 8.28 p.m.—JOE ARONSON AND HIS SYN- COPATING SYMPHONISTS: "Ragtime Annie" (Dixon). "Laughing at the Ivory" (Wendahl). "Humbuggery" (Walton). 8.38 p.m.—J. ALEXANDER BROWNE, Bari- tone: "Free Lance" (Dix). 8.42 p.m.—JOE ARONSON AND HIS SYN- COPATING SYMPHONISTS: "I Can't Forget" (McGee). "While the Years are Drifting By" (Kahn). "Paradise Alley" (Archer). 8.52 p.m.—MAXWELL CAREW, Comedian: "Calvin to Moore" (Barnes). 8.58 p.m.—JOE ARONSON AND HIS SYN- COPATING SYMPHONISTS: "Where did you get those Eyes" (Donaldson). "Sing a while, but leave the Piano alone," (Terry). "Whisper Sh!" (Bryan). 9 p.m.—HUGHAM'S SERENADERS: Quartette: "I Don't Like being Tickled by a Fly." THE SERENADER QUARTETTE. 9.10 p.m.—JOE ARONSON AND HIS SYN-COPATING SYMPHONISTS: "No Feeling, Who Do You Love?" (Buch). "Cherie, I Love You" (Gosman). The Savoy Medley of Melodies (Somers). 9.30 p.m.—BILLIE LOCKWOOD, Soubrette: "Are You Scared?" 9.44 p.m.—JOE ARONSON AND HIS SYN-COPATING SYMPHONISTS: "To-night and Night with Baby" (Meyer). "Laughing and Merry" (Dixie). Say That You Love Me" (Nichols). 9.54 p.m.—J. ALEXANDER BROWNE, Baritone: "Te-Burnon" (Kael). 9.58 p.m.—JOE ARONSON AND HIS SYN-COPATING SYMPHONISTS: "Still Going Back Again." "I'd Climb the Highest Mountain" (Brown). "She's Everybody's Sweetheart" (Ross). 9.56 p.m.—ELSA LEWIS, Violiniste: "Ave Maria" (Chabrier). 9.57 p.m.—JOE ARONSON AND HIS SYN-COPATING SYMPHONISTS: "It Made You Happy" (Donaldson). "While We're Young Till Dawn" (Schoenber). "I'll Follow Old Mother Hubbard" (Nelson). 10.2 p.m.—"Argus" news service. British Official Wireless news from Burgoy. Meteorological information. Sporting notes by "Olympus." Australian news. 10.17 p.m.—JOE ARONSON AND HIS SYN-COPATING SYMPHONISTS: "Talklow in the Moon" (Baskette). "The Animal Fair" (Starr). "At Home with the World" (Berlin). 10.37 p.m.—BUXHAM'S SERENADERS: Operatic Quartette, from "The Bohemian Girl." THE SERENADER QUARTETTE. 10.31 p.m.—JOE ARONSON AND HIS SYN-COPATING SYMPHONISTS: "Freshie" (Greer). "Say It Again" (Buchman). "Save Your Sorrows" (Ike Sylvia). 10.41 p.m.—BILLIE LOCKWOOD, Soubrette: "Manana Let Me Alone." 10.45 p.m.—JOE ARONSON AND HIS SYN-COPATING SYMPHONISTS: "Ruefrenedy" (Bargi). "In a Little Spanish Town" (Young). "Sweetheart of Mine" (Birch). 10.55 p.m. J. ALEXANDER BROWNE: "I'm Alongin' for You" (Hathaway). 11 p.m.—GREAT THOUGHT: "If we had defects in heaven, we should not take so much pleasure in noting those of earth."—La Rochefoucauld. 11.1 p.m.—JOE ARONSON AND HIS SYN-COPATING SYMPHONISTS: "How Could Red Riding Hood" (Randolph). "My Pal, Jerry" (Ross). "My Dream of the Big Parade" (Dubin). 11.18 p.m.—ELSA LEWIS, Violiniste: "Seventy-Six" (Kael). 11.18 p.m.—JOE ARONSON AND HIS SYN-COPATING SYMPHONISTS: "It's a Wonderful World After All." (Dixie). "Rose Colored Glasses" (Stinger). "Am I Wasting My Time" (Bliss). 11.24 p.m.—BILLIE LOCKWOOD, Soubrette: "Don't Waste." 11.29 p.m.—JOE ARONSON AND HIS SYN-COPATING SYMPHONISTS: "Dreams of Love and You" (Taylor). "Peas in a Pod" (Nichols). "Just a Bird's Eye View" (Kahn). "Asterable" (Ford). "Alabama Stomp" (Crawmer). 11.40 p.m.—God Save the King. 4QG, BRISBANE Thursday. MIDDAY SESSION. 1.0 p.m. Market Reports, Weather Information, News Service supplied "The Daily Mail" and "The Daily Standard." 1.10 p.m.—From Hotel Carlton: Lunch Hour Music played by Hotel Carlton Symphony Orchestra. The Crowning Adventure of Burgess Radio Batteries— Over the North Pole with Byrd World history was gloriously written by Commander Byrd in his daring 1500-mile flight across the North Pole. He was the first man to drive a plane across the frozen top of the Globe, and the first man to describe a polar flight hour by hour to a wide-eyed world of listeners-in. Only his magnificent Burgess Batteries made possible this triumph of modern wireless. No other Battery could have endured unflinchingly the terrible cold of the North, at the same time giving such powerful performance. These same Batteries are on sale in Australia from any high-class radio dealers. They are the finest dry cell Batteries made. Wholesale: New System Telephones Pty. Ltd. 250 Castlereagh St., Sydney. 25 Queen's Bridge Street, Melbourne. Charles St., Adelaide. Canada Cycle and Motor Agency (Q.J.), Ltd., Creek and Adelaide Sta., Brisbane. As high as Everest Only a man with a sty in his eye could see anything humorous about a pig! Personally, I always prefer a bird's-eye view of anything pigish. Yet the American pig packer has a distinct sense of humor. It was a canner, for instance, who invented the slogan, "Everything but the squeal" and an alleged member of the same fraternity who wrote the precious "Letters of a self-made merchant to his son." The latest—and this time unconscious—humorist hails from Chicago. He boasts that his meat tins, piled up, would reach as high as Mount Everest. Imagine a glorious snow-created mount of meat-tins with a pig rampant on the top layer, and you have a spectacle which could bring tears to the eyes of any pig! Now as a matter of comparison, I can remind the Chicago boaster that until the peerless Philco rechargeable battery took the crutches out of Radio, the discarded dry batteries would have made his meat-tin mountain look like something reached with a step ladder. Of course the old days when a long-suffering world bought "cheap" dry batteries, used them up and tossed them away, have almost vanished. It is merely a case of a proportion sum: Dry battery—crackle, hum, roar, buzz, short life and sudden death. Philco battery—pure, perfect reception, years of life, and home-charging at the cost of a few pence. Naturally you must pay more for a superb 83X Philco, but it will save you pounds in a year and can be bought on easy terms from the Australian distributors, New System Telephones Pty. Ltd., 280 Castlereagh Street, Sydney. 1.55 p.m.—From the Observatory: Standard Time Signal. 2.0 p.m.—Close Down. AFTERNOON SESSION. A Programme of Music by the Studio Orchestra (Conductor, Mr. W. A. Bradshaw). The programme will include: 3.30 p.m.—Descriptive fantasia, "Gypsy Life" (de Falla); violin solo, "Serenade" (Herbert), Mrs. M. A. Williams; violin & 'Sunnien Maid' (Fraser-Simson) (Ballad). "Only Year Ago" (Albert), clarinet solo, "Flowers at May Day" (Haworth), Mr. C. Hansen; entr'acte, "The Ballet Girl" (Bendict), value, "In June Time" (Clark) march, "On the Air" (Goldman). 4.15 p.m.—Telegraph News. 4.30 p.m.—Close Down. EARLY EVENING SESSION. 6.0 p.m.—Daily Standard News; Announcements. 6.30 p.m.—Bedtime Stories by "The Bandman." 7.0 p.m.—Market Reports: Stock Reports; Livestock, "A Talk on Sheep Raising" Mr. J. Carve (Instructor in Sheep and Wool). 7.30 p.m.—Weather News; Announcements. 7.45 p.m.—Standard Time Signal. NIGHT SESSION. 7.45 p.m.—Lecture Session: A talk on books by Mr. W. A. Bradshaw. STUDIO CONCERT. 8.0 p.m.—Orchestral: Dying Messenger, the Clarion Orchestra (conductor, Mr. E. Henry); soprano solo, "How Lovely Are The Dwellings" (Liddell), Miss Ivy Plante harp solo, Irish Lullaby, Gaelic Air, "My of All," Mrs. M. M. Carrigan; monologue, "My Country" (Burnham-McKellar), Miss Agnes Finney; violin solo, "Barcarolle" (Godard), Miss U. Clark; piano solo, "At Dawnings" (Cadman), Signor Curti clarinet solo, "In Rose" (Delkman), Mr. C. Podhier accompanied by the Clarion Orchestra; two movements of music by Mahone Duo, baritone, "When the Sergeant-Major on Parade" (Steffel), Mr. J. B. Atkins; a thought for to-night (Lilley), Miss J. Will; monologue, "The Bohemian Girl" (Haitz), the Clarion Orchestra; centrepiece, What even is, in Rome (Lohr), Miss Vera Parker. 8.30 p.m.—Metropolitan Weather News; Harp solo, Irish melody, "The Dear Little Shamrock" (Taylor), Mrs. M. M. Carrigan; soprano solo, "Golden Jesus Bird" (Phillips), Miss Ivy Plante; monologue, "The Golden Ring of Sleep" (Stone), Miss Agnes Finney; contralto solo, "The Pearl Cross" (Marshall), Mrs. M. M. Carrigan; monologue, "Serenade" (Schubert), Miss Vera Parker; violin solo, "Uncertainty" (Clarke), Singer Curtis popular items, selected, the Clarion Orchestra; baritone solo, "My Friend" (Beddow), Mr. J. S. Atkinson; piano solo, "Friend of Mine" (Sanderson), Miss Vera Parker; intermezzo, "Arboritum" (Sharpe), the Clarion Orchestra. 10.0 p.m.—From the Studio: The "Daily Mail" News; Weather News; Close Down. Good Friday, April 15 2FC, SYDNEY MORNING SESSION. 10.45 a.m.—Programme Announcements. 11.00 a.m.—SERVICE FROM ST. ANDREW'S CATHEDRAL, GEORGE STREET, SYDNEY—The Morning Service. 12.15 p.m.—FROM THE STUDIO: News Items. 12.30 p.m.—Close Down. AFTERNOON SESSION. 1.00 p.m.—"Big Ben" and Programme Announcements. 1.30 p.m.—FROM THE CONGREGATIONAL CHURCH, FIFTH STREET, SYDNEY—A Combined Organ and Vocal Recital arranged by Miss Lilian Frost. 4.30 p.m.—Close Down. NIGHT SESSION. 5.30 p.m.—Programme Announcements. 7.30 p.m.—Miss Millie Meyer will continue her series of talks—No. 4, Across the Ladakh Mountains. 4.0 p.m.—FROM THE LYCEUM THEATRE, FIFTH STREET, SYDNEY—A Good Friday Night concert organised by donation only in aid of the appeal for funds for the building of the Sydney Night Refuge. The Sydney Harmonic Choir, conducted by Mr. William Bourne. At the Piano—Mrs. W. Bourne. At the Grand Organ—Mr. Ewart Chapelle. Solo and chorus, "Jerusalem O Turn Ye" from Gounod's "Judas," Miss Maude Griffin soprano, and the choir. At the Choral Organ, "Lieder" (Schumann's Golden Lieder), (unaccompanied). 6.0 p.m.—The Austral Trio— Miss Daisy Richards, Violin Miss Vera Parker, Piano Mr. Alexander Swietlicki, Cello First Movement of the Trio (Alfred Hill) 8.0 p.m.—Miss Virginia Haenert, soprano— (a) "When Heron's Song" (b) "Tip Top" (Molly Cassie) 8.15 p.m.—Mr. Charles Stephens, tenor— 8.25 p.m.—Mr. Brunton Gibbs, entertainer— The Victor's International Orchestra 8.30 p.m.—Mr. Norman Jarman, baritone— 8.36 p.m.—The Austral Trio (instrumental)— (a) "The Blue Danube" (Liszt) (b) "Fur Elise" (Beethoven) 8.47 p.m.—The Milano Trio—Miss Joyce Radley, soprano; Mr. Charles Stephens, tenor; Mr. Norman Jarman, baritone. 8.50 p.m.—Interval—Organ solo by Mr. Ewart Chapelle. 9.0 p.m.—The Sydney Harmonic Choir, conducted by Mr. William Bourne. At the Piano—Mrs. W. Bourne. At the Grand Organ—Mr. Ewart Chapelle. Ladies' Chorus—"The Lord Is My Shepherd" (Schubert). Friday, 8th April, 1927. 9.10 p.m.—Miss Viginia Bazzetti, contralto: (a) "Hame" (Davis). (b) "Silver Ring" (Champlande). [By Request]. 9.15 p.m.—The Austral Trio (Instrumental): (a) "Three-Four" (Coleridge Taylor). (b) "Polish Dance" (Scharwenka). 9.30 p.m.—The Minus Trio: Miss Joyce Hadley, piano. Mr. Charles Stephens, tenor. Mr. Norman Janson, baritone. 9.35 p.m.—Miss Joyce Hadley, Entertainer— "The Denominational Garden" (Rice). 9.40 p.m.—Miss Joyce Hadley, soprano. 9.45 p.m.—The Sydney Harmonic Choir, conducted by Mr. William Bourne—Part Song, "Hymn to Music" (Dudley Buck), (Unaccompanied). 9.50 p.m.—Studio Announcements. 10.00 p.m.—"Big Ben": National Anthem: Close Down. 3LO, MELBOURNE Good Friday. MORNING SESSION. 11 a.m.—SPECIAL SERVICE transmitted from ST. PAUL'S CATHEDRAL. 12.15 p.m.—Close down. AFTERNOON SESSION. Announcer: ALFRED ANDREW Accompanists: AGNES FORTUNE 3 p.m.—STUDIO ORCHESTRA: Mendelssohn Melodies. 3.10 p.m.—ELISIE DAVIES, Soprano: "From the Mighty King," Judas Macabaeus (Handel). 3.11 p.m.—TASMA TIERNAN, Cello: "Romanza" (Purcell). 3.14 p.m.—STATION QUINTETTE: Quintette for Clarinet and Strings in A Minor. 3.14 p.m.—J. ALEXANDER BROWN, Baritone: "The Living God" (O'Hara). "There is no death" (O'Hara). 3.42 p.m.—AGNES FORTUNE AND BESSIE GAUNSON, Piano and Violin: "Suite" (Bach). 3.45 p.m.—ELISIE DAVIES, Soprano: "How beautiful are the feet" (Handel). "Ave Maria" (Gounod). Violin Quintette, Beeth. Vaughan. 3.46 p.m.—STUDIO QUARTETTE: "Air for G String" (Bach). 4.10 p.m.—C. RICHARD THUDD, Flute: "Second Sonata" (Platti). Performance for the first time in Australia. 4.11 p.m.—J. ALEXANDER BROWN, Baritone: "The Lord is my Light." 4.21 p.m.—STUDIO ORCHESTRA: Movement from Symphony (Beethoven). 4.30 p.m.—Close down. EVENING SESSION. 6.45 p.m.—CHILDREN'S HOUR. Answers to letters and birthday greetings. 6.55 p.m.—"BILLY BUNNY" will tell the Children a special story for Good Friday. NIGHT SESSION. Announcer: MAURICE DUDLEY. Accompanists: AGNES FORTUNE 7.00 p.m.—STAINER'S "CRUCIFIXION," Transcribed from St. Paul's Cathedral. And they came to a place called Gethsemane! Tenor Solo! The Agony (Bar. Solo and Chorus). Prayer of Jesus Christ (Chorus). And When They Were Come (Bass Recit.). The Mystery of the Divine Humiliation (Hymn). He Made Himself of no Reputation (Recit.). The Majesty of the Divine Humiliation (Tenor Solo). And as Moses Lifted up the Serpent (Recit. Bass). God so Loved the World (Chorus). Litany of the Passion (Hymn). Jesus said, "Father, forgive Them" (Tenor Solo). The only portable H.T. Accumulator Now comes the latest Oldham product—a really portable High-Tension Accumulator. Always to the fore in any important development in Accumulator design, Oldham once more leads the way. The advantages of an H.T. which is really portable need not be unduly stressed—they will commend themselves to you. No more troublesome, and perhaps painful, struggles with inconvenient, ugly carriers; the minimum of trouble in transferring your accumulator from place to place. In addition, the strong, well-made case in which the stout glass cells are contained eliminates all risk of breakage or spills. An Oldham H.T. Accumulator is much cheaper in the long run than H.T. dry batteries. It will last for years, and will keep its charge for months. For a cost of two or three shillings it is again equal to new. Your set will work better and with a silent background, free from annoying cracklings. Tapped at every two volts. In 5-volt units, each cell can be tapped. For critical long distance reception this is essential, and has also, available from the same accumulator. Compact and Portable. Fitted with stout carrying handle. Each 60-volt unit supplied with polished wooden lid to prevent accumulation of dust. Long Life Special Activation Process. Standard Oldham S.A.P. plates are used to ensure long life. Plates are not worn out or dusty. Plates can be left idle over long periods without recharging. View showing stout glass cells arranged in rows, tapped at each 2 volts. 1/6 per volt \| Volts \| Price \| \|-------\|-------\| \| 60 \| £4 10 0 \| \| 80 \| £6 0 0 \| \| 100 \| £7 10 0 \| \| 120 \| £9 0 0 \| Sole Agents, NOYES BROS. (Sydney) LTD., 115 Clarence Street, And at Melbourne, Brisbane, Newcastle, Adelaide, Perth and Hobart Special Activation Process OLDHAM ACCUMULATORS Pep up your set for the coming season by installing FIRST GRADE accessories. IT PAYS. A Few Suggestions LOUD SPEAKERS Brown, H4 40/-; H3 82/6; H1 £7/10/-; HQ £8/10/- Sterling Baby ....... 65/- Melovox ............. 65/- New Philips Loud Speaker, £6 10/- "B" BATTERIES Ever-ready, in all sizes: Volton, 45-volt ...... 22 6 Columbia, 45-volt ... 25/- Burgess, 45-volt .... 28/- Mullard Valves, with the P.M. filament, in all types, 13 6. Philips Valves—All Types in Stock. CALL AND HEAR THE LATEST R.C.A. RECEIVERS at Our Showroom—they are years ahead in design and performance. Write for Our Latest Accessory Price List. SWAIN'S 119-123 PITTS STREET SYDNEY. 4QG, BRISBANE Good Friday. NO MIDDAY TRANSMISSION. NO AFTERNOON TRANSMISSION. NO EARLY EVENING TRANSMISSION. NIGHT SESSION. The combined Presbyterian Service will be heard from St. Andrew's Presbyterian Church. The service will be conducted by the Rev. Jas. Cash, B.A., B.D., and the Rev. Jas. Wells, M.A., Ormonde. Mr. R. Lindsley-Stewart, Music-Ban, Farnham, will sing. Anthem: "God Be Loved the World" (Stainer). Prayer: hymn: Lesson: solo: "He Was Deceived" (Handel). Mrs. L. Kincaid, Prayer, and Lament: Prayer: solo: "O Lord" (Rodda). Mr. James Hunter, Hymn, Intimations, and Offertory: Anthem: "Praise His Awful Name" (Spohr). Sermon: Rev. N. S. Milner, B.A.; Prayer: solo: "Thine is the Right Hand" (Gurney). Mrs. N. N. Miller, B.A.; Hymn, Devotion. 9.0 p.m.—Close Down. 6WF, PERTH Good Friday. 11.00 a.m.—Tenebrae. 12 noon—Service begins from St. George's Cathedral Cathedral Church, Perth. 1.00 p.m.—Close Down. 1.30 p.m.—Children's Rehearsal. 2.30 p.m.—Stainer's "Tristisima," by St. Andrew's Choir, released from St. Andrew's Presbyterian Church, St. George's Terrace, Perth. Saturday, April 16 2FC, SYDNEY MIDDAY AND AFTERNOON SESSION. EASTER SATURDAY 12 noon—Big Ben and Programme Announcements. 12.30 p.m.—"Sydney Morning Herald" News Service, and further information. 12.45 p.m.—A talk on racecourse prospects by the 2FC Racing Commissioner. 12.50 p.m.—FROM RANDWICK RACE COURSE—The first race described in the running. NOTE—Each event at the Randwick Meeting to-day will be fully described by the commentator throughout. During intervals of racing, musical items will be rendered from the Studio, and dance music given from the Wentworth Cafe, Sydney, played by the famous Wentworth Symphonic Dance Orchestra, under the tuition of Mr. Frederick Leighton. 1.00 p.m.—"Evening News" Midday News Service. Drums and bugles from the Studio—My Oy Pair, Maple Troubadour—(a) Helen, Musicians' (Friedrich). (b) My Son, Lovers' (Silver). (c) Old Man (Love and Love Again). (d) I've Got the Girl (Dongman). 2.00 p.m.—A Complete Review of the Day's Sporting and Racing Events. 5.0 p.m.—"Big Ben"; Close Down. EARLY EVENING SESSION. 2.45 p.m.—The Chimes of 2FC. 3.00 p.m.—The "Hero Man" Talks to the Children. 3.45 p.m.—A Serial Story for the Older Ones. 4.00 p.m.—Dinner Music. 5.0 p.m.—"Big Ben," "Evening News" Late News Services, Weather Intelligence. NEW SOUTH WALES "A" AND "B" CLASS BROADCASTING STATIONS. 2FC—Farmer's Broadcasting Station, Ltd., Sydney, wavelength 442 metres, power 100 watts. 2HL—Broadcasters' Ltd., Sydney, wavelength 553 metres, power 5000 watts. 2GB—Theosophical Broadcasting Station, Ltd., Sydney, wavelength 400 metres, power 500 watts. 2KY—Trades and Labor Council, Sydney, wavelength 2300 metres, power 1000 watts. 2LV—Old Sandal, Wagga, wavelength 300 metres, power 500 watts. 2MK—Mackay Broadcasting Station, wavelength 225 metres, power 250 watts. 2L—Electrical Utilities Supply Co., Sydney, wavelength 293 metres. 2MB—Mackay Broadcasting Station, wavelength 210 metres, 100 watts. 2ND—H. A. Douglas, Newcastle, wavelength 288 metres, 100 watts. 7.15 p.m.—A complete description of today's Easter Meeting at Randwick. 7.45 p.m.—The crowds—and the dressing. NIGHT SESSION. 8.0 p.m.—"Big Ben". Programme Announcements. 8.10 p.m.—FROM THE CRYSTAL PALACE THEATRE, GEORGE STREET, SYDNEY—Orchestral items, under the tuition of Mr. Harry Stone. 8.10 p.m.—FROM THE STUDIO: Miss Alice Prowse, contralto. 8.14 p.m.—Mr. Joe Cahill, Entertainer. 8.16 p.m.—Miss Peggy East, soprano. 8.25 p.m.—FROM THE CRYSTAL PALACE THEATRE, GEORGE STREET, SYDNEY—The usual prologue to the new film "THE BETTER GIRL", followed by the Big Four. 8.40 p.m.—FROM THE STUDIO: The FPC Studio Dance Band, conducted by Mr. Eric Fraser, assisted by the popular baritones, Mr. Len Maurice, "When Bananas Skin Me", Mr. Pauling (Tenor). 8.48 p.m.—Miss Alice Prowse, contralto. 8.54 p.m.—FROM THE CRYSTAL PALACE THEATRE, GEORGE STREET, SYDNEY—Items from the Orchestra, under the tuition of Mr. Harry Stone. 9.0 p.m.—The Radio Revellers, directed by Mr. Lawrence Hallbert, will sing their anthems—"The More We Are Together". 9.10 p.m.—Miss Gwladys Finister, in an appealing number. 9.14 p.m.—Comedy Sketch: Mr. Montgomery Stuart and Miss Myra Leard. 9.20 p.m.—Miss Peggy East, soprano. 9.24 p.m.—A Radio Baritone. 9.30 p.m.—Mr. Walter Ransley, the well known 12ft. Recorder, in two comedy songs. 9.38 p.m.—The FPC Studio Dance Band in popular numbers. Conductor: Mr. Eric Fraser. Vocalists: Misses Myra Lee, Maurice. (a) "Hello Aloha" (Abel), Fox-Trot. (b) "Looking at the World" (Maire), Fox-Trot. 9.40 p.m.—Miss Gwladys Finister, soprano. 9.44 p.m.—Some Radio Comedy Sketches, by Mr. Montgomery Stuart and Miss Myra Leard. 10.00 p.m.—"Big Ben". The FPC Dance Band and the popular baritones, Mr. Len Maurice, Fox-Trot, "Lonesome and Sorry". 10.05 p.m.—Mr. Joe Cahill, Entertainer. 10.11 p.m.—Mr. Frank Foster, tenor, soprano. 10.15 p.m.—The FPC Dance Band and Mr. Len Maurice, Fox-Trot, "Stop It, I Love You" (Owen). 10.20 p.m.—Mr. Montgomery Stuart and Miss Myra Leard, Comedy Sketch. 10.25 p.m.—Mr. Lawrence Hallbert, baritone, "Cheerio, I Love You Goodbye". 10.30 p.m.—The FPC Dance Band and the Popular Baritones, Mr. Ian Maurice, Fox-Trot, "Sunday" (Miller). 10.35 p.m.—Music by the Radio Revellers, Chorus. 10.40 p.m.—The FPC Studio Dance Band and Mr. Len Maurice, popular baritones. (a) Fox-Trot, "My Pal Jerry" (Rose). (b) Waltz. (c) Fox-Trot, "Off to Buffalo" (Candilla). (d) One Step, "Moving Picture Actors on Parade" (Rose). 10.45 p.m.—"Big Ben". Late News and Announcement of Racing Information. 11.10 p.m.—FROM THE WESTWORTH CAFE, CHURCH HILL, SYDNEY: The New Westworth Symphonic Dance Orchestra, under the tuition of Mr. Frederic Leighton, National Anthem. 11.45 p.m.—Close Down. 3LO, MELBOURNE Saturday. MORNING SESSION. VARIETY IS THE SPICE OF LIFE. Announcer: Miss ALFRED ANDREW Accompanist: AGNES FORTUNE 11.00 a.m.—RADIO ORCHESTRA "Symphonies in der Unterwelt" (Offenbach) 11.10 a.m.—JACK KEARNS, Comedian, will sing, "The Pilgrims" "I Took It." A Radio Bargain 3 Valve Set in handsome cabinet, complete in every detail, including— Loud Speaker Exide Accumulator 84 Volt B Battery 4½ Volt C Battery Large Valves (the best) Aerial Gear A guarantee with every Set Two Prices: Price - £16 17 6 Price - £19 17 6 Deposit - 1 14 6 Deposit - 1 18 6 Weekly - 5 9 Weekly - 6 9 We charge no interest for these easy terms The easy terms also apply to country customers. Take one home to-night! Radio-W'Less Mfg. Co. Ltd. 317 George Street :: SYDNEY Telephone: B 5747 Manufacturers Products Pty. Ltd. (M.P.) (H. J. HAPGOOD) Challis House, Martin Place, SYDNEY Tel.: BW 1328 Agents for all Styles of Radio Products. Including Clyde Batteries. Klar, Meter Mfg. Co., "Emma." Hornpole Condensers, Leaks and Fixed Rhos. Almron Rhos, Pots, Special Coils and Leaks. Neutrons Crystals, Brassel Rhos. Prompt Shipments from Sydney. We represent 24 Foreign Radio Manufacturers. Write for Indent List. Surplus Stocks sold Interstate. How do you SOLDER? WITH SolderingBalls! Save Our Patience! WITH any other flux that doesn't melt some of the things & costlier flux should do! WITH "Wunderflux." That little packet of soldering simplicity that makes wet mends in a minute! Non-poisonous! Non-palatable! It is a wonder flux! £2/2/- at all Dealers. The Browning-Drake is holding most of the world's records—Radiokes is the only genuine Browning-Drake coil kit on the market. Metropolitan Electric Co. Ltd 27-29 King Street, SYDNEY. SLINGSBY and COLES Limited Under Central Station, 482 PITTS STREET Cabinets all Sizes in Seasoned Oak 1-Valve size £1/0/6 2-Valve size £1/6/- 3 or 4 Valve sets £1/10/- 5-Valve set £1/15/- 6-Valve and Set One Special £1/18/- Superioronal at £3/10/- The Famous "BLUE SPOT" PHONES, the lightest ever made, 3/6/- pair. Special Arrangements for Radio Lovers. 25/- per 5-cell cell; 40 Amys Aural; 25/- per 5-cell cell. Lead in Wire 2d. yard. 20ft Speaker Cable 4/6 each. Bell rewired to any circuit. Warneford & Son RADIO ENGINEER Bring your Radio troubles to us. Is your receiver selective? If it isn't, let us know. We will remodel your receiver along modern lines to produce maximum efficiency. Local conditions play a big part in good reception. We will design and build a receiver to suit. Rewiring faithfully carried out at reasonable rates. Write Box 967, G.G., G.P.O., Sydney. Phone: Pet. 1045 & X 3149. Grodan Radio Appliances Read what a satisfied customer says about Grodan Double Rotor Tuners: "This tuner is well constructed, easily mounted, and simple to handle, giving a clear bell-like tone with great local pick-up. I have two of two valves. The set is very selective, and I have no trouble in separating the Stations from each other. Two years ago, I spent much time and expense building wave traps to avoid interference, but obtain the best by Broadcasting Stations required. Not so now, and wave traps are for "Sale." Vide "Wireless Weekly" 1/1/21. Double Rotor Tuner, 18/6. Best on the Market. Double Rotor Tuners 18/6 Single Rotor Tuners 12/6 All Dealers Manufactured by GROSE & DANIELL HOLDEN ST. (Off Evelyn St.) REDFERN Phone: Red. 373, SYDNEY 11.17 a.m.—TASMA TERNAN, Cello, "By the River" (Mozart). "Nightane" (Chopin). 11.24 p.m.—BILLEE LOCKWOOD, Soufrette, "Foolish Questions." "Settin' Around." 11.31 a.m.—NELLY CRANE, Soprano, "There's a Girl in Portland." "Something Somewhat Waiting." 11.37 a.m.—ELSA LEWIS, Violin, "Barcarolle" (Hoffmann). 11.44 a.m.—STUDIO ORCHESTRA, Musicians, (Hamill), "Dolly Dally," "Good Girl Now." 11.50 a.m.—Time Signal. British Official Wireless News from Rugby; Reuters and the Australian Press Association Cables: Austra and Royalist News Services. 11.59 p.m.—STUDIO ORCHESTRA, "Petite Suite des Fleurs" (Cowell). 12.10 p.m.—BILLEE LOCKWOOD, Soufrette, accompanied her self on her Ukulele. 12.17 p.m.—STOCK EXCHANGE INFORMATION. 12.24 p.m.—STUDIO ORCHESTRA, "The Last Lullaby" (Baroni). 12.32 p.m.—HUXHAM'S SERENADERS, Quartette, Tenor Solo, Hugh Huxham, New Studio Orchestra, "Serenade" (Bridge), Quartette, Corale Solo, Dolly Burdett, Operatic Quintette. 1.23 p.m.—WEATHER REPORT. 1.30 p.m.—STUDIO ORCHESTRA, Light Cavalry. 1.40 p.m.—ELSA LEWIS, Violin, "Melody of Peace." 1.40 p.m.—Description of Autumn Stakes, RANDWICK RACECOURSE, SYDNEY. Reported by J. F. E. Sydney. 2.0 p.m.—Close Down. 2.15 p.m.—Description of Two-Year-Old Handicap, Epsom Plate, by "Musket" of the "Sporting Globe"; Close Down. 2.30 p.m.—Description of Dunmure Handicap, RANDWICK RACECOURSE, SYDNEY. Reported from 8 P.M. Sydney. 2.40 p.m.—Close Down. 2.45 p.m.—Description of Epsom Plate, by "Musket" of the "Sporting Globe." 2.50 p.m.—Close Down. Progress results will be given as they come to hand of Final Pennant Cricket. JOE ARONSON AND HIS SYNOPCATING SYMPHONISTS. 7.0 p.m.—JOE ARONSON AND HIS SYNOPCATING SYMPHONISTS, "Thinking of You" (Ash). "Just Discovered View" (Donaldson). "Just One More Kiss" (Owens). "Cup of Coffee, a Sandwich, and You." "Sombody's Lonely" (Davis). "Baby Face" (Aket). "The Little Waltz of the Bells." "Mary Lee" (Lorman). 7.15 p.m.—Description of Brush Street, Epsom Plate, by "Musket" of the "Sporting Globe." 7.20 p.m.—JOE ARONSON AND HIS SYNOPCATING SYMPHONISTS, "The More We Are Together" (Campbell). "Ruffles and Blows" (Barr). "Consolation" (Gurasky). "Ike's All Henry Ford" (Leslie). "Hello Aloha" (Barr). "The Original Black Bottom" (Henderson). "Hello, Little Girl of my Dreams" (Meek). "By the Sign of a Rose" (Fields). "Sunday" (Mills). 7.45 p.m.—Description of Epsom Handicap, by "Musket" of the "Sporting Globe." 7.50 p.m.—JOE ARONSON AND HIS SYNOPCATING SYMPHONISTS, "Angels" (Brunelli). "Watch Me, I'll Get Old Cal Back" (Yellen). "Bye, Bye Blackbird" (Dixon). "To-night's my Night with Baby" (Meyer). "Blue Moon" (Wright). "In a Little Spanish Town" (Warne). "Burgundy" (Mills). "Ma Too, Ho-Ho, Ha-Ha" (Woods). "Ho, Ho, the Moon" (Brown). "Choo Choo" (Arr. Beresford). 7.55 p.m.—Description of Epsom Purse, by "Musket" of the "Sporting Globe." 8.00 p.m.—JOE ARONSON AND HIS SYNOPCATING SYMPHONISTS, "The Village Blacksmith." "Ain't I Wasting My Time" (Mills). "Rose Colored Glasses" (Steiger). "You Can Go to Black Shuffle" (Sparkle). "That Samson and Delilah Melody" (Grey). Selected. 8.15 p.m.—Description Maiden Plate, Epsom Handicap, by "Musket" of the "Sporting Globe." 8.20 p.m.—ONE ACT PLAY, "Reservoir," Colonel St. Clair ......... Char. Dyson Mrs. Neville ........ Mrs. Maurice Dudley. NEW ZEALAND STATIONS: 1YA, Auckland, The Radio Broadcasting Co. of New Zealand, Ltd. Power 500 Watts; Wavelength, 420 Metres. Silent Night, Monday. 2YK, Wellington, The Radio Broadcasting Co. of New Zealand, Ltd. Power 120 Watts; Wavelength, 295 Metres. 3YA, Christchurch, The Radio Broadcasting Co. of New Zealand, Ltd. Power 500 Watts; Wavelength, 400 Metres. Silent Night, Thursday. 4YA, Dunedin, The Radio Broadcasting Co. of New Zealand, Ltd. Power 750 Watts; Wavelength, 380 Metres. 2YM, The Gisborne Radio Co., Gisborne. Power 50 Watts; Wavelength, 260 Metres. 10 p.m.—COLLINGWOOD CITIZENS' BAND—Music on Nursery Rhymes. 10.30 p.m.—Argus' news service. 11 p.m.—British official wireless news from Rugby, Australia. 11.30 p.m.—SHAH RIKHMAN, comedian: "Which is your heart?" 12 midnight—Music stories. 12.45 a.m.—"My Love." 12.45 a.m.—Eve Blackbird as a musical host. 12.45 a.m.—W. K. MORRISON: "Valse Belle." "Sing the Ball, Wasteman." "Pretty Vales." "Blue Bells of Scotland." 12.45 a.m.—COLLINGWOOD CITIZENS' BAND: "In a Little Spanish Town." 12.45 a.m.—Meteorological information. 12.45 a.m.—Close Down. 11.45 p.m.—OUR GREAT THOUGHT: "Each day is dear in praise of praise, Throughout all ages around, When Christ our king doth minister good, And light was heaven's true shining." 12.15 a.m.—JANE AROMAN AND HER SYNCHRONIZED RHYTHMISTS: "Blessing Bit Show" (Charley). 12.15 a.m.—"Dance Me." 12.15 a.m.—"Luna Cell" (Finn). 12.15 a.m.—"Piano." 12.15 a.m.—"Come a little bit, will ye hush?" (Tommy Ian, Tommy, Lassie) (Bellard). 12.15 a.m.—"Batt's Delight" (Shanahan). 12.15 a.m.—"The Man" (Hay). 12.15 a.m.—"Mother" (Robinson). 12.15 a.m.—"Tender" (Wright). 12.15 a.m.—"Imagination Nights" (Zametnick). 12.15 a.m.—"Gentle, Gently" (Gould). 12.15 a.m.—"With the World" (Berlin). 12.15 a.m.—"Baby Face" (Davis). 12.45 a.m.—Close Down. --- 4QG, BRISBANE Saturday. NO MIDNIGHT TRANSMISSION. AFTERNOON SESSION. 9.10 a.m.—A Message for Little Listeners by Miss Westcott. 9.45 p.m.—Close Down. EARLY EVENING SESSION. 8.30 p.m.—Children's Stories, Bedtime Stories by "Uncle Ben" and "Uncle Jim." 7.15 p.m.—Sporting News. NIGHT SESSION. 7.30 p.m.—Sailing Notes, by "Tiller." 7.45 p.m.—"Garden Notes," gardening talk, by "Gardener and Philosopher," by "Gossamer." 7.45 p.m.—Announcements. 7.45 p.m.—From the Observatory: Standard Time Signal. VIGILAN RECITAL. A Violin Recital arranged by Mr. Luis Amadeo Perez will be rendered from the Hall of the Music, Little Roma Street, Brisbane. --- TRANSFORMERS Built up to specification and wound. Insulation laid out to any size from stock. Prices and estimates on application. O'CONNELL, CRIPPIN & CO., LTD. At 601 Pitt Street, SYDNEY. Telephone Cliss 244 and 244. --- WHAT GRID LEAK VALUE SHALL I USE? A good deal of latitude is permissible in the value of the grid leak used in resistance coupled amplifiers, particularly in the initial stages, where moderately small signal amplitudes are being dealt with. The function of the grid resistance is to allow charges on the grid condenser to leak away rapidly, to allow the grid to assume its normal working potential in the intervals between the arrivals of successive impulses, to be dependent on that of the grid condenser; if this is large, the leak must have a low resistance, and vice versa. With a coupling condenser of .01 mfd, the smallest usually recommended for use in conventional circuits, a leak of as high a value as 1 megohm will prove satisfactory. For condensers of .05 to .1 mfd, the resistance usually specified is about .5 megohm, while for considerably higher capacities, .25 megohm will not be too low. It should be realized that the choice of a leak should also be governed to a certain extent by the value of the plate resistance in the circuit. The former should be high in comparison with the latter, or amplification will be reduced. In a resistance coupled circuit both resistances are really connected in parallel, and the leak, if of a comparatively low value, will act, in effect, as a partial short circuit across the plate resistance, reducing the voltages applied to the grid. --- 6WF, PERTH Saturday. 10 p.m.—Time-in. 7.45 p.m.—Musical Programme. 12.45 a.m.—STOCK: Local News Bulletin; Market Reports; Cables. 1.30 p.m.—Time Signal from Perth Observatory. 1.30 p.m.—Weather Notes supplied by the Meteorological Bureau of Western Australia. 2 p.m.—Close Down. 2.45 p.m.—Time-in. 3 p.m.—Detailed Description of Races received from the Ascot Race Course, Belmont. Close down after last race. 4.45 p.m.—Time-in. 5 p.m.—Charles Perry and Rex with the Radio Biscuit. 6.45 p.m.—Children's Story, "Real Australia," introducing "Professor Kookaburra," told by Australian. 7.30 p.m.—Sports Results supplied by courtesy of "The Mirror" Newspaper Co. 7.30 p.m.—Market, News and Cables. 8.30 p.m.—Time Signal from Perth Observatory. 9.1 p.m.—Weather Notes supplied by the Meteorological Bureau of Western Australia. 9.30 p.m.—FROM THE STUDIO: Musical Programme, including Artistic. 10.0 p.m.—Second Line News Bulletin, supplied by courtesy of "The Mirror" Newspaper Co. 10.0 p.m.—Sports Results supplied by courtesy of "The Mirror" Newspaper Co.; Ships within range; announcements. 10.45 p.m.—Close Down. --- NO RESPECTOR OF PERSONS indeed is the S.O.S. call, that bearer of fearful tidings from the sea. While President Coolidge was broadcasting an important speech recently the proceedings were suddenly stopped by a signal of distress from a ship out in the Atlantic. BROADCASTING, now a monopoly in Ecuador, is making but slow progress, largely owing to the unfavorable climate. There are probably not more than a hundred sets in use in the Republic, while very few instruments are stocked by the trade. THE first national school of radiotelegraphy in Europe has been established by the Belgian government for the purpose of training technicians and operators for the civil service, both in Europe and in the Congo, as well as officers and non-commissioned officers of the army, and aviators. It was authorized by a law recently passed; and is to be administered under the joint control of all the ministries whose work is affected; railroads, marine, post and telegraphs, aviation, and national defense. --- Radio Panel Engraving and Drilling. PLAIN BLOCK LETTERS, at 3/4 per 100 Letters. Special Work for Dealers and Manufacturers. Quality Work Guaranteed. Special Prompt Deliveries. CLIFTON L. STORM, ENGRAVER. No. 19, 2nd Floor. 21 Castlereagh St., SYDNEY. All Readers’ Queries Answered Here R.E.N. (HURLSTONE PARK)—Q: Having once muddled myself of your kind assistance, I wish to ask you a few questions re the “Burgess Neutrodyne Receiver,” published in “Radio” last Autumn. I have followed the instructions with the exception of the 10,000 ohms resistance which I have put out on account of the drop in RFC’s wavelength. The receiver was working well on all the locals and is a very indifferent performer on interstates. It is practically impossible to get them without disturbing the only one I can receive (it is one of the detector Rhestostat, and if I lower the A battery power too much I lose the station all together; in fact, it needs a very critical adjustment even then, it is unsatisfactory, being only phone strength. (2) I can get better reception on 3 valves than on the 4-valve set. I switch on the first valve by turning broadcast knob and I can not separate the different stations (this is the locals from the interstate). (3) Can this set be neutralised, if so how do you go about it? (4) Where would you connect a C battery in this circuit. I am using a 40-ft perpendicular half wave with this set. I would appreciate it if you would write me an solution of these difficulties. A: To me, it seems that you are suffering from interaction between components owing to a badly designed circuit diagram. In detail, and this trouble will happen. It is strange to know that the original Burgess Neutrodyne was constructed and used within 100 yards of Sydney, being put up in such a way that no reaction whatever was required to bring in all the inter-State stations. I know of an advanced experimenter who overcame this excellent receiver (in another layout again), and if you read the article carefully, you will find the neutralising arrangement. Connect your C battery as follows—Remove the connections from the F terminals of the two audio transformers which in the Burgess set is the A minus. Get a separate piece of heater and join the two F terminals of the audio transformers together and then connect the heater to the C battery. The C battery positive is now joined to the A battery minus. This applies to all transformer coupled audio circuits. I am sorry I can’t write individual letters—I would be glad to do so. R.W.S. (KURRI KURRI)—Q: I have just completed the “Marvel” Reflex Receiver, described in your columns recently. I find this quite a good little set, but unable to carry a speaker at this distance (roughly 100 miles). The tuning also is somewhat tricky. I would like you to advise me of a circuit embodying the following characteristics:—Selectivity, Long Range, Wide Choice of Wavelengths, Good Audio Quality, and Power 3 to 5 W.P.S. The four types mentioned are, of course, of major importance. I would prefer a set which has previously been published in “Wireless Weekly,” as the instructions are so easy to follow, and this Marvel is my first venture in radio construction. A: The three-valve in “Wireless Weekly” 11/8/27, is a splendid apparatus. The wavelength range is 200 to 550 meters, which covers all Australian stations excepting W.E.I. Perth. For a four-valve, the Browning-Drake, page 6 or larger, is all good, wherever I don’t think you can better a Neutrodyne for a 4-valve. The Browning-Drake, described in “Radio” 5/2/27, and the Neutrodyne in “Radio” 9/1/27, “Mazda” is our companion passer, and I mention it because there are no more copies of “Wireless Weekly” in which these sets were described. C.W.C. (TOWOODRA)—Q: I have a three-valve “Recall” set which needs very careful tuning. I wish to convert into a 4-valve set to get all Australian stations on a Loud Speaker. Could you help me? I am told in this week’s “Wireless Weekly” a reader at Rockhampton mentions an “All-Australian 3-valve set” on which he gets 4QG, EFC, 2BL, 1K2 and 6U1, all on Loud Speaker. Is this in this three-valve circuit & could construct? If so, could you let me have particulars and diagrams, etc., of set. I have no back issues of “Wireless Weekly,” and cannot refer to them. I would gladly pay postage for same if it is not possible for you to answer in your column. Thanking you in anticipation of your kind assistance. A: See “Wireless Weekly” 11/3/27, for a splendid three-valve. I can recommend it. Transform Your Wireless Set... By Fitting the WORLD'S BEST INTERVALVE TRANSFORMER. NEW BRITISH MADE FERRANTI TRANSFORMERS The "FERRANTI" Transformer designed to improve loud speaker results, is constructed with full realisation of this fundamental. This is necessary to supply all sound in accurate proportion in order to get satisfaction from wireless concerts—which many transformers seem to ignore. OBtainable FROM ALL RADIO DEALERS IN AUSTRALIA. Dealers please communicate with: A. BEAL PRITCHETT (Aust.) LTD., Sydney and Melbourne. WEDMA, LTD., Adelaide — — — EDGAR V. HUDSON, Brisbane. TYPE AF3 - 42/6 Impedance: at 100 periods, 17,500 Ohms. at 500 periods, 410,000 Ohms. No better Transformer is available at any price. TYPE AF4 - 32 Impedance: at 100 periods, 17,500 Ohms. at 500 periods, 90,000 Ohms. The best Transformer at the price. A neat device which will absorb the mushy background of noise spoiling reception on many sets. Every owner is assured of pure, undistorted reception. In this static season, too, static noises may be considerably lessened with its aid. NO NOISES! WITH A MACLURCAN TONE PURIFIER 21/- At all Dealers. The Maclurcan Tone Purifier is the result of months and months of research work by Australia's leading amateur experimenter. It has been designed expressly to meet Australian climatic and atmospheric conditions. Manufactured by ELECTRICITY METER MFG. CO. LTD., Sydney, N.S.W. FOR GREATER RANGE AND BETTER TONE Use the New AWA Valves In announcing a new range of A.W.A. Valves, we can state with every confidence that these general purpose valves, the result of extensive research on the part of A.W.A. valve engineers, are in every way equal if not better than imported valves. More electrons are now emitted with less heat—therefore less current. Lower filament temperature also enhances the quality of reception. \| Valve \| Filament Volts \| Price \| \|---------\|----------------\|-------\| \| A.W.A. 33 \| 3.0 \| 13/- \| \| A.W.A. 99 \| .6 \| 13/- \| \| A.W.A. 99X \| \| \| \| A.W.A. 55 \| 5.0 \| 11/- \| \| A.W.A. 101X\| .25 \| 11/- \| Base.—A.W.A. 33 English, 4 pin. A.W.A. 99X Amer. UX199. A.W.A. 101X Amer. UX201a. A.W.A. 99 Amer. UV199. A.W.A. 55 English, 4 pin. At All Radio Dealers. Amalgamated Wireless (Australasia) Ltd. 97 CLARENCE STREET, SYDNEY. 167-9 QUEEN STREET, MELBOURNE. THE NEW AWA VALVES The AMPLION Range comprises the most extensive range of Loud Speakers in existence. The supremacy of AMPLION has long been acknowledged by all those who have a true appreciation of all that is fine in Loud Speaker construction. The two models shown here—the A.R. 65, with its lustrous chocolate crystalline finish, and the beautiful Swan-neck model A.R. 58, are fitting members of the family of AMPLION—universally recognised as "The World's Standard Wireless Loud Speakers." They are obtainable from all Radio Manufacturers and Dealers throughout Australasia. Better Radio Reproduction Advt. of AMPLION (A'Nee.) LTD. Sydney and Melbourne.
Determination of Permeability from Damping Paul Michaels Boise State University 14 Claims, 25 Drawing Sheets Permeability of a fluid through a saturated material is determined by measuring the dynamic response of that saturated material to shaking vibrations and/or shear wave propagation, and then mapping the dynamic response (preferably, viscoelastic stiffness and damping properties) to an invented model (called “KVMB”) that yields the property of permeability. The preferred embodiments may use shear waves, inertial effects, and/or transmission effects, but preferably not compression, to force fluids through the pores. The mapping preferably predicts two possible mappings to permeability, coupled and uncoupled. The preferred methods are both internally consistent and directly related to known laws of physics rather than dependent on empirical calibrations. In use, for example, one may use a porosity log (conventional neutron or sonic) and recordings of SH-waves to obtain damping ratio, followed by locating of the damping ratio on a KVMB map that depends on porosity, and choosing of one of the two possible permeabilities indicated by the mapping, wherein the best choice is typically the largely coupled case. 14 Claims, 25 Drawing Sheets Two alternative dynamic representations of a soil or rock Figure 1: Two alternative dynamic representations of a soil or rock Kelvin–Voigt (KV) Waves mass combined fluid+solid \[ k \quad m \] \[ c \] 2x2 System, 2 eigenvalues Damping Ratio $ \delta_{kv} = \frac{c}{2\sqrt{k m}} $ Mapping KVMB Representation Waves masses solid fluid \[ k \quad d \] permeability sets dashpot 3x3 System, 3 eigenvalues \[ \delta_{kv} = \frac{\|\lambda_1 + \lambda_2\|}{2\sqrt{\lambda_1 \lambda_2}} \] $ \lambda_i \ i=1, 2, 3 $ complex conjugate pair Figure 2: Solving for KVMB dashpots given KV damping ratio KV to KVMB Map P. Michaels Porosity = n = 0.30 Frequency = 50 Hz Damping Ratio $K_V$ Given $K_V$ $K_d =$ Coefficient of Permeability m/s Multiply $K_d$ by absolute viscosity, divide by unit weight fluid = Absolute Perm. m$^2$ Figure 3 Max. Ambient Pressure: 12,000 psi (73 MPa) Max. Ambient Temperature: 350°F (175°C) Source Wireline Length: 20,000 ft (6,100 m) Radiation Patterns Axial Vibrator (1996) Radial Vibrator (1997) Axial Point Force (Well Side View) Radial Point Force (Well Top View) FIG. 5 Typical Down-Hole Experiment Shown in Cross Section FIG. 6 SH-Wave Source Designs: (a) Horizontal Hammer Blow Source with Hold-Down Weight; (b) Inclined Hammer Source (135° from Vertical) Nailed to Soil Kelvin-Voigt Model SH-Wave Propagation FIG. 7 Discrete Realization of Kelvin-Voigt Soil Model, Consisting of a Chain of Spring, Dashpot, and Mass Elements. FIG. 8 Finite Difference Synthetic Data Used to Test the Software: (a) True Amplitude Display after Addition of Spherical Divergence Effects; (b) Rescaled Data to Permit Viewing of Waveform; (c) Velocity of 30 Hz Filtered Version; (d) 90 Hz Filtered Version \[ C1 = 160000 \frac{m^2}{s^2} \quad C2 = 200 \frac{m^2}{s} \] FIG. 9 Synthetic Data Velocity Analysis by Semblance (30 Hz at 6-11 m Depth) FIG. 10 Measurement of Synthetic Data Amplitude Decay (30 Hz) Finite Difference Data Synthetic: $C1 = 160000 \frac{m^2}{s^2}$, $C2 = 200 \frac{m^2}{s^2}$ Solution: $C1 = 166282 \frac{m^2}{s^2}$, $C2 = 208 \frac{m^2}{s^2}$ (a) Measured Velocity Dispersion of Synthetic Data; (b) Amplitude Decay of Synthetic Data NOTES: 1. Water table depth approximate, estimated from p-wave velocity. 2. CPT-3 Survey by ConeTec Survey Date: 1 Nov 96 3. Downhole survey Offset from ConeTec CPT Survey Date: 15 July 1997 FIG. 12 Down-Hole SH-Wave Field Data from Logan, Utah, Site Solution: $C1 = 25567 \pm 218 \frac{m^2}{s^2}$ $C2 = 1 \pm 1 \frac{m^2}{s^2}$ FIG. 13 GeoLogan SH-Wave Data (2–7 m): (a) Measured Velocity Dispersion from Silt Interval in Utah Data; (b) Amplitude Decay from Silt Interval in Utah Data Solution: $C1 = 51343 \pm 375 \frac{m^2}{s^2}$ $C2 = 14 \pm 1 \frac{m^2}{s^2}$ FIG. 14 GeoLogan SH-Wave Data (8–13 m): (a) Measured Velocity Dispersion from Sand Interval in Utah Data; (b) Amplitude Decay from Sand Interval in Utah Data FIG. 15 Down-Hole SH-Wave Field Data from Boise, Idaho, Site Solution: $C1 = 94917 \pm 2913$ m$^2$/s$^2$ $C2 = 255 \pm 9$ m$^2$ (a) Velocity (m/s) (b) Decay, $\alpha$ (1/m) FIG. 16 Idaho SH-Wave Data (5–10 m): (a) Measured Velocity Dispersion from Upper Interval (5–10 m) in Idaho Data; (b) Amplitude Decay from Upper Interval in Idaho Data Solution: $C1 = 182751 \pm 4860 \frac{m^2}{s}$ $C2 = 69 \pm 17 \frac{m^2}{s}$ FIG. 17 Idaho SH-Wave Data (10–5 m): (a) Measured Velocity Dispersion from Deeper Interval (10–15 m) in Idaho Data; (b) Amplitude Decay from Deeper Interval in Idaho Data Fig. 18. Kelvin–Voigt soil representation for: (a) vibrator; (b) wave assemblage Fig. 19. Kelvin–Voigt–Maxwell–Biot soil representation for: (a) vibrator; (b) wave assemblage Fig. 20. Equivalent KV (a) damping; (b) stiffness for a KVMB thought experiment. Fig. 21. Equivalent KV damping ratio as function of KVMB damping ratio for different mass ratios Fig. 22. Determining lumped spring stiffness from soil element’s shear modulus, $G_f$ Fig. 23. Equivalent KV damping ratio as function of hydraulic conductivity at 50 Hz for different porosities. Fig. 24. Frame and water time histories corresponding to points A, B, and C of Fig. 6 Fig. 25. Equivalent KV damping ratio as function of natural frequency for porosity of 30% for different hydraulic conductivities corresponding to points A, B, and C of Fig. 6. DETERMINATION OF PERMEABILITY FROM DAMPING This application claims priority of Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/915,346, filed May 1, 2007, and entitled “Determination of Permeability From Damping,” which is hereby incorporated by reference. Early work on this matter was done with funding from U.S. Army Grant DA AF04-96-1-0318. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The invention relates to methods, apparatus, and/or programming code means for determining the permeability of a fluid through a saturated material by measuring the dynamic response of that saturated material to shaking vibrations or shear wave propagation, and mapping data from said dynamic response to an invented alternative constitutive model that yields the property of permeability. Permeability may be described generally as the ease with which fluids can move through rock, soil, or other earth materials, and, therefore, the invented procedures, apparatus, and/or programming code means may be applied in oil well production, soil improvement, contaminated soils treatment, water well production, and/or landfill waste disposal, for example. 2. Related Art Current non-seismic methods of permeability determination are limited to either laboratory tests (constant head or falling head), or to well tests like draw-down flow testing or drill stem testing in oil wells. The laboratory tests are restricted to small sample volumes and are not able to evaluate large samples with large grain sizes (ie: cobbles). Drawdown and other well flow tests are subject to skin affects and alterations of permeability within the invaded zone; for example, drilling muds can clog the formation in a zone near the borehole and lead to underestimation of permeability. A number of existing seismic methods have been proposed in the prior art, however, their mathematical representations and procedures are different from those used in embodiments of the present invention. Such prior proposed methods can be quite complex, especially in the area of viscous representations, for example, the complex shear modulus. If a non-viscous “effective viscosity” is employed, it results in a complex modulus with a constant imaginary part. “Effective viscosity” is a concept that has its origins in past work with air saturated samples or seismic data of inadequate bandwidth; there are no materials know to possess “effective viscosity”. The preferred embodiments, on the other hand, comprise “truly viscous” representations (frequency dependent imaginary part for the shear modulus opposed to a constant) rather than “effective viscosity.” One example of prior methods in the patent literature is Yamamoto, et al., (U.S. Pat. No. 5,142,500, 1992), which describes “Non-destructive method of measuring physical characteristics of sediments.” Yamamoto is a cross-well-specific patent, uses hydrophones and compressional waves, does not distinguish between coupled and uncoupled motion, and is for P-waves (not S-waves). The preferred embodiments of the present invention, on the other hand, may use shear waves and inertial effects, but not compression, to force fluids through the pores. Another example of prior methods in the patent literature is Goloshubin, et al. (U.S. Pat. No. 7,136,757, 2006), which describes “Frequency-dependent processing . . . fluid saturated reservoirs.” Goloshubin is based on reflected P-waves, whereas the preferred embodiments of the present invention use shear-waves and transmission effects. Further differences between preferred embodiments of the invention and the prior art may be found in the area of mapping of viscosity to permeability, and in that the present invention preferably predicts two possible mappings to permeability, coupled and uncoupled. Unlike prior art seismic methods known to the inventor, the methods of the preferred embodiments are both internally consistent and directly related to known laws of physics rather than dependent on empirical calibrations. Further objects of some embodiments of the invention may comprise: sensing beyond the invaded zone, via shear-wave damping methods; extension to non-invasive applications; or applications for shallow, near-surface engineering problems, for example, comprising Love wave inversion for permeability. These, and/or other, features and objects may be realized by embodiments of the invention, as will be understood by one of skill in the art after viewing the following description and attached Figures. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to a procedure, apparatus, and/or programming for determining the permeability of a fluid through a saturated material by measuring the dynamic response of that saturated material to shaking vibrations and/or shear wave propagation. Using embodiments of the invention, viscoelastic stiffness and damping properties, which may be determined from existing methods and hardware for creating said vibrations or shear waves, are mapped to an invented alternative constitutive model (named “KVMB” by the inventor) that yields/determines the property of permeability. Said mapping comprises projection of the problem to a decoupled basis. Embodiments of the present invention may comprise apparatus and methods, currently commercially available, for physically testing the dynamic response of saturated material to shaking vibrations or shear wave propagation, and may comprise the computer/electronics apparatus and computer code to map said dynamic response(s) to the KVMB model, so that the petrophysical property of permeability may be determined. Apparatus and methods for performing said physical testing may include cross-well, down-hole, resonant column, down-hole vibrators, surfaces sources, geophone arrays, and/or Visual Sample Plan (VSP), for example. In use, for example, one may use a porosity log (conventional neutron or sonic) and recordings of SH-waves to obtain damping ratio, followed by locating of the damping ratio on an embodiment of the invented KVMB map that depends on porosity, and choosing of one of the two possible permeabilities indicated by the mapping, wherein the best choice is typically the largely coupled case. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a schematic portrayal of prior art KV (Kelvin-Voigt) representations, next to an embodiment of the invented KVMB representations. FIG. 2 is a map, according to one but not the only embodiment of the invention, of damping ratio plotted vs. KVMB dashpot, illustrating solving for KVMB dashpots given KV damping ratio. Note the two possible solutions, kvmb-uc (uncoupled) and kvmb-c (coupled) of which the coupled solution is typically the best choice. FIG. 3 is a “KV to KVMB map,” according to one but not the only embodiment of the invention, comprising, wherein damping ratio is plotted vs. coefficient of permeability. Note, again, the two solutions. FIG. 4 is a schematic portrayal of example radiation patterns of equipment that may be used in physical testing to obtain data in some embodiments of the invention. FIG. 5 is one example of a typical down hole experiment shown in cross section, such as used in Example A. FIGS. 6A and B are portrayals of the inventor's SH wave source designs, as discussed in Example A: FIG. 6A being horizontal hammer blow source with hold down weight, and FIG. 6B being an inclined hammer source (135 degrees from vertical) nailed to soil. FIG. 7 is a discrete realization of Kelvin/Voigt soil model consisting of a chain of spring, dashpot and mass elements, as discussed in Example A. FIGS. 8A-C illustrate finite difference synthetic data used to test the software, as discussed in Example A, wherein FIG. 8A portrays the true amplitude display after spherical divergence effects have been added, FIG. 8B portrays rescaled data to permit viewing of the waveform, FIG. 8C portrays velocity of 30 Hz filtered version, and FIG. 8D portrays 90 Hz filtered version. It may be noted that the velocity of the 30 Hz (FIG. 8C) filtered version is different from the 90 Hz (FIG. 8D) and is observed from the different slopes in time. FIG. 9 portrays synthetic data velocity analysis by semblance, as discussed in Example A. Note that the best velocity will align the data along constant time and correspond to a maximum semblance value. FIG. 10 shows measurement of the synthetic data amplitude decay, as discussed in Example A. The decibel (logarithmic) scale linearizes the exponential decay. FIGS. 11A and B show measured velocity dispersion (FIG. 11A) and amplitude decay (FIG. 11B) of the synthetic data, from Example A. FIG. 12 shows field data from the Logan, Utah site, from Example A. FIGS. 13A and B show SH-Wave Data (2-7 m), specifically: measured velocity dispersion from silt interval in Utah data (FIG. 13A) and amplitude decay from silt interval in the Utah data (FIG. 13B) from Example A. FIGS. 14A and B show SH-Wave Data (8-13 m), specifically: measured velocity dispersion from sand interval in Utah data (FIG. 14A) and amplitude decay from sand interval in Utah data (FIG. 14B) from Example A. FIG. 15 shows field data from the Boise, Id. site, from Example A. FIGS. 16A and B show SH-Wave Data (5-10 m), specifically: measured velocity dispersion from upper interval (5-10 m) in Idaho data (FIG. 16A), and amplitude decay from upper interval in Idaho date (FIG. 16B), from Example A. FIGS. 17A and B show Idaho SH-Wave Data (10-15 m), specifically, measured velocity dispersion (FIG. 16A) from deeper interval (10-15 m) in Idaho data, and amplitude decay (FIG. 16B) from the deeper interval (10 to 15 m) in Idaho date, from Example A. FIGS. 18A and B portray Kelvin-Voigt (KV) soil representation for (FIG. 18A) vibrator and for (FIG. 18B) wave assemblage, as discussed in Example B. FIGS. 19A and B portray Kelvin-Voigt-Maxwell-Biot soil representation for (FIG. 19A) vibrator and (FIG. 19B) wave assemblage, as discussed in Example B. FIGS. 20A and B portray Equivalent KV (FIG. 20A) damping and (FIG. 2-B) stiffness for a KVMB thought experiment, as discussed in Example B. FIG. 21 shows Equivalent KV damping ratio as a function of KVMB damping ratio for different mass ratios, as discussed in Example B. FIG. 22 illustrates a method for determining a lumped spring stiffness from a soil element’s shear modulus, $G_p$ as in Example B. FIG. 23 is a plot of Equivalent KV damping ratio as a function of hydraulic conductivity at 50 Hz for different porosities, as discussed in Example B. FIG. 24 A-C portray frame and water time histories corresponding to points A, B, and C of FIG. 23, in Example B. FIG. 25 is a plot of Equivalent KV damping ratio as a function of natural frequency for a porosity of 30% for different hydraulic conductivities corresponding to points A, B, and C of FIG. 23. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Referring to the figures, there are shown several, but not the only, embodiments of the invented system, which may include methods, apparatus, and/or programming code means for determination of permeability from damping. Referring to FIG. 1, there is schematically shown a KV representation (on the left) and an embodiment of the invented KVMB representation (on the right), which splits the mass component into both fluid and solid parts (using porosity). A key component of the preferred embodiments of the invention is the diagonalization of the representations, and then selecting the two complex conjugate eigenvalues of the KVMB system to compute an equivalent KV damping ratio. The eigenvalues depend on the KVMB dashpot, which the preferred embodiments relate to permeability. Thus, using embodiments of the invention, any existing method that employs the KV representation may now be related to the KVMB representation, and, hence, to permeability of the fluid through the solid. Required Givens Preferred embodiments of the procedure begin with the following properties that must be given. Porosity n: The material’s porosity must be known (unitless). This may be obtained either by conventional logging methods for borehole surveys, or by standard laboratory methods, for example. KV Damping Ratio $\delta_{kv}$: If the source of this damping ratio value is a vibration test, damping ratio will be specific to the frequency and sample dimensions of the test. In terms of lumped properties (spring stiffness k, dashpot c, total mass m): $$\delta_{kv} = \frac{c}{2\sqrt{k \cdot m}}$$ \hspace{1cm} (1) If the source of this damping ratio value is a shear-wave survey, then viscoelastic damping ratio will be frequency-dependent, and must be computed for an angular frequency determined by a chosen analysis length L. The angular frequency is given by: $$\omega = \frac{\sqrt{C_1}}{L}$$ \hspace{1cm} (2) Damping ratio will then be given as: $$\delta_{kv} = \frac{\omega \cdot C_2}{2 \cdot C_1}$$ \hspace{1cm} (3) where stiffness C1, and damping C2, are the constant coefficients of the 1-D viscoelastic wave equation: $$\frac{\partial^2 u}{\partial t^2} = C_1 \frac{\partial^2 u}{\partial x^2} + C_2 \frac{\partial^3 u}{\partial t \partial x^2}$$ \hspace{1cm} (4) where u is particle displacement, x is the spatial coordinate of wave propagation, and t is time. A field method for obtaining C1 (units m$^2$/s$^2$) and C2 (units m$^2$/s) is given in Example A below. Specific Gravity of the Solids $G_s$: This is unitless and determined by standard laboratory methods. The preferred embodiments of the invention are not very sensitive to this value. A value in the range of 2.6 to 2.7 should work quite well for most geologic materials. Mass Density of the Saturating Fluid $\rho_f$. Typically, the saturating fluid will be water, but could be oil or some other fluid. Therefore, mass density may be determined from known data and/or known methods. Preferred Procedures 1. Compute Lumped Masses: Assuming saturated conditions, compute the lumped component masses for the solid, $M_s$, and the fluid, $M_f$. One can assume any cross-sectional area $A$ for these values (typically one would use unity m$^2$), but the length of the sample or the analysis length $L$ is important, and must agree with the frequency chosen for the mapping. See equations (5) and (6), below: $$M_s = (1-n)G\rho_s A \cdot L$$ \hspace{1cm} (5) and $$M_f = n\rho_f A \cdot L$$ \hspace{1cm} (6) 2. Mapping from KV Damping Ratio to KVMB Dashpot: Given the above masses, $M_s$ and $M_f$, porosity $n$, and the solid frame lumped spring stiffness $k$, there exists a curve that maps the Kelvin-Voigt damping ratio ($\delta_{kv}$) to the KVMB dashpots ($d_{kvmb}$) as described in Example B, below. This mapping is of key importance to preferred embodiments of the invention, and, the inventor believes, is not obvious to those of average skill in the art. Said mapping comprises diagonalization of the 2x2 KV oscillator and the 3x3 KVMB oscillator systems, then relating the two complex conjugate eigenvalues of the KVMB system to the eigenvalues of the KV system. The curve is concave downward, exhibits a peak that separates the largely coupled from the largely uncoupled conditions. The KVMB dashpot will span many orders of magnitude, and is directly related to the material permeability $K_d$(units of m/s). The greater the permeability, the smaller the dashpot. See examples in FIGS. 2 and 3. 3. Compute the Two KVMB Damping Ratio Solutions: There will be a largely coupled and a largely uncoupled solution to the mapping problem (see FIG. 2). Solutions are located at the intersection between a line of constant damping ratio, $\delta_{kv}$, and the concave downward curve that maps the $\delta_{kv}$ damping ratio to the $d_{kvmb}$ dashpots. The line of constant KV damping ratio is given by the field or laboratory experiment, and must fall below the peak of the KV-KVMB curve (otherwise, there is no solution). Best Solution by an Iterative Method: A) One computes brackets for the coupled and uncoupled searches. The brackets are joined at the peak of the curve shown in FIG. 2. The maximum dashpot bracket is set by computing a dashpot that corresponds to a minimum expected permeability (see equation 7, below). The minimum dashpot bracket is set by computing a dashpot that corresponds to a maximum expected permeability. B) One performs bisection searches in each bracket seeking a solution by invoking a function that computes a KV damping ratio from a trial KVMB dashpot. Sensible changes to the KVMB dashpot are made until the computed KV damping ratio matches (within some tolerance) the given KV damping ratio obtained from a field or laboratory experiment. 4. Compute Permeability Values Corresponding to the KVMB Dashpots: For each KVMB dashpot, the corresponding permeability value will be given by: $$K_d = \frac{n^2 g \rho_f A \cdot L}{d_{kvmb}}$$ \hspace{1cm} (7) The best solution will be the coupled solution for most geologic materials. The reasons for this are as follows. First, it would require a very large permeability to fall in the uncoupled region. Most earth materials do not present this large a permeability. Second, the result is largely insensitive to frequency for the coupled case. That is, consistent solutions are obtained for a wide range of sample lengths or resonant frequencies. If a material has large permeability (for example, very course gravel), then one must choose a frequency for the mapping that is equal to the frequency at which the measurement of $\delta_{kv}$ was made. Referring to Example C, there is shown one embodiment of software/programming that may be used in embodiments of the invention. The programming computes a determination of permeability from KV shear-wave-based measurements of stiffness, damping, and neutron logged porosity. Specifically, this KD-4X.sci program embodiment incorporates the inventor's methods such as described elsewhere in this disclosure, for inversion of stiffness and damping (KV) to KVMB dashpot and permeability. Embodiments of the invention may comprise using apparatus and/or methods that are currently known in the literature and/or available commercially. Cross-well, down-hole, resonant column, down-hole vibrators, surfaces sources, geophone arrays, and/or VSP may be used, for example. Visual Sample Plan (VSP) methods are available from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, for example, at http://dqo.pnl.gov/vsp/vspdesc.htm; VSP methods have been described as “a simple, defensible tools for defining an optimal, technically defensible sampling scheme for characterization. VSP is applicable for any two-dimensional sampling plan including surface soil, building surfaces, water bodies, or other similar applications.” FIG. 4 schematically portrays some, but not the only, radiation patterns and conditions for equipment that may be used in physical testing to obtain data in some embodiments of the invention. Examples of methods and equipment that might be used to provide data for analysis in procedures according to the preferred embodiments are disclosed by Paulsson Geophysical Services, Inc.’s “Long Bore-hole Array.” For example, currently-available commercial equipment may be used, such as a down-hole vibrator (10-1400 hz, 20,0000 ft max depth) and 3-component receiver arrays (to deploy 80-400 levels of three component geophones, no practical bandwidth limitations, clamping via fluid inflatable bladders, deployed by production tubing or drill pipe). See FIG. 4, for example. For background on bore-hole equipment, see Paulsson U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,751,688, 4,783,771, and 4,805,725. Equipment or services from other companies that test or log oil wells may be used in combination with the data handling and analysis of this disclosure. Example A In-Situ Determination of Soil Stiffness and Damping—Methods and Apparatus Determination of in-situ dynamic soil properties is fundamental to the prediction of the seismic behavior of foundations and soil embankment structures. Both elastic (stiffness) and inelastic (damping) values are required for computational analysis. To be of value to engineers, the geophysical inversion should employ the same soil model as used in the dynamic analysis software. Current engineering practice employs a Kelvin Voigt (KV) model (spring in parallel with dashpot). The relevant wave equation is a third order partial differential equation. This Example A demonstrates how to collect in-situ field data and solve for stiffness (scaled shear) and damping values by a method consistent with this constitutive model. Measurements of the seismic wave’s amplitude decay and velocity dispersion are simultaneously inverted for the required stiffness and damping values. These in-situ determined stiffness and damping values are directly compaparable to those obtained by resonant column measurements in the laboratory. Furthermore, the results may be directly input into currently available engineering software to provide values of stiffness and viscous damping. This paper includes both synthetic (finite difference) and field data examples which illustrate the method. In the interest of clarity, steps common to all in-situ determinations of dynamic soil properties are identified, as follows: 1. The recording of in-situ wave propagation data. 2. Taking measurements from the recorded waveform data. 3. Calculation of dynamic soil properties from the measurements. 4. Mapping errors in observed measurements to errors in calculated soil properties. The first step is accomplished by field experiments such as down hole, cross hole, or surface seismic recording. In the second step, measurements are taken from the recorded field data. For example, in elastic analysis, the measured quantities might be travel times and distances. Note that these measurements are not the dynamic properties of interest. Dynamic properties are calculated, not measured. Calculation of dynamic soil properties is done in the third step. The calculation is done under a constitutive model and corresponding governing differential equation. In fact, the concept of each dynamic property is intimately bound with the assumed constitutive model. There is no concept of a soil damping value under an elastic constitutive model. Thus, when SH wave velocity is accounted for under an elastic model, there is only one soil property, the stiffness of the soil. If damping is actually present, some portion of the velocity will incorrectly be attributed to stiffness. Thus, the computation of a shear modulus from wave velocity will be in error if significant viscous damping is present. It is interesting to note that the same set of recorded waveform data (collected by whatever means) may be subjected to different measurement and calculation procedures, depending on the model assumed. Changing either the constitutive model or the measurements taken from the data will lead to different determinations of soil properties for the same field experiment. The different types of field experiments only fix the relevant boundary conditions and wavefield sampling. The specific calculations in steps 3 and 4, above, are done under a mathematical formalism known as inverse theory. Inverse theory is well documented. A good text on the subject is Menke (1989). Further examples of inverse theory may be found in Lines and Levin (1988). Review of In-Situ Methods Various researchers have conducted in-situ determination of rock and soil dynamic properties, using a variety of experimental protocols over the last three decades. An example of the least invasive method is a surface wave experiment conducted with both source and receivers on the surface of the earth. Rayleigh waves (a combination of both compressional and shear waves) have proved particularly useful in this regard (Nazarian and Stokoe, 1984). The inverse method, Spectral Analysis of Surface Waves (SASW), is typically used to determine the shear wave velocity in a horizontally layered earth under an elastic constitutive model. Measurements taken from the surface waves yield velocity dispersion as a function of frequency. The dispersion curves are then inverted to determine actual soil velocities. Under an elastic model, this dispersion is entirely due to the soil layering (configurational dispersion). It would be very challenging to adapt the methods contained in this paper to surface waves. With a KelvinVoigt model, the challenge would be to separate the observed dispersion into two components, configurational and inelastic. Some attempts at surface measurement of attenuation have been tried using a different wave type. Stoll (1983) documents the use of refracted acoustic waves in a marine environment to solve for a complex modulus. In sandy or fine grained soils, the Seismic Cone Penetration Test (SCPT) can be used without actually drilling a borehole (Robertson et al., 1985). In this test, a standard cone penetrometer is modified to include a horizontally oriented geophone. The modified penetrometer is driven into the soil in the usual fashion for CPT data. Periodically, the penetrometer is halted at different depths and a surface source is excited. Thus, shear waves are recorded along a vertical propagation path. Usually, this path is perpendicular to any horizontally layered boundaries. While the majority of SCPT calculated soil properties have been done under elastic assumptions, there should be no impediment to using SCPT data with the inversion method presented in this Example A. One practical limitation of the SCPT method is that soils with gravel or cobbles can refuse the penetrometer. Thus, a down hole method is usually preferred when these coarse grained soils are present. An example of the down hole method in gravelly soils may be found in Kokusho et al. (1995). Kokusho found that SH wave velocity did not necessarily depend on void ratio according to traditional expectations for sandy soils. Rather, he found SH wave velocity to be highly dependent on gradation. The finding that gravelly soils are anomalous should be kept in mind when reading the final field example contained here. The most expensive method used to determine in-situ dynamic soil properties is the cross borehole experiment. The expense is a result of requiring three or more boreholes to be drilled. Typically a source is lowered in one borehole and receivers record horizontally propagating shear waves in the other two boreholes. The reader is referred to standard ASTM D4428 for a description of the method and the elastic velocity analysis that is typically done. One common application of the crosshole method has been to evaluate in-situ dynamic compaction programs (Diese et al., 1994). The cross hole method was recently used to great advantage by Salgado et al. (1997). They demonstrated that large strain measurements can be made with this configuration (if one of the receiver boreholes is close enough to the source hole). This is an extremely useful result, since it is the first in-situ method to actually determine the strain amplitude dependence of the shear modulus. One might hope to apply the inversion method of this paper to cross borehole data. However, since soil layering is typically horizontal, one might expect that any configurational dispersion (wave guide effect) would be difficult to separate from inelastic dispersion due to viscous effects. This is not to say that down hole methods are free from any complications. It is true that scattering effects across layer boundaries will interfere with the down hole measurement of attenuation. However, in the down hole configuration, more sampling within a layer is often possible. This permits better statistical averaging within a layer than is generally possible with only two receiver positions in the cross hole method. From a methodology point of view, the choice between cross hole and down hole is often one of dealing with complications in measuring dispersion versus attenuation, respectively. With regards to total cost, down hole is generally less expensive. Down-Hole Experiment The present inventor's field data were acquired using a moveable down hole three-component clamped geophone and a stationary three-component reference phone. The reference phone is used to compensate for small variations in source strength, spectral content, and any possible trigger variations. FIG. 5 shows the author's typical arrangement of a down hole experiment. The borehole and reference phone are usually about one meter from the source. This provides a nearly vertical propagation path for the waves in all but the shallowest levels. The reference phone is buried about 10 cm to protect it from noise sources at the surface. Multiple source efforts are acquired and summed at each borehole station. Typically five efforts will significantly overcome random background noise. Borehole geophone stations are acquired at regular intervals, 0.5 or 0.25 meter, depending on the detail desired. FIGS. 6A and B show two SH wave sources built by the present inventor. FIG. 6A shows a horizontal hammer blow source with hold-down weight, and FIG. 6B shows an inclined hammer source (135 degrees from vertical) nailed to soil. In FIG. 6A, the source is constructed from a 1 meter length of railroad tie. Sledge hammers are pivoted by angle iron supports, and are activated by ropes. Only one hammer is used at a time, with the other hammer being tied off from the beam. The wood beam is struck directly by the broadside edge of the hammer. The soft hammer blows are highly repeatable and produce a useful bandwidth from about 15 to 150 Hz. Sand bags may be placed on the railroad tie to provide a static load which couples the beam to the soil. Coupling is further enhanced by angle iron cleats mounted on the base of the beam. The angle iron pivots and rope activation system protect the operator from back injury that might result from free swings of the hammers. Each geophone level is acquired with two source polarizations so that SH waves may be confirmed and enhanced by a subtraction process. The other design, as shown in FIG. 6B, is lighter weight and requires no static hold down load other than the weight of the mechanism itself (about 45 pounds). It is nailed to the soil and employs the same soil key lock on the base of the timber. Further, the blows are delivered at 45 degrees from the horizontal, producing a dynamic hold down force. The single hammer pivot point can be rotated to either side, eliminating the need for two hammers. Horizontal data acquired with both sources are quite similar, but the source in FIG. 6B has the added advantage of an extra amount of vertical motion which can be used in P wave studies. The data of interest are acquired on the horizontal component phones. A Bison 9048 series engineering seismograph was used to collect the data. Because the tool may rotate and change orientation as it moves up the hole, the two horizontal borehole signals must be rotated to a standard phone orientation following hodogram analysis of the particle motion. A hodogram is a 2 dimensional plot of the ground motion time history in the horizontal plane. Based on the measured azimuth of the linear particle motion, a coordinate rotation is performed to project the entire particle motion onto a single horizontal channel. It is the mathematical equivalent of rotating the tool so that one of the phones is aligned parallel to the source polarization. Choosing a Constitutive Model Over the years, the calculation of the actual dynamic soil properties has been done under differing constitutive models (Elastic, Kelvin/Voigt and Maxwell being the most common). Kudo and Shima (1970) provide a concise review of some of the early efforts. As they point out, the lack of a definitive consensus on the appropriate constitutive model has been due in large part to the limited bandwidth of the observations. Under conditions of limited bandwidth, almost any model will produce acceptable results. On the other hand, engineering practice has tended toward the use of the Kelvin Voigt model for consolidation and soil dynamics. Computational examples include SHAKE (Schnabel et al., 1972) and DESRA2 (Lee and Finn, 1982). Furthermore, laboratory measurements by resonant column techniques also invoke the Kelvin Voigt soil model (Hardin, 1965). The laboratory measurements may be done at comparable frequencies, strain magnitudes, and stress conditions to those in a down hole experiment. Further, the determinations of soil properties is often done under the same Kelvin Voigt model. Thus, it is easy to compare laboratory results with the in-situ measurements described in this paper. This is true regardless of the type of boundary conditions invoked for the passive end of the oscillator (fixed or free). The reader of this document is referred to Dmrevich et al. (1978) and standard ASTM D. 4015-92. The major motivation for this work was to refine the acquisition and processing velocity). Measurement of amplitude decay or bandwidth in a resonant column oscillator under this model yields stiffness and damping values which may be directly related to those which will be determined in this paper. When considering the multiple degree freedom chain of spring mass dashpot elements (assuming for the moment all elements are identical), the finite difference equation of motion is found by summing the stiffness and damping forces. Thus, for the jth element in the chain, \[ \frac{\partial v_j}{\partial t} = \frac{\partial^2 u_j}{\partial t^2} \approx \left( \frac{\Delta x^2 k}{m} \right) \frac{\Delta^2 u_j}{\Delta x^2} + \left( \frac{\Delta x^2 d}{m} \right) \frac{\Delta^2 v_j}{\Delta x^2} \] (A1) where $ u_j $ and $ v_j $ are the particle displacement and particle velocity for the jth mass, measured in meters. The spring constant is $ k $ and the dashpot damping is $ d $. The element spacing is $ \Delta x $. This equation is often cast in matrix form, as was done in generating synthetic data to test the inverse method presented in this Example A. In the limit of a continuum, difference equation (A1) becomes, \[ \frac{\partial^2 u}{\partial t^2} = C_1 \frac{\partial^2 u}{\partial x^2} + C_2 \frac{\partial^3 u}{\partial t \partial x^2} \] (A2) where $ u $ is particle displacement, $ x $ is the spatial coordinate, and $ t $ is time. The constant, $ C_1 $, is the stiffness coefficient (spring), and $ C_2 $ is the viscous damping coefficient (dashpot). The ratio of $ C_2 $ (m$^2$/s) to $ C_1 $ (m$^2$/s$^2$) is the relaxation time in seconds. Biot (1941), in referring to Terzaghi's earlier work, recalled useful analogy for the Kelvin Voigt solid. In effect, the situation is similar to squeezing a permeable sponge underwater. The relaxation time is a measure of how long the sponge takes to resume its initial equilibrium. This depends on the combination of the stiffness of the fibers (spring) and the permeability permitting the fluid to return into the previously squeezed pores (viscous damping). For a continuum, the coefficients $ C_1 $ and $ C_2 $ are given in terms of shear modulus ($ G $), mass density ($ \rho $), and absolute viscosity ($ \eta $) of the soil model. Therefore, the mapping between the difference equation coefficients and those of the governing differential equation are \[ \left( \frac{\Delta x^2 k}{m} \right) \rightarrow \left( \frac{G}{\rho} \right) = C_1 \] (A3) \[ \left( \frac{\Delta x^2 d}{m} \right) \rightarrow \left( \frac{\eta}{\rho} \right) = C_2 \] (A4) Modeling soils with greater detail is possible. For example, Biot (1962) and Gajo (1995) characterized the soil as a two-phase medium, keeping fluid and frame motions distinct. Gajo computed the theoretical effects of damping on transient waveforms. However, separate recording of frame and fluid motion is beyond this writer’s capability, and the introduction of greater detail results in an increase in the number of unknowns, which often leads to non-uniqueness in the solution to the inverse problem. For these reasons, this writer has chosen to reduce the problem to only two unknowns, stiffness and damping, which admittedly are functionally dependent on other parameters such as fluid viscosity, frame porosity, permeability, and the densities of the fluid and grains. \[ \frac{\partial^2 u}{\partial t^2} = C_1 \frac{\partial^2 u}{\partial x^2} \] (A5) Ideally, both $C_1$ and $C_2$ are constants independent of frequency. Furthermore, both $C_1$ and $C_2$ should be properties of the medium. In reality, other factors also are relevant to the establishment of effective values for these two “constants.” For example, in the elastic limit, $C_1$ is the square of the phase velocity of the wave. The phase velocity depends on the shear modulus, which in turn has been shown empirically to depend on a number of parameters which include the magnitude of the strain, the stress field, and the void ratio of the material (Hardin and Richart 1963). It is difficult to underestimate the appeal of the Kelvin-Voigt (viscous damping) model. While it is clear that water saturated soils should exhibit a viscous interaction with the frame, it is far less obvious that a dry soil should exhibit viscous behavior. (Grain to grain contact friction is the more likely dominant cause of energy dissipation.) Therefore, Hardin (1965) found it necessary to vary viscosity as a function of frequency for dry specimens. In short, he suggested that the product of viscosity with frequency divided by shear modulus should be held constant. Hardin’s suggestion has the effect of eliminating velocity dispersion, linearizes the variation of decay, $\alpha$, with frequency, and establishes a constant Q (quality factor) medium. The writer has decided not to vary $C_2$ in a similar fashion, because doing so would suggest that a different constitutive relationship might be more appropriate. One alternative for dry soils might be a micromechanical approach invoking a contact law (Cascanite and Santamarina 1996). Attempts to apply the writer’s procedure within the vadose zone have not supported the Kelvin-Voigt model. (Holding $C_2$ constant in dry soils does not seem appropriate.) For that reason, the only field examples presented here are taken from below the water table. Application to a Soil Profile The practical matter of dividing the subsurface into layers involves three considerations: 1. Each layer thickness must be great enough for dispersion and attenuation to be measured with some confidence. Multiple sample points within a layer are needed to determine error bars. 2. Each layer should not be so thick that a significant variation of stress occurs across the layer. This problem is greatest in the first few meters below the surface. 3. The layer boundaries should avoid combining significantly different soil types in the same layer, subject to the resolution limits imposed by the available source band width (see next section). In the writer’s experience a nominal layer thickness of about 5 m with 0.5 to 0.25 intervals between geophone stations seems to satisfy the above requirements for layers in the 5 to 25 m depth range. Limits on Resolution The ultimate limits on spatial resolution depend on the bandwidth and frequencies present in the source radiation. This is true for all seismic methods—down-hole, cross-hole, or conducted on the surface. In the context of typical soil velocities, and the writer’s hammer sources, the available wavelengths will range from 50 m to 1 m. Although increasing the high-frequency content might appear desirable in the context of resolution, it must be cautioned that the relaxation mechanism will change as the pore fluids begin to move with the frame. This change begins at about 100 Hz for many soils. The third principle in the preceding section suggests that the relevant elementary volume should avoid inclusion of different soil types. This is only true if the distinct soil types occur in layers which are thick in the context of the dominant wavelengths radiated by the source. Even relatively extreme variations in soil types may be combined into a single relevant elementary volume, if they are thin as measured by the available seismic wavelengths (i.e., below the resolution of the source radiation). Forward Problem For any given values of $C_1$ and $C_2$ one must be able to calculate the frequency dependent attenuation and body wave dispersion. The needed formulas may be derived by substituting the trial solution, \[u(x,t) = \exp(-\alpha x)\cos(\beta x - \omega t)\] (A6) into (A2). The complex part of wavenumber, $\alpha$, is an attenuation coefficient (measured in 1/meters), a function of frequency. The real part of wavenumber is $\beta$, and $\omega$ is frequency. The result is \[ [2C_1\alpha\beta - C_2(-\alpha^2\omega + \omega\beta^2)]\sin(\beta x - \omega t) + [C_1(\alpha^2 - \beta^2) - 2C_2\alpha\omega]\beta + \omega^2]\cos(\beta x - \omega t) = 0 \] (A7) Because (A7) must be true for all time values, $t$, and space values, $x$, the coefficients of the sine and cosine terms must equal zero. This results in two equations in two unknowns: \[ \begin{bmatrix} (2\alpha\dot{a}) - (-\alpha^2\dot{u} + \dot{u}\alpha^2) \\ (\dot{a}^2 - \dot{u}^2) - (2\alpha\dot{u}) \end{bmatrix} \cdot \begin{bmatrix} C_1 \\ C_2 \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} 0 \\ -\dot{u}^2 \end{bmatrix} \] (A8) Solving equation (A8) for $C_1$ and $C_2$ produces \[ C_2 = \frac{2\alpha\beta\omega}{(\beta^2 + \alpha^2)^2} \] (A9) and \[ C_1 = \frac{(\beta^2 - \alpha^2)\omega^2}{(\beta^2 + \alpha^2)^2} \] (A10) Solving (A9) and (A10) for attenuation ($\alpha$) and phase velocity $(c = \omega/\beta)$ leads to the forward equations needed in the design of a least squares inversion algorithm, in which $a$ and $c$ are measured from the down-hole seismic waveforms as a function of frequency. Let’s begin by taking the ratio of (A9) to (A10). Solving the resulting quadratic formula for wavenumber, $\beta$, yields \[ \beta = \frac{\alpha}{2C_2\omega} \cdot D \tag{A11} \] where \[ D = 2\left[C_1 + \sqrt{C_1^2 + \omega^2 C_2^2}\right] \tag{A12} \] Substituting (A11) for $\beta$ in (A10) and solving for the attenuation, $\alpha$, produces \[ \alpha = \frac{4\sqrt{D} \omega^2 C_2}{(2\omega C_2)^2 + D^2} \tag{A13} \] Note that if the damping coefficient, $C_2$, vanishes, there is no attenuation. Furthermore, the constant, nonzero value of $C_2$ predicts the frequency dependent behavior of attenuation, $\alpha$. Replacing wavenumber, $\beta$, with $\omega/c$ and solving for phase velocity, $c$, one obtains \[ c = \frac{2\omega^2 C_2}{D\alpha} \tag{A14} \] The frequency dependent behavior of phase velocity depends on both $C_1$ and $C_2$. If damping, $C_2$, vanishes, the phase velocity reduces to the elastic case and becomes a constant (no dispersion). Applying L'Hospital's rule (since $\alpha$ also vanishes), one obtains a constant phase velocity for the zero damping case: \[ c = \sqrt{C_1} \tag{A15} \] Eqs. (A13) and (A14) provide the forward equations needed for the inversion algorithm. The section on inversion shows how measurements of both $\alpha$ and $c$, made at selected frequencies, are then jointly inverted for the constants $C_1$ and $C_2$, stiffness and damping. Before consideration of the inverse problem, however, the mathematical relationships connecting $C_2$ to other common expressions of damping will be described. Relationship of $C_2$ to Other Forms While the Kelvin-Voigt model appears frequently in the literature, a number of forms have been chosen to express viscous damping under this model. These forms include complex modulus, loss tangent, loss angle, and damping ratio. For the benefit of those readers who work with these other forms, the following summary is given. One may define a complex shear modulus of the form \[ G^* = G_R + iG_I \tag{A16} \] with real part, $G_R$, and complex part, $G_I$. This modulus is related to the wave equation coefficients by \[ C_1 = \frac{G_R}{\rho}; \quad C_2 = \frac{G_I}{\omega \rho} \tag{A17a, b} \] The complex shear modulus, $G^$, varies as a function of frequency in the Kelvin-Voigt model. This variation is linear and entirely due to the complex part, $G_I$, and its relation to $C_2$ in (A17). An alternative form may be computed from the complex shear modulus. This expression is the loss tangent. The loss tangent is given by \[ \tan(\delta) = \frac{G_I}{G_R} \tag{A18} \] where $\delta$ is the loss angle. It follows from (A17) that \[ \tan(\delta) = \omega \left(\frac{C_2}{C_1}\right) = \omega T_r \tag{A19} \] Here, $T_r$ is the relaxation time. Loss tangent (or loss angle) will also vary with frequency. In the Kelvin-Voigt model, the variation is linear with the slope being the relaxation time. Finally, resonant column workers often employ the concept of damping ratio (Drnevich 1978). Damping ratio, $D_T$ (the ratio between any value of damping to critical damping) is given by \[ D_T = \frac{C_2 \omega_0 \rho}{2G_R} \tag{A20} \] where $\omega_0$ is the resonant frequency. The resonant frequency is given by the root of the ratio of the equivalent spring constant to polar moment of inertia in a resonant column experiment (Drnevich et al. 1978). Inversion of Attenuation and Dispersion* The inverse problem is to solve for wave equation coefficients $C_1$ and $C_2$ (soil stiffness and damping), given measurements of body wave dispersion and attenuation. The joint inversion of two different data types can be linearized and formulated as an iterative matrix inversion scheme using a Taylor’s series expansion limited to the first order terms (Menke 1989). The general form is \[ G \Delta m = \Delta d \tag{A21} \] The Jacobian matrix, $G$, contains the derivatives of the measurements (phase velocity and attenuation) with respect to the desired parameters ($C_1$ and $C_2$). The vector, $\Delta m$, contains changes to the soil parameters which reduces the least square error between the observed and predicted measurements. The vector, $\Delta d$, contains the differences between the observed and calculated measurements. For this specific problem, the matrix equation (A21) is partitioned as follows: \[ \begin{bmatrix} \vdots & \vdots \\ \vdots & \vdots \\ \frac{\partial c}{\partial C_1} & \frac{\partial c}{\partial C_2} \\ \vdots & \vdots \\ \vdots & \vdots \\ \frac{\partial \alpha}{\partial C_1} & \frac{\partial \alpha}{\partial C_2} \\ \vdots & \vdots \\ \vdots & \vdots \\ \end{bmatrix} \begin{bmatrix} \Delta C_1 \\ \Delta C_2 \\ \vdots \\ \vdots \\ \vdots \\ \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} \vdots \\ \vdots \\ \Delta c \\ \vdots \\ \vdots \\ \Delta \alpha \\ \vdots \\ \vdots \\ \end{bmatrix} \tag{A22} \] The upper partition of $G$ contains the derivatives of phase velocity, $c$, with respect to the unknown soil parameters. Similarly, the lower partition contains the decay derivatives. Each row of (A22) corresponds to a different sampled frequency. The seismic signals are filtered with narrow band-pass filters to observe the frequency dependent behavior of velocity and decay. Each filtered version of the waveforms contributes two rows to the matrix, one for velocity and the other for decay. The procedure is iterative, beginning with an initial guess for values of $C_1$ and $C_2$. Solution of (A22) leads to sensible changes in $C_1$ and $C_2$ that reduce the difference between the observed measurements and calculated predictions from equations (A13) and (A14). In this joint inversion, we have two different types of measurement units in the vector, $\Delta d$. These are velocity (m/s) and decay (1/m) at each sampled frequency. This requires a weighting scheme to properly balance the influence of each type of measurement magnitude on the final answer. Since the numerical magnitude of the data values is dependent on the units, one must weight the attenuation measurements (values in the range of tenths) to achieve parity with the velocity measurements (values in the hundreds). The writer uses a combination of both row and column weighting when inverting (A22). Rows within a partition are weighted to compensate for the difference in data units. This basic block weighting of the rows may be further modulated by the reciprocal of the standard deviation for each measurement of velocity and attenuation. Thus, the best data (least uncertainty, small standard deviation) are given greater weight in achieving the solution. Estimates of standard deviation (error bars) for each data type are available from the many different geophone locations within a soil layer which redundantly contribute to measurement of velocity and decay. Column weighting is done to improve the numerical stability of the calculation. The reciprocal of the maximum derivative in each column is used for the column weighting. The weighted problem is written as follows: $$[W \cdot G \cdot Y] \cdot Y^{-1} \cdot \Delta m = W \cdot \Delta d$$ \hspace{1cm} (A23) where $W$ is the (nxn) row weighting matrix, and $Y$ is the (2x2) column weighting matrix. The diagonal row weighting matrix (for n frequencies) is given by $$W = \begin{bmatrix} w_{c11} & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & w_{cii} & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & w_{cnn} & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 0 & w_{a11} & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & w_{aii} & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & w_{aoff} \end{bmatrix}$$ \hspace{1cm} (A24) where the ith weights for the upper and lower partition are $$w_{cii} = \frac{B \cdot \bar{c} \cdot \sigma_{cmin}}{\bar{c} \cdot \sigma_{ci}}$$ \hspace{1cm} (A25) $$w_{aii} = \frac{(1 - B) \cdot \sigma_{amin}}{\sigma_{ai}}$$ Here $B$ is a balance factor which can be used to trim the desired weighting of the relative influence of each data type in achieving a solution to (A23). Equal weighting corresponds to a value of 0.5 for $B$, the typical choice. The over-lined variables are the respective mean values of the measured attenuation and velocity. The remaining factors are the standard deviation estimates associated with each measurement, normalized by the minimum standard deviation for each type of data. The diagonal column weighting matrix is given by $$Y = \begin{bmatrix} y_{11} & 0 \\ 0 & y_{22} \end{bmatrix}$$ \hspace{1cm} (A26) where the diagonal elements are equal to the reciprocals of the maximum values found in each column of matrix $G$ respectively. The least squares solution to (A23) is given by Menke (1989): $$\Delta m = H \cdot \Delta d$$ \hspace{1cm} (A27a) $$H = Y \cdot [(WGY)^T \cdot (WGY)]^{-1} \cdot (WGY)^T \cdot W$$ \hspace{1cm} (A27b) Here $H$ is the weighted least squares inverse. Typically, the algorithm converges in about 5 iterations. Once the algorithm has converged on a solution for soil parameters $C_1$ and $C_2$, one must determine corresponding error bars. What is needed is a mapping between the error bars of the calculated quantities ($C_1$ and $C_2$) and the error bars of the measured quantities ($c$ and $c_i$) at each frequency. Inverse theory provides a solution to this problem (Menke 1989). Error bars for the wave equation coefficients (soil stiffness and damping) are the diagonal elements of the matrix, $C_m$, given by $$C_m = H \cdot C_g \cdot H^T$$ \hspace{1cm} (A28) where $C_g$ is the measurement covariance matrix. For uncorrelated measurement errors, $C_g$ is diagonal, and the non-zero elements are the squares of the standard deviations for each measurement. The square of each measurement standard deviation is the estimate of the variance about the measurement value. Measure of Dispersion and Attenuation Ideally, the measurement of velocity dispersion should be done by a robust method which also provides an estimate of the uncertainty of each measurement. Methods based on only two receiver positions (such as the cross-spectrum between two signals from different depths) are vulnerable to modulations introduced from reflections and other indirect wave fields. The multisignal summations conducted in a semblance calculation provide an effective frequency-wavenumber filter that excludes non-direct waves. Further, the average property obtained for an interval will include contributions from each sampled position in the interval (rather than relying on only two points). The writer’s method is as follows. For a given subsurface interval of interest, different trial velocities are used to adjust the data into alignment. A semblance value (Sheriff 1991) is computed for each trial velocity, and a search performed to find the optimum velocity and corresponding alignment. The semblance value defines an objective function which must be maximized. This is a nonlinear optimization problem. The maximum is found by a golden section subroutine, which is an adaptation to an algorithm found in the work of Press et al. (1989). Filtering of the data is one way to measure the variation of velocity with frequency. Selection of filter bandwidth requires a compromise between spectral and temporal resolution. The more narrow the bandwidth of the filter, the less will be the temporal resolution, and vice versa. The writer prefers to use an autoregressive, causal band-pass filter with a bandwidth no greater than 2 Hz. The filters introduce phase delays in the data. However, for any given filter, the delay will be the same for all the geophone stations. Thus, the phase delay will have no effect on the measured velocity. The error bars for velocity at any measured frequency are found by time shifting the data into alignment with the determined velocity. Then, using one signal as a reference, the relative misalignments between the traces are computed by taking the normalized inner product between traces. The more perfect the alignment, the smaller the error bar will be. The same filters are also used to measure the variation in amplitude decay with frequency. The filtered data are scanned for RMS amplitude of the direct wave as a function of source-receiver distance. The amplitudes are then corrected for spherical divergence spreading loss and a linear fit made on the logarithm of the corrected amplitudes as a function of propagation path length. The slope of the linear fit yields the decay coefficient, $\alpha$. The least square error of the fit is used in the determination of the decay coefficient error bars. The more perfect the fit, the smaller the error bar. Demonstration on Synthetic Data A synthetic data set simulating a down-hole experiment was generated by Runge-Kutta integration of the finite difference equation. Eq. (A1), cast in matrix form, was used to calculate the waveforms. The spatial sampling was 0.2 m and the temporal integration interval was 0.0001 s. The simulated source had a peak frequency of 50 Hz and a nominal $-6$ dB bandwidth of 40 Hz. The synthetic data were resampled to 0.0002 s sample interval after generating the waveforms (comparable to the field recordings to be presented later). The 1-D chain of Kelvin-Voigt elements simulated a 40 m medium. Data corresponding to offsets in the range from 6 to 11 m were then selected for analysis (the selection avoided reflections from the end of the modeled medium). The stiffness and damping were set at $C_1 = 160,000 \text{ m}^2/\text{s}^2$ and $C_2 = 200 \text{ m}^2/\text{s}$. Because a 1-D calculation corresponds to a plane wave, a spherical divergence beam spreading decay was manually applied to the data. This was done by scaling the signal amplitudes by the reciprocal of the distance from the source. This $1/R$ amplitude scaling simulates a $1/R^2$ decay in power density associated with a spherical wavefront. FIG. 8 shows several views of the synthetic data. The true amplitude (after spherical divergence added) is shown in FIG. 8(a). The rapid amplitude decay is quite evident. To better show the changes in the propagating wavelet, FIG. 8(b) presents the data with each signal resealed by the L2 norm. The L2 norm is simply the Euclidean norm. It is found from the root of the sum of the squares of the samples in any given signal. The changes in the wavelet due to dispersion are rather modest given the short window of observation (5 m). The wavelet does change with distance since the different frequencies propagate with different velocities (dispersion). Clear evidence of dispersion can be seen in FIGS. 8(c) and (d). These are the 30 and 90 Hz filtered versions of the synthetic data (2 Hz bandwidth, 14 pole filters). The reader can better observe the different velocity for each frequency by laying a straight edge along a line of consistent phase in FIG. 8(c) and observing the misalignment with the waves in FIG. 8(d), which are faster. The velocity at each frequency corresponds to the slope in time of the wavefront. An automated method for determining the velocity at each frequency is to apply time shifts to the data for an assumed velocity, and then compute a semblance value to quantify the quality of the trial alignment. FIG. 9 illustrates this trial-and-error procedure of removing travel time with an assumed velocity. This is done for the 30 Hz filtered version. The correct velocity will align the wavefront along a line of constant arrival time. FIG. 9(a) shows that the correct velocity lies between 615 and 363 m/s. The corresponding semblance values are $s=0.8169$ and $s=0.8686$ respectively. Perfect alignment with noise free data should result in a value approaching unity. The golden section search procedure determined an optimum estimate of velocity equal to 418 m/s (semblance=0.9413). FIG. 9(b) shows the application of this velocity to align the data. This procedure is performed for each filtered version of the data to measure a dispersion curve. Determination of the exponential amplitude decay constant, $\alpha$, is done by formulating the problem as a least squares linear regression for each filtered version. At some distance, $r$, from the source, the Kelvin-Voigt model predicts the wave amplitude, $$A = \left( \frac{A_0 r_0}{r} \right) \cdot e^{-\alpha(r-r_0)} \quad (A29)$$ where $A_0$ is the amplitude of the wave at some reference distance from the source, $r_0$. Multiplying both sides of (A29) by distance, $r$, and taking the logarithm of both sides leads to an expression for amplitude decay in decibels, $$\text{dB} = 20 \log_{10} \left( \frac{Ar}{A_0 r_0} \right) = (-20 \log_{10} e)\alpha(r-r_0) \quad (A30a)$$ $$\text{dB} = (-8.686\alpha) \cdot (r-r_0) \quad (A30b)$$ Thus, the slope of a line on a decibel vs. distance $(r-r_0)$ plot is $(-8.686)\alpha$. FIG. 10 shows such a plot for the synthetic data. The decibel (logarithmic) scale linearizes the exponential decay. The value of $\alpha(1/\text{m})$ is easily computed from the slope (dB/m) by dividing by $-8.686$. FIG. 12 shows the measurements of decay and dispersion as circles with error bars (95% confidence interval). The calculated dispersion and decay from the solution for $C_1$ and $C_2$ is displayed as a solid curve through the measured points. The solution is quite close to the values of $C_1$ and $C_2$ used to generate the data. The somewhat larger stiffness and damping values result from the additional computational dispersion which is common in finite difference methods. The effect is due to the finite discretization of the computational problem. Mechanical waves propagating through discrete lattice structures also exhibit this type of additional dispersion. Demonstration on Field Data Two different borehole surveys have been selected to demonstrate the writer’s method. One borehole was located in Logan, Utah, the other in Boise, Id. The Utah data were acquired at the GeoLogan97 field day site. The survey was conducted on Jul. 15, 1997, during the first meeting of the ASCE GeoInstitute. This site exhibits low levels of viscous damping in a soil profile consisting of fine grained sands, silts, and clays. The Idaho data were acquired in coarse grained granular soils consisting of sands, gravels and cobbles. The Idaho data were collected between episodes of sparging which were being conducted to treat contaminated ground water. The levels of viscous damping are very large at this location. Utah Case History FIG. 12 shows the SH-wave data from the horizontal components. Following hodogram analysis for tool orientation, the data were rotated parallel to the source polarization. The signals have been scaled to remove the amplitude decay with depth, permitting the reader to better observe the waveform of the direct arriving wave. Also shown in FIG. 12 is the soil behavior type classification from a neighboring cone penetrometer (CPT-3) survey conducted by ConeTec in November 1996. The CPT survey was done in preparation for the Geologan97 meeting. The change in slope of the first arrivals at the top of the sand clearly indicates a change in wave velocity. The writer chose to apply the method to intervals both above and below this change in velocity. One interval (at 2 to 7 m depth) is in the low velocity saturated silts and clays. The other interval (at 8 to 13 m depth) is in the upper portion of the higher velocity sand. Thus each interval is about 5 m thick and includes about 20 geophone stations (0.25 m station spacing). The source was the one shown in FIG. 6(b). The entire data set was acquired by the writer without any helper. Working alone, it took 3 hours and 15 minutes to acquire the data. With a helper, this would have been reduced to about 2 hours. The data were collected on a Bison 9048 engineering seismograph with a 0.00025 second sample interval and filters set to 4 and 1,000 Hz. FIG. 13 shows the dispersions decay for the silt interval. In this and all later presentations, error bars are for 95% confidence limits (random error). Bias will always be present and is difficult to quantify. Bias is introduced by choices, such as the precise limits on the interval, the filter frequencies, and the weighting scheme used in the inversion (all of which affect the resulting $C_1$ and $C_2$ determinations). Clearly, the lack of velocity dispersion and nearly flat amplitude decay response with frequency suggest a low level of damping. This low level of damping is further supported by the need to reduce the recording instrument preamplifier gain by 20 dB from the normal setting used in Idaho, where signal losses have been greater. The smooth curves in FIG. 13 are the dispersion and amplitude decay computed from the solution: $$C_1 = 25.567 \pm 21.8 \text{ m}^2/\text{s} \text{ stiffness}$$ $$C_2 = 1 \pm 1 \text{ m}^2/\text{s} \text{ damping}$$ The relaxation time for the silt (from the ratio of $C_2/C_1$) is only $39 \pm 29 \mu$s. Such a short relaxation time, uncertain as it may be, could be an indication that the pore fluids are moving with the frame in this frequency band (presumably due to the low level of permeability that one would associate with finer grained materials). If the fluids are moving with the frame, rather than through it, there would be less viscous drag. FIG. 14 shows the dispersion and decay measurements for the sand interval (at 8 to 13 m depth). The velocity dispersion is slightly greater than in the silt. The variation of amplitude decay with frequency is significantly greater than for the silt. Again, the smooth curves are computed from the solution: $$C_1 = 51.343 \pm 37.5 \text{ m}^2/\text{s}^2 \text{ stiffness}$$ $$C_2 = 14 \pm 1 \text{ m}^2/\text{s} \text{ damping}$$ Damping has increased by a factor of 14, and the stiffness has doubled. For the sand, the relaxation time is computed to be $273 \pm 19 \mu$s. Clearly, the role of viscous damping has overwhelmed the increase in stiffness. It may be that the presumed increase in permeability which one would likely associate with a larger effective grain size is partly responsible for the increased damping. That is, the sandy soil may be of sufficient permeability to afford more fluid-frame interaction. The result would be more viscous damping in the sand than in the silt. Idaho Case History FIG. 15 shows the Idaho SH-wave data rotated into alignment with the source polarization. Also shown is a description of the material observed during the drilling process. The sudden change in slope of the direct arriving wavefront occurs at the water table, suggesting that the SH-wave speed increases below the vadose zone. The data were acquired with the horizontal impact source shown in FIG. 6(a). Data collection was on Dec. 20, 1994. Downhole stations were acquired every 0.5 m. The recording instrument was a Bison 9048 engineering Seismograph with a sample interval of 0.0002 s and filters set at 8 and 1,000 Hz. With one helper, the survey took 1 hour and 40 minutes for data collection. Stiffness and damping for two intervals are presented here. A shallow interval (just below the water table, at 5 to 10 m) was found to exhibit extreme damping. The other deeper interval (at 10 to 15 m) was found to have significantly less damping. Since the wave velocity at the dominant frequency of about 50 Hz is not much different in the two zones, an elastic analysis would fail to detect a significant difference between the two intervals. As will be shown, the difference becomes evident only when one examines velocity and amplitude decay as a function of frequency. FIG. 16 shows the measured velocity dispersion and attenuation for the upper interval. The smooth curve is calculated from the inversion solution: $$C_1 = 94.917 \pm 2.913 \text{ m}^2/\text{s}^2 \text{ stiffness}$$ $$C_2 = 25.5 \pm 9 \text{ m}^2/\text{s} \text{ damping}$$ The corresponding relaxation time is 2,686 ± 125 microseconds. It is evident that extremely large viscous forces are causing the dispersion and amplitude decay. The use of a Kelvin model is well justified since the dispersion and decay observed agree well with the model (see Eqs. [A12], [A13], and [A14]). In the language of inverse theory, the error bars in the solution are chiefly a result of errors in the measured quantities (data error) rather than due to the choice of an inappropriate model (resolving error). One possible contributing factor to the large damping may be residual trapped air in the pores. The survey was conducted four and a half months following the termination of a seven month sparging-ground-water treatment program. At this point, there is no way to know if trapped air was present during the survey. Trapped air would reduce the degree of water saturation. Significant alteration of SH-wave velocity has been documented in partially saturated soils (Wu 1984). In any case, the granular nature of the soils would predict sufficient permeability for interaction between fluids and the soil frame, the result being viscous damping. FIG. 17 shows the measurements of dispersion and decay for the deeper interval. It is clear that significantly less viscous damping is present from these data. The smooth curves were calculated from the solution: $$C_1 = 182.751 \pm 4.860 \text{ m}^2/\text{s}^2 \text{ stiffness}$$ $$C_2 = 69 \pm 17 \text{ m}^2/\text{s} \text{ damping}$$ The relaxation time for this interval is computed to be 378 ± 94 $\mu$s. In comparing the two intervals, it is clear that the lower interval is stiffer with less damping. The fact that damping can raise the velocity of the wave is easily overlooked if not measured. This may be important when computing other quantities such as shear modulus from velocity alone. Conclusions Example A A method for determining in-situ stiffness and damping has been presented. The method is to jointly invert both meameasurements of SH-wave velocity dispersion and spatial amplitude decay, corrected for beam divergence. The method is consistent with current engineering practice and uses a Kelvin/Voigt constitutive model. The field examples presented here demonstrate that the method works in practice. Furthermore, the current use of the Kelvin-Voigt model in engineering (where pore water is present) is supported by these in situ determinations. Since damping will increase the wave velocity, it is possible to introduce significant errors by computing shear modulus from wave velocity alone. It has been common practice to compute the shear modulus from measurements of the dominant group velocity of SH-waves. This is like measuring only the resonant frequency in a spring/mass/dashpot experiment, and then computing the spring constant without consideration of any damping effects. The actual measurement of amplitude decay is essential if damping is to be determined. To measure amplitude decay, the writer’s method invokes a significant amount of redundancy and averaging to overcome variations in borehole to formation coupling. This strategy also helps reduce the effects of constructive and destructive interference presented from scattered and reflected waves. Further, it is this redundancy which also permits an estimate of the errors involved. Finally, the writer would like to speculate that his often observed increase in shear wave velocity at the water table may be an indication of a shift in dominance from contact (grain-grain) friction in the vadose zone to viscous (fluid-frame) friction below the water table. It is likely that both relaxation mechanisms exist at all times, but the high viscosity of water (relative to air) may shift the balance to a viscoelastic model below the water table. Evidence for this conjecture may also be found in resonant column studies of saturated and dry soils (Stoll 1985). Example B Relating Damping to Soil Permeability Published comparisons of complex moduli in dry and saturated soils have shown that viscous behavior is only evident when a sufficiently massive viscous fluid (like water) is present. That is, the loss tangent is frequency dependent for water saturated specimens, but nearly frequency independent for dry samples. While the Kelvin-Voigt (KV) representation of a soil captures the general viscous behavior using a dashpot, it fails to account for the possibly separate motions of the fluid and frame (there is only a single mass element). An alternative representation which separates the two masses, water and frame, is presented here. This Kelvin-Voigt-Maxwell-Biot (KVMB) model draws on elements of the long standing linear viscoelastic models in a way that connects the viscous damping to permeability and inertial mass coupling. A mathematical mapping between the KV and KVMB representations is derived and permits continued use of the KV model, while retaining an understanding of the separate mass motions. The classic Kelvin-Voigt (KV) solid may be the most enduring and ubiquitous model used to represent the engineering behavior of soils. Examples of its application include compressibility and settlement (Das 1993), as well as the response of soils under impact (Roessel et al. 1994). The model also governs the analysis of standard soil tests, including consolidation ASTM-D2435, (ASTM 1996a) and resonant-column tests ASTM-D4015 (ASTM 1996b). The model also finds application in describing ground water flow through unconsolidated granular soils (Domenico and Schwartz 1990). The KV representation of a soil element places a dashpot, c, in parallel with the spring, k [see FIG. 18(a)]. This system, composed from a single element, is a single degree of freedom oscillator, and this is the basis for the analysis of the resonant column test. If this single degree of freedom element is joined with other similar elements, the result is a multi-degree of freedom system [FIG. 18(b)]. When enough elements are cascaded, the assemblage can represent the one-dimensional (1D) propagation of a shear, horizontally polarized (SH) wave. A number of writers have represented the dashpot-spring combination in terms of other tractable components. In extending Terzaghi’s original one-dimensional theory of consolidation to three dimensions, Biot (1941) makes reference to Terzaghi’s rubber sponge analogy as a way to describe the response of a saturated soil to compression. Later, Biot’s papers on wave propagation introduce the idea of representing the pores by small cylinders. The cylinder diameter became the key parameter needed to quantify permeability (Biot 1956a). Biot used the cylinder diameter to extend his theory to include turbulent flow beyond a defined transition frequency (Biot 1956b). Biot’s later work includes a number of figures which represent the spring and dashpot in terms of frame stiffness and fluid-frame viscous damping. Examples may be found in Biot (1962b) and Biot (1962a). Similar descriptions can also be found in Gassmann (1951) with his “open” and “closed” systems being end members of permeable and impermeable cases. The choice of uniform, spherical grains (Gassman 1951), or cylindrical pores of the same uniform diameter (Biot 1956a) fall short of describing actual soils. Their value is in that such simplifications lead to a tractable analysis. For example, the capillary tube models of fluid flow through soils have been used to derive Darcy’s law (Bear 1972). In early resonant column studies, dry samples were evaluated (Hardin 1965). The resulting measurements were in conflict with the constant viscosity property of the KV model. In order to retain a viscous representation, an effective viscosity was proposed which varied inversely with frequency. This introduction of an “effective” viscosity has become widespread and integrated into engineering practice (Kramer 1996). The continued use of the concept is testimony to the strong appeal of the KV representation, even in cases where a viscous effect is not observed. Stoll (1985) demonstrated that the introduction of water into the pore spaces could lead to a classic viscous response, suggesting that a dense viscous fluid, such as water, is required. Stoll presented results on an Ottawa sand which demonstrated an increase in damping with frequency, but only for water saturated samples. In the case of dry samples, damping remained constant with frequency. Inspired by Stoll’s reports for saturated soil and the theoretical foundation of Biot (1962a), the author formulated the KVMB model. This model behaves very much like the KV model, but splits the mass into two parts, and is a rearrangement of the elements in series (similar to a Maxwell body). When relating this KVMB model to a saturated soil, porosity can be used to define the mass ratio (frame to pore fluid). The dashpot is an expression of the permeability which controls the relative motion between frame and pore fluid. Further, it is possible to mathematically map the KVMB model elements to those of the classic KV representation, and thus relate determinations of porosity and KV viscous damping to permeability. KVMB Representation A major limitation of the KV model is that the mass is treated as a single element. A two phase medium, like a saturated soil, can not be fully represented with the masses bundled in this way. The KVMB representation presented here separates the mass into pore fluid and solid frame components (according to porosity). Viscous damping is then due to the frictional losses resulting from the relative motion between fluid and frame. Frictional losses from this motion produces the “dashpot”. The KVMB dashpot depends on permeability. The KVMB elemental representation is shown in FIG. 19(a). As in the case of the classic KV model, there is a single dashpot and a single spring, but arranged in series (reminiscent of the Maxwell model). Also, we can view the system from either point of view, an oscillator (single element) or wave (assemblage of elements). The significant difference is the explicit separation of the water mass from the frame mass by the dashpot (Biot’s influence). The dashpot controls the relative motion between the two mass components (fluid and frame), and this permits us to relate the dashpot to permeability. Dampened Oscillator Points of View Engineering practice has a significant investment in the KV model. Our very concept of viscous damping and damping ratio for an oscillator are uniquely bound to this single degree of freedom (SDOF) system. Therefore, it is useful to find a mathematical mapping between the KV and KVMB representations. Both models produce very similar behavior, but the KVMB model can relate that behavior to soil fluid-frame interaction in a more direct way. A mapping between the KV and the KVMB models can be achieved through a Gedanken Versuch (thought experiment). This is done by examining a single dampened oscillator element for both representations. The components are considered matched when the free response time histories are as close as possible. We consider the free response due to an initial condition consisting of a velocity impulse applied to either the frame mass (KVMB), or the single mass element (KV). The mapping is facilitated by decoupling the differential equations and relating two of the respective eigenvalues. Thus, it is possible to compute an equivalent KV dashpot from the permeability and degree of inertial mass coupling represented by the KVMB model. Decoupling the KV Representation The governing differential equation for the free response of the KV model corresponds to the well understood SDOF system \[ m\ddot{u} + c\dot{u} + ku = 0 \] (B1) where mass motion is given by displacement, $ u $, velocity, $ \dot{u} $, and acceleration, $ \ddot{u} $. This second order ordinary differential equation (ODE) can be recast as a coupled system of two first order ODEs, (Sadun 2001) \[ \frac{d}{dt} u = A_{kv} \cdot u \] (B2) \[ \frac{d}{dt} u = \begin{bmatrix} 0 & 1 \\ -\frac{k}{m} & -\frac{c}{m} \end{bmatrix} \begin{bmatrix} u \\ \dot{u} \end{bmatrix} \] (B3) where $ u $=displacement–velocity vector. In this autonomous form, we recognize an eigenvalue problem which can be diagonalized in a new basis given by the eigenvectors of matrix, $ A_{kv} $. Eqs. (B1) and (B3) are equivalent, as are their solutions. In the specific case of an underdamped system, the solution is an exponentially decaying sinusoid. The eigenvalues of $ A_{kv} $ are complex, the imaginary part giving the damped oscillation frequency, and the real part the exponential decay envelope of the solution. The analytic solution to Eq. (B3) is given as (Sadun 2001) \[ \begin{bmatrix} u(t) \\ \dot{u}(t) \end{bmatrix} = B_{kv} \cdot \begin{bmatrix} e^{\lambda_1 t} & 0 \\ 0 & e^{\lambda_2 t} \end{bmatrix} \cdot \begin{bmatrix} B_{kv}^{-1} \\ \dot{u}(0) \end{bmatrix} \] (B4) where the new, diagonalized basis is given by matrix, $ B_{kv} $, the columns of which are the eigenvectors of $ A_{kv} $. For our particular choice, the initial conditions are given by $ u(0)=0 $ and $ \dot{u}(0)=1 $. In the underdamped case, the eigenvalues $ \lambda_j $ will be complex conjugates. Decoupling the KVMB Representation By similar reasoning, the KVMB model shown in FIG. 19(a) obeys the coupled governing differential equation \[ \frac{d}{dt} u = A_{kvmb} \cdot u \] (B5) \[ \frac{d}{dt} \begin{bmatrix} u_f \\ \dot{u}_f \\ u_w \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} 0 & 1 & 0 \\ -\frac{k}{M_f} & -\frac{d}{M_f} + \frac{d}{M_f} & 0 \\ 0 & \frac{d}{M_w} & -\frac{d}{M_w} \end{bmatrix} \cdot \begin{bmatrix} u_f \\ \dot{u}_f \\ u_w \end{bmatrix} \] (B6) Where $ u_f $=frame-mass displacement; $ \dot{u}_f $=frame-mass velocity; and $ \dot{u}_w $=water-mass velocity. This 2DOF system is 3×3 with three eigenvalues. The solution giving the free response of the KVMB system to initial conditions is \[ \begin{bmatrix} u_f(t) \\ \dot{u}_f(t) \\ u_w(t) \end{bmatrix} = B_{kvmb} \cdot \begin{bmatrix} e^{\gamma_1 t} & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & e^{\gamma_2 t} & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & e^{\gamma_3 t} \end{bmatrix} \cdot \begin{bmatrix} B_{kvmb}^{-1} \\ \dot{u}_f(0) \\ \dot{u}_w(0) \end{bmatrix} \] (B7) Where are three eigenvalues, $ \gamma_i $, and the columns of the new basis matrix, $ B_{kvmb} $, are the eigenvectors of $ A_{kvmb} $. Our choice of initial conditions is $ u_f(0)=0 $, $ \dot{u}_f(0)=1 $, and $ \dot{u}_w(0)=0 $. In both the KV and KVMB cases, the single mass, or the frame mass receives an initial velocity impulse, respectively. For an underdamped system, Eq. (B7) is an exponentially decaying sinusoid superimposed on an exponentially decaying trend. This superimposed trend is small in amplitude, and thus the two models can be effectively mapped. Motivation for Mapping KV to KVMB The advantage of the KVMB system lies in its separation of the two mass components, solid, and water. Once the masses are separated, the viscous damping may be related to the permeability. Motivation for the mapping resides in the existing laboratory and field methods which are grounded in the KV model. We can relate the laboratory or field measured spring and dashpot values (KV model) to corresponding values for the KVMB spring and dashpot. Assuming porosity is known, the resultant KVMB dashpot can be related to the soil permeability, producing a technique to evaluate permeability from either resonant column or SII wave determinations of damping (Michaels 1998—as in Example A). An intuitive description of the mapping is as follows. At one end limit, say in a clay, the pore fluids move largely with the frame, the lack of significant relative motion leading to small damping values. We say that the masses are coupled in a clay, and the KVMB dashpot would have a large value (but the KV dashpot would be small in value). At the other extreme, say a gravel with large pores, the pore fluids and frame move independently. We say that the masses are uncoupled in a gravel, and the KVMB dashpot has a small value (as does the KV dashpot). The frictional losses are small due to the large pore diameters. Between these two extremes, say for a sand, the permeability is small enough to maximize viscous friction and hence damping. That is, the pores are large enough to permit significant relative motion between the pore fluid and frame, but small enough to lead to significant viscous friction and damping. Intuitively, we expect a peak in equivalent KV damping value to occur at the transition between coupled and uncoupled cases. Experimental support for the view that viscous damping is related to fluid-frame interaction in sands is found in Stoll (1985). Stoll demonstrated that resonant column testing of saturated sands produces a frequency dependent damping, while dry samples produce a damping which is nearly frequency independent. In short, water can produce a larger viscous damping effect than air since the mass of water will be more than the mass of air for the same pore volume. Thus, when combined with porosity and pore fluid specifications, the KVMB representation is able to predict both the large and small viscous effects corresponding to saturated and dry conditions, respectively. Mapping KV and KVMB Representations As previously mentioned, the mapping is done through the thought experiment. Each dampened oscillator, KV and KVMB, is excited by a velocity impulse applied to the combined or frame mass, respectively. We consider the spring and dashpot components of the two alternative models mapped when the resultant free response of the frame mass (KVMB) is as close as possible to the response of the combined mass (KV). We can view the response of each system as a time series describing the position of the mass as a function of time. For the KVMB model, this would be the frame mass, for the KV model the combined mass. A scalar metric which quantifies the similarity between these two displacement signals is given by the angle between the two time series. The angle is \[ \theta = \arccos \left( \frac{u_f^T \cdot u}{\\|u_f\\| \cdot \\|u\\|} \right) \] where $u_f$ = displacement time history of the solid frame mass of the KVMB model; and $u$ = displacement of the combined mass in the KV model. The denominator terms are the Euclidean (L2) norms for the two signals. Because both signals are essentially exponentially decaying sinusoids, there is no need to consider the response beyond the point where the motion has died out. The angle $\theta$ provides a scalar metric which can be used to evaluate the mapping between the two representations. The smaller the value of $\theta$, the better the match. Thus, if the two time histories were identical, the angle would be zero. In the author’s experience, values of $\theta$ less than 5 correspond to time histories which are virtually indistinguishable. The solution is to discard the purely real eigenvalue of the KVMB system, and retain only the complex-conjugate eigenvalue pair. It is the complex-conjugate pair which produce that part of the response associated with the KV model. The retained KVMB eigenvalues are substituted into the KV solution which gives the eigenvalues in terms of the spring and dashpot constants. One simply back solves for the component values from the eigenvalues. The solution is to set $\lambda_1 = \gamma_1$, $\lambda_2 = \gamma_2$, discard $\gamma_3$, and \[ \frac{k}{m} = \lambda_1 \cdot \lambda_2 \] \[ \frac{c}{m} = -(\lambda_1 + \lambda_2) \] Where $\gamma_1$ and $\gamma_2$ = retained complex conjugate eigenvalues from the KVMB representation; and $m$ = KV mass which effectively completes the mapping. Thus, it is not necessary to actually compute the time series contemplated in the thought experiment. We need only determine the KVMB eigenvalues to compute the effective spring-mass and dashpot-mass ratios of the KV system. Note that we obtain only ratios with respect to mass on the left hand side, not individual values for the spring and dashpot. It is these ratios that determine the eigenvalues of the KV system given in equation Eq. (B3). FIG. 20 illustrates the mapping for a specific KVMB oscillator. Here, values of frame mass (1,000 kg) and frame spring (1E+8 N/m) were held constant while the KVMB dashpot value varied over a range from 10 to $10^7$ kg/s. Two cases of water mass are shown and indicated by the ratio of frame to fluid masses. The case where the water and frame masses are equal is shown as a solid curve. FIG. 20(a) shows the mapped equivalent dashpot for the KV model. At low values of damping, the KV and KVMB dashpots are equal (similar to what we would expect for a very permeable soil, like a gravel). The equivalent spring stiffness is shown in FIG. 20(b). The KVMB and KV stiffness values are also equal at low KVMB damping values. As the KVMB damping value increases, we reach a peak in the effective KV dashpot. This marks the transition point where the water and the frame begin to move together. Beyond the peak, the motion becomes increasingly coupled, and due to the reduced relative motion between frame and water, we have less friction and less equivalent damping. In terms of a soil, a large KVMB damping would represent a clay or other soil of low permeability. The water, being dragged in the pores, reduces the frictional losses. Further, with the two masses largely moving together, we expect a reduction in the resonant frequency of the moving frame. This predicted reduction in natural frequency is expressed as an apparent reduction in the KV stiffness (since the frame mass is constant). In this example, the natural frequency of the oscillator drops from about 50 to 35 Hz. Normalization to Damping Ratio While the above example is for a specific mass, spring and dashpot, we can view the problem from a normalized, general point of view. We do this by modifying the damping plot shown in FIG. 20(a), replacing damping values with damping ratios. There are two damping ratios to be considered (KV and KVMB). Although the formulas are identical, the ratios correspond to different arrangements of the elements. The formula for damping ratio is well known, and is given by \[ \xi = \frac{C}{2\sqrt{K \cdot M}} \] where $C$ = dashpot’s viscous damping (kilograms/second); $K$ = spring’s stiffness (Newtons/meter), and $M$ = mass (kilograms). Damping ratio, $\xi$, is unitless. The dashpot and spring require no comment for either the KV or KVMB models. The mass does require some thought, since there are two of them in one model, and one mass in the other. Since the left hand side of Eqs. (B9) and (B10) are ratios, we can eliminate the mass in computing the equivalent KV damping ratio of Eq. (B11). The resulting expression for the KV damping ratio in terms of the complex conjugate eigenvalues taken from the KVMB system is \[ \xi = \frac{\sqrt{(\lambda_1 + \lambda_2)^2}}{2\sqrt{\lambda_1 \lambda_2}} = \frac{\|\lambda_1 + \lambda_2\|}{2\sqrt{\lambda_1 \lambda_2}} \] (B12) On the other hand, there is no single correct answer for which KVMB mass to employ in Eq. (B11). Two choices are the sum of the water and frame masses, or the frame mass alone. The former makes sense for coupled motion, the later for uncoupled. Fortunately, for porosities likely to be encountered in most soils, the difference between these two options will be small. In this paper, the combined mass of water plus frame has been used to compute the KVMB damping ratio. FIG. 21 shows the equivalent KV damping ratio as a function of the KVMB damping ratio. Curves are shown for different mass ratios between the frame and water. Note that as the fluid mass declines (larger mass ratio), the curve maximum shifts down and to the left. A decrease in mass ratio would correspond to a decline in porosity for a soil. It also suggests that replacing water with a less dense fluid (say air) will produce less viscous damping. In the next section, the KVMB dashpot will be related to damping in the manner which Biot approached the problem, a capillary tube soil model. The partitioning of the frame and water masses will be based on porosity and the assumption of a saturated soil. The development is focused on describing shear motion and shear waves (not compressional waves). Relating KVMB Damping to Permeability We follow the model proposed by Biot (1956a) in his work on wave propagation. A pore is represented by a right-circular cylinder of diameter, $\delta$. The head loss, $h_f$, for fluid flow in the pore is then given by the Darcy-Weisbach equation \[ h_f = \frac{fLv_s^2}{2\alpha g} \] (B13) where L=pore length; $v_s$=specific flow velocity in the pore; g=acceleration due to gravity; and f=friction factor. We follow Biot’s example, and assume laminar flow. Thus, we let the friction factor be given in the usual way \[ f = \frac{64}{R} = \frac{64\mu}{\rho_w \delta v_s} \] (B14) Where R=Reynolds number; $\rho_w$=pore fluid density; and $\mu$=pore fluid dynamic viscosity (units of Pa/s). Substituting Eq. (B14) into Eq. (B13) we have \[ h_f = \frac{32\mu Lv_s}{\rho_w \delta^2 g} \] (B15) For an elemental volume of soil represented by a solid perforated by uniform, parallel, cylindrical pores, the net flow velocity out of a cross section including many pores is \[v=nv_s\] (B16) where n=porosity for the given volume. For our element of length L, and cross-sectional area, A, Darcy’s equation is given by \[ \frac{Q}{A} = v = K_d \left( \frac{h_f}{L} \right) \] (B17) where Q=volumetric flow rate; and $K_d$=hydraulic conductivity (units of meter/second). Equating the velocities, v, in Eqs. (B16) and (B17), we can solve for hydraulic conductivity in terms of pore size and the other model parameters \[ k_d = \frac{n\rho_w \delta^2 g}{32\mu} \] (B18) This result is the same as that given by Bear (1972) (see p. 165). Bear made the point that the 32 in the denominator is “meaningless,” and that some writers scale the 32 by a “tortuosity” factor which scales the representation to a real soil in which the pores are not parallel or cylindrical, and a diverse size of pores exist. This last point leads one to conclude that $\delta$ is meant to be an “effective” pore diameter, representative of the actual pore diameters. Essentially, multiplying 32 by a tortuosity only affects the relationship between $K_d$ and $\delta$. Biot (1956a) gives a dissipation coefficient in his Eq. (6.8) \[ b = \frac{\mu n^2}{k} \] (B19) where we have used the current notation for porosity. Biot refers to k as Darcy’s coefficient of permeability. This is in fact the absolute permeability (units of meter$^2$), and is related to our hydraulic conductivity by \[ \overline{k} = \frac{K_d \mu}{g \rho_w} \] (B20) Further, Biot’s Eq. (7.11) gives b for cylindrical pores as \[ b = \frac{32\mu n}{\delta^2} \] (B21) If we substitute Eq. (B20) into Eq. (B19), we obtain \[ b = \frac{n^2 g \rho_w}{K_d} \] (B22) Substituting $K_d$ from Eq. (B18) into Eq. (B22), we obtain equation Eq. (B21), thus illustrating that our $K_d$ of Eq. (B18) is in exact agreement with Biot’s paper, and his assumptions at low frequencies and laminar flow. Biot’s dissipation factor, $b$, is the coefficient of a term in his wave Eq. (6.7). That is, $b=$coefficient of the term which is the difference between the fluid and frame velocities. Thus, $b$ plays the role of a dashpot connected between the frame and water masses of our FIG. 19(a). It is not, however, the lumped dashpot value. We note that $b$ has units of kilogram/second per meter$^3$, while an ideal dashpot elements has units of kilograms/second. Biot’s damping coefficient is to a dashpot damping value as density is to mass. To obtain the ideal, lumped, components (spring, dashpot, and mass), we need to integrate the specific properties over a common volume of material being represented. Determining Spring, Mass, and Dashpot for a Volume Consider an elemental volume of cross-sectional area, $A$, and length, $L$, as shown in FIG. 22. For a simple shear due to a traction $F/A$, and a frame material with shear modulus, $G_f$ we have $$g_f = \left(\frac{F}{A}\right) = \frac{k \Delta x}{\left(\frac{\Delta x}{L}\right)} = \frac{kL}{A}$$ \hspace{1cm} (B23) Solving for the spring constant, we have $$k = \frac{G_f A}{L}$$ \hspace{1cm} (B24) For our KVMB dashpot, we have $$d = b s L = \left(\frac{n^2 g_f \rho_w}{K_d}\right)(AL)$$ \hspace{1cm} (B25) The frame and water masses follow from porosity and the specific gravity of the solid, $G_s$. They are respectively, $$m_f = AL(1-n)G_s \rho_w$$ \hspace{1cm} (B26) $$m_w = nAL\rho_w$$ \hspace{1cm} (B27) KV Damping Ratio Versus Hydraulic Conductivity FIG. 23 illustrates the mapping at a single frequency, 50 Hz. In this thought experiment, we consider a single element of soil with length $L$. For a desired natural frequency, $\omega$, we can determine the length of the required volume, $L$, stiffness-mass ratio as follows: $$L^2 = \frac{G_f}{\omega^2(1-n)G_s \rho_w}$$ \hspace{1cm} (B28) where frequency, $\omega$, is in rad/s. We can obtain the hydraulic conductivity by solving Eq. (25) for $K_d$ $$K_d = \frac{n^2 g \rho_w AL}{d}$$ \hspace{1cm} (B29) where the dashpot value, $d$, is varied over a range of values to produce FIG. 23. Curves are computed for selected porosity values of 10, 30, and 50%. To emphasize the fact that two different coupling conditions may result in the same KV damping ratio, three points have been annotated in FIG. 23. Point A corresponds to maximum damping obtainable for a porosity of 30%. Point B corresponds to a largely coupled condition, and point C to a largely uncoupled condition which produce the same value of equivalent KV damping ratio ($\xi = 0.0135$). FIG. 24 gives the corresponding particle velocity time histories for the fluid and frame motions for the three cases indicated by A, B, and C in FIG. 23. For the point B case ($K_d = 0.002$ m/s), the motions are closely coupled, and the particle velocities are almost together. The slight difference in velocity between frame and water results in an equivalent KV damping ratio of 0.0135. At the other extreme, case C, there is a significant difference in the frame and mass velocities. However, the equivalent KV damping ratio is only 0.0135 since the hydraulic conductivity is large ($K_d = 0.06$ m/s). The point is that the combined larger velocity difference and larger effective pore diameter in case C results in the same frictional loss that results from smaller pore diameters with less relative velocity between fluid and frame. The maximum damping occurs at point A ($K_d = 0.0109$ m/s), where the combined pore diameter and relative velocity difference produce a maximum in the viscous friction. For the three cases shown in FIG. 24 the Eq. (B8) metric was computed to assess the match between the KV and KVMB displacement time histories. The largest difference (poorest match) was for point A, and resulted in an angle of $\theta = 2.04^\circ$. If the two displacement time histories were to be plotted here, they would appear as one, making this an acceptable match. The best match was for point C ($\theta = -0.036^\circ$). Point B matched with a metric of $\theta = -1.47^\circ$. KV Damping Ratio Versus Frequency This final example illustrates the effect of frequency on the KV damping ratio. In this thought experiment, the porosity is held at 30%. The sample length was varied to produce a range of natural frequencies for the vibrating soil element. FIG. 25 shows the equivalent KV damping ratio as a function of natural frequency for three cases of hydraulic conductivity (0.002, 0.0109, 0.060 m/s corresponding to B, A, and C of FIG. 23). At 50 Hz, points B and C plot at the same point, the intersection of the $K_d = 0.06$ and $K_d = 0.002$ m/s curves. Points B and C produce the same damping, but for the different reasons explained in the previous section (B is largely coupled, C is largely uncoupled motion between fluid and frame). FIG. 25 is simply another way of looking at the same situation. What is different in this view is the effect of frequency on the equivalent KV damping ratio. The theory predicts that at low frequencies (left of a curve’s apex), the motion between fluid and frame is largely coupled. At high frequencies (right of a curve’s apex), the motion is largely uncoupled. A crude analogy would be to consider a table with dishes resting on a tablecloth. The largely uncoupled, high-frequency case is analogous to a waiter snapping the tablecloth off a table without disturbing the dishes (large relative motion between tablecloth and dishes). The largely coupled, low-frequency case is analogous to slowly pulling on the tablecloth. The dishes would be dragged along with the tablecloth. Conclusions Example B The (KV) model is widely employed in soil dynamics, consolidation theory, and ground water flow. While the KV dashpot represents the viscous interaction of pore fluids with frame, there is no allowance for separate motion between the fluid in frame (the masses are considered to be lumped together as a single unit). The KVMB model presented here permits the fluid and frame masses to have independent motion, and relates the dashpot connecting them to soil permeability. The two models (KV and KVMB) have been mapped through the eigenvalues of the decoupled differential equations, permitting the continued use of the KV model to be related to the KVMB and soil permeability (provided that porosity or void ratio is known). The theory predicts the following: 1. For a given porosity, there will be a maximum KV damping (point A in FIG. 23 or 25). This is the point where the difference between KV and KVMB representations is largest, but always acceptable $(0 \leq 5^\circ)$. It is the point where the combination of significant relative motion between fluid in frame combines with a medium pore size to maximize equivalent KV damping. 2. Below point A, there will be two theoretical cases which produce the same KV damping. One is a largely coupled condition (small pores, small relative velocity between frame and fluid), and the other is a largely uncoupled condition (large pores, larger relative velocity between frame and fluid). See points B and C of FIG. 23 for example. 3. At low frequencies, to the left of the KV damping ratio apex, the motion will be largely coupled. 4. At high frequencies, to the right of the KV damping ratio apex, the motion will be largely uncoupled. Notation Example B The following symbols are used in this paper. A=cross-sectional area of soil element in thought experiment $(m^2)$; b=Biot dissipation coefficient $(kg/s\ m^3)$; c=dashpot constant for KV model $(kg/s)$; d=dashpot constant for KVMB model $(kg/s)$; f=friction factor in a cylindrical pore (unitless); $f_n$=natural cyclic frequency of soil element $(Hz)$; G_f=shear modulus of frame $(Pa)$; G_s=specific gravity of soil solids (unitless); g=acceleration due to gravity $(9.81\ m/s^2)$; h_p=head loss in a cylindrical pore $(m)$; K_p=hydraulic conductivity $(m/s)$; k=KV spring $(N/m)$; k=absolute permeability $(m^2)$; k_f=spring constant of frame $(N/m)$; L=length of soil element in thought experiment $(m)$; m=KV mass $(kg)$; m_f=frame mass for KVMB model $(kg)$; m_w=water mass for KVMB model $(kg)$; n=porosity (unitless); R=Reynolds number for flow in a cylindrical pore (unitless); t=time $(s)$; u=particle displacement of KV mass $(m)$; $\dot{u}$=particle velocity of KV mass $(m/s)$; u_f=particle displacement of frame in thought experiment $(m)$; $\dot{u}_f$=particle velocity of frame in thought experiment $(m/s)$; u_w=particle velocity of water in thought experiment $(m/s)$; v=net flow velocity of fluids in a cross-section of pores $(m/s)$; v_s=specific flow velocity in pore $(m/s)$; $\gamma_1, \gamma_2, \gamma_3$=eigenvalues of KVMB representation; $\delta$=pore diameter $(m)$; $\lambda_1, \lambda_2$=eigenvalues of KV representation (complex conjugate pair of KVMB); $\mu$=absolute viscosity of pore fluids $(Pa\ s)$; \xi=damping ratio (unitless); P_frame=mass density of frame $(kg/m^3)$; \rho_w=mass density of water $(1,000\ kg/m^3)$; and $\omega_n=2\pi f_n$, natural frequency of soil element in thought experiment $(rad/s)$. Example C Programming Example KD-4X.sci clear // P. Michaels<firstname.lastname@example.org> 14 Oct. 2006 // Copyright (c) 2006 Paul Michaels, all rights reserved // KD-4X.sci Scilab 4.0 version Permeability Computation // http://www.scilab.org/ Web page to obtain Scilab // KVMB Damping ratio for a given dashpot function function [delta,frequ]=KVMB(d1) // ODE in matrix form d1=dashpot value kg/s //x-frame; xdot-frame; xdot-fluid d1=KVMB dashpot value, delta=equiv. KV damping ratio m1=Mw; //water mass m2=Mf; //frame mass A=[0 1 0; ... -kf/m2 -d1/m2 d1/m2; ... 0 d1/m1 -d1/m1]; [B,X]=spec(A); //A=BXinv(B) //eigenvalues from diagonal of X for jj=1:3 lambda(jj)=x(jj,jj); end //next jj //frame natural frequency fnf=sqrt(k/m2); //rad/s //select eigenvalues for frame component of motion j=1; jselect=zeros(2,1); for jj=1:3 tst(jj)=abs(fnf-abs(imag(lambda(jj)))); end //next jj target=min(tst); for jj=1:3 if tst(jj)==target then jselect(j)=jj; j=j+1; end //endif end //next jj lambda1=lambda(jselect(1)); lambda2=lambda(jselect(2)); // compute KV equivalent damping ratio from 2 eigenvalues delta=real(abs(lambda1+lambda2)/(2sqrt(lambda1lambda2))); frequ=real(abs(imag(lambda2))/2/% pi); endfunction function [drv]=deriv(x) //numerical derivative ptrb=.1; f1=KVMB(x-ptrbx); f2=KVMB(x+ptrbx); drv=(f2-f1)/(2ptrbx); endfunction function [x] = linesrch(dmin,dmax) x1 = dmin; x2 = dmax; xm = (x2 + x1) / 2; // midpoint of bracket tol = 1.E-19; Fm = deriv(xm); j = 0; // bisection search while abs(Fm) > tol & j < 100, j = j + 1; F1 = deriv(x1); Fm = deriv(xm) F2 = deriv(x2); if sign(F1) == sign(Fm) then x1 = xm; F1 = Fm; xm = (x2 + x1) / 2; else x2 = xm; F2 = Fm; xm = (x2 + x1) / 2; end // endif end // endwhile if j == 100 disp('line search failed' + string(jrec)) end x = xm; endfunction // bracket determination function function [da1, da2, db1, db2, dpeak] = bracket(dmin, dmax) // find peak damping ratio dpeak = linesrch(dmin, dmax); da1 = dmin; da2 = dpeak; db1 = dpeak; db2 = dmax; endfunction // define inline objective function for bisection search function [F] = objf(d) // d - KVMB dashpot value, drKv is observed KV damping ratio [delta, freq] = KVMB(d); F = delta - drKv; endfunction function [x] = bisec(x1, x2) xm = (x2 + x1) / 2; // midpoint of bracket tol = 0.00000001; Fm = objf(xm); j = 0; // bisection search while abs(Fm) > tol & j < 100, j = j + 1; F1 = objf(x1); Fm = objf(xm) F2 = objf(x2); if sign(F1) == sign(Fm) then x1 = xm; F1 = Fm; xm = (x2 + x1) / 2; else x2 = xm; F2 = Fm; xm = (x2 + x1) / 2; end // endif end // endwhile if j == 100 x = xm; else x = -1; end endfunction //-------start of program------------- nmn = input('enter well name, 2char', 's'); fname = umn + "porsm5.dat"; // fname = "x5porsm5.dat"; fp1 = file('open', fname, 'old'); data = read(fp1, -1, 3); [nrow, ncol] = size(data); for jrec = 1:nrow // elevation of sample convert to meters elev(jrec) = data(jrec, 2) * 0.3048; por(jrec) = data(jrec, 3); // sample porosity end // next jrec file('close', fp1); N = nrow; // save number of porosity values meanpor = mean(por); // average porosity (entire log) stdpor = stdev(por); // stdev porosity (entire log) PorE = 1.96 * stdpor; // 95% conf normal dist porosity fname = "casol.dat"; fp2 = file('open', fname, 'old'); casol = read(fp2, -1, 9); file('close', fp2); [nrow, ncol] = size(casol); C1 = casol(:, 1); // stiffness C2 = casol(:, 2); // damping weight = casol(:, 8); balance = casol(:, 9); C1E = casol(:, 3); // stdev c1 C2E = casol(:, 4); // stdev c2 C1E = 1.96 * C1E; // 95% conf normal dist. C2E = 1.96 * C2E; // 95% conf normal dist. [emin, kmin] = min(elev); [emax, kmax] = max(elev); txt1 = ['SDF Frequency Hz', 'BVAS Emax', 'BVAS Emin']; EMX = sprintf('% .1f', emax); EMN = sprintf('% .1f', emin); sig = evstr(x_mndialog('Enter Parameters', txt1['12'; EMX; EMN])); if length(sig) < 3 then abort; end // user pressed cancel // user selected resonator frequency for mapping freqr = sig(1); uemin = sig(3); // user selected min elev uemax = sig(2); // user selected max elev // find min and max elevations dfm = abs(elev - uemin); dfx = abs(elev - uemax); [ea, jmax] = min(dfm); [eb, jmin] = min(dfx); // convert frequency to radians/s, compute L= length resonator wdr = freqr * 2 * pi; // radian frequency for damping ratio L = sqrt(C1) / wdr; // length of vibrator dratioKV = (wdr * C2) / (2 * C1); // damping ratio // error bar on KV dratio t1 = C1E 2; t2 = wdr 2; t4 = C2E 2; t5 = C1 2; t6 = t5 2; t10 = C2E 2; sigmadr = sqrt((t1 * t2 * t4 / t6 + t10 * t2 / t5) / 2); // compute mean porosity in user selected interval umeanpor = mean(por(jmin:jmax)); // average porosity ustdpor = stdev(por(jmin:jmax)); // stdev porosity uPorE = 1.96 * ustdpor; // 95% conf normal dist porosity uelev = (uemin + uemax) / 2; // elevation of user selected interval //----------Compute Permeability----------------- A=1; // area of vibrator in meters^2 rhoW=1000; //mass density of water Gs=2.67; //specific gravity of solids L=sqrt(C1)/wdr; //length of vibrator //KVMB Model Mf=(1-umeanpor)GsrhowAL; //mass of frame Mw=umeanporrhowAL; //mass of water Mkv=Mf+Mw; //KV mass, coupled kf=(C1Mkv)/(LL); //spring fHz=sqrt(kf/Mkv)/(% pi2); //frequency implied (Hz) //------------------KVMB Analysis---------------- //set up bracket for search drKV=dratioKV; KDmax=100; // max permeability m/s KDmin=1.E-6; // min permeability m/s dmax=(ALrhow9.81umeanpor^2)/KDmin; //lower bound dashpot dmin=(ALrhow9.81umeanpor^2)/KDmax; //upper bound dashpot //find brackets, coupled and uncoupled search [da1,da2,db1,db2,dpeak]=bracket(dmin,dmax); tst=KVMB(dpeak); // apex of curve=KVMB(da2)=KVMB(db1) drpksv=tst; if drKV>tst then KDa=0; KDb=0; drasv=0; drbsv=0; sigmaKDb=0; sigmaKDa=0; else //do bisection search [xa]=bisec(da1,da2); dr=KVMB(xa); if xa== -1 then dr=-1; end drasv=dr; tmp1=(ALrhow9.81umeanpor^2); KDa=tmp1/xa ; //permeability m/s tmp2=-tmp1/(xaxa); // derivative of KDa wrt dashpot, xa tmp3=deriv(xa); //derivative of damping ratio wrt dashpot //sidev for permeability, KDa sigmaKDa=sqrt((tmp2/tmp3)^2sigmadr^2); [xb]=bisec(db1,db2); if xb== -1 then dr=-1; end dr=KVMB(xb); drbsv=dr; tmp1=(ALrhow9.81umeanpor^2); KDb=tmp1/xb ; //permeability m/s tmp2=-tmp1/(xbxb); // derivative of KDb wrt dashpot, xb tmp3=deriv(xb); //derivative of damping ratio wrt dashpot //sidev for permeability, KDb sigmaKDb=sqrt((tmp2/tmp3)^2sigmadr^2); end ELV=uelev; fp3=file('open','kd4.out','unknown'); msg0=nmn4+"SOLUTION (+/-95% conf)"; msg1=sprintf(... "Elevation=%2f(m) Freq=%0f(Hz) Resonator_L=%2f(m) ... , ELV.freqdr,L.); msg2=sprintf(... "Damping Ratios: Peak=%6f Wave=%6f (+/-%5f)" ... , drpksv,dratioKV,sigmadr1.96); msg3=sprintf(... "Coupled (b_case): DRb=%6f KDb=%5.f(+/-%4 fm/s)" ... , drbsv,KDb,sigmaKDb1.96); msg4=sprintf(... "Uncoupled (a_case): DRA=%6f KDA=%5.f(+/-%4 fm/s)" ... , drasv,KDa,sigmaKDa1.96); msg5=sprintf(... "Porosity: mean=%3f (+/-%3f)",umeanpor,ustdpor1.96); msg6=sprintf(... "Elevation Range: %2f to %2f(m)",uemin,uemax); msG={ [msg0,msg1,msg2,msg3,msg4,msg5,msg6] }x_message_modeless([msg0,msg1,msg2,msg3,msg4,msg5,msg6]); write(fp3,MSG,'(a)'); file('close',fp3); Therefore, as may be understood from the above disclosure and Examples, the invention may comprise methods, apparatus, and/or programming are disclosed for engineering solutions, for example, in the areas of production from oil wells, grouting for soil improvement, treatment of contaminated soils, production from water wells, and waste disposal in landfills, wherein permeability of a fluid through a saturated material is determined by measuring the dynamic response of that saturated material to shaking vibrations and/or shear wave propagation, and then mapping the dynamic response (preferably, viscoelastic stiffness and damping properties) to an invented model (called “KVMB”) that yields the property of permeability. The preferred embodiments may use shear waves, inertial effects, and/or transmission effects, but preferably not compression, to force fluids through the pores. The mapping preferably predicts two possible mappings to permeability, coupled and uncoupled. Unlike prior art seismic methods known to the inventor, the methods of the preferred embodiments are both internally consistent and directly related to known laws of physics rather than dependent on empirical calibrations. In use, for example, one may use a porosity log (conventional neutron or sonic) and recordings of SH-waves to obtain damping ratio, followed by locating of the damping ratio on a KVMB map that depends on porosity, and choosing of one of the two possible permeabilities indicated by the mapping, wherein the best choice is typically the largely coupled case. Although this invention has been described above with reference to particular means, materials and embodiments, it is to be understood that the invention is not limited to these disclosed particulars, but extends instead to all equivalents within the broad scope of the following claims. The invention claimed is: 1. A method of determining permeability of liquid through a liquid-saturated solid material, the method comprising: a) performing vibration testing of a sample of said liquid in said liquid-saturated solid material, wherein said vibration testing provides porosity of the sample, mass of the liquid, mass of the solid material, and a measured Kelvin-Voigt (KV) damping ratio for the sample, wherein damping ratio and dashpot are related by equation (1): \[ \text{Damping ratio} = \frac{\text{Dashpot}}{(2\sqrt{k\kappa m})} \] (1), wherein $m=$ total mass of liquid and solid material, and $k=$ stiffness defined by equation (2), \[ k = (\text{shear modulus of solid material}) \cdot A/L \] (2), wherein $A=$ cross-sectional area of said sample volume, and $L=$ length of said sample volume; b) Mapping multiple calculated Kelvin-Voigt-Maxwell-Biot (KVMB)-determined equivalent KV damping ratio versus multiple assumed trial KVMB-dashpots, by the steps of: assuming multiple trial KVMB dashpot values d, and calculating the three eigenvalues corresponding to a decoupled version of equation (3) for each assumed trial KVMB dashpot value: \[ \frac{d}{dt} \begin{bmatrix} u_f \\ \dot{u}_f \\ \dot{u}_w \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} 0 & 1 & 0 \\ -\frac{k}{M_f} & -\frac{d}{M_f} + \frac{d}{M_f} & \cdot \begin{bmatrix} u_f \\ \dot{u}_f \\ \dot{u}_w \end{bmatrix}, \\ 0 & +\frac{d}{M_w} & -\frac{d}{M_w} \end{bmatrix}, \] wherein $ u_f $=solid-material-mass displacement, $ \dot{u}_f $=solid-material-mass velocity, and $ \dot{u}_w $=liquid-mass velocity, $ M_f $=mass of said solid material, $ M_w $=mass of said liquid, and d=assumed trial KVMB dashpot value, and wherein k is defined by equation (2); retaining two complex conjugate eigenvalues $ \lambda_1 $ and $ \lambda_2 $ of said three eigenvalues of said decoupled version of equation (3) for each assumed trial KVMB dashpot, inserting said two complex conjugate eigenvalues into equation (4) to compute a KVMB-determined equivalent KV damping ratio $ \xi $, and discarding the third of said three eigenvalues: \[ \xi = \frac{\sqrt{(\lambda_1 + \lambda_2)^2}}{2\sqrt{\lambda_1 \lambda_2}} = \frac{\|\lambda_1 + \lambda_2\|}{2\sqrt{\lambda_1 \lambda_2}}; \] mapping said KVMB-determined equivalent KV damping ratios $ \xi $ versus the multiple assumed trial KVMB dashpots, determining the KVMB-determined equivalent KV damping ratio that most-closely matches the observed KV damping ratio and determining from said mapping a coupled KVMB dashpot solution and an uncoupled KVMB dashpot solution for said most-closely matched KVMB-determined equivalent KV damping ratio; c) computing permeability $ K_d $ of said liquid through said liquid-saturated solid material by inserting said coupled KVMB dashpot solution into equation (5): \[ K_d = \frac{n^2 g \rho_{liquid} A \cdot L}{d}, \] wherein n=said porosity, g=acceleration due to gravity, $ \rho_{liquid} $=mass density of said liquid, d=said coupled KVMB dashpot solution, A=cross-sectional area of said sample volume, and L=length of said sample volume. 2. A method as in claim 1, wherein said mapping multiple calculated Kelvin-Voigt-Maxwell-Biot (KVMB)-determined equivalent KV damping ratio versus multiple assumed trial KVMB-dashpots is performed by a bisection search. 3. A method as in claim 1, wherein said mapping provides a curve of calculated Kelvin-Voigt-Maxwell-Biot (KVMB)-determined equivalent KV damping ratio versus assumed trial KVMB-dashpot, and said curve is a downwardly-concave curved with a peak between said coupled KVMB dashpot solution and said uncoupled KVMB dashpot solution. 4. A method as in claim 1, wherein said performing vibration testing of a sample of said liquid in said liquid-saturated solid material is done in a field experiment. 5. A method as in claim 1, wherein said performing vibration testing of a sample of said liquid in said liquid-saturated solid material is done in a laboratory experiment. 6. A method as in claim 1, wherein cross-sectional area of said sample volume A is an assumed cross-sectional area. 7. A method as in claim 1, wherein cross-sectional area of said sample volume A is set at unity. 8. A method of determining permeability of liquid through a liquid-saturated solid material, the method comprising: a) performing a shear-wave propagation testing survey of a sample volume of said liquid in said liquid-saturated solid material, wherein said survey provides an observed KV damping ratio by equation (1): \[ KV damping ratio = \frac{\omega \cdot C_2}{2 \cdot C_1}, \] at an angular frequency $ \omega $ (rad/s) within the seismic source frequency band, stiffness $ C_1 $ (m²/s²), and damping $ C_2 $ (m²/s), all determined from shear-wave velocity dispersion and spatial propagation amplitude decay of said shear-wave propagation testing survey under the governing 1-D wave equation (2): \[ \frac{\partial^2 u}{\partial t^2} = C_1 \frac{\partial^2 u}{\partial x^2} + C_2 \frac{\partial^3 u}{\partial t^3}, \] wherein u is particle displacement, x is spatial coordinate of wave propagation direction, and t is time; b) computing a volume length L by equation (3): \[ L = \frac{\sqrt{C_1}}{\omega}; \] c) laboratory testing of said sample volume to determine specific gravity of said solid material $ G_{solid} $ and mass density of said saturated liquid $ \rho_{liquid} $ and said sample volume porosity n; d) Mapping multiple calculated Kelvin-Voigt-Maxwell-Biot (KVMB)-determined equivalent KV damping ratio versus multiple assumed trial KVMB-dashpots, by the steps of: assuming multiple trial KVMB dashpot values, d, and calculating the three eigenvalues corresponding to a decoupled version of equation (4) for each assumed trial KVMB dashpot value: \[ \frac{d}{dt} \begin{bmatrix} u_f \\ \dot{u}_f \\ \dot{u}_w \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} 0 & 1 & 0 \\ -\frac{k}{M_f} & -\frac{d}{M_f} + \frac{d}{M_f} & \cdot \begin{bmatrix} u_f \\ \dot{u}_f \\ \dot{u}_w \end{bmatrix}, \\ 0 & +\frac{d}{M_w} & -\frac{d}{M_w} \end{bmatrix}, \] wherein $ u_f $=solid-material-mass displacement, $ \dot{u}_f $=solid-material-mass velocity, and $ \dot{u}_w $=liquid-mass velocity, $ M_f $=mass of said solid material, $ M_w $=mass of said liquid, and d=assumed trial KVMB dashpot value, and wherein k is defined by equation (5): \[ k=(shear modulus of solid material \cdot A)/L \] wherein $A =$ cross-sectional area of said sample volume, and $L =$ length of said sample volume; wherein $\mu_{solid}$ is the shear modulus of the solid material, $\rho_{solid}$ is the mass density of the solid material, and $\rho_w$ is the mass density of water; retaining two complex conjugate eigenvalues $\lambda_1$ and $\lambda_2$ of said three eigenvalues of said decoupled version of equation (4) for each assumed trial KVMB dashpot, inserting said two complex conjugate eigenvalues into equation (6) to compute a KVMB-determined equivalent KV damping ratio $\xi$, and discarding the third of said three eigenvalues: $$\xi = \frac{\sqrt{(\lambda_1 + \lambda_2)^2}}{2\sqrt{\lambda_1 \lambda_2}} = \frac{\|\lambda_1 + \lambda_2\|}{2\sqrt{\lambda_1 \lambda_2}}; \quad (6)$$ mapping said KVMB-determined equivalent KV damping ratios $\xi$ versus the multiple assumed trial KVMB dash-pots, determining the KVMB-determined equivalent KV damping ratio that most-closely matches the observed KV damping ratio and determining from said mapping a coupled KVMB dashpot solution and an uncoupled KVMB dashpot solution for said most-closely matched KVMB-determined equivalent KV damping ratio; e) computing permeability $K_d$ of said liquid through said liquid-saturated solid material by inserting said coupled KVMB dashpot solution into equation (6): $$K_d = \frac{n^2 g \rho_{liquid} A \cdot L}{d}; \quad (6)$$ wherein $n =$ said porosity, $g =$ acceleration due to gravity, $\rho_{liquid} =$ mass density of said liquid, $d =$ said coupled KVMB dashpot solution, $A =$ cross-sectional area of said sample volume, and $L =$ length of said sample volume. 9. A method as in claim 8, wherein said mapping multiple calculated Kelvin-Voigt-Maxwell-Biot (KVMB)-determined equivalent KV damping ratio versus multiple assumed trial KVMB-dashpots is performed by a bisection search. 10. A method as in claim 8, wherein said mapping provides a curve of calculated Kelvin-Voigt-Maxwell-Biot (KVMB)-determined equivalent KV damping ratio versus assumed trial KVMB-dashpot, and said curve is a downwardly-concave curved with a peak between said coupled KVMB dashpot solution and said uncoupled KVMB dashpot solution. 11. A method as in claim 8, wherein said performing vibration testing of a sample of said liquid in said liquid-saturated solid material is done in a field experiment. 12. A method as in claim 8, wherein said performing vibration testing of a sample of said liquid in said liquid-saturated solid material is done in a laboratory experiment. 13. A method as in claim 8, wherein cross-sectional area of said sample volume $A$ is an assumed cross-sectional area. 14. A method as in claim 8, wherein cross-sectional area of said sample volume $A$ is set at unity.
Activities of photochemistry in Egypt S E MORSI\textsuperscript{1} and M S A ABDEL-MOTTALEB\textsuperscript{2} \textsuperscript{1}Supreme Council of Universities, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt \textsuperscript{2}Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Ain Shams University, Abbassia, Cairo, Egypt Abstract. Several research activities in the different topics of photochemistry, photophysics and photobiology are being conducted. Trends of research in Egyptian institutions include – (A) Preparative organic photochemistry. Studies on the photolysis of different organic compounds have been carried out. Moreover, research work is aimed at investigating the utilization of solar energy in the photooxidation of inexpensive organic compounds to produce precious ones of pharmaceutical interest. (B) Research work is performed in different areas related to fluorescence spectrometry and laser dyes. The first field involves studies on the essential photophysical properties of some groups of electron–donor–acceptor (EDA) molecules like the styrylcyanine type and coumarins. Currently, research is pursued along the following lines: (1) Solvatochromism and photochromism of these dyes with special reference to \textit{cis-trans} quantum yield determination. (2) Molecular aggregation of functionalized surfactant cyanines and their fluorescence quenching. (3) The analytical use of these dyes and others as fluorescent probes for various systems of biological and industrial importance. Another important field of research is the field of photochemical and emission characteristics of new laser dyes of the diolefinic type and pyrazinyl Schiff-base derivatives. Research work also includes photochemical studies on some polymeric materials and photoconductivity. Keywords. Activities of photochemistry; Schiff-base derivatives; polymeric materials. Historical introduction The history of photochemistry in Egypt, closely related to that of Egypt itself, begins with the establishment of the worship of the Sun god \textit{Aton} by Akhenaton (18th Dynasty, 1550–1306 BC). Aton, “Lord of the Sun”, became god of the sun in the theology of Heliopolis. The sun was symbolized by the solar disc, whose rays shone down to the earth, ending in open hands or in the Egyptian sign meaning life. The Sun God created all life. He also gave life to the important gods, such as Isis, Osiris etc. Representations of the sun can be found everywhere in Egypt: in tombs, in the \textit{mastabas}, in the pyramids. It is just as if the departed souls wanted to take with them into the Other World the light and heat of which they had need. It was commonplace to put in tombs, boats known as “sun barges”. Clearly if the Egyptians attached such importance to the sun, it must have been due to those esoteric elements, its heat and light. Ancient Egyptians also considered the Sun as complementary to the River Nile which brought life. Neither one without the other could bring life to the Earth. For correspondence These and many other examples show the importance and place of the Sun in Egyptian culture. Moreover there are many other showing the importance of the sun in Egyptian science. Many centuries ago, the Egyptians used the powdered seeds of a plant which grew in the Nile Delta to cure leukoderma (a skin disease). The depigmented areas of the skin were treated by exposure to the sun light after the patient had eaten the powdered seeds. The areas thus illuminated showed blistering followed by pigmentation. Then it gradually assumed the colour of the surrounding skin. This was one of the first examples of the application of photochemistry in medicine (Nada 1983). Recently (in 1937) the hours of sunshine available in Egypt (ca. 3500 hours/year) attracted Professor A Schoenberg, who came to Egypt as Professor of Organic Chemistry in the Faculty of Science, Cairo University. He used sunlight to initiate chemical reactions. This signalled the start of research in the field of preparative photochemistry. The great interest of Professor Schoenberg in his work and the enthusiasm of young Egyptian graduates at that time led to the establishment of an extensive research program in applied, pharmaceutical and medical chemistry. Members of his group took their places in chemistry departments in Egyptian Universities (now 15 in number) and in the National Research Centre in Cairo. After the departure of Professor Schoenberg to Berlin in 1957, the late Professor Ahmed Mustafa became the head of the photochemistry group. During this period (1937–1957) an extensive number of publications in preparative organic photochemistry came out of Egypt. One of the fundamental reactions discovered by the group was the photoinduced $(4 + 2)$ cyclo-addition of $o$-quinones to olefinic double bonds giving 1,4-dioxene derivatives. Furthermore, the first edition of Preparative Organische Photochemie (Schoenberg 1958), one of the first comprehensive books on photochemistry of organic molecules, was written in Cairo by Professor Schoenberg with the assistance of Professor A Mustafa. It was published in 1958. The second edition (in English) appeared in 1968. As a continuation of the Schoenberg period, Egyptians scientists carried on research in photochemistry using mainly solar energy (Mostafa 1964). Some Egyptian scientists have had the chance to carry on advanced research work in photochemistry in laboratories in Europe, Canada and USA where modern instrumentation is available. Although photochemistry was one of the fields recommended in 1976 by the Egyptian Academy of Science as a potential joint research project with developed countries, no significant advances have been achieved. However, some research teams in physical, inorganic and organic photochemistry have already started work in some Egyptian Universities and in some research centers. Current research activities Several research activities in the different topics of photochemistry, photophysics and photobiology are being conducted. Trends of research in Egyptian institutions include the following: (A) Preparative (synthetic) organic photochemistry Studies on the photolysis of different organic compounds, e.g. phenylhydroxylamine, N-hydroxyphthalimide, mono-, di- and tri-alkylamines and the photocarbylamine reactions have been carried out (Sidky 1977; Badr et al 1983, 1985; Nada and Aly 1985; Raphael et al 1989). Direct UV irradiation of these organic compounds in different solvents gives rise to different products, suggesting a free radical mechanism. Also, photocatalytic production of methanol and some aldehydes are the main topics of the research currently being carried on in photochemistry labs. Interest is focused also on utilization of semiconductors (titania pigments) coated with metal-phthalocyanine dyes (Fe(II) or Co(III)) to produce methanol by heterogeneous photoreduction of sodium carbonate (Raphael et al 1989). Several novel ring systems are synthesized via photoaddition of enaminonitrile and enaminoesters to electron-poor olefins. Moreover, research work is aimed at investigating the utilization of solar energy in the photooxidation of furfuryl alcohol. This compound undergoes a sensitized photooxidation process to yield 5 hydroxy-2(5H)-furanone as the main product, with other side products, when aluminum phthalocyaninetetrasulfonate is used as a sensitizer. Furfuryl alcohol is considered an inexpensive chemical compound that can be prepared from biomass – sawdust, straw, corn cobs etc. On the other hand, 5-hydroxy-2(5H)-furanone is considered an expensive and very fine chemical compound which is used extensively in pharmaceutical preparations. (B) Photophysical properties of EDA dyes Research work is being carried out in different areas related to fluorescence spectrometry, photophysics and laser dyes (Abdel-Mottaleb et al 1983, 1986, 1989, 1990; El-Zeiny et al 1983, 1986, 1988; Abdel-Halim 1986; Abdel-Kader et al 1986; Abdel-Halim et al 1988; Ebaid et al 1988). The first field involves studies on the essential photophysical properties of some groups of electron-donor-acceptor (EDA) molecules. Styrylcyanine type (I): These stilbazolium salts constitute an important class of compounds with possible potential application as saturable absorbers for dye lasers, in fluorescence probe techniques, in photovoltage production, in solar energy conversion and in nonlinear optical devices. Currently research is pursued along the following lines. (1) Solvatochromism and photochromism of these dyes with special reference to cis-trans quantum yield determination. Some of these dyes (merocyanines) constitute a molecular reaction cycle which serves as a chemical model for the storage of information and subsequent regeneration of the information carrier. The model provides insight into vision processes and a cycle related to the molecular mechanism of the light-driven proton pump of Halobacterium halobium. (2) Molecular aggregation of functionalized surfactant cyanines and their fluorescence quenching (Abdel-Halim 1986; Abdel-Halim et al 1988; El-Zeiny et al 1988). (3) The analytical use of these dyes and others as fluorescent probes to monitor solubilization sites in micelles and reversed micelles and to follow up polymerization processes. The fluorescent probe technique has been also used in the field of photobiology (El-Komashy et al 1983; El-Sebe et al 1983; El-Racey and Helmi 1983; Hasan 1983; Hasan et al 1983) to study conformational transitions in chloroplast coupling factor 1 and to investigate the mechanism of enzyme-catalyzed photophosphorylation in chloroplasts. Moreover, the inhibition of photosynthetic energy coupling adenosine triphosphatase activity of chloroplasts by different herbicides from different chemical groups has been investigated. Another important field of research is the field of photochemical and emission characteristics of new laser dyes of the diolefinic type (El-Zeiny et al 1983, 1986, 1988) (e.g. 1,4-bis (beta-pyridyl-2-vinyl)-benzene “P2VB”) in different media including microemulsion media. Another class of compounds which have been investigated belongs to pyrazinyl Schiff-base derivatives. Moreover, studies on the luminescence of some Schiff bases are of interest. Most of the biochemical reactions catalyzed by pyridoxal were inhibited by many hydrazine derivatives such as methylhydrazine, semi- and thio semicarbazides as well as other acylhydrazines. The observed inhibition action of pyridoxal-catalyzed enzymes by aroylhydrazine and the activation of other enzymes as well as a mobilization agent of iron from reticulocycles and other biological tissues, prompt the interest in pyridoxalaroyl hydrazones. Such a study may throw some light on the nature of pyridoxalaroyl hydrazones in solution and may assist in the understanding of their role within the biological system (El-Komashy et al 1983; El-Sebe et al 1983; Hasan 1983; Hasan et al 1983) Coumarin laser dyes (II): These classes of intramolecular charge transfer (ICT) molecules have received attention because of their possible profitable applications in industry, e.g. optical recording media, laser switching devices, xerographic photoreceptors, solar energy concentrators, photobiological energy transfer processes, fluorescent probe techniques etc. The studies involve a research program on fluorescence quenching by inorganic complexes and the heavy atom effect. Work is now focused on fluorescence measurements of structurally related coumarin laser dyes of electron donor–acceptor (EDA) type. Fluorescence quenching of aqueous and micellar solutions of these dyes by some redox systems, e.g. hexacyano complexes of Fe(II) and Fe(III) show different sensitivities related to electronic factors. Stern–Volmer rate constants were determined at different temperatures and the activation energies for the deexcitation of the singlet-excited state of the dyes were obtained. The results have direct bearings on energy and electron-transfer mechanisms for the bimolecular quenching process. The objective was to investigate, in a general way, the influence of various medium properties (e.g. solvent properties of macro- and microscopic nature, pH effect, rigidity and viscosity, . . . , etc.) on the essential photophysical properties (fluorescence quantum yield, Stokes shift, . . . , etc.) of these classes of dyes, with particular focus on the interplay of dye structure and specific solvent–solute interactions that govern the competition between radiative and non-radiative decay (Abdel-Mottaleb 1983, 1986, 1989, 1990; Abdel-Kader et al 1986). Furthermore, the studies are complemented by application of the CNDO and PPP-SCF-CI-MO quantum chemical methods to calculate the electron structure for a better understanding of the effect of light absorption on the electron distributions and dipole moments of these dyes (Abdel-Mottaleb 1983, 1986, 1989, 1990; Abdel-Kader et al 1986). Some work has been done to demonstrate the utility of some of these dyes as sensors for some systems of technological and biological importance. Fluorescence probes are especially well-suited to provide answers to questions of dynamics, conformation and morphology in polymer systems. Dynamical changes upon light excitation of flexible fluorescent dye molecules of the EDA type with twisted ICT state molecules (such as rotation about single bonds and geometrical isomerization about double bonds) are sensitive to and provide information on the local environment (e.g. the effective polarity and rigidity) of the surrounding medium of interest. In the light of these considerations, our group (jointly with the group of R Loutfy, Xerox, Canada, and the group of K Schaffner, MPI/Muelheim, Germany) has recently synthesized and studied the photophysical properties of a novel styrylcoumarin (SC) dye of flexible bichromophoric EDA type for use as a medium with properties of a fluorescence sensor. They have extended the work to follow up the changes induced in the fluorescence behaviour of SC during the free-radical polymerization of methyl methacrylate (MMA) to explore the potential of this new dye as a fluorescence probe for polymerization. The fundamental information gleaned about the photophysical properties of these groups of dyes reveal a number of interesting features. The weak fluorescence intensity and shortening of the fluorescence lifetime (acceleration of fluorescence decay) observed for most flexible coumarins, particularly in protic solvents, have been explained in terms of a non-radiative relaxation process of the planar ICT state involving exciplex formation with polar solvents and producing a twisted ICT state (called TICT) via possible internal rotation and geometrical isomerization channels. Specific hydrogen-bonding interactions between dye molecules and protic solvents like ethanol or water have a marked influence on the photophysical properties and fluorescence sensitization or quenching of the coumarins studied due to excited state complex formation. The results are discussed on the basis of the electronic structure of these dyes obtained by application of the well-known quantum chemical PPP-SCF-CI MO method. This gives us an insight into the singlet excited state properties and hydrogen-bonding complexation of these dyes and the dynamics and mechanism of solute-solvent relaxations. Moreover, rotational relaxation behaviour, as reflected in the fluorescence polarisation of highly fluorescent dyes, is correlated with solvent viscosity/free volume. Through measurements of the temperature/viscosity dependence of the fluorescence depolarization (1/P) in glycerol, they are able to establish an Arrhenius-like relationship linking (1/P) to free-volume fraction of the medium. Furthermore, depolarization data fit the Perrin equation with a slope proportional to the sensitivity of molecular structure towards medium fluidity. The results imply the promising utility of these highly fluorescent dyes as bifunctional fluorescent probes for local fluidity and polarity of the surrounding medium of interest. Moreover, they demonstrate possible analytical application of the commercially available coumarin-6 as a promising fluorescent probe for medium properties (e.g. fluidity, polarity and for following micellization in solutions of some ionic surfactants). The same technique of fluorescence depolarization provides important molecular level information in the case of a number of flexible dyes of electron donor–acceptor (EDA) type; 1-methyl-4-(4'-R-styryl)pyridinium and -quinolinium iodide (R = H, OCH₃ for N(CH₃)₂). The response of fluorescence quantum yield ($\phi_f$) or rotational relaxation time to viscosity/temperature changes ($n(T)$ function) was a sensitive function of stilbazolium dye structure. Analysis of $\phi_f$ data within the framework of the free-volume (FV) hypothesis showed that the size of dye molecule is a sensitive function of $(n/T)^x$ or $(x/f)$ function of the glycerol (where $x$ or $x'$ is a fraction reflecting the degree of flexibility or the size of a dye molecule and $f$ is the FV fraction of the solvent). Moreover, probe rotational relaxation dynamics were accurately described in terms of the FV hypothesis. This information has been combined with the results of SCF-PPP-CI MO calculations in an attempt to develop an intriguing gauge of the interplay between average medium microviscosity/free-volume and some molecular properties such as donor–acceptor character, molecular size and flexibility (Abdel-Mottaleb 1983, 1986, 1989, 1990; Abdel-Kader et al 1986). (C) Photochemical studies on some polymeric materials (1) Polymers with pendant cinnamoyl groups find wide application in the manufacture of microelectronic components, miniature and integrated circuits, photo-engraving and precision-milling (William et al 1987; Kandil and Morsi 1990). The work in this area is devoted to studying both the absorption and the emission properties of cinnamic acid, ethylcinnamate and polyvinylcinnamate and many other compounds and their excimer fluorescence. The effect of irradiation on these compounds has been also studied in order to gain some information concerning the mechanism of photodimerization and photocrosslinking either as solid or in solution. Irradiation of heated polyvinylcinnamate film at 320 nm causes a pronounced decrease in both molecular and excimeric emissions due to the formation of cyclobutane crosslinked polymer. Irradiation of the heated polyvinylcinnamate film at 365 nm gives a state quite similar to the freshly prepared film. (2) Another research activity aims at preparing new polymers derived from polymethacrylic acid hydrazide having different pendant groups with potential photochemical properties including photochromic, proton transfer, photoisomerization and photodimerization. The properties may show up in the solid state or in solution, Research work includes – (a) Preparation of some polymeric compounds derived from polymethacrylic acid and its related monomers. (b) Characterization of these polymers and the monomers by the following methods: elemental analysis, IR spectroscopy, thermal analysis (DTA) and $^1$H NMR spectra of the monomers. (D) Photoconductivity Finally, research work is being carried on (Abdel-Ati and Taufefik 1987) in the field of photodissolution of silver in arsenic selenide-based chalcogenide films. The photodoping of silver through semiconducting films is followed by electrical resistivity measurements. The kinetics of the photodissolution process are investigated. 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SB 618 Eligibility County of San Diego San Diego Reentry Program (SB618) What is the SB618 Reentry Program? A comprehensive, multi-agency program designed to assist, educate, treat addictions and transition parolees into the community. Current Availability * There are only six total spaces available per week. * The new week begins every Thursday and ends on Wednesday. * The program is only available in the Central and East County Divisions. * The goal is to expand to all county courthouses. Eligibility Criteria * Only available at Readiness Conference * East County: Pre-prelim Readiness Conference in Department 2 * Central: Departments 29, 30 and 31 * Never available after a jury trial. * Space availability must be cleared through the DA Disposition Unit. * Only available when Defendant and the People enter into a Stipulated Prison Sentence for a new prison term * The sentence must be at least 8 months and no more than 72 months * The time to serve must be no less than 4 months and no more than 72 months * Only available if Defendant is a legal resident of San Diego County. * Only available if Defendant is in custody. * Only available if the current crime is a non-violent felony. Exclusionary Criteria * Current commitment offense is a violent offense pursuant to Penal Code section 667.5(c). * If the defendant committed any crime (including the current one) wherein the victim suffered death, great bodily injury or a permanent disability, the defendant is permanently excluded. * Other prior convictions for violent felonies within Penal Code section 667.5(c) that do not involve death, great bodily injury or permanent disability, will be screened on a case by case basis if the defendant remained free of prison for at least five years after the commission of the violent felony. * Eligibility for Prop 36 treatment. * 290 Registration * Arson (457.1) Registration * Security Housing Unit placement for violent acts within the last year. * Protective Housing Unit placement for safety concerns within the last year. * Documented Prison Gang affiliation. * Felony holds by another jurisdiction. * Inmates assigned by CDCR regulations to a classification score of Level IV – this score would preclude placement at Richard J. Donovan Correctional Facility. * May be excluded due to special needs programs pursuant to CDCR regulations which may include, but are not limited to, permanent wheelchair use, medical needs, psychiatric needs, protective custody needs, or developmental needs. Important Notes: - SB 618 SCREENING IS NOT PART OF THE NEGOTIATION PROCESS. - There should be no reference to the SB 618 program on the change of plea form. - Defendants must be advised during the change of plea that they may or may not get into the SB 618 program, but they will serve their prison sentence either way. Procedure: - Defendant signs a change of plea form with a stipulated prison sentence as agreed between the People and the Defendant. - DDA informs Defense Counsel of the defendant’s eligibility to be screened. - Defense counsel advises Defendant of eligibility. - Defendant and Defense Counsel sign Letter of Intent and Waiver. - During the oral Change of Plea, the Court must: - Take Judicial Notice of Defendant’s application to be screened for the SB 618 program, and - Advise Defendant that whether or not the defendant is accepted into the program, the defendant will be sentenced to the agreed upon prison term. - Sentencing is set for due course or later. - The Court’s Clerk certifies the letter of intent, and provides a copy of the letter of intent and the original waiver to the DDA, who faxes them to the Sheriff and the Probation Department. - Defendant is screened - Defendant is transferred to George Bailey or Las Colinas - Dental and psychological screening are conducted the SDSO - Probation administers the assessments and testing. - Defendant is screened by Department of Corrections and Rehabilitation Classification Counselor. - Life plan is created by Multi-Disciplinary Task Force and Defendant. - If Defendant is found acceptable by all participants and still wants to participate, Defendant signs Contract at sentencing. - On the day of Sentencing: - Court sentences Defendant to original stipulated prison sentence, but also states on the record “The Court takes judicial notice that the defendant has read, reviewed and signed the SB618 contract and has agreed to abide by the program requirements.” - Court Clerks prepare abstract of judgment within 48 hours. - Defendant is promptly transported to Donovan or CIW to begin prison sentence. I have been informed that I am eligible to be screened to determine if I may be accepted into the San Diego County Reentry Program (SB 618). I agree to cooperate with the screening process and understand that I may or may not be selected to participate. I understand that I am receiving a stipulated prison sentence as part of the entry of my guilty plea, and that my plea and this sentence may not be withdrawn if I am not accepted into the Reentry Program. If I am accepted into the Reentry Program, I will sign a contract that outlines the specific requirements of the program. I have been informed of the following benefits of participating in the program at the Richard J. Donovan Correctional Facility or the California Institute for Women: - Priority for prison resources - Employment opportunities - Educational services - Other potential pre-release services I have also been informed of the following potential post-release resources: - Case Manager Support - Child Support Guidance - Counseling - Educational Services - Family Reunification - Financial Planning - Health Services - Housing - Job Readiness - Legal Aid - Tattoo Removal - Transportation Assistance I understand I must follow the rules and regulations of the prison and parole system, and those of the Reentry Program, which include: - Participating in random drug testing. - Taking all prescribed medications. - Not violating any law or possessing any weapons. - Following the course of conduct prescribed by the reentry team and parole agent relating to my ability to work, obtain treatment, housing, and education. Violations of any of these rules may result in my termination from the Reentry Program. Like any other parolee, violations committed after my release from prison on parole may result in being returned to prison. Understanding the above, I agree to be screened for acceptance into the Reentry Program. Date: ____________________ Signature of Defendant: _______________________________________ Date: ____________________ Signature of Defense Counsel: ___________________________________ Benefits of Joining the SB 618 Re-Entry Programs By agreeing to the attached contract and becoming an SB 618 Program participant you will gain some of the following: Male Candidates While in prison, you may receive the following resources: - A designated Prison Case Manager - Comprehensive vocational assessments within the first 120 days in prison. - Designated housing at RJD - Programs/services as available - SAP (Substance Abuse Program) - Life skills - PIA (Prison Industries Authority) - Parenting Classes - IDL (Inmate Day Labor) - Anger Management Classes - Enhanced educational services as available - High School diploma and/or GED - Adult Basic Education (ABE) - Incarcerated Youth Offender (IYO) - Thinking for Change Classes - Vocational Training - Peer Tutoring Program - Pre-Release Classes - College Correspondence Classes (up to an Associate’s Degree) - Faith based support (if requested) - SB 618 Certificates - Meetings with your Community Case Manager six months prior to release. Female Candidates While in prison, you may receive the following resources: - A designated Prison Case Manager - Comprehensive vocational assessments within the first 120 days in prison. - Designated housing at CIW - Programs/services as available - SAP (Substance Abuse Program) - Life skills - PIA (Prison Industries Authority) - Parenting Classes - IDL (Inmate Day Labor) - Anger Management Classes - Enhanced educational services as available - High School diploma and/or GED - Adult Basic Education (ABE) - Incarcerated Youth Offender (IYO) - Thinking for Change Classes - Vocational Training - Peer Tutoring Program - Pre-Release Classes - College Correspondence Classes (up to an Associate’s Degree) - Faith based support (if requested) - SB 618 Certificates - Meetings with your Community Case Manager six months prior to release. Post-release, you may receive the following resources to help you reenter into the community: - A Community Case Manager - Assistance with placement in Residential Treatment Facilities and/or Sober Living homes - Job readiness and placement assistance, for example: - Soft skills training - Occupational support - Family reunification services - Counseling, for example: - Substance abuse - Mental health - Faith-based support - Mentoring - 12 Step - Educational referrals - Child support guidance - Legal aid referrals/assistance - Budget Planning/Financial Education assistance - Clothing assistance - Gang Tattoo removal referrals (for visible tattoos only) - Physical and mental health referrals/assistance - Transportation assistance - Assistance in obtaining personal identification documents, for example - Social Security card - Birth Certificate - California Driver’s License/Identification cards San Diego SB 618 Reentry Program PARTICIPANT CONTRACT Name: _______________________________________ Case No.: _________________________________ In addition to the rules and regulations governing your incarceration and parole, the following describe the obligations and benefits of participating in the San Diego Reentry program. I understand that... ... the validity of this contract is conditioned upon my eligibility for the SB 618 Reentry Program. If at any time after the execution of this agreement and in any phase of the SB 618 Reentry Program, it is discovered that I am, in fact, ineligible to participate in the program, I may be immediately terminated from the program. ... I am entitled to participate in SB 618 for up to eighteen months (or otherwise determined by my SB 618 team) post-release, which includes a Continuing Care component consisting of six months. ... during the entire course of the SB 618 Reentry Program, I will be required to attend roundtable sessions, treatment sessions, have regular and frequent contact with my case manager, submit to random drug testing, remain clean and sober, and law-abiding. I agree to abide by the rules and regulations imposed by the SB 618 Reentry Team and/or parole agent. I understand that if I do not abide by these rules and regulations, I may be sanctioned or terminated from the program. ... sanctions during incarceration may include assignment to another institution, may affect credit earning status, increased drug testing, loss of privileges and resources, removal from program and such other sanctions deemed appropriate by the SB 618 Reentry team. ... post-release sanctions may include more frequent drug testing, more frequent supervision, loss of privileges and resources, community service and such other sanctions deemed appropriate by the SB 618 Reentry team. ... I will be tested for the presence of drugs and alcohol in my system on a random basis according to procedures established by the California Department of Corrections and Rehabilitation, the SB 618 Reentry team, and/or treatment provider or case manager. I understand that I will be given a location and time to report for my drug test. I understand that it is my responsibility to report to the assigned location at the time given for the test. I understand that if I am late for a test, or miss a test, it will be considered positive and I may be sanctioned. ... substituting, altering or trying in any way to change my body fluids for purposes of testing will be grounds for immediate termination from the SB 618 Reentry Program. I will not possess drugs (including marijuana), or drug paraphernalia. I will not associate with people who use or possess drugs, nor will I be present while drugs are being used by others. I may also be asked to abstain from the use of alcohol and association with alcohol. ... I may not possess any weapons while I am participating in the SB 618 Reentry Program. I will dispose of any and all weapons in my possession, and disclose the presence of any weapons possessed by anyone else in my household. Failure to dispose and/or disclose may result in termination from the SB 618 Reentry Program and possible prosecution for illegal possession of any weapon. I agree to inform any law enforcement officer who contacts me that I am an SB 618 Reentry Program participant and to report any law-enforcement contact to my parole agent and case manager. ... I may not work as a confidential informant with any law enforcement agency while I am an SB 618 Reentry Program participant, nor may I be made or encouraged to work as a confidential informant as a condition of my full participation in the SB 618 Reentry Program. If I am a recovering addict and/or alcoholic, I will inform all treating physicians and may not take narcotic or addictive medications or drugs. If a treating physician deems necessary to treat me with narcotic or addictive medications or drugs, I must disclose this to my treatment provider, parole agent and case manager. ... SB 618 case managers will work to place me in programs best suited for my success and subject to availability and agree that I will not leave any SB 618 referred program without prior approval from my treatment provider, parole agent or case manager and the SB 618 Reentry team. ... my full participation in my reentry plan may include residential placement, vocational training, education, and/or anger management, parenting or relationship counseling. I understand that I may be asked to sign a contract for each reentry program. I will abide by the rules and regulations of my assigned programs. ... successfully completing the SB 618 Reentry Program makes me eligible to participate in a graduation ceremony. ... during the early phases of reentry, I may be precluded from working or from gaining employment. I further understand that within the time directed by the SB 618 Reentry team, I will seek employment, job training and/or further education as approved by the SB 618 Reentry team, and that failure to do so may result in sanctions or termination. ... I have the right to submit grievances, and that I will be given a full and fair hearing in this regard. I agree to keep the SB 618 Reentry team, treatment provider or case manager and parole agent advised of my current address and phone number at all times and whenever changed. My place of residence is subject to SB 618 Reentry team approval. I agree to disclose all SB 618 program-related assessments and all associated records, including Confidential Substance Abuse Information during my participation in the SB 618 program. I understand that any information obtained from this release will be kept apart from the Court file. ... termination from or failure to complete the SB 618 Reentry Program cannot be a basis for withdrawing my previously entered guilty plea. ... that the successful completion of the SB 618 Reentry Program may be independent of my parole term. ... participation in the SB 618 Reentry Program is a privilege, not a right, and that it is a unique opportunity to obtain information, skills, services, and associations to help me change my life and fulfill my potential. I promise to give SB 618 my honest and best efforts. I reviewed this contract with the participant. SB 618 Probation Officer ___________________________ Date ________________ I have read the above contract and I understand what I have read. I am willing to enter into this agreement with the Senate Bill 618 Reentry Program. Participant’s Signature ___________________________ Date ________________ Attorney for Participant ___________________________ Date ________________ DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE SB 618 REENTRY TEAM In consideration of the promises made by the above-referenced participant, the SB 618 Reentry team (by and through its individual members) does herein promise: - To closely monitor Participant’s progress and sobriety in order to provide structure and incentives to remain motivated, drug and alcohol free; - To assess, evaluate, and guide Participant into and through appropriate programs for successful reentry; - To coordinate and provide services which will assist participant in meeting needs, obtaining guidance, and fulfilling one’s potential; - To consider each case on individual merits and circumstances, while remaining consistent within guidelines; - To hold all Participants accountable for their own behavior, and to respond in a therapeutically appropriate manner; - To treat Participants with due dignity and respect, and to listen with an open mind; - To keep team members current and trained in all facets of maintaining the highest caliber and most enduringly successful SB 618 Reentry Program; - To encourage graduates to return to the SB 618 Reentry Program (after completion) to mentor new participants and demonstrate what can be accomplished by honestly working this program. - To participate in SB 618 Reentry team meetings: weekly for the first month, bi-weekly the next 3 months, and monthly for the last 8 to 12 months. _________________________________________ _________________________ Parole Agent’s Signature Date _________________________________________ _________________________ SB 618 Community Case Manager Date I authorize (releasing party): Name San Diego County Sheriff's Dept. Authorized CDCR Staff, RJD or CIW Prison Case Manager, San Diego County Probation Department, Community Case Manager Address P.O. Box 939062 City/State San Diego, CA 92193-9062 To disclose to (receiving party): Name SANDAG, Authorized CDCR Staff, RJD or CIW Prison Case Manager, San Diego County Probation Department, San Diego County Sheriff's Department, Community Case Manager, UCSD Case Manager By paper, oral, and electronic means any and all of my medical records, assessments, test results, statements and criminal case history, listed below, including but not limited to: - MEDICAL injuries, illnesses, conditions - MENTAL illnesses, conditions - Vocational, COMPAS, Literacy Assessments - HIV test results - ALCOHOL/DRUG abuse PURPOSE for release: Other: SB618 Compliance SPECIFIC records to release: HIV test results Other: Any other test(s), examinations NOTICE: I understand that the medical information used or disclosed pursuant to this authorization may be subject to re-disclosure by the recipient and no longer protected by federal privacy regulations (HIPAA). I further understand that the Sheriff’s Department may not condition treatment on whether I sign this authorization. California law prohibits the person receiving my health information from making further disclosure of it unless another authorization for such disclosure is obtained or unless such disclosure is specifically required or permitted by law. EXPIRATION: This authorization will expire automatically in one year: __________ REVOCATION: I may revoke this authorization at any time by notifying the issuing party in writing. COPY: I authorize the use of a facsimile or photocopy of this form. I may receive a copy of this authorization. (Initial here for copy): Copy given: Yes No Social Security Number AKA CDC Number Patient’s Signature Date of Birth Date Patient’s Name (Please Print) Send in County Mail to: O-317 MRU, Attn: Chief, Medical Records, San Diego County Sheriff Department. For additional forms, call (858) 974-5968. SAN DIEGO COUNTY SHERIFF’S DEPARTMENT MEDICAL SERVICES DIVISION AUTHORIZATION TO RELEASE PATIENT MEDICAL RECORD Form SB618J New 12/06 revised 8/10/07 \| ASSESSMENT AREA \| DONE BY \| SPECIFIC TOOL \| TYPE TEST \| MANDATED BY STATE/FEDS? \| FREQUENCY MANDATED BY STATE/FED? \| \|-----------------\|---------\|---------------\|-----------\|-------------------------\|----------------------------------\| \| MEDICAL \| N/A \| NO REQUIREMENTS FOR COUNTY STAFF \| N/A \| N/A \| N/A \| \| DENTAL \| S/O \| CDCR FORM 237-A \| HEALTH RECORD DENTAL REC SCREENING \| YES - PEREZ - COURT \| RC PROCESSING ONLY \| \| \| S/O \| CDCR FORM 128-C1 \| MED. CLEARANCE AND RESTRICTION CHRONO \| YES - PEREZ - COURT \| RC PROCESSING ONLY \| \| MENTAL HEALTH/DD \| S/O \| CDCR 31 QUESTIONS \| MH SCREENING INTERVIEW \| YES - COLEMAN - COURT \| RC PROCESSING ONLY \| \| \| S/O \| MH-7 \| SECONDARY MH EVAL \| YES - COLEMAN - COURT \| RC PROCESSING ONLY \| \| \| S/O \| CDCR FORM 128-C \| MH PLACEMENT CHRONO \| YES - COLEMAN - COURT \| RC PROCESSING ONLY \| \| \| S/O \| CDCR FORM 7386 \| MH SCREENING CHRONO \| YES - COLEMAN - COURT \| RC PROCESSING ONLY \| \| \| \| TONY, QUICK TEST \| DD SCREENINGS AND PHASE III, GAMA \| YES - CLARK - DD - COURT \| RC PROCESSING ONLY \| \| EDUCATION \| S/O GC \| TABE - FULL BATTERY \| READING ONLY \| YES - STATE \| RC PROCESSING ONLY \| \| \| S/O GC \| CASAS LIFE SKILLS \| LIFE SKILLS \| YES - FEDERAL \| RC PROCESSING ONLY \| \| \| S/O GC \| IDEAS* \| INTERESTS \| YES - STATE \| RC PROCESSING ONLY \| \| VOCATIONAL \| JOB \| MYERS-BRIGGS \| PERSONALITY \| NO - REQUIRED FOR PROJ. \| NO - RC PROCESSING ONLY \| \| ASSESSMENT \| DEV \| O'NET VALUES \| VALUES \| NO - REQUIRED FOR PROJ. \| NO - RC PROCESSING ONLY \| \| \| CONTR. \| O'NETABILITIES \| ABILITIES \| NO - REQUIRED FOR PROJ. \| NO - RC PROCESSING ONLY \| \| ALCOHOL AND DRUG \| S/O \| ASI - MH CLIN. \| DRUG/ALCOHOL \| NO - REQUIRED FOR PROJ. \| NO - RC PROCESSING ONLY \| \| CRIMINOGENIC \| P/O \| COMPASS - MALES AND FEMALES \| RISK OF RECIDIVISM \| YES - STATE \| NO - RC PROCESSING AND 18 MONTH POST PAROLE \| *IDEAS - INTEREST DETERMINATION EXPLANATION AND ASSESSMENT SYSTEM S/O SHERIFF'S OFFICE GC GROSSMONT COLLEGE P/O PROBATION OFFICE
Dual-frequency phased-array module Suppose you wanted an Automatic RLC Bridge that could measure up to 2 MΩ resistance, 2000 H inductance, and 0.2 F capacitance, plus equivalent series resistance and leakage current. A bridge with 5-digit resolution for reactance and resistive readouts, automatic decimal point and units of measurement; a 20-measurements-per-second capability; 120-Hz and 1-kHz test frequencies; 5-terminal connections to preserve a basic 0.1% accuracy; a built-in 0 to 3-V bias or external bias to 600 V; optional remote programmability and data output. And prices that start at $4,215. (in U.S.A.) Where could you possibly find such a bridge? What's new in HP Scopes? 18 GHz, dual-channel sampling! New, faster HP diodes now extend sampling capability through 18 GHz. For the first time, you can directly view and measure 18 GHz CW signals (or 20 psec risetime pulses). But there are more new scope innovations from HP. There's the new, easy-to-use, 250 MHz real-time scope...and new, direct read-out TDR with ¼" resolution...and new variable persistence and storage scopes for measurements up to 100 MHz...and a whole new series of low-cost 500 kHz scopes. And, there are more eye-popping scope ideas just around the corner! Next time you see your HP field engineer, ask him what's new in scopes. You'll be surprised by all that's happening to give you better, more economical scope measurements. One thing, we bet you'll get a new (and better) answer, every time you ask! Are you thinking about a new scope? Are you wondering whether you should continue down the same old road? Or is it time you took a look at another manufacturer? The HP road means going with the demonstrated leader — maker of performance champs. Call your HP field engineer, right now, if 18 GHz sampling is your interest. Complete 18 GHz sampling system available with delayed sweep, or w/o delayed sweep. If you already have an HP 12.4 GHz sampling system, add the new 18 GHz HP 1430B remote sampler. Write Hewlett-Packard, Palo Alto, California 94304. Europe: 1217 Meyrin-Geneva, Switzerland. Impedance Measurement goes full circle The HP 4815A RF Vector Impedance Meter will conveniently measure complex impedance over the entire impedance domain. You get instant, direct readout of impedance magnitude from 1 ohm to 100K ohms and phase angle from 0 to 360°, over a frequency range of 500 kHz to 108 MHz. Now you can easily measure impedances with negative real parts, often present in feedback amplifiers with small phase margin. To measure impedance at multiple frequencies, simply set the frequency, probe, and read. No nulling and balancing, as with conventional bridge measurements. A convenient probe lets you measure directly in active circuits to determine driving point impedance under actual operating conditions, with minimum residual effects. For example, amplifier input or output impedance can be continuously monitored while bias, feedback, load, and frequency are varied. In-circuit measurements for determining loop gain and phase margin can also be made. The 4815A is also ideal for evaluating passive devices, such as components and networks. Use it to characterize transformers, resonant circuits, transmission lines, filters, and crystals. You can measure at actual operating frequencies and make network adjustments while impedance parameters are monitored. For example, antenna/transmission line matching networks can be quickly adjusted. Price: $2650. To learn more about how easy it is to use impedance for evaluating circuits and components, request Application Note 86 and a special impedance issue of the HP Journal. If you would like to discuss a particular application, call your local HP field engineer or write: Hewlett-Packard, 100 Locust Ave., Berkeley Heights, N.J. 07922. In Europe: 1217 Meyrin-Geneva, Switzerland. ## Features ### Probing the News \| Page \| Topic \| \|------\|-------\| \| 105 \| Computers: Shakeout due in minicomputers \| \| 109 \| Computers: New IBM series comes on soft \| \| 113 \| Aviation: Air traffic control socked in \| ### U.S. Reports \| Page \| Topic \| \|------\|-------\| \| 45 \| Avionics: Wait ahead for Awacs bidders \| \| 45 \| Medical electronics: Blood used as power source; instrument eliminates dangerous "ground loops" \| \| 47 \| Advanced technology: Garnets used for bubbles \| \| 47 \| Computers: Machines for ABM's studied; standard peripheral interface sought \| \| 48 \| Companies: Starting up in a lean period \| \| 50 \| Space electronics: Balloon missions for L-band \| \| 52 \| Commercial electronics: Firm rents time on laser \| \| 52 \| Meetings: Eastern firms bearish on Wescon \| \| 52 \| Communications: Headset in a helmet that police departments can afford; doubling data transmission speed; digital video from space \| \| 56 \| Government: NASA pulls back award \| \| 56 \| For the record \| ### Electronics International \| Page \| Topic \| \|------\|-------\| \| 147 \| Western Europe: Go/no-go decision in space cooperation \| \| 147 \| Great Britain: Speeding blood; delays in glass \| \| 149 \| The Netherlands: Thermogram array \| \| 149 \| Soviet Union: IC curtain lifts \| \| 150 \| Japan: Floating zone buoys magnetic bubbles \| ## New Products \| Page \| Topic \| \|------\|-------\| \| 119 \| In the spotlight \| \| 119 \| IC tester outpaces memories \| \| 122 \| 6 MOS chips equal 1 calculator \| \| 125 \| Instruments review \| \| 125 \| Programable tester is inexpensive \| \| 126 \| Analyzer's resolution doubled \| \| 127 \| Loop tracer is accurate to 0.5% \| \| 129 \| Components review \| \| 129 \| Digit tubes put in one envelope \| \| 130 \| Potentiometer handles high power \| \| 133 \| Microwave review \| \| 133 \| Gunn device for millimeter jobs \| \| 135 \| Subassemblies review \| \| 135 \| Converters aimed at MOS systems \| \| 137 \| Semiconductor review \| \| 137 \| Darlingtons made by mesa process \| \| 138 \| New materials \| ## Articles ### Microwave - Versatility is designed into dual-band module for phased array systems - Built with microstrip techniques, L-and S-band transmitter is a step toward multifrequency operation - Alfred Rosenblatt, Electronics' staff ### Solid state - MOS memory travels in fast bipolar crowd - Silicon-on-sapphire technology yields 256-bit random access memory with access time of only 40 nsec - Edward J. Boleky, Joseph R. Burns, John E. Meyer, and Joseph H. Scott, David Sarnoff Research Labs, RCA Corp. ### Circuit design - Designer's casebook - Preset pulse train checks sequential logic - Feedback triggers one-shot from both polarity edges - FET phase detector can be frequency-voltage converter - Variable FET resistance gives 90° shifts ### Computer-aided design - Modified CAD device models reduce circuit analysis costs - Proper adjustment of an active device's critical design parameters cuts expensive computer time - J.R. Greenbaum, General Electric Co., Electronic Systems division ### Circuit design - IC's save power, boost efficiency of regulated power supplies - William L. Brown, Electrical Engineering Department, San Diego State College ### Communications - Design pruning trims data modem costs - Device for communicating with a computer at 1,200 bits per second features digital techniques and circuit paring - Jack Stifle and Mike Johnson, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign ## Departments \| Page \| Topic \| \|------\|-------\| \| 4 \| Readers Comment \| \| 9 \| Who's Who in this issue \| \| 14 \| Who's Who in electronics \| \| 22 \| Meetings \| \| 33 \| Electronics Newsletter \| \| 67 \| Washington Newsletter \| \| 140 \| New Books \| \| 141 \| Technical Abstracts \| \| 142 \| New Literature \| \| 145 \| International Newsletter \| Readers Comment Soviet economy To the Editor: As always, when the Soviet Union gets bogged down in the mire of its communistic economy and wishes to advance it looks to the products and skills of capitalists to bail it out. This time Soviet planners wish to calm "considerable public complaint about inadequate automation of the Soviet economy" by buying from the West computing equipment to produce "the vision of a whole planned economy being run by a vast network of computers all over the country." The achievement of this goal is important to Soviet planners because "the computer has become a political symbol in the Soviet Union. It stands for a rational technocratic control of the economy and, ultimately, Soviet society" [Electronics, Jan. 19, p. 137]. And, as always in the past, businessmen in predominantly capitalistic countries are able and willing to help the troubled Soviet regime and eagerly provide the means to keep communism going. (See Western Technology and Soviet Economic Development, 1917 to 1930, Antony C. Sutton, Hoover Institution, Stanford University.) These men give no thought to the principles on which capitalism is based—individual rights; they act only for the range-of-the-moment profit—they call it being practical; and they give no thought to the long range economic and political consequences resulting from violating ethical principles by supporting that which is evil—the suppression of individual rights. Short range thinking makes them accept the erroneous idea that there is a conflict between the moral and the practical and that it is practical to sacrifice one's ideals. But a proper moral code must be in accord with reality, and immoral actions do have practical consequences. (See Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal, Ayn Rand.) Only by overlooking these consequences can businessmen support a totalitarian regime which is dedicated to the annihilation of capitalism. Communism has proclaimed the long range goal of destroying capitalism by physical invasion, revolution or subversion. The Soviets have repeatedly confirmed their loyalty to this goal by words and in actions. (Recent examples: the violent suppression of capitalistic tendencies in Hungary and Czechoslovakia.) If capitalism dies it will be by self-sacrifice and suicide; if communism lives it will be with the help of its chosen enemy—capitalism. Ernst F. Germann Austin, Texas * Above letter was previously summarized. The original is now being published in full. In the works To the Editor: You say [May 11, p. 41] that Zenith is building tv sets in Taiwan. We are planning a facility there; however, the arrangements, still in the final stages, won't be operational before late this year or early next. William A. Nail Zenith Radio Corp. Chicago PETP FILM CAPACITORS SIZE & COST: NO BIG THING. EASIER THAN EVER TO FIT YOUR BOARD & BUDGET. BROAD LINE GETS BROADER. 8 LOWER CAPACITANCE VALUES (100 pF thru 390 pF @ 200 V). Type 192P Pacer® Polyester Film Capacitors are mass-produced to beat the space/cost squeeze in commercial and industrial applications. Extended-foil PETP film sections with metal end caps provide best possible non-inductive construction. End caps also act as moisture barriers. Ideal for automatic insertion on printed wiring boards. Expanded line includes capacitance values from 100 pF to .47 µF. Voltage range, 80 to 600vdc. Write for Bulletin 2066C. Technical Literature Service Sprague Electric Company 35 Marshall Street North Adams, Mass. 01247 THE BROAD-LINE PRODUCER OF ELECTRONIC PARTS SPRAGUE THE MARK OF RELIABILITY Electronics \| July 20, 1970 Circle 5 on reader service card Dear Mister: Now that transistors are starting to catch on, we've decided to get into the business. Transistors and diodes are a big deal. But to some companies, they're just a nuisance. Why should they bother about transistor customers when they can sell IC's. Well we, for one, care. At The Sincere Transistor & Diode Company, we sell the same stuff everybody else does. The difference is our attitude. With us, every customer is a big shot. Whether he buys a million transistors or a couple dozen. If the numbers on the following pages look familiar they should be. We've made a deal with Fairchild Semiconductor, to take care of transistor and diode buyers—some of the really important people in electronics. So, Fairchild helps us make transistors and diodes. And we help them care more about their customers. To order any number of any of the products we've listed, just call (415) 962-5011. Or drop a note to our plant at 313 Fairchild Drive, Mountain View, California 94040. We'll prove that nothing succeeds like Sincere. Molly Sincere A REAL SIZZLER! HIGH CONDUCTANCE FAST SWITCHING DIODES \| DEVICE \| TYPE \| 1-99 \| 100-999 \| 1000+ \| \|----------\|------\|-------\|---------\|-------\| \| IN643A \| FD4 \| .90 \| .50 \| .21 \| \| IN643B \| FD4 \| .90 \| .50 \| .21 \| \| IN643C \| FD4 \| .90 \| .50 \| .21 \| \| IN643D \| FD4 \| .90 \| .50 \| .21 \| \| IN643E \| FD4 \| .90 \| .50 \| .21 \| \| IN643F \| FD4 \| .90 \| .50 \| .21 \| \| IN643G \| FD4 \| .90 \| .50 \| .21 \| \| IN643H \| FD4 \| .90 \| .50 \| .21 \| \| IN643I \| FD4 \| .90 \| .50 \| .21 \| \| IN643J \| FD4 \| .90 \| .50 \| .21 \| \| IN643K \| FD4 \| .90 \| .50 \| .21 \| \| IN643L \| FD4 \| .90 \| .50 \| .21 \| \| IN643M \| FD4 \| .90 \| .50 \| .21 \| \| IN643N \| FD4 \| .90 \| .50 \| .21 \| \| IN643O \| FD4 \| .90 \| .50 \| .21 \| \| IN643P \| FD4 \| .90 \| .50 \| .21 \| \| IN643Q \| FD4 \| .90 \| .50 \| .21 \| \| IN643R \| FD4 \| .90 \| .50 \| .21 \| \| IN643S \| FD4 \| .90 \| .50 \| .21 \| \| IN643T \| FD4 \| .90 \| .50 \| .21 \| \| IN643U \| FD4 \| .90 \| .50 \| .21 \| \| IN643V \| FD4 \| .90 \| .50 \| .21 \| \| IN643W \| FD4 \| .90 \| .50 \| .21 \| \| IN643X \| FD4 \| .90 \| .50 \| .21 \| \| IN643Y \| FD4 \| .90 \| .50 \| .21 \| \| IN643Z \| FD4 \| .90 \| .50 \| .21 \| \| IN644A \| FD4 \| .90 \| .50 \| .21 \| \| IN644B \| FD4 \| .90 \| .50 \| .21 \| \| IN644C \| FD4 \| .90 \| .50 \| .21 \| \| IN644D \| FD4 \| .90 \| .50 \| .21 \| \| IN644E \| FD4 \| .90 \| .50 \| .21 \| \| IN644F \| FD4 \| .90 \| .50 \| .21 \| \| IN644G \| FD4 \| .90 \| .50 \| .21 \| \| IN644H \| FD4 \| .90 \| .50 \| .21 \| \| IN644I \| FD4 \| .90 \| .50 \| .21 \| \| IN644J \| FD4 \| .90 \| .50 \| .21 \| \| IN644K \| FD4 \| .90 \| .50 \| .21 \| \| IN644L \| FD4 \| .90 \| .50 \| .21 \| \| IN644M \| FD4 \| .90 \| .50 \| .21 \| \| IN644N \| FD4 \| .90 \| .50 \| .21 \| \| IN644O \| FD4 \| .90 \| .50 \| .21 \| \| IN644P \| FD4 \| .90 \| .50 \| .21 \| \| IN644Q \| FD4 \| .90 \| .50 \| .21 \| \| IN644R \| FD4 \| .90 \| .50 \| .21 \| \| IN644S \| FD4 \| .90 \| .50 \| .21 \| \| IN644T \| FD4 \| .90 \| .50 \| .21 \| \| IN644U \| FD4 \| .90 \| .50 \| .21 \| \| IN644V \| FD4 \| .90 \| .50 \| .21 \| \| IN644W \| FD4 \| .90 \| .50 \| .21 \| \| IN644X \| FD4 \| .90 \| .50 \| .21 \| \| IN644Y \| FD4 \| .90 \| .50 \| .21 \| \| IN644Z \| FD4 \| .90 \| .50 \| .21 \| Continued on next column COMPLETE SELECTION OF TRANSISTORS & DIODES Who’s Who in this issue The career trajectory of W. L. Brown, author of the article that starts on page 94, has spanned nuclear research, missiles, and academe. Now a professor in the Electrical Engineering Department at San Diego State College, Brown has worked on isotope separation at Oak Ridge, on the Bomarc missile at Boeing, and on the Atlas ICBM at General Dynamics. Leading the discussion of the article on silicon-on-sapphire memories that begins on page 82 is one of its authors, Joseph R. Burns, who holds a Ph.D. from Rutgers, and who’s with RCA’s David Sarnoff Research Laboratories, where he’s concentrating on semiconductor memories. The other authors, all with RCA Labs, are Joseph H. Scott, a Lincoln University graduate, who works on integrated circuit technology; Edward J. Boleky, an MSE graduate of Princeton, who specializes in digital IC’s, and John E. Meyer, who holds an MSEE degree from the University of Pennsylvania, and who has been engaged in research on silicon and thin-film integrated circuit technology. Computer-aided design, the subject of the article that begins on page 90, is the latest locus for the efforts of J. R. Greenbaum, its author. A radar instructor for the Air Force during World War II, Greenbaum, who holds an MSEE from Stevens Institute of Technology, joined General Electric in 1955. His first assignments were in nuclear reactor instrumentation, but he’s been involved in CAD for the past few years. If its namesake, the great Greek teacher, were here today, he might wish he could have used Plato, the educational modem described in the article that begins on page 99. The authors, Jack Stifle and Mike Johnson, are with the University of Illinois’ Coordinated Science Laboratory. Stifle has been designing digital systems, crt displays, and data communications gear. Johnson has been doing development work on the Plato system. Emancipate your time When You Are Faced With A Tough Design Problem The System 9100 Allows You To Pick It Apart, Analyze It, Modify It, And Solve It Right At Your Desk. You are an engineer on the move—you see a problem and a host of possible solutions fill your mind. Complex combinations of components and parameters—any one of which may be a major breakthrough—demand careful analysis. You write up four or five of your better ideas and take them to the programmer to run on the computer. "Tomorrow if you're lucky," he says, "the next day if you're not." Back to your desk. Pencil, paper, slide rule—if you stay a little late tonight you might be able to work through one possibility yourself. There is a better way. The HP System 9100. We call it the Emancipator because it frees your time for innovative engineering. No need to wait for a programmer or wait in line at a time-share terminal. The System 9100 will compute your problems, build your models, and plot your graphs—at your desk—instantaneously. With full programming capabilities, including looping and branching and sub-routines—and the most extensive program library available anywhere, the System 9100 starts solving your problems as soon as you open the box. Arrange a "hands-on" demonstration at your desk. Lease, rental and purchase options available, write: Hewlett-Packard, P.O. Box 301, Loveland, Colorado 80537. HEWLETT PACKARD HP CALCULATOR SYSTEM 9100 Circle 11 on reader service card AT COMSAT... SLOW CIRCUITS WOULD HAVE BEEN LIKE HAVING HALF-A-SATELLITE! When COMSAT elected to develop its Time-Division Communications System using digital techniques, it was immediately obvious that system capacity would be limited by circuit speed. That's why they chose Motorola MECL integrated circuits for the job. COMSAT Laboratories, with the support of INTELSAT, developed an advanced, 700-channel, Time Division Multiple Access system capable of processing and transmitting information to the satellite at a 50 megabit rate. Motorola's Applications Engineering department helped with engineering assistance and the kind of technical information that could be provided only by the people who pioneered high-speed, emitter-coupled logic. Using high-speed gates, flip-flops and complex functions from Motorola's MECL II line, COMSAT was able to develop general purpose digital logic cards that are actually capable of handling rates of 70 megabits. More importantly, COMSAT found that these same techniques can be used for 150 megabit units — and there is consideration for logic in the 200 to 500 megabit range. New, Motorola MECL III circuits can easily handle speeds up to the 300 megabit level, using gates with 1.0 nS propagation delay and flip-flops with toggle/shift frequencies on the order of 350 MHz. MECL IV circuits, now in development, will yield 500 MHz flip-flops and 900 picosecond gates — thus providing for even higher-capacity communication systems. Other systems such as radar signal processing, audio and video bandwidth compression, digital adaptive reception and digital filtering will also benefit from this advanced line of high-speed integrated circuits. And, the speed and versatility of high-speed MECL is not limited to digital communication uses. Coming soon are fourth generation computers, ultra-high-speed instrumentation, and a variety of advanced avionics gear — all designed around Motorola MECL circuits. For complete information about how MECL can put speed in your system, write on your company letterhead to Box 20912, Phoenix, Arizona 85036. Ask for the "MECL High-Speed Systems Design Library." \| FAMILY \| PROP. DELAY (TYP) \| TOGGLE/SHIFT FREQUENCY (TYP) \| FUNCTIONS AVAILABLE \| GATE POWER DISSIPATION (TYP) \| \|--------\|------------------\|------------------------------\|---------------------\|-------------------------------\| \| MECL II \| 4.0 nS \| 180 MHz \| 41 \| 25 mW \| \| MECL III \| 1.0 nS \| 350 MHz \| 16 \| 55 mW \| \| MECL IV \| 0.9 nS \| 500 MHz \| — \| 20 mW \| MECL — Trademark of Motorola Inc. MOTOROLA MECL the only way to go... FASTER Electronics \| July 20, 1970 LOW POWER OP AMP Problem: Your op amp application demands low power dissipation. Solution: The new Siliconix L140 op amp. The L140 is an ideal answer if you're working on a battery powered system or faced with a packing density problem. In this typical application the externally controlled supply current is less than 30 μA, power dissipation is less than 300 μW. Write or call for complete information and applications assistance. Siliconix Incorporated 2201 Laurelwood Rd. • Santa Clara, Calif 95054 (408) 246-8000 Ext. 201 • TWX 910-338-0227 In Europe: Siliconix Limited, Saunders Way, Sketty, Swansea, Great Britain Who’s Who in electronics Collins “I’ve been challenged a number of times, but I’ve never been refused money for programs,” says Jeffrey H. Collins, the 40-year-old outgoing director of the physical sciences department in the North American Rockwell Corp.’s Autonetics Research and Technology division. “I’m not leaving Autonetics over any grievance.” Collins, an authority on surface wave acoustic devices, [Electronics, Jan. 19, p. 110] will be an Autonetics consultant in that area and in microwave ferromagnetic device work after he becomes research professor of electrical engineering at the University of Edinburgh in Scotland. He was with the electrical engineering department at the University of Glasgow for 10 years before coming to the U.S. “I simply want to get back home,” Collins says. Born near London and educated at the University of London (bachelor’s degree in physics and master’s in mathematics), Collins faces a new challenge at Edinburgh because he’s going to establish an electronics research institute for the East of Scotland electronics industry on behalf of the Scottish Council for Industry. The effort will be partially supported at the outset by the British Science Research Council. Maxi job. As Collins puts it, “We’ll be trying to form a mini-Stanford Research Institute in a mini-Palo Alto. That’s what the East of Scotland is. There’s a lot of engineering and production, but they need high-level R&D in components and devices.” Reflecting on his Autonetics tenure, Collins says that the physical sciences department has moved out of a difficult position that existed when he came aboard two years ago, and the contractual backlog is now three times greater than it was then. With a chuckle, he observes, “It’s better to go while it’s good, not with your tail between your legs.” And how will the technologies with which he’s been associated fare after Collins leaves early this month? Probably rather well, he thinks. His successor as head of the department, George Pulliam, has been the specialist in materials required for the exotic technologies in the department. While he isn’t the device authority Collins is, Pulliam’s materials processing knowhow will be augmented by the theoretical device knowledge of a solid state research group that Collins established at North American Rockwell’s Science Center during the last 18 months. “I look forward to working at Itek because it’s just the right size and age; big enough to have large resources but young enough to be hopeful about translating ideas into action,” says Henry R. Lewis, 45, recently appointed vice president for research and development at the Itek Corp. in Lexington, Mass. “R&D is more exciting in a company interested in moving into new areas.” Itek plans to deemphasize sales to the military, which last year accounted for about 64% of its $153.2 million in sales. By the end of this year two-thirds of its income and half its sales (which should equal last year’s) should come from commercial products. Lewis, in his newly created post, would seem to be just the person to turn R&D efforts towards commercial goals. He comes from RCA, where he directed the materials research laboratory and the program for applying holography to prerecorded Would the engineer who asked us to design a marking system to serialize on an electronic praying mantis, please call (603) 352-1130. It’s ready. If for some strange reason you’re not making electronic praying mantises, how about your transistors, IC’s, SCR’s, diodes, thyristors or whatever. We can handle those, too. We’ve got the systems, typefaces, inks, supplies and services to mark whatever you make, and mark it right. Our problem-solver booklet will tell you more about us. Write for it now. (before you go bugs) MARKEM Markem Corporation 306 Congress Street Keene, N. H. 03431 International Offices: Markem Europe N.V., Schiphol Oost, Holland; Markem U.K. Ltd., Braby, Warringtonshire, England Bet your chips on a sure thing The REDCOR PAFT II takes the gamble out of chip testing. It's the MOS/LSI Tester using REDCOR's systems-proven analog and digital components plus the field-proven RC 70 Computer. The Systems Pros at REDCOR have put it all together in a total system for high speed production testing of MOS/LSI devices. And it's been hard at work in the field for a year and a half. PAFT II is a shoo-in to use. The TEST software package lets technicians write testing routines in an easy-to-use, problem-oriented language. All tests are completely under control of the computer program. Both parametric and functional testing. When your chips are down for testing, don't gamble. Take the sure bet: come to REDCOR and PAFT II. We're delivering. Call us collect for more information. REDCOR CORPORATION Telephone: (213) 348-5892 Who's Who in electronics Lewis video for home use—to be marketed as SelectaVision [Electronics, Oct. 13, 1969, p. 43]. While Lewis claims he's been so busy since joining Itek he hasn't had a chance to sit down and think, there are several broad areas he would like to work on. "Program regulation and image processing, and, in general, learning how to handle and access large amounts of stored material, is one of the large problems technology has to solve now." Ganging up. More immediately, Lewis would like to see Itek's capabilities in optics, electronics, and materials "put together in the laboratory to a larger extent. These capabilities have been separately applied to separate divisions." He also thinks optics should have a larger impact on Itek. Lewis also sees possibilities in computer control of machinery, and Itek has formed a joint venture with the Kingsbury Machine Tool Corp. of Keene, N. H., called he Itek-Kingsbury Co., to develop computer controls. "We have a capability for computer programming with our mathematical background," Lewis says, "and we make sensors and circuits involved in making the interface to machinery." Another new product area which appears promising is titanium dioxide, a photosensitive material developed by Itek's Lexington Research Laboratory, which reverts to its blank state shortly after exposure—like reusable film. Lewis sees applications in graphics. Craftsmanship in hard materials...an industry standard High precision tungsten carbide bonding tools, such as the one shown in this 13x magnification of an ultrasonic lead bonding operation, were pioneered and introduced as production devices by Tempress...in 1963. The Tempress capillary tube, an industry standard...in 1967. The ultrasonic bonding tool, an industry standard. The techniques and the specialized machinery developed to produce such precision products from ultra-hard materials have not been duplicated; quite probably will not be, for they are a result of the unique combination of Tempress people and the Tempress philosophy. To meet its responsibilities, Tempress maintains a continuing expansion program, limited only by strict adherence to the Tempress Standard of Excellence. (It requires as long as 11 months to train an operator for certain operations.) The same uncompromising standard is applied to Tempress Automatic Scribing Machines and to the entire growing family of Tempress miniature assembly tools and production equipment. Tempress Industries, Inc., 980 University Ave., Los Gatos, Calif. 95030 Circle 17 on reader service card Fight noise pollution with this quiet family. Hot Molding with Allen-Bradley's exclusive technique, gives these composition variable resistors an unusually low noise level. And importantly, this low noise level actually decreases in use. Under tremendous heat and pressure the resistance track is molded into place. A solid element with a large cross-section is produced. This important Allen-Bradley difference means better short-time overload capacity and a long operating life. Control is smooth, resolution almost infinite. These variable resistors are ideal for high frequency circuits. Why should you trust the performance of your designs or your reputation to anything less than Allen-Bradley quality? Use the most thoroughly "field tested" (over 20 years) variable resistors available today. Quantity stocks of popular types J, G, W and GD available for immediate delivery from your appointed A-B industrial electronics distributor. For information write: Marketing Department, Electronics Division, Allen-Bradley Co., 1201 South Second Street, Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53204. Export office: 1293 Broad Street, Bloomfield, N. J. 07003, U.S.A. In Canada: Allen-Bradley, Canada Ltd., 135 Dundas Street, Galt, Ontario. \| SPECIFICATIONS \| \|----------------\| \| TYPE J—STYLE RV4 \| TYPE K \| TYPE G—STYLE RV6 \| TYPE L \| TYPE W \| TYPE GD \| \| CASE DIMENSIONS \| 5/8" deep x 1-5/32" dia. (single section) \| 5/8" deep x 1-5/32" dia. (single section) \| 15/32" deep x 1/2" dia. \| 15/32" deep x 1/2" dia. \| 15/32" deep x 1/2" dia. \| 35/64" deep x 1/2" dia. \| \| POWER at + 70°C \| 2.25 W \| 3 W \| 0.5 W \| 0.8 W \| 0.5 W \| 0.5 W \| \| TEMPERATURE RANGE \| −55°C to +120°C \| −55°C to +150°C \| −55°C to +120°C \| −55°C to +150°C \| −55°C to +120°C \| −55°C to +120°C \| \| RESISTANCE RANGE (Tolerances: ±10 and 20%) \| 50 ohms to 5.0 megs \| 50 ohms to 5.0 megs \| 100 ohms to 5.0 megs \| 100 ohms to 5.0 megs \| 100 ohms to 5.0 megs \| 100 ohms to 5.0 megs \| \| TAPERS \| Linear (U), Modified Linear (S), Clockwise Modified Log (A), Counter-Clockwise Modified Log (B), Clockwise Exact Log (DB). (Special tapers available from factory) \| \| FEATURES (Many electrical and mechanical options available from factory) \| Single, dual, and triple versions available. Long rotational life. Ideal for attenuator applications. Snap switches can be attached to single and dual. \| Single, dual, and triple versions available. Long rotational life. \| Miniature size. Immersion-proof. SPST switch can be attached. \| Miniature size. Immersion-proof. \| Commercial version of type G. Immersion-proof. \| DUAL section version of type G. Ideal for attenuator applications. Immersion-proof. \| ALLEN-BRADLEY NEW DIMENSION ELECTRONICS EC70-6 © Allen-Bradley Company 1970 Circle 19 on reader service card Bell & Howell & Jacob & Haag & Hull & Lewis & Czuha & Shitara & Reid & Stefansson & Bane & MacDonald Of course you know Bell & Howell. Chances are, you went to school together. But you probably don’t know Jacob, Haag and the rest. They’re carving out a whole new group for Bell & Howell. The Electronics & Instruments Group. A group that makes equipment you’d hardly find in your old classroom. Like systems for identifying air and water pollutants. Control systems for chemical companies. Aircraft entertainment and mini-theaters. Materials for computer read-out and communications systems for hospitals. But in one respect, the new group is just a chip off the old block. The same care goes into making oscillographs and digital transducers that goes into making projectors. There’s a lot more to Bell & Howell than meets the eye. For a look at how far we’ve gone since your old school days, just write to . . . Bell & Howell, Electronics & Instruments Group, 360 Sierra Madre Villa, Pasadena, Calif. 91109 © Copyright 1970 Bell & Howell Circle 21 on reader service card Meetings Wescon goes a little soft "The times they are a-changin'," goes the song—and that's how it's going in the program for this year's Western Electronic Show and Convention (Wescon), to be held Aug 25 through 28 in Los Angeles. For the first time, a significant portion of the technical program—seven of 27 sessions—will be devoted to minicomputers, computer software, time-sharing, and other aspects of the computer business. The shift reflects the increased importance of computer software and peripherals in the electronics industry, as well as the decision by the Western Electronics Manufacturers Association, one of the show's sponsors, to admit software companies. Numbers games. The first two computer-oriented sessions, on Aug. 25, will include "Managing the Development of Large Software Systems," and "Evaluation of Proprietary Software." On Aug. 26, sessions on "Minicomputers in Process Industries," and "Hands-on Programmable Calculators" will be presented. The next-to-last day, Aug. 27, will be devoted to "Evaluation of Time-Sharing Services," and "The Impact of Interactive Computing Systems on Engineering Problem Solving." The final session on Aug. 28 will cover "Computer-Aided Design Capability of Digital Logic Blocks" and will include papers on computer-aided circuit design, functional testing, printed circuit-board design and testing, and computer-aided LSI design. Current trends in microwave technology are to be represented. Here sessions will cover "Millimeter Systems, Devices and Guides," and "Solutions to Problems of Low-Noise Amplification at Microwave Frequencies." The former will feature an overview of millimeter-wave systems, a description of a digital transmission system using a circular electric mode waveguide, rectangular dielectric image lines for IC's, and millimeter-wave Impatt power sources. The latter session will discuss recent advances in low-noise transistor amplifiers, new developments in low-noise traveling-wave-tube amplifiers, recent advances in mixers and tunnel diode amplifiers, parametric up-converters in receiving systems, and components for use in high-performance wideband receivers. A substantial part of the program, five sessions, will cover management and marketing subjects, such as electronic instrumentation distribution trends, the IC overseas, product planning, advances in commercial avionics, and management control systems. Power to the problem. Another departure this year will be a two-day, four-session symposium on "applying technology to public problems." For several years the Wescon symposium has zeroed in on electronics packaging. Show officials say the change reflects both the current national interest in solving urban environmental problems and increased industry attention to applying technology to new potential business areas. Speakers at the keynote meeting in the Los Angeles Hilton Hotel on Aug. 26 will be C. Lester Hogan, president of Fairchild Camera and Instrument; Max Palevsky, Xerox Data Systems; and Prof. Burton H. Klein of the California Institute of Technology. The subject of the keynote session will be "Problems and Opportunities in the Real World." The second session will consider "technology and the mobile population," with participation by James M. Beggs, Under Secretary of Transportation; John C. Beckett, government relations manager, Hewlett-Packard; and Albert Hibbs, transportation applications manager, Jet Propulsion Laboratory. Problems in information utilization will be discussed in a "Technology and Information Exchange" by Peter C. Goldmark, director of CBS Laboratories; John R. Pierce, Bell Telephone Laboratories; Paul (Continued on p. 24) The cable that won’t hold you back To move ahead in today’s complex technology, the wire and cable you specify must be as sophisticated as the equipment it connects. Being unable to repair themselves, connections have to be more dependable than the humans they replace. The wire and cable you put in today should have the most contemporary construction and electronic capabilities available...to minimize rewiring as you expand. It should be equal to the unfamiliar equipment and interfacing systems that you’re going to be living with soon. This is the kind of wire and cable that Brand-Rex can bring you because we’ve been in on the development of these systems for years. Are you the push-forward type? Send for our “all-products brochure”. It covers contemporary wire and cable for telephone/communications...computer/peripheral...commercial/appliance...municipal...industrial/utility...and military applications. Tubing and sleeving, too. Brand-Rex Division, American Enka Corp., Willimantic, Conn. 06226. Phone 203 423-7771. Connect for tomorrow BRAND-REX For automated manufacturing you need NEMS DNC1500 Because... we supply a complete system operable by: 1. Computer Control 2. Manual Control 3. Paper Tape 4. Magnetic Tape The NEMS DNC1500 is actually a specially designed mini-computer. It is especially valuable when used with computer control, because it frees the main computer for other duties during repetitive operations. X-Y positioning of production equipment for insertion operations, drilling, milling, plotting, etc., is performed under the digital control of the mini-computer. The DNC1500 slews heavy loads at speeds of up to 600 inches per minute. We guarantee accuracy at full speed! Standard resolution of the DNC1500 is 500 micro-inches, assured by the use of 8 BCD digits. Optional resolutions of 100 or 10 micro-inches are available. For complete information on the NEMS DNC1500, contact: C. G. Chapel, Product Manager NATIONAL ELECTRO-MECHANICAL SYSTEMS, INC. Box B, 32 Broad Avenue, Binghamton, New York 13904 • Phone: 607 723-9561 Meetings (Continued from p. 22) Visher, Hughes Space Systems division; and Daniel E. Noble, vice chairman, Motorola Inc. In the final session on Aug. 27, "Technology and the Urban Society" will be explored by Floyd L. Goss, chief engineer and assistant manager, Los Angeles Department of Water and Power; Charles Miller, director, Draper Laboratories; Phillip Berry, president of the Sierra Club, and Frank Dimster, director of urban design for William L. Pereira and Associates. Computer and data processing portions of the technical program will be held at Hollywood Park, and the remainder of the technical sessions at the Museum of Science and Industry. The symposium meetings will be at the Los Angeles Hilton. For further information contact: Ernest W. Pappenfus, Wescon, 3600 Wilshire Blvd., Los Angeles, Calif. 90005 Calendar Photovoltaic Specialists Conference, IEEE; Seattle Center, Washington, Aug. 11-13. International Conference on Microelectronics, Circuits, and Systems Theory, IEEE; University of New South Wales, Kensington, Sydney, Australia, Aug. 18-21. AFMA National Conference, Armed Forces Management Association; International Hotel, Los Angeles, Aug. 20-21. Radiation Effects in Semiconductors, Air Force Cambridge Research Labs; State University of New York at Albany, Aug. 24-26. Western Electronic Show and Convention (WESCON), IEEE; Biltmore Hotel, Sports Arena, Los Angeles, Aug. 25-28. Preparation and Properties of Electronic and Magnetic Materials for Computers, the Metallurgical Society, Statler-Hilton Hotel, New York, Aug. 30-Sept. 2. Application of Computers to the Problem of Urban Society, Association for Computing Machinery; New York Hilton Hotel, Aug. 31. (Continued on p. 26) Need a fast, accurate solution to an IC problem? E-H Research Laboratories, Inc. teams up with Iwatsu Electric Company, Ltd. to offer you the ideal test instrumentation. E-H breaks through with the E-H 129 pulser which is capable of driving the fastest digital logic circuits. Until this compact, all solid-state instrument came along, no practical commercial pulse generator offered repetition frequency capability beyond 200 MHz. The E-H 129 offers 500 MHz, 2-volt pulses with less than 500 ps risetime and such extras as baseline offset, pulse-top/baseline inversion function, and synchronous gating. And the ideal mate for this instrument is the Iwatsu 5009B sampling scope which allows you to observe and control the waveforms you generate. The Iwatsu 5009B with 18GHz bandwidth lets you evaluate fast circuits with high accuracy—in fact, direct measurements on 100 ps edges with less than 2% display error. Features include less than 20 ps risetime, sensitivity from 10mV/cm, dual-trace performance with seven operating modes, separate miniature sampling heads, big CRT and triggering to full bandwidth for extra convenience. If these two instruments can't solve your problems, E-H can offer you E-H and Iwatsu instrumentation that can. Contact an E-H representative and get a fast solution. Today. E-H the fast solution E-H RESEARCH LABORATORIES, INC. 515 Eleventh Street • Box 1289, Oakland, California 94604 • Phone: (415) 834-3030 • TWX 910-366-7258 In Europe: E-H Research Laboratories (Ned) N.V., Box 1018, Eindhoven, The Netherlands, Telex 51116 In Japan: Iwatsu Electric Company, Ltd., 7-41, 1-Chome Kugayama Suginami-Ku, Tokyo 167, Japan Circle 25 on reader service card New from Ledex! Long stroke, straight pull solenoids Now when you need long stroke linear motion you can look to Ledex, the same people who have for years been engineering and producing one of the broadest lines of rotary and short stroke straight pull solenoids on the market today. This new line of straight pull solenoids comes in four basic sizes, with a force range of ½ to 20 pounds and a stroke range up to ¾ inch. You get Ledex long term dependability, too. A resilient pad has been built in to cushion impact and eliminate repeated pounding of the pole faces. The electroless nickel plated solenoid plungers move in a brass sleeve bushing to assure low friction, positive alignment and long wear. Eight standard models (two in each size) are available off the shelf so you can do your prototyping in a hurry. But if none of these fit your requirements exactly, we’re ready to custom design a solution for your actuating problem. As a matter of fact, Ledex is probably best known for its engineering know-how and its willingness to work with you to meet unusual application requirements. Write today for your copy of Bulletin C-1100 containing detailed specifications of the new line of Ledex straight pull solenoids. Specialists in remote actuation LEDEX DIVISION, LEDEX INC. 123 Webster Street, Dayton, Ohio 45401 phone (513) 224-9891 Meetings (Continued from p. 24) AICA-IFIP Conference on Hybrid Computation, IEEE; Technical University, Munich, Germany, Aug. 31-Sept. 4. Association for Computing Machinery Conference, New York Hilton Hotel, Sept. 1-3. International Electrical and Electronics Engineering Conference, Korea Institute of Electrical Engineers, Korea Institute of Electronics Engineers, Korea Institute of Science and Technology, IEEE; Korea Institute of Science and Technology, Seoul, Sept. 2-4. Conference on Microwave and Optical Generation & Amplification, IEEE; Amsterdam, the Netherlands, Sept. 7-11. International Broadcasting Convention, IEEE; Grosvenor House, Park Lane, London, Sept. 7-11. Petroleum & Chemical Industry Technical Conference, IEEE; Camelot Inn, Tulsa, Okla., Sept. 14-16. Annual Technical Symposium, Society of Photo-optical Instrumentation Engineers; Anaheim Convention Center, Calif., Sept. 14-17. International IEEE/G-AP Symposium and Fall USNC/URSI Meeting, Ohio State University, Columbus, Sept. 14-17. Conference on Gas Discharges, IEEE; London, Sept. 15-18. Intersociety Energy Conversion Engineering Conference, IEEE; Frontier Hotel, Las Vegas, Sept. 20-25. Conference on Engineering in the Ocean Environment, IEEE; City Marina Auditorium, Panama City, Fla., Sept. 21-24. Conference on Electron Device Techniques, IEEE; United Engineering Center Auditorium, New York, Sept. 23-24. Fall Broadcast Technical Symposium, IEEE, Washington Hilton, Sept. 23-26. Joint Power Generation Technical Conference, IEEE; Pittsburgh Hilton Hotel, Sept. 27-30. Conference on Underground Distribution, IEEE; Hotel Pontchartrain and Cobo Hall, Detroit, Sept. 27-30. Conference on Trunk Telecommun- (Continued on p. 29) The beauty of this connector... it saves you a pretty penny. Sure, Amphenol’s new Excellite audio/electronic connector is beautiful. It’s strong and lightweight, too. Made from the same tough, molded ABS plastic used in pro football helmets and golf club heads. The lustrous nickel plating enhances the look and value of your product. But where it really sparkles is on the money it saves you. First off, it costs less to buy. The savings from new, lower cost materials are passed on to you. Secondly, it saves you time in termination. Excellite cable connectors come completely assembled, not as a bag of parts. Your production people aren’t burdened with assembly or bothered with parts that don’t fit or are missing. We do all that. The Excellite line provides a full complement of distinctive 3, 4 and 5 contact connectors that are completely interchangeable and intermateable with all latch-lock type audio connectors. For complete information on Excellite audio/electronic connectors, send for your free copy of Catalog EX-1. Amphenol Industrial Division, The Bunker-Ramo Corporation, 1830 South 54th Avenue, Chicago, Illinois 60650. AMPHENOL THE BUNKER-RAMO CORPORATION Circle 27 on reader service card Try me. Whether you build stacks or buy 'em... we'll show you how Westinghouse Gold-Line rectifier assemblies yield more power per dollar. Send for the proof. After you've tried our assemblies, you'll ask yourself why you bother to build. Because Westinghouse Gold-Line rectifier assemblies give you simplified design and standardization; fewer parts; bonus output amps. And you'll save on inventories, parts, labor, testing, rejects and down-ratings. What's more, we guarantee the current rating of Gold-Line rectifier pre-assembled packages. They're compact in design with a wide range of distinct current and voltage ratings and circuit configurations. Let us analyze your real costs, and prove that Westinghouse can save you money. But first write for our 54-300 catalog and our 54-021 price list. We'll show how our stacks stack up. Then you'll try us. Write Westinghouse Semiconductor Division, Youngwood, Pa. 15697. You can be sure...if it's Westinghouse. Westinghouse Industrial Semiconductor Distributors Alabama ACK Radio Birmingham 205 322-0588 Electronic Wholesalers, Inc. Huntsville 205 539-5722 Arizona Hamilton Electro of Arizona Phoenix 602 272-2601 Kieruff Electronics Corp. Phoenix 602 273-7331 California Newark Electronics Inglewood 213 674-8440 Hamilton Electro Sales Los Angeles 213 870-7171 K-Tronics Los Angeles 213 685-5888 Elmar Electronics, Inc. Mountain View 415 961-3611 Hamilton Electro Sales—North Mountain View 415 961-7000 Hamilton Electro of San Diego San Diego 714 279-2421 Colorado Electronic Parts Co. Denver 303 266-3755 Hamilton Denver Denver 303 934-5508 Connecticut Cramer Electronics, Inc. North Haven 203 239-5641 Florida Cramer Electronics, Inc. Fort Lauderdale 305 566-7511 Electronic Wholesalers Hollywood 305 923-8181 Electronic Wholesalers, Inc. Orlando 305 841-1550 Georgia Speciality Distributing Atlanta 404 873-2521 Illinois Semiconductor Specialists, Inc. Chicago 312 279-1000 Avnet of Chicago Schiller Park 312 678-6310 Indiana Fort Wayne Electronics Supply, Inc. Fort Wayne 210 742-4346 Ra-Dis-Co. Indianapolis 317 637-5571 Radio Distributing Co., South Bend 210 287-2911 Maryland Pyrite, Inc. Baltimore 301 727-5100 Hamilton Electro Sales Hanover 301 796-5000 Cramer Electronics, Inc. Rockville 301 424-2700 Massachusetts Cramer Electronics, Inc. Newton Centre 617 969-7700 Schweber Electronics Waltham 617 891-8484 Michigan Semiconductor Specialists, Inc. Detroit 313 255-0300 Minnesota Semiconductor Specialists, Inc. Minneapolis 612 866-3434 Stark Electronic Supply Minneapolis 612 332-1325 Missouri ECI Semiconductors, Inc. Kansas City 816 221-2400 Electronic Components for Industry Co. St. Louis 314 647-5505 Hall-Mark Electronics Corp. St. Louis 314 521-3800 New Jersey General Radio Supply Co., Inc. Camden 609 964-8560 Angus, Inc. Moorestown 609 235-1900 Sterling Electronics, Inc. Perth Amboy 201-HI 2-8000 New Mexico Kieruff Electronics Corp. Albuquerque 505 247-1055 New York Stack Industrial Electronics Binghamton 607 723-6326 Summit Distributors Buffalo 716 884-3450 Cramer/Eastern East Syracuse 315 437-6671 Schweber Electronics Long Island 516 334-7474 Milgray Electronics, Inc. New York 212 989-1600 Ohio Sheridan Sales Cincinnati 513 761-5432 Sheridan Sales Cleveland 216 524-8120 Hughes-Peters, Inc. Columbus 614 294-5351 Mentronics, Inc. Mentor 216 946-3058 Oklahoma Hall-Mark Electronics Corp. Tulsa 918 835-8458 Pennsylvania Cameradio Company Pittsburgh 412 391-4000 South Carolina Sawyer Electronics Corp. Greenville 803 235-0438 Texas Hall-Mark Electronics Corp. Dallas 214 231-6111 Midland Specialty Co. El Paso 912 533-9555 Hall-Mark Electronics Corp. Houston 713 781-6100 Lerner Company Houston 713 225-1465 The Altair Co. Richardson 214 231-5166 Washington Hamilton Electro Sales of the Pacific Northwest Seattle 206 624-5930 West Virginia Charleston Electrical Supply Company Charleston 304 346-0321 Wisconsin Taylor Electric Company Mequon 414 241-4321 Canadian Westinghouse Hamilton, Ontario 416 528-8811 Westinghouse Europe International London, S.W. 1 Whitehall 2704 New York 212 692-3322 1 Curfew Yard—Thames Street Windsor, Berkshire 63-39-2/4 Westinghouse Semiconductor Division Youngwood, Pennsylvania 15697 Meetings (Continued from p. 26) ications by Guided Waves, IEE; Savoy Place, London, W.C. 2, Sept. 29-Oct. 2. Mervin J. Kelly Communications Conference, University of Missouri and IEEE; Rolla, Mo., Oct. 5-7. Symposium on Feature Extraction and Selection in Pattern Recognition, IEEE; Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, Ill., Oct. 5-7. Industry & General Applications Group Annual Meeting, IEEE; La Salle Hotel, Chicago, Oct. 5-8. Short courses Real-Time On-Line Computer Control, University of Wisconsin; University Extension, Aug. 3-7; $300 fee. Development of Real-Time Computer Systems, University of California at Los Angeles; Boelter Hall, Room 4442, Aug. 3-14; $420 fee. Microwave Semiconductor Devices and Circuits, University of Michigan; Chrysler Center, Ann Arbor, Aug. 3-14; $350 fee. Simulation Techniques for Mechanical Systems, University of Michigan; Chrysler Center, Ann Arbor, Aug. 3-14; $400 fee. Digital Space Communications, University of Southern California; School of Engineering, Department of Electrical Engineering and University College, Vivian Hall of Engineering, Aug. 3-14; $375 fee. Display Systems Engineering, University of California at Los Angeles; Mathematical Sciences Building, Room 5200, Aug. 10-14; $310 fee. Call for papers Mexico International Conference on Systems, Networks, and Computers, IEEE; Oaxtepec, Mexico, Jan. 19-21, 1971. Aug. 31 is deadline for submission of abstracts to Dr. Roberto Canales R., Instituto de Ingenieria, Ciudad Universitaria, Mexico 20, D.F. International Federation of Automatic Control Symposium on Multivariable Control Systems, Duesseldorf, Germany, Oct. 11-13, 1971. Oct. 31 is deadline for submission of abstracts to VDI/VDE—Fachgruppe Regelungs- techaiik, P.O. Box 1139, D-4000 Duesseldorf 1, Germany. The most versatile system has tooling Manual to N/C. MANUALLY FED CONTACT INSERTION MACHINE NUMERICALLY CONTROLLED CONTACT INSERTION MACHINE interconnection to match. The two work together to substantially reduce your interconnection costs. The AMPMODU* interconnection system is designed to give you both positioning versatility and circuit flexibility. The post and receptacle contacts provide these because each one is a completely independent electro-mechanical module. For board-to-board interconnection The receptacles, for example, can be staked up, down or sideways. This means that you can arrange the daughter boards either perpendicular or parallel to the mother board. Versatile, high-speed tooling You can stake these receptacles automatically at speeds up to 4000 per hour. Machines can be provided for application as fast as the operator can position the board, or for complete numerical control. For board-to-wire interconnection And these receptacles aren't limited to being stuck to boards. Some can be crimped to wires and housed in connector blocks. Others can be crimped to coaxial wires. And there's even a version that can be terminated to flat cable. All of this can be done by automatic machines. For machine-wireable interconnection The mating posts come in two versions: .031 x .062 and .025 x .025 in a variety of lengths. These can be furnished in a nylon block or in strip form to be inserted at random locations. The other end of the posts is available for wrap-type or our own unique TERMI-POINT* automatic point-to-point clip wiring method. That's our system—posts and receptacles that you can arrange virtually any way you want, and a complete line of application tooling to apply as many as you want. This precision relationship between tooling and contacts is the way we consistently lower your applied costs. We call it Economation. Find out more about the AMPMODU interconnection system and its application tooling. Write to Industrial Division, AMP Incorporated, Harrisburg, Pa. 17105. AMP INCORPORATED Circle 31 on reader service card We've formed a small movement to eliminate keyboard downtime. The only moving mechanical parts of our new keyboard are the plungers. And they barely travel $ \frac{3}{16} $ of an inch. Everything else is all solid state. So there's no need for mechanical linkages, electromechanical parts, contacts or any of the moving parts that normally wear out and result in expensive downtime. The reliability of our all solid state keyboards will play an important role in helping you beat the economics of downtime. Especially during critical operating periods. But if you ever do need application assistance, experienced MICRO SWITCH field engineers are standing by to provide the back-up help you'll need to solve your individual problems. MICRO SWITCH can supply all standard and custom key arrays. Each with the same touch and spacing as a regular keyboard. Let's get together and discuss keyboard reliability or any other part of the business you consider important. Dollars. Technology. Compatibility. Delivery. They're all important to us. Call or write us and see. MICRO SWITCH FREEPORT, ILLINOIS 61032 A DIVISION OF HONEYWELL Texas Instruments apparently has joined the burgeoning list of big companies forced by sagging sales to furlough a large chunk of its work force. One story racing around Dallas is that TI has axed 5,000 out of a total of 30,000, and that the number includes salaried personnel as well as production workers. TI would say only that there has been "some rebalancing of workloads through reassignment." At the same time, TI officials were making plans for a big splash at the Fall Joint Computer Conference in Houston, Nov. 17-19. The firm will have 1,200 square feet of exhibit area—its most ever—leading to speculation that TI might be ready to take the wraps off the big, general-purpose machine it plans [Electronics, Feb. 2, p. 34]. As the recession deepens, some semiconductor houses lay off workers, others cut prices, and still others look for new product lines. Among the latter is Signetics, primarily a digital house with only about 10% of its business in linears. But with the expected introduction of 12 linear IC's next month (five proprietary and seven second-source) the company hopes to change its ratio to 50-50. The reason, according to one Signetics spokesman, is that TTL's are beginning to sell for less than they cost to make, "so to make some money we're turning to linears." The op amp price battle is on. Though demand for linear IC's has held up in a generally soft semiconductor market, Fairchild is knocking 50% to 66% off 100-lot prices on most of its popular linears—the 741, 748, and 749 op amps, and the 723 voltage regulator. As one Fairchild spokesman put it, "we are going to be the price leader in linears, and we can do it now that our new, automated facility is on-line." Navy program managers are advising IC manufacturers to hold off on research into the processing of large scale integrated circuits until the full details of a promising new metalization technique are divulged. The technique, developed by Texas Instruments under a contract from the Navy's Advanced Airborne Digital Computer Program, is said to eliminate pinholes and cracks in oxide layers—a common cause of failure in LSI arrays. In the technique, wafers are metalized with aluminum. The wiring patterns are then protected with a photoresist, and the non-protected portions of the aluminum are anodized, thus becoming insulating layers. Companies are continuing to apply space-program experience to medical electronics. SCI Electronics of Houston, which cut its teeth on biomedical instrumentation for the manned space program, will announce a new medical instrument line this fall. A key unit will be a blood-pressure monitor for hospital intensive-care wards that uses the old technique of pumping up a cuff around the arm and listening for the point at which the pressure stops the blood flow. However, the monitor's operation is based on a phenomenon in the blood-pressure waveform that SCI says it has discovered only recently. The waveform is sensed by a piezoelectric microphone, analyzed, and converted to a binary-coded decimal format for both diastolic and systolic pressures. The data can be used to drive a display or can be fed to a patient-monitoring computer. SCI says its system can replace surgically inserted catheters or the recently developed ultrasonic pressure-measuring devices [Electronics, Dec. 8, 1969, p. 43]. Microwave CAD program unveiled Amcap, a computer program that could make complex microwave circuits easier to design than with ECAP's approach to lower-frequency devices, has been developed by Environmental Computing of Lowell, Mass. Earlier microwave computer aids have been limited to design of simple circuits; a coupler has too many parts for most other programs. By contrast, Amcap can help design and analyze devices with more than six ports and 100 active or passive circuit elements—even more if memory beyond the minimum 18,432 words of core is available. Amcap works from audio frequencies through the millimeter-wave region. Also, instead of printing out its analytical data in so-called node voltage, Amcap prints out performance data in terms readily used by microwave engineers: insertion loss, standing wave ratio, impedance, and others up to a total of 20. Finally, Amcap can simulate operational inputs, allowing an engineer to optimize a circuit without leaving his teletype console. Computer features varied logic blocks A line of computers with fluid architecture may be ready in as little as six months, and special models for digital signal processing applications are now being delivered in four to six months by Stein Associates of Lexington, Mass. Using blocks of logic—that the company calls Blogics—connected by cables via a patch panel, a user can configure machines ranging from simple general purpose computers to fast Fourier computer peripherals, and digital filters. The Stein approach differs from the logic module approach—its Blogics are far more complex, comprising, for example, four-input multiplexers, four-input data registers, gated high-speed parallel adders, and others. Depending on the speed of the application, memory can be either core or semiconductor. But the user need buy only the amount of computer he needs, and connect it—or change it—to suit his purpose. Spokesmen expect costs to be lower than average for given applications; a 1,024-point fast Fourier machine using 10 Blogic modules would cost less than $20,000; a fast Fourier machine with 30 times the speed would use 36 Blogics and cost less than $100,000. First approval seen for GE-Honeywell With Honeywell staffers preparing to introduce executives of the planned Honeywell-GE computer combine, insiders wonder if approval from the two boards of directors might be imminent. And if the boards come through as expected, only two obstacles remain. One is the possibility that Bull-GE might be taken over by the French national computer company, Compagnie Internationale pour l'Informatique [Electronics, June 22, p. 183]. This is said to be unlikely, although the Pompidou government asked CII to bid hard against Honeywell-GE. The other is U.S. Government rejection of the merger. CUSTOM ASSEMBLIES From circuit boards to complete assemblies, we've got the capabilities. Before you get to final design, talk to us. We'll show you the best and least expensive way to produce your system. Because we've got the experts, we are willing to accept any challenge on the design and assembly of printed-circuit cards. First of all, we make our own circuit boards—single-sided, double-sided and multilayer. We also have the equipment to insert components on the board. And we are experienced at designing specialized equipment to test out the finished assembly. The result? A completely integrated facility that can take care of all of your circuit assembly headaches. And we have the production facilities to produce your assemblies in volume. Because of our wide range of capabilities, we can start with you at any point in the design/production schedule. We'll sit down with you at the beginning of design, or we'll make the board that you designed. We'll insert components, if you want, or give you the finished board for component insertion in your own plant. Talk to our engineers right at the beginning of your design. They'll show you where to relax tolerances to get a better yield and lower cost. They'll analyze thermal conductivity to give you a layout with better heat dissipation. In fact, they will even run a temperature profile of the entire board and give you a prediction of its reliability. In short, they can cancel out potential problems long before your equipment gets to the production stage. If you have your board already designed, we'll take over from there and produce them in any volume you require. At that point, we can either deliver the boards to you or turn them over to our component insertion people. They'll set up a production line that will turn out your completed circuit board assemblies at high speed. And again, at the end of that production line our test equipment people will take over and set up specialized test equipment to make sure that each assembly meets your specifications. In short, we have the capability to pick up at any point in your design cycle, and drop out wherever you wish. What more can we offer? CIRCLE NUMBER 300 This issue in capsule Microwaves Better step-recovery diodes improve multiplier design. Hybrid Microelectronics Flexibility is the key to hybrid packaging. ICs Take advantage of Gray code in your counter designs. CRT Modules Integrated display module fills computer terminal needs. Diodes Diode arrays contribute to low-cost, high-speed computers. Television We've done it again! A brighter color tube. Manager's Corner Hybrid microcircuits: a packaging concept. Better step-recovery diodes improve multiplier design. Multiplier efficiency is increased by diodes having minimum transition times and lower thermal resistance. Our new step-recovery diode family is designed for use in both low- and high-order multipliers. The devices are oxide-passivated, mesa epitaxial silicon diodes mounted in the 023 package. Modern bonding techniques have been used in attaching the chip to the package to obtain low thermal resistance. Minimum transition times are obtained by careful control of the intrinsic layer thickness and resistivity. In multiplier applications, the diode stores charge and appears as a low impedance when driven into forward conduction by one half of the RF signal. On the second half of the cycle, the diode conducts until the stored charge is removed. It then switches off very rapidly at a speed determined by the transition time. Ideally, in multiplier design, the transition time should be less than the period of the output frequency. Another important factor in multiplier design is the minority carrier lifetime. It is desirable that this lifetime be greater than the period of the input frequency. This lifetime is the time required for all charge stored on both sides of the PN junction during the forward biased state to be returned across the junction when the RF signal reverses phase. Figures 1 and 2 show the relationship of minority carrier lifetime and maximum transition time to frequency. With these charts and the table of data on our new step-recovery diodes you can see exactly what our diode family can do for you in your next design. The chart in Fig. 3 shows the junction capacitance variation with bias voltage for three types of microwave diode: microwave tuning varactors (MTV), punch-through varactors (PTV) and the step-recovery diode (SRD). These curves show the step-recovery diode characteristics in comparison to the other types. \| Type \| $V_B$ [1] Volts min \| $C_j$-6 [2] pf min max \| $\tau$ [3] ns min \| $T_t$ [4] ps max \| $\theta$th °C/watt typical \| $C_{j0}/C_j$-6 max \| $f_c$-6 [5] GHz min \| \|--------\|---------------------\|------------------------\|-------------------\|-----------------\|---------------------------\|------------------\|-------------------\| \| DV B-6101 \| 30 \| 0.3 - 0.5 \| 10 \| 100 \| 30 \| 1.6 \| 400 \| \| DV B-6102 \| 45 \| 0.5 - 1.0 \| 25 \| 250 \| 20 \| 1.6 \| 300 \| \| DV B-6103 \| 60 \| 1.5 - 2.5 \| 60 \| 400 \| 15 \| 1.6 \| 200 \| Test Conditions: [1] $I_R=10\mu A$ [2] 1 MHz and $V_R=6$ volts [3] $I_N=10$ mA and $I_R=6$ mA [4] $V_R=10$ volts and $I_F=10$ mA [5] 1 GHz and $V_R=6$ volts Fig. 1. Minimum minority carrier lifetime compared to multiplier input frequency. Fig. 2. Maximum diode transition time compared to output frequency of multiplier. Fig. 3. Capacitance characteristics of three types of microwave diodes. HYBRID MICROELECTRONICS Flexibility is the key to hybrid packaging. Trying to force everything into a "standard" package can destroy the advantages of hybrid circuit design. There is no such thing as a "standard" hybrid microelectronics package. In fact, to impose such restrictions on a designer would defeat one of the most important features of this technology. Design and packaging flexibility is one of the key advantages of the hybrid approach. The trick is to let your environmental and system parameters dictate what would be the optimum package. Then talk to our hybrid circuit engineers to develop the most efficient and least expensive approach to meeting your requirements. The design flexibility we can provide is illustrated in the photographs. The first example is a character generator. This is one of a family of devices in a stroke type display system. Over 100 different types of circuit are used in a single display system, and each device differs in the values of the input, or summing, resistors. The general circuit is shown in Fig. 1. As an additional requirement the amplifier had to be hermetically sealed and replaceable within the module. The amplifier also had to be set at a level to match the other amplifiers in the system. This required dynamic trim of the finished device. Because of our long experience in this field we have the equipment to do this resistor trimming quickly, accurately and easily—and perhaps most important—at minimum cost. A final, and important, requirement of the design was that, due to system packaging constraints, the entire module had to be in a dual in-line configuration. Because of the large number of differing precision resistors required for the range of modules, our engineers designed a substrate that would accommodate more than one module type. This approach had many economic benefits. The amplifier is constructed using a hermetically sealed TO-5 can for the semiconductor elements of the amplifier. This package is entirely replaceable. After the amplifier is mounted on the substrate containing the precision resistors the amplifier output is adjusted. This is done by monitoring the amplifier output while trimming one of the resistors on the substrate. When the proper output value is reached, the character generator is ready for mounting in custom-designed header. The final product is shown in Fig. 2. A second example of the flexibility of hybrid packaging is shown in Fig. 3. Here, the requirement was for a hybrid module that would identically replace the discrete component assembly shown. The hybrid assembly could, of course, be made much smaller, but because of the direct replacement requirement, the hybrid circuit is designed into the same package. In addition to being more economical, the hybrid circuit also offers advantages in size, weight and system reliability. These are only two examples of how we can apply our hybrid packaging technology to design problems. Do you have a design right now that might be improved by the use of hybrids? Talk to our engineers. You'll be surprised at what they can save you in both work and money. INTEGRATED CIRCUITS Take advantage of Gray code in your counter designs. Use of Gray code for counters offers some desirable features that you can't get from binary systems. If you want up/down counters that give you ease of construction, reduced noise, reduced errors in reading, and a system that won't overflow, you should think about using Gray code. The key advantage of Gray code is that only one bit can change at a time. Thus, if the clock pulse should occur while the counter is being read, the maximum error in the reading is only "one". Noise on the power line caused by flip-flops changing state is also reduced. This decreases power drain in high-frequency operation. In addition, you can't generate "sliver" pulses with Gray code as is the case in binary operations. It is also very easy to change the direction of counting in a Gray-code counter. You simply invert parity. Another advantage is that the Gray-code counter stops counting when it reaches its maximum value, whether it is counting up or counting down. If this doesn't happen to be a valuable feature in your design, simple logic can be provided to eliminate it. The logic diagram of a four-bit Gray-code up/down counter is shown in Fig. 1. Parity of the number is generated in an SM-120 parity generator. The parity generator outputs can be inverted by adding a "1" at pin 6 of the SM-120. The maximum value and zero are decoded at pins $M_X$ and $Z$, respectively. These signals can be used as enable inputs for additional stages of Gray-code counters, or as controls at the input of the first stage to eliminate the hang-up at maximum or zero. Figure 2 shows how two Gray-code up/down counters can be connected to produce an eight-bit counter. If pins $M_X$ and $Z$ of the last stage are logically "ORed" with pins $P$ and $\bar{P}$ of the first stage before they are connected to pins... A and B, the counter will not hang up at the maximum or zero values. An excess-three divide-by-ten Gray-code up counter is shown in Fig. 3. This counter will not hang up at its maximum value of 12, but will go to the minimum value of three. The last stage of this counter has a square-wave output. An important point in this design is that all illegal states in this design are self-clearing. This Gray-code excess-three counter can be very useful in logic systems using decimal notation where the excess-three code is desired. Also, when used in conjunction with excess-three Gray-code to ten-line decoders, this counter has many advantages over straight binary systems. If it is necessary to clear the counter to a Gray-code three (binary zero) a negative pulse applied to the clear inputs of $G_0$, $G_2$, $G_3$ and to preset input of the flip-flop $G_1$ will do the job. Our application note #24 covers the design of Gray-code counters in greater detail. If you are interested we will be glad to send you a copy. CIRCLE NUMBER 303 CRT MODULES Integrated display module fills computer terminal needs. Our 12-inch display package fits in nicely with Infoton’s system for local or remote computer time-sharing. Infoton needed a CRT display for their Vista 1 and Vista 2 computer display terminals. They came to us and picked out our off-the-shelf 12-inch CRT module. By doing this, they saved themselves a lot of design time because our module comes complete with all-solid-state power supplies, video and blanking amplifiers. They also saved a lot of money, too, because we build these modules at a lower cost than most people can. These advantages, combined with Infoton’s expertise and design know-how enabled them to offer a reliable, flexible unit at a highly competitive price. In fact, the low cost of Vista 1 and 2 will make display terminals available to educational institutions that previously could not afford them for computer aided instruction. The Infoton units are designed for time-sharing applications in such places as brokerage houses, airline reservation systems and medical information systems. Because Infoton designed their own cabinet, they used our 12-inch monitor in the chassis form shown in the photograph. However, if you need it, we can supply the monitor complete with its own attractive cabinet. We can also custom tailor display modules to your needs. Because we build CRTs, we know their characteristics and can pick the best one for your job. And because we know CRTs, it doesn’t take our design engineers long to come up with the proper drive circuitry. The result is fast turnaround, flexibility and lower cost for you. In addition, you get exactly the right display system for your application. In fact, about all you have to do is give us the X, Y and Z input voltages and any special requirements you have, and we will get right back to you with the specifics on design and cost for the exact display module you need. CIRCLE NUMBER 304 Diode arrays contribute to low-cost, high-speed computers. New family of computers use 16-diode arrays to cut assembly time and increase memory switching speed. Two new medium-size computers, introduced by Systems Engineering Laboratories, use from 600 to 800 Sylvania 16-diode arrays as core selectors in their memory system. The advantage to SEL was lower assembly cost, higher speed and greater reliability. In addition, these high-speed computers use Sylvania-developed SUHL logic throughout. Both of these 32-bit computers have a high throughput. The input/output transfer rate is 1.66 million words per second. Because of the modular design and task orientation, these computers are equally suited to real-time, patch processing and general purpose scientific applications. In most cases, they can handle all three at the same time. The core memory, where the 16-diode arrays are used, can be obtained in capacities from 8,192 to 131,072 words. The arrays are mounted in dual in-line packages. The arrays, which are available in both common anode and common cathode configurations are shown in Fig. 1. Their typical characteristics are shown in Fig. 2. They provide high forward conductance, fast recovery, low capacitance and tight tolerances. These units have a forward current rating of 300 mA and a power rating of 300 mW per diode. Reverse recovery time of the diode arrays is a maximum of 60 ns, even under extreme switching conditions with a forward current of 300mA and an $I_r$ or 30 mA. Typical recovery times under the same conditions are in the 35 ns range. Because of the manufacturing process used to produce these arrays, electrical characteristics are closely matched over a wide temperature range. In addition, units are available with 2 to 16 diodes. All of these arrays are available in 10 or 14 lead dual in-line packs or in flatpack configurations. They all meet MIL-S-19500 standards. CIRCLE NUMBER 305 Sixteen-diode array packages are used as memory core selectors in SEL's new high-speed, low-cost, medium-size computer. TELEVISION We've done it again! A brighter color tube. Using a brighter phosphor and a black mask, we've got a new tube that gives sharper contrast and 103% more brightness than our 1968 tube. Sylvania has been the traditional leader in color tube brightness and contrast. The reason is simple: we have better phosphors and better methods of deposition. Recently, we introduced a new phosphor system that was competitive with other manufacturers' tubes which use "black" systems to improve brightness without loss of contrast. Now, we have developed an entirely new color bright 85® "Black Mask" picture tube which combines our superior phosphor system with a new black masking technique. The result is a picture tube that combines the best of all possible worlds: a 103% increase in brightness over our 1968 tube, improved color purity and the highest contrast in the industry. We've always held the edge in phosphor brightness because of the inherent advantages of our phosphor production techniques and our patented phosphor dusting system. The "black" systems, on the other hand, enabled other manufacturers to approach the brightness and contrast of our tubes because the black systems reduced reflectants and allowed the electron beam to cover the entire phosphor dot without splash-over. When you combine our phosphors with the advantages of a black mask, you get a tube that's 103% brighter than the tube we introduced in February 1968. You also get vastly improved contrast with greater color purity than ever before. To give you an idea of why Sylvania's color bright 85 line has traditionally led the brightness race, take a look at the graph. Sylvania developed the first rare earth europium phosphor screen system in 1964. The whole industry followed. And until the development of the black-mask system, they couldn't come near us. Now, by combining our high brightness MV phosphors with Sylvania's Black Mask technique, we're in front again with the highest contrast in the industry. Other picture tube manufacturers are using black system methods to reduce the reflectivity of the color tube. Our approach has been to increase the light emitted from the phosphor screen by the development of better phosphors. Both approaches work. But, what do you get when you combine them? The best tube. And Sylvania has it. CIRCLE NUMBER 306 Hybrid Microcircuits: A packaging concept Too often, design engineers think of hybrid microcircuits as just another component to plug into their system. If they do, they are wrong. Properly designed and applied, a hybrid circuit is a complete subsystem. To think of it in any other way is to lose many of the advantages of this design approach. Basically, the hybrid microcircuit is a packaging concept that employs thick- or thin-film passive components coupled with either discrete or chip active devices mounted on a ceramic base. The hybrid module is packaged in either a hermetic or non-hermetic enclosure or a combination of both. There are an endless number of package forms that can be employed. This packaging flexibility is a primary advantage of the technology. In addition to size, weight and reliability advantages inherent in hybrids, they are now economically comparable to a discrete version when volume is significant. In general, any electronic circuitry that cannot justify a monolithic approach is a potential hybrid application. Hybrid packaging complements monolithic designs as a second level of system integration. We see the emergence of the film passive substrates as the next generation of PC board. This, coupled with low-cost chip placement, such as beam-lead devices, will further broaden the economic justification for the use of hybrids. Sylvania now offers standard off-the-shelf modules ranging from IF amplifiers to digital high-speed networks and power drivers. These modules are packaged in commonly used forms such as flat packs and TO-5 cans. It makes sense to examine these standard devices first in a new design. However, a custom hybrid can make economic sense if the usage can justify the tooling. As a guide, hybrid prototypes charges generally are of the same magnitude as the fabrication of a discrete module with PC board layout. One area which is becoming increasingly important is hybrid MSI—or multichip digital modules employing TTL devices and a film interconnect pattern. Sylvania believes that multichip modules or hybrid MSI will allow the designer a new dimension in system design. As a leading supplier of all types of TTL devices, Sylvania will be able to provide economical hybrid MSI modules for a wide variety of applications. Our long experience in the design and production of hybrid circuits will enable us to offer the designer MSI and LSI arrays in hybrid form. But, perhaps most important, we can offer him RSI—Right Scale Integration. And we can give it to him today. Barry Friedman Product Sales Manager, Hybrid Microelectronics This information in Sylvania ideas is furnished without assuming any obligations. SYLVANIA GENERAL TELEPHONE & ELECTRONICS NEW CAPABILITIES IN: ELECTRONIC TUBES • SEMICONDUCTORS • MICROWAVE DEVICES • SPECIAL COMPONENTS • DISPLAY DEVICES Circle Numbers Corresponding to Product Item Please have a Sales Engineer contact me. ☐ Visit ☐ Phone... Phone No._______________ Area Code_______________ OUR ANGLE: angle position indicators that do more and cost less SHOULDN'T YOU TAKE A NEW READING ON THIS COST-PERFORMANCE ANGLE? For better ways to measure synchro and resolver data, North Atlantic offers the best of both worlds: budget prices for the popular API-8025; superior performance and increased capability of the new 8525. Both are interchangeable without any mechanical or wiring modifications. North Atlantic's solid-state 8525 offers an accuracy of 0.05° (3 minutes). Following a 180° step input, it synchronizes a five-digit NIXIE readout in ½ second flat. And it tracks at up to 1000° per second. Where cost can be traded against performance, the proven electromechanical API-8025 . . . a recognized industry workhorse . . . is available with its 6 minute accuracy, 25°/second slew speed, and many options. Input of the 8525 is any 60 or 400Hz resolver/synchro data from control instrumentation. The patented servo design eliminates all inertia and improves dynamic performance many times over. Its digital outputs are especially suited to the computer-oriented requirements of today's automatic test systems. The 8525 . . . priced at $2475 . . . and the API-8025 priced at $995 actually cost less because they perform more functions per dollar. And with greater reliability. For complete information on the cost-performance angle, please write or phone now. NORTH ATLANTIC industries, inc. 200 TERMINAL DRIVE, PLAINVIEW, NEW YORK 11803 cable: noatlantic / twx: 510-221-1879 / phone: (516) 681-8600 This cleaning agent is boiling. At 118° F. It's Du Pont FREON® TF solvent. FREON fluorocarbon solvents are ideal for low-temperature vapor degreasing. Cooling time is eliminated for post-cleaning processing and testing. There's no damage to heat-sensitive parts. And low heat passage to the work environment. If your product has to be cleaned thoroughly, safely and economically, there are five more reasons why you should be using FREON solvents: 1. Complete Wetting and Penetration. High density combined with low surface tension lifts soils and floats away trapped contaminants. 2. Compatibility. No damage to widely used materials of construction. 3. Chemically Pure and Stable. No need for acid acceptance and scratch tests. No inhibitors needed. Parts dry residue-free. 4. Lower Overall Cleaning Costs. FREON is recoverable for reuse indefinitely. Power requirements are low in vapor degreasing. Fewer production rejects. Save labor by cleaning complete assembly instead of separate parts. 5. Safe. Nonflammable and non-explosive. Low in toxicity, though prolonged skin contact will remove natural oils and should be avoided. If you have a cleaning problem or are looking for an improved cleaning system, write today to Du Pont Company, Room 8789-H, Wilmington, Delaware 19898. Awacs avionics suppliers start waiting IBM leads computer race, but Goodyear's associative processor might mount challenge; radar to be subject of fly-off With its selection of the Boeing Co. as prime contractor for the airborne warning and control system (Awacs), the Air Force got its 707-320C aircraft out of the hangar. But as far as avionics suppliers are concerned, it will be at least two years before the program gets off the ground. And when and if it flies, Awacs will be in what Gen. James Ferguson of the Air Force Systems Command calls a core configuration—the service's newest euphemism for austere. "This core configuration," explains Gen. Ferguson, "contains only the absolute minimum equipment to perform the surveillance and control function with provisions for growth and added capabilities as future operational needs arise." Though the Air Force plans to develop Awacs for both continental air defense and tactical air control, the total cost in terms of 1969 dollars is now estimated at $2.1 billion, down sharply from earlier projections ranging from $11.7 billion to $13.7 billion. This new low Awacs price doesn't factor in the cost of the interceptor to be used with the 42 Boeing 707-320C command posts the Air Force wants to buy. The service is not studying adaptations of Grumman's F-14 or the McDonnell Douglas F-15 for the role. As both are still in development, the USAF has not ruled out other aircraft, except for the modified F-106. Whatever selection is made, the interceptors will add several billion dollars to the final package cost. Six years. The $87 million sought for fiscal 1971 Awacs spending will cover two aircraft, two brassboard system demonstration radars for tests—one each from Westinghouse Electric and Hughes Aircraft—plus "a minimum of instrumentation and displays" and long lead time funds for computer software development. But, even though the Air Force has promised the Pentagon that it will not develop new hardware for Awacs, it will be 1976 before an operational system is achieved. The "fly-before-buy" radar tests themselves will take about 28 months before a choice is made between the Hughes medium-pulse repetition C-band system and the Westinghouse pulsed doppler, high-pulse repetition system operating at S-band. Whatever the Air Force selection, the new go-slow schedule is discouraging to sources within the service. Says one of them: "Even if we get a system operational by 1976, that will be 13 years after the program was conceived. And that's got to be some kind of record." Big wait. Beyond the competing radars, avionics choices are still years away. Though IBM's Federal Systems division has been the leading Boeing subcontractor for a data processor and for command/control/communications integration, there is no guarantee an IBM processor will fly in the final system. Hazeltine and ECI are seen in relatively more secure roles as team members, the former for displays plus IFF transponders and interrogators, the latter for communications systems. With final definition of computer specifications still two to three years away, associative processors, such as Goodyear's plated-wire machine [Electronics, July 6, p. 40] appear a good bet. Developed under contracts to the Air Force materials laboratory, the Goodyear multimode system can track up to 128 targets in a coverage area 32 miles on a side, with a selectable range window four miles wide. Either airborne or ground moving targets can be tracked and displayed, Goodyear says, a feature which would make the system applicable to either the strategic or the tactical role of Awacs. And, despite the promise to avoid development of new hardware, Goodyear's might well be fully developed and available by the time a specification is ready. Medical electronics Blood power Artificial hearts are still experimental, but surgeons one day might well be using them to replace diseased hearts. However, before that can happen, researchers will have to find a way to generate the 10 to 20 watts of power needed to drive these implanted pumps. One seemingly far-out suggestion: use a person's own blood as an energy source by putting a pair of special electrodes into his bloodstream to make a fuel cell. Scientists already are taking the first steps toward such a blood-powered fuel cell. At the Leesona Corp.'s Leesona Moos Laboratories, chemist Jerry Fishman and physicist Jean Henry have built a primitive cell that runs for hours and delivers 20 microwatts. Selective catalysis is the key. While blood carries an almost countless variety of compounds, each Fishman-Henry electrode catalyzes one and only one reaction of one and only one compound. Each electrode is coated with gold-palladium alloy. The anode's coat is 55% gold, the cathode's is 85%. In blood, the anode breaks down glucose—a sugar—into hydrogen ions, an acid, and electrons. At the cathode, the blood's oxygen takes up electrons to form hydroxyl ions. When there's a load across the electrodes, electrons flow from the site of the glucose reaction through the load to the oxygen electrode. Flow-through. For their first pair of electrodes, Fishman and Henry Teflon-bonded the Au-Pd materials to 1-centimeter-square sheets of a noble metal. Since then the two men have found a way to electrochemically deposit the alloys. This increases the alloy area in contact with blood, and when the active area goes up, so does the cell's output. Fishman says that it will be possible to deposit the alloys on filaments, out of which electrodes can be woven. These flow-through electrodes would have an even larger active area for a given electrode size. Keeping the electrodes small is important because, as Fishman and Henry see it, more than one pair will be needed to power an artificial heart. Any load connected across a blood-powered cell causes the cell's output to jump to some peak voltage and then decay with a time constant on the order of 1 second. The way to get high average power, says Fishman, is with an array of electrodes and a switching network that sequentially connects electrode pairs to the artificial heart. Switching helps in another way. When the electrodes run continuously, hydrogen and hydroxyl ions build in the cell. They not only degrade the electrodes but could conceivably upset the body's acid-base balance. The less time electrodes are on during a given period, the lower the ion concentration around them, and the easier it is for the blood itself to stay balanced. NIH nod. The Leesona cell is still in the research stage. Tests have been run with beakers and tubes; animal tests won't begin until late this year. However, Fishman and Henry have demonstrated the feasibility of a blood-powered cell, according to Roger Powell, an official at the National Institutes of Health's artificial heart program. Leesona isn't the only firm getting NIH money to study blood as an energy source. Scientists at the Esso Research and Engineering Co., Pennsylvania Research Associates, Tyco Laboratories, and the Union Carbide Corp. also are at work on the project. Safe analysis If the average patient knew how many accidental electrocutions were caused by surges of electricity that pass from a wall outlet through medical instrumentation—estimates run to 1,200 yearly—he might balk at being hooked to a diagnostic instrument without special insurance. A company in Irvine, Calif., the International Biophysics Corp., is providing that insurance in the design of its new differential oxygen analyzer, slated to be offered later this month. The instrument uses four simple d-cell batteries for power, preventing "ground loops" from getting to the patient from the power supply. It also will isolate the patient from surges. For example, if the instrument is driving a chart recorder plugged into a wall outlet, the instrument will decouple the patient from any surges backing up through the differential oxygen analyzer. Workhorse. The instrument limits the current to the patient to a maximum of 2 microamperes, well below the 10 μa specified as a safe load. What's more, the unit isn't limited to medical applications. It can employ electrodes for a variety of jobs ranging from measuring the oxygen content in air or water for pollution-control purposes, to monitoring the oxygen level in fruit-transporting containers to prevent spoilage. But Kenneth Halvorsen, the company president, expects the instrument to be used first in the medical field, which is why great pains were taken to assure safety. One immediate potential application is in open-chest surgery. When the patient is placed on a heart-lung machine, one electrode can be put on the incoming side of an oxygenator and another on the output side to determine the difference in the two levels, and therefore how much oxygen the patient is absorbing. This differential is important because too much oxygen—hyperventilation—can destroy the heart muscle. Stanford Spracklen, vice president for research and engineering, says that the unit operates on a polarographic principle. Here, current flowing from anode to cathode through an electrolyte in the electrode is proportional to the amount of oxygen present in the specimen. "This is precision measurement in the nanoampere area," Spracklen explains. "One sensor we'll be making will work at 10 nanoamps full scale and we'll be resolving 0.05 nanoamp to come up with a differential measurement." Low drain. Dealing with such low-level currents for precision measurements dictates precise amplification. International Biophysics officials say they've cornered the market on one manufacturer's linear IC operational amplifier that can handle the low input currents and give very low current drain—less than $100\mu A$ for the total instrument. That's why it can operate on battery power; the batteries for the analyzer are expected to last a year. The company believes that the unit is the first differential oxygen analyzer that can take measurements at two points and also give a differential measurement all in the same instrument. The most sophisticated version, including alarms for oxygen levels that are too high or low, will sell for $525, less than a third the price of similar instruments that use differential photometric rather than polarigraphic measurement techniques. The electrode for making measurements in gases and fluids adds another $85 to the price. Advanced technology Garnet not forgotten Once you've learned the composition of magnetic bubble material, they're sure to change it on you. Last year it was the orthoferrites, with chemical formulas like $\text{Sm}_{0.55}\text{Tb}_{0.45}\text{FeO}_3$, to name just one. Now, the garnets are here [Electronics, June 8, p. 39], with compositions like $\text{Gd}_{2.3}\text{Tb}_{0.7}\text{Fe}_2\text{O}_{12}$. The difference isn't just chemical. Bell Telephone Laboratories, early to recognize the worth of garnets for bubble material, has used this composition to grow bubble substrates by the flux method that have storage densities of about 10 million bits per square inch. This stacks up against the SmTb orthoferrite densities of only 25,000 bits/in$^2$. Since the cost per bit for processing information is closely related to the number of bits that can be packed on a chip, the Holy Grail—prices less than one cent per bit—may be just around the bend. And Bell's new garnet material has a staggering storage capacity compared with the newest disk storage capacity—in the $10^5$ bits/in$^2$ range which is lower than the garnet bubbles by a factor of 100. Left to its devices. Bell isn't just sitting on its garnets. Now that the new higher density garnets are available to its systems men, Bell is going full blast on a low-cost mass memory that could be used for central office operations. To show the feasibility of such a setup, an experimental magnetic bubble repertory dialing system is in the design stage. Information could be stored in T-bar tracks forming closed loops, and selected bits transferred into a communication loop and subsequently brought to a read/write port. Thus, relatively short access times may be realized without a large number of read and write circuits. Bell already has a small experimental repertory dialer working. Using 2-mil-thick orthoferrite platelets, which support 1.5-mil-diameter bubbles, this small-scale version of a repertory memory stores four numbers of 25 binary bits each in four memory loops. It also has a read loop and a bubble generator-annihilator. The memory and read loop are nearly identical, each consisting of T-bar propagating circuits and each connected to a common communication channel by a gate in the form of a hard magnetic film added to the propagating circuits. The films are switched by current pulses in gold conductors. Computers EDP for ABM Expansion of an American ballistic missile defense system is still as much a problem of technology as it is of politics. Thus, while Congress and the White House dispute policy, the Army's Advanced Ballistic Missile Defense Agency (ABMDA) quietly pursues new data-processing technologies for a future system. One of the agency's classified efforts involves development of data processors with speeds far faster than those of the supercomputers soon to be deployed at the two existing Safeguard ABM sites. To achieve these higher speeds, ABMDA is investing most of its data processing money in three projects—strap-on modules, faster mainframes, and software improvements. Number, please. Bell Telephone Laboratories is building strap-on modules that would take over some of the tasks performed by the central ABM computer. The associative processor modules, scheduled to be delivered in a few months, will have logic that will perform processing for every few hundred words of memory, an Army official says. Each of the modules will track one particular object headed for the U.S. after a preliminary determination by radar of warheads, decoys, and launching vehicles. The Army official says Bell Labs will turn the project over to another contractor soon after the breadboard is delivered, presumably because of AT&T's expressed desire to get out of the ABM business. Another approach would adapt the fastest machines being built today to the task of tracking airborne objects, deciding which are enemy missiles and firing interceptor missiles. That's why the agency now pays about $1 million a year to the Control Data Corp., Texas Instruments, and the University of Illinois to develop antimissile defense software for their experimental machines, which are many times faster than existing supercomputers. No contest. Once the software is developed for the University of Illinois' Illiac 4, Control Data's STAR, and TI's advanced scientific computer, kernels of an ABM problem will be fed to the machines and benchmarks will be established. Despite appearances, the Army official insists, the program isn't a runoff between the contending computers, but rather an effort to establish a data base on the performance of three contending architectures. The Illiac 4 approach uses 64 processing units operating under the control of a Burroughs 6500 while STAR uses pipeline architecture in its arithmetic units [Electronics, March 30, p. 52]. The design of TI's computer is one of the best kept secrets in the computer industry. Another effort aims at increasing the throughput of existing supercomputers—such as the IBM 360/195 and the Control Data 7600—by improving software. Both IBM and Control Data are currently under contract to develop a more responsive software that makes better use of memory and the processor itself. Saving interface The want of a standard computer peripheral interface, says the government, has cost it $100 million. As a result, Federal officials have resolved to do something, touching off a small war between mainframe makers and independent peripheral manufacturers. In itself, the loss claimed recently by the General Accounting Office is nothing new. Comptroller General Elmer B. Staats reported last year that the government could have saved $100 million on peripheral equipment if a standard interface were required, because of the difference in price between units that weren't plug-to-plug compatible manufactured by independent companies and the compatible units made by mainframe houses. The news, however, is the revelation before Sen. William Proxmire's subcommittee on economy in government that Washington plans to set a Federal standard unless industry comes up with its own. In testimony before the panel, James P. Nigro, acting director of the National Bureau of Standards Center for Computer Science and Technology, disclosed that the NBS budget request for the next fiscal year will include $300,000 to $400,000 for development of the standard. If it's realized and approved by the President, computer firms would have to provide the interface or give up the lush 9% of the market the government represents. Budgets, of course, can be cut. But Nigro's request is strongly backed by both Staats and, judging from its testimony before the committee, the Department of Defense, and support like that will carry considerable weight if the request reaches Capitol Hill. At the hearing, Proxmire even discussed the possibility of a supplemental appropriation that would permit the bureau to begin work on the interface this year. Response. The remaining question is how the computer makers will respond to the serious threat of a Federal standard. The American National Standards Institute has been working on a peripherals standard since 1967, but nothing has come out, largely because of a deadlock on whether the standard should be for an interface between buffer and peripheral units or for the input/output channel. The mainframe manufacturers favor the former on the grounds that it would grant the user greater flexibility in hanging peripheral equipment onto the computer. The peripheral manufacturers are holding out for the cable interface, which the Bureau of Standards also prefers, because it could be developed much more easily. The peripherals people maintain that the channel interface proposal is just a delaying tactic that will give the mainframe makers more time to sell their high-priced units. One way or the other, something has to give. It could be the ANSI group working on the standard, or it might be the government. Companies Road to the Rockies With the condition of the economy today, one might wonder why a company would decide to go to the expense of establishing a subsidiary. In the case of the infant TRW Colorado Electronics Inc., some insight may be gained from a list of the companies it expects to compete with. Bernard Dell, TRW/CEI's manager of operations, expects to bid against the likes of Collins Radio, RCA, Philco-Ford, and Motorola's Government Electronics division for volume production of new space electronics, avionics, and ground electronics hardware. "We felt we needed the capability to penetrate markets we weren't penetrating," Dell observes in outlining the rationale for establishing TRW/CEI, "to capture a larger Mapping the route Why did TRW decide to establish its Colorado Electronics Inc. in the Rockies? First of all, the company decided to forgo the Los Angeles area because of high salaries there. A further incentive was the firm's desire to maintain a sharp division between the R&D type of production typical at TRW Systems and the volume production expected from the Colorado subsidiary. Also, support in terms of machine shops and other nonelectronic operations was considered, as was the fact that the Denver-Boulder-Colorado Springs area is attracting more and more electronic firms. These, along with other criteria, led to Colorado Springs. Most engineers know ADC Products has designed over 3000 different filters. But do you know... ADC Products makes 19,897 different transformers, 2,863 different jacks, plugs, jack panels and allied components, plus power supplies, solid state relays, pre-wired jack fields and even complete telecommunications systems? One of the finest, most knowledgeable filter design departments in the country is just one reason why ADC Products has designed and built 3,512 different custom filters... to date. Another reason is the use of computer design and analysis techniques to help optimize design and performance. At ADC Products, state-of-the-art design is an everyday thing, and we can show you the 3,512 designs to prove it! But modern techniques extend beyond design. Every filter is built by modern methods using the newest materials and the latest techniques in a high-reliability manufacturing program. Why not see if this kind of capability can go to work on your problems? Write ADC Products today for more information and a free guide to filter design. ADC PRODUCTS A DIVISION OF MAGNETIC CONTROLS CO. 4900 West 78th Street, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55435 (612) 929-7881 Electronics \| July 20, 1970 share of these markets for TRW.” While TRW Systems Group has a production capability, it’s characterized by high-technology, few-of-kind, intricate hardware ranging from communications satellites to specialized high-speed analog-to-digital converters for data communications. Think and do. Dell believes the new company, which expects to grow to 200 employees within 18 months and have an annual sales rate of up to $4 million after two years, will “have the best of both worlds. We’ll have a full complement of technical resources available on call at TRW Systems, plus a group oriented toward manufacturing processes.” TRW/CEI has leased a 20,000-square-foot facility in Colorado Springs. “We’ll be staffing with people experienced in making the transition from R&D and low-volume production to high-volume production,” Dell notes. Typical quantities will range from about 50 to 10,000 units of a given piece of hardware. “Our people,” Dell continues, “will be able to team with TRW Systems people to influence the design from the start” and make the hardware more easily manufacturable. The new firm’s first contract is from TRW Data Systems to build 5,000 keyboard assemblies for a department-store credit-verification system. Beyond that, TRW/CEI is bidding against a number of outside companies to manufacture electronic communications gear that TRW Systems needs. “If TRW is successful in penetrating the navigation satellite receiver market, TRW/CEI will probably manufacture the receivers,” Dell adds. Space electronics Balloons and birds Mixing balloons with satellite experiments finally could resolve the questions slowing deployment of aeronautical services satellites. The former NASA Electronics Research Center, now the Department of Transportation’s Transportation Systems Center, delivered as a parting shot a report recommending a series of balloon/transponder experiments to be followed by launch of a small group of experimental satellites. But with the hiatus caused both by the switch in control of the center and by some antenna delivery problems, the first balloon probably won’t go up until early next year. NASA’s Office of Advanced Research and Technology would fund these flights. Leo M. Keane, head of the special projects department at the Cambridge, Mass., center, foresees two series of balloon experiments to shape final questions that the satellite launches would answer. In the first series of up to five balloon launches, aircraft would receive signals simultaneously from both L-band and vhf transponders aboard the balloons. Spade work. “In this first series we’ll be measuring how signal-noise ratio, data error rate, and voice intelligibility vary between L-band and vhf,” says Keane. “With such data, we then can add a guessimate for ionospheric effects to come up with a pretty close idea of needed link margins. And specifications like these will translate readily into satellite hardware.” The second series will deal with navigation. As planned, the balloons would use L-band frequencies only and probe the effect of ocean multipath on ranging accuracy. Once again, data would be logged aboard aircraft flying below the balloon’s altitude of 100,000 to 120,000 feet. The transportation center team already has some data on ranging accuracy from its experiments with the ATS-5 satellite. Last spring a team sailed aboard the tanker Manhattan and used ATS-5 to obtain lines of position said to be accurate to within less than a mile [Electronics, May 25, p. 33]. “But the ship was slow moving, and we were able to use a 3-foot-diameter antenna,” says Keane; “by contrast, the test aircraft will be well above the water, flying at high speed, and using low-gain antennas.” Also, the center plans to gather data on the amount of background electronic noise such an airborne navigation-communication system would have to overcome; high radio interference would probably necessitate a more powerful satellite. All the balloon experiments will take place over the Pacific, a condition Keane doesn’t like. The sea conditions—and therefore multipath—will be less severe and variable than those for the Atlantic. But the instrumentation, launch facilities, and aircraft are all out west. Still, he feels, the data gathered from the second balloon series, when combined with that from the Manhattan, will firm up navigation radio link margins about as well as the other five launches will clarify communications needs. Constellation. After the data from 10 balloon launches is in hand, the team recommends the launch of three spin-stabilized, geostationary satellites. As foreseen, each would carry electronics for one voice channel, one 1,200-bit-per-second data channel, plus spherical and hyperbolic ranging gear. Of course, data from the portable from any viewpoint Tektronix 422 Oscilloscope The 422 isn't portable as an afterthought—it was designed that way for your convenience. It's designed to travel in your car, aboard airplanes and boats, in mobile electronic facilities—anywhere you have room for a small 22-pound package. When you reach your destination, simply remove the panel cover and the ruggedized 422 is ready to display waveforms with laboratory precision. Dual channel, 10 mV/div (ch 2 @ 1 mV/div AC), 50 ns/div sweep rate with X10 mag, 15-MHz performance in a "portable designed" package. Take along a 422 when you need a truly portable, high-performance oscilloscope. The 422 is available in AC and AC/DC models. The AC model operates from 115 or 230 VAC, 45 to 440 Hz; the AC/DC model operates from AC, an internal rechargeable battery pack or from external 11.5 to 35 VDC. For a demonstration of the 422 in your application call your Tektronix Field Engineer or write, Tektronix, Inc., P. O. Box 500, Beaverton, Oregon 97002. 422 AC Model $1530 • 422 AC/DC Model with batteries $1900, FOB Beaverton, Oregon. Available in U.S. through the Tektronix lease plan Tektronix, Inc. committed to technical excellence See The Tektronix Display At WESCON Circle 51 on reader service card U.S. Reports balloons or ATS-5 could change the list. Also, no agency has yet backed or set a time for the satellite experiment. Meanwhile, the center's team has concluded that narrow-band f-m looks best for high intelligibility (95%) voice transmission with the smallest investment in antenna size and transmitter weight. Data relay would be by differentially coherent phase-shift keying, which reputedly yields a good tradeoff in equipment complexity and weight. Commercial electronics Rent-a-laser "We're operating our laser facility as if it were a nuclear reactor or particle accelerator," says Leonard R. Solon, vice president and technical director of Hadron Inc. "People bring in and set up their experiments and we turn on the laser to give them the high-intensity radiation they need." At a minimum charge of $200 for one hour's use of the laser room, that radiation can be expensive, especially when each laser "shot" costs at least $35 more. But it's a good buy, according to Solon, because the customer gets to use the world's highest powered, commercially available laser, which costs almost $400,000 to install. The laser, the VD/VK-640, can produce an output energy at 1.06 microns of up to 500 joules in a 30-nanosecond pulse, equivalent to a peak power of 17 gigawatts. In addition, the laser can pump 100 joules in a pulse as short as 1 nsec and the result is a smashing 100 Gw peak. Grande. Hadron, in Westbury, N.Y., handles the American distribution of the neodymium-glass laser manufactured by a French company, Compagnie Générale d'Electricité (CGE). The laser's high power and brightness is particularly useful for generating high-temperature plasmas, and for observing accelerated photolytic chemical reactions. And CGE used the unit's intense heat last fall to cause a controlled thermonuclear fusion reaction in a very-high-temperature plasma. With its high price tag, the system hasn't exactly been walking off the shelves. By renting out the laser, Hadron hopes potential customers may find the laser useful enough to make them want to buy their own. "Right now we're touching the most innovative and creative people," says Solon. "Once these pioneers break ground, there will be a second wave of engineering and industrial organizations who'll move in to use the laser." Hadron says a number of organizations have used the facility—mostly for classified projects—since it was made available two months ago. These users include Lockheed Missiles and Space division and Battelle Memorial Institute. And last month the company even had a buyer. The Naval Research Laboratory in Washington decided to convert, for $214,000, the smaller Hadron/CGE system it already has to the big 640. Meetings Leaving the scene Indications are that although West Coast companies are returning, attendance by eastern firms at Wescon, to be held Aug. 25 through 28 in Los Angeles, will be off more than 50% from last year. Of 121 eastern exhibitors from 1969, only 51 said they would attend. Wescon officials say that overall booth space is down 10% from last year [Electronics, June 8, 1970, p. 34]. Show officials expect the trend to hold, reflecting the biggest drop since 1965, another bad business year. Tight money is the reason. Because new contracts are few and far between, mostly due to government spending cutbacks and the general state of the economy, company representatives say that such shows as Wescon are being carefully evaluated. Those companies that say they are attending, are showing mostly items that are improved older products or a first for that company, but not for the industry. And some exhibitors with booths will forgo the traditional hospitality suite, while still others report that, although they will attend the show, they will have a suite instead of a booth. Communications Half-price headset Two years ago a salesman for a major mobile-radio manufacturer walked into a Justice Department agency with a pitch to equip the nation's 300,000 police with a helmet-mounted transceiver developed for the Army. At first the meeting went well. Law Enforcement Assistance Administration officials liked the way the radio freed the policeman's hands for driving his motorcycle, drawing his gun, or wrestling with a drunk. But then came the hard question: "How much does it cost?" "Between $800 and $1,000 in quantity," was the answer. LEAA officials laughed the salesman out of their office. Serious. Today, a Long Island, N.Y., company is quietly demonstrating a similar unit with an under-$500 price tag which it is convinced is no laughing matter even though it is well above the $150 to $200 that the police community wants to pay for transceivers. Leonard Dairo, project engineer for Dyna Magnetic Devices of Hicksville, N.Y., says the New York City Police Department plans field tests of the company's D566 transceiver later this summer. And inquiries about the radio are coming in from departments as far away as the Virgin Islands. The Dyna Magnetics transceiver, like the devices earlier developed by most of the major military communications firms, is voice actuated by a solid state switch with variable attack and delay. Yet it differs in that it has no external antenna or microphone boom, which could be snapped off by an assailant, Dairo says. To get rid of the external microphone, the company turned to an These are a few of our favorite things... Low, 200 milliamp current draw at 5 VDC insures greater operating stability, minimal heat dissipation, and allows multiple terminal operation from a central computer at one location without concern about line drop. Immunity to static electricity or other propagated electrical signals. High-signal-to-noise ratio not subject to interference as a result of our unique signal coupling technique. Solid-state design with highest reliability even under extreme operating environments such as humidity up to 95% non-condensing and temperature to 70°C. Lower profile (as little as 3/4") for streamlined designs. External strobe, two-key rollover and inhibit — supplied as standard. Wide variety of standard configurations permits rapid development of custom configurations with low-cost per key. ...but we part with them willingly CONTROL DEVICES, INC. 204 New Boston Street Woburn, Massachusetts 01801 (617) 935-1105 TECHNIQUE et PRODUITS • Sevres, France Tel. 626-0235 • France, Germany, Italy, and Benelux Countries Patents pending inertial microphone it was already producing for use in battlefield telephone transmitters. When held against the top of the head by the helmet's weight, the device picks up sound transmitted through the user's skull. And because it is well insulated by the thick plastic helmet, the microphone is insensitive to ambient noise levels as high as 120 decibels, he says. Dairo declined to say where the vertically or horizontally polarized antenna is hidden inside the helmet. But presumably criss-cross strips of copper foil glued to the interior of a demonstration model serve this purpose. A whip antenna is also available for extended-range communications. Up to a watt. The 2-ounce transmitter module for the unit will be available in five models ranging in output from 100 milliwatts to 1 watt. The unit is crystal controlled with frequency stability to 15 ppm, the firm says. Its single-channel operation, however, fails to meet multichannel requirements cited by a number of police officials in discussing their radio requirements. The receiver for the D560 is also single channel and boasts frequency stability equal to the transmitter's. Dual-conversion circuitry is employed in the two-once unit, which together with the transmitter module will be packaged in the neckband of the helmet. The transceiver package also will function as protection for the policeman and is said to be able to withstand heavy blows. Receive-only models also will be available. Power is supplied by mercury or nickel-cadmium cells. Minimum battery life is eight hours, based on cycle duty of 80% standby, 10% receive, and 10% transmit, the firm says. If an optional push-to-talk switch is added, however, battery life can be extended considerably by switching over a voice-actuation mode only when it's needed. Doing its bit Bell Labs has developed a way to transmit data at double the speed of existing Bell System data gear. However, there's a catch: the data set is designed for the analog network, and with today's emphasis on digital transmission, customer demand may never materialize. The new wideband system was described at the International Conference on Communications in San Francisco by A.M. Gerrish and W.J. Lawless. Operating at its maximum data rate of 108 kilobits per second, it has more than twice the capability of the Bell 301D (40.8 kb) and the Bell 303 family (50 kb). The experimental wideband set transmits synchronous binary data over group bandwidth facilities. The as yet unnamed set can operate at speeds of 72, 90, and 108 kb and can be used for, among other tasks, baseband transmitters and analog trunks with digital extensions. On the basis of thus far limited tests on a real transmission facility, performance is expected to be on a par with that of the 301 and 303 series. However, at the 108-kilobit rate, quality is expected to be lower with a $10^{-4}$ average bit error rate. Compares. Operation at 72 kb yielded transmission efficiencies of 92% to 99.9% over a length range of 2 kb to 80 kb per block. Average efficiency with a block length of 8 kb—1,000 characters in ASCII code—was 99.5%. This compares with the 301B data set operating at 40.8 kb on a similar transmission facility. Performance at 90 kb was approximately equal to that achieved at 72 kb, while operation at 108 kb yielded transmission efficiencies of 15% to 89% over the same block lengths; the average efficiency with an 8-kb block was 70%. The new wide band data set consists of a baseband unit, a single-sideband modem, a line termination and test unit, and optional automatic equalizer and error control units. Data coming in to the baseband transmitter runs through a 20-stage scrambler to provide a random data output. The signal goes to an error control unit and then to a serial-to-parallel converter and coder. For binary operation—72 kb per second—the signal passes through the circuit directly; for ternary operation—108 kb per second—three binary digits are coded into two binary-coded ternary digits. For the s-p converter and coder, the signal goes to a partial-response precoder, where symbol-by-symbol decoding prevents error propagation. The precoder's output is sent to a digital-to-analog converter where a multilevel output is generated—three levels at 72 kb and five levels at 108 kb. The signal is shaped by a filter and summed with a sinusoidal tone at 36 kilohertz—the tone is used to derive the sampling clock. The composite signal is the output of the Bell Labs unit's baseband data set. Riding the wave For years, Comsat engineers have said that digital transmission is the wave of the future in orbiting communications relays. Not only are digital circuits much simpler and cheaper than analog circuits, but just as important, they use less power. The engineers soon will be able to prove what they've been saying. Comsat is testing a Philco-Ford device to see if one of the largest parts of Comsat's business—relaying video signals—can be performed successfully using digital techniques to get the signals from ground to space and back again. The six-month test, due to end around December 1, is evaluating a color flying-spot scanner and a recording device similar to the Imiac units Philco-Ford builds for the military to convert pictures to computer data. The purpose of the test, says Richard A. Schaphorst, a Philco-Ford visual communications research manager, is to see if the units provide high enough resolution and color registration for video relays. Squeeze. During the test, the scanner will digitize color and monochrome transparencies. The digitized signals will then be recorded and tested against Comsat's resolution and registration standards. Every effort will be made to compress the bandwidth of the Ever try to kill a Cherry Thumbwheel Switch? We did. In a test rack. And after 1,027,632 detent operations it was still alive and switching (at rated load under test conditions per MIL-S-22710B paragraph 4.8.22) . . . and with less than 25 milliohms change in the original contact resistance value of 100 milliohms maximum. All stamped, molded and precision metal plated components used in Cherry Thumbwheel switches are made in our own plant under the technical guidance of an experienced staff of engineers using the most modern manufacturing and assembly techniques. Consistently dependable product quality is assured. Test Cherry Thumbwheels for yourself We'll furnish the test rack. Life test the new Cherry Thumbwheel switches right in your own lab. To arrange for a test, write on your company letterhead today. CHERRY ELECTRICAL PRODUCTS CORP. 1656 Old Deerfield Road, Highland Park, Illinois 60035 Makers of patented Snap-Action, Leverwheel/Thumbwheel and Matrix Selector Switches. video signal while preserving picture quality, he says. If the tests are successful, says Schaphorst, speeding up the process to digitize the 30 pictures a second needed in video transmission should not be much of a problem. At this point, neither Philco-Ford nor Comsat is making bets on the outcome of the tests. But in the long haul, Schaphorst says, video signals relayed via satellites will be digital. "And once you have digital video signals, it makes an awful lot of sense to make all your traffic digital. All you have to do is multiplex in your voice, facsimile and data," he says. Government ATS setback NASA has taken a step backward to set its most recent record with the Applications Technology Satellite program. The achievement is nothing less than NASA's first withdrawal of a contract award to General Electric for the F and G advanced communications satellite in the ATS series. The action came in the wake of a protest by the losing bidder—the Fairchild-Hiller Corp.—that NASA had accepted a post-deadline bid from GE in March after NASA officials had leaked information on Fairchild-Hiller's design and price to GE. The complaint led to an investigation by the General Accounting Office, investigative arm of the Congress, which confirmed acceptance of the late bid by NASA but noted, "There is no evidence of a leak." More important than GE's complaint that it didn't like the GAO "innuendos" in the absence of firm proof, the company was more disturbed by the GAO's recommendation that the award be reconsidered—one which Thomas Paine, NASA administrator and former GE executive, promptly accepted by withdrawing the award and announcing a recompetition between the two companies. Outcome. Speculation that the ATS-F and G satellites eventually will be canceled and a new program undertaken was the subject of much speculation in Washington after the dispute. In view of the NASA study and report to GAO which GE says extracted much of its technical data, and the subsequent delivery of the NASA and GAO studies to both competitors, GE now argues it doesn't see how a fair recompetition can be undertaken. As Daniel Fink, vice president of GE's Space division, puts it: "This now gives Fairchild-Hiller a great deal of technical innovation regarding our stuff which is exactly what NASA was accused of doing earlier. At the same time, the report itself was the first place that I believe the official prices were mentioned, or at least the relative dollars. Relative cost was mentioned, and specifically it states that GE was 2% lower than Fairchild-Hiller." As Fairchild-Hiller knows its bid, Fink argues that it can easily figure GE's bid with a bit of arithmetic. Estimated value of the contract, still in negotiation at the time of withdrawal, was about $50 million. On evaluation of the two competitors, the initial rating of Fairchild-Hiller's technical proposal was 699 and GE's was 664. The margin slipped to 683 to 570 after preliminary oral examination by the NASA Selection Evaluation board, and then GE came out on top by one point with a total score of 687 after about 10 days of fact finding with each company. While the board concluded that the proposals were "technically equal" and differences in initial price proposals were minor an Administration cut in the NASA budget caused the ATS-F and G timetable to slip so the agency requested new bids. GE says it then "went home convinced that the tactic, the technique had to be minimum cost to give them [NASA] a legitimate, able-to-achieve program" in view of the budget constraints. This, the company says, resulted in its lower price after a new round of negotiations with 14 major subcontractors. While NASA has yet to specify the extent of its recompetition and its timetable, GE's Fink believes the space agency "feels they have to bend over backwards" in the new round on ATS. "Where GE is concerned, this is doubly true," he adds, because of Administrator Paine's 19-year GE affiliation. For the record Layoff? The Hewlett-Packard Co., which boasts that it has never had to lay off workers, has managed to in effect cut its work force while maintaining that record. Some 11,000 of H-P's domestic employees will simply take off one day every two weeks without pay—and salaries of all corporate officers will also be reduced. Unaffected will be the Colorado Springs division, which makes oscilloscopes and pulse generators; the San Diego division, x-y recorders; the Avondale, Pa., division, analytical instruments; and the company's 3,400 foreign employees. Official. The North American Rockwell Corp. has made the dual announcement that the former Autometrics Products division has become a separate commercial microelectronics company and has signed a follow-on contract with the Sharp Corp. of Japan [Electronics, June 22, p. 34], for MOS/LSI arrays that go into Sharp's Micro-Compet calculator. The new firm is the North American Rockwell Microelectronics Co., and the additional business with Sharp is valued at more than $30 million through 1972. The initial contract, which runs through next January, was for nearly $30 million and encompassed more than 2 million devices. The follow-on order is also for more than 2 million devices, but company officials aren't disclosing the exact dollar figure or the precise number of devices. The contract covers the same five basic circuit functions included in the original order, although some of the arrays have been redesigned to make them smaller. Ad infinitum. Suffer the country two more proposed congressional Meet the DIP Trimmer Family Cermet TC typically < 100 ppm...50 ppm available TRW technology now provides the first twin offering of dual inline potentiometers. A cermet trimmer has added infinite resolution, resistances of 10 ohms thru 1 megohm, and extra reliability to the picture. Teamed with the low cost and tight tolerance features of the original DIP wirewound, IRC Metal Glaze (cermet) completes this first family. Utilizing the TRW proved "I/C" package, both types are shipped in magazines, ready for completely automatic inspection tests and PC-board insertion. Both cermet and wirewound DIP's are available from your TRW Distributor. For technical details contact IRC Division of TRW INC., 2801 72nd Street, North, St. Petersburg, Florida 33733. Phone: (813) 347-2181. TWX: 810-863-0357 TRW® Circle 57 on reader service card We've got production bonding down cold. Figure it out. Hughes' new ball and stitch bonder ends the warm-up phase of production. Only its capillary tip gets hot. A quick pulse of heat — just enough to bond the wire — passes through the tip to the exact bonding area. There's reduced heat transfer to other parts of the device. (Which means no drift in characteristics.) The bonding cycle is completely programmed. One control lever does it all: selects one of three search levels, sets the exact time-at-temperature, initiates the bond (as many stitches as you want), and finishes the job with an automatic pig-tail puller and jet flame off. Plus: 8" throat depth (for the largest hybrids or multi-device carriers), .0007"—.005" gold wire size, and 1.2" XY travel of the micropositioner. HPB-360 — The cold bonder. Ask us about it: Hughes Welders, 2020 Oceanside Blvd., Oceanside, California 92054. HUGHES HUGHES AIRCRAFT COMPANY HUGHES WELDERS The Metal Stickers Circle 58 on reader service card commissions. The Independent Technology Assessment and Environmental Data Collection Commission, introduced by Sen. Warren Magnuson (D., Wash.) in his Commercial Technology Assessment Act, would develop an early warning system to alert government, industry, and the public about possible economic, environmental, and social costs entailed in new commercial technology. The National Commission on Libraries and Information Science survived a House-Senate conference and would, among other things, determine the status of library and information resources and services, develop plans for meeting those needs, and promote R&D to improve library and information-handling capability as "essential links in the national communications networks." Datran to 11 Ghz. The Data Transmission Co. (Datran) has a new design scheme for its 35-city microwave data network, aimed at subduing frequency interference objections by common carriers. In amendments to its original proposal to the Federal Communications Commission, Datran proposes to move transmission from 6 gigahertz to 11 Ghz in some congested areas, and to build 16 additional repeater stations to handle the shorter-range transmission at 11 Ghz. Datran says the design amendments should, by removing objections to possible interference caused by the proposed network, prompt the FCC to act on its application. The network would be operational 18 to 30 months after FCC approval, says Datran. LEAA to lose four eyes. The troika leadership of the Justice Department's Law Enforcement Assistance Administration is expected to be reduced to a one-man show after Senate action on an already-passed House bill. Current law provides for three administrators, who must unanimously agree on LEAA issues, no matter how trivial, before crime-control grants are made to state and local governments. That situation led to the resignation of former administrator Charles Regovin [Electronics, April 27, p. 115]. Digital 3 R's. Microwave Communications Inc. will be ready to plan point-to-point microwave service for about 85% of the nation's colleges and universities by November, when it will have analyzed input from schools on requirements. Some require only low-speed data with Teletype use, others want crt readouts and computerized class instruction, and some will need the network only part time. An MCI proposal to interconnect educational broadcasting stations and university libraries is pending at the FCC. Court action. At least one engineer is among the 50 former employees of the Boeing Co.'s Everett, Wash., plant who are suing the company—they claim they were laid off despite promises of from three to 10 years' employment. Eleven suits have been filed, asking damages ranging from $30,000 to $100,000, and another 39 are due to be filed by the Everett law firm of Griffin & Bortner. The plaintiffs charge that Boeing recruited them last year from other nations and elsewhere in the U.S., only to let them go last month. The complaints say that none of the plaintiffs was familiar with "the cyclic nature of Boeing's employment history or that this employment would be based upon the future sales success of the defendant's aircraft." Ironically, most of the suits were filed before the announcement that Boeing had won the contract for Awacs, which could be worth $2 billion over the next half decade and eventually increase the company's work force. Add one. L-Squared Industries, the MOS device maker formed last year by Arthur Lowell, ex-MOS chief at Autonetics, has agreed in principle to acquire a mineral exploration consulting and managing firm. The company, Monarch Enterprises of Washington, D.C., will become a subsidiary of L-Squared, which is in Santa Ana, Calif. Newest shift register recirculates internally. 512 bits. 3½¢/bit. Now in stock is Intel's new self-contained serial memory, a 512-bit shift register complete with all necessary recirculating circuitry on one silicon-gate MOS chip. As the block diagram shows, two X-Y "chip-select" terminals, a "read" terminal and a "write/recirculate" terminal permit operation as a fully functional serial memory without need for external logic. Model 1405 is guaranteed to operate to 2 MHz. Data inputs, data outputs and all control signals are fully compatible with DTL and TTL logic. Clock capacitance is less than 80 pF. Capacitance at all inputs is typically a low 3½ pF and guaranteed not to exceed 5 pF. Model 1405 is the most economical means available to construct clocked IC serial memories—economical because Intel's silicon-gate technology is now producing high yields in large production runs. For immediate delivery in the U.S., phone your local Intel distributor: Cramer Electronics or Hamilton Electro Sales. Or call us collect at (415) 961-8080. In Europe contact Intel at 216 Avenue Louise, Bruxelles, Belgium 1050. Phone 492003. In Japan contact Nippon IC, Inc., Sanko-Cho Bldg., No. 53 Sanko-Cho, Shinjuku-Ku, Tokyo 160. Intel Corporation is in high-volume production at 365 Middlefield Rd., Mountain View, California 94040. intel delivers. The first integrated circuit, invented by Jack Kilby in 1958, was a single chip with all the components needed to make a simple amplifier. A significant advance in silicon rectifier power handling capacity 3 new series of silicon rectifiers from Tung-Sol permit designers to meet extremely high power requirements. - Reverse voltage ratings to 5000 Volts - Average forward current to 500 Amperes - Surge overload ratings up to 8500 Amperes Controlled avalanche characteristics provide transient handling capability that results in increased reliability. All units feature ceramic-to-metal seals, mount in any position and are supplied in either polarity. 1511 SERIES Max. av. forward current at 120° C—420 Amperes Surge overload rating, 1 cycle—6000 Amperes Controlled Avalanche Voltage—1250-3500 Volts 1621 SERIES Max. av. forward current at 120° C—500 Amperes Surge overload rating, 1 cycle—8500 Amperes Controlled Avalanche Voltage—1100-2300 Volts 1611 SERIES Max. av. forward current at 120° C—470 Amperes Surge overload rating, 1 cycle—5200 Amperes Controlled Avalanche Voltage—2600-5000 Volts Write for technical data bulletins— Tung-Sol Division, Wagner Electric Corporation 630 West Mt. Pleasant Ave., Livingston, N.J. 07039 Twx: 710-994-4865 • Phone: (201) 992-1100; (212) 732-5426 TUNG-SOL High Power Silicon Rectifiers Trademark TUNG-SOL Reg. U. S. Pat. Off. and Marcas Registradas TRW has added still another member to its Gigahertz family. PT8610 provides 10 watts output power at 2 GHz, with 7dB gain and 15% bandwidth. It is a single-chip device in a new low parasitic MIC package. The broadband capability of the device provides circuit design simplicity and insures repeatable system-to-system performance with a minimum of circuit tuning elements. Designed for use in common-base circuits, PT8610 can be cascaded with other TRW broadband devices to extend reliable solid state power at 2 GHz. Companion transistors are the 5 watt PT8611, 2.5 watt PT8612 and the 1 Watt PT8613. For further information contact any TRW distributor or TRW Semiconductor Division, 14520 Aviation Boulevard, Lawndale, California 90260. Phone (213) 679-4561. TWX: 910-325-6206. Using spot ties? GUDE-TIES, replacing plastic wraps, cut yearly material cost more than 75% "GUDE-TIES", CUT LENGTHS of Gudebrod Flat Braided Lacing Tapes, are specifically produced for spot tying—in production harnessing or for on-site work. A comparative engineering analysis found that material costs for Gude-Ties was 76.7% less than for plastic wraps on a yearly production basis, and harness weight was reduced also. In aviation and other important applications weight of the harness is important, and gaining more importance. Gude-Ties are dispenser packaged for one hand, easy withdrawal. Meet MIL-T Specs, make firm knots. Available in 6", 8", 10", 12", 15", 18", 20" and 22" lengths (other lengths to order). Try GUDEBROD'S SYSTEM "S" In spot tying when you combine Gudebrod Gude-Ties with Gudebrod Gude-Snips and the Gudebrod Swivel-Tilt Harness Board Mount you're really streamlining the production of wire harnesses. Gude-Snips, palm-of-the-hand snips cut cleanly, easily—right or left hand. Spring action, Du Pont Teflon bearing. Eliminate constant reaching for knife or shears. The balanced, three dimensional action of the Gudebrod Swivel-Tilt Harness Board Mount brings every section of the harness within easy, comfortable reach. Cuts fatigue — speeds work. Ask for full information about Gudebrod System "S" for spot tie lacing. (For continuous tying, ask about System "C".) Gudebrod Swivel-Tilt Harness Board Mounts available in several sizes GUDEBROD BROS. SILK CO., INC. Founded 1870, 12 South 12th Street, Philadelphia, Pa. 19107 1870—100 Years of Quality—1970 μDAC 555 The World’s First Monolithic IC Multiplying D/A Converter - 4 SPDT SWITCHES ON A SINGLE CHIP - 12-BIT ±½LSB ACCURACY - FULL 4 QUADRANT MULTIPLICATION CAPABILITY - ±5ppm/°C MAX TC, −55°C TO +125°C - IDEAL FOR DIGITAL-TO-SYNCHRO APPLICATIONS - MEETS MIL-STD 883... FLATPACK OR DIL Second in a series of monolithic IC D/A converter circuits, the Analog Devices Model AD555 μDAC is intended for applications which require variable reference inputs. This feature permits full 4 quadrant multiplication of the analog and digital inputs, useful in many avionic applications such as digital-to-synchro conversion, digital gain control, etc. The μDAC AD555 is comprised of 4 dielectrically isolated voltage switches driven by logic input buffers compatible with all popular DTL or TTL logic. With the addition of an R-2R resistor network, each AD555 becomes a 4-bit D/A converter. All critical parameters are matched to permit three such μDAC’s to be simply interconnected to form a monotonic 12-bit converter with ±½LSB accuracy. Proprietary design techniques yield switch performance similar to discrete-component solid state switches, but with inherently better tracking. Switch “ON” resistance is 20 ohms, matched to ±5 ohms within each chip. Precision 12-bit thin film R-2R resistor networks, matched to switch ON resistance, are also available from Analog Devices. Voltage offset is 1mV ±1mV max. Switching delay time is typically 3.5µs. For free new application notes giving complete specifications and theory of operation of this new series of monolithic D/A converters, or to request evaluation samples phone your local sales office or Mr. Richard Ferrero collect on the ANALOG HOT LINE . . . (617) 969-3661. ANALOG DEVICES’ SALES OFFICES \| Phone Number \| 205/536-1969 \| 314/725-5361 \| 602/274-6682 \| \|--------------\|-------------\|-------------\|-------------\| \| \| 206/767-3870\| 315/454-9314\| 604/926-3411\| \| \| 213/595-1783\| 317/846-2593\| 607/748-0509\| \| \| 214/231-4846\| 412/371-9449\| 612/881-6386\| \| \| 215/643-2440\| 415/941-4874\| 613/224-1221\| \| \| 216/261-5440\| 416/247-7454\| 617/492-6000\| \| \| 301/588-1595\| 512/732-7176\| 713/622-2820\| \| \| 303/781-4967\| 513/426-5551\| 716/885-4111\| \| \| 305/424-7932\| 514/683-3621\| 913/831-2888\| \| \| 312/774-1452\| 516/692-6100\| 918/622-3753\| \| \| 313/886-2280\| 518/372-6649\| \| Circle 65 on reader service card MISSING LINK Link your scientific or general-purpose computer with transducers and contact closures and get real-time data and analysis. You've probably been stymied with no economical way to connect thermocouples, RTD's, load cells, flow meters and contact closures to your computer. VIDAR's 5206 is the "missing link" which translates multiple transducer outputs (volts, ohms, Hertz, and contact closures) into computerese and interfaces them to your computer. As an intelligent "front-end" with a built-in mini-computer, the VIDAR 5206 can monitor and manage continuous processes, even when your big computer is down. It saves big computer time by pre-processing data. Efficiencies and trends are displayed only when required. Your people can interrogate it through remote displays to keep track of how things are proceeding. Whether you want to use your computer for dynamic testing — or need a stand-alone process manager and data logger, get all the facts about VIDAR's wares (hard and soft). VIDAR 77 Ortega Avenue, Mountain View, Calif. 94040 (415) 961-1000 the automatic-measurement people Circle 66 on reader service card Defense and space firms try to soften new cost controls Government electronics contractors are still fighting Congressional attempts to impose tough cost controls. Although resigned to adoption of uniform cost accounting systems—following overwhelming Senate passage of a bill to requiring such systems in all defense and space contracts—the contractors are trying to get House adoption of the Senate measure. The industry fought uniform accounting tooth and nail when first proposed by Sen. William Proxmire (D., Wis.), but the upper chamber’s bill is nowhere near as tough as the House version, sponsored by the powerful Rep. Wright Patman (D., Texas). Though the Senate scrubbed a loophole exempting prime and subcontractors with less than $25 million in annual Government sales—a provision sponsored by the Western Electronics Manufacturers Association—it didn’t touch the provision that accounting standards could be established and monitored by an independent five-man board named by the U.S. Comptroller General. The House bill, on the other hand, puts the stringent General Accounting Office in charge of accounting standards. Regardless of the compromises that industry can salvage from Senate-House negotiations, the application of uniform accounting principles is expected to make contract costs much more visible, contractor overhead charges much less flexible, and engineering expenditure controls much more restrictive. New agencies will boost environmental electronics use Application of electronics to environment problems and in oceanography is expected to accelerate now that the White House has issued an executive order creating the Environmental Protection Agency and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Agency. Both organizations will receive only the fiscal 1971 money appropriated for the groups from which they will be formed in August. But their administrators, still to be named, are sure to push multiple system studies and hardware-oriented projects to gain visibility and public acceptance—and the leverage to ask for more money in fiscal 1972. Air Force pursuing modular airborne data processor To see if most airborne multiprocessors can be fashioned out of a standard set of computer modules, the Burroughs Corp. is being funded by the Air Force Avionics Laboratory to build three types of data processing modules. If the approach is successful, standard modules could be assembled into computers for every type of aircraft from light tactical systems through attack bombers. Under the $469,000 award, Burroughs is scheduled to deliver by December 1971 a processor module, a switching matrix, and a unit that can be used for either input or output. A separate award is pending for development of four 16-kilobit plated wire memory modules. Burroughs will use Fairchild 100-gate micromosaic arrays and 300-gate discretionary wired circuits to keep volume down to 1.8 cubic feet for an 800,000 instructions-per-second triplexed processor. The Avionics Lab’s program is aimed at the same cost and logistical problems as the Navy’s more ambitious Advanced Airborne Digital Computer, a modular machine that would be used in all Navy planes from 1975 through 1985 [Electronics, July 21, 1969, p. 52]. Speculation is growing that Lee DuBridge, director of the Office of Science and Technology, will not last much longer as science adviser to the President. DuBridge, lacking the political expertise of some of his predecessors, is reportedly being ground down by criticisms of his performance and the absence of policy guidance by the White House. Though no one can confirm that DuBridge plans to leave, sources close to the office concede that he is dismayed by his inability to determine White House science policy and unhappy at being left to his own devices. Plans for interim space stations that would fly in the mid-70's may cause cutbacks in a potential bonanza for the electronics industry, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration's $5 billion space station program. Many NASA planners are arguing that because NASA funding is leveling off, the space shuttle, designed for use in launching and resupplying the space station, will not be able to fly until the 1977/1978 slot set aside for the space station. Thus, they contend, smaller stations carrying more austere electronics would provide the only means of maintaining a manned space exploration effort. Eight proposals for interim space stations are reportedly under consideration, and all would use some of the remaining seven Saturn 5 boosters. Use of the Saturns, however, would require cancellations of Apollo flights. The two strongest contenders for the boosters are a second Skylab, which would provide a second platform for scientific experiments in 1974, and a six-man "intermediate" space station that could fly in 1976. If the latter gets the green light, the 12-man space station would have to be pushed back into the 1980's. Eying the internationally interconnected cable grids of the future, the Federal Communications Commission has opened a new CATV docket to consider technical standards for the industry. The CATV area abounds with unresolved standards problems. One proposed FCC standard would require two-way transmission capability in cable systems. Such a two-way capability should provide at least the capacity for a single 4-kilohertz message and be available for sharing with other subscribers—for example, between the home and banks or newspapers. The FCC also wants 40-channel systems in major urban areas and 20-channel systems in suburban and rural areas. If one Deep South state has its way, the Administration's "southern strategy" would be extended even to radio frequency allocations. Arguing that the Federal Communications Commission has failed to employ a state-oriented systems approach to frequency assignments, the state is pushing for the granting of frequency blocks to states for reallocation by local authorities for intrastate use. Pending official publication of a systems engineering study by the state, the FCC refuses to disclose anything about the state's identity—except that it is southern. While this revolutionary approach would permit reassignment of, say, forestry frequencies to police departments in areas where there are no forests, communications suppliers predict possible chaos. They see themselves making different models of each piece of equipment—at much greater cost—to suit the peculiar requirements of each state. The best of Linear For the past several months, we’ve presented a profusion of facts, specs and applications on Linear Integrated Circuits. It’s time for a recap. Just in case anybody missed something they shouldn’t have. The following two pages contain the most significant product information we’ve presented in this ad series. Not that everything else wasn’t important. But, if we only had one ad to run this year, this is the ad we’d run. Introducing the World's First Monolithic J-FET Input Op Amp Punch-through op amps are obsolete. Fairchild's new μA740 now offers 150 pA (max.) current into either input. While some manufacturers are talking about super beta or punch-through transistors with current gains of 1000, Fairchild technology now makes possible J-FET devices with equivalent betas of over 15,000. And, they're completely compatible with standard monolithic processing. The μA740 is a simple two-stage design similar to the μA741, but employs J-FET input transistors to obtain extremely low input currents. μA740 Electrical Performance Input Current ...............150pA max. (either input) Unity Gain Slew Rate ........6V/μS Input Resistance ..........10^12 Ohms Voltage Gain ...............120dB Input Offset Current...........30pA The new linear has all the convenience of the μA741: internal frequency compensation for unity gain, input over-voltage protection to either supply, output short circuit protection to ground or either supply, and the absence of "latch-up." Balanced offset null is easily obtained with a 10KΩ potentiometer and does not affect other parameters. Other μA740 features include a wide common mode range of ± 12 volts, high differential voltage range of ± 30 volts, and wide operating supply range of ± 5V to ± 22V. The μA740 is directly interchangeable with the μA741, μA748 or μA709. The new Fairchild device provides circuit designers with superior performance in such applications as active filters, voltage followers, integrators, summing amplifiers, sample and holds, transducer amplifiers and other general-purpose feedback applications. The μA740 is now available in TO-99 packages (both military and industrial temperature ranges) from any Fairchild Distributor. Reader Service Number 511 The New μA796: We Knew It Was Going To Be Versatile, But We Didn't Know How Versatile. The new low-cost μA796 Doubly Balanced Modulator/Demodulator is finding its way into an amazing variety of systems. Communications-gear engineers are taking advantage of its great versatility and high carrier suppression in modulators and demodulators for single sideband, suppressed carrier and phase shift key transceivers. It's also being used as a synchronous AM demodulator, a quadrature FM demodulator, and as a phase comparator for phase locked loop receivers. Digital tape/disc memory designers are utilizing the μA796's unique properties in fast differentiators and phase correcting circuits for NRZ or phase encoding systems, while remote D.C. R-G-B gain controls, color shade and keystone corrections are practical for color TV broadcast equipment use. Other possibilities lie in signal chopping, frequency changing, linear mixing and more. Here Are The Specs: Carrier Suppression 65dB Transadmittance Bandwidth Carrier Port 300MHz Signal Port 80MHz Signal Gain 3.5V/V Input Impedance (signal port) 200KΩ Input Offset Current 0.7μA Differential Output Swing 8.0 volts p-p Here Are The Prices: U5F7796312 −55°C to +125°C $4.80 @ 100 pcs. U5F7796393 0°C to 70°C $2.25 @ 100 pcs. Reader Service Number 512 New Op Amp has Gain of 3,000,000. Fairchild's new μA725 Instrumentation Operational Amplifier can do the same jobs that used to require expensive chopper-stabilized or complex discrete component amplifiers. The μA725 is ideally suited for use in Low Level Signal Conditioners, Instrumentation Amplifiers, Precision Measuring Equipment, Process Control Systems and Data Acquisition Equipment. Electrical Performance/Features - Low Input Noise Current . . . 0.6pA/Hz - High Open Loop Gain . . . . . . 3,000,000 - Low Input Offset Current . . . . . 3nA - Low Input Offset Voltage Drift . . . . . 0.5μV/°C - High Common Mode Rejection . .120dB One of the many applications for the μA725 is in Linear photodetection systems. Use of a PIN Photodiode with the μA725 provides the user with a low noise linear detection system which operates from low voltage supplies and has none of the inherent disadvantages of photomultiplier tubes (high voltage supplies, aging effects, large physical size, high power dissipation). Reader Service Number 509 Micropower Exists—μA735 Minimizing power drain, weight and space gives design engineers ulcers (how come the system power supply designer is the last one to know you've overrun the allotted system power consumption?). Here's good news. Relief exists: The μA735 micropower operational amplifier uses only 100μW at ± 3.0 volts. Systems such as space vehicles, aircraft, and portable medical equipment will benefit from the use of the μA735 by shrinking bulky batteries. It gives you low quiescent currents. It also gives you versatile, accurate and cool operation without the customary design tradeoffs. In addition, the μA735 simplifies design of high impedance instrumentation circuits due to its extremely low input currents. Here are some typical device specifications: \| Specification \| Value \| \|------------------------\|-------------\| \| input offset current \| 500 pA \| \| input bias current \| 5.0 nA \| \| input offset voltage \| 1.0 mV \| \| supply voltage range \| ± 3 volts to ± 18 volts \| \| power consumption \| 100 μW \| \| open loop voltage gain \| 20,000 \| \| input impedance \| 10 mΩ \| \| noise \| .5 pA/√Hz \| Smart engineers who like to minimize component count can now take advantage of a new simplified frequency compensation scheme that applies over the entire supply voltage range of the μA735. This circuit has a center frequency at 10 Hz, 12 dB rolloff with −3 dB points at 6.6 Hz and 14 Hz. The μA735 lets you use small capacitor values and large resistors for frequency shaping at a few Hz, due to the μA735's low input offset current. The new price is low, too— \| Model \| Temperature Range \| Price @ 100 \| \|-----------\|-------------------\|-------------\| \| μA735 \| −55°C to +125°C \| $37.50 \| \| μA735B \| −20°C to +85°C \| $22.50 \| \| μA735C \| 0°C to +70°C \| $15.00 \| See? Micropower does exist; alive and in quantity at your Fairchild distributor. Reader Service Number 510 Most engineers like to eliminate those large, expensive, hard-to-find capacitors that hog space and dollars. Here's a nifty new application which will avoid large capacitors in low frequency, active filter design. And with very low supply current drain! For multilayer or precision double sided boards with plated-thru holes—in volume—the place to go is Cinch-Graphik—the world's largest independent producer of precision circuits. For information on the capabilities and automated facilities of Cinch-Graphik, contact your local Cinch Electronics Group District office or Cinch-Graphik, 200 South Turnbull Canyon Road, City of Industry, California, 91744. Phone (213) 333-1201. The ultimate oscillator. Now there's a true function generator that's priced like an oscillator. The new Model 130 delivers sine, square, triangle and sync outputs from 0.2 Hz to 2 MHz with flat frequency response and low sine distortion. The ultimate is only $295.* Find out about our Model 131 VCG, $345; Model 134 Sweep/Trigger VCG, $495; Model 135 LIN/LOG Sweeper, $695; Model 136 VCG/VCA Generator, $595. Safety in In digital panel meters, long term stability is a chopper stabilized front end. That's our series 340. Full range, low cost digital panel meters that do away with interface problems. Across the board. With a temperature range of $+10^\circ$ to $+40^\circ$C, zero stays put. The indications are clear. Non-blinking displays you expect only in the most expensive meters, five readings per second with accuracy to 0.01%. And at low, low cost. Volts, ohms, current and ratio. In three or four digit panel meters with output and accuracy assured by dual slope integration—the most accurate conversion technique ever developed. The systems people play on our low input current, less than 100pA, for driving from a high impedance source. Get a load of our numbers: - 340A 3 Digit Single Polarity Meter - 341 3 Digit Auto Polarity/Systems Meter (isolated output) - 342 3 Digit AC Meter - 343 3 Digit Auto Polarity Meter - 344 4 Digit/Systems Meter (isolated output) - 345 4 Digit Low Cost Meter Data Technology Corporation, 1050 East Meadow Circle, Palo Alto, California 94303, (415) 321-0551, TWX 910-373-1186. numbers. The new Helipot Series 89 industrial ceramic trimmers feature: Low Cost:* $1.35 each in 1-9 quantities; less than $1.00 in quantities over 1,000 Low Profile: Maximum height of .250 inches allows for closer p-c board stacking. Series 89 trimmers with two different pin spacings are available "off-the-shelf" from 17 locations across the country. A unique transmit-only solid state radar module promises great things for the future of phased array systems and could end the need for separate radar and communications antennas. The module, built with microstrip techniques, operates at both L and S bands and incorporates the phase shifting circuitry needed for phased-array operation. A dual-frequency radar system built with these compact modules in not much more space than that required by a single system could do the work of several at less cost than the units it replaces. Silicon on sapphire, an up-and-coming technology, now is taking MOS into speed ranges that had been exclusively the preserve of bipolar IC's. One speedy device being developed is a 256-bit MOS random-access memory with access time of only 40 nanoseconds. And once mass production brings down the price of silicon substrates, considerable savings should be realized. Computer-aided design programs are a fine circuit-analysis tool but sometimes suffer from overkill. For example, if the designer requires only a low-frequency analysis, few programs are designed to speed up the many small iterations made by the computer to solve for high-frequency transient responses. Now, by proper adjustment of an active device model's critical parameters, expensive computer time can be saved with no loss of accuracy. Near-ideal power supply performance can be obtained by combining the best features of both series and shunt regulators without the usual disadvantages. Now it's easy with low-cost, commonly available IC operational amplifiers and regulators that yield a highly efficient, highly stable power supply. In a large digital data network requiring transmission from remote terminals, the ubiquitous data modem can be a costly item. Clever circuit economy and generous application of digital design techniques have yielded a 1,200-bit-per-second unit that's within the price range attractive to such cost-conscious computer users as educational institutions. How safe are consumer products? Recent alarming reports citing fire, shock, and radiation hazards in color TV's, radios, and microwave ovens have fanned continuing controversy over how safe consumer electronics products really are. A special report tells why hazardous designs sometimes reach the marketplace, and what's being done about it. Versatility is designed into dual-band module for phased array systems Built with microstrip techniques, L- and S-band transmitter is a step toward multifrequency and multifunction phased array networks By Alfred Rosenblatt, Electronics' staff A two-for-one approach promises to be the trend of the future in reducing costs of phased array radar systems and easing up cramped space requirements on ships or in aircraft. The concept is a dual-frequency radar system that uses compact modules to operate at more than one frequency and operates with a single antenna. Such a system can do the job of several in not much more space than a single unit occupies. And it will cost less than the separate systems it replaces. Lockheed Electronics, Plainfield, N.J., has developed the first module for an all-solid state phased-array system that operates at multiple frequencies. The transmit-only radar module produces 32 watts of peak power at 1.25 gigahertz, or 8 watts at 3.75 Ghz, its third harmonic. Cooled by forced air, the unit produces 100-microsecond pulses at a 10% duty cycle. The module was funded both by Lockheed and by the Naval Research Laboratory; the resulting dual-frequency techniques dovetail nicely with the Navy's Ships Integrated Electronics System (SIES). In SIES, the Navy is considering the total electromagnetic environment aboard a ship, determining how various electronic systems may be integrated within themselves and within the vessel to conserve physical and electromagnetic spectrum space. As such, the SIES effort furthers the trend started with the DD-963, [Electronics, July 6, p. 102] in which naval vessels are built as a single integrated system, with both the vessel and its electronics designed simultaneously. In part the SIES effort resembles the Air Force's Unified Communications, Navigation, and Identification (UCNI) program [Electronics, May 11, p. 33]. Navy thinking goes beyond the CN and I functions to include such things as radar and command and control functions. Right now, the exact goals of the SIES effort—it is not a firmly established program yet, points out one Navy source—are still being worked out in discussions among organizations like the Navy's Office of Naval Operations, Ships Systems Command, Electronics Command, and the Department of Defense Research and Engineering. Along with integrating electronic "black boxes" aboard a ship, it's also possible to further save space and reduce costs, as well as end the need for separate radar and communications antennas, by combining various antennas in a common array of elements. The key is to get harmonically related frequencies. The half-wavelengths are then integral multiples of each other and the number of elements in each band is proportional to the square of the harmonic number. Thus, for the Lockheed module, L- and S-band antenna elements could be nested within each other, with every third element in a row of the S-band array also serving as an L-band array element. L and S. Lockheed Electronics' electronically steered, dual-frequency transmit module, fabricated in microstrip, measures roughly 7½ by 5 inches. Eight circuit functions, each on its own alumina substrate, make up the module. It's feasible to design systems using multifrequency modules and sharing a common antenna array to operate at frequencies ranging anywhere from L through X band, points out Robert W. Easton, manager of Lockheed's dual-frequency module project. Such a system could be digitally controlled to shift from one frequency to the other. And it could perform multiple functions, including multi-target acquisition and track, communications and navigation, Easton says. The Lockheed module accepts a pulsed, L-band input signal of 250 milliwatts. It's then digitally phase shifted, and is passed through a circulator and into an amplifier. Then the signal is either applied through an isolator to an L-band output connector, or is frequency multiplied by a factor of three and applied to an S-band output. Output frequency is selected by a logic-controlled switch circuit. Designed completely in microstrip, the module measures about 7½ by 5 inches, and is one inch deep. It weighs just 27 ounces. L-band power is provided over a 10%, 1-decibel bandwidth at 1.25 Ghz. (The 3-db bandwidth is about 15%.) At 3.75 Ghz, the bandwidth is reduced to 10% at 3 db. These percentage bandwidths are needed because such a module, although fixed tuned, also would have to operate at other than its center frequency. The module contains eight separate circuits, as shown below. Each circuit is built on its own alumina substrate and performs a distinct function. At the module's input is a phase shifter circuit consisting of four digitally controlled phase bits. This circuit provides 337.5° of differential insertion phase in 22.5° steps. A circulator isolates and couples this output to a three-stage amplifier and can route received signals through its other port which, in the present module, is not used but was designed for possible use in future systems. Each circuit's alumina substrate is 25 mils thick and is bonded with a heat-conducting silver-loaded epoxy to a ¼-inch-thick aluminum frame. (The epoxy also has other functions. For example, it acts as ground-return path for the varactor diode in the multiplier.) Miniature coaxial connectors then are bolted to the frame so the circuit may be tested and aligned. After testing, the connectors are removed and the substrate frames are bolted into an aluminum carrier frame that forms the complete module. End and side plates are added, with connectors passed through directly to the circuits. Within the completed module, the circuits butt together at machined surfaces raised from the sides of the aluminum frames, as shown at the bottom of the next page. The frames are screwed together to form a continuous ground. The substrates actually are set slightly back from the frame edges so that they won't grind against Powerful. L-band power amplifier delivers 40 watts of peak power—100 microsecond pulses at a 10% duty factor—with two r-f power transistors in a power divider/combiner circuit. each other. The resulting 10-mil-wide gap between substrates is easy to bridge when the individual circuits are interconnected, Easton says. In the future, however, Lockheed plans to integrate the now separate circuits on two substrates at most, says Easton, to cut fabrication costs. Alternate interconnecting paths and extra tabs might be added to help in testing the completed circuit. The entire module could even be fabricated on one large substrate. But Lockheed fears processing problems may be encountered in putting such a large piece of alumina through the photographic and plating steps. Moreover, says Easton, Lockheed is considering selling the individual circuits it has developed. Lockheed’s circulator is of its own design. It’s a one-inch-diameter device fabricated in microstrip and operating in an above-resonance mode, says Lawrence H. Silverman, the engineer who designed much of the module’s circuitry. Microstrip devices offered by outside suppliers all operate in a below-resonance mode and are about twice as large, he points out. Balanced stripline units, which would have been small enough, would have been difficult to integrate with the microstrip technology, Silverman says. Circulators are generally designed so that the ferrite material is biased to operate in a below-resonance mode. This mode requires a smaller externally applied magnetic field than does ferrite material operating above resonance. In addition, the size of the circulator remains fairly small for S- through X-band operation. But at L band, the size of a below-resonance circulator is just too large for Lockheed’s requirements, Silverman says. This type of circulator also has a low characteristic impedance—one ohm—because its ferrite material cannot be thicker than the 25-mil height of its microstrip substrate. (The thicker the ferrite disk, the larger its impedance.) This makes for difficult matching in a 50-ohm system. On the other hand, the impedance of Lockheed’s above-resonance unit is 18.8 ohms. And its operating characteristics—20 db isolation, 10% bandwidth, and insertion loss of 0.5 db—equal those of most stripline and below-resonance-microstrip designs, Silverman asserts. For his microstrip design, Silverman sliced a stripline circulator structure down the middle of its plane of symmetry. Thus, instead of using two ferrites separated by a conductor, he uses Interface. Special machined surfaces on the aluminum frame to which the individual substrates are bonded are used to bolt together circuits in the completed module. Circuit shown here is the above-resonance mode circulator which has vswr of 1.35 maximum, 20 db isolation. only one, with one magnet above and another below. The circulator was fabricated by ultrasonically drilling a 0.9-inch-diameter hole in the alumina substrate. The ferrite disk, some 2 mils smaller in diameter, is fastened in the hole with nonconductive epoxy. Electrical connections to the disk are made with soldered 5-mil-thick copper strips. Quarter-wavelength transformers of about 30 ohms match the circulator's impedance at 1.25 Ghz to the 50-ohm microstrip line. To operate in the above-resonance mode, the circulator requires an external magnetic field of 2,400 oersteds,—about 1,000 oersteds greater than in the below-resonance mode. The required field is large enough to require two cylindrical magnets, one on either side of the ferrite. However, in a below-resonance device, one magnet would have sufficed. Lockheed uses magnets made of a barium ferrite because its properties remain stable with age and temperature. The magnets are an inch in diameter and 0.40 inch high. The three-stage solid state amplifier consists of preamplifier, driver and power amplifier stages. It boosts the input signal to 40 watts peak power at L band, at a gain of 26 decibels. (L-band output power actually is only 32 watts due to switching losses.) This signal then goes into an isolator which buffers the amplifier from the output p-i-n diode switching circuit. Digitally controlled, the switch routes power from the L-band amplifier either to the L-band output of the module or to the varactor multiplier. The 8-watt S-band output from the multiplier is applied to a separate connector. The power output peak is supplied by two r-f power transistors in a power combiner/divider configuration, according to Easton. Such power is obtained with only two transistors using Microwave Semiconductor Corp. MSC 2010's, Easton says. These power transistors, rated 10 watts for continuous operation at 2 Ghz, can handle about 20 watts of peak power at the lower, 1.25-Ghz frequency. Over-all d-c-to-r-f conversion efficiency of the complete amplifier is 40%. Gain of the power stage, shown at the top of page 80, is 7 db. The impedance of both driver and preamplifier transistors varies with input power level and frequency, due mainly to the parasitic reactances of the transistor's package. This is characteristic of large-signal r-f power transistors. Lockheed operates the transistors saturated to keep phase shift through the amplifier constant with drive level. Saturated operation also allows the amplifier to tolerate an input variation of ±1 db while maintaining constant output, Easton notes. To match the driver to the power amplifier, Lockheed uses a quadrature coupler. This tends to isolate any impedance changes that occur in the power-amplifier stage. Since any reflected signals caused by the mismatch are absorbed in a terminated port, the mismatch doesn't upset the driver stage's balance. Also, if one of the power-stage transistors fails, only half of the input signal is reflected back and lost. The other transistor continues operating normally and the over-all module power drops but 3 db. Lockheed also uses a quadrature coupler to match the power amplifier output to the switch. Terminations in the amplifier couplers are metal film resistors on a beryllia base. This allows the terminations to handle fairly high power—7 watts c-w—without overheating. Transistor bias voltages are routed by feed-thru filters placed in holes drilled in the alumina substrate. Easton feels that using the filters is simpler than having to bypass each voltage-feed pin with a high quality r-f chip capacitor. The four-bit phase shifter circuit used for beam steering, shown above, uses p-i-n diodes. It provides up to 337.5° of phase shift, with an insertion loss at any phase shift of 2 db ±½ db, using a combination of 22.5°, 45°, 90°, and 180° steps. The smaller shifts—22.5° and 45°—are obtained simply with shunt-loaded transmission lines; the larger shifts are achieved by placing p-i-n diodes in the output ports of two quadrature hybrid couplers. In each coupler, the phase shift depends on how the signal is reflected by the diodes at the output ports, or on whether the diodes are on or off. The coupler technique requires only two diodes per 90° or 180° phase shift, Easton points out. With a loaded line design, three diodes would be needed for a 90° shift and five diodes for a 180° shift. The frequency multiplier uses a high-power varactor diode to provide 8 watts peak output at 3.75 Ghz. At the input is an elliptic low-pass filter chosen for its small size and sharp cutoff characteristics. The output filter is a quarter-wavelength, coupled-line bandpass filter. There are two other circuits in the module. The switch is designed fairly conventionally, says Easton. And the isolator is a circulator with one port terminated. MOS memory travels in fast bipolar crowd Silicon-on-sapphire technology yields a 256-bit random-access memory with access time of only 40 nsec and potentially inexpensive fabrication By Edward J. Boleky, Joseph R. Burns, John E. Meyer, and Joseph H. Scott, David Sarnoff Research Laboratories, RCA Corp., Princeton, N.J. When you can build economical metal oxide semiconductor devices that operate at bipolar IC speeds, you know you've found a jewel of a technology. Silicon on sapphire is the name of this sparkling process, and some of its gems are a 50-stage dynamic shift register with a 90-megahertz clock rate, an associative memory with 10-nanosecond write and search time and a 50-megahertz digital correlator. These and other high speed MOS-SOS circuits were built under Air Force sponsorship to demonstrate the potential of SOS technology. The results have been so encouraging that a larger pilot production line for a process evaluation is being established, with an eye to full-scale commercial manufacturing in a year or two. And there's good reason to believe that, in spite of the present high cost of the sapphire substrate material, SOS eventually will be price competitive with conventional MOS IC's made of bulk silicon [Electronics, June 8, p. 88]. Theoretical analyses have shown that MOS IC's could be faster than bipolar integrated circuits. [See panel on opposite page.] This might be surprising in view of the slow switching performance of available MOS circuits vis-a-vis bipolar IC's. The reason for this discrepancy between the ideal and the real is parasitic capacitance. MOS IC's are slowed down by the parasitic capacitance that abounds on the chip between the gate and source or drain electrodes, and between metal interconnections on the surface of the oxide and the silicon substrate under the oxide. Here silicon on sapphire offers a significant advantage. With SOS, sapphire, which is just a rhombohedral crystalline form of aluminum oxide, replaces bulk silicon as the structural base of the IC. Because sapphire is an insulator, parasitic interconnection capacitance is reduced to negligible levels, as is current leakage to the substrate. Moreover, since the active elements are contained in thin-film islands of silicon on the surface of the sapphire and therefore are electrically isolated from each other, parasitic interaction among these elements is eliminated. Most important, the thinness of the silicon film allows the source and drain to be diffused all the way to the silicon-sapphire interface. This results in a drastic decrease in the source and drain junction area and junction capacitance. This is why RCA's random-access memory will exhibit such a short access time: computer simulations indicate that the time to address and read any bit in the memory, including the full address decode, is 40 nsec. The actual access time in an operating system, of course, will be somewhat longer because of delays in interface circuits and off-chip stray capacitance. Both design and layout of the SOS RAM are quite conventional, although less chip area is required than for standard p-channel or complementary MOS. The basic cell for each bit is used in many commercially available static MOS memories. Cell transistors are designed with a conservative 0.4-mil-wide channel; no effort has been made yet to squeeze in the maximum number of cells per unit area. All in all, the performance potential of SOS has barely been tapped in the RAM. The memory cell employs complementary MOS transistors. Complementary MOS inherently provides higher speed and lower power dissipation than p-channel MOS [Electronics, Jan. 5, p. 170]. Although C/MOS requires considerably more processing than P/MOS in bulk-silicon IC's, the extra work involved in RCA's SOS technique is only slight; one extra oxide deposition and one more etching step do it. Efforts have been confined to memory-type circuits, rather than logic devices. Logic IC's use a variety of different-shaped cells, not just the single cell of memory circuits. Logic IC's also employ irregular metal interconnections, not the highly repetitive patterns encountered in memory circuits. Because these factors increase the area per function of logic IC's, they limit the number of gates that can be put on a chip of any given size, and make it necessary to transfer signals from chip to chip rather than process them completely on a single chip. Bipolar circuits have a clear edge here because they can drive the large capacitance that the printed-circuit wiring presents between chips. MOS circuits—even SOS MOS—cannot do it because of the high impedance of the MOS transistor. But in memory circuits, where the complete function can be accomplished on a single chip, SOS MOS really shines. And the market for IC memories is extremely important—it could amount to several hundred million dollars per year by the end of the 1970's as computer manufacturers replace ferrite cores with semiconductors. Typical conventional static MOS RAM's have access times measured in hundreds of nanoseconds. An approach to speeding up conventional bulk-silicon MOS RAM's is to perform address decoding functions externally with bipolar circuits. But there are two major problems: first, the access time is still about three times greater than that of the SOS RAM; second, packaging the MOS chip becomes extremely difficult because of the large number of leads required to connect to the external address and decode circuitry. For example, about 40 leads are needed for a 256-bit memory of this type—enough to place the economy and reliability of the traditional wire bonding method in doubt. But the 256-bit fully decoded SOS RAM needs only 13 leads, so wire bonding still is practical. Moreover, with that number of leads the chip can be put in a standard dual-in-line package. And even if the capacity of the fully decoded SOS RAM is quadrupled to 1,024 bits, only two extra leads are required. Moreover, as conventional P/MOS cells are made smaller to cram more bits on the chip, the sense current output gets smaller. The magnitude of the sense current from the memory chip determines the design of the external sense amplifier: the lower the sense current, the more complicated the external amplifier. A p-channel MOS memory chip with extremely small geometry may have a sense current as low as 80 microamperes. The designer has merely converted an internal problem to an external one: although the chip is smaller, the external circuitry is larger, so there's no net size reduction. In the 256-bit SOS RAM, however, sense current exceeds 300 microamperes, a level that's easy to amplify and thus benefits the total system. Another major advantage of SOS sense current is minimal noise problems. Even if a low sense current can be discriminated by the sense amplifier, a noise problem remains because in a big system, noise spikes far exceed a sense current of 50 or even 100 microamperes. So, before sensing can be accomplished time must be wasted while the noise settles below the sense current level. No waiting is necessary with the SOS RAM, however—the current is well above the noise level. The high-speed performance of SOS integrated circuits isn't limited to active-element memories. A 256-bit read-only memory, for example, has been made from vertical-junction SOS diodes by means of an extremely simple process that employs one diffusion and one oxidation step. Yields of perfect packaged diode arrays were Solid diffusion. Dopants from boron- and phosphorus-doped oxides diffuse simultaneously into the silicon film to form p-channel transistor (left) and n-channel device (right). Complementary transistors thus are made in a single high-temperature operation. Faster than a speedy bipolar... If parasitic capacitance is eliminated—as it is just about eradicated in silicon on sapphire—the switching speed of MOS integrated circuits should be equal to or be even less than that of bipolar integrated circuits. The reason lies in the mechanism of carrier transfer. In the bipolar transistor, charge carriers diffuse at a rate established by the thermal voltage within the silicon bulk. Thus in the expression for transit time in a bipolar transistor, the diffusion constant of minority carriers in the base, $D$, which depends on the thermal voltage, $\frac{kT}{q}$, is the controlling factor for a given base width $W_B$: $$t_{bi} = \frac{W_B^2}{2.4D} = \frac{W_B^2}{2.4\mu \left( \frac{kT}{q} \right)}$$ where $\mu$ is the mobility of minority carriers in the base region, $k$ is Boltzmann's constant, $T$ is the absolute temperature, and $q$ is the charge on an electron. In an MOS transistor, on the other hand, majority carriers move at a drift velocity determined by the operating voltage, $V_o$, and the effective mobility $\bar{\mu}$ at the oxide-silicon interface: $$t_{mos} = \frac{4}{3} \frac{L^2}{\bar{\mu} V_o}$$ where $L$ is the channel length. In this transit-time equation, as in the one for the bipolar transistor, parasitic capacitance terms have been dropped on the premise that their contribution is negligible. Assume that the following values are typical for the terms in the equations: $L = 5$ microns, $\bar{\mu} = 250$ cm$^2$/volt-second, $V_o = 10$ volts for the MOS transistor; $W_B = 1$ micron, $\mu = 600$ cm$^2$/volt-second for an npn bipolar transistor with a base resistivity of 1 ohm-cm. For these values, $t_{mos} = 0.133$ nanosecond and $t_{bi}$ is 0.28 nsec. Some argument could be offered about the precise values assumed for the terms, but the basic conclusion is unmistakable: without parasitic capacitance, MOS transit time is in the same ballpark as bipolar transit time. 75%. When the 256-bit ROM's were breadboarded as a 4,096-bit ROM with emitter-coupled-logic driver and sense amplifier, a system access time of 18 nsec was obtained. Larger, electrically alterable SOS diode arrays are under development. It's a widely held view that because of the cost of the sapphire substrate, SOS is an expensive technology. While it's true that materials for SOS circuits cost about five times more than those for conventional bulk IC's, there's every reason to believe that this figure will drop and approach that of silicon as synthetic sapphire is mass produced. Moreover, recent advances in the production of spinel substrates have made this material available in quantity and at relatively low cost. [Electronics, July 6, p. 44]. Spinel is a crystalline material similar to sapphire, but more compatible physically and chemically with silicon. In any event, the substrate cost is only a fraction of the total processing cost of about $50 per wafer in volume production. Actually the cost factor favors SOS—or silicon on spinel—over bulk silicon because the insulating substrate affords a far greater process yield. The insulating sapphire substrate eliminates the need for guard bands surrounding the transistors to provide p-n junction isolation, thereby cutting out the extra masking and diffusion steps required in bulk silicon in order to separate the components electrically. And this exposes the SOS IC's to fewer possibilities for introducing fabrication defects than either C/MOS or bipolar circuits. Complementary MOS SOS circuits require no more diffusion steps than conventional P/MOS circuits, because the dopant for both n-channel and p-channel transistors is introduced simultaneously and the thick field oxide between devices is eliminated. In addition, the sapphire substrate gives C/MOS circuits an edge in yield over bulk P/MOS. This is because the silicon area of an SOS circuit is less than 5% of the area of a bulk silicon circuit, because of greater packing density and the small amount of silicon that's actually needed for the devices. There is a proportional reduction in the number of pinholes in the insulating oxide. Therefore, the SOS process should allow fabrication of bigger chips with greater memory capacity at higher yield and lower costs to the user. One of the factors that has inhibited the emergence of the SOS technology is that the circuit's active parts are contained in an extremely thin film of silicon—about 10,000 angstroms—and built up on a material that has a quite different crystal structure. Success in SOS fabrication requires an adjustment of the photoetching and diffusion processes to minimize these limitations. The difference between crystal structures—sapphire has a rhombohedral structure while silicon is cubic—means that some crystal distortion of the silicon is inevitable when it is grown on sapphire. This distortion becomes less significant as the silicon gets thicker. But since the difficulty of depositing metal interconnections over the silicon islands increases as the film gets thicker, the thickness can't be increased indefinitely; 10,000 angstroms is the practical limit. So the single-crystal silicon film will always suffer from some distortion. The most obvious effect of this distortion is a reduction in carrier lifetime. But, with care, the lifetime can be as much as 90% of the bulk silicon lifetime, and the performance of the MOS transistors doesn't suffer. Another more serious effect of the crystal distortion is the variation of the rates of both diffusion and etching. Etching proceeds more rapidly at the bottom of the silicon film than at the top, resulting in substantial undercutting of the silicon islands. The solution is to reduce the concentration of the etching solution and change the etching conditions as the etchant penetrates deeper into the film. Then, although some undercutting still occurs, it's far less serious. In addition, dopant tends to diffuse far more rapidly as it gets near the silicon-sapphire interface where distortion is greatest. Therefore, it's easy for the source and drain of a transistor to meet and short out at the bottom of the silicon film. The cure is to limit the circuit's exposure to high temperature to a single diffusion step. With tight control of temperature and time, diffusion of drain and source will occur vertically through the silicon film to the sapphire interface, but the drain and source will not spread appreciably toward each other. And they will not spread laterally during subsequent process steps; the temperature won't be high enough. Getting down to one high temperature step is somewhat tricky, particularly in the case of complementary MOS IC's, where two distinct dopants—n-type and p-type—must be diffused into the silicon. RCA's solution is to use solid diffusion, so that both dopants can be diffused. Blocked out. Superfast 256-bit complementary MOS SOS random-access memory requires only 13 external connections. In this block diagram, which is not drawn to scale, dimensions on each functional block indicate the area the function occupies on the SOS chip. Expanding the RAM to 1,024 bits would require a larger chip but only two additional external connections—one more x decode pin, $x_8$, and another y decode pin, $y_8$. simultaneously, as shown above, during thermal growth of the gate oxide at 1,100° C. Subsequent steps are done at much lower temperatures. The dopants are deposited on the silicon surface in the form of oxides. To form the p-channel transistors, a layer of silicon dioxide containing boron is deposited on the silicon surface at 300° C. This boron-doped oxide is photolithographically etched away so that it remains only in those regions where drains and sources of the p-channel transistors are desired. Next, a layer of phosphorus-doped SiO$_2$ is deposited over the entire SOS wafer and likewise etched so that it remains only where n-channel transistor sources and drains are needed. Then the wafer is placed in an oxidation furnace, the gate oxide forms, and the drain and source regions of both n and p channel transistors are diffused into the silicon simultaneously. This single-step method for SOS was developed out of necessity, but actually it offers significant advantages for bulk IC fabrication, too. One benefit, for example, is that the n and p channel have virtually identical lengths, and therefore identical threshold voltages of 0.5 volt. In bulk C/MOS processing, on the other hand, one type of device is diffused first, and tends to continue diffusing—and narrowing the channel—during the diffusion of the other type of device. The p-channel transistor used in RCA's SOS circuits, a deep depletion device developed by F.P. Heimann, is unusual in that it is based on lightly doped p-type (p$^-$) silicon instead of n silicon. Because the silicon layer is so thin, and because the concentration of p dopant is so light, the channel can easily be depleted of carriers. In fact, at zero gate voltage, the channel is depleted and the transistor therefore is off. When the voltage is raised above about 0.5 volt, the transistor turns on and behaves just like a normal p-channel transistor. The deep depletion transistor, taking advantage of the fact that the silicon is a thin film, makes it possible to use the same p$^-$ silicon for both n-channel and p-channel transistors without a counter-doping step to alter the polarity of the p-channel devices. For the most part, however, the thinness of the silicon is a mixed blessing. It makes contamination more of a problem than in bulk IC fabrication. In bulk silicon, the 10-mil thickness of the wafer provides a fairly large capacity for absorbing and diluting contamination so the effect on device performance is negligible. But in the 1-micron film of silicon in SOS devices, there's no place for the contamination to go—the sapphire acts as an almost impenetrable barrier—so that the contamination remains in the device's active region. Even the oxide that's grown on the silicon as a functional part of the device can saturate the silicon film with oxygen. If the film is subjected to heat after oxide formation, these oxygen atoms can be activated, drastically altering device characteristics. Even the sapphire substrate can be a source of contamination. Sapphire, after all, is just a crystalline form of aluminum oxide, and both aluminum and oxygen atoms can diffuse from the sapphire into the silicon film. Again, the one-step high-temperature exposure of the fabrication process offers a solution. Because the wafer is subjected to high temperatures only during one diffusion step, the opportunity for unwanted diffusion is minimized. One remaining production problem was metallization. Each silicon island on the sapphire substrate is about 10,000 Å high, and aluminum stripes must climb up to interconnect these islands. A similar problem is encountered in bulk MOS circuits, where the aluminum metallization must pass over oxide as high as 14,000 Å. The difference in SOS is that the islands are slightly undercut—because the dislocated crystal at the bottom of the silicon film etches faster—and the metallization must therefore climb an overhanging slope. The solution, it was found, is to use thicker metallization. When 1.5-micron-thick aluminum was substituted for the usual less-than-1-micron aluminum, the resulting metal path over the step was continuous and reliable. The solution to these problems is really only the beginning. Now that the basic technology has been proven and large-scale integrated circuits have been constructed, it's possible to move on to advanced circuit designs and fabrication techniques such as ion implantation and self-aligning gates. Bibliography J.R. Burns and J.H. Scott, "Silicon-on-Sapphire Complementary MOS Circuits for High-Speed Associative Memory," AFIPS Conference proceedings, Vol. 35, November 1969. J.E. Meyer, J.R. Burns, and J.H. Scott, "High Speed Silicon-on-Sapphire 50-State Shift Register," 1970 International Solid State Circuits Conference, Digest of Technical Papers, p. 200, February 1970. J.R. Burns and J.H. Scott, "Silicon-on-Sapphire Transistor for Associative Processors," Final Report, Contract No. F30602-68-C-0197, Rome Air Development Center, June 1969. J.R. Burns, J.E. Meyer, J.H. Scott, and E.J. Boleky, "Advanced C/MOS Circuit Techniques," Interim Report, Contract No. F33615-69C-1499, Air Force Avionics Laboratory, April 1970. J.R. Burns, "High-Frequency Characteristics of the Insulated Gate Field Effect Transistor," RCA Review, p. 390, September 1967. E. Boleky, "The Performance of Complementary MOS Transistors on Insulating Substrates," RCA Review, June 1970. J.H. Scott and J.R. Burns, "Low-Temperature Processing of C/MOS Integrated Circuits and Insulating Substrates," Electrochemical Society Meeting, Los Angeles, May 1970. J.H. Scott and J. Olmstead, "A Solid-to-Solid Diffusion Technique," RCA Review, Vol. 26, No. 3, September 1965. F.P. Heimann, "Thin-Film Silicon-on-Sapphire Deep-Depletion MOS Transistors," IEEE Trans. Electron Devices, ED-13, p. 855, 1966. D.J. Dunlap and P.H. Robinson, "Electrically Active and Optically Active Defects in Silicon-on-Sapphire Films," Journ. Crystal Growth, Vol. 3, p. 214, 1968. E.C. Ross and G. Warfield, "Effects of Oxidation on Electrical Characteristics of Silicon-on-Sapphire Films," Journ. Appl. Phys., Vol. 40, p. 2339, 1969. R.L. Pritchard, "Frequency Variations of Current Amplification Factor for Junction Transistors," Proc. IRE, Vol. 40, p. 1476, 1952. Preset pulse train checks sequential logic By Bruce M. Smith University of Virginia Biomedical Engineering division, Charlottesville Testing clocked sequential logic circuits is easier with a pulse generator that can be set to produce a train of any number of pulses. The states of the logic circuits then can be checked after the preset number of input pulses are applied. With six integrated circuit packages and two 10-position, 4-pole rotary switches, the number of pulses can be set to any number between 1 and 99. The rotary switches are wired to give the nine's complement, in binary-coded decimal format, of the selected number of output pulses. The clock can be obtained from gates wired as an astable multivibrator, as shown, or from an external source. After the rotary switches are set, the pushbutton is depressed; the circuit generates pulses when it's released. Upon depression, the $G_1$-$G_2$ latch, used to prevent effects of contact bounce, sets $FF_1$. This causes $FF_1$'s 0 output to go low, removing enabling input from $G_4$. The $FF_1$ 0 output also acts as data strobe input to the counters and enters the switch information into the counters—the nine's complement of the desired number of pulses (the counter will actually count from this number to 99, thus producing the number of pulses as set on the switches). The first clock pulse following the release of the pushbutton resets $FF_1$, which enables $G_4$ and the decade counters. Beginning with the next clock pulse, output pulses appear and are counted by the counters. The use of a clocked flip flop $FF_1$ guarantees that all output pulses will have the same width regardless of the timing of the asynchronous release of the pushbutton. Output pulses continue until the counters reach 99. At this time, both $D_0$ and $A_0$ of each counter are 1's. This causes the output of $G_5$ to go low so that $G_4$ turns off and blocks the flow of clock pulses to the output. The circuit then stays in that state until the pushbutton is depressed again, either with or without changing the settings on the two rotary switches. The extra flip-flop $FF_2$ yields an output pulse whose width equals the time taken by the preset number of clock pulses. Pulse train. The number of pulses in the pulse train is set with the two rotary switches, which fix the starting point for the two counters. When the pushbutton is released, the clock pulses flow to the output through $G_4$ and $G_3$ and also are counted. When the counters reach 99, $G_3$ turns off, blocking the pulses. Feedback triggers one-shot from both polarity edges By P.B. Weil Hughes Aircraft Co., Culver City, Calif. When it's necessary to trigger a one-shot on both edges of a clock signal, the schemes that come to mind first likely are simple differentiator circuits or two additional one-shots. But such devices use large components that may be incompatible with integrated circuit packaging methods and may introduce their own timing problems. And the differentiator may be susceptible to noise. A better method is to use a set of integrated gates connected as flip-flops and to take feedback from the one-shot back into the triggering circuit. The circuit produces a trigger whenever the clock changes state. When the feedback shows that the trigger has done its job, the trigger pulse is turned off. The one-shot's pulse length is set at a quarter of the clock period. Thus, when triggered on both clock edges, it produces a signal at twice the clock frequency. As the waveforms show, when the clock pulse is about to go high, flip-flop A-B has been set with B high. When CP does go high, output C goes low, firing the one-shot, within only two gate delays. When the one-shot output OS goes low, the flip-flop A-B is reset, putting B in the low state, and forcing trigger pulse C to return to the high state within three gate delays after firing. When the clock goes from high to low, a similar action takes place in the A'-B' flip-flop. Here, C' acts as the trigger pulse. On edge. The one-shot is triggered on each edge of the clock signal—when the clock goes from low to high, the one-shot switches and one of its outputs is fed back to A-B to turn off the trigger pulse. When the opposite clock transition occurs, the lower flip-flop produces the trigger pulse. FET phase detector can be frequency-voltage converter By Jerzy Kalinski Unipan Scientific Instruments, Warsaw, Poland A field-effect transistor with phase-shifted inputs to its gate and source, when used as a phase-sensitive detector, can deliver an output voltage proportional to the input frequency. As a frequency-to-voltage converter, it is useful in frequency meters and in measuring carrier frequency drift of higher r-f signals after demodulation. The FET circuit is particularly valuable in the audio-frequency range, where other methods using simple capacitor-charge measurements may be inaccurate. The amount of phase shift depends on frequency; for one particular frequency, adjustable with potentiometer R, phase shift will be 90°. At this frequency, the d-c output voltage of the phase sensitive detector is zero. Frequencies that are lower than this center value voltage produce a positive voltage, while higher frequencies produce a negative voltage at the output. FET detector. The field-effect transistor produces maximum voltage when its gate and source voltages are in phase or 180° out of phase; 90° phase shift gives zero voltage. Phase shift through the RC network depends on frequency and can be zeroed with the variable resistance. Variable FET resistance gives 90° phase shifts By Jerzy Kalinski Unipan Scientific Instruments, Warsaw, Poland Frequency-independent phase shifters that produce 90° shifts in the audio-frequency range are useful for producing circular sweeps on a cathode-ray tube. They also can be employed in phase-measuring methods where a calibrated 0-to-90° phase shifter is formed by adding a signal to the quadrature component. A field-effect transistor can be used as the variable resistance in the RC phase shifter; FET resistance is controlled by feedback from a phase detector and operational amplifier. In the circuit, the phase shift will be 90° when the reactance of capacitor C is equal to resistance R, the FET's source-drain resistance. When the phase shift tends to move off the 90° point due to a frequency shift, the phase detector produces an output of the proper polarity to bring the phase shift back to 90°. FET setter. Field-effect transistor resistance sets the RC phase shift to 90°. FET resistance is controlled by the phase detector-amplifier combination. At every repeater station of a microwave relay system, there’s a microwave distribution network—a circuit assembly that combines, divides, and directs the signals of one transmission channel. It interconnects the waveguides with coaxial cables that distribute microwave power to frequency mixers, modulators, and amplifiers. Now, engineers at Bell Laboratories’ Allentown, Pennsylvania, location have developed an integrated-circuit version. This one structure, smaller than a cigar box, has only a tenth the weight and a fifteenth the volume of the previous assembly. And, it costs less. The network is shown above with its top half removed. The paths for the microwave signals are “stripline”—small rectangular channels with a copper-strip center conductor, electrically much like coaxial cable. The conductor strip is plated over an evaporated thin gold film on a ceramic substrate. Terminations and resistors are made by depositing tantalum nitride on the substrate. The four cross-shaped stubs (at the ends of the stripline) are stripline-to-waveguide transducers. The seven black disks on the center conductor are ferrite microwave circulators, three-port devices which let microwave power flow from any port to the next one in the indicated direction only. This controls signal flow and isolates circuitry. The power splitter in the conductor feeds the test port. Bell Laboratories engineers and their colleagues at Western Electric carefully selected this combination of modern materials and the techniques for working with them—including precision aluminum die casting and tantalum and gold thin-film technology. Analytical studies defined the geometry of the various circuit components to meet the rigorous standards of long-distance communications. This resulted in a superior component for our radio relay system and, at the same time substantial reductions in cost, size, and weight. From the Research and Development Unit of the Bell System: Modified CAD device models can cut down circuit analysis costs Proper adjustment of an active device model's critical parameters cuts expensive computer time with no loss in accuracy By J. R. Greenbaum, Electronic Systems division, General Electric Co., Syracuse, N.Y. Computer-aided design programs, like Sceptre and Circus have proven a powerful tool for circuit analysis. However, there's a drawback: if only a low-frequency analysis—less than 10 kilohertz—of a circuit were required, the user had no way to change the original computer program to stop the computer from making the very small iterations necessary to solve for the high-frequency transient responses. Since it usually takes considerable computation time to run the short step size analysis, the user can run up heavy costs. In most computer systems, nonlinear circuit analysis is performed with a semiconductor charge-control model, usually found in the CAD program library. The model comprises resistors, capacitors, and equivalent current generators, and is evaluated by an iterative process under which the size of each step depends on the smallest resistor-capacitor product—the device time constant—used in the model. Since the program routines are not accessible, the step size can't be changed by manipulating them but, the value of the component most responsible for the short time constant—usually the capacitor—can be adjusted to force the computer to take longer steps. Now the question is to determine how much to increase the model capacitance to minimize analysis time and still achieve accurate results. Although there are no ironclad rules that apply, usually the approach calls for gradually increasing the capacitance, and, after each increase, measuring the low-frequency response of the actual circuit and checking the results against the computer analysis to determine how large a change can be tolerated. Here a rule of thumb might be useful: if the critical capacitance is about 1 picofarad, an initial increase to 1,000 pf should be attempted. If, however, the circuit's response above 1 kilohertz isn't required, the initial increase could be as much as 1 microfarad. Although bothersome, this process is done only once for each different device. The modified device model then is recorded for future use. In the charge-control model of diodes and transistors the junction capacitance—particularly in the reverse biased case—determines the high-frequency operating limit. The junction capacitance of a diode can be expressed as \[ C_d = \frac{A}{(\phi - V_d)^n} + K_d I_a e^{\theta V_d} \] where $ \phi = $ built-in potential across junction $ V_d = $ voltage drop across current source $ A = $ constant capacitance which depends on device $ n = $ constant which depends on type junction $ K_d = $ equivalent capacitance which is a function of stored charge $ I_a = $ junction current $ \theta = q/(KT) $ where $ q = $ charge on an electron $ K = $ Boltzmann's constant $ T = $ absolute temperature in °K The transistor charge-control model is represented as two diodes back to back. In this configuration, one diode serves as the base-to-emitter structure and the other as the base-to-collector. The model has two sets of equations, $ C_{d1} $ and $ C_{d2} $, each similar to that of the diode model. When the device is reverse biased, the capacitance of the junction can vary appreciably—as $ V_d $ becomes more negative, the capacitance becomes smaller. In this condition, the junction current is very small and the terms of interest are $ A $ and $ n $. When the device is forward biased—$ V_d $ is positive—capacitance increases Circus. Charge-control diode model (color) is used in analyzing the simple diode-resistor circuit. Model parameters for the 1N914 diode stored in the Circus library are tabulated. The dominant junction capacitance parameters for the reverse-bias case are $A$ and $n$. For forward bias, the dominant term is the junction current, $I_s$, produced by the voltage-controlled current source, $J_d$. Diode time constant is determined by $C_d$ and $R_s$. $V_d$ is the voltage across the parallel combination. \| PARAMETER VALUES FOR $D_1$ \| \|-----------------------------\| \| $R_b = 2.0 \text{ OHMS}$ \| $n = 0.5$ \| \| $\Phi = 0.9 \text{ VOLTS}$ \| $K_d = 18.1 \mu f$ \| \| $\theta = 21.5$ \| $A = 24 \text{ pf}$ \| \| $R_s = 1.1 \text{ MEGOHMS}$ \| $I_s = 2.9 \text{ na}$ \| with voltage. Junction current goes up from picoamperes to milliamperes and the equation becomes current dependent, hinging on $I_s$, since $K_d$ is a constant. For low-frequency analysis, the greatest control of the junction capacitance is obtained by adjusting the value of $A$. This can be done through establishment of tolerable levels of reverse signal (leakage) by changing the value of the junction's capacitive reactance. The user must determine how much leakage current he can tolerate and then establish a value for $A$ that will meet this requirement. Although $A$ is the value that offers the greatest control, some change can be effected by adjusting $n$. This value, however, is usually set equal to zero making $A$ the only effective variable. It's easy to modify $A$ and $n$ in both the Circus and Sceptre programs when describing the circuit to the computer. Change statements indicating the new values are typed into the program as part of the circuit description, and are used only for a particular solution since the original values are permanently stored. To illustrate the effect on the analysis of modifying the junction capacitance, four different sets of values were used for $A$ and $n$ in the diode model in a simple diode-resistor circuit: $n$ was set at zero; $A$ was increased to 160 pf; $n$ was made zero and $n$ set at 160 pf; and finally the analysis was run using the original parameter values—$n = 0.5$ and $A = 24 \text{ pf}$—stored in the CAD program library. The analysis used Circus with the provision that the computation would be terminated either after one minute of computer time, or when 20 milliseconds of applied signal time had elapsed, that is, after 20 cycles of a 1-khz signal had been evaluated. The results: the unmodified diode model required the full minute of computer time and evaluated less than 10 msec of applied signal. All three modified models required less than the allotted minute of computer time to complete the analysis of 20 msec of applied signal. Of these, the fastest analysis—only 30 seconds of computer time—was achieved when both parameters, $A$ and $n$ were modified; whereas it would have required two minutes for the unmodified case to run through the full 20 msec of signal. The same four diode models then were analyzed using both Circus and Sceptre, but the analysis limit was set to 2 msec of applied signal. Economic reasons dictated the selection of the new limit. It was short enough to eliminate the possibility of minor transients and long enough to give accurate results. Each program required approximately the same amount of time to complete a comparable analysis. The computer analysis was examined with an expanded time scale to determine short-term effects. The voltage across the load resistor in the diode-resistor circuit was presented on an expanded scale—500 microseconds—with the following results: only the modified model, where $A$ and $n$ were changed, was affected. There was a marked increase in the relative voltage across the load resistor, and as the value of capacitance was increased, the phase of the output voltage shifted with respect to that of the applied signal. If either effect can't be tolerated in a particular circuit application, device modification must be re-evaluated. The applied signal amplitude affected the junction capacitance of a reverse-biased diode, and the magnitude of change depended on the particular model used. For the case where $n = 0$ for reverse-bias voltages of 10 millivolts and 10 volts, capacitance was 24 pf for $A$ unmodified and 160 pf for the modified $A$. The reverse-biased case, where $n$ wasn't zero, illusChanging Junction capacitance variations of a 1N914 are plotted for 2 milliseconds using the Sceptre library model. Vertical scaling of the computer plot was insufficient to permit accurate determination of values; they were calculated and printed out as a function of the amplitude of the applied voltage. The tabulation checked the junction capacitance of the three modified diode models for 10 volts and 1 mv of reverse bias and 10 volts of forward bias. The computer analysis was completed in 26 seconds for the model where $ n = 0 $ and $ A = 24 \mu F $, and evaluated the entire 24 $ \mu \text{sec} $ of applied signal. With the original library model, only 0.425 $ \mu \text{sec} $ of applied signal was analyzed, while the model where $ n = 0.5 $ and $ A = 160 \mu F $ looked at 0.625 $ \mu \text{sec} $ of applied signal. A special analysis was conducted to illustrate the potential cost reduction. The one-minute time limit was removed. In one case, the simple diode model was modified by setting $ A $ equal to 24 $ \mu F $ and $ n $ to zero. The other case used the unmodified library model, but its step size interval was changed from 1.17 nanoseconds to 1 nsec because the computer had advised that it ran out of computation time using the former increment. The special analysis indicated that even when analyzing simple circuits, a considerable cost reduction is achieved by properly modifying the modeled active device. Using the modified model, the computer analyzed 59.3 $ \mu \text{sec} $ of applied signal during its allotted one minute at a cost of $17.97 in computer time. With the library model only 0.425 $ \mu \text{sec} $ of signal using the 1-nsec steps was evaluated and cost $7.38. However, the computer costs would soar to about $102.50 if the signal were applied for a full 59.3 $ \mu \text{sec} $. Next, a more complicated circuit was selected to further determine modification effects. The circuit, an amplitude/phase discriminator, comprises three $ \mu A709 $ operational amplifiers and four 1N914 diodes. Three analyses were performed using different values for the diode model capacitance, $ A $, and the input capacitance, $ C $, of the operational amplifier model. For the first analysis, $ A = 2.4 \mu F $ and $ C = 25 \mu F $. The computer used 4,570 steps, the majority of which were less than 1.6 nsec, and analyzed only 0.216% of the signal. In the second analysis $ A $ was increased to 24 $ \mu F $ and $ C $ remained at 25 $ \mu F $. The result was that 4,850 steps, most of which were 2.6 nsec, were used and 0.41% of the signal was analyzed. The final analysis provided the best results from the point of view of the 400-hertz signal analyzed. Here the diode capacitance was greatly increased to 24 $ \mu F $ and the op amp capacitance to 250 $ \mu F $. This analysis was performed in 4,780 steps lasting from 50 to 200 nsec, while 13.5% of the applied signal was computed. The results of the previous three computer runs on the diode-op amp circuit indicate that the increase in percentage of computed signal in the model where $ A = 24 \mu F $ and $ C = 250 \mu F $ was due to the great increase in step size. Larger capacitance values produced approximately 60 times more information with no loss in accuracy for the same dollar investment—the computer ran for three minutes for all three analyses. The dangers of exceeding a reasonable increase in capacitance reductions are illustrated by another circuit, this one performing a simultaneous switching and voltage level shift function. It consists of four 1N914 diodes in series connected to the base of a common-emitter 2N404 transistor. The circuit is designed to provide zero volts output for a zero volts input signal, and -6 volts when the input rises to +6 volts. Initially the value of A for the diodes and the transistor was increased from the 24 pf of the unmodified model to 24 nf. The computer analysis time was set for three minutes. Analysis showed that the transistor's output voltage responded to the input signals changes with 100 μsec delay for either negative- or positive-going signals. However, the results changed drastically when A was further increased to 24 μf and the analysis was repeated. When the input signal increased, the output voltage also increased, instead of decreasing to -6 volts. Because the semiconductors behaved as coupling capacitors, the output didn't reach -6 volts until the input signal switched back to zero in about 5 msec. The unmodified library model also was analyzed to determine the cost effectiveness of the modified version. The library model, using an A of 24 pf and a step size of 1 nsec, imposed by the program to insure complete analysis, cost $8.50 to analyze 800 nsec of applied signal. The modified model, where A was 1 nf, cost $8.29 to analyze 7 msec of input signal—about 9,000 times as much information as the unmodified case. The cost of analysis for the model using A = 24 μf was $2.14; the results were invalid, and the case too costly to consider. Tilt. If the value of junction capacitance used in the semiconductor's charge-control model is increased too much, the response will be erroneous. The diode-transistor circuit's voltage-level shift is accurately depicted (left) when the value of A is 24 nanofarads, an increase of 10^8 from the Circus library value. But when A is increased to 24 microfarads, the circuit's output response (right) is erroneous. IC's save power, boost efficiency of regulated power supplies By William L. Brown, Electrical Engineering Department, San Diego State College - Near-ideal power supply performance isn't something that's confined to designers' dreams. With proper use of low-cost, high-gain monolithic operational amplifiers and low-power voltage regulators, designers can avoid the disadvantages of conventional power-supply regulators while retaining all the benefits of both series and shunt types. Though both series and shunt regulators feature constant voltage output, the high output impedance of series units prevents rapid response to changes in load demand. And efficiency is poor if the series-regulated voltage is much lower than the source voltage. The low impedance of shunt regulators allows fast response to load variations, but low-current efficiency is poor. The advantages of both series and shunt elements can be combined in a single regulator circuit. But this approach doesn't improve the low efficiency of the conventional shunt regulator. Here's where inexpensive, high gain operational amplifiers can be used to obtain the best possible performance. The class B output stage of these devices provides the low-impedance shunt path across the load terminals and the high-gain differential amplifiers sense the load changes and control the series-pass transistor. Thus, the low efficiency of the shunt regulator is overcome, while still providing the necessary low impedance. The reason: the series pass transistor is continuously readjusted to deliver only the load and operational amplifier demand; the shunt element no longer must absorb any excess current under reduced-load conditions. Depending on requirements, the series-shunt regulator can be linear, or, if even greater efficiency—almost independent of the load voltage—is required, a switching type can be used. In one application, a switching series shunt-regulator made from about $15 in parts delivers a regulated 15 volts from a 25-volt source with less than 1 millivolt peak-to-peak ripple at a load current of 5 amperes. It also provides output regulation within 1 mv from no load to full load. The efficiency is about 90% under load currents from 0.5 to 5 amperes and remains greater than 50% down to 20 milliamperes. A typical series shunt-regulator is shown on page 95. At 15 volts, the operational amplifier can provide up to 18 ma; $R_u$ is chosen to keep the actual output current at 8 ma, about at the center of the available range. This resistor also provides surge protection for diode $D_3$, which compensates for the change with temperature variation of $Q_3$'s base-to-emitter voltage. This insures that the average shunt current remains approximately constant. A germanium diode is used; its forward voltage drop is about 0.5 volt lower than that of a silicon transistor. $R_6$ can thus be included to protect $D_3$ as well as to provide a load resistor across which the operational amplifier can develop a control signal for $Q_3$. Operational amplifier $\approx$ short circuit An operational-amplifier shunt regulator is usually used only to augment the current control effected by a higher-power series regulator. Its own modest current capability cannot, by itself, provide regulation for load currents above a few milliamps. But combined with a series regulator to handle the bulk of the load change requirements, an operational amplifier can present the equivalent of a low-impedance source for loads of several amperes. How good a shunt regulator an operational amplifier makes depends on how well it can respond to small changes in load voltages. The better the regulator the more its output current must change for a given change of input voltage. A good regulator thus resembles a short circuit. The amplifier's current-signal voltage characteristic could be conveniently defined by its transconductance, $g_m$, but this parameter is seldom specified for an operational amplifier. However, it is closely related to the large-signal gain, $A_v$, and can be easily derived. $$g_m = \frac{\Delta I_{\text{out}}}{\Delta V_{\text{in}}} \cong \frac{I_{L(\text{max})}}{V_{(\text{diff})}} = \frac{V_{L(\text{max})}}{R_{L(\text{min})}} = \frac{V_{cc}}{2A_v}$$ The maximum specified output current, $I_{L(\text{max})}$, occurs at the maximum output voltage swing, $V_{L(\text{max})}$, which is approximately half the total power supply voltage, $V_{cc}$, in order to maximize the amplifier's region of linear control. A typical operational amplifier will have a voltage gain of 50,000, and its load resistance will be at least 1,000 ohms (2,000 ohms is a commonly used value; with 2,000 ohms a 15 ma output current develops 30 volts). Therefore $g_m$ will be on the order of 50 mhos, and the dynamic shunt resistance ($\approx 1/g_m$) will be about 20 milliohms—an excellent approximation to a short circuit. $R_5$ limits the base current of $Q_3$; while it has some effect on $Q_3$'s frequency response and phase shift, its value is not critical. The $\mu A741$ and LM107 have built-in output current limiting as protection against burning out. However, at high output voltages, $Z_2$ must be chosen so that the current it can draw is held to within the maximum rating of the selected operational amplifier. Both of these devices also have built-in frequency compensation, which is designed to ensure that at the unity-gain frequency of about 1 megahertz, phase lag is held to about 90°. A Bode plot of the circuit shows a 6 decibel/octave slope from about 10 hertz to 1 Mhz. By providing almost a 90° phase margin at unity gain, overshoot is suppressed. For a typical loop gain of 100,000 the gain starts to roll off at around 10 hz and, at $-6\text{db/octave}$, is unity at 1 Mhz. Despite this seemingly slow response the circuit can supply current to rapidly varying loads. Both the series and shunt elements are merely intended to act as low-pass filters; the load-shunt capacitor, $C_4$, typically rated in tens of microfarads, will supply the high-frequency components of load demand from its stored energy. $Q_1$ and $Q_2$ are connected in the conventional Darlington configuration to increase the series voltage regulator's current gain. The pair acts as an emitter follower feeding the load. A low-frequency power transistor is chosen as $Q_1$, using the manufacturer's "safe area" specification curves to match the regulator's maximum current, voltage and wattage needs. By choosing a transistor with $f_t$ above 100 Mhz for $Q_2$ the total phase shift contribution of the Darlington pair is minimized at gain crossover, thereby lessening the closed-loop stability problem. Also, since emitter followers may oscillate due to the effects of inductance in the base circuit, the base lead lengths should be kept short and, if necessary, a small powdered-magnetic bead or toroid can be added to the emitter circuit. The type of transistor chosen for $Q_3$ is noncritical, but since it does affect the closed loop gain, its phase shift near unity loop gain must be considered. A lag-ramp compensation network comprising $R_3$ and $C_3$ in series should provide a phase lag that goes back to zero at frequencies above $f = \frac{1}{2\pi R_3 C_3}$. The phase lag encountered in the operational amplifier considered here begins to exceed 90° rapidly above 1 Mhz. Thus, to maintain loop stability and attain reasonable closed-loop transient overshoot (phase and gain margin), the values of $R_3 C_3$ are chosen to reduce $Q_3$'s gain below unity at a frequency below where the emitter-follower pass stage is producing 30° to 45° of phase lag. Added to the 90° lag from the operational amplifier, this results in a 45°–60° phase margin against oscillation. For the network in the collector-to-emitter position of $Q_3$, $R_3$ is determined by $$g_{m3} R_3 \leq 0.5 \begin{cases} \text{a gain arbitrarily less} \\ \text{than 1, by a 2:1 safety} \\ \text{margin} \end{cases}$$ where $g_{m3}$ is the transconductance of $Q_3$ and is equal to the ratio of output current change to input voltage change. $C_3$ is determined by $$\frac{1}{2\pi R_3 C_3} < \frac{1}{2\pi h_{1b} C_4}$$ where $h_{1b}$ is the resistance looking into the emitter of the emitter follower, $Q_1$. Typical values are tens of ohms for $R_3$, and tenths of microfarads for $C_3$, placing the upper ramp corner (zero) below 100 kilohertz and the lower ramp corner (pole) between 1 khz and 10 khz. Voltage dividers $R_1$ and $R_2$ form a sampling network Choice. The linear series-shunt regulator is a good choice when the desired output is a large fraction of the source voltage. The dashed lines indicate optional circuitry; $C_2$ for noise suppression and $C_1$ to aid in loop stabilization. $C_1$, $R_3$ and $C_3$ are selected to minimize load voltage overshoot when driving a fast-switching load. Replacement. This simplified block diagram shows how a switching regulator replaces the continuous energy flow of a linear regulator with energy surges as pulsed samples of the source voltage. The filter network passes the d-c component of the wave-shape—the waveform’s average voltage, $V_L$. by selecting a fraction of the output voltage for comparison with the reference voltage. This fractional load voltage sample can be adjusted by a trimmer; the sample appears at the non-inverting operational amplifier terminal. Stable resistors must be used in the divider—the temperature coefficient of the voltage divider is as important as that of the zener diode, $D_1$. At its input terminals, the operational amplifier is a differential amplifier operated at an emitter current of about 15 microamperes, to minimize noise and base current, and insure high input impedance. The impedance of the sampling network is a compromise: the current drawn must not be excessive—1 ma of “bleeder” current is typically acceptable. But at the same time it must be large enough to swamp out any rise in operational amplifier input current with a rise in temperature, thus limiting the regulator’s temperature sensitivity. The inverting terminal has a resistance, $R_4 = R_1 \|\| R_2$, inserted in series for the same purpose. $C_2$ is a noise filter capacitor, typically 0.01 $\mu F$, and $C_1$ is a phase lead compensating capacitor, usually between 5-20 picofarads. Short-circuit load protection for the series regulating element can be added as fold-back current limiting; a technique in which load voltage is sampled to sense overcurrent, and the series pass transistor is turned off. Measured performance for the circuit on page 95 is about 10 times better than commercial power supplies costing $100 that would have had a parts cost for the regulator section similar to this unit’s. The measured output ripple and noise are below 100 microvolts, as is the d-c output voltage change over a load range from 0 to 5 amps. But efficiency of the linear series shunt regulator can be very low. Since efficiency is approximately equal to the ratio of output and source voltage, it’s not a good choice when required output is much less than the source voltage. A switching regulator serves best in this application because its efficiency is essentially independent of this ratio. Efficiency is related to the ratio of load current to regulator shunt current, making it ideal for low-voltage, high-current applications. While a switching regulator may have 10 times the load ripple of a linear regulator, it never exceeds 1 mv peak to peak and is more than offset by the substantial increase in efficiency: 90% compared to 70% or less for a similar linear regulator. The circuit on this page illustrates the basics of a switching regulator. The switching is accomplished by a mechanical relay, controlled by a high-gain amplifier. The inductive input filter produces a d-c output voltage equal to the average value of the input waveshape. The load voltage, assuming a lossless inductor is: $$V_L = V_{in} \frac{t_{ON}}{t_{ON} + t_{OFF}}$$ A series pass transistor can replace the relay; to minimize the power dissipated within it and insure high efficiency, the transistor should have low collector-to-emitter saturation voltage and good switching speed. A typical switching series-shunt regulator, shown on page 97, is made up of two monolithic IC’s. These are a high-gain operational amplifier and a low-power voltage regulator. Their function is to drive the higher-powered series-pass transistors. The operational amplifier, either an LM107 or $\mu A741$ has two differential amplifier stages and a class B output stage. The first differential stage senses any load changes; the second amplifies any error signal that exists. The class B stage provides the low-impedance path across the load; its output then drives the voltage regulator. The LM305 is used in this circuit, but several firms make this type of monolithic linear voltage regulator. It’s actually cheaper to use than a switch made of discrete components and includes circuitry and an input pin for either linear or foldback current limiting. To set it up for switching, add regeneration with an external positive feedback-path to pin 5. In addition, the IC’s always contain a built-in reference voltage that can be used to maintain the amplifier’s input accurately at the switching level. While IC voltage regulators have been used at switching rates up to about 100 kHz, losses in the higher-power switching transistors usually limit the rate to between 10 kHz and 80 kHz. The fast-switching diode, $D_3$, provides a path to maintain current in the filter inductor, $L_1$, when the series-pass transistor is turned off. It also clips the negative inductive-switching spikes, which could cause collector-to-emitter breakdown of $Q_1$ and $Q_2$. The combination of $L_1$ and $C_2$ performs a dual function: primarily it determines the switching speed, and it smoothes the switching waveform by filtering the switching frequency. and its harmonics. Although switching actually is triggered by the load-voltage ripple, this ripple, as well as recovery time from load changes, and transient overshoot all are affected by this filter. $L_1$ typically is a molybdenum-permalloy toroidal core with an inner diameter about the same size as a power transistor. It's wound with about 100 turns of #20-22 wire, for currents up to a few amperes and switching rates from 10 kHz to 80 kHz. The precise value will vary with load current between about 1 and 2 millihenries. $C_2$ and $C_1$, the capacitor on the input side, will have to handle fairly large switching currents. $C_2$ for example, handles about 200 mA peak to peak at a switching frequency that's typically 20 kHz. These currents may quickly overheat electrolytic capacitors designed for lower-frequency filtering. So far solid tantalum capacitors have proved best for this application. However, they should have a voltage rating two to three times the nominal d-c voltage placed across them and should be selected on the basis of internal heating losses and ripple ratings at high-frequency currents. Although using the higher switching rate of 80 kHz would minimize the filter's size and cost, higher frequency series-pass transistors would be required. This would more than offset the decrease in filter cost. The ripple voltage attenuation provided by typical $L_1C_2$ filters is about 1000:1. For example, with a source voltage of 30 volts peak to peak the ripple out of the first L-C filter section may be as low as 30 mV peak to peak. The a-c current flowing through $L_2$ in the second filter section would be less than 1 mA. While an operational amplifier could provide a low-impedance shunt path for that low a current, an electrolytic capacitor does the job simpler and as cheaply. Moreover, some load shunt capacitance is needed to maintain low power-supply source impedance at higher frequencies and smooth out spike load transients. The shunt operational amplifier provides the additional d-c loop voltage gain, (10,000 to 100,000 times) required to maintain the d-c load voltage within a few microvolts for load currents of from 0-to 5 amps. In addition, it acts as an active low-frequency ripple filter by presenting a very low impedance to the remnants of 60- and 120-hz line ripple from the rectifier. This circuit presents no spurious oscillation or loop stabilization problems, and the layout isn't critical. Measured efficiency is in the 85%-90% range for currents from 0.5 to 5 amps, and remains above 50% down to about 20 mA. D-c and temperature stability depend almost wholly on the zener reference. Shunt regulator operation is identical to the one used in the linear case. Capacitors may be added as they were in the linear regulator to reduce circuit noise. The output voltage is easily set; it's simply equal to the zener reference voltage $V_Z$ multiplied by the quotient $R_1$ plus $R_2$ divided by $R_2$. The minimum output voltage that can be handled by the switching regulator depends on the lowest voltage the operational amplifier requires to adequately drive the IC voltage regulator; whereas the maximum output voltage depends on its maximum voltage ratings. The LM107 for example, needs about 3 volts, to supply 2 volts of drive, and it will withstand up to 40 volts. Bibliography "GE Transistor Manual" 7th edition, 1964, p. 232. Widlar, R.J. "A Unique Circuit Design for a High Performance Operational Amplifier Especially Suited to Monolithic Construction" Proc. NEC XXI, 85-89, October 1965. Schilling and Belove, "Electronic Circuits: Discrete and Integrated." McGraw-Hill, 1968, pp. 591-594. Widlar, R.J., "Designing Switching Regulators", National Semiconductor Corp., AN-2, August 1968. Angelo, E.J., "Electronics, BJT's, FET's, & Microcircuits", McGraw-Hill, 1969, pp. 434-438. "RCA Power Circuits" SP-51, 1969, pp. 87-103. If you're reed-switching 5-10V, 5-10 ma loads (as in keyboards and IC packages), there's a good, small but growing company making good, small reed switches you should know about: GENERAL REED In the last seven years, General Reed has designed and produced many millions of high-quality, miniature magnetic reed switches of Form A and Form C types. Expansion of our manufacturing, including the installation of over 1000 sq. ft. of Class 3-4 clean room facility, has now increased our capacity to deliver highly reliable snap-action reed switches in quantity, at competitive prices, to meet your requirements. Many standards can be shipped immediately from stock, specials in as little as three days depending on the characteristics you need. General Reed quality assurance techniques include on-line testing of electrical characteristics . . . production in controlled clean room areas . . . heat-treating in controlled atmospheres for precise control of magnetic and mechanical properties . . . mechanical run-in of at least 100,000 operations for all switches . . . microscopic inspection for all Form C switches. To achieve low and stable contact resistance throughout the operating life, General Reed selects from over 50 different combinations of noble contact plating materials specially developed to match a wide variety of specific load requirements. This capability alone offers significant advantages in difficult minimum-current switching applications, such as keyboards and other solid-state circuit interfaces, where erratic contact resistance has been a frequent problem. Low bounce, long life and relatively high immunity to vibration, shock and temperature extremes are characteristic trademarks of General Reed switches. Call or write the Sigma stocking distributor near you for full details — or contact General Reed Division, Sigma Instruments, Inc., 19 Walnut Avenue, Clark, N.J. 07066. Tel. (201) 382-7373. GENERAL REED DIVISION OF SIGMA INSTRUMENTS INC. Design pruning trims costs of data modem Device for communicating with a computer at 1,200 bits per second features digital techniques and circuit paring that keep costs to a minimum By Jack Stifle and Mike Johnson, Coordinated Science Laboratory, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Half the battle for economical computer-aided instruction systems was won with development of a suitable central computer. But the other half—low-cost, reliable modulator-demodulator units needed at each desk for communicating with the computer—is still being fought. To solve its own modem needs, the Computer-Based Education Research Laboratory at the University of Illinois developed a 1,200-bit per second transmit-receive modem for its Plato (programed logic for automatic teaching operations) system. Although the modem was designed for use in a specific system, this approach may strongly affect the design of future modems destined for similar applications. The modem can handle all of Plato's data transmission, and for less than one-quarter to one-seventh the cost of most commercially available modems. Both the modulator and demodulator fit on a two-sided 3" x 4½" printed circuit board. Significantly, the total parts cost for the entire unit is less than $70. It is designed for full-duplex operation, which means it is ready to transmit or receive data at all times. To achieve this operational flexibility without prohibitive expense, three basic factors guided the design: - Use of digital, instead of analog, techniques whenever possible. Digital techniques are inherently more reliable and can be effected through use of low-cost integrated circuits. - Elimination of all unnecessary circuits usually provided in commercially-available modems. These include data-set-ready, request-to-send, clear-to-send, and timing circuits for line turnaround. Another feature is a frequency shift keying technique, wherein the carrier signal is always present; this eliminates a carrier detection circuit. - Direct interfacing with transistor-transistor logic. This eliminates all voltage-level shifting circuits. Further economies are achieved by using just one oscillator—usually several are required. But since the frequencies are harmonically related, a simple standard counter IC, which divides the oscillator's output, provides the additional frequencies. Also, with no circuit requirement for processing fractions of cycles, the demodulator circuits can be made simple. In addition, the low data rate of 1,200 bits/sec allows rental of the most inexpensive telephone data lines. What's more, the demodulator's output contains both the data stream and the shift pulses, so that data can be stored in the central computer's shift register without the additional circuits usually required by many commercially available modems. To further reduce costs, no delay-equalizing circuits are used in the demodulator to minimize the delay distortion on the telephones between widely separated points. This limits the modem to relatively short-haul. Handy. Fabricated on two 3-inch by 4½-inch printed circuit boards, the entire modem for Plato's computer-aided instruction system can be built for about $70, a cost reduction factor of at least four over commercially available modems. MODULATOR FREQUENCY DIVIDER SN7473N DATA f₁ 1,200 hz f₀ 2,400 hz TEST POINT A +5v SN7401N Q₁ Q₂ Q₃ Q₄ FREQ ADJ 0.01 μf 4.8 kHz OSCILLATOR +5v 1k 15k 1k 75k 100k 10 μf DATA DEMODULATOR TRIAD SP67 PHONE LINE (6) IN4154 LIMITING AMPLIFIER μA 741 μA 710 THRESHOLD INTEGRATOR-COMPARATOR UNLESS OTHERWISE SHOWN ALL DIODES ARE IN95 ALL TRANSISTORS ARE 2N2369. 4.8 kHz CLOCK f₀ f₁ XMIT DATA COMPOSITE SIGNAL (TEST POINT A) FM SIGNAL REC DATA INTEGRATOR ONE ZERO DATA FF SHIFT Quietly flows the data. A 1,200-hertz signal is used as a transmit clock to control the flow of data into the modulator. A binary 1 selects one cycle of $f_1$ while a 0 selects two cycles of $f_0$. The composite signal goes through a low-pass filter which transforms it into a sine wave. Filter output is amplified and delivered to the phone line. In the demodulator the incoming signal is passed through a limiting amplifier and digital-comparator which converts the sine wave back to a digital signal. The signal then is delivered to a 2-stage counter and an integrator-comparator; the latter provides an output for the 1 pulses while the former provides an output for each pair of 0's. The outputs of the integrator-comparator and the counter set the data flip-flop to the appropriate state and trigger the shift pulse circuit, which is composed of the shift flip-flop and 2 gates. The data flip-flop is set on the leading edge of the data signals while the shift pulse is generated on the trailing edge; thus the state of the data line is established in advance of the shift pulse. The shift pulse and the data line may be used by a shift register to input the data. operation—less than 100 miles. However, if longer distances are required, standard equalizing networks could be added to the modulator at the front end of the amplifier-limiter. In the modulator, the 4.8-kilohertz oscillator drives a two stage counter. The signal from the 4.8-kilohertz oscillator is fed into the counter's first flip-flop to produce the 2.4-khz signal. This output then is fed into the second stage to provide the 1.2-khz signal. Using this technique to obtain an exact 2:1 ratio between frequencies $f_0$ and $f_1$ provides an additional bonus: it also eliminates any problems that may arise from asymmetry in the oscillator's waveform. Since the flip-flops in the counter are controlled only by the trailing edge of each pulse, only the oscillator's frequency and its pulse rise times must be maintained. Digital data is stored in a shift register in the central computer. Loading and emptying of the shift register is controlled by the 1.2-khz transmit clock. For transmission through telephone lines, this data must be transformed into an f-m signal containing both $f_0$ and $f_1$ pulses. The data in the f-m waveform is represented by a string of binary 1's and 0's. A binary 0 consists of two cycles of the 2.4-khz signal, $f_0$, and a binary 1 is one cycle of 1.2-khz, $f_1$. Thus when a binary 0 is present two cycles of the 2.4-khz signal are transmitted; when a binary 1 appears, one cycle of the 1.2-khz signal is transmitted. The distinction between appearance of one's and zero's allows simple recovery in the demodulator: the high-frequency portion of the signal—two cycles for each 0 is simply integrated out, while the low frequency—one cycle for each data bit—is recovered. Furthermore, the data signals change only on the negative-going edge of the transmit clock, insuring that the composite signal contains an integral number of cycles of $f_0$ and $f_1$. Now all that remains for modulation is to transform the composite digital signal into an approximation of a sine wave for transmission through the telephone lines. This is done by routing the digital signal through a low-pass pi filter to remove most of the high-frequency components of the pulses. What remains is a fair sine-wave modulated f-m signal that's amplified and transformer-coupled to the telephone lines. The gain control in the amplifier limits the power delivered to the telephone lines to +6dbm—approximately 4 milliwatts into a 600 ohm load. In the demodulator, the incoming signal is transformer-coupled to a limiting amplifier and a digital comparator. These convert the sine wave back into a digital signal. This signal then simultaneously drives a two-stage counter and an integrator-comparator, whose threshold is set so that only the 1 pulses, twice as wide as the 0 pulses, rise above threshold. The higher-frequency 0 pulses therefore are removed and an integrator-comparator output occurs only for the lower-frequency 1 pulses. The two-stage counter normally provides an output for any pair of pulses regardless of width. But the integrator-comparator's 1 output also is fed into the counter via a gate; this pulse resets the counter whenever a 1 is present in the incoming data, assuring that the counter provides an output only for the shorter pulses that represent 0's. Thus, the counter functions as a 0 detector; the integrator-comparator works as a 1 detector. Now the composite signal data can be reconstructed. A 1 pulse from the integrator-comparator turns on a data flip-flop, and the 0 pulse of the counter turns it off. Since the data flip-flop's on duration equals the width of the data pulse, and off all other times, its output is the digital equivalent of the transmitted data. An external shift register temporarily stores recovered serial data until it can be read out in parallel. The output of the integrator-comparator and the counter are also used to trigger a shift-pulse circuit comprising a shift flip-flop and two gates. Since the data flip-flop is set by the leading edge of the data signals, and the shift flip-flop by the trailing edge, the state of the data flip-flop is established in advance of the shift pulse. A binary 1 is used to indicate the start of the message. It sets the start flip-flop that allows the remaining bits in the message to trigger the shift flip-flop and generate shift pulses. A counter that's external to the modem counts the shift pulses. Following receipt of the last message bit—the number of bits in a message must be known—the counter issues a CLEAR signal which resets the start flip-flop. This inhibits generation of shift pulses until the next message arrives. The first step in the process is to sort the fish by species and size. This is done by hand, using a system of screens and nets. The fish are then weighed and measured, and any that do not meet the required standards are discarded. The remaining fish are then packed into boxes and shipped to market. It’s not rain or snow that’s holding up your mail. It’s eighty-two billion pieces of mail every year. Knowing the volume is going nowhere but up, the U.S. Post Office has asked our Electronics division to explore the possibility of electronic transmission of some of the mail to help lighten the load. In addition to an analysis of satellite, microwave and laser sending methods, the in-depth study is investigating delivery by in-home printing devices. We think it will be possible one day to send a million letters coast to coast every minute without anyone but the correspondents knowing what’s been written. The day of the electronic post office hasn’t arrived. But for now, electronics can help move the mails in another way. In a San Diego test, we’re posting electronic letters. These letters are printed circuit cards. They’re enclosed in envelopes and packages that you can’t tell apart from ordinary mail. The printed circuit has no power, but when it passes a monitor, it immediately identifies itself, so we know when and where it’s been mailed and where it’s going. With this kind of information, we’ll know more about what happens to a letter that becomes part of the mail. Sorting out eighty-two billion pieces of mail is a problem. But we put technology to work solving problems from the bottom of the sea to outer space…and a good bit in between. GENERAL DYNAMICS 1 Rockefeller Plaza, New York, N.Y. 10020 Large Screen Displays Link your data or signal source to TV display systems with Tektronix scan conversion... for convenient viewing in labs, classrooms, production lines, hospitals, computer installations and many other areas. The display size depends only upon your choice of TV monitor or receiver. The 4501 Scan Converter accepts alphanumeric and graphic data—in the form of analog inputs—and converts it to displays on TV receivers and monitors. The hi-contrast TV displays are ideal for individual or group viewing—even under bright light conditions. The displays may be viewed as light data on a dark background or as dark data on a light background, selected from the 4501 front panel. The 4501 uses a Tektronix bistable storage CRT. Data may be written once on the storage CRT and retained for an hour without refreshing. The results are: call for your data once, then view it as long as one hour on a TV-size display. Besides that, the 4501 transfers continuously written data to your TV display. MULTIPLE DISPLAYS—The 4501 will drive multiple, inexpensive receivers and monitors. The units may be located locally or remotely. Outputs from a TV camera can be mixed with data from the 4501 to produce a picture that is an overlay of the two signal sources. With overlaying, you can instantly compare data from two different sources. The uses for the 4501 are virtually unlimited. For a demonstration, contact your local Tektronix Field Engineer or write Tektronix, Inc., P. O. Box 500, Beaverton, Oregon 97005. See your current Tektronix catalog for specifications. 4501 Scan Converter ............ $2500 Available in U.S. through the Tektronix lease plan U.S. Sales Price FOB Beaverton, Oregon Tektronix, Inc. committed to technical excellence Shakeout due in minicomputers Recession, dominance of a few companies put the squeeze on a host of makers By James Brinton, Boston bureau manager By the year-end, a third of the 75 or more minicomputer makers now in business may be out. In a year the number may be down to 10 or 15. Though grim, these are the predictions of the industry's best informed marketing men facing tight money and a changing market. Even conservative Arthur D. Little Inc. is predicting a "consolidation," pegging it for 1971-1972. Typical is the opinion of David H. Methvin, president of Computer Automation Inc., Newport Beach, Calif. "I've long expected a shakeout, but it's happening 15 to 18 months earlier than I thought it would." Lawrence Goshorn, president of General Automation Inc., Orange, Calif., predicts firms will be selling their inventories in bulk within the next six months and letting out rights in their operations soon after, just to keep cash flowing. By next spring, he feels, the weakest companies will be ready to sell out entirely. In doing so, they'll be leaving a rapidly growing minicomputer market—usually meaning all eight-to-16 bit-word processors—that could reach half a billion dollars by the mid seventies. Since it became apparent three or four years ago that the PDP-8 series manufactured by the Digital Equipment Corp. of Maynard, Mass. was a resounding success, the minicomputer firms have multiplied much as did semiconductor companies in the early 1960's; now it appears they'll shake out just as drastically. Except for perhaps seven to 10 companies which dominate the market, (not including IBM, though some consider its System 3 to be a minicomputer) most firms hold only a tiny share of the market. Nearly all were founded when cash flowed freely, but now interest rates are high, investors are scarce, and the stock market is bearish, making access to the capital markets very difficult. Also, now-cautious original equipment makers, who were to have bought vast quantities of minicomputers for use in systems, are tending to stick with one of the big mini makers or in a few cases are bent on developing an in-house computer capability. Just the idea of trying to compete with the big firms is enough to frighten many. The market still is relatively small, though growing, but share-of-market figures show it already has become "IBM-ized." According to Little, the 1969 market for mini's was about 6,000 mainframes—and it's growing at 35% to 50% per year. This means a 1970 market of 8,100 to 9,000 machines, Little predicts. Industry officials are more optimistic—despite the slumping economy, they predict 8,500 to 12,000 mainframes for 1970. Share unlike. Depending on whom you talk to, DEC sells from 50% to 70% of all minicomputers. Little says DEC had 55% in 1969 but factors IBM's System 3 into its figures. The other major manufacturers are Hewlett-Packard, Honeywell's Computer Control Division, and Varian's Data Machines division; each is said to have from 7% ... few today want to risk buying from little-known firms ... to 10% of the market. The Data General Corp. also claims a 7% to 10% share, which it says is growing. And others credit General Automation with 4% to 5%. Adding up the lowest of these figures, the rest of the mini makers must subsist on only 18% of the market—at most, 1,500 to 2,000 machines. Thus, at a time when cash flow is essential, only a little business is free to circulate among many firms. That's why industry observers expect the kind of shakeout that hit semiconductor makers. And some claim to have seen early signs already. "First come price cuts," says one. "Varian already has cut price several times without major redesigns, and so has General Automation." Unkindest cut. "Price cuts hurt. They bite into near-term profits in the hope that quantity sales and the resulting parts-cost leverage will raise profit," continues this source. "But it almost never comes out that way." Such slashes sometimes are thought to be effective in the OEM market—the target of nearly all minicomputer makers' sales efforts. But the OEM market is toughening. Allen Z. Kluchman, marketing director of Data General, says his firm had expected to be selling 70% of its output to OEM's today. Instead, "it's already 50-50, and we've begun accelerating our push into end user fields." Apparently looking ahead, Data General over six months ago began adding peripheral equipment and complex software packages to its line; its latest introduction is a bus allowing minicomputers to be connected to form a multiprocessor [Electronics, July 6, p. 34]. OEM's ossify. "There are as many orders out there as ever," says Kluchman, "but OEM's have cash problems too. And they are going to buy only from firms with established reputations." Thus, the OEM market may not save many small firms. "Buyers are so scared," says an official of another firm, "that they even call our ad agency to see if our bill is paid." Robert Lowry, president of Technology Marketing Inc., Santa Ana, Calif., also notes that it takes about "a year to bring an OEM aboard, and that's a long time to wait." He adds, "Lack of liquidity penalizes fast growing firms, but it's death to companies not growing." Kluchman's axiom is that only the toughest most persistent sales effort will penetrate the OEM's. He could add, only the best backed. Stacked DEC. DEC is regarded as the IBM of the minicomputer field and, in fact, claims to have sold more mainframes than IBM. It's position is such, that despite DEC's standing offer to overprint an OEM's logotype on any computer front panel, fewer than 10% of OEM's ask it. Few today want to risk buying from little-known firms that have limited software or service support. DEC maintains 65 outlets worldwide employing about 650 service men, 400 sales engineers, and 400 hardware-software support specialists. No other minicomputer maker, except perhaps Honeywell-CCD, can come close to this figure, although Hewlett-Packard is said to have about 500 people in equivalent jobs. Moreover, PDP-8 computer programs number from 500 to 600, some developed by DEC (more than 300) and others (250 or more) developed and shared by PDP-8 users. These figures are unmatched by other mini makers and are a strong sales weapon. Also, DEC has dropped the bottom out of the 12-bit computer price structure with introduction of the PDP-8/E, selling in one version at a discounted price of about $2,500 [Electronics, July 6, p. 105]. Finally, with a plant larger than some auto assembly factories, DEC is in a position to deliver on time. And to quote Computer Automation's Methvin, when an order comes in, the maker had better be able to ship; "customers apparently wait till the last minute to order, then stand on us for delivery." Methvin's customers apparently want to keep cash in house as long as possible. But it could be worse; accounts receivable are now running 120-days, and some buyers even post date invoices according to one firm. Clouds. Just as the end-user market is becoming the target of the more aware mini computer makers, cash-rich Texas Instruments and IBM enter the scene. IBM's System 3 already has proven its ability to take sales away from mini's in pure business applications. TI 980's are used at more than 90 stations in house as process controllers, and up to 10 may be in field test by potential customers. TI's other machine, the 9605, is said to be unique in architecture. It's a bit-oriented machine, aimed at "controlling discrete events," say TI sources, and appears to be aimed at complex process control. What scares competitors isn't TI's process control goal or the 960's architecture, but the fact that TI makes it's own semiconductors, "and it knows how to run a price war," according to one mini maker spokesman; "they know the value of a loss leader, and are literally capable of freezing out 95% of their competition." Gerald L. Seelig, president of the Lockheed Electronics Co., Plainfield, N.J., feels his venture would survive, but then no one is predicting his own failure. Seelig says that he personally has been approached by several firms seeking to be acquired and feels the shakeout has already begun. Survival. In the face of this, firms are taking various routes to survival. Computer Controls Inc., Fairfield, N.J., is second sourcing the PDP-8 family of computers. Its version is similar in architecture and uses the same programs. Company president John Ackley says, "We looked at DEC with about 70% of minicomputer installations, then built a machine interchangeable with the PDP-8/I and with a lower price." Computer Controls sells only to OEM's and has given service duties to a representative organization. Ackley is confident of success, but DEC says it isn't worried. Compiler Systems Inc.'s president, John Hayne, says that he expects the firm's two upcoming machines, the CSI-16 and CSI-24, to succeed because they can translate and execute compiler language programing and do multiprogramming, too. visible light ...from the MOD line If you need a visual indication of what is happening in your system, equipment or instrument you should be using the FLV100 or FLV101 light emitting diode. Either one will provide you with a bright red status indicator. These products feature: - Low cost (99c in 10,000 quantities) - High brightness (typically 1500 foot lamberts for the FLV100) - Mechanical rigidity (impervious to mechanical shock and vibration) - Solid state reliability - Moisture resistance (65°C and 95% relative humidity) - Low power consumption (within drive capability of standard digital IC's) - Wide viewing angle (160 degrees for FLV101) - Plug in package for easy mounting You can have either a large area, wide viewing angle indicator (the FLV101) or a highly intense point light source (the FLV100) for the same low price. Whether you need one lamp for an ON/OFF switch or thousands for a complex panel display you should contact Fairchild MOD. Fairchild Microwave and Optoelectronics Division (MOD), in addition to these devices, makes a complete line of optoelectronic products. Your local Fairchild MOD distributor, listed to the right, has sensors and emitters in stock. You can order the devices you need from him or if you need detailed information he will be glad to send you data sheets. The FLV100 and FLV101 are the latest optoelectronics devices from Number 1. Keep watching Number 1 because more new products are on the way. FAIRCHILD MOD DISTRIBUTORS SCHWEBER ELECTRONICS (516) 334-7474 (617) 891-8484 (416) 925-2471 (305) 927-0511 (301) 427-4977 (205) 539-2756 (218) 336-7020 HAMILTON/AVNET SALES (213) 861-7300 (415) 861-7300 (713) 526-4661 (602) 272-2951 (714) 878-2451 (206) 624-5930 (303) 433-8551 (503) 255-8550 COMPUTER COMPONENTS CORP (214) 239-0271 SEMICONDUCTOR SPECIALISTS, INC. (312) 279-1030 (313) 256-0300 (513) 278-9455 (412) 351-3611 (317) 243-8271 (612) 861-3400 (314) 423-6500 FAIRCHILD MICROWAVE AND OPTOELECTRONICS A DIVISION OF FAIRCHILD CAMERA AND INSTRUMENT CORPORATION 2513 Charleston Rd., Mt. View, Ca. 94040 Circle 1 on reader service card 107 Leave my power supply system alone! You can get your own in only 9 days from Acopian. "I tried struggling through that old power supply system catalog. It was like a jigsaw puzzle, hunting for the pieces I needed for my new power system. There had to be a better way. "Then I remembered the Acopian hotline. I called it. I told them the DC voltages and currents I wanted. Discussed panel size. Meters. Switches. And other accessories. "They gave me a firm price. Right on the phone. It was a lot less than I expected. I had our buyer phone in the P.O. And Acopian designed, built, tested and shipped it in nine days. Completely wired. "So go order your own Acopian power system . . . It's easy!" HOW TO ORDER ACOPIAN POWER SYSTEMS - Call Acopian collect - Tell us the outputs and accessories you need - Get a firm price - Shipment of completely wired system will be made in 9 days. For immediate service, call the Acopian hotline: (215) 258-5441. For literature, write Acopian Corp., Easton, Pa. 18042. And remember, Acopian also offers 82,000 different DC power modules, every one shipped with this tag... Circle 108 on reader service card New IBM series comes on soft ‘Evolutionary’ 370 line shares architecture with 360 machines; software man calls it ‘just a 360 with some new bells and whistles’ By Wallace B. Riley, Computers editor Something big has been in the works at IBM for months. A few knowledgeable sources were predicting a whole new series of superfast computers with huge memories and radical design departures—machines whose impact would rival that of the 360 series [Electronics, June 22, p. 33]. Then came the eagerly awaited announcement—and the letdown: IBM will introduce only two models of its “evolutionary” new 370 line—the 165 and 155—and they would not obsolete, but instead offer a step up from, some of the 360 models. Both machines, which will start going out early next year, share their architecture with the 360 line. Each one uses semiconductor “caches,” high-speed buffer memories, as do the 360 models 85 and 195, and each employs faster versions of the monolithic circuits, MST, first introduced last year in IBM’s System 3 computer. The new machines can work with many second-generation programs and will accept any of the 360’s input-output devices. And each of the new computers uses error correction circuits for the main storage to increase reliability. IBM says the new 370/165 and 155 offer a three- to fivefold improvement over their 360 counterparts—the 360/65 and 75, and the 360/40 and 50, respectively (see table). Most computer houses are cautious in commenting on the 370’s, preferring to wait until other models are introduced. But one source notes, “By sticking to the 360 architecture, IBM has just made an inefficient machine more efficient. But it still can’t do real multiprogramming efficiently—for example, running several cobol programs simultaneously.” Martin Goetz, vice president and director of proprietary software at Applied Data Research Inc., Princeton, N.J., feels IBM should have directed its efforts toward improving the 360 series’ software, where there are “too many unsolved problems.” At any rate, he notes, “The 370 isn’t really all that new; it’s just a 360 with some new bells and whistles.” What’s more, it doesn’t seem likely that IBM’s announcement will force many other computer firms to alter their plans. RCA Corp., for example, is expected to announce a new line of its own this summer. Others feel IBM will be bringing other 370’s out in the near future, especially since the new machines are relying heavily on proven technology. George Lowry, group vice president, Brandon Applied Systems, a New York consulting firm, feels that next 370 models will be in the slow speed range and will be designed to take over the market slots currently filled by the 360/30 and 40. One factor that will bear heavily on computer makers’ response to the 370 series is its cache memory. While very fast and economical for a single processor system, the memory still isn’t cheap enough to pay off in multiprocessor computers, on which many computer houses, unlike IBM, are pinning their hopes. The two new input-output devices IBM introduced at the 370 announcement may well be an immediate hit. One, a 2,000 lines per minute printer, is almost twice as fast as existing IBM units. The other, a disk storage device, halves available access time and triples storage capacity. Brandon’s Lowry feels other companies probably will follow IBM’s lead with similar units. The cache makes the cumber- \| Old vs New \| 360/50 \| 370/155 \| 360/65 \| 370/165 \| 360/85 \| \|------------\|--------\|---------\|--------\|---------\|--------\| \| Main memory cycle, µsec \| 2.0 \| 2.1 \| 0.75 \| 2.0 \| 1.0 \| \| Capacity* min max \| 65 \| 262 \| 131 \| 512 \| 512 \| \| Machine cycle, nsec \| 500 \| 115 \| 200 \| 80 \| 80 \| \| Channels \| 4 \| 6 \| 7 \| 12 \| 6 \| \| Transfer rate \| 1.2 \| 1.5 \| 1.2 \| 3.0 \| 1.2 \| \| Price range* \| 14-55 \| 37-79 \| 34-100 \| 71-143 \| 84-200 \| in thousands of bytes in millions of bytes per second in thousands of dollars per month some main memory seem to run as fast as the processor; perhaps 95% of all memory accesses retrieve data already in the cache, so it's not necessary to wait for a main-memory cycle. The cache concept succeeds because in normal operation accesses aren't truly random and tend to occur in nearby locations within periods of a few cycles. In actual operation, the cache memory exchanges data and instructions directly with the processor, matching its fast cycle time. The slower ferrite-core main memory dumps large batches of data into the cache in a single cycle, thereby assuring that successive words needed by the program are almost always at hand. Catchy cache. In general, cache memories are economical only when there's one central processor and one main memory, with the cache between them. Caches are ineffective in multiprocessing systems because several processors, all dipping into the main memory independently, change the essential nonrandom access pattern. A cache in each processor could overcome this, but then the ratio of cache capacity to main memory capacity would tend to be too high for maximum cache efficiency—unless the main memory were much larger than usual. Since most large computer makers—in particular, Burroughs, General Electric, and Univac—all design around the basic frame of a multiprocessor, they've decided against the cache memory. But it's not even certain that IBM will stick with cache in the anticipated smaller 370 models, unless they feature unusually large memories. Another trouble spot for the cache memory is in a multiprogrammed machine—a single processor-single memory combination running several programs at once. In a non-cache computer, programs must switch back and forth between the main memory and a high-speed drum unit. But the cache itself requires a form of switching in and out of the main memory, so that the extra overhead may be too heavy in many cases. --- Then and now The differences between IBM's announcement of the 370 and its 1964 heralding of the 360 are more marked than the differences between the two machines. Six years ago, Thomas J. Watson Jr., IBM's chairman said, "This is the most important product announcement we have ever made." He called the System 360 a "new generation," which effectively condemned all older IBM computers to a lingering obsolescence. The 360 required a whole new manufacturing line, new software, new servicing techniques—hardly anything was salvaged from the company's eight or 10 predecessor lines. This time, Watson was more subdued—and for good reason. IBM's troubles with the 360 software are legendary [Electronics, July 11, 1966, p. 129; Aug. 22, 1966, p. 149]. Some of the compilers were either too big to fit the memory, or, if they did fit, they didn't work right. The operating system, which keeps the computer going by feeding jobs into it, one right after another, while doing bookkeeping chores, wasn't available at all when the first machines were delivered. And when it finally was offered, it was only as specialized versions working with tape- or disk-oriented installations, but not both. The generalized operating system eventually was finished, but it is already in about its 18th version, and some observers feel it is still rather inefficient. At one time, over 2,000 IBM people were working on the problem. In the manufacturing area, the 360's hybrid integrated circuit building blocks presented some rather serious difficulties, slipping delivery schedules over the first few months. Because of temporary shortages, IBM started a crash program to redesign its 360 magnetic tape systems so that they could use discrete-component circuits from earlier second-generation computers. Since almost every computer installation involves from four to 20 tape drives, this redesign freed large volumes of the hard-to-get hybrid IC's, which IBM calls solid logic technology, SLT, for central processors. Nevertheless, IBM is touting the multiprograming capabilities of the 370, which it says are superior to those in the 360 line. The new machines can be set up to emulate one of several older machines, and can switch between a program for that machine and one for the 370 under control of the operating system. IBM calls the technique "integrated emulation." This means the computers can simultaneously process programs written for the 370 plus one older machine. However, equipping a particular machine to emulate a different machine isn't easy—a user can't decide on the spur of the moment what machines he will emulate. Copy chart. In the 370/155, a systems engineer can emulate one of IBM's 1400 series in somewhat the same way as was done in the 360—by replacing the read-only memory. But the process is much less time consuming in the new machine. In the 165, the data necessary to emulate one of the IBM 7000 series machines is stored in a writeable control store loaded by a supervisory program that's not controlled by the user. The store, a small semiconductor array physically similar to the cache but functionally an extension of the ROM, is essentially the same as the writeable control store in the 360/85, which is used primarily for diagnostic programs. Other computer manufacturers also part company with IBM over including error correction circuitry for the main memory. This drastically cuts speed, they maintain. But IBM cache speed circumvents this problem. Thus, the 370's circuits, which correct all single bit errors and detect all double-bit and most multiple-bit errors, hardly affect overall system speed. This was true of the 360/85, which marked the initial use of error correction in main memories. It's even truer of the 370's, whose main memories are considerably slower and less impacted by the delay. Two console printer/keyboard units will also be available with the 155. One is another version of the familiar Selectric mechanism, a feature of most IBM console printers for perhaps the last decade. The other has a new wire-matrix printing mechanism that stutters along at 85 characters per second. --- It took a new generation to bridge the gap Delevan's Micro-i® Series 155 A new generation of low-cost, miniaturized inductors that is the long-sought transition between discrete and monolithic IC circuits. HIGH RELIABILITY AND VERSATILITY Originally designed to meet the rigorous standards of DOD and NASA specifications, Micro-i Series 155 inductors are perfect for communications applications and the computer field where performance is critical and ownership costs are a consideration. Proven successful for choke and filter applications. SUPERIOR FEATURES Ruggedly constructed with internal connections, thermo-compression bonded for high temperature processing. - RF Inductor Epoxy-molded to meet MIL-C-15305, Rev. D, Grade 1, Class A. - Miniaturization and low profile give improved compatibility with hybrid ICs. - Four separate leads are readily adaptable for solder reflow connections. Eliminates costly body tie-down, reduces lead fatigue caused by vibration and is easily adaptable to tuned circuits by means of outboard chip capacitor. Write for complete technical data. Delevan Division American Precision Industries Inc. 270 Quaker Rd. / East Aurora, N.Y. 14052 Telephone: 716/652-3800 Telefax: DRT-919 Other divisions of American Precision Industries Inc.: Basco-Kuster-Moeller Instrument Co., Oxford Corp., Triax Equipment Co. A NEW VARIABLE ELECTRONIC... "DIAL-A-FILTER" Krohn-Hite's new Model 3750 Multifunction Tunable Filter with selectable attenuation slopes represents a revolutionary approach to RC filter design work. It's the first "dial-a-filter" design tool of its kind. With it, you can set up virtually any type of variable electronic filter you require by simply setting dials. High pass, low pass, band pass or band reject with any kind of slope, and with or without gain. Best of all the cutoff frequency remains constant even though the slope is varied. Check these specs. Frequency Range: 0.02 Hz to 20 KHz, Attenuation Slopes: 24, 18, 12, 6 db/octave, Band Pass Gain: 0 db or 20 db, Frequency Response: Butterworth or Low Q, Frequency Accuracy: 5%, Hum and Noise (RMS): 0.3 mv, Optional Feature: Battery Operation. The Model 3750 Dial-tuned, low-priced variable electronic filter with selectable attenuation is the latest addition to the famous Krohn-Hite line of quality variable electronic filters. Price is $850 (less batteries). Delivery from stock. For more information on the new Model 3750 that lets you "dial-a-filter", or the full line of filters write The Wavemakers: Krohn-Hite Corporation, 580 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Mass. 02139. You'll soon be making signal success yourself. KROHN-HITE CORPORATION OSCILLATORS / FILTERS / AC POWER SOURCES / AMPLIFIERS OVERSEAS SALES OFFICES: BELGIUM, C. N. Rood s. a.; DENMARK, SC Metric A/S; FRANCE, Antares; GERMANY, Nucletron Vertriebs-GMBH; HOLLAND, C. N. Rood n. v.; ITALY Dott. Ing. Mario Vianello; SWEDEN, Teleinstrument; ISRAEL, R. D. T. Elect. Eng. Ltd.; JAPAN, Shoshin Shoji Kaisha, Ltd.; AUSTRALIA, Sample Electronics (Vic.) Pty., Ltd.; G. B., B & K Inst. Ltd. Circle 112 on reader service card Air traffic control socked in Lack of funds, ineffective leadership, and political problems are holding up implementation of fourth-generation system studies By Ray Connolly, Washington bureau manager Ten months have elapsed since the Air Traffic Control Advisory Committee delivered its two-volume study calling for an immediate start on a "fourth generation" ATC system. Yet the report is gathering dust on the shelves of the Department of Transportation, which commissioned the two-year study. The Alexander report—named for General Research Corp.'s Ben Alexander, ATCAC's chairman—was applauded for its comprehensiveness and technical detail when it was first presented [Electronics, Oct 27, 1969, p. 127]. Yet DOT still hasn't acted on any of the recommendations. According to those involved, the reasons—some call them excuses—boil down to three, all interrelated: lack of funds, lack of leadership, and politics. Though DOT's Federal Aviation Administration is scheduled to receive $4 million more for fiscal 1971 research and development than it did a year ago, its $45 million total allotment is minimal by almost any measure—$15 million less than the FAA wanted, and $2.5 million less than the Budget Bureau allowed. For fiscal 1971, FAA plans to spend $34.2 million on air traffic control R&D, nearly $5 million more than the previous year. But some $6.4 million of the total will go to increasing system capacities. No funds are proposed for FAA long-range R&D, which received $1.2 million a year ago. Yet industry sources see an annual outlay of about $120 million required to implement the major improvements in air traffic control suggested in the Alexander report, and that's about twice the amount the Transportation Department expects to get from user charges authorized by the recently passed airways and airport development legislation. Charges of lack of leadership— What's "automation"? Semantics often is a root cause of technological disputes. Example: what does "automation" mean in terms of air traffic control systems? FAA officials use it freely in their National Airspace System now entering Stage A, as well as for en-route air traffic control and the Automated Radar Tracking System, ARTS III. Though these represent advances, they are only semi-automated, say ATC engineers, because human controllers are needed. Gustav Lundquist, FAA's development chief, concedes NAS Stage A costs, when completed in 1974, will rise "20% to 30%" from the original $500 million estimate. DOT's air traffic control advisory committee chairman, Ben Alexander, asserts that the agency has been "frittering away its money on NAS while it hasn't spent one penny studying fully automated air traffic control." Systems engineers, he charges, have "no knowledge of the subject; no idea of what may be needed by way of equipment or procedures." Alexander asserts the section of his committee's report co-authored by FAA's Neal A. Blake and Univac's James C. Nelson is one of the first attempts to examine the technology required for full automation and, it is "a bare, halting first effort," he adds. To begin true ATC automation, Neal and Blake believe the 1975 computers which would be used in a 1980 system will have to contend with these technological considerations: ▶ A basic component reliability at least one order of magnitude greater than today's, or between 1,000 and 1,500 hours for a complete system, including input output devices, memory, central processor, and related black boxes. ▶ Component speeds of about 2 nanoseconds, resulting in 50-nsec add times, equivalent to a maximum throughput of 20 million instructions per second per computation processor. Also required will be loaded logic costs from 60 cents to $1 per logic node, including packaging, cooling, wiring, and cabinetry. ▶ First-level main memory with a 150-500 nsec cycle time using either film, wire or logic technologies with five-cent-per-bit cost. Also needed will be second-level random access, non-rotating memories of film, wire, or MOS logic with cycle times on the order of 2 to 5 microseconds with costs running to about 1/10th cent per bit. Data banks on the order of $10^7$ to $10^8$ bytes can be achieved with this technology. ▶ Input-out data rates will hold at a maximum rate of 1 megaword per channel, but will commonly be used at a much lower rate. Several peripheral devices will be multiplexed on a single, 1-megaword data channel, and several such channels will be controlled by a satellite I/O processor. Our Reconstituted Mica Capacitors Are Tested Harder Because Custom Electronics, Inc. is the reconstituted mica capacitor maker who precisely grades the dielectric material before it reaches production, other manufacturers' final mistakes are never started at Custom. The result is fewer production rejects, and lower job quotes for Custom Electronics' customers. Add this grading system to Custom Electronics' rather fanatical Quality Control efforts throughout the production process, and it becomes clear why our client list reads like the who's who of high voltage electronics. If your high voltage capacitor needs are RELIABILITY and IMMEDIATE SERVICE write or call Custom Electronics, Inc., Browne St., Oneonta, N.Y. 13820. Phone 607-432-3880. The QC Fanatics CUSTOM ELECTRONICS, Inc. You get higher capacitor reliability for less the second ATC stumbling block—are leveled mostly at the Department of Transportation, though some industry and government sources hang it on the Congress, too. The FAA is sympathetic to the Alexander report, "but there is a great suspicion of FAA at the top of the Transportation Department," says one of the committee's members. While not conceding that DOT doesn't have a full appreciation of air traffic control problems, one department official says, "The way government works, it's premature to expect firm decisions from a report that's still drawing comment from a lot of places." Politics. Two politically oriented moves bear on the inaction, according to several Washington sources. First is the DOT move to aggregate power in the Office of the Secretary, John Volpe, and its impact on ATC research and development. Second is last year's DOT takeover of NASA's Cambridge, Mass., Electronics Research Center, now the Systems and Technology Center [Electronics, April 13, p. 48]. By putting more long-range transportation planning and R&D authority in the Secretary's office, Volpe sought to expand on his predecessors' powers, and asked for $22 million for that fiscal 1971 function—double the existing appropriation. But the House has cut that money to $14.5 million. However, air traffic control studies were not affected. The Secretary's office got a $3.5 million increase in funds earmarked for long-term looks at "full automation of the air traffic control system and techniques for increasing the capacity of urban airports." But $8 million for STC will hardly support the center. "It takes $25-30 million just to keep the doors open," says one top department official. Tradeoff. Whether the STC contribution to air traffic control will be worth the anticipated two-year delay required to bring it on stream is the subject of some debate, to be resolved only by the center's performance as it begins to look at "full automation" beyond ongoing programs. Virtually all sources agree with Ben Alexander's observation that the center "is bleeding off any spare money" that DOT may have had to implement the report's recommendations. Alexander also believes the recommendations are not getting much support from the Department of Defense, which is due to assess the report in about a month. A check with the Pentagon confirms his suspicion. Discussing the Alexander report's most controversial recommendation—use of intermittent positive control to divide airspace into three-dimensional cells—sources at the Pentagon question whether the investment for military aircraft is worth it. Similarly, DOD has zeroed in on the call for development of a "Super Beacon" which would upgrade existing ATC radar beacon systems in two steps. "Unless we can see an improvement for the expense, it's not going to get very far," says the Pentagon. DOD believes cooperation by the general aviation community will be difficult to obtain, so the cost benefit to the military to equip its aircraft would be limited if general aviation were not obliged to participate. How much would upgrading of existing beacons cost? It's a question of critical importance to the private aircraft owners and pilots who make up the general aviation community. Dr. Lawrence Goldmuntz, the special assistant to the DOT Secretary who monitored the Alexander report, estimates a data link would "add 10% to the cost of a beacon—about $250 a plane." Yet the Air Transport Association's Siegbert Poritzky calls it "a $1,000 modification; nothing costs $250." Policy. However, as ATA's Poritzky puts it, "We want to see a policy first, a definite direction. We would like to see R&D move ahead rapidly. But we also want to see it defined more specifically." Poritzky says carriers want defined goals for R&D—"to promise something better, not just different." One such goal for a terminal area computer system, for example, should be to offer a definite increase in the airport's capacity. As for the Super Beacon concept itself, Poritzky observes: "This is an attractive possibility because it would appear that this approach could be implemented with relatively less pain than some others. We do have some twinges, however." Rather than hang a limited-capNew FET V-O-M features 8 Low-Power Ohms Ranges . . . 0.005 V AC Full Scale Triplett's new Model 801 V-O-M offers 73 measurement ranges including 8 low-power resistance ranges that apply only 35 mV to the device under test. There are 22 voltage ranges—10 DC and 12 AC; 24 current ranges divided equally between DC and AC; 15 resistance ranges—including the 8 low-power ranges; and 12 ranges of output measurement. As if such unsurpassed versatility were not enough, the Model 801 also offers 11 megohm DC and 10 megohm AC input resistances, 2% DC and 3% AC accuracy and a 25 uA suspension-type meter with a nearly 7½" long scale. There's no doubt that the new Triplett Model 801 has no equal among analog V-O-M's in terms of sensitivity and versatility. See the remarkable new Model 801 V-O-M—priced at $200 suggested USA user net—at your Triplett distributor. For more information—or for a free, no-obligation demonstration—call him or your Triplett sales representative right away. Triplett Corporation, Bluffton, Ohio 45817. The World's most complete line of V-O-M's . . . choose the one that's just right for you Model 801 1. 8 ranges of low-power ohms at 35 mV with 1 ohm center scale. 2. High sensitivity (0.005 V AC full scale) at 10 megohm input resistance. 3. 8" meter has simplified scale with only 2 arcs for 46 AC/DC ranges. bility data link on the ATC Radar Beacon, "we need to move forward smartly on a universal digital communications system if we're really going to get ATC automation in a reasonable time," Poritzky argues. He contends Federal footdragging, not technology, is air traffic control's biggest hangup. Of the ARTS III displays, he asserts that "we have been practically begging FAA for years to provide small, accurate target symbols on which to base ATC separation. It seems almost inconceivable that the bright and shining new ARTS III system, which FAA hopes to implement in 1971, still keeps the 1943-size raw beacon slash as the basis of control. Better techniques were developed and proven to be feasible by FAA 10 years ago..." On sidelobe suppression, Poritzky says, "The procurement of important ground hardware was held up for nearly two years in FAA, apparently because of misunderstandings between various of the responsible offices." On alphanumeric displays, he suggests FAA has been reinventing the wheel. Alphanumeric characters on radar displays were in use in the SAGE air defense system back in the 1950's, he says. And in 1964 the FAA installed ARTS I, an alphanumeric terminal area ground display system for ATC radar beacon, primary radar and automatic altitude data. ARTS III, to be implemented in 1971, will be more modern but less capable, he notes. Thus does Poritzky, who generally speaks kindly of the expertise and effort that went into the Alexander report, make a hard-nosed point for ATA. "We tend to be a little gun-shy about the bright, bold future for fear it may be a mirage. We believe strongly that great effort is necessary now to implement systems we know how to implement, to finally use the technology we've had for years." Similar views can be found among aviation professionals in the Department of Defense and elsewhere. These are not necessarily criticisms of the Alexander report as such—far from it. They are, instead, sharp raps at past FAA inaction and may soon turn to criticisms of FAA's uncertain parent, the Department of Transportation. --- ALABAMA Birmingham Förster Distributing Co. (205) 251-4104 Montevallo Cramer/Hamilton, Inc. (205) 538-4493 Electronic Wholesalers, Inc. (205) 538-2461 ARIZONA Phoenix Hamilton Electro of Arizona (602) 272-2601 Maricopa Electronics, Inc. (602) 737-7331 ARKANSAS Little Rock Carleton-Hales Co. (501) 375-5375 CALIFORNIA Culver City Huntington Electro Sales (213) 870-3303 El Monte C. S. Marshall Company (203) 668-0141 Los Angeles Huntington Electro Sales, Inc. (213) 685-5111 Mountain View Electronic Wholesalers, Inc. (415) 961-7000 Oakland Bell Electronics (415) 834-5888 Palo Alto Maricopa Electronics, Inc. (415) 968-6292 San Diego Electronic Supply (213) 683-8110 San Jose Hamilton Electro Sales (714) 279-0211 Santa Ana C. S. Marshall Company (714) 278-8550 Westwood Radio Electronics, Inc. (714) 239-3061 COLORADO Denver Electronic Parts Co. (303) 266-3775 Hamilton Electro Sales (303) 445-4551 L. B. Walker Co. (303) 935-2461 CONNECTICUT North Haven Cramer/Comstock (203) 399-5643 Norwalk Maricopa Electronics (203) 338-4851 New Haven Boise Radio Electronics, Inc. (203) 753-1184 DELAWARE Wilmington Almo Industrial Electronics (302) 656-9467 FLORIDA Ft. Lauderdale Cramer/Florida (305) 566-7511 Hollywood Schwaber Electronics (305) 927-0511 Miami Electronic Wholesalers, Inc. (305) 616-1620 Electronic Wholesalers, Inc. (205) 841-1550 Hammond Electronics, Inc. (305) 424-0021 GEORGIA Atlanta Jackson Electronics Co. (404) 355-2223 Augusta Hamilton Electro Sales (312) 543-8500 Chicago Electronic Distributors, Inc. (312) 293-4800 Newark Electronics Corp. (312) 538-4411 Semiconductor Specialists, Inc. (312) 579-1500 INDIANA Evansville Ohio Valley Sound (812) 425-6173 Indianapolis Girard Electronics, Inc. (317) 634-0488 Semiconductor Specialists, Inc. (317) 243-8271 IOWA Cedar Rapids Deeco, Inc. (319) 365-7551 KANSAS Wichita Interstate Electronics Supply Corp. (913) 246-6314 KENTUCKY Louisville J. F. Burks Co. (502) 563-2871 LOUISIANA Lafayette Ralph's of Lafayette (318) 234-4507 New Orleans ECO, Inc. (504) 486-7441 Sterling Electronics, Inc. (504) 522-8726 MAINE Portland Holmes Distributors, Inc. (207) 774-5901 MARYLAND Baltimore Kalmier Electroniics, Inc. (301) 889-4242 Hampton Hamilton Electro Sales (301) 796-5000 Cramer/Hamilton, Inc. (301) 429-2000 Electronic Wholesalers, Inc. (301) 742-4927 Almo Industrial Electronics (301) 742-1393 MASSACHUSETTS Dedham Gerber Electronics (617) 329-2400 Cramer Electronics, Inc. (617) 969-7700 Springfield T. P. Quinlun, Inc. (413) 780-7341 Wayland Schwaber Electronics (617) 891-6484 MICHIGAN Detroit Radio Specialties Co. (313) 691-1012 Royal Oak Newark Electronics (313) 834-0001 Ann Arbor Semiconductor Specialists, Inc. (313) 255-0300 MINNESOTA Edina Low Beer Company (312) 941-2770 Minneapolis Semiconductor Distributors, Inc. (312) 882-1112 St. Paul Gopher Electronics Co. (312) 645-0041 MISSISSIPPI Jackson Electronic Electric Supply, Inc. (601) 335-0041 MISSOURI Kansas City Radio Electronics, Inc. (816) 421-0173 Merle Hay KCI Semiconductor Inc. (816) 421-8400 Olive Branch Industrial Electronics (314) 853-0451 NEBRASKA Lincoln Scott Electronic Supply Corp. (402) 434-3808 Omaha Radio Equipment Co. (402) 341-7700 NEW JERSEY Camden General Radio Supply Co., Inc. (201) 652-1000 Cranford Sterling Electronics (201) 239-0800 Cherry Hill Electronic Sales (609) 662-0337 Mt. Ephraim Almo Industrial Electronics (609) 933-3400 Prossacken Electronic Wholesalers, Inc. (213) 923-5050 Towaco Electronics, Inc. (201) 256-7331 NEW MEXICO Albuquerque Kaufman Electronics, Inc. (505) 268-3901 Sterling Electronics, Inc. (505) 247-2486 NEW YORK Buffalo Standard Electronics, Inc. (716) 685-4330 Endicott Standard Electronics, Inc. (607) 754-3102 Farmville, L. L. Electronic, Inc. (610) 694-6800 Hempstead Long Island (516) 233-6500 Rockville Centre Standard Electronics, Inc. (516) 436-0300 Rochester Radio Supply Co. (716) 643-7400 Rome Electronic, Inc. (315) 337-5400 Syracuse Cramer/Syracuse (315) 437-6671 Westbury Schwaber Electronics (516) 334-7474 Tarrytown Valley Industrial Electronics, Inc. (212) 728-1000 NORTH CAROLINA Charlotte Duke Radio Supply Co. (704) 377-5413 Raleigh Southeastern Radio Supply Co., Inc. (919) 837-2311 Wilmington Electronic Wholesalers, Inc. (919) 725-8711 OHIO Akron Sun Radio Co., Inc. (216) 434-2171 Cleveland Hughes-Peters, Inc. (216) 351-2000 Mount Vernon Standard Electronics, Inc. (216) 432-2000 Columbus Electronics Marketing Corp. (614) 299-4161 Dayton Pioneer-Dayton (513) 236-5351 Dayton Pioneer-Dayton (513) 236-5351 Toledo Warner Radio Co. (419) 248-3364 OKLAHOMA Oklahoma City Texas Wholesale Electronics (405) 524-4415 Tulsa Oil Capital Electronics Corp. (918) 836-2541 OREGON Portland Hamilton Electro Sales (503) 255-8550 PENNSYLVANIA Philadelphia Aino Electronics Corp. (215) 676-6000 P.R.C. Electronics (412) 782-3770 Pennsylvania Semiconductor Specialists, Inc. (412) 781-8120 Troy Rosen Electronics Co. (717) 643-3875 RHODE ISLAND Providence W. H. Edwards Co. (401) 781-8000 SOUTH CAROLINA Columbia Dixie Radio Supply Co., Inc. (803) 253-5333 TENNESSEE Chattanooga Harper Electronics Distributors, Inc. (615) 297-2381 Kingsport Radio Electric Supply Co. (615) 247-8111 Memphis Bull City Distributing Co. (901) 274-4501 Murfreesboro Electra Distributing Co. (615) 255-8444 TEXAS Dallas Auto Electronics (214) 239-8123 Hamilton Electro Sales (214) 626-0900 Sterling Electronics (214) 239-0131 Wholesale Electronic Supply (214) 624-3001 El Paso McNicol Co. (915) 566-2390 Houston Hamilton Electro of Houston (713) 533-9555 Houston Houston Electro of Houston (713) 528-4861 Sterling Electronics (713) 623-6600 UTAH Salt Lake City Kimball Electronics (801) 328-2075 VIRGINIA Charlottesville Virginia Radio Supply Co. (703) 296-4184 Richmond Meridian Electronics, Inc. (703) 353-6648 Roanoke Peoples Radio & TV Supply Co. (703) 342-8933 WASHINGTON Seattle American Stream Electronics (206) 763-2300 Hamilton Electro Sales (206) 624-5530 Tacoma American Stream Electronics (206) 763-1550 Tacoma C&C Electronics Co. (206) 272-3185 WEST VIRGINIA Charleston Mountain Electronics (304) 342-8151 WISCONSIN Milwaukee Electronic Exports, Inc. (414) 374-6666 West Allis Marsh Radio Supply Co. (414) 455-5500 CANADA Toronto Canadian General Electric Co., Ltd. 537-4481 --- FREE POWER TRANSISTORS Present (or mail) this coupon to your authorized GE semiconductor distributor ATTN: INDUSTRIAL SALES MGR. Please furnish 1 or 2 free power transistors shown below. \| TYPE \| VOLTAGE \| $H_{FE}$ (MIN.) \| \|------\|---------\|-----------------\| \| \| low \| med \| high \| \| \| low \| med \| high \| NAME_________________________FIRM_________________________ POSITION______________________STREET______________________ STATE_______________________ZIP____________Distributor Name_________________________ Offer expires August 31, 1970 FREE SAMPLES Celebrate GE's new NPN/PNP transistors with a complimentary pair We're proud to announce the birth of another complementary pair of power transistors from General Electric. Housed in GE's silicon Power Pac package, these new 4-amp NPN/PNP transistors are color molded so you can tell NPN from PNP. And for a limited time only, you can get a pair free. That's right! To introduce you to GE's new arrivals, we're offering you a pair free. You may choose the new Power Pac types with round leads or their older brothers in the power tab package (with flat leads). You may even choose two that aren't complementary... still with our compliments. General Electric's complementary pairs feature low saturation voltage, excellent gain linearity and fast switching characteristics. They're compatible with either TO-5 or TO-66 mounting and designed for use in amplifiers (dc-1MHz.), regulators (series, shunt and switching), high-frequency inverters and converters and many other general purpose controls. To get your sample power transistors along with a packet of application information, fill out the coupon on the opposite page and present it (or mail it) to your authorized General Electric semiconductor distributor (also shown on opposite page). Offer expires August 31, 1970. \| Type No. \| $I_C$ (cont.) Amps. \| $P_{QO}$ (Tc=25 C) Watts \| $P_{QO}$ (Tc=35 C) Watts \| $V_{CE(sat.)}$ (max.) volts \| $I_Q$ amps \| $I_Q$ med \| $I_Q$ hi \| $V_{CE(sus.)}$ Volts \| $h_{FE}$ (min. or range) \| \|----------\|---------------------\|-------------------------\|-------------------------\|-----------------------------\|-----------\|---------\|--------\|----------------------\|------------------------\| \| D40D (NPN) \| 1.0 \| 6.0 \| 1.25 \| 0.5 \| 0.5 \| 30 \| 45 \| 60 \| 2V \| 0.1A \| 50-150 \| 120-360 \| 29(X) \| \| D41D (NPN) \| — \| — \| — \| — \| — \| — \| — \| — \| — \| — \| — \| — \| — \| \| D42C (NPN) \| 3.0 \| 12.5 \| 2.10 \| 0.5 \| 1.0 \| 30 \| 45 \| 60 \| 1V \| 1.0A \| 10 \| 20 \| 25(1) \| \| D43C (NPN) \| — \| — \| — \| — \| — \| — \| — \| — \| — \| — \| — \| — \| — \| \| D44C (NPN) \| 4.0 \| 30.0 \| 1.33 \| 0.5 \| 1.0 \| 30 \| 45 \| 60 \| 1V \| 1.0A \| 10 \| 20 \| 25(1) \| \| D45C (NPN) \| — \| — \| — \| — \| — \| — \| — \| — \| — \| — \| — \| — \| — \| \| D40N (PNP) \| 0.1 \| 6.25 \| 1.65 \| — \| — \| 250 \| — \| 300 \| 10V \| .04A \| — \| 20 \| — \| \| D41N (PNP) \| — \| — \| — \| — \| — \| — \| — \| — \| — \| — \| — \| — \| — \| \| D42C (PNP) \| 0.5 \| 6.0 \| 1.25 \| 1.5 \| 0.5 \| 30 \| 40 \| 50 \| 5V \| 2A \| 10K–60K \| 40K \| — \| (1) Available in 30V NPN units only (2) Available in 30V and 45V units only GENERAL ELECTRIC Electronics \| July 20, 1970 Circle 117 on reader service card 117 Another industry first: Practical hybrid microelectronic inverters. Still another breakthrough from Tecnetics: A new series of 3 watt hybrid microelectronic DC-AC square wave inverters for card mounting in military and industrial point-of-load applications. These unique inverters are supplied in metal, hermetically-sealed, cold-welded packages designed to meet requirements of MIL-STD-883 for hermeticity, shock, vibration, and other environmental conditions. Specifications Input voltage: 20 VDC nominal operating • 40 VDC absolute maximum Input current: 180 ma typ. at full load • 100 ma typ. at half load Output power: 3 watts maximum Efficiency: 80% typ. full load (3 watts) Isolation: 300 VDC Center-tapped outputs: 16 different outputs available from 5 to 300 Volts peak-to-peak—or available in your exact voltage requirements. SOME TYPICAL APPLICATIONS Square Wave Generator Note: With the addition of the appropriate filters you can generate Sine-waves, Sawtooths, Pulses or other specialized functions. These inverters are the newest in Tecnetics hybrid power conditioning components. Regulators and converters are available off-the-shelf—and other modules are on the way, including reference amplifiers, drivers, filters, and more. For more information on TEC power conditioning products, call collect 303-442-3837, or see EEM, ERG; or write ... Tecnetics, Inc. (formerly Transformer-Electronics Co.), P.O. Box 910, Boulder, Colorado 80302. In Europe, contact Technique et Produit, Paris (626-02-35); or Industrial Electronics, Frankfort/Main (0611) 725130. The innovators in power conditioning Tester outraces IC memories Aimed at replacing costly banks of hard-to-synchronize pulse generators, modular equipment anticipates storage devices with 10-nanosecond access time By James Brinton Boston bureau manager As logic speeds continually increase, and as semiconductor memories appear in quantity, users find themselves with a testing problem: there's not much test gear around that is fast enough to check these devices under operating conditions. Even metal oxide semiconductor memories achieve access times below 500 nanoseconds—150 nsec, or so, in four-phase circuits—while emerging emitter-coupled and transistor-transistor logic memories access data in 30 to 50 nsec with ease. Film and other advanced memories present similar problems—they can access data in 70-75 nsec or less. Keeping up. The DFE-1 from Tau-tron Inc. represents an answer to the testing problem. It can generate pulse trains at up to 125 megabits per second and synchronize pulses to within ±500 picoseconds. This pulse rate translates into about a pulse every 8 nsec, giving the DFE-1 an edge over the fastest memories in use. It would replace costly banks of hard-to-synchronize pulse generators used to test fast memories with repetitious chains of 0-1-0-1, etc. In many instances, these devices lack the necessary speed. The DFE-1 consists of two modules: the WG-111 data generator and the FC-201 digital format converter. The WG-111 puts out eight parallel channels of data, each a series of arbitrarily programmable eight-bit words—an immediate advantage over other schemes, as some logic "locks up" only after uninterrupted streams of zeros or ones, something the pulse generator jury rigs can't produce. The WG-111 provides twin outputs for each channel, true and true's complement, for a total of 16 available channels; one WG-111 thus can trigger two FC-201's. Output is ±1 volt into 50 ohms impedance. There's also a clock output at the same level and impedance, but clock pulse width is continuously variable from 3 nsec to 10 milliseconds with vernier adjustment. Though top speed is 125 megabits per second, the user can get anything from one bit per second on upward in nine ranges. Crystal control of these pulse repetition rates and of clock frequency is optional. A sync bit follows each 8-bit word and can be delayed from 0 to 10 msec in six ranges, each with vernier adjustments. The bits are typically 20 nsec wide, and amplitude is +1 volt into 50 ohms. Waveshape control. Coaxial cables link the WG-111 to the FC-201 format converter. This second module allows variable width, time delay, amplitude, and voltage offset of pulses in each channel. It also is an eight-channel system, with each channel independent in operation and adjustment. But once again, both true and true's complement are available at each channel. Inputs from the data generator feed the FC-201's control and logic bank. At this point pulse shape variables for all eight channels are decided, except for baseline voltage offset—whether the output of a given channel is to be in non-returnstart with this .01% DC DVM The New Ballantine Model 3600 DC Digital Voltmeter is packed full of the features that only the oldest, most respected leader in voltage measuring techniques could offer. - High Accuracy ... ± .01 of indication, ± .01 full scale, ± 1 digit - Options like remote programming, BCD Outputs, Internal Calibration Voltage - 100% overrange capability - 4½ digit display, 100 microvolt resolution - Dual slope integration measurement technique - Modular interface capability Price $695 add this 10 MHz AC Converter with 10 mV Full Scale Sensitivity Enjoy the full measure of a DVM system that will satisfy your most demanding AC and DC needs. The Model 3571 AC Converter Module is packed with performance features like: - Highest Operational Bandwidth currently available in any AC DVM ... 30 Hz to 10 MHz - High Input Impedance ... 10 Megohms on all ranges - 10 millivolt full scale sensitivity, 1 microvolt resolution - All front panel controls remotely programmable Now it’s a Ballantine DVM System Quality and solidly engineered user benefits make the Model 3600/3571 DVM System a new concept in voltage measurement ... the solution to all your voltage measuring tasks. Your Ballantine DVM can never be obsoleted because additional Converter Modules are easily added to make this one of the most advanced voltage measuring systems available. Write for your copy of our new catalog sheet on the Model 3600/3571 — The Singer Company, Electronic Products Division, Boonton, New Jersey 07005 or your nearest Field Sales Representative. In Europe contact: Singer Sewing Machine Company, Instrumentation Division, P.O. Box 301, 8034 Zurich, Switzerland. Tel: (051) 47 25 10 SINGER INSTRUMENTATION ... tester can be used for incoming inspection or quality control of high-speed arrays ... to-zero or return-to-zero format, the delay of pulses in one channel relative to those in other channels, pulse width, etc. Control logic is made from Tau-tron's Univer modules. These use a current steering, tunnel diode switch approach that allows clock rates well into the uhf range [Electronics, Feb. 17, 1969, p. 56]. The Univer modules are derated, therefore, even in this high-speed test system, and spokesmen hint that Tau-tron has left itself growth capability to cope with logic several times faster than available right now. Univer logic characteristically results in clean pulses; rise time typically is 1.2 nsec, fall time typically 1.5 nsec. Maximum waveshape aberration in the whole FC-201 is 7%, and this helps to keep ringing, overshoot, and droop low. Pulse width is continuously variable from four nsec to 10 msec through six ranges and a vernier adjustment. Relative delay is continuously variable from 0 up to ten msec in six ranges with vernier fine control. With this capability, test engineers can skew pulse timing among the various channels, making it possible to test multiphase MOS, for example, with ease and with tight control of conditions. After waveshape and delay are set, pulses are amplified with current switching, back-matched amplifier circuits capable of providing $ \pm 12 $ volts at 120 milliamperes short circuited, or 5 volts into 50 ohms. Attenuators then cut output amplitude to the needs of the experimenter in 1-decibel steps to a maximum of $-10$ db. Once again, the use of vernier control allows fine tuning. The final setting is for voltage baseline offset, variable to $\pm 3$ volts when driving 50 ohms. Baseline and attenuation adjustments don't affect each other in the system. Self control. With this much control over output, the user not only can use the DFE-1 for incoming inspection or quality control, but also, in computer laboratories, he can effectively measure the transfer characteristic of a memory. He knows exactly what went into his subassembly and so can match this against the output through a comparator or through real-time data recording. This allows flexibility not possible before in computer design—now the DFE-1 can be used to peg a bit rate, then design a multichannel input train of pulses shaped to the needs of the memory and capable of yielding specific outputs. Also, since the DFE-1 simultaneously tests the read-write circuitry on or outboard of the memory, engineers can design associated electronics to suit exact needs. Formerly, it was sometimes necessary to overspecify associated components in order to be safe. Now the added cost of overspecifying can be saved. For incoming and quality control testing especially, Tau-tron offers an eight-channel high-speed comparator, the DSU-350K/8. Its settling time is fast—typical performance is in the neighborhood of 4 nsec; minimums are running at 2.5 to 3.0 nsec. The DSU-350K/8 takes outputs directly from the device under test and from the DFE-1 system and compares them with a resolution of better than $\pm 10$ millivolts. It then provides outputs for magnetic tape storage for later computer processing. There is also a "strobe on error" output available to flag improper responses and therefore catch bad parts. The strobe would be suited to incoming test applications; the data processing output would be more useful in memory engineering and parts control data logging. The comparator is modular and is sold at $200 per channel. The DFE-1 itself can be assembled modularly; by adding FC-201's, 48 or more channels of data can be obtained without degrading any of the specifications. Price for an eight-channel DFE-1 is $17,750. Tau-tron is quoting four-to-six weeks delivery. Tau-tron Inc., 685 Lawrence St., Lowell, Mass. 01852 [338] --- HOW SYNCHRON® MOTORS control this specialized TIME-DELAY RELAY In this special design timer a Hansen SYNCHRON Motor drives the cam-type sequence timer for an electronic time-delay relay. When power is applied, SYNCHRON runs through the first three sequences; starts the time-delay relay, then stops. Relay performs a panel-adjustable delay period of 180-240 seconds, then returns power to the motor to complete the sequence. Special applications are easy to design, using SYNCHRON Motors. How about yours? Call or write Hansen, or your SYNCHRON representative, for brochure and all the facts. SYNCHRON timing and control motors; 168 different speeds. Right, left or reversible rotations. 8, 20 or 30 oz.-in. torques; 220, 110 or 24 volts; 60, 50 or 25 cycles. --- HANSEN** Manufacturing Co., Inc., Princeton, Ind. 47570 HANSEN REPRESENTATIVES: CAREY & ASSOCIATES, Houston and Dallas, Texas; R. S. HOPKINS CO., Sherman Oaks, Calif.; MELCHIOR & ASSOCIATES, Los Angeles, Calif.; THE PROMIS CO., River Forest, Ill.; JOHN ORR ASSOCIATES, Grand Rapids, Mich.; H. C. JOHNSON AGENT, INC., Rochester, N.Y.; WILSON ELECTRIC CO., Essex, Conn.; Villanova, Pa., and Teaneck, N.J. EXPORT DEPARTMENT: 2200 Shames Drive, Westbury, N.Y. 11590 Circle 121 on reader service card 121 Six MOS chips equal one calculator IC's are sold as standard products, but user builds proprietary machine; control read-only memory unit can be customized for special functions By Stephen Wm. Fields, San Francisco bureau manager One promise of large-scale integration was that a subsystem could be reduced to a single chip in a single package, providing compact building blocks for the systems designer. This promise is being fulfilled, but while it made things somewhat easier for the designer, the semiconductor maker faced a new problem: the world outside was turning into a custom market. The electronic calculator market was especially sensitive to the need for proprietary chips because all calculators have essentially the same format: they have a keyboard, an arithmetic unit, an output unit, and a display. The difference, and thus the selling point, is usually the type of keyboard, the available arithmetic functions, or the type of display. Before LSI devices, the difference was engineered in the circuit design, but with LSI available, the difference is in the devices themselves. On the other hand, because the electronic calculator market is so big, and still growing, semiconductor manufacturers have been looking for a way to turn this custom market into a standard one. That's what Electronic Arrays has done with its calculator chips. According to Earl Gregory, vice president and director of marketing at Electronic Arrays, the calculator set—which consists of six circuits—will offer "reduced labor costs because of the reduced assembly time. This will open up the calculator market to companies that otherwise wouldn't get into it—and it will open up the market in a hurry." Gregory expects to deliver approximately 200,000 sets during the next 18 months. He is reasonably sure about this figure because close to half of it is already contracted. Amperex Electronic Corp., a subsidiary of North American Philips Corp., has signed a contract that Gregory values at $5 million. "Amperex will handle the European market and we'll take care of the U.S.," says Gregory. As for selling the same circuits to different customers, Gregory says that "all of our customers will benefit from the high volume—it will be cheaper for all. And besides, the circuits offer options so the calculators will not be copies of each other." New markets are on the horizon, too. Gregory says there has been a decline in American-made calculators during the past few years, primarily because of high assembly costs, and customers have been looking to Japan. But now, says Gregory, the U.S. companies can put their own units together, and with Amperex selling in Europe, the European companies also can compete with Japan. Gregory projects a price per kit of six devices at about $35 by mid-1972. This is about half the present quantity price of $60 to $70. He says a complete calculator would cost from $100 to $200 depending on the quantity, case, keyboard, and type of display. The kit consists of six chips: an input unit; a control read-only-memory chip; a control logic device; a register; an arithmetic unit; and an output chip. The input chip receives digit and command signals from the keyboard. An address code is generated through use of a six-bit read-only memory in the chip. At the appropriate time the address is transmitted to the control chip; the input chip then waits until the control chip is not busy before honoring new inputs. The control ROM chip contains the read-only memory unit which issues the basic control sequences that operate the calculator. There are 128 ROM words of 15 bits each. Each word contains a control bit pattern which causes a data movement associated with a program step; a portion of each word specifies address of the next program step within the ROM. The control logic chip contains counters which require shifting and accumulate digit counts during multiply and divide operations. It also provides ROM address sequencing control, bit timing, and point-position and single-digit storage. The register chip is made of three 64-bit shift registers, one four-bit shift register, and register selection gating logic. The three 64-bit registers are the accumulator, the input, and multiplier/quotient registers. Each has individual clear capability and can shift right or left. The input register receives keyboard figures, and also is one of the inputs to the adder on the arithmetic chip. The accumulator accepts arithmetic outputs, and the M/Q manipulates multiplier, divisor, and quotient digits. In addition to full binary-coded decimal adder/subtractor and complementing units, the arithmetic chip contains sign and overflow flip-flops, a digit timing register, and synchronization circuits for the keyboard-generated "clear" function. Selection gates driven by ROM microprogramming determine the data paths entering the arithmetic chip from the three registers. The output chip supplies signals for the bcd digit value for display, as well as a signal for the decimal point display. Eight anode selection signals are sequentially activated to select one of eight positions for display. The calculator's arithmetic capability is capable of accumulating sums and products up to 16 digits, but the 16 digit positions are viewed eight at a time by selecting an upper-half (most significant) or a lower-half (least significant) register. In the upper half, no decimal point is displayed and leading 0's are suppressed. In the lower half, leading 0's are suppressed until the decimal point position is reached. Certain design constraints had to be followed, one of which was package size. Says Samuel Wauchope, Electronic Arrays' director of engineering, "In order to meet the cost objectives, we had to live with 24-pin packages, and this ruled out a truly parallel machine. Even the keyboard output had to be in serial form." Customizing is accomplished easily. Since the control and arithmetic chips were designed to handle more than just the simple configurations, more input functions can be added by simply putting on another input chip. Similarly, if a full 16-digit output is required, all that is needed is another output chip. And non-standard functions can be provided by changing the programming in the ROM's in the control chip. Sample sets can be ordered from stock for $150. Electronic Arrays, 501 Ellis St., Mountain View, Calif. [339] How Small is Big Enough? Ultra-Miniature Chassis Mount Resistors NEW from SAGE! PROBLEM: To produce, for aerospace application, outboard resistive components for use with hybrid and/or integrated circuits which combine minimum size with maximum efficiency and reliability; also to provide mounting ease and flexibility using component clips, clamps or high temperature epoxy bonding materials SOLUTION: The new Sage Ultra-Miniature Chassis Mount Resistors shown here! STYLE 8111: 7 WATTS CHASSIS MOUNTED — 3.5 WATTS FREE AIR — LESS THAN 0.015 IN$^3$ VOLUME STYLE 8112: 5 WATTS CHASSIS MOUNTED — 2.5 WATTS FREE AIR — LESS THAN 0.009 IN$^3$ VOLUME \| Part \| Length \| Width \| Height \| Standard Ranges Resistance \| \|------\|--------------\|--------------\|------------\|----------------------------\| \| 8111 \| 0.430" ± 0.015" \| 0.156" ± 0.005" \| 0.165" Max. \| .05Ω-1.3KΩ \| \| 8112 \| 0.305" ± 0.015" \| 0.156" ± 0.005" \| 0.165" Max. \| .05Ω-6KΩ \| ACCURACY: Tolerance to ± 0.05% PERFORMANCE: Meet or exceed all applicable requirements of MIL-R-18546 Free air rating is based on maximum surface hot spot temperature of 275° C. Chassis mount power rating is based on maximum surface hot spot temperature of 150° C when mounted on 4" x 4" x 0.040" aluminum chassis. For complete engineering data on these new Sage achievements in miniaturized electronic products, write... SAGE ELECTRONICS CORP. • BOX 3926 ROCHESTER, N.Y. 14610 • Phone: (716) 586-8010 Precision Power Resistors SAGE ELECTRONICS SUBSIDIARY OF GULTON INDUSTRIES, INC. Circle 123 on reader service card ... or 4, 5, 6 or maybe over 100! If you're using a crystal ball to determine bit error rates of digital links, tape recorders, modems, or any digital transmission or storage device ... investigate the unique advantages of LINK-BERC (Bit Error Rate Calculator). For the first time, a single 5¼ inch unit offers so many advantages. - 0 to 10 Megabits/second. - Measure bit errors in periods ranging from 100 to 10 million bits ... or on a continuous basis. - Bit error rates of Modems, Magnetic Discs, PCM Bit Synchronizers, etc. - Measure bit error rates of digital simplex links ... duplex links are not required. - Rapidly determine bit errors on magnetic tapes previously recorded on the same or other recorders. - Also measure clock slippages ... advance or retard slippages are indicated and clock regeneration can be optimized. These features and many others are explained in detail in a new Application / Design Bulletin. For your copy, contact: Data-Control Systems, Inc. Commerce Drive, Danbury, Conn. 06810. Telephone: (203) 743-9241 ... or our world-wide network of experienced field engineering representatives. I see bit-errors...two, maybe three... Low-priced tester seeks low-volume work Built to check out digital circuits, this programmable unit reads a character a second, costs $7,000 and has 24 outputs. A family squabble has brought forth a versatile digital-circuit tester that's inexpensive and programmable. Called the minitester, the unit was built to smooth the passage of new products from development to production at Canadian Marconi Co. Previously, any disagreement over writing test procedures, building test fixtures, or interpreting results usually wound up with designers and production chiefs pointing accusing fingers at each other. "There was continuous harassment and arguing about how to test properly," recalls Harvey Kolodny, Marconi's manager of avionic testing. Now, engineers write a test program as they develop a product, continually checking out their latest prototype with a minitester. When development is over, the engineers turn over a test program along with final designs. With a minitester of their own, the production people have little trouble, and take little time, setting up test stations and checking out new products. In fact, the minitester has worked so well testing new products, says Kolodny, that now it's going to be... ... It may be slow says a man who has one, but a faster minitester would cost more ... a product itself. Marconi engineers are reading a commercial model. A paper-tape reader controls the 3-foot-high minitester. With 24 output and 24 sense lines, the unit checks most digital networks, be they integrated circuits, printed-circuit cards, or subassemblies. In Marconi's avionics division, where the minitester was developed, a large production run is 200 or 300 units. So the minitester isn't for high-volume testing and automatic handlers. Section leader Frank Woo says that the instrument could be made to accept commands faster than its present 60-characters-per-second rate, but the tradeoff would be a doubled or tripled price tag. As it stands now, the minitester will sell for under $7,000 when it comes to market late this year. Test time. To use the minitester, a tape must be put onto the reader, which is mounted on the front panel. The tester must be connected to an adapter which holds the product to be tested. All that's left is a push on a button. Each type of product has its own adapter, which can be anything from a pin-to-pin connector to a multiplexer. Programs are written in ASCII code on one-inch tape, with one character to a line. A single test may require as many as 17 lines or as few as one. The commands from the reader go through an input/output register to a digital comparator. Test signals then pass back and forth between the comparator and the adapter. The minitester has three operating modes. In manual, it reads one line each time the START button is pushed. In the semiautomatic mode, the tester runs through a block of commands—17 lines—and then stops. The third mode is automatic; here a complete program is executed with no stop unless there's a failure detected. Seeking supplies. The minitesters running at Marconi have 5-volt supplies for logic circuits, and 12-volt supplies for operational amplifiers. However, the company will be able to match supply voltages to customer needs. Marconi engineers are repackaging the commercial version of the minitester and shopping for better power supplies. Modular units are in the company's testers, but Kolodny says that supplies on plug-in cards would be more versatile and cost less. Kolodny still faces the problem of service. The minitester will be Marconi's first off-the-shelf product for the U.S., where the company has no sales or service force. Kolodny is looking for distributors who'll sell and fix the tester. Canadian Marconi Co., 2442 Trenton Ave., Montreal 301, Canada [369] New instruments Old analyzer looks like new Built to resolve 0.1 hz, spectrum measuring unit can now do twice as well Not everybody is happy when a product is improved; in fact someone who has just laid out the cash for the old model may get downright angry. But an engineer with the SAI-51 spectrum analyzer & digital integrator shouldn't be upset, even though the new SAI-52 will have twice the resolution. Engineers at Signal Analysis Industries Corp. (Saicor) knew this improvement was coming when they were designing the 51; so they built it to be converted to the higher resolution. Here's how it works. Just a few months old itself, the SAI-51 analyzes, in real time, spectrums over ranges from d-c to 20 hertz up to d-c to 1 megahertz. In the 9-by-17-by-22-inch box with the analyzer is a digital integrator which takes noise out of a spectrum by averaging it over a number of sweeps. Like most other spectrum analyzers, the 51 breaks an input signal into segments, each with the same bandwidth. Then the energy in each segment is measured. Roughly speaking, this energy level is proportional to the amplitude of a segment's center frequency. Thus, for a given frequency band, the more segments an analyzer looks at, the better the analyzer's frequency resolution. Since the 51 can break a band into 200 segments, it can resolve 0.1 hz when set to its 20-hz range. Now there's the 52, which breaks a band into 400 segments, giving this instrument a top resolution of 0.05 hz. The 51 can be converted into a 52 by Saicor engineers, who put in additional memory cards, change some wiring, and replace a front panel. The price for the job is $4,700. That's the difference in price between the $17,500 for a 52 and the $13,300 for a 51, plus a $500 service charge. Sales manager Frank Kasper says the conversion takes no more than 30 days. On special orders, says Ira Langenthal, director of research, Saicor will build analyzers with even better resolution. He points out that his company already has built 1,000-segment units for military radars. Langenthal says that the military was the first customer for Saicor's early analyzers and integrators. But now industry is starting to use them, particularly to monitor vibrations—in aircraft engines and huge chemical vats, for example. Signal Analysis Industries Corp., 595 Old Willets Path, Hauppauge, N.Y. 11787 [370] Loop tracer's accurate to 0.5% Integrator also expands versatility of magnetic flux testing A hysteresis loop tracer for testing transformer cores promises to make things easier for production engineers. Many have had to put up with instruments that provide only minimal accuracy, allow gauging of only one or two selected magnetic characteristics of a material, and require frequent calibration. The loop tracer built by Hallmark Standards Inc. provides 0.5% accuracy, says H.R. Brownell, vice president of engineering. This is attained by using a sweep that automatically or manually adjusts to the steepness of the measured curve. Furthermore, the direction of the exciting current can be reversed along any point of the upward half of the loop by pushing a button while recording. Sweep speed is 6 to 30 seconds and H-amplitude, 1-120% of full scale, is adjustable. The Hallmark loop tracer applies an exciting voltage through a coil that's wrapped around the material under test. A second coil covers the first, and is attached to a Miller integrator that replaces the conventional electromechanical converter. It calculates the flux by measuring the difference between the input voltage of the first coil and the output voltage of the second. Soft materials are measured by an exciting current with a resistance, and an air gap magnetizing force using an H-coil with integrator measures hard materials. Calibration for measuring hard or soft materials is required only when the equipment is installed. After this initial calibration, all that's required to check different material is turning several dials to preset positions. The price is between $13,000 and $25,000, depending on options. Halmark Standards Inc., 257 Washington St., Mount Vernon, N.Y. 10551 [371] THE MOST ACCURATE RF MILLIVOLTMETER PROGRAMMABLE AVAILABLE ONLY FROM BOONTON The Model 92A has been designed as the definitive rf millivoltmeter. Accuracy at all frequencies and voltage levels is the best ever offered by Boonton Electronics, long a leader in the rf millivoltmeter field. Fast warm-up, high reliability, long intervals between calibrations, plug-in PC boards for ease of servicing, light weight, and no heat, are characteristics of the Model 92A's solid state design. STANDARD FEATURES - Accuracy 1% full scale + 1% reading - Programmable - Measures 100 μV to 3 V* from 10 kHz to 1.2 GHz - True RMS response to 30 mV** - Convenient push-button ranging and half-rack packaging - Fast, high level dc output - High input resistance, low input capacitance - Overload protection to 400 V dc, 10 V ac - VSWR less than 1.15 up to 1.2 GHz Price: $750 Standard Unit To 300 V, up to 700 MHz with accessory 100:1 divider To 3 V, up to 700 MHz with accessory 100:1 divider Call or Write for Details or Demonstration BOONTON ELECTRONICS CORPORATION ROUTE 287 PARSIPPANY, N.J. 07054 Telephone: 201-887-5110 TWX: 710-986-8241 Circle 127 on reader service card 127 If you could pinpoint one company that was completely, totally, thoroughly capable of Designing Developing Processing Packaging Testing and Delivering both custom and standard MOS arrays that could more than meet your specs for quality, performance and economy, it would save you a lot of time and trouble. MOS TECHNOLOGY, INC. saves you a lot of time and trouble We've Turned A Technology Into A Company MOS TECHNOLOGY, INC. VALLEY FORGE INDUSTRIAL PARK, VALLEY FORGE, PA. 19481 (215) 666-7950 A Proud Affiliate of Allen-Bradley Co. Multidigit display has single-unit construction Corresponding cathodes of nine-segment gas discharge tubes are bused by metal strips; design eliminates welded connections. Just about everything in the design of desk calculators is integrated—except, of course, the display, which usually is a group of discharge tubes. The display in most calculators still consists of a separate tube for each digit plus associated decoding, driving, and strobe circuits. Although solid state displays are increasing in popularity, they still do not compete with tubes on a cost basis. A new multidigit display, which includes all digits in a single envelope, further advances the design simplicity of calculators using gas discharge tubes, and contributes further to cost reductions. Designated the Segmatron, the nine-segment display is made by Burroughs Corp. To the manufacturer of calculators and other readout instruments, the single-envelope construction means doing away with handling individual tubes and inserting them into printed circuit boards, interconnecting and soldering the individual leads of the tube, and aligning the digits. "The integrated display will house 9, 14, or 16 digits and be price-competitive with Nixies and with other segmented displays," says John R. Bethke, sales manager. In addition to the seven segments comprising standard displays, the Segmatron also contains two vertical center segments, which, when decoded, form a 1. In most displays, the digit is formed by the rightmost segments, and this creates the appearance of a blank or a burned-out tube. Conventional gas discharge devices have welded connections. The cathode is welded to a pin which makes the connection to the circuit board. The Segmatron, however, has no welded joints in the tubes. There are 11 individual pieces—nine cathode strips plus a decimal point cathode strip, and one common etched strip which forms the anodes of the display. The same segment of each digit is bused and etched out of a single piece of metal. The cathodes fall into grooves cut out of a glass plate at the back of the display. Each cathode is made up of a single piece of metal that is brought out as a connection to the circuit board. Each digit's anodes consist of an etched screen or wire mesh. The anode structure also comprises one metal sheet upon which the pattern is exposed and etched. Circuit connections are made via tabs located at the top and bottom of the digit. Circuit operation of the Segmatron is similar to other multidigit displays and uses the same decoding and driver logic circuits. Since corresponding segments of the individual digits are internally connected in the multidigit tube, the display is suitable only for strobed use in a time-shared mode. This mode is more desirable than d-c because it saves a considerable number of driving circuits. One driver circuit is needed for each segment of the pattern, plus one for each digit. This also reduces the number of printed circuit board connections. A 12-digit Nixie display needs 144 connections, and a comparable segmented display 96. The integrated display, on the other hand, requires only 22 connections. Another advantage is in the closer spacing achieved between the characters. The Segmatron's center-to-center spacing is 0.375 inch versus the 0.540 inch for standard Nixie tubes. The viewing angle also is improved because of its inherent in-plane structure. All cathodes lie in the same plane close to the viewing surface of the device. There's no partitioning between the digit positions. Perhaps the most significant feature to come out of the integrated structure is the reduced cost for manufacturing the device. According to Bethke, prices will run on the order of $1.50 per digit for a 12-digit display in OEM quantities. This should amount to almost a $1 per digit savings over Nixies, which run about $2.50 per digit in large quantities. Bethke estimates that customers will realize cost savings for multidigit displays down to about six digits, below which Nixies are cheaper. Displays using light-emitting diodes run from $3 to $5 per digit. Engineers at Burroughs predict an average life of up to 200,000 hours at brightness levels comparable to Nixie tubes operated in a multiplex mode. The display operates from a supply of 200 volts d-c. The anode driver switching voltage requires a 100-volt swing, a cathode driver switching voltage of 80 to 100 volts, with a peak cathode current for each segment between 1 to 3 milliamperes. The time duration of the strobe requires a minimum 150-microsecond pulse for each digit position. The display panel is available in sample quantities, with production quantities expected shortly. The display will be on view at the Wescon Show in August. Burroughs Corp., Electronic Components Division, Plainfield, N.J. 07061 [349] New components Pot handles high power Trimming device has resistance element elevated above base Big things sometimes come in small packages—like the power capability in an ultra-miniature potentiometer, measuring only 3/16-inch square by 0.060-inch high. The trimming potentiometer, made by Mark Micro-Electronics Manufacturing Co., can dissipate more than 50 watts per square inch due to what the company describes as an unusual package design. The single-turn potentiometer, which incorporates a Cermet element, has the resistance structure on an alumina substrate elevated above the base of the device. This raised structure is said to enable the device to remove heat more efficiently than units which mount the resistance element flush with the base. The unit employs a true crossbar design for making contact. "Because of the elevated design, we can make a rotary contact look like a crossbar to the resistance, as opposed to point contacts, brooms, or balls," says John Rector, chief engineer. And, according to Rector, the design allows very accurate resistance values. Tolerances of stock units are 1%, 5%, and 10%. The trimming potentiometer is available in 16 resistance ranges from 10 ohms to 1 megohm. The contact material is the same as the resistance material, resulting in a bulk-effect ohmic interface for uniform current flow through the contact. The units are available in four mounting configurations and are sealed to withstand wave soldering and immersion cleaning. The price is 47 cents each in hundred unit lots. Mark Micro-Electronics Manufacturing Co., Potentiometer Products Division, 21 Cottage Street, Bayonne, N. J. 07002 [350] small wonders: big news Denser PC packaging at low cost is now possible... thanks to CAMBION's low-profile standard variable inductors. They're wound on new, thin wall coil forms that allow higher Q's and inductance values. Ultra-reliable as well as miniature, these high performance inductors are built for longer life... longer by a factor of ten in tuning torque. They have an operating temperature range of -55° to 125°C and a tuning range of ±20% from the mean inductance. For total circuit reliability - at a small price - it pays to choose CAMBION inductors. They're available in a wide choice of values, sizes, styles and finishes for immediate delivery. Cambridge Thermionic Corporation, 445 Concord Ave., Cambridge, Mass. 02138. Phone: (617) 491-5400. CAMBION Electronic Products, Ltd., Castleton, Near Sheffield, England. Phone: Hope 406/407. Standardize on CAMBION® The Guaranteed Electronic Components Circle 158 on reader service card FOR EXCELLENCE IN ROTARY SWITCHES SPECIFY GRAYHILL - 15°, 30°, 36°, 45°, 60° or 90° Angle Of Throw - 2 To 24 Positions Per Pole - Ratings Up To 15 Amps. - 1 To 6 Poles Per Deck - 1 To 12 Decks - Diameter ½" To 2¼" - Shunting Or Non-shorting Contacts - Explosion Proof - Military Or Commercial Styles - Single Or Concentric Shafts - Solder Lug Or Printed Circuit Terminals - Switch And Potentiometer Combinations - Key Lock Option - Homing Rotor (Bridging And Shunting) Option - Spring Return Option - Power or Signal Switching - Isolated Position (Pull-To-Turn) Option - Adjustable Stop Option For your Grayhill Engineering Catalog offering complete technical data—contact 523 Hillgrove Avenue LaGrange, Illinois 60525 Area Code 312, Phone 354-1040 ...the Difference Between Excellent and Adequate ANNOUNCING PLUG-IN DIGITAL MEASURING SYSTEM MODEL 3202 3½ digit. Nine wide range plug-ins for measurement of AC-DC Voltage, DC Current, Resistance, Capacitance, Frequency and Time. Digital Printer and Set Point Controller accessories. Main Frames from $385.00 Plug-Ins from $100.00 DIGITAL MULTIMETER MODEL 3300 3½ digit, with internal rechargeable battery pack. 26 ranges for measurement of AC-DC Voltage, AC-DC Current, and Resistance. $395.00 including rechargeable battery pack 25 MHz OSCILLOSCOPES MODEL 5000 & 5002 Solid State, high performance single and dual trace models. Simplified, stable triggering to 50 MHz. Single Trace $725.00 Dual Trace $995.00 NEW INSTRUMENTATION CATALOG A new Catalog describing these instruments and listing your local Hickok Representative is now available. Send for your copy today. HICKOK INSTRUMENTATION GROUP 10514 Dupont Ave., Cleve., Ohio 44108 Phone (216) 541-8060 Circle 131 on reader service card Fastest disconnect in the business (And practically indestructible.) Apply gentle pressure on the locking latch of this coupling connector and the ejector spring pops the plug assembly into your hand. It's the MB6 series, and it connects easily, too, especially in limited access areas. Manipulation for blind mating is convenient and safe, and a dead-front pin-protecting plate makes the plug "more than scoopproof". When inserted, a quick "click" lets you know it's connected... securely. Burndy uses resilient nylon for both the plug and receptacle. Lightweight, reliable and low-cost, it will withstand many times more disconnects than a metal connector, without any wear or galling. Even if accidentally stepped on, it cannot be deformed. Unaffected by humidity, the MB6 is rated for temperatures from -55°C to +100°C and is shock and vibration resistant. Uses standard copper alloy gold-plated contacts installed with standard tools. Burndy has more connectors like this, with and without the self-ejecting spring feature. Write for complete information, including test results. Plug Assembly Type MB6P- Receptacle Assembly Type MB6R- Accepts five standard contacts for No. 24-20 wire, plus either one standard contact for No. 14-12 wire, or one coaxial cable contact. Gunn unit shoots for millimeter-wave jobs Oscillator delivers 5 milliwatts at 50-60 gigahertz; it's tunable over 200 megahertz, needs only 3.2-volt supply Increased demand for solid state power sources is reaching up to the millimeter-wave region. A Gunn diode oscillator developed by Varian Associates operates at 50-60 gigahertz with a c-w output of 5 milliwatts. Believed to be the highest-frequency Gunn device on the market, the oscillator is intended to replace reflex klystrons and frequency multipliers in radiometry systems, secure military communications, and laboratory local oscillators. Of the two bulk-effect devices—Gunn and limited space-charge accumulation—under development as possible replacements for traveling wave tubes and klystrons, Gunns seem to have the edge, at least for the moment. Although both LSA and Gunn devices use gallium arsenide as the active material, the requirements on the GaAs are not as stringent for Gunns as they are for LSA's, because Gunn diode structures, with their much narrower active region, do not need the large, defect-free junction of critically doped GaAs required in LSA devices. And at higher-frequency c-w operation, the LSA junction structure becomes very... WE’VE GOT A BETTER WAY TO MAKE PRINTED CIRCUITS! New techniques developed to make circuit boards more reliable. The Printed Circuits Operation of CDC used a unique etch-back technique for producing reliable multi-layer circuitry for the Mercury project. Its success is indicated by the fact that the same techniques were used in the Gemini and Apollo projects without design change . . . millions of inter-facial connections with no known failures. Designs ranged from double-sided circuitry to complex 15-layer circuit boards . . . using sequential laminating, extra fine line width and spacing, and plated slots and edges . . . and were used for systems control telemetry, hi and low level multiplexer, command module telemetry, LEM flight control system, and the seismograph experiment. The Mercury-Gemini-Apollo program demonstrates our capability for the design and production of high quality circuit boards. Hundreds of other projects use our circuit boards in many phases of civilian and military equipment. We’ve got a better way to make printed circuitry. This design and production experience can work for you . . . CALL US NOW. CONTROL DATA CORPORATION PRINTED CIRCUITS OPERATION 300 COMPUTER DRIVE MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. 55435 PHONE: (612) 927-5681 ... device can be tuned over 200-Mhz range ... difficult to fabricate with good reproducibility. The new oscillator makes use of the low-noise characteristics of the bulk effect in gallium arsenide. As a fundamental r-f frequency source, it’s free of spurious and harmonic signals commonly found in harmonic multipliers. In fact, the device’s noise output is comparable to that of a reflex klystron. Labeled the VSE-9020 by Varian, the Gunn oscillator is mechanically tuned by means of a single-screw unit over a 200-megahertz range selected between 50.1 and 59.9 gigahertz. An oscillator with a tuning range of 1 Ghz is available at extra cost. Although the VSE-9020 lacks a reliability history, Varian says it has accumulated 262,330 hours on 19 Gunn oscillators—X-, Kₐ, and K-band units—without a failure. One manufacturer has decided to use the mm-wave source as a radiometer local-oscillator in a weather satellite scheduled for launch in 1971. The VSE-9020 is designed to operate over a temperature range of 0 to 50°C and can withstand vibrations up to 20 G’s. It is biased using a single 3.2 volt d-c power supply and draws 500 milliamperes. Housed in an aluminum structure only 1¾ by ¾ by ¾ inches, the oscillator weighs less than 2.5 ounces. The VSE-9020 is priced at $5,000 in quantities of 1-9. Varian Associates, 611 Hansen Way, Palo Alto, Calif. 94303 [409] Hybrid converters aimed at MOS systems Small, low-power, thick-film units have high resolution; a-d device contains equivalent of more than 600 discretes Analog medium-scale integration is the tag that Beckman Instruments' microcircuits operation puts on two hybrid thick-film devices—the model 871 analog-to-digital converter and the model 847 digital-to-analog converter. Resolution for the a-d unit is 12 bits; it's 10 bits for the d-a device. "Our hybrid technology plus recent advances in monolithics make it possible to put complete analog circuit functions in a package," says George Smith, director of research and development. The a-d converter has the equivalent of more than 600 discrete devices in it. All the user has to add is a reference voltage and a system clock. Both units fit into hermetically sealed metal plug-in packages measuring 1.8 by 1.2 inches, and both are built with MOS converter chips for MOS system compatibility. "We see systems people getting more and more interested in MOS," says Smith. "Instrument manufacturers, military and airborne systems users are the ones who will make MOS go because they need it for small size and low power dissipation." Smith says that if the a-d and... ... MOS arrays perform conversion function, permitting smaller package for devices ... d-a functions were accomplished with bipolar integrated circuits in a hybrid package, they would require a much larger package because more IC's would be needed and because the smaller package couldn't dissipate the heat generated by the higher-powered bipolar circuits. Power consumption of the model 871 analog-to-digital converter is 950 milliwatts maximum. In the model 847 digital-to-analog unit, it's 350 milliwatts maximum. Equivalent bipolar circuits would dissipate three or four times more power, according to Smith. He says the closest things to the 871 in a-d converters are potted modules that usually measure 2 by 3 inches, adding that no monolithic IC can do the a-d conversion without some outboard parts. There is one other hybrid d-a converter available, but Beckman engineers claim theirs is more accurate and less expensive. The top-of-the-line model 847 has a guaranteed accuracy of ±0.0025% at 25°C, which is equivalent to resolving one-half bit in 11; the competitive d-a converter typically resolves one-half bit in nine, and sells for $225. The model 847 price for quantities of one to nine—and for the most accurate version of the d-a unit—is $195. The model 871 ranges in price from $295 for the most accurate version—±0.025% at 25°C—to $195 in quantities of one to nine for the version whose accuracy is ±0.1%. Smith looks for customers among instrument designers who have to convert from analog to digital to get data into a computer. "In the past, they've had to pay as much as $1,000 for an a-d converter," says Smith. He points out that while the units aren't aimed at the super-high reliability market, such as satellite systems, they should find applications in shipboard, ground, and aircraft equipment. Both units meet environment specifications in Military Standard 883. They have a typical temperature coefficient of ±0.005%°C. "The model 871," Smith says, "could easily be used to put the output of a transducer amplifier into digital form in a system where you have one to a few channels of data." The logic 0 level for both units is 0 to −2 volts; the logic 1 level is −9 to −30 volts. The model 871 (d-a) uses the successive approximation technique to convert analog voltages into a corresponding binary code. It also offers dynamically adjusted offset for 10-bit operation, conversion time of 100 microseconds for 10 bits (10 kilohertz), free-running or synchronous conversion with return-to-zero capability, and two analog input configurations to accommodate bipolar (−5 to ±5 volts) or unipolar (0 to 10 volts) operation. The model 847 d-a converter will accommodate digital word entry into the input register serially or in parallel, selectable by logic command, and settles to 0.1% of full scale in 30 μsec maximum. Its full-scale output voltage range of 0 to 10 volts can be offset for −5 to +5 volt operations. Delivery of both units is from stock. Helipot Division, Beckman Instrument Inc., 2500 Harbor Blvd., Fullerton, Calif. 92634 [389] Mesa process widens Darlington market Prices reduced as much as two-thirds from level of planar units; simplified heat-sinking also seen opening up industrial, consumer jobs In the military marketplace, Darlington transistors—usually made by the planar process—sell for $10 to $20 each. In an attempt to broaden their application, engineers at Motorola's Semiconductor Products division adapted the group's epitaxial-base mesa technology to the manufacture of power Darlingtons and developed a line intended for output devices in complementary general-purpose amplification jobs. Range of current ratings runs from 1.5 to 15 amperes, with breakdown voltages from 60 to 100 volts. D-c current gains are as high as 1,000. The units are offered in both pnp and npn form. The family of silicon devices "will revolutionize a lot of thinking, because we're really talking about power integrated circuits," says James Quinn, marketing manager for power transistors. "These units consist of two active devices and a biasing network, or two transistors and two resistors. But since we make them as a single device, we're seeing yields as good as those with a single transistor." That's one reason for the lower price of the new devices. Also, the The epitaxial-base mesa process is stable, and, according to Quinn, less expensive than the planar process. These factors will allow the user "to think of power Darlingtons for the consumer market," says Quinn. "He can buy the Darlington cheaper than he could get the transistor pair for the same function, and still not have to worry about heat sinking." The mesa structure makes it easier to dissipate heat from the collector. The 10-ampere, 60-80 volt units are designated MJ2500, MJ2501 (pnp) and MJ3000 and MJ3001 (npn). The pnp units sell for $3.65 and $4.05, respectively, in quantities of 100 or more, while the npn devices are priced at $3.05 and $3.45, respectively. Minimum d-c current gain is 1,000 with a collector current of 5 amps. This means that the input to the device can be as low as 50 milliamps, well within the capability of integrated circuit logic gates. The devices are being marketed initially in a TO-3 package, and are available from stock. Besides the 10-amp unit, Motorola is stocking quantities of 1.5 and 15-amp power Darlingtons, although no device numbers have been assigned. The 1.5-amp device is rated at 60-100 volts and has a gain of 750 to 1,000. The 3-amp unit is rated at 60-80 volts, with a gain of 1,000 at 1.5 amps. Motorola engineers have used the same technology to come up with a 300-volt power Darlington with a 2-amp current rating, but there's no plan now to market it. Motorola Semiconductor Products Inc., Box 20912. Phoenix, Ariz., 85035 [444] Silver-filled acrylic paint called 4900 is a spray-on, one-component air-drying conductive coating that provides emi/rfi shielding on plastic or other nonconductive enclosures. When applied in a 1-mil thickness, surface resistivity is 0.05 ohm/sq. (max.). Resistivity decreases as thickness increases. The paint is available in bulk quantities for under $45 a pound, and in 6-oz aerosol cans at $16.20 each. Chomerics Inc., 77 Dragon Court, Woburn, Mass. 01801 [421] Phosphorus Oxychloride-S is a liquid phosphorus compound of 99.99+ purity. It is used for preparing p-n junctions by diffusion technique, for doping epitaxial growth, and for oxide doping as well. It is available in 5-gram ampules, 2-fluid-oz size, and 1-lb size, priced at $2, $5, $20 respectively. Transeone Co., Route One, Rowley, Mass. 01969 [422] Quartz-mat-reinforced, and cross-linked polystyrene is available from stock. Features of this stripline laminate are extremely low electrical loss in a reinforced dielectric material, giving excellent electrical and mechanical properties. The material is available clad or unclad in various sizes and thicknesses. Custom Materials Inc., Alpha Industrial Park, Chelmsford, Mass. 01824 [423] Thermosetting flame-retardant and track-resistant molding compounds are designated as Plenco 714, 744 and 757 melamine-phenolic and Plenco 1502, 1506, and 1507 alkyd. The materials offer improved, consistent arc resistance, and excellent resistance to tracking under the influence of conductive contaminants. The materials are UL recognized. Plastics Engineering Co., Sheboygan, Wis. 53081 [424] Dynaloy 479 is a silver alloy polymer coating that exhibits excellent conductivity and contains no carbon or copper. It gives good environmental protection and can easily be soldered with conventional materials. It adheres readily to metals, plastics, glass, rubber and also ceramic surfaces. Uses include component lead terminations, printed circuit repair, electroplating base, and component grounding. It is easily applied by dip, brush, roller coating, or spraying. An evaluation kit of 3 oz costs $9.50. Dynaloy Inc., 7 Great Meadow Lane, Hanover, N.J. 07936 [425] Aremcolox grade 502-1400, a 99% alumina ceramic, readily machinable by the user and operable at temperatures up to 2,600°F, is available in a wide range of standard rods and plates. It is designed for prototype work or in fabricating high-temperature tooling such as firing boats, brazing fixtures, etc. As received, it has a compressive strength of 10,000 psi, flexural strength of 8,000 psi, dielectric strength of 100 v per mil, and resistivity of $10^{10}$ ohm-cm. Aremco Products Inc., P.O. Box 145, Briarcliff Manor, N.Y. 10510 [426] Latex-based protective covering called Soder Mask is for use while soldering. It is a specially formulated elastomer that comes as a solvent or water soluble formulation. Easy to apply with dispenser, brush or syringe, the material protects holes and areas that must be kept free of solder during reflow and repair operations. The substance may be removed by peeling or rubbing and leaves no residue. Soder Mask is also effective as a conformal coating or paint resist. The material withstands temperatures up to 300°F. Techni-Tool Inc., 1216 Arch St., Philadelphia, Pa. 19107 [427] Two-part RTV silicone rubber Silastomer 70, when cured, is suitable for use between -60°C and +250°C, with excellent dielectric properties, resistance to moisture, weathering, corona discharge, ultraviolet light, and ionizing radiations. Applications include potting and encapsulation of electronic components. Midsil Corp., Box 475, Emerson, N.J. 07630 [428] Passivation glass designated IP 540 is designed to increase yields and give packaging flexibility to planar devices with shallow diffusions, such as MOS and TTL IC's. The glass is applied over the existing oxide and aluminum, hermetically sealing the device while it is still in wafer form. IP 540 is available for as low as $23 per pound when ordered in production quantities. Innotech Corp., 181 Main St., Norwalk, Conn. 06851 [429] Pure copper braid desolderer called Soder-Wick, treated with a special pure rosin, leaves no conductive residue on a dispenser spool of 5 ft. When solder melts it is immediately drawn up into the Soder-Wick. Usual desoldering time is one second. Simply snip off the used portion of Soder-Wick and touch the fresh portion of the material to the connection. Apply soldering iron and the connection is desoldered. Techni-Tool Inc., 1216 Arch St., Philadelphia, Pa. 19107 [430] The culinary wonder of space age cooking moves to your kitchen with this new International countertop oven that cooks with radar-spawned microwave power. People on the go will welcome an oven that makes cooking chores a pleasure. Imagine a "piping hot" TV dinner (frozen) in 3½ minutes instead of 20 to 50 minutes. Bake a potato in 5 minutes instead of 60 minutes. Warm a chilled baby bottle in 60 seconds. Fry crisp bacon in 90 seconds on a paper plate. Great for those leftovers. International Microwave Oven is truly remarkable. No more waiting for the oven to reach cooking temperature. Countertop designed for the home, mobile home, or the galley on your boat. No special wiring required. Works on 115 vac house circuit. $695.00 Available direct from International or through your local appliance dealer. Times listed are approximate and vary with size of item. Write for folder INTERNATIONAL CRYSTAL MFG. CO., INC. 10 NO LEE • OKLA. CITY, OKLA. 73102 Circle 139 on reader service card Where reliability really counts! The reliability of Zenith Flat-Face Metal CRTs is demonstrated by their extensive use in enroute air traffic control centers and airports. When safety depends on reliability, Zenith is specified! Shouldn’t you take advantage of Zenith CRT quality in your application? Write for details. Zenith Zenith Radio Corporation The Rauland Division 5614 W. Jarvis Ave. • Chicago, Ill. 60648 • 312-647-8000 New Books Recently Published Introduction to Nonlinear Network Theory, Leon O. Chua, McGraw-Hill, 959 pp., $22.50 Provides a unified treatment for both analysis and synthesis of nonlinear circuits. Concentrates on developing methods that will allow the reader to easily adapt them to accommodate any new components. Although requiring only a background in calculus, the book discusses different algorithmic methods for computer solution to these types of problems. Manual of Logic Circuits, Gerald A. Maley, Prentice-Hall, 297 pp., $19.95 Designed to help prevent the practicing logic designer from re-inventing the many previously designed switching and logic networks. The manual covers Boolean algebra and logic symbols and then lists and explains over 100 logic circuits using Karnaugh maps and flow charts; the material covered represents major areas of present logic design activity. Theory and Applications of Field Effect Transistors, Richard S.C. Cobbold, Wiley-Interscience, 534 pp., $19.95 Deals comprehensively with the theory, fabrication, properties, and application of field effect transistors. Device physics gets strong attention; throughout, the book relates theory to experimental measurements, the performance of real devices, and the restrictions that are usually imposed by fabrication technology. Government reports All these reports are available from the Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific and Technical Information (CFSTI), 528 Port Royal Rd., Springfield, Va. 22151. Price is $3 for each hard copy, or 65 cents for each microfiche. Dual input transponder AD 696 958 Describes a dual-input transponder system developed in an effort to eliminate signal loss, which may occur when an aircraft is maneuvering and the fuselage or wing interrupts line-of-sight transmission between the transponder and the Air-Traffic Control ground interrogator. Experimentation and analysis of radar siting criteria AD 693 541 Discusses procedures for determining the sites for future radar beacons and includes various methods for minimizing the signal-reflection problems at existing sites. Micro makes it An asynchronous digital controller A.A. Frank Department of Electrical Engineering University of Wisconsin Madison, Wis. Introducing a single central digital computer isn't always the best and most reliable way to control an industrial process. To handle the calculations required for many process points, such a central unit may have to be prohibitively large. And failure could put the entire plant out of operation. As an alternative, today's integrated circuit technology makes it feasible to locate small, preprogramed microcomputers at each of several control sites along the line. The central computer then is relegated to monitoring and performing set-point calculations. A microcomputer could be as small as a pack of cigarettes and cost $100. It could perform standard control functions, including proportional, rate, and reset controls generally handled by an analog controller. A combination of such computers would perform asynchronously, each working only when necessary. This type of design is feasible because control calculations don't have to be extremely accurate. Thus a machine that handles digital words with as few as three bits could be used; a four- or five-bit machine would be more than adequate in most cases. The microcomputer consists of three basic parts: an error computer, a compensating logic computer, and a pulse modulator. In one configuration, the error signal is computed using a look-up subtraction table implemented with diode gates. The computed error signal then goes to the compensating logic, where its rate is calculated. The error signal and rate are applied to the pulse modulator which converts it into a pulse-width modulated signal. Output pulses from the modulator are amplified by power switches which operate the plant's controls. Only design studies have been made so far. Presented at the IEEE Solid State in Industry Conference, Cleveland, June 15-17. New Literature Linear IC's. Fairchild Semiconductor, Box 880A, Mountain View, Calif. 94040, offers an 88-page, pocket-size catalog describing its complete line of linear IC's. Circle 446 on reader service card Miniature recorder. Esterline Angus, division of Esterline Corp., P.O. Box 24000, Indianapolis 46224. A four-color brochure describes the Minigraph recorder, which is 3⅝ in. wide, 5⅛ in. high and 4⅜ in. deep. Elapsed time indicators. A.W. Haydon Co., 232 N. Elm St., Waterbury, Conn. 06720. Bulletin M1600-RI introduces a line of five-digit elapsed time indicators designed for industrial and commercial use. Interactive graphic system. Computek Inc., 143 Albany St., Cambridge, Mass. 02139. Series 400 interactive graphic terminal, graphic tablet and joystick input devices are described in a four-page brochure. Data gathering for EDP. Motorola Instrumentation and Control Inc., P.O. Box 3409, Phoenix 85010. Use of the MDR optical mark reader to obtain data for a computer directly at the source, eliminating the delay and costs of key-boarding, is featured in an eight-page bulletin. Silicon triacs. RCA, Commercial Engineering, Harrison, N.J. 07029. File 431 covers a new series of 2.5-amp sensitive-gate silicon triacs for low-power phase control and load switching applications. Computer cassette. Auricord division, Scovill, 35-41 29th St., Long Island City, N.Y. 11106, has available a data sheet on its CM series metal computer cassette, which cuts static charges. Universal circuit system. Robinson-Nugent Inc., 800 E. Eighth St., New Albany, Ind. 47150. A universal circuit system for test and breadboarding is fully detailed in a six-page catalog. Ladder networks. Beckman Instruments Inc., 2500 Harbor Blvd., Fullerton, Calif. 92634. A two-page catalog sheet features the series 862 BCD ladder networks designed for FET switching. Stampings capabilities. Volkert Stampings Inc., 222-34 96th Ave., Queens Village, N.Y. 11429, has issued a six-page booklet describing its expanded capabilities for producing small precision parts for the electronics, data processing and allied industries. Microwave communications system. Canadian Marconi Co., 2442 Trenton Ave., Montreal 301, P.Q., Canada. An illustrated folder contains a detailed description of the MCS 6900 microwave communications system. IC packages. Sylvania Electric Products Inc., 12 Second Ave., Warren, Pa. 16365. Specification sheets describing three new glass-ceramic IC packages may be secured by writing on company letterhead. Digital IC's. National Semiconductor Corp., 2900 Semiconductor Dr., Santa Clara, Calif. 95051, has published a report describing two types of operational life tests it uses on digital IC's. Paper tape readers. Dataterm Inc., 1611 Maning Blvd., Levittown, Pa. 19057, has published a six-page interface guide to the HS-300 series of paper tape readers. Push-button switches. Cinch Mfg. Co., 1501 Morse Ave., Elk Grove Village, Ill. 60007, has prepared a brochure covering 66 styles of Ucinite momentary contact, push-button switches. General-purpose transistors. KMC Semiconductor Corp., Parker Rd., Long Valley, N.J. 07853. A four-page pamphlet contains practical reference data on general-purpose transistors from vhf through S band. D/A converter. Beckman Instruments Inc., 2500 Harbor Blvd., Fullerton, Calif. 92634. A complete digital-to-analog converter in hybrid IC form is described in catalog sheet 843. Operational amplifiers. Fairchild Controls, 423 National Ave., Mountain View, Calif. 94040. "Selection Guide To Operational Amplifiers" is a new catalog describing modular products and linear integrated circuits. Digital motor-controller. Theta Instrument Corp., Fairfield, N.J. 07006. Engineering bulletin 67-13A describes in detail a new digital control system for prime movers. Dual power supply. Hewlett-Packard, New Jersey Division, 100 Locust Ave., Berkeley Heights, N. J. 07922, has available a technical data sheet describing the DPB series dual power supply. Variable Capacitors. Johanson Mfg Corp., 400 Rockaway Valley Rd., Boonton, N.J. 07005. Variable capacitors with higher Q's than previously available are featured in stock catalog 170. Differential video amplifiers. Silicon General Inc., 7382 Bolsa Ave., Westminster, Calif. 92683. A four-page technical bulletin covers the SG733 and SG733C, monolithic two-stage wideband amplifiers that are particularly suited for applications requiring a fast linear function. Modular power supplies. North Electric, Galion, Ohio 44833. A 12-page catalog introduces a modular line of standardized shelf power supplies and accessories. Miniature r-f connectors. Sealectro Corp., 225 Hoyt St., Mamaroneck, N.Y. 10543. Four-page catalog 981A covers the SRM line of miniature r-f connectors that conform to MIL C-39012, series SMA. Data-logging printers. Datadyne Corp., Bldg. 37A, Valley Forge Center, King of Prussia, Pa. 19406. Four-page folder 3070A gives complete specifications, illustrations and prices for 10 and 20 lines per second data-logging printers with a 64-character ASCII capability. Videotape recorders. Ampex Corp., 2201 Estes Ave., Elk Grove Village, Ill. 60007. Comparison sheet V70-1 contains essential specifications, other descriptive data and suggested list prices on a complete range of one-inch, closed circuit videotape recorders and players. Silicone gasket. Metex Corp., 970 New Durham Rd., Edison, N.J. 08817, offers a pamphlet describing Polastick, a pressure sensitive, adhesive-backed silicone gasket for both emi shielding and pressure sealing. R-f connectors. Bendix Corp., 401 N. Bendix Dr., South Bend, Ind. 46620, has issued a 161-page illustrated catalog covering all major r-f connector classifications and sub-types. Scr drive controllers. Randtronics Inc., 465 Convention Way, Redwood City, Calif. 94063, has released a specification sheet on the series SFB single-phase, full-wave, bidirectional scr drive controllers. Power supplies. Electronic Measurements Inc., 405 Essex Rd., Neptune, N.J. 07750. A four-page brochure describes the SCR series power supplies for high power applications. Audio connectors. Switchcraft Inc., 5555 N. Elston Ave., Chicago 60630. Product bulletin 198 describes three new additions to the Q-G (quick-ground) series of audio connectors. Servomechanisms. Weston-Transicoil, Components Division of Weston Instruments Inc., Worcester, Pa. 19490. A 12-page catalog shows electrical and mechanical specifications for servo motors, generators and motor generators, synchros, resolvers, stepper motors, d-c torquers, and servo amplifiers. ...if you think that heart disease and stroke hit only the other fellow's family. No one is immune. Protect the hearts you love. For authoritative information, ask your Heart Association. For medical advice see your doctor. To safeguard your family... GIVE... so more will live HEART FUND Contributed by the Publisher Tech labs 2A Tap Switch YOU CAN'T BUY - MORE PRECISION - LOWER CONTACT RESISTANCE - HIGHER CURRENT CARRYING CAPACITY - LONGER LIFE FOR THE PRICE Available in remote controlled versions, open or hermetically sealed. SEND FOR FREE CATALOG. TECH LABORATORIES, INC. Palisades Park, New Jersey Circle 143 on reader service card Peripherals got you confused? Let CMC counters, totalizers, and time interval meters interface your mini-computer with the process it measures or controls. USING COUNTER FOR RATE MEASUREMENT OF MECHANICAL PROCESS USING TOTALIZERS FOR CONTINUOUS READOUT OF LIQUID LEVEL USING TIME INTERVAL METER IN GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY CMC offers a complete line of low-cost, single-function instruments that could solve many of your peripheral interface problems. Why make when you can buy? Why re-invent the wheel? For prices that are truly nominal, CMC may be able to supply you with an off-the-shelf instrument that is exactly what you need. Here are a few examples: The Model 905, a compact little counter that can measure rates from 1 to 1.5 million events per second...a Model 925 Totalizer that will count up to 99,999 at rates from 1 to 1 million events per second; a Model 915 Time Interval Meter that is capable of measuring the time between two events with a resolution of 1 microsecond; and two preset controllers, the Model 912 (single) and the Model 913 (dual). For product data sheets, just use the reader service card. For application information, drop us a line on your letterhead describing your problem. COMPUTER MEASUREMENTS COMPANY CMC A DIVISION OF NEWELL INDUSTRIES 12970 Bradley / San Fernando, Calif. 91342 / (213) 367-2161 / TWX 910-496-1487 Circle 144 on reader service card TTL prices tumble in West Europe... U.S. integrated circuit makers, sitting on large unsold stocks of 74 series transistor-transistor logic as a result of over optimistic growth forecasts and stagnant home demand, are intensifying efforts to unload it in Europe. In Britain, basic gates have gone for only 20 cents each in mixed orders of 250,000 at a time. The going rate in a 5,000-to-10,000-gate mix is 35 cents or less, compared with 45 to 50 cents a month ago and 70 to 80 cents six months ago. Dual J-K flip-flops have been offered at less than 50% more than basic gates, full adders at $2.40, and dual eight-bit shift registers at $6.60 in four figure mixes. In France, one of the big instrument makers thinks TTL has been cheaper than anywhere else in Europe until the last few weeks. Six months ago, it paid 45 cents a gate in quantities of 100,000—now it is paying 32 cents a gate. In Germany, current prices are similar to those in Britain, but the price war started slowly there six months ago. Diode-transistor logic is following TTL down—but not so violently. DTL is now a few cents more than the lowest TTL levels, and opinion is that it may have already stabilized. The resilience of DTL, which was always generally cheaper than TTL, is due to a bigger spread of buyers, some characteristics that mean it's not a direct alternative to TTL, and less surplus production. ...as U.S. makers trigger shake-out Price cutting pacesetters are Texas Instruments and National Semiconductor. Both buyers and sellers expect prices to go lower yet before they stabilize. National Semiconductor's British marketing manager says: "It's our policy, at today's price levels, never to lose an order on pricing." In the long run, insiders expect some of Britain's suppliers will be forced out of the 74 market, though not necessarily out of IC production. Though this might look ominous for the non-American suppliers—Ferranti and Mullard, a Philips subsidiary—both maintain they've no intention of abandoning 74. Furthermore, Marconi-Elliott Microelectronics is using its Fairchild license to enter the 74 market, and SGS, owned by Olivetti of Italy, is tooling for production later this year. Asked how he expects to compete successfully, M-E's marketing manager says: "By pushing hard on MSI, which we will be able to make economically at our Scottish plant." Who's No. 2 in computers? The Japanese Japan claims the second highest number of computers in operation in the world. At the end of March, according to the Japan Electronic Computer Co., the government-sponsored computer-rental joint venture of Japan's six computer manufacturers, there were 6,718 computers in operation. That gives Japan 48 more than West Germany, says the company, but is still far short of the 47,997 computers in operation in the U.S. However, compared with 0.24 computers per 1,000 persons in U.S., Japan lagged behind Germany, England, France, Canada, and Australia with only 0.07 computers for each 1,000 people. Installations of computers during the year ended March 31, 1970 rose 20% in number compared with the beginning of the year, and nearly 40% in value. Of these, 1608 were domestic computers worth $338.3 million, a 45% increase in value. During the same period, 527 imported computers worth $251.1 million were installed, a gain of only 34.5%. London's Heathrow first to record plane landing data Preparing for automatic landing, London's Heathrow Airport will start automatically recording the flightpath and speed of landing planes, the point of touchdown, and the rolling distance for one runway. Pulling in the initial contract is Elliott-Automation Radar Systems Ltd., which will install the system next year. Approach performance will be measured by passive optoelectronic detectors mounted on the ground below where the plane should be at altitudes of 200 feet, 100 feet, and 50 feet. As the plane passes over the detector, the shadow triggers an output. At night the plane's lights serve the same function. Speed information is provided by detectors separated by a fixed distance and sensitive straight upward; altitude information by detectors sensitive at precise vertical angles, and centerline information by detectors sensitive at vertical and horizontal angles. Once on the runway, the aircraft breaks horizontal infrared beams angled to provide speed and centerline information, and seismic devices record touchdown and rolling distance. Hot color tv sales in West Germany may cool off Surging labor costs and a chronic shortage of parts may cripple the West German boom in color television sales. Both domestic sales and exports of color sets have leaped ahead of expectations. This year's domestic volume, predicts Germany's electronics industry association, is likely to hit 750,000 sets, nearly twice as many as were sold in 1969. That volume would put total installed color sets in West German homes by the end of the year at roughly 1.5 million, the highest in Europe. The association sees little reason for demand to slacken because only 5% of the nation's households now own a color receiver. Exports, too, are climbing, up to 150,000 this year from 100,000 last year. All the weaknesses in the picture are on the production side. With wages for electrical workers up 15% and more this year—and thus far outpacing productivity—manufacturers are up against diminishing profits on color sets. They are fighting hard to keep set prices at their current levels—an average of $500 for a 25-inch set. What's more, with demand outstripping earlier estimates, there is an increasingly serious shortage of components. For some items—deflection units and picture tubes, for example—delivery times of up to six months are commonly quoted. Tv telephone service set for Britain The British Post Office plans to open early next year what it believes will be the world's first closed-circuit television network on rental to businessmen wishing to confer at long distance. Initially studios will be in London and Glasgow, and later in Birmingham, Manchester, and Bristol. Up to five people will be able to sit at a table in each studio, and controls on the table will focus a stationary camera on either one, three, or five of them. In addition, a vertical camera over a table has a zoom lens to examine documents or products. Charges are not set yet, but are expected to be about $2.50 per hour for each mile separating the studios. Japan's next satellite to have working payload Japan will attempt to orbit its first "useful" satellite, a 143-pound package of scientific experiments, within a month. The rocket to be used for the launching, scheduled for August 19, will be the four-stage M4S1, Japan's largest rocket. The planned orbit will have a perigee of 375 miles, an apogee of 1,250 miles, and a period of 100 minutes. Future of Europe's space effort rides on imminent go/no-go decision French propose a superagency with strong management and longterm budgeting, replacing ESRO and ELDO; British acceptance or rejection will be crucial Europe's space program, the fate of which is continually in doubt, goes on the block this month for what may be the last time. Members of the satellite-building ESRO and the rocket-developing ELDO—particularly the French—are weary of the agencies' perpetual crisis atmosphere and want to build a more solid edifice in which they can take to truly cooperative space work—or leave it. About time. For cliff-hanging drama, few space exploits can surpass the earthly crises the two agencies brave every few months. Members menace both agencies with reduced budget contributions. Italy perpetually gripes that its payouts exceed hardware orders for Italian industry. Britain threw ELDO into chaos in 1968 by announcing plans to drop out next year and by withholding new funds in the meantime. France threatened to sabotage ESRO as a result. Even with funds, management impasses hobble the space agencies. Many decisions require two-thirds and even three-quarters votes by member countries. Each stage of ELDO's three-stage Europa-1 rocket is built independently in Britain, France, and Germany. As a result all stages fired successfully only on the tenth try. Ministers of the countries participating in ESRO and ELDO are due to meet in Brussels this week for the annual European Space Conference at which there's a good chance for some positive action. New look. The French, backed by Germany, are pushing hardest to recast Europe's space effort. Paris has revived a long-standing plan to dump ESRO and ELDO, replacing them by one superagency having a strong, independent management and longterm budgeting that would run all European space activities outside national programs. At a preconference meeting of Common Market and British science ministers in Brussels last month, only Britain hesitated over the superagency plan. However, London promises to accept or reject it a few days before this week's planned meeting. The British stand is crucial. Only if Britain accepts the new agency will this week's meeting be held at all, because the French say they intend to drop out of European space work unless their plan is accepted—and they feel Britain's weight is essential for stability. But the French say they're optimistic London will join the new agency. The Conservatives seem more pro-European than the defeated Laborites, according to the French, who also feel that a British rejection of the space agency would go down badly just when London is negotiating to join the Common Market. Role. In the French and German view, the new agency would concentrate on applications satellites. Its first major project would be a European telephone and television relay satellite, which could carry several thousand telephone conversations and link national tv networks. A 4,400-pound experimental satellite would be launched first. The new agency would hopefully also build half the hardware for the proposed aircraft communications and navigation satellite system, being studied with U.S. agencies. ESRO and NASA are already planning a tentative system based on L-band frequencies, which this week's European conference is expected to endorse. Finally, the French and Germans hoped the agency would join with NASA in developing the proposed post-Apollo space shuttle. NASA has been sponsoring technical meetings in Europe this spring and summer to induce European participation in the program. Strings. France and Germany are attaching two conditions to participation in the shuttle program. One is that the European role include developing identifiable satellites, shying away from projects that could compete with the U.S.-backed Intelsat communications network. If Washington sticks to its "restrictive" policies and "forces" Europe to continue launcher development, says a Bonn science ministry official, the Europeans would have no money left to join the post-Apollo program. The British have long maintained that Europe is duplicating American efforts by building rockets—the reason London decided to pull out of ESRO. But a British aerospace official comments: "I doubt if the Americans could give a launcher guarantee that would satisfy the French." Great Britain Velocity of blood In developing a sophisticated piece of medical electronics gear, a British researcher has devised a new printout device which may find applications far away from doctors' offices. Indeed, the printout unit can show real time, three-dimensional spectrums of transient velocities ranging from automobile vibrations to speech waveforms. Henry Light of the National Institute for Medical Research at Hampstead developed the instrument. It's in two parts: the first section comprises an ultrasonic probe and doppler processing section; the second is a real time printer which registers 18 velocity categories and shows, following each heartbeat, the proportion of the total bloodflow falling into each category. The clock-marked printout paper marks off each flow pulse in time. Thus, the device can show the maximum velocity of flow in a curved blood vessel, and if used on a straight blood vessel where the ultrasonic wave approach angle is known, the 18 categories indicate the distribution of velocities across the vessel. Check-up.* When a doctor checks bloodflow, as in cases of poor circulation, by measuring the doppler shift of applied ultrasonic radiation, the velocity readout is generally an average derived from all doppler shifts detected where the radiation crosses the blood vessel. When the vessel is near the surface it is easy enough to estimate the angle at which the radiation crosses the vessel and get a good idea of true maximum velocity, but when the vessel is deep in the body estimation is not so easy. What's more, the main output vessel from the top of the heart, which is most useful for determining heart condition, curves continuously which renders a single reading derived from reflected radiation almost meaningless. What was needed was some way to capture in real time all the doppler shifts detected. The old way of obtaining a complete velocity spectrum readout involves sampling and off-line analysis. This is not much use to a doctor, who wants an on-line reading so that he can move the probe about. Light is now experimenting with a prototype system. The ultrasonic detector he's using in it at present is a standard $300 instrument that is moved around, along with the printer, on top of a small cart housing power supplies and most of the electronics. He estimates that in series production the complete system could be made for less than $2,000. The printer alone might cost about $300. Departure. The ultrasonic probe and doppler processing is along established lines. The applied frequency is 2 megahertz and the range of doppler frequencies is extracted from the reflections. But then Light applies the doppler frequencies to 18 parallel filters. Each filter passes a band of about 170 hertz and the highest frequency passed is 3 kilohertz which corresponds to a blood velocity of about 4 feet per second. These filter outputs drive the printer. The 18 currents pass to electrodes laid out side by side and in contact with the bottom surface of electrolytic printout paper. On top of the paper, opposite the electrode array, is a stainless steel ribbon anode. As the paper passes the electrodes, it is printed with 18 lines, which vary from pale grey to dense black according to the current through its electrode. The paper passes the electrodes at a fixed speed, but in Light's application the paper does not show 18 continuous lines because between heartbeats the bloodflow out of the heart more or less comes to a stop. In fact, the slope of the leading edge of each pulse print is a good measure of blood acceleration, says Light, and the area of the pulse shape is a measure of the total amount of blood passed. Light points out that the printer is inherently cheap, and there are no expensive components in the whole system. The most expensive element is the filter array. In the prototype, the filters are inductance-capacitance networks, but suitable active or digital filters could be made much less expensively for a production system. --- Glass breakthrough Glass delay lines have been around a long time but since they are not easy to make nobody contemplated volume production before the advent of the West German approach to color tv. Color receivers that use PAL, for phase-alternating-line, standards incorporate a delay equivalent to one tv line—63.943 microseconds at the European 625-line, 50-field-per-second standard. This is far too long for a practicable metal delay line. In Europe both Philips and ITT have developed volume production of glass components. Philips has the larger market share and supplies European Free Trade Association countries from its Mullard plant at Blackburn, England, and the European Economic Community countries from its Dutch plant. The Mullard plant, the bigger of the two, is working up to an output of around 20,000 units per week by the end of the year. Much of the original work on the Philips delay lines was done at Mullard's Research Laboratories, which has released some details of its production process. Reflections. Mullard's glass blocks are about 3.5 inches long. Their ends are ground flat. On one end are two vacuum-deposited squares of Nichrome overlaid with copper to which the input and output piezo-electric transducers are soldered side by side. The signal is reflected internally from the other end for a total delay line path of about 7 inches. The biggest problem, say Mullard technologists, has been development of economically suitable glass and production processes. Temperature changes cause changes in both the length of the delay line and the velocity of the signal within it. Mullard Research Labs and Philips Glas Werk in Holland developed a lead-silica-potash glass in which temperatures changes in length and velocity have equal and opposite effects so that delay remains constant. The transducer bonds are critical, and each has to be individually checked. Satisfactorily bonded blocks are aged until their characteristics have stabilized, then the reflecting end is finish-ground to the precise length in two stages. In the first stage, the glass is ground until a signal transmitted through it superimposes closely with a reference signal on an oscilloscope. In the second stage, a phase meter is used to reduce the phase difference to zero. Mullard at present makes delay lines two at a time by sawing the completed glass block in half through the transducers in the plane of the signal path. Eventually the company is likely to prepare glass blocks with very long transducer and reflecting faces for slicing up into many separate delay lines. This technique may be combined with new block shapes incorporating multiple reflected signal paths so that the total volume of glass can be reduced and the delay time made smaller and cheaper. --- The Netherlands A glowing complexion Using an integrated array of infrared sensors, researchers at Philips Research Laboratories have come up with a fast way of capturing thermograms, or heat pictures. Their prototype produces thermograms with a frame frequency of 50 hertz and temperature resolution of 0.2°C. Moreover, the new system does away with a good part of the complex mechanical scanning mechanisms needed with conventional thermographs. At the Eindhoven-based laboratories, the late G. E. G. Hardeman and G. B. Gerritsen set about overcoming the limitations of conventional thermographs. Generally based on infrared cameras, these devices use a cryogenically cooled detector that is sensitive to infrared radiation. This detector works with a system using movable mirrors and prisms to effect point-by-point and line-by-line scanning of the heat-radiating object. The sequence of thermal pulses projected onto the detector produces corresponding currents which are decoded and then fed to a display device, usually a cathode ray tube. Not only are such systems complicated, they are also slow, and that's the price that must be paid for resolution when using a single detector. Arrayed. The key to the Philips thermograph's high speed—some 10 times faster than other systems—is a row of 64 individual detectors, that scans a line instead of a point at a time. The moving optical system that irradiates these elements need therefore scan in only one direction and so can be built more simply than usual. Each detecting element is about 2 millimeters long, has a cross section of 200 by 250 microns, and is separated from its neighbor by about 50 microns. The detector material—silicon with a little gallium added—is cooled to liquid helium temperature. Elements of uniform quality are made by soldering a homogeneous slice of silicon onto a metal substrate, vapor-depositing an aluminum layer on top and then sawing the slice into 64 side-by-side strips. Individual layers are connected to an IC-based circuit which amplifies the output of each detecting element. --- Soviet Union Behind the curtain Once veiled in mystery, Soviet electronic components have now become familiar products on the European trade show circuit. Visitors have seen the Russian lineup—often through a haze of vodka toasts—for two years running at the big Paris Components Show, in London, and at Russian road shows in Scandinavia. But the equipment the Russians use to turn out advanced semiconductor components has remained largely unknown to the West. Moscow lifted that curtain last month with a major display of electronic manufacturing equipment at a Soviet industrial exhibition in Paris. The last such show in the West, also in Paris, was nearly a decade ago. On the blocks. The Soviets showed off—and offered for sale—their latest integrated circuit diffusion ovens, IC mask-making machines, and some exotic new laser gadgets, including a device to inspect ceramic resistor substrates. Moscow's mask-maker stole the show. Though able to produce only small masks, up to 40 by 40 millimeters, compared to the 200-by-200-mm masks commonly needed by Western IC manufacturers, the machine will sell in the West for a bargain $110,000. That price is less than half that of large-mask U.S. machines of comparable performance. Moreover, the Russians claim it is the only automatic machine able to make masks on either ordinary photographic plates or on more accurate metallic-film plates with photoresist. Clever. French engineers were impressed by the unit. "We were surprised that the Russians could make a simple, clever machine with performance equal to Western machines," said Charles Poligoroff, an engineer with France's Cifal. "It should be an attractive solution for small companies." A punched-tape program, which the user can develop on any small computer, runs the Russian machine. The tape turns on and off an ultraviolet light that scans 225 squares on a photographic or photoresist plate, thus reproducing the programmed pattern. The original mask is then reduced 10 times to actual IC size, making copies directly in the machine, eliminating the need for an additional copying machine as in U.S. systems. A complex IC takes about an hour to lay out and eight actual-size copies can be made in 3 hours. For fine work, the Russian machine's scanning system can be moved as little as 1 micron. The accuracy of coordinate adjustments is 1.5 microns. Superficial. The Russians also showed a machine for evaporating thin films of hybrid IC substrates. Instead of the masks ordinarily used by such machines, the Russian unit is based on photolithography--which Soviet technicians say is cheaper and simpler and gives faster deposits. Up to 100 substrates are attached to five drums rotating inside an oven that looks like a vertical washing machine tumbler. Three ducts introduce either semiconductor materials, metals or quartz for evaporation. The oven heats to 400°C. The unit will sell for $10,000 in the West. The laser device to reject flawed resistor substrates works like this. The substrates drop into a bed of turning bars, where each substrate is scanned over its entire surface by a laser beam that reflects into a photomultiplier tube. The machine can check 7,200 pieces an hour, with an accuracy of 0.3 mm for black spots, holes, and other defects. Rejection probability is 0.98. It will sell for $20,000. The Russians also showed a laser light modulator for voice communications based on the linear electro-optical effect of a lithium niobate crystal. The modulator's main advantage is that it needs little voltage--only 120 volts. Japan Floating bubbles Magnetic bubble devices show promise for many memory and logic applications, but until a few weeks ago only Bell Laboratories had announced success in growing the high-quality single-crystal orthoferrites that were first used to produce the devices. Now a group at Nippon Electric Co. says that by using a floating zone process it can produce excellent single crystals about a hundred times faster than Bell Labs. Although much research has shifted to garnet crystals, the NEC development should ensure large supply of inexpensive magnetic bubble material. For use in bubble domain devices, orthoferrites must be single crystals, free of defects that may impede the motion of the magnetic domains. Earlier methods of growing the crystals involved placing the starting material in a large platinum crucible, heating it to about 130°C., and then cooling it by 0.5° to 1°C. per hour. With luck a single crystal starts to grow. Stoichiometry. More recent attempts to adapt the methods used in creating semiconductor single crystals to the production of single-crystal orthoferrites have run into difficulties. The Bridgman method, in which an elongated container with a pointed end is loaded with molten material and then cooled from the pointed end, has failed because of contamination from the container. And, previous attempts to use floating zone techniques had failed because of crystal defects such as pores, twins, subgrains, and sliplike defects. Floating zone. NEC's process starts with a molten zone between a seed crystal and a sintered ferrite rod. This molten zone is gradually passed through the rod, leaving behind a single crystal that is an extension of the seed. To suppress the formation of pores, however, Nippon Electric researchers found that the single most important condition is control of stoichiometry of the sintered ferrite. For example, they grow perfect yttrium orthoferrite crystals from a mixture of Y₂O₃ and Fe₂O₃, ideally with 50 mol % of each constituent, but never with more than 50.3 mol % of either one. This admittedly is a difficult requirement because even the chemical analysis techniques used by Nippon Electric allow an accuracy of only 0.1 mol %. Other important conditions are a high oxygen pressure around the molten zone, typically 10 atmospheres, and uniform heating of the molten zone. To realize both these conditions, NEC developed a furnace that has an elliptical reflecting surface, with a large heated-filament halogen lamp at one focus and the molten zone at the other focus. This allows uniform heating of the sample because energy is focused on it from all sides, yet surrounding materials are relatively cool to prevent contamination. The sample is surrounded by a quartz tube, which permits high-pressure oxygen atmosphere surrounding the sample. The seed crystal is rotated in one direction, the ferrite feed rod in the other, and the molten zone traverses the ferrite rod at a rate of several millimeters per hour. Perfect yttrium orthoferrite rods 8 mm in diameter and 50 mm long have been grown in 8 hours. General Electric’s parade of power control IC’s Voltage, phase, temperature and threshold detector IC’s for industrial control General Electric—long a leader in power semiconductor devices—now offers a broad line of monolithic integrated circuits for power control tasks. Because they’re monolithic, these devices provide better thermal coupling and stability. This means increased reliability which is essential to your industrial control applications. PHASE CONTROL PA436—Phase-control - controls loads up to 15A and 280V - internal compensation for temperature and voltage changes - induction motor speed control PRECISION THRESHOLD DETECTION PA494—Threshold detector - Schmitt trigger action - 10% hysteresis - low voltage operation (to 2.3V) - high sensitivity (typ.1nA) VOLTAGE REGULATION PA264/PA265—Five-watt voltage regulators - 25- and 37-volt ratings - 5-watt dissipation for on-card regulation - Up to 1.25 amperes TEMPERATURE CONTROL PA424—Zero-voltage switch - a-c line operation - eliminates RFI - triggers power triacs/SCR’s For more information about General Electric integrated circuits, call or write your GE sales representative or authorized distributor, or write General Electric Company, Section 220-87, Room C-2, Northern Concourse Office Bldg., North Syracuse, N.Y. 13212. In Canada: Canadian General Electric, 189 Dufferin Street, Toronto, Ont. Export: Electronic Sales, IGE Export Division, 159 Madison Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10016. Electronics advertisers July 20, 1970 Acopian Corporation 108 Mort Barish Associates ADD Associates 49 Midland Associates Inc. Allen Bradley Company 18-19 Hoffman York Inc. American Telephone & Telegraph Company, Yellow Pages 154 Cunningham & Walsh Inc. Advertising AMP Incorporated 30-31 Aitkin-Kynett Co. Inc. Analog Devices Inc. 65 Adastra Inc. Beckman Instruments Inc. 76 Helipoint Division N.W. Ayer/Jorgensen/MacDonald Inc. Bell & Howell Electronics & Instruments Group 20-21 Coordinating Communications Inc. Bell Telephone Laboratories 89 N.W. Ayer & Son Inc. Boonton Electronic Corporation 127 The Creative Group Brandt Rex 23 Creager, Trowbridge, Case & Basford Inc. Bunker-Ramo Corporation Amphenol Division 27 Marconi Inc. Burnaby Corporation 132 The Gravenson Group Inc. Cambridge Thermionic Corporation 131 Chirpman & Cairns Inc. Cherry Electronic Products Corp. 55 Koib/Tookeey and Associates Inc. Cinch Optical Division of TRW Inc. 72 Stark & Ader Co. Inc. Computer Measurements Company, Division of Nescell Industries 144 Jones & Lathrop Inc. Control Data Corporation Printed Circuits Operation 134 Market Advertising Services Inc. Control Design Incorporated 53 Robert J. Allen Marketing & Public Relations Custom Electronics Inc. 114 Laux Advertising Inc. Dale Electronics Incorporated Sub. of Loney Corporation 3rd Cover Swanson, Sinker, Ellis Inc. Data Control Systems 124 Technical, Industrial & Scientific Marketing Data Technology 74-75 Hall Butler Blatherwick Inc. Deleterius Electronics Corporation 111 Stahlk, Faller & Klenk Inc. DuPont de Nemours & Company, Freon Division 44 N.W. Ayer & Son Inc. E-H Research Incorporated 25 Steedman, Cooper and Busse Advertising EL Instruments Inc. 140 Froehlich Advertising Services Fairchild Microwave and Optoelectronics 107 Tom Jones Advertising Fairchild Semiconductor Inc. 6, 7, 8, 69, 70, 71 Chiat Day Inc. General Dynamics Corporation 102-103 Young and Rubicam Inc. General Electric Company, Semiconductor Products Division 116, 117, 151 Rohm & Haas Inc. General Instrument Europe S.P.A. 10E Studio Hedy General Radio Company 2nd Cover GRAD Associates Grayhill Incorporated 131 Carr Liggett Advertising Inc. Gries Reproducer Company 153 Harold Marshall Advertising Guiderod Brothers Company Electronics Division Ramsdell, Bright & Nathans Inc. Hansen Manufacturing Company 121 Keller & Sweeney Helett Packard Colorado Springs Division 1 Tallant/Yates Advertising Inc. Helett-Packard Loveland Division 10-11 Tallant/Yates Advertising Inc. Helett-Packard Rockaway Division 2 Culver Advertising Inc. Hickok Instrumentation Group 131 Key Marketing Associates HI Electronics 6E Studio Duilio Savina Hughes Aircraft Company 22, 58, 59 Foote, Cone & Belding Indianapolis Power & Light 141 Ruben, Montgomery & Associates Inc. Intel Corporation 60, 61 Bonfield Associates International Crystal Mfg. Co. 139 Robert V. Freeland & Associates Krohn-Hite Corporation 112 Ingalls Associates Inc. L E S A 143 Publicitas Ledex Incorporated 26 Yeck and Yeck Inc. Markem Corporation 15 Screamer Trowbridge Case and Basford Inc. Micro Switch Division of Honeywell 32 Honeywell Inc. MOS Technology Inc. 128 Henry S. Goodsett Advertising Inc. Motorola Semiconductor Products Inc. 12-13 Lane & Wampler Advertising Inc. National Electro Mechanical Systems Inc. 24 Fred Riger Advertising Agency Inc. North Atlantic Industries Inc. 43 Helme Associates Inc. O. Olivetti & C. SPA 9E-11E Studio ECO Philips N.V. Pit/Tmi Division 2E Marsteller International S.A. Philips GAD-Eloema 12E Media International Pomona Electronics Company 136 Buxton Advertising Agency RCA Electronic Components 4th Cover Al Paul Leiton Company Redcor Corporation 16 Management Communication Consultants Inc. Rohde & Schwarz 3E Sage Electronics Corporation 123 Mathison Advertising Inc. Seagram 4E Perez Publicite Sigma Instruments Inc. 98 Culver Advertising Inc. Siliconix Inc. 14 Robertson West Inc. Singer Company, Ballantine Operation 120 Technical, Industrial and Scientific Marketing Inc. S.P. Electric 5E Studio Sergio Rosata Sprague Electric Company The Harry P. Bridge Company Sybron Electronics Inc. 35 to 42 Electronic Components Group Doyle Dane Bernbach Inc. Syntronic Instruments Inc. 153 Burton Browne Advertising Tech Laboratories Inc. 143 Lewis Advertising Agency Technetics 118 Campbell Mithun Inc. Tektronix Inc. 51, 104 Dawson Inc. Temperance Industries Inc. 17 Hal Lawrence Inc. Triplette Electrical Instrument Company 115 Burton Browne Advertising TRW IRC Division 57 Fuller & Smith & Ross Inc. TRW Systems Group Inc. 63 Fuller & Smith & Ross Inc. Tung-Sol Division, Wagner Electric Corporation 62 Winius-Brandon Company Vidar Corporation, Instrumentation Division 66 Bill Fisher Advertising Wavetek 73 Chapman Michetti Advertising Westinghouse Semiconductor Division 28-29 Ketchum, MacLeod and Grove Inc. Zenith Radio Corporation 140 Mills, Fife & MacDonald Inc. Classified & Employment Advertising F.J. Eberle, Manager 212-971-2557 EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES ....... 138 EQUIPMENT (Used or Surplus New) For Sale Fishman Philip ......................... 138 Radio Research Instrument Co. ........ 138 For more information on complete product line see advertisement in the latest Electronics Buyer's Guide Advertisers In Electronics International Electronics Buyers' Guide George F. Werner, Associate Publisher [212] 971-2310 Regina D. Miller, Directory Manager [212] 971-2544 Mary Tully, Production Manager [212] 971-2046 Sales Offices Boston, Ben Brigger [617] C02-1160 Detroit, Mac Heustis [313] 962-1793 New York, Carol Montgomery [212] 971-3793 Jim Hines [212] 971-2666 Chicago, Bob Demmerd [312] MO4-5800 Los Angeles, Kenneth Watts [213] HU2-5450 Philadelphia, Tim Bemis [215] LO8-6161 Advertising Sales Staff Pierre Braude [212] 971-3845 Advertising Sales Manager Atlanta, Ga. 30309: Charlton H. Cathoun, III 1375 Peachtree St., N.E. [404] 892-2666 Boston, Mass. 02116: William S. Hodgkinson McGraw-Hill Building, Copley Square [617] CO 2-1160 Chicago, Ill. 60611: Ralph Hanning, Kenneth E. Nicklas, 645 North Michigan Avenue, [312] MO 4-5800 Cleveland, Ohio 44113: William J. Boyle, 55 Public Square, [216] SU 1-7000 Dallas, Tex. 75201: Richard P. Poole, 1801 Republic National Bank Tower, [214] RI 7-9721 Detroit, Michigan 48226: Ralph Hanning, 2600 Penobscot Building [313] 962-1793 Houston, Texas 77002: Richard P. Poole, 2270 Lombil Bldg. [713] CA 4-8381 Minneapolis, Minn. 55402: Kenneth E. Nicklas, 1104 Northstar Center [612] 332-7425 New York, N.Y. 10036 500 Fifth Avenue James R. Price [212] 971-3615 Warren R. Gardner [212] 971-3617 Michael J. Stoller [212] 971-3616 Philadelphia, Pa. 19103: Jeffrey M. Preston 6 Penn Center Plaza, [215] LO 8-6161 Pittsburgh, Pa. 15222: Jeffrey M. Preston, 4 Gateway Center, [412] 391-1314 Rochester, N.Y. 14534: William J. Boyle, 9 Greylock Ridge, Pittsford, N.Y. [716] 586-5040 St. Louis, Mo. 63105: Kenneth E. Nicklas, The Chase Tower, 7751 Carondelet Ave. [314] PA 5-7285 James T. Hauptli [415] DO 2-4600 Western Advertising Sales Manager Denver, Colo. 80202: David M. Watson, Richard W. Carpenter Tower Bldg. 1700 Broadway [303] 266-3863 Los Angeles, Calif. 90017: Ian C. Hill, Bradley Jones, 1125 W. 6th St., [213] HU 2-5300 Portland, Ore. 97204: Don Farris, James T. Hauptli, 218 Mohawk Building, 222 S.W. Morrison Street, Phone [503] 225-3118 San Francisco, Calif. 94111: Don Farris, James T. Hauptli, 255 California Street, [415] DO 2-4600 Paris: Denis Jacob 17 Rue-Gerorges Bizet, 75 Paris 16, France Tel 727 33 42, 727 33 60 United Kingdom and Scandinavia London: Oliver Ball, Tel: Hyde Park 1451 34 Oxford Street, London W1 Milan: Roberto Saidel, Roberto Laurieri Jr. 1 via Baracchini Phone 86-90-656 Brussels: Denis Jacob 27 Rue Ducale Tel: 136503 Frankfurt/Main: Hans Haller Elsa-Brandstrom Str. 2 Phone 72 01 81 Tokyo: Noboru Matsumoto, McGraw-Hill Publications Overseas Corporation, Kasumigaseki Building 2-5, 3-chome, Kasumigaseki, Chiyoda-Ku, Tokyo, Japan [581] 9811 Osaka: Akihiko Kamesaka, McGraw-Hill Publications Overseas Corporation, Kondo Bldg., 163, Umedae-cho Kita-ku [362] 8771 Australasia: Warren E. Ball, IPO Box 5106, Tokyo, Japan Business Department Stephen R. Weiss, Manager [212] 971-2044 Thomas M. Egan, Production Manager [212] 971-3140 Dorothy Carmesin, Contracts and Billings [212] 971-2908 Frances Vallone, Reader Service Manager [212] 971-2865 Electronics \| July 20, 1970 Your Heart Fund Fights HEART ATTACK STROKE HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE INBORN HEART DEFECTS Gries Reproducer Co. Division of Coats & Clark Inc. 151 Beechwood Ave., New Rochelle, N.Y. 10802 (914) 633-8600 Circle 153 on reader service card The hunt is on! (Beware of the Grope.) How to keep the Grope from bagging your prospects without them lifting a finger. The Grope preys on people who don't know where to find what they're hunting for... turning their search for you into a jungle hunt. But you can put one over on the Grope, if you don't spread yourself thin. Cover your territories... all of them, by listing yourself in the surrounding area Yellow Pages. You see, a lot of your prospects that are nearby, use a nearby Yellow Pages. And when they lift a finger, if you're not there... they miss out on you and you on them. So play it smart and list yourself in the surrounding area Yellow Pages. After all, why try for some of the customers some of the time, when you can try for all of the customers all of the time! The Yellow Pages Stay thin with Dale Honeywell Series 32 Computers Use Dale Thinline Connectors to Link Processing Options Dale's EBTL 050 gives you the lowest profile available in a .050" edgeboard connector. This is one reason Honeywell uses it to interconnect processing options for its Series 32 Computers. Reliability is another reason. Connector failure in this application could shut down the entire system and risk data loss. According to Honeywell, the EBTL 050 "combines minimum insertion force with maximum withdrawal" and withstands low frequency vibration testing without discontinuity of more than 50 nanoseconds. And the cost is as low as the profile. Keep your package, and your budget, thin—call Dale for your next .050" requirement. Phone 402-564-3131 for details or write for Connector Catalog. DALE ELECTRONICS, INC. Box 180, Yankton, South Dakota 57078 In Canada: Dale Electronics Canada, Ltd. A subsidiary of The Lionel Corporation EBTL 050 THINLINE SERIES Contacts: 8, 16, 20, 25, 32, 50 or 64 per side on .050" centers Current Rating: 0.5 amp. Board Thickness: 1/16" (.056" - .068") 1/32" (.027" - .035") Profile: .190" (1/16" boards) .158" (1/32" boards) Body: Glass-filled phenolic. RCA Linear IC Arrays: performance, dependability, and versatility in application. Here are ten important answers to some of your most pressing circuit design problems. These monolithic, active-device arrays combine the attributes of integrated circuits with the design flexibility and accessibility of discrete devices. In this series of transistor and diode arrays, you get the economy and availability of mature devices. But you are in no way locked into a circuit configuration which may not meet the requirements of your application. RCA IC Arrays offer four, five or six transistors in three package styles; six diodes in bridge configuration or as an array of independent diodes. For new design freedom, for excellent device matching and temperature tracking, for significant savings—look into these RCA IC Arrays. For further information, see your local RCA Representative or your RCA Distributor. For a copy of RCA's Integrated Circuit Product Guide (or a specific technical bulletin by File No.) write RCA, Commercial Engineering, Section 70 F-2/CA37, Harrison, New Jersey 07029. International: RCA, 2-4 rue du Lièvre, 1227 Geneva, Switzerland, or P.O. Box 112, Hong Kong. \| Device Type \| Package \| Description \| Technical Bulletin File No. \| Price [1000-unit level] \| \|-------------------\|-------------\|--------------------------------------------------\|-----------------------------\|-------------------------\| \| CA3018 \| 12-lead TO-5\| Two isolated transistors and Darlington-connected transistor pair \| 338 \| $ .98 \| \| CA3018A \| 12-lead TO-5\| Premium version of CA3018 \| 338 \| 1.35 \| \| CA3019 \| 10-lead TO-5\| One diode-quad, two isolated diodes \| 236 \| .98 \| \| CA3026 \| 12-lead TO-5\| Dual differential amplifier \| 388 \| 1.25 \| \| CA3036 \| 10-lead TO-5\| Dual Darlington array \| 275 \| .89 \| \| CA3039 \| 12-lead TO-5\| Six matched diodes \| 343 \| .98 \| \| CA3045 \| 14-lead DIL ceramic \| Differential amplifier and three isolated transistors \| 341 \| 1.50 \| \| CA3046 \| 14-lead DIL plastic \| Differential amplifier and three isolated transistors \| 341 \| .98 \| \| CA3049 \| 12-lead TO-5\| Dual independent differential RF/IF amplifiers \| 378 \| 1.95 \| \| CA3054 \| 14-lead DIL plastic \| Dual independent differential amplifiers \| 388 \| 1.25 \| Circle 902 on reader service card
A public hearing of the Town Board of the Town of Bethlehem was held on the above date at the Town Hall, 445 Delaware Avenue, Delmar, NY. The meeting was called to order by the Supervisor at 7:30 p.m. PRESENT: Kenneth J. Ringler, Supervisor Frederick C. Webster, Councilman Charles Gunner, Councilman Sheila Fuller, Councilwoman Kathleen A. Newkirk, Town Clerk ABSENT: M. Sheila Galvin, Councilwoman Bernard Kaplowitz, Esq., Town Attorney --- Supervisor Ringler said good evening and welcomed everyone to a regular meeting of the Bethlehem Town Board. He said the first item on the agenda is a public hearing on the request for an extension of Water District No. 1 for Delmar Village. He asked the Town Clerk to read the call of the hearing. NOTICE OF PUBLIC HEARING In the matter of Extending Water District No. 1 of the town of Bethlehem, Albany County, New York WHEREAS, a written petition from owners of taxable real property (a copy of which is annexed hereto) has been presented to and filed with the Town Board of the Town of Bethlehem, Albany County, New York, requesting an extension of Water District No. 1 of said town to include their properties and showing the boundaries of the proposed extension, together with a map and plan of the proposed water system; and WHEREAS, there has been filed in the office of the Town Clerk of said Town, a map as referred to in the annexed petition, plan and report prepared by Kenneth Fraser & Associates, P.C., engineers duly licensed by the State of New York, setting forth the details of the proposed extension; and WHEREAS, the boundaries of the proposed extension to the said District are set forth in the annexed petition; and WHEREAS, the maximum amount proposed to be expended for the said improvement is the sum of $300,000; and WHEREAS, the HMC Associates, 163 Delaware Avenue, Delmar, New York have agreed to pay all costs and disbursements incurred by said water district in connection with said application, including legal, engineering costs and labor and material; and WHEREAS, said map, plan and report describing said improvements are on file in the Town Clerk's office for public inspection. NOW, on motion of Councilperson Galvin, seconded by Councilperson Webster hereby ORDERED, that the Town Board of the Town Board of the Town of Bethlehem shall meet and hold a public hearing at the Town Hall, 445 Delaware Avenue, Delmar, New York on the 12th day of August, 1992 at 7:30 o'clock, p.m. on that day, to consider said map, plan and report, and hear all persons interested in the subject thereof concerning the same, and take such action thereon as is required or authorized by law, and it is further, ORDERED, that the Town Clerk be and she is hereby directed to publish and post copies of this order at the time and in the manner provided by law. The adoption of the foregoing order was put to a vote and upon roll call, the vote was as follows: AYES: Mr. Ringler, Mr. Webster, Mr. Gunner, Ms. Galvin, Mrs. Fuller. NOES: None Dated July 8, 1992 BY ORDER OF TOWN BOARD TOWN OF BETHLEHEM Kathleen A. Newkirk Town Clerk STATE OF NEW YORK ) COUNTY OF ALBANY ) KATHRYN OLSEN of the Town of Bethlehem, being duly sworn says that she is the bookkeeper of THE SPOTLIGHT, a weekly newspaper published in the Town of Bethlehem, County of Albany, and that the notice of which the annexed is a true copy, has been regularly published in said THE SPOTLIGHT ONCE A WEEK FOR 1 WEEK consecutively, commencing on the 29th day of July 1992. /s/ Kathryn Olsen STATE OF NEW YORK ) ss.: COUNTY OF ALBANY ) KATHLEEN A NEWKIRK, being duly sworn, deposes and says that she is the Town Clerk of the Town of Bethlehem, Albany County, New York and that I posted on July 29, 1992, a Notice of Public Hearing, a copy of which is hereto attached, on the sign board of the Town maintained pursuant to subdivision six of Section thirty of the Town Law. /s/ Kathleen A. Newkirk Sworn to before me this 12th day of August, 1992. /s/ Bruce H. Secor, Notary Public The motion was made by Mr. Webster and seconded by Mr. Gunner to indent the Notice of Public Hearing, Affidavit of Publication and Notice of Posting on the minutes of the Town Board meeting. The motion was passed by the following vote: Ayes: Mr. Ringler, Mr. Webster, Mr. Gunner, Mrs. Fuller. Noes: None. Absent: Ms. Galvin. Supervisor Ringler said this basically, he guessed, is the final step in a long process for the Delmar Village proposal which has received all of its other approvals up to this point and this is the final extension which just basically, only includes the property itself, nothing beyond the property of the Building Project Approval and the PRD. He asked if there are any questions of the Board at this point in time. He said he thinks the Board has heard about this so often, they could probably... okay, the public hearing if there are any questions they will open it up for questions and then anyone who would like to speak in favor may speak in favor and then anyone who would like to speak in opposition, may speak in opposition. He said they could just stand up at their seats, the microphone can pick you up and please identify yourself for the record. Supervisor Ringler asked if anyone had any questions regarding this proposal. There were none. Supervisor Ringler asked if anyone wished to speak in favor. There were none. Supervisor Ringler then asked if anyone wished to speak in opposition. Mr. Morris Groves from 4 Brockley Drive said he is not in... he has known about the project ever since we had some discussion about it several years ago. He asked if Mr. Secor will be explaining where the 16 inch water main is presently located and will he be giving some explanation of this. Mr. Secor said he can certainly. Mr. Groves said also, more importantly he thinks, will this extension be at the residents expense or at the builders expense. Supervisor Ringler said at the builder's expense. Commissioner of Public Works Secor explained just as a means of orientation, this is existing Orchard Street, existing Fisher Boulevard now comes this way and dead ends here. He said the proposal was to carry a road through to Delaware Avenue which is at this end (indicating on the exhibited map). He said the existing 16 inch water main comes from New Scotland Road along parallel to Fisher Boulevard, comes to this point and then the existing 16 inch transmission main goes right through the middle of this project and is plotted on here and goes out to Delaware Avenue and an easement that is also owned by this project and what is going to happen here is the road is going to parallel the 16 inch main and all that is being proposed here is some branch lines, 8 inch diameter branch lines to loop around this but also end up connecting from the 16 inch main to an existing 8 inch main on Orchard Street which will help a networking type flow in the Slingerlands area. He said actually it will provide a net positive impact on the water district in the Slingerlands area because it will eliminate a dead-end here and there will be another feed to the Slingerlands area. He said that is basically what is going on. Supervisor Ringler asked if anyone else would like to speak. There were none. The motion was made by Mrs. Fuller and seconded by Mr. Webster to close the public hearing at 7:40 p.m. The motion was passed by the following vote: Ayes: Mr. Ringler, Mr. Webster, Mr. Gunner, Mrs. Fuller. Noes: None. Absent: Ms. Galvin. Kathleen A. Newkirk Town Clerk Supervisor Ringler convened the regular meeting following the public hearing and asked if the Board was inclined to take action on the previous public hearing tonight. Councilman Webster said he saw no reason why not. The Supervisor said we do not need a SEQR determination, indicating that was all taken care of in the original proposal, so basically we just need a motion to pass the water district. Mr. Secor said he thought just for the record, he thinks you could just reaffirm that this was part of... the SEQR requirements of this were fulfilled during the draft environmental impact statement and the findings statements that were done and that the Board recognizes that and moves forward with that as background, into the record. Supervisor Ringler said fine. The motion was made by Mr. Webster and seconded by Mr. Gunner to approve the extension of Water District 1 of the Town of Bethlehem within the Delmar Village PRD. The motion was passed by the following vote: Ayes: Mr. Ringler, Mr. Webster, Mr. Gunner, Mrs. Fuller. Noes: None. Absent: Ms. Galvin. Supervisor Ringler said the next item was the presentation of the proposed franchise agreement with Cablevision and consideration of setting a public hearing in September on this document. He said he drafted a letter which he read into the record. MEMORANDUM TO: TOWN BOARD MEMBERS FROM: KENNETH J. RINGLER, JR. DATE: JULY 23, 1992 SUBJECT: CABLEVISION FRANCHISE Attached for your consideration is the final draft of the new franchise agreement with A-R Cable Services. As you know, this document is the result of almost two years of work by our Cable TV committee and our negotiating team. I think we should be very grateful for these individuals and in particular our negotiating team consisting of Steve Shaye, Sheila Galvin and Stafford Davis. The document that has been put together, I believe, will serve our residents well during the life of the franchise. Of course, we would certainly like to have more control on this monopoly, however, laws do limit our ability to do this. If this draft is acceptable, I would suggest we set a public hearing for September 9. Copies will be placed in the Library and Town Clerk's office for public inspection. I would like to highlight some of the issues of the agreement which I believe will certainly enhance our control and provide better service to our residents. 1. Service area extension: In the agreement A-R shall extend Cablevision to any areas of the town that are contiguous to existing service areas and contain at least 20 occupied residences per mile. In addition, there have been specific areas of the town which may not meet this criteria currently, but based upon public hearings, there was a strong indication that residents in these areas would like cable. This would include the VanWies Point area and other areas as indicated on page 9 of the agreement. 2. The company will be doing an upgrade and rebuild of its current system. This will allow for a minimum capacity of 77 channels. This is scheduled to be completed on December 31, 1994, however, our agreement requests they use their best efforts to complete a technical upgrade and rebuild by June 30, 1993. 3. Customer Service: This entire section has been rewritten in order to require A-R to provide responsible service to their customers. Complaint procedures have been outlined in addition to this. 4. Public Access: We will receive a total of $105,000 over the life of this franchise for the purpose of access and facilities and equipment at the Bethlehem Central School District and the Bethlehem Public Library. 5. Security Fund: They are required to deposit with the town, $10,000 as a security fund. In compliance with the security fund, penalties can now be assessed against A-R as indicated on page 24. The penalty would be removed directly from the security fund by the town in the event of noncompliance. 6. Franchise fee: A-R has agreed to increase our franchise fee from 3% to 5% of all gross revenues. From these funds, I will be recommending to the Town Board that we hire an individual on apart-time basis to monitor all aspects of this franchise and to insure that the company is complying on a regular basis. Again, these are basically the highlights of the agreement. The entire agreement has been rewritten and provides more record keeping and the availability of more information to the town in order to determine that Cablevision is complying with all aspects of the document. --- Supervisor Ringler said Steve Shaye from the Cable Commission is with us this evening. He said Steve had worked very hard on this and we are certainly grateful for his efforts and he can answer any questions that the Board might have. He said the Board has had a chance to look at this and there were some questions raised by some of them and he has given them to Steve already and he hoped he had answers on them. He said Mr. Shaye, since the Board last saw this there are a couple minor changes which he asked Mr. Shaye to point them out so the Board knows what has been done there as well. Mr. Shaye said in terms of the minor changes, there was a request that if there was a discrepancy in franchise fees paid to the municipal government and it goes to a court, ultimately there is a law suit on the issue and the court finds in favor of the Town in a discrepancy of more than 5 percent, the company will additionally be responsible for not only court costs but they will also be responsible for reasonable attorney's fees. He said that language was also added. Mr. Shaye said there was also an appendix -- actually appendix 2 to the franchise or appendix B, appendix A will be a map of the existing system which will be available at the public hearing. He said appendix B is a form under which the company must submit all information when they pay a franchise fee which is quarterly. He said they will be paying their franchise fee but they will not just be sending a check in like they used to -- saying here is your check, instead, they have to... Supervisor Ringler said we have that on the agenda tonight, the last quarter. Mr. Shaye said that is how it has been done in many instances before but from now on, they are going to have a 2 page form that is going to indicate in specific categories of revenue, exactly where there revenue is generated and it will be much easier for the Town to make a determination of whether or not that they are getting the accurate franchise fee. He said those were 2 additional areas. Mr. Shaye said one observation he did want to make was, he believes this is an excellent franchise and he thinks it is excellent because the Town took the initiative to appoint a committee to go through the process in the correct manner plus the Town drafted the franchise. He said this was not a response to a cable company draft, it was a franchise that was initiated by the Town so it gives the Town generally an upper hand in the bargaining position and the document you see before you that will go before the public, he thinks the committee and the negotiating team is very proud of. Mr. Shaye said there are specific questions with regard to -- have some notes on the questions that he believed Mr. Gunner had in relation to -- make sure I have the right county here -- this has seen many, many drafts this franchise. Supervisor Ringler said to say the least. Mr. Shaye said since Sherwood's committee first started, the committee that Sherwood was part of, we probably went through about 15 drafts of the franchise. Mr. Ringler said his file is almost as thick as Delmar Village's at this point. Mr. Webster said nothing is that thick. Mr. Shaye said there is a question on all signals and how they are passed through the system. He said the discussion that they had during the negotiations was whether or not signals would be available in stereo on the system. He said the point of that section in the franchise is that any signals that are available in stereo will be available on the new system in stereo. He said that was the point of that particular section. He said he believes that is section 7, indicating it is actually section 8, sub 3. He said that refers to the newly rebuilt system and it talks about all signals transmitted by broadcasting cable television program services which are directly related to such program services such as stereo transmissions, closed captioning and alternative audio signals, shall be passed through to cable subscribers. He said in other words, the company is not allowed to receive certain closed captioning programming and delete it, they must pass that through. He said that is a requirement once the system is rebuilt to 77 channels. Councilman Gunner excused himself and asked if Mr. Shaye minded if he interrupted. Mr. Shaye said not at all. Mr. Gunner said there is nothing there that refers to that all signals must go... he said he doubts that it is but just to clear his own mind... must go through AR, for example -- there are satellite type things, they would not have to go through AR would they. Mr. Shaye said in order... whatever you.. if you are a cable television subscriber any signal that you receive you would get through the cable. He said you always have the option of having an alternative antenna service or your own satellite service available. Mr. Gunner said right, it wouldn't prevent somebody from having satellite. Mr. Shaye said absolutely not. Mr. Gunner said if the satellite service became sufficient for an individual, you would just stop the other, right. Mr. Shaye said that is right. He said there are alternatives now, there is some people have -- where cable is not available generally, there is this wireless cable television that many people have chosen to subscribe to and it may compete in the existing cabled areas also. He said that is certainly available to cable subscribers also. Mr. Shaye asked if there were other questions that he did not have noted. Councilman Gunner said go right ahead and he would ask questions and anything he has left over he will go back to. Mr. Shaye said Ken covered most of the highlights of this franchise. He said one other area he wanted to touch upon is in customer service. He said this franchise now requires that if there is an outage of 4 hours or more, customers or subscribers are entitled to a full day's rebate. He said if the company is aware of where the outage is, the customer does not even have to call the company. He said they are required to rebate the subscribers of that full day's service and that is for all... for their entire service whatever it may be. He said when you have an outage, more than 4 hours, call the company -- if you think they are not aware of it -- and a full day's rebate. He said this franchise is really expanded the customer service requirements of AR and also the rights of the Town if there are violations of the franchise. He said as Ken pointed out, this franchise is one of the few -- would be one of the few in the State that would have a security fund which really holds the company accountable for every aspect of the franchise. He said if they violate the franchise they are fined and then the money is replenished into a fund that the Town makes a determination to withdraw from if there is a violation of it. He said the company will be much more accountable to subscribers under this new document. Supervisor Ringler said he thought he had given Mr. Shaye a few more questions that Mr. Gunner had. Mr. Shaye said he thought there was one other one. Mr. Gunner said he had them here. He said actually the first one may not involve him but you may want to speak on it. He said it may involve our comptroller who is here, who was not even aware he was going to ask her a question, or whoever you would like to address it to, you may want to answer it yourself. Mr. Gunner said you may or you may not. He said the franchise tax is a tax that is brought back upon the people because they subscribe to cable. He said Cablevision customers, he would assume is pretty comprehensive in the community, probably 90 percent, 80 percent. Mr. Shaye said around 70 percent. Mr. Gunner said so that, therefore, is sort of like a hidden tax and asked if this money goes to the general fund. Supervisor Ringler said yes. Mr. Gunner said it is considered in the budgeting process as income prior to the budget. Supervisor Ringler said yes it would be. Supervisor Ringler said one of the things that he would like to point out, is that he gave that a great deal of thought on the hidden tax but the reality of the situation is... as he talked to people who have been dealing with cable companies around the country, is that they are going to charge what they can charge anyway and either it is going to go into their pocket or it is going to go back and service the public and that is what we agreed, we thought that we would ask for that because we are going to be using it to establish that job that he talked about and so forth to watch them. He said they will press and keep pressing until the federal government regulates them. He said that... the advice he got from people in the industry was that by you taking... pushing for the 5 percent is not going to cost the subscribers any more money... Mr. Shaye said rates are going to go up anyways and as all of us know, your rates have gone up over the last several years even if the cost of living has not gone up as much and we see communities throughout the state taking the full 5 percent because that was one of the few things that Congress back in 1984 gave municipalities the right to do, is levy a 5 percent franchise fee. He said it is true companies can pass through those increases onto subscribers but they are going to raise their rates anyways and they have seen that before and it certainly is an entitlement that municipalities can take advantage of. Councilman Gunner said he thought what he was looking for was to make sure that franchise tax is used to reduce taxes not just to add additional programs, which he has assumed we have done. Supervisor Ringler said at budget time, you can help them with that. Councilman Gunner said he was sure you will. Councilman Gunner asked if this was a 7 year contract. Mr. Shaye said it is 10 years. Mr. Shaye said the contract extension for one year has already elapsed so it will be 9 years. Councilman Gunner said that counts. Mr. Gunner said page 6, section 5, may not even be important but it talks about cable system shall be subject and governed by all laws, rules and regulations of the Town and New York State. He said it does not talk about the federal government but on page 14 and page 28 it does. Mr. Gunner said the federal government has been talking and had pressure on it to bring some... Mr. Shaye said the reason it is specific, in this particular section, the construction work -- any requirements are not federal requirements, they are only state and local requirements. He said in those other areas, there are federal requirements and that is the reason the federal government is left out. Mr. Gunner said there is nothing of the federal nature of the type of equipment used and things like that. Mr. Shaye said not in this particular section. Councilman Gunner said he already answered his next one. He said it comes up with the satellite and it comes up about 3 times during the contract. Mr. Shaye said that was the one he remembered. Councilman Gunner said he was not sure that you can answer this one but it is one he has asked of the AR itself but let me just put it out there. He said that he has called and he was concerned because he had spoken, working with senior citizen services that some of the people who we transport complained about increases and not getting a deduction. So, when he called, he found out that if a senior citizen takes the HBO or any other premium service, they do not get a discount. He asked if that was the same. Supervisor Ringler said he could comment on that. He said from the day negotiations started and every time... up to the end, we put in there we want it in writing discounts for senior citizens, it is not a negotiable item by law. He said they attempted to get it, they attempted to beat them over the head for it and he thinks the local people wanted to do it. He said as a matter of fact, they were negotiating with us but corporate would not set a policy in doing such in our Town and the problem is again, it is rating and it is not negotiable in the franchise by law, asking Mr. Shaye is this was correct. Mr. Shaye said right, the bottom line in all cable television negotiations are... is what can you deny a renewal for. He said if the company refuses to give a senior citizen rate, are they still entitled to renewal under federal law. He said the answer to that question is pretty simple, yes. He said there is no way we can control their rates and require a senior citizen rate even though every effort was done to do that many times. Councilman Gunner said he guesses he gets more annoyed at the advertisement that they give senior citizen discounts and they take all their glory in because they are doing such nice things for everybody -- in reality the people who may need it the most... now, he said he has no problem if they say, the people must be under the tax break that the senior citizens get, what the certain maximum -- which he thinks is just going to go up to $20,000., as he understands in the next year, but right now -- what is it $18,000 or $19,000., around there -- if they want to limit it to those people, he has no problem with it but can't make them. Supervisor Ringler said the argument that they used and it was one that Karen had given to him, is that many of our seniors, yes they will pay for the additional to have these services but that is their total entertainment and even though they may think that it is a luxury, it is not a luxury to these individuals. Mr. Ringler said they could not get them to budge on anything on rates because they knew they did not have to negotiate that. Councilman Gunner said he would suggest that all senior citizens call every once in a while and let them know whenever they advertise that they are giving discounts, those of us who do not get it -- and even if they would put that minimum amount on, it would not bother him at all. Councilman Gunner said he was sorry to keep Mr. Shaye standing there so long. Mr. Shaye said it was no problem. Mrs. Capone said you can call all you want, the telephone is off the hook. Mr. Gunner said okay, indicating he was not sure he understood her. Mrs. Fuller said the telephone is off the hook. Mr. Gunner said you are right, the telephone is off the hook. He said they know, he had to give AR credit, any time he has called for service or for information, they have been very helpful. He said maybe he has been lucky. Supervisor Ringler said that has changed over the life of this last few years. He said that was a problem, there was no question, he said he personally, has been as frustrated as many people at one point trying to get through to them on the phones. He said they have additional phones now and so forth and he does not hear that as a problem any more except if there is an outage or something and everybody is calling at once, naturally they are all going to be busy but during normal course of business... Mrs. Capone said she called there 4 hours. Mr. Shaye said he has been calling frequently during negotiations and he does not call on private line, he calls on the main number and he said invariably he gets through very, very quickly. He said they have improved their customer service over the last few years, it has gotten much better. Councilman Gunner said on page 19, recording keeping, he asked if we have to request where they say -- a record of all complaints will be filed by subscribers and should be maintained for 2 years. He asked if we could get copies of that. Mr. Shaye said sure. Mr. Gunner said okay. Mr. Gunner said here is a question you answered for me before but he has forgotten. He said there are a lot of references in here, like on page 22, the Town shall notify within 30 days of presentation any claim arising from any claim or negligence, etc., etc. He asked who is going to be responsible in the Town where we receive things and ask for things. Supervisor Ringler said under this, the Supervisor is responsible. Mr. Gunner said yes, right. Mr. Ringler said, however, as he said earlier, he is recommending that we do hire somebody with these funds to monitor this to make sure the reports are here on time, to look at those reports and so forth. Mr. Gunner said so, we are going to have somebody. Supervisor Ringler said yes. Mr. Gunner said there is a lot of that in there and he thinks it would also help. Councilman Gunner said page 24, which you may have corrected in the new draft that we just got tonight. Supervisor Ringler said no, they did not, it still is security fun. Mr. Gunner said yes. Mr. Shaye said they will get to that. Mr. Gunner said he just thought it may not be at that point. Councilman Gunner said that has been answered and he figured a lot would be answered along... he answered that one. He said he guessed he was surprised and maybe he could answer it for him, or maybe the comptroller can or whoever you choose -- okay, I am on page 29. He said it talks about an error of 5 percent -- well, he said he was not a big investor but he knows that he would not invest in anything that would give me... or person I am working with an error of 5 percent -- so he does not know and asked why do they do that. Mr. Shaye said it is standard language that has been in many franchisees, there is an error... frankly, he said franchise fee disputes, he has never seen one go to court. He said usually they are worked out. He said if the franchise fee is wrong, the Town calls up the company says, look we are getting the wrong amount of money here, if they do not know about it -- some point in time they may ask his office to do an audit and they uncover it and then there is either a settlement or the company pays. He said the 5 percent figure is something that has been standard in franchise contracts in this type of provision since he has seen them for 15 years now. He said he is not sure why. Mr. Gunner said okay, good, neither was he, noting he would not want to invest with them and give them that little bit of error and as long as they have usually been settled, he would go along with that. Mr. Gunner said that was it. Supervisor Ringler asked if there were any other questions. Councilman Gunner thanked Mr. Shaye. Supervisor Ringler thanked Mr. Shaye also, as well as the remainder of the Board. Mrs. Capone said wait a minute, asking if Cablevision is owned by Time Warner. Mr. Shaye said no. Supervisor Ringler asked if Mr. Davies had a question. Mr. Ringler said he would have a copy of this for all the Committee members. Mr. Davies said that was on the top of his list, indicating he has not seen a copy in a year and a half or so. Mr. Davies said two things, the House Senate apparently has going through a cable deregulation bill and would it be appropriate maybe to postpone this public hearing for maybe a couple of months so that we could react to that. Supervisor Ringler said anything they come down with is covered in here, if we get more regulatory powers, we can assume them. He said if we can cover rates, this allows us to do so in this franchise. Mr. Davies said okay. Mr. Davies said the other comment he has is that he knows about 6 months ago, the City of Albany put cable tv... put the heat to the feet of cable tv with regards to the fact that they had not approved the sale of the cable tv company. He said he thinks that same reasoning applies in the Town of Bethlehem and he would hope you might be able to put a little more heat in regards to cable tv rates. Supervisor Ringler said we have requirements in here that we have to approve any transfers of more than 10 percent of the stock -- as he recalls. Mr. Shaye said or any change in controls. Mr. Davies but that was in the old contract and franchise. Mr. Ringler said he did not think it was to that degree. Mr. Davies said yes, it was very specific. Mr. Shaye said the City of Albany situation also provided some assistance to them. He said some Japanese investors bought a piece of Time Warner and the City of Albany did not approve that transfer. He said that has created some problems for the company in order to have to set up some new series of books in order to operate Capital Cablevision because now it is a separate entity almost like HBO is a separate entity and what that has done is really... it hasn't really necessarily helped the subscribers in the town that non-approval by the City. In any event, Mr. Shaye said, in our franchise we have rewritten the transfer language. He said it is more specific, it is tighter and the company will have to come to the municipality any time there is a change of control or any time there is a change of 10 percent in the stock. Supervisor Ringler said this document, as he has said, will be available for public inspection. He hopes the Spotlight that is here will give the highlights that they will go over on Friday so the people know what this is all about. He said we will put it out and see what our residents have to say about it. Supervisor Ringler recommended that the Board set a public hearing on September 9th at 7:30 p.m. The motion was made by Mrs. Fuller and seconded by Mr. Gunner that a public hearing be held on September 9, 1992 at 7:30 p.m. to consider the cable television franchisee. The motion was passed by the following vote: Ayes: Mr. Ringler, Mr. Webster, Mr. Gunner, Mrs. Fuller. Noes: None. Absent: Ms. Galvin. The Supervisor thanked Mr. Shaye, indicating he has been really terrific. Mr. Shaye said see you September 9th. --- Supervisor Ringler said the next item is a request from Karen Pelletier, Director of Senior Services, for reappropriation for funds pertaining to insurance repairs. She requests that the Town Reconsider reappropriation of funds conforming to Town Law, Section 112-3 received for insurance repairs to the Senior Service vehicles damaged in two separate accidents on May 11th and June 2nd in the amount of $801. and $1,818.90, according to the Supervisor. The transfer would be from insurance recovery to vehicle maintenance. The motion was made by Mr. Webster and seconded by Mr. Gunner that $801. and $1,818.90 be transferred from Insurance Recovery Account to Vehicle Maintenance for repairs to Senior Service vehicles for damage received in two separate accidents on May 11 and June 2, 1992. The motion was passed by the following vote: Ayes: Mr. Ringler, Mr. Webster, Mr. Gunner, Mrs. Fuller. Noes: None. Absent: Ms. Galvin. --- Supervisor Ringler said next he would ask the Board's approval to authorize the Supervisor to sign the 1992 striping contract for highways. He said this is with Albany County. He said the Highway Superintendent has reviewed this contract in detail and has no problem with it. The Supervisor said he asked him a question today, if we ever look at having this done by a private vendor and he said we did but the cost is astronomical. He said the Highway Superintendent said we get a good deal from Albany County by doing this. He asked if there were any questions on that. Councilman Gunner said they are really working down on the County roads. The motion was made by Mr. Webster and seconded by Mrs. Fuller to authorize the Supervisor to sign the 1992 striping contract with Albany County. The motion was passed by the following vote: Ayes: Mr. Ringler, Mr. Webster, Mr. Gunner, Mrs. Fuller. Noes: None. Absent: Ms. Galvin. --- Supervisor Ringler said next was a request from Mr. Ritz, Engineering Department, for approval of assignment of house numbers on South Albany Road and Old School Road and the renaming of two portions of roads. He said the Engineering Department has completed the work to establish house numbers on County Route 54 and County Route 53. He said they recommend County Route 54, now known as Bell Crossing Road be renamed South Albany Road. He said by renaming Bell Crossing Road South Albany Road, it will connect Old Quarry Road to Bridge Street. He said they recommend that a portion of the County Route 53 that takes traffic over the Conrail tracks be renamed Old School Road. He said this road is now known as Jericho Road. He said the construction of Creble Road cut the existing Jericho Road into two sections -- a section of Jericho Road which connects 9W to Elm Avenue was numbered in 1988. He said they attached six sets of prints on these streets which the proposed house numbers are indicated. He said Mr. Ritz requests these prints be returned to the Town Clerk. He said the memo indicates vacant land has not been numbered but numbers have been reserved for future development. He said Mr. Ritz included a list of the various property owners, not necessarily the present residents with the proposed house number and tax map number to further identify the house involved. He said the proposed house numbers for building on corner lots are usually based on the direction the house is facing. He said should this proposed house number system be adopted by the Town Board, we suggest that the proposed numbers be made effective 6 months after the date of adoption. Selkirk post office, Selkirk fire department and the residents should be informed of these new numbers. He said the Engineering Department can supply additional maps or lists of the property owners as may be required by the Town Board. He said the memo also indicated please be advised that the house numbers -- and he would say this and Mr. Gunner can reiterate it -- approved by the Town Board in the past are of no value to anyone if the numbers are not displayed on the house, fence or mailbox. Supervisor Ringler said just to bring the Board up-to-date on a couple of things, the renaming of Old School Road, that portion of Jericho Road, this has been kicked around for several months now, contacting and writing to the residents and asking for suggestions on a name for that section of the road and the last -- this was a suggestion from the neighbors and he last wrote to them in May asking them if anyone had a problem on this and to get back to him. He said only one did, the people that own the airport still would like it to be called Airport Road. He said the residents when he suggested this originally did not like that and he is making the recommendation based upon that he believes 95 percent of the people on the road would like to have it named Old School Road. Supervisor Ringler said with the portion of Bell Crossing Road being renamed to South Albany Road, as you may recall, the reason that is being done is that that section of road was changed when the bridge was put back and all that work was done there and formed a "T" intersection and a straight through road. He said where it is right now, we basically have one straight road with two different names on it and it was recommended that we change that. He said he had written to the residents in that area of the Town and there were a couple of objections and most of the people have no problem with the naming of the road. He said there was one concern, there was a tavern owner down there that named her tavern Bell Crossing Tavern but bell crossing is still there -- the historical significance of the railroad track is bell crossing and he did not see that as a major problem. He said he thinks everyone in the area knows where that tavern is. He said the Conrail company would like to keep bell crossing in their name and for various reasons they have great deals of correspondence and paper and so forth with that name on there and the cost of doing that was extensive but they also felt that they do like the connotation and it has been historical to them to have Bell Crossing in their address. The Supervisor said they went back and forth on this and what is being recommended for them -- after a great deal of discussion and they have agreed upon this -- one of the things with 911 that we are going to be doing is naming of private roads. He said they will be coming up with a policy on how we are handling signage and so forth on those private roads at their next meeting. He said basically, many private roads are going to have to have a name put to them for emergencies purposes. He said what he is suggesting is -- and Conrail has agreed and the post office has agreed -- is this is a very large complex down there, that their entrance road... access road now be called Bell Crossing Road. So, they would be able to maintain that, according to the Supervisor, and the post office is in agreement with it and he thinks it answers everybody's problem basically. The Supervisor asked if anyone had any questions or thoughts on it. Mrs. Fuller said no, that was the only question she had was Conrail's position. Councilman Webster said that was good compromise. Mr. Gunner said good compromise. Supervisor Ringler said it took a while. Supervisor Ringler said if there are no other questions, he would entertain a motion to authorize those changes. The motion was made by Mrs. Fuller and seconded by Mr. Webster that the street numbers and name changes as proposed by the Engineering Department of the Town of Bethlehem be and they hereby are approved as listed on the memorandum dated July 29, 1992 from Terrence W. Ritz, Department of Public Works, Engineering Department. The motion was passed by the following vote: Ayes: Mr. Ringler, Mr. Webster, Mr. Gunner, Mrs. Fuller. Noes: None. Absent: Ms. Galvin. The Supervisor said the next item was a request from David Austin, Administrator of Parks & Recreation Department, for approval of attendance of Dave and Town Attorney at the Americans with Disabilities Act seminar to be held at the Albany Marriott, $25. per person. He said he has put together an in-house committee to be looking at the effects of the Americans Disabilities Act on the Town. He said it is required by law that we do that and they are proceeding with their work. He said Mr. Austin is chairing that committee and Bernie, naturally is on their as counsel because there is a lot of legal issues that are going to concern us. He said the more information we have... one of the problems with this Americans Disabilities Act is that it has been written with most laws but there are not any precedent cases, as yet, outlining how far you have to go with changes and so forth. He said it is going to be very important that we are educated. He said they will be coming back with their recommendation. He said they have already come back with some that we will be able to handle ourselves on signage and things like that but it is going to be an ongoing process. He asked if there were any questions about the Americans Disabilities Act, right now because Dave is here. Supervisor Ringler asked if someone wanted to make a motion for attendance at the seminar. The motion was made by Mr. Webster and seconded by Mrs. Fuller that David Austin, Administrator of Parks & Recreation Department and Attorney Bernard Kaplowitz be and they hereby are authorized to attend the Americans with Disabilities Act seminar on August 25, 1992 at the Albany Marriott with fee of $25. per person paid. Mrs. Capone said how come Bernie is going, we have never sent Bernie anywhere before. Supervisor Ringler said it is about time we gave him some education. Mrs. Capone said that must be blind justice. Supervisor Ringler said put your glasses on it, you will be able to see it. Supervisor Ringler asked if there were any further comments. There were none. The motion was passed by the following vote: Ayes: Mr. Ringler, Mr. Webster, Mr. Gunner, Mrs. Fuller. Noes: None. Absent: Ms. Galvin. Supervisor Ringler said the next item is a request from Chief LaChappelle for authorization for Mike McMillen to attend DARE training in Saratoga Springs, $100. fee and a car to transport himself. Councilwoman Fuller said she just had a question, she would like to know what the DARE training is that he will be attending that makes it different from what he has been doing in the middle school. Supervisor Ringler said okay, we will get back to you. Councilman Webster said it was the new component. Mrs. Fuller asked how often a new component comes up. Mr. Webster said he thinks he has only been working on up to the 6th grade. Supervisor Ringler said they have been doing it at the 6th grade. Mrs. Fuller said 6th, 7th and 8th grade he was doing it with Ray Linstruth. Supervisor Ringler said they have been doing it at the 6th grade at the middle school. He said that is what they were performing it. Supervisor Ringler said he thinks they are going to be going to some older groups, but he is not sure, indicating he will find out specifically what this is Sheila. The motion was made by Mr. Webster and seconded by Mr. Gunner to authorize Mike McMillen to attend DARE training, the Middle School Component to be held August 17-19, 1992 with the $100.00 fee paid from the DARE funds and transportation provided by police vehicle. The motion was passed by the following vote: Ayes: Mr. Ringler, Mr. Webster, Mr. Gunner, Mrs. Fuller. Noes: None. Absent: Ms. Galvin. Following, the Supervisor said was a request from Chief LaChappelle to consider adoption of a resolution regarding receiving funds from the Governor's Traffic Safety Committee in furtherance of the traffic safety efforts. He said we have been offered a grant from the State of New York of $20,000 for seat belt compliance and education in that area. He said we do have to pass the resolution in order to accept it. The motion was made by Mrs. Fuller and seconded by Mr. Gunner to adopt the following resolution: RESOLUTION RESOLUTION AUTHORIZING THE SUPERVISOR OF THE TOWN OF BETHLEHEM TO FILE AN APPLICATION AND ENTER INTO A GRANT AGREEMENT WITH THE GOVERNOR'S TRAFFIC SAFETY COMMITTEE ENABLING THE TOWN OF BETHLEHEM TO RECEIVE FUNDS FOR THE EXACT AMOUNT CITED IN THE APPROVED HS-1 GRANT AGREEMENT AND TAKE PART IN THE NEW YORK STATE'S HIGHWAY SAFETY PROGRAM. WHEREAS, the Federal Government, through the Federal Highway Safety Program has made funds available to the State and units of local government under Section 402(c) of Public Law 89-564, as amended to assist them in establishing coordinated highway safety programs; and WHEREAS, GTSC has been given the authority to review local programs and allocate funds to local applicants; and WHEREAS, the Town of Bethlehem is desirous of participating in such a program and has developed the following project: Seat Belt Compliance, Motorcycle Helmet Law Enforcement Education Project. in accordance with the guidelines and objections of the Governor's Traffic Safety Committee. NOW, THEREFORE, BE IT RESOLVED. 1. That the Supervisor of the Town of Bethlehem be and he hereby is authorized to file an application with the Governor's Traffic Safety Committee in order to receive funds for participation in the said project in the Town of Bethlehem and 2. That the Supervisor of the Town of Bethlehem be and hereby is authorized to enter into a grant agreement with the Governor's Traffic Safety Committee, pursuant to the above mentioned program. 3. That the Chief Executive of the Town of Bethlehem, be and hereby is authorized to advertise for bids and award contracts in accordance with this application. Approved as to form: /s/ Kenneth J. Ringler Kenneth J. Ringler, Jr. Supervisor, Town of Bethlehem Supervisor Ringler said next he would like to acknowledge receipt of the quarterly franchise fee from Cablevision from April to June in the amount of $18,949. He said once we get the new agreement in, we will get a lot more information than is here. Councilman Gunner said he thinks we should not be... people know the total we get... the approximate total we get for a year. Supervisor Ringler said $18,000 times 4. Mr. Gunner said $75,000 in round numbers per year. The Supervisor agreed. Supervisor Ringler said next he would entertain a motion to authorize reimbursement of water rent overpayments in the amount of $16.82. The motion was made by Mr. Gunner and seconded by Mrs. Fuller to authorize the reimbursement of water rent overpayments in the amount of $16.82 to those individuals listed on the correspondence from Kenneth P. Hahn, Receiver of Taxes and Assessments dated August 4, 1992. The motion was passed by the following vote: Ayes: Mr. Ringler, Mr. Webster, Mr. Gunner, Mrs. Fuller. Noes: None. Absent: Ms. Galvin. Supervisor Ringler said next he had a request from David Austin, Administrator of Parks & Recreation Department, to authorize the Supervisor to sign an easement for underground electrical service at the Elm Park. He said this is a standard easement from Niagara Mohawk, the Town Attorney has reviewed it and sees no problem with us signing it. He said this is for the new Kids Place playground to get the electric in so that they can do their work over there. Councilman Gunner asked Mr. Austin if all the electric service there is underground. Mr. Austin said no, we have some overhead. He said a lot of it is underground but we do have some overhead lines. Councilman Gunner asked nothing near the pool or anything like that. Mr. Austin said no, that is all underground. He said there are some overhead lines going into the office area, the maintenance area also. Mr. Gunner said all right, okay. The motion was made by Mr. Webster and seconded by Mr. Gunner to authorize the Supervisor to sign an easement for underground electrical service at the Elm Avenue Park. The motion was passed by the following vote: Ayes: Mr. Ringler, Mr. Webster, Mr. Gunner, Mrs. Fuller. Noes: None. Absent: Ms. Galvin. Supervisor Ringler said next is a request from Peter Wenger, Town Justice, for approval to attend the certified training program for Town Justice to be held October 18-21, 1992 at the Nevele with expenses paid. He said he is recommending that we pay the entire amount of this because this is required training and it is not for Town Justices offered locally. The motion was made by Mrs. Fuller and seconded by Mr. Webster that Town Justice Peter Wenger be and he hereby is authorized to attend the certified training program for Town Justice to be held October 18-21, 1992 at the Nevele, Ellenville, NY with expenses paid. The motion was passed by the following vote: Ayes: Mr. Ringler, Mr. Webster, Mr. Gunner, Mrs. Fuller. Noes: None. Absent: Ms. Galvin. Supervisor Ringler said next is a request from Mrs. Hodom, the Clerk of the Court for approval to attend NYS Association of Magistrates Court Clerks, Inc., their 13th annual seminar October 18-21, 1992 at Nevele. This is not required training, according to the Supervisor for Mrs. Hodom, but again he is recommending that we pay the registration fee in line with the previous practices. Mrs. Capone asked how much and said they are both going at the same time. Supervisor Ringler asked Mrs. Capone not to interrupt. She said why don't they just take one room. Supervisor Ringler asked where the registration fee was. Ms. Newkirk, the Town Clerk, said she does not see the registration fee alone, she said it gives you your fees but she does not see where it stipulates the registration fees. Supervisor Ringler said it is the room fee. The Clerk indicated yes, that was what she meant, it has everything together. She said it does not give you a break-out. Councilman Webster asked what the room fee is. Supervisor Ringler said he thought it was included in this here, she will have to break that down because they have given a fee which is including a room. Supervisor Ringler said she had agreed to pay the whole thing, but he was recommending that we pay the registration fee. He said he thinks it is minimal and it may not be any at all to be honest with you because they are charging for the rooms on this form. The motion was made by Mr. Webster and seconded by Mrs. Fuller that Mrs. Hodom be and she hereby is authorized to attend the 13th annual seminar of the New York State Association of Magistrates Court Clerks, Inc., October 18-21, 1992 at the Nevele in Ellenville, New York with registration fee paid. The motion was passed by the following vote: Ayes: Mr. Ringler, Mr. Webster, Mr. Gunner, Mrs. Fuller. Noes: None. Absent: Ms. Galvin. Mrs. Capone asked if there was any reason why the 2 other Town Justices were not going. Supervisor Ringler said they can get that training at other places, there is twice a year. He said it was held at the New York State Associations of Towns in New York City in February and the other judge attended that course for his training. He said they do have to have it once a year at one of those two locations. Supervisor Ringler said next is a request from David Austin, Administrator of Parks & Recreation Department, for approval of seasonal personnel as per the attached list. The motion was made by Mrs. Fuller and seconded by Mr. Webster that the personnel listed on the memorandum from David Austin, Administrator of Parks & Recreation Department, dated August 12, 1992 and on file in the Town Clerk's Office, be and they hereby are approved to serve at the pleasure of the Town Board. The motion was passed by the following vote: Ayes: Mr. Ringler, Mr. Webster, Mr. Gunner, Mrs. Fuller. Noes: None. Absent: Ms. Galvin. Supervisor Ringler said the next is a request from David Austin, Administrator of Parks and Recreation, to authorize the Supervisor to sign a lease agreement for the boat launch at Cedar Hill. DATE: August 6, 1992 TO: Kenneth J. Ringler, Jr., Members of the Town Board FROM: David Austin, Administrator RE: Lease agreement for Boat Launch at Cedar Hill As you are probably aware, for many years boaters have used a privately owned launch area in the vicinity of Henry Hudson Park to access the Hudson River. Recently, this area has been blocked, by someone other than the owner, with large, heavy objects. We have received a number of calls from residents, requesting that the Town attempt to have the launch re-opened. I have been in contact with Paula and Townsend Morey, the owners, who have been extremely cooperative. They are boating enthusiasts and would like to see the public be able to use the launch. They will allow the Town to remove these objects, providing the Town will lease the launch area from them and assume any liability connected with it. I have checked with the Army Corp. of Engineers who have jurisdiction over all tidal waters. They explained to me that the Town does not need a permit for an existing launch area, as long as we do not make improvements to, or disturb the area from the point of the highest tide down to the water. I have also checked on insurance which does not seem to be a problem. (see attached letter). I think it is in the best interest of the Town to have this area open for residents who presently have to go to Ravena or Albany to launch their boats. I would like to request that the Board authorize the Supervisor to sign the attached lease agreement. Thank you for your consideration. --- Supervisor Ringler said the lease is for a total of $400 per year. He explained he is just using that to cover the tax payment, he guesses. Mr. Austin said yes. Mr. Ringler said we had many times -- just to bring this Board up-to-date -- prior and this happened long before his time, Mr. Austin would have to fill in -- had looked at the possibility of building a boat launch at the Town Park, the Henry Hudson Park. He said once you get into an extensive boat launch, you have to get a Corps of Engineers permit and their requirements are that we would build break waters and rather extravagant system which at that time was going to cost $150,000 to $200,000. Mr. Austin said over $100,000. Supervisor Ringler said so the Town has never done it. He said this is there, it is existing, everyone seems to use it and when it was closed off, both his phone and Dave's phone rang off the hook because many people thought the Town owned it already. He said they did not realize that they were using private property. He asked Mr. Austin to see what he could do and he has done a nice job and Mr. Kaplowitz has been involved in this and has been involved in the drawing up of this lease agreement and he has no problem with it. Mr. Ringler said he thinks that... he talked with a couple boating enthusiasts last night telling them that this was on the agenda and they are quite pleased that we are able to do this but we won't be able to, as he told them, make any improvements because that involves a rather large permitting process and a large expenditure as well. He asked if there were any questions. Councilman Webster said he thought it should be noted that the safety inspector from the insurance carrier looked at it and saw no problem with it for the record. Councilman Gunner said he noticed it states for residents only, asking if we were going to post some kind of signage there. He said he thought it would be wise to because he did not know if that would affect the insurance coverage. Mr. Austin said we can. Councilman Webster said there already is signage at the entrance to the park. Mr. Austin said he can request from the owner that we put up a sign at the launch area. Councilman Gunner said if he would let us, he thinks it would help him too. Councilman Webster said he thought it was a good point to Mr. Gunner. Supervisor Ringler said the other thing that he has suggested to Mr. Austin also is that he put a sign up that points parking into the Town park area. He said one of the problems with the neighbors is that they were parking on their property and that is one of the reasons that they put these blocks up. He said we will have to ask them to park in the Town property. Supervisor Ringler asked if there were any other questions, complimenting Mr. Austin for a nice job done on this. He said he thinks people are going to be happy. He asked if anyone would like to make a motion to authorize the Supervisor to sign the lease agreement. The motion was made by Mr. Webster and seconded by Mr. Gunner that the Supervisor be and he hereby is authorized to sign the lease agreement for a boat launch at the Henry Hudson Park. The motion was passed by the following vote: Ayes: Mr. Ringler, Mr. Webster, Mr. Gunner, Mrs. Fuller. Noes: None. Absent: Ms. Galvin. Councilman Gunner said he was down fishing in the river and he was trying to move them himself but he gave up, quickly, very quickly. Mr. Austin asked if he caught any strippers. Mr. Gunner said no, just a lot of eels. Supervisor Ringler said next was a request from Floyd I. Brewer, Editor of Publications, the Bicentennial Commission to go to bid for printing of the Bicentennial history. Could advertise on August 19 and open bids on September 2nd. He noted the committee has been working and doing a super job under... he guessed he was the editor in chief, he guessed was the best way to describe him, in putting a document together that he thinks many people are going to enjoy. He said again, a lot of this happened before this board was here but this work is being done through a grant from the General Electric Company who provided $25,000 for the Town to do this and this will be ready in time for our Bicentennial. Mr. Brewer said it will and he was sitting here chuckling, Ken, when you were talking about the thickness of your draft or file was it -- his 5 drafts for 14 chapters would come up to here, that is how thick his files are from this project. The Supervisor said it is going to be a great document and he thinks we are all going to enjoy it. Mr. Brewer said one quick thing, he showed the cover print that will be used. He said so the audience can see, it is an original painting by Len Tantillo, some of you know his work and asked this be passed down. Mrs. Capone asked if it represents a house in the village, what is it. Mr. Brewer said it is the Nicholl Sill house. The motion was made by Mrs. Fuller and seconded by Mr. Gunner that the Town Clerk advertise for bids on the 19th day of August 1992 and receive and open bids on September 2, 1992 at 9:00 a.m. The motion was passed by the following vote: Ayes: Mr. Ringler, Mr. Webster, Mr. Gunner, Mrs. Fuller. Noes: None. Absent: Ms. Galvin. Supervisor Ringler asked if this was Cherry Hill. Mr. Brewer said it is the Nicholl Sill house in Cedar Hill. Mr. Ringler said this is the original Nicholl Sill without all the additions. Mr. Brewer said yes, 1795, not the very first one 1735, this is a bit enlarged come 1795. Mr. Ringler said he was down there several months ago, the owner opened it for a tour and the Nicholl Sill house -- he has done a beautiful job restoring many of the rooms. Mr. Brewer agreed. Mr. Webster said he did some beautiful work for the Albany Tricentennial too. Mr. Brewer said the Town did a smart thing dropping that on him. Supervisor Ringler said that was right. Mr. Brewer said it probably cost him a half million dollars. Supervisor Ringler thanked Mr. Brewer. --- Supervisor Ringler said next he would like to acknowledge receipt of Certificate of Approval of Final Plat for the FROS subdivision from the Planning Board for information purposes. --- Supervisor Ringler said the next item is a request from Bruce H. Secor, PE, Commissioner of Public Works, to adopt a resolution to establish a capital reserve fund for the Bethlehem Sewer District. MEMORANDUM TO: Members of the Town Board FROM: Bruce H. Secor, P.E., Commissioner of DPW DATE: August 5, 1992 SUBJECT: Proposed Capital Reserve Fund - Sewer District In conjunction with the recommendation of the Capital Improvements Committee, I am recommending that a Capital Reserve Fund be established for the Bethlehem Sewer District to finance the cost of repair/replacement of Sanitary Sewer Facilities. The types of projects contemplated are reconstruction and replacement of old sanitary sewer, upgrading of pumping station equipment, and facilities repairs, including acquisition of additional property. Attached is a proposed resolution which would establish the Capital Reserve Fund. If the Town Board agrees in this matter and establishes the account, I will work with the Comptroller's office to come back with a specific fund transfer once the third quarter receipts have been tabulated for the Sewer District. Please contact me if you have any questions or need further information. --- Councilman Gunner asked if this was the best type of bookkeeping and so forth to do, makes it easier. Supervisor Ringler said yes and it is required by law to establish it. Proposed Resolution to Establish Capital Reserve Fund For Bethlehem Sewer District RESOLVED, that pursuant to Section 6-c of the General Municipal Law, as amended, the Town Board does hereby establish a Capital Reserve Fund to finance the cost of repair, reconstruction and replacement of facilities for the Bethlehem Sewer District, including acquisition of right-of-way. The Town Supervisor is hereby directed to deposit moneys of this reserve fund in a separate bank account to be known as the "Bethlehem Sewer District Capital Reserve Fund". The Town Supervisor is authorized to invest, from time to time, the moneys of this fund pursuant to Section 6-f of the General Municipal Law. No expenditure shall be made from this fund, except upon authorization of Town Board pursuant to Section 6-c of the General Municipal Law. The foregoing resolution was presented for adoption by Mr. Webster, was seconded by Mr. Gunner and was passed by the following vote: Ayes: Mr. Ringler, Mr. Webster, Mr. Gunner, Mrs. Fuller. Noes: None. Absent: Ms. Galvin. The Supervisor said next they would like to do the same thing for the Water District. Proposed Resolution to Establish Capital Reserve Fund For Water District No. 1 RESOLVED, that pursuant to Section 6-c of the General Municipal Law, as amended, the Town Board does hereby establish a Capital Reserve Fund to finance the cost of reconstruction of Water District facilities, including acquisition of right-of-way. The Town Supervisor is hereby directed to deposit moneys of this reserve fund in a separate bank account to be known as the "Water District No. 1 Capital Reserve Fund". The Town Supervisor is authorized to invest, from time to time, the moneys of this fund pursuant to Section 6-f of the General Municipal Law. No expenditure shall be made from this fund, except upon authorization of Town Board pursuant to Section 6-c of the General Municipal Law. The foregoing resolution was presented for adoption by Mr. Webster, seconded by Mr. Gunner and was passed by the following vote: Ayes: Mr. Ringler, Mr. Webster, Mr. Gunner, Mrs. Fuller. Noes: None. Absent: Ms. Galvin. Supervisor Ringler said next was a recommendation from the Superintendent of Highways, Gregg Sagendorph, to expand the mandatory residential and commercial recycling. August 7, 1992 Bethlehem Town Board 445 Delaware Avenue Delmar, NY 12054 Dear Board Members: In response to the list of unacceptable items able to be tipped at the Answers facility as of September 1, 1992 (see attached), I recommend that the following additional materials be included in the Town's mandatory recycling law, effective September 1, 1992: brown Kraft paper bags corrugated cardboard magazines, catalogue and junk mail (excluding window envelopes) office paper and high grade paper plastics (#1 thru #7) It is recommended that the expanded list of recyclables be mandated for both the residential and commercial sectors. A meeting to discuss the new rules set by Answers and this pending recommendation was held with the local trash haulers on July 25, 1992. It was the consensus of opinion that the haulers be responsible for the manner of collection and the delivery of the recyclables to a proper facility. As stated in the Answers memo, new local markets are or will soon be open to accept these additional materials. In anticipation of these changes, local haulers have been notified to amend their current recycling plans by August 17, 1992. These plans must be approved by the Town before they can be implemented. Once the local markets for recyclables are open and "on line", it is my recommendation that the Town close its Materials Reprocessing Facility (MRF). This facility was operated on an interim basis until local markets became available for us as well as the private hauler. The tipping fee being offered locally is actually less than the fee the Town was charging at the MRF. In addition, the market the Town has been utilizing in Syracuse since the MRF opened in September of 1990 will not accept certain items on the list of expanded recyclables. Thank you for your consideration. Very truly yours, /s/ Gregg A. Sagendorph Superintendent of Highways --- Supervisor Ringler asked Mr. Sagendorph, since he wrote this letter, there apparently has been some confusion between the City of Albany and the new vendors and perhaps he could bring this to the attention of the Board. Mr. Sagendorph said trouble in paradise. He said what you have in front of you is a couple inches of contracts and handouts and fliers and welcome to the world of solid waste. Supervisor Ringler said they have been there. Mr. Sagendorph said Albany has handed to all its haulers at the scale house at the Answers facility, this paper that as of September 1st, they are not accepting these materials. He said they are also recommending at the bottom that Kruger Recycling and New Options on Waste -- which is Answers has contracted with to take the recyclables from all the participating municipalities -- that these recyclers will take what Albany has listed. He said that is not the case. He said we got as late as yesterday afternoon in the mail from New Options on Waste and from Kruger their list of will accept and won't accept and they will not accept some of the items that Albany has on their list of unacceptables. He said we do not have a home for some of these items. Supervisor Ringler asked what Albany has said about this. Mr. Sagendorph said we have not had a chance -- he and Mrs. Fisher have been on the phone both, they both got the mailing yesterday and they are trying to circumvent this and get them together and it is not working. Supervisor Ringler said he then guessed and again this is his recommendation, that this aspect of it should probably be tabled because we do not want to mandate something that Albany is not able to handle. Mr. Sagendorph said absolutely. Mr. Ringler continued, he knows that Albany had said originally that it was going to take them a month or two to gear up in any event, so he does not think there is going to be a major problem here. But, he certainly does not want us to mandate something that no one has any way of disposing of at this point in time in his view. Mrs. Fuller said this goes into effect September 1st. Supervisor Ringler said supposedly, yes, you see Albany does not have a mandatory recycling law just yet -- do they. Mrs. Fisher said it becomes effective on September 1st but she wanted to make a comment -- New York State recycling legislation comes into effect September 1, 1992 but we already have our legislation in effect and have been using it so we already are in compliance with New York State regulations. Supervisor Ringler said we have been ahead of them for 2 years. He said this only is the items. He said the legislation of the State says that you should recycle items which are recyclable and there are markets for. He said that is why we are into what we are into now, Albany was going to go into this in a greater detail as this other market was opening up but now it is a question has to what that market really is. He said so he thinks it would be in our best interest at this point in time to table this until this gets clarified. He said if it does get clarified before we mandate it, the haulers can be putting out to their customers that they are going to do, in any event as to how they wish them to handle the additional items on a voluntary basis at least. Mr. Sagendorph said we just want to get the list of additional items exact. Supervisor Ringler said straight, exactly. Mr. Sagendorph continued as to where they are headed. Supervisor Ringler said exactly, good. He said that aspect of it he would entertain a motion to table. Mrs. Fuller made a motion to table the expansion of mandatory recyclables of additional materials, was seconded by Mr. Gunner and passed by the following vote: Ayes: Mr. Ringler, Mr. Webster, Mr. Gunner, Mrs. Fuller. Noss: None. Absent: Ms. Galvin. Councilman Gunner said he had a question, not on the agenda. Supervisor Ringler said okay. Mr. Gunner asked Mrs. Fisher if she could tell him if we have any plans -- while he has her here -- do we have any plans to pick up some residential type hazardous waste, paint particularly. He said he has a lot of people ask him that. Mrs. Fisher said no, we have not made any plans, she does have a suggestion which she has not gotten an okay on -- that won't take care of all hazardous waste but will take care of some things. She said but she does get many calls constantly and gradually -- she means she is not getting everybody but she is gradually teaching people and helping them get rid of the things properly and most people that she talks to find that 3/4 of what they have they can get rid of safely. She said they may only have 2 items that should be saved for something special. She said most of them are willing to save it unless they are moving. Supervisor Ringler said one of the problems with hazardous waste is the cost. He asked Mr. Secor how much it would cost for a 1 day hazardous waste program. Mr. Secor said they have had an offer from the people in Clemmont, which is Clean Harbors, they were going to supply the technicians -- there has to be federal hazardous waste permit, state hazardous waste permit, everything has to go in 55 gallon drums, packed with vermiculite or some inner deal, it has to be shipped to Buffalo, and stored in a hazardous waste site and to do all that for some paint you did your living room with seems a little stupid to me. He said they were looking at $30,000 to $70,000 for a one day household hazardous waste type thing. He said the other problem is that there is waste out there, certain of the pesticides and things, for which there is no known disposal method. He said it is just frightening, some of the things that come in. He said Albany ran one but-- did they run 2 now. Mrs. Fisher said no, this is their third, this past June. Mr. Secor said okay, the first one they ran cost them $100,000+ by the time they did everything. He said the second one was -- it was an enormous amount of money. Supervisor Ringler said Albany invited us to participate but they wanted from us $100. per user, wasn't it. Mr. Sagendorph said the bill wound up per user that day to $228. per vehicle that entered, whether they had one can of paint or a trunk load. Mr. Secor said they had a couple cans of used paint. He means what Sharon is getting to is that what we are telling people to do is paint something. He said you bought this stuff as paint, paint the inside of a closet, paint the inside of your garage, paint your attic -- he does not care what you paint, paint something. Supervisor Ringler said once the paint is out of the can, it is no longer hazardous, is that correct. Mr. Secor said right. Mrs. Fisher said when it is dried it is no longer hazardous. Mr. Webster asked aren't we telling people to put this in their garage over the winter and when they come out in the spring it is frozen it is gone, it is dried up and it is disposable. Mrs. Fisher said right. Mr. Webster said he does it every fall. Mr. Secor said if you have a little half inch or inch left in the bottom of the can, the best thing to do is to open it up and let it air dry and then it is a solid waste and it is not a hazardous waste and it is gone. But, Mr. Secor continued, if you have a lot left, maybe you can get it repigmented, if it is the wrong color, go back and have them put some dark pigment in it and paint the inside of a closet. He said the best thing to do is to use it, to do something with it. Supervisor Ringler said he thought Mrs. Fisher has written a couple of columns on this, asking if she had. Mrs. Fisher said she has written several and actually she is going to be at the Town Park Saturday for Safety Awareness Day that GE is having and that is what she is going to be displaying and whoever comes up to me, we can talk about it. Councilman Webster said if everybody dumped it into one barrel, we could come up with a nice pretty plaid paint, maybe or something, you know. Mrs. Fisher said Bethlehem beige. Supervisor Ringler said you could paint the recreation building. Mr. Austin said oh, no, he was sure it would be a lovely color. Supervisor Ringler said it would be original. The Supervisor said one item he would like to ask the Board for approval of tonight is both of the companies are looking for us to sign a contract with them for what we would bring from our Rupert Road facility. He said he is not in the position, at this point in time, to tell you that he wants the Board to authorize him to sign the contracts because our attorneys have many questions about them, but he would like permission to have authority to send a letter of intent to them stating that we intend to negotiate a contract with them. He said they need that for their files, for some reason he does not know what the purpose is... possibly DEC, he does not know. He said this does not require us anything, only that we intend to try and negotiate a contract. Mr. Sagendorph said it would let us in at the preferential tipping fee at both facilities but he would do the letter of intent with the stipulation that Albany Answers and the recycler come up with an accurate list of what is acceptable to which facility. Supervisor Ringler said no question. Mr. Gunner asked if our attorneys will be looking at this contract. Supervisor Ringler said absolutely because they are horrendous. He asked if anyone wished to offer a motion to authorize him to send that letter of intent. Authorize Supervisor To send a Letter of Intent Re: Rupert Road Facility The motion was made by Mrs. Fuller and seconded by Mr. Webster to authorize the Supervisor to send a letter of intent. The motion was passed by the following vote: Ayes: Mr. Ringler, Mr. Webster, Mr. Gunner, Mrs. Fuller. Noes: None. Absent: Ms. Galvin. Supervisor Ringler thanked Mr. Sagendorph, Mrs. Fisher and Mr. Secor. Supervisor Ringler said the next item -- okay that was the next item on the agenda, he did not realize it was listed separately. The Supervisor said the next item was a request from Mr. Secor, Commissioner of Public Works for approval of request for water district extension by Citgo Petroleum, Route 144, Glenmont, NY. He asked Mr. Secor to give an overview of what the extension is all about. Mr. Secor said the Board has copies of the engineer's map, plan and report and basically -- he did not know where to stand, he would stand on this side -- the water line already goes down and services some of the industrial facilities -- indicating the location of the Niagara Mohawk electric generating station, here is the Hudson River -- so there is already an extension down in this area. He said the Citgo property is just to the south of the existing extension and they would like to extend the water main from in front of Airco or Air Products -- Supervisor Ringler said Air Products -- he said he always guesses wrong but anyway, from down there onto their site and basically provide a potable drinking water supply and some fire protection. He said they now pump water from the river into big storage tanks and they have to use fuel oil all winter to heat those things and keep them from freezing and it is a big problem to them, so they want to do this. He said basically they are just taking in their property and this extension is basically just one property owner and they are just adjacent to the existing district. Supervisor Ringler asked if they would be paying for all of this. Mr. Secor said they will pay all the costs. Mr. Webster said that will bring us about 1300 feet closer to looping with Wemple Road then. Mr. Secor said yes, they are going to come... almost half way -- he can't remember the name of the road that goes up to the radio station. Mr. Sagendorph said Smultz Road. Mr. Secor said they are going to come about half way to Smultz Road, so we are getting closer, we are getting in the right direction. Mr. Webster said someone else's doughnut. Supervisor Ringler asked if there were any questions. There were none. The Supervisor said we have to set a public hearing on that and his recommendation would be September 9, 1992 at 8:00 p.m. although it might be a little late, he would like to schedule it at that point. Mrs. Fuller asked if he wanted to have them the same night. Supervisor Ringler said this one should be no problem, it would not take too long at all. The motion was made by Mrs. Fuller and seconded by Mr. Gunner that a public hearing be held September 9, 1992 at 8:00 p.m. in regard to the proposed Water District No. 1 Extension for Citgo Corporation, Route 144, Glenmont, Town of Bethlehem. The motion was passed by the following vote: Ayes: Mr. Ringler, Mr. Webster, Mr. Gunner, Mrs. Fuller. Noes: None. Absent: Ms. Galvin. Supervisor Ringler said the next item was a request from Mr. Secor, Commissioner of Public Works, for acceptance of deed and easement from Peter Belmonte Builders, Inc. for Indian Hills Section 2, pending approval of Town Attorney. Mr. Ringler asked Mr. Secor if he has looked at this yet. Mr. Secor said he did not know. Mr. Ringler said when this is done it will be done pending approval of the Town attorney. He said this would also be a reduction in the Letter of Credit to $13,000., asking Mr. Secor if this was correct. Mr. Secor indicated it was correct. The motion was made by Mrs. Fuller and seconded by Mr. Gunner that the deed and easement from Peter Belmonte Builders, Inc. for Indian Hills Subdivision Section 2 be and they hereby are accepted, and the reduction in bonding to $13,000. is hereby approved, pending approval of the Town Attorney. The motion was passed by the following vote: Ayes: Mr. Ringler, Mr. Webster, Mr. Gunner, Mrs. Fuller. Noes: None. Absent: Ms. Galvin. Supervisor Ringler said next was a request from Mr. Secor, Commissioner of Public Works, for approval of attendance of William Borger at the Grade II Wastewater Treatment Plant Operator's course at Hudson Valley Community College, September 15 through November 24, 1992 with expenses paid. MEMORANDUM TO: Members of the Town Board FROM: Bruce H. Secor, Commissioner DPW DATE: August 10, 1992 SUBJECT: Mr. William Borger Licensing Requirements Attached is an announcement from Hudson Valley Community College Continuing Education Division for the Grade II Wastewater Treatment Plant Operator's course which will be given between September 15 and November 24, 1992. In the past, we have had to send employees all the way to Morrisville to obtain this training. It is fortunate now that it is available locally, as it will save us the additional expense of motel bills. This course is a requirement in order to obtain a Wastewater Operator's License. Mr. Borger is currently an Operator Trainee and has completed the basic laboratory course and now needs to complete this course at Hudson Valley in order to successfully obtain his operator's license. I request the Town Board approve Mr. Borger attend the course at Hudson Valley and that the town pay the course fee of $400 and authorize reimbursement for mileage expense. Again, this is a savings over our previous experience which required us to send someone to Morrisville. Please contact me if you have any questions or need further information. --- The motion was made by Mr. Webster and seconded by Mr. Gunner that William Borger be and he hereby is authorized to attend the Grade II Wastewater Treatment Operator's Course at Hudson Valley Community from September 15 through November 24, 1992 with expenses paid. The motion was passed by the following vote: Ayes: Mr. Ringler, Mr. Webster, Mr. Gunner, Mrs. Fuller. Noes: None. Absent: Ms. Galvin. Supervisor Ringler said next he would entertain a motion to authorize the resolution appointing the Republican Election Inspectors and Poll Clerks for the year July 15, 1992 through July 14, 1993. The following resolution was offered by Mr. Webster and seconded by Mr. Gunner: RESOLVED, that pursuant to Article 3 of the Election Law, the following persons be and they hereby are appointed Election Inspectors and Poll Clerks as recommended by the Republican Committee for the term beginning July 15, 1992 through July 14, 1993 as per the attached lists. (SEE LISTS FILED IN TOWN CLERK'S OFFICE.) The resolution was adopted by the following vote: Ayes: Mr. Ringler, Mr. Webster, Mr. Gunner, Mrs. Fuller. Noes: None. Absent: Ms. Galvin. Supervisor Ringler asked if there was anything else anyone would like to bring to the attention of the Board this evening. Mr. Sherwood Davies said he would like to make three or four comments with regards to your budget that will be forthcoming. Yesterday, Mr. Davies said, he thinks maybe some of you noticed in the Albany Times Union the lower court decision with regards to State and local retirement pension funds. He said it indicated that if the upper courts approve that the retirement costs to local government may increase -- he would suspect, 3, 4, 5 fold. Supervisor Ringler said thanks to our State gimmicks. Mr. Davies said the point is that he thinks the local government should be prepared for something like this and not have it come upon them... Supervisor Ringler said, Mr. Davies we always try to prepare for those things, as you know. Mr. Davies said the second thing has to do with the County sales tax which will be increased over 14 percent and he would like to urge that the Board consider reducing property taxes, if possible, by this essentially a windfall this next year. He said because as the Board well know, about 50 percent of our citizens will be having their taxes raised through this reassessment and many of these are older folks. Mr. Davies said the last point he would like to make is that you will be developing a Town budget. He said he is sure it will go through your staff people but he would like to urge that... Supervisor Ringler said it has already started. Mr. Davies continued that he would like to urge with regards to particularly the sewer fund -- you have three charges in the tax, the property tax, the front footage assessment, water use surcharge. He said water use surcharge exceeds by 60 percent our water rents. He said he would only ask that the Board provide guidance and rational ahead of time as to where these specific monies that will be collected will be going to -- whether it is bonded indebtedness, operation of the sewage plant, or maintenance of our sewers and pump stations. Mr. Davies thanked Supervisor Ringler. Mr. Ringler thanked Mr. Davies. Supervisor Ringler asked if there was anything else. Hearing none, the motion was made by Mrs. Fuller and seconded by Mr. Webster to adjourn the Town Board meeting at 8:40 p.m. The motion was passed by the following vote: Ayes: Mr. Ringler, Mr. Webster, Mr. Gunner, Mrs. Fuller. Noes: None. Absent: Ms. Galvin. Kathleen A. Newkirk Town Clerk
NEW RELEASE LYNYRD SKYNYRD Sweet Home Alabama Gimme Three Steps Call Me The Breeze T For Texas The Needle And The Spoon Crossroads Free Bird Workin' For MCA I Ain't The One Searching Tuesday's Gone Saturday Night Special Travellin' Man Whiskey Rock-A-Roller "One More Far From The Road" is the much-heralded and long-awaited special Lynyrd Skynyrd "live" album. Recorded in July during a triumphant return to Atlanta, the city where it all began for them three years ago, "One More Far From The Road", a double album set, displays the greatest rock and hard rock/established Lynyrd Skynyrd as one of the most successful recording and touring rock bands in today's music industry. Featuring the best of their 1970 three-night engagement at Atlanta's Fox Theatre, the album was recorded and edited under the aegis of producer Tom Dowd. The Fox Theatre was picked as the venue for such an auspicious occasion for several reasons: acoustic, a gesture of appreciation from Lynyrd Skynyrd to the city where they achieved their initial success, and to help draw attention to the "Save The Fox" movement currently in issue to save concerts to both the national and Atlanta communities. (The beautiful Fox Theatre is a city landmark and a very desirable place for both performing and viewing concerts is tentatively set to be sold, torn down and eventually become a parking lot.) "One More Far From The Road", which features hot live versions of such Skynyrd favorites as "Free Bird", "Sweet Home Alabama", "Saturday Night Special", and "Gimme Three Steps", along with Skynyrdized versions of the country standard, "T For Texas, T For Tennessee" and the rock standard "Crossroads", is destined to be a classic. It further adds to the recording debut of new Lynyrd Skynyrd guitarist Steve Gaines and the three girl back-up singers, Lee Haskins, Chrisie Gaines (Steve's sister), and Deborah Jo Billingsly. Lynyrd Skynyrd means business, and does business. "One More Far From The Road" is an album that a lot of people have been anxiously awaiting and it won't let them down. PROGRAMMERS WATCH FOR THE 4.55 EDIT OF THE SMASH LIVE VERSION OF "FREE BIRD" THE LYNYRD SKYNYRD LIBRARY APPEARING MAPLE LEAF GARDENS NOV. 15, MONTREAL FORUM NOV. 18 CONTACT YOUR MCA RECORDS PROMOTION MAN Barry Ryman (604) 736-3355 Vancouver Pat Chapman (403) 263-0401 Calgary Jack Skelly (204) 942-2413 Winnipeg Randy Sharrard (416) 491-3000 Toronto Scott Richards (416) 491-3000 Toronto Frank Iacovella (514) 341-4640 Quebec Bob Johnston (514) 341-4640 Quebec Jim Morrissey (506) 532-4935 New Brunswick MCA RECORDS(CANADA) New U.S. copyright bill now signed into law U.S. president Gerald Ford recently signed Bill S22 - the new U.S. copyright act - into law. Most provisions don't come into effect until January 1978. The new law sets mechanical royalties - the fee a recording company pays a publisher of copyrighted music - at 2½ cents per song per record sold; up from two cents. In addition, the law provides for token royalties from jukebox owners, cable TV and public broadcasters there. The new law contains stronger anti-piracy measures and specifies exactly what sound-alike recordings can legally contain. The most important revision, in many publishers' eyes, is the extension of the duration of U.S. copyright from 28 years plus another 28 years if renewed, to the life of the composer plus 50 years; bringing the U.S. standards in line with most of the rest of the world. It was the first major copyright revision there since 1909. Spokesmen for CAPAC, BMIC (which collect performance royalties) and the Canadian Musical Reproduction Rights Agency (a newly-formed organization of Canadian publishers to collect mechanical royalties headed up by Cyril Devereaux, formerly of Chappell Music), all agree that it is too early to predict how much of an increase of royalty funds coming into Canada from U.S. users will be caused by the new law; but all agree there will be some. Canadian copyright revision has been discussed for some years in Canada and an official government paper on copyright revision is expected this fall. Music Shoppe Rock weeks staged in Ontario clubs Music Shoppe presents a new kind of roster showcasing in Canada -- staging six different acts on consecutive nights in a major rock club under the billing of Music Shoppe Rock. Ron Scribner told RPM the idea grew out of three successful week-long billings at Toronto's Picadilly Tube, where Tube manager Gary Stevenson and Music Shoppe agent Ralph Jolivet presented consecutive one-nights by Music Shoppe acts. To top that, Scribner has booked two consecutive weeks in December at Toronto's Forge to showcase 12 different groups during the pre-Christmas music push: Triumph (December 6), Lisa Hartt Band (7), Rose (8), Hott Roxx (9), Lynx (10), Max Webster (11), Bond (13), Rough Trade (14), Myles (15), Wireless (16), Goddo (17), Fludd (18). Scribner plans to build the program into an extensive campaign with weeks at clubs in each major Ontario centre, possibly every few months. In addition to showcasing the groups, Music Shoppe plans special print and radio campaigns to assure record-breaking weeks for each club where such a series is booked. It is a good way, Scribner adds, to introduce bands to an area where they have never performed -- with press, publicity and an almost guaranteed full house. From the booking agency's point of view the project solves a lot of the weeknight booking voids for groups booked on the dance and concert circuit on weekends. McLauchlan and Silver Tractor at Massey Hall Murray McLauchlan hit Toronto on his all-Canada tour for two full houses at Massey Hall October 28 and 29; and his Silver Tractor band was in full swing. He was in Toronto on the eve of the U.S. release of his new Boulevard LP by Island Records, following its debut as a True North import picked up by major FM stations like New York's WNEW. The Walrus Report, a major U.S. FM tip sheet, ranked it high among new FM product. McLauchlan is taking his show through northern Ontario, and between November 12 and December 5 he and Silver Tractor play 17 dates from Winnipeg to Victoria. A&M's Shawn Phillips will open some of the western dates, with Dan Hill opening in some centres where he has not yet been on stage. There is no opener set for the B.C. dates. Fiedler and Finkelstein have set a McLauchlan mini-tour of Quebec and southern Ontario for late January, to be followed by a swing into the U.S. In Toronto it was McLauchlan's best show here ever, with smooth staging and a good line of patter to go along with the best arrangements of his earlier material anywhere (including his previous LPs). But the fuller arrangements, which sometime hit near-rock volume, didn't overtake McLauchlan's voice which, even though he was not in best of health, was in fine form. A complete concert, it certainly gave the audience plenty for their money - including three encores to standing ovations Friday night. Four awards for BTO from Film And TV Assoc The Bachman-Turner Overdrive television special won four awards at this year's Canadian Film And Television Association presentation, according to Polydor Canada's Lori Bruner. The special pulled in a CBC viewership of 18%, which is considered very high. (Happy Days, for example, rates an average of 20%.) The awards, won presented at The Ontario Science Centre in Toronto November 5, were for the best overall sales promotion campaign; best sound recording; best score; and best cinematography. The film, produced and directed by Peter Allies, won the most awards of any film entered this year. Stats-Canada plans to can more disc stats The office of the Federal Secretary of State and Statistics Canada are investigating ways of collecting and publishing more detailed statistical information about the Canadian recording industry. At present Statistics Canada publishes a monthly summary of the numbers of records and tapes sold, but the information is not broken down in any other way. Andrew Cameron, of the research department of the Secretary of State's arts and culture branch, is co-ordinating the effort to determine the information needed by the government and the industry, and to find the best way to compile and present the statistical survey on a regular basis. Spokesmen from various parts of the industry have suggested that detailed information is needed on the relative sales volumes through different forms of record retailing, regional sales breakdowns, and the proportional strength of Canadian-produced records in the marketplace. Statistics Canada is the only agency with the legislated power to require statistics from Canadian businesses. 30s big-band jazz cuts back on RCA-Bluebirds RCA (U.S.) has released about 25 double-LP sets (almost 1,000 songs) of original recordings of the great jazz masters who recorded on the Bluebird label in the 1930s. The series' producer Frank Driggs, who plans to issue about 20 two-LP sets a year indefinitely, was quoted in a New York Times review (November 7) explaining that the aim of the project was not to market a series of greatest hits packages, but to create a comprehensive presentation of each artist's work. So far RCA has released sets by the likes of Fletcher Henderson, Earl Hines, Tommy Dorsey, Artie Shaw, Glenn Miller, and Benny Goodman; with plans for others including Duke Ellington, Lionel Hampton and Charlie Barnet. RCA's Canada's Jack Feeney told RPM that the complete series is available in Canada through imports. Double-LP sets are listed at $9.98 suggested retail price. Colby appointed Record Grove vice-president Gordon A. Colby has been appointed vice-president of operations for The Record Grove Ltd., the record retail chain based in Picton Ontario. Colby will be responsible for all purchasing and sales for the five Eastern Ontario outlets. The above announcement was made by Donald Houghton, Record Grove president. Atlas Electronics appoints Jim Rothwell PR manager The Toronto-based company, Atlas Electronics Limited has announced the recent appointment of Jim Rothwell as advertising and promotion manager. Rothwell was formerly involved in sales and marketing with Griffin & George Ltd. and Singer Audiovisual Ltd. International deal, LP set for Attic's Gallant Patsy Gallant's Attic-label hit, From New York To L.A. - a pop number based on the melody of Quebec Song Mon Pays - will be sold in the U.S. on Private Stock and in Europe on the Gamma label. Attic is preparing to release her first Attic LP, Are You Ready For Love, produced at Montreal's Tempo Studio by Gallant and Ian Robertson. Attic is also releasing a French-language Gallant single "Libre Pour L'Amour" in the Quebec market. Nick Gilder Featuring his new single that has been receiving heavy air-play from Kingston to Vancouver... 'Star In His Own Right' Capitol Chrysalis Burton Cummings - stands tall by Boyd Tattrie Portrait's Burton Cummings with his producer Richard Perry Canadian Press lauds Cummings' Winnipeg concert Last week the Canadian Press wired out an article on Cummings' first tour stop in Winnipeg. The unusually subjective review, appearing without a byline, made mention of the fact that this was an important show for Cummings, not only because it was his first solo show, but because Winnipeg hometown audiences had always been somewhat cool toward the Guess Who in their appearances there. "A capacity crowd at the Centennial Concert Hall were on their feet for well-deserved standing ovations on a number of occasions as Cummings and his tightly-knit band performed almost flawlessly in the opening concert of their Canadian tour," the article said. Cummings was quoted in the story as saying afterward, "The response was incredible. The people were applauding so loud and long I didn't know what to do. It was something that I never expected." "Cummings... spent nearly two hours performing and left the stage twice but each time for less than three minutes," the writer explained. "Cummings began his concert career as a solo performer by achieving in two hours what his former group The Guess Who failed to fully achieve in ten years." Despite the better part of ten years with the Guess Who, Burton Cummings seems to be handling the transition to solo artist quite well. His new record company, CBS had enough faith in him to promote him as the first release on their brand new elite label, Portrait. Both the single and the LP have been making impressive gains on the RPM charts, and are getting bulleted American trade action as well. Cummings began a cross-Canada tour Nov 8 in Winnipeg which will hit Regina (9), Saskatoon (10), Lethbridge (13), Edmonton (14), Calgary (16), Vancouver (18), Thunder Bay (23), Sault Ste. Marie (24), Sudbury (26), Hamilton (27), Kitchener (28), London (29), Toronto (December 2), Cornwall (3), and, tentatively, Ottawa (8). The Canadian dates will be the first live performances with his new band, although Cummings appeared solo on the Rock Music Awards. The band includes most of the rhythm section from the LP, including well-known session drummer Jim Gordon, guitarists Randy Strom and Danny Weiss, bassist Ian Gardner (the only Canadian besides Cummings) and Mike Roe, who handles all the electronic keyboards. "I think the people on this Canadian tour are really going to be kinda surprised," Cummings told RPM in a recent telephone interview from Winnipeg. "This is a far superior band than the Guess Who ever was. It feels pretty good, I have to admit. I've made mention in the past while I was with the Guess Who that I wanted to do some solo projects but I never got around to it, but now that I am, it feels damn good, really does." Cummings was asked if he was having any problems adjusting to the new format, and whether he thought his sound had changed much because of it. "I'm still getting used to it to tell you the truth. All of a sudden I've assumed the role of total band leader, telling everybody how I want things to sound and it's very different from a group situation but I'm enjoying it. I'm finding out what kind of stuff I'm made of - it's a very good basis for self-analysis musically, because the band is taking on my personality. It's very gratifying, very exciting, and I'm having an awfully good time." "I'm sounding much better because there are no elements of compromise left, you know, I'm picking the material, I'm doing the arranging basically, I'm structuring the set and everything, and so I'm sounding a lot different. I mean, there's no comparison between this and the Guess Who. Personally, I think this sounds a million times better." Regardless, Cummings says he'll be performing some of the material for which he's best known. "Of course, I'm not going to ignore what I've done in the past. There's no way, actually, because we did 15 albums, we had a lot of gold records, a lot of big hit singles, there's no way we can ignore that. But... I'm not going to be milking that all night. We've got a lot of new material that's not even on my solo LP, that I've written since it was recorded. It's going to be a nice balance of old and new." Speaking of old and new, many people have been wondering about Cummings' slow, barroom jazzy version of BTO's You Ain't Seen Nothin'. Yet, a Randy Bachman composition, on the LP. "Well, it's just a total paraphrase of Randy's record. It's not meant as a dig at all, although everyone's gonna think that, I'm sure. I haven't even spoken to the guy in six years. The hatchet was buried long, long ago. But you see, that tune is done in the style of maybe, the crooners from the forties, the big band, the ballroom circuit, you know - and Randy was the first guy that introduced me to that kind of singing. When I first joined the Guess Who, Randy used to play me all these records that I'd never heard before. He turned me on to Georgie Fame for the first time in my life, who became one of the big influences on my career in my singing, and so you could say, I guess, that this was a small repayment of a favour Randy once did for me - it's very strange. I honestly don't know how it happened either. It started out as a joke and then it got to be more than a joke. It's not meant derogatorily in any stretch of the imagination. I think that Randy will like it when he does hear it, I think that if he doesn't like it he's a fool, because it's a pretty good paraphrase of his record. People in L.A. tell me that mine sounds like the original from years ago and that BTO put out a rock 'n' roll version of it, which is a wierd way of lookin' at it but I could understand that." BOBBY CURTOLA Stickin' With Beautiful Things RCA KPL1-0165-N Bobby Curtola himself produced his latest disc, geared to his MOR following. Apparently, the list of musicians and others involved in the production was so lengthy that there wasn't room on the LP jacket. We know, however, that the sessions were produced at Phase One in Toronto with Dave Woods, Juno Awards conductor and Tommy Hunter Show music co-ordinator and conductor, doing the conducting and arranging. The list of musicians participating through two sets of sessions, we discovered, includes several L.A. sidemen and reads like a Who's Who of Toronto area players: Bobby Edwards, Michele Donato, Stan Perry, Moe Koffman, Ian McDougall, Guido Basso, Jerry Toth, Eugene Amaro...the list goes on. The original sessions were actually recorded a year ago. On this LP, Curtola is credited with having written or co-written half of the selections, including the two most recently released as singles, Oh My Marie and the title track. He also had a hand in two of the better tracks, I'm A Banjo Man and Hap Hap Happy Song. The rest of the tracks are versions of recent standards like Behind Closed Doors and Tie A Yellow Ribbon, plus a Don McLean tune entitled And I Love You So. LED ZEPPELIN The Song Remains The Same Swan Song SS2-201 1198-P Here's an LP that needs no introduction. Retailers can just put it down from the shelf, look back and thank God for heavy metal. Side One is good, and it provides most of the material an FMer would find suitable in terms of time or excitement. What more can you say about a success story even before it was pressed. IAN TAMBLYN Posterity PTR 13002 (TCD) This Ottawa talent seems to have a natural songwriting ability as evidenced on his debut LP. There's material for every taste and format - country, folk/MOR, FM. Best cuts include Paris Afternoon, I'll Try Good Papa, Oh God Have Mercy On The Souls. A good single could be Guitar Truck Drivin' Man. Produced by Ted Gerow with Harvey Glatt as executive producer. DONNA SUMMER Four Seasons Of Love Casablanca NBLP 7038V-M Disco's Olivia Newton John (as she has been called) on her latest sings five suites, one for each season. Spring is a surprise. Perfectly planned for the normal disco play outlets, including AM radio, which is serviced with Spring Reprise. PAUL ANKA/NEIL SEDAKA 24 Original Hits TeeVee TA 1055 Two! (slap!) Two! (slap!) Two stars in one! Who could resist 12 of the greatest hits by each of two of the world's most popular songwriters? A Christmas marketing inspiration from Tee-Vee Records. Marketing expertise of firm will probably unload half-a-million before the new year. COSIMO FILANE This Is It Fallen Rock FRR-101 (Sound Canada) Art Snider produced this LP at Sound Canada. It's straight MOR, mainly covers of well-known standards with a handful of originals. Drivin' Down which float to the top. The Foot, a novelty tune by Dobbs and Mickey Andrews, has been released as a single. LES SINNERS Chelsea CH 511-M This LP, originally recorded last year, has stirred up some activity in the U.S., particularly with WMMS Cleveland. Bob Morten originally had group signed to Chelsea, in the U.S., but soon Quality will be reissuing the original Celebration disc. The Quebec group, which has been around for 11 years, recorded a French and English version, and this, of course, is the English one. Good rock pop. Polydor Records now Marketing the 12 inch 45's. Earlier this year they tested the market with a limited edition of the Bee Gees You Should Be Dancing. The new releases are Let Me Be Your Lady by Stratavarious and When Love Is New by Arthur Prysock. Regular singles are also available. New from TK is a 12 inch of Calypso Breakdown by Ralph MacDonald from the Sound Of A Drum LP. The mix is hotter than the LP. Toronto discos reporting good reaction to the instrumental of You'll Never Find Another Love Like Mine from Stanley Turrentine's new LP The Man With The Sad Face LP on Fantasy Records. A single version also available in the U.S. Motown Canada is releasing the singles Down To Love Town by The Originals, Going Up In Smoke by Eddie Kendricks, and Your My Driving Wheel by The Supremes. Also the Supremes new album Mary, Scherrie, and Susaye the best cuts on this LP are Your My Driving Wheel and Let Yourself Go. Motown U.S. has now released The Originals Down To Love Town on a 12 inch single backed with Let's Be Young Tonight by Jermaine Jackson. According to Jim Leventhal at Record Shack in N.Y.C. sales are very good. London Records are currently enjoying success with three disco singles (two of them are Cancan). They are Disco Beat by JVD And Co., Surprises by Andre Gagnon, and Future Woman by Les Rockets. Surprise is also coming on a 12 inch. Brass Construction's new LP Brass Construction Two is now released on U.A. Discos reporting two cuts with good response. Ha Cha Cha and Screwed. They both have a sound similar to their first LP but the beat is faster. Ha Cha Cha has a break that they use only vocals in, but it works. CTI reports that Shoogie Wanna Boogie by David Mathews now on single. Mass production is currently the hottest import in town. Canadian release already in the works. No No No My Friend by Devoshun hottest new single on Satellite Music label. Also on a 12 inch. Sales are good on first imports in Town, hope someone picks this one up. London has opened their first after hours disco. Harlows opened Nov. 6. Sound and light were installed by Disco Sound Toronto. BS&T continued from page 11 For Blood Sweat and Tears, it's David Clayton-Thomas who is the reliable anchor section. His vocals were in top form, even more impressive than what we've used to on the numerous records he's done with the various editions of the band. Over the years he has developed a remarkable rapport with an audience, and he took control of this one with ease. Songs as old as And When I Die and Lucretia McEvil sounded as fresh as if they had been written last week. All of the musicians were excellent, having extensive jazz experience. Their new single is You're The One, from the LP More Than Ever. Openers for BS&T were the Ishan People who have a debut reggae LP on GRT, produced by DCT. Charity Brown, opening for Tower Of Power, indicated she's learned a lot about putting on a good show. She performed some of her older songs as well as material from Stay With Me, her latest A&M LP. TOP THIRTY PLAYLIST 1. Keep It Comin' / I'm Your Boogie Man—K.C. & The Sunshine Band LP [RCA] 2. Down To Love Town—The Originals (Motown) 3. Spring Affair—Donna Summer LP (Casablanca) 4. Cherchez La Femme / Sour & Sweet / I'll Play The Fool—Dr. Buzzard's Original Savannah Band (RCA) 5. You+Me=Love—Undisputed Truth (Warner Bros.) 6. Car Wash—Rose Royce (MCA) 7. Dance Little Lady—Tina Charles (Epic) 8. Nice 'n' Nasty—Salsoul Orch. LP (all cuts) (RCA) 9. Enjoy Yourself—The Jacksons (Epic) 10. Midnight Love Affair—Carol Douglas LP (RCA) 11. Goin' Up In Smoke—Eddie Kendricks (Motown) 12. Makes You Blind—Glitter Band (Arista) 13. The Rubberband Man—The Spinners (Atlantic) 14. You're Gonna Get Next To Me—Bo Kirkland & Ruth Davis LP (Claridge / U.S. import) 15. You've Got The Power—Camouflage (12" disco disk) (Roulette) (U.S. import) 16. A Chacun Son Enfance—Recreation (Union / Nobel) 17. Freez / Menage A Trois / Welcome To My Life—Bob Crewe Generation LP (Elektra / U.S. import) 18. Rhythms Of The World—Van McCoy LP (H&L) 19. Full Time Thing—Whirlwind (12" disco disk) (Roulette / U.S. import) 20. Sweet Summer Suite—Love Unlimited Orchestra (20th Century) 21. Calypso Breakdown / Where Is The Love—Ralph MacDonald LP (RCA) 22. Dancin'—Crown Heights Affair LP (Delite / U.S. import) 23. Fait Le Chat / Let's Get It Together—El Coco (12" disco disk) (AVI) 24. Daylight / Should I Stay—Vicki Sue Robinson LP (RCA) 25. Full Speed Ahead—Tata Vega (Tamla / Motown) 26. Getaway—Earth, Wind & Fire (Columbia) 27. Disco Magic—T-Connection (RCA) 28. The Hustle & The Bus Stop / I've Got to Dance—The Destinations (Master 5 / U.S. import) 29. Love Bug—Bumble Bee Unlimited (12" disco disk) (Red Greg / U.S. import / Armour) 30. Medley—Gloria Gaynor LP (Polydor) TOP FIFTEEN ALBUMS 1. Part 3—K.C. & The Sunshine Band [RCA] 2. Four Seasons of Love—Donna Summer (Casablanca) 3. Dr. Buzzard's Original Savannah Band (RCA) 4. Car Wash—Rose Royce (MCA) 5. Nice 'n' Nasty—Salsoul Orch. (RCA) 6. Midnight Love Affair—Carol Douglas (RCA) 7. Goin' Up In Smoke—Eddie Kendricks (Motown) 8. Bo & Ruth—Bo Kirkland & Ruth Davis (Claridge / U.S. import) 9. Street Talk Suite—Bob Crewe Generation (Elektra / U.S. import) 10. Rhythms Of The World—Van McCoy (H&L) 11. Sound Of A Drum—Ralph MacDonald (RCA) 12. Do It Your Way—Crown Heights Affair (Delite / U.S. import) 13. Vicki Sue Robinson (RCA) 14. I've Got You—Gloria Gaynor (Polydor) 15. Open Sesame—Kool & The Gang (Delite / U.S. import) (Chart - courtesy Ontario Poo;) Sweeney Todd bounces back by Boyd Tattrie Sweeney Todd has lived through a series of events that would have seen most groups in their stage of a career disappear. Right at the most crucial point of their career, when their first ever release (Roxy Roller) became the number one single in Canada, and when they were moments away from signing an international contract with London, their lead singer became interested in an offer from the U.S. They let their lead guitarist go in that deal as well. Worse, the two members were the group's principal composers and they'd written that number one single. To top it all off, their manager went with them. It says a lot about a group that can just survive such misfortunes. Sweeney Todd's bounced right back. They've found a new lead singer in a remarkable 17-year old named Bryan Guy Adams, and a new guitarist in Skip Prest. All the group members are now composing. And management of the group has been taken up by their producer, Martin Shaer. They've just released their first single since Roxy Roller with the new lineup. It's called Say Hello, Say Goodbye, and its a reworking of a Gilder/McCulloch song, rewritten to the point where all five original members are credited with composition. There's two versions of the same disc. The long version of the song features a rendition of There's No Business Like Showbusiness which serves as an intro, and that's the side the group is hoping will get played. The song has been released for Canada only, because their new version of Roxy Roller is still active in the U.S. Shaer told RPM that London has now released the single in Australia, England, Germany, Holland, Spain and New Zealand. The most important market, however, is still the U.S., but with several versions of the song having been released, there is a fear that U.S. stations have been Roxy Rolled to death, and that neither of the remaining versions of the song will be able to generate significant airplay. Still, London and Chrysalis are promoting their respective versions. The group has recorded half of a new LP and will complete it during the first two weeks of November. Their first LP is No. 12 on the RPM chart after 42 weeks. "On the new LP," Shaer explained, "there'll only be two songs by Gilder and McCulloch. We've got a whole batch of new songs written for the LP and the live act. By the new year, we'll be ready in the States with a new single, a brand new album, and a brand new show. Bud Marr (bassist) has written a song called Shut Up, with some help from Skip. The song, in its unrecorded form, has had a fantastic reaction. We're gonna try and get a simultaneous for the U.S. and Canada on that song." The sound of Sweeney Todd (especially on Roxy Roller) has been described as very British, but they say it's not intentional. "We're never consciously trying to get an English sound," says Shaer. "Maybe it ends up that way, though." That shouldn't be surprising considering that drummer John Booth is from Yorkshire, Adams' parents are English, and Shaer is English. Their road manager is English. Their old singer was English. "We're still Canadian," explains Shaer. "We just talk funny." Their plans for the next two months include the completion of the new LP, which they describe as "AM oriented, but we're including a few FM cuts." They'll rehearse the new show - they've been gradually replacing their Gilder/McCulloch repertoire with the new songs - for some local trial dates around Christmas in the Vancouver and B.C. area. In the new year when the new single and LP are released, they'll work on a U.S. tour. After that, they'll be back to show us what they've learned. CBS' Cameron gigs from Grey Cup to Cyprus CBS Canada's star Cape Bretoner, John Cameron, will be in Toronto Nov 13-14 to give a lecture on the American Folklore Society to be held in Philadelphia Nov 14. The following day he will be a special guest of the Canadian Council of Christians and Jews awards banquet in Toronto. He is the organization's selection for national chairman of National Brotherhood Week. On November 26 Cameron will perform at the Miss Grey Cup Pageant in Toronto. In mid-December he departs for a holiday tour of Canadian Armed Forces bases in Europe and the Middle East. He will host and entertain on a CBC special to be shot on this tour, to be aired in March as part of the network's Superspecial series. A LITTLE INFO TO THE PRESS!!! As music critic for a small (circulation 18,000) prairie newspaper, the Brandon Sun, may I offer some constructive criticism to Canada's music industry. I am amazed at how little attention is shown to the newspaper media, at least in smaller cities, by the recording industry. Often bands will come through Brandon, with no advances or photos sent to our office. How can a newspaper publish a decent advance without photos or press releases? Our newspaper's policy is not to accept promotional records. But we are always grateful to receive notices of upcoming releases on bands that will be playing in Winnipeg or Brandon. One company, A&M, has an excellent PR department. Jim Monaco picked up on the Sun's rock column, and immediately put the paper on his monthly newsletter mailing list. Records were regularly sent out, until we changed our "freebees" policy. Polydor has also been helpful from time to time. The rest . . . we never hear from them. I wouldn't be surprised if A&M's efforts have paid off handsomely for the company. THE TBC WAS A PLEASURE!!! On behalf of Lydia Taylor and Tri-Tter, thank you for the time, effort, co-operation and service you put into the organization of the Talent Buyer's Showcase. I know it can be a thankless, frustrating and exhausting undertaking; you and your crew carried it off with great professionalism. It was a real pleasure to have nothing go wrong, to be able to relax and enjoy the show. The group commented on the ease of performance - the absence of the usual confusion and tension - they hardly knew it was a showcase. Congratulations! Craig Nicholson Pizazz Presents Toronto November 1, 1976 The new album by Ray Materick ON ASYLUM RECORDS & TAPES MIDNIGHT MATINEE "It's a good deal" Manufactured and Distributed by WEA Music of Canada, Ltd. A weekly feature in RPM indicating airplay of Cancon singles as supplied on RPM's Tracking Sheets by record companies. Only Tracking Sheets filled out accurately and completely, will be used. Be sure you total the number of stations. Record companies wishing additional Tracking Sheets should contact RPM. DEADLINE FOR TRACKING SHEETS - WEDNESDAY BY 5 PM (124) CARROLL BAKER - Why I Had To Pass This Way - RCA PB-50261 - CJO CFAB CFAC (22) CFAR CFBR CFBC CFCC CFCP CFCV CFGY CFGFM FM CFGS CFGM CFGN CFGP CFGK CFLK CFLN CFLP CFLR CFGN CFGF CFGN CFGF-FM CFGH CHNE CKGL FM CFBF CFGY CFGX CFGT CFTK CFWB CHAK CHAT CJCA CJCI CJFJ CJFV CJFV-FM CJGJ CHNE CHOJ CHOW (8) CHPO CHSC (8) CHTM CHUB CHWO CHYM-FM CJCJ CIGO CKBR CJCA-FM CJEM CJFX CJFY CJGJ CJJS CJJB CJOB-FM (13) CJJO CJOK CJOX CJOY CJPR CJTT CJVJ CKYR CKAD CKAP CKBC CKBI CBKM CKBW CKBY FM CKCC CKCL CKCM CKQO CKCY CKDZ CKDH CKDM (4) CKDY CKMU CKNS CKIM CKEC CKEN CKFG CKGA CKGB CKGO CKGY (24) CKKR CKKW CKLC-FM CKLG CKLL-FM CKLY CKNB CKNS CKOB CKOC CKOD CKPC CKPR-FM CKQR CKRB CKRM CKSA CKSP CKSW CKTA CKTB-FM CKTX CKYW CKYF VQCH CVKO CVMO (70) CHARLIE DAVIS - Baby Pictures - Royalty R1000-27 - CJCA CJEM CJFX CJGJ CJKB CJKT CJQB CKBC CFMK-FM CKWS CKWW CKLY CJTT CJYR CJYR (15) CJOP CJQK CJQC CKSA CHAT CHCL CKGY CKTA CFBA CFBR CJAR CFRY CJQB CFSS CJNB CJNE CJKB CJMO CKCK CKRM CKKR CFSL CJGX CJPR CKBR CFAC CFCN CFCW CJDV CHQT CJCA CJGA-FM CJUR CJUK CFSS CKYR CKSA CHAT CHKL CKYL CKGY CKRD CJOK CKTA CJOI CKEK CKAY CFEK CKNL CKGO CFEM-FM CKOV CKTK CHUB CKOO CHTK CKXR CKWX CJIB CFMS-FM (65) LEE ROY - Balzac Boogie - RCA PB-50276 - CFBC (30) CJCN CFCY (24) CKEC CHER CJCB CKCL CJLS CFNB CJBQ CKPC CKPC-FM CHQO CHMI CFKS CKWS-FM CKGL-FM CKLY CFPL-FM CFCH (19) CKBY-FM CFOS CHEX CFGM CHSC CHSC-FM (17) CJIC CJID CJIF CJIG CJIK CJIL CJIN CJIO CJIP CJIR CJIS CJIT CJIV CJIX CJJL CJJN CJJO CJJP CJJR CJKS CJLT CJLY CJLR CJOK (19) CJOP CJQK CJQC CKSA CHAT CHCL CKGY CKTA CFBA CFWB CFCC CKPD CKAY CKGR CFEM-FM CKTK CPHQ CHTK CKCR CKXR CFTK CKWX CJVI (63) JERRY PALMER - Did I Forget To Tell Her - RCA PB-50279 - CBQ CFBR CFCC CFCY (28) CFFM-FM CKEC CFBN (23) CFQC CFMK-FM CFOK (33) CFRY CFWB CHCL (26) CHX-FM CHML CHOJ CHOW CHSC CHUB CHWO CJCI (3) CIGO CHMM (7) CJCA-FM CJCB (23) CJFX CJIB CJIC CJLS CJQB-FM (7) CJOK CJOY CJTT CJVI CJYR CKBI CKBM CKBW CKBY-FM CKCE CKCM CKCW CKCY CKDK CKDM CKIM CKNS CIGO CKEC CKFH CKGA CKGY (16) CKKR CKKW CKLC-FM CKLY CKNX CKQO CKPP-FM CKSB CKRM (28) CKWX CJYR (68) THE NURS'ELS - Gumball Drive-In - Attic AT139 - CJCN CFGB VOCM CFXS CFXT CJRW CFDR CKEC CIGO CFNB CFMB CKRN CKRB CKPC CFJR CKKB CKNS CFQB CJOY CHML CFCA-FM CKGL-FM CKKW CKLY CKLB CKQS-FM CKBY-FM CFGM CHLO (28) CHOK CHNR CFRR CFTR CKEY CKFH CKWW CKX CKDM CFAR CJNB CKKR CFQC CJXG CFAX CHQR CJCA CJOK CFGK CLQK CKQR CFPC CHUB CHQB CFTK CJKB CJFX CKWL (49) THE SONS OF THE PIONEERS - Cool Water - Attic AT144 - CFBC (29) CJCN CFNW CFXS CHTN CKDY CKCL CFNB CKTS CFJR CFTJ CFCO CKDR CKNS CHML CKAP CJRL CKGL-FM CFOR CFGM CHOK CJIC CFPA CFRB CHFI-FM CKYE CBE CHG CKOX CFAM CJRB CHSM CBW CJLS CKRM CFQC CFSL CFAC CBX CIOK CFVR CKEK CFEM-FM CHUB CKOK CJIC CFTK CJIB CJVE (46) BILL HERSH - It Sure Looks Good On You - Soundaround SSE-7630 - CFCA-FM CFCC CFOW CFDR CFJR CFMB CFQC CKBR CFRY CFWB CHLD CHSC CHUB CHUC CHWO CJNL CJIC CJEM CJFX CJGX CJIB CJIC CJLS CJIO CJOK CJTT CJYR CKAD CKBX CKCK CKQO CKDY CJDL CKEK CKGY CKKR CKRP CKQR CKSA CKSW CKTA CKWL CKWX CKYR CJIO (48) BLAKE EMMONS - Sunchild - Condor 97129 - CFDR CFEM-FM CFGM CFJR CFNB CFQC CIGO CHCL CHEX CHFX-FM CHML CHOW CHOB CHTK CHTM CHUB CHWO CJNL CFTI-FM CFMR-FM CJUJ CJDC CJFX CJIB CJLS CJOK CJTT CKBI CKCO CKDM CKDY CKEC CKEN CKGY CKKR CKKW CKLW CKLN CKNX CKQR CKWX (40) BONFIELD-DICKSON - Riding High - Ahmek ST-7261 - CKBB CHIC CKPC CKPC-FM CFJR CING CFJT CFCO CFML CJSS CHML CFRC CFRC-FM CHYM CKGL-FM CKKW CHYR CFPL CKMP CJMR CKFH CKAT-FM CBO CBO-FM CJRC CFOS CKAR-1 CHEX CHSC CHOK CNJR CJET CJET-FM CKSO CKOT CBL-FM CKFM-FM CKWW CKNL (30) RUSSELL HORNBERRY - Strangers Again - Royalty R1000-32 - CFXS CKEN CKEC CJLS CFNB CHUC CHML CHEX CFPM-CFSC CFKY CFMC CKNX CKCK CKRM CKKR CFQQ CFAC CJDV CFRN-FM CJOK CHCL CKGY CJDC CFEM-FM CJAV CKQO CFBV CKWX CJVI (24) THE HUMMINGBIRDS - Flora FLR-001 - CFFM-FM CFJC CFMB CFQB CKGL-FM CFMK-FM CKIM CHCL CHML CJYO CFOK CKDU CMRC CIGO CJJC CKGA CKKW CKLW-FM CKNX CKPC CKSO (24) PAUL HANN - I'll Be Your Antique Freak - London SPS 1002 - CBR CXB CFAC CFCC CFEM-FM CFGM CFGP CFMC-FM CFQC CFRN CFRN-FM CHQT CJCA CJCA-FM CJOI CJOK CJUS-FM CJYR CKBY-FM CKGY CKRD CKTA CKUA CKWX (23) RONNIE PROTHE - Big World - RCA PB 50273 - CKDH CJCB (18) CKCL CKNB (1) CJCI (26) CKLY (13) CHEX-FM CKJY CKLW CKLM CKLN CKLR CFQC CFAC (33) CFCC CJDV CJCA-FM CHCL CKGY CJOF-FM CJCI CJIVH CJIB CJVI (23) JACK HENNIG - Crazy Days - London MSF 1002 - CFAC CFCC CFEM-FM CFQC CFRN CFRY CHML CHQG CHOT CHUB CJCA-FM CJDC CJDV CJJC CJIO CJIVH CJYR CKKR CKQO CKUX CKWX CJVI (22) GOOD BROTHERS - Midnight Flight - RCA PB 50277 - CKDH (36) CJCB (15) CKCL CKBC CKKW CHSJ (15) CJJC CKLY (15) CHEX-FM CKTB-FM CJCS (28) CKLW-FM CKNX CKRM CKKR CFQC CFAC (19) CFCC CJDV CJCA-FM CHL CJIO (21) JIMMY ARTHUR ORDGE - Herschel's Heml Half Ton - Royalty R1000-31 - CKIM CKGA CKCM CKEN CKEC CFNB CJCJ CHSC CKNX CKDN CFRY CKKK CKKR CFQC CFAC CFCC CJDV CJCA-FM CJOK CKLD CKGY (19) GLORE ANNE BARRIE - I'd Like To Take The Chance - Royalty R1000-30 - CKDM CFAR CJOB CJLS CJNB CKBI CKCK CKRK CKRY CFCC CJCA CJUS CKSW CKYR CJYR CJHC CHL CJPC CKAL CJVI (19) R. WARLAN SMITH - Son Of A Country Man - Royalty R1000-35 - CKEC CKBC CJCJ CHUC CHEX CFGM CKFH CKLW CKNX CKRM CKKR CFQC CFAC CJCA-FM CKLD CKGY CKTK CKWX CJVI (15) DANNY HOOPER - Just Apart Of Losing You - Royalty R1000-34 - CKBC CKBI CKKR CFQC CFCC CJDV (11) CJCA-FM CJYR CHAT CHCL CKGY CKTA CFOK CFEM-FM (15) NESTOR PISTOR - Winestead Plowboy - RCA PB 50303 - CHML CKLY (14) CFAC CKXL CFCC CFRN CHED CJCA-FM CKIQ CJCI CKPG CKLG CKWX CJHV CJIB RECORD COMPANIES SUBMITTING TRACKING REPORTS SHOULD EXERCISE UTMOST CARE IN IDENTIFYING PARTICIPATING RADIO STATIONS. THE ONUS FOR ACCURACY RESTS WITH THE RECORD COMPANIES. Superjock: the loud, frantic, nonstop world of a rock radio DJ. Henry Regnery, Chicago: 1975. 190 pages. $7.95 Superjock is a super book. Not because it's a literary masterpiece - it isn't. But simply because it's a fun book which you will enjoy reading. Larry Lujack Is thee 'Superjock'. He was the first jock dubbed 'super'. And according to CKOY's John Curtis, who is the world authority on Larry Lujack, the 'superjock' title is well deserved. Lujack has spent most of the last decade in Chicago. First, at WCFL; then doing mornings at WLS; then back to WCFL for afternoon drive; and just a few weeks ago, back to WLS mornings. WEW! At WCFL, during his days as a rocker, Lujack earned $500 a shift; had his own 'superjock' jingles, T-shirts, calendars and such; had a non-hit record on Curtom (The Ballad of the Mad Streaker) which he refuses to comment on; and he earned enough from personal appearances to rent a plane to get around. Plus, he has a lawyer who handles his contracts and other business affairs. Lujack has several jock-of-the-year-type awards decorating the walls of his office. Should you fail to take note of them, Lujack will humbly point them out adding that he is, "the best damn rock 'n' roll disc jockey that's ever lived." While Superjock concentrates on the author's experience, it's more than the story of one jock. It is the story of every jock. It is a first hand account of what really happens in the egomaniacal, innane, vapid and outrageous world of major market American radio. There's the story of a big-name rockjock who murdered his wife while on-the-air. The now very famous female singer who worked her way in and out of every major market American station in an unusual, crouched position. The tight-fisted Boston station owner who once sat in the control room with Lujack telling him what to say in every break. The compulsive gambler who liked "McArthur Park" because he could toss quarters in the hall for longer than usual. And Lujack does nothing to play down the fact that he discovered the legendary Charlie Tuna and that Tuna thinks 'good ole Lar' is the greatest thing since cart machines. Lujack's flamboyant egotistical style is, however, a facade. It's all part of Lujack's pretentious front, which he constantly flaunts in public. Lujack isn't really like this. Lew Witz, his former boss at WCFL, called him, "...the ultimate talent." John Curtis adds that, "...while he's brash and cynical, Lujack is immensely gifted, very bright and possesses a quick, quiet wit." Amid the cynical, sardonic comments, there are some insightful observations and some valuable information. Too bad they're buried in and overshadowed by the more flippant anecdotes and "bits." If you want an easy to read book that's a lot of fun, not to mention a valuable source of material for your show, Superjock is it. But don't take it too seriously. \| Rank \| Chart Position \| Artist \| Title \| Label \| Catalog Number \| \|------\|----------------\|--------\|-------\|-------\|----------------\| \| 51 \| 47 \| Tina Charles \| I Love to Love \| Columbia \| 3-10288-H \| \| 52 \| 56 \| Neil Sedaka \| You Gotta Make Your Own Sunshine \| Polydor \| 2058-786-Q \| \| 53 \| 48 \| Diana Ross \| One Love in My Lifetime \| Motown \| 1398-Y \| \| 54 \| 58 \| Commodores \| Just to Be Close to You \| Motown \| 1402-Y \| \| 55 \| 67 \| Sylvester \| Hot Line \| Capitol \| 4336-F \| \| 56 \| 49 \| April Wine \| Like a Lover, Like a Song \| Aquarius \| AQ 5060-K \| \| 57 \| 61 \| ZZ Top \| It's Only Love \| London \| 5N-241-K \| \| 58 \| 50 \| Starbuck \| I Got to Know \| Private Stock PS \| 45104-M \| \| 59 \| 68 \| LTD \| Love Ballad \| A&M \| AM1847-W \| \| 60 \| 54 \| War \| Summer \| United Artists \| UAXW834Y-F \| \| 61 \| 62 \| Funktion - Featuring Lizzanne \| Why Haven't I Heard from You \| Skyline SKY008-X \| \| 62 \| 71 \| Englebert Humperdinck \| After the Lovin' \| Epic \| 8-50270-H \| \| 63 \| 95 \| Elton John \| Sorry Seems to be the Hardest Word \| MCA \| 40645-J \| \| 64 \| 64 \| Gino Vannelli \| Love of My Life \| A&M \| AM1861-W \| \| 65 \| 70 \| Eric Clapton \| Hello Old Friend \| RSO \| RS681-Q \| \| 66 \| 55 \| Earth, Wind & Fire \| Getaway \| Columbia \| 3 10373-H \| \| 67 \| 76 \| Tyrone Davis \| Give It Up (Turn It Loose) \| Columbia \| 3-10388-H \| \| 68 \| 88 \| David Dundas \| Jeans On \| Chrysalis \| CHS2094-P \| \| 69 \| 77 \| Natalie Cole \| Mr. Melody \| Capitol \| 4238-F \| \| 70 \| 73 \| Norman Connors \| You Are My Starship \| Buddah \| 542-M \| \| 71 \| 75 \| John Travolta \| Whenever I'm Away From You \| Moland \| IND 10780-N \| \| 72 \| 74 \| Little River Band \| It's a Long Way There \| Capitol \| P4318-F \| \| 73 \| 78 \| Moxy \| Take It or Leave It \| Polydor \| 2065 318-Q \| \| 74 \| 97 \| Walter Murphy \| Flight 76 \| Private Stock \| 45123-M \| \| 75 \| 79 \| Nick Gilder \| She's a Star (In Her Own Right) \| Chrysalis \| CHS2094-F \| \| 76 \| 80 \| Frankie Valli \| Boomerang \| Private Stock \| PS109-M \| \| 77 \| 81 \| Garfield \| Give My Love to Anne \| Mercury \| M73845-Q \| \| 78 \| 85 \| Odie Coates & Paul Anka \| Make It Up to Me in Love \| Epic \| ZSS162320-H \| \| 79 \| 83 \| The Toots \| Say Hello, Say Goodbye \| London \| LUC09-K \| \| 80 \| 82 \| Good Brothers \| Midnight Flight \| RCA \| PB50277-N \| \| 81 \| 89 \| Gladys Knight & The Pips \| So Sad the Song \| Buddah \| 544-M \| \| 82 \| 86 \| Aerosmith \| Home Tonight \| Columbia \| 3-10407-H \| \| 83 \| 87 \| Chilliwack \| California Girl \| Mushroom \| 7022 \| \| 84 \| 84 \| Lady \| You're Still the One \| Mark/Lin Records \| ML700 \| \| 85 \| 90 \| American Rhythm Aces \| The End Is Not in Sight \| ABC/Dot \| 12002-T \| \| 86 \| 91 \| Steely Dan \| The Fee \| ABC \| 12222-T \| \| 87 \| 92 \| Hudson Brothers \| Help Wanted \| Arista \| 2-324-F \| \| 88 \| 93 \| Lou Rawls \| Groovy People \| Phila Int'l \| 3044-H \| \| 89 \| 94 \| Tavares \| Don't Take the Music Away \| Capitol \| 4348-F \| \| 90 \| 96 \| The Rowans \| If I Only Could \| Elektra \| 45-347-P \| \| 91 \| 98 \| Catfish \| Catfish \| Four Tops \| ABC \| 12214-T \| \| 92 \| 99 \| Daryl Hall & John Oates \| Do What You Want to Do, Be What You Are \| RCA \| PB10808-N \| \| 93 \| 100 \| Styx \| Mademoiselle \| A&M \| 1877-W \| \| 94 \| ... \| The Beatles \| Ob La Di, Ob La Da \| Capitol \| P4347-F \| \| 95 \| ... \| Dr. Buzzard's Original Savannah Band \| Whispering \| RCA \| 10827-N \| \| 96 \| ... \| Dixie Cups \| 9,999,999 Tears \| RCA \| 10764-N \| \| 97 \| ... \| Olivia Newton-John \| Every Face Tells a Story \| MCA \| 40542-J \| \| 98 \| ... \| Jacksons \| Enjoy Yourself \| Epic \| 8-50289-H \| \| 99 \| ... \| Salsoul Orchestra \| Nice 'N' Nasty \| Salsoul \| 2011-N \| \| 100 \| ... \| Brick \| Dazz \| Bang \| 727-T \| GO FIRST CLASS RPM WEEKLY BY AIR One year (52 issues) - $40. Domestic first class mail is carried by air in Canada whenever this will expedite delivery. All FIRST CLASS subscribers to RPM receive this preferred handling. This guarantees that you will receive your RPM the morning after it is mailed. For those who need special service - RPM makes this preferred subscription rate possible. CBC continued from page 21 mount effective local campaigns. For the variety-strip shows Court plans to concentrate heavily on the informal media - tee-shirt transfers, posters and buttons - special print advertising in the campus press, and TV spots in prime-time hours. Court has had record-company co-operation for album give-aways to promote radio shows featuring particular artists, and he feels local stations across the network would be pleased if record people approached them with more promotion ideas. "But you can't approach the CBC the same way as you approach the private stations; it's a different kind of a beast. You've got to listen to the local programming and see where you can fit in." CBC stations spin many of their records during the locally-programmed morning and afternoon drive periods and noon-hour shows. TRIBAL DRUM LEAMINGTON We got a little confused in a recent Tribal Drum column. We reported that CHYR had scored the exclusive Windsor regional broadcast of Twenty Years Of Rock, which we attributed to the production efforts of CHUM and Ritchie Yorke. The one we were thinking of is actually called The History Of Rock. The one CHYR is using, Twenty Years Of Rock, is a different documentary all together, produced last spring by Footprint Productions in Toronto. The Rogers group, including CFTR, as well as CJBK and CHSJ Halifax have also played the 12-hour special. Twenty Years Of Rock is not a chronological documentary, but is based instead on a countdown of the top 120 records of the past 20 years with relevant featurettes and news time capsules. Footprint is currently seeking national advertising sponsorship for national marketing. Our apologies, Lou, for whatever problems we may have caused. THE HITMAKERS RICK ALLAN (CHEX Peterborough) Gladiola-Helen Reddy LEN THEUSEN (CHED Edmonton) Easy Come-Lisa Hartt Band CHERYL JOHNSON (CFCF Montreal) Woman's Got To Have It-James Taylor When I Wanted You-Gino Cunico Highway 2-18-Bellamy Brothers Slow Dancing-Funky Kings Gladiola-Helen Reddy GREG STEWART (CKGM Montreal) Dance Little Lady-Tina Charles Surprise-Andre Gagnon The Side Of Love-T.H.P. Orchestra C'est Toujours A Recommencer-Toulouse RAYMOND EARL (CKOM Saskatoon) Isn't She Lovely-Stevie Wonder Let Me Down Easy-Foster Charles Slingback Shoes-Murray McLauchlan Can You Feel It-Bill Amesbury PAUL MCKNIGHT (CKLG Vancouver) I Wish-Stevie Wonder BILL SCOTT (CFNB Fredericton) National Paddy-Sweet Blindness PETER CARTER (CKEN Kentville) Brahms Lullaby-Roger Whittaker While You Were Away-Zaza Sound Melitta-Liverpool MARV GUNDERSON (CHAT Medicine Hat) Couldn't Wait-Grand Funk Let's Make A Deal-Gloria Gaynor Why Must A Girl Like Me-Claudia Barry DAN BEDELL (CIGO Port Hawkesbury) Perfect Strangers-Larry Evoy Easy Come-Lisa Hartt Band Nature's Song-Ken Tobias Slingback Shoes-Murray MuLauchlan DAVE COLLINS (CJCS Stratford) Someday-Henry Gross Maybe Tomorrow-Hagood Hardy Baby Boy-Mary Kay Place GORD BAILY (CFTK Terrace) You Send Me-Gary & Dave It's So Easy-Denny Laine Oh Lynda-Ken Tobias Easy Come-Lisa Hartt Band Perfect Strangers-Larry Evoy Swinging Pockets-Rubi Benton B MASON DEAN (CKPR Thunder Bay) Memories-Silver RICK RYMES (CHTM Thompson) Someday-Henry Gross Could Be Love-Dwight Twilley Band EDMONTON CHED (Len Theusen) Charted 5 (1) Beth-Kiss * (37) Easy Come-Lisa Hartt Band 42 (38) Living Thing-ELO 63 (39) The Hardest Word-Elton John 23 (40) Feel Like Dancing-Leo Sayer HAMILTON CKOC (Grant, Smith, Novak) Charted 19 (1) Stand Tall-Burton Cummings 55 (34) Hotline-SyIvers 26 (36) Rubberband Man-Spinners 94 (38) Ob-La-Di Ob-La-Da-Beatles 62 (40) Lovin'-Englebert Humperdinck MONTREAL CFCF (Cheryl Johnson) 63 The Hardest Word-Elton John 97 Tells A Story-Olivia Newton John * Woman's Got To Have It-James Taylor 68 Jeans On-Dave Dundas * When I Wanted You-Gino Cunico * Highway 2-18-Bellamy Brothers * Slow Dancing-Funky Kings * Gladiola-Helen Reddy 42 Livin' Thing-ELO MONTREAL CFOX 10 Nadia's Theme-DeVorzon & Botkin 62 Lovin'-Englebert Humperdinck MONTREAL CKGM (Greg Stewart) Charted 8 (1) Disco Duck-Rick Dees 42 (28) Livin' Thing-ELO 23 (29) Feel Like Dancing-Leo Sayer * (30) Surprise-Andre Gagnon Playlisted * Dance Little Lady-Tina Charles * The Side Of Love-T.H.P Ork. 29 Have To Be A Star-McCoo & Davis * C'est Toujours A Recommencer-Toulouse REGINA CKCK (Royal Watson) 17 (1) If You Leave Me Now-Chicago 26 (30) Rubberband Man-Spinners SASKATOON CKOM (Raymond Earl) Charted 24 (1) To Be With You-Bay City Rollers 63 (37) The Hardest Word-Elton John 29 To Be A Star-McCoo & Davis 75 (39) She's A Star-Nick Gilder * (40) Isn't She Lovely-Stevie Wonder Playlisted * Let Me Down Easy-Foster Charles * Slingback Shoes-Murray McLauchlan * Can You Feel It-Bill Amesbury TORONTO CHUM 6 (1) Tonight's The Night-Rod Stewart Charted 23 (24) Feel Like Dancin'-Leo Sayer 20 (26) I Never Cry-Alice Cooper * (27) I Wish-Stevie Wonder 94 (30) Ob La Di-Beatles VANCOUVER CKLG (Paul McKnight) Charted 3 (1) Muskrat Love-Captain & Tennille 63 (27) The Hardest Word-Elton John 21 (28) Nights Are Forever-Dan & Coley * (29) I Wish-Stevie Wonder 78 (30) To Me In Love-Anka & Coates WINDSOR CKLW (Pauline Riddell) 29 (1) Be A Star-McCoo & Davis Charted * (22) Keep Me Cryin'-Al Green 21 (29) Nights Are Forever- Dan & Coley (30) Nightmover-Bob Seger (LP) Hitbound * Rolls Royce-Johnny Bristol * Happier-Paul Anka Ain't Seen Nuthin'-Burton Cummings(LP) Which Way-Donny & Marie(LP) CROSS CANADA CONTEMPORARY RADIO ACTION ANTIGONISH/PORT HAWKESBURY CJFX (Dan Dugas) 83 California Girl-Chilliwack 6 Tonight's The Night-Rod Stewart 24 To Be With You-Bay City Rollers 3 Muskrat Love-Captain & Tennille 16 She's Gone-Hall & Oates FREDERICTON CFNB (Bill Scott) Charted 11 (1) Fernando-Abba 78 (33) To Me In Love-Anka & Coates 21(35) Nights Are Forever-Dan & Coley 55 (36) Hot Line-Slyvers 83 (38) California Girl-Chilliwack 65 (39) Hello Old Friend-Eric Clapton (40) National Pody-Sweet Blindness KENTVILLE CKEN (Peter Carter) * Brahms Lullaby-Roger Whittaker * While You Were Away-Zaza Sound 78 To Me In Love-Anka & Coates 89 Don't Take The Music-Tavares * Melitta-Liverpool MEDICINE HAT CHAT (Marv Gunderson) Charted 7 (1) Rock 'N' Me-Stevie Miller 63 (31) The Hardest Word-Elton John 68 (35) Jeans On-David Dundas * (37) Couldn't Wait-Grand Funk 87 (39) Help Wanted-Hudson Bros. NORTH BATTLEFORD CJNB (Stu Harrsion) Charted 24 (1) To Be With You-Bay City Rollers 89 (30) Take Away The Music-Tavares Playlisted 21 Nights Are Forever-Dan & Coley 29 To Be A Star-McCoo & Davis 42 Living Things-ELO Belamy Brothers (LP) PORT HAWKESBURY CIGO (Dan Bedell) Charted 16 (1) She's Gone-Hall & Oates 18 (HB) Best Disco-Ritchie Family * (HB) Perfect Strangers-Larry Evoy * (HB) Easy Come-Lisa Hartt Band 59 (HB) Love Ballad-LTD * (HB) Nature's Song-Ken Tobias * (HB) Slingback Shoes-M. McLauchlan ST. CATHARINES CHSC (Bob Sherwin) 5 (1) Beth-Kiss 12 Do You Feel-Peter Frampton 9 You Are The Woman-Firefall 10 Nadia's Theme-DeVozon & Botkin 47 Hold On-Dan Hill STRATFORD CCCS (Dave Collins) Charted 11 (1) Fernando-Abba 19 Stand Tall-Burton Cummings 62 Lovin'-Englebert Humperdinck Playlisted 29 To Be A Star-McCoo & Davis 79 To Me In Love-Anka & Coates 50 I Can't Live A Dream-Osmonds * Someday-Henry Gross 23 Feel Like Dancing-Leo Sayer * Maybe Tomorrow-Hagood Hardy 63 The Hardest Word-Elton John 21 Nights Are Forever-Dan & Coley * Baby Boy-Mary Kay Place TERRACE CFTK (Gord Baily) Playlisted 71 Whenever I'm Away-John Travolta * You Send Me-Gary & Dave * It's So Easy-Denny Laine 68 Jeans On-David Dundas * Oh Lynda-Ken Tobias * Easy Come-Lisa Hartt Band 78 To Me In Love-Coates & Anka 62 Lovin'-Englebert Humperdinck * Perfect Strangers-Larry Evoy * Staying Power-Barbi Benton THUNDER BAY CKPR (B Mason Dean) Charted 19 (1) Stand Tall-Burton Cummings 63 The Hardest Word-Elton John 62 Lovin'-Englebert Humperdinck 23 Feel Like Dancing-Leo Sayer 21 Nights Are Forever-Dan & Coley 79 Sad Hero-Sweeney Todd 65 Hello Old Friend-Eric Clapton THOMPSON CHTM (Rick Rymes) Charted 3 (1) Muskrat Love-Captain & Tennille 63 The Hardest Word-Elton John 4 More Than A Feeling-Boston 6 Tonight's The Night-Rod Stewart Playlisted 65 Hello Old Friend-Eric Clapton * Someday-Henry Gross 83 Love Me-Yvonne Elliman * Could Be Love-Dwight Twilley Band BRANTFORD CKPC (Arnold Anderson) Playlisted * Riding High-Bonfield Dixon 45 Between Two Lovers-MacGregory 28 Tells A Story-Olivia Newton-John 46 Groovy People-Lou Rawls 50 Gladiola-Helen Reddy * Summer Party-Werner Dreler DARTMOUTH CFDR (Paul Meagher) Playlisted * Maybe Tomorrow-Hagood Hardy * Brahms' Lullaby-Roger Whittaker 1 Radio Ciao-Bambina-Enrico Farina 34 Love-Great River Road Machine * Put Me Back-Eddy Arnold * While You Were Away-Zaza Sound Closing Doors-Paul Anka * Where I Leave Off-Frankie Avalon * Until The Morning-Catherine Howe EDMONTON CFRN (Ted Hockaday) Playlisted * Bread & Roses-Judy Collins Winestone Plowboy-Nestor Pistor Helpless-Manhattan Transfer I Go To Rio-Peter Allen Sherry-Keane Bros. * So Sad The Song-Gladys Knight * Maybe Tomorrow-Hagood Hardy KELOWNA CKOV (Patrick Nicholson) * Happier-Paul Anka 48 To Me In Love-Anka & Coates * Sunshine Song-Will Millar * Starship-Norman Connors * Smile-David Sanborn * Sad Country Love Song-Tom Bresh 49 The Hardest Word-Elton John RENFREW CKOB (Rick Nelson) Charted * (1) Did You Boogie-Flash Cadillac 14 (29) Stand Tall-Burton Cummings * (30) Mr. Melody-Natalie Cole RPM TOP 100 ALBUMS ALPHABETICALLY BY ARTISTS \| Artist \| Rank \| \|-------------------------------\|------\| \| Abba \| 40 \| \| Aerosmith \| 92 \| \| Paul Anka \| 48 \| \| Bachman-Turner Overdrive \| 38 \| \| The Beach Boys \| 58 \| \| Kenny Barrie \| 71 \| \| Bay City Rollers \| 8 \| \| Beach Boys \| 29 \| \| Jeff Beck \| 39 \| \| Bee Gees \| 6 \| \| George Benson \| 42 \| \| Blue Oyster Cult \| 33 \| \| Boston \| 13 \| \| Country Brown \| 100 \| \| Captain & Tennille \| 65 \| \| Harry Chapin \| 96 \| \| Chicago \| 5 \| \| City Boy \| 76 \| \| Eric Clapton \| 25 \| \| Natalie Cole \| 44 \| \| Consecration \| 87 \| \| Alice Cooper \| 21 \| \| David Crosby & Graham Nash \| 62 \| \| Burton Cummings \| 32 \| \| Engel & Dan & John Ford Coley \| 23 \| \| John Denver \| 56 \| \| Neil Diamond \| 81 \| \| Bob Dylan \| 97 \| \| Eagles \| 34 \| \| Earth Wind & Fire \| 12 \| \| Electric Light Orchestra \| 84 \| \| Fleetwood Mac \| 43 \| \| Peter Frampton \| 19 \| \| The Good Brothers \| 2 \| \| Hagood Hardy \| 47 \| \| Daryl Hall & John Oates \| 20 \| \| Heart \| 54 \| \| Dan Hill \| 62 \| \| Dr. Hook \| 90 \| \| Isley Brothers \| 89 \| \| Jefferson Starship \| 23 \| \| Elton John \| 18 \| \| Olivia Newton-John \| 79 \| \| K.C. & The Sunshine Band \| 17 \| \| Kiss \| 49 \| \| Gordon Lightfoot \| 5 \| \| Little Feat \| 20 \| \| Barry Manilow \| 24 \| \| Murray McLauchlan \| 26 \| \| Steve Miller Band \| 16 \| \| Mott \| 78 \| \| Walter Murphy Band \| 81 \| \| Anne Murray \| 69 \| \| Ted Nugent \| 31 \| \| Orleans \| 66 \| \| Oak Mountain Daredevils \| 73 \| \| Parliament \| 57 \| \| Queen \| 37 \| \| Lou Rawls \| 64 \| \| Helen Reddy \| 91 \| \| Cliff Richard \| 52 \| \| Vicie Scott Robinson \| 59 \| \| Linda Ronstadt \| 22 \| \| Diana Ross \| 11 \| \| Rush \| 15 \| \| Boz Scaggs \| 41 \| \| Neil Sedaka \| 94 \| \| Lynyrd Skynyrd \| 74 \| \| Ringo Starr \| 35 \| \| Alice Cooper \| 77 \| \| Rod Stewart \| 4 \| \| Stills-Young Band \| 55 \| \| Strawbs \| 99 \| \| Styx \| 70 \| \| Donna Summer \| 67 \| \| Supertramp \| 30 \| \| Sweeney Todd \| 50 \| \| Symphonic Islam \| 18 \| \| Pitchie Family \| 63 \| \| Tavares \| 86 \| \| Thin Lizzy \| 72 \| \| Triumph \| 80 \| \| Robin Trower \| 75 \| \| Valdy \| 51 \| \| Greg Vannelli \| 14 \| \| Various/Nadia's Theme \| 60 \| \| Wild Cherry \| 36 \| \| Stevie Wonder \| 1 \| \| Gary Wright \| 27 \| \| Led Zeppelin \| 68 \| MOR continued on page 31 \| Rank \| Artist \| Album \| Label \| Catalog # \| \|------\|--------\|-------\|-------\|-----------\| \| 51 \| Vicky Valdy and The Hometown Band \| City Boy \| Mercury \| SRM-1098-Q \| \| 52 \| Cliff Richard \| I'm Nearly Famous (Rocket) \| RCA \| PIG2210-J \| \| 53 \| Dan Hill \| Hold On (GRT) \| A&M \| 9230-1065-T \| \| 54 \| Hall & Oates \| Abandon Luncheonette \| Atlantic \| SD7289-P \| \| 55 \| Stills-Young Band \| Long As You Run (Reverse) \| Epic \| REP2263-F \| \| 56 \| John Denver \| Spirit (RCA) \| RCA \| APL1-1694-N \| \| 57 \| Parliament \| The Clones Of Dr Funkenstein (Casablanca) \| Casablanca \| NBLP7034-M \| \| 58 \| The Band \| The Best Of The Band (Capitol) \| Capitol \| ST 11553-F \| \| 59 \| Vicki Sue Robinson \| Never Gonna Let You Go (RCA) \| RCA \| APL1-1256-N \| \| 60 \| Various Artists \| Nadia's Theme (A&M) \| A&M \| SP3412-W \| \| 61 \| Walter Murphy Band \| A Little Bit Of Beethoven (Private Stock) \| Private Stock \| PS 2015-M \| \| 62 \| Dan Hill \| Hold On (GRT) \| A&M \| 9230-1061-T \| \| 63 \| Symphonic Slam \| Symphonic Slam (A&M) \| A&M \| SP9023-W \| \| 64 \| Lou Rawls \| All Things In Time (Phil Int'l) \| Phil Int'l \| KZ3857-H \| \| 65 \| Captain & Tennille \| Song Of Joy (A&M) \| A&M \| SP4270-W \| \| 66 \| Orleans \| Wake Up And Dreaming (Asylum) \| Asylum \| 7ES1070-P \| \| 67 \| Donna Summer \| Four Seasons Of Love (Oasis) \| Oasis \| NBLP7038-M \| \| 68 \| Led Zeppelin \| The Song Remains The Same (Swan Song) \| Swan Song \| 2SS2013-P \| \| 69 \| Anne Murray \| Keeping In Touch (Capitol) \| Capitol \| STT1559-F \| \| 70 \| Styx \| Crystal Ball (A&M) \| A&M \| SP4604-W \| \| 71 \| Keith Barrie \| Reach Out (United Artists) \| United Artists \| UAL873C-F \| \| 72 \| Thin Lizzy \| Jailbreak (Phillips) \| Phillips \| 9102-008-K \| \| 73 \| Ozark Mountain Daredevils \| Men From Earth (A&M) \| A&M \| SP4601-W \| \| 74 \| Lynyrd Skynyrd \| One More For The Road (MCA) \| MCA \| MCAC2-6001-J \| \| 75 \| Robin Trower \| Long Misty Days (Chrysalis) \| Chrysalis \| CH11107-F \| \| 76 \| City Boy \| City Boy \| Mercury \| SRM-1098-Q \| \| 77 \| Al Stewart \| Year Of The Cat (Janus) \| Janus \| 9098-7022-T \| \| 78 \| Moxy \| Moxy II (Polydor) \| Polydor \| 2480-372-Q \| \| 79 \| Olivia Newton-John \| Don't Stop Believin' (MCA) \| MCA \| MCA2223-J \| \| 80 \| Triumph \| Our Love Is Hard (Capitol) \| Capitol \| ST11551-F \| \| 81 \| Neil Diamond \| Beautiful Noise (Columbia) \| Columbia \| PC33965-H \| \| 82 \| David Crosby & Graham Nash \| Whistling Down The Wire (ABC) \| ABC \| 9022-956-T \| \| 83 \| LTD \| Love To The World (A&M) \| A&M \| SP4589-W \| \| 84 \| Earth, Wind & Fire \| Spirit (Columbia) \| Columbia \| PC34241-W \| \| 85 \| Vicki Sue Robinson \| Vicki Sue Robinson (RCA) \| RCA \| APL1-1256-N \| \| 86 \| Tavares \| Skyline (Capitol) \| Capitol \| ST11533-F \| \| 87 \| Commodores \| Hot On The Tracks (Motown) \| Motown \| M867P1-Y \| \| 88 \| Beach Boys \| Endless Summer (Capitol) \| Capitol \| SZBB11307-F \| \| 89 \| Isley Brothers \| Harvest For The World (CBS) \| CBS \| ZA33809-H \| \| 90 \| Dr. Hook \| A Little Bit More (Capitol) \| Capitol \| STT1522-F \| \| 91 \| Helen Reddy \| Music Music (Capitol) \| Capitol \| STT1547-F \| \| 92 \| Aerosmith \| Rocks (Columbia) \| Columbia \| PC34165-H \| \| 93 \| The Good Brothers (RCA) \| The Good Brothers (RCA) \| RCA \| KPL1-0168-N \| \| 94 \| Neil Sedaka \| Laughter & Tears (Polydor) \| Polydor \| 2385-389-Q \| \| 95 \| Styx \| Equinox (A&M) \| A&M \| SP4559-W \| \| 96 \| Harry Chapin \| On The Road To Kingdom Come (Elektra) \| Elektra \| 7ES1082-P \| \| 97 \| Neil Diamond \| And The Singer Sings His Songs (MCA) \| MCA \| MCA227-J \| \| 98 \| Neil Sedaka \| The Best Of Neil Sedaka (Polydor) \| Polydor \| 2333-389-Q \| \| 99 \| Strawbs \| Deep Cuts (Oyster) \| Oyster \| OY1-1-603-Q \| \| 100 \| Charity Brown \| Stay With Me (A&M) \| A&M \| SP9023-W \| Enter my subscription to RPM Weekly (as indicated) and find enclosed $__________ RPM 6 Brentcliffe Road Toronto, Ontario M4G 3Y2 SUBSCRIPTIONS (Canada & USA) - [ ] One Year - $25.00 - [ ] Two Years - $40.00 - [ ] Three Years - $50.00 - [ ] First Class - $40.00 (One Year) NAME ________________________________ ADDRESS ________________________________ CITY ______________________ PROV. _______ POSTAL ZONE ___________________________ Signing Up Two great new talents have just signed up with Spirit! SARA HAMILTON & DAVID! Welcome to magic sounds, fine feelings, and good times! Watch out! There's soon to be a great release...the Spirit moves us!
LPA$_1$ Receptor Activation Promotes Renal Interstitial Fibrosis Jean-Philippe Pradère,† Julie Klein,‡† Sandra Grès,† Charlotte Guigné,† Eric Neau,‡† Philippe Valet,† Denis Calise,§ Jerold Chun,∥ Jean-Loup Bascands,‡ Jean-Sébastien Saulnier-Blache,† and Joost P. Schanstra†‡ Inserm, U858/I2MR, Department of Metabolism and Obesity, Team 3, and †Department of Renal and Cardiac Remodeling, Team 5; ‡Université Toulouse III Paul Sabatier, Institut de Médecine Moléculaire de Rangueil; §Zootechny Department IFR31, Institut Louis Bugnard, Toulouse, France; ‖Department of Molecular Biology Helen L. Dorris Child and Adolescent Neuropsychiatric Disorder Institute The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California ABSTRACT Tubulointerstitial fibrosis in chronic renal disease is strongly associated with progressive loss of renal function. We studied the potential involvement of lysophosphatidic acid (LPA), a growth factor–like phospholipid, and its receptors LPA$_{1–4}$ in the development of tubulointerstitial fibrosis (TIF). Renal fibrosis was induced in mice by unilateral ureteral obstruction (UUO) for up to 8 d, and kidney explants were prepared from the distal poles to measure LPA release into conditioned media. After obstruction, the extracellular release of LPA increased approximately 3-fold. Real-time reverse transcription PCR (RT-PCR) analysis demonstrated significant upregulation in the expression of the LPA$_1$ receptor subtype, downregulation of LPA$_3$, and no change of LPA$_2$ or LPA$_4$. TIF was significantly attenuated in LPA$_1$ (−/−) mice compared to wild-type littermates, as measured by expression of collagen III, α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA), and F4/80. Furthermore, treatment of wild-type mice with the LPA$_1$ antagonist Ki16425 similarly reduced fibrosis and significantly attenuated renal expression of the profibrotic cytokines connective tissue growth factor (CTGF) and transforming growth factor β (TGFβ). In vitro, LPA induced a rapid, dose-dependent increase in CTGF expression that was inhibited by Ki16425. In conclusion, LPA, likely acting through LPA$_1$, is involved in obstruction-induced TIF. Therefore, the LPA$_1$ receptor might be a pharmaceutical target to treat renal fibrosis. J Am Soc Nephrol 18: 3110–3118, 2007. doi: 10.1681/ASN.2007020196 The incidence of chronic kidney disease leading to end-stage renal disease (ESRD) continues to increase throughout the world.¹ Almost all forms of ESRD are preceded by the progressive appearance of renal fibrosis (i.e., extracellular matrix (ECM) accumulation). The presence of fibrosis in the tubulointerstitium (i.e., TIF), compared with glomerular sclerosis, correlates strongly with evolution toward ESRD.¹,² The development of TIF can be schematically divided: (1) Inflammation associated with infiltration of macrophages, lymphocytes, and an increase in circulating cytokines and chemokines. (2) This inflammation induces disequilibrium between apoptosis and proliferation of tubular cells, as well as accumulation of myofibroblasts. Myofibroblasts infiltrate from the circulation into the interstitium, appear by epithelial mesenchymal transition (EMT), or appear by proliferation/activation of the few resident fibroblasts. (3) These myofibroblasts are the main cell type responsible... for the secretion of the ECM.\textsuperscript{1,3} As these events occur, the amount of fibrotic tissue increases, causing a steady decline of renal function until eventually the kidney is no longer able to function and organ failure occurs. In the past, a number of mediators of TIF development have been identified, including chemokines, cytokines, and growth factors.\textsuperscript{4} Among these, TGF$\beta$ is thought to be the most fibrogenic, directly or indirectly through the action of CTGF.\textsuperscript{5} LPA is a growth factor–like phospholipid known to regulate several cellular processes including motility, proliferation, survival, and differentiation by acting \textit{via} specific G-protein–coupled receptors (LPA\textsubscript{1}, LPA\textsubscript{2}, LPA\textsubscript{3}, and LPA\textsubscript{4}).\textsuperscript{6} Until now, a limited number of pharmacological tools specifically targeting LPA receptor subtypes have been developed. Among them is the antagonist Ki16425, which has been demonstrated to specifically block LPA\textsubscript{1} and LPA\textsubscript{3} receptor subtypes \textit{in vitro}.\textsuperscript{7} Recently, the \textit{in vivo} efficacy of Ki16425 in blocking the action of the LPA\textsubscript{1} receptor subtype has been demonstrated.\textsuperscript{8} LPA has been associated with the etiology of a growing number of disorders,\textsuperscript{9} but the involvement of LPA in the progression to ESRD is unclear. In acute renal disease, contradictory results were obtained since intraperitoneal injection of LPA was reported to prevent renal ischemia-reperfusion injury,\textsuperscript{10} whereas pharmacologic blockade of LPA\textsubscript{3} receptor was reported to reduce renal ischemia-reperfusion injury.\textsuperscript{11} However, in patients with chronic renal failure, it has been reported that LPA concentrations are increased.\textsuperscript{12,13} These observations led us to hypothesize that LPA could be involved in the response of the kidney to injuries and could thus contribute to the progression of chronic renal disease. The objective of our study was to clearly determine the contribution of LPA in the development of TIF, a hallmark of progressive renal disease. We studied LPA production and the expression of LPA receptor subtypes in kidneys subjected to UUO, an accelerated model of TIF.\textsuperscript{3,14} We observed that UUO-induced renal TIF is accompanied by an upregulation of LPA\textsubscript{1} receptor expression and by an increased release of LPA by the obstructed kidney. UUO-induced fibrosis is significantly attenuated in kidneys from LPA\textsubscript{1} (\textit{−/−}) mice as well as in mice treated with the LPA\textsubscript{1} receptor antagonist Ki16425, and LPA increases the expression and release of the profibrotic cytokine CTGF by proximal tubular cells \textit{in vitro}. These observations argue strongly for the involvement of LPA in the development of renal TIF and lead us to propose that the LPA\textsubscript{1} receptor may represent an interesting potential therapeutic target for the treatment renal fibrosis. RESULTS* UUO-Induced TIF Is Associated with an Increased Release of LPA by Kidney To determine the possible involvement of LPA in renal TIF, LPA was quantified in conditioned media prepared from kidney explants from mice at different time points after UUO. The induction of renal TIF was validated by the increase in the level of mRNA encoding two previously characterized TIF and macrophage markers (collagen III and F4/80, respectively) (Figure 1A).\textsuperscript{15} LPA was present in conditioned media from kidney explants obtained from nonobstructed kidneys (Figure 1B; time 0). When compared with time 0, LPA concentration in conditioned media was significantly higher at each time point after UUO (3.3-, 3.6-, and 2.9-fold at days 3, 5, and 8, respectively) (Figure 1B). Controlateral kidneys exhibited no significant change in LPA release when compared with time 0 (Figure 1B). ![Figure 1](image) Figure 1. Effect of UUO on the release of LPA and the expression of LPA receptor subtypes in the kidney. Mice were subjected to UUO and kidneys were removed 0, 3, 5, and 8 days after surgery. RNA were extracted from total kidneys and mRNA encoding type III collagen (collagen III) and F4/80 (A) and LPA\textsubscript{1}, LPA\textsubscript{2}, LPA\textsubscript{3}, and LPA\textsubscript{4} receptor subtypes (C) were quantified by real-time PCR. (B) Explants from operated (UUO) and contralateral nonoperated (cont) kidneys were maintained in primary culture for 6 h, and LPA released in the conditioned medium was quantified by a radioenzymatic assay. Values are means ± SEM from 4 (A through C) and 5 (B) mice for each time point. Comparisons with day 0 were performed using Student t test. P < 0.05; P < 0.01. Similarly, sham-operated kidneys exhibited no significant change in LPA release when compared with nonoperated mice (data not shown). UUO-Induced Renal TIF Is Associated with Upregulation of Renal LPA\textsubscript{1} Receptor Expression* Four LPA receptor subtypes have been identified (LPA\textsubscript{1}, LPA\textsubscript{2}, LPA\textsubscript{3}, and LPA\textsubscript{4}). Real-time reverse-transcription PCR (RT-PCR) analysis revealed that the four subtypes were expressed in total kidney extracts from control mice with the following rank order: LPA\textsubscript{2} > LPA\textsubscript{3} = LPA\textsubscript{1} > LPA\textsubscript{4} (Table 1). Analysis of LPA receptor subtype expression separately in the kidney cortex or in the kidney medulla did not change this expression order (Table 1). When compared with time 0, the expression of the LPA\textsubscript{1} receptor subtype was significantly increased at day 5 (2.8-fold) and day 8 (4.8-fold) after UUO (Figure 1C). In contrast, the expression of the LPA\textsubscript{3} receptor was significantly decreased at day 3 (4-fold), day 5 (3-fold), and day 8 (4.5-fold) when compared with time 0. No significant change in LPA\textsubscript{2} and LPA\textsubscript{4} receptor expression was observed (Figure 1C). Eight days after surgery, contralateral and sham-operated kidneys exhibited no significant change in gene expression when compared with time 0 (data not shown). Attenuation of UUO-Induced Renal TIF in LPA\textsubscript{1} Receptor Knockout Mice The above data suggested that LPA could play a role in UUO-induced renal fibrosis via the activation of the LPA\textsubscript{1} receptor. To test this hypothesis, the level of UUO-induced renal TIF was compared between LPA\textsubscript{1}(−/−) and LPA\textsubscript{1}(+/+) mice. LPA\textsubscript{1}(−/−) mice exhibited a slight but nonsignificant reduction in LPA\textsubscript{2} receptor expression when compared with LPA\textsubscript{1}(+/+) mice (Table 2). No significant change was observed for LPA\textsubscript{3} receptor mRNA expression. In LPA\textsubscript{1}(+/+) mice with a mixed 129SvJ/C57BL/6) background, basal LPA\textsubscript{1} receptor expression was lower than in mice with a pure C57BL/6) background. The LPA\textsubscript{4} receptor was not detectable in mice with the mixed genetic background (Table 2). As shown in Figure 2, mRNA expression of typical fibrosis markers such as collagen type III, α-smooth muscle actin (αSMA), which is a marker of tubulointerstitial myofibroblasts responsible for a large component of collagen deposition in the interstitium, or F4/80 (inflammation) was significantly lower in LPA\textsubscript{1}(−/−) than in LPA\textsubscript{1}(+/+) mice. This was confirmed at the protein level for collagen type III and αSMA (Figure 3, A and B). Induction of F4/80 protein tended to be lower in LPA\textsubscript{1}(−/−) versus LPA\textsubscript{1}(+/+) mice, but the difference did not reach statistical significance (Figure 3C). Attenuation of UUO-Induced Renal TIF by Ki16425 Treatment Attenuation of UUO-induced TIF in LPA\textsubscript{1}(−/−) mice strongly suggested that the LPA\textsubscript{1} receptor was involved in the development of TIF. To strengthen this hypothesis we performed a pharmacological knockout of the LPA\textsubscript{1} receptor by treating obstructed mice with the LPA\textsubscript{1} receptor antagonist Ki16425. In nonobstructed mice, Ki16425 treatment did not significantly change the renal expression of the LPA\textsubscript{1}, LPA\textsubscript{2}, and LPA\textsubscript{4} receptors when compared with vehicle-treated mice. A slight but nonsignificant increase in LPA\textsubscript{3} receptor expression was observed (Table 2). UUO-induced fibrosis (collagen type III, αSMA) and inflammatory (F4/80) mRNA markers were significantly lower in Ki16425-treated mice than in control mice (Figure 4). This was confirmed at the protein level for F4/80 and collagen type III (Figure 5). Effect of LPA on CTGF and TGFβ Expression In Vivo CTGF was previously demonstrated to play a crucial role in UUO-induced TIF and was involved in the profibrotic action of TGFβ. We therefore analyzed TGFβ and CTGF mRNA expression in obstructed mice treated with the LPA receptor antagonist Ki16425. We observed that Ki16425 treatment led to a strong attenuation (3- to 4-fold) in the induction of TGFβ and CTGF mRNA expression by UUO (Figure 6). These data suggested the involvement of TGFβ and CTGF in the profibrotic action of LPA. Effect of LPA on CTGF and TGFβ Expression In Vitro Finally, we tested whether the profibrotic action of LPA could result from a direct impact of LPA on kidney cells. For that, the mouse epithelial renal cell line MCT was treated with LPA. Real-time RT-PCR analysis revealed that MCT cells mainly expressed LPA\textsubscript{1} and LPA\textsubscript{2} receptor subtypes (ratios of 28 ± 7 --- Table 1. Expression of LPA-Receptor Subtypes in Kidney \| LPA Receptor mRNA (/18S RNA × 10,000) \| Total \| Cortex \| Medulla \| \|--------------------------------------\|-------\|--------\|---------\| \| LPA\textsubscript{1} \| 3.6 ± 0.5 \| 2.8 ± 0.2 \| 4.9 ± 1.3 \| \| LPA\textsubscript{2} \| 8.1 ± 1.3 \| 6.4 ± 0.7 \| 7.0 ± 1.2 \| \| LPA\textsubscript{3} \| 3.2 ± 0.4 \| 4.4 ± 0.5 \| 3.9 ± 0.6 \| \| LPA\textsubscript{4} \| 0.4 ± 0.1 \| 0.3 ± 0.1 \| 0.5 ± 0.1 \| Values (mean ± SEM from 4 separate experiments). Figure 2. Influence of LPA$_1$-receptor gene knockout on UUO-induced renal TIF (mRNA expression). LPA$_1$-receptor knockout mice ($-/-$) and their wild-type (+/+) littermates were subjected (black bars) or not (white bars) to UUO; kidneys were removed 8 d after surgery. mRNA expression was quantified by real-time PCR: (A) collagen III; (B) $\alpha$-smooth muscle actin ($\alpha$SMA); (C) F4/80. Values are means ± SEM from 6 mice by group. Amplitudes of UUO-induced fibrosis between (+/+) and ($-/-$) mice were compared by using a two-way ANOVA test. $P < 0.05$. and $21 \pm 3$ to 18S RNA ($\times 10,000$), respectively), whereas LPA$_3$ and LPA$_4$ receptor subtypes were undetectable. LPA induced a rapid and transient (Figure 7A) and a dose-dependent (Figure 7B) increase (10-fold maximum) in CTGF mRNA expression. In parallel, LPA exerted only a weak but significant increase (3-fold after 6 h) on TGF$\beta$ mRNA expression (Figure 7, A and B). CTGF mRNA induction by LPA was almost completely suppressed by cotreatment with the LPA-receptor antagonist Ki16425 (Figure 7C). LPA treatment was also accompanied by a release of CTGF protein in the culture medium of MCT cells, and that release was suppressed by cotreatment with Ki16425 (Figure 7D). Figure 3. Influence of LPA$_1$-receptor gene knockout on UUO-induced renal TIF (protein expression). LPA$_1$-receptor knockout mice ($-/-$) and their wild-type (+/+) littermates were subjected to UUO (black bars) or not (white bars). Kidneys were removed 8 d after surgery, and protein expression was analyzed with immunohistochemistry: (A) type III collagen; (B) $\alpha$SMA; (C) F4/80. Representative photographs are shown on the left. Quantification of the photographs is shown on the right. Values are means ± SEM of 6 mice by group. Amplitudes of UUO-induced fibrosis between (+/+) and ($-/-$) mice were compared by two-way ANOVA test. $P < 0.05$. Calibration bar, 250 $\mu$m. DISCUSSION This study shows that (1) UUO-induced renal TIF is accompanied by an increased release of LPA, and by an upregulation of LPA$_1$ receptor expression in the obstructed kidneys; (2) UUO-induced fibrosis is significantly attenuated in kidneys from LPA$_1$($-/-$) mice as well as in mice treated with the LPA$_1$ receptor antagonist Ki16425; and (3) on renal proximal tubular cells in vitro, LPA increases the expression and release of the profibrotic cytokine CTGF. These observations strongly argue for the involvement of LPA in the development of renal TIF and lead us to propose that the LPA$_1$ receptor may represent an interesting pharmaceutical target for the treatment of chronic renal disease. The metabolic origin of LPA released by the kidney, as well as the mechanisms by which the release of LPA is increased after UUO, remain unknown. Several enzymes, including phospholipases A1/A2, lysophospholipase D/autotaxin, glycFigure 4. Effect of Ki16425 treatment on UUO-induced renal TIF (mRNA expression). Mice were subjected to UUO (black bars) or not (white bars) in combination with a daily injection of Ki16425 or its vehicle. Kidneys were removed 8 d after surgery, and mRNA expression was determined by real-time PCR: (A) type III collagen; (B) αSMA; (C) F4/80. Values are means ± SEM from 6 mice by group. Amplitudes of UUO-induced fibrosis between vehicle- and Ki16425-treated animals were compared by two-way ANOVA test. P < 0.05; P < 0.01; *P < 0.001. Erol-phosphate acyltransferase, or monoacylglycerol kinase, can possibly lead to renal synthesis of LPA.\textsuperscript{21} Expression and/or the activity of one of these enzymes might be increased in the kidney as an adaptive response to chronic kidney injury induced by UUO. In rat, UUO was shown to increase the activity of a phosphoethanolamine-specific phospholipase A2.\textsuperscript{22} The involvement of this enzyme in LPA synthesis in the obstructed kidney remains to be explored. LPA is a growth factor—like phospholipid known to regulate several cellular processes \textit{via} the activation of specific G-protein–coupled receptors (LPA\textsubscript{1}, LPA\textsubscript{2}, LPA\textsubscript{3}, and LPA\textsubscript{4}).\textsuperscript{6} We observed that UUO significantly upregulated LPA\textsubscript{1} receptor expression, which suggests that this subtype may play an important role in UUO-induced fibrosis. This hypothesis is supported by our results showing that UUO-induced TIF is significantly attenuated in LPA\textsubscript{1} receptor knockout mice, as well as in mice treated with the LPA\textsubscript{1} receptor antagonist Ki16425. Nevertheless, we found that kidneys also express LPA\textsubscript{2} and LPA\textsubscript{3} receptor subtypes, confirming previous reports,\textsuperscript{1,23} and that UUO reduced LPA\textsubscript{3} receptor expression. Therefore, the involvement of LPA\textsubscript{2} and LPA\textsubscript{3} receptor subtypes in the action of LPA in the development of renal TIF cannot be excluded. In the future, the development of specific LPA\textsubscript{2} or LPA\textsubscript{3} receptor antagonists may help address that hypothesis. Currently it is not known which renal cells are specifically targeted by LPA and which cells are involved in the LPA\textsubscript{1} receptor–mediated renal fibrosis in ureteral obstruction. The development of renal TIF in UUO is associated with infiltration of inflammatory cells, transformation of epithelial cells into myofibroblasts, proliferation of (myo)fibroblasts, tubular atrophy, and secretion of ECM. On the basis of the literature, LPA can potentially regulate some of these events. LPA has, for example, been demonstrated to participate in intraperitoneal accumulation of monocytes/macrophages\textsuperscript{24,25} as well as in the control of the proliferation of nonrenal myofibroblasts\textsuperscript{26} and mesangial cells \textit{via} the activation of the ras/MAPK pathway.\textsuperscript{27} On the basis of our results and previous reports,\textsuperscript{11,23} the expression of the LPA\textsubscript{1} receptor is not different between renal cortex and medulla, suggesting that this receptor subtype is ubiquitously expressed throughout the different areas of the kidney. Consequently, the kidney cell type that is preferentially in- Figure 5. Effect of Ki16425 treatment on UUO-induced renal TIF (protein expression). Mice were subjected to UUO (black bars) or not (white bars) in combination with a daily injection of Ki16425 or its vehicle. Kidneys were removed 8 d after surgery, and protein expression was analyzed by immunohistochemistry: (A) F4/80; (B) type III collagen. Representative photographs are shown on the left. Quantification of the photographs is shown on the right. Values are means ± SEM from 6 mice by group. Amplitudes of UUO-induced fibrosis between vehicle- and Ki16425-treated animals were compared by two-way ANOVA test. P < 0.05; P < 0.01. Calibration bar, 250 μm. Figure 6. Effect of Ki16425 treatment on UUO-induced renal TIF: Expression of profibrotic cytokines. Mice were subjected to UUO (black bars) or not (white bars) in combination with a daily injection of Ki16425 or its vehicle. Kidneys were removed at day 8 after surgery, and mRNA expression was determined by real-time PCR: (A) TGFβ; (B) CTGF. Values are means ± SEM from 6 mice by group. Amplitudes of UUO-induced fibrosis between vehicle- and Ki16425-treated animals were compared by two-way ANOVA test. P < 0.01. Figure 7. Effect of LPA on CTGF expression in MCT cells. CTGF and TGFβ mRNA were quantified in serum-starved MCT cells exposed to 2 μM LPA for increasing time (A) or to increasing concentrations of LPA for 2 h (B); **P < 0.001 when compared with time 0 (A) or to the absence of LPA (B) (determined by t test). (C) CTGF mRNA were quantified in serum-starved MCT cells exposed to 2 μM LPA ± 10 μM Ki16425: P < 0.05; P < 0.01 when compared with LPA alone (determined by t test). Values are means ± SEM from 3 separate experiments. (D) Serum-starved MCT cells were exposed to 2 μM LPA ± 10 μM Ki16425, and the release of CTGF protein in the culture medium for 3 h was analyzed by Western blot (representative of 2 separate experiments). Involved in the profibrotic activity of LPA remains to be defined. However, on the basis of the observation that UUO-induced fibrosis is essentially interstitial, without visible glomerular lesions, the glomerular LPA₁ receptor is most likely not involved in the effects of LPA on UUO-induced TIF. The remaining cell types that can be potential targets of LPA in the development of UUO-induced renal fibrosis therefore include tubular and inflammatory cells and interstitial fibroblasts. Because LPA was already known to participate in intraperitoneal accumulation of monocytes/macrophages and that LPA can induce expression of the profibrotic cytokine CTGF in primary culture human fibroblasts, we focused the remainder of our studies on the in vitro effects of LPA treatment on tubular cells. In addition, it has been shown that primary culture human proximal tubular cells express the LPA₁ receptor. Among the UUO-induced factors that are strongly attenuated by LPA₁ receptor blockade is the profibrogenic factor CTGF. Interestingly, we found that LPA was able to upregulate CTGF expression and secretion in cultured proximal tubular cells. Similar observations were made previously in renal fibroblasts and mesangial cells. Our results show that the action of LPA on CTGF expression is very likely mediated by the LPA\textsubscript{1} receptor subtype because Ki16425 blocks these effects. Consequently, the parallel between \textit{in vivo} and \textit{in vitro} experiments suggests that the profibrogenic effect of LPA could in part be mediated by increased CTGF expression and secretion. CTGF induction by LPA in mesangial cells was shown to be mediated by the small GTPase rhoA and the downstream kinase ROCK.\textsuperscript{31} Interestingly, treatments with ROCK inhibitors have been described to attenuate UUO-induced renal TIF,\textsuperscript{33} similar to what we observed in LPA\textsubscript{1}(\textit{−/−})- and in Ki16425-treated mice. The \textit{in vivo} expression of the profibrogenic factor TGF\textbeta is also significantly attenuated by LPA\textsubscript{1} receptor blockade. In contrast to CTGF, \textit{in vitro} LPA treatment of MCT cells only modestly modified TGF\textbeta expression. This difference suggests that regulation of TGF\textbeta and CTGF expression and secretion by LPA involves different transduction pathways and/or can occur in different kidney cell types. Therefore, combining our studies and the published data on the effects of LPA on renal CTGF and TGF\textbeta production, the antifibrotic effect of LPA\textsubscript{1} receptor blockade can potentially involve three cell types with important roles in the development of UUO-induced TIF: inflammatory cells, tubular cells, and fibroblasts. In conclusion, our study demonstrates for the first time, using both genetically engineered animals and pharmacological tools, that LPA and its LPA\textsubscript{1} receptor could play an important fibrotic role in UUO-induced TIF \textit{via} a mechanism involving in part the profibrotic cytokine CTGF. Because TGF\textbeta has many other effects,\textsuperscript{34} its blockage is not a realistic therapeutic option to reduce renal fibrosis. On the other hand targeting the CTGF has been shown as a promising antifibrotic therapy.\textsuperscript{19} Therefore, pharmacological inhibition of LPA synthesis or antagonizing LPA\textsubscript{1} receptors might be interesting in the treatment of renal fibrosis. CONCISE METHODS Animals Male LPA\textsubscript{1}(\textit{−/−}) mice and their wild-type (WT) littermates were on a mixed 129svJ/C57BL/6J background.\textsuperscript{16,17} For all other experiments, C57BL/6J mice were used (Harlan, Gannat, France). Mice were handled in accordance with the principles and guidelines established by the National Institute of Medical Research (INSERM). They were housed in a pathogen-free animal facility with constant temperature (20 to 22°C), humidity (50 to 60%), and with a 12-h/12-h light/dark cycle (lights on at 8:00 a.m.). All mice had free access to food (energy contents in % kcal: 20% protein, 60% carbohydrate, and 20% fat; (Usine d’Alimentation Rationelle, Villemoisson-sur-Orge, France) and water throughout the experiment. UUO Mice (8 wk old) were used in these experiments. UUO was performed as described previously.\textsuperscript{15} Mice were euthanized at different time points (0, 3, 5, and 8 d) after UUO, and the kidneys were dissected for further analysis. Control kidneys were dissected from nonoperated mice. All experiments reported were conducted in accordance with the principles and guide lines established by INSERM and were approved by a local animal care and use committee. Treatment with Ki16425 Ki16425 (Sigma, Saint Quentin Fallavier, France) powder was first diluted in DMSO at the concentration of 100 μg/μl and then in PBS at the final concentration of 5 μg/μl. Male C57BL/6J mice were injected subcutaneously with the Ki16425 solution at the dose of 20 mg/kg per d or with the vehicle (100 μl injection volume). Injections began 1 d before UUO surgery and were repeated daily for 8 d. Culture of Kidney Explants Explants were prepared from the distal pole of the kidneys. Explants (9 to 30 mg) were incubated at 37°C in 12 wells per plate containing 1 ml serum-free DMEM supplemented with 1% BSA (≥97% free fatty acids; Sigma) for 6 h in a humidified atmosphere containing 7% CO\textsubscript{2}. After incubation, conditioned media were separated from explants, centrifuged to eliminate cell debris, and frozen at −20°C for further analysis. LPA Quantification LPA was extracted from conditioned media and quantified by radioenzymatic assay as described previously.\textsuperscript{35} mRNA Quantification Total RNAs were extracted using the RNeasy mini kit (Qiagen GmbH, Hilden, Germany). Gene expression was analyzed using real-time RT-PCR as described previously.\textsuperscript{36} Oligonucleotides for mouse gene expression studies were: - LPA\textsubscript{1} receptor—sense: 5′-CATGGTGCAATCTACGTCAA-3′; antisense: 5′-AGGCCAATCCAGCGAAGAA-3′ - LPA\textsubscript{2} receptor—sense: 5′-TGTCTGACTGCACAGCTTGGGA-3′; antisense: 5′-CTCATGGAGTTTTCTGTTGCC-3′ - LPA\textsubscript{3} receptor—sense: 5′-GTACCTTGAGCCCCCATTG-3′; antisense: 5′-AACCCCATGGCGGAAACAAC-3′ - LPA\textsubscript{4} receptor (also known as p2y9/GPR23)—sense: 5′-CCTTACCAACATCTATGGAGCAT-3′; antisense: 5′-TGGCCAGAAACGATCCA-3′ - F4/80—sense: 5′-TGACAACCAGACGGCTTGTG-3′; antisense: 5′-GCAGGGAGGAAAAGATGTGT-3′ - Collagen type III—sense: 5′-ACGTAGATGAATGGGATGCAG-3′; antisense: 5′-GGGTTGGGGCAGTCTAGTC-3′ - αSMA—sense: 5′-GTCCCAACATCACGGGAGTAA-3′; antisense: 5′-TCGGATACTTCAGCGTCAGGA-3′ - CTGF—sense: 5′-GGCATCTCCACCCGAGTTAC-3′; antisense: 5′-GATTITAGGTGTCGGATGCA-3′ - TGF\textbeta—sense: 5′-GAGCCGGAAGCGGACTACTA-3′; antisense: 5′-CACTGCTTCCCGAATGTCTGA-3′ Immunohistochemistry Immunohistological staining and analysis of kidney sections were performed as described previously.\textsuperscript{15} Rat monoclonal antibody to mouse F4/80 (RM2900; Caltag Laboratories Inc., Burlingame, CA) was used for macrophage detection. Collagen type III and α-SMA were detected using rabbit anti-human collagen type III (T59105R Interchim, Montluçon, France) and the monoclonal mouse anti-human α-SMA (DAKO EPOS method, U7033; DAKO S.A., Trappes, France), respectively. For the visualization of collagen type III, the DAKO Envision System was used (DAKO S.A.). For all samples, negative controls for the immunohistochemical procedures included substitution of the primary antibody with nonimmune sera. Histomorphometric Analysis As described previously, an operator unaware of the origin of each kidney section performed analyses. Under a light microscope (Nikon Eclipse 600, Tokyo, Japan) at ×200 magnification, 10 nonoverlapping fields (to obtain approximately 80% of the kidney section) per kidney section were captured with an analogic camera (MicroFire CCD color; Optronics, Goleta, CA) connected to the microscope. Quantitative analysis of the pictures was performed with Adobe PhotoShop 5.5 software (Adobe Systems Incorporated, San Jose, CA), which allows counting of the pixels stained specifically (brown for the immunohistochemical studies). Culture of MCT Cells and Preparation of Conditioned Media MCT cells were a kind gift of Dr M. Zeisberg (Harvard Medical School, Cambridge, MA). Cells were grown until confluence in DMEM supplemented with 5% fetal calf serum. MCT cells were washed twice with PBS to remove serum and then incubated (4 ml for a 10-cm diameter plate) in serum-free DMEM supplemented for 3 h with or without pharmacological reagents. Conditioned medium was collected and centrifuged to eliminate cell debris, and concentrated (about 50 fold) using an Amicon Ultra 10,000 (Millipore) and stored at −20°C before analysis. Detection of CTGF Secretion by Western Blot Concentrated conditioned medium (50 μg) were loaded and separated on a Gel Nu-PAGE (Invitrogen, Cergy Pontoise, France) 4–20% and transferred on nitrocellulose membrane. The blot was incubated overnight at 4°C in TBS/Tween 0.1% containing 5% BSA and then for 1 h at room temperature in the same solution supplemented with 0.4 μg/ml CTGF antibody (Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Santa Cruz, CA). After washing in TBS/Tween 0.1%, CTGF was visualized by enhanced chemoluminescence detection system using an anti-rabbit–horseradish peroxidase antibody. Statistical Analysis Values are means ± SEM. The interaction of UUO-induced fibrosis with LPA\textsubscript{1} knockout or Ki16425 treatment was statistically analyzed by a multivariate analysis (two-way ANOVA). Other comparisons were performed with a $t$ test. Differences were considered significant at $P < 0.05$. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This work was supported by grants from INSERM and the National Institutes of Health (MH51699 and NS048478). J.K. was supported by a grant from the Ministère de l’Education Nationale de la Recherche et de la Technologie (France). We thank Y. Barreira and C. Nevoit (IFR31 Animal Facility), J.J. Maoret (IFR31 Molecular Biology Platform) for technological assistance. We would like to thank Dr M. Zeisberg for his generous gift of MCT cells. DISCLOSURES None. REFERENCES** 1. Meguid El Nahas A, Bello AK: Chronic kidney disease: The global challenge. Lancet 365: 331–340, 2005 2. Strutz F: Potential methods to prevent interstitial fibrosis in renal disease. Expert Opin Investig Drugs 10: 1989–2001, 2001 3. Bascands JL, Schanstra JP: Obstructive nephropathy: Insights from genetically engineered animals. Kidney Int 68: 925–937, 2005 4. Iwano M, Neilson EG: Mechanisms of tubulointerstitial fibrosis. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens 13: 279–284, 2004 5. 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GaAs-ON-SILICON GOES COMMERCIAL/47 CHIPS & TECHNOLOGIES PLUGS INTO IBM'S PS/2 /75 A BIG EUROPEAN PUSH AND AGREEMENT ON INTERFACES MOVE IT CLOSER TO A WORLDWIDE STANDARD PAGE 67 LOOKING BETTER Only Mentor Graphics has brought a billion gates to light. In just 5 years, over a billion gates have flowed through our IDEA Series™ design automation systems. And that’s a very conservative estimate. Which makes it seem all the more incredible that, before we came along, almost all electronic circuits were drafted and breadboarded by hand. Since then, our schematic capture and simulation tools have produced more circuits for more products than any other electronic design automation vendor. A claim only Mentor Graphics can make. Along the way, we’ve pioneered schematic capture and simulation tools that are now industry standard. Like hierarchical design entry, which allows efficient management of even the largest designs. And MSPICE™, which brings real interactivity and a graphics-oriented interface to analog simulation. At the same time, we’ve provided the depth and power required to work with very large designs. A macro language allows you to build a highly customized interface, one suited specifically to your particular productivity needs. And “case frames” allow very complex circuit patterns to be expressed in just a few keystrokes. For simulation, our QUICKSIM™ family brings you logic, timing, and fault simulation in a single, integrated package. Plus the ability to use a mixture of modeling techniques, including chip-based modeling with our Hardware Modeling Library. And you can call upon our Compute Engine™ general-purpose accelerator to enhance standard workstation performance. Once your design is complete and verified, our IDEA Series lets you express it in any standard physical form: PCB, full-custom or semicustom. We have a full set of layout tools for each. All fully compatible with our front-end tools. As we head toward our next billion gates, we’d like to make some of them yours. It’s all part of a vision unique to Mentor Graphics, the leader in electronic design automation. Let us show you where this vision can take you. Call us toll free for an overview brochure and the number of your nearest sales office. Phone 1-800-547-7390 (in Oregon call 284-7357). You're looking into the heart of the brightest new idea in AlGaAs technology. Increase the brightness of the LED's you design into your equipment by as much as 300% with HP's new red AlGaAs products. The price? Only 25% more than our standard high-efficiency red devices. These brighter products are made possible by Hewlett-Packard's new opaque substrate, double heterojunction (DH) AlGaAs technology. This technology enables us to offer you entirely new families of lamps and displays that are significantly more efficient than single heterojunction (SH) AlGaAs devices. What does this mean for you? More ways to meet your price/performance targets. More ways to beat the competition. More ways to get the benefits of HP quality control. When you need LED brightness levels in the 50 to 1000 millicandela range...when you have an application that can benefit from displays that draw only 1 mA per segment...or need lamps that perform well at 1 mA, HP has a solution for you. Brighten your day with free samples. Evaluate this significant next step in solid state technology for yourself. To get your free samples, mail this coupon and your business card to: Hewlett-Packard, Components Group, 1820 Embarcadero Road, Palo Alto, CA 94303. To order, contact your nearest HP distributor. In the U.S.: Almac Electronics, Hall-Mark, Hamilton/Avnet, or Schweber. In Canada: Hamilton/Avnet or Zentronics Ltd. VHF-UHF SYNTHESIZERS fast switching low noise All of these "stock options" are yours for the asking MODELS COVERING: 0.1–40; 0.1–160 MHz 90–120 MHz 1–250 MHz 1–500 MHz Resolution (7 available steps, 100 KHz, 10 KHz, 1 KHz, 100 Hz, 10 Hz, 1 Hz, .1 Hz) 10 MHz Frequency Standard Oven (3 x 10⁻⁹/day) (±1 x 10⁻⁸/0-50 °C) TCXO (1 x 10⁻⁸/day) (±1 x 10⁻⁸/0-50 °C) Direct Digital 6-Decade Resolution Module (TLU), 1 μ sec phase-continuous-switching covers 0.1 Hz – 10 KHz or 1 Hz – 100 KHz Picket Fence Output (A pulse containing all 10 MHz multiples from 10 MHz to 140 MHz, at a level of -5dBm each) Filtered Comb (A single frequency output of any 10 MHz multiple from 20 MHz to 140 MHz at a level of 0dBm) 1 MHz External Drive 90° Phase Shifter Manual and/or Remote Controls (BCD or GPIB) Sine and/or Square-Wave 10 MHz standard output Programmable 90dB Attenuator (fast switching) NO NRE FOR THESE OPTIONS PTS PROGRAMMED TEST SOURCES, INC. 9 Beaver Brook Rd., PO. Box 517, Littleton, MA 01460 — (617) 486-3008 Circle 2 on reader service card For some, October means the real beginning of fall. For others, it's the start of the fourth quarter. But for us at Electronics, every October since 1974 has meant the season of the annual Technology Outlook. Our yearly look at what's coming across the whole breadth of the electronic-technology spectrum—an effort that has been much imitated but never equaled—doesn't quite enlist a cast of thousands. But it does require the work of nearly all of the people listed on our masthead. They have spent a lot of time and energy in recent weeks reporting the progress, pulling together the trends, and interpreting the portents in the electronics industry even as they attend to their regular duties in preparing the rest of the issue. Under the direction of executive technical editor Sam Weber, this 14th annual report, beginning on p.83, reflects the overarching need that drives technology: more information. "In every area, from chips to computers to telecommunications, we're seeing faster and more powerful processors, bigger memories, more efficient computer architectures, and more commodious networks," says Sam. And Electronics is helping to bring its readers, the people who must satisfy the universal thirst for information, more information that is carefully selected to help them do their jobs. One way that we carry out that mission is our diligence over the years in keeping step with the ebb and flow of the technological tides. Just consider the changes in the way we divided the technologies between the Technology Update, as it was then called, of 13 years ago and this year's Technology Outlook. In 1974, we covered seven specialties: computers, communications, instruments, industrial electronics, consumer electronics, solid state, and components. Now, the count is 12: what was computers in 1974 has split into that category plus software, CAD/CAE, and data communications. Communications is now telecommunications, the former industrial electronics has evolved into factory automation, and we have added chip processing, packaging, and test and measurement. And solid state is now semiconductors and microprocessors. Consumer electronics is the only category untouched. Another difference is in the choices facing the equipment designer. In 1974, they were more basic than they are now: the engineer had to decide whether to use bipolar or MOS, microprocessors or minicomputers, hard-wired controls or programmable computers. That was pretty much the extent it. But one thing hasn't changed. As we wrote 13 years ago, "For a technology to succeed, the cost must be right, and above all, the timing must be right." There also has been a quantum change in the pace of innovation over the years. Talking about this year's effort, Sam sums it up this way: "Developments on the technology front move a lot faster now than they did a decade ago. Our editors must not only pick up trends, but they must also be fast on their feet. It is impossible to relax one's guard for a minute." ## NEWS ### Newsletters Electronics, 21 - DRAM companies worry boom may spark double orders again - National integrates Fairchild’s operations with its own... - ...and Fairchild’s customers return to the fold International, 54 - Japanese hone color LCDs for laptop PCs by selling tiny TVs - Germany aims to deregulate parts of its national communications system - UK merger will create world’s No. 8 telecom maker ### Telecommunications, 31 The sun comes out for Data General: NTT picks it as a partner to develop integrated networks ### Robotics, 32 Push for simulation standards may just speed the use of robots ### Microprocessors, 32 AT&T gets going with new strategy for its 32-bit chips ### Printers, 33 Ion-deposition printer takes on laser units in text-graphics work ### Portable computers, 33 It’s getting crowded fast in 80386 portables ### Digital signal processors, 34 A new way to get faster, cheaper DSPs ### Avionics, 39 How about this? Avionics would go in plane’s skin ### Medical electronics, 42 Now, a 3-d road map for the surgeon ## INSIDE TECHNOLOGY ### COVER: SPECIAL REPORT: Unix is looking better, 67 A big European push and agreement on interfaces move it closer to a worldwide standard for work stations and high-end PCs - A big European push, 70 Europe is way out in front of the Americans in embracing Unix - Chips & Technologies plugs into IBM’s Micro Channel, 75 The company’s family of interface chips will enable adapter-card makers to add features to IBM’s PS/2 and will make clones possible ### SPECIAL REPORT: Technology Outlook, 83 Electronics’ annual look at major technology trends: - Computers, 84 Performance is the name of the game - Software, 87 A battle over operating systems - Semiconductors, 95 The walls come tumbling down - Microprocessors, 100 Surprisingly, they’re proliferating - CAD/CAE, 101 New tools will break design bottlenecks - Test and measurement, 111 The digital takeover picks up speed - Consumer, 113 At last, the TV picture gets sharper - Telecommunications, 121 Satisfying the need for more bandwidth - Data communications, 126 The drive to link diverse systems - Packaging, 133 Trying to keep up with fast-moving chips - Chip processing, 134 ‘Fine tuning’ optical steppers - Factory automation, 140 Is 1988 finally the year for MAP? ### PROBING THE NEWS - GaAs-on-silicon wafers are set to go commercial, 47 With a dozen beta sites already, Kopin Corp. will offer 4-in. wafers NEW PRODUCTS Newsletter, 25 - Western Digital launches a barrage of PS/2 clone chips and boards - 10-Mbyte 3½-in. floppy-disk drive from Brier Technology runs as fast as a Winchester - NeuralWare's software package helps engineers to design neural networks - Altera's EPLD chip builds custom peripheral functions quickly Computers & Peripherals, 151 - Control Systems' Hostess series of adapter boards link IBM Corp.'s PS/2 to 32 dumb terminals - CDC's 3.5-in. disk drives feature 200-Mbyte capacity - Clock-calendar from Time Source eliminates data loss on computer networks - Concurrent Technologies' Multibus II board attains data rates of 32 Mbytes/s - Color graphics board from RasterOps more than doubles resolution of Macintosh II Military/Aerospace Newsletter, 147 - Air Force to try amorphous-silicon, active-matrix LCD - The growth in defense-electronics spending is leveling off, says the EIA - Customs adds more radar balloons to spot drug smugglers - From Thomson, a digital display map for French tactical aircraft - VLSI Technology and Vitesse will meld silicon and GaAs design processes --- DEPARTMENTS Publisher's Letter, 3 A lot of things have changed since the first Technology Outlook in 1974—except the amount of hard work that goes into it FYI, 8 Silicon Valley is really jumping; we found what we were looking for: company startups and semiconductor development efforts People, 12 For Applitek Corp.'s Holswade, federal LAN sales are job No. 1 Electronics Week, 162 - SIA says worldwide chip sales may hit $45 billion in 1990 - Silicon Compilers and Sun sign a software pact - Battelle designs a low-cost fiber-optic coupler - Lattice Semiconductor emerges from Chapter 11 - Supercomputer-maker Convex adopts Apollo's Network Computing System Everything doesn’t need to be your fault. Designing a new system has enough risks. Why pass up an off-the-shelf sure thing like AMD’s complete Ethernet chip set? We designed the Am7990 Lance, Am7992B SIA, and the AM7996 Transceiver to work with one another. And what happened? They work with one another. AMD can offer you something no one else can offer. Absolute confidence. Our chip set has been around since the beginning of Ethernet. It’s been proven by years of successful networking in systems. That means you won’t be designing it in, then covering your tracks when it doesn’t work. (And if you work with Cheapernet, you’re still safe, because our chip set does, too.) Look at it this way: You’re going to get blamed for a few things in life that are absolutely not your fault. Why not choose the AMD Ethernet chip set and pick up some easy praise? Advanced Micro Devices 901 Thompson Place, P.O. Box 3453, Sunnyvale, CA 94088 QA/REL TIRED OF THE SAME OLD CHIP? It's the same old story. Static RAM suppliers come out with new claims based on, what else, speed. But, with everybody touting speed, they all start looking alike. Until you look at reliability. That's where INMOS breaks the mold. At INMOS we understand how important speed is, but we also know it won't do you any good unless it's in a static RAM that will last. That's why INMOS has developed SRAMs that give you unmatched reliability without compromising performance. We've achieved that reliability with innovations like the use of layered aluminum and refractory metals to reduce the effects of electromigration and eliminate stress voiding. A technology that literally keeps devices from wearing out. It also acts as a barrier to hillocks and inhibits silicon precipitates, virtually eliminating contaminates and interlevel shorts. At the transistor level, we use lightly doped drains to inhibit hot electron effects, yielding transistors that will last over a century. And our manufacturing flow is managed by one of the most stringent Statistical Process Control systems in the industry. So you're assured of getting products that are consistent and reliability that is second-to-none. Our 25ns, 64K static RAMs have set the standards for both speed and reliability. And these standards will be extended even further with our family of 256K static RAMs. So if you're tired of the same old line about the same old stuff, call INMOS. RELIABLE 64K CMOS SRAMs INMOS, Colorado Springs, Colorado, Tel. (303) 630-4000; Bristol, England, Tel. (0454) 616516; Paris, France, Tel. [1] 4897 40 40; Munich, Germany, Tel. 089 319 10 28; Tokyo, Japan, Tel. 03-505-2840. inmos, and IMS are trademarks of the INMOS Group of Companies. Apple picked our brains. And so did hundreds of other companies. Before millions of people picked Macintosh, Apple picked Motorola's M68000 Family—the brains behind one of the most successful computer products ever launched. Now Apple has tapped the brainpower of the Motorola MC68020 microprocessor for the Macintosh II, bringing the high performance of a graphics workstation to business desktops everywhere. 72% of all 32-bit systems ever shipped included at least one MC68020. That's more than half a million high-performance systems. The high-performance business solution. The MC68020 is not just the overwhelming choice in workstations—it is now setting new performance standards in the office—where it is essential to the computation, graphics and communication necessary for interconnected systems. While Apple's choice of the MC68020 was a smart move, there's no license on genius: the '020 is the microprocessor of choice in advanced business system designs by such industry leaders as Altos, Alpha Micro, Casio, C.Itoh, Fujitsu, Honeywell Bull, NEC, NCR, Olivetti, Plexus, Ricoh, Sanyo, Sharp, TI, Toshiba and UNISYS. The graphics solution. The M68000 family helped Apple implement the visionary "point and click" graphic workstyle that has driven productivity up while driving training costs way down. Businesses of all sizes are discovering dramatic productivity increases in office computing through innovations such as desktop publishing. The software solution. Among programmers and designers dedicated to creating the best, most innovative applications, the M68000 architecture has been the leading choice by far—with over seven million M68000 systems installed since 1979. Meanwhile, the MC68020, on the market now for three years, is already backed by two billion dollars worth of 32-bit software. This is more 32-bit software than all competitive products combined! The Brain Trust: Where M68000 microprocessors predominate. Engineering Workstations Apollo, Hitachi, HP, Sony, Sun, Tektronix. Laser Printers Apple, Canon, HP, IBM, QMS, Ricoh. Departmental Computers Convergent Technologies, Fujitsu, Honeywell Bull, NEC, NCR, UNISYS. PBX and Telephone Systems AT&T, Northern Telecom, Siemens. Fault Tolerant Systems IBM, NCR, Nixdorf, Stratus, Tandem. Supercomputers Alliant, BBN, Caltech, Fifth Generation. Factory Automation Allen-Bradley, ASEA, Bailey Controls, GM, Mitsubishi, Square D. Join the Brain Trust. Challenge us to persuade you of the sound business and technical reasons to join the M68020 Brain Trust. Write to us at Motorola Semiconductor Products Inc., P.O. Box 20912, Phoenix, AZ 85036. We're on your design-in team. Motorola Apple is a registered trademark and Macintosh is a trademark of Apple Computer, Inc. New old name... New legal structure. New company headquarters... Same old addresses. Same familiar faces. Same demanding standards. Same competence, flexibility, closeness to customers - same product quality. Same dedication to worldwide service. Same company philo- sophy. Same leading position in the high-tech fields of vacuum engineering and their process applications, and in measurement and analysis technology. So what will change? As of September 30, 1987, Leybold-Heraeus GmbH be- comes known as Leybold AG, and Leybold AG becomes a member company of the Degussa Group. LEYBOLD INC. 1860 Hartog Drive San José, CA 95131 LEYBOLD AG Wilhelm-Rohn-Straße 25 D-6450 Hanau 1 Circle 16 on reader service card Catch Wescon '87 in Electronics The November 12 issue of Electronics will be the Wescon '87 show in print. Wescon, being held this year November 17th-19th in San Francisco, is the oldest and largest high technology electronics trade show in the U.S. And our editors are gearing up to provide the most comprehensive coverage available. It's an issue that no one will want to miss for its insightful coverage of what's new, what's changing, and what to expect in semiconductors, computers, components, instrumentation, packaging, and much, much more. It's the issue to read if you plan to be at the show and want to put all that's happening in perspective. As well as the issue to read if you can't be there and want an exclusive look at the most important products being introduced from among the more than 800 exhibitors. If you're an advertiser exhibiting at the show, use this issue to direct our readers to your booth. And if you're not, you can still get in on the show action as more than 131,000 technical managers and senior engineers read and reread every page of our Wescon '87 show issue. So make sure they "catch" your ad. Closing Date: October 19, 1987 Recruitment: October 26, 1987 DRAM FIRMS WORRY BOOM MAY SPARK DOUBLE ORDERS AGAIN Rising prices and orders for 256-Kbit dynamic random-access memories are bringing good times to recession-battered DRAM suppliers—but not without worry that panic buying is behind the recent upsurge. Warning of double and triple orders, John Marck, vice president and general manager of memories at NEC Electronics Inc. in Mountain View, Calif., says NEC's lead times will stretch out to May and June on new orders for 256-Kbit chips. In an effort to keep its lead times short, Texas Instruments Inc. is not taking on any new customers. "We are trying not to take orders past the first quarter," says Ramesh L. Gadwani, manager for TI's U.S. MOS Memory Division in Houston. That's kept TI's prices "stable for the last three months," he adds. But prices in general have not been stable. DRAM prices rose 10 cents a week in September, says one analyst, and prices for 256-Kbit parts could reach $3, up from less than $2 a year ago. The trend is likely to continue. NEC's Marck warns that the DRAM shortfall could reach 15% by January. NATIONAL INTEGRATES FAIRCHILD'S OPERATIONS WITH ITS OWN... For National Semiconductor Corp., the hard part of its deal to buy Fairchild Semiconductor Corp. has only just begun. After signing the final agreements, delayed for a week to work out the details, National will face the monumental task of gluing the two companies together—a job it has given itself just a half year to complete. James M. Smaha, executive vice president of National's Semiconductor Group, says speed in completing the merger is essential to keeping Fairchild's top technologists and executives from defecting. Some key personnel have already quit, however, and worry is building as Fairchild's 9,000 employees anticipate layoffs. ...AND FAIRCHILD'S CUSTOMERS RETURN TO THE FOLD While executives at National Semiconductor Corp. worry about how to bring Fairchild into its fold, Fairchild product managers say customers are already responding positively to the merger. Clients who were unsure of Fairchild's future after Fujitsu Ltd.'s aborted attempt to purchase the company last winter are now beginning to commit to new products and technologies, especially Aspect, Fairchild's newest LSI emitter-coupled-logic bipolar process. Chip-buying computer houses were holding off committing to Aspect-based products while the fate of the company remained in limbo. Now "we are really encouraged," says Tom Miller, director of strategic marketing for Fairchild's custom and microprocessor unit. "Up until the first of September, we could not get anyone to commit [to Aspect]." But during that month, Fairchild won two customer commitments, and Miller says he is close to signing eight more in the next 60 days. NEW CONSORTIUM WILL FUND PRODUCTION-TECHNOLOGY RESEARCH A new consortium of U.S. manufacturers seeking to improve their competitiveness in world markets is taking aim at control technology. The National Center for Manufacturing Sciences of Ann Arbor, Mich., was established to solve generic manufacturing problems that are too costly for its 225 member companies to finance individually. These include electronic controllers, sensor and control techniques, and test-and-evaluation methods. Edward Miller, the consortium's executive director, says the group will spend between $60 million and $100 million over the next three to five years on a project aimed at improving control technology, which is crucial to automated manufacturing. Miller says electronic controllers have not "evolved with other state-of-the-art technology." This blazing 64K SRAM, with 12ns address access time, is twice as fast as any non-Performance 64K. It joins our family of 64K architectures—all with 6 transistor storage cells to optimize for performance, margins, temperature range, and supply tolerances. \| Part Number \| Size \| Com'l \| Mil \| \|-------------\|----------\|-------\|-----\| \| P4C187 \| 64K x 1 \| 12ns \| 15ns\| \| P4C188 \| 16K x 4* \| 17ns \| 25ns\| \| P4C164 \| 8K x 8 \| 20ns \| 25ns\| Also available: Common I/O with output enable and separate I/O. For optimal packing density, our standard 64K SRAMs are delivered in the popular 0.3" package widths, in either hermetic or plastic. But that's not all. While others are still trying to catch up to the pace set by our 0.8 micron channel lengths and 2.75 micron metal pitch, we have pushed the frontiers of technology out even further. Now Performance’s PACE Technology™ features 0.7 micron effective channel lengths, and 2.25 micron metal pitch. (As we’ve said before, metal pitch is the design rule that separates the men from the boys in VLSI technology.) All of our chips are made here in our Sunnyvale facility for six-inch wafers, which has now attained Class 1 status. Memory technology with the highest speed and greatest density gives you faster systems at a lower cost. So don’t be left behind. Call the company that is ready to deliver the performance your system needs. Performance Semiconductor 610 E. Weddell Drive Sunnyvale, CA 94089 Telephone: 408-734-9000 Telex: 6502715784 FAX: 408-734-0258 “It is with enormous pride in the achievements of the employees of our young company that we are able to announce that our technological pace is accelerating. Our engineers and scientists are smart, dedicated, and focused. New levels of technical productivity are being established every month. We are at the tip of the technology vector into the future and we intend to stay there.” Tom Longo President I want a faster system! Please send me detailed information on your SRAMs. NAME ____________________________________________________________ TITLE ___________________________________________________________ COMPANY _________________________________________________________ ADDRESS _________________________________________________________ CITY/ST/ZIP _______________________________________________________ PHONE ___________________________________________________________ Western Digital Launches Barrage of PS/2 Clone Chips and Boards Computer makers out after a piece of the six-month-old Personal System/2 market opened up by IBM Corp. can count on Western Digital Corp. for considerable help in cutting costs through drastically reduced components counts. Over the next five months, the Irvine, Calif., company will bring to market a family of 19 parts—including a single-chip implementation of the core logic for the PS/2 Models 25 and 30 and a four-chip set for Models 50 and 60. The FE2011 core-logic chip for Models 25 and 30 will be sampled starting in December and priced at $33 in 100-unit quantities; the FE5400 four-chip set will follow in January, priced at $99, also in lots of 100. The WD PS/2 family also includes the PVGA1 video graphics controller (available now, $60); the WD57C65 single-chip floppy-disk interface (available now, $6); and the WD16C552 single-chip dual-channel asynchronous communications unit (available in February, $12). Like Chips & Technologies (p. 75), Western also is offering adapter boards compatible with the IBM PS/2 Micro Channel bus found on the PS/2 Models 50, 60, and 80. 10-MBYTE 3½-in. FLOPPY DRIVE RUNS AS FAST AS A WINCHESTER A new company called Brier Technology Inc., San Jose, Calif., says it has developed a 3½-in. floppy-disk drive with the capacity and performance of Winchester drives. Previously, only the 5¼-in. floppy-disk drives from Iomega Corp., Roy, Utah, have attained the performance of a Winchester. The Brier product stores 10 Mbytes of data on a conventional disk and accesses in an average of 35 ms—comparable to the speed of 3½-in. Winchesters. Brier plans to show the drive at the 1987 Fall Comdex show to be held in Las Vegas Nov. 2–6. It contains a Small Computer Systems Interface within the 3½-in. form factor, for easy integration into existing systems. Brier expects to ship evaluation units in the second quarter of 1988; when production starts, OEM quantities will go for $400 to $500 each. SOFTWARE HELPS ENGINEER TO DESIGN A NEURAL NETWORK An extensively documented software package called NeuralWorks Professional is designed to introduce engineers to neural computing and the design of neural networks for such applications as signal processing, filtering, image and pattern recognition, and fuzzy-logic expert systems. A graphical interface running on an IBM PC XT or AT lets the user develop a concept, then create, edit, train, test, and debug a network using one of eight major neural-network paradigms. The package is said to be simple enough to be used by someone with no experience in neural computing, yet sophisticated enough to solve complex problems. It sells for $495 and is available now from NeuralWare Inc., Sewickley, Pa. FAST 12-BIT TRACK-AND-HOLD AMPLIFIER RUNS ON 5-V SUPPLY Speedy CMOS 12-bit analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog converters now have a companion fast track-and-hold amplifier that runs from the same ±5-V power supplies. Crystal Semiconductor Corp. of Austin, Texas, has a 12-bit self-calibrating track-and-hold, the CS3112, with fast acquisition times—1 μs to a 0.01% error level—and a typical aperture jitter of 100 ps. The CMOS part is aimed at an emerging analog signal-processing market, where the new CMOS converters are used but matching 5-V track-and-hold circuits cannot be found. Existing parts typically need 15-V supplies. Crystal’s 1-μs chip is priced at $12.10 each in 100-piece lots, and a device rated for 2-μs operation at $8.90 each. The chip has a droop rate of only 0.001 μV/μs, which Crystal says beats the competition by a wide margin. Chip, Chip, Array! For High Speed with Low Power. AMCC has the chips worth cheering about. When you need the versatility of high speed with low power in a bipolar array, our Q5000 Series Logic Arrays are the answer. They're designed for logic applications requiring speed/power efficiency. And they deliver. Today's hi-rel commercial and military semicustom applications need high performance and proven reliability. And, our Q5000 Series gives you both—without paying the power penalty. Our newest bipolar series is comprised of five arrays. All feature 4 levels of speed/power programmable macros and over 600 MHz I/O capability. One comes with 1280 bits of configurable RAM. Q5000 Series Key Features \| Feature \| Value \| \|--------------------------\|----------------\| \| Equivalent Gate Delay \| 210–545ps \| \| Flip/Flop Frequency \| > 600 MHz \| \| Power Per Gate \| 1mW \| \| Speed/Power Product \| 0.5pJ \| \| Equivalent Gates \| 1300–5000 \| \| I/O Pads \| 76–160 \| \| Operating Temperature Range \| -55°C to +125°C \| AMCC Bipolar Logic Arrays have been designed with other flexible performance features in mind, too. Mixed ECL/TTL I/O compatibility. Your choice of packaging. Full military screening. AMCC's MacroMatrix® design tools. And, unrivaled customer support. To talk with an applications engineer about your specific needs, in the U.S., call toll free (800) 262-8830. In Europe, call AMCC (U.K.) 44-256-468186. Or write, Applied MicroCircuits Corporation, 6195 Lusk Blvd., San Diego, CA 92121. (619) 450-9333. A Better Bipolar Array is Here. Digital has it now. “Our Dracula™ layout design verification software was developed and based on Digital systems, and for very good reason,” states ECAD President Jim Hill. “Our customers in Integrated Circuit design regard Digital’s VAX™ systems as the standard. Recognizing that, we’ve developed a line of software products that have made us the standard of our industry.” According to Mr. Hill, Digital’s unmatched software compatibility offers real benefits in creating customer acceptance. “We know that whatever Digital system the customer has purchased, our software will run on it successfully. That kind of confidence is rare in the IC design industry. And Digital’s hardware and software consistency helps us deliver a better product, faster and at a lower cost.” “We’re aggressively pursuing a worldwide market,” Mr. Hill adds. “And Digital has the worldwide presence to help us sell each market with strong local support. Our software and Digital’s systems sell each other. ECAD and Digital have evolved a strategic partnership, one that gives us a proven competitive advantage in the marketplace.” To get your competitive advantage now, write to: Digital Equipment Corporation, 200 Baker Avenue, West Concord, MA 01742. Or call your local Digital sales office. © Digital Equipment Corporation 1987. The Digital logo and VAX are trademarks of Digital Equipment Corporation. Dracula is a trademark of ECAD, Inc. WESTBORO, MASS. There's good news at Data General Corp. for the first time in many a month. Japanese telecommunications giant Nippon Telegraph & Telephone Corp.'s selection of Data General as its development partner for integrated private data networks is a shot in the arm for the Westboro, Mass., computer manufacturer, which in 1987 will experience the first unprofitable year in its 19-year history [Electronics, Sept. 3, 1987, p. 42]. The joint development agreement that NTT and Data General announced last week could be the first of similar affiliations between DG and U.S. and European companies in data networks. What's more, the pact is the first significant endorsement of DG's strategy to catapult into the corporate data-network business through an initiative directed by its 16-month-old Communications Systems Group. RICH MARKET. The value of the NTT contract wasn't disclosed, but the agreement will open a new market that could be worth several hundred million dollars to the U.S. company. It calls for DG to develop integrated high-speed digital communications systems for NTT. The size and reach of NTT, which controls some 85% of Japanese communications, stamps the DG data-network organization that's evolving under senior vice president Colin Crook as a significant force. What's more, Crook says, the agreement will help pay for DG's own development of private data-network technology. It calls for DG to deliver by spring of 1989 an integrated communications-processor system and computer system, along with hardware and software interfaces and "all the first-level communications support" required for high-speed digital communications systems, says Crook. Such systems will consist of hybrid exchange units that integrate data, voice, and computers into intelligent private networks. A system will do more than private switching, points out Yasuharu Kosuge, senior engineer and supervisor in NTT's Integrated Communications Systems Sector. If customers select an appropriate processor model, the system will handle switching in a priority mode but will also allow them to run applications software. The computers control both circuit and packet switching over what the Japanese call a superdigital leased line, equivalent to a T1 line from AT&T Co. Kosuge says that DG will develop interfaces to the line and to Japanese terminals, along with communications software. Kosuge hopes NTT can sell several hundred systems during the first year after development is completed. He says DG was selected for the development because "its hardware is well regarded in Japan, its maintenance and aftercare are excellent, and its communications expertise is superb." Crook stresses that it was important for DG "to establish our bona fides [in data networks] with a company the magnitude of NTT. It's a good test of how smart we are in this business." In agreement is securities analyst John Adams, chairman of Adams, Harkness & Hill Inc. in Boston. "It's a formidable proposition to enter a relationship of this kind that includes a language barrier, and an unusual way to present your bona fides," says Adams. "But Data General needed somebody substantial to establish its credentials, and NTT is a hell of a choice." Another analyst notes that the agreement underscores DG's technological know-how. "It bodes well for Data General that NTT passed up Japanese and other U.S. companies to go with them," says Stephen Zamierowski, who follows the communications industry for International Data Corp. of Framingham, Mass. "It shows that they passed the acid technology test, and it is a vote of confidence that they will be around for a while." A third analyst is a little more cautious, however. Susie Peterson, who tracks the computer industry for The First Boston Corp. in New York, says the agreement is important for DG in the short term "because it will give them a lot of political good will. But a lot can happen to DG between now and the time they're supposed to deliver. If they're still a stand-alone company, this could be an important product line for them." DG's Crook points out that NTT has about 5,000 networks installed in Japan among clients that are a veritable who's who of Japanese banks and manufacturing companies. The agreement will open an upgrade-and-replacement market to DG, which has sold minicomputers to NTT through its subsidiary, Nippon Data General, for 15 years. GETTING TOGETHER. That relationship fostered initial meetings between Crook and other representatives of his group and NTT, during which DG learned that the Japanese giant had established a new group to concentrate on private corporate data networks, just as DG had done. "Over time," Crook relates, "NTT's senior management became impressed with our understanding of the merger of computers and communications. We knew how to position ourselves and our products, and we learned how to do business in Japan." Crook indicates that other joint efforts will follow, though he declines to offer details. For his part, analyst Adams suggests that Northern Telecom Inc., the Nashville, Tenn., telecommunications leader, might be another logical partner. —Lawrence Curran configurations, from the 18-MHz eight-user unit at about $20,000, available now, up to a $45,000 30-MHz, 50-user version, coming in early 1988. Microproject's partnership with AT&T—which, like Mizar's, began early this year with little publicity—is an unqualified plus, says Zion Bar-el, executive vice president for sales. "Our close ties to AT&T give Unicorn B/200 customers prompt access to latest versions of Unix," among other benefits, he says. Can such relationships turn around AT&T's 32-bit fortunes? Consultant William I. Strauss of Forward Concepts Inc., Tempe, Ariz., gives the company an outside chance. "By any standard, the 32000 is a good set that has not been marketed well. This [new strategy] shows some signs of life," he says. And AT&T has one big advantage on its side, he adds: "People are thirsty for multiuser microcomputers—and Unix is the only stuff out there." —Larry Waller PRINTERS* ION-DEPOSITION PRINTER TAKES ON LASER RANDOLPH, MASS. Lasers most often are the technology of choice for nonimpact printing. But ion deposition is poised to make a big push into two bastions of the laser market—office automation and computer-aided design and manufacturing. That's the view of Delphax Systems of Randolph, Mass., which on Oct. 14 unveiled an ion-deposition system that for the first time combines text, graphics, a raster image processor, and printer controller all developed by Delphax—the company that holds the basic patents on ion-deposition printing. Delphax, a seven-year-old company, had 1986 revenues of $36 million, almost doubling from 1985. It supplies printers and print engines to original-equipment manufacturers, including Datagraphix, Honeywell, Northern Telecom, Olivetti, and Xerox. Now, with shipments of its S3000G RIP-equipped printer set to start in December, those OEMs could announce 30-page-per-minute combined text-and-graphics printers by early next year. The system holds special appeal in CAD/CAM applications, because it can print arcs and vectors much faster than plotters or dot-matrix printers. Ion printing works by projecting ions onto a dielectric drum. The images attract a toner, which is then transferred to plain paper. It has become competitive with laser technology because it withstands duty cycles that are at least as high and often higher than laser printer duty cycles, according to CAP International Inc., a Marshfield, Mass., market-research firm that tracks the printer business. For example, the 30-ppm S3000G has a specified duty cycle of 225,000 pages per month; Thomas Kinney, Delphax's vice president for marketing, says Delphax OEMs will probably price the system between $20,000 and $25,000. Comparable laser printers' duty cycles are 35,000 to 60,000 pages per month, at 20 to 40 ppm, for $15,000 to $48,000. For CAD/CAM, the S3000G will quickly print and collate unlimited multiple copies of engineering drawings and documentation. Today, those functions often involve a separate printer for drawings and documentation, plus time to make multiple copies on a copier. The heart of the graphics engine resides on a 14-by-16-in. board housed in a swing-out module on the back of the printer. The module also holds a 3½-in. floppy-disk drive and/or hard-disk drive. New ion-deposition printers can do anything HP's LaserJet can do An Intel 80286 microprocessor and 82786 graphics coprocessor make up the RIP, which provides all-points addressability plus various line-, arc-, and circle-drawing commands. Standard electrical interfaces include Centronics and Dataproducts; Delphax will also design custom interfaces. Jeffrey Carrish, the company's director of product planning, says the floppy drive makes it easier to download new fonts or printer emulations than firmware systems. The RIP feature is an important tool in Delphax's diversification, says Catherine Dingman, associate director for nonimpact printing at CAP International. "They started as an engine company," Dingman says, "then progressed to providing full printers, mastering the paper-path problem. Now this puts them into controllers, and while printer suppliers can get a controller company to do that job, no one knows that ion print engine better than Delphax." Delphax's Kinney points out that a substantial amount of printer software is being rewritten to run on networked systems—including Digital Equipment Corp. VAX systems and IBM Corp. 4341s—in market segments where nonimpact printing has yet to make significant inroads. "There are 25,000 sites where the average monthly print volume is somewhere between 100,000 to 500,000 pages," Kinney says. "Nonimpact printing has only 1% of that market, and less than 20% of the 7,500 sites where the volume is 500,000 to 2 million pages per month. Those are the markets that we're after." —Lawrence Curran PORTABLE COMPUTERS IT'S GETTING CROWDED FAST IN 80386 PORTABLES SAN MATEO, CALIF. The market for 80386-based portable computers is only a few weeks old, but already it's beginning to look like Times Square on New Year's Eve. Almost every week, a new player has joined the fight, resulting in a three-way battle with more on the way. Latest to join is the king of the portables, Compaq Computer Corp., which came out with its model using Intel's speedy 32-bit microprocessor at the end of September. Starting it all off was tiny Dolch American Instrument Inc. of San Jose, Calif., which introduced a 16-MHz machine originally developed as an instrument controller. A week or so later, Toshiba America Inc. of Irvine, Calif., announced its T5100, at 15 lb the lightest of them all, so far. And the Comdex show in Las Vegas, Nov. 24, should add to the crowd. Grid Systems Corp. of Fremont, Calif., for example, plans to introduce a pair of 286- and 386-based laptops. "Portable" has always been a catch-all TEXAS INSTRUMENTS REPORTS ON NETWORKING IN THE ERA OF MegaChip TECHNOLOGIES Networking in the Era of MegaChip Technologies: When connecting to the you need to connect with Only the TMS380 Chip Set from Texas Instruments is tested and verified with IBM. That frees you to concentrate on the important business of making your products market winners. Industry observers agree: The IBM® Token-Ring Network is capturing a lion's share of the LAN (local-area network) market. As stated by IBM in their October 15, 1985, product announcement, the IBM Token-Ring Network is "an 'open' network architecture for accommodation of non-IBM and IBM attaching devices . . . with semiconductor components available IBM Token-Ring, Texas Instruments first. the chief reason for turning to TI first when designing-in token ring connectivity. You know your TMS380-based product will be 100% compatible with IBM and industry standards. As a result, you avoid any problems of validation, verification, or long development time. You gain time to add product enhancements that can mean a competitive edge in the marketplace. Martin Sinnott, director, Dayton Development Center of the NCR Corporation, sums up the advantage this way: "We offer the very highest level of interoperability with the IBM Token-Ring Network via TI's TMS380 Chip Set and our own software." An integrated solution for "open" systems TI's TMS380 Chip Set begins with a 40-million-bits-per-second DMA interface. This provides efficient connection to high-speed microprocessors such as Intel's 80X86 and Motorola's 680X0 families and open-system buses like IBM's Micro Channel™ and Apple's NuBus™. Having built-in software jointly copyrighted by IBM and TI, the TMS380 provides all IEEE 802.5 media-access control processing, including on-board network-management services (see box). In addition, the TMS380 provides capability for message-buffer expansion and higher layer protocols, such as IBM-compatible IEEE 802.2 Logical Link Control (LLC), available from TI. The TMS380 completes your connection to the IBM Token-Ring with physical-layer interface circuits that provide clocking, data reception and transmission, and ring-insertion control. Opening the way to internetworking the TMS380 facilitates the design of token ring bridge and gateway products. Good news about cost Another reason to choose the TMS380 is that the cost of connectivity is com- Reliable network management "We have designed our ProNET®-4 product using the industry-standard TI TMS380 Chip Set. In addition to normal data-communications functions, the chip set provides power-up self-test as well as network-management frames for automatic error detection, parameter services, and reconfigurations. The net effect is reliable, manageable network operation." Howard Salwen, Chairman and Founder, Proteon, Inc. ing down. The chip set is available now at a suggested resale price under $100.00 (quantity 100). The TMS380 reflects the influence of TI's MegaChip™ Technologies. These are the skills and disciplines acquired through ongoing development of high-density circuits which generate advances in semiconductor design, processing, manufacturing, and service. These technologies are having an effect on other LAN standards. For example, TI has developed the SN75061/62 single-channel drivers/receivers that can easily be configured for use with StarLAN IEEE 802.3 1BASE5 networks. These new devices perform data transmission/reception and minimize transmission-line noise. The SN75061 is ideally suited to 1BASE5 stations; the lower-power, lower-cost SN75062, to hubs. For more information on the broad TMS380 support, turn the page. "We use TI's TMS380 Chip Set and TI's implementation of IEEE 802.2 LLC protocols to ensure IBM compatibility at media-access and software levels." That is Howard S. Charney, senior vice president of 3Com Corporation, stating Comprehensive support from TI speeds TMS380 design-in. To help you with everything from token ring adapter-card prototyping through communications-protocol development and systems integration, TI makes available the comprehensive TMS380 Development Products Family. Design-in Accelerator Kit includes hardware and debug software for completing a prototype token ring adapter: Three sample TMS380 chip sets, engineering debug software with User's Guide, and an interconnect schematic. PC Adapter Card helps you develop software and analyze traffic on the IBM Token-Ring Network. It works in both the PC Family and PC AT compatibles and incorporates TI's new IEEE 802.2 LLC. The card comes with demonstration software as well as protocol-analysis software to help develop your communications protocol. Test Wiring Concentrator (TWC) provides the mechanism for any station to be inserted on the ring and adds LEDs that indicate ring insertion. TMS380 LLC Evaluation Kit provides the hardware, software, and documentation required to evaluate the IBM-compatible IEEE 802.2 LLC software on your designs. ASIC-LAN Tool Kit enables the fast development of highly integrated, differentiated, and compact adapters. The kit contains ASIC software macro building blocks and completed design examples. These support Adapter Memory Expansion and PC Bus Interface. The kit not only helps save board space, but also several months of system and hardware design. TMS380 Bridge Design Kit contains one TMS38021 Bridging Protocol Handler, one set of Bridge Options Adapter Software, and a TMS38021 Bridge Application Report to help you develop bridge or gateway products. Token Ring Seminars are conducted on request at TI Regional Technology Centers or at your site. A two-day workshop includes an introduction to the TMS380 Chip Set and hands-on experience in the lab. A one-day TMS380 Advanced Topics Workshop provides an understanding of the extended LLC interface on the TMS380 and provides insight into bridge applications. For more information on TI's TMS380 Chip Set, call TI's hot-line number, (713) 274-2380. Or complete and return the coupon today to Texas Instruments Incorporated, P.O. Box 809066, Dallas, Texas 75380-9066. --- Texas Instruments Incorporated P.O. Box 809066 Dallas, Texas 75380-9066 YES, please send me information on TI's networking products and services. NAME TITLE COMPANY ADDRESS CITY STATE ZIP AREA CODE TELEPHONE EXT. cation of these units considerably increases throughput. One unusual feature is the multiplexed ROM, which also helps boost the throughput. To keep memory bandwidth low, the FP fetches two instructions with each memory access and processes them one after the other, while fetching the next two. This complicates pipelining somewhat but does not affect the FP's functional behavior, Winterer says. Significantly, the controller does away with interrupts in favor of program scheduling, "because interrupt schemes considerably interfere with high-speed processing requirements and call for lots of circuitry," Winterer says. Because the FP has no interrupts, it is markedly different from most microcontrollers. Usually, any controller must respond quickly to asynchronous demands. But with common interrupt schemes, there is a need to restore the controller's internal state. With a register file, however, it either takes time to store and load all registers or it requires extra hardware to hold one or more additional file for context switching. Further, interrupting the pipeline and restoring it is a complex task, making extensive logic necessary. So the Freiburg designers did away with interrupts, instead subdividing programs into individual tasks. While a task is running, no interrupt is allowed. When the task is completed, a hardware block, the so-called scheduler—part of the control block—decides which task must be executed next. The scheduling scheme incorporated in the FP also supports a modular software structure, making the FP the ideal partner for fast controlling and signal-processing applications. —John Gosch AVIONICS HOW ABOUT THIS? AVIONICS WOULD GO IN PLANE'S SKIN LOS ANGELES Here's a prediction for you: the military airplane of the future will carry its sensing, communications, and processing equipment embedded in its outer skin. At least, that's the conclusion emerging from a year of study by avionics and structural engineers at GMHE/Hughes Aircraft Co. and Rockwell International Corp. The work was done as part of the Air Force's Forecast 2 project to identify new technologies for next-century equipment. The Hughes-Rockwell concept, "smartskins," envisions flexible electronic packages holding the various avionics subsystems, which would be separated into layers and distributed over the body of the aircraft. The first usable embedded equipment could be ready in 5 to 10 years, the study says. "This is a brand-new ballgame for avionics," says Joseph Smalanskas, laboratories engineer at Hughes, who is coordinating the two-year study. The goal is "nothing less than eliminating dedicated structures for electronics." But first researchers have to overcome two tough technology barriers, says Smalanskas. The chief one is developing flexible optical-interconnect boards and backplane mounting to replace the rigid copper-based printed-circuit boards now in use. The boards must NEW LOCATION. By embedding bulky computers and other avionic equipment in the skin of its airplanes, the Air Force hopes to get more efficient electronics as well as better aircraft. Until now, if you wanted to put 50,000 gates on one chip, you usually had to put them in one at a time. You had to put in three months work. And you had to put your launch date into a holding pattern. Not anymore. Announcing the only compilers that take you to gate arrays and cells. Fast. Now with VLSI's new Datapath and State Machine Compilers you can design in high level symbols instead of gates. A design that used to take months, can now be turned around in days. Even less. With the help of our new Datapath Compiler you can design a 64-bit RISC datapath on your lunch hour. But can you use control logic? You bet your sweet datapath you can. Our State Machine Compiler accepts high level expressions of logic functions and gives you tightly packed state control logic in a fraction of the time it would take to design it by hand. We did the design entry for an asynchronous receiver in one hour. It would've taken Seven days using traditional schematics. And not only do we give you high integration design tools, we give you high integration devices. Our CMOS 1.5 micron VGT100 series of gate arrays puts as many as 50,000 useable gates on a chip. And our 1.5 micron CMOS cell-based technology packs over 100,000. If you'd like more information about our new Datapath and State Machine Compilers, and the VGT100 family of gate arrays they work with, write us at 1109 McKay Drive, San Jose, CA 95131. Or give us a call at (800) 872-6753. We'll show you a good time. To find out how much time you can save, call us for a free stopwatch. VLSI Technology, Inc. GaAs-ON-SILICON WAFERS ARE SET TO GO COMMERCIAL WITH A DOZEN BETA SITES ALREADY, KOPIN CORP. WILL OFFER 4-IN. WAFERS by Lawrence Curran TAUNTON, MASS. Those chip makers eager to tap the high-performance potential of gallium arsenide should be more than a little excited about a brand new development in GaAs-on-silicon material: the commercial availability of 4-in. wafers, which are believed to be the first of their size to go on the market. The source of these wafers, tiny Kopin Corp., was scheduled to disclose at this week's IEEE GaAs IC Symposium in Portland, Ore., that sample production had already begun on wafers measuring 2, 3, and 4 in. in diameter. Having the most potential is the 4-in. wafer, which will start shipping in December. The marriage between GaAs and silicon [Electronics, Sept. 18, 1986, p. 31] is still tricky enough to prompt a wait-and-see attitude by some potential users, but the lure of joining the two materials to get the advantages of each—including the structural and thermal properties of a silicon substrate—is driving more than a dozen research efforts in the U.S. and Japan. GaAs emits light, withstands high temperatures, and survives high doses of radiation, making it attractive for optoelectronic and fast logic and memory devices, as well as for radiation-resistant integrated circuits. However, the brittleness and warping of bulk-GaAs wafers have so far limited diameters to 2 or 3 in. Also, GaAs often lacks purity when deposited on silicon. Kopin is a three-year-old Taunton, Mass., startup that eventually will supply chip makers with production-quantity epitaxial wafers. The company has about a dozen beta-site customers for wafers, on which GaAs is grown using metallic-organic chemical-vapor deposition. John C.C. Fan, Kopin's founder, chairman, and chief executive officer, believes the commercial availability of these wafers represents "the enabling technology for future GaAs market growth." That market has been frustrated until now, but it may indeed be stimulated by the promise of GaAs on sturdier, larger-diameter silicon-wafer substrates, promising the economies of scale associated with silicon processing. Further, the ability to selectively grow GaAs on portions of a silicon wafer holds the potential to marry CMOS FETs with GaAs optoelectronic devices, including lasers. Texas Instruments Inc. is working on this kind of patterned deposition in its Central Research Laboratories in Dallas. So is GTE Laboratories Inc. in Waltham, Mass. Wafer- or device-level programs are perking along with more than a dozen other entries in the GaAs-on-silicon sweepstakes in the U.S. and Japan. They include Fujitsu, Hitachi, Mitsubishi, NEC, NTT, Oki Electric, and Sharp in Japan, plus AT&T Bell Laboratories, Ford Microelectronics, Hewlett-Packard, and Spire in the U.S. SPECIAL SILICON. There's not much that Fan wants to divulge about the way Kopin makes its wafers, but he does say that the company buys specially cut silicon wafers. "It is still 1-0 material, but it has a slightly different orientation," Fan says. That orientation, plus several processing steps, are intended to minimize defects and warping. Kopin uses a proprietary cleaning process before putting the wafers into a modified chemical-vapor-deposition reactor. Two steps deposit a very thin "defect-confinement" layer before the GaAs is put down. The entire epilayer is a maximum of 8 μm thick, and usually more like 5, Fan says. Thermal cycling follows to help take care of stress and lattice mismatches, says Fan. One of the biggest U.S. development efforts is at Texas Instruments Inc., where blanket deposition of GaAs across an entire wafer last year proved the quality of epitaxially grown GaAs on a passive silicon substrate. That work resulted in the most complex GaAs-on-silicon devices reported to date in the U.S.—fully functional 1-kbit static random-access memories with address-access times as short as 6 ns [Electronics, Sept. 18, 1986, p. 31]. The thrust of TI's current effort is directed at patterned deposition, so that some circuit functions are done in GaAs and others in silicon. Its method is to grow GaAs through silicon-dioxide or silicon-nitride masks, a technique that "allows us to place single GaAs pads wherever we want on a silicon wafer," says Richard Matyi, a member of the technical staff in TI's Materials Science Laboratory. Hisashi Shichijo, senior member of the technical staff in the GaAs Logic and Memory Branch of TI's Central Research Laboratories, adds that the lab initially will use patterned deposition to combine silicon CMOS circuitry with GaAs MESFET circuits. "Once you develop the technology to combine these two kinds of devices, you aren't limited to MESFETs or CMOS," We’re growing with speed and resolution. Introducing the best spectral performance available in 14 and 16-bit sampling ADC’s. Step-by-step, Analog Solutions is covering all key points on the speed/resolution scale. We already have the largest line of high performance 16-bit ADC’s. Now, in response to customer needs, Analog Solutions is introducing significant new products in a growing family of sampling A/D converters. Leading off is the ZAD2764. This 14-bit sampling ADC offers a better combination of speed and resolution than anything you’ve seen before. The ZAD2764 features a 500 kHz sampling rate and a built-in ultra-linear sample and hold. Spectral performance is fully specified and guaranteed. Harmonic distortion, intermodulation distortion, S/N ratio and frequency response are specified under worst-case conditions. When you design the ZAD2764 into your telecommunications, medical imaging or ATE system, performance will not be compromised. Equally impressive is the ZAD2846, a 300 kHz sampling 16-bit ADC with the best linearity and lowest noise and harmonic distortion available. With its low drift and guaranteed specs, the ZAD2846 satisfies the most demanding applications. The FFT diagram shows the actual performance. Both new products use the latest technology and Analog Solutions’ proprietary digital correction subranging architecture. Both are packaged in Analog Solutions’ rugged, shielded metal case with low insertion force sockets and are pin-to-pin compatible with each other. So you can change system performance by simply swapping modules. And both are 100% tested and documented to guarantee that published specifications are met. If you need the performance that exceeds monolithics, hybrids, or your own ADC/sample and hold design, give us a call. And watch us respond with speed and resolution. For more information, please address Analog Solutions, 85 West Tasman Drive, San Jose, CA 95134. Phone (408) 433-1900. FAX (408) 433-9308. When you’re trying to build the hottest new products you can think of, you need the latest, most sophisticated ASICs available. And the greatest number of ways to use them. And that’s the whole idea behind our Triple Technology™ Which gives you the ability to combine analog, digital, and E² cells all on the same chip. And the confidence that they all fit SEPTEMBER Real-time Clock for COP®800 Microcontroller Core Key Features: - Parallel interface to Sierra core cell - Low power/independent operation - Programmable interrupt system - In-cell 32 KHz micropower crystal oscillator - Timekeeping from 1/10 sec. to years - Available in Sierra's 2-micron CMOS standard cell library. The COPRTC Real-time Clock peripheral has a direct interface to the COP800. It's 32 KHz crystal oscillator allows independent operation while the controller core cell is in a low-power halt state. The interrupt timer can "wake up" the controller at user-programmable intervals. This peripheral keeps time with tenth-second resolution and includes an automatic leap year calculation. Of course, it is also fully compatible with all the digital and analog cells in our Triple Technology™ 2 micron CMOS cell library. OCTOBER LVDETI Low Voltage Detector Key Features: \| PARAMETER \| Min \| Typical \| Max \| Units \| \|----------------------------\|-----\|---------\|-----\|-------\| \| Supply Range \| 2.5 \| 5.0 \| 5.5 \| Volts \| \| Negative going trip point, Vtr− \| 3.7 \| \| \| Volts \| \| Positive going trip point, Vtr+ \| \| \| \| Volts \| \| Hysteresis (Vtr+) − (Vtr−) \| 200 \| \| \| mV \| This cell can be used to detect low battery voltage. Or to power down an electronic system safely in case of power interruptions, then reset it when power is restored. In either case, when power supply voltage drops below a specified value, this precision circuit provides a logic output. With built-in hysteresis and inherent low-pass filtering, it is immune to errors caused by small supply variations and spikes. It is also a perfect example of our commitment to introduce a new high-performance cell every month throughout 1987. Watch this space for November's cell. LYAS GOOD LAST IDEA. Together, since they've all come from the same source. Of course, we already give you the richest cell library in the industry. But every month this year, we'll use this space to introduce our latest ideas. To give you more possibilities than ever. If you'd like to see our complete library card, just write or call. In the meantime, just look what we've done for you lately. NOVEMBER DECEMBER Sierra Semiconductor Triple Technology™ In CMOS. 2075 North Capitol Avenue, San Jose, California 95132. Telephone (408) 263-9300 Both parallel and RS-232 interfaces are supported by a wide selection of software. Easy video interfacing—over 150 interfaces are supported. No need to write software. Accurate shading for realistic, detailed solids; work with 4,912 colors. Local intelligence: video interface lets you rotate, change colors and scale with front-panel controls. Crisp, clean lines for highly detailed drawings. No Other Color Hardcopier Can Make These Points. The CH-5300 gives you fast copies. Sharp lines. Realistic gradation and shading. Bright, rich solids. Consistent backgrounds. Built-in intelligence. Easy interfacing to the broadest range of video or parallel sources. And proven reliability. Plus, with our new multiplexor you can turn your color hardcopier into a shared resource; connecting up to four different input sources at once. So look into the Seiko CH-5300. You'll see that no other color hardcopier can make these points. Call Martin Nelson at (408) 943-9100 today. SEIKO Seiko Instruments USA Fast copies on paper or film—A-size output in 45 seconds. Solid streak-free, unblemished backgrounds—on the first and ninety-ninth copy. Unattended, off-line copying with consistent, high-quality output. CASIO ENTERS DAT AND VCR MARKETS Casio Computer Co., Tokyo, a leading manufacturer of calculators, watches, and liquid-crystal-display color TVs, is diversifying into the digital-audio-tape recorder and portable video-cassette recorder markets. It will start selling its 148,000-yen portable DAT, DGZY1, in December, about the same time as Matsushita and Sony go to market with theirs. The initial production rate will be 1,000 units a month. The portable VCR, VF-3000, has a built-in 3.3-in. liquid-crystal TV that can reproduce color images on its 118,580-dot display and receive off-the-air TV programs. Casio will start marketing the VF-3000 in mid-December at 125,000 yen with another 27,000 yen for accessories, initially producing 3,000 units a month. TOSHIBA TO SELL 3-D CAMCORDER Toshiba Corp., Tokyo, has developed 3D-CAM, the world's first camcorder capable of recording three-dimensional color pictures that can be played back on conventional VHS-format VCRs and a monitor with double scanning speed. Liquid-crystal-shutter glasses are required to view the 3-d images and a special adapter unit is needed for playback on standard VCRs. Toshiba will sell the camcorder for industrial as well as home use. It has not yet decided when to begin marketing the 3D-CAM, but it expects to price it at around 300,000 yen, 50% higher than the price of standard camcorders. GERMANS GET FAST FIBER-OPTICS LINK West Germany's Siemens AG has turned over to the Bundespost, the communications authority, the country's first fiber-optic line operating at a 565-Mbit/s data rate. With 32 glass fibers in a cable spanning the 100 miles from Munich to Nuremberg, the link will have a capacity for 120,000 telephone channels or 64 TV channels, each with a 140-Mbit/s rate. The use of monomode fibers allows a repeater spacing as wide as 35 km. FINNS, SWEDES GET VIDEOPHONE LINK Finns and Swedes can now make videophone calls as easily as ordinary telephone calls. The first international videophone call was made from Helsinki to Stockholm on Sept. 24, using a digital link between the two national switched 64-Kbit/s networks. The videophones were made by Vistacom Industries Inc., a new Finnish company that makes color video codecs and terminals for 64-Kbit/s networks. Called Dignet, the switched 64-Kbit/s service is compatible with the Integrated Services Digital Network, with which it competes, and is supported by Nokia, Ericsson, and Siemens. TURKS BUY SIEMENS DIGITAL SWITCHES Turkey has become the 30th country to order an EWSD digital switch from Siemens AG, Munich. The order initially is for nine systems, capable of handling a total of 100,000 subscriber lines, to be used in eight cities throughout the country. Starting in 1988, the Turks will build EWSD systems on their own in a factory for which about $23 million has been earmarked by the Ankara government. PLESSEY, TELENET IN DATACOM VENTURE The Plessey Co. plc and Telenet Communications Corp., a US Sprint company in Reston, Va., have formed a joint venture company, Plessey-Telenet Ltd., to market datacommunications and packet-switched networks and systems, initially in the UK and Holland. Ownership of Plessey-Telenet, which will be based at Basingstoke, England, is 51% Plessey, 49% Telenet. Plessey-Telenet already has orders valued at £30 million with ongoing contracts for private packet-switched networks. VENEZUELA TO BUY ERICSSON SYSTEM Ericsson Radio Systems of Stockholm, Sweden, has received a letter of intent from the Venezuelan Telephone Administration for a cellular mobile telephone system initially valued at $12 million. The system will consist of one AXE mobile telephone switch and 10 radio base stations. Venezuela will be the first Latin American country to operate a fully automatic cellular service, the first phase of which will be installed in the Caracas area. ARIANESPACE HAS EDGE OVER NASA Now that its Ariane V19 booster has placed a dual payload into transfer orbits, Arianespace says it has received 44 contracts running into 1991 for launching satellites. The orders, worth $2.38 billion, include nine U.S. private satellites. The consortium has offered to launch Indonesia's Palapa B-2R telecommunications satellite earlier and at a price 10% less than that of a U.S. Delta rocket launching, but a contract has not yet been signed. PHILIPS, FLUKE PACT IS SET Philips Test & Measurement of Eindhoven, the Netherlands, and John Fluke Manufacturing Co. of Everett, Wash., have set the terms of their March agreement [Electronics, April 2, 1987, p. 55]. Fluke will sell, service, and support Philips's products in North America, China, Hong Kong, and Japan, while Philips will reciprocate for Fluke's products in the rest of the world. The accord also provides for technology transfer and joint product development. ALCATEL LANDS TWO VIDEOTEXT ORDERS Alcatel NV received two large orders in September to make videotext systems similar to the French Minitel for the Centre d'Excellence en Télécommunications Intégrées in Montreal and for Encode International in Houston. The Canadian contract calls for 100,000 terminals during the next 14 months and another 100,000 per year for the next five years. The contract with Encode calls for an initial 12,000 videotext terminals, with orders for 5,000 to 10,000 per month to follow. UNIX-BASED MICROS COMING FROM BULL France's Groupe Bull is making a play for the small-to-medium-size business-computer market in most of Western Europe, which it expects to reach 12.5 billion francs soon, with Unix-based super microcomputers in the Questar 700 family. The Bull Questar 700/15, 700/20, and 700/30 are being offered in compact frames for unit prices ranging from 140,000 to 210,000 French francs. UK BOOK-TO-BILL SLIPS BELOW ONE The UK book-to-bill ratio for electronic components in August fell below parity at 0.94 for the first time since November 1986, says the Electronic Components Industry Federation. Despite the low figure, which is typical of ratios in the second half of the year, sales continue to show slow, steady growth. Demand in consumer electronics was strong, the ECIF says, but defense was sluggish. pendence on component tolerances. Data exchange between the 7310 and 7320 is over the Philips I²S (for inter-IC signal) bus. This three-line bus dedicates one line each for the clock, serial data, and control data. Since I²S was also used in the Philips second-generation set, a combination of second- and third-generation devices can be used in the same system. The 7310 and 7320 are both available in a 44-pin quad flatpack. The 7310 can also be had in a 40-pin dual in-line package which can be used as a replacement for the 7210 of the second-generation set. Samples of the two devices will be available in the fourth quarter. Prices for the two circuits depend on importing country and local market demand. However, as an indication of approximate prices, the SAA7310 costs around 36 Dutch guilders apiece in 1,000-lot quantities and the SAA7320 about 40 Dutch guilders apiece, also in 1,000-lot quantities. — John Gosch Philips Elcoma, P.O. Box 523, 5600 AM Eindhoven, The Netherlands. Phone 31-40-722091 [Circle 500] SPECTRUM ANALYZER STORES 128 KBYTES The MS2601A spectrum analyzer handles signals ranging from 10 KHz to 2.2 GHz and is the first in Anritsu Corp.’s product line to offer plug-in memory cards that provide up to 128 Kbytes memory for storing measurement parameters and traced data. Microprocessor control ensures measuring accuracy to 1 dB in a dynamic range of 75 dB. The MS2601A also offers ease-of-use features such as zone markers—to locate signal peaks—screen scroll, and a frequency counter. Applications include frequency and impedance measurements, electromagnetic interference analysis, and network analysis. The MS2601A is available now. Price depends on importing country. Anritsu Corp., 5-10-27, Minami Azabu, Minato-ku, Tokyo, Japan 102, Japan. Phone 81-3-446-1111 [Circle 701] SWITCHES SHRUG OFF SOLDER CLEANING The TR series of sealed subminiature switches from MORS Composants can be soldered and cleaned on printed-circuit boards without danger of malfunction due to contamination. Their small size—9.1-by-8.1-by-7.1 mm—means they take up minimal space on a pc board. They feature a rocker actuator and come with gold- or silver-plated contacts. The two-position versions have a projected operating life of 60,000 operations and the three-position versions have a projected life of 30,000 operations. Available now in a variety of colors, export pricing for the TR series of miniswitches range from $1.25 to $2.50 each in volume purchases. MORS Composants, BP No. 1, 82300 Gausseade, France. Phone 33-63-93-14-98 [Circle 702] RAM CARD ALLOWS MEMORY-MAPPED I/O The 512K8 dynamic random-access memory module from PEP Modular Computers GmbH implements memory-mapped input/output and has hidden refresh for the intelligent I/O channel. Its capacity extends from 64 Kbytes up to 512 Kbytes, with one-bit parity generation and check. The module has 20 address lines for operation in the extended 1-Mbyte address range but may also be used in the basic 64-Kbyte address range. Within the address range, up to 16 blocks can be selected, allowing memory mapped I/O in the module’s range. The 512K8 may be used in synchronous or asynchronous bus systems. The asynchronous access improves data throughput and optimizes system speed. For synchronous operation, a bus frequency up to 2 MHz is available. The module has an access time of 250 ns. For every written byte, one parity bit is generated and stored. This parity is compared with the parity of the data byte during the read operation. A bus error signal is generated if the parity does not match. This allows detection of one-bit errors. The 512K8 module is available from stock for a price of 950 DM. PEP Modular Computers GmbH, AM Klosterwald 4, D-8950 Kaufbeuren, West Germany. Phone 49-8341-81001 [Circle 704] BACKPLANES INCLUDE TERMINATION CIRCUITS British Telecom’s 4610 series of backplanes for the emerging STEbus industrial standard saves users £30 usually spent on separate termination modules by integrating all bus-termination circuitry into the board. On-board termination circuitry is located between the connectors to minimize system size. The board’s multilayer construction implements separate 5-V supply and ground planes, giving the boards high immunity to noise and crosstalk. The backplanes are supplied populated with female DIN41612 connectors on a standard 0.8-in. pitch and cost £65 and £105 respectively for 5- and 10-slot versions. They are available now. British Telecom, Microprocessors Systems Group, Martlesham Heath, Ipswich IP5 7RE, UK. Phone 44-473-643-101 [Circle 703] DAC BOASTS FAST SETTLING TIME Ferranti Electronics Ltd.’s ZN599 8-bit digital-to-analog converter has a typical output voltage settling time of 1.25 μs and a gain temperature coefficient of 2 parts per million per centigrade degree. Designed to provide complementary conversion functionality for the company’s ZN449 analog-to-digital converter in microprocessor-based systems, its maximum linearity error is plus or minus the least significant bit and monotonicity is guaranteed over the commercial operating temperature range. Available now, the DAC comes in 16-pin plastic or ceramic dual in-line packages and in the SO-16 package for surface mounting. The device costs £1.81 each in 100-unit quantities. Export price is $2.98 U.S. Ferranti Electronics Ltd., Fields New Road, Chadderton, Oldham, Lancashire OL9 8NP, UK. Phone 44-61-624-0515 [Circle 706] PHILIPS HYBRIDS CUT NOISE 25% The OM2000 wideband hybrid integrated circuit amplifiers from Philips offer noise figures about 25% less than existing equivalents in the Philips product line. The 12-V hybrid amplifiers, for room antenna, mast antenna, and community antenna TV systems, are aimed at wideband amplification in the range from 40 to 860 MHz. Type numbers in the range are the OM2045, OM2050, OM2060, OM2061, and OM2070. The OM2045 has a gain of 12 dB with a noise figure of just 3.6 dB. The OM 2070 occupies the other end of the range and offers a 28 dB gain and a noise figure of 4.8 dB. Compact in design, the devices measure from 14-by-8 mm for the OM2045 to 27-by-22 mm for the OM2070. The hybrid amplifiers are implemented in thin-film technology. They have a source and load impedance of 75 Ω and an operating ambient temperature range from −20°C to +70°C. Small quantities are available from stock. In 100-piece lots, the devices cost from 7 to 10 Dutch guilders apiece, although actual prices depend on type, order quantity, and importing country. Philips Elcoma Div., P.O. Box 523, 5600 AM Eindhoven, The Netherlands. Phone 31-40-757005 [Circle 707] CAD DRAWINGS CAN BE SHOWN ON BIG SCREENS Electrohome Ltd.’s ECP 3000 video projection system uses three-lens technology to deliver resolutions suitable for projecting computer-aided design drawings on 5-ft. to 25-ft diagonal screens. The unit accepts inputs directly from video and high-resolution graphics terminals and has a memory capacity sufficient to store setups for 28 input parameters such as brightness, contrast, and convergence. It automatically locks into horizontal scan rates of 15 to 50 KHz and offers 650 lumens peak light output. Horizontal retrace time is less than 4μs and vertical retrace is less than 300 μs. Available now, the ECP 3000 costs $14,995 U.S. Electrohome Ltd., 809 Wellington St. N., Kitchener, Ontario, Canada N2G 4J6. Phone (519) 744-7111 [Circle 705] POWER UNIT OFFERS SIX VOLTAGE OUTPUTS The LNG series power supplies from Heinzinger GmbH feature reasonable price and six voltage outputs. The LNG 100-1, for example, costs less than 850 DM and provides 16-, 32-, 50-, 100-, 175-, and 350-V outputs. The power ranges are 100, 200, and 500 W. Intended for laboratory use, the supplies have a three-digit voltage and current display, a 10-gang potentiometer for voltage and current, and analog programming inputs and monitor outputs. They are designed for continuous operation and are short-circuit-proof. The LNG 100-1 can be delivered in 14 to 16 weeks. It sells for 832 DM. Heinzinger GmbH, P.O. Box 1076, D-8200 Rosenheim, West Germany. Phone 49-8031-44040 [Circle 709] COMPUTER REPLACES FOUR VMEBUS BOARDS The CC-97 single-board computer from Comcontrol BV integrates the functionality of four separate boards in 16-bit VMEbus systems. It includes the processor; a Small Computer Systems Interface; 2 Mbytes dual-ported dynamic random-access memory; and 384 Kbytes of static RAM and erasable programmable read-only memory. It can be used as a serial communication controller in SCSI applications or as a central-processing-unit board in multiprocessor systems. It is particularly well suited for multiprocessing because it generates and accepts seven layers of interrupt, can issue requests over the bus using any of four priority levels, and implements a mail-box function for message passing. Key chips on the board include a 16-MHz Motorola Corp. 68000 microprocessor and a Western Digital Corp. WD33C93 SCSI controller. The board is available now. Export price is $3,685 U.S. Price in the Netherlands is 7,250 Dutch guilders. Comcontrol BV, Stratumseidijk 31, P.O. Box 193, 5600 AD, Eindhoven, The Netherlands. Phone 31-40-1249-55 [Circle 708] MINI TRANSFORMERS RANGE FROM 0.8–30 VA Miniature transformers in the OB (for on-board) series from Avel-Lindberg Ltd. offer a load-specification range of 0.8 to 30 VA and conform to eight international standards. The 0.8 VA version stands only 10.5 mm high. Low profiles allow the 0.8-VA transformers to be mounted where there is just 0.5-in. board spacing. The 2-VA version accommodates board spacings as little as 0.75-in. spacing, and the 4-, 6-, 10-, and 14-VA versions accommodate 1-in. spacing. The 18-, 24-, and 30 VA versions can be mounted on boards with 1.5-in. spacing. Dual primary windings can be connected in parallel with 120-V ac and in series with 240-V ac power supplies. Nominal operating frequencies are 50 or 60 Hz. Available now, pricing on the OB series depends on importing country. Avel-Lindberg Ltd., South Ockendon, Essex RM15 5TD, UK Phone 44-708-853-444 [Circle 710] DIGITAL SERVO SPEEDS PRINTER The dot-matrix printer LPD12 from Linseis GmbH uses a digital servo system instead of the print-head servomotor and potentiometer of conventional printers to achieve a response of 0.25 s for 250 mm—twice as fast as units with print-head servomotors and quieter in operation, too. Wear on the servo system is reduced by the use of an optical encoder. Each of the 24 or 36 channels is programmed by a menu-driven liquid crystal display of two lines—with sixteen digits/line—and a keyboard with 33 pushbuttons. Commonly used functions can be selected by push button. Delivery time for the LPD12 is five months. It sells for 6,950 DM. Linseis GmbH, P.O. Box 1404, D-8672 Selb, West Germany. Phone 49-9287-79022 [Circle 711] BATTERY-BACKED RAM LASTS UP TO 11 YEARS The MK48T01/12 static random-access memory from Thomson Semiconducteurs integrates a 1-K-by-8-bit memory, a real-time clock, a crystal, and a lithium-carbon monofluoride battery in a single 24-pin dual in-line package that boasts up to an 11-year lifetime. Access time for read/write cycles is 120 ns. Predicted worst-case battery life at 55°C is 45 years; or, 11 years at 70°C. The device is compatible with the 24-pin Jedec standard for SRAMs and will fit most erasable programmable read-only memory and electrically erasable PROM sockets. It is available now. Price depends on importing country. Thomson Semiconducteurs, 45 Avenue de l’Europe, 78140 Vélizy-Villacoublay, France. Phone 33-1-39-46-97-19 [Circle 712] TEXAS INSTRUMENTS REPORTS ON DSP IN THE ERA OF MegaChip TECHNOLOGIES DSP in the Era of MegaChip Technologies: Digital signal processors are turning up winners TI’s TMS320 DSPs add high performance at costs low enough to open new worlds of applications — from a high-performance Formula 1 car suspension to an intelligent doll and everything in between. The results are in. You can add more performance at lower cost designing with the standard in digital signal processors (DSPs), TI’s TMS320 family. There are now even more reasons than ever to get the advantages of TI DSP performance in applications wherever realtime number crunching is essential. from Texas Instruments in all sorts of places. and support. But once you see what the TMS320 family can do, you'll want the features TI DSP can give your designs. "Handling performance is up there next to speed in Formula 1 racing. TI's TMS320 gives us a real advantage — enough to win a Grand Prix." Peter G. Wright, Technical Director, Lotus Engineering Lotus designed the active suspension in their Camel-Lotus-Honda Formula 1 car to approach the theoretical maximum-control point which gives the best balance between handling and performance. At racing speeds, each wheel is positioned by the TMS320-controlled hydraulics. A single TMS320 chip measures wheel forces and displacements and reads data from a body-mounted inertial platform. Then, in real time, the chip computes wheel position and controls actuators that adjust the suspension components to precise settings. The TMS320 can also handle closed-loop engine control and more responsive braking systems, as well as many other automotive applications. "The TMS320 helps us with one of our toughest tasks — designing toys with exciting features at prices that will sell." Dave Small, VP Engineering, Worlds of Wonder, Inc. Worlds of Wonder is a pioneer in developing interactive toys and now has an innovative new doll named Julie™. Using a single TMS320 chip, Julie's designers are able to give her voice-recognition ability, coupled with synthesized speech and coordinated facial movement. The TMS320 design expands the applications for affordable consumer products like solid-state answering machines, cellular phones, improved hearing aids, and animated electronic games. TI's MegaChip Technologies Our emphasis on volume manufacturing of high-density CMOS circuits is the catalyst for ongoing advances in how we design, process, and manufacture semiconductors and in how we serve our customers. These are our MegaChip™ Technologies. They are the means by which we can help you and your company get to market faster with better, more competitive products. Winning designs come from a family of winners There are 15 compatible members in the TMS320 family (see the road map below), featuring two new DSPs with on-chip EPROM, the TMS320E15 and the TMS320E17. For applications requiring off-chip memory, there is the new CMOS EPROM, the TMS27C292, with 35-ns speed. New interface alternatives include the low-cost CMOS TCM29C18/19 Combo Codecs with A/D, D/A, and filters all on a single chip. The high-performance TLC32040 Analog Interface Circuit has 14-bit A/D and D/A and programmable filters. For higher performance in digital signal processing, you can use building-block products like TI's microcodable ACT88XX 32-bit processor family. From $5 to 33 MFlops: With three generations covering 15 products, the TMS320 family offers software compatibility to protect your development investment and provide a smooth path to future applications. For more information on support for the TMS320 family, please turn the page. From hands-on training to a "C" compiler, TI has the tools you need to get your designs to market fast. Whether you're moving into DSP or moving up in DSP, Texas Instruments can help you move your design into production faster. Hands-on DSP Workshops using the TMS320 development tools cover all you need to know from architecture to software. Courses are scheduled at TI Regional Technology Centers. Get Started in DSP with the TMS320 Design Kit, which contains data sheets, chip samples, and applications notes to make starting easy. Count on EPROM DSPs for realtime code development, form-factor emulation, and early production runs, with the option for last-minute changes. More than 80 Third-party Hardware Suppliers and Consultants are featured in our TMS320 Family Development Support Reference Guide and in our DSP newsletter Details on Signal Processing. TMS320 Bulletin Board is an on-line service that provides you with the latest technical and application information. The TMS320 Technical Hotline is staffed by applications experts and is ready to take your call. How to get a fast start For more information on TI's TMS320 DSP family, call 1-800-232-3200, ext. 3508. Or use the coupon below. Texas Instruments Incorporated P.O. Box 809066 Dallas, Texas 75380-9066 YES, please send me information on the following TI Digital Signal Processing products and support services: ☐ PR01: TMS320 DSP Products ☐ PR02: Analog Interface Devices ☐ PR03: ACT88XX 32-bit Processor ☐ PR04: TI Regional Technology Center Workshops NAME TITLE COMPANY ADDRESS CITY STATE ZIP AREA CODE TELEPHONE EXT. © 1987 TI 27-4511 CMOS LOGIC DIFFERENCE: It is available now. Samsung's 54/74 AHCT advanced CMOS logic family is available in production quantities now. And you can get samples, free. This means you can design our logic into your product, now. And move into production, now. No waiting. Design in the Performance You Need Our 54/74 AHCT advanced high-speed CMOS logic family gives you speeds and drives equivalent to, or better than, ALS, and can be used as direct plug-in replacements for ALS and FAST™. In fact, 24mA drive is guaranteed for bus drivers. 54/74 AHCT achieves advanced bipolar performance with wider supply and temperature ranges. In addition, it offers the superior noise immunity, rail-to-rail output voltage swings and the low input currents of CMOS. Pin For Pin Replacement Samsung's AHCT CMOS logic family, with 157 part types, has the most comprehensive selection of standard logic functions, so you can replace your ALS or FAST with our much lower-power CMOS part, right away. And our 54/74 AHCT does not have a premium price tag. In fact, it costs the same as ALS. Which means you'll actually save money in your system cost because of lower power requirements and improved reliability. So call Samsung today. Or send us the convenient coupon below. We'll send you free samples, our data book and reliability report. You'll find out 54/74 AHCT is real. Samsung says so. SAMSUNG Semiconductor CMOS Logic Marketing 3725 N. First Street, San Jose, CA 95134-1708 (408) 434-5400 54/74 AHCT is real. SAMSUNG SAYS SO. My 54/74 AHCT application is: ☐ Yes, send me two each of the up to three 54/74 AHCT product part types I have listed here. ☐ Send me your high-performance CMOS logic data book. ☐ Send me your 54/74 AHCT reliability report. ☐ Have a salesperson call me. Send coupon to: Samsung Semiconductor, CMOS Logic Marketing, 3725 N. First Street, San Jose, CA 95134-1708. State of Mind. ALTERA EPS448 POSSIBLE PARTS LIST SSI - FAST TTL (8) PROMS - 27S29 (5) PIPE - 74F394 (4) MUX - 74F-153 (2) SEQUENCER - 2910 (1) For years Toshiba has been the power in MOS ICs. Leaders in static RAMs, 1MB DRAMs, ROMs, and gate arrays. The world's largest producer of CMOS! A volume producer of logic, MPU, and custom products. So now who has the experience, the technology and the production capacity to lead the way? The people with the power, the #1 CMOS manufacturer in the world. Toshiba. TOSHIBA IS MEMORY POWER 1MB Dynamic RAMs We're the world leader in volume production of 1MB DRAMs! First to market to support your needs! If you are thinking powerful memory, talk with us. Static RAMs in NMOS and CMOS We make a really fast 2K x 8 static RAM – 25 ns. And we were first to introduce the 8K x 8 CMOS static RAM. Today we lead the industry in byte wide memory products with the 32K x 8 (256K) CMOS static RAM available in volume. ROMs in NMOS and CMOS In CMOS mask ROMs, we are producing 1MB, 2MB and 4MB devices in volume. EPROMs in NMOS and CMOS Toshiba was first in the world to introduce the 256K CMOS EPROM. And we can meet all your needs today with the high density 512K and 1MB EPROM, that can accommodate an entire utility program. OTPs Toshiba has the broadest line of OTPs in the industry – 64K, 128K, 256K and 512K in DIP or Surface Mount Packaging. Available in volume! TOSHIBA IS MPU POWER Toshiba is a world leader in shipments of 8-Bit Single Chip Microcontrollers and 8-Bit Microprocessors. We also offer Peripherals, Speech Products and the powerful new Application Specific Standard Products (ASSPs) – Microprocessors and Peripherals integrated into a single Monolithic Silicon Die. In fact, Toshiba has one of the world's most comprehensive lines of CMOS MPUs. TOSHIBA IS LOGIC POWER Toshiba has been making CMOS logic for over 15 years. Toshiba introduced the first high-speed CMOS logic series, and today we are #2 worldwide in CMOS logic production. Our new 74AC series has typical prop delay times of 3ns and maximum clock frequencies of 150 megahertz. That's 33% faster than the original 74HC series. Toshiba CMOS logic meets applicable JEDEC specs. TOSHIBA IS ASIC POWER Toshiba has ample design capability at its design centers, so with our experience, LDS™ software applications staff, you can develop your own advanced 50,000 gate, 0.7ns gate arrays and standard cells. Plus new 1.5µ hard megacell custom chips, which we have been producing for four years now. More importantly, we have the volume production capability to meet your needs. Toshiba. The power in design, development and production. In memories, MPUs, logic, custom and semicustom. If you're working in MOS, meet the people with the power. LDS is a trademark of LSI Logic Corporation. The position of Unix as a world standard appears all but assured now. It has won the engineering and technical work-station market and looks like a strong candidate to capture a significant portion of high-performance personal computing. The promise of standards is the user's independence from a specific vendor's products—the customer's ability to pick and choose from a variety of applications software and hardware type, size, and cost. A flurry of standards activities, some of it outside the realm of operating systems, is contributing to the health of Unix. The strongest sphere of support is from the major Western European computer makers (see p. 70), who have embraced it for all but their biggest mainframe systems. The only laggard is Japan, but Unix is making progress there, too (see p. 72). Unix has clinched the technical work-station market with a whopping 83% share (see table, p. 68), and now it's spreading elsewhere. Growth in the Unix-system markets is expected to outstrip that of other computer environments during the next few years (see chart, below). But this kind of growth will not occur without more help from the standards bodies. AT&T Co. has a certification process for compliance to its System V standard, but the industry wants control of the standard to rest outside any single company. Now the IEEE has come up with a fledgling draft standard for a programming interface, called Posix. One of the most exciting developments is the likely emergence of a single Unix version for the Intel 80386 processor. This Unix is expected to give the OS/2 operating system being developed by IBM Corp. and Microsoft Corp. for IBM's PS/2 personal computers a run for its market. Unix is having a twofold impact on the computer industry: it plays a leading role as a standard operating system for software portability and it acts as a catalyst for the push for open-systems standards worldwide. Unix is a rallying point around which other standards, such as network file systems, windowing user interfaces, and networking computing are being created. Emerging standards such as the X Windows networked windowing system, Sun's Network File System, AT&T's remote file system, the X/Open standards, and the IEEE's 1003.1 Posix standard, and many of the Open Systems Interconnection communications standards as well, are outgrowths of the striving for open systems that began with Unix. These standards at least... to Interactive Systems Corp. of Santa Monica, Calif., which produced a Unix port called 386/IX. It is System-V.3-compatible, and can run MS-DOS applications. Now Interactive Systems has a signed contract with Microsoft Corp., Redmond, Wash., to produce what it calls a "merge"—that is, a version of Unix that will run programs written for Microsoft's Xenix (both the 286 and the 386 versions) plus programs written for 386/IX, plus MS-DOS programs. The likely result will be a single, standard, SVID-certified Unix for all 386-based computers, with binary-code compatibility. In other words, programs written for one 386-based system will run on other vendors' 386-based systems without a porting effort and without recompiling. If this happens, it will constitute a small miracle—for the Unix world, anyway—and a major coup for Intel, which has been promoting such unification. Interactive Systems expects to have the merged version ready in the first quarter of 1988, in time to compete with OS/2, says Heinz Lycklama, senior vice president of technology at the company and a member of the Posix committee. Although the merged 386 Unix will be based on System V, "we have added some Berkeley features to it," Lycklama says. Other Unix ports are available for 386 machines, but vendors of 386-based systems are very likely to migrate to the merged version, says HCR's Tilson. That means the 386-system community should have a unified approach to Unix inside of about one year, he believes. As a result, "the 386 stands to be the highest-volume Unix platform of them all," he says. Tilson contrasts the 386 Unix situation with that surrounding Motorola Inc.'s 68020 microprocessor. There are many versions of Unix for the 68020; no one has made an effort to pull them together to make a standard. "There's a lot of variety, and no binary compatibility," he says, "which is kind of silly, since they're all running on the same processor." OS/2, the much-ballyhooed multitasking operating system for 386-based machines, may lose a big piece of market share to Unix. OS/2 is late, and the merged 386 Unix will be on the market as OS/2 arrives toward the middle of 1988. There are already many applications that run under Unix, and applications for OS/2 may be some time coming. Both will run MS-DOS programs, but only Unix offers users the multiuser option. "You could have 10 MS-DOS applications running at once, as well as Unix applications. Something like that has the potential of short-circuiting OS/2," says Tom Greene, research-and-development manager at Apollo Computer Inc., Chelmsford, Mass. OS/2 suffered another blow recently when IBM itself announced plans to offer Unix for its 386-based PS/2 Model 80, to bring it in line with software standards for the technical work station market. Some feel, however, that OS/2 and Unix could settle into different segments of the market. "Unix is the best solution for multiuser systems," says an executive at Milan-based Olivetti. "There's no competition between MS-DOS and OS/2 on the one hand and Unix on the other because MS-DOS, and probably OS/2, will be standard for single-user PCs and Unix for servers, minicomputer engines, and high-end work stations." A standard for Unix that applies across many architectures, however, will take more time. "Unix has the potential of becoming a good standard," says Barbara Shelhoss, Apollo Computer's senior product manager for Unix. "The incompatibilities will eventually be worked out. The work the IEEE is doing on developing a vendor-independent standard is very important." Ultimately, if the industry cannot present the user community with a standard Unix, the users themselves will choose a standard. And a user-driven trend is emerging, a trend that can be seen in the actions of the Air Force. It recently issued a request for proposals for a huge contract: some 22,000 Unix-based departmental systems worth about $3 billion. The Air Force specified that the systems should be SVID-certified, with the provision that the vendor migrate to Posix compatibility when that standard matures sufficiently. Other major users, such as General Motors Corp., have set up similar requirements. All want a standard controlled by an industry body instead of one company, but they also see that Posix is not quite ready yet. Additional reporting by Paul Angiolillo, Lawrence Curran, John Gosch, and Jonah McLeod Europe is wholeheartedly embracing Unix. Moving at a far faster pace than their American counterparts, European computer makers are pushing to establish the operating system that AT&T Bell Laboratories developed 17 years ago as the key component in their drive toward open-system computing. Almost all the major European computer makers are fielding Unix-based systems, a fact reflected by the surging Unix market. The growth tends to be uneven, since some obstacles still remain to widespread use of Unix in mainframes, personal computers, and real-time systems, among others. Nevertheless, the growth of Unix seems sure to continue (see chart, below), because establishing it as a standard is in the best interests of virtually the entire data-processing community—users, hardware vendors, and software vendors. Users like Unix as a standard because it promotes portability in software. That means they aren't tied to any particular vendor—they can buy the best hardware for their particular purposes. Software vendors' interests converge neatly with those of users. They can write one version of an application and sell it to anyone with a Unix-based system, instead of adapting each application to a host of different proprietary operating systems. For hardware vendors, a Unix standard promotes connectivity—it makes it much easier for them to link different machines. What is more important, though, is that promoting software portability and connectivity—in effect, establishing that all hardware is created equal—makes a Unix standard a potent weapon against dominance by IBM Corp. It was largely to combat IBM that European, and some American, hardware vendors originally established the X/Open Group [Electronics, July 10, 1986, p. 121], which has since become the X/Open Co. This organization has been working to establish a standard version of Unix, along with several related standards—notably one for a programming interface that is based on the IEEE standard, Posix. X/Open's efforts have, of course, also served to promote more widespread use of Unix. Combined with the various other factors that are pushing Unix, the results have been phenomenal. "The Unix market virtually exploded last year," says Friedrich Dischinger, a market researcher in the Data Systems Division of Siemens AG in Munich. Analysts at market research firms such as Inteco in London and International Data Corp. in Paris put the number of Unix systems delivered in Western Europe in 1986 at around 50,000—an increase of some 120% over the previous year. Support for Unix has been greatest in two areas: small- and medium-size multiuser systems with from 4 to 16 terminals, and single-user work stations for engineering applications, including computer-aided design, says Klaus Gewald, executive director in the Data Systems Division of Siemens. In work stations alone, Unix shipments grew by 150%, according to Siemens's market researchers. Virtually all the computer companies in Western Europe are committed to Unix. Siemens, for example, by mid-1987 had delivered more than 16,000 of its MX Series Sinix machines in Europe since the end of 1982, the year it began to offer Sinix, which is the West German company's version of Unix. That number makes the company Europe's leader in the Unix world. Nixdorf Computer AG is also shaping up as a strong Unix contender. With its Unix-based Targon family of supermicros, superminis, and multicomputer and fault-tolerant systems, the West German company is demonstrating that Unix can be extended into bigger systems. Nixdorf has installed 250 of its Targon models during the past two years, which is just the beginning. "By the end of this year we expect to have 1,000 of them in place," says Hermann Johannes, product marketing manager for the Targon family. Philips in the Netherlands is on the Unix scene, too. The company has installed about 500 of its Unix-based P9000 family of minicomputers, which are servers or departmental processors. "We expect to do around $700 million worth of business with the P9000 per year by 1990," says Gerd Bindels, senior managing director of Philips's Telecommunications and Data Systems Division. SOME OBSTACLES REMAIN However, Unix has not gained ground everywhere. Relatively few mainframes run Unix because "mainframe operating systems offer much more than Unix can," says John Totman, Unix product manager for ICL plc in Bracknell, UK. In addition, Siemens's Gewald notes that "AT&T originally devised Unix with minicomputers in mind. It would require big investments to adapt it to large mainframes." At the other end of the spectrum, Unix has not yet entered the established single-user personal-computer environment, largely because it was developed mainly for multiuser systems. In that market, the MS-DOS operating system predominates. Similarly, the multiuser orientation makes Unix unsuitable for real-time systems. For example, Force Computers GmbH in Ottobrunn, West Germany, which sells board-level computers primarily for real-time applications, supplies Unix only for software development for its target systems. Other factors are also inhibiting Unix's growth. Gewald points out that when older operating systems do well on the market, companies are reluctant to push Unix. Also, defining a formal standard is in the hands of several different standards organizations, says Vesa Kousa, a product manager in the Information System Division of Finland's Nokia Group. "These organizations are working so slowly that development is passing them by," he says. None of these obstacles is insurmountable. Unix is likely to spread further, faster. For one thing, "users are making it known that Unix would suit them best as a standard," says Totman at ICL. Gewald, at Siemens, agrees. The reason is that Unix "gives them the freedom to switch to different suppliers and different hardware." It facilitates the portability of applications software, so users can employ programs written by a variety of software producers, including third-party software. These advantages, Gewald says, are the primary reasons for Unix's success so far. For a software company, a standard like Unix reduces the cost of research, development, marketing, and support. And as Heinz Diehl, a technical manager at Nixdorf, points out: "It also provides such companies with greater access to new marketing channels and hardware markets." For a hardware company, says Totman at ICL, a standard such as Unix is required to tie midrange computers to personal work stations and mainframes. And such connectivity is vital: "In the future, markets will be dominated by the need for departmental computing, which will in turn demand applications portability at the source-code level as well as transparent networking among minis, from minis to personal terminals and desktops, and to mainframes—from MS-DOS through to top-range mainframes," he says. "ICL sees the adoption of a standard operating-system interface as an integral part of the Open Systems Interconnection concept, where each node in a network should be able to support a standard application, irrespective of the architecture of the hardware in use," Totman says. "This would create a free and open market for applications and lead to a fully integrated market for hardware and software." He adds that Unix is not necessarily the best system technically to create this open environment—but it is available, it does the job, and its use is already widespread. An alternate source for ASICs? It's a piece of cake. You designed an ASIC with one vendor's library and system. Now you need an alternate vendor. What do you do? Introducing Netrans™ universal netlist translator. Call Gould. Our new Netrans™ service frees you from being locked-in to any single vendor for ASIC solutions. Just bring us your netlist. No matter whose cell library you used. No matter if you need a gate array or standard cell IC. We'll use Netrans™, the latest addition to our growing roster of expert-based design aids, and convert your netlist to Gould format. Then your circuit can be produced under our rigorous SPC-assured quality conditions. For details, call 1-800-GOULD-10. Or write: ASIC Solutions, Gould Inc., Semiconductor Division, 3800 Homestead Road, Santa Clara, CA 95051. Because Netrans™ is reason to celebrate. Manufacturer of Gould AMI semiconductors. Siemens Components invites you to THE ISDN Seminars ISDN SOLUTIONS TO THE DESIGN CHALLENGE The age of the Integrated Services Digital Network is here. And Siemens, a world leader in VLSI component technologies for advanced ISDN applications, cordially invites you to attend one of our two-day seminars on the latest ISDN advances. Each seminar will feature different speakers, and cover a range of topics including: - Field Trials - VLSI solutions for ISDN—basic and primary rate access - Future ISDN ICs - Design specific presentations - Applications presentation and demonstrations on new ISDN evaluation boards - Software-Level 1 front end drivers, Level 2 LAPD, and Level 3 Call Control (both generic and switch specific) - ISDN testers Siemens Seminars... Where and When for ISDN Boston, MA - October 26 & 27 Los Angeles, CA - November 3 & 4 Chicago, IL - November 10 & 11 For additional information on the seminar of your choice and for hotel details call the number below. Registration Fee of $125 per person also includes comprehensive literature packet (copies of presentation, technical product information, and more): continental breakfasts, luncheons, and dinner with keynote speaker. Seating is limited, so don’t delay! Register today for the Siemens ISDN seminar nearest you: CALL 1-800-227-1817 Ext.96 Electronics/October 15, 1987 CHIPS & TECHNOLOGIES PLUGS INTO IBM'S MICRO CHANNEL When IBM announced its PS/2 series of personal computers earlier this year, PC-clone makers as well as their chip suppliers were quick to say they didn't expect to encounter any significant problems in coming up with their own versions of the PS families or the chips that made that possible. But they made that claim before they took a good look at the Micro Channel, IBM's new expansion bus for PS/2 models 50, 60, and 80. On the face of it, Micro Channel seems to be totally incompatible with the IBM PC and PC/AT buses. That didn't daunt Chips & Technologies Inc., the young upstart supplier of about 80% of the chips that have allowed clone manufacturers to take away big shares of the PC markets from IBM Corp. Now the San Jose, Calif., company is going to try to repeat history with the PS/2. This month, Chips & Technologies (see p. 77) will introduce the first in a family of Micro Channel adapter circuits that it calls the MicroChips family. To begin with, Chips & Technologies will offer these first three chips to equipment makers supplying adapter and accelerator boards and cards. But early next year, the company will use these chips along with additional members of the MicroChips family to build versions of the PS/2 models 50, 60, and 80 motherboards that it will sell to clone makers. The MicroChips family initially will include generic and function-specific chips that will interface with the PS/2's asynchronous bus. With these chips, adapter- and accelerator-board manufacturers will be able to supply products that add features and capabilities not incorporated in the IBM computers, ranging all the way from additional memory and input/output channels to accelerator boards that boost performance. Each of these requires a different level of Micro Channel support. Initially there will be three standard versions of MicroChips: the 82C611 (see fig. 1), the 82C612, and the 82C613, all fabricated in 1.5-μm double-metal CMOS. The 82C611 is aimed at the memory, I/O, and multifunction adapter-card markets, says Raj Jaswa, senior product marketing engineer at Chips & Technologies. It is designed to support up to four I/O relocations and one memory relocation. Aimed at use on peripheral-control adapter cards for the PS/2, the 82C612 can support two I/O relocations and one memory relocation. Both parts will be available in sample quantities in late October and in production quantities in November. Available in the first quarter of 1988, the 82C613 is aimed at coprocessor and high-performance adapters. It will support up to two I/O relocations and one memory relocation. Along with the standard versions, there will be application-specific MicroChips customized for very high-volume applications. For example, scheduled for introduction later in the year is the 82C574, a custom MicroChip that complements Chips & Technologies' new 82C570 single-chip implementation of IBM's 3270 terminal protocol. On the face of it, the Micro Channel architecture represents a radical departure from the basic PC and PC/AT. The most significant departure is the fact that bus transfers on the Micro Channel are asynchronous, versus the synchronous scheme used in the PC, XT, and AT designs. "For us, this is less of a problem than most other chip manufacturers targeting the PC market, since very early in Our advanced plastics support helps you eliminate "almost," "not quite," and "close enough." High performance thermoplastics from Dow increase the precision of molded parts for media storage systems and help eliminate tolerance compromises—so your products are in the right shape for today's automated production and assembly operations. Our MAGNUM® ABS, CALIBRE® polycarbonate and STYRON® polystyrene resins prove the point. With options for high heat distortion temperatures, UV and dimensional stability, transparency, plus overall toughness, these products offer a continuum of performance for the design of close-tolerance injection molded parts. Integrating our science with your challenges in electronics doesn't end with plastics. We also have advanced polymers, packaging materials and process chemistry; commercialized, tested, and in use today. We'd like the opportunity to support you. For information about our engineering thermoplastics, or our other advanced products for electronics, call or write: The Dow Chemical Company, Dept. CEP, P.O. Box 1206, Midland, MI 48641-9940. 1-800-258-2436, Extension: CEP. Advancing The Science of Electronics Trademark of The Dow Chemical Company On almost every technology front, the driving force behind new developments is the ever-rising demand for information. Huge amounts of data and information, larger than anyone ever dreamed of a generation ago, have to move faster and faster through processors and networks, then end up having to be stored. To accomplish this titanic task, semiconductor technology is moving ever faster toward speedier, more powerful processors and denser, more complex logic chips to manipulate this information. Memories must keep expanding in capacity to store this information, as well as to reduce the time that it takes to access it. Architectures are getting restructured to speed the execution of instructions to process it. And networks are quickly expanding and getting smarter so users everywhere can share this information. The engineers and designers behind this revolution need information, too—and they are profiting from the advances in information technology. They sit at powerful work stations with high-resolution graphics, quickly designing and laying out complex chips and multilayer printed-circuit boards. They can mix or match vast libraries of proven functional block designs. Sophisticated computer-aided-design tools offer advice and guidance, so users can simulate designs in real time before they're implemented, then move them into production faster because prototypes usually work the first time. High-performance instruments acquire and manipulate test data, while monitoring production for any signs of trouble. Meanwhile, at the factory information links the production line, the front office, and the customer. For now, it's hard to see any slowdown coming in the demand for more information; it's also hard to foresee a slowdown in the rate of technology change. Corp., the Littleton, Mass., manufacturer of minisupercomputers for the server tier. "As a consequence, the instruction set of a processor will fade as an issue," says Thinking Machines' Hillis. "Today, the first thing people ask about a processor is [what is] the instruction set; it will become the last thing they ask." One example of network computing is Apollo's Open Dialogue network-management and user-interface software, which allows user interfaces to be developed and adapted to personal-computer and workstation platforms from major vendors. "Work stations from those vendors now encompass the Unix, VMS, and MS/DOS operating systems," Apollo's Nelson says. "Open Dialogue allows a user to construct an application that runs across all of them at once and on only one of them at another time. So we're evolving a concept of an application that is a dynamic animal that can be spread across different machines and operating systems." Alliant's Mundie points out that seamless integration is coming between personal computers and the server-level machines. For example, Sun and Apollo work stations and PCs now plug into an Ethernet, and the files of all of them can reside on an Alliant system that is driving a graphics output in a PC window. "We've never had that tight a coupling before," he says. Mundie says that a good prototype for the interconnected three-tiered system exists at the National Center for Supercomputer Applications at the University of Illinois at Champaign-Urbana. That installation, called the advanced-visualization facility, links various work stations at the lowest level with an Alliant FX/8 server system, several graphics and image coprocessors and film recorders in the middle, and a Cray X-MP/48 supercomputer at the top tier. "An important area needing improvement is the way graphics data is visualized on the screen," says Stellar's Poduska. This is an area that his company is addressing, although he will not tip his hand as to how. "We need to render surfaces better on the screen so that engineers can see, for example, the edge of a turbine blade and how it might be flawed by high temperatures, so that they can build a better blade. It takes a lot of computing power, input/output capacity, and strong graphics capability to show the engineer what the data means—which is what computing is all about." There will be two main developments in high-performance graphics in the coming year or two, predicts Louis Doctor, president of Raster Technologies Inc. in Westford, Mass. "The fastest systems will get faster, and cheap systems cheaper—but the fast ones won't necessarily get cheaper," he says. "For roughly the same amount of money, there will be dramatic improvements in high-performance 3-d graphics—by at least a power of 10 and probably more like 100 in horsepower... Today's systems are nowhere near fast enough to interact with the complex models needed for today's simulations and analysis." -Tom Manuel Additional reporting by Larry Curran and Paul Angiolillo A BATTLE OVER OPERATING SYSTEMS The world of software technology usually moves slowly, improving functionality here, reliability there, taking one small step at a time along the paths of long-term trends. But next year, at least one set of events is certain to stir up action in the software community. Two operating-system environments are set to arrive that cut loose the minicomputer power of the Intel 80386 microprocessor: OS/2 from Microsoft Corp. and IBM Corp., and a standard version of Unix. A battle for market share is likely to ensue, involving not only OS/2 and Unix, but also their associated windowing systems, the Presentation Manager and X-Windows. On another front, recent trends in computer architecture toward both parallel and reduced-instruction-set computers depend heavily on developments in languages and compiler technology to make good their high-performance promise. Advances in the ability of compilers to optimize the performance of application programs will be seen next year. The 386 microprocessor from Intel Corp., Santa Clara, Calif., holds out big performance promises that are not yet being realized. Current 386-based personal computers are running applications written for the MS-DOS environment, essentially acting as fast 8086 processors. But MS-DOS only allows 640 Kbytes of address space for each program; the 386 is awaiting far more ambitious applications under OS/2 and Unix that can make use of its 4-gigabyte logical address space. OS/2 is late and getting later. Originally slated for delivery at the beginning of 1988, it is now estimated to arrive toward the middle of the year. But Microsoft and IBM can't afford to hold up OS/2 for long, because a standard Unix System V for the 386 is due The ACL Computer Age. The future belongs to computers and peripherals built with RCA Advanced CMOS Logic (ACL). The pressure is on to make your systems smaller, faster, cheaper. Some of your competitors are doing just that by incorporating ACL into their new designs. If you want to stay on the fast track, you can't afford not to consider ACL for your new designs. The computer of the future. Imagine a computer with power dissipation so low you could eliminate all cooling systems. Or design a sealed system to prevent dust problems. And get dramatically improved reliability, thanks to the far lower heat generated. As well as far smaller system size. You'd also be able to use it in a far wider operating temperature range (-55°C to +125°C). Even in high-noise environments. FAST speed, CMOS benefits. Advanced CMOS Logic gives you high speed (less than 3ns propagation delay with our AC00 NAND gate) and 24 mA output drive current. But unlike FAST, it gives you a whole new world of design opportunity for computers, peripherals, telecommunications and other speed-intensive applications. ACL dissipates less than 1/8 Watt while switching, compared to 1/2 Watt for a FAST IC (octal transceiver operating at 5 MHz). And quiescent power savings are even more dramatic: ACL idles at a small fraction of the power of a FAST IC. In addition, ACL offers balanced propagation delay, superior input characteristics, improved output source current, low ground bounce and a wider operating supply voltage range. Latch-up and ESD protection, too. Latch-up concern is virtually eliminated, because ACL uses a thin epitaxial layer which effectively shorts the parasitic PNP transistor responsible for SCR latch-up. And a dual diode input/output circuit provides ESD protection in excess of 2KV. A broad and growing product line. Our line already includes 75 of the most popular types. By year-end, we'll have 126 types (20 SSI, 100 MSI, and 6 LSI) in both AC and ACT (TTL-compatible) versions. All this at FAST prices. Our ACL line is priced comparably to FAST. So you get better performance at no extra cost. Why wait, when your competition is very likely designing its first generation of ACL products right now? Get into the passing lane, with RCA ACL from the CMOS leader: GE Solid State. Free test evaluation kits are available for qualified users. Kits must be requested on your company letterhead. Write: GE Solid State, Box 2900, Somerville, NJ 08876. For more information, call toll-free 800-443-7364, extension 24. Or contact your local GE Solid State sales office or distributor. FAST is a trademark of Fairchild Semiconductor Corp. In Europe, call: Brussels, (2) 246-21-11; Paris, (1) 39-46-57-99; London, 0276-685911; Milano, (2) 82-291; Munich, (89) 63813-0. Advanced CAD tools, developed by AT&T Bell Laboratories, accurately predict "real-life" ASIC performance. Sure, you want on-time delivery. Obviously, you want a competitive price. And with an AT&T ASIC, you're assured of both. But the real bottom line is silicon assurance. Will your chip work right the first time? Under "real-life" operating conditions? So you don't have to go back to square one? Absolutely. Weeding out the flaws. AT&T's advanced CAD system provides design audits and simulation tools that can precisely pinpoint performance problems early in the design stage. And because this system is fully integrated, with a common data base, there is no manual transfer of information. It's also a closed-loop system, so that new design parameters can be double-checked against earlier design work at any stage of the game. How complex do you want it? Complexity is AT&T's stock in trade. Our capabilities go all the way to 25,000 + gates, 1.25 micron double-level metal, and a 1.0 ns gate delay at high system speeds. Another AT&T advantage: Our library includes more than 400 pre-characterized standard cells, along with macro cell compilers for memory blocks and other complex functions. 1,000 ASICs behind us. With more than 1,000 successful chips to our name, we've learned how to help you meet your marketing window—on budget. We're also one of the top ten IC manufacturers—with six plants worldwide—and the world's largest producer of standard-cell ASICs. Come in at any stage. Start your design at the front end, or just come in for the finishing touches. Either way, we have the people, resources, training assistance, and commitment to help you every step of the way. Is AT&T ready, right now, to help you build a foolproof standard-cell solution? The answer, predictably, is yes. For more information, mail the coupon or phone AT&T at 1 800 372-2447. In Europe, call AT&T Microelectronics in Munich at 089/95970. In Canada, call collect at 215 266-2975. © 1987 AT&T AT&T, Dept. LT, 555 Union Blvd., Allentown, PA 18103 In Europe: AT&T Microelectronics GmbH, Freiheitsstrasse 92, 8000 Munich 81, West Germany Please send me complete information on AT&T's standard-cell ASIC capabilities. Name _______________________________________________________ Title _______________________________________________________ Company _____________________________________________________ Address ______________________________________________________ City __________________________ State ______ Zip ________________ Telephone (______) ___________ - ___________ - ___________ AT&T The right choice. pattern-recognition algorithm, the processor is designed to recognize vocabularies that include digits, along with many typical word-processing commands. Other significant efforts include a compiled chip set for specialized graphics computations from General Electric Co.'s Corporate Research and Development Center in Schenectady, N.Y.; a cosine transform processor from MIT's Lincoln Laboratory in Lexington, Mass.; a pipeline-sorting chip from NTT in Tokyo; and a character string-search processor from NEC Corp., also in Tokyo. All are still in the R&D stage. In addition, a variety of specialized processors should start to emerge into the marketplace during the coming year. Among the semiconductor makers currently investigating such offerings are AMD, Intel, LSI Logic, National Semiconductor, Texas Instruments, and VLSI Technology. If algorithm-specific devices are still in the toddler stage, RISC microprocessors are maturing into scrappy adolescence. According to Lyle Pitroff, director of strategic development for processor products at AMD in Santa Clara, Calif., a battle royal over RISC is building up in the 32-bit marketplace that will erupt in earnest during the coming year. The opposing forces will be set in motion by the introduction of RISC architectures from a number of semiconductor houses, including AMD, with its Am29000, Intel Corp., and Motorola Inc. A wild card is the possibility of a second Clipper chip, which may be introduced by the Clipper's new owners, Intergraph Corp., should that company follow the intentions of Clipper's original developers, Fairchild Semiconductor, to keep the chip evolving. With the addition of these new RISC chips, the 32-bit marketplace will begin to segment itself into a low-to-medium performance range and a high-performance range, with the dividing line at about 8 to 10 million instructions per second, says Paul Chu, manager of product planning at AMD. RISC machines will dominate in applications where performance, rather than compatibility with existing software, is key, he says. Below the dividing line, traditional complex-instruction-set computers based on Intel's 386, National's 32000, and Motorola's 68000, will continue to dominate, he predicts. However, says Chu, the CISC machines of tomorrow will in many respects bear more relationship to their RISC competitors than to their earlier CISC predecessors. "In order to squeeze as much performance out of their designs as possible, the new CISC machines will incorporate features, such as on-chip cache, that are traditionally associated with RISC machines," he says. "However, in the most important areas, such as instruction complexity and the number of machine cycles to execute an instruction, there will continue to be a wide gulf." -Bernard C. Cole NEW TOOLS WILL BREAK DESIGN BOTTLENECKS As pervasive as it is becoming, computer-aided design and engineering is still hobbled by several problems. But help is on the way, and a growing number of solutions will become available in products next year. Design tools that are emerging are smarter, able to handle analog as well as digital signals, and can help speed up the development of test programs. New tools will be able to tell designers how to improve a design before it gets implemented in silicon or on a printed-circuit board. Some design tools are beginning to take advantage of artificial intelligence—they predict die size and power consumption; others automatically reduce the amount of logic in a circuit at the schematic entry stage of design. Expert systems will also critique a schematic and netlist, telling the designer where the circuit can be improved. New simulators for analog circuits and mixed-signal simulators that test both analog and digital circuits will become more common and more capable. They will help break one bottleneck in total system design: analog-circuit simulation. The new analog simulators will provide the reliability and accuracy lacking in the Spice simulator, the public-domain package that by default has become virtually a standard for analog design. And they will enable higher-level behavioral models of analog circuits just as there already are for digital. This is especially critical now because of the plethora of new designs containing analog circuits. Similarly, the new mixed-signal simulators will handle the designs that combine analog and digital circuitry. CAE tools are also coming that should help break another serious bottleneck in the overall design process: the difficulty in producing test programs as improve their overall designs. The Design Adviser [Electronics, June 25, 1987, p.31], an expert system from NCR Corp. of Ft. Collins, Colo., provides specific counsel on improving performance, testability, and manufacturing yield. Next year, designers can expect to see competitive packages and enhancements for the current capability. "Designers can expect to have software to suggest better ways to simulate their circuit," says Robin L. Steele, NCR's senior principal engineer for the product. "For example, certain state machines should be simulated on both edges of a clock to determine if problems are created when the clock shifts phases." The industry can also expect tools to provide advice on better implementation of circuit function. But the job of the tool suppliers will be difficult, because the kind of expert system needed to advise on how to make a better circuit function faces the problem of understanding what a circuit is supposed to do, working only from the information it can derive from a netlist. "For example, software can be written that can analyze a circuit and recognize a bank of flip-flops and NAND gates and deduce from this that it has come upon a counter," says Steele. "But what kind of counter is it—a ripple counter, an up/down counter?" NEW SOFTWARE IS NEEDED* The software can't make this kind of decision by examining connectivity and circuit components. "New heuristics need to be developed to help make this determination," Steele says. "We could ask the designer to explain to the software what kind of counter it is, but we're trying to minimize the amount of work the designer must perform to achieve the analysis. The other side of this problem, of course, is that if you ask the designer, he may be mistaken, so it is best for the tool to extract the information itself." Projects are under way at NCR to develop expert systems that can help devise a heuristic procedure for partitioning a design in preplanning a layout. One such project at NCR may be combined with the Design Adviser, according to Daniel Ellsworth, NCR's manager of advanced development strategy. "With each new generation of tools and process technology there is a limit where the state of the art in tools breaks down, and a large design has to be broken down into smaller units that the tools can handle," Ellsworth says. "That is when a tool to improve partitioning becomes important." Performance evaluation and improvement is another aspect of the design process needing expert help. Already available is the capability of making speed and area tradeoffs for buffering and excessive fan-out. This capability draws on a technique called logic-chain analysis and local transformation, in which the tool analyzes a collection of logic circuits—a logic chain—and suggests changes to them—a local transformation—that improve their design. For example, it might tell the designer a gate in the design might need higher output current drivers to provide a better signal level to the gates it drives. Tools to perform logic minimization are available from companies such as Optimal Solutions Inc., the General Electric Co. spinoff in Research Triangle Park, N.C., and VLSI Technologies. Future generations of tools, however, will be more extensive in their capability. They will probably resemble the intelligent compiler introduced by Silicon Compiler Systems Corp. of San Jose, Calif. [Electronics, April 30, 1987, p.54]. "While logic-minimization tools attempt to optimize a design for one of two variables (speed and area), an intelligent tool will optimize a design for functional, performance, and physical-layout constraints set by the designer," says Philip Kaufman, chairman and chief executive officer at SCSC. While tool suppliers have been raising the intelligence of tools to perform digital design, they have not built equally powerful tools—especially analog simulators—for mixed analog and digital circuit design. By 1990, 39% of semicustom designs will have analog functions, according to Cindy Thames at the Technology Research Group. Moreover, the analog simulation market is no small niche either. The total analog simulation market for 1987 will be about $65 million, with projected growth to $80 million in 1988, $120 million in 1989, $170 million in 1990, and $210 million in 1991, says Kevin Walsh, vice president of marketing at Electrical Engineering Software, a San Jose, Calif., company that offers an analog simulator. Furthermore, he says that only 10% of CAE work stations are currently using analog design tools. "The product everyone in this market is waiting for is a true mixed-signal analog and digital simulator," says Walsh. Most tools for mixed circuits actually use dual simulators. For example, Viewlogic Systems Inc. of Marlboro, Mass., uses its own 28-state logic simulator, Viewsim, to perform digital simulation, and uses the PSpice analog simulator from MicroSim Corp. of Laguna Hills, Calif., to simulate analog components. The two tools work concurrently. Sierra Semiconductor Corp. of San Jose, Calif., was heralded as having the first behavioral simulator to allow both analog and digital functions on an IC to be simulated together [Electronics, October 16, 1986, p.60]. "The problem with mixed-signal simulation is that it combines a logic simulator with a Spice simulator," says Prabhu Goel, president and chief executive officer of Gateway Design Automation Corp. of Westford, Mass. "Spice is too slow to perform significant mixed-mode simulation." The limited mixed-mode simulation today cannot handle components more complex than digital-to-analog converter, analog-to-digital converters, operational amplifiers, comparators, and If you’re talking top-quality, easy-access speech reproduction, remember that the most sound solutions start at OKI. Talk it over with your project team. When you agree your system needs both higher quality sound and simpler application, start talking to OKI. World leader in speech technology and solutions, OKI supports your project with the most sound experience today. Over 1000 designs in the past two years alone. Satisfying widely diversified applications with unique options drawn from a still-expanding product line: a family of synthesizers and converters. And now, the first all-in-one ADPCM speech processor, the OKI 6258, which integrates your critical functions on a single VLSI chip. To demonstrate its superb ADPCM sound quality and ease-of-use, OKI now offers you the 6258 DEMO KIT. It’s ready-to-go and specially priced now. For a realtime OKI ADPCM speech demonstration, call: 800-336-8304 outside California; 800-521-4887 in California New Single Chip Solution: \| SPEECH FUNCTIONS \| \|------------------\| \| A to D CONVERSION \| ANALYSIS \| MEMORY \| SYNTHESIS \| D to A CONVERSION \| OPTIONAL SOLUTIONS FROM OKI: ADPCM LSI SYNTHESIS WITH BUILT-IN ROM ADPCM SYNTHESIS OKI’s VLSI ADPCM Speech Processor 6258. Highly integrated ADPCM chip, adaptable for two memory-storage options: either SRAM for battery power, or DRAM for extended speech time—up to 16 minutes using OKI’s high-density SIMM modules. ADPCM development tools too! Whether you opt for the do-everything ADPCM 6258 processor, or select other solutions from our versatile speech product line, OKI has all the technical assistance and development tools you’ll need in place. To simplify and support your implementation, we can provide a complete prototyping system for editing, SAS-1 Memory Processor. And for playback demonstrations, the SAS-2 with built-in amplifier allows audio review of your programming. SPECIAL OFFER: Send for OKI’s 6258 Demo Kit. ( ) Please send _______ OKI 6258 Speech Processor Demo Kit(s), complete with 6258 Demo Board (SRAM version), Microphone and 3” Speaker. Price per Kit is $285.00, plus $5.00 for shipping/handling: $290.00 Kit/total sales tax included. Offer limited to 3 Kits per customer. Check or money order for $________ enclosed. (Sorry, no company purchase orders please) ( ) Send technical data on OKI Speech Product Line. Name/Title _______________________________________ Company _________________________________________ Address _________________________________________ City __________________ State ______ Zip _________ Tel: ( ________ ) Return to: Customer Service, OKI Semiconductor 650 N. Mary Avenue, Sunnyvale, CA 94086. (408) 720-1900. Offer limited to 3 Kits per customer and expires November 30, 1987. Available only for U.S.A. and Canada shipment. Please allow 4-6 weeks for shipment. In test and measuring equipment, changes aren't as sweeping as those shaping semiconductors and computers. But the factors that affect instruments are numerous and complex, and the results, although taking longer to arrive, are no less dramatic. Changing technology is one key force, most notably in the inexorable shift to digital instruments. Changing test requirements are another crucial factor, one affecting every application area. In fields ranging from research, design, and development to manufacturing, engineers are turning to computer-automated testing and to automated measurements so they can handle the voluminous data being generated. There is a growing demand in almost all testing segments for greater functionality, ease of use, and increased modularity. This move is feeding a drive for standardization, at least in buses, as the capabilities of test and measurement equipment diversify: more and more functionality is being added, and at the same time ATE gear is becoming more narrowly focused, growing more application-specific. If there is one word that touches all test bases, it is "digital." All the classical measuring instruments—oscilloscopes, multimeters, signal sources—went digital long ago. Analog instruments still dominate in sheer numbers, offer the best performance in most measuring categories, and carry lower price tags, but that will soon change. Galin Wampeier, president of Prime Data, a market-research firm in San Jose, Calif., says that sales of digital scopes, for example, are growing at a 22% rate, compared with only 2% for analog and 10% for instruments in general. By 1991, digital scopes will hold the larger share of the market for the first time (see chart). Digital performance is gaining, too. The analog scope is holding at 1-GHz best bandwidth; the digital version has hit 20 GHz, and keeps climbing. The shift to digital is caught up in the movement toward computer-aided engineering and manufacturing. Engineers working on CAE systems need to simulate and verify their designs. For that purpose, digital instrumentation is a natural. Reduced to essentials, CAE designs are little more than logic 1s and 0s—fodder for equipment like the new Tektronix DAS 9200 digital analysis system or Hewlett-Packard Co.'s 16500A logic analysis system. Both of these can tackle chips, boards, or systems, and both can close the design loop, linking engineering and manufacturing. The net benefit of such digital instrumentation is productivity. Design time gets shorter. The first design works—at least, that's the goal—so chips and boards get to manufacturing sooner. With CAE-to-ATE links, products get tested better and faster. Better-quality products reach the market faster and cost less. The push to digital is related to the equally strong drive for computer-aided testing, a subset of computer-integrated manufacturing. "Manufacturing is the hottest test area today, with the greatest needs and the biggest shifts," says Frank Hermance, general manager for laboratory instruments at Tektronix Inc. in Beaverton, Ore. And that's particularly true in the U.S., says John Battin, president and chief operating officer of... Custom performance, QuickChip™ turnaround. Imagine. The performance, speed and reliability of Tektronix bipolar ICs. Plus technical expertise in analog design second to none. Together they cut a direct path to market without cutting quality for your new products. That’s Tek’s QuickCustom™ approach. It begins with a family of seven QuickChip arrays to start the design process. Within weeks you have analog or analog/digital ASIC’s in hand that meet your requirements. Tek delivers the training, graphic layout and simulation tools, plus access to an experienced Tektronix IC Design Engineer. You get the performance you need at QuickCustom prices. So call (800) 835-9433 ext. 100. Get your hands on the semi-custom, analog and analog/digital IC development resources you’ll need. Full custom ICs are also available. WHAT ARE QUICKCHIPS? Analog QuickChip family: - 150—524 NPN Transistors - $f_T$ typical to 6.5 GHz at 15V or 2.5 GHz at 65V. Analog/Digital QuickChips: - Gate propagation delay: 400 ps - Digital function library Tektronix COMMITTED TO EXCELLENCE Circle 115 on reader service card Copyright © 1987, Tektronix, Inc. All rights reserved. ICD-002A. DIGITALIZATION EXPANDS IN LATIN AMERICA. In keeping with the ultimate goal of a global ISDN, telecom authorities in Latin America are stepping up their digital network programs. Telecomunicações Brasileiras S.A. recently awarded NEC do Brasil S.A. a giant order for state-of-the-art digital equipment. It includes NEAX61 digital switching systems (360,000 lines), 5GHz 140M-bit digital microwave communication equipment (1,800 sets), fiber optic communication equipment (200 sets) and PCM transmission equipment (1,300 sets). Most of the systems are to be produced locally with delivery starting this year. Meanwhile, Empresa Nacional de Telecomunicaciones, Argentina has awarded PECOM-NEC S.A. a contract for NEAX61 digital switches (300,000 lines) and PCM transmission equipment to be installed in the metropolitan and northern areas of Argentina. Local production is scheduled to begin soon. In 1982 NEC constructed a 320-km fiber optic digital telephone system, interconnecting 6 tandem exchanges and 60 telephone offices in the metropolitan area. NEC is also contributing to the 5-year telecom digitalization project by Compañía Anónima Nacional Teléfonos de Venezuela by supplying NEAX61 digital switches to 97 exchanges in Maracaibo, Puerto La Cruz, and other important areas. For interconnection of these exchanges NEC will supply a 200-km fiber optic communication system. As one of the world's leading suppliers of digital exchanges, microwave and fiber optic systems, NEC is helping to further the digital revolution throughout the world. NEW CCD CAMERA STOPS ACTION ELECTRONICALLY. The trend in color cameras for broadcast use is irrevocably "solid-state". CCD cameras are more compact, dependable and durable than tube types and have no comet tails and burn-in when shooting extremely bright objects. On top of these inherent benefits, NEC's new SP-3A CCD Color Camera has an exclusive feature—the electronic shutter for fast action. As conventional cameras capture images at a shutter speed equivalent to 1/60th of a second, fast-moving objects are blurred in slow or still playback on VTR. To remedy this problem, our SP-3A stops the action electronically at 1/60th to 1/2000th of a second, offering precise, clear-cut images. The SP-3A uses 3 new CCD chips that are anti-smear and -blooming—two for the green channel and one for the combined red/blue channel. This dual green system provides much higher resolution and sensitivity than the conventionally-structured RGB system. The new CCD camera displays widespread versatility. Besides standalone use it forms an efficient shoot/record system with integral Betacam, MII or 8mm-format VTRs. Options are available for multi-core or triax remote control. Users' acceptance of this versatile new camera has been remarkable. NBC, a major U.S. TV network, recently sealed a five-year contract to purchase the SP-3A for electronic news gathering. A PAL version of NEC's CCD color camera offering broadcast quality will also be released. WORLD'S FASTEST ECL GATE ARRAYS. The performance of high-speed silicon logic LSIs is rapidly accelerating. NEC's new ECL-4 gate arrays are the swiftest in the world with a 100ps basic gate delay or 220ps fully loaded. Combining unprecedented speed and flexibility, the ECL-4 family includes the μPB6312 with 1,200 gates (400 Full-adders) and the μPB6303 with 600 gates (200 Full-adders). Both offer 100K or 10KH interface options and ample I/O up to 108 pins. NEC's ECL-4 gate arrays are available in a choice of 72- or 132-pin PGA packages, and operate in ordinary forced-air-cooling environments since sophisticated heat sinks are standard. NEC offers 61 internal macros and 331/O blocks plus complete CAD tools. The ECL-4 family should hasten the development of speed-oriented computers, graphic terminals, LSI testers and telecom equipment. The telecommunications industry is working toward the advent of the integrated services digital network, the plan to replace the world's analog telephone network with an all-digital net. But until that day arrives—in five years or so—the task is to meet consumer demands for ever more bandwidth. In the coming year, phone companies in the U.S. will be largely relying on the fast-growing T1 and T3 services to meet that goal. The 1.536-Mbits/s T1 communications link is increasingly popular, especially now that its cost is competitive with the 64-kbit/s T0 link. Next year industry analysts expect a run on T3, which operates at 44,746 Mbits/s and can therefore provide more voice- and data-communications links. Telephone companies are expected to spend $600 million on T1 and T3 installation by 1990, up from $150 million this year, according to Probe Research Inc. in Morristown, N. J. "Phone companies sweeten the deal [for T3] by charging these large corporate customers a rate on the order of five times the normal T1 rate, but the customer is getting over 30 times the communications capability," says Philip Arst, president of Communications Strategies Inc. in Cupertino, Calif. There is also a market for the 6.144-Mbit/s T2 service, which "is four times faster than the T1 link and better suited for the high volume of data being transferred," says Richard LeCour of NTX Communications Corp. in Sunnyvale, Calif. These markets are being stimulated by a welter of new products, notably multiplexing gear, such as the Integrated Network Digital Exchange from Network Equipment Technologies Inc. of Redwood City, Calif. "The user with the right multiplexing equipment can get 24 voice-grade lines from one T1 circuit," says analyst Michael De Santis of the brokerage house Alex. Brown & Sons in Baltimore. Another gambit is voice-compression techniques, whereby a single T1 line "can carry up to 90 voice channels," he says. All of this bandwidth consumption is a foretaste of the day when every business and household will have broadband ISDN, which will run at least 150 Mbits/s, compared with the 64-kbit/s of narrowband ISDN. B-ISDN will give business users access to teleconferencing, large data bases, computer-aided-design and other computer files on demand, and so on. The lure for home users will be video on demand—the ability to request a video product from a library of materials—and other home services, such as interactive videotex and home-security systems. A major stumbling block is the expense of rewiring subscribers with fiber-optic cable. John Holt, engineering manager for fiber-optics systems at Pacific Bell in San Francisco, reckons that the cost must be cut to no more than $3,000 to $4,000 per customer, compared with an estimated $16,000 today. —Jonah McLeod BIG BAND. Video-on-demand equipment will need a lot of bandwidth, requiring extensive fiber-optic cabling. Our new overlay spec means significantly greater profits for you. Micralign 600 series projection mask aligners have always had the industry's highest throughput. Now that we've significantly improved their machine-to-machine overlay specification they may well help you shatter all previous records for yield and profitable production. The new—and guaranteed—specification is 0.30µm. This degree of overlay precision makes it possible to consider projection alignment for critical photo levels that you might previously have had to assign to your stepper fab line. It's a smart approach. And, you would be hard put to find a more practical—or effective—application of mix-and-match lithography...or a production strategy that offers you an easier way to advance your efforts all the way to the bottom line. Isn't it time you started shattering some old production records and setting a few new ones? Give us a call and let us demonstrate how. Contact: Perkin-Elmer, Semiconductor Equipment Group, 761 Main Avenue, Norwalk, CT 06859-0212. One Source. Every critical step of the way. The OSCILLOSCOPE that Outperforms All Others LeCroy's 9400 offers you 32K long memories, sampling rates of 100 Ms/s for transients and 5 Gs/s for repetitive signals, as well as extensive signal processing such as averaging, integration, differentiation, smoothing and FFT. All this with high bandwidth, 8-bit resolution, up to ±1% DC accuracy and mass storage and remote control software operating over GPIB on IBM® PCs. In the Lab and in the Field Unequaled precision, processing power and memory make the LeCroy 9400 the ideal laboratory oscilloscope. Now you can fit the scope with our new mass storage facility (right) and enjoy all these features in the field. By Showing You the Full Picture Our long 32K memories let you record waveforms with much higher fidelity than any other digital oscilloscope. Up to 32 times higher resolution and 100 times expansion show you the finest details in your signal. We show you more, and even when signal speed is unknown, or trigger timing is uncertain, we let you get it right the first time. In Signal Processing The LeCroy 9400 is the only scope that includes powerful FFT spectrum analysis. Its FFT capability features sampling rates as high as 5 Gs/s and transform sizes as large as 25,000 points. We also give you uniquely versatile signal processing in both time and frequency domains, including averaging up to $10^6$, smoothing, arithmetic, differentiation and integration. All this without the need for any external computing. ... And You Know How to Use it Our familiar front panel means that your time spent learning to operate the 9400 is minimal. With its analog feel, high-speed processing and large, crisp display you'll enjoy using the LeCroy 9400 right from the start. Free! To receive your free literature package simply circle the reader service card, or call us today for a demonstration. New! Portable mass storage system including LeCroy software and an IBM lap-top computer with 720 kbyte storage on floppy disks. On a PC-AT the same software provides total remote control of up to fifteen 9400s. 700 Chestnut Ridge Road Chestnut Ridge, NY 10977-6499 Tel: (914) 578-6097 LeCroy Innovators in Instrumentation Circle 168 For Information World Radio History Circle 125 For Demonstration 1 > 6 It could take six different systems to do the engineering, layout, 1... Schematic Design with Analog Analysis 2... Schematic Design with Digital Analysis 3... PCB Layout with Manufacturing Interfaces 4... Mechanical Packaging and manufacturing tasks that the Intergraph PCB system does... And they wouldn't do it half as well. Why settle for a niche solution? Think... INTERGRAPH For more information or a demonstration, call 1-800-826-3515 (toll free) or (205) 772-2700. In Europe, call (31) 2503-66333. Circle 129 on reader service card CCD Processing. No Waiting. If you're designing Charge Coupled Devices (CCD's), for visible imagers or infrared applications, now's the time to make Orbit Semiconductor part of the process. Orbit supports surface- or buried-channel devices, 2 or 3 levels of polysilicon. Orbit's staff technologists work in tandem with your design team to develop custom CMOS processes tailored to the density and complexity of your device. The result: high yields on die sizes of $1.5\text{cm} \times 1.5\text{cm}$ achieved through a process which is as unique as your design. And, even though the large silicon area and high density of CCD's require longer processing, Orbit's manufacturing time may be as little as 20 working days. With Orbit Semiconductor, you get the advantage of custom processing. Plus a semiconductor foundry that operates strictly as a service, thereby guaranteeing its customers of a second source which is non-competing. Plus Orbit's guaranteed on-time delivery. It all adds up to the best way to save time and money on CCD manufacturing. To find out more, contact Technical Marketing. Orbit Semiconductor. 1230 Bordeaux Drive. Sunnyvale, CA 94089. TWX 910-339-9307, FAX (408) 747-1263. Or call (800) 331-4617, in California (800) 647-0222, (408) 744-1800. What others promise, we guarantee. The chip makers' race toward million-gate densities, 500 input/output pins, and 100-MHz performance is driving the packaging industry to new performance heights. The drive to pack more parts and greater performance onto a chip makes it harder than ever for packagers to solve the interrelated problems of size, reliability, and cost. These problems are being addressed with three major packaging thrusts. Multichip packages are easing the board-space quandary that sometimes results in packaging taking up to 10 times the space of the die itself. At the same time, such packages boost performance and simplify board design. Meanwhile, new printed-circuit-board materials are solving the cross-talk and noise problems that are poised to overwhelm conventional materials. Finally, the emergence of molded-plastic pin-grid arrays is cutting cost-per-pin in half compared with the price of their ceramic counterparts. At least six major projects are under way using multichip packages that bond several dice to a silicon substrate, connect them with lithographic techniques, and enclose everything in a single package that might be as small as 3 in. square. Multichip packages squeeze dazzling functionality into a smaller space by eliminating the packaging walls between chips. Package-size reductions will approach 5:1 and weight reductions 4:1, industry watchers say. The technology holds significant promise in other areas as well. Since lithographic techniques mean that five 1-mil-wide interconnects can be squeezed into a space now allotted to the narrowest pc-board trace, the number of board layers can be reduced. That, in turn, will cut design time in half. And because fewer solder joints will be subject to thermal stress, reliability will jump by a factor of five. But not before some problems are overcome. While failures related to thermal stress will be greatly reduced, multichip packages have a built-in reliability problem of their own. Statistically, packaging 50 devices with 99% reliability each can result in package reliability as low as 50%. The solution is using tape-automated bonding to test the dice before inclusion in the package, says Robert Wright, manager of Interconnection Technology for Rockwell International Corp. at Cedar Rapids, Iowa. In TAB, bare dice are bonded on tape with leads for testing. Once they pass, all but a nub of the lead is sheared off—just enough is left to bond the die to the silicon substrate. A prototype being developed at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in Troy, N.Y., is squeezing 11 LSI chips into a shirt-pocket-size package to make a minisupercomputer capable of running at 125 million instructions/s, says John McDonald, a professor in the Electrical, Computer, and Systems Department. The 3.4-by-3.4-cm package is populated with dice fabricated by Tektronix Inc., Beaverton, Ore., in its advanced 1-$\mu$m polysilicon-emitter process. The prototypes are expected to be ready in mid-1988, but commercialization is "not a technology question," says McDonald, "but a matter of dollars and clean rooms—making the technology economical." Already beyond the prototype stage is AT&T Bell Laboratories' three-chip package implementing Western Electric's WE32100 32-bit microprocessor and its companion memory-management unit and math accelerator [Electronics, May 28, 1987, p. 47]. The 1.3-by-3-in. package will enter the market in early 1988. By shortening interconnections, the package eliminates --- Coming Soon - Multichip packages promise 5-to-1 space savings while delivering higher performance - Teflon-based boards, immune to noise and cross talk, will handle superchip speeds --- 3 IN 1. Bell Labs integrates three chips—a microprocessor, math accelerator, and memory management unit—into a single package by bonding each circuit directly to a silicon substrate. ing the alternatives, and they are far from unanimous in making a final choice, industry analysts say. A favorite candidate of many observers is direct-write electron-beam lithography, which entered the limelight via the Department of Defense's Very High Speed Integrated Circuit program. But early performance troubles with Perkin-Elmer Corp.'s Aeble 150, built for VHSIC Phase 2 production, has contributed to doubts about e-beam's commercial potential. So far, direct-write e-beam has been used mostly for small-run gallium arsenide designs, where the precision advantage of the technology suits it for gates with dimensions down to 0.25 μm. E-beam's main debit is low throughput, with resulting yield and cost problems. Despite the claims that Aeble 150-type e-beams can produce up to 30 four-in. wafers an hour—a figure competitive with optical steppers—in practice the rates have been less than 10 wafers, most sources agree. This is not a handicap with application-specific ICs, however, which generally are produced in low volumes and with fast turnaround times. Proponents are trumpeting e-beams as the next equipment of choice for ASICs, which could be the majority semiconductor type by the 1990s. But skepticism still abounds. Richard C. Henderson, manager of the Silicon IC Dept. at GMHE/Hughes Aircraft Co.'s Research Laboratories, is doubtful about upping yields and lowering costs. The problem could be solved by teaming an e-beam equipment supplier with a heavyweight device manufacturer, "but no U.S. company is making the effort," he says. His Malibu, Calif., lab, a major center of research into semiconductor processing, developed the e-beam design that became the Aeble 150. E-BEAMS FOR ASICS? Surprisingly, this downbeat assessment is echoed by a major e-beam supplier, Japan's JEOL, whose $3.5 million model 683 is a principal competitor of the similarly priced Aeble 150. "We see no e-beam sales to ASIC production," says Michael Hassel Shearer, product manager for e-beam and ion-beam lithography at JEOL's U.S. operation in Peabody, Mass. He predicts that the technology will stay largely confined to specialty production, primarily GaAs, unless a clear economic advantage emerges. This has not occurred even in Japan, where JEOL alone has installed some 25 e-beam units. Industry consultant Jerry D. Hutcheson concurs, and can spot "no dramatic new push occurring in e-beam." President of VLSI Research Inc. in San Jose, Calif., he downplays throughput as the main barrier. "The real killer is price," he says. "Only the military or the largest ASIC manufacturer can afford e-beam." Market consultant Dataquest Inc., also in San Jose, takes a similarly restrained view, but analyst Joseph Grenier thinks the throughput issue "might be a crossable barrier if a very high-throughput machine is developed." Beyond that is another hurdle, he says, "which is psychological—the reluctance to change." Grenier and others believe that IBM Corp.—which has been operating some 40 e-beam machines for years, primarily for fast-turnaround prototyping—could provide impetus to the technology. "They have vast direct-write experience and incredible capacity in the area, but have not chosen to share it," says Grenier. The only e-beam/ASIC program of consequence has surfaced at European Silicon Structures, which is using an Aeble 150, but few details have been revealed. Perkin-Elmer's Charles Biechler, vice president and general manager of the Electron Beam Technical Division in Hayward, Calif., says the European concern finds an economic advantage in manufacturing 10-level CMOS devices. "We believe strongly that when this success becomes more visible to competitors, they are going to have no choice but to emulate it," he says. If not e-beam, then what other semiconductor line-making technologies have solid possibilities to take over at 0.5 μm? X-ray lithography's chances, strong a few years ago, have declined sharply, particularly at leading U.S. research-and-design organizations, although strong efforts continue in Europe and Japan. TI's Chatterjee believes that at 0.5-μm and maybe down to 0.4-μm, "the use of excimer-laser lithography is going to be adequate." At Hughes Research Laboratories, John L. Bartelt says masked ion-beam lithography, invented at Hughes in 1974, offers better submicron resolution and higher throughput capability. He cites recent innovations in mask technology, ion optics, mask/wafer alignment, and step-and-repeat stages, which have resulted in a prototype system that demonstrates throughput of up to 60 four-in. wafers per hour with 0.1-μm alignment and 0.1-μm resolution. "Masked ion-beam lithography is suitable for any of the process technologies, from 0.5 μm down to 0.25 μm," says Bartelt, manager of the Ion Physics Department. Hughes does not build semiconductor equipment for the commercial marketplace, but is considering a licensing agreement. -Larry Waller High density surface mounting of leadless ceramic chip carriers has created new thermal and mechanical problems for those working on high reliability electronic projects. More and more companies are addressing these problems by incorporating metal cores as thermal mounting platforms in their printed circuit board assemblies. The choice of metal laminate comes down to two: Copper-Clad Molybdenum or Copper-Clad Invar. Both do an equally good job of solving the problem of the coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) mismatch between chip carrier and substrate. But, that’s where the similarity ends. Dissipating the heat. Higher packaging densities create higher watt densities. Dissipating this heat can be as critical as matching the CTE of an assembly. The thermal conductivity of Copper-Clad Molybdenum is comparable to aluminum and much higher than Copper-Clad Invar, making it a superior heat sink. Compared to Copper-Clad Invar, Copper-Clad Molybdenum is 25% more conductive in the x and y axis, and 900% more conductive in the z axis! Comparison of Thermal Conductivity (BTU/hr-ft²F) \| \| Normal Direction (Z Axis) \| Lateral Direction (X,Y Axis) \| \|----------------\|---------------------------\|------------------------------\| \| CMC 92 \| \| \| \| CIC 9 \| \| \| \| Copper-Moly-Copper (13% Cu – 74% Mo – 13% Cu)* \| CMC 120 \| CIC 95 \| \| Copper-Invar-Copper (20% Cu – 60% Invar – 20% Cu)* \| \| \| --- Leadless ceramic chip carrier Multi-layered board Adhesive Cu Mo Cu CuMoCu Metal Core Board Providing mechanical rigidity. Solder joint failures also can be caused by vibration, shock, and flexure. Copper-Clad Molybdenum has a much higher modulus of elasticity than Copper-Clad Invar. A core of Copper-Clad Molybdenum provides maximum rigidity to the chip carrier assembly. Saving weight and space. Since it is substantially stiffer and a better thermal conductor than Copper-Clad Invar, a Copper-Clad Molybdenum core can be thinner and lighter. That makes it possible to reduce the overall assembly's weight and size. Lowering magnetic susceptibility. For some applications, magnetic susceptibility is a design consideration. Molybdenum is only slightly paramagnetic (4 × 10⁻⁶ emu/g), whereas, Invar is a ferromagnetic material (100+ emu/g). Contact us today. For more information about Copper Clad Molybdenum, contact AMAX Specialty Metals Corporation at: 21801 Tungsten Road Cleveland, Ohio 44117 (216) 692-3990 96, rue de la Victoire 75009 Paris, France 33-1-42-81-91-05 Akasaka Twin Tower Main Building 17-22 Akasaka, 2-chome Minato-ku Tokyo, Japan 107 81-3-582-9311 AMAX SPECIALTY METALS AMAX Minerals + Energy The necessity for equivalent CTE’s is the criterion for comparison. BARBADOS: STATE OF THE ART IN OFF-SHORE ELECTRONICS The microchip proves you can pack a lot of power into a tiny space—if you have the right design. Barbados has the right design for your off-shore electronics manufacturing facility. We have an educated, skilled and productive work force (both blue and white collar). Our government is pro-business and stable. We offer excellent duty and tax concessions. Our business infrastructure is already well in place and ready to work for you. The Barbados Industrial Development Corporation is also ready to work for you. We'll sit down with you personally and discuss your business, analyze your needs and demonstrate why locating a facility in Barbados can increase your profits. Don't short-circuit opportunity. For more information call or write our North American office. BARBADOS INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT CORPORATION 800 Second Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10017 tel: (212) 867-6420 Circle 138 on reader service card 3S-Wick® de solder braid FREE 5 feet sample The best Wick at the best price DISTRIBUTORS & IMPORTERS NEEDED WORLDWIDE Distributors welcomed Solder Absorbing Technology Inc. 144 Oakland Street Springfield, MA 01108 Telephone: (413) 788-61 91 Toll free: 1 (800) 628-8862 Telecopier: (413) 788-04 90 “I'm a volunteer supporter of the International Executive Service Corps, a not-for-profit organization with a worldwide mission. We send retired U.S. managers overseas to help businesses in developing countries, which often respond by increasing their imports of U.S. goods. In fact, developing countries consume about 40 percent of U.S. exports. As an IESC volunteer, you won't get a salary. But you would get a pension for you and your spouse, plus a world of personal satisfaction. IESC leads the field in this kind of work. We've done over 9,000 projects in 81 countries. We think we know what's right for you. For more information, send the coupon to: Harold W. McGraw, Jr., Chairman, McGraw-Hill, Inc., P.O. Box 10005, Stamford, CT 06904-2005. Dear Mr. McGraw: Tell me more about becoming an IESC-volunteer. I am a recently retired manager of such major companies as IBM, AT&T, and General Motors. I plan to retire in a few months. I'd like to accept an overseas assignment with IESC. I'd like to work with other volunteers for 1-2 years and their spouses, but no salary. Name ______________________________________ Address _____________________________________ City __________________ State ______ Zip ______ International Executive Service Corps It's not just doing good. It's doing good business. Electronics / October 15, 1987 This astounding new RTV silicone sealant can be tack free in 3 minutes — yet is noncorrosive! It's called Sil-Ace. A patented, proven acetone curing mechanism is the secret. You get the set up speed and excellent properties of acetoxy curing with the safety and unobjectionable odor of alkoxy. So no more hour's wait to assure proper coating and seal. You can choose from over a dozen varieties. Tack free time ranges from 3 minutes for MIL-A-46146A Sil-Ace (flowable and non-sag) to 8 minutes for general purpose flowable. There are also flame retardant (UL94 V-1) and electrical conducting varieties. All of them keep over a year — without refrigeration! Yet with all these advantages, Sil-Ace is competitively priced. You must learn more. For full information — and a sample of Sil-Ace — write, Shin-Etsu Silicones of America, Attn: Mark Huffman, 431 Amapola Ave., Torrance, CA 90501. Better still, call now: (800) 544-1745 Shin-Etsu Silicones NOW! P-h-h-hip to ship in 5 minutes flat! Why are more companies graduating to Livingston? Companies like Burr-Brown, Unisys, NEC, Johnson & Johnson, Ferranti and Apollo Computer moved to Livingston in Scotland because it's a great place to recruit brain power. The Scots, after all, produce more graduates per capita than any other nation in Europe. And as any clever Scot will tell you, Livingston is the ideal place to live and work. Here in the heart of Silicon Glen, some very talented people indeed work for some of the world's most forward-looking companies. Companies that move here, however, come not just because there is intelligent life in Livingston. They come because of financial incentives, including investment grants of up to 35%, rent free periods and European Community Assistance. They come because of a purpose-built high-technology park called Kirkton Campus that's ready and waiting to receive them. And they come because airports, motorways and main-line stations are all near at hand. Edinburgh and Glasgow are practically on the doorstep—and from either city it's just a short hop to every major European business centre. All things considered, relocating to Livingston is a very clever move indeed. IN THE US, send to: C Anne Robins, PO Box 345, Old Greenwich, CT 06870. Tel: (203) 629 3496. IN THE UK and EUROPE, send to: David Balfour, Commercial Director, Livingston Development Corporation, West Lothian EH54 6QA, Scotland. Tel: 0506 414177. Prove that Livingston is the most logical location for my company. BLOCK LETTERS PLEASE Name ____________________________ Position __________________________ Company __________________________ Address ___________________________ _______________________________ Postcode _________________________ Telephone _________________________ MAKE IT IN LIVINGSTON Europe's most logical location. Circle 145 on reader service card Harris guarantees ASICs to specs after irradiation! (There — we put it in writing!) We’re hard-liners about reliability in rad-hard ASICs. Hey...it happens to the best of ‘em...your rad-hard ASIC design’s first pass requires first aid! For better results, avoid rigid design systems that lock you into the wrong solution and keep you there. Come to Harris: nobody offers you more front-end flexibility. • Advanced rad-hard library...Primitives, 7400 and 4000 equivalents, 80C86 peripherals — cells and macros you can intermix to enhance design • Broad workstation support...Simulations include both pre- and post-radiation performance models. Our UNIX-based software and library are supported on Daisy™, Mentor™, and SDA™ design stations with Silicon Compilers due soon • Guaranteed parametrics...Harris can guarantee your ASICs to specs after irradiation exceeding 1 megarad • Packaging options...Select from ceramic DIPs, chip carriers and pin grid arrays; screenings to Class S standards • More on the horizon...Soon, JEDEC functions and scan-path testability will further enhance your design flexibility So what does it all mean? More ASIC design options. Less design risk. For a faster time to market, it’s time to call Harris Custom Integrated Circuits Division. In U.S. phone 1-800-4-HARRIS, Ext. 1910, or (305) 729-5757. In Canada: 1-800-344-2444, Ext. 1910. IN RAD-HARD/HI-REL, THE NAME IS HARRIS Harris Semiconductor: Analog · CMOS Digital Gallium Arsenide · Semicustom · Custom Trademarks: Daisy: Daisy Systems Corp. Mentor: Mentor Graphics SDA: SDA Systems Inc. ©1987, Harris Corporation AIR FORCE TO TRY AMORPHOUS-SILICON, ACTIVE-MATRIX LCD The Air Force wants to see if liquid-crystal displays with an active matrix of amorphous silicon can outperform electroluminescent displays in the rugged, portable flight-line computers that will be part of its Integrated Maintenance Information System program. The search has led to Ovonic Imaging Systems Inc., which will develop two 6-by-8-in. flat-panel displays for the Air Force Human Resources Laboratory at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base in Ohio. If the Troy, Mich., company meets its goals, the 640-by-480-pixel active-matrix displays will draw only 1 W to 1.5 W of power—roughly 3% of what a comparable EL display requires—while maintaining about the same resolution, 80 pixels/in. Further, the Ovonic Imaging displays will feature a 90° viewing angle—compared to about 60° degrees for EL—with a 20-to-1 contrast ratio that is comparable to EL. IMIS is being considered for use on the next-generation Advanced Tactical Fighter. EIA: GROWTH IN DEFENSE-ELECTRONICS SPENDING IS LEVELING OFF The electronic content of U.S. defense work, including procurement and research and development, is beginning to level off after six years of fast and steady growth, according to the Electronics Industries Association. The Defense Department now spends some $53 billion, or about 40% of its annual budget, in these categories. In its annual 10-year forecast for the defense-electronics market, the EIA predicts that this proportion will hold steady at or near the 40% level through 1997. Overall, EIA forecasters look for defense spending to decline slightly until it bottoms out in 1992. They expect, however, that spending will then begin to rise at about 1% a year. R&D funding, they say, will remain at its present peak through 1988. As for the Strategic Defense Initiative, the EIA says spending will stay in the $3.5 billion to $4 billion per year range through 1997. CUSTOMS ADDS MORE RADAR BALLOONS TO SPOT DRUG SMUGGLERS The U.S. Customs Service will add half a dozen tethered radar balloons to the one it is now operating to spot low-flying planes and surface vessels smuggling drugs into the U.S. One of the new balloons will flesh out the coverage in the Caribbean, where a single aerostat is now stationed over Grand Bahama Island, while the others will be deployed over the next two years along the southern border of the U.S. The first will go up in early November from Fort Huachuca, Ariz. The new balloons, supplied by Westinghouse Electric Corp. Defense and Electronics Systems Co. of Baltimore, cost $15 million each and carry a modified Westinghouse AN/TPS-63 radar at altitudes to 15,000 ft. Data from the radar is transmitted to Customs Service ground stations. FROM THOMSON, A DIGITAL DISPLAY MAP FOR FRENCH TACTICAL AIRCRAFT Thomson-CSF is developing a high-speed digital map system for the Tactical Combat Aircraft, the French equivalent to the U.S. Advanced Tactical Fighter. The system will store 150,000 square miles of mapped terrain on 5 1/4-in. optical disks, offers 512-by-512-pixel full-color resolution, is powered by a custom microprocessor, and has a 60-Hz noninterlaced refresh rate, says Patrick Berniolles, an engineering manager with Thomson's Aerospace Group in Issy-Les-Moulineaux, France. Called Dracar, the system is optimized for ground-collision avoidance, and key to that will be the next step in Thomson's development work: completion of a display mode that, by providing a digitized perspective view of the terrain, will help pilots keep their craft low to the ground and below enemy radar, Berniolles says. DIGITAL SYNTHESIZERS IN VME/EUROCARD FORMAT These standard products offer sub-μsec and phase-lock spurs swinging, excellent phase noise, and digital simplicity/reliability. Range/step-size combinations are: DC-3MHz/1mHz DC-15MHz/0.1Hz DC-32MHz/65mHz DC-110MHz/<1Hz SCITEQ, San Diego, CA, 619-292-0500 SCITEQ CIRCLE 217 COMBO SYNTHESIZER: DDS + PLL Patent-pending design uses digital synthesis and phase-lock circuits to cover up to one octave from 20-205MHz with <10Hz swing, with <60dBc spurs and excellent @ noise. BCD control. 10.0MHz reference. Modules are 1.25"x5"x7". Qty 1: USS$2,400, 6wks. Opt: FM, φ control, chasis, GPIB, custom mechanics. SCITEQ, San Diego, CA, 619-292-0500 SCITEQ CIRCLE 215 DIGITAL SYNTHESIZER DOUBLES AS PHASE GENERATOR VDS-3 covers DC - 3MHz in 1 milliHertz steps, with <55dBc spurs and <135dBc/Hz phase noise. Phase control all from 10-100MHz ref. Phase-continuous switching in 0.06c. BCD rem control or local. $1,995/stock. Options @ $500: IEEE-488, 720° phase control in 0.36° steps. SCITEQ, San Diego, CA, 619-292-0500 SCITEQ CIRCLE 216 EVERYTHING FOR THE EXORbus™! EXORbus compatible, 6800/6809 family of micro modules for use in process control, production automation, materials testing and data acquisition systems. The 9619A Advanced Microcomputer offers full MC68009 processing power at 200MHz and 100 cycles. Get a look at our 1987 catalog, "Everything for the EXORbus". Contact Creative Micro Systems, 3822 Cerritos Ave., Los Alamitos, CA 90720; (213) 493-2484 CREATIVE MICRO SYSTEMS CIRCLE 207 PC/MS DOS, VAX VMS, UNIX • Fast Version 2.2 • Conditional assembly • Binary or ASCII Hex file output • New expanded Manual • Powerful macros • Relocatable or absolute code ENERTEC INC, 19 Jenkins Ave. Lansdale, PA 19446 215-362-0966 telex 4948709 MC/V CIRCLE 208 6800/6809 MICRO MODULES OEM 6800/6809 MICROCOMPUTER MODULES for dedicated control and monitoring. Interfaces for sensors, transducers, analog signals, solenoids, relays, lamps, pumps, motors, keyboards, displays, IEEE-488, serial I/O, floppy disks. Wintek Corporation 1801 South Street Lafayette, IN 47904-2993 (317) 742-8428 or (800) 742-6809 WINTEK CORP. CIRCLE 205 THE BETTER RAM TESTER M-6400 Tests most SRAMs or DRAMS up to 1 Mbit. Automatically measures and rejects any out-of-tolerance device in power consumption or speed. Software controlled edge deskew feature generates the most precise timing waveform for SRAMs. Automatic test with a group of test patterns to detect all possible faults. RS-232C and IC handler interfaced. Price: $2,500.00. Information Scan Technology, Inc., 487 Gianni Street, Santa Clara, California 95050. (408) 988-1908 INFORMATION SCAN TECHNOLOGY, INC. CIRCLE 263 dICE-51: IN-CIRCUIT DEBUGGING FOR ONLY $795 The CY-8051 in-circuit element replaces the 8051 and communicates with your IBM-PC over COM1. The powerful dynamic user interface provides source code and symbol debugging with breakpoints to all 8051 registers. Five keyboard, Graphic Symbol Monitor, "C" support. Histogram generated during reduced speed execution. Lowest cost, most powerful 8051 design support. Mil spec and CMOS versions available. Cybernetic Micro Systems Box 3000 • San Gregorio, CA 94074 • USA (415) 726-3000 • Telex: 910-350-5842 CIRCLE 226 YAMAICHI SOCKETS FROM NEPENTHE NEPENTHE offers sockets from Yamaichi, a world leader in the manufacture of T & BI and actual use sockets. Yamaichi's expertise ranges from DIP (.100 centerlines) to the most complex fine pitch flat packs (.016"). POFF PGA SIMM PLCC DIP LCC SO SOJ SSIL Nepenthe 2471 E. Bayshore Rd. Palo Alto, CA 94303 Call For Catalog: (415) 856-9332 (800) 637-3684 CIRCLE 231 IEEE488 Technology that hits the mark - For IBM-PC/XT/AT/IC/RT6150 and all other compatible computers - For PHILIPS PC: YES - HP commands (enter, clear etc.) implemented - SRO/ASYST compatible - 64 KByte memory capacity - DMA and INTERRUPT can be activated by simple commands - HELP functions, SYNTAX monitoring in clear text - BASIC, BASIC(compiled), TURBO-BASIC, (TURBO-) PASCAL, MODULA-2, FORTRAN, C, ASSEMBLER DEALER + OEM WELCOME CIRCLE 235 INES Ines GmbH Humboldtallee 45 5000 Köln 41 West Germany Tel: 49 221 4386 59 Telex: 2627 2214237 gizkln FAX: 49 221 4191871 Analog Circuit Simulation A full featured SPICE based simulator runs on the IBM PC with interactive Input and Output These waveforms show an IS_SPICE analysis of a power supply snubber. Intu_Scope was used for display and correlation of power and energy. The output shown used an Intu_Scope plotter utility PRE_SPICE, $200.00: Interactive control, Monte Carlo Analysis, Optimization, libraries and parameter evaluation. IS_SPICE, $95: Simulate Parameters AC, DC and Transient analysis. Intu_Scope, $250.00: Display, manipulation and plots data. Programs are not copy protected, come with a 30 day money back guarantee and require PC with 640K RAM, fixed disk, coprocessor and CGA or EGA or Hercules graphics. INTUSOFT P.O. BOX 6607 San Pedro, CA 90734-6607 Tele: (213) 833-0710 CIRCLE 229 Engineering Software: FILTER designs active filters up to order 30. Bessel, Butterworth, Chebyshev, Allpass; Low, High, Bandpass and Bandstop. Fully menu driven. FILTER designs, plots, and displays component values for any filter in seconds. LSAP analyzes linear systems producing Bode, Nyquist, Impulse, Step Response and Root-Locus plots. Micro-CSMP simulates control and servo systems with full support for non-linear behavior. Filter is $900, LSAP $450, Micro-CSMP $900 for IBM PCs. California Scientific Software 818/798-1201 1159 N Catalina Av, Pasadena CA 91104 CALIFORNIA SCIENTIFIC SOFTWARE CIRCLE 219 IEEE-488, PARALLEL, and SERIAL PORTS PLUS 4M BYTES OF MEMORY - Control any instrument. RS232 or '488. - 4Mbytes of extended/expanded memory. - Software library and memory manager. - High speed DMA. Risk free guarantee. Capital Equipment Corp. 99 South Bedford St. Burlington, MA. 01803 FREE demo disk. Call (617) 273-1818 CIRCLE 206 NEW FULLY INTEGRATED CAD/CAM Douglas CADICAM Professional System was created for the serious circuit board designer with full integration of layout, schematic capture and autorouting. The software runs on the Apple Macintosh and supports color and unlimited layers. Outputs go to printers, pen plotters and photoplotters. Layout $1500, Schematic $700, Autorouter $700. Douglas Electronics, 718 Marina, San Leandro, CA 94577 (415) 483-8770 DOUGLAS ELECTRONICS CIRCLE 202 IBM COMPATIBLE RS232 EASI-DISK 3½"/5¼" FLOPPY DATA STORAGE & TRANSFER SYSTEMS Information Transfer to/from Non IBM Compatible Systems to/from IBM and Compatibles: (Over RS232 Interface or 488 Interface). - Reads & Writes IBM PC/MS DOS Disks - RS-232C/IO/488 - Rugged Portable Package/Battery Option - ASCII Full Binary Conversion - Board Speed 110 to 58.4 K baud - Automatic Data Verification - Price $895 in Singles - OEM Q'tys. Less. 28 other systems with storage from 100K to 35 megabytes. Analog & Digital Peripherals, Inc. 815 Diana Drive Troy, Ohio 45373 513/339-2241 TWX 810/450-2685 FLOPPY DATA STORAGE CIRCLE 214 In Costa Rica, we run rings around illiteracy. Our belief in education is so strong in Costa Rica, we have a literacy rate of 93 percent—the highest in Latin America. That's why our workforce is without equal in the Caribbean. It's also part of the reason why Costa Rica is the unequalled offshore location for U.S. manufacturers. Our workers are well-educated, thanks to mandatory education to age 15 and numerous vocational and technical schools. There's even a Harvard Business School affiliate among our six universities. And they're willing, too, with the longest regular work week—48 hours—in the area. All of which means a manufacturer gets a high return on his labor investment. And he gets it in the safest, most stable country in the Caribbean—a country that's had regularly scheduled, free and fair elections every four years for nearly four decades. And all those willing workers work in an established, affordable infrastructure featuring abundant energy, transportation and telecommunications; with companies receiving generous incentives and tax holidays, including tax-free export earnings; and under a government that insists private industry help set public business policy. When it comes to offshore manufacturing, Costa Rica has the ring of success. For more information, contact the nearest Costa Rican Investment Promotion Office. COSTA RICA The Right Business Climate Northeast: 36 Hunting Lane, Suite A-1, Stamford, CT 06902 • (203) 968-1448. Midwest: 221 N. LaSalle Street, Suite 1808, Chicago, IL 60601 • (312) 346-0626. Southeast: 235 Peachtree Street, Suite 1617, Atlanta, GA 30303 • (404) 223-5708. West Coast: 17910 Sky Park Circle, Suite 101, Irvine, CA 92714 • (714) 250-0146. ## Advertisers Index \| Company \| Page Numbers \| Notes \| \|----------------------------------------------\|--------------\|-------\| \| Advanced Micro Devices \| 6, 7 \| \| \| Algorex Corporation \| 139 \| \| \| Altera \| 62, 63 \| $ \| \| Amax Inc. \| 136, 137 \| \| \| American Automation \| 20 \| \| \| AMP Incorporated \| 92, 93 \| \| \| Analog & Digital Peripherals Inc. \| 157 \| \| \| Analog Solutions \| 49 \| $ \| \| Anritsu Corporation \| 142, 143 \| \| \| Apex \| 8 \| \| \| Applied Microcircuits \| 27 \| \| \| Applied Science Technology \| 152 \| \| \| AT&T Technology \| 98, 99 \| \| \| August Interconnection Systems \| 105 \| \| \| Ball Corporation \| 154 \| \| \| Barbados Industrial Develop. Corp. \| 138 \| \| \| Bayer AG \| 52, 53 \| \| \| Burr Brown Corp. \| 161 \| \| \| California Scientific Software \| 157 \| $ \| \| Capital Equipment \| 157 \| \| \| Cherry Electrical Products \| 13 \| \| \| Cinde Costa Rican Investment \| 159 \| \| \| Creative Micro Systems \| 155 \| \| \| Cybernetic Micro Systems \| 157 \| \| \| Cypress Semiconductor \| 110 \| * \| \| Data Translation \| 24 \| * \| \| Digital Equipment Corporation \| 28, 29 \| $ \| \| Douglas Electronics \| 157 \| * \| \| Dow Chemical USA \| 78, 79 \| \| \| Elektex \| 39 \| \| \| Enertec Inc. \| 155 \| \| \| Equitable Life Leasing \| 82 \| \| \| ETA Industries \| 94 \| \| \| Feller AG \| 150 \| * \| \| Fujitsu Ltd. \| 65 \| $ \| \| Gates Energy \| 141 \| \| \| GE Solid State \| 90, 91 \| \| \| General Instrument Corporation \| 3rdC \| \| \| Gould AMI \| 73 \| * \| \| Gould Test & Measurement \| 116, 117, 132\| * \| \| Hamag \| 89 \| \| \| Harris Semiconductor \| 106, 107, 146\| $ \| \| HCC Industries \| 149 \| \| \| Hewlett Packard Company \| 1 \| \| \| HI Level Technology \| 127 \| * \| \| Hitachi Chemicals \| 59 \| $ \| \| Ines GmbH \| 157 \| * \| \| Information Scan Technology Inc. \| 157 \| \| \| Infotek Systems \| 66 \| $ \| \| InLab Inc. \| 156 \| \| \| Immos Corporation \| 10, 11 \| $ \| \| Integraph \| 128, 129 \| * \| \| Interactive Cad Systems \| 156 \| \| \| Intusoft \| 157 \| \| \| Iskra Commerce \| 108 \| \| \| Lambda \| 40, 41 \| $ \| \| LeCroy Corporation \| 9, 125 \| \| \| Leybold AG \| 16 \| \| \| Lindgren RF Enclosures \| 156 \| $ \| \| Livingston Development Corporation \| 145 \| $ \| \| Mentor Graphics \| 2ndC \| \| \| Merrill Lynch Pierce \| 158 \| \| \| Micro Tek \| 109 \| \| \| Mitsubishi Electric Europe GmbH \| 89 \| \| \| Motorola Semiconductor \| 14, 15 \| \| \| Murata Mfg. Co. Ltd. \| 159 \| \| \| National Instruments \| 156 \| \| \| NCI \| 156 \| \| \| NEC Corporation \| 118, 119 \| \| \| Nepenthe Distribution Inc. \| 157 \| \| \| Nicolet Test Instrument Division \| 30 \| \| \| OKI Semiconductor \| 108, 109 \| \| \| Orbit Semiconductor \| 131 \| \| \| Pacific Microelectronics Co. Ltd. \| 152 \| \| \| Performance Semiconductor Corporation \| 23 \| \| \| Perkin Elmer Semiconductor Equipment Corp. \| 124 \| \| \| Philips Elcoma \| 60, 61 \| \| \| Philips T&M \| 2, 28, 29 \| \| \| PICO Electronics \| 48 \| \| \| Programmed Test Sources \| 2 \| \| \| Pro Lib \| 156 \| \| \| Recortec \| 156 \| \| \| Rohde & Schwarz \| 64 \| \| \| SamSung \| 60, 61, 110 \| \| \| Santa Cruz Electronics Export \| 74 \| \| \| Sciteq \| 155 \| \| \| Seiko Instruments \| 52, 53 \| \| \| Shin-Etsu Chemical Co. Ltd. \| 144 \| \| \| Siemens \| 74 \| \| \| Siemens \| 9 \| \| \| Sierra Semiconductor \| 50, 51 \| \| \| Solder Technology \| 138 \| \| \| Sprague Electric Co. \| 120 \| \| \| TEAC \| 150 \| \| \| Tektronix Inc. \| 80, 81, 115 \| \| \| Test & Measurements Inc. \| 156 \| \| \| Texas Instruments \| 35-38, 55-58 \| \| \| Toshiba America Inc. (Memory Division) \| 64, 65 \| \| \| Toshiba Corporation \| 4th C \| \| \| Toshiba W. Germany \| 59 \| \| \| UMC \| 130 \| \| \| Visionics Corporation \| 156 \| \| \| VLSI Technology Inc. \| 44, 45 \| \| \| WaferScale Integration \| 122, 123 \| \| \| Wintek Corp. \| 155 \| \| \| Worthman Associates \| 12 \| \| \| ZAX Corporation \| 46 \| \| \| Zehntel \| 43 \| \| \| Zoran \| 105 \| \| ### Classified and employment advertising \| Company \| Page Number \| \|----------------------------------------------\|-------------\| \| Link Computer Graphics Inc. \| 153 \| \| ZTEC \| 153 \| For more information of complete product line see advertisement in the latest Electronics Buyers Guide. * Advertisers in Electronics International † Advertisers in Electronics domestic edition COMING IN OCTOBER THE 1987/88 Electronics Buyers’ Guide Order your copy today for the industry’s most often-used directory: - It’s three directories in one - Includes more than 4,000 product listings (approx. 700 pages) - Contains over 5,000 company listings (approx. 400 pages) including: - Company name, address and phone number. - Name and title of contact for sales information. - Number of engineers at plant and number of employees. - Annual dollar sales volume. - Local sales offices and manufacturers representatives. - Local distributors. - Instant referral to company’s advertisements. - Offers FREE current catalog retrieval service (approx. 1300 catalogs) Price: $50 USA & Canada $75 elsewhere (surface mail) $90 elsewhere (air mail) Send order with payment to: Regina Hera Electronics Buyers’ Guide 1221 Avenue of the Americas New York, NY 10020 Advertising Sales Staff Atlanta, Ga. 30319: Joseph Milroy 4700 Peachtree Dunwoody Road N.E. [404] 252-6526 Boston, Mass. 02116: M. E. “Casey” McKibben, Jr. 516-1000 [617] 262-1160 833-0155 Mobil Phone Chicago, Ill. 60611: Alison Smith [312] 751-7238 645 North Michigan Avenue Cleveland, Ohio 44113: [216] 482-7000 Costa Mesa, Calif. 92626: Fran Cowen 3001 Red Hill Ave. Bldg. #1 Suite 222 [714] 557-6292 Dallas, Texas 75251: Harry B. Doyle, Jr. 8111 LBJ Freeway, Suite 350 [214] 644-1111 Englewood, Co. 80112: Harry B. Doyle, Jr. 7400 South Alton Court Suite 111 [303] 773-1111 Houston, Texas 77040: Harry B. Doyle, Jr. 7600 West Tidwell, Suite 500 [713] 462-0757 Los Angeles, Calif. 90010: Chuck Crowe 3333 Wilshire Blvd. [213] 480-5210 New York, N.Y. 10020 Matthew T. Reseska [212] 512-3617 John Gallie [212] 512-4420 Stan Tessler [212] 512-2788 1221 Avenue of the Americas Stamford, Ct. 06902 Albert J. Liedel 777 West Ridge Road. Bldg. A [203] 968-7115 San Mateo, Ca 94404: Rich Bastas, Jeffrey C. Hoopes, Paul Mazzacano 3rd Floor 951 Mariner’s Island Blvd. [415] 349-4100 Philadelphia, Pa. 19102: Joseph Milroy Three Parkway, [215] 496-3800 Pittsburgh, Pa. 15222: Joseph Milroy Suite 215, 8 Gateway Center, [215] 496-3800 Southfield, Michigan 48075: 4000 Tower Center, Suite 770, Tower 2 [313] 352-9760 San Francisco, Calif., 94111: Rich Bastas, Jeffrey C. Hoopes, Paul Mazzacano 425 Battery Street [415] 362-6000 Frankfurt/Main: Fritz Krusebecker, Dieter Rothenbach 19 Liebigstrasse, Germany Tel: 72-01-81 Milan: Giorgio Capuano 1 via Baracchini, Italy Tel: 86-90-656 Paris: Jean - Christian Acis, Alain Faure 128 Rue du Bourg Saint Honore, 75008 Paris, France Tel: [1] 42-28-0284 Scandinavia: Andrew Karnig Finnbodavagen S-13 31 Nacka Sweden Tel. 46-8-440005 Telex: 210000 S.A.S Tokyo: Hirokazu Morita McGraw-Hill Publications Overseas Corporation, Kasumigaseki Building 3-2-5, Chome, Kasumigaseki, Chiyoda-Ku, Tokyo, 100 Japan [581] 9811 United Kingdom: Art Scheffer 34 Dover Street, London W1 Tel: 01-493-1451 Business Department David W. Yake Business Manager [212] 512-2627 Daniel McLaughlin Director of Circulation [212] 512-2636 Roseann Lehmann Office Administrator [212] 512-2619 Frances M. Vallone Manager, Reader/Sales Services [212] 512-6058 Ann D’Angelo Billing Specialist [212] 512-2589 Thomas M. Egan Product Line Editor [212] 512-3140 Carol Gallagher Product Line Manager [212] 512-2045 Evelyn Dillon Product Line Manager Related Products [212] 512-2044 Postcards/Product Showcase [212] 512-2143 Classified Advertising [212] 512-2556 Recruitment Advertising Rosemarie Caruso [212] 512-2787 Subscription Sales [201] 368-3258 LDM85 connects RS-232/422 ports through fiber-optic cables, providing total high-voltage electrical isolation, EMI immunity and intrinsic safety. - DC to 5M baud - Multipoint capability (2km each) - Small 2.1" X 1" X 3.75" package - High-speed TTL port - From $169* LDM80—Low-Cost, Signal-Powered Fiber Optic Modem—$98* - Up to 19.2k baud at 3.5km - 17dB optical link budget - Full duplex asynchronous operation - RS-232 powered More Rugged Modems for Industrial Data Communications LDM422—RS-232/422 Converter—from $123* - 750V isolation - Surge protectors - 19.2k baud/6000 ft., 9.6k baud/3mi. - Two transmit/receive channels (RTS/CTS) - Multidrop up to 32 units LDM35—Signal-Powered Short-Haul Modem—$81* - Optical isolation - Heavy-duty surge protection - 9600 baud (2mi.) Ask your Burr-Brown sales representative for complete details. Or call Applications Engineering, 602/746-1111. Burr-Brown Corp., PO Box 11400, Tucson, AZ 85734. *U.S. prices only; volume discounts available. Retirement Package Trade-up your old NMOS DSP chip for the performance of GIM's CMOS 320C10 Now's the time to retire those older technology single-chip NMOS DSP processors you're using. And GI Microelectronics wants to help. How? By offering you a better-than-even swap. Just send us your NMOS DSP chip — anybody's NMOS DSP chip — and we'll send you our Retirement Package. A brand new GIM CMOS 320C10 with supporting documentation. What are the "benefits" in our retirement package? Low power consumption and low heat dissipation to name a couple. In fact, the 320C10 uses 1/5 the power and runs 80% cooler than existing NMOS DSPs. You can easily upgrade the performance of your 32010-based system because GIM's CMOS 320C10 is compatible with any NMOS 32010. And we can supply you with all the CMOS 320C10s you need. But you don't have to send us all of your NMOS parts. Just one will do. So let us help you retire your old technology to sunny Arizona. Send your NMOS DSP chip to: GI Microelectronics Dept. D-100 2355 West Chandler Blvd. Chandler, AZ 85226-6199 Or call GIM at (602) 963-7373 and ask for our DSP Technology Center.
Convectively Generated Negative Potential Vorticity Enhancing the Jet Stream through an Inverse Energy Cascade during the Extratropical Transition of Hurricane Irma KEVIN C. PRINCE\textsuperscript{a} AND CLARK EVANS\textsuperscript{a} \textsuperscript{a} Atmospheric Science Program, University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee, Milwaukee, Wisconsin (Manuscript received 21 April 2022, in final form 11 July 2022) ABSTRACT: A tropical cyclone (TC) that recurves into the midlatitudes can lead to significant downstream flow amplification by way of a favorable interaction with the midlatitude waveguide. Current conceptualizations emphasize the role of the meso-$\alpha$–to synoptic-scale diabatically enhanced vertical redistribution of potential vorticity in facilitating downstream flow amplification following the interaction of a TC with the midlatitude waveguide. Less understood, however, is the extent to which this downstream flow amplification may be facilitated by the convective-scale diabatically enhanced horizontal redistribution of potential vorticity. Consequently, this study aims to diagnose the role that deep, moist convection in an associated predecessor rain event north of the TC played in influencing the midlatitude waveguide and potentially the downstream evolution. A convection-allowing numerical simulation is performed on a predecessor rain event that precedes the interaction of North Atlantic TC Irma in September 2017 with the midlatitude waveguide. Horizontal gradients in microphysical heating result in intense convective-scale potential vorticity dipoles aligned perpendicular to the vertical wind shear vector, with the negative anomaly poleward (and thus closer to the midlatitude waveguide) of the large-scale southwesterly vertical wind shear vector. Regions of intensely negative potential vorticity persist for multiple hours after their formation as they become deformed by the large-scale strain field that is aligned parallel to the background vertical wind shear vector. The deformation-driven thinning of the negative potential vorticity is associated with a transfer of energy to the large-scale flow, suggesting a nonnegligible impact to the TC–midlatitude waveguide interaction by the collection of convective cells embedded in the predecessor rain event. KEYWORDS: Energy transport; Atmospheric waves; Mesoscale models 1. Introduction The recurvature of a TC from the tropics or subtropics into the midlatitudes may lead to highly amplified midlatitude waveguide patterns locally and downstream from the recurring TC due to interaction between the TC and an upstream midlatitude trough (Archambault et al. 2013, 2015; Torn and Hakim 2015; Quinting and Jones 2016). In a TC–trough interaction, strong latent heat release inside of the TC leads to the vertical redistribution of low potential vorticity (PV) air into the upper troposphere. When the interaction is favorable, the TC recurves east of upstream trough, in which the low-PV air in the core of the TC is then diabatically enhanced radially away from the TC’s core by the TC’s secondary circulation against the eastern flank of an upstream midlatitude trough. This advection of near-zero-PV air tightens the local PV gradient on the east side of the trough, leading to local jet streak formation and subsequent downstream impacts that can last for several days (Archambault et al. 2013, 2015; Grams and Archambault 2016; Grams et al. 2011, 2013a,b). Outcomes of TC–trough interactions depend on the inertial stability of the jet (as dictated by the jet speed and latitude), the shape and phase speed of the upstream trough, the magnitude of the TC’s outflow, and the phasing of the TC with the upstream trough (Finocchio and Doyle 2019; Komaromi and Doyle 2018; Riboldi et al. 2019; Riemer and Jones 2014). The impacts from TC–trough interactions can extend several thousand kilometers downstream, with recent downstream high-impact weather such as indirect TC interactions, leading to poor TC intensity and track forecasts (Prince and Evans 2020), high-impact precipitation events (Pohorsky et al. 2019), blocking anticyclones (Riboldi et al. 2019), and the formation of PV streamers, leading to TC formation (Keller 2017; Quinting and Jones 2016; Riemer et al. 2008; Riemer and Jones 2010), being attributed to upstream TC–trough interactions. Interactions between TCs and the midlatitude waveguide may be occasionally accompanied by preconditioning, which are processes that establish an extratropical environment that supports baroclinic development (Grams and Archambault 2016; Keller et al. 2019). Preconditioning is often manifest in the form of a predecessor rain event (PRE), a meso-$\alpha$ feature composed of individual convective cells embedded in a larger stratiform region of high-impact heavy rainfall well in advance of a recurring TC (Bosart et al. 2012; Cordeira et al. 2013; Cote 2007; Galarneau et al. 2010; Galarneau 2015). Warm, moist air advected poleward by a TC’s outer circulation impinges upon a baroclinic zone 500–2000 km away (Bosart and Carr 1978; Moore et al. 2013), whereupon it ascends and generates a broad region of stratiform precipitation with embedded deep, moist convection. The vertical gradient of diabatic heating in both deep, moist convection and... stratiform precipitation reduces upper-tropospheric potential vorticity (PV) through vertical redistribution. Diabatically enhanced divergent outflow above the PRE radially advects this low-PV air away from the PRE near the tropopause (Archambault et al. 2013; Grams and Archambault 2016; Keller et al. 2019). This diabatically enhanced negative PV advection aloft associated with convective and stratiform precipitation inside of the PRE is analogous to the diabatically enhanced negative PV advection aloft by a TC’s secondary circulation (Archambault et al. 2013). The diabatic processes in the PRE can also assist with anchoring and meridional amplification of the midlatitude jet primarily in the vicinity of the downstream ridge and can promote a “synergistic interaction” with the midlatitude waveguide (Bosart and Lackmann 1995; Evans et al. 2017; Grams et al. 2011; Archambault et al. 2015; Grams and Archambault 2016; Keller et al. 2019; Riboldi et al. 2019). On synoptic scales, it is often assumed that vertical diabatic-heating gradients are the primary contributors to isentropic PV non-conservation following the motion, with horizontal diabatic-heating gradients having a secondary, often negligible contribution. Consequently, the PV tendency equation along an isentropic surface is often written as follows: \[ \frac{D}{Dt} \text{ PV} \approx \frac{1}{\sigma} (\zeta + f) \frac{\partial \dot{\theta}}{\partial p}, \] (1) where $ \sigma = -(1/g)(\partial p/\partial \theta) $, $ \zeta $ is the relative vorticity, $ p $ is pressure, $ \dot{\theta} $ is the diabatic warming rate, $ \theta $ is potential temperature, $ g $ is gravity, and $ f $ is the Coriolis parameter. However, (1) does not hold in the presence of strong horizontal diabatic-heating gradients, such as those found with individual convective cells. On convective scales, deep, moist convection in a vertically sheared background flow can generate PV with values an order of magnitude larger than typical synoptic-scale PV (Chagnon and Gray 2009; Oertel et al. 2020). In a PV framework, this is represented by intense horizontal gradients of diabatic warming $ \theta $ (Chagnon and Gray 2009), which are not represented in (1) and require the fully three-dimensional form written as follows: \[ \frac{D}{Dt} \text{ PV} = -\frac{1}{\sigma} [(\nabla_\theta \times v_\theta + f/k) \cdot \nabla_\theta \dot{\theta}], \] (2) where $ v_\theta = (u, v, \dot{\theta}) $ represents the three-dimensional wind on an isentropic surface, $ \nabla_\theta = (\partial_x, \partial_y, \partial_\theta) $ represents the three-dimensional gradient operator on an isentropic surface, and $ k = (0, 0, 1) $ represents the unit vector perpendicular to an isentropic surface. This process is analogous to the tilting of horizontal vorticity into the vertical by a localized updraft that produces cyclonic and anticyclonic curvature straddling the updraft (e.g., Davies-Jones 1986). The structure of these anomalies is dictated by the direction of the vertical wind shear vector, with negative PV resulting to the left of the deep-layer vertical wind shear vector and positive PV resulting to the right of the deep-layer vertical wind shear vector (Oertel et al. 2020). Given a primarily westerly background vertical wind shear vector in the midlatitudes, convection inside of a PRE equatorward of the midlatitude waveguide between the jet and a recurving TC (Harvey et al. 2020), would produce convective-scale strongly negative PV poleward of the convective cell, against the waveguide (see Fig. 1 of Oertel et al. 2020). While the PV produced by a single convective cell are small in scale and individually insignificant on the synoptic scales, a collection of organized convective cells may cause a meaningful impact to the large-scale flow by opposing the background horizontal flow and generating a distinct negative anomaly in wind speed (Oertel and Schemm 2021). However, whether these impacts are meaningful on the meso-$ \alpha $ to synoptic scales has yet to be determined. Energy in large-scale turbulence is generally thought to cascade into progressively smaller eddies, eventually reaching the Kolmogorov scale where viscosity dominates, and turbulent kinetic energy is dissipated into heat (Pope 2000). In some cases, however, an inverse energy cascade (Kraichnan 1967) may transfer energy from smaller to larger scales (Eyink 2006a,b; Chen et al. 2006; Xiao et al. 2009). In this context, small-scale features add energy to the large-scale flow, which has been hypothesized to be supported by a “thinning” of small-scale vorticity anomalies by the large-scale flow; however, the physical mechanism by which this inverse cascade is accomplished is an ongoing discussion. This study tests the hypothesis that deep, moist convection associated with a PRE modified the synoptic-scale midlatitude waveguide in a recent TC–midlatitude waveguide interaction by way of the production of convective-scale intensely negative PV against the waveguide by deep, moist convection. A convection-allowing simulation of the PRE in advance of North Atlantic TC Irma (2017)’s interaction with the midlatitude waveguide is performed to test this hypothesis. The paper is organized as follows. A case overview, simulation configuration details, and analysis procedures are described in section 2. The simulation is verified in section 3. Section 4 diagnoses the physical mechanisms which produce and maintain the convective-scale PV anomalies. Section 5 investigates the transfer of energy in the vicinity of the PRE and the physical mechanisms which lead to these transfers of energy. A summary and discussion are provided in section 6. 2. Methods a. Case overview The PRE associated with North Atlantic TC Irma in September 2017 (Fig. 1), which caused approximately $50 billion in damage in Florida (NHC 2018), is selected for study. TC Irma’s interaction with an upstream midlatitude trough following the PRE amplified the initial downstream anticyclone, which in turn influenced the track and intensity of the downstream TC Jose (Prince and Evans 2020). At 1200 UTC 10 September 2017, TC Irma is located in the Florida Straits (Fig. 1, denoted by I) downstream of a midlatitude trough over the southeastern United States (Fig. 1). A PRE is located along the southeast U.S. coastline, poleward of TC Irma and eastward of the midlatitude trough (Figs. 1; Figs. S1 and S2 in the online supplemental material; denoted by $ P $). Upper-tropospheric outflow associated with the PRE and TC Irma’s outer rainbands is impinging upon the upstream trough’s eastern flank, as characterized by upper-tropospheric negative PV advection by the irrotational wind (Fig. 1), which subsequently strengthens the upper-tropospheric PV gradient on the trough’s eastern flank. Following this time, TC Irma favorably interacts with the upstream trough, amplifying the downstream flow, trapping TC Jose equatorward of the downstream upper-tropospheric anticyclone within a high-shear environment (Prince and Evans 2020). b. Simulation configuration A single numerical simulation is performed using the Advanced Research version of the Weather Research and Forecasting Model (WRF-ARW), version 4.0 (Skamarock et al. 2019). The WRF-ARW is a fully compressible, nonhydrostatic numerical model. A doubly nested domain is utilized, with the outer domain containing $1000 \times 1250$ horizontal grid points at a grid spacing of 9 km and the inner domain containing $1753 \times 2002$ horizontal grid points at a grid spacing of 3 km (Fig. 2). Both domains contain 50 terrain-following ($\sigma$) vertical levels, including seven vertical levels near the tropopause ($0.15 \leq \sigma \leq 0.25$). The simulation extends 180 h from 0000 UTC 9 September to 1200 UTC 16 September 2017. The initialization time ensures appropriate spinup time of circulations which the initial conditions are unable to represent before the initiation of the PRE (~1200 UTC 9 September 2017). The simulation’s long duration allows for verification of the downstream midlatitude evolution following the PRE (and, subsequently, TC Irma) with the upstream trough. Initial and lateral boundary conditions for the model are provided by 6-hourly 0.25° National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP) Global Forecast System (GFS; NCEP 2015). Physical parameterizations are selected following previous TC modeling studies using the WRF-ARW Model (e.g., Torn and Davis 2012; Ríos-Berrios et al. 2016). A full list of model configuration parameters is given in Table 1. c. PV tendency equation in isentropic coordinates The three-dimensional PV tendency equation on an isentropic surface, including nonhydrostatic effects but excluding friction, non-microphysical diabatic processes (due to the scale of these processes being several orders of magnitude smaller than the microphysical tendency), and contributions from the planetary boundary layer scheme (due to turbulent mixing being small in the midtroposphere/free atmosphere; Attinger et al. 2021) being excluded, is an expanded form of (2) comprised of adiabatic advective and diabatic non-conservative tendencies: Table 1. Model configuration. Unless specified, all parameters apply to both the outer and inner simulation domains. \| Model parameter \| Selected configuration \| \|------------------------------------------------------\|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Model version \| WRF-ARW v4.0 (Skamarock et al. 2019) \| \| Domains \| Domain 1 (outer): $1000 \times 1250 \times 50$ levels \| \| \| Domain 2 (inner): $1753 \times 2002 \times 50$ levels \| \| Duration \| 180 h, 0000 UTC 09 Sep to 1200 UTC 16 Sep 2017 \| \| Horizontal grid spacing \| Domain 1: 9 km \| \| \| Domain 2: 3 km \| \| Initial and boundary conditions \| 6-hourly 0.25° GFS operational analyses \| \| Deep cumulus parameterization \| Domain 1: New Tiedtke scheme (Zhang and Wang 2017) \| \| Microphysical parameterization \| Domain 2: No parameterization \| \| Boundary layer parameterization \| WRF single-moment 6-class scheme (Hong et al 2006a) \| \| Surface layer parameterization \| YSU (Hong et al. 2006b) \| \| Land surface parameterization \| Revised MMS scheme (Jiménez et al. 2012) \| \| Longwave radiation parameterization \| Unified Noah Land Surface Model (Tewari et al. 2004) \| \| Shortwave radiation parameterization \| RRTM scheme (Mlawer et al. 1997) \| \| \| Dudhia scheme (Dudhia 1989) \| \[ \frac{\partial \text{PV}}{\partial t} = -v_\theta \cdot \nabla_\theta \text{PV} + \text{PV} \frac{\partial \hat{\theta}_{mp}}{\partial \theta} - \frac{1}{\sigma}[(\nabla_\theta \times v_\theta + f k) \cdot \nabla_\theta \hat{\theta}_{mp}], \] (3) where $\hat{\theta}_{mp}$ represents the microphysical diabatic heating (H_DIABATIC in the WRF-ARW Model). In (3), the first right-hand-side term represents the conservative (adiabatic) three-dimensional advection of PV, the second right-hand-side term represents the non-conservative diabatically enhanced vertical redistribution of isentropic potential vorticity, and the third right-hand-side term represents the non-conservative diabatically enhanced horizontal redistribution of potential vorticity. Equation (3) is evaluated using model outputs at 3-min intervals to capture the short-lived nature of the convective elements in the simulation, with partial derivatives approximated utilizing a forward finite difference for time and a fourth-order-accurate centered finite difference for space. d. Local energy flux and the inverse energy cascade To diagnose the potential impacts of convective-scale processes on the larger-scale flow, the local energy flux, which can be contextualized as the deformation work performed on small-scale turbulent stress by large-scale strains (Eyink 2006a,b; Chen et al. 2006; Cai and Mak 1990; Rivière and Joly 2006; Xiao et al. 2009), is calculated. The local energy flux is negative when large-scale strains thin smaller-scale turbulent stresses, describing the situation where the larger-scale flow extracts kinetic energy from the turbulent anomalies. To compute the local energy flux, the filtering approach demonstrated in Meneveau and Katz (2000) is first used to define a “large-scale” ($\overline{u}_\theta$), where $u_\theta = (u, v)$ is the horizontal wind, and the $\theta$ denotes that these calculations were performed on an isentropic surface. In this approach, a “large-scale” velocity field at length scale $\ell$ is introduced using a low-pass filter: \[ \overline{u}_\theta(x) = \int dr \ G_\ell(r) u_\theta(x + r), \] (4) where $x$ is the spatial location, and $r$ is the radial extent of the window over which the integral is taken. The function defining the window is \[ G_\ell(r) = \frac{1}{\ell^2} G\left(\frac{r}{\ell}\right), \] (5) where $G_\ell(r)$ can be any Gaussian function with unit integral (sum equal to one). Following Xiao et al. (2009), $G(r)$ is defined as \[ G(r) = \sqrt{\frac{6}{\pi}} \exp(-6r^2), \] (6) where $G_\ell(r)$ represents a Gaussian convolution filter in physical space. An example of applying (6) with an arbitrary width of 67 grid points (200 km) to the two-dimensional horizontal wind on the 335-K isentropic surface is given in Fig. 3. A Gaussian convolution is selected over other potential convolution filters (such as spectral and box filters) because it is quasi-local in both physical and spectral space (Xiao et al. 2009), which allows the interpretation of the spatial properties at a particular length scale ($\ell$) of the field being filtered. Note that the large-scale $\overline{u}_\theta$, defined above is not identical to a Reynolds-averaged quantity, such that the average of perturbations is not equal to zero ($\overline{u}'_\theta \neq 0$). The local energy flux across a particular length scale $\ell$ is defined as follows: \[ \Pi_{\theta \ell}(x,t) = -\overline{S}_{\theta \ell}(x,t) \cdot \tau_{\theta \ell}, \] (7) where $\overline{S}_{\theta \ell}$ is the large-scale-strain tensor, given by \[ \overline{S}_{\theta \ell} = \frac{1}{2}[(\nabla \overline{u}_\theta) + (\nabla \overline{u}_\theta)^T], \] (8) where $\nabla = (\partial_x, \partial_y, 0)$, $\overline{u}_\theta$ is the filtered wind field defined in (4), and $\tau_{\theta \ell}$ is the small-scale stress tensor, given by \[ \tau_{\theta \ell} = (\overline{u}_\theta \overline{u}_\theta)_\ell - \overline{u}_\theta \overline{u}_\theta. \] (9) The local energy flux (7) can alternatively be viewed as a deformation work (Eyink 2006a,b; Xiao et al. 2009) done on small-scale turbulent stresses $(\tau_{iw})$ by the large-scale strain field $(\tilde{S}_{iw})$. As a reminder, negative deformation work represents the large-scale strain extracting energy from small-scale turbulent stresses, characterizing an inverse cascade of energy from small to large scales, whereas positive deformation work represents the large-scale strain transferring energy to small-scale turbulent stresses. A full derivation of (7) from the filtered two-dimensional Navier–Stokes equations can be found in Xiao et al. (2009). Although the local energy flux (7) can illustrate the direction of energy transfer in physical space, it is also helpful to evaluate the physical processes that contribute to energy changes in spectral space to view energy transfers more readily across various wavelengths. The spectral kinetic energy budget first introduced by Peng et al. (2014) and applied in Menchaca and Durran (2019) is used to do so. First, the horizontal kinetic energy budget can be defined as follows: \[ \frac{\partial}{\partial t} \text{KE}_h = T(k) + B(k) + V(k) + D(k), \] (10) where the subscript of $h$ denotes horizontal, and $k$ denotes the one-dimensional wavenumber. From right to left, the forcing terms of (10) represent the nonlinear advective transfer of energy between wavenumbers $(T)$, the conversion of available potential energy to horizontal kinetic energy (associated with buoyancy $(B)$), the divergence of the vertical kinetic energy flux $(V)$, and dissipation $(D)$. All terms are defined following Menchaca and Durran (2019). The nonlinear advective transfer term $T(k)$ is given by \[ T(k) = -\bar{\rho}\left\{\left[\mathbf{u} \cdot \mathbf{u} \cdot \nabla \mathbf{u} + \frac{1}{2} \mathbf{u} (\nabla \cdot \mathbf{u})\right]_k - \frac{1}{2} (\partial_z \mathbf{u} \cdot w \mathbf{u})_k\right. \\ + \frac{1}{2} (\mathbf{u} \cdot w \partial_z \mathbf{u})_k\right\} + \text{c.c.}, \] (11) where $\rho$ is density, $\mathbf{u} = (u, v)$, $\nabla = (\partial_x, \partial_y, 0)$, and c.c. denotes the complex conjugate of the bracketed term. Terms of the form $(\mathbf{a}, \mathbf{b})_k$ can be written as $\hat{\mathbf{a}}^(k) \cdot \hat{\mathbf{b}}(k)$, where a hat denotes the forward Fourier transform and an asterisk denotes the complex conjugate (Peng et al. 2014; Menchaca and Durran 2019). The overbar on density in (11) and subsequent equations denotes the average over the analysis domain. The buoyancy forcing term $\mathbf{B}(k)$ is given by $$\mathbf{B}(k) = c_p \overline{\rho} \theta(w, \partial_z \pi')_k + \text{c.c.},$$ (12) where $c_p$ is the specific heat at constant pressure, $\theta$ is the potential temperature, $w$ is the vertical velocity, and $\pi'$ is the perturbation Exner pressure, where $\pi' = (\overline{\rho}/p_0)^{R_d/c_p}$, with $\overline{\rho}$ being the area-averaged pressure, $p_0 = 1000$ hPa, and $R_d = 287$ J K$^{-1}$ kg$^{-1}$. The divergence of the vertical kinetic energy flux $\mathbf{V}(k)$ is given by $$\mathbf{V}(k) = -\frac{1}{2} \partial_z [\overline{\rho}(\mathbf{u} \cdot w \mathbf{u})_k] - c_p \partial_z [\overline{\rho} \theta(w, \pi')_k] + \text{c.c.}$$ (13) Finally, the dissipation term $\mathbf{D}(k)$ is calculated as a residual from (10). All terms are interpolated to height surfaces every 500 m between 5.5 and 17 km above ground level. Layer averages are then performed for the midtroposphere (5.5–9 km), upper troposphere (9.5–13 km), and lower stratosphere (13.5–17 km), which match the layers considered by Menchaca and Durran (2019). Horizontal derivatives are calculated on constant height surfaces and all partial derivatives are approximated utilizing a second-order-accurate centered finite difference. Fourier transforms are performed on one-dimensional zonal splices of data using the fast Fourier transform available in Python’s SciPy package (Virtanen et al. 2020), then averaged meridionally over the analysis domain. Given that the simulation (Fig. 2) and analysis (defined in section 5) domains are limited in area, a Tukey window is applied to the one-dimensional splices of data prior to performing the fast Fourier transform (Bloomfield 2000). This window tapered the data to zero on both ends, which will not remove all artificial noise produced by the decomposition, yet the tapering was selected to be gradual enough to minimize artificial noise produced by drastic gradients in the FFT operation. To examine energy transfer across wavenumbers, each forcing term in (10) can be expressed in terms of its cumulative sum ($\Pi_X$) over all wavenumbers $k$ (Menchaca and Durran 2019). For any variable $\mathbf{X}(k)$: $$\Pi_X(k) = \sum_{k \leq l \leq N} \mathbf{X}(l),$$ (14) where $N$ is the maximum one-dimensional wavenumber. In this framework, wavenumbers at which $\Pi_X$ has a negative slope (e.g., higher values at smaller wavenumbers) represent wavenumbers at which $\mathbf{X}(k)$ increases kinetic energy. Conversely, wavenumbers at which $\Pi_X$ has a positive slope (e.g., higher values at larger wavenumbers) represent wavenumbers at which $\mathbf{X}(k)$ decreases kinetic energy. Since $\mathbf{T}(k)$ describes conservative energy transfers between wavenumbers, the sign of $\Pi_T$ indicates whether there is an upscale or downscale cascade of energy. Consequently, positive values of $\Pi_T(k)$ indicate downscale energy transfer to larger wavenumbers whereas negative values of $\Pi_T(k)$ indicate upscale energy transfer to smaller wavenumbers. While we have discussed spectral analyses in terms of wavenumber up to this point, for ease of interpretability and physical understanding, the results in this paper will be presented in a wavelength format. For context, small wavenumbers correspond to large wavelengths, while large wavenumber correspond to small wavelengths. 3. Model verification Given this study’s emphasis on diagnosing the influence of convective-scale diabatically generated PV anomalies on the midlatitude waveguide, the verification presented herein focuses on diagnosing the extent to which the model simulation accurately predicted rainfall within the PRE and, subsequently, the tracks and intensities of TCs Irma and Jose. TC tracks are primarily dictated by tropospheric-deep mean flow (Velden and Leslie 1991), therefore accurate track (and subsequent intensity) forecasts for the two TCs are indicative of the simulation accurately capturing the large-scale flow pattern in the vicinity of the TCs. Additionally, while we acknowledge that Jose did not play a role in this study, we have elected to include verification data for it, as we hypothesize that the upstream interaction involving the PRE and Irma had an impact to Jose’s track and intensity (Prince and Evans 2020). The interaction between the upstream trough, Irma, and the PRE, appears to be well captured in the simulation, with the placement and strength of the midlatitude jet being well captured 36 h into the simulation (Fig. 1). Positioning of the precipitation inside of the PRE was also well captured by the simulation, with a distinct maximum of precipitation oriented from east to west along the 31°N (Fig. 4). While precipitation totals were generally well represented in the simulation (mean absolute error of 10 mm over the domain shown in Fig. 4), the heavier precipitation covered a smaller spatial area than observed (Fig. 4), although this may be at least be partially due to resolution differences between the two datasets. Given that our study is interested in the amount of diabatic heating occurring in the PRE, the amount of precipitation which fell (vs. positioning the precipitation) is of primary concern, which appears to have been well captured by the simulation (Fig. 4). The simulation accurately predicts TC Irma’s track and intensity (Figs. 5a,b). The TC Irma lifetime average track error is 92 km (compared to the climatological 72-h track forecast error of 191 km; Cangialosi 2018), with a slight east bias following landfall (Fig. 5a), and the TC Irma lifetime average intensity error is 6 kt (3.1 m s$^{-1}$; compared to the climatological 72-h intensity forecast error of 12.6 kt (6.5 m s$^{-1}$); Cangialosi 2018), with the simulated minimum sea level pressure and 10-m wind speeds closely resembling their National Hurricane Center best track values (Fig. 5b). Simulated track and intensity errors for TC Jose are slightly larger (Figs. 5c,d). Both the simulated and observed TCs complete an anticyclonic loop; however, the simulated TC’s loop is somewhat more circular and extends farther to the west (Fig. 5c). Despite these differences, however, the TC Jose lifetime average track error is only 83 km (compared to the climatological 120-h track forecast error of 364 km; Cangialosi 2018), with a lifetime-maximum error of 168 km at 0600 UTC 16 September 2017. Jose’s intensity forecast errors were occasionally quite large, with a peak intensity error of nearly 60 kt (31 m s$^{-1}$; compared to the climatological 120-h intensity forecast error of 14.3 kt (7.4 m s$^{-1}$); Cangialosi 2018) near the end of the simulation (Fig. 5d). These large errors are potentially driven by the small size of Jose, with the simulation being unable to depict the sharp horizontal gradients of pressure and wind near the TC’s center. The simulated intensity traces still approximately follow the same trends as what was observed until the last 36 h of the simulation. 4. Convective-scale PV anomalies production and maintenance The PRE poleward of TC Irma is associated with two major convective bursts, one between 1300 UTC 9 September and 0000 UTC 10 September 2017 (Fig. 6) and another between 0400 and 1300 UTC 10 September 2017 (not shown), within a broader region of predominantly stratiform precipitation. These convective bursts are associated with widespread intense PV dipoles along a baroclinic zone (as inferred from the large vertical wind shear; Figs. 6a,b) extending from Fig. 7. (a),(c),(e) Three-dimensional advective PV tendency [term 1 on the right-hand side of (3), shaded in PVU min$^{-1}$ per the color bar at right] and PV (black contours at $-20, -15, -10, -5, -2, 2, 5, 10, 15,$ and 20 PVU) on the 335-K isentropic surface at (a) 1433, (c) 1457, and (e) 1521 UTC 9 Sep 2017. (b),(d),(f) As in (a), (c), and (e), but for the total non-conservative tendency [terms 2 and 3 on the right-hand side of (3)]. FIG. 8. (a),(c),(e) Vertical cross section [between 300 and 380 K, zonally averaged from $80.8^\circ$ to $80.3^\circ$W (the longitudinal extent of Fig. 7) between $31^\circ$ and $31.5^\circ$N] of the three-dimensional advective PV tendency [term 1 on the right-hand side of (3), shaded in PVU min$^{-1}$ per the color bar at right] and PV (black contours at $-20$, $-15$, $-10$, $-5$, $-2$, $2$, $5$, $10$, $15$, and $20$ PVU) on the 335-K isentropic surface at (a) 1433, (c) 1457, and (e) 1521 UTC 9 Sep 2017. (b),(d),(f) As in (a), (c), and (e), but for the total non-conservative tendency [terms 2 and 3 on the right-hand side of (3)]. southwest to northeast along the southeastern U.S. coastline. Negative PV is located poleward of the corresponding positive anomalies, which is consistent with the deep-layer vertical wind shear’s direction (Figs. 6a,b). Near initiation, while the positive and negative anomalies remain together, the net circulation across the two is roughly equal to zero (not shown), indicating a minimal impact to the surrounding flow. Several hours later, the positive anomalies have largely weakened and/or remained near their initiation locations (Figs. 6c,d), whereas the negative PV becomes elongated and begin to merge into a narrow but long filament (Figs. 6e,f). By 8 h after initiation (Figs. 6e,f), the negative PV continues to persist and has propagated north of their original location immediately offshore from the southeastern U.S. coastline. Altogether, the inertially unstable negative PV persists for multiple hours after initiation. After the negative PV separates from the positive PV, the net circulation over the remaining negative PV is nonzero, thus its impact to the surrounding flow would also be nonzero. The isentropic PV tendency Eq. (3) is used to diagnose the physical processes by which the PV anomalies initiate, doing so in the context of a representative isolated convective cell embedded within the PRE (Fig. 7). Near initiation, horizontal gradients of microphysical heating dominate the right-hand side of (3), generating a PV dipole on the order of ±10 PVU in a matter of minutes (Fig. 7b). As this dipole initiates, the background wind field advects the newly generated anomalies, contributing to a nonzero advective tendency (Fig. 7a). These structures extend across an isentropic depth of nearly 30 K (Figs. 8a,b), corresponding to a layer depth of approximately 5000 m (from approximately 5000–10 000 m; not shown). The isolated updraft quickly weakens and tilts downshear, although the PV dipoles persist (Figs. 7c,d and 8c,d). Since microphysical heating is directly tied to ascent, the contributions from the non-conservative tendencies quickly dissipate, leaving the advective tendency as the sole nonnegligible contributor to the total PV tendency (Figs. 7c,d and 8c,d). This process continues forward in time (Figs. 7e,f and 8e,f), with near-zero nonconservative tendencies and nonzero advective tendencies persisting in time. Since the nonconservative tendencies are approximately zero shortly after the PV dipoles’ initiation, it is not surprising that the PV anomalies persist for multiple hours (Fig. 6). Over time, the intense localized negative and positive PV slowly weakens due to implicit numerical dampening associated with the WRF-ARW Model’s fifth-order-accurate horizontal and third-order-accurate vertical advection schemes (Skamarock et al. 2019; not shown). 5. Local energy flux and the inverse energy cascade The local energy flux and spectral kinetic energy budget diagnostics introduced in section 2d are each functions of the kinematic field, whereas the PV anomalies detailed in section 4 include both thermodynamic and kinematic structures. As might be expected, however, there is a strong correspondence between PV and kinetic energy anomalies (Fig. 9). PV anomalies directly correspond to absolute-vorticity anomalies (contours in Fig. 9), with a substantial reduction in kinetic energy between the PV/absolute vorticity anomalies (shading in Fig. 9). Between the PV anomalies, the PV anomalies’ induced circulations act against the southwesterly background flow, weakening the horizontal wind and thus kinetic energy between them (Fig. 9; Oertel and Conversely, poleward of the negative PV anomaly and equatorward of the positive PV anomaly, the horizontal wind and kinetic energy are strengthened by enhancement of the background flow by the circulations’ induced flows (Fig. 9c). Before the convective cells initiate in the PRE and produce regions of convective-scale PV/absolute vorticity, nearly all (∼90%–95%) of the spectral power of the absolute vorticity in the vicinity of the PRE is concentrated at the two largest wavelengths (1200 and 600 km; Fig. 10), which is likely driven by the size of the domain and the larger-scales having significantly more energy (not shown). By 0900 UTC 9 September 2017 (9 h into the simulation), the model has sufficiently spun up, which is highlighted by stable behavior from the 90th percentile line (Fig. 10). The percentage of spectral power concentrated at longer wavelengths decreases during the PRE’s two convective bursts (from approximately 1300 UTC 9 September to 0000 UTC 10 September 2017 and from 0400 to 1300 UTC 10 September 2017; Fig. 10). The primary increase in power for both convective bursts occur in the range of wavelengths from 300 to 60 km, which is larger than a single convective cell, yet match the approximate size of the clusters of convection identified earlier (Figs. 6 and 10). A reduction of nearly 25% in the total spectral power contribution at the largest wavelengths (from approximately 1300 UTC 9 September to 0000 UTC 10 September 2017 and from 0400 to 1300 UTC 10 September 2017 at $\lambda > 300$ km; Fig. 10) suggests a significant amount of energy which is supplied to mesoscale wavelengths before being transferred upscale and going on to have a nonzero impact to the large-scale flow (Fig. 10). While the spectral power suggests an increase in energy at meso-$\alpha$ to synoptic scales, it cannot demonstrate whether that energy is being transferred to the large scales, or not. To address this, the local energy flux is calculated in the vicinity of the PRE (Fig. 11). In the sense of the local energy flux, the localized PV, absolute-vorticity, and kinetic-energy anomalies contribute to the $u'_i$ upon which the large-scale strain $\bar{u}_i$ would act. Model-resolved convective cells are associated with positive and negative local energy fluxes (suggestive of forward and inverse energy cascades, respectively) on the meso-$\gamma$-scale (Fig. 11a). At convective-scale wavelengths, the small-scale positive and negative regions of the local energy flux largely cancel, causing the mean local energy flux to be closer to zero, albeit with a large amount of temporal variability (Fig. 11e). The local energy flux becomes increasingly negative at larger length scales, suggestive of a broad region of energy cascading from smaller to larger scales (Figs. 11b–d). Area averaging of the local energy flux reveals that at larger wavelengths the temporally and area averaged local energy flux is increasingly negative, demonstrating an inverse cascade of energy up to 1500 km in the vicinity of the PRE (Fig. 11e). To test the existence of the “thinning” mechanism mentioned earlier, the temporally averaged large-scale strain field in the vicinity of the PRE is calculated (Fig. 12). The environment between TC Irma and the upstream midlatitude trough is characterized by synoptic-scale deformation, with the axis of dilatation (red line in Fig. 12) extending from the southeastern Gulf of Mexico northeastward across Florida and along the Gulf Stream offshore of the southeastern U.S. coastline. Convective cells embedded within the PRE roughly align with this axis of dilatation, the flow associated with which performs negative work on the turbulent anomalies as it filaments them along the deformation flow (Fig. 12). The above analyses demonstrate the impacts convective cells have on the local PV and kinetic energy fields and suggest the existence of an inverse cascade of energy in the vicinity of the PRE. However, they cannot quantify the magnitude of the energy being transferred to large scales or explain the physical processes which transfer this kinetic energy to the upper troposphere. To address these limitations, the kinetic energy framework adopted in Menchaca and Durran (2019) is employed. It is found that convective cell updrafts inside of the PRE transport (by way of the vertical advective flux) kinetic energy from the lower to the upper troposphere (Figs. 13a,b), whereupon the kinetic energy is transferred upscale by way of an inverse energy cascade (Fig. 13b). This result is insensitive to the precise bounds of the PRE region depicted in Fig. 1b (not shown) and is described in detail in the following two paragraphs. The midtropospheric [5.5–9 km AGL: encompassing the lower portion of the PV anomalies induced by convection (Fig. 8)] kinetic energy budget in the vicinity of the PRE (black box in Fig. 1b) is characterized by spectral transports and buoyancy forcing that increase kinetic energy and by vertical fluxes and dissipation that decrease kinetic energy (Fig. 13a). Specifically, there is a cascade of energy from large to small scales over all wavelengths ($\Pi_T > 0$; Fig. 13a). The buoyancy force also acts to increase KE from 5.5 to 9 km over all wavelengths ($\partial \Pi_B / \partial k < 0$), which is likely driven by energy supplied by convective updrafts (Fig. 13a). The vertical advective flux, however, extracts energy away from the 5.5–9 km layer at wavelengths of approximately 75 km and larger ($\partial \Pi_V / \partial k > 0$; Fig. 13a), possibly as convective updrafts extract energy from lower levels. Additionally, the dissipative term acts to decrease KE at nearly all wavelengths and all vertical layers (Figs. 13a–c). In the mid- to upper troposphere [9.5–13 km AGL: encompassing the upper portion of the PV anomalies induced by convection (Fig. 8)], both the vertical advective and buoyancy fluxes are acting to add KE at nearly all wavelengths ($\partial \Pi_V / \partial k < 0$ and $\partial \Pi_B / \partial k < 0$), suggesting a depositing of energy by convective updrafts at higher levels (Fig. 13b). After being injected into the upper troposphere by convective updraft, the energy concentrated at wavelengths of less than approximately 200 km is cascaded from large to small scales ($\Pi_T > 0$), but for energy at wavelengths greater than or equal to 200 km, there is an inverse cascade to larger wavelengths ($\Pi_T < 0$; Fig. 13b). In the lower stratosphere (13.5–17 km), the vertical advective flux increases KE at all wavelengths (Fig. 13c). Additionally, the buoyancy term has weakened significantly at mesoscale wavelengths, likely due to the rarity of convective updrafts traveling to heights of $>15$ km (Fig. 13c). The inverse cascade of energy is no longer present and has reversed back to a cascade of energy from large to small scales over all wavelengths (Fig. 13c). 6. Summary and discussion Interactions between TCs- and midlatitude troughs are typically conceptualized as being driven by the large-scale, diabatically enhanced vertical redistribution of PV, with the smaller-scale, diabatically enhanced horizontal redistribution of PV typically neglected. However, a separate vein of research has demonstrated the existence of intense convective-scale PV dipoles generated by strong latent heating in deep moist convection. Given that diabatic processes are a potential source of forecast error in TC–trough interactions (Anwender et al. 2008), this study tests the hypothesis that deep, moist convection associated with a PRE modified the synoptic-scale midlatitude waveguide in a recent TC–midlatitude waveguide interaction by way of the production of convective-scale intensely negative PV against the waveguide by deep, moist convection. A convection-allowing simulation of the PRE in advance of North Atlantic TC Irma’s (2017) interaction with the midlatitude waveguide is performed to test this hypothesis. The physical processes that allow for convective-scale PV anomalies to modify the synoptic-scale flow can be conceptualized as follows (Fig. 14). When a convective cell initiates within a vertically sheared flow, its associated horizontal gradients of diabatic heating generate PV anomalies aligned perpendicular to the background vertical wind shear vector, with negative PV to the left of the shear vector and positive PV to the right of the shear vector (Figs. 6 and 7a,b). On the eastern flank of the upstream trough and to the north of Irma, the large-scale strain field can be approximated as having an axis of dilatation oriented from southwest to northeast (Fig. 12). This large-scale strain deforms the convectively generated PV anomalies, stretching them along the axis of dilatation (Figs. 6a,c). The newly deformed PV anomaly covers a larger area than it did before, such that from the circulation theorem its rotation rate must decrease. Due to the alignment of the deformed anomaly with the large-scale strain field, a tensile stress is applied to the large-scale strain, thus reinforcing the large-scale strain, and adding energy to the large-scale flow (Fig. 14). The inverse energy cascade is accomplished by the filamentation of the negative PV (Fig. 14). It is important to note that existence of this inverse cascade of energy is at least partially dependent on the large-scale strain field [Eq. (7)]. Meaning that, even in the absence of convective-scale processes, an inverse cascade of energy may still exist. However, the existence and alignment of the small-scale turbulent eddies with the large-scale strain field in our study likely helps to promote a stronger flux of energy from small to large scales. This study’s results largely support Oertel et al. (2020, 2021) and Oertel and Schemm (2021), each of which demonstrate that convectively generated PV anomalies align perpendicular to the background vertical wind shear vector, the negative PV separates from their positive PV counterparts, and the negative PV subsequently modifies the surrounding flow. The present study builds on these results by identifying an inverse energy cascade in the PRE’s vicinity and outlines a physical mechanism by which this cascade is accomplished following methodology presented in Menchaca and Durran (2019). Fig. 13. Cumulative transport (orange line), buoyancy (yellow line), divergence of the vertical kinetic energy flux (purple line), and dissipation (green line) forcing terms in the spectral kinetic energy budget, as calculated over the black box depicted in Fig. 1b, averaged for (a) 5.5–9 km, (b) 9.5–13 km, and (c) 13.5–17 km above ground level, and temporally averaged from 1800 UTC 9 Sep to 1200 UTC 10 Sep 2017. While this study identifies a pathway by which convective-scale processes inside of a PRE may modify the large-scale midlatitude pattern, the extent to which the results are generalizable is unclear. This study considers a single numerical simulation of a single case at a single initialization time, and further investigation over a larger sample of cases is warranted to assess the extent to which these findings are representative of all PREs and not just the PRE studied herein. Furthermore, our simulation does not inhibit larger-scale processes from occurring (e.g., large-scale stratiform precipitation) such that it cannot conclusively be said that the PRE’s modification of the waveguide is entirely driven by smaller-scale processes and an upscale energy cascade. Therefore, it cannot yet be said how much of the waveguide modification is driven by smaller scales versus how much is driven by larger scales. This study can only demonstrate that the smaller scales can have a larger-scale impacts in this study. Future studies will test this sensitivity by performing sensitivity analyses in which impacts from convection will be limited/removed by way of piecewise PV inversion (e.g., Grams et al. 2013a,b), or by modifying the diabatic warming in the PRE’s vicinity (e.g., turning off diabatic warming in a local area, removing large- and/or small-scale contributions to the diabatic warming). While this study was only applied to a PRE well to the north of Irma, it could be argued that clusters of embedded convection in the outer rainbands of a TC could be viewed in the same fashion. Due to the nature of a TC’s rotational wind field, the vertical wind shear vector around the TC would be oriented such that negative PV would always be on the outer radius. One could then view the TC as a feature which “radiates” negative PV, driven by the TC’s secondary circulation. Acknowledgments. The first author of this work was partially supported by a Distinguished Dissertation Fellowship from the University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee. This research greatly benefited from conversations with and input from Heather Archambault (Citadel), Gary Lackmann (North Carolina State University), Jeff Chagnon (Florida State University), and Sergey Kravtsov (University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee). We would also like to thank Kim Wood (Mississippi State University) for providing plotting assistance with the GOES-16 imagery. The authors thank Editor Christopher Rozoff, and three anonymous reviewers for their thoughtful and detailed suggestions that substantially improved the quality of the work. Data availability statement. The 0.25° GFS data used to initialize the WRF-ARW simulation in this study are available from https://rda.ucar.edu/datasets/ds084.1/#/description. The NHC best track and archived forecast data used in this study are available from https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/data/. 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Error Probability Analysis of IP Time To Live Covert Channels Sebastian Zander, Philip Branch, Grenville Armitage Centre for Advanced Internet Architectures (CAIA) Swinburne University of Technology Melbourne Australia {szander, pbranch, email@example.com Abstract—Communication is not necessarily made secure by the use of encryption alone. The mere existence of communication is often enough to raise suspicion and trigger investigative actions. Covert channels aim to hide the very existence of the communication. The huge amount of data and vast number of different protocols in the Internet makes it ideal as a high-bandwidth vehicle for covert communications. A number of researchers have proposed different techniques to encode covert information into the IP Time To Live (TTL) field. This is a noisy covert channel since the TTL field is modified between covert sender and receiver. For computing the channel capacity it is necessary to know the probability of channel errors. In this paper we derive analytical solutions for the error probabilities of the different encoding schemes. We simulate the different encoding schemes and compare the simulation results with the analytical error probabilities. Finally, we compare the performance of the different encoding schemes for an idealised error distribution and an empirical TTL error distribution obtained from real Internet traffic. Index Terms—Security, Covert Channels, Network Protocols I. INTRODUCTION Often it is thought that the use of encryption is sufficient to secure communication. However, encryption only prevents unauthorised parties from decoding the communication. In many cases the simple existence of communication or changes in communication patterns, such as an increased message frequency, are enough to raise suspicion and reveal the onset of events. Covert channels aim to hide the very existence of the communication. They hide within pre-existing (overt) communications channels by encoding additional semantics onto ‘normal’ behaviours of the overt channels. Lampson introduced covert channels as a means to secretly leak information between different processes on monolithic systems [1]. In recent years the focus has shifted to covert channels in network protocols [2]. The huge amount of data and vast number of different protocols in the Internet makes it ideal as a high-bandwidth vehicle for covert communications. The capacity of covert channels in computer networks has greatly increased because of new high-speed network technologies, and this trend is likely to continue. Even if only one bit per packet can be covertly transmitted, a large Internet site could lose 26GB of data annually [3]. Covert channels are primarily used to circumvent existing information security policies, to ex-filtrate information from an organisation or country in a manner that does not raise suspicions of the network owners or operators. Although network covert channels may not be used frequently today, because of increased measures against ‘open channels’, such as the free transfer of memory sticks in and out of organisations, the use of covert channels in computer networks will increase in the near future [4]. The IP Time To Live (TTL) header field limits the lifetime of an IP packet, preventing packets from living forever during routing loops [5]. A packet’s TTL is set by the sender and decremented by each network element along the path processing the packet’s IP header (e.g. routers and firewalls). Packets are discarded if their TTL becomes zero while still in transit. A number of researchers have proposed different techniques to encode covert information into the TTL field [6]–[8]. Since routers and middleboxes modify the TTL fields of packets in flight and packets can take different paths through the network the TTL covert channel is a noisy channel [9]. In this paper we derive analytical solutions for the error probabilities of three known and one new TTL covert channel encoding scheme. The motivation behind this work is that the channel capacity can be computed if the error probability is known (e.g. using existing channel models such as the binary channel [10]). We simulate the different encoding schemes and compare the simulation results with the theoretical predictions demonstrating that our analytical error probabilities are valid. We also present the characteristics of realistic TTL error distributions based on real Internet traffic obtained from traffic traces. Finally, we compare the performance of the different encoding schemes for an idealised error distribution used in the simulation and a realistic error distribution obtained from the traffic traces. The paper is structured as follows. In section II we briefly explain the basic concepts of covert channels. In Section III we define the channel error and present empirical TTL error distributions based on captured traffic traces. In Section IV we derive analytical solutions for the error probabilities of the different encoding schemes. In section V we compare the simulation results with the analytical results, and also compare the performance of the different encoding techniques for idealised and realistic error distributions. Section VI concludes and outlines future work. II. COVERT CHANNELS OVERVIEW The de-facto standard covert channel communication model is the prisoner problem [11]. Two people, Alice and Bob, are thrown into prison and intend to escape. To agree on an escape plan they need to communicate, but all their messages are monitored by Wendy the warden. If Wendy finds any signs of suspicious messages she will place Alice and Bob into solitary confinement – making an escape impossible. Alice and Bob must exchange innocuous messages containing hidden information that (hopefully) Wendy will not notice. Extending this scenario towards communication networks, Alice and Bob use two networked computers to communicate. They run some innocuous overt communication between their computers, with a hidden covert channel. Alice and Bob share a secret useful for determining covert channel encoding parameters and for encrypting/authenticating the hidden messages. For practical purposes Alice and Bob may well be the same person (e.g. a hacker ex-filtrating restricted information). Wendy manages the network and can monitor the passing traffic for covert channels or alter the passing traffic to disrupt or eliminate covert channels. Figure 1 depicts the communication model (Alice sending to Bob). ![Figure 1. The prisoner problem – model for covert channel communication](image) In computer networks Alice and Bob do not have to be the sender and receiver of the overt communication. One or both of them may act as a middleman (see Figure 2). If Alice can observe and manipulate an existing overt communication from an innocent sender that reaches Bob, she can insert a covert channel into it. Bob does not need to be the receiver of the overt communication, but merely must be able to observe it to decode the hidden information. If Bob can also alter the overt communication, he can even remove the covert channel preventing the receiver of the overt communication from discovering it. A middleman could be located for example inside a network router or inside an end host’s network stack. ![Figure 2. Communication scenarios depending on sender and receiver locations](image) III. TTL COVERT CHANNEL ERRORS In this section we analyse the sources of error for covert channels implemented through modulation of the TTL value. A covert channel bit is mapped onto a TTL value, or a succession of TTL values in a number of different ways. Although reasonably stable between two end-points, the TTL value is nonetheless subject to some noise: - Deletions of bits caused by loss of overt packets, - Bit errors caused by reordering of overt packets and - Bit errors caused by TTL modifications and path changes. In this paper we only focus on bit errors caused by TTL modifications and path changes. In future work we will work on a combined model for all the different errors. Routers and middleboxes modify the TTL fields of packets in flight and packets can take different paths through the network between covert sender and receiver. The result is that TTL values within a packet flow change between consecutive packets and this causes bit errors on the TTL covert channel. In the analysis that follows we define a ‘TTL error’ as a deviation in the TTL value from the most common (modal) value of the TTL during the life of a packet flow (identified by the 5-tuple of IP addresses, port numbers and protocol). Let the most common TTL value be $TTL_{norm}$. Then for a packet $i$ of the flow the TTL error is: $$X_i = TTL_i - TTL_{norm}. \quad (1)$$ We analysed TTL changes for seven packet traces of different size, origin and date containing a mix of traffic (including web, peer-to-peer, game, and email traffic). We only consider flows with at least four packets and at least one packet per second to limit the amount of data. The traffic traces are described in more detail in [9]. Figure 3 and 4 show the TTL error distributions for the Leipzig and Waikato trace respectively. Note that the y-axes are logarithmic and we only show error rates $\geq 1^{-7}$. ![Figure 3. TTL error distribution for the Leipzig dataset](image) The empirical error probability is less than 0.5%. Error values are largely confined between -200 and 200, and the error probability does not monotonically decrease with increasing TTL error. For some datasets there are characteristic peaks around ±64, ±128 and ±191 (see Figure 4). These peaks are caused by middleboxes manipulating the TTL field of packets. of TCP flows [9]. For space reasons we cannot show the other distributions but their main characteristics are fairly similar. IV. ERROR PROBABILITY ANALYSIS In order to determine the capacity of a channel, it is necessary to determine its error probability distribution. In this section we derive error probability distributions for a number of different covert channels that modulate the TTL in different ways. A. Assumptions Let the discrete random variable $X_i$ be the TTL error of a packet $i$. We base our analysis on the following assumptions: 1) The covert data is uniform random distributed (the probability of a 0 or 1 being transmitted is equal to $\frac{1}{2}$). This is the case if the covert data is encrypted with a cipher producing a uniform random distribution. 2) We assume that only one bit of covert data is encoded per TTL. This simplifies the analysis and intuitively also maximises the stealth of the channel (future research will investigate encoding multiple bits). 3) We assume all $X_i$ are independent identical distributed (i.i.d.) random variables and the probability distribution is stationary (reasonable assumption if the covert sender encodes covert data into multiple parallel flows). B. Direct Encoding Qu et al. proposed to encode covert bits directly into the TTL field [6]. The least significant bit in each TTL is replaced by the covert bit to be sent (see Figure 5). Since the TTL is decremented by one per hop between the covert sender and receiver, the receiver needs to know the hop count in order to decode the covert information. For direct encoding techniques the error probability only depends on the error occurring for each packet independently of other packets. Errors occur if the absolute value of the TTL error is greater than zero and an odd number. Because even errors do not modify the lowest bit, they do not cause an error in the covert channel. Since the maximum TTL value is 255 the error probability is: $$P_D = \sum_{k=-128}^{127} P(X = 2k + 1). \quad (2)$$ C. Mapped Encoding In mapped encoding schemes a 0-bit and a 1-bit are encoded as two different TTL values. Usually one of the TTL values is $TTL_{norm}$ of the packet flow and the other value is a slight modification. Qu et al. proposed encoding a 0-bit as $TTL_{norm}$ and a 1-bit as increase of $TTL_{norm}$ by some integer $\Delta$ [6]. Zander et al. proposed to encode a 0-bit as $TTL_{norm}$, and a 1-bit as decrease of $TTL_{norm}$ by some integer $\Delta$ [8]. Effectively $\Delta$ is the absolute difference between the TTL value for a logical 0 and the TTL value for a logical 1. Figure 6 shows an example for both techniques. We assume that the receiver either knows the mapping or learns the mapping by watching the TTL stream and assuming the two most common TTL values are the symbols for a logical 0 and a logical 1. Then the error probability only depends on the error occurring for each packet independently of other packets. First we derive the error probability for Za06 encoding. The error probability for $0 \rightarrow 1$ and $1 \rightarrow 0$ errors is not identical. The probability for $0 \rightarrow 1$ errors is: $$P_{0 \rightarrow 1} = P(X \leq -\left\lceil \frac{\Delta}{2} \right\rceil) \quad (3)$$ where $\lceil . \rceil$ is the ceiling function. The probability for $1 \rightarrow 0$ errors is smaller for even $\Delta$ because we assume the receiver decodes a 1-bit in case the received symbol is exactly the threshold value (value in the middle between a 0-bit and 1-bit): $$P_{1 \rightarrow 0} = P(X \geq \left\lceil \frac{\Delta}{2} + \frac{1}{2} \right\rceil). \quad (4)$$ Given assumption 1 it does not affect the overall error probability how the receiver decides at the threshold. However, in general it is best to decode the threshold value as the bit occurring most frequently in the data. The overall error probability follows from assumption 1 and Equations 3 and 4: $$P_{MZa06} = \frac{P_{0 \rightarrow 1}(\Delta)}{2} + \frac{P_{1 \rightarrow 0}(\Delta)}{2}$$ $$= \frac{P(X \leq -\left\lceil \frac{\Delta}{2} \right\rceil)}{2} + \frac{P(X \geq \left\lceil \frac{\Delta}{2} + \frac{1}{2} \right\rceil)}{2}. \quad (5)$$ Analogue the error probability for Qu04 is derived to: \[ P_{M_{Qu04}} = \frac{P(X \geq \left\lceil \frac{\Delta}{2} \right\rceil)}{2} + \frac{P(X \leq -\left\lfloor \frac{\Delta}{2} + \frac{1}{2} \right\rfloor)}{2}. \] (6) If the error distribution is symmetric $ P_{M_{Z_{005}}} $ and $ P_{M_{Qu04}} $ are identical. ### D. Differential Encoding Differential encoding encodes the covert bits as change between the TTL values of subsequent packets. Lucena et al. described a technique to modulate the IPv6 Hop Limit field (the IP TTL equivalent in IPv6) [7]. They proposed to encode one bit per packet pair where a logical 1 is encoded as TTL increase by $ \Delta $ and a logical 0 as TTL decrease by $ \Delta $ (referred to as Lu05 encoding). This technique is problematic because long series of 0 or 1 bits lead to a large decrease or increase of the TTL. Since the TTL is an 8-bit field it can actually happen that the TTL value ‘wraps-around’ in the number space. Therefore, we also analyse an improved novel differential encoding technique here. The sender encodes a logical 0 by repeating the last TTL value. A logical 1 is encoded by a TTL change, alternating between the two possible values (see Table I). The receiver decodes a constant TTL as logical 0 and a TTL change as logical 1. The scheme is similar to the Alternate Mark Inversion (AMI) coding (therefore referred to as AMI encoding). Table I Modified TTL based on covert bit and previous TTL \| Encode \| Previous TTL \| Current TTL \| \|--------\|--------------\|-------------\| \| 0 \| TTL \| TTL \| \| 0 \| TTL - $ \Delta $ \| TTL - $ \Delta $ \| \| 1 \| TTL \| TTL - $ \Delta $ \| \| 1 \| TTL - $ \Delta $ \| TTL \| Figure 7 shows an example for Lu05 and AMI encoding schemes (for the same sequence of covert bits as in Figure 6). ![Differential encoding of covert bits as TTL changes](image) Differential schemes encode covert bits as change between two TTL values and therefore the error probability depends on the difference of the two errors. Let $ Z = Y - X $ be the difference of the two TTL error distributions of two consecutive packets $ x $ and $ y $. Then the probability that $ Z $ is larger than some integer $ z $ can be computed using the discrete convolution [12]: \[ P(Z \geq z) = \sum_{n=z}^{\infty} \sum_{m=-\infty}^{\infty} P(X = n) \cdot P(Y = m + n). \] (7) For AMI encoding a $ 0 \rightarrow 1 $ error occurs when the absolute value of $ Z $ is larger then $ \frac{\Delta}{2} $ (assuming at the threshold the receiver always decodes a 0-bit). A $ 1 \rightarrow 0 $ error occurs when $ Z $ is in the interval $ \left[ \frac{\Delta}{2}, \frac{3\Delta}{2} + \frac{1}{2} \right) $ and the bit is encoded as TTL decrease or when $ Z $ is in the interval $ \left( -\frac{3\Delta}{2} - \frac{1}{2}, -\frac{\Delta}{2} \right] $ and the bit is encoded as TTL increase. This is because any TTL change larger than $ \frac{\Delta}{2} $ is decoded as logical 1. The probability that a logical 1 is encoded as increase/decrease is $ \frac{1}{2} $ given assumption 1. Then the overall error probability is: \[ P_{AMI} = \frac{P_{0 \rightarrow 1}(\Delta)}{2} + \frac{P_{1 \rightarrow 0}(\Delta)}{2} = \frac{P(\|Z\| > \frac{\Delta}{2})}{2} + \frac{1}{2}P(\left\lceil \frac{\Delta}{2} \right\rceil \leq Z < \left\lfloor \frac{3\Delta}{2} + \frac{1}{2} \right\rfloor) + \frac{1}{2}P(-\left\lfloor \frac{3\Delta}{2} + \frac{1}{2} \right\rfloor < Z \leq -\left\lceil \frac{\Delta}{2} \right\rceil)}. \] (8) For Lu05 a $ 0 \rightarrow 1 $ error occurs when $ Z $ is larger than $ \Delta $ (assuming at the threshold the receiver always decodes a 0-bit) and a $ 1 \rightarrow 0 $ error occurs when $ Z $ is smaller equal than $ -\Delta $. The overall error probability is: \[ P_{Lu05} = \frac{P_{0 \rightarrow 1}(\Delta)}{2} + \frac{P_{1 \rightarrow 0}(\Delta)}{2} = \frac{P(Z > \Delta)}{2} + \frac{P(Z \leq -\Delta)}{2}. \] (9) Note that the peak-to-peak amplitude is $ 2\Delta $ for Lu05 in comparison with all the other schemes. ### E. Error Probability Distribution The actual error probabilities can be computed based on the empirical error distribution (see Section III). Alternatively, if a theoretical model for the error exists, it can be used to compute the error probabilities. Furthermore, Chebyshev’s inequality provides a very loose upper bound on the probability independent of the actual distribution [12]. Assuming $ \sigma^2 $ is the variance and $ k $ is an integer ($ k \geq 1 $) the upper bound on the error probability is given by: \[ P(\|X\| \geq k\sigma) \leq \frac{1}{k^2}. \] (10) ## V. Simulation We simulate all encoding schemes with artificial overt traffic and measure the error rates. We then compare the error rates obtained in the simulation with the theoretical error probabilities. Since there exist no models for realistic TTL error distributions and the sole purpose of our simulation is to verify our analytical error probabilities we use a simple idealised TTL error model. ### A. Methodology A custom-build tool simulating a communication channel between covert sender and receiver performs the simulation. All encoding techniques described in Section IV have been implemented. The sender-part of the simulator encodes covert... bits into the TTL fields of a stream of artificial overt IP packets (synthetic packet trace). Afterwards, the packets TTL values are modified according to a specified error distribution to simulate the channel error. Finally, the receiver-part of the simulator decodes the covert bits from the stream of overt packets. The error rate is the number of wrongly decoded bits divided by the total number of bits. In all simulations we use uniform random covert data to avoid any bias towards specific input data. The overt data is a synthetic packet trace with approximately 42 million packets. The error is simulated using a Normal distributions with mean zero and different standard deviations $\sigma = \{0.75, 1, 1.5\}$. The values of $\sigma$ have been chosen such that the resulting error rates are in a similar range as the error rates for empirical TTL error distributions (see Section V-C). Every simulated experiment is repeated 20 times. We define $A$ as the peak-to-peak signal amplitude of the encoding schemes (difference between the signal level of 1-bit and 0-bit). Then for direct schemes $A = 1$, for Lu05 $A = 2\Delta$ and for all other techniques $A = \Delta$. We vary the amplitude within a limited range to investigate its influence on the error rate, but avoid large changes that would compromise stealth. Since the Normal distribution is symmetric the mapped error probabilities (Equations 5 and 6) give identical results. Therefore we only simulate Za06 as representative for both mapped encoding techniques. The most common TTL value $TTL_{norm}$ is always set to 128. For direct encoding schemes we assume perfect knowledge of the true hop count at the receiver. For Lu05 the receiver detects wrap-wounds meaning no additional errors are introduced because of wrap-arounds (see Section IV-D). B. Comparison of Theoretical Error Probabilities and Simulation Results For comparing the simulation results with the theoretical probabilities we use the relative root mean square error (RMSE), which is the RMSE of the simulated error rates $x_i$ compared to the theoretical error probability $\hat{x}$ divided by $\hat{x}$: $$\delta RMSE = \frac{RMSE}{\hat{x}} = \sqrt{\frac{1}{N} \sum_i (\hat{x} - x_i)^2}.$$ (11) Table II shows the relative RMSE for direct encoding. The difference between theoretical results and simulation results is very small for all $\sigma$. \| Sigma \| Relative RMSE [%] \| \|-------\|-------------------\| \| 0.75 \| 0.01 \| \| 1.0 \| 0.02 \| \| 1.5 \| 0.01 \| Figure 8, 9 and 10 show the relative RMSEs for mapped, AMI and Lu05 encoding respectively depending on the standard deviation of the error $\sigma$ and the signal amplitude $A$. The relative RMSE is generally $\leq 1.5\%$ indicating a good match between the theoretical error probabilities and the simulation results. However, there are few larger relative RMSEs in Figure 8 for $A=5.6$. These are not caused by errors in the theoretical error probabilities or the simulation, but simply by the fact when errors are rare because of small $\sigma$ and large $A$ the statistical variance of the simulation results is high. For example, the relative standard deviation (standard deviation divided by theoretical error probability) increases from $\leq 0.3\%$ for $A \leq 4$ to $\geq 2.7\%$ for $A > 4$. A larger number of overt packets in the synthetic trace or a much larger number of repetitions would lead to smaller relative RMSEs. C. Error Rates for Idealised and Empirical Error Distribution Figure 11 compares the error rates of the different encoding schemes for the idealised (Normal distributed) random noise depending on the amplitude for standard deviations $\sigma = 0.75$ and $\sigma = 1.5$ (the smallest and highest values). Note that the y-axis is logarithmic. The figure shows that for smaller $\sigma$ error rates are much lower for the same amplitude. The error rates of the AMI and Lu5 schemes are similar. Mapped encoding provides noticeable smaller error rates than the differential schemes. Direct encoding performs better than the differential schemes, but worse than mapped techniques. As shown in Section IV in reality the TTL error does not follow a Normal distribution. Figure 12 shows the error rates for the different encoding techniques and different amplitudes for the empirical TTL error distribution obtained from the Leipzig dataset (with a logarithmic y-axis). Since the empirical distribution is not exactly symmetric we consider both mapped techniques separately. For space reasons we cannot show results for other datasets. While the absolute error rates are different for the empirical error distribution when compared to Figure 11, qualitatively the performance of the techniques relative to each other is similar. Mapped techniques have the lowest error rate and the difference between both mapped schemes is small. Differential techniques have the highest error rates with AMI and Lu05 showing similar performance. Direct encoding performs better than differential encoding but worse then mapped encoding. Since the empirical error distribution has long tails, the error rate does not decrease as quickly with increasing amplitude as in the case of idealised noise (see Figure 11). Note that the empirical TTL error distributions exclude very small flows (see Section IV). While Figure 12 provides a broad indication of the real error rates, the actual error deviates if the covert channel uses any flows regardless of their size. VI. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK A number of researchers proposed encoding covert information into the IP TTL field. This covert channel is not error-free because TTL fields are modified between covert sender and receiver, and packets can take different paths through the network. In this paper we derived analytical solutions for the error probabilities of three known and one novel TTL covert channel encoding techniques. We implemented all encoding schemes and simulated their use with artificial overt traffic and idealised noise. Our results show that the simulation error rates are very similar to the theoretical error probabilities for different standard deviations of the error and different amplitudes of the encoded signal. We also presented empirical TTL error distributions of real Internet traffic obtained from different traffic traces. Finally, we compared the error rates of the different encoding schemes for idealised and empirical error distributions. There are a number of issues left for further research. We are developing a software framework for testing covert channels across real networks and for emulating covert channels with overt traffic taken from traffic traces. This software would make it possible to measure error rates in real networks and for emulated overt traffic, allowing us to compare the theoretical error probabilities with realistic error rates. We also plan extending our theoretical error probabilities to include bit errors from lost or reordered overt packets. REFERENCES [1] B. Lampson, “A Note on the Confinement Problem,” Communication of the ACM, vol. 16, pp. 613–615, October 1973. [2] S. Zander, G. Armitage, P. Branch, “A Survey of Covert Channels and Countermeasures in Computer Network Protocols,” (accepted for publication in) IEEE Communications Surveys and Tutorials, 2007. [3] G. Fisk, M. Fisk, C. Papadopoulos, J. Neil, “Eliminating Steganography in IP Packets,” in Proceedings of Workshop on Applications of 3rd International Workshop on Information Hiding, October 2002. [4] M. Van Horenbeek, “Deception on the Network: Thinking Differently About Covert Channels,” in Proceedings of 7th Australian Information Warfare and Security Conference, December 2006. [5] J. Postel, “Internet Protocol,” RFC 0791, IETF, Sept. 1981. http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0791.txt. [6] H. Qu, P. Su, D. Feng, “A Typical Noisy Covert Channel in the IP Protocol,” in Proceedings of 38th Annual International Carnahan Conference on Security Technology, pp. 189–192, October 2004. [7] N. B. Lamona, G. Lewandowski, S. J. Chapin, “Covert Channels in IPv6,” in Proceedings of Privacy Enhancing Technologies (PET), pp. 147–166, May 2005. [8] S. Zander, G. Armitage, P. Branch, “Covert Channels in the IP Time To Live Field,” in Proceedings of Australasian Telecommunication Networks and Applications Conference (ATNAC), December 2006. [9] S. Zander, G. Armitage, P. Branch, “Dynamics of the IP Time To Live Field in Internet Traffic Flows,” Tech. Rep. 070529A, CAIA Technical Report, May 2007. http://caia.swin.edu.au/reports/070529A/CAIA-TR-070529A.pdf. [10] T. Cover, J. Thomas, Elements of Information Theory. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1991. [11] G. J. Simmons, “The Prisoners’ Problem and the Subliminal Channel,” in Proceedings of Advances in Cryptology (CRYPTO), pp. 51–67, 1983. [12] C. M. Grinstead, J. L. Snell, Introduction to Probability: Second Revised Edition. American Mathematical Society, 1997.
The Structures and Bonding of Bismuth-Doped Boron Clusters: BiB$_4^-$ and BiB$_5^-$ Hyun Wook Choi, Wei-Jia Chen, G. Stephen Kocheril, Dao-Fu Yuan * and Lai-Sheng Wang * Department of Chemistry, Brown University, 324 Brook Street, Providence, RI 02912, USA * Correspondence: firstname.lastname@example.org (D.-F.Y.); email@example.com (L.-S.W.) Abstract: We present an investigation on the structures and chemical bonding of two Bi-doped boron clusters BiB$_n^-$ ($n = 4, 5$) using photoelectron spectroscopy and theoretical calculations. The electron affinities of BiB$_4$ and BiB$_5$ are measured to be 2.22(2) eV and 2.61(2) eV, respectively. Well-resolved photoelectron spectra are obtained and used to compare with theoretical calculations to verify the structures of BiB$_4^-$ and BiB$_5^-$. Both clusters adopt planar structures with the Bi atom bonded to the periphery of the planar B$_n$ moiety. Chemical bonding analyses reveal that the B$_n$ moiety maintains $\sigma$ and $\pi$ double-aromaticity. The Bi atom is found to induce relatively small structural changes to the B$_n$ moiety, very different from transition metal-doped boron clusters. Keywords: photoelectron spectroscopy; metal boron clusters; bismuth; chemical bonding; planar clusters 1. Introduction Due to its electron deficiency, boron exhibits a wide range of bulk allotropes and compounds that consist of distinct three-dimensional (3D) building blocks [1–3]. Extensive research has been conducted over the past two decades, employing a combination of experimental and theoretical studies to investigate size-selected boron clusters [4–7]. Unlike their bulk counterparts, small boron clusters predominantly exhibit two-dimensional (2D) structures composed mainly of B$_3$ triangles. Among the fascinating 2D boron clusters, the C$_{6v}$ B$_{36}$ cluster stands out as it provides the first experimental evidence for the existence of atom-thin 2D boron (borophene) [8]. Borophenes have been successfully synthesized on metal substrates [9,10], becoming a novel type of synthetic 2D material [11,12]. Another important boron cluster is B$_{40}$, which was found to have a cage structure, the first all-boron fullerene (borospherene) [13]. Numerous boron clusters doped with metals have also been generated and investigated [6,14–16], significantly extending the range of nanostructures that can be formed by boron. After the discovery of ultrahigh thermal conductivity and important electronic properties in the cubic boron arsenide [17–19], the group III–V semiconductor families have gained increasing attention. However, arsenic compounds come with a significant drawback of toxicity [20,21]. On the other hand, bismuth, the heaviest group V element, is considered to be a “green metal” due to its low toxicity [22] and has attracted interest in chemistry and material sciences [23–25]. There is also growing interest in bismuth boride [26–28], but it has not yet been fabricated thus far. Small Bi boride clusters are ideal models to investigate the bonding between bismuth and boron, which lays the foundation to understand the bulk material and may help discover new Bi-B nanostructures. Toward this goal, we have studied several Bi-B binary clusters using photoelectron spectroscopy (PES) and theoretical calculations, including BiB$_n^-$ ($n = 6–8$) [29] and several di-bismuth boride clusters Bi$_2$B$_n^-$ ($n = 1–4$) [30,31]. Most recently, we have reported an investigation of cold diatomic BiB$^-$ using high-resolution photoelectron imaging [32]. In the current article, we present a study on the structures and chemical bonding of two Bi-doped boron clusters, BiB$_n^-$ ($n = 4, 5$), using PES and theoretical calculations. Well-resolved... photoelectron spectra are measured and interpreted using the theoretical results. Both the BiB$_4^-$ and BiB$_5^-$ clusters are found to exhibit 2D structures. The Bi atom is found to be bonded to the edge of B$_4$ and B$_5$, respectively. The Bi atom is observed to induce relatively small structural changes to the B$_n$ motif in comparison to the bare B$_n$ clusters, in contrast to transition metal-doped boron clusters. 2. Experimental and Theoretical Methods 2.1. Photoelectron Spectroscopy The experiments were conducted with a magnetic-bottle PES apparatus. Details of the experimental apparatus and procedures can be found elsewhere [5] and only essential features pertaining to this work are given here. The Bi-doped boron clusters were generated by laser ablation of a disk target made of Bi and $^{10}$B-enriched boron powders (1/1 Bi/B molar ratio). The plasma induced by the vaporization laser was quenched by a high-pressure He carrier gas containing 5% Ar. Clusters from the nozzle were carried by the carrier gas and cooled via supersonic expansion. Anionic clusters in the beam were extracted into a time-of-flight mass analyzer for mass analyses and cluster size selection. The BiB$_n^-$ ($n = 4, 5$) clusters were each selected by a mass gate and decelerated before crossing a photodetachment laser beam. Three laser wavelengths were used for photodetachment, including 355 nm (3.496 eV) and 266 nm (4.661 eV) from a Nd:YAG laser and 193 nm (6.424 eV) from an ArF excimer laser. Photoelectrons were analyzed in a 3.5 m long electron time-of-flight tube of the magnetic-bottle PES spectrometer. Photoelectron spectra were calibrated with the known transitions of the Bi$^-$ atomic anion. The electron kinetic energy (E$_k$) resolution ($\Delta E_k/E_k$) of the magnetic-bottle analyzer was approximately 2.5%, i.e., about 25 meV for 1 eV electrons. 2.2. Theoretical Methods Theoretical calculations were carried out to understand the structures and bonding of BiB$_n^-$ ($n = 4, 5$) and help interpret the photoelectron spectra using the Gaussian 09 program packages [33]. Based on our prior experience [29,31], the Bi atoms tend to bond to the periphery of planar boron cluster motifs. Thus, the Bi atom was put around the planar B$_4$ and B$_5$ motifs [5,6], respectively, for the initial structural searches of BiB$_4^-$ and BiB$_5^-$ at the PBE/aug-cc-pVDZ-pp level. The low-lying isomers were reoptimized at the PBE level using the aug-cc-pVTZ basis set for B and the aug-cc-pVTZ-pp basis set with the relativistic pseudopotentials (ECP60MDF) for Bi [34–36]. We computed the adiabatic detachment energy (ADE) as the energy difference between the anion and the corresponding neutral at their optimized structures. The first vertical detachment energy (VDE$_1$) was calculated as the energy difference between the anion and neutral at the optimized geometry of the anion. Higher VDEs were calculated using time-dependent DFT (TD-DFT) calculations at the PBE/aug-cc-pVTZ level of theory at the anion geometry [37,38]. Although spin–orbit coupling effects were not treated explicitly, we have found that the computed ADEs and VDEs in general agree well with the experimental data. We have also tried the calculations using other functionals, including TPSSH, B3LYP, and PBE0. The results are similar, though the PBE results give a better fit to the experiment. The chemical bonding of BiB$_n^{-/0}$ ($n = 4, 5$) was analyzed with the adaptive natural density partitioning (AdNDP) method [39,40]. The AdNDP method has been proven to be an effective tool for understanding the bonding in boron and metal-doped boron clusters. All the AdNDP calculations were carried out with the multiwfn program [41]. 3. Results 3.1. Experimental Results The photoelectron spectra of BiB$_4^-$ and BiB$_5^-$ are shown in Figures 1 and 2, respectively, at three photon energies. Detachment transitions are labeled with letters, where X refers to detachment transition from the ground electronic state of the anion to that of the corresponding neutral. The detachment bands labeled from A to D for BiB$_4^-$ and A to G for BiB$_5^-$ represent transitions from the ground state of the anion to excited states of the neutral final states. Figure 1. Photoelectron spectra of BiB$_4^-$ at (a) 355 nm (3.496 eV), (b) 266 nm (4.661 eV), and (c) 193 nm (6.424 eV). Figure 2. Photoelectron spectra of BiB$_5^-$ at (a) 355 nm (3.496 eV), (b) 266 nm (4.661 eV), and (c) 193 nm (6.424 eV). The photoelectron spectra of BiB$_4^-$ display a relatively simple spectral pattern with well-resolved detachment transitions (Figure 1). The first VDE of BiB$_4^-$ is obtained from band X as 2.27 eV in Figure 1a. The ADE obtained from the onset of band X is 2.22 eV, which also represents the electron affinity (EA) of neutral BiB$_4$. The ADE is estimated by drawing a straight line along the leading edge of band X and then adding the spectral resolution to the intersection with the binding energy axis. There is a large energy gap between band X and the broad band A at a VDE of 3.88 eV. Band B is slightly cut off at 266 nm (Figure 1b) but fully observed in the 193 nm spectrum (Figure 1c) at a VDE of 4.31 eV. Two closely spaced bands, C and D, are observed at VDEs of 4.71 eV and 4.96 eV, respectively. No other detachment transitions are observed at higher binding energies. The ADE and all the VDEs are given in Table 1, where they are compared with the theoretical results. Table 1. The experimental adiabatic (ADE) and vertical (VDE) detachment energy for BiB$_4^-$ in comparison with the calculated values at the PBE/aug-cc-pVTZ level for the GM C$_1$ ($^1A$) structure (Figure 3a). All energies are in eV. \| VDE/ADE (exp) $^a$ \| Final State and Electron Configuration \| VDE/ADE (theo) \| \|--------------------\|----------------------------------------\|----------------\| \| X \| $^2A\{...(18a)^2(19a)^2(20a)^2(21a)^2(22a)^1\}$ \| 2.16/2.11 \| \| A \| $^2A\{...(18a)^2(19a)^2(20a)^2(21a)^1(22a)^2\}$ \| 3.68 \| \| B \| $^2A\{...(18a)^2(19a)^2(20a)^1(21a)^2(22a)^2\}$ \| 4.10 \| \| C \| $^2A\{...(18a)^2(19a)^1(20a)^2(21a)^2(22a)^2\}$ \| 4.71 \| \| D \| $^2A\{...(18a)^1(19a)^2(20a)^2(21a)^2(22a)^2\}$ \| 4.96 \| $^a$ The experimental uncertainties are ±0.02 eV. The photoelectron spectra of BiB$_5^-$ (Figure 2) exhibit more complicated and congested spectral features due to its open-shell electronic structure. At 355 nm (Figure 2a), three closely spaced detachment transitions (X, A, B) are observed. The broader band X at a VDE of 2.74 eV should represent the transition from the ground electronic state of BiB$_5^-$ to that of neutral BiB$_5$. The ADE is estimated from band X to be 2.61 eV, i.e., the EA of BiB$_5$. The A and B bands at VDEs of 2.99 and 3.15 eV, respectively, are sharp with partially resolved vibrational structures. The vibrational spacings for bands A and B are estimated to be 640 and 400 cm$^{-1}$, respectively. Following an energy gap, a series of congested detachment transitions (C to G) are observed above 4 eV. Bands C and D at 3.95 and 4.05 eV, respectively, are very closely spaced and are shown to be quite sharp at 266 nm (Figure 2b). The 193 nm spectrum reveals three more bands, E, F, and G, at 4.33, 4.86, and 5.02 eV, respectively (Figure 2c). The signal-to-noise ratios are too poor above 5 eV in the 193 nm for definitive identification of more detachment features. The ADE and all VDEs for BiB$_5^-$ are given in Table 2, where they are compared with the theoretical results. Table 2. The experimental adiabatic (ADE) and vertical detachment energy (VDE) for BiB$_5^-$ in comparison with the calculated values at the PBE/aug-cc-pVTZ level for the GM C$_s$ ($^2A'$) structure (Figure 4a). All energies are in eV. \| VDE/ADE (exp) $^a$ \| Final State and Electron Configuration \| VDE/ADE (theo) \| \|--------------------\|----------------------------------------\|----------------\| \| X \| $^1A'\{...(17a')^2(18a')^2(19a')^2(5a'')^2(20a')^0\}$ \| 2.92/2.70 \| \| A \| $^3A''\{...(17a')^2(18a')^2(19a')^2(5a'')^1(20a')^1\}$ \| 2.93 \| \| B \| $^1A'\{...(17a')^2(18a')^2(19a')^2(5a'')^1(20a')^1\}$ \| 3.25 \| \| C \| $^3A'\{...(17a')^2(18a')^2(19a')^1(5a'')^2(20a')^1\}$ \| 3.85 \| \| D \| $^3A'\{...(17a')^2(18a')^1(19a')^2(5a'')^2(20a')^1\}$ \| 3.99 \| \| E \| $^1A'\{...(17a')^2(18a')^2(19a')^1(5a'')^2(20a')^1\}$ \| 4.43 \| \| \| $^3A'\{...(17a')^1(18a')^2(19a')^2(5a'')^2(20a')^1\}$ \| 4.63 \| \| F \| $^1A'\{...(17a')^2(18a')^2(19a')^2(5a'')^2(20a')^1\}$ \| 5.03 \| \| G \| $^1A'\{...(17a')^1(18a')^2(19a')^2(5a'')^2(20a')^1\}$ \| 5.15 \| $^a$ The experimental uncertainties are ±0.02 eV. 3.2. Theoretical Results The global minima and low-lying isomers for BiB$_4^-$ and BiB$_5^-$ are displayed in Figures 3 and 4, respectively, as well as the corresponding neutral structures. The global minimum of BiB$_4^-$ (GM, Figure 3a) was found to be closed-shell ($^1$A) with a quasi-planar structure ($C_1$ symmetry) at the PBE level of theory. The B$_4$ motif of BiB$_4^-$ is similar to the global minimum of the bare B$_4$ cluster. In fact, the Bi atom can be viewed as replacing a B atom in B$_5^-$, which has a planar $C_{2v}$ structure. A 3D isomer is located for BiB$_4^-$, which is 1.30 eV above the GM structure (Iso1, Figure 3a). ![Figure 3](image) Figure 3. The global minima and a low-lying isomer of (a) BiB$_4^-$ and (b) BiB$_4$. Relative energies are given in eV and kcal/mol at the PBE/aug-cc-pVTZ level. The neutral ground state (Figure 3b) is similar to that of the anion, except that it is planar with a doublet spin state ($C_s$, $^2A''$). The low-lying isomer of neutral BiB$_4$ (Iso1, Figure 3b) is also similar to that of the anion, but it is more symmetric with $C_{2v}$ symmetry. The large energy difference between Iso1 and the GM structure of the anion is maintained in the neutral system. The computed ADE and VDEs for the global minimum of BiB$_4^-$ are compared with the experimental results in Table 1. The global minimum of BiB$_5^-$ (GM, Figure 4a) has a planar structure with a doublet spin state ($C_s$, $^2A'$). The Bi atom is bonded to the edge of a planar B$_5$ motif, which is similar to the bare B$_5$. In fact, the GM of BiB$_5^-$ is similar to that of neutral B$_6$ and the Bi atom can be viewed as substituting an apex B atom of the planar B$_6$. The next low-lying isomer of BiB$_5^-$ is 0.35 eV higher in energy than the GM structure at the PBE level, Iso1 (C$_s$, $^2$A') in Figure 4a. The B$_5$ motif in Iso1 of BiB$_5^-$ is similar to that in the GM structure, but the position of the Bi atom is different. The second low-lying isomer (Iso2, Figure 4a) is a 3D structure, being 0.98 eV higher in energy than the GM structure. In Iso2, the Bi atom is located above a pentagonal B$_5$ motif with C$_1$ symmetry ($^2$A). The triangular isomer with the Bi atom at one of the apexes is also found, but it is much higher in energy (1.78 eV above the GM). The neutral BiB$_5$ GM and its low-lying isomers (Figure 4b) are similar to the anion with the same energy ordering. The computed ADE and VDEs for the GM of BiB$_5^-$ are given in Table 2, where they are compared with the experimental results. 4. Discussion 4.1. Comparison between Experiment and Theory The experimental PES data are essential for verifying the global minima of BiB$_4^-$ and BiB$_5^-$. The assignments of the experimental PES features are presented in Tables 1 and 2 for BiB$_4^-$ and BiB$_5^-$, respectively, according to the computed VDEs for the global minimum of each cluster. The theoretical VDEs are also given as vertical bars under the 193 nm spectra in Figures 5 and 6 for BiB$_4^-$ and BiB$_5^-$, respectively. The valence molecular orbitals are presented in Figures S1 and S2 for BiB$_4^-$ and BiB$_5^-$, respectively. Figure 5. Comparison of the computed VDEs with the photoelectron spectrum of BiB$_4^-$ at 193 nm. The vertical bars correspond to computed VDEs at the PBE/aug-cc-pVTZ level of theory. Figure 6. Comparison of the computed VDEs with the photoelectron spectrum of BiB$_5^-$ at 193 nm. The vertical bars correspond to computed VDEs at the PBE/aug-cc-pVTZ level of theory. The longer and shorter bars correspond to transitions to triplet and singlet final states, respectively. 4.1.1. BiB$_4^-$ The computed VDE$_1$/ADE of 2.16/2.11 eV for the GM structure of BiB$_4^-$ at the PBE level agree well with the measured values of 2.27/2.22 eV (Table 1). Even though the isomer Iso1 also gives similar computed VDE$_1$/ADE values (2.34/2.10 eV), its energy is higher than the GM structure by 1.30 eV. Thus, it can be ruled out from any contributions to the experimental spectra. In addition, the large difference between the computed VDE$_1$ and ADE of Iso1, due to the significant geometry change between its neutral and anion (Figure 3), would suggest a broad detachment transition, which is inconsistent with the relatively sharp band X in the spectra of BiB$_4^-$ (Figure 1). The calculated VDE for higher binding energy detachment channels of the C$_1$ global minimum are compared with the experimental data in Table 1 and in Figure 5 as the vertical bars. The first detachment channel is from the HOMO (22a), a $\pi$-type MO primarily of Bi $6p_z$ character with a small contribution from the B$_4$ moiety (Figure S1). The electron detachment from the HOMO leads to a geometry change from the quasi-planar structure (C$_1$) to the planar neutral BiB$_4$ (C$_s$) (Figure 3). The narrow width of band X agrees with the small structural change between the ground state of the anion and that of the neutral (Figure S3a). Electron detachment from the HOMO-1 (21a) gives a computed VDE of 3.68 eV, which agrees well with the measured VDE of band A at 3.88 eV. The HOMO-1 is an in-plane $\sigma$-type MO, involved in B–B bonding and Bi–B bonding (Figure S1). The bonding nature of the HOMO-1 is consistent with the relatively broad band A. Electron detachment from the HOMO-2 (20a) results in a theoretical VDE of 4.10 eV, in good agreement with the measured VDE of band B at 4.31 eV. The 20a orbital is also an in-plane $\sigma$-type MO, involved in B–B bonding and Bi–B bonding (Figure S1). The HOMO-3 (19a) and HOMO-4 (18a) are an in-plane $\sigma$ MO and a $\pi$ MO, respectively (Figure S1). The calculated VDEs from these orbitals (4.71 eV and 4.96 eV) also match well with the measured VDEs of band C (4.77 eV) and band D (4.97 eV), respectively. The closed-shell GM structure of BiB$_4^-$ is responsible for its relatively simple photoelectron spectra. The computed VDEs are in good agreement with the observed spectral pattern (Figure 5), providing strong support for the quasi-planar C$_1$ GM structure of BiB$_4^-$. 4.1.2. BiB$_5^-$ The computed VDE$_1$/ADE for the global minimum of BiB$_5^-$ are 2.92/2.70 eV at the PBE level (Table 2). The computed ADE agrees well with the measured value of 2.61 eV, though the theoretical VDE is overestimated by 0.18 eV compared to the experimental VDE of 2.74 eV. The larger theoretical discrepancy is probably due to the open-shell nature of BiB$_5^-$. The computed VDE$_1$ of 2.79 eV and 2.64 for Iso1 and Iso2, respectively, at the PBE level are lower than that for the GM structure (Table S1). Very weak signals are observed on the lower binding energy side of band X. They could come from contributions of these higher-energy isomers, but their contributions to the main spectral features should be negligible. The computed VDEs for higher binding energy detachment channels of the GM structure of BiB$_5^-$ are presented in Table 2 and in Figure 6 as vertical bars. Both singlet and triplet final states are possible for detachment from the open-shell GM of BiB$_5^-$ (Figure 4a). The longer bars in Figure 6 represent triplet final states and the shorter bars represent singlet final states. Although both the GM structures of BiB$_5^-$ and neutral BiBs are planar with C$_s$ symmetry, there are significant bond length changes (Figure S3b), in accordance with the broad band X. The first detachment channel is from the 20a' SOMO of BiB$_5^-$, which is an in-plane $\sigma$-type orbital (Figure S2). The next detachment channel is from the HOMO (5a'), resulting in a high-spin ($^3A''$) and a low-spin ($^1A''$) final state. The computed VDEs for the triplet and singlet final states, 2.93 eV and 3.25 eV (Table 2), agree well with the experimental observation for band A (2.99 eV) and band B (3.15 eV), respectively. Detachment from the HOMO-1 (19a') similarly gives rise to a triplet ($^3A'$) and a singlet ($^1A'$) neutral state. The calculated VDE for the $^3A'$ triplet state (3.85 eV) is consistent with band C at 3.95 eV, whereas that for the singlet $^1A'$ final state (4.43 eV) is consistent with band E at 4.33 eV. Detachment from the HOMO-2 (18a') gives a high-spin final state ($^3A'$) with a computed VDE of 3.99 eV and a low-spin ($^1A'$) final state with a computed VDE of 5.03 eV, in good agreement with band D at 4.05 eV and F at 4.86 eV, respectively. Finally, detachment from the HOMO-3 (17a′) leads to a triplet final state (3A′) with a computed VDE of 4.63 eV and a singlet final state (1A′) with a computed VDE of 5.15 eV. Band E has a broad shoulder on the high binding energy side (not labeled), which agrees with the computed VDE of the triplet final state of the 17a′ HOMO-3, whereas the singlet final state is assigned to band G at 5.02 eV. The open-shell nature of BiB$_5^-$ results in the congested spectral features, making their definitive assignment rather challenging. Nevertheless, the overall spectral pattern from the computed VDEs is in reasonable agreement with the experiment, as shown in Figure 6, providing credence for the C$_8$ GM structure of BiB$_5^-$. 4.2. Chemical Bonding in the Bismuth–Boron Clusters To gain insights into the structures and bonding of the BiB$_4^-$ and BiB$_5^-$ clusters, we conducted AdNDP analyses, as depicted in Figures 7 and 8, respectively. The 6s$^2$ electrons of the Bi atom are strongly stabilized due to the relativistic effects [42], rendering them less active in chemical bonding. Consequently, chemical bonding in Bi compounds primarily involves the 6p orbitals with little sp hybridization. The 6s$^2$ electrons remain as a lone pair in all bismuth–boron clusters [29–32]. Similarly, we find a 6s$^2$ lone pair in the current bismuth–boron clusters, whereas the 6p$_x$ and 6p$_y$ orbitals participate in σ-bonding with the B$_n$ moiety and the 6p$_z$ orbital engages in π-bonding with the B$_n$ moiety. Because of the large size of the Bi atom and the strong B–B bonds, it is not favorable for the Bi atom to insert into the B$_n$ moiety. Thus, in both BiB$_4^-$ and BiB$_5^-$ we find that the Bi atom is bonded to the edge of the planar B$_n$ moiety, similar to other binary Bi-B clusters [29,31]. Figure 7. AdNDP bonding analysis for the global minimum structure of BiB$_4^-$. ON stands for occupation number. Figure 8. AdNDP bonding analysis for the global minimum structure of BiB$_5^-$. ON stands for occupation number. In addition to the 6s lone pair, the AdNDP analysis for BiB$_4^-$ (Figure 7) reveals four two-center two-electron (2c-2e) $\sigma$-bonds (three B–B bonds and one Bi–B bond) on the edge of the quasi-planar BiB$_4^-$ cluster, one 2c-2e Bi–B $\pi$-bond, one delocalized 3c-2e $\sigma$-bond (BiB$_2$), one delocalized 4c-2e $\sigma$-bond, and one delocalized 4c-2e $\pi$-bond on the B$_4$ moiety. Each of the delocalized 4c-2e $\sigma$- and $\pi$-bonds satisfies the $4N + 2$ Hückel rule for aromaticity, rendering the B$_4$ moiety doubly aromatic, similar to the doubly aromatic bare B$_4$ cluster [43]. Thus, the BiB$_4^-$ cluster can be considered as Bi bridge-bonded to a doubly aromatic B$_4$ cluster. It should be noted that the Bi atom has two different Bi–B bonds (2.20 and 2.41 Å) in BiB$_4^-$ (Figure S3a). The shorter Bi–B bond is similar to a Bi=B double bond according to Pyykkö’s self-consistent atomic covalent radii of B and Bi (2.19 Å) [44]. The double Bi–B bond is borne out by the AdNDP analysis (Figure 7), where a 2c-2e Bi–B $\sigma$-bond and a 2c-2e Bi–B $\pi$-bond are clearly seen. The longer Bi–B bond in BiB$_4^-$ is actually weaker than a single Bi–B bond (2.36 Å according to Pyykkö’s covalent atomic radii), because the longer Bi–B bond is involved in the delocalized 3c-2e $\sigma$-bond. The Bi atom induces relatively small structural changes to the B$_4$ moiety compared to the bare B$_4$. This bonding situation is very different from transition metal MB$_4$ clusters [16], where the strong M–B bonding can completely change the B$_4$ moiety relative to the bare B$_4$. For example, the ReB$_4^-$ cluster has a pentagonal structure and displays Möbius aromaticity due to the strong participation of the Re 4$d$ orbitals in chemical bonding with boron [45,46]. For BiB$_5^-$, we chose to conduct the AdNDP analysis on the closed-shell BiB$_5$ neutral for convenience, as shown in Figure 8. The AdNDP results reveal the expected 6s lone pair on Bi, three 2c-2e $\sigma$-bonds (two B–B bonds and one Bi–B bond) on the periphery of the planar BiB$_5$ cluster, three delocalized 3c-2e $\sigma$-bonds (two over two B$_5$ units and one over the BiB$_2$ unit), one delocalized 3c-2e $\pi$-bond over the BiB$_2$ unit, one delocalized 5c-2e $\pi$-bond, and one delocalized 5c-2e $\sigma$-bond over the B$_5$ moiety. The delocalized $\sigma$- and $\pi$-bonds over the B$_5$ moiety render it doubly aromatic, similar to the bare B$_5$ cluster [43]. Thus, BiB$_5$ can be viewed as a Bi atom bridge-bonded to the periphery of the B$_5$ moiety. The two Bi–B bonds in BiB$_5$ are also asymmetric, similar to those in BiB$_4^-$. Again, the Bi atom in BiB$_5$ induces relatively small changes in the B$_5$ moiety in comparison to the bare B$_5$ cluster, very different from transition metal MB$_5$ clusters [26]. For example, the TaB$_5$ cluster has a fan-shaped structure, in which the Ta atom is bonded to all five B atoms. We found that the larger BiB$_n^-$ ($n = 6–8$) clusters behave similarly [29], in that their GM structures can be viewed as Bi bonded to the edge of the planar B$_n^-$ clusters, respectively. 5. Conclusions In conclusion, we report an investigation of the structures and bonding of two Bi-doped boron clusters, BiB$_4^-$ and BiB$_5^-$, using photoelectron spectroscopy. Well-resolved photoelectron spectra are obtained and interpreted using theoretical calculations. Electron affinities of BiB$_4$ and BiB$_5$ are measured to be 2.22(2) eV and 2.61(2) eV, respectively, and the experimental vertical detachment energies are compared with theoretical calculations to verify the structures of BiB$_4^-$ and BiB$_5^-$. The BiB$_4^-$ cluster is found to be quasi-planar with C$_1$ symmetry ($^1$A), whereas BiB$_5^-$ is found to be planar with C$_s$ symmetry ($^2$A'). Chemical bond analyses show that the Bi atom is bridge-bonded on the periphery of the respective B$_n$ clusters with relatively small structural change relative to the bare B$_n$ clusters. The two Bi–B bonds in the two clusters are asymmetric with a Bi=B double bond and a weak Bi–B single bond in both clusters. Supplementary Materials: The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/inorganics11100405/s1. Figure S1. The valence MOs of the global minimum of BiB$_4^-$ ($C_1$, $^1$A). Figure S2. The valence MOs of the global minimum of BiB$_5^-$ ($C_s$, $^2$A'). Figure S3. The bond lengths (in Å) for (a) the ground state of BiB$_4^-$ ($C_1$, $^1$A) and BiB$_4$ ($C_s$, $^2$A'') and (b) the ground state of BiB$_5^-$ ($C_s$, $^2$A') and BiB$_5^-$ ($C_s$, $^1$A'). Author Contributions: Conceptualization, H.W.C., W.-J.C. and L.-S.W.; methodology, H.W.C. and L.-S.W.; formal analysis, H.W.C.; investigation, H.W.C., W.-J.C., G.S.K., D.-E.Y. and L.-S.W.; data curation, H.W.C. and W.-J.C.; writing—original draft preparation, H.W.C.; writing—review and editing, W.-J.C., G.S.K., D.-E.Y. and L.-S.W.; supervision, L.-S.W.; funding acquisition, L.-S.W. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. Funding: This work was supported by the National Science Foundation under grant CHE-2053541. Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available from the corresponding authors upon reasonable request. 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Chem. 2012, 4, 1495–1523. [CrossRef] 26. Madouri, D.; Ferhat, M. How do electronic properties of conventional III–V semiconductors hold for the III–V boron bismuth BBi compound? Phys. Status Solidi B 2005, 242, 2856–2863. [CrossRef] 27. Cui, S.; Feng, W.; Hu, H.; Feng, Z.; Wang, Y. First principles studies of phase stability, electronic and elastic properties in BBi compound. Comput. Mater. Sci. 2010, 47, 968–972. [CrossRef] 28. Bagci, S.; Yalcin, B.G. Structural, mechanical, electronic and optical properties of BBi, BP and their ternary alloys BBi$_{1-x}$P$_x$. J. Phys. D Appl. Phys. 2015, 48, 475304. [CrossRef] 29. Chen, W.J.; Kulichenko, M.; Choi, H.W.; Cavanagh, J.; Yuan, D.F.; Boldyrev, A.I.; Wang, L.S. Photoelectron spectroscopy of size-selected bismuth–boron clusters: BiB$_n^-$ ($n = 6–8$). J. Phys. Chem. A 2021, 125, 6751–6760. [CrossRef] 30. Jian, T.; Cheung, L.F.; Chen, T.T.; Wang, L.S. Bismuth–boron multiple bonding in BiB$_2$O$^-$ and Bi$_2$B$^-$. Angew. Chem. Int. 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Mauksch, M.; Tsogoeva, S.B. Demonstration of “Möbius” aromaticity in planar metallacycles. Chem. Eur. J. 2010, 16, 7843–7851. [CrossRef] Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.
THE SOUND ENGINEERING MAGAZINE MARCH 1979 $1.95 www.americanradiohistory.com Make your reputation for fine sound with the same speakers that made ours. And application assistance is as close as Secaucus, N.J. Now you can have the same excellent speakers and the same kind of technical expertise that helped earn the Panasonic and Technics reputations for superior sound. For openers, we'll send you a catalog full of first class speakers for virtually every application—from hi-fi and home entertainment, to TV, automotive and industrial. And to help you make the most of all that fine sound, we offer you a team of skilled audio engineers and a fully equipped lab in Secaucus, N.J. Just say the word, and they're ready to help. From laying out a crossover network to designing a completely new speaker system just for you. And we can get them for you a lot faster than you might think possible. Before you settle for just any sound, send for our catalog and get all the details on Panasonic sound. The kind that helped us make our reputation. You'll be surprised at the very low, competitive prices. And glad to know that many of our popular speakers are stocked in Secaucus, N.J. and Chicago, Ill., ready for immediate shipment to you. Write or call Panasonic Electronic Components, One Panasonic Way, Secaucus, N.J. 07094. (201) 348-7722. Panasonic® just slightly ahead of our time 2. Sound Recording. John M Earle A graphic non mathematical treatment of recording devices, systems and techniques, and their applications. Covers psychoacoustics, physical acoustics, console automation signal processing, monitor loudspeakers, basic microphone types, audio control systems, stereophonic and quadraphonic sound, magnetic and disk recording, and devices used to modify basic recorded sounds. 320 pages $17.95 3. Acoustic Design. M Rettinger New. THIRD edition, completely revised. Covers room acoustics and room design, with many practical examples. 1977 287 pages $19.50 38. Television Broadcasting: Equipment, Systems, and Operating Fundamentals. Harold E Ennes An extensive text covering fundamentals of the entire television broadcasting system. Discusses NTSC color systems, camera chains, sync generators, recording systems, mobile and remote telecasts, TV antenna systems. Excellent for new technicians and operators as a source of valuable reference data for practicing technicians. Tables, glossary, exercises and answers. 656 pages $16.95 39. Reference Data for Radio Engineers. ITT Staff 5th Ed. The latest edition of one of the most popular reference books for radio and electronics engineers, as well as for libraries and schools. Complete, comprehensive reference material with tables, formulas, standards and circuit information. 45 chapters, 1,196 pages with hundreds of charts, nomographs, diagrams, curves, tables and illustrations. Covers new data on micro-miniature electronics, switching networks, quantum electronics, etc. $30.00 1. The Technique of the Sound Studio. Alec Nisbett A handbook on radio and recording techniques whose described principles are equally applicable to film and television sound. 60 diagrams, glossary, index. 264 pages Clothbound $14.50 4. Noise Control. M Rettinger Revised and enlarged into a separate volume. Covers noise and noise reduction, measurement and control. Several graphs and charts. 1977 App 400 pages $22.50 20. The Audio Cyclopedia (2nd ed.). Dr Howard M Tremaine Here is the complete audio reference library in a single, updated volume. This revised edition provides the most comprehensive information on every aspect of the audio art. It covers the latest audio developments, including the most recent solid-state systems and integrated circuits, and spans all subjects in the fields of acoustics, recording, and reproduction with more than 3,400 related topics. Each topic can be instantly located by a unique index and reference system. More than 1,600 illustrations and schematics help make complicated topics masterpieces of clarity. 1,760 pages Hardbound. $39.95 25. Operational Amplifiers-Design and Applications. Burr-Brown Research Corp A comprehensive new work devoted entirely to every aspect of selection, use, and design of op amps—from basic theory to specific applications. Circuit design techniques include i c op amps. Applications cover linear and nonlinear circuits, A/D conversion techniques, active filters, signal generation, modulation and demodulation. Complete test circuits and methods. 624 pages $18.95 5. Sound Recording Practice. John Borwick Comprehensive handbook designed for the user of studio and electronic equipment. Articles by British experts on the studio and control room recording techniques for speech, drama, classical etc., special problems of broadcasting, television, disc and tape manufacture. 1976 440 pages $35.25 31. Solid-State Electronics. Hibbard A basic course for engineers and technicians, and an extremely practical reference book for anyone who wants to acquire a good, general understanding of semiconductor principles. Features questions and answers, problems to solve. 1968 169 pages $19.50 16. Magnetic Recording. Chas E Lowman A valuable reference guide to the technology of magnetic recorders used in audio recording, broadcast and closed-circuit TV, instrument recording and computer data systems. Includes the latest information on cassette and cartridge recorders; TV recorders; direct and FM signal electronics from low to wideband; servo-control and signal record/playback circuitry; capstan, reel, and head drum servos for longitudinal, rotary, helical-scan, and disc recorders. Glossary, index, bibliographical information. 274 pages $26.50 37. Television Broadcasting: Systems Maintenance (2nd ed.). Harold E Ennes A thorough treatment of modern television maintenance practice, covering maintenance of the TV broadcasting system from switcher inputs to antenna. Discusses theory and operation of systems tests and measurements, including proof of performance for both visual and aural portions of the installation. 624 pages $18.95 32. Circuit Design for Audio AM/FM, and TV. Texas Instruments Texas Instruments Electronics Series. Emphasizing time- and cost-saving procedures, this book discusses advances in design and application as researched and developed by TI communications applications engineers. 1967 352 pages. $26.50 35. An Alphabetical Guide to Motion Picture, Television, and Videotape Productions. Levitan This all-inclusive authoritative encyclopedia is a practical source of information about techniques of all kinds used for making and processing film and TV presentations. Profusely illustrated, with full technical information on materials and equipment, processes and techniques, lighting, color balance, special effects, animation procedures, lenses and filters, high-speed photography, etc. 1970 480 pages $34.95 33. Noise Reduction. Beranek Designed for the engineer with no special training in acoustics, this practical text on noise control treats the nature of sound and its measurement, fundamentals of noise control criteria, and case histories. Covers advanced topics in the field. 1960 752 pages. $32.85 28. Environmental Acoustics. Leslie L Doelle Applied acoustics for people in environmental noise control who lack specialized acoustical training, with basic, comprehensible, practical information for solving straightforward problems. Explains fundamental concepts with a minimum of theory. Practical applications are stressed, acoustical properties of materials and construction are listed, actual installations with photos and drawings are included. Appendices illustrate details of 53 wall types and 32 floor plans, and other useful data. 246 pages $29.50 "Unequivocally, this is by far the best text on microphones we've ever seen." — Stereo "So well written that it can be clearly understood by a non-technical person; for the professional it will probably be one of the most-used books in his reference library." — Journal of the SMPTE And the rave reviews go on and on. "At last...a decent book on microphones," said David Lane Josephson in Audio. "Excellent chapters on various aspects of microphones, which are discussed in great detail," said Werner Freitag in The Journal of the AES. They're applauding Microphones: Design and Application, by Lou Burroughs, who has written this practical, non-theoretical reference manual for everyone involved in the application of microphones for tv, motion pictures, recording and sound reinforcement. Twenty-six fact-packed chapters cover the field of microphones from physical limitations, electro-acoustic limitations, maintenance and evaluation to applications, accessories and associated equipment. Each chapter is crammed with experience-tested, detailed information, and clear, precise diagrams and illustrations that complement the text. Along with down-to-earth advice on trouble-free microphone applications, Lou Burroughs unfolds dozens of invaluable secrets learned during his more than three decades of achievement in the field. He solves the practical problems you meet in everyday situations, such as: - When would you choose a cardioid, omni-directional, or bi-directional mic? - How are omni-directional mics used for orchestral pickup? - How does dirt in the microphone rob you of response? - How do you space your microphones to bring out the best in each performer? Microphones: Design and Application. As Stereo put it, "It's a hard book NOT to learn from." Order your copies today. --- Sagamore Publishing Co., Inc. 1120 Old Country Rd., Plainview, N.Y. 11803 Yes! Send MICROPHONES: DESIGN AND APPLICATION. ___ hardcover, $20.00 ___ paperback, $12.95 Name ____________________________________________ Address __________________________________________ City/State/Zip ______________________________________ Total Payment Enclosed $ Please charge my ___ Master Charge ___ BankAmericard (Visa) Account No. _________________________________ Expiration Date _______________________________ Signature ________________________________________ (charges not valid unless signed) In New York State add applicable sales tax. Outside U.S. add $1.00 per book for postage. Coming Next Month - In April, we'll take a look at what's new in test equipment, and testing procedures. Wayne Jones will get things underway with a survey of recent developments in audio tests and measurements. We'll also have a close look at those X-Y plotters briefly mentioned in this month's Time-Alignment feature. And a report on some new methods of amplifier evaluation, including 3-D testing. - In case you thought that PCM is the only way to go digital, we'll have something to say about Delta Modulation. And speaking of digital, we might even have a quick look at a new digital tape recorder or two. - And, what about some more audio problem solving, using programmable calculators and computers? And, a status report on—finally!—f.m. quad. All this, and more, in the April issue of db—the Sound Engineering Magazine. About The Cover - The SACMEX Centro de Grabacion—studio A, which is nearly one hundred feet in diameter. John Woram's article on this new Mexico City complex begins on page 37. PURE PRO audio design introduces the remarkable 3535 LOG-8 Microphone Mixer with Voice-Entrée™ option Permits the activation and simultaneous use of multiple microphones without feedback and does the job automatically—no operator, no manual adjustments required... ASK FOR DESCRIPTIVE FOLDER LOOK TO RAULAND FOR EVERYTHING IN PROFESSIONAL SOUND Spectrum-Master Equalization (Patented): Most complete line available. Includes 1/3 and 1-octave models, test set, and tunable notch filter. Spectrum-Master In-Wall Amplifiers: Available in 35-watt, 60-watt, 100-watt outputs. Each with built-in 1-octave equalizer and D.R.E. Spectrum-Master Amplifiers: Incomparable Model DX (5-year warranty) and TAX amplifiers, from 70 to 250 watts RMS to meet any professional audio requirement. Spectrum Series Speakers: Professional quality two-way speaker systems embodying superior components in advanced system designs. WRITE FOR TECHNICAL BULLETINS The Quality Name in Professional Audio RAULAND-BORG CORPORATION 3535 W. Addison St., Dept. N., Chicago, Ill. 60618 db Calendar MARCH 20- Hilton Inn, Salt Lake City. 22- Utah. For registration forms or information on either seminar, contact: SYN-AUD-CON, P.O. Box 1134, Tustin, CA 92680. (714) 838-2288. 25- National Association of Broadcasters (NAB) Convention, Dallas Convention Center, Dallas, Texas. For more information contact: Dallas Convention & Visitor's Bureau, Dallas Chamber of Commerce, 1507 Pacific Avenue, Dallas, Tex. 75021 (214) 651-1020. APRIL 2-5 First Annual Architectural Acoustics Exposition and Seminar, Hyatt Regency O'Hara, Chicago, Ill. Contact: Wayne V. Montone, Executive Director, 464 Armour Circle, N.E., Atlanta, Georgia 30324. 10-12 Synergetic Audio Concepts Sound Engineering Seminar: Sheraton Harbor Island, San Diego, CA. For registration forms or information, contact: SYN-AUD-CON, P.O. Box 1134, Tustin, CA 92680. (714) 838-2288. 23-26 Audio-Visual '79, Wembley Conference Centre, London. Contact: British Information Services, 845 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10022. (212) 752-8400. MAY 12 1979 Midwest Acoustics Conference, Topic: Digital Technology: Impact on Recorded Sound, Norris Center, Northwestern University. Contact: William R. Bevan, Shure Bros., Inc., 222 Hartrey Ave., Evanston, Illinois 60204. (312) 866-2364. 15-18 63rd AES Convention (Los Angeles), Los Angeles Hilton, California; Chairman will be Martin Polon, Director, Audio Visual, U.C.L.A., C.A.S.O., Rice Hall 130, 405 Hilgard, Los Angeles, Calif. 90024. (213) 825-8981. 22-24 Synergetic Audio Concepts Sound Engineering Seminar: Sheraton-Universal Hotel, No. Hollywood, CA. SYN-AUD-CON, P.O. Box 1134, Tustin, CA 92680. (714) 838-2288. Index of Advertisers ADC 41 Ampex 32, 33 Audio & Design Recording 29 BGW Systems 13 Bogen 49 Bose Corporation 7 BTX Corporation 29 CBS 43 Eastman School of Music 22 EKKOR 26 Electro-Voice, Inc. 9 Garner Industries 53 Industrial Research Products 6 Inovionics 12 J&R Music World 22 JBL 26 Ken Schafer Group 4 Leader Instruments 25 Midwest Acoustics Conference 16 Neptune Electronics 14 Northwest Sound 8 Orban Associates 17 Otarin 15, Cover 3 Panasonic Electronic Components Division Cover 2 QSC Audio Products 23 Quad-Eight Cover 4 Rauland-Borg 2 Recording Supply Co. 24 Sabor Corporation 10 Sescom 24 Shure Brothers 3 Soundcraftsmen 27 Standard Tape Labs 20 Stanton Magnetics 19 Technics by Panasonic 21 Tentec 44 UREI 5 Waters Manufacturing 18 White Instruments 10 Yamaha 11 db Sales Offices THE SOUND ENGINEERING MAGAZINE New York 1120 Old Country Rd. Plainview, N.Y. 11803 516-433-8530 Roy McDonald Associates, Inc. Dallas Stemmons Tower West, Suite 714 Dallas, Texas 75207 214-637-2444 Denver 3540 South Poplar St. Denver, Colo. 80237 303-758-3325 Houston 3130 Southwest Freeway Houston, Tex. 77006 713-529-8711 Los Angeles 500 S. Virgili, Suite 360 Los Angeles, Cal. 90020 213-381-6106 Portland 2035 S. W. 58th Ave. Portland, Ore. 97221 503-292-8521 San Francisco Suite 265, 5801 Christie Ave. Emeryville, Cal. 94608 415-653-2122 Circle 28 on Reader-Service Card fact: this condenser microphone sets a new standard of technical excellence. & it sounds superb! The Shure SM81 cardioid condenser is a new breed of microphone. It is a truly high-performance studio instrument exceptionally well-suited to the critical requirements of professional recording, broadcast, motion picture recording, and highest quality sound reinforcement — and, in addition, is highly reliable for field use. Shure engineers sought — and found — ingenious new solutions to common problems which, up to now, have restricted the use of condenser microphones. Years of operational tests were conducted in an exceptionally broad range of studio applications and under a wide variety of field conditions. As the following specifications indicate, the new SM81 offers unprecedented performance capability — making it a new standard in high quality professional condenser microphones. SM81 puts it all together! - WIDE RANGE, 20 Hz to 20 kHz FLAT FREQUENCY RESPONSE. - PRECISE CARDIOID polar pattern, uniform with frequency and symmetrical about axis, to provide maximum rejection and minimum coloration of off-axis sounds. - EXCEPTIONALLY LOW (16 dBA) NOISE LEVEL. - 120 dB DYNAMIC RANGE. - ULTRA-LOW DISTORTION (right up to the clipping point!) over the entire audio spectrum for a wide range of load impedances. MAXIMUM SPL BEFORE CLIPPING: 135 dB, 145 dB with attenuator. - WIDE RANGE SIMPLEX POWERING includes DIN 45 596 voltages of 12 and 48 Vdc. - EXTREMELY LOW RF SUSCEPTIBILITY. - SELECTABLE LOW FREQUENCY RESPONSE: Flat, 6 or 18 dB/octave rolloff. - 10 dB CAPACITIVE ATTENUATOR accessible without disassembly and lockable. Outstanding Ruggedness Conventional condenser microphones have gained the reputation of being high quality, but often at the expense of mechanical and environmental ruggedness. This no longer need be the case. The SM81 transducer and electronics housing is of heavy-wall steel construction, and all internal components are rigidly supported. (Production test SM81's must be capable of withstanding at least six random drops from six feet onto a hardwood floor without significant performance degradation or structural damage.) It is reliable over a temperature range of -20° F to 165° F at relative humidities of 0 to 95%! Send for a complete brochure on this remarkable new condenser microphone! (AL577) SM81 Cardioid Condenser Microphone Shure Brothers Inc., 222 Hartrey Ave., Evanston, IL 60204. In Canada, A. C. Simmonds & Sons Limited Manufacturers of high fidelity components, microphones, sound systems and related circuitry. MACHINES THAT DO WILD & CRAZY THINGS For 5 years we've done it for the world's chart topping performers and multi-track studios. Our magic black boxes make real-time productions sound as good as overdubbed records. Eventide's H910 Harmonizer™ and 1745M Digital Audio Delay Lines. The most versatile special effects units ever packaged. Multiple output DDLs with pitch change (± 1 octave) capability. Dynamic range >90dB. From $1500. Multiply voices in harmony or unison, flange. A dozen categories of echo, from subtle thickening to the bizarre: change tape speeds without changing pitch. BD955 Broadcast Delay Replace your profanity loop with a maintenance-free BD955 and its "Dump & Go" — hit a remote "Dump" switch and it's back to real-time while the show continues. The 955's amazing "Catchup" feature builds to full delay and eliminates the need for profanity-fill carts. Off the air, a full production delay line. Monstermat™ Ensures compatibility between mono & stereo carts plus provides full dbx™ encoding and decoding for audibly improved signal to noise. Schaffer-Vega Wireless For the cleanest, most reliable wireless ever, Schaffer-Vega Diversity Systems and full duplex communication/ENG systems offer magnitudinal improvement over any wireless you've used before. KEN SCHAFFER GROUP INC. 10 E. 49 St. N.Y.C. 10017 (212) 371-2335 WILD IDEAS THAT WORK Circle 20 on Reader Service Card db Letters TO THE EDITOR: If issue must be taken with Mr. Dunn's letter, I feel it is over his rather subjective statement about making music "sound better." The classic communications model, in simplified form, is communicator, transmission path, and receiver. Mr. Dunn would seemingly change this to communicator, interpreter, and receiver. Rather like the t.v. network censor, he apparently feels that he, rather than the artist or listener, should have the final say over the message content. If the artist deemed a 60 dB separation necessary between the drum and the triangle, I might well disagree personally, but professionally I realize that, as a broadcaster, my function is to let the artist stand the test of the listener to the very best of my technical ability. Please don't read into this, agreement with your "Unknown Engineer"—I am forced to disagree with his viewpoint just as strongly. To best serve the interest of both artist and listener requires an understanding of the limitations of both the medium and the receivers the listener is forced to use. Perhaps it is ultimately impossible to serve both perfectly, but the various devices the engineers supposedly foist on us are designed to make closer approximations of this goal possible. Commenting on the Chris Edwards letter, I would like to note that although the ARB indicates greater numbers for radio in general, it does seem to be the case that a smaller percentage of the available population is listening—and for shorter periods of time. If it is true that the "punch out" factors in radio, such as poor commercials, stop sets with no real content, and perhaps the lack of control over the play list, are offset by the drawbacks of playing your own music, dead "air" between cuts, and of course the purchase and care of the material; then perhaps the decline represents listeners who are tired of the program directors' interpretation of what "sounds good." Objectively, doesn't it seem somewhat odd for a program director to decide that Stevie Wonder needs tempo enhancement, Roberta Flack needs more punch, Neil Diamond more compression, and that Fleetwood Mac's latest cut isn't bright enough? This, in the most general case, results from someone whose musical background consists of listening to 45s for 10 years at a peanut-whistle station. MARSHALL P. BROWN Chief Engineer KTKT, Tucson, AZ. TO THE EDITOR: I started last fall to answer your "anonymous chief" (db, September 1978) and now I can no longer hold back my two cents worth. As chief of a thousand watt class-IV, I am always looking for ways to better compete with my more powerful neighbors. Only recently have I seen the way—Limiters! Every limiter you see advertised offers you at least three dB over anything you are now doing, witness this quote from a 1940 brochure for my Western Electric 1126 type limiter: "The 1126A . . . will give a 5 db (sic) increase in average signal level . . . ." Now, all I need in order that I may equal my 50 kilowatt friends is approximately 16.989700004 dB more signal power. So, if I place about five or six of these new limiters head to tail—I shall be there! More seriously, my job as engineer is to give the management and program people the kind of signal that they believe will do the job they want done. I should, however, do my best to educate them on the physical limits of the art and the expected results and trade-offs of anything that I may do to our signal. While I believe that the people who make the records know what Preliminary Information, WESTERN ELECTRIC 1126A AMPLIFIER, Western Electric Company sheet WECO-T-1810, 1-L-40-4C. This delightful device takes less than half a meter (19¼ inches) of rack space and uses but 12 tubes. But, the specifications and claims could have come off the pages of this month's db. I rather like the old western stuff and am always willing to add either the equipment or the literature to my personal collection. The first Time Aligned™ Control Room Speaker System Unbelievably Clean...from a whisper, to the threshold of pain. The UREI 813 Monitor Loudspeaker System brings impressive new realism and clarity to recording control room listening. This first Time Aligned™ professional monitor employs the efficient Altec 6048-G duplex 15" driver with a UREI custom horn for extended and more uniform H.F. response, plus an added 15" direct radiating driver for extended L.F. response and higher power handling. Add to this the UREI 3-way TA™ network in a unique pressure controlled enclosure and you have unbelievably clean reproduction from low levels to the threshold of pain! Bring your aspirin and hear it at your UREI dealer. Bring with you your favorite tapes or records "Hearing is Believing" LOOK TO UREI FOR ALL YOUR AUDIO SIGNAL PROCESSING AND SPECIAL INSTRUMENTATION NEEDS - Active Equalizers and Filters - Compressors - Limiters - Crossover Networks - Digital Metronome - Digital Delay Lines - Preamps and Program Amps - Sonipulse - X-Y Plotters - Broadcast Consoles - Monitor Loud Speakers UREI 8460 San Fernando Road Sun Valley, California 91352 (213) 767-1000 Exclusive export agent: Gotham Export Corporation, New York Time-Align and its derivatives are trademarks of and licensed by E M Long Associates INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH PRODUCTS THE PREFERRED DIGITAL DELAY SYSTEM - superior subjective listening quality. - new competitive prices. - broad product line. - available to all sound contractors. We have nine different delay lines. From this broad range it is possible to tailor-make a digital delay system. Industrial Research Products is dedicated to providing optimized products for sound reinforcement. ANNOUNCING DIGITAL TANDEM CONNECTION FOR THE POPULAR DD-4012 Where more than two outputs and 96 milliseconds of time are required we have added a digital connector that can link two of our DD-4012's with no signal degradation. This linkage gives the same high quality signal with 160 ms and four independent outputs. For engineering data and pricing write: INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH PRODUCTS, INC. 321 Bond Street Elk Grove Village, Ill. 60007 U.S.A. Telephone 312/439-3600 A Knowles COMPANY Music by Matrix. Sound by Bose. Matrix. Warner Bros. recording artists. A hard-driving fusion group with lots of brass, percussion and electronics. And all 32 channels, including a wide variety of mics, pickups, and line feeds, are amplified by Bose 1800 power amps and Model 802 loudspeakers. Matrix. A group with talent and taste. "A band that cannot fail," says the LA Times. Matrix chooses Bose for all their needs. Main PA, electric bass, synthesizers, acoustic and electric piano, and all stage monitors. Why? Because with Bose, Matrix sounds like what they really are. Trumpets sound like trumpets. A flute sounds like a flute. Even the drums sound live, not canned. The sound is clear. Clean. Natural. And the modular nature of their Bose system gives Matrix the versatility and flexibility of performing virtually anywhere. From clubs, auditoriums and gyms to outdoor festivals with audiences of 10,000 people. If you're interested in a system that sounds like the band that's using it, check out Bose. Bose Corporation Dept. SE 100 The Mountain Rd. Framingham, MA 01701 Please send me a copy of the Bose Professional Products Catalog and a complete dealer list. Name ____________________________ Street ____________________________ City _____________________________ State _______ Zip ________________ Tel. (______) ______________________ All of this is only a long-winded way of saying "there ain't no free lunch." As an engineer, I can only work to deliver the sound that my masters want (within the physical limits of the art and part 73, FCC R&R) while questioning and teaching. Lee S. Parr, Chief Engineer WWIN, Baltimore, MD To The Editor: After 5 years as a broadcast engineer, I felt I had to move to the recording studio. Paul Dunn's letter in the December, 1978 db, provides the reason for this. Why, I'll bet Mr. Dunn aligns his tape machines as often as once every six months—whether they need it or not! Phil Mendelson Los Angeles, CA To The Editor: It seems that "A Chief Engineer" has opened a Pandora's box. At any rate, I feel I must also add my little say. First, let me say that I have been a broadcast engineer for more than twenty years. I have had a fling at production director, program director, news director, technical director, chief engineer (experience in a.m., f.m., and f.m. stereo), and t.v. programming and engineering. I also have a Bachelor degree in Radio and Television production. So much for "qualifications." Dear Chris Edwards: After reading your letter (db, December, 1978) I feel that, to use your own words, "I can do nothing but sadly shake my head. Your attitude is so typical." But is it really? The thing which provokes me is the attitudes presented by both "Mr. Engineer" and yourself. Having been on "both sides of the fence" I can see validity in both positions. I can certainly recall, as a "deejay", having to cut some of my favorite recordings short so I could get in all those blankety-blank commercials those blankety-blank salesmen sold. But, as you said, they paid all the bills, including my salary (which, by the way, wasn't terribly great at that time). What really is the crux of the situation is summed up in your final words. Our goals are the same—MONEY! The difference lies in the loads we wish to take to get there, and in the attitudes of the individuals. Management is dedicated to making the greatest net profit with the least effort. Programming is dedicated to producing the greatest creativity. Sales people are dedicated to the art of selling an intangible. Engineers and technicians are dedicated to the quality of the product from a technical standpoint. And therein lies the battleground. You have ears, you say. Most assuredly you do. But they are not the ears of a technical person. The engineer, hearing ANY distortion, wants to eliminate it because it irritates him, and, to a technically oriented listener, it reflects on the ability of the engineer(s). What you say about the technician not having an interest in anything but volts, current, deviation, and the tech logs doesn't make much sense —after all, THAT'S HIS JOB, and SHOULD BE his primary interest. If he weren't interested in those technical things, what kind of a product would the sales staff have to sell? The serious broadcast engineer has always decried the unrealistic dynamic range the recordists put on their discs. But don't put all the blame on the recordists. Sometimes the artist is to blame, because he expects the "idiot recording equipment" to do things beyond its technical limitations. Whatever the reason, however, the poor broadcast engineer has to try to compromise his station's equipment, which likewise is technically incapable of encompassing such a wide dynamic range. But, until a specific standard is agreed upon, and all recording company people interpret the standard the same way, and make their recordings in strict adherence to that standard, we all have to compromise. We not only compromise technically, but also, at least to some degree, our principles. WE KNOW that what we hear is not as good as our equipment could make it. WE KNOW that we must process audio to some degree in order to meet regulatory requirements. That doesn't necessarily mean that we like it. Believe me, we technicians DO give credit for common sense when we see it regularly displayed. But too often, by all concerned, when we say "compromise" we are really saying, "You give me my way, or I'm gonna be mad at you!" Compromise means that we each give a little and end up somewhere between the two extremes. Engineers are not always right—but neither is anyone else. After all, there is no ONE RIGHT WAY to do the job in broadcasting. There are many RIGHT ways, and the astute broadcaster, whatever division he works in, is always open to suggestions. I can say, unequivocally, that some of my best technical ideas came from a seed of thought planted by a very non-technical station manager. On several occasions, when asked why a certain thing had been done that way, in an effort to arrive at the reason. I really Studio quality microphones that don’t need a studio to survive. The CS15P condenser cardioid microphone is equally at home in a recording environment or broadcast studio. When hand-held it puts sex appeal in a voice with its bass-boosting proximity effect. With shaped high-frequency response and its ability to handle high sound pressure levels (140dB with 1% THD at 1kHz), the CS15P is ideal for close-up vocal or solo instrument miking applications. When boom mounted, the CS15P has better gain-before-feedback and a better signal-to-noise ratio than most shotguns. It’s phantom powered and it’s rugged. The CO15P condenser omni extends frequency response to the very limits of audibility, 20 to 20,000 Hz. Unlike other “omnis,” the CO15P maintains its omnidirectional polar pattern at the very highest frequencies. Perfect for the distant miking of an entire orchestra as well as up close on individual instruments. And like the CS15P, it’s phantom powered and it’s rugged. The Electro-Voice warranty Electro-Voice backs up these two microphones with the only unconditional warranty in the business: for two years we will replace or repair your CS15P or CO15P microphone, when returned to Electro-Voice for service, at no charge – no matter what caused the damage! We can do this because we build these microphones to meet our standards for performance, ruggedness and durability. We accept nothing less, and if you’re a professional, buying a professional quality microphone, you shouldn’t either. System C Electro-Voice a Gulton company 600 Cecil Street, Buchanan, Michigan 49107 Sabor presents the MK-668C wow and flutter meter The MEGURO MK 668C, capable of measuring DIN IEC & ANSI at 3.15 kHz and JIS, NAB & CCIR at 3.0 kHz, is truly a world wide universally applicable Wow & Flutter Meter. It features selectable calibration to permit reading of peak average or effective values of W/F and tape speed error is indicated on the built-in digital frequency meter. W/F range is 0.003% to 10% with inputs above 30mVrms and 0.01% to 10% with inputs from 0.5mV to 30mVrms. 12597 Crenshaw Blvd Hawthorne CA 90250 (213) 644-8689 Sabor corporation Circle 47 on Reader Service Card To The Editor: Having received the December issue of db, I noticed, with both amusement and disbelief, the continuing argument between radio engineering and programming types. This round seems to have started by an anonymous working radio engineer who, as I recall reading the original letter, was annoyed by the way the broadcast industry, in general, proceeds to degrade the relatively good technical quality of commercially recorded discs into garbage. This poor fellow, and there is no doubt as to the reason which he wishes his identity to remain a mystery, is answered by three letters in the above cited issue. The first respondent manages a station in California, and appears to be basically a proponent of "Anon", as I will call our poor fellow. As I read Mr. Erickson, of KRJB, he has reached basically the same conclusions that EZ Communications has with regard to over-processing of audio, although his format and locale are vastly different from those our five stations operate within. The second respondent is of the breed that is titled "program director/chief engineer," and has several valid points about record companies not adhering to NAB or RIAA level specifications. Mr. Dunn of WDBF has not been taught, it appears, either through theory or demonstration, that music has a rather wide dynamic range, and a great deal of gain-riding usually destroys this both amazing and very psychoacoustically satisfying sensation. The remaining respondent is a programmer, and I am pleased to see that he does realize that our poor "Anon", in markets small and large, usually is one of the least appreciated and loved persons on the payroll. But Mr. Edwards, our programmer, seems to have little concept of the relationship between technical quality, listeners, Arbitron numbers and programming. A look at the ARB books for the country's top markets will show that each programming type usually takes a given share of the audience. This share varies little from market-to-market, when averaged over 6 to 8 book periods, unless a particular market has a disproportional demographic or ethnic weighting. Take a look at the major rated stations in each programming type. Note that I said stations rather than the #1 guy in each case. If you've got a 5.7 share in Boston, it doesn't matter if you're not #1, because you are going to get some business, both national and local agency, because of those numbers. In large markets, as well as small, you can only have one #1 station. Sure, No matter what the application, or how tough the job, there's a Yamaha PM Series professional sound mixer that can handle it. Think of the Yamaha PM mixers as business machines that insure your sound. The PM-170 and PM-180 are ideal as prime mixers for small clubs, discos, schools and the like. Or they're excellent submixers to extend the capability of larger consoles. The Yamaha PM-430 and PM-700 are the portable heavyweights. They have the specs, power and flexibility to mix well in moderate to major events and concerts, broadcast production and recording studio applications. Each PM mixer can be used as a complete sound system controller. Or they can be combined to solve your most complex reinforcement and production problems. And all your mixes are well under control with balanced, transformer-isolated inputs and +24dBm (12.3 volts RMS) stereo outputs for no-hum sound over long distances. Precision Yamaha engineered and manufactured long-throw, smooth-flow, dB-calibrated faders respond to your most subtle adjustments. And foldback and monitor functions that help you precisely feed the right mix to the right performer or technician. Send six dollars, and we'll rush you an operating manual complete with schematics on our PM Series. (Please, certified check or money order only. No cash or personal checks.) Or better yet, see your Yamaha dealer and match a Yamaha PM mixer to your job. PM-170 uses unbalanced inputs, ideal as a keyboard mixer. Yamaha International Corporation, Musical Instrument/Combo Division, 6600 Orangethorpe Avenue, Buena Park, CA 90620. Write: P.O. Box 6600, Buena Park, CA 90622. you should strive to be better—better in programming (whatever programming), in technical, in promotion, and, most importantly, in sales—but there can be only one #1 guy. A closer look and a visit to the market will usually show that the major rated stations in each format probably have good technical quality, as well as good programming, promotions, and yes, sales. A look further at the numbers will show you that a heavily processed station will either tend to have very young or very old stats. These demographics will probably tend to favor males over females. These conclusions are based on some pretty valid psychoacoustics. Most intelligent radio buys (and there are many that are not intelligent, too!) are trying to reach the 25 to 49 demographic, and a great many products are reaching out to women, who often do the buying. This alone should shock a great number of station managers and owners into reality! Further, have you ever looked at all of those superb receivers that your listeners are carrying out of hi-fi stores and discount houses alike by the gross? You really should, because the number of households with really good audio equipment is rising meteorically. It really doesn't matter if the equipment, when the all-thumbs listener finishes installing it, isn't d.c. thru light, it is 100 times better than what he had before, and he is becoming far more critical of what he is listening to. He is also becoming OLDER (surprise, Mr. P.D.)! The average age of the marketplace is getting older, because primarily I suppose, of the post W.W. II baby boom. As you get older, you see, you don't want to be annoyed—and compression is annoying! All of this is why all broadcasters should take a careful look at themselves technically, and become aware that the consumer, the listener is becoming more critical. Aside from programming, promotions, and sales, which are not my field, the technical side of the station requires improvement also. And improvement will eventually give you listeners and sales. The station owner or manager who has an under-paid (and probably under-intelligent) engineer, who is working on antiques, with a 75¢ per week parts allowance is behind the times by five years, even in small markets! Obviously, many will disagree with my philosophy, numbers, and my engineering persuasion, but I think a careful analysis of the facts will show essential agreement with my premise. THOMAS L. MANN Vice President/Engineering EZ Communications TO THE EDITOR: Once, there was an amazing device called radio. It was first noticed back in the twenties and thirties. The idea was that you could sit at home and listen to things happening dozens or even hundreds of miles away. The early efforts didn't sound like much, but it wasn't too long before a person could hear a man speaking to him from the other side of town... and it sounded just like that man was really speaking from the big box in the living room. There was music, too... an orchestra, a soloist, maybe even a one-man band... all crammed into that big box in the living room. Then an even more amazing thing happened. The box got smaller! There was a box in the bedroom, one in the kitchen, and even one in the car. Of course, the voices in the little boxes didn't sound quite as real as the ones in the big box but then what-the-heck, at least you could take the entertainment with you. As time went on, the boxes got even smaller and lighter, and everybody had two or three of these "a.m. radios" that they could put in their pockets. Everything was just great until people started getting interested in a new kind of radio called "f.m." The first f.m. radios weren't nearly as neat and compact as the a.m. radios were. The f.m. sets were big monsters that sat in the living room and sounded "funny". Some people liked them better. They noticed that the voices sounded really natural—like the person doing the radio show was really sitting inside the box. The songs on the f.m. radios sounded just like the original recordings so you didn't have to spend a lot of money on plastic records that got scratched and noisy. In the sixties, a new twist was added. Something called "stereo" was developed so you could have an "f.m. stereo receiver" and TWO big boxes for the music and voices to come out of. Having two boxes instead of just one seemed to add a sense of spaciousness that one box didn't have. Still, some people were unhappy because you couldn't carry the f.m. radios around like you could with the a.m. radios. So, some smart engineers figured out how to put an a.m. and an f.m. radio into a single box that was just as small as the little a.m. sets. They even made combination sets for cars and later figured out how to stuff Go For The Best Go For The 100B, 250D & 750B/C They’re the BGW amps. The Industry Leaders. Four different models with only one philosophy: The Best. The best engineered and designed; the best and most sophisticated electronic test equipment available to test the dreams of an audio engineer’s imagination; the best support for an engineer that money can buy – from complex computer modeling to the back-up personnel who refine and distill the inventor’s visions. In every BGW product there is a lot you can relate to. Like the quality of every component part. Every one meticulously selected for uncompromised reliability – a simple resistor or a complex semiconductor. Hand-wired teflon harnesses and precision soldered modular assemblies are built to exacting standards. From our imitated front panels to our imitated back panels, you’ll find a heavy steel chassis and massive heatsink modules. These are things you’d expect from a company that has built an enviable reputation as being the best money can buy. Recording engineers and artists alike have recognized that the BGW name is performance and is innovation. The best specs and the most versatile and reliable amp you can buy. Absolutely. A BGW is equally at home on a grueling road tour or in the demanding environs of a studio control room. Super-high power to super-low noise and distortion, a BGW works with any high quality speaker or mixer. Year-in and Year-out a BGW delivers the kind of incredible sound that has made the careers of many an artist and engineer. Check-out the new 100B and 250D. Both are the result of continuing evolution based upon our industry standard 750 series. A BGW may be priced a bit more initially, but you need the best. So, when you’re ready, Go For The Best. BGW Systems, Inc. 13130 South Yukon Avenue Hawthorne, California 90250 In Canada: Omnimedia Corp. 9653 Cote de Liesse Dorval, Quebec H9P 1A3 a tape recorder in with the two radios. Of course, the more things you crammed into the box, the less realistic the sound became—but then nobody seemed to mind except for a few "hi-fi fanatics." By the seventies, the number of "radio stations" that provided the sounds for the radios had become so numerous that they filled up all the open spots on the radio dials. The a.m. stations and the f.m. stations were also fighting with each other to get listeners for their particular programs. The a.m. stations had the advantage of having had a head start and could also "broadcast" farther, but the f.m. stations had stereo and all of the hi-fi fanatics. The a.m.ers and f.m.ers also fought among themselves. Somebody discovered that if you ran your audio through something called a compressor, your station could sound louder than the other stations and maybe somebody might hear your signal a little better. Of course, doing this really made the music coming out of the box sound weird but since nobody seemed to mind, what-the-heck! The a.m.ers all bought these compressors which they called "processors" and had battles to see who could sound the loudest and most different. A few a.m. stations got worried about the better sound of f.m. and went the opposite direction, trying to make their own sound more realistic. They were fighting a losing battle, though. The little a.m. radios couldn't sound anything like the big f.m. radios and nobody made big a.m. radios anymore. The f.m. stations seemed to be winning the fight for a while, but then the f.m.ers did something really bizarre. They figured the a.m.ers were onto something and so they also bought processors and started having loudness wars, too. This made the hi-fi fanatics really mad. They quit listening to the radios and started buying more records. Meanwhile, the a.m.ers were still jealous of f.m.'s stereo and demanded that the government let them have stereo, too. After a lot of arguing, they were allowed to have stereo but their version wasn't as good and really limited the a.m. transmission range. It didn't matter, though. Everybody wanted to have a radio station of some sort, so the government decided to make more spots on the radio dials. They did this by squeezing the stations closer together. They also dumped in lots of new stations on those few spots where only a few stations had operated before. This worked out so well on a.m. that the government decided to do the same thing on f.m. Pretty soon, there were twice as many stations as before and everyone was happy. Well—almost everyone. The people who liked to listen to the same station as they drove long distances couldn't do that anymore, so they all bought tapes and tape players without radios. The last few hi-fi fanatics were also pretty upset until somebody invented a record called a "video disc" which didn't get scratched and made it possible to have FOUR speakers instead of just two. Most everybody else found a new toy called "home-video" which had better sound than the radios and you could also watch pictures or play games. Oh, there are still plenty of radio stations around—except they're a lot different than before. There isn't much profit in radio now, so most of the operations have only one or two people working for them. The equipment is all automatic and the sound isn't very good. Still, that doesn't matter much—not very many people are listening anymore. John E. Shepler Chief Engineer WROK/WZOK, Rockford, IL 1 in. 8-TRACK WITH A PLUS MX-7800: Full function capability with no compromise in reliability. 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WEST Accurate Sound Call Greg 415/365-2843 Redwood City, CA ACI/Dave Kelsey Sound Call Fred 415/717-172 Hollywood, CA EAR Sound Consultants Call Ed 602/968-8675 Tempe, AZ Express Sound Call James 714/645-8501 Costa Mesa, CA Sound Graphics Call Dave 415/285-8900 San Francisco, CA Westlake Audio Call Bruce 213/655-0303 Los Angeles, CA CENTRAL ASI/Abadon Sun Call Galen 512/824-8781 San Antonio, TX Audio Distributors Call David 616/452-1596 Grand Rapids, MI AVC Systems Call John 612/729-8305 Minneapolis, MN Ford Audio & Acoustics Call Jim 405/525-3343 Oklahoma City, OK Paul Westbrook Audio Call Paul 215/578-4401 Victoria, TX Sonics Associates Call Doug 205/942-9631 Birmingham, AL 35209 Hy James Enterprises Call Henry 313/994-0934 Ann Arbor, MI Allied Broadcast Call Jim 317/962-8596 Richmond, IN Milan Audio Call Jerry 309/346-3161 Peoria, IL Houston Cinema & Sound Call John 713/933-7180 Houston, TX Gill Custom House Call Al 312/598-2400 Palos Hills, IL Ludwig Sound Call Charles 713/449-8388 Houston, TX EAST Alpha Audio Call Nick 804/358-3852 Richmond, VA Audio By Zimet Call Sid 516/621-0138 Roslyn, NY Audio United Call Ed 919/274-4682 Greensboro, NC Blue Diamond Call Joe 717/746-2540 Cannonsburg, PA Cathedral Sound Call Don 518/465-5689 Renssleear, NY Dimension Five Call Charles 215/589-5312 Womelsdorf, PA Harvey Sound Call Garth 212/575-5000 New York, NY Lebow Labs Call Peter 617/782-0600 Alston, MA Martin Audio Call Company 212/541-5900 New York, NY P.A. Palace Call Ellis 404/636-3044 Atlanta, GA Professional Audio Video Call Paul 201/334-5310 Paterson, NJ Stereo Sonics Labs Call Alan 305/831-2575 Allamonte Springs, FL VSM Leasing Call Vince 716/759-2600 Clarence, NY 14031 Harris Company Call Michael 305/944-4448 No. Miami, FL Sounds Fine Call Dave 703/951-3489 Blackburg, VA RCI Sound Consultants Call Tom 301/587-1800 Silver Spring, MD Recorded Services (of W.N.C.) Call Ted 704/648-6012 Canton, NC For information on other Otari products and dealers, call Ruth Pruett at 415/593-1648. Otari Corporation, 981 Industrial Road, San Carlos, CA 94070 TWX 910-376-4890 In Canada: BSR (Canada, Ltd.), P.O. 7003 Sta. B, Rexdale, Ontario M9V 4B3 416/675-2425 Audio From the RPU Receiver - The use of small transmitter/receiver systems for remote broadcasts is almost as old as broadcasting itself, and the use is expanding today. As with most electronic systems, the remote pickup systems have their share of operational and electronic problems. The transmitting units are usually operated by non-technical people, so the engineer often needs to supply these people with suggestions on positioning and placement of the transmitting antennas for best results. Aside from this, many factors at the receiving end can work to produce noisy and poor quality audio out of the system for a particular broadcast occasion. This month we will look at the receiving end of the RPU system and some of the problems that can develop. ADEQUATE SIGNAL No receiver can perform very well unless there is adequate signal at its antenna input terminals. Unless the r.f. signal strength is of sufficient amount to drive the limiters into full operation, there will be noise in the recovered audio output—noise in the form of amplitude modulation of the f.m. signal. However, if the signal strength is strong enough to operate the limiters, then the noise will be clipped off and eliminated. Should the signal be weak, then the noise will not be limited and will be demodulated right along with the audio and appear in the audio output. Assuming the transmitter is functioning properly and radiating the correct amount of r.f. signal—positioning of its antenna, objects within the signal path, as well as distance, all contribute to degrading the strength of the radiated signal as it appears at the receiver. And since most of the units operate on VHF or UHF frequencies, propagation factors and the path are very critical. Theoretically, operation at these frequencies in line-of-sight. Therefore, large buildings or structures, directly between the transmitter and receiving antennas, can act as a shield and produce shadow areas (weak signal areas) on the opposite side of the structure. So can metal buildings right next to the transmitter antenna. Proper positioning of the transmitter can often work wonders in signal strength at the receiver, and can often make the difference between a non-useable signal or a good signal. When a weak signal condition occurs, advise the announcer or News person to move the transmitter unit a few feet (or perhaps across the parking lot, across the street or the other side of the building, etc.). Non-technical people will often take small handheld units inside a building and expect to transmit across town to the receiver. Sometimes this works, but other times it's a complete failure. Much depends upon the structure of the building, how much steel it has and so forth. In any such instance, and in other projected broadcast sites, check them out beforehand. ANTENNAS AND LEAD-IN A good antenna system at the receiver is important. Even a strong signal can be reduced to a very weak signal at the receiver terminals by a poor antenna system. A high antenna and coaxial down-lead is recommended. Since most transmitting antennas will only be a few feet from the ground, 50 or 100 ft. additional height at the receiving antenna will make a considerable improvement in the distance the transmitter can operate from the receiver. But there is a limit to height, and a point is soon reached where the loss in the down-lead is more than what was gained by the additional height. Very high antennas are also subject to "skip" signal interference from distant stations. An improvement in antenna system can be accomplished with a high-gain directional antenna. The gain of the antenna increases the signal strength of the incoming signal, and the directivity reduces interference from other Announcing the new 672A Equalizer 8 bands + tunable filters + electronic crossover = $499 The 672A is a fully professional 8-band single-channel parametric with extra tunable highpass and lowpass filters. The filters can be used to shape the response at the ends of the spectrum — Or, the 672A’s split output lets you use the filters as a full electronic crossover cascaded with the 8-band parametric. At $499* it’s an unbeatable machine for sound reinforcement, monitor tuning or general-purpose program equalization in recording, broadcasting, cinema, theater, and disco. Despite its attractive price, the 672A contains no quality compromises. Balanced input (with output transformer option), RFI suppression, and state-of-the-art specs are all there, as are Orban’s traditional industrial quality, serviceability, and comprehensive software. Orban’s advanced engineering and manufacturing expertise are the keys to this extraordinary value. Discover more about this remarkable, easy to use equalizer. See your Orban Dealer or contact us directly. See it at the NAB booth 429. * suggested list Orban Associates Inc. 645 Bryant St. San Francisco, CA 94107 (415) 957-1067 signals. To be effective, the directional antenna must be pointed in the direction of the transmitter. If the antenna location is central to the area to be worked, then a motor driven positioner is necessary to orient the antenna towards the transmitter position. Antennas and their coaxial downleads, rotators and their control cables, are constantly exposed to the elements and lightning. These need inspection from time to time—especially any coaxial connectors. Moisture may enter the connector and cause corrosion, and lightning surges may burn the inner connector. In both cases there will be high resistance, and moisture itself can cause a shorted condition. All these will reduce the signal strength at the receiver. MONITORING SIGNAL STRENGTH Since correct r.f. signal strength into the receiver is so important to noise-free audio output, this should be monitored in the set-up for broadcast at a particular location. A listening test of the reproduced audio output is sometimes sufficient to indicate adequate signal, but a better test is to measure the current of the 1st limiter. Some receivers have a built-in meter to do this, or at least a test jack for alignment. If yours has no meter, add a d.c. microammeter for this purpose. Be sure, however, to add enough series resistance to keep the meter on scale, and to provide isolation for the limiter circuit. When setting up a broadcast from a particular location, observe the reading on the limiter meter while orienting the antenna. The increase in signal strength from the antenna positioning will be noted as a rise or drop in limiter current. Orient for maximum current. If the signal is strong, there won't be a peak since the limiter will "flatten out" the signal as it goes into full limiting. When positioning, the antenna should be left at a point between where the signal begins to flatten out and where it begins to drop again. Should a large remote project be coming up, such as broadcasts from many voting places all over the County on election day, then each of these positions should be checked out ahead of broadcast day. Test out the transmitter at each location, orient the antenna for best results, and make a listing of the antenna direction positions and the limiter readings from each site. Leave this for the operators on election day. The operator can then preset the antenna direction before each broadcast, as well as noting if the limiter still reads the same. INTERNAL The receiver is basically a crystal-controlled, double-superheterodyne unit that contains a few more circuits or components than a standard receiver. One is the bandwidth filter at the head-end of the i.f. stages or r.f. section. Its purpose is to eliminate adjacent channel signals from interfering with the desired signal. The r.f. and i.f. stages in the receiver must be tuned so that the resting frequency of the transmitter carrier is right down the center of this bandwidth filter. Should the transmitter be far off-frequency, or if the receiver crystals have drifted, or if someone had "twiddled" the tuning of the i.f. cans, the signal will not be directly in the center of the bandpass. This will limit the carrier deviation and sidebands on the "short" side and produce poor quality audio at the output. Under ordinary circumstances these transformers and stages are stable and require no tuning. The crystals will age and cause a long-term drift in tuning of the oscillator and should be returned. The transmitter frequency should be checked regularly with a frequency counter and reset to correct the frequency if necessary. A good point at which to monitor whether the carrier is down the center, is at the test point of the "zero" tuning of the discriminator. With the transmitter signal being received, the meter should indicate zero. But if the indication is far off to the plus or minus side, something is off-frequency (assuming the other receiver tuning has not been disturbed). If the transmitter is known to be right on frequency, then touch-up the receiver oscillator frequency tuning to reset that reading to zero. SQUELCH The receiver contains a squelch cir- --- Figure 1. A good indication of signal strength is the 1st limiter current. If the receiver doesn't have metering, add it. The trend to Portable Disco continues strong. An ambitious Company in Canton, Ohio, SWB, is achieving excellent success with their units (their goal is a national franchising operation). James C. Fravel, General Manager/Promotions, writes to Stanton, "We are using Stanton cartridges in each and every unit we sell. Two of our units have been running for about a year and a half without failure. We are quite proud of the track record of our units and the Stanton cartridges." They use the 500AL because it's a durable cartridge and "gives SWB a 4 dB base boost that we like to have with the music we play. It has been, by far, the best cartridge we have used (and we have tried many)". So, Stanton, world famous for its top-of-the-line calibrated cartridges, the 881S and the 681 series, also serves the professionals in an interesting branch of the Disco Industry. Whether your usage involves recording, broadcasting, archives, disco or home entertainment, your choice should be the overwhelming choice of the professionals in every field . . . Stanton Cartridges. For further information write to: Stanton Magnetics, Terminal Drive, Plainview, N.Y. 11803 © STANTON 1978 STANTON! The choice of the professionals™ cuit that is intended to mute the speaker output when no signal is being received. Without a squelch, the noise would roar out the speaker (or into the station's audio channels). Proper adjustment of the squelch is important to the reception of signals and can effect the audio output. This is essentially an operational problem (assuming no circuit fault). With no received signal, the squelch control should be adjusted to just mute the speaker. A problem can arise when high antennas are used and there are "skip" or other interfering signals. These will cause the squelch to "break open" intermittently, so the operator may readjust the control to shut these off. With the unit over-squelched, a weaker signal from your own transmitter may not be able to break it open and the call is missed. Although the squelch may be opened up on a stronger signal, it may still be at the point where the audio is chopped or sounds as if it is breaking up. Readjustment of the control will quickly clear up the problem. INTERFACE The audio from the RPU is intended for broadcast over the station's normal facilities, so interface to the station's audio system is important to quality. Some receivers are already equipped with a balanced 600 ohm output and VU meter, but the industrial types are intended for speaker operation only. This type requires more careful interfacing to the station's audio system. A receiver that contains only a low impedance, unbalanced speaker output can best be interfaced to the system with a speaker-to-line transformer. This will not only effect the impedance match to the 600-ohm system, but will isolate the unbalanced from the balanced. A loss pad should also be added so that the internal control of the receiver can be operated high enough for speaker operation—thus keeping the audio to the system within correct proportions. Regardless of the type of receiver being used, the external audio wiring to the station's system should be shielded, and normal care taken with the shields. Carelessness here can result in noise, hum and crosstalk problems. Some receivers contain a switchable audio filter. This can be used, as the case requires, to improve a noisy signal. A listening test on the particular occasion will indicate the best setting for the equalizer. ALIGNMENT Proper alignment of the receiver requires good quality, specialized test equipment and knowledge on the part of the engineer. Unless there have been major circuit failures, it is best to leave the alignment alone. One mistake is to think the engineer can "touch-up" all the r.f., i.f., and discriminator tunings by listening to the audio output. Most of these adjustments are very critical, and it is very easy to quickly get the entire unit so out of alignment that a major realignment is necessary. RECAP The use of remote pick-up systems is expanding. Many non-technical people are operating these systems, and need instruction on proper positioning and location of the transmitting antenna. Signal propagation at the high frequencies and antenna systems have a considerable effect on the signal reaching the receiver. Good quality requires the transmitter be right on-frequency, and the receiver tuned so that the carrier comes right down the center of the bandpass. Proper squelch operation, as well as the limiter and audio interface affect the noise and quality. Receiver alignment is very critical and requires special test equipment and knowledge. Tweaking up the alignment while listening to the audio output can put the whole system out of commission. Up to now you had to choose between the turntable you wanted and the turntable you could afford. Technics MKII Series. The SL-1300 MKII automatic, the SL-1400 MKII semi-automatic and the SL-1500 MKII manual. You expect a quartz turntable to give unparalleled speed accuracy. And these do. What you didn’t expect were all the other advantages Technics totally quartz-controlled direct-drive system gives you. Like torque that cuts buildup time to an incredible 0.7 seconds. And at the same time maintains 0% speed fluctuations with loads up to 300 gms. That’s equivalent to 150 tonearms tracking at 2 gms. each. And that’s not all. Technics MKII Series adds quartz accuracy to whatever pitch variation you desire. In exact 0.1% increments. At the touch of a button. And instantaneously displayed by the front-panel LEDs. And to take advantage of all that accuracy, Technics has a low-mass S-shaped universal tonearm that’s so accurate, friction is down to 7 mg. (vertical and horizontal). Technics MKII Series. Compare specifications. Compare quartz. And you’ll realize there’s really no comparison. MOTOR: Brushless DC motor, quartz-controlled phase-locked servo circuit. SPEED: 33⅓ and 45 RPM. STARTING TORQUE: 1.5 kg·cm. BUILDUP TIME: 0.7 seconds (= 90° rotation) to 33⅓ RPM. SPEED DRIFT: Within ±0.002%. WOW & FLUTTER: 0.025%. WRMS. RUMBLE: –78 dB. PITCH VARIATION: ±9.9%. Technics MKII Series. A rare combination of audio technology. A new standard of audio excellence. Technics Professional Series The Role of Computerization In 1970 the Oregon State System of Higher Education’s Teaching Research division retained me as an Assistant Professor, because of my expertise in engineering, an expertise they expected me to apply to education, in the areas of Research, Development, Diffusion and Evaluation (to quote words from the title of the project for which I was hired). In the course of this project, tremendous use was made of the state’s computer system, which was continuously “on line.” We collected a great deal of “data,” which the computer programmer fed into the computer and “instructed it,” to get the same data out, in rearranged form. To me, what came out was just that—a rearrangement of the same data. It told me nothing that was not fairly obvious from the data we fed in. But many of the others, including the program director, had become computer worshippers, mentally endowing that device with superman powers. They were positive that by its “skill” in rearranging facts, it could find some relationship, information, or something, that was not obvious from the “raw data.” How did it do this supposedly miraculous feat? The program director, or somebody else, programmed it to seek such a relationship. The data were based on questions that had been asked of many educational workers engaged on projects all over the country. If the questions were biased, then the answers were similarly biased, to agree or disagree with the bias of the question. Could the computer take that into account? Not unless it was programmed to do so. But since the program director and others who programmed the computer, were unaware of their own bias, how could they program the computer to become aware of it? What they regarded as “facts” must be accepted as facts by the computer. The computer is no more than a digital device with a memory, that does precisely as it is told. But its programmers persisted—and all over the world today, they still persist—in endowing the computer with magical powers. Presto, the computer has found some information we could never have deduced without its fantastic help. Really, all the computer can do, is put together such information much faster than is humanly possible. HUMAN ERROR Much is made of a computer’s faultlessness—it cannot make a mistake. On modern electronic musical instruments, a computer-type memory can instantly “memorize” a musical phase and keep repeating it until that program is cancelled and another is given. If the musician who thus programs it, hits a wrong key in the first run-through of the sequence, the computer will keep repeating that wrong key, every time it repeats the whole sequence. It has no means of knowing what key the musician should have hit. So it repeats its programming faultlessly—even to copying mistakes. How do you suppose a computer makes the “mistake” of crediting someone’s bank account with $1 million instead of $10? Could be the operator leaned on the zero, for a little too long! But once it's in the computer, because of its "faultlessness" it can be very difficult to correct. The computer does not know it has to subtract $9,999.990! Where would it get that figure from, since it had no means of knowing the operator made a mistake in instructing it, in the first place? Computers are a natural for engineers. Where a few decades ago, any engineer worth his salt had a slide-rule sticking out of his pocket, now he will have a pocket calculator, with many computer functions on it. If he wants sin 30.35°, he selects the "degree" function, hits 3-0-...3-5, verifies that his readout displays 30.35, then hits the "sin" button and, within a fraction of a second the appropriate sine is displayed. The computer did not read it from tables, as the engineer before the day of the slide rule would have done. Nor did it use an analog device like a slide-rule, to estimate the value of the sine. The computer could read such a device no more accurately than yesterday's engineer could. No, it calculated that particular value from first principles, just as the original tables were calculated—only very much faster. The engineer who used tables might have been using tables with a misprint. It did happen. The engineer who used a slide rule could have mis-read his slide rule, making an incorrect interpolation. Now the computer makes it fool-proof, doesn't it? Suppose the angle for which he wanted the sine was 30.35, and the buttons he hit represented 33.5—how would the computer know about that? It would accurately give him sin 33.5°, no questions asked. And he would use that figure, believing it to be sin 30.05°. The computer will not prevent him from making that mistake. So how can he guard against it? Let us take a simpler example, that more readers could follow. Suppose you want to multiply 3.396 by 4.507. You can hit the proper buttons, and get 15,305,772. But how would you know if you had hit a wrong button? Maybe you would not. You want a way to check the result. The computer did not make a mistake, but you might have. So how can you check for that possibility? 3.396 is 3,400 - 4. And 4.507 is 4,500 + 7. If you remember your algebra, 3.396 × 4.507 should be the same as 3,400 × 4,500 plus 7 × 3,400, minus 4 × 4,500, minus 4 × 7. So one way to check would be to put the 15,305,772 figure in the memory, and perform that somewhat longer calculation. 3,400 × 4,500 is 15,300,000. 7 × 3,400 is 23,800, added to 15,300,000 makes 15,323,800. 4 × 4,500 is 18,000, subtracted from the previous result is 15,305,800. Finally 4 × 7 is 28 which, subtracted from the previous result is 15,305,772. You pull the previous figure out of the memory and find it agrees: you did not make a mistake. MASTER/SLAVE RELATIONSHIP But what does being able to do that require? You must understand what you are doing, and what you are having the computer do. You are the master and the computer is your slave. The attitude that the computer can make no mistakes, leading its operator to accept whatever answer it displays as "gospel," is a dangerous one. Supposing, by mistake, the operator feeds in 3,936 × 4,507, instead of the previous figure, the computer will read out 17,739,552. That must be the answer: the computer said so. Correct, it is the product of 3,936 × 4,507. It is not the product of 3,396 × 4,507. The computer did not make a mistake: you did! How does all this apply to our more general subject? Human beings can think. Previous human thought developed the algebraic formula (a + b) (c - d) = ac + bc - ad - bd, which is what you used for checking. If you learned the principles of calculation, you would know this, not so much from memory, as from first principles. You might remember it, to save having to memorize first principles, but you would know it, one way or the other. You would be satisfied it is true. Departure from that started a long while ago. Back around the turn of the century, multiplication tables (now called multiplication facts, in an attempt to avoid the obnoxious tables) were taught by rote. Only persistent individuals, who questioned why, realized there is a reason that 7 times 9 makes 63. Others accepted it as unaccountable fact. And if their memory went faulty, that was too bad. They had no basis for checking back. Advanced educators realized that education must teach people how to learn, how to think, how to communicate effectively, how to study and develop knowledge, and so forth. They suggested reorganization of curriculum to bring this about. Really, there was nothing wrong with the previous curriculum, but with the way it was taught. So we had the "new math," and a lot more new curriculum material, aimed at correcting all this. But what has it really done? It has merely substituted a far more meaningless set of "data" for assimilation into kids' heads. The rote manner of its learning has not changed. If anything, it has become worse, because there is no rhyme or reason, by which parents can come to the kids' rescue, when teachers do not know what they are doing. PROGRAMMED RESPONDERS Kids have become, with each generation, more a form of human programmed responders. They acquire the habit—if they get good grades that is—of being able to give the answers this particular teacher wants. In another area, social studies, one teacher may believe in individualism; so the students respond in a way to please that teacher. Next year, for social studies, they have a teacher who believes in collectivism; so they learn how to respond to that kind of teacher. In the real world, there are places for individual thought, and places where collective reinforcement is necessary. Both have their proper place. We all live in the same world—we cannot ignore that fact. But this phoney programmed response bit has generated a whole population of people incapable of individual thought. Some have asked if it will ever be possible for a computer to "think." If you ask a person that, analyzing his answer will be interesting. If the person you ask has lost the power to think for himself, he will tell you that it is only a matter of time before computers are as "smart" as humans. But if the person you ask can still think, as an individual, he will know that a machine can never have true intelligence. It can only do what its programmers have given it power to do. On this point, many a time, in a political or religious conversation, I have sought to find out what a particular person believes. The fact that he is a Republican or Democrat, or that he belongs to a specific religious denomination, does not mean he believes that group's tenets, down to the last comma. Or it should not. But what do I find? Very often, if he is a programmed responder, he will seek to find out the answers I want, just as he did in school, and has been doing ever since. Perhaps, from the way I ask a question he will think I am a conservative, politically. So he answers the line he has learned pleases conservatives. But I am not satisfied. I wonder how well he has thought that comment through, and ask a further question. Now, because it appears that I am questioning the typical "conservative response," he thinks he must have made a mistake—I must be a liberal. So he tries that response. He does not realize that his successive responses contradict one another—he is just trying to say what he thinks I want to hear. And what I really want to hear, is what he himself thinks. But he does not think. He just responds. So he finds this "conversation" difficult—he cannot "please" me. Eventually, he will erupt with something like, "Well, what do you expect me to say?" You would be surprised how many people like that there are around today. And what are they? They are little better than well-programmed computers. They listen to you, using a recognition training—what kind of answer do you want? Then they respond, as conditioned, for that kind of question. They have no opinions or thoughts, of their own. If you try to discuss the relative merits of conservative vs. liberal philosophy they will compare the two, as entities. This has these good points, those bad points, and so on. They see only that choice—select the better of the two. They cannot think from first principles, to develop what is right, and then see how each philosophy deviates from truth. Oh no, that requires the ability to think for oneself. And neither a computer nor a programmed human being has that power. MICROPHONE STANDS - The Porta-Series Models PSC and PSC-3 microphone stands feature grooved cam construction, machined into the tube assembly, for positive-locking and non-rotational brake action. Tempered springs within the tripod assembly assure increased stability. The vertical tube assemblies, on the stands, are chromed-plated with all-metal "grip action" clutches and equipped with standard 5/8-inch-27 male thread terminations. The Model PSC-3, designed for use by seated performers, extends from 26 inches to a 66-inch height—telescoping to 22 inches for transportation. The Model PSC extends from 35 inches to 63 inches, and folds down to 32 inches. Mfr: Atlas Sound Circle 56 on Reader Service Card TAPE MACHINE - A new mastering deck, with optional dbx, the 35-2 includes full logic (with motion sensing), up-front bias and EQ controls, four high-density permaflux heads for 2-track record/playback and 4-track play, pitch control, cueing and editing, and punch-in recording facility. The 35-2 has an overall frequency response of 40 Hz to 22 kHz @ 15 in./sec., a S/N ratio of 100 dB (with dbx), wow and flutter of 0.03 per cent @ 15 in/sec, and an overall harmonic distortion of 0.6 per cent at normal operating level. Mfr: TEAC Corporation of America Price: $1,900 Circle 58 on Reader Service Card REVERB SYSTEM - A mono reverb system for line level operation, the Model 1155 utilizes a dual 14-inch reverb spring assembly, with a bandwidth of 50 Hz to 6 kHz. The input signal is fed to an amplitude limiter and constant current generator. A model 522 power supply provides the bipolar 24V to operate the system. Mfr: Opamp Labs Inc. Price: $275.00 Circle 57 on Reader Service Card NEW FROM LEADER Measure Wow & Flutter From 0.005% to 3%. Read Wow, Flutter & Drift at 3.0 or 3.15 KHz... JIS, CCIR, DIN standards. Model LFM-39A ... $840.00 Send For Complete Catalog All Leader Instruments Are Backed By A Two Year Warranty! When Quality Counts... LEADER Instruments Corp. 151 Dupont Street. Plainview, N.Y. 11803 Regional Offices Chicago & Los Angeles East Coast: (516) 822-9300 West Coast: (213) 882-4335 Call Toll Free: (800) 645-7120 For the Name of Your Nearest Distributor PROFESSIONAL AUDIO SALES MANAGER Market expansion has created a new position for a take-charge individual with solid experience in sound contracting and/or consulting. The person we seek will have outstanding verbal and written communication skills and will be able to work with architects, consultants, contractors and their clients. He/she will have responsibility for JBL and LCR professional sales through sound contractors in all parts of Canada. The winning candidate will be based in Montreal and will travel as required to support his/her dealers. English/French bilingual fluency is not required but is desirable. Send resume (including salary history): H. Z. GOLDSTEIN GOULD MARKETING CO., LTD. 109 MONTEE DE LIESSE ST. LAURENT, QUEBEC H4T 1S9 CANADA POWER AMPLIFIER - Complementary circuits ensure maximum power output in the Model 2300—delivering 150 watts per channel minimum rms, into 8 ohms, from 20 Hz to 20 kHz, with no more than 0.05 per cent thd. The model 2300 utilizes full thermal protection (in case of high temperature conditions), signal relays to protect speakers from low frequency information which might damage them and electronic protection for transient overloads and short circuits. Mfr: Scientific Audio Electronics, Inc. Price: $700.00 Circle 50 on Reader Service Card REVERBERATION MEASUREMENT - The Model 232A Reverberation Timer computes and digitally displays room decay time within each of 19 frequency bands, from 63 Hz to 12.5 kHz. The unit features automatic level detection, two noise averaging filters, zero-crossing circuitry for external inputs, internal pink noise generator, recorder output, AKG phantom-powering, and calibrated send and receive controls. Mfr: Acoustilog, Inc. Price: $795.00 Circle 51 on Reader Service Card DELAY LINE/FLANGER - Providing a wide range of unusual effects, as well as regular delays, the Series 440 Delay Line/Flanger combines VCO time based processing with straight delays from 0.5 msec up to 160 msec. A dual output allows stereo effects and generates stereo synthesis from a mono input. The regeneration and internal mixing controls permit variations in depth and dynamics. The balanced input will accept signals as high as +18 dBm, and the outputs are equipped with discrete line drivers capable of +18 dBm into 600 ohms. Mfr: Loft Modular Devices, Inc. Price: $800.00 DIGITAL AUDIO PROCESSOR - Using pulse code modulation (PCM) technology, the PCM-1 encodes a live sound source and converts it into a dense group of variable pulses. Signals from the PCM-1 can be recorded on a videocassette recorder (Betamax, U-Matic or other NTSC-standard models). The unit records 13-bits of information on each channel (equivalent to 1.4 million bits of data per second) with a response range from 2 Hz to 20 kHz, and a dynamic range of 85 dB. Wow and flutter, tape hiss and speed deviation are virtually eliminated from the recording process. Mfr: Sony Industries Price: $4400.00 Circle 53 on Reader Service Card REMOTE CONTROL - Offering volume control, fade control, and volume mute, the 3BX-R is a remote control unit for the 3BX dynamic range expander. The remote unit, in addition to duplicating the 3BX main controls, offers a release time control and a high frequency transition level control, with upward and downward expansion displayed on six leds—two for each frequency band. The 3BX-R is powered by the 3BX, and comes complete with a 25 foot cable terminating into a 12-pin socket on the 3BX's rear panel. Mfr: dbx, Inc. Price: $149.00 Circle 55 on Reader Service Card CORDLESS MICROPHONE - Incorporating a special dynamic expansion circuit, the System 22E cordless RF microphone offers a dynamic range of 95 dB. This broadcast quality cordless microphone system consists of a crystal-controlled VHF-FM pocket transmitter and matching receiver. Due to the logarithmic compressor circuitry in the transmitter section of the system, over modulation is prevented. Mfr: HM Electronics, Inc. Price: $1,945.00 Circle 54 on Reader Service Card Soundcraftsmen the GREAT EQUALIZERS... the PERFECT PRE-AMPLIFIERS... the NON-LIMITED CLASS 'H' AMPLIFIERS Equalizers $249 to $550 SE 450 $249. RP 2215-R $379 ▲ RP 2201-R $299. Pre-amps $549 to $699 PE 2217-R $549. TG 3044-R $550 ▼ SP 4002 FEATURES: 1. Variable Cartridge Loading 2. Variable 47 k/100 ohm Phono Impedance 3. Moving Coil Cartridge Inputs 4. Four Mono Phono Preamplifiers 5. ± 20 dB Phone Level Adjustment 6. Sub-Sonic Filtering-15Hz 7. Stacked Level Control 8. Two External Phono Level Locs 9. Three-way Tape Dubbing 10. Two Amplified Headphone Outputs 11. Front Panel Tape Inputs & Outputs 12. Dual 10-Band ± 15 dB Equalization 13. Zero-Gain/LED Level Balancing 14. Zero-Detent Slide Potentiometers 15. 19" Rack Mountable 16. Solid Aluminum 16. Compact Case: Height: 50" Width: 17. THD: 0.01% 18. Phone S/N: -97 dB. $599. Class 'H' 250w. Non-Limited Basic Amps, from $649 The new CLASS "H" ANALOG logic Var-Portional circuit with AUTO-CROWBAR protection circuit, input level controls, adjustable range meters, main and remote speaker selection, clipping indicators, VARI-PORTIONAL indicators and speaker protection 250 watts RMS minimum p/c 20-20KHz @ 8 Ohms, less than 0.01% THD T.I.M. better than 0.02%. NON-LIMITED output assures crisp clean peaks. 3 models, From $649. WHYS & HOWS of equalization FREE! 16-page Full-Color Brochure Includes TEST REPORTS, complete specifications, Class 'H' amplifier ENGINEERING REPORT, EQ COMPARISON CHART, and the 'WHY'S & HOW'S' of equalization—an easy to understand explanation of the relationship of acoustics to your equipment. Also contains many unique IDEAS on "How the Soundcraftsmen Equalizer can measurably enhance your listening pleasures"; "How typical room problems can be eliminated by Equalization" and a 10-POINT "DO-IT-YOURSELF" EQ evaluation checklist so you can FIND OUT FOR YOURSELF WHAT EQ CAN DO FOR YOU! MADE IN U.S.A. BY SOUNDCRAFTSMEN, INC., 2200 SO. RITCHIEY, SANTA ANA, CA 92705 CANADA 5440 Mongeni Rd. Mississauga, Ontario Brussels, Belgium—The Audio Engineering Society is holding its annual European convention here this month. And what better excuse do we need to dedicate this issue of db to the subject of international audio? As you read this, we'll be in Brussels (strictly business, of course), finding out about all that's new in professional audio. As for the rest of the world, we've managed to squeeze at least a few corners of it between this month's covers. We start off with a journey of a trifle more than 22,000 miles—not around the world, but away from it. Specifically, into geo-synchronous orbit, where we discover An Improved Audio Pipeline. It's Western Union's WESTAR satellite, which gives our National Public Radio network a better means of distributing its programs around the country, free from terrestrial limitations. It's not quite international audio, but that shouldn't be too far away now, with just another satellite or two. What's a geo-whatchamacallit? Wayne Hetrich explains it all in this feature story. A little more down to earth in our Report From Mexico City, where we find one of the most advanced recording facilities in the western hemisphere. After reading this report, you shouldn't be at all surprised if this Centro de Grabacion becomes well-known in international audio circles. Although New York is home, it's also part of the international scene, and our coverage wouldn't really be complete without a Report From New York, which tells us a little bit about what's going on at Harry Hirsch's Soundmixers. In Europe, the Centre Georges Pompidou has attracted international attention, and so we asked John Borwick if he wouldn't mind dropping in at the Institute for Research and Coordination—Acoustics/Music (IRCAM), which is a part of the centre. Borwick didn't need much persuading, as he cheerfully admits in his Report From Paris. And in Germany, Jeff Nieckau flew into West Berlin, from where he filed his Convention Report: The 11th Tonmeistertagung. It's an interesting contrast to the conventions of the Audio Engineering Society, which are perhaps more familiar to most db readers. We conclude our international survey with a Report from Japan, in which Sierra Audio president Kent Duncan brings us up-to-date on his recent studio construction experiences in Tokyo. As Duncan has discovered, it's a long way from beautiful downtown Burbank, but it's a trip he heartily recommends without hesitation to any serious audio pro. We return from our 'round-the-world survey just in time for another look at time, or rather, at Time-Aligned Loudspeaker Systems. Speaking of the Audio Engineering Society—as we were at the beginning of this page—an AES paper by Ed Long on time-alignment techniques marked the beginning of the development of the UREI 813 Time-Aligned Studio Monitor System. Here, author Dean Austin describes the development of this system, with special emphasis on the significance of time coherence. Although we'll be back next month with more on the subject of digital audio, it's not too early to remind you now of the next Midwest Acoustics Conference. The subject is Digital Technology: Impact on Recorded Sound. The conference will be held at Northwestern University (Evanston, Illinois) on Saturday, 12 May. For more information, contact William R. Bevan, Shure Brothers, Inc., 222 Hartrey Avenue, Evanston, Illinois 60204. (312) 866-2364. J.M.W. Have VOCAL STRESSER WILL TRAVEL! .....says Tony Visconti* "As a successful record producer, I am continually travelling to studios all over the world, recording such people as David Bowie, Thin Lizzy and Mary Hopkin. I have to deal with a wide variety of equipment in various studio settings; so in order to ensure that I have the best Compressor-Limiter equipment to hand, I invariably pack a Vocal-Stresser in my suitcase. In my opinion, Audio & Design make the finest range of auxiliary processors available and their equipment offers the producer/engineer ultra flexibility in the creation of good music." The Audio & Design Vocal Stresser uniquely combines a multi-ratio compressor with overall peak limiter and low level noise expander/gate with a parametric type equaliser in one package. The combination provides most facilities necessary for improving and processing programme material whilst retaining maximum operational flexibility. The equaliser is simple to operate and can be switched before (pre), or after (post), the compressor-limiter, as well as into the side-chain (s.c) of the compressor section for frequency modulation effects and changing spectral energy balance. audio & design recording inc. Gregg Dixon, PO Box 23047, Honolulu, Hawaii 96822 Tel: (808) 845 7226 Nigel Branwell, PO Box 902, Marina, Calif.93933 Tel: (408) 372 9036 btx presents the 30-track audio recorder The btx 4500 SMPTE interlocking system lets you operate any two multi-track recorders in tandem for 14, 22, 30 or 46-track capability. Using standard SMPTE time code written on one track of each machine, any two recorders may be synchronized, including video to audio. You can even mix makes, formats, speeds, and numbers of tracks, with or without servo controlled capstan drive. The btx 4500 is a micro-processor-based system capable of tracking within 50 microseconds of an actual mechanical lock. It's an economical direct plug-in system that's easy to use and ultra-reliable. The btx Corporation 438 Boston Post Road, Weston, MA 02193 (617) 891-1239 An Improved Audio Pipeline—NPR’s Satellite System Prompted by the insufficient bandwidth of conventional terrestrial interconnection systems, NCR is shifting to satellite technology for high-quality program distribution. NATIONAL PUBLIC RADIO (NPR) is a private, non-profit membership corporation established in 1970 specifically to provide a national program service for the nation's public radio stations. Since its beginning, NPR has considered plans for shifting its interconnection service for program distribution from a terrestrial system to one based on communications satellite technology. NPR's present service is severely limited by the lack of terrestrial circuits of sufficient bandwidth to permit high quality monophonic and stereophonic programs to be distributed nationwide. Most public radio stations operate in the f.m. band and have high-fidelity capability to provide stereo programming. To match this, NPR must presently distribute such materials on prerecorded tape, which is sent through the U.S. mail at a library rate to each station. A three to four week period must be allowed for this delivery. BASIC OBJECTIVES To meet the basic objectives of NPR, a satellite interconnection system must provide for the simultaneous national transmission of two or more programs of up to four channels each. The material will be distributed in real time with 15 kHz fidelity in mono, stereo, and quadraphonic transmissions, with provision for maximum local flexibility in selection and scheduling. The system will also provide for transmission of locally-produced programs, both for national, regional, or other less-than-national uses. Initially, four 15 kHz channels will be transmitted through the system simultaneously, and each station will be able to receive all four simultaneously. Eventually, up to 12 simultaneous channels may be used. The choice of a single-channel-per-carrier system gives public radio the most flexibility in how it combines channels to make up stereo or quadraphonic program formats. Multiple circuits and their configuration in stereophonic and quadraphonic modes will make it possible for NPR to make a significant breakthrough in the breadth of its program service to the American public. RECEIVER SUB-SYSTEM Each licensee will be provided with one receiver subsystem, consisting of a down-converter, four demodulators and associated audio expander units (Figure 1). The down-converter may be tuned to one of two wide-bandwidth transponder frequencies, and each demodulator unit may be independently tuned to one of 12 narrow-bandwidth frequencies within the selected transponder. The system concept allows for eventual expansion from the basic four program channels to twelve 15 kHz program channels. The system concept also includes two low-power, narrow-band "Coordination Channels," to be used for teletype, message services, and remote control functions. Earth terminal receiving antennas (Figure 2) are 4.57 meters in diameter and have the capability for manual re-pointing to another satellite in the event of a major or catastrophic failure of the prime satellite. Artist's eyeview of satellite in orbit. The design also accommodates 15 uplink transmitter sites. Each of these sites will have the capability of transmitting two independent 15 kHz program channels simultaneously to the satellite. The basic system is designed to allow for expansion of the uplink system as the public radio satellite system grows. Initially, about 190 radio stations will be served by the satellite interconnection system, which is expected to grow to over 300 stations in the next ten years by adding from ten to twelve stations each year. NPR will effect a coordinated transition from the terrestrial interconnection to a satellite interconnection system. The work is to be done in segments. THE MAIN ORIGINATION TERMINAL AND NPR TECHNICAL CENTER The Main Origination Ground Terminal System (hereafter referred to as the M. O. Terminal) has been constructed for the distribution of Public Broadcasting Service television programming, and will be expanded for National Public Radio programming. The M. O. Terminal site is at Bren Mar, Virginia—approximately 10 miles southwest of Washington, D.C. An M. O. Terminal Terrestrial Interconnection Link is to be provided from the NPR Technical Center on M Street, N.W., in Washington, D.C. to the M. O. Terminal site. There will also be return loops from the M. O. Terminal back to the NPR Technical Center, for monitoring and other program uses. Initially, two spare link channels will be provided between NPR and the M. O. Terminal, for a total of six duplex program circuits. The M. O. Terminal will have the capacity to transmit at least four television programs simultaneously and also be capable of handling public radio's need in another transponder on the same satellite. In the future, the M. O. Terminal and M. O. Terminal Terrestrial Link will be expected to handle up to 12 primary single-channel-per-carrier program signals along with spare facilities for the public radio system. This M. O. Terminal will be fully equipped with backup (redundant) systems to achieve high reliability, and consists of two 11-meter antennas, both of which will be able to receive as well as transmit. The Public Television System provides four low-noise amplifiers (LNAs), five transmitters, five receivers, and a terrestrial microwave link to the PBS Technical Center. The overall design of the M. O. Terminal takes expansion capability into account, so that public radio satellite interconnection system equipment needs can be accommodated in a cost-effective and timely manner. AUDIO AND LINK PERFORMANCE DESIGN GOALS The audio performance goal for the NPR network is to deliver a high quality signal with at least a 67 dB signal-to-noise ratio. The system will make extensive use of a new compander which produces about 29 dB subjective processing improvement, thus greatly reducing the performance requirements for the transmission channel itself. It is expected that the subjective signal-to-noise ratio obtained at NPR stations will be in excess of 70 dB. GEO-SYNCHRONOUS ORBITS When an object is placed in what is termed a geosynchronous orbit around the earth, the centrifugal force acting on the rotating object is exactly balanced by the pull of earth's gravity. Thus the orbit is maintained, and the object neither flies out into space, nor falls to earth. From these facts, it can be reasoned that there must be a particular orbital distance at which gravity and centrifugal forces are in balance when the object makes just one revolution in a twenty-four hour period. This distance is about 22,300 miles above the earth's surface, and is known as a geo-synchronous or, more commonly, a synchronous orbit. By placing the satellite in a synchronous orbit in the plane containing the equator (Figure 3), the satellite remains fixed in space with respect to the earth, since both are rotating at the same rate. Thus, the satellite appears to hang over a fixed geographic point, and can serve as a platform for a microwave repeater. The satellite system itself is really just a long distance microwave transmission link which serves to connect the program origination source to all NPR receiving terminals. We accomplish this through a repeater (called a transponder, and carried on a synchronous satellite). SATELLITE REPEATER COMPONENTS The basic parts of a satellite repeater are a transmitting antenna, receiver, frequency translator, power amplifiers, and receiving antenna. These are shown in Figure 4. Signals are transmitted "uplink" from the ground-originating terminal on a carrier frequency in the 5925 to 6425 MHz range (or, about 6 GHz). These signals are received by the satellite and translated downward in frequency by 2225 MHz, amplified, and transmitted "downlink" in the 3700 to 4200 MHz (about 4 GHz) frequency range by the satellite. Ordinary frequency modulation is used to impress the program material on the microwave carriers. In order to maximize power and bandwidth capacity, the NPR satellites (WESTAR I and II, owned by Western Union Telegraph Co.) are divided into twelve "transponders," each having a nominal bandwidth of 40 MHz. Each transponder is actually a separate transmitter (travAMPEX ATR-700 ATR-700 This is the portable audio recorder designed for commercial service—the Ampex ATR-700. A reel-to-reel tape recorder in a compact package, tough enough for the continuous demands of full-time broadcasting, or the bruising insults of location work. Use the ATR-700 for full or half-track monaural, or full-range stereo, and you'll get a response that's virtually flat from 40 Hz to 18 kHz. And every switch and control is clearly marked on the compact front panel for easy identification. The back-lit meters show you the situation even when the room lights dim, and switchable equalization means instant setup for most situations. ATR-700 durability runs deep. All switches and connectors are heavy duty, professional types, and the transport itself is a rigid, massive casting that keeps all moving parts aligned even after hundreds of trips back and forth between the studio and the field. Now there's no excuse for less than professional audio in the programs, commercials and productions you turn out. Ampex has the finest, most up-to-date reel-to-reel portable on the market, and it's available at Ampex audio distributors in every major city. AMPEx MAKES IT EXCITING. Ampex Corporation, 401 Broadway, Redwood City, California 94063, 415/367-2011 (cling-wave tube amplifier). Outputs from all twelve transponders are summed by combining filters to feed the satellite's transmitting antenna. The output from the satellite receiver is divided into nominal 40 MHz bands by other filters, each feeding the appropriate transponder. The transponders have been designed so that the downlink center frequencies and transponder numbers are on 40 MHz "steps." Each of these channels is independent of the others and may be operated single-carrier, as for TV service, or multiple-carrier as for NPR service. GROUND TERMINAL COMPONENTS The basic parts of the ground terminal which transmits the program channel to the satellite at a typical NPR uplink site are: an f.m. compressor/modulator, frequency up-converter, power amplifier, and antenna, as seen in Figure 5. The additional components in the figure will be described later. Program audio material, after audio compression, is applied to the f.m. modulator, which generates a carrier in the vicinity of 70 MHz, and frequency modulates this carrier with the compressed audio program material. The peak deviation of the f.m. carrier, corresponding to a peak test tone level of +18 dBm, is 75 kHz. This is the same peak carrier deviation as used by the f.m. broadcast industry. Since the highest modulating frequency is 15 kHz, the modulation index is 5 which again, is the same as the f.m. broadcast industry. INDIVIDUAL CARRIERS The individual carriers each correspond to program channels which may be operated in either mono, stereophonic, or quadraphonic configurations. The NPR system will initially be equipped for four carriers with each R/T uplink capable of transmitting two, and capable of being expanded. Thus, the initial system will be capable of transmitting four separate mono programs, two stereophonic programs, or one quadraphonic program. Each of the four carriers will be generated on a separate frequency in the range from 63 to 77 MHz by the f.m. modulator for a particular program channel (mono). In the case of stereo, "left" will be on one carrier and "right" on another. Note that this is a departure from the standard f.m. stereo transmission system used by broadcasters which uses a composite signal carrying both left and right audio signals on one r.f. channel. The combined group of f.m. carriers in the 63 to 77 MHz range from a passive power combiner is fed to the frequency up-converter, which translates each carrier by a fixed frequency amount to the desired uplink frequency. Thus, if there are, for example, four NPR carriers at 65, 69, 72 and 74 MHz at the input to the up-converter, each of these might be translated upward by 5995 MHz. This translation would result in the four carriers appearing in transponder number 4 on the downlink. The NPR carriers at the output of the up-converter are each at a power level of about one one-hundredth of a milliwatt. Power amplification is provided by the power amplifier system to increase the individual carrier power to a level suitable for uplink transmission to the satellite. With the high-gain directive antennas used, a level of the order to 6.5 to 45 watts-per-carrier is required at the antenna, depending on the antenna size and gain. At remote transmit stations using 4.5-meter dishes, about 45 watts is required while at the 11-meter M.O.T. antenna, only about 6.5 watts is required. ANTENNA REQUIREMENTS A parabolic reflector antenna is used to provide the power gain and directivity needed to establish the uplink. The same antenna structure may be used for both transmit and receive by use of specialized isolation techniques which separate the transmit and receive signals at the antenna feed. Gain of the antenna at transmit frequencies is approximately 46 dB, depending on the type of antenna used. With 45 watts-per-carrier delivered to this antenna, the effective isotropically radiated power (EIRP) is 62.5 dBW, which is sufficient to accomplish the uplink transmission with negligible degradation to the signal quality. The NPR receive antenna is a 4.5-meter diameter parabolic reflector structure. Gain at 4.0 GHz is approximately 43.5 dB. Such high-gain antennae, operated in conjunction with a low-noise amplifier, provide a sufficiently high received carrier power-to-system noise power ratio to achieve a high signal-to-noise ratio. Incoming signals in the frequency range from 3700 to 4200 MHz are fed from the antenna receive output port to the low-noise amplifier. The LNA has about 60 dB gain, which raises the level of the received signals sufficiently for proper operation of the down-converter and f.m. demodulator. LOW-NOISE AMPLIFIER The low-noise amplifier establishes the sensitivity of the receive system. Since it has relatively high gain, noise contributions from "down stream" portions of the receiver system (e.g. down-converter and f.m. demodulator), are insignificant. One particular type of LNA has a noise figure of 0.75 dB which is 55 Kelvin. Only in the low carrier level areas must a lower-noise temperature (and more expensive) LNA be provided. It has been determined to be cost-effective to select 150, 125, 95 or 55 Kelvin units for each NPR receive terminal, as indicated by conditions at the individual location. The down-converter contains input band-pass filters which select the 40 MHz portion of the 500 MHz wide LNA output spectrum corresponding to the desired transponder containing the NPR carriers. These carriers are down-converted or mixed down to Operation of channel 2 is similar to channel 1. The equipment in both channels is identical; thus, separate carriers—each modulated with a program channel—are fed to the hybrid power combiner. In this type of hybrid combiner, half of the power presented to either input port appears at the output port. Such a combiner has the advantage of providing a rather high isolation between the two input ports, thereby permitting completely independent operation of the two transmit channels. It is also a very simple and reliable device. When both channels are in use, two carriers on separate frequencies (each at a power level of approximately 100 watts), are fed to the two input ports of the hybrid combiner. Approximately half of the input power for each carrier appears at the output port of the hybrid, and is fed by way of the transmit feed structure, to the antenna. ORTHOGONAL POLARIZATION By means of orthogonal (i.e. 90 degree separation) polarization of transmit and receive signals, a high degree of isolation (at least 30 dB) is achieved between the transmit input port of the antenna and its receive output port. Hence, only a small fraction of transmit power appears at the receive port of the antenna. The transmit signal (one or two carriers) is fed via the transmit feed to the antenna which has approximately 46 dB power gain. At least 40 watts (+ 16 dBW) per carrier is delivered to the antenna feed. The antenna power gain results in an EIRP of at least 62 dBW, which is adequate to provide high quality uplink transmission with reasonable operating margins. Although the polarization technique described provides a relatively high degree of isolation between the transmit input and receive output ports, it is necessary to provide additional attenuation to the transmit signal appearing at the receive port to prevent overload of the LNA. Thus, the transmit equipment chain includes a transmit reject filter (also seen in Figure 5). This filter has at least 50 dB rejection to frequencies in the transmit band and only about 0.1 dB insertion loss to signals in the receive band. The combined polarization isolation and attenuation to transmit frequencies of the filter provide 70 dB attenuation to the level of the transmit signal appearing at the LNA input. Thus, operation of the uplink transmit system does not affect or degrade the simultaneous operation of the receive system. SATELLITE “FOOTPRINT” The level of receive carrier power from the satellite will vary with geographic location because the gain of --- Figure 4. Block diagram of the satellite transponder. Figure 5. Block diagram of the transmitter sub-system. the satellite transmit antenna, like any other directive antenna, varies with the angle of the main beam axis. As a result of satellite transmit antenna gain variation, the EIRP varies across the United States. It is convenient to show EIRP at various locations by means of contours of constant EIRP, overlaid on a map of the United States. These contours are sometimes referred to as the satellite "footprint." For the WESTAR satellites used by NPR, the regions of maximum satellite EIRP are in the central U.S. In other areas, the satellite EIRP may be several dB less, with Alaska about 5 dB down. For a constant signal-to-noise ratio, a less-sensitive (or more noisy) receiver may be used in high EIRP regions. Conversely, in low EIRP regions, a more sensitive (less noisy) receiver is required. Saturated EIRP represents the maximum total power which the transponder can produce. The power available to each individual NPR carrier is considerably less than saturated power, since the transponder power capacity must be shared among up to twelve NPR carriers in addition to other carriers within the same transponder. In multi-carrier operation, transponder power must be "backed-off" to avoid unacceptably high levels of intermodulation in the satellite. In other words, the per-carrier power in twelve-carrier operation is somewhat less than one-twelfth of the saturated power level. Finally, an allowance of 1.5 dB is made for transponder end-of-life degradation. Thus, the per-carrier power in the NPR system is the saturated EIRP reduced by 10.8 dB for twelve-carrier power sharing, plus a suitable intermodulation backoff of 6.7 dB, necessitated by multi-carrier operation, plus about 1.5 dB for end-of-transponder-life degradation. A typical value for pre-carrier power is about 16.5 dBW, or 44.7 watts. The so-called path loss or spreading loss depends on the distance, or slant range, from the satellite to the receiving terminal. Thus, a typical total propagation loss used in the calculations is the sum of the path loss and a 1.1 dB allowance for miscellaneous losses. A typical value, using this example, is 196.3 dB. Carrier power, C, received by the NPR terminal is determined by transponder per-carrier power, propagation loss, and receive antenna gain. In a computer program, the worst case carrier level is calculated and used in subsequent calculations. This conservative method of calculation is used to ensure that performance requirements are met with reasonable operating margin for either transponder in either satellite. Thus, the lowest value or "worst case" carrier level using the typical values of these quantities as stated before is: \[ C - 14 \text{ dBW} - 196.3 \text{ dB} + 43.5 \text{ dB} = -138.8 \text{ dBW} \] In any f.m. system, the signal-to-noise ratio is the sum of carrier-to-noise ratio and the f.m. improvement factor which is a function of receiver noise bandwidth, highest modulation frequency, and peak f.m. deviation of the carrier. For the NPR system in which these parameters are 200 kHz, 15 kHz and 75 kHz respectively, it can be shown from basic f.m. theory that the improvement factor is approximately 27.0 dB. Thus, the system audio signal-to-noise ratio is just 27.0 dB better than the r.f. carrier-to-noise ratio in the 200 kHz bandwidth. It is a requirement in the NPR system that the signal-to-noise ratio of the bearer channel (not including compander improvement) be at least 41.0 dB. Thus, the required carrier-to-noise ratio (CNR) of the system must be at least 41.0-27.0, or 14.0 dB. Antenna noise temperature is partially determined by the amount of noise power radiated by the "hot" earth entering the antenna through sidelobe responses. Therefore, the antenna noise temperature depends on the elevation angle of the antenna. Since the temperature of the earth's surface is of the order of 300 degrees Kelvin, a significant amount of noise power can enter the antenna sidelobes. At a typical elevation angle of 40 degrees, antenna noise temperature for the NPR antenna will be approximately 22 Kelvin. Using a computer program, antenna noise temperature is determined for the elevation angle corresponding to the worst case situation. NOISE CONTRIBUTING FACTORS Although generally rather small, noise contributions "downstream" in the receiver system from the LNA must be considered. Such contributions include down-converter and demodulator noise, and noise contribution resulting from coaxial cable and power divider losses. Since the LNA has relatively high gain (about 60 dB) they are typically less than 1 Kelvin in most stations, but could total as much as 30 Kelvin. Such downstream receiver noise contributions are included in the miscellaneous contribution margin. The overall audio performance limits of the NPR satellite system are shown in Table 1. When we consider all the design and performance requirements in terms of expansion capabilities, channel flexibility and remote input program transmission from regional centers, the new NPR satellite program distribution system opens a whole new era of expanded broadcast services to the listening public. NPR is proud to be a part of it. Report From Mexico City El Centro De Grabacion The SACMEX Centro de Grabacion—a recording complex of unique design. Most of us have heard of ASCAP and BMI, or, the American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers, and, Broadcast Music, Inc. Together with Sesac, they form the "big three" of music licensing organizations. But, what about "SACMEX"? This is the Mexican equivalent of the big three; in other words, the Sociedad de Autores y Compositores de Mexico, s.a. During the 40's, SACMEX composers attracted world-wide attention. Hit songs such as Besame Mucho, Frenise, Perfidia were recognized everywhere, even if their country of origin didn't get much attention. But as the years rolled by, music of Mexico all but vanished from the international scene. The Mexican economy was growing, and local record companies turned their attention inward, towards meeting the needs of their own national market. With the rock revolution, the international stature of Mexican music deteriorated even further. The Mexican branches of the big international record labels became interested in supplying Mexico with north-of-the-border rock, and were too busy to promote local talent abroad. The talent was there in abundance, but it just wasn't getting international exposure. Mexican recording studios did not keep up with the state-of-the-art, and the future for the many talented artists and composers of Mexico did not look promising. The situation did not escape the notice of SACMEX, for one of the Society's obligations is to try to help develop and advance the standards of Mexican music. After many discussions, the SACMEX board of directors came to the inescapable conclusion that they must take dramatic action, if the cause of Mexican music was to be advanced. An ambitious cultural center was planned, and is now under construction. It is safe to say that by the time it is completed, it will be difficult—if not impossible—to find its equal anywhere else. Eventually, the cultural center will contain six movie houses, three theaters, a school of music and technology, publishing houses, archives for printed music and records, and a large commercial center. And of course, a complete recording facility. At the Harrison board. The lounge/lobby area. The financial planning for such a massive undertaking was developed by Senor Gilberto Navarro, a sub-director of SACMEX, with the enthusiastic support of the local financial community. The three theaters will be built in collaboration with the Mexican government and the Filharmonica de las Americas. EL CENTRO DE GRABACION Of immediate interest to db readers is the SACMEX Centro de Grabacion, or, recording center. The center is already functioning, and by anyone's standards, it's an eye-opener, and a controversial one at that. It consists of three recording studios, the largest of which (Studio A) is almost 100 feet in diameter. Diameter? Yes, each of the studios is round! The idea came from Jose Antonio Zavala, who is gerente de produccion at SACMEX. Jose Antonio is part of a musical family of twelve brothers and sisters, who have recorded all over the world. During the past 25 years, he's been in and out of many recording studios, of all sizes and shapes—but never a round one. But, why not round, he thought? Late one night, he phoned his friend Prospero Sandoval—now the director tecnico for SACMEX—to propose the idea; which was met with a long period of silence. Eventually, Jose Antonio recalls, he shouted, "Hey Prospero, did you fall asleep?" to which Prospero retorted, "SHH! I'm thinking it over!" And then, "OK, let's do it." The Mexican architect Manuel Rocha was called in, and eventually the studio plan found its way to paper. As the planning progressed, Ron Newdoll of Accurate Sound was asked to help specify and acquire the hardware package. Ron recalls his initial surprise at the idea of round recording studios. He found that most American and European engineers were conditioned to dismissing the idea as musically unsound. But Jose Antonio insists that the round studio should be able to satisfy all points of view, from the technical to the musical. As a musical director, he feels the shape allows him to spread out a large orchestra, and still maintain good visual communication with each section. Prospero Sandoval points out that the latest acoustical materials and techniques free the designer from the constraints of the traditional rectangular concert-hall approach to studio design. In the smaller studios, the acoustic treatment lends itself quite well to multi-track recording, especially for rock groups. Separation is excellent, and groups can work out their own seating arrangement, without having to cope with the vagaries of nearby wall surfaces. The controversy really starts when dealing with the recording of larger orchestral ensembles in Studio A. Throughout the world, there are concert halls whose acoustics range from so-so to spectacular. With few exceptions, the spectacular ones were built before the turn-of-the-century. In fact, in a recent Audio Engineering Society preprint, Professor J. Robert Ashley notes that, ". . . it would seem that we lost the recipe for a superb concert hall about the time of World War I." His paper is "A Preliminary Evaluation of 360 Degree Concert Halls." (AES preprint 1420). In the paper, Ashley asks, "Is a 360 degree hall a good recording studio?" and concludes that the answer is "No." Of course, Ashley is speaking of concert-hall type recording, not rock. Some recent classical recordings from the 360-degree Berlin Philharmonic Hall may seem to support Ashley's position. Although the recording is remarkably clear, the traditional "depth" of sound has all but vanished. A recording of the Beethoven 9th Symphony may be a prime example. The dynamic range is spectacular, as is the clarity of the score. But this massive ensemble sounds as though it was recorded in a shoe box, with no room to breath. In fact, it sounds like no room at all. Some will love it for its clarity—others will regret its lack of spaciousness. And that brings us back to SACMEX's Studio A; a round room built as a recording studio, not a concert hall. How does it stand up to Professor Ashley's question? ROUND IS BETTER? Several months ago, free-lance engineer Carson Taylor recorded the Filharmonica de las Americas in Mexico City's Palacio de Belles Artes. Prior to his recent retirement, Taylor was chief engineer for Angel Records, and senior mixer for Capitol/EMI. Rehearsals for the recording sessions were held in SACMEX's Studio A, and in addition Taylor did some experimental sessions there. With 90 musicians in the orchestra, and a chorus of 75, the studio did not seem crowded. The circular shape provides ample room for movement, without dealing with the problems of corners. Taylor found that the possible negative effects of acoustic foci have been well-handled in the ceilings and walls, and no real problems exist from these sources. Isolation from outside noise is excellent. It was only during one particularly violent storm that an occasional thunder-clap could just be heard. ROOM FOR IMPROVEMENT Taylor feels that there are still some (lack of) ambience problems to be worked out. However, the floor is presently covered with a very thick, luxurious carpet, which absorbs reflected sounds. This is just right for the smaller studios, for recording multi-track. But, Studio A is too big for anything but a large orchestra, and could benefit from some controlled reflected sounds. Therefore, he has suggested that the carpet be replaced with a hardwood floor, to enhance the ambience of the studio. With the technical excellence found here, Taylor believes that in time, SACMEX's Studio A should become one of the finest recording facilities for large orchestral work in the western hemisphere. It should also be noted here that the studio was not necessarily planned for the European concert repertoire. It was designed to suit the needs of the Mexican musical scene, and the SACMEX officers are pleased with the sounds they hear in Studio A. However, experiments are being conducted, and it would not be surprising to find a hardwood floor, with roll-up carpeting in the future. The smaller rooms have already attracted the attention of some well-known visitors. Doug Henning, Rod Stewart and Don Costa have all recorded there recently, and Polydor—as well as other major labels—are planning future sessions. CONTROL ROOM EQUIPMENT Visiting engineers and producers should feel right at home in the SACMEX control rooms. All three are identical in size, configuration and equipment complement. And that includes Harrison boards, 3M M-79 24-track recorders, dbx noise reduction, UREI compressors and graphic equalizers, Eventide flangers and digital delay lines. Four live reverberation chambers have been built in the basement, and these are supplemented by AKG spring reverberation systems. All the Electro-Voice Sentry III monitors are bi-amped, using Crown amplifiers and White crossover networks. And, each control room is designed and equipped for quadraphonic mixdowns. In specifying the equipment package, Ron Newdoll at Accurate Sound had to give careful consideration to reliability and ease of servicing. Although Mexico City is not that far away, getting equipment shipped across the border can be a tedious and time-consuming task. Long delays are the order of the day, and so a minor replacement part can easily become a major logistical problem. FUTURE PLANS So far, things have been working smoothly, with very little downtime. In fact, ambitious expansion plans are underway, and these will include a complete film transfer facility, as well as a tape-to-disc transfer system. Newdoll and Prospero Sandoval have spent a lot of time "A/B-ing" cutting lathes and are pretty close to making a final decision. Newdoll reports that future planning will also include the installation of an automation system—as yet unspecified. Actually, SACMEX has already experimented with at least one automation system, which wound up being scrapped. According to Newdoll, it was impossible to get the necessary technical support and documentation from the manufacturer. SACMEX'S IMPACT The presence of SACMEX's Centro de Grabacion is being felt throughout the Mexican recording industry. Jose Antonio Zavala notes that shortly after the inauguration of the studio, many older studios began updating their facilities. In fact, Accurate Sound has established a Mexico City office to more efficiently meet the requirements of both Mexico and its neighbors to the south. Jose Antonio is delighted with the flurry of local activity. He is quick to point out that SACMEX is certainly not trying to compete with record labels. Its first duty is to promote the cause of Mexican music, and he feels that by making advanced recording technology readily available, SACMEX composers will enhance their competitive position in the international recording world. SACMEX has opposed a recent plan by the Mexican Musicians Union that called for a law that would require radio stations to play Mexican music 90 percent of the time. SACMEX favors free competition, and feels that with a facility such as the Centro de Grabacion readily available to local artists, the sound of Mexico will once again be heard—not only in Mexico, but around the world. For that matter, recording artists from around the world should be heard more in Mexico. With a recording facility such as SACMEX offers, it should be hard to keep them away. OUR ORIGINAL BUSINESS WAS MAKING SOUND CONNECTIONS We're still at it. We started in 1935 as the Audio Development Company producing jacks and jack panels for the broadcast and telephone industries. Since then, ADC has produced such innovations as Bantam Jacks, printed circuit board jacks and Wrapid terminal blocks. What are we doing for you today? We are introducing our new line of low impedance audio connectors. We have six models now in production. They're reliable, compatible and competitively priced. Most important, they're available sooner. Ask about making a sound connection with ADC. Call or write today. ADC Products A DIVISION OF MAGNETIC CONTROLS ADC Products, 4900 W. 78th St., Minneapolis, MN 55435 / Telephone: (612) 835-6800 TWX 910-576-2832 Telex 29-0321 Sales offices in Atlanta GA (404) 766-9595 • Dallas, TX (214) 241-6783 • Denver, CO (303) 761-4081 • Fairfield, CT (203) 255-0644 • Lafayette, IN (317) 474-0814 • Melbourne FL (305) 724-9874 • Menlo Park, CA (415) 323-1386 • Minneapolis, MN (612) 835-6800 • Washington, DC (202) 452-1043 • Montreal Quebec (514) 677-2869 Report From New York Soundmixers Recording Studios Soundmixers—from drawing board to reality; a tale with a happy ending. NEW YORK CITY, January, 1977—Harry Hirsch is sitting in a down-at-the-heels office in New York's ancient Brill Building at 1619 Broadway; that once-famous music industry mecca with the polished brass doors on the outside and now, an air of genteel decay inside. He's describing a pie-in-the-sky million dollar recording studio that he wants to build, right here in Fun City. Harry's fanciful tale has a familiar ring to it. We've all heard the same story again and again. "The money people are getting together next week, and we should be underway in just a little while longer." A DIFFERENT TUNE That's usually the end of the story. The deal falls through (it's always someone else's fault), and the story dies, only to be resurrected some time later in another locale. But this time, there's a difference, and a refreshing one at that. For while Harry is talking, a crew of workmen are gutting the second floor of the Brill Building, making way for what promises to be an exciting new studio complex—and right here in the heart of Fun City! It turns out that Harry and I went to RCA Institutes at about the same time, although neither of us will admit to graduating as long ago as the late 50's (very late 50's, Harry adds). While your author sought fame and fortune in the quality control department of a large record company, Harry sought his with Charlie Leighton at JAC Recording. At the time, JAC was a very successful mono, and later stereo, studio across the street from the Plaza Hotel. After cutting his recording teeth there (doing Pepsi, Coke and Newport jingles), he left to help form Media Sound, moving one block south and a few blocks west, into a former church. Although Media seemed to be doing well, Harry split with his partners in late 1974, and spent the next few years thinking about building yet another new studio. Along the way, he met John Storyk of Sugarloaf View, and was impressed with his conceptions of layout and "ambience". And then there was Robert Wolsch, one of the big apple's more inventive photographers, and an expert with color and lighting. (For a first-hand look at Wolsch's work, see our November and December 1978 covers—Ed.) And now, some twenty years after that graduation, we sat together surveying the floor plans for what would soon become known as Soundmixers—the largest independent recording studio complex ever built in New York City. The plans revealed three separate recording studios with identical control rooms. These are hexagonal in shape, and occupy about 425 square feet each. A fourth studio will have a slightly smaller control room. A MILLION DOLLAR EFFORT Altogether, Harry anticipated that the lease-hold improvements on the building would come to about $500,000 (not counting Excedrin, of course). Another $500k should take care of the equipment package, which was to be coordinated by Ham' Brosius at Audiotechniques. Harry decided to go with Audiotechniques after making the decision for MCI consoles and tape recorders. As a leading MCI dealer, Brosius was the logical choice for the "everything else" as well. And what swayed Soundmixers to MCI? According to Harry, it was a combination of features, "track record" and industry acceptance. With artists, engineers and producers expected from all over the world, it was going to be important to have a console that would be immediately accessible to the most number of people. Chances are, if a client has any sort of studio experience, he's already familiar with MCI. Accordingly, Soundmixers ordered three MCI 542 consoles for Studios A, B and C. (For the time being, a smaller... FOR THE SMALL STUDIO OWNER WITH BIG IDEAS. If you're a small studio owner, you may have a problem: your ideas are far beyond your present equipment. Maybe you're an engineer, dreaming of an automated 24-track studio. Maybe you're a producer, searching for "the next big thing." Maybe you're an artist, trying to land a record contract. What you need is something that will get you from where you are to where you'd like to be. Sound impossible? Not to us. At dbx, we're committed to make professional recording technology available to anyone with the determination to make use of it. We make a line of rack-mountable signal-processing devices designed and priced especially for the small studio. Our tape noise reduction systems, the 155 (4-channel, switchable), the RM-155 (8-channel, switchable) and the 158 (8-channel, simultaneous), all offer the same 30 dB noise reduction and 10 dB headroom improvement as our state-of-the-art units and are fully compatible with them. They enable you to make master quality tapes, instead of demos, on your present equipment. Our 161 and 163 compressor/limiters feature true RMS signal detection, which closely resembles the response of the human ear, and feed forward gain reduction, which allow for infinite compression capability. The 163 employs "Over Easy" compression, the most natural-sounding you've ever heard, and its "one knob" operation is the simplest around. We can't guarantee our products will make you a star. But if you've got the talent, they'll take you as far as you want to go. dbx, Incorporated, 71 Chapel Street, Newton, MA 02195 617-964-3210. dbx UNLOCK YOUR EARS custom-built board was slated for D.) The MCI boards were re-configured to place eight VCA sub-mixers at the center of the console. This was done to make mixdown sessions a little easier for engineers who don't have two dozen fingers. Since these studios were to be equipped with 24-track MCI recorders, the engineer could sit dead-center and in most cases, do his mixing on the eight sub-mix groups. As for noise reduction, Harry would have both Dolby and dbx available. At the moment, a "house tape" had not yet been chosen, but testing was under way. About 75 microphones were on order. These included the usual complement of AKG, Electro-Voice, Neumann, Sennheiser and Shures, plus some RCA 44s and 77s. As for amplifiers, no decision had been made yet, although the field was narrowed down to about five contenders. FILM SCORES Harry hadn't forgotten his ad agency background either, and was also looking forward to getting more involved with film scoring. Accordingly, plans were being made for a Philips tele-cine projector, which would look into a color TV camera. On every frame of the color picture, a BTX SMPTE Time Code Generator would display an addressed frame, either in real-time or in footage. In the control room, the client and engineer would watch over a 19-inch color monitor, while out in the studio, the musicians would be able to follow the action on a 9' by 15' screen. With 2-foot high time-code characters displayed on the screen, there would be little chance for missing a cue. Speaking of cues, there would be four audio cue feeds to the studio—typically, two mono, one stereo and one for click-track-plus-program. In addition, an intercom with private phone would be available at the conductor's podium. The lounge area, with "coffee and . . ." available. SIGNAL PROCESSING DEVICES Complementing the MCI consoles and machines, there would be an ample supply of UREI 529 one-third octave equalizers, 1176LN and LA-3A compressors, 964 digital metronome, Eventide Harmonizers, delay lines and Flangers and a Marshall Time Modulator. Reverberation would be handled by EMT plates, and AKG BX-10s and BX-20s. Soundmixers hadn't forgotten musical instruments either. A Steinway B had been ordered for Studio A, and Yamaha C7s were going into the other rooms. Also on order were Musser vibes and a xylophone, three complete drum sets, two Hammond organs with Leslie speakers, tympani and an assortment of electronic keyboards. About those drums, Harry did not plan to enclose them in any sort of "sealed container," as seen so often these days. A drummer himself, he wanted the drummer to be able to see and feel the rest of the group, and with Storyk's softit system, there should be no problems. IN OPERATION January, 1978—It's now about two years since our first meeting. Soundmixers opened its doors on September 15, 1977, and has been busy ever since. Its "advertising attitude" has attracted a steady stream of ad agency clients such as J. Walter Thompson, Doyle, Dane & Bernbach, and Young & Rubicam. In between commercials, the studio has earned RIAA gold for Meatloaf's single, "Two Out of Three Ain't Bad," and Kenny Loggins' "Nightwatch" album. In addition, albums recorded at Soundmixers are now available on A&M, Arista, Atlantic, Casablanca, Columbia, Elektra, Polydor, Private Stock, RCA and United Artists. Artists include Sylvia Syms, Melba Moore, the Fania All-Stars, John McLaughlin, Laura Nyro and Woody Herman. In the works are projects by Baby Grand, the Average White Band, the BeeGees, and Peter Frampton. Also, Harry has a new office—with a rug, yet! Two years ago, Harry was confident that Soundmixers would attract a lot of major recording work back to New York. He was right, but he underestimated a bit. On the drawing board, Soundmixers was conceived as a multimedia house, with work split between film, advertising and label sessions. Now, two years later, it turns out that almost 80 percent of the bookings are record dates. Accordingly, Tom Hidley has been called in to make some modifications to the three main control rooms; fine-tuning them to better meet the needs of today's market. Basically, the work involves a re-design of the acoustic trapping, and larger flush-mount surfaces surrounding the speakers. And that led us into a discussion of what makes up the "perfect" control room. Harry feels that the basic obligation of an acoustical consultant is to design a control room that is flat. Once you start adding 6 dB of room equalization, you're compensating for a room that was not well-designed in the first place—and probably generating a lot of IM distortion as well. With a good room, the producer shouldn't receive any great shocks when he plays his tapes at home. Of course, it's going to sound different—that's inevitable. But, provided his home system is in good shape, he should be able to form some sort of frame of reference between home and what he heard in the control room during the session. No changes are planned in the studios themselves. The isolation seems to be working out well, and all-at-once sessions with strings and brass are no problem at all. CLOSE-MIKING AND MULTI-TRACK And that brought us 'round to a few words on the subject of recording styles. Harry recalled the time—not really that long ago—when some producers (especially in film) regarded the multi-track recorder as a "safety." During the session, it was the stereo (and sometimes, mono) tape on which all the balancing decisions were made. Those days seem to be gone, perhaps forever. Now, people demand close-miking for the control it gives them—regardless of whether they need it or not. Musicians are becoming conditioned to multi-track, and many of them don't know what they're missing. Of course, Soundmixers can provide all the control that anyone needs, but—now and then—it would be nice to see (and hear!) a real stereo sound again. Speaking of close-miking, and of microphones in general, the AKG-414 seems on its way to becoming the all-time favorite at Soundmixers. Electro-Voice RE-20s are in demand on drums, and other popular models include the Sony C-37, Sennheiser 421 and AKG 451. By now, Soundmixers has completed its tape evaluation program, and decided on Ampex 456 "Grand Master" as the house tape. For engineers who prefer something else, they keep a variety of other formulations available too. Noise reduction seems to be running about 60/40 in favor of Dolby, with some producers opting for 30 in/sec with no noise reduction. New signal processing devices include the Audio & Design F760X Complex-Limiter, which has become a great favorite. The studio hasn't got enough of them yet, so fights over who gets to use it next aren't uncommon. A LOOK AHEAD What about the future? It looks as though Soundmixers is going to be ready for it. Last year the studio took delivery of BTX's new micro-processor-based SMPTE Time Code Package. (For more about this, see "SMPTE Time Code Comes to Audio," in the November, 1978 issue of db—Ed.) The BTX system was originally intended for record and film dates, but Harry finds that more and more commercial accounts are beginning to use it too. Early in 1978, Studios B and C were converted to MCI's automation system as well. And, Soundmixers isn't ignoring digital technology either. A Lexicon digital reverberation system is on order, and Harry has made arrangements to evaluate Sony's new digital tape recorder system that was seen at last November's Audio Engineering Society convention. So, the chances are that if its new and innovative, you'll find it at Soundmixers—right here in Fun City! JOHN BORWICK Report From Paris IRCAM—A Unique Center for Research In attempt to integrate music and technology, IRCAM brings together musicians, audio engineers, and scientific research workers. "John, go see IRCAM." The voice of Larry Zide telephoning from Long Island to my English countryside retreat sounded as if he meant it. Needing very little persuasion to visit Paris at any time, I hopped on a plane and soon my taxi-driver was careening through the streets—simultaneously waving both hands in the air. "IRCAM, c'est unique: it is the first time I took anyone there!" The shock of parting with 70 Francs for the taxi ride was followed by a visual shock. I had been put down at what looked like a cross between a devastated bomb site and a hurriedly-erected travelling circus. Now the effect on me cannot be fully appreciated by U.S.A. readers, for whom the knocking down of characterful buildings and the putting up of characterless ones is commonplace in all the big cities. But in Paris? By a coincidence, London and Paris are both going through the traumatic experience of tearing down not single buildings, but entire areas formerly occupied by busy market centres. In London, it is the famous Covent Garden Fruit and Vegetable Market (scene of Eliza Doolittle's meeting with Professor Higgins in "My Fair Lady") and in Paris it is the equally colourful market complex just North of the Louvre and Notre Dame called Les Halles. Back in 1969, a master plan for establishing a new centre for contemporary art in the heart of Paris was formulated by President Georges Pompidou. Le Centre Georges Pompidou was eventually inaugurated in December, 1976. The main structure is of revolutionary design and seems to consist primarily of glass and steel with large interior spaces left free for future needs and experimental short-term installations. The building houses three major departments, a museum of modern art, an industrial design centre and a public library with enormous space for changing displays and audiovisual "happenings." The pity is that so many of the old market buildings have been knocked down (and, sentiment aside, it must be admitted that they had to go). Therefore the new Centre adjoins a wasteland occupied (when I arrived) by lads playing football and ugly tents and "shapes" housing sundry manifestations of modern art. Of course anyone who has enjoyed the special delights of eating in a French restaurant will know that this Gallic race cares much less for external appearances than for the excellence of what is served within. So I still felt fairly buoyed up as I dodged the flying footballs and came to a sign for "IRCAM," with an arrow pointing downwards! Then I understood all. I had been told by architect friends that IRCAM had achieved an incredibly low interior noise level approaching 0 dBA—which compares more than just favourably with the 20 dBA of a good recording studio. Obviously, the only way to exclude noise so effectively in the heart of Paris was to build the whole thing under ground. Pausing briefly to look at the 30-foot high air conditioning towers, which are the only parts of IRCAM above ground level, I went downstairs—to find a veritable Aladdin's Cave of audio riches, and a very friendly welcome. IRCAM—AN EXCITING ADVENTURE IRCAM—the Institute for Research and Coordination Acoustics/Music is an autonomous section of the Centre Georges Pompidou. Its director is Pierre Boulez, a composer and conductor with vast interest and experience in electronic and experimental music of all kinds. The main objective is to bring musicians, audio engineers and scientific research workers together to work on problems of musical composition, performance and reproduction that can no longer be solved by individuals. As Boulez puts it, "the musician must assimilate a certain scientific knowledge... the scientist must understand the direction contemporary music has taken, and orient his imagination along these lines. In this way we hope to forge a kind of common language that scarcely exists at present." IRCAM has departments; Instruments and Voice (directed by Vinko Globokar), Electroacoustics (Luciano Berio, the composer), Computers (Jean-Claude Risset), Research and Training (Michel Decoust), and Coordination (Gerald Bennett). Boulez has chosen a truly international team to head up these departments: two French, two American, one English, one Italian and one Yugoslav. I met all sorts of nationalities on my tour, and my friendly guide himself, the chief sound engineer Benjamin Bernfeld, is Rumanian and a very active member of the AES European Region organizing committee. We began in the large Concert Hall (called in French Espace de Projection) which has overall measurements of A sectional view of the underground IRCAM at the "Centre Georges Pompidou." The large area to the left is the "Espace de Projection." 90 x 85 x 46 feet high and can seat up to 400 people. It has a degree of flexibility and versatility that I have seen nowhere else. A better description than Concert Hall would be Experimental Acoustic Enclosure. I have already referred to its 0 dBA noise level, but even more striking are the arrangements for controlling reverberation time. I have visited studios with "variable acoustics" in Germany, and even used some during my time at the BBC, but the amount of variation has usually been minimal. So much so that the balance engineers have tended to leave the reversible panels and dummy ceilings at some half-way setting and get the degree of dryness or ambience they want by selective microphone placement and judicious use of reverberation plates or chambers. But the IRCAM Concert Hall can be given any reverberation time from 0.8 to 4.5 seconds, by remote control from the monitor room. All wall and ceiling surfaces comprise rotatable prismatic panels, each eight feet long and with absorbing, reflecting or diffusing faces. There are 516 of these "periacetes," with a very complex system of motors to turn them, in groups of three, to any one of seven positions. At present, the settings are manually selected—and the change of acoustic was very effectively demonstrated on speech and music when Pierre Boulez presented the Inaugural Concert—but there is an ambitious plan to program one of IRCAM's several computers so that any required reverberation time/frequency curve can be set up automatically. In addition, the three sections of the ceiling can be lowered to reduce the effective height to only about 15 feet. A complicated system of cranes, gantries and podiums can set up any desired relationship of musical performers, loudspeaker arrays and audience—not just the traditional raised platform for musicians and flat or raked audience area. The monitor room has a 32 x 16 Neve mixing desk and large JBL monitor speakers. However, because of the enormous viewing window and multiple racks of control gear, Ben Bernfeld told me that they were not keen to make recording and mixdowns in this room. It was more than adequate for control of sound reinforcement, television producers and crews etc., but the main recording control room was just being completed next door. On entering, I could tell immediately that this would be a more ideal acoustic environment for making auditory judgements. Reverberation time had been brought down evenly to about 0.4 second at all frequencies, using a wall and ceiling treatment made up of a metal honeycomb grid over a cloth-covered absorbent. Bernfeld had a feeling that the room was now too dead, and that they might want to increase T to about 0.6 second. This is comparatively easy to do by adding well-damped reflecting panels which simply bolt in front of the metal grid—a form of treatment I saw later in the three other studios and their control rooms. A large Neve console occupied the centre of the control room, with JBL monitors again, a 16-track Studer A80 recorder and several smaller Studer and Ampex machines. A 16-channel Dolby A noise reduction rack was fitted, with a set of Telcom boards available as substitutes. The rival dbx system was used in the Concert Hall monitor room. As well as conventional three-pin connectors everywhere, there was a very flexible 63-line ring system in all studio areas, allowing comprehensive linking of audio sources and destinations. Remote control/autocue of the 16-track A80 was also possible from one studio to another. The largest studio was big enough for 20 musicians or Pierre Boulez at a press conference in "Espace de Projection." For the Critical Link: Power Amplifiers You Can Count On EVEN IN CONTINUOUS USE, OVERLOADED, AND AT 131°F No sound system can be any better than its critical link, the power amplifier. Whatever inputs, mixers, and speakers you use, if the power amp lets you down, the message won't go through, the show won't go on. 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Tech-craft PROFESSIONAL SOUND by BOGEN A DIVISION OF LEAR SIEGLER, INC. P.O. Box 500, Paramus, NJ 07652 (201)343-5700 GSA Contract # GS-00S-44859 so, while the others were set aside specifically for electroacoustic or computer-assisted music-making and research. All studios are well separated from routine noises, since they are built along one side of the underground space. The reception areas and corridor are along the other side, with access to the studios only by walking first through the associated offices and then through their laboratories. RESEARCH IN PROGRESS A fair number of the research projects currently in progress do seem esoteric (way out) by normal sound studio standards. For instance, I could hear a flute being played so badly that it was all breath and squeak. But this, I was told, was a part of a study of the multiphonic or "dirty" sounds that can be obtained from most instruments by departing from the normal fingering or blowing techniques. Composers are now interested in exploiting these previously unwanted sounds, particularly from the woodwind. On examining the flute I had heard, I found it had been "prepared" by sticking pieces of plasticene on some of the keys. A recorded catalogue of multiphonic sounds was being prepared and played to listening panels for putting into rank order of various criteria. The non-harmonic spectra of bells and other percussion instruments are being studied as an aid to construction and, of course, electronic synthesis. Three aspects of digital sound synthesis are being studied. First, synthesis on general-purpose computers follows the Music V program developed at Bell Laboratories by Max Mathews and others. (He is now scientific consultant at IRCAM.) The system has 192,000 words of core memory, about 30 million words of disc storage and can be used by up to 16 people at a time. Second, synthesis on specific devices aims to give composers control of sounds in real time. The system used at IRCAM was developed by G. di Giugno and provides 256 oscillators, 256 amplitude modulators, computer-controlled frequency, amplitude and phase, and up to four wave-shapes of 4,000 words resolution can be used simultaneously. Third, psychoacoustic studies to help composers plan their synthesis work has centered on a group of computer programs called ESQUISSES. This can greatly speed up the progress from a musical sound in the composer's imagination to its optimum realization technically. Another research project—to me more interesting—was the development of specialized transducers (contact-microphones) of very high quality. The Concert Hall gives new possibilities for studies into room acoustics. Victor Peutz, the acoustical consultant for the IRCAM building, has prepared measurement programs. One of these uses a new algorithm for determination of reverberation time. It calculates the decay and relative strengths of the three most important components of the decay curve in any required number of frequency bands. The apparent contradictions Giuseppe di Giugno, designer of IRCAM's digital synthesizer, seated at the Neve console. Note the acoustic wall treatment. in the Sabine and Eyring formulae should soon be resolved. The computer will be used increasingly for the modelling and simulation of enclosures and, where possible, the Concert Hall will be used not just for research measurements but also for live concerts to check ideas against audience reaction. PUBLIC LIAISON Besides a continuing programme of concerts and lecture/demonstrations, IRCAM and the entire Pompidou Centre have a commitment to involve the general public as much as possible. Technical seminars are promised for 1979-80 and a series of 6 to 8-week courses for composers is already announced. The latter have starting dates in 1979 of February 5, July 2 and November 5. Entry will be highly selective, as only four to six participants per course are envisaged, and a tough 6-day week working schedule has been prepared. Course fee is 500 NF. I enjoyed my visit. I regard IRCAM as a unique and ambitious step towards the integration of music and technology (something I have been modestly concerned with during the past seven years coordinating and teaching on the Tonmeister degree course at the University of Surrey). As well as bringing composers and researchers together, IRCAM has recruited experts from many different countries—which must be a good thing—and the friendly welcome I received proves that they are putting one of their raisons d'être into practice: "IRCAM is a creative laboratory, and also a place open to the public who will be welcome to form their own judgement and to participate." The following Rapports IRCAM have been published, and are available by mail order at 20 French Francs each. The reports are printed in English and/or French, as noted below. 1. Research at IRCAM in 1977 (English and French). 2. Unite electronique destinee a la transformation du son en temps reel, programmable et controleable par l'instrumentiste.—Rene Causse, et al. 3. Computer Facilities for Music at IRCAM, as of October, 1977—John Gardner et al. 4. A One-Card 64 Channel Digital Synthesizer—G. di Giugno and Hal Altes. 5. Real-Time Synthesizer Control—Max Mathews and G. Bennett. 6. The Use of the Linear Prediction of Speech in Computer Music Application—James A. Moorer. 7. Musica, Programme de Codage de la Musique—Giovanni di Poli. 8. Musical Acoustics—Jean-Claude Risset. 9. The Development of Digital Techniques: A turning point for Electronic Music?—Jean-Claude Risset. 10. Paradoxes de Hauteur des Sons—Jean-Claude Risset. 11. Hauteur et Timbre des Sons—Jean-Claude Risset. 12. Low Dimensional Control of Musical Timbre—D. Wessel. 13. Perception of Timbral Analogies—D. Fhresman and D. Wessel. 14. Conceptual Structures for the Representation of Musical Material—D. Wessel and John Grey. 15. Computer-Aided Model of Stereophonic Systems—Benjamin Bernfeld and Bennet Smith. 16. A Digitally Programmable Filter—Maurice Rozenberg. 17. About This Reverberation Business—James Moorer. 18. A Composer's Notes on the Development and Implementation of Software for a Digital Synthesizer—Neil B. Rolnick. The reports can be obtained from: IRCAM—Relations Exterieures 31 rue Saint-Merri F-75004 Paris, FRANCE According to IRCAM, no mail order can be accepted for less than five reports. A cassette of musical examples is also available for 20 French Francs. IRCAM has also been described in an Audio Engineering Society preprint (no. 1310), entitled, "The Variable Acoustics of the Espace de Projection of IRCAM (Paris)." Convention Report: The 11th Tonmeistertagung A look at some of the discoveries and impressions of the audio wares displayed at the meeting of the Tonmeisters. Let's admit it: all of us enjoy the excitement of discovery, while strolling through exhibitions of audio and electronics equipment. That was one reason for my going to Berlin West last November. The other was the 11th Tonmeistertagung. (Meeting of Tonmeisters). Both meeting and exhibition were organized by the Verband Deutscher Tonmeister e. V. (the German tonmeister association). The venue was the Sender Freies Berlin (SFB), West Berlin's Free Radio station on Masurenallee. Meetings and equipment demonstrations were held in the studios of the Haus des Rundfunks: the historical Broadcasting House, which had housed the radio organization of Germany's first Republic before Hitler. Later on, (1933 to 1945), it was the Reichs-Rundfunk; the Nazi broadcasting chain under the supervision of big-mouth Joseph Goebbels. As a punishment for that, there followed more than ten years under Soviet control as Berliner Rundfunk (despite the fact that the place was located in the then-British Sector). Finally, in 1950 Haus des Rundfunks was given back to the present owners. For me, it was a pleasure to see the place again, because it had housed me twice: in 1940 as a young practitioner for a studio course, and again in 1952, as a sound engineer—an assignment I terminated myself, in order to avoid renewing my acquaintance with Siberia, which I already knew well enough from P.O.W. times. The meeting of Tonmeisters included a good old German-styled big opening with neck-tie atmosphere and speeches of all kinds from the top brass in the spacious studio 1. Throughout the meeting there was a hard-working atmosphere with lectures neatly divided into presentations by members and/or associates of the VDT organization, and by representatives of manufacturers and/or distributors of equipment. On the whole, it was an almost-European event. Lecturers came from Austria, Belgium, Denmark, England, Germany, Norway, Poland and Switzerland. They were from broadcasting organizations, technical institutes, music academies and from Germany's Institut Für Radioteknik (IRT)—the technical and standard-watching institution, financed by all broadcasting organizations of the Federal Republic of Germany. Themes covered a large spectrum of engineering, technology, music-engineering relations, and automation. The topics presented by the manufacturer/distributor group did not differ much, except if referring to new products. Most of the lecturers in this commercial group were Germans or Austrians. THE EXHIBITION A far broader scope was offered at the exhibition, which was located inside the large new TV Center of Sender Freies Berlin. It has not come to my attention whether anybody got lost, or died from hunger, while touring never-ending corridors in search of the various exhibitions or equipment demonstrations, lectures and—last but not least—the cafeteria. Nevertheless, the way in which a total of only 55 exhibitors were spread all over the place was a unique achievement. The most accessible part of the exhibition was the large entrance hall of the SFB TV Center, where nine top suppliers to German broadcasting (e.g. AKG, K+H, Neumann, Schoeps, Siemens) were found. Surprisingly, Philips was also right here; the largest of all, despite its not being a top supplier in Germany, at least not up to now. But the large Philips stand was for good reason, because Philips came up with two remarkable things. First, a custom-made multi-track automated recording and mixdown console with everything one could dream of. Second, the new "LDC StoreMix System," a development out of Dub a dub, dub a dub, dub. The Garner 1056 High Speed Professional Tape Duplicator. The Garner 1056 delivers perfect dubs time after time, with unmatched precision and accuracy. We challenge you to find a superior unit. 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Video Completely automate your video cassette erasing jobs with Garner's Video 'Raser unit... it's a simple, one-step, in-and-out operation. Tapes pass on a continuous belt over high flux coils, giving you tape erasure depth that exceeds professional standards. Built rugged and compact, the Garner Video 'Raser easily handles video cassettes in less than 5 seconds. Look to Garner for quality electronic audio and video products. For more information, write or call: GARNER INDUSTRIES 4200 N. 48th St., Dept. DB-1, Lincoln, NE 68504 Phone 402-464-5911 Circle 27 on Reader Service Card www.americanradiohistory.com the practice of the Polygram studios, in collaboration with Philips Laboratories. It's a vca-based mixdown system with storage on tracks between the recording tracks of a multi-track tape, meaning it does not steal any of your tracks. This of course is achieved by two additional data heads, mounted left and right from the erase head of a normal multi-track tape machine. The read-before-write method makes it possible to store a full mixdown program including all update possibilities on only one data track. No data erase head is required, since the write function erases all previously stored data information. On 16 recording track machines, this system offers up to 12 data tracks, meaning that up to 12 different mix programs may be stored, and that three more data tracks are available for autolocator time codes or sync impulses. To find AEG-Telefunken, top supplier of German broadcasting, one had to move on to another place, where only six exhibitors were concentrated. I found a very modest stand: Telefunken did not play it that big, but then why should they, as business goes on and on. However, top engineers were on hand, demonstrating the "telcom c4 Commander System", which has found acceptance over here in both broadcasting and commercial studios. EMT—another top supplier—was at the same location and had on show a cleverly-selected sampling of its products (the world-famous reverb plates, electronic reverb, digital delay, studio-type high quality record players like the famous newer EMT 950, limiters, compressors etc.). Also seen here were Studer products and Harrison consoles. Spendor monitor speakers from England were shown and demonstrated, after have found several customers amongst the broadcasting organizations. The most impressive stand in this area was by the German 3M Company, featuring the M-79 multi-track recorder together with the many other professional products of this U.S. firm. Everybody who was not yet aware what the German word verboten means had a fair chance to learn it here at SFB, because a lot of things were verboten, although the staff of SFB was generally helpful and friendly. Most amazing was the Rauchen verboten (No Smoking) in TV Rehearsal Studio A, where not less than 40 exhibitors were concentrated. Could this be the reason why only a very few of these exhibitors belonged to the major league of German broadcasting suppliers? The most impressive show of consoles and other studio gear was by MCI's German distributor R. Barth KG. from Hamburg, who manufacture their own studio products as well. WAS IST EIN TONMEISTER Tonmeister is a degree, and a position, invented and introduced by German broadcasting organizations. Initially the Tonmeister was supposed to be a musically-trained recording supervisor, with enough technical knowledge of the recording process to be responsible for the final sound and to maintain good relations between recording engineer and conductor. Though there are Tonmeister positions at every German broadcasting house and corresponding numbers of Tonmeisters at work, only a small number of commercial recording studios have adopted this system. Therefore, the majority of the members of VDT are employees of radio and tv in Germany, and consequently the event in Berlin was first of all a matter of broadcasting. While noting the reactions of prospective buyers to the exhibited products, I decided to pay particular attention to the judgements of the Tonmeisters from German radio and t.v. With its nine federal radio & tv centers, the Voice of Germany with radio and tv activities, the Deutschlandfunk with radio-only, and ZDF, the mighty Second German TV Network, the market is incredibly big. Reactions of the Tonmeisters in view of the beautifully-designed and very workable commercial equipment (e.g. at the MCI stand) were quite mixed. One could see that especially the younger ones would definitely like to work with such equipment, but lack the courage of introducing it at their studios, knowing that IRT regulations (up to now) could be a serious barrier against the entrance of any commercial console into the holy field of German broadcasting. The older ones, still the top brass in the field, object to "too many knobs" and "too-close-together" faders and knobs. This of course refers to the standard width of 40 mm (1.575 inches) of all modules introduced and admitted over here. Naturally, the old-timers would insist in full compliance with all relevant IRT regulations before ever proposing such a console to their planning divisions. Over here, service engineers of broadcasting organizations are not easy to convince towards introduction of commercial consoles, since all their spare parts and service facilities are for the standard type of closed-case modules, as introduced at its time by Telefunken, with the technical blessings of IRT. Most consoles, amplifier racks, and even the amplifier parts of some tape recorder models, are assembled from this type of module, which is available for all conceivable functions and applications, down to a simple talkback knob. Meanwhile, Telefunken and at least seven other German manufacturers are producing and selling such modules (e.g. EAB, ENB, Danner, Lawo, Neumann, Siemens, TAB). All stick to the same standard sizes, carry the same locking system and comply with all corresponding IRT regulations. Standardization goes right down to exactly the same pins and pin connections. No doubt, to successfully run against this wall of "panzer" module-techniques will take its time, if it is possible at all. Planning engineers of the broadcasting organizations say that there is very little multi-track production work in the broadcasting houses, so that requirements can be covered within the existing module system. As for live broadcasting studios, they frankly confess that they feel much safer with the present easily-interchangeable modular system, so there would not seem to be much chance for commercial hardware to be introduced. Well, does this mean a German Requiem for everybody who does not manufacture the one-and-only IRT-blessed "Panzer" module? I do not think so. First, it is obvious that any equipment designed this way is many times more expensive than even the most sophisticated commercial console or equipment rack. Most broadcasting networks are no longer prepared to put inexhaustible funds in the hands of their engineers, since they do not have them. Second, the harsh technical principles of IRT regulations were broken through many times before—partly in situations where there was no other way, partly by engineers who wanted to get things going and had no interest in scientific achievements. And in truth, even IRT must not be considered as a bunch of close-to-impossible-sticking idealists. First, the technical authorities of IRT throughout the years have contributed decisively to the high standard of German broadcasting engineering in both audio and video. Second, German radio and tv are public service companies and hence, bound to technical standards and security rules. In addition, any breakdown over here is regarded to be not just a technical accident, but an impossible failure of engineering. Third, IRT already has made some changes within its own framework and will continue to do so: anyway, a younger generation will come along with a broader look at things, closer to the practical reality of today's engineering. A tremendous change has already taken place in the field of video at German tv stations. Whoever would have dared to mention firms like Grass Valley a couple of years ago? This person would have risked, if not his job, at least his reputation as a serious engineer. Today, just look around—control rooms are full of all kinds of formerlyLDC StoreMix-System switches of lined up neatly and are easily visible. The knobs are shaped in such a way that even in a dimmed tv control room or van one can find out the exact position of each knob by a touch. Possibly another reason for acceptance was the high-quality Penny & Giles faders and —last but not least—the fact that all technical data are close enough to all corresponding IRT regulations. All together, the experience to be drawn in my opinion is that playing it big will probably not smash the existing wall of “Panzer” module-techniques. The thing is not to start from the top but, from scratch, which means building up confidence in commercial gear little-by-little. However, do not expect any big deal on this potential market without making some concessions to what is used over here in size and layout. Finally, technical data are to be as close as possible to IRT regulations. For example, all line inputs and outputs, as well as all insert points, of +6 dB level and balanced throughout. This makes it obvious that first chances are for upper-class equipment. As an example, the before-mentioned BFE KG. features the ECLIPSE C by Sphere in the class of larger consoles. Digital delays and other gear for electronic effects were another item on which the Tonneimeisters focused their interest. R. Barth KG. had the Ursa Major Space Station and BFE the DeltaLab DL-1 Digital Delay Module on show. Audio & Design Recording and Klark-Teknik were also well-represented. The surprise of this exhibition was presented by a hitherto-unknown manufacturer with the name of Ibemco, demonstrating a “Spectral Dynamic Processor (SDP).” According to the manufacturer, this is intended to be the break-through to “higher fidelity.” With our present consoles we are in control of levels, equalizations and effects, which the inventors of SDP consider to be insufficient. What they say and what we all know is that musical instruments, when being played from pianissimo to fortissimo, do not only change loudness but timbre too: therefore they are of the opinion that the engineer should have a tool to control this effect. As far back as 1929 a professor from Berlin (E. Schumann) published investigations on this subject, calling it “The Physics of Timbres”. In 1975, H. P. Mertens published a book on the same subject. The title of the book is “Schumann’s Laws Of Timbres And Its Signification for Transmission Of Speech And Music” (“Die Schumannschen Klangfarbengesetz und ihre Bedeutung für die Übertragung von Sprache und Musik,” Verlag E. Boschinisky. Frankfurt am Main). For good reasons the book is a must for everybody in sound and music. The SDP builds on Schumann’s Laws and Mertens’ investigations of correct dynamics corresponding to the natural changes of timbres. SDP therefore is supposed to enable the engineer to change the timbre of musical instruments within the range that such changes would take place at the instrument itself when being played in various dynamic ranges. This opens up the possibility to change timbres of a single instrument within an orchestra in a natural way, instead of using the heavy-handed equalization we are using now. Needless to say, none of the presently-existing equalizers would be able to comply with the requirements according to Schumann’s Laws: only analog-digital-analog conversion can do that and it pretends to do it in the SDP. If not the way to real “higher fidelity”, it is at least an idea to think about, and further developments should be watched. The demonstration at the Ibemco stand—by headphone only (speakers verboten)—was not enough to decide whether the console of the future is unthinkable without SDP or anything like this. All together, sniffing around in Berlin was interesting and opened some up-to-date views on the sound scene and the market over here, which hopefully I was able to reproduce well enough for the readers of db. Report From Japan CBS/Sony Recording Studios in Tokyo Displaying a deep appreciation of music, and expertise in high-technology production, Japan is a natural environment for recording studio expansion. Tokyo is perhaps the only major city remaining in the world today which, in terms of recording studios, is still under-built. Japan has been rather late in following the trend towards the independent studio operation. In fact, until quite recently, all records were still being recorded in a handful of label-owned recording studios. In Tokyo, recording studio activity is hampered by the additional burden of very expensive, and hard-to-find, building space. Yet Tokyo is still the recording center in Asia, with only very small facilities in Taiwan, Korea, the Philippines, Singapore, Malaysia and New Zealand. (Australia has an industry all its own which—interestingly enough—is patterned much more on the U.S. than the U.K., despite Commonwealth ties and the fact that EMI has the largest studio in Australia.) At present, studio rates in Tokyo approach U.S. $300 per hour, which certainly bodes well for the recording studio construction business. In fact, Tokyo (and Australia) have mushrooming independent recording facilities, and while neither country has a really independent disc mastering studio yet, there are several in the planning stages. Japan remains a world of contrasts, especially to this Western observer. A deep appreciation of music has been an important part of the rich culture for over four thousand years. The patience, politeness and attentiveness which the Japanese possess when dealing with music is, without question, the most admirable I have seen. With this background, and their expertise in high-technology production, one would imagine the Japanese would be producing their own professional recording hardware, especially considering their well-known involvement at the consumer level. But this is hardly the case. While there is one company, Denon, which makes two and four track recorders, all the other recording equipment comes from abroad. Denon equipment is found mostly in broadcast applications. However, MCI is now making a good headway with the broadcasters of Japan, just as it has done in U.S. radio. TECHNICAL EXCELLENCE With the exception of Germany and Switzerland, Japan is a more technically-oriented market than the rest of the world. Sales are conducted with less "hype," and minimal talk about what records were recorded where. The emphasis is solely on technical excellence, and the average Los Angeles promotion man would find it hard to cope with the endless questions on technology. When asked why a particular piece of equipment is preferred, the Japanese recording engineer seems to have all the answers, as to features, performance and service availability. In tape recorders, the "big three" seem to be MCI, Studer and Lyrec. There are also some 3M machines in use, and of course Ampex is very big in the video industry—second only to Sony. STATE-OF-THE-ART FACILITY On a personal note, Asia has always intrigued me. It's a special world all its own, and I must admit that—next to home—it is my "second love." To me, it seemed only natural to want to become involved doing business in this part of the world. So, when the people at CBS/Sony approached Tom Hidley and I, we were more than ready, and quite excited at the challenge they provided us: to build the first fully-automated, 24-track, state-of-the-art facility in Tokyo! The studio was to be a showcase for the Orient, and of course, a delightfully grand entry for Sierra into the Asian market. From the first meeting with CBS to final contract signing was a very quick two months, punctuated by CBS's Koji Hazama making several trips to Europe to see equipment suppliers, confer with Tom Hidley, and finalize design details. Due to concrete and framing problems, construction started three months late, but was still finished on time and within budget, thanks to the diligence and enthusiasm of our Japanese colleagues. Construction was handled in collaboration with a large independent Tokyo construction company, which has offices arounds the world and generally builds high-rise offices. For the project, we supplied six foremen, and forty-four Hidley TM-3 monitors, which were completely installed and interfaced by our crew. The studio complex is quite unique for this part of the world, in that it offers such a large and complete facility. Twelve music rooms are completely self-contained, with beautiful decor which includes garden areas, view offices, a full restaurant (seating fifty-five) and lounge areas—all coordinated in as beautiful a fashion as any project we have been involved in. Features which we have not had an opportunity to include in past designs were specified by the Sony people, as they wanted their studios to be completely state-of-the-art. SUPERIOR CRAFTSMANSHIP The interface work performed by the Japanese crew was completely unique. The craftsmanship on patch bays, connectors, a mic. matrix system to assign inputs, was superb. In every detail, the workmanship was absolutely amazing, and construction of the studies (after shell construction was finished) was completed in approximately eight weeks. Massive numbers of crewmen, working seven days a week, two shifts per day, descended on the job, in order to meet the deadline. The studios vary acoustically by design from room to room. The large studio, which can accommodate ninety musicians, was designed for large groups up to symphonic orchestra size, but is intended to capitalize on music of the area. This studio was not designed for high-SPL electric bands, unlike two of the medium-sized studios, which cater to rock-and-roll. LAYOUT Five studios and an automated mix room are on one level. On a second level reside the editing rooms, mastering rooms and overdub/mix rooms. Five levels, including a basement parking area complete the facility, which is in the Shi-ochi district of Tokyo. The first recording session was recorded by Tom Hidley and myself, in September, 1978. We were immediately followed by David Rubinson, producing Herbie Hancock for CBS. (For more on David Rubinson, see "Automating The Automatt" in the November issue of db—Ed.) Without question, recording studio expansion is on the rise in Tokyo, although the under-built condition will continue for some time. Certainly, there is a big demand for foreign talent and ideas. I have often thought that a good rhythm section from L.A., Atlanta or New York could go to Tokyo, record three sessions a day, and stay as long as they liked. Likewise, American and English technicians could certainly find their way to Tokyo and succeed if they were musically knowledgeable. Multi-track recording in Japan is mostly 24-track. While I saw over a dozen 16-track machines, all of them have 24 on order or in their near-future expansion plans. I did not see any 32- or 48-track recorders. While on the one hand, 24-track might seem to be unnecessary now that MCI and Telefunken have introduced 32-track machines, there is still a distinct advantage to locking two 24-track machines. The advantage is not just more tracks, but the technique allows the engineer to lay down rhythm and instrumental overdubs on the first tape, and then sub-mix a cue track to the second machine, storing the original tape until it is time for mixdown. In the meantime, the thousand or so passes made on the second tape for lead and background vocals, strings and horns, need not cause deterioration of the transients on the basic rhythm tracks. When it comes to mixdown, locking the machines together is a simple affair, and can be done by many techniques, with a quality that is certainly worth the effort. There is also some safety when travelling, should the second tape become lost or damaged. With all of these tracks, the question of the need for noise reduction comes up. Is it really necessary? With the better tapes, I think not. After observing the growth of the Japanese recording industry at first hand, I've been asked what effect this growth will have on those U.S. studios that Japanese artists so readily patronize. Very little. While local Japanese artists can now stay at home and record, many have become accustomed to American innovation in recording techniques. The premier recording artists who have been coming to the U.S. to record will continue to do so, for the same reason that other major artists now readily traverse the globe to seek out their favorite studio or engineer. CONTINUED GROWTH As I mentioned earlier, people are still waiting in line for recording time in Japan, and I feel that with the additional facilities now becoming available, the Japanese music industry will continue to grow, topping all expectations and projections. In addition, American artists are beginning to plan more Japan tours, and their need for quality studios there should increase. In recognition of the growing Japanese recording scene, Sierra's future planning calls for a full-time Tokyo office to handle Japanese and Asian business. For the past two years, we have been operating with one full-time employee, but the growth and close ties between the Japanese music business and L.A. musicians is one that will require Sierra to open a local office (and give me an even-better excuse for more visits to my "second love"). In the meantime, Japanese acts continue to travel throughout the United States in great numbers. By best count, some sixty major albums were recorded for the Japanese market, at American recording studios in Nashville, Los Angeles and Honolulu. Indeed, simply because of the high cost of the Japanese recording studios, two of the studios that we are building in the Philippines anticipate that fifty percent of their business will come from Japan. As noted before, recording time in Japan may cost $300 an hour. In Manilla, it's about $30 an hour. But you'll have to bring your own musicians. OTHER STUDIOS Presently, Sierra Audio is involved in another project in Tokyo which encompasses two studios. Being built for Kitty Music, an independent record label, the facility is a self-contained rock-and-roll studio located within Tokyo proper. We're also discussing the possibility of a resort-atmosphere studio which will require a two-hour ride from Tokyo on Japan's amazing bullet train. This should provide a fascinating contrast with other vacation atmosphere studios, such as the Hidley-designed Caribou (Colorado), Manor (England), Chateau (France), Mountain (Switzerland), LeGab (Mexico), Kendun (Hawaii) and ABBA (Sweden). Japan is a cultural and musical experience that the serious music business professional cannot afford to ignore. A taste of the devotion, respect and appreciation of music that one finds in Japan, and in all of Asia, is a "high" I would wish for all! Time-Aligned Loudspeaker Systems The development of a new studio monitor system, based on Time-Align techniques. When one thinks about beginning a discussion of studio monitor systems, several good reasons for not doing so immediately come to mind. Foremost is the highly-subjective nature of evaluating loudspeaker system performance. Where else in the field of electro-acoustics are there such diverse—often contradictory—opinions on a subject? The very vocabulary is tenuous, at best. For example, where do you find universally-acceptable definitions of "punch," "roundness," "tight," or "transparency"? For that matter, what is the definition of "definition," as applied to monitor system performance? Now, add to the semantic problem the often-overwhelming effect of the environment on the system. Into whose control room do we take all monitor systems for evaluation and comparison? Certainly, no one wants to listen to them in an anechoic or highly-reverberant environment; but just what do you pick in between these extremes? Also, what is a "standard signal source," acceptable to everyone? Finally, we have to try to eliminate the witchcraft and misconceptions which abound in speaker system lore, and concentrate on solid, scientific, measureable parameters—if possible. In thinking of solid, scientific analyses, the works of A. N. Thiele and Richard H. Small stand out, almost as lone beacons in recent years, in the area of fundamental, scientific advancement of the state-of-the-art. Now that I have acknowledged the hazards of the discussion, I nevertheless approach the subject with great enthusiasm; and especially that part of the subject dealing with the Time-Alignment system developed in conjunction with the UREI 813 Studio Monitor System. (Time-Align and its derivatives are trademarks of, and licensed by, E. M. Long Associates. The use of this terminology is licensed to UREI for use in connection with its products, and the trade-marked nature of references to Time-Alignment is hereafter implied.) In this article, an attempt will be made to individually examine the various parameters which influenced the development of the 813 system, and show how each contributed to meeting the design objectives. This is easier said than done, because of the complex inter-relationship of the parameters. The design objectives may be categorized as follows: 1. Flat frequency response (40 Hz to 16 kHz). 2. High efficiency. 3. Correct damping. 4. Low distortion. 5. Time-Alignment of driver components. The 813 system has been designed around the Altec 604 series loudspeaker. This "duplex" loudspeaker was selected by UREI president Bill Putnam because of its wide general acceptance as a studio monitor. His decision was an easy one to make: Why fight success? Measurement of acoustic output, with a constant signal voltage applied to each section of a 604-E, showed a difference of several dB in the average efficiencies of the low- and high-frequency sections. Later, similar differences were measured on the 604-8G version of the speaker. For this reason, coupled with the relatively low cone compliance which results in a fall-off in response below 100 Hz, an additional low-frequency driver was incorporated in even the earliest experiments. Several systems were built, using various stock 15-inch low-frequency drivers. Some of these systems were installed in United/Western's studios in Hollywood, where they were well-accepted by clients. In use since 1976, they were replaced by the newer time-aligned system early last year. Since these early systems displayed good efficiency and uniform response across the operating bandwidth of the low-frequency drivers, attention was now turned to the crossover region, and to the task of smoothing out the high-end response. APPLYING TIME-ALIGN TECHNIQUES In May, 1976, Ed Long of E. M. Long Associates presented his AES paper, "A Time-Align Technique for Loudspeaker System Design" (AES preprint 1131). The paper outlined his measurement techniques and findings, with respect to the time-alignment of multi-driver loudspeaker systems. Long's work impressed Bill Putnam, who invited him to collaborate with UREI in the development of a high-performance studio monitor system, that would take advantage of the Time-Align technique. Thus, the UREI 813 Time-Aligned Studio Monitor System began to take shape. E. M. Long Associates is an independent acoustics design firm, located in Oakland, California. They have a free-field measuring facility, and a very-elaborate, computer-controlled acoustics laboratory. Soon after they were brought into the project, a series of new design parameters was proposed. These included the final volume and dimensions for a sub-woofer/tuned-port system. The criterion for the bass response remained that same subjective "tight" sound of the earlier monitors, but with even less distortion. The Time-Aligned network was designed around the 604-8G speaker, with a second network developed for the earlier 604-E speaker (UREI model 824). DEFINING TIME-ALIGNMENT It might be worthwhile at this point to give a definition of Time-Align. This is a real-time design method, utilizing proprietary instrumentation, which requires that the phase (time) relationships between the fundamental and the overtones of a complex, transient, acoustical signal presented to the listener will accurately match the electrical signal presented to the input terminals of the monitor system. The realization of the Time-Align network for the model 813 required a combination of two major functions: the time delay necessary to align the acoustical positions of the low- and high-frequency transducer sections of the 604-8G, and the smooth blending of the acoustical output of these transducers. Bringing the high- and low-frequency transducer sections into time-alignment significantly improves the smoothness of the amplitude vs. frequency response through the crossover region. This is because the filters are controlling the high-pass and low-pass functions of the acoustical output of the transducer sections at the same instant in time. This eliminates those additions and cancellations which will occur in the acoustical blending of staggered transducer outputs, where the resultant offset causes these outputs to be out-of-step in time and therefore, to have incorrect phase relationships. Of course, the filters used to divide the signal between the transducer sections also have their own time-delay characteristics, and this is taken into account. The actual final Time-Align network must be a synergy between amplitude control and time delay characteristics. This results in proper amplitude vs. time, and amplitude vs. frequency characteristics of the acoustical output of the 604-8G. POLARITY REVERSALS Over the years, many users of duplex loudspeakers have inadvertently reversed the polarity of the high- or low-frequency driver, and have not been aware of the fact from listening to the speaker. There have even been some users who felt that some duplex systems sounded better when connected in reverse polarity to that recommended by the manufacturer. However, with the Time-Align crossover network, there can be no ambiguity about the correct polarity. With the proper connections to the transducer sections of the 604 drivers, the free-field response is flat within ±2 dB, throughout the frequency range from 800 Hz to 3.000 Hz. An accidental polarity reversal will create very audible dips in the frequency response. It was determined that the performance through the crossover region could be further improved with a more-gentle slope over the crossover transition, which improved delay characteristics. This required lengthening the high frequency horn to lower its cut-off frequency. Once that bridge was crossed, a whole new look was taken at the horn. Measured acoustic responses, using stock 604 sectoral horns, had shown narrow peaks and valleys in the response above 3 kHz, with amplitudes in excess of ±5 dB from the nominal level. Since the cross-sectional area of the sections in the mouth of a sectoral horn becomes an appreciable fraction of a wavelength at the higher audio frequencies, the obstacle presented to the sound wavefront passing through the horn creates reflections which affect the relative amplitude of the output at various frequencies. DISPERSION VERSUS SMOOTHNESS The reason for using the sectoral horn is, of course, to provide improved horizontal and vertical dispersion of the sound wave for a given size of horn mouth. But in a recording studio, the listeners are usually located close to the on-axis orientation of the monitor speakers, so it was decided to sacrifice some horizontal and vertical dispersion for the sake of smoothness of amplitude response. Therefore, a single exponential horn of the required length and mouth area was designed. It is about 0.9 inches longer than the sectoral horn that it replaces. The actual reduction in dispersion is approximately 10 percent along each axis. Although there are unit-to-unit variations in high-frequency drivers, the results of having tested several hundred production 813 systems incorporating the new horn (UREI model 800H) and 838 crossover indicate that the response can be expected to measure within a ±2 dB envelope from 3 kHz to 16 kHz and beyond. As progress on the crossover network and enclosure for the system progressed, it became obvious that no stock auxiliary low-frequency driver would meet the requirements of a very low cone resonance (the goal was to have the 3 dB-down point at 40 Hz or less, in a quarter-space mounting), and a smooth response up to the crossover frequency (in order to bring the system efficiency up to that of the 604's high-frequency section). Accordingly, Ed Long determined the design parameters for the auxiliary low-frequency driver, and designed a custom unit (UREI model 800W). DESIGNING THE ENCLOSURE The enclosure for the system presented some contradictory requirements. In experiments with earlier monitors, using stock low-frequency drivers, it had been established that a closed box, containing close to 40 percent volume of high- and low-density fiberglass acoustic damping material, would provide the damping desired with only a dB or so loss in efficiency. Special high-density material was obtained, which has exceptional absorption at low frequencies. The damping being sought was that which would give instruments such as the kick drum the "tight" sound that was mentioned earlier. Translating "tight" into a test procedure resulted in exciting the system with a 50 Hz tone burst (4 cycles on and 8 cycles off) and verifying that the acoustic response decayed into the ambient noise in less than one-half cycle after the gate was closed on the burst. The dimensions of the new enclosure were obtained by applying a modification of conventional ported-system theory. The ratio of 1.25:1 was used in choosing each dimension, to avoid having any one acoustic path in the The Altec 604-8G duplex speaker. Note the 2 x 3 sectoral horn in the center. enclosure be a whole-number multiple of another. Very slight adjustments were made to accommodate standard structural material sizes. High-density, one-inch-thick particle board is used, with approximately 32 feet of 2-inch by 3-inch interior bracing to stiffen the cabinet. It would have been much more convenient for many potential customers if the box could have been perhaps 30 percent smaller, but the physics just don't work out that way. Since the 813 went into production, research is continuing with smaller closed and vented boxes, possibly in conjunction with electronic equalization, but no smaller version—which will meet the performance requirements—is yet ready for the market. In a completely sealed box, output distortion increases substantially (to more than 15 percent in tests of the 813 monitor without a port) when the system is driven hard enough to produce the high sound levels currently used in many control rooms (in excess of 110 dB SPL at a distance of one meter from the enclosure). The distortion is greatest at low frequencies because the amplitude of travel of the cones is inversely proportional to the frequency of the drive signal. At the outset of the 813 design, it had been determined that a ported enclosure could be designed which would retain the "tight" quality of closed box systems. The addition of a properly-tuned port (tuned to approximately 23 Hz) reduced the distortion by a factor of four, as compared to the closed box. A special sub-sonic acoustic filter is placed in the port opening, to limit excursions of the woofers at low frequencies. The combination of port and sub-sonic filter is called a "pressure-control aperture." Design of network filters with the required electrical response and time delay characteristics was tricky, because of the inter-relationship of network impedance in the design formulas. Achieving the required delay tends to push the input impedance of the network down at the lower frequencies. It is for this reason that the 813 installation instructions recommend that the 4-ohm tap be used on amplifiers with selectable output impedance, even though the nominal impedance of the 813 system is 8 ohms across the audio frequency spectrum. TEST PROCEDURES A few details concerning the instrumentation and test set-up may be of interest. (Naturally, other UREI products were readily available.) A UREI X-Y plotter with sweep oscillator and warble generator were initially used for electrical frequency response measurements. Previous tests have demonstrated that acoustic measurements using a warbled sine-wave signal source give excellent correlation to measurements made using band-limited pink noise, or a Sonipulse (UREI model 100) send signal. An X-Y plotter system is thus an odds-on favorite, for convenience in making such measurements. For acoustic response, the AKG C-451 microphone is more than adequate. During the early development of the 813, a Sonipulse was modified to provide a preamplified output from the C-451 supplied with the system. This output was then fed to the X-Y plotter. Due to the fact that no anechoic chamber was readily available at UREI on a day-to-day basis, an ingenious substitute was devised by Bill Putnam. A conventional construction scaffold frame, 7 meters high, was set up with a crossbar-suspended pulley at the top. A test platform was suspended from a cable, which ran through the overhead pulley to a winch on the ground, which was used to raise and lower the test platform with the system under test. The test microphone was attached to the platform suspension system, and fixed at a distance of one meter above the face of the test cabinet. With this system, the test cabinet is suspended, facing upwards, approximately 5 meters above the ground. This eliminates the effect of reflections from other surfaces over the frequency band being measured, and provides a measurement of free-space response that is accurate within 0.5 dB down to 40 Hz. Comparison of measurements of a specific monitor system in the free-space set-up with those obtained in typical, well-designed studio control rooms provide the corrections to be applied to convert the free-space measurements to those of a quarter-space. Here, it must be emphasized that the 813 system provides a flat (within a 5 dB envelope) response down to 40 Hz only when mounted in a quarter-space configuration. This requires recessing the cabinet into a wall surface of the control room, and either mounting it close to the ceiling, or providing a baffle at the top edge of the cabinet to obtain the low-frequency loading necessary for such extended frequency response. One last note regarding test procedures. There has been some criticism of square-wave testing of loudspeaker system response. Due to the fact that a square wave is composed of a fundamental sine wave plus odd harmonics, looking at the square-wave response of a system—especially with fundamental frequencies in the octave below the crossover frequency—gives an indication of the time coherency (or lack of it) in a loudspeaker system. And this brings us to the kernel of the nut. Just what effect does Time-Alignment, in and of itself, have on the overall monitor system performance? At this point, we don't have the definitive answer to the question. And, it is important to remember that all the innovations which are incorporated in the design of a system (loudspeaker or otherwise) contribute to the total effect, and it is the combination of these that one responds to when listening. There have been a number of direct comparisons of time-aligned systems with other monitors in various acoustic environments, and the subjective reactions have been diverse, although always gratifying. One frequently-heard comment is that it is "less tiring" on those long, late-night sessions. (This may help support the theory that prolonged listening to phase distortion creates listener fatigue—Ed.) Some users feel that individual instruments are better defined and easier to pick out of the combined sound. At UREI, we are convinced that Time-Alignment contributes to all of these attributes. It has also been our experience that, the longer someone listens to time-aligned monitors, the more perceptive he becomes of their unique characteristics. EVALUATING TIME-ALIGNMENT We did set out to determine for ourselves what Time-Alignment contributes, but that is easier said than done. It is not difficult to add or subtract delays of almost any magnitude to the excitation of either the high- or low-frequency components of the 813 system, but doing so mis-aligns the effects of the filters in the amplitude vs. frequency domain. Since these were carefully brought into alignment with the network design, perturbations in amplitude response will occur. Tests were run in which the drive to the high- and low-frequency sections of the 604-8G was deliberately mis-aligned by the measured physical offset of the two sections (approximately 400 micro-seconds). The time delays were inserted so as to have minimal effect on amplitude response. Tapes, recorded live, were played in a studio control room over a single monitor system. The music contained percussion, vocal and string passages. The delay was switched in and out silently as many as ten times during any passage, and listeners were able to follow the changes and accurately identify the condition at any point in the sequence. Three types of subjective observations were noted when the system was properly time-aligned: 1. The voices were more "intimate," "natural" or "livesounding." 2. The strings were more "transparent" or "well-defined." 3. The percussion sounds were "tight" or "better-rounded." Somewhere within their range, virtually all musical instruments, including the voice, contain fundamentals below the crossover frequency of most loudspeaker systems, along with harmonics which fall above the crossover point. Therefore, it should be obvious that non-time-corrected crossover systems are—in some way—going to change the character of such sounds when they are reproduced. The burning question is, how much of what characteristics does our hearing detect? An analogy which may or may not apply has to do with the resolution capability of the eye. When a picture (being projected) is out-of-focus, the eye detects the condition, but really does not have much sensitivity as to the degree of out-of-focus condition, until an in-focus condition is approached. At this point, the normal eye has great powers to resolve the focus until it is very close to perfect. If the analogy holds, perhaps the ear may have resolution capabilities for time offsets that are very near to an exact time-aligned condition, and these may be considerably greater than has been presumed. A statement which remains locked in my memory came in a conversation with Richard Small and Don Keele, both renowned loudspeaker system designers. At a seminar which was held in 1977, Dick said, as best memory can recall, that he was reluctant to discount any hypothesis regarding the human ear's ability to discern very slight differences in the character of sounds. "For example, think about the fact that, if you are quite well-acquainted with a person's voice, you will recognize that voice over the telephone, in a car, a noisy room, a reverberant church, or even in an almost-anechoic environment." In other words, our auditory system somehow sorts through all kinds of interference, to detect characteristics in sounds that may be composed of very small differences, from one source to another. Much research remains to be done to define the ear's sensitivity to such variations in amplitude, frequency content, phase, or what-have-you. THE PERCEPTION OF TIME DELAY What other evidence, pro or con, do we have on the subject? The bibliography of Mr. Long's AES paper is replete with references to the evaluation of time-delay effects in multi-element reproduction systems. Perhaps most-often quoted are the findings of John Hilliard, who states that delays of 10 milliseconds are definitely objectionable. However, more recent experiments have indicated that most people can determine delay effects on the order of 500 microseconds, with some individuals being able to perceive changes of two-thirds that amount. These experiments were conducted by Blauert and Laws, and reported in a paper published in the Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, entitled "Group Delay Distortions in Electroacoustical Systems" (May 1978). (For a little more about the Blauert and Laws Criteria, see John Eargle's article on Studio Monitor Systems in last month's issue of db—Ed.) Those who have reported on the subject have approached the task in a variety of ways, with an equal variety of instrumentation, and the conclusions do not always agree when subjective evaluations are presented. As mentioned earlier, one conclusion we can reaffirm as a result of work on the 813 project is that a variety of closely-interrelated physical phenomena affect the listener's perception of material reproduced by a loudspeaker system. It is, and will continue to be, a challenge to evaluate the effect of these interrelated phenomena on an individual basis. I guess this just reaffirms that, the more we learn about some things, the more we realize how little we really know. All electrical (crossover) networks inherently contribute some delay to the signal applied to the input terminals, but in general, few attempts have previously been made to incorporate just the right amount of delay to align the two or more acoustic wave fronts so that they are in precise time-coincidence. Some networks have even introduced delays which increase the mis-alignment of the drivers. Those of us who were involved in the development of the 813 system are unanimously agreed that unique characteristics are contributed to a music reproduction system by bringing all elements of the system into Time-Alignment. The more experience listeners have with time-coherent systems, the easier it is to perceive (and appreciate) these unique characteristics. The challenge is before all of us to prove or disprove those suppositions and opinions that have not yet yielded to hard scientific analysis. There will always be room for divergent personal opinion on the subjective aspects of sound reproduction. And that might even include the subject of Time-Alignment. Closing date is the fifteenth of the second month preceding the date of issue. Send copies to: Classified Ad Dept. db THE SOUND ENGINEERING MAGAZINE 1120 Old Country Road, Plainview, New York 11803 Minimum order accepted $10.00. Rates: 50¢ a word. Boxed Ads: $25.00 per column inch. db Box Number: $1.00 per issue. Frequency Discounts: 3 times, 10%; 6 times, 20%; 12 times, 33%. ALL CLASSIFIED ADS MUST BE PREPAID. FOR SALE AMPEX, OTARI & SCULLY recorders in stock for immediate delivery; new and rebuilt. RCI, 8550 2nd Ave., Silver Spring, MD 20910. Write for complete product list. AUDIO DESIGNS 16x8 board, separate stereo & mono mixdown. Now in service. Mint condition, $17,500. Fred Arthur Productions. (303) 832-2664. PROFESSIONAL AUDIO COMPONENTS: AKG mics; Badap 1; Crown; dbx; Delta Lab; Eventide; Frazier; Gauss; GLI; Ivie; Malatchi; MasterRoom; Nagra; Neumann mics; Orban; Otari; Pentagon; RTR; Sennheiser mics; Switchcraft; Tascam; Uni-Sync; and UREI. These products are on demo in our showroom and in stock for immediate delivery. Our shipping is insured and prepaid. Barclay Recording & Electronics, 233 E. Lancaster Ave., Wynnewood, Pa. 19096. (215) 667-3048 or 049-2965. 12½ in. NAB 0.050 in. ALUMINUM FLANGES. This new item in stock for immediate delivery. For prices, call or write, RECORDS RESERVE CORP., 56 Harvester Ave., Batavia, N.Y. 14020. (716) 343-2600. TEST RECORD for equalizing stereo systems; Helps you sell equalizers and installation services; Pink noise in 1/2 octave bands, type QR-2011-1 @ $20. Used with various B&K Sound Level Meters. B&K Instruments, Inc., 5111 W. 164th St., Cleveland, Ohio 44142. NAGY SHEAR-TYPE TAPE SPLICERS FOR 1/4", 1/2" & 1/8" IN. TAPES • HAND-CRAFTED • FIELD PROVEN • FAST, ACCURATE • SELF-SHARPENING NRPD Box 289 McLean, Va. 22101 WANTED RECORDING EQUIPMENT OF ALL AGES AND VARIETIES microphones, outboard gear, consoles, tape decks, etc. Dan Alexander 6026 Bernhard Richmond, Ca. 94805 USA (415) 232-7933 or (415) 232-7818 REK-O-KUT drive belts. Specify model $9.95 delivered. QRK Electronic Products, 1568 N. Sierra Vista, Fresno, Ca. 93703. FOR SALE: Westrex 3DIIH, $3,495.00; Haeco SC-2, $4,800.00; Haeco SC-1, $1,495.00; Grampian D, $385.00; Grampian BI/D, $325.00; Westrex 2B, $525.00; All cutterheads reconditioned and in specs. Used HAECO Cutterheads available. International Cutterhead Repair, 194 Kings Ct., Teaneck, N.J. 07666. (201) 837-1289. MELLITRON MD. 300 rare—split keyboard, 12 sounds each, $3,500.00. Ed Delaney, 150 6th Ave., N. Troy, NY 12180 (518) 237-9191. SSI CONSOLE, 24 input, 16 bus, adapted to 24-track monitoring; 40 faders; separate monitor mix; 2 cue busses; 4 echo sends; 550 audio accessories jack field; 40 vu meters, plus 27 dBm out, plug together installation. Price $30,000. Call or write Glen Snoddy, Woodland Sound Studios, 1011 Woodland St., Nashville, Tenn. 37206, (615) 227-5027. USED RECORDING equipment for sale. Dan (415) 232-7933. LARGEST STOCK OF AKG on East Coast. Many other lines. If you need it right now. Noise Unlimited, Inc. (201) 725-1700. FOR SALE: 8 TRACK Ampex, Inovonics 355 Electronics, converted 300 deck, IEM heads, 25 hours old; $4000.00. Blue Eagle Music, 22214 W. Bonnie Lane, Sussex, WI 53089. RENTAL: Full line AKG professional studio mics, plus many others. Sound systems of any size. Noise Unlimited, Inc. (201) 725-1700. SUPERVISING ENGINEER BONNEVILLE PRODUCTIONS has an immediate opening for an Electronic Engineer to supervise technical operations of our tape duplication operation. Qualifications necessary include a BSEE (or equivalent training plus experience), thorough experience in magnetic tape theory and recording techniques (professional systems), an excellent trouble-shooting background and the ability to supervise a staff of four engineers and technicians. Experience with Cetec/Gauss tape duplication equipment is preferred. Tape production and engineering areas are designated no-smoking. Please reply with resume, references and salary requirements to: Lorna van Komen Bonneville Productions 130 Social Hall Avenue Salt Lake City, Utah 84111 INCOME TAX SPECIALIST TO SOUND MIXERS SOUND ENGRS. PAUL MILLER 26 COURT ST. BKLYN, N.Y. 11201 BY MAIL OR APPT. N.Y. 212 339-0447 800 327-0173 Ext. 2255 USED 1-INCH and 2-inch tape wanted. Texas Demos, Box 401166, Garland, TX 75040. BEST PRICE ON TEAC, Tascam, Ampex, Sennheiser, Allison, Eventide, Sound Workshop, UREI, BGW, Electro-Voice, JBL and more. Paul Kadair's Home and Commercial Audio, Baton Rouge, Louisiana (504) 924-1006. SOUNDCRAFT SERIES I mixer, 16 x 2, 2 years old. Real clean. $1875.00. Heyday Sound, Toledo, OH (419) 476-3835. FOR SALE: PHILIPS 16mm telecine projector, Magna-Tech 436 35/16mm recorder w/stripe 3 & 4 track heads, 3-M 16 track heads, 12 track 1-inch PB only machine, JBL C-55 speakers, Altec 9844 speakers, Altec 604-E speakers, Altec Mod. 19 speakers, Ampex 350 4 track-2 track-mono with Inovonics Electronics, Spectra-Sonics 500 equalizer & 101 cards, Danner 600/85 faders, Nakamichi 700 cassette recorders, HAECO CSG-2 compatible stereo generator, Westrex RA-1574-D cutting amps, Moviola mixed 4-gang synchronizer 2 heads and URS amplifier. Contact: Fred Porter, Media-Sound, (212) 765-4700. BLANK REELS—FOUR INCH, high grade plastic moulding, our own manufacture. any quantity Pan Canada Magnetics Limited, 1072 Rangeview Road, Port Credit, Ontario, Canada. L5E 1H3. CUTTERHEAD REPAIR SERVICE for all models Westrex, HAECO, Grampian. Modifications done on Westrex. Avoid costly down time; 3-day turnaround upon receipt. Send for free brochure: International Cutterhead Repair, 194 Kings Ct., Teaneck, N.J. 07666. (201) 837-1289. FOR SALE: 3—MCI JH-24, 24 track recorders; 3—MCI JH-110, two-track recorders with or without built-in Dolby units; MCI JH-110, two-track playback deck; Amber 4400 audio test set; Martin audio Varispeed III resolver; and one pair Braun RU1020 biamp speaker. All equipment in excellent condition, well maintained. Inquire: Criteria Recording Studios, 1755 N.E. 149th St., Miami, FL 33181 (305) 947-5611. RCA 24 TRACK CONSOLE, 24 in-16 out API, Melcor EQ, Gotham faders, 3 HP sends, 8 echo sends, 6 limiters, 3 patch bays. Kingdom Sound, 6801 Jericho Tpke, Syosset, LI, NY (516) 364-8665. TASCAM MODEL 10 console with 8 balanced inputs and 4 balanced outputs, slate amp with tone, Fisher spring reverb unit, custom enclosure all interconnecting cable, $1,750. Bud inclined panel cabinet rack, $325. Two, 26 tip-ring-sleeve jack fields wired to terminal blocks, $400. 60 hertz generator, $100. Custom input switching panel, $250. National Radio Theatre, 612 North Michigan Avenue, Chicago, IL 60611 (312) 751-1625. WANTED WANTED: SCULLY 12 track recorder. State hours, condition and asking price. Blue Eagle Music, 22214 West Bonnie Lane, Sussex, Wisconsin 53089. WANTED: Recording equipment of all ages and variety: Neumann mics, EMT, etc. Dan Alexander, 6026 Bernhard, Richmond, Ca. 94805. (415) 232-7933. WANTED: ONE COPY of Acoustics of Studios & Auditoria, by V. S. Mankovsky, 1971, Focal Press, London. Francis Daniel, 201 W. 89th St., New York, NY 10024. SERVICES MAGNETIC HEAD relapping — 24-hour service; Replacement heads for professional recorders; IEM, 350 N. Eric Dr., Palatine, Ill. 60067. ACOUSTIC CONSULTING — STUDIO ANALYSIS, ROOM EQUALIZATION. Suggarloaf View, Inc., 31 Union Square W. New York, N.Y. 10003. (212) 675-1166. AMPEX SERVICE COMPANY: Complete factory service for Ampex equipment; professional audio; one-inch helical scan video; video closed circuit cameras; video systems; instrumentation; consumer audio; professional audio motor and head assembly rebuilding. Service available at 2201 Lumi Ave., Elk Grove Village, Ill. 60007; 500 Rodier Dr., Glendale, Ca. 91201; 75 Commerce Way, Hackensack, N.J. 07601. - Assuming worldwide responsibility for sales of Scully Professional Audio Recorders and Dictaphone Voice Communications Recording Systems, Frank Santucci was named international sales manager, for Scully Recording Instruments. Mr. Santucci formerly held the positions of marketing manager for Orban Associates and senior product manager at Ampex Corporation. - Joining Ferrofluidics Corporation, Burlington, Massachusetts, as audio products manager, Lou Melillo is responsible for applications engineering and marketing the use of ferrofluids in loudspeakers. Previously, Mr. Melillo was chief engineer of audio systems at Becker Electronics in New York, designing loudspeaker systems. - In a major realignment of his activities world-wide, Tom Hidley has moved his base of operation to the island of Kauai in the Hawaiian chain, while operating Hidley Design Services out of a Honolulu office. His exclusive representatives will continue to be Kent Duncan of Sierra Audio and David Hawkins of Scenic Sounds, London. - Appointed president of Studer ReVox America, Inc., Bruno Hochstrasser will be responsible for all USA activities of both the Studer line of professional tape recorders, and the ReVox brand of audiophile components. A ten-year veteran of Studer, Mr. Hochstrasser will be based in Nashville, and assisted in sales and engineering support activities by Tom Jenny and Heinz Schiess. - Joining Warner Cable Corp., from CBS, John A. Lack has been appointed to the newly created post of executive vice president, programming and marketing. At CBS, Mr. Lack served as vice president of the CBS Radio division and general manager of WCBS Radio, in New York. - Promoted to senior vice president, merchandising and advertising for Radio Shack, Bernard S. Appel will assume the additional responsibilities of supervising merchandising for Radio Shack’s overseas operations, and for overseeing the firm’s advertising departments. Mr. Appel was previously vice president, merchandising for Radio Shack. - Named vice president of the audio division of Sony Industries, Frank Leonardi replaces Gus Ishida, who returned to Tokyo to assume a position with the International Division of Sony Corporation. Mr. Leonardi, based in New York, joined Sony’s audio division last year as marketing manager for hi-fi products. - Elliot Schwartz has been named director of sales for KLH Research and Development Corporation. Mr. Schwartz was formerly national sales manager for Bose Corporation and director of sales for Teledyne Acoustic Research. - In the areas of marketing development and corporate communications, Altec Lansing has appointed three vice presidents and one director. Robert T. Davis, formerly director of systems/applications engineering, was named vice president of professional market development. Promoted from director of product development, Irwin Zucker was named vice president of consumer market development. Moving from his position of corporate director of industrial relations, Chris Christianson has been appointed vice president of industrial relations. Named director of marketing communications was Curtis Pickelle, previously manager of that department. - Assuming responsibility for the customer service and technical training departments, Donald E. Mereen has been named marketing director, broadcast & professional audio products group at Telex Communications, Inc. Mr. Mereen joined Telex in 1974 and has held positions in sales and new product development. - Jim Drummond, of Atlanta, Georgia, has been appointed the new southeast sales engineer for IGM—broadcast equipment and automation products. Mr. Drummond was formerly manager of the southeast region for Videomax. - Soundesigns, previously owned by Mediasound, Inc., has been sold. In a reorganization, The Audio Group, Inc. was formed, providing a unique full service facility—selling new equipment, as well as creating a new idea for audio brokerage. The Audio Group, Inc., is located at 1780 Broadway, Suite 800, New York, NY 10019. (212) 765-7790. - The Community Recording Services (CRS) is an association of individuals who make their careers in the music and recording industries. The Society offers its members access to their co-operative, state-of-the-art, multi-track recording studio, in addition to providing for the exchange of educational, technical and artistic ideas and concepts through its seminars and conferences. Membership is open to anyone actively involved in the music and recording industry, and details can be obtained by writing: Community Recording Services, P.O. Box 4672, Vancouver, B.C. V6B 4A1 Canada. - Named senior editor of Popular Electronics, Hal Rogers joins the magazine from High Fidelity where he was associate audio/video editor. Previous to that, Mr. Rodgers was science editor at Funk & Wagnalls Company. - John Phelan has been appointed to the newly created position of general manager for Filmways Audio Services. Mr. Phelan previously served as manager, professional sound products at Shure Brothers. The new two-track. Uncompromisingly designed. Otari MX5050 B The new Otari two-track machine is designed for discriminating recordists. 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It's the latest and wisest choice for your 15/7½ or 7½/3¾ ips masters. For the full story about the new generation recorder/producer, contact your nearest Otari dealer and see why we call it the masterpiece. OTARI U.S.A: Otari Corporation, 981 Industrial Road, San Carlos, California 94070, Phone: (415) 593-1646 Canada: BSR (Canada) Ltd., PO BOX 7003 Stn. B, 2000 Eglinton Ave. W., Rexdale, Ont. M9V 4B3, Phone: (416) 675-2425 Japan: Otari Electric Co., Ltd., 4-29-18 Minami Ogikubo, Suginami-ku, Tokyo 167, Phone: (03) 333-9631 From Quad/Eight: The forty by forty, totally modular, fully automated, feature-packed, super-spec’d, recording and mixdown system that you thought you couldn’t afford. The way you’ve always heard it should be. Shown as Coronado Model MS4024CX.
The Avoyelles Parish School Board met in regular session on Tuesday, October 3, 2023, at 5:00 p.m. at the School Board Office, in Marksville, Louisiana, with the following members present: Robin Moreau, President; Rickey Adams, Vice-President; Latisha Small, Lynn Deloach, Keith Lacombe, Jay Callegari, Chris Robinson, Jill Guidry and Aimee Dupuy. Absent: None. An Invocation was offered by Dexter Compton, Curriculum Supervisor. The meeting opened with the Pledge of Allegiance to the flag of the United States of America led by Board Member Keith Lacombe. 1. On motion by Aimee Dupuy, seconded by Lynn Deloach, the Board adopted the minutes of the regular Board meeting held on Tuesday, September 5, 2023, as printed and mailed to Board members and published in The Weekly News, official journal of the Board. MOTION CARRIED UNANIMOUSLY. 2. Board Vice President Rickey Adams read a resolution of respect to the late Albert Joseph Gremillion, retired speech pathologist. On motion by Rickey Adams, seconded by Jill Guidry, the Board adopted the resolution of respect to the late Albert Joseph Gremillion, retired speech pathologist. MOTION CARRIED UNANIMOUSLY. 3. Superintendent Karen Tutor recognized the Students of the Month for September, 2023. Superintendent Tutor presented a plaque to each student. Also, each Board member read a short biography detailing the accomplishments of each student. The Students of the Month at each school are as follows: Paris May, Bunkie Elementary Learning Academy; Harley Poret, Cottonport Elementary School; Amelia Jeansonne, Lafargue Elementary School; Madison Holmes, Marksville Elementary School; A’Niya Francisco, Plaucheville Elementary School; Jamelle Carmouche, Riverside Elementary School; Braunson Wagner, Avoyelles High School; Isabella Harrell, Bunkie Magnet High School; Austin Leblanc, Louisiana School for the Agricultural Sciences; and Abigail St. Romain, Marksville High School. On behalf of the Board, President Robin Moreau commended the students on this outstanding achievement. 4. Assistant Superintendent Thelma Prater recognized the Teachers of the Month for September, 2023. She commended the teachers for their dedication, and Superintendent Tutor presented a plaque to each teacher, as follows: Bianca Word, Bunkie Elementary Learning Academy; Sarah Armand, Cottonport Elementary School; Holly Bordelon, Lafargue Elementary School; Judy Rivers, Marksville Elementary School; Bailey Lemoine, Plaucheville Elementary School; Shawnita Scott, Riverside Elementary School; KK Lemoine, Avoyelles High School; McKenzie Bienvenu, Bunkie Magnet High School; Angela Deville, Louisiana School for the Agricultural Sciences; and Tina Anderson, Marksville High School. On behalf of the Board, President Robin Moreau commended the teachers on this outstanding achievement. 5. Tammy Morgan with LDOE addressed the Board with a presentation of the charter renewal for Louisiana School for the Agricultural Sciences (LaSAS). LaSAS is a Type IV charter and we except that charter to be extended. 6. Wendy Marchand, Curriculum Supervisor, addressed the Board with a beginning-of-the-year literacy update for grades K-3. 7. Wendy Marchand, Curriculum Supervisor, addressed the Board with a recommendation to approve the Pupil Progression Plan for 2023-2024. On motion by Aimee Dupuy, seconded by Chris Robinson, the Board approved the Pupil Progression Plan for 2023-2024 as outlined by Ms. Marchand. MOTION CARRIED UNANIMOUSLY. 8. Superintendent Karen Tutor addressed the Board to change the dates of the November 21, 2023 Committee Meeting as well as the January 2, 2024 and April 2, 2024 Board Meetings due to holidays. On motion by Jay Callegari, seconded by Jill Guidry, the Board agreed to change the dates of meetings as follows: November 21, 2023 Committee Meeting to November 14; January 2, 2024 Regular Meeting to January 9; and April 2, 2024 Regular Meeting to April 9. MOTION CARRIED UNANIMOUSLY. 9. Dawn Pitre, Supervisor of Special Services, addressed the Board with a recommendation to approve the Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) between Electronic Information Systems (EIS) and the Avoyelles Parish School District for a three-year period, starting July 1, 2023, and ending June 30, 2026. The agreement covers all eligible Medicaid reimbursable services in the various school-based Medicaid programs in which the District chooses to participate. On motion by Jill Guidry, seconded by Rickey Adams, the Board approved the MOU between Electronic Information Systems and the Avoyelles Parish School District from July 1, 2023, through June 30, 2026, as presented by Ms. Pitre. MOTION CARRIED UNANIMOUSLY. 10. Superintendent Karen Tutor addressed the Board with a recommendation to approve the MOU between Journey Rehab and Plaucheville Elementary School. On motion by Latisha Small, seconded by Rickey Adams, the Board approved the MOU between Journey Rehab and Plaucheville Elementary School. MOTION CARRIED UNANIMOUSLY. 11. Superintendent Karen Tutor addressed the Board with a recommendation to approve the Vaping Settlement offer from Frantz Law Group, per previous consultation with the Board’s attorneys. On motion by Rickey Adams, seconded by Jill Guidry, the Board accepted the Vaping Settlement Offer from Frantz Law Group. MOTION CARRIED UNANIMOUSLY. 12. Superintendent Karen Tutor addressed the Board with a recommendation to approve the Marksville High School Gym sign. On motion by Jill Guidry, seconded by Lynn Deloach, the Board approved the Marksville High School Gym sign as presented by Superintendent Tutor. MOTION CARRIED UNANIMOUSLY. 13. COMMITTEE REPORTS (a) Jill Guidry, Chairwoman of the Education Committee, presented the following report: EDUCATION COMMITTEE REPORT September 19, 2023 The Education Committee of the Avoyelles Parish School Board met on Tuesday, September 19, 2023, at 4:46 p.m. at the Avoyelles Parish School Board Office with the following members present: Rickey Adams, Vice President; Jay Callegari, Latisha Small, Lynn Deloach; Karen L. Tutor, Superintendent; and Thelma Prater, Assistant Superintendent. Chairwoman Jill Guidry and President Robin Moreau were absent. Also present were Chris Robinson, Rickey Adams, and Aimee Dupuy, Board members; Mary Bonnette, Director of Finance; Jessica Rachal, Sales Tax Supervisor; Trent Young, Transportation Supervisor; Ray Carlock, Maintenance Supervisor; supervisors and coordinators. 1. Donna Desoto from the Avoyelles Community Youth Coalition addressed the Education Committee with a request to approve the Avoyelles Community Youth Coalition’s education program for alcohol, vaping, and opioids. On motion by Jay Callegari, seconded by Lynn Deloach, the Education Committee recommended to approve the Avoyelles Community Youth Coalition’s education program for alcohol, vaping and opioids. The motion was approved by the following 2-1 vote: YAYS: Jay Callegari and Lynn Deloach NAYS: Latisha Small ABSENT: Jill Guidry and Robin Moreau 2. Dexter Compton, Curriculum Supervisor, addressed the Education Committee with an update on the ROTC program. The Education Committee did not take any action on this matter. 3. Stacey Bordelon, Superintendent Secretary, addressed the Education Committee with a discussion on audit-required Board trainings on sexual harassment, cybersecurity, bullying, and ethics. The Education Committee did not take any action on this matter. The Education Committee respectfully recommends the adoption of this report. Rickey Adams, Board Vice President Education Committee On motion by Jill Guidry, seconded by Aimee Dupuy, the Board adopted the Education Committee Report via consent agenda. MOTION CARRIED UNANIMOUSLY. (b) Lynn Deloach, Chairman of the Executive Committee, presented the following report: EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE REPORT September 19, 2023 The Executive Committee of the Avoyelles Parish School Board met on Tuesday, September 19, 2023, at 4:35 p.m. at the Avoyelles Parish School Board Office with the following members present: Lynn Deloach, Chairman; Aimee Dupuy, Jay Callegari; Karen L. Tutor, Superintendent; and Thelma Prater, Assistant Superintendent. Committee member Keith Lacombe and President Robin Moreau were absent. Also present were Latisha Small, Rickey Adams, and Chris Robinson, Board members; Mary Bonnette, Director of Finance; Jessica Rachal, Sales Tax Supervisor; Trent Young, Transportation Supervisor; Ray Carlock, Maintenance Supervisor; supervisors and coordinators. Latisha Small entered the Executive Committee Meeting at 4:38 p.m. 1. Dexter Compton, Curriculum Supervisor, addressed the Executive Committee with a request to approve the MOU between Career Compass of Louisiana and the Avoyelles Parish School District. On motion by Aimee Dupuy, seconded by Jay Callegari, the Executive Committee recommended to approve the MOU between Career Compass of Louisiana and the Avoyelles Parish School District. MOTION CARRIED UNANIMOUSLY. 2. Dexter Compton, Curriculum Supervisor, addressed the Executive Committee with a request to approve the MOU between Career Compass Education Solutions and the Avoyelles Parish School District. On motion by Aimee Dupuy, seconded by Jay Callegari, the Executive Committee recommended to approve the MOU between Career Compass Solutions and the Avoyelles Parish School District. MOTION CARRIED UNANIMOUSLY. 3. Superintendent Karen Tutor addressed the Executive Committee with a request to approve the MOA between Dollywood and Plaucheville Elementary School. On motion by Aimee Dupuy, seconded by Jay Callegari, the Executive Committee recommended to approve the MOA between Dollywood and Plaucheville Elementary School. MOTION CARRIED UNANIMOUSLY. 4. Superintendent Karen Tutor addressed the Executive Committee with a request to approve the MOA between Dollywood and Riverside Elementary School. On motion by Aimee Dupuy, seconded by Jay Callegari, the Executive Committee recommended to approve the MOA between Dollywood and Riverside Elementary School. MOTION CARRIED UNANIMOUSLY. 5. Becky Spencer, Network Supervisor, addressed the Executive Committee with a request to approve the one-year extension of the contract between Conterra and APSB for internet access to 13 sites from July 1, 2024 to June 30, 2025. On motion by Jay Callegari, seconded by Aimee Dupuy, the Executive Committee recommended to approve the one-year extension of the contract between Conterra and APSB for internet access to 13 sites from July 1, 2024 to June 30, 2025. MOTION CARRIED UNANIMOUSLY. The Executive Committee respectfully recommends the adoption of this report. Lynn Deloach, Chairman Executive Committee On motion by Lynn Deloach, seconded by Aimee Dupuy, the Board adopted the Executive Committee Report via consent agenda. MOTION CARRIED UNANIMOUSLY. (c) Aimee Dupuy, Chairwoman of the Finance Committee, presented the following report: FINANCE COMMITTEE REPORT September 19, 2023 The Finance Committee of the Avoyelles Parish School Board met on Tuesday, September 19, 2023, at approximately 4:30 p.m. at the Avoyelles Parish School Board Office with the following members present: Aimee Dupuy, Chairwoman; Lynn Deloach, Rickey Adams; Karen L. Tutor, Superintendent; and Thelma Prater, Assistant Superintendent. Committee member Jill Guidry and President Robin Moreau were absent. Also present were Jay Callegari and Chris Robinson, Board members; Mary Bonnette, Director of Finance; Jessica Rachal, Sales Tax Supervisor; Trent Young, Transportation Supervisor; Ray Carlock, Maintenance Supervisor; supervisors and coordinators. 1. Jessica Rachal, Sales Tax Supervisor, presented an actual sales tax report for the month of August, 2023. She stated that sales tax collections totaled $896,971.90. Mrs. Rachal said that of this amount, the 1% sales tax generated $512,566.22, the 0.25% sales tax generated $128,122.58, and the building and maintenance fund generated $256,283.11. The Finance Committee did not take any action on this matter. 2. Chairwoman Aimee Dupuy addressed the Finance Committee regarding the maintenance report. Chairwoman Dupuy stated that she reviewed the report, but at this time while the finance department is switching over to a new system, they were unable to print the report. The Finance Committee did not take any action on this matter. 3. Assistant Superintendent Thelma Prater addressed the Finance Committee with requests for overnight travel. On motion by Rickey Adams, seconded by Lynn Deloach, the Finance Committee recommended to approve the overnight travel requests. MOTION CARRIED UNANIMOUSLY. The Finance Committee respectfully recommends the adoption of this report. Aimee Dupuy, Chairwoman Finance Committee (d) Rickey Adams, Chairman of the Building and Lands Committee, presented the following report: BUILDING AND LANDS COMMITTEE REPORT September 19, 2023 The Building and Lands Committee of the Avoyelles Parish School Board met on Tuesday, September 19, 2023, at approximately 5:01 p.m. at the Avoyelles Parish School Board Office with the following members present: Rickey Adams, Chairman; Chris Robinson, Aimee Dupuy; Karen L. Tutor, Superintendent; and Thelma Prater, Assistant Superintendent. Committee member Keith Lacombe and President Robin Moreau were absent. Also present were Latisha Small, Lynn Deloach, and Jay Callegari, Board members; Mary Bonnette, Director of Finance; Jessica Rachal, Sales Tax Supervisor; Trent Young, Transportation Supervisor; Ray Carlock, Maintenance Supervisor; supervisors and coordinators. 1. Superintendent Karen Tutor addressed the Building and Lands Committee with a discussion on donated property at 301 Cedar Street in Bunkie, La. The Building and Lands Committee did not take any action on this matter. 2. Ray Carlock, Maintenance Supervisor, addressed the Building and Lands Committee with a request to approve the Marksville High School Gym coaches’ offices and bathroom AC projects. On motion by Aimee Dupuy, seconded by Chris Robinson, the Building and Lands Committee recommended to approve the Marksville High School Gym coaches’ offices and bathroom AC projects in the amount of $13,000 funded by the Maintenance account. MOTION CARRIED UNANIMOUSLY. The Building and Lands Committee respectfully recommends the adoption of this report. Rickey Adams, Chairman Building and Lands Committee On motion by Rickey Adams, seconded by Aimee Dupuy, the Board adopted the Building and Lands Committee Report via consent agenda. MOTION CARRIED UNANIMOUSLY. (e) Keith Lacombe, Chairman of the Bus Committee, presented the following report: BUS COMMITTEE MEETING September 19, 2023 The Bus Committee of the Avoyelles Parish School Board met on Tuesday, September 19, 2023, at approximately 5:10 p.m. at the Avoyelles Parish School Board Office with the following members present: Chris Robinson, Latisha Small; Karen L. Tutor, Superintendent; and Thelma Prater, Assistant Superintendent. Chairman Keith Lacombe, Committee member Jill Guidry, and President Robin Moreau were absent. Also present were Lynn Deloach, Jay Callegari, Rickey Adams, and Aimee Dupuy, Board members; Mary Bonnette, Director of Finance; Jessica Rachal, Sales Tax Supervisor; Trent Young, Transportation Supervisor; Ray Carlock, Maintenance Supervisor; supervisors, coordinators, and principals. There were not enough committee members present to constitute a quorum; therefore, no meeting was held. Keith Lacombe, Chairman Bus Committee 14. Assistant Superintendent Thelma Prater addressed the Board with a recommendation to approve overnight travel requests. On motion by Aimee Dupuy, seconded by Lynn Deloach, the Board approved the requests for overnight travel as presented by Assistant Superintendent Prater. MOTION CARRIED UNANIMOUSLY. 15. Assistant Superintendent Thelma Prater presented personnel changes for the Board’s review. PERSONNEL CHANGES COTTONPORT ELEMENTARY SCHOOL Appointment of Regis F. Perry, STEM paraprofessional, effective September 5, 2023. Resignation of Thomas Boudreaux, bus driver, effective September 29, 2023. MARKSVILLE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL Appointment of Bertha Claudette Lemoine, Deaf and Hard of Hearing paraprofessional, effective August 22, 2023. Transfer/Appointment of Elydia F. Hill, from special education paraprofessional to regular school-wide paraprofessional, effective August 1, 2023. Transfer/Appointment of Tammy Eves, from Pupil Appraisal to Financial Secretary, effective September 19, 2023. Change funding source for Natalie C. Scott, to 100% 8(g), effective August 1, 2023. Resignation of Jennifer Moseley, bus driver, effective September 22, 2023. PLAUCHEVILLE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL Resignation of Sandi Yates Moreau, teacher, effective July 31, 2023. Transfer/Appointment of Magdalene V. Gradney, teacher, from Cottonport Elementary, effective September 15, 2023 through May 24, 2023. Appointment of Daphne E. Klingensmith, (TAT) teacher, effective September 1, 2023 through December 21, 2023. Resignation of Mary Guillory, food service manager, effective May 24, 2024, for the purpose of retirement. RIVERSIDE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL Appointment of Tariq A. Sharif, Pre-K Title I teacher (TAT), effective September 1, 2023 through December 21, 2023. Appointment of Shauntelle D. Clark, Pre-K Title I paraprofessional, September 1, 2023. Change funding source for Yvonne S. Bassett, (retired) teacher, from Title I CSR to regular program August 1, 2023 through December 21, 2023. BUNKIE MAGNET HIGH SCHOOL Appointment of Chalayne D. Beaubouef, social worker, effective September 12, 2023 through June 30, 2024, funded by AWARE program. MARKSVILLE HIGH SCHOOL Appointment of Ashley M. Gonzales, paraprofessional, effective September 26, 2023. Resignation of Tara Daigrepont, food service technician, effective at the end of the day August 31, 2023. PUPIL APPRAISAL/CENTRAL OFFICE Appointment of Kylee A. Lemoine, Pupil Appraisal/Central Office Child Welfare and Attendance secretary, effective September 6, 2023. CENTRAL OFFICE Appointment of Alex P. Frank, Network Administrator, effective September 12, 2023, E-Rate funding source. Transfer/Appointment of Jacqueline Brown, from Accounts Payable Clerk to Receptionist, effective September 12, 2023. PUPIL APPRAISAL Transfer/Appointment of Morgan T. Thornhill, from Marksville High School to part-time homebound teacher, effective September 19, 2023 through December 21, 2023. NON-PUBLIC TITLE I Appointment of Millicent R. Arlinghaus, paraprofessional for St. Joseph and St. Mary School, effective August 29, 2023. 16. Superintendent’s Comments: Superintendent Karen L. Tutor proudly announced that Jodie Melancon, Ag Mechanics teacher at Avoyelles High School, won a $50,000 award for Teacher Excellence by Harbor Freight Tools for Schools ($35,000 for her program and $15,000 for herself). She was one of 25 winners nationwide. Upcoming Committee Meeting agendas are filling up due to many updates. Ms. Wendy Marchand announced that NFL Superbowl Star Malcolm Mitchell is making appearances at the elementary schools this week for his program “Read with Malcolm” through his Share the Magic Foundation. 17. On motion by Jay Callegari, seconded by Aimee Dupuy, the Board entered into Executive Session at approximately 5:50 p.m. to discuss the following: (a) Justin Wilkins and Kayla Carmouche, individually and on behalf of their minor child v. Avoyelles Parish School Board, 12th Judicial District Court, Avoyelles Parish, Louisiana, No. 2021-9526, Div. A (Judge Kerry Spruill) Attorney Billy Wright; (b) Robert Smith and Camee Lemoine, individually and on behalf of their minor child v. Liberty Mutual Insurance Company, Avoyelles Parish School Board, Sandra Smith, and John Doe, 12th Judicial District Court, Avoyelles Parish, Louisiana, No. 2022-0603, Div. B (Judge William J. Bennett) Attorney Billy Wright. On motion by Latisha Small, seconded by Keith Lacombe, the Board reconvened in open public session at approximately 6:27 p.m. MOTION CARRIED UNANIMOUSLY. On motion by Jill Guidry, seconded by Rickey Adams, the Board agreed to the settlement terms as discussed in Executive Session. MOTION CARRIED UNANIMOUSLY. There being no further business, on motion by Lynn Deloach, seconded by Rickey Adams, the meeting was adjourned. AVOYELLES PARISH SCHOOL BOARD Robin Moreau, President Karen L. Tutor, Superintendent Secretary/Treasurer
Local host specialization, host-switching, and dispersal shape the regional distributions of avian haemosporidian parasites Vincenzo A. Ellis\textsuperscript{a,b,1}, Michael D. Collins\textsuperscript{c}, Matthew C. I. Medeiros\textsuperscript{a}, Eloisa H. R. Sari\textsuperscript{b}, Elyse D. Coffey\textsuperscript{a}, Rebecca C. Dickerson\textsuperscript{a,d}, Camile Lugarini\textsuperscript{a,e}, Jeffrey A. Stratford\textsuperscript{f}, Donata R. Henry\textsuperscript{g}, Loren Merrill\textsuperscript{h}, Alix E. Matthews\textsuperscript{c,i}, Alison A. Hanson\textsuperscript{c,j}, Jackson R. Roberts\textsuperscript{c,k}, Michael Joyce\textsuperscript{a}, Melanie R. Kunkel\textsuperscript{a,d,l}, and Robert E. Ricklefs\textsuperscript{a,b,1} \textsuperscript{a}Department of Biology, University of Missouri–St. Louis, St. Louis, MO 63121; \textsuperscript{b}Departamento de Biologia Geral, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil; \textsuperscript{c}Department of Biology, Rhodes College, Memphis, TN 38112; \textsuperscript{d}College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211; \textsuperscript{e}Centro Nacional de Pesquisa e Conservação de Aves Silvestres, Florianópolis, Santa Catarina, Brazil; \textsuperscript{f}Department of Biology and Health Sciences, Wilkes University, PA 18766; \textsuperscript{g}Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA 70118; \textsuperscript{h}Illinois Natural History Survey, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, IL 61820; \textsuperscript{i}Department of Biological Sciences, Arkansas State University, State University, AR 72467; \textsuperscript{j}Department of Geography, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843; and \textsuperscript{k}School of Fisheries, Aquaculture, and Aquatic Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849 Contributed by Robert E. Ricklefs, August 3, 2015 (sent for review June 17, 2015; reviewed by Boris R. Krasnov and Robert Poulin) The drivers of regional parasite distributions are poorly understood, especially in comparison with those of free-living species. For vector-transmitted parasites, in particular, distributions might be influenced by host-switching and by parasite dispersal with primary hosts and vectors. We surveyed haemosporidian blood parasites (\textit{Plasmodium} and \textit{Haemoproteus}) of small land birds in eastern North America to characterize a regional parasite community. Distributions of parasite populations generally reflected distributions of their hosts across the region. However, when the interdependence between hosts and parasites was controlled statistically, local host assemblages were related to regional climatic gradients, but parasite assemblages were not. Moreover, because parasite assemblage similarity does not decrease with distance when controlling for host assemblages and climate, parasites evidently disperse readily within the distributions of their hosts. The degree of specialization on hosts varied in some parasite lineages over short periods and small geographic distances independently of the diversity of available hosts and potentially competing parasite lineages. Nonrandom spatial turnover was apparent in parasite lineages infecting one host species that was well-sampled within a single year across its range, plausibly reflecting localized adaptations of hosts and parasites. Overall, populations of avian hosts generally determine the geographic distributions of haemosporidian parasites. However, parasites are not dispersal-limited within their host distributions, and they may switch hosts readily. avian malaria \| community assembly \| emerging infectious disease \| Haemosporida \| parasite communities A regional community can be thought of as a set of species whose distributions partially overlap within a large geographic area (1, 2). The structure of the regional community (i.e., the relative abundances of species across space and the degree to which populations cooccur) is governed by local (e.g., interspecific competition) and regional (e.g., species diversification and dispersal) processes (3). Although regional communities include all species, parasites and pathogens are rarely considered integral community members (4). Indeed, impacts of parasites on community structure are frequently associated with epidemics—often following introductions to nonnative regions—that have driven naïve hosts to extinction or near extinction (5–7). However, parasites likely play a critical role in shaping regional community structure. Parasites can comprise a large proportion of the community biomass (8), form the majority of links in a community food web (9), and influence regional diversity by variously accelerating (10) or slowing (11) host diversification. Nevertheless, few studies have investigated the processes influencing the regional community structure of both parasites and their hosts. Parasite populations are integrated into community studies with difficulty, partly because these populations are distributed across multiple dimensions—space, host species, and host individuals (12)—and also because parasites are difficult to sample. Moreover, although parasites tend to specialize on one or a few host species, host-breadth may vary across a parasite’s range (13). Regional studies of birds and their dipteran-vectored haemosporidian (“malaria”) blood parasites (14–19) have shown that many parasites are heterogeneously distributed across space despite the availability of suitable hosts. Specialized associations between specific parasites and vectors (20–22) may drive such heterogeneity, although a recent analysis suggests that parasite–host compatibility is also important (23), and local coevolutionary relationships between parasites and their hosts likely influence geographic distributions of both host and parasite populations (11, 14, 15). However, most regional studies of these parasites have focused on individual host species (24–30). Here, we investigate the regional community structure of avian hosts and their haemosporidian parasites with respect to abiotic and biotic drivers of both host and parasite distributions. We surveyed local assemblages of avian haemosporidian parasites. Significance Within eastern North America, distributions of vector-transmitted haemosporidian blood parasites of birds, commonly known as “avian malaria parasites,” are associated with the distributions of their host species independently of direct effects of climate on potential vectors. Spatial analyses additionally indicated an absence of dispersal limitation for these parasites. Finally, host-breadth, ranging continuously from specialist to generalist, varies among parasite lineages and is dynamic within parasite assemblages over space and time. The distributions of avian haemosporidian parasites emphasize the ability of parasites to disperse across broad regions and to switch readily between hosts to become emerging infectious diseases. Author contributions: V.A.E. and R.E.R. designed research; V.A.E., M.D.C., M.C.I.M., E.H.R.S., E.D.C., R.C.D., C.L., J.A.S., D.R.H., L.M., A.E.M., A.A.H., J.R.R., M.J., M.R.K., and R.E.R. performed research; V.A.E., M.D.C., and R.E.R. analyzed data; and V.A.E., M.D.C., and R.E.R. wrote the paper. The authors declare no conflict of interest. Reviewers: B.R.K., Jacob Blaustein Institutes for Desert Research, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev; and R.P., University of Otago. \textsuperscript{1}To whom correspondence may be addressed. Email: email@example.com or firstname.lastname@example.org. This article contains supporting information online at www.pnas.org/lookup/suppl/doi:10.1073/pnas.1515309112/-/DCSupplemental. across eastern North America and related the distributions of individual parasite lineages to regional climate variation and to the distributions and abundances of their avian hosts. Community dissimilarities between sampling locations based on host assemblage structure (i.e., the relative abundances of potential host species) were positively correlated with those based on parasite assemblage structure, suggesting interdependence of host and parasite population distributions. However, when controlling statistically for that interdependence, local host assemblages responded strongly to environmental gradients and differed more with increasing geographic separation, whereas parasite assemblages did not. This finding suggests that haemosporidian parasites disperse readily across the distributions of their host populations in eastern North America, independently of difference in climate and geographic distance. The degree to which some parasite lineages specialized on particular hosts varied across years and locations, and the nonrandom parasite lineage turnover across the distribution of one well-sampled host species suggested that adaptations of hosts and parasites may also shape regional community structure. Despite evidence of pathogenicity of haemosporidian parasites in birds (31), correlations between host abundances and parasite relative abundances across the region were statistically indistinguishable from random. Taken together, these results suggest that the distributions of parasite populations largely follow the distributions of their hosts but that parasites readily switch hosts and may replace each other across the ranges of individual hosts, resulting in a complex and dynamic regional community. Results Parasite Populations Track Populations of Their Hosts. We screened 5,867 individuals of 99 bird species, mostly from the order Passeriformes, from 13 locations in eastern North America (Fig. 1), and found 1,720 (29.3%) infected with haemosporidian parasites of the genera Plasmodium or Haemoproteus. Overall, we recovered 87 parasite lineages (see SI Appendix, Table S1 for lineage details; see Materials and Methods for lineage determination). We calculated pairwise dissimilarities between “community” sampling locations (i.e., sites where sampling was not restricted to focal species; Fig. 1 and SI Appendix, Table S2) separately by bird species abundances and by parasite lineage relative abundances (i.e., the number of infections of each lineage divided by the total number of infections). We used Bray–Curtis dissimilarity (32–34), which quantifies the difference between two locations based on the relative abundances of their species (Materials and Methods), to assess community difference. We restricted this analysis to 33 parasite lineages, sampled 10 or more times across the community samples, and to 64 host species infected at least once by any of the 87 parasite lineages within the region (Dataset S1; results are similar using all sampled host species). We compared dissimilarities between locations based on hosts and parasites with a Mantel test, which is equivalent to a correlation test between two distance matrices (34). The Mantel test revealed a significant, positive correlation between host and parasite dissimilarities ($r = 0.45$, $P = 0.003$), showing some interdependence between host and parasite populations across the region. When the same 33 parasite lineages were analyzed separately by genus, these correlations remained significant (Plasmodium: $n = 15$, $r = 0.37$, $P = 0.026$; Haemoproteus: $n = 18$, $r = 0.29$, $P = 0.034$). Differences between regional distributions of populations of hosts and parasites might reflect dispersal limitation (i.e., geographic distance), differences between local environments (e.g., climate or habitat variables), and interactions among hosts and parasites (Fig. 2). To evaluate these relationships, we calculated partial Mantel coefficients for the connections in Fig. 2 (Table 1; simple Mantel correlations are provided for comparison in SI Appendix, Table S3). Partial Mantel coefficients represent the strength of correlation between two distance matrices while controlling for the effect of a third (34). For example, the effect of the environment on hosts may be related to the geographic distance between localities (space). However, the correlation between hosts and environment can be controlled for the effect of geographic distance by computing a partial Mantel coefficient. Because geographic distances and climate differences are independent of the hosts and parasites at each locality, we tested their relationship with a standard Mantel test, which involves no control for a third variable. The distance matrix for the Mantel test comprised geographic distances between all pairs of sampling locations (space), and the elements of the climate matrix were the Euclidean distances between sampling locations based on the first five principal components scores for 19 climatic variables (worldclim.org) downloaded for each location (SI Appendix, Fig. S1 and Table S4). Additional Mantel tests were based on Bray–Curtis dissimilarities between sites in their parasite lineages or host assemblages as before. Partial Mantel tests between these distance matrices revealed that although host populations are related to variation in climate across eastern North America, parasite populations, when controlling for the effect of hosts, are not (Table 1). Furthermore, parasite community ![Fig. 1. Sampling locations. Circles are community samples (i.e., sampling was not restricted to focal bird species) (SI Appendix, Table S2). Location codes are as follows: ALA, Alabama; CHAMP, Champaign (Illinois); CHI, Chicago (Illinois); CHI2, western Chicago (Illinois); CT, Connecticut; IN, Indiana; LA, Louisiana; MI, Michigan; MS, Mississippi; OZ, Ozarks (Missouri); PA, Pennsylvania; STL, St. Louis (Missouri); and TN, Tennessee.](image) ![Fig. 2. Path diagram of hypothesized interactions between space (i.e., geographic distance between sampling locations), environment (i.e., climatic differences between sampling locations), and bird and parasite communities (i.e., differences in species richness and abundances of birds and of parasite lineages, respectively, between sampling locations), all of which are represented as distance matrices. We tested these hypotheses with partial Mantel tests, which allow for the calculation of correlations between two distance matrices while controlling for the effect of a third. For example, bird and parasite assemblage distances were positively correlated ($r = 0.335$, $P = 0.027$) even when controlling for the effect of geographic distance (Table 1).](image) similarity does not decline with distance [i.e., parasite distributions were not spatially restricted (35) when controlling for hosts], suggesting that parasites disperse readily across the region within their host populations. These results generally held when the parasite genera were analyzed separately (SI Appendix, Table S5) and when using an alternative statistical approach (SI Appendix, Table S6). Host Specialization. The host-breadth of a parasite may vary geographically or temporally, and may also be limited by the phylogenetic relatedness of potential host species (13). For example, in the Chicago location, each Plasmodium parasite lineage was associated with a single host taxon at the superfamily level (23). To determine the importance of host phylogeny on parasite distributions across the region, we created a phylogenetic distance matrix for all hosts infected at least once by any of the 33 parasite lineages sampled 10 or more times (60 host species). We then calculated a second matrix by computing Bray–Curtis dissimilarities between those hosts based on the number of times each host species was infected with each of the 33 parasite lineages. A Mantel test comparing these two matrices showed a weak, but significant, correlation ($r = 0.28$, $P = 0.002$), indicating that parasite host distribution is constrained to more closely related hosts than expected by chance. Interestingly, this effect varied across locations in the region (SI Appendix, Table S7). To quantify the host-breadth of each parasite, we used the Gini–Simpson index (36), which accounts for the number of infections recorded for each host species (13). We weighted the index by the phylogenetic distance between hosts using the formula for Rao’s quadratic entropy [Rao’s QE (37, 38); see Materials and Methods for formula; results did not change qualitatively if phylogenetic distances were not included in these analyses]. Although ecologists often distinguish generalist and specialist parasites, host-breadth in the 33 parasite lineages sampled 10 or more times was continuously distributed (SI Appendix, Fig. S2) and did not differ statistically from a unimodal distribution [Hartigan’s dip test: $D_{33} = 0.047$, $P = 0.87$ (39)]. Furthermore, we found no difference in the host-breadth of individual parasite lineages between the parasite genera ($t_{31} = -1.1$, $P = 0.28$). When all years were pooled, parasite lineages recovered at least four times from each of at least four community sampling locations exhibited variation in local host-breadth across the region (Fig. 3). A linear mixed-effects model with parasite lineage as a random effect showed no influence of local phylogenetically weighted bird diversity (Rao’s QE, using host species infected at least once in the region) on parasite host-breadth ($F_{1,21.4} = 1.26$, $P = 0.27$), suggesting that variation in host-breadth is not simply attributable to the diversity of available hosts. Furthermore, local parasite diversity did not influence parasite host-breadth ($F_{1,21.2} = 2.41$, $P = 0.14$). For example, parasite lineage LA01 (Haemoproteus sp.) was recovered exclusively from Dumetella carolinensis in Chicago, IL, (23/157 D. carolinensis hosts infected; years sampled 2006 and 2007); Connecticut (4/45, 2002 and 2003); and Michigan (11/94; 2012). However, in the 2013 Tennessee sample, LA01 was recovered from the hosts Mimus polyglottos (like D. carolinensis, in the family Mimidae; 2/9 infected), Cardinalis cardinalis (1/36), and Spinus tristis (1/19), whereas the two D. carolinensis hosts sampled in Tennessee were both uninfected. We also recovered LA01 from D. carolinensis in the western Chicago location (6/7) in 2014 and from D. carolinensis (2/6) and Toxostoma rufum (also in the family Mimidae; 1/7) in Champaign, IL, in the same year (although those were not community samples). To determine whether local host-breadth differed from a random expectation, we restricted our dataset to infected individuals of those five potential host species of LA01. We then shuffled all parasite lineages infecting those hosts within sampling locations and recalculated randomized host-breadths for LA01 (9,999 randomizations) and compared observed host-breadths to the distribution of randomized host breadths. In Chicago, the host-breadth of LA01 was lower than expected by chance ($P < 0.001$), whereas in Tennessee, this lineage’s host-breadth was higher than expected by chance ($P = 0.019$). The host-breadth of LA01 did not differ from random in Connecticut and Michigan because there were no potential alternative hosts in either location. Lineage Ozarks 06 (OZ06) (Plasmodium sp.) also varied with respect to host-breadth (Fig. 3). The host-breadth of OZ06 was lower than expected based on a random distribution (again shuffling infections among potential hosts) in Michigan ($P = 0.003$), Indiana ($P < 0.001$), and Tennessee ($P = 0.030$) but did not differ from random in Chicago ($P = 0.76$) and the Ozarks ($P = 0.94$). Because locations were sampled in different years, some variation in host-breadth between localities might reflect temporal change within localities. Within particular years, parasite lineages sampled more than three times at multiple locations mostly showed little variation in host-breadth. However, in 2013, OZ14 (Plasmodium sp.) infected three hosts in Pennsylvania (6/12 Melospiza melodia infected, also 1/3 Pipilo erythrophthalmus, and 1/1 Pheucticus ludovicianus) but infected a larger variety of species in Tennessee (6/50 Passerina cyanea individuals infected and 12 ![Parasite host-breadth](image) Fig. 3. Parasite host-breadth (calculated as Rao’s QE) for parasite lineages sampled at least four times at each of at least four sampling locations, pooling data from all years, showing clear variation in host-breadth across the region. Locations are ordered from north to south. \| Relationship between \| And \| Controlling for \| $r_p$ \| $P$ \| \|----------------------\|--------------\|-----------------\|---------\|---------\| \| Space \| Environment \| None \| 0.595 \| 0.005 \| \| Birds \| Environment \| Parasites \| 0.772 \| <0.001 \| \| Birds \| Space \| Parasites \| 0.504 \| 0.012 \| \| Birds \| Environment \| Space \| 0.720 \| <0.001 \| \| Birds \| Space \| Environment \| 0.185 \| 0.137 \| \| Parasites \| Environment \| Birds \| 0.117 \| 0.277 \| \| Parasites \| Space \| Birds \| 0.097 \| 0.302 \| \| Parasites \| Environment \| Space \| 0.303 \| 0.076 \| \| Parasites \| Space \| Environment \| 0.101 \| 0.300 \| \| Birds \| Parasites \| Environment \| 0.191 \| 0.144 \| \| Birds \| Parasites \| Space \| 0.335 \| 0.027 \| We report the partial Mantel correlation coefficient ($r_p$) and associated $P$ value. The relationship between space and environment was tested with a standard Mantel test. Bolded values of $r_p$ represent $P < 0.05$. more infections in nine other species) and Indiana (six infections recovered across five species). Host-breadth of OZ14 was greater than expected based on a random distribution in Indiana ($P = 0.050$), no different from expected in Tennessee ($P = 0.127$), and, although low, still within the random expectation in Pennsylvania ($P = 0.082$). Overall, these results demonstrate that parasite host-breadth can vary geographically, independent of temporal variation, and that this variation does not merely reflect the array of potential host species available or the local diversity of parasites. Nonrandom Parasite Turnover Across Space. We found evidence of parasite lineage turnover across locations within our best-sampled host in 2013, C. cardinalis (Fig. 4). We restricted this analysis to the four locations in which C. cardinalis was well-sampled in 2013 and to parasite lineages recovered at least nine times from C. cardinalis across those locations. Prevalences of all parasite lineages of C. cardinalis, except for OZ14, were significantly heterogeneous across sampling locations (Table 2). Furthermore, at each location, C. cardinalis harbored a single dominant parasite lineage, making each location’s parasite assemblage distinct. To test whether these parasite assemblages differed more from each other than one would expect by chance, we calculated the mean Bray–Curtis dissimilarity between the four locations based on parasite lineage prevalence and compared it to a distribution of randomized average dissimilarities. We created a randomized parasite-by-location matrix by shuffling parasite lineages among infected birds, recalculating prevalence for each lineage at each site, and then calculating the randomized mean Bray–Curtis dissimilarity 9,999 times. Mean observed dissimilarity between sites based on parasite prevalence greatly exceeded the randomized average dissimilarities ($P < 0.001$; SI Appendix, Fig. S3), confirming that location–parasite combinations were more distinct than expected by chance, plausibly a result of localized host and parasite adaptations. Parasites and Host Abundance. We calculated pairwise Spearman rank correlation coefficients ($\rho$) between all host abundances and parasite relative abundances across the region, for which an excess of negative correlations would be consistent with pathogenic effects of these parasites (31). We restricted our analysis to community sampling locations and to parasite lineages sampled at least 10 times and hosts infected at least once (results did not differ qualitatively using the full dataset). Our analysis included the abundances of 64 host species and the relative abundances of 33 parasite lineages at each sampling location, resulting in 2,112 pairwise correlations. Mean observed $\rho$ was $-0.012 \pm 0.008$ SE, which did not differ significantly from the distribution of mean $\rho$ values obtained by randomizing the parasite frequency matrix (by row shuffling 9,999 times) and recalculating the mean $\rho$ each time ($P = 0.628$). Furthermore, the observed SE did not differ from the distribution of randomized SEs ($P = 0.147$), and the proportion of correlations with $P < 0.05$ (141/2112) also did not differ from random ($P = 0.236$). Results were largely similar when analyzing the parasite genera separately (SI Appendix, Table S8). Discussion We have found that the distributions of haemosporidian blood parasites of birds in eastern North America strongly mirror those of their hosts, with broad-scale climatic gradients and barriers to dispersal having little influence, even though the distributions of avian host populations were related to environmental gradients when controlling for the distributions of parasites (Table 1). Because parasite transmission takes place primarily during the warm summer months [as evidenced by infections in hatch-year birds in late summer (38, 40, 43)], haemosporidian parasites probably are buffered against variation in climate (average summer temperatures varied between 19.9 and 26.9 °C across our sampling locations). Although we do not know the extent to which the populations of the parasites’ dipteran vectors track hosts, in at least one location in the region (Chicago, IL), parasite–host associations were unrelated to vector–host encounter rates (23). Nevertheless, more studies are needed to identify vectors and reveal their contribution to host–parasite associations. Indeed, vector movement has been linked to pathogen spread in other systems (42), and such movement, along with changes in vector–host associations (43), might facilitate parasite host-switching and dispersal. Interestingly, regional studies of ectoparasites of small mammals have shown that flea assemblages can differ more with increasing distance between sampling locations and with increasing differences between local habitat and climate characteristics, even on the same host species (44, 45), perhaps because fleas are more exposed to the environment than haemosporidian parasites. Similar distance–decay relationships have been observed in trophically transmitted helminth parasites of both mammals and fishes as well (46). Thus, mode of transmission might play an important role in structuring regional parasite assemblages. Distributions of parasite populations across the region also were characterized by localized host-switching and by geographic parasite turnover within host populations. Our best sampled host, C. cardinalis, supported statistically differentiated parasite assemblages at each of four sampling locations within a single year (Fig. 4). For example, parasite lineages LA22 and NA04 replaced each other as the most common parasites of C. cardinalis in Louisiana and Mississippi, respectively, although both lineages infect C. cardinalis in both locations. This finding raises the possibility that parasite distributions may be influenced by localized adaptations of hosts and parasites to each other across the region (47). Furthermore, parasite host-breadth can vary across time and space (Fig. 3), even when controlling for the local diversity of potential hosts and parasites, indicating the --- Table 2. Results of G tests comparing the prevalence of each well-sampled parasite of the host C. cardinalis in 2013 across sampling locations \| Statistic \| LA22 \| NA04 \| OZ01 \| OZ03 \| OZ14 \| \|-----------\|--------\|--------\|--------\|--------\|--------\| \| $G_{(df = 3)}$ \| 53.73 \| 58.72 \| 8.46 \| 67.1 \| 6.82 \| \| $P$ \| <0.001 \| <0.001 \| 0.037 \| <0.001 \| 0.078 \| Prevalence data are shown graphically in Fig. 4. importance of host-switching in determining parasite distributions across the region. Finally, although theoretical (48) and empirical (49) studies suggest that parasites may often limit host population size, the distributions of correlations between host and parasite populations across the region did not differ from random, suggesting that haemosporidian parasites do not impact the population densities of their hosts in eastern North America. Our analyses suggest that populations of haemosporidian parasites are largely structured by populations of their hosts, although parasite lineages change between nearby localities within host species distributions and over short intervals within localities. Materials and Methods Field Methods. We captured birds with mist-nets at 13 locations across eastern North America (Fig. 1) during summer months (primarily late May to August, with minimal sampling in April and September; removal of April and September samples did not qualitatively change results) from 1999 to 2014 (SI Appendix, Table S2). We took a small (approximately 10-μL) blood sample from the brachial vein of each bird and stored the blood in Puregene or Longmire’s (50) lysis buffer. We collected all samples under appropriate state and federal permits and Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC) protocols. Laboratory Methods. We extracted DNA from blood samples using an ammonium acetate-isopropanol precipitation protocol (51). We screened DNA samples for haemosporidian parasites using a PCR protocol designed to amplify a small section of parasite mitochondrial DNA (52). We then amplified a portion of the cytochrome b gene in positive samples using several primer pairs and protocols (15, 40, 53, 54). We identified unique parasite lineages based on their cytochrome b sequences and on their host and geographic distributions (55, 56). Multiple infections were separated by phasing (57) where possible. GenBank Accession numbers for all lineages can be found in SI Appendix, Table S1. Statistical Analysis. All analyses were performed in R v3.1.2 (58), and we report two-tailed P values for all tests. We calculated Bray–Curtis dissimilarities between locations with the “vegdist” function in the vegan package (59). Bray–Curtis dissimilarity between two sampling locations (1, 2) is calculated by \[ D = \frac{\sum_{j=1}^{p} \|y_{1j} - y_{2j}\|}{\sum_{j=1}^{p} (y_{1j} + y_{2j})}, \] where y represents the number (or frequency) of individuals sampled of species j, and p represents the total number of species sampled over both locations (34). We created a geographic distance matrix between locations with the “rdist.earth” function in the fields package (60) in R. We compared distance matrices with Mantel and partial Mantel tests using functions “mantel” and “mantel.partial” (method = “spearman”) in the vegan package. Mantel statistics were tested for significance by permutation (9,999 trials) according to ref. 34. Mantel tests have been criticized for lack of power, but they are appropriate when hypotheses can be formulated in terms of distances, as is the case here (61). We tested for a departure from unimodality in the frequency of host breadth values using Hartigan’s dip test (39) with the function “dip.test” in the dipptest package (62) in R. Linear mixed effects models were run with the lme4 R package (63), and denominator degrees of freedom for F tests were calculated using the “Kenward–Roger” approach (64) implemented in the lmerTest (65) and pbkrtest (66) packages in R. Host Abundance. Our mist-net effort varied across locations and years and therefore provided unreliable estimates of avian abundance. To estimate avian abundance, we downloaded route data from the North American Breeding Bird Survey ([https://www.pwrc.usgs.gov/bbs](https://www.pwrc.usgs.gov/bbs)). We selected routes deemed acceptable by the survey organizers (i.e., routes that met all survey requirements in a particular year) located within 80 km of our sampling locations, and we used route data corresponding to the year each location was sampled, plus 1 y before and 1 y after our sample was taken. For example, Chicago, IL, was sampled in 2006 and 2007, so we used route data from 2005 to 2008 within the 80-km buffer (for the locations sampled in 2014, we used route data from years 2013 and 2014). We then averaged bird species abundances across routes and across years for each sampling location. We used these spatial and temporal buffers to account for potential variability in abundance estimates attributable to environmental heterogeneity within routes (67) and observer error (68), but our results did not change qualitatively with changes in the sizes of these buffers. Parasite Host-Breadth. We calculated host-breadth for each parasite lineage using Rao’s QE (37) defined by the formula \[ QE = \frac{1}{2} \sum_{i,j}^{S} t_{ij} p_i p_j, \] where t<sub>ij</sub> is a matrix of phylogenetic distances between host species i and j observed to be infected by a given parasite lineage (divided by two to obtain average phylogenetic distance), p<sub>i</sub> is the proportion of infections by the parasite in host species i (i.e., the number of individuals of host species i infected by the parasite divided by the total number of individuals infected by that parasite), p<sub>j</sub> is the proportion of infections by the parasite in host species j, and S is the total number of host species. Our parasite host-breadth score varies from zero (complete host specialization) to \[ QE = \frac{1}{2} \sum_{i,j}^{S} t_{ij} S^{-2}, \] which represents a maximally generalized parasite (i.e., a parasite that infects all hosts in the community equally; however, an alternative might be that a perfect generalist would infect all hosts in direct proportion to host abundance) and is equivalent to a phylogenetically weighted Gini–Simpson diversity index. We calculated Rao’s QE using the “raoD” function in the picante package (69) in R and report the “Dkk” value the function produces. We used the phylogeny of Jetz et al. (70) to estimate phylogenetic relationships between bird species. Based on parasites sampled at least 10 times over the community sampling locations, we showed a strong relationship between Rao’s QE and the Gini–Simpson index applied to parasite host-breadth (SI Appendix, Fig. S4). Because of the apparent effect of host phylogeny, we used Rao’s QE as a metric of parasite host-breadth for all analyses. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. We thank Brandt Ryder, Pete Marra, Keegan Tranquillo, Peter Pyle, and the Indiana Monitoring Avian Productivity and Survivorship (MAPS) teams for assistance collecting Indiana samples; Alicia Burke for assistance collecting Ozarks samples; field biologist Brenda Keith and the Kalamazoo Valley Bird Observatory/Kalamazoo Nature Center for collecting Michigan samples; the Connecticut Audubon Society for samples from their banding station; Steve Latta for Alabama parasite sequences; Woody Walstrom and Diana Outlaw for Mississippi samples; and Emma Levenson and Kathleen Riley for assistance collecting Louisiana samples. Our work would not have been possible without the help of local government and conservation agencies. We also thank the thousands of volunteers and organizers of the Breeding Bird Survey. 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Kennedy's facilities and engineering skills are devoted to serving the electronics trade in the development, design, manufacture and installation of all types of antenna systems. KENNEDY WAVE GUIDE COMPONENTS... achieve highest transmitted power, lowest standing wave ratio, trouble-free operation. - Complete feed systems—designed and installed - Dual and linear polarization horns - Transitions - Duplexers - Straight sections and bends - Complete hardware For more complete information, send for your free copy of the handy file-size Kennedy Antenna Equipment folder. ANTENNA EQUIPMENT D. S. KENNEDY & CO. COHASSET, MASS. Evergreen 3-1200 West Coast Affiliate . . . SATELLITE-KENNEDY, INC. of CALIFORNIA P.O. Box 1711, Monterey, California - FRontier 3-2461 SHOPTALK... SOVIET ELECTRONICS. A little more than a year ago, the Soviet government put the full weight of a monolithic state behind its drive to build up the electronics industry in the Soviet Union. Since then noteworthy progress has been made, not only in the Soviet Union but also in Iron Curtain countries such as Red China, Hungary and Czechoslovakia. Since late 1956, Associate Editor Janis, ably assisted by McGraw-Hill World News bureau chiefs overseas, has scanned every scrap of information available on Soviet electronics. Last month, two developments put Soviet electronics even more in the news: launching of the Red moon rocket Lunik and the U.S. visit of Soviet First Deputy Premier Mikoyan. First details on Lunik came from Moscow Bureau Chief Gibson, who relayed the Soviet government's 5,000-word communique on the rocket's "technical details" ("Soviets Give Data on Sun Satellite" p 66, Jan. 30). A lot of questions remained unanswered. Then came a cabled query from Bonn Bureau Chief Herlitzer. Would ELECTRONICS be interested in the full technical story on Lunik's guidance, instrumentation and control? Of course we were interested and off went an okay to Herlitzer, plus our check for his confidential source. There are still some unanswered questions but you will know a lot more about Soviet missile guidance after reading our exclusive story "How Russia Guided Lunik" on p 22. Out of First Deputy Premier Mikoyan's visit comes some idea of what electronic equipment and components the Soviet Union would like to ship to the U.S. and what they want in return. Associate Editor Manoogian attended a reception for Mikoyan in Washington. There he had a very exclusive interview with the FDP—Manoogian and Mikoyan spoke to each other in Armenian. Manoogian later got details by checking with other high Soviet officials. End product is the story "Soviets Reveal Trade Aims" on p 30. Coming In Our February 13 Issue... INDUCTION HEATING. Use of hydrogen thyratrons as rapid switching elements in induction heating equipment has many advantages, according to H. L. Van Der Horst of N. V. Philips of Eindhoven, Netherlands. In thyratrons, heavy current can flow with low anode voltage; efficiency is high, so forced cooling is not required. Short ionization and deionization times permit oscillation at frequencies up to 10 kc. Van Der Horst describes a heating generator that develops 12 kw in the workpiece using this type of tube. WAVEFORM DETECTOR. Automatic waveform detection applied to the high-speed testing of ferrite cores, transistors, transformers or other components not only eliminates inherent disadvantages of other methods, but also achieves greater sorting speed and accuracy. IBM's B. Agusta describes an automatic waveform detection system in which the amplitude of a sampling trigger pulse is compared with combined amplitudes of trigger pulse and unknown waveform at sample time. KLYSTRON CONTROL. Close frequency control in reflex klystrons is a common, yet frequently touchy problem. M. C. Harp of Lenkurt Electric in San Carlos, Calif., has devised a control method using magnetic amplifiers and transistors for a 6-mc microwave link handling up to 240 voice channels. ONLY RAYTHEON OFFERS BOTH SILICON TRANSISTORS PNP NPN for COMPLEMENTARY CIRCUITS because characteristics are so similar as to permit full and confident use Specify RAYTHEON and get these significant advantages: - Higher, more constant beta - Lower saturation voltage - Low noise type available in both PNP and NPN - Made by the Raytheon reliable fusion alloy process which assures more constant characteristics over the entire temperature range FOR LARGE SIGNAL APPLICATIONS Temperature Range -65°C to +160°C \| Type \| $I_{CBO}$ or $I_{CEO}$ at $V_{CE} = 20$ Vdc \| $V_{CE}$ max. volts \| $h_{FE}$ ave. \| $r_{b'}$ f = 1Mc ohms \| $r_e$ kilohms \| Noise Figure db (max.) \| $f_{\text{cutoff}}$ f = 100Kc ave. $\mu$s \| $f_{\text{ab}}$ ave. Kc \| \|----------\|---------------------------------------------\|---------------------\|---------------\|------------------------\|--------------\|------------------------\|---------------------------------------------\|----------------------\| \| 2N327A \| 0.005 \| -40 \| 15 \| 1200 \| 500 \| 30 \| 65 \| 200 \| \| 2N328A \| 0.005 \| -35 \| 30 \| 1400 \| 500 \| 30 \| 65 \| 300 \| \| 2N329A \| 0.005 \| -30 \| 60 \| 1500 \| 500 \| 30 \| 65 \| 400 \| \| 2N330A \| 0.005 \| -30 \| 25 \| 1300 \| 500 \| 15 \| 65 \| 250 \| \| 2N619 \| 0.005 \| 50 \| 15 \| 2000 \| 500 \| 30 \| 35 \| 200 \| \| 2N620 \| 0.005 \| 40 \| 30 \| 2500 \| 500 \| 30 \| 35 \| 350 \| \| 2N621 \| 0.005 \| 30 \| 60 \| 2700 \| 500 \| 30 \| 35 \| 500 \| \| 2N622 \| 0.005 \| 30 \| 25 \| 2400 \| 500 \| 15 \| 35 \| 300 \| For PNP, $I_B = -0.1mA; V_{CE} = -0.5V$; for NPN, $I_B = 0.5mA; V_{CE} = 1.5V$ FOR SMALL SIGNAL APPLICATIONS Temperature Range -65°C to +160°C \| Type \| $I_{CBO}$ or $I_{CEO}$ at $V_{CE} = 20$ Vdc \| $V_{CE}$ max. volts \| $h_{FE}$ ave. \| $h_{\beta'}$ max. ohms \| $h_{\alpha'}$ max. $\mu$mhos \| Noise Figure db \| $f_{\text{cutoff}}$ f = 100Kc ave. $\mu$s \| $f_{\text{ab}}$ ave. Kc \| \|----------\|---------------------------------------------\|---------------------\|---------------\|------------------------\|-----------------------------\|----------------\|---------------------------------------------\|----------------------\| \| 2N1034 \| 0.005 \| -40 \| 15 \| 3000 \| 70 \| 30 \| 65 \| 200 \| \| 2N1035 \| 0.005 \| -35 \| 30 \| 3000 \| 85 \| 30 \| 65 \| 300 \| \| 2N1036 \| 0.005 \| -30 \| 60 \| 3000 \| 100 \| 30 \| 65 \| 400 \| \| 2N1037 \| 0.005 \| -35 \| 30 \| 3000 \| 85 \| 15 \| 65 \| 250 \| \| 2N1074 \| 0.005 \| 50 \| 15 \| 3500 \| 70 \| 30 \| 35 \| 200 \| \| 2N1075 \| 0.005 \| 40 \| 30 \| 3500 \| 85 \| 30 \| 35 \| 350 \| \| 2N1076 \| 0.005 \| 30 \| 60 \| 3500 \| 100 \| 30 \| 35 \| 500 \| \| 2N1077 \| 0.005 \| 30 \| 25 \| 3500 \| 85 \| 15 \| 35 \| 300 \| V_C = 5V; I_E = 3mA* SEMICONDUCTOR DIVISION RAYTHEON MANUFACTURING CO. SILICON AND GERMANIUM DIODES AND TRANSISTORS New York, Plaza 9-3900 • Boston, Hillcrest 4-6700 • Baltimore, Southfield 1-1237 • Chicago, NAational 5-4000 • Cleveland, Winton 1-7005 • Kansas City, Plaza 3-5330 SILICON RECTIFIERS Washington, D. C., REpublic 7-6565 • Los Angeles, Normandy 5-4221 ELECTRONICS — February 6, 1959 multiply—add—subtract—fast—with this versatile, double register machine—speed up all percentage, invoice, job cost and payroll calculations with the machine that stores all the products and totals until the operation is completed—then provides a grand total— "addo-x" stands for a family of versatile, time-proven adding and calculating machines —backed by nation-wide service facilities—lifetime guarantee repair parts availability see your dealer for on-your-job proof or write: "addo-x" 300 Park Avenue, New York 22, NY MULTIVERTER CONVERTS "BEEP" TO NUMERAL The MULTIVERTER is the first solid state, high-speed digital ↔ analog conversion system accurate to .01%. It is also the first converter to solve various complicated arithmetic problems, including square root, during the process of conversion. A typical MULTIVERTER application is its use in converting analog data received from the orbiting "Explorer." Information telemetered from the satellite and recorded on magnetic tape is converted to numbers by the MULTIVERTER and fed into a digital computer. The result: usable and accurate new knowledge of outer space. ENGINEERING BEYOND THE EXPECTED The need for highly accurate measurement in an accelerating technology called for a solid state converter with an accuracy of .01% and a speed of four microseconds per bit. The MULTIVERTER and related accessories resulted. One immediate application has been the interconnection of Packard Bell's TRICE, the first incremental differential analyzer to operate in real time, with various analog systems. Other applications include Missile Impact Prediction, Coordinate Conversion, Orbit Prediction and Solid State Automatic Checkout Systems. Packard Bell Computer Corp., a subsidiary of PACKARD BELL ELECTRONICS 12333 W. Olympic Blvd., Los Angeles 64, Calif., BR 2-2171 One-million unit-hours without failure G-E 2N43A LIFE-TEST DATA OBTAINED AT 1000-HOUR POINTS. Upper chart shows results of 100°C storage test (25°C storage test not shown). Lower chart shows results of 200 mw operating test. Broken lines in each chart indicate $h_{\text{th}}$. Solid lines indicate $I_{\text{CO}}$ in microamperes. After 1000 hours of testing, there were no failures. The 2N43A transistor's high standard of quality is inherent in all G-E germanium PNP audio and switching transistors. Dick Welch (left), Transistor Evaluation Engineering, and Lee Leipweber, Transistor Production Engineering, take readings at cycled-life-test rack. In addition to electrical testing, G-E 2N43A transistors are subjected to all mechanical-test requirements specified in MIL-T-19500/18. 20% Safety Factor for silicon rectifiers aids designers Designers who now apply their own safety factor to the published peak inverse voltage rating may avoid this step by using G-E low-current silicon rectifiers. General Electric's PIV figures are set by allowing a 20% safety margin at $-65^\circ C$. This margin is applied at the point of sharp breakdown voltage and increases with temperature until a maximum safety factor of 33% is reached at 150°C. If you are derating published PIV figures to provide overvoltage protection, you may be buying costlier cells than you need, or, in series applications, more cells than necessary. Thus the built-in safety margin of G-E low-current silicon rectifiers could save you money. Note: This safety factor is provided for over-voltage protection only. Designs should, in all cases, be maintained within published maximum ratings. This is only one reason why you should consider G-E low-current silicon rectifiers for all your power requirements. You'll find these devices more attractive to use than ever before—both in quality and price—with equally fine values in low-current silicon stacks. Stud-mounted units are also available. Ask your G-E semiconductor representative for the "big news" on low-current silicon rectifiers. Maximum Ratings and Specifications \| Series \| PIV \| RMS Voltage \| Cent Reverse D-C Volt \| D-C Output (150°C Amb.) \| D-C Output (125°C Amb.) \| Ambient Operating Temp \| \|-----------------\|-------\|-------------\|-----------------------\|-------------------------\|-------------------------\|------------------------\| \| 1N5336-80, \| 50-600\| 35-420 \| 50-600 \| 250 \| 750 \| 165 \| \| 1N1095-96 series\| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| 1N6440B series \| 100-600\| 70-420 \| 100-600 \| 300-500 (100°C) \| 300-750 \| 150-165 \| \| 1N1483-92 series\| 100-600\| 70-420 \| 100-600 \| 250 (125°C) \| 750 (125°C) \| 140 \| \| 1N1482-95 series\| 100-400\| 70-280 \| 100-400 \| 250 (100°C) \| 600 (150°C) \| 115 \| CIRCLE 5 READERS SERVICE CARD February 6, 1959 - ELECTRONICS for General Electric audio transistors General Electric's 1958 process and quality-control advances were reflected in recent life-test results exhibited by G.E.'s line of germanium PNP audio transistors. Random samples of Type-2N43A transistors were subjected to rigorous mechanical testing... drop-shock, detergent-bomb, lead-fatigue (i.e., all the MIL-T-19500/18 mechanical test requirements). Then a total of 1050 Type 2N43A transistors were put on Life Test, with the following results: 350 (10 lots, 35 units each) were given a 100°C storage test for 1000 hours. No failures. 350 (10 lots, 35 units each) were given a 25°C storage test for 1000 hours. No failures. 350 (10 lots, 35 units each) were given a 200 mw cycled-life test for 1000 hours. No failures. Engineering test data indicate that, without exception, parameters remained stable (see curves at left). The G-E 2N43A transistor is representative of the outstanding quality built into General Electric's entire line of germanium PNP audio and switching transistors. ### Ratings: Audio and Low-Frequency Switching Transistors \| Parameter \| 2N43 \| 2N43A \| 2N44 \| 2N44A \| 2N1056 \| 2N1057 \| \|------------------------------------------------\|--------\|--------\|--------\|--------\|--------\|--------\| \| Collector-to-base Voltage (25°C) \| V<sub>CB</sub> \| -45 \| -45 \| -45 \| -40 \| -45 \| \| Collector-to-emitter V. (25°C) \| V<sub>Ce</sub> \| -30 \| -30 \| -30 \| -75 \| -45 \| \| Total Dissipation (25°C) \| P<sub>C</sub> \| 240 \| 240 \| 240 \| 240 \| 240 \| \| Forward D-c Current Gain, Collector Emitter I<sub>C</sub>/I<sub>E</sub> \| h<sub>FE</sub> \| 53 \| 53 \| 31 \| 31 \| 32 \| \| Collector Cutoff Current (V<sub>CEQ</sub>= -45v; I<sub>C</sub>= 0) \| I<sub>CO</sub> \| -8 \| -8 \| -8 \| -8 \| -18 \| NOTE: All figures represent design-center ratings. High frequency transistors modified for higher Beta Recent design improvements in high frequency switching transistors (Types 2N123 and 2N450) have improved their d-c beta at higher collector currents. The result is higher gain and improved saturation characteristics at these high currents. Refinements in quality control tests have also been put into practice on the production line. These units are affected: Types 2N123, 2N450 and the 2N396 series. Units are aged at 100°C for 96 hours to stabilize characteristics. All transistors are subjected to a high-pressure detergent test for hermetic sealing. D-C characteristics are warranted to be within the limits shown on specification sheets. As a result, these transistors are now widely accepted in missile computer work and other rigorous applications. Guaranteed current gains of 12, 10 and 8 db minimum at 100 mc with new TI 2N1141, 2N1142 and 2N1143 diffused-base "mesa" germanium transistors! Alpha cutoff ratings up to 750 mc coupled with 750 mW power dissipation at 25°C case temperature make these newest TI transistors ideal for military VHF power oscillators and amplifiers where assured reliability and performance are of primary importance. All units are 100% production stabilized at temperatures well above their 100°C rated junction operating point...far exceed MIL-T-19500A specifications...and are in stock now. Contact your nearest TI sales office or nearby TI distributor today...for immediate delivery. Dissipation Derating Curve - Infinite Heat Sink \| Case Temperature (°C) \| Total Device Dissipation (mW) \| \|-----------------------\|-------------------------------\| \| 0 \| 800 \| \| 10 \| 700 \| \| 20 \| 600 \| \| 30 \| 500 \| \| 40 \| 400 \| \| 50 \| 300 \| \| 60 \| 200 \| \| 70 \| 100 \| \| 80 \| 0 \| \| 90 \| \| \| 100 \| \| Absolute Maximum Ratings @ 25°C Case Temperature \| Parameter \| 2N1141 \| 2N1142 \| 2N1143 \| \|------------------------------------------------\|--------\|--------\|--------\| \| Collector Voltage Referred to Base \| -35 \| -30 \| -25 \| \| Emitter Voltage Referred to Base \| -1 \| 0 \| -0.5 \| \| Collector Current \| -100 \| -100 \| -100 \| \| Emitter Current \| 100 \| 100 \| 100 \| \| Device Dissipation (infinite heat sink) \| 750 \| 750 \| 750 \| \| Collector Junction Temperature \| +100 \| +100 \| +100 \| \| Storage Temperature Range \| -65 to +100 \| -65 to +100 \| -65 to +100 \| \| Thermal Resistance Junction to Mounting Base \| 0.1 \| 0.1 \| 0.1 \| Typical Characteristics @ 25°C Case Temperature \| Parameter \| Value \| \|------------------------------------------------\|--------\| \| Frequency Cutoff (Common Base) \| 750 \| \| Collector Reverse Current, $V_{CB} = -15V$, $I_C = 0$ \| 1 \| \| Saturation Voltage, $I_C = -70mA$, $I_B = 17.5mA$ \| 2 \| \| Small Signal Short Circuit Forward Current Transfer Ratio, $V_{CB} = -10V$, $I_C = -10mA$, $f = 1000cps$ \| 0.97 \| TEXAS INSTRUMENTS SALES OFFICES DALLAS • NEW YORK • CHICAGO • LOS ANGELES BOSTON • DAYTON • DENVER • DETROIT • GARDEN CITY, L. I. OTTAWA • PHILADELPHIA • ST PAUL • SAN DIEGO SAN FRANCISCO • SEATTLE • SYRACUSE • WASHINGTON, D. C. TEXAS INSTRUMENTS INCORPORATED SEMICONDUCTOR COMPONENTS DIVISION 13500 N. CENTRAL EXPRESSWAY POST OFFICE BOX 312 • DALLAS, TEXAS February 6, 1959 — ELECTRONICS BEFORE LUNIK WAS LAUNCHED Jan. 2, the Soviets fired a number of test mockups consisting of operational first stage and dummy second and third stages. McGraw-Hill World News learned that this was to gain data on control and resistance built up as the vehicle passed through the earth's atmosphere. During tests an unknown number of liquid-fueled, 484,000-pound-thrust engines burned out on launching pad. With regard to possible unsuccessful Soviet lunar shots, observers cite two points: (1) 25-mile apogee of mockup trajectory for stage testing is believed too low to have been picked up by American radar picket fence in Turkey; (2) Hawaiian tracking stations, which picked up Lunik signals before Soviet announcement, would probably have picked up previous probes if they reached the same point, but then failed to orbit (see p 22). Transistorized ignition system is being ordered by Detroit Arsenal from the Electric Auto-Lite Co., Toledo, Ohio. Orders cover prototype sets that meet particular military specifications. NEW ATLAS GUIDANCE CONTRACTS totaling $110 million were received last week by GE, confirming earlier letter contracts. Three new contracts, for additional R&D as well as production of radio command guidance systems, bring GE's contract total for Atlas guidance to $193 million. The equipment will go to Vandenberg AFB, Calif., Warren AFB, Wyo., and Offutt AFB, Neb. SALES of electronic products for business and industry are expected to rise by 27 percent this year over factory sales of $1.4 billion in 1958. So says RCA President John L. Burns. He adds that in data-processing systems alone a rise of more than 70 percent to about $600 million is anticipated. Meanwhile, says Burns, "industry sales of defense electronic products in 1959 can be expected to rise by at least 14 percent over last year's $3.6 billion." FIVE NATO NATIONS may spend as much as $500 million in building the Army-Raytheon low-altitude Hawk air defense missile. European firms involved are: Ateliers de Construction Electrique de Charleroi, Belgium; Telefunken, West Germany; Finmeccanica, Italy; Philips, Holland; Thomson-Houston, France. T-H is expected to be chief coordinator, but each firm will be prime contractor in its own country. Holding company set up by the five firms will retain Hawk license rights. AIRLINES of Europe and North America are studying means of speeding reservations messages automatically over linked teletypewriter systems. That, says International Air Transport Association, is one goal of an airlines committee. Second, long range phase of effort is integration of electronic data-processing systems into proposed interline reservations process. First step towards this is survey of data-processing equipment now in use or planned for the near future. Missile measurement ship, the S. S. American Mariner, has been put into service tracking ballistic missiles and checking their performance on the Atlantic Missile Range. RCA was systems contractor for ship's electronic gear. THERMO GENERATOR'S FUTURE lies in increasing efficiency of present power plants, not in replacing them, says Mark W. Cresap, Jr., Westinghouse president. Thermoelectricity has been getting "frantic attention" since semiconductor breakthrough, he reports. Also foreseen: appliances, such as bottle warmers and electric blankets, that will both heat and cool. NEW AIRBORNE EARLY WARNING RADAR system is being produced for the Air Force by Hazeltine Corp. under contracts totaling about $15 million. Equipment is said to increase protection from surprise attack. Soviet post-mortem conference on why Lunik failed to hit the moon reportedly gave greater weight to relative crudeness of third-stage cut-off mechanism than to influence of magnetic fields. INTERNATIONAL CONVENTION on transistors and associated semiconductor devices, sponsored by Britain's Institution of Electrical Engineers, will be held May 21 to 27, a few days earlier than previously announced. Exhibition will be open during convention period. JAPANESE ELECTRONICS industry reported production valued at $333 million for the first nine months of 1958, 24 percent above the comparable 1957 period. Information comes from a study prepared for the Commerce Department's electronics division by the U. S. embassy in Tokyo. Exports worth $26 million in the nine months ran about one-third more than for all of 1957. BRITISH RADIO EQUIPMENT exports rose to $126 million last year, $4.5 million more than in 1957. Largest hikes were in sales of tubes and sound reproducing gear while components and capital goods exports fell slightly, reports Radio Industry Council of Britain. Council's breakdown of export customers for first nine months of '58 shows U. S. bought about $11.5 million worth of British radio goods. WASHINGTON OUTLOOK ODDS ARE AGAINST passage of Sen. Saltonstall's new bill to revamp military procurement policy. It faces stiff opposition from House Armed Services Committee Democrats and small business supporters. The Saltonstall bill provides for: (1) Increased use of negotiated, fixed-price contracts with special incentives for production cost reductions. (2) Wider application of the weapon system management concept under which increased authority is granted to prime contractors. (3) Other procurement short cuts. The bill would allow the military greater latitude to award negotiated—as opposed to advertised—contracts. Under present laws, military award of negotiated contracts involves considerable red tape. Advertised procurement is considered the general rule; negotiated procurement is allowed only under specific exemptions to the law which the Pentagon must justify in detail before signing contracts. For the most part, defense producer spokesmen are backing the bill. But small business advocates are suspicious of the measure's stress on weapon system management. Under this system, control over weapon development is centralized in one prime contractor—with a minimum of government interference. The prime has responsibility for the design and production of an entire missile or plane and all its components. He builds some of this himself, farms out the remainder to subcontractors, assembles the product, even directs crew training and supervises installation and maintenance. The scheme was devised as a means of simplifying and speeding development of complex new weapons. - A broader scope on challenges to renewals of radio and television station licenses is shaping up. It appears, after a round of court actions, that the Federal Communications Commission must allow nonbroadcasters who compete with a broadcaster (or its parent) in another business to challenge renewals. Last June, the Court of Appeals in the District of Columbia reversed FCC's position that the Philco Corp.—as a nonbroadcaster—had no standing to challenge the renewals of NBC's Philadelphia radio and TV station licenses. Now, the U.S. Supreme Court has refused to review the Court of Appeals decision. FCC must now consider Philco's protest to the NBC renewals, specifically, that RCA-NBC antitrust troubles should disqualify NBC as a station operator. - New electronic developments are expected to play a key part in the military's push for a global communications network using space satellites. Dubbed Project Courier, three such communications experiment shoots are scheduled for 1960, with four more set for 1961. Early versions of the satellites are supposed to be able to receive and transmit messages at the rate of 2,000 words per minute. The Advanced Research Project Agency is in charge now but the new National Aeronautics and Space Administration will eventually take over. Concerning Radiation Theories in Interplanetary Space Aptly called Pioneer, the terminal stage of Able-One's space probe reached into the fringes of the universe to telemeter data that will help solve the problems of interplanetary travel. Pioneer successfully carried 39.6 pounds of Space Technology Laboratories' developed instrumentation for the gathering and transmission of data. The ion chamber and associated equipment provided information concerning the radiation intensity in space. This experiment was carried on in connection with the Department of Physics, State University of Iowa. In conjunction with the U. S. Air Force Ballistic Missile Division, and under the sponsorship of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, STL's explorations and developments in seeking energy spectra of the radiation belt are continuing at an accelerated pace. Increased knowledge in the fields of interplanetary magnetism and the distribution of interplanetary matter are being sought. Related fields of astrophysics provide additional areas in which advanced experimentation may be expected to add substantially to man's knowledge of the universe. These programs at STL open a whole new vista in analytical and experimental areas for the advanced technical person whose interests and experience qualify him for work in the following fields: electrodynamics, nuclear physics, communication theory, and the design and execution of physical experiments in interplanetary space. Inquiries are invited. Space Technology Laboratories, Inc. P. O. Box 95001, Los Angeles 45, California Telephone: Osborne 5-4677 NORTH RVF ROTARY SWITCH GIVES YOU GREATER APPLICATION FLEXIBILITY 30 INPUTS AND 30 OUTPUTS PER LEVEL give you a flexibility in circuit approach unmatched by any other stepping switch! For application to programming, sequence control, routining, impulse counting, tallying, or as a memory device, the completely dust enclosed North RVF Switch is the most versatile, flexible, reliable Stepping Switch on the market! INDUSTRIAL DIVISION NORTH ELECTRIC COMPANY 492 SOUTH MARKET STREET • GALION, OHIO Available in Canada through Ericsson Telephone Sales of Canada, Ltd., Montreal 8, P. Q. For circuit applications requiring up to 30 points per level, the switch is provided in 2, 4 or 6 levels with single rotor. For circuit applications requiring up to 12 levels with 15 points per level, the switch is furnished with a dual rotor. Bank contact ratings: 1 amp at rest; .2 amp. resistive when stepping. Off normal contact ratings .4 amp. resistive. Switch may be driven self-stepping or externally. Gold plated bank contacts and wipers are available for low level switching. Available with 12, 24, 48, 110 V. D.C. coils. Built-in spark suppression on 24 and 48 volt switches. Mounting dimensions: 1.968"x3.661" O.C. Overall height: 4¾" height above mounting, 3½" (max. dimensions for 6 level switch). Weight: 1.32 lbs. New Names Hit 'Big Boards' LISTING of Ampex Corp. stock on the New York and Pacific Coast Stock Exchanges last week may point the way to increase in electronics firms on the "big boards" of U.S. securities markets. An official of NYSE told ELECTRONICS that a check of records back to mid-1957 shows that the number of electronics listings has grown steadily. During the past 19 months, the New York mart's rolls have been increased by eight firms which derive all or part of their income from electronics. A spokesman for the American Stock Exchange told ELECTRONICS that seven electronics firms have obtained listings there in the same time period. In order to qualify for listing on the New York exchange, a firm must meet the following requirements: - It must be one in which there is nationwide interest. - It must have issued at least 400,000 shares of stock which are owned by at least 1,500 investors. - It must have demonstrated earning power of at least $1 million annually in its recent past. - It must agree to publish quarterly financial statements publicly. - Stock must have voting privilege. Stocks listed on the major exchanges generally find a broader market than those sold over the counter. Some market observers say this is because many investors, such as institutions, mutual fund groups and endowment funds, do not buy securities not listed on the big boards. In some cases, such groups are prevented by law or policy from purchasing over-the-counter stocks. Also, listings are more widely published for main exchange stocks. In addition to Ampex Corp., other newcomers mentioned by officials of the New York Stock Exchange for the period from July 1957 to the present are: Allied Products Corp., Detroit; Bausch & Lomb Optical Co., Rochester, N.Y.; Champion Sparkplug, Detroit; Gladding McBean & Co., Los Angeles; Litton Industries, Beverly Hills, Calif.; Siegler Corp., New York; and Thiokol Chemical Corp., Trenton, N.J. New electronics listings on the American Stock Exchange for the same period were reported as follows: General Transistor Corp., New York; Herold Radio & Electronics Corp., New York; Jetronic Industries Inc., Philadelphia; Philips Electronics, Inc., New York; Stratham Instruments Inc., Los Angeles; Teleprompter Corp., New York; and Victoreen Instrument Co., Cleveland. \| WEEK ENDING \| COMMON STOCKS \| JAN. 16 \| JAN. 23 \| \|-------------\|---------------\|---------\|---------\| \| 1958 BIDS \| LOW HIGH \| BID \| BID ASKED \| \| 3/4a 20/4a \| Acoustica Assocs \| 19 \| 20 \| 23 \| \| 3/4a 6/4a \| Allied Indus \| 27/4 \| 3/4a \| 4/4a \| \| 3/4a 6/4a \| Aerosol Corp \| 1/2 \| 6/4 \| 8/4n \| \| 20/4a 33 \| Am Res & Dev \| 37/4 \| 37/4 \| 39/4 \| \| 15/4a 24/4a \| AMP Inc \| 22 \| 23/4a \| 25/4 \| \| 3/4a 15 \| Ameri Sci Princet \| 11 \| 9/4a \| 11/4n \| \| 1/4a 8/4a \| Avien, Inc \| 6 \| 10/4 \| 12/4 \| \| 6/4a 24 \| Baird-Atomic \| 27/2 \| 26/4 \| 30/4a \| \| 1/4a 13/4a \| Bell Labs \| 14/4n \| 14/4n \| 15/4n \| \| 6/4a 8 \| Cahn Electronics \| 6/4 \| 7/4 \| 8/4 \| \| 11 22/4 \| Collins Radio, A \| 21/4 \| 25/4 \| 27/4a \| \| 10/4a 22/4 \| Collins Radio, B \| 22/4 \| 25/4 \| 27/2a \| \| 4 6 \| Crank Radio \| 6/4 \| 7/4 \| 8/4 \| \| 30 50/4a \| Dictaphone \| 48/4 \| 48 \| 52/4 \| \| 17/4a 25/4a \| Eastern Industries \| 20 \| 20/4 \| 22/4a \| \| 30 40/4a \| Electron Ind \| 22/2 \| 26/4 \| 28/4 \| \| 34 49 \| Electronic Assocs \| 61 \| 57 \| 63/4 \| \| 5 11 \| Electronic Resrch \| 12 \| 12/4 \| 14/4 \| \| 6 12/4 \| Electronic Spec Co \| 14 \| 14/4 \| 15/4 \| \| 19/4a 49/4a \| Epsom Inc \| 1/4 \| 1/4 \| 1/4 \| \| 5/4a 9/4a \| Erie Resistor \| 8/4 \| 10/4 \| 12/4a \| \| 17/4a 17/4a \| Fischer & Porter \| 16/4 \| 16/4 \| 18/4 \| \| 3/4a 5/4a \| Gilsonite \| 48 \| 49/4 \| 54/4 \| \| 5/4a 10/4a \| G-L Electronics \| 10 \| 11/4 \| 13/4a \| \| 17/4a 27/4a \| Giant Electronics \| 29/4 \| 31/4 \| 37/4a \| \| 30 39/4a \| Hewlett-Packard \| 40/4 \| 42/4 \| 47/4a \| \| 23/4a 48 \| High Voltage Eng \| 61 \| 57 \| 63/4 \| \| 34 49 \| Hycon Mfg \| 3/4 \| 3/4 \| 4/4 \| \| 1/4a 3/4a \| Instruto Trans'rt \| 3 \| 2/4 \| 3/4 \| \| 11/4a 43/4a \| Jerrold \| 4/4 \| 4/4 \| 5/4 \| \| 24 30 \| D. A. Kennedy \| 28 \| 33/4 \| 37/4a \| \| 19/4a 28 \| Lab Electronics \| 27/4 \| 25/4 \| 28/4 \| \| 19/4a 28 \| Leeds & Northrup \| 25/4 \| 25/4 \| 32/4 \| \| 2 3/4a \| Leetronics \| 2 \| 2 \| 2/4a \| \| 2 3/4a \| Littelfuse Electronics \| 15/4 \| 18/4 \| 21/4a \| \| 16 20/4a \| Magnavox Lab \| 2 \| 2 \| 2/4a \| \| 34/4a 8/4a \| Magnetic Amplifiers \| 8 \| 8 \| 8/4a \| \| 29/4a 4/4a \| Magnetic Indc \| 3/4n \| 3/4n \| 4/4n \| \| 19/4a 29 \| Marmon-Warren \| 12/4 \| 12/4 \| 15/4 \| \| 10/4a 29 \| Microwave Assocs \| 36/4 \| 34/4 \| 42/4 \| \| 5/4a 11/4a \| Midwestern Inst \| 11/4 \| 13/4 \| 15/4 \| \| 17/4a 27/4a \| National Prin'tn' \| 6/4 \| 6/4 \| 7/4 \| \| 3/4a 7/4a \| Narda Microwave \| 6/4 \| 6/4 \| 7/4 \| \| 9/4a 16 \| National Supply \| 15/4 \| 18/4a \| 20/4a \| \| 17/4a 22/4a \| North Central \| 22/4 \| 22/4 \| 25/4 \| \| 14/4a 29/4a \| Orradie Industries \| 29/4 \| 28/4 \| 32/4 \| \| 4/4 7/4a \| Pacific Mercury, A \| 9/4 \| 9/4 \| 11/4 \| \| 17/4a 22/4a \| Panellit Inc \| 26/4 \| 30/4 \| 34/4 \| \| 4/4a 9/4a \| Panellit, A \| 7/4 \| 8/4 \| 8/4 \| \| 21 53/4a \| Perkin-Elmer \| 52 \| 52/4a \| 56/4 \| \| 17/4a 22/4a \| Radicon, A \| 18 \| 18 \| 20/4 \| \| 24/4 7/4a \| Reeves Aircraft \| 6/4 \| 7/4 \| 9/4 \| \| 13 32/4a \| Sanders Associates \| 34 \| 33 \| 37/4a \| \| 12 17/4a \| SemnScriber \| 14/4 \| 14/4 \| 20/4 \| \| 22/4a 35 \| Sprague Electric \| 41/4 \| 41/4 \| 43/4 \| \| 26 35 \| Taylor instruments \| 34 \| 34/2 \| 37/4a \| \| 5/4a 15/4a \| Teledyne Mfg \| 15/4 \| 16/4 \| 18/4 \| \| 3/4a 15/4a \| Telemecanique \| 15/4 \| 16/4 \| 18/4 \| \| 34/4a 7/4a \| Telecomputing \| 8/4 \| 8/4 \| 9/4 \| \| 11/4a 23/4a \| Tel-Instrument \| 2/4 \| 2/4 \| 3/4/2 \| \| 34/4a 10/4a \| Teltron Industries \| 15/4 \| 16/4 \| 18/4 \| \| 34/4a 10/4a \| Tracrafab \| 12 \| 12/4 \| 13/4 \| \| 11/4a 33/4a \| Universal Trans'rt \| 2/4 \| 2/4 \| 2/4/2 \| \| 12/4a 18/4a \| Varian Associates \| 5/4 \| 5/4 \| 6/4 \| \| 12/4a 18/4a \| Vitek Corp, A \| 15/4 \| 16/4 \| 19/4 \| The above "bid" and "asked" prices prepared by the NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF SECURITIES DEALERS, represent actual reported stock transactions. They are a guide to the range within which these securities could have been sold (the "BID" price) or bought (the "ASKED" price) during preceding week. The climate is right for achievement at Link - Palo Alto... for your career, and for your enjoyment of life. Among the burgeoning projects at Link's attractive new laboratory are those requiring cultivation by engineers who have a green thumb with digital computers. If you have such talents, you will want to investigate a career at Link - Palo Alto. The professional atmosphere at Link is based on a recognition of technical competence and accomplishment. For those interested in advanced university study, Link will arrange tuition. Salaries are excellent. The Link health, medical, and retirement plans are outstanding. Palo Alto, a charming suburban community, offers an ideal location for career advancement and for raising a family. In addition to digital computer engineers, Link has staff openings for people with capabilities in electronic packaging, automatic checkout equipment, optical systems, and radar simulators. Your engineering career can grow better at Link-Palo Alto. Contact us at once. Write to Mr. N. A. Larko, Link Aviation, Inc., P. O. Box 1318, Palo Alto, California A subsidiary of General Precision Equipment Corporation LINK AVIATION, INC. ready to go in either direction another QUALITY PRODUCT FROM GENERAL TRANSISTOR. NEW PNP AND NPN BILATERAL TRANSISTORS HAVE Emitter AND COLLECTOR INTERCHANGEABILITY General Transistor has developed another new transistor series—the Bilateral PNP 2N592, 2N593 and NPN 2N594, 2N595, 2N596. These germanium alloyed junction transistors have been designed to allow current to flow in either direction—valuable in medium speed switching applications as in computers, communications equipment, multiplexing devices, and for bi-directional switching and phase detection systems. The characteristics of these transistors are guaranteed in both directions. Their symmetrical design allows extremely low saturation resistances and switching properties. Ordinary uni-directional types lack this advantage. The NPN types have an alpha cutoff frequency range of 1.5 to 10.0 megacycles. For complete technical specifications write for illustrated brochure G-170. GENERAL TRANSISTOR CORPORATION 91-27 138TH PLACE, JAMAICA 35, NEW YORK In Canada: Desser E.E Ltd., 441 St. Francis Xavier, Montreal 1, Quebec FOR IMMEDIATE DELIVERY FROM STOCK, CONTACT YOUR NEAREST AUTHORIZED GENERAL TRANSISTOR DISTRIBUTOR OR GENERAL TRANSISTOR DISTRIBUTING CORP. 98-17 SUTPHIN BLVD. JAMAICA 35, NEW YORK FOR EXPORT: GENERAL TRANSISTOR INTERNATIONAL CORP. 91-27 138TH PLACE JAMAICA 35, NEW YORK Missiles Rise in 3rd Quarter DEFENSE DEPARTMENT spending for electronics during the months July to September, 1958, showed relatively little overall change from July to September, 1957. Of a total expenditure of $3.8 billion, electronics industry benefitted by some $1.06 billion in the third quarter of 1958, versus an outlay of about $1.09 billion in the third quarter of 1957. But gains were posted in five of seven categories. Electronics expenditures for aircraft amount to $446 million during the third quarter of '58. About $531 million was spent for aircraft electronics in third quarter, '57. Missile electronics accounted for $288 million in third quarter '58, $221 million in third quarter '57. DOD budgets have lowered expenditures in the aircraft category. Missile electronics, on the other hand, has shown a steady increase—but not enough to compensate for the more severe cuts in aircraft electronics procurement. Electronics spending in third quarter 1958: $84 million for ships and harbor craft; $6 million for combat and support vehicles; $161 million for communications, radar, parts, etc.; $120 million for research and development; and $7 million for miscellaneous electronics. Electronics spending in third quarter 1957 totaled: $26 million for ships and harbor craft; $3.4 million for combat and support vehicles; $204 million for communications, radar, parts, etc.; $102 million for R&D; and $4 million for miscellaneous electronics. The electronics portion of total spending for various budget categories is based on following percentages developed by ELECTRONICS research department: Aircraft electronics, 25 percent; missile electronics, 40 percent; ship and harbor craft electronics, 10 percent; combat and support-vehicle electronics, 6 percent; communications, radar, parts, etc., 100 percent; electronics research and development, 25 percent; miscellaneous electronics, 3 percent. Most controversial of these categories is missiles. Percents for the electronics portion of missile systems have been estimated as low as 30. Other estimates have neared the 50-percent mark. FIGURES OF THE WEEK LATEST WEEKLY PRODUCTION FIGURES (Source: EIA) Jan. 16, Dec. 19, Change From 1959 1958 One Year Ago Television sets 103,696 110,021 — 4.7% Radio sets (ex. auto) 279,954 319,478 +17.1% Auto sets 109,765 124,976 +10.2% STOCK PRICE AVERAGES (Standard & Poor's) Jan. 21, Dec. 23, Change From 1959 1958 One Year Ago Electronic mfrs. 74.56 72.24 +39.1% Radio & tv mfrs. 82.36 76.19 +83.3% Broadcasters 79.77 78.07 +36.9% FIT 12 OF THESE RECTANGULAR POTENTIOMETERS IN A PANEL AREA OF 1 SQUARE INCH! You can pack 12 Bourns TRIMPOT® potentiometers in the 1-square-inch area occupied by the average single-turn rotary. Fit the TRIMPOT into corners—between components—flat against a chassis or printed circuit board. Mount them individually or in stacked assemblies. Any way you use them—Bourns potentiometers save space! You can adjust Bourns potentiometers more accurately, too. The 25-turn screw-actuated mechanism gives you $9000^\circ$ of rotation instead of $270^\circ$. Circuit balancing and adjusting is easier, faster. Repeatability is assured every time. Furthermore, adjustments are self-locking—shock, vibration and acceleration have no effect! Write for new Model Summary Brochure BOURNS Laboratories, Inc. P.O. Box 2112-A • Riverside, California ORIGINATORS OF TRIMPOT® AND TRIMIT® PIONEERS IN POTENTIOMETER TRANSDUCERS FOR POSITION, PRESSURE AND ACCELERATION I-T-E CAN SUPPLY ALL YOUR LARGE WAVEGUIDE TEST EQUIPMENT Slotted lines are supplied complete with probe and carriage. Residual SWR is less than 1.02:1 over the frequency band. Available in sizes WR770 through WR2300. Here are a few examples of the waveguide test equipment and components currently available from I-T-E to meet the testing and operating requirements of multi-megawatt radar and scatter communications systems. This equipment reflects I-T-E’s broad experience in all phases of large waveguide design and manufacture. Take advantage of I-T-E’s specialized knowledge of waveguide testing and the precision fabrication capabilities of a specially equipped waveguide shop. Facilities such as these assure you of the highest standards of quality, maximum economy, and excellent delivery—in single or production quantities. If you have a requirement or problem relating to waveguide test equipment, write I-T-E Special Products Division, 601 E. Erie Ave., Philadelphia 34, Pa. And ask for your copy of free-space wave length vs. guide wave length conversion tables for large waveguide. E-H plane tuner Close-loop directional coupler Motorized short circuit section I-T-E CIRCUIT BREAKER COMPANY Special Products Division • 601 E. Erie Avenue • Philadelphia 34, Pa. Get a head-start on production with "solder-coated" resistors You can pretty well take for granted that any one of several leading resistor brands will meet or exceed your performance requirements. But there's another factor to be considered too—ease of handling on your assembly lines. Mainly that means ease of soldering—and here Stackpole Coldite 70+ "solder-coated" fixed composition resistors stand head and shoulders above the field. Not only do these famous cold-molded resistors meet today's critical specifications, but they provide unmatched "solderability" on any hand or automatic, open wiring or printed circuit operation. That makes not only for a real saving in assembly work, but also stands to reduce subsequent service costs resulting from poor soldered connections. ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS DIVISION STACKPOLE CARBON COMPANY, ST. MARYS, PA. Coldite 70+ Resistors Save You Money on Assembly Work! Stackpole Coldite 70+ resistors solder easier and stay soldered more surely. Thanks to an extra solder coating applied AFTER the usual tin-lead coating, they solder perfectly by ANY method—dip or iron. Moreover, resistance variations from normal soldering heat are negligible. How USSR Guided Lunik 1. Documentation shows she aimed at moon's equator and missed 2. Red China supplied much high-purity germanium for the project 3. All-transistorized gear used two-dimensional printed circuits BONN—DOCUMENTED information from the USSR makes it clear that the Soviet artificial planet launched Jan. 2 was, in fact, intended to strike near the moon's equator. McGraw-Hill World News learned that the Russians dispensed with telemetering gear for providing rocket performance data, and made no provision for destruction in flight. Sodium cloud, released by preset timer, provided check data on rocket performance. Lunik contained essentially the same instruments as Sputnik III to measure magnetic fields, cosmic radiation, radioactivity, interplanetary matter, corpuscular radiation, micrometeorites and temperatures; four intercoupled transmitters were provided to relay data on 19.993, 19.995, 19.997, and 183.6 mc, with a fifth transmitter included as a standby. Transmitters had 6-watt input and average output of 1 watt. The transmitters, which started operating 10 minutes before firing time, were also interconnected with a magnetic trip system. In the event of transmitter failure prior to burnout of the last vehicle stage, the fuel system was to be cut off to stop the rocket's journey. For the first time in a Soviet rocket, McGraw-Hill World News learned, all electronic gear was fully transistorized and two-dimensional printed circuits were used. Much of high-purity germanium came from Red China. Rocket was launched from a point northeast of the Aral Sea on the border of European Russia, and was slated to be tracked by 13 stations sweeping from Prague to Voroshilov, near the Pacific. Chemical batteries, exhausted after 62 hours, enabled continuous transmission of data while the vehicle passed through the earth's shadow. The rocket used programmed guidance for coarse control and a directional beam for fine control. System is said to have permitted the Russians to come within three degrees of their target. Key to this success was third-stage cut-off with 0.1-second accuracy when Lunik had achieved the desired escape velocity on its planned path. Guidance and control gear was located in both the third-stage and the ground control station. Though all controls were programmed, additional ground-to-missile fine control was obtained by riding the vehicle on a beam projected by a hyperbolic antenna. The desired flight path was inscribed on a perforated aluminum card in the rocket. Readout of this data was programmed by a crystal-controlled oscillator. Meanwhile, on the ground, a perforated iridium card with identical commands inscribed on it programmed the movement of the directional-beam antenna. Oscillator in the rocket was pulse synchronized with an identical timer on the ground. The guidance beam was provided by a 2,500-mc crystal-controlled transmitter feeding an 85.2-ft diameter hyperbolic antenna. Three liquid-damped gyroscopes in each of Lunik's three stages acted on an inertia stable platform to control roll, pitch and yaw. Gravitational influences were compensated by gyro system; magnetic influences causing roll or pitch were corrected by two induction coils. A third induction coil coupled directly to an integrating accelerometer governed the pressure of fuel injected into the thrust chamber. Guidance signals from the rocket's inertial system were sent through a computer to an amplifier, and compared in a second computer with signals from perforated-card program control. The resulting error signal was used to actuate a hydraulic system which positioned four graphite rudders at the end of the rocket nozzle. The guidance beam was controlled by a ground station. There were 12 identical ground tracking stations, plus the main control station. Each station had a doppler radar, a conventional radar and a phototheodolite in a single turret. The doppler used a parabolic reflector. The radar operated on 12-cm and used a 9.8-ft diameter reflector. The phototheodolite used an Askania system, some parts of which reportedly came from West Germany. Correcting time pulses to the missile timer were sent as amplitude modulation on the guidance beam's 2,500-mc carrier frequency. After launch, each subsidiary station, which was in phase, sent a signal to the main station indicating if it was zeroed in on rocket. Information from main tracker and all reporting subsidiaries was fed into master computer, which provided a correcting time pulse if necessary. Correcting time pulse went to the beam timer, the timer in missile, and the timers at subsidiary tracking stations. 347 YEARS TO DESIGN A RADAR SYSTEM??? Well, hardly! Not laid end-to-end, anyway. It's simply that the combined radar system experience of Canoga engineers and physicists whose know-how contributed to the development of the AN/MPS-26* totals 347 years. Know-how isn't the only thing—it's everything. Long range automatic tracking instrumentation Radar developed for Bureau of Aeronautics, U.S. Navy SPECIFICATIONS AND FEATURES* OPERATING FREQUENCY: 5.4 - 5.9 Kmc (C-band) POWER OUTPUT: 250 Kw ANTENNA POLARIZATION: Vertical, horizontal, circular (push-button selectable by operator) RANGE TRACKING RATE: 8,000 yd/sec (Mach 22 at sea level) with full velocity memory PULSE REP FREQ.: 370 - 1707 Hz (in 12 steps) DATA TAKE OFF: Digital dc analog and synchro (range, azimuth and elevation) PULSE WIDTHS: 1.0 and 0.25 μ sec Van air building installation One man operation Multiple pulsing feature Separate receivers and AFC's for simultaneous beacon and skin signal reception and display CANOGA DIVISION underwood corporation 15330 OXNARD STREET VAN NUYS, CALIFORNIA P.O. BOX 550, Phone State 6-9010 Radio-inertial guidance equipment within missile More news about the "SX" miniaturized subminiature switch The new "SX"—smallest precision snap-action switch—offers a new kind of answer to switching problems involving space, weight, and reliability. Here are some of the reasons: SIZE (of case): .500" x .200" x .350" high—ten to the square inch. WEIGHT: 1 gram...28 switches to the ounce. ELECTRICAL RATING: 28vdc: 7a. resistive, 4a. inductive-sea level; 2.5a inductive-50,000 ft.; 4a. motor load, 24a. max. inrush. 115/230 vac: 5a. resistive, 15a. max. inrush. Other useful and newsworthy features of this remarkable switch include these: Mechanical life is in the millions of operations. The case of the "SX" has two through holes that will accept #2 screws. One hole is slightly elongated to facilitate mounting. The "SX" operates dependably in temperatures from -65° F. to +250° F. Operating force is controlled and predictable within 3 oz. to 5 oz. limits. Terminals are integrally molded. Special plating on terminals improves ease of soldering. The normally-open and normally-closed terminal-contact inserts are solid silver and in one piece for maximum conductivity and heat dissipation. For more information about this important switch, ask for Data Sheet 148. MICRO SWITCH...FREEPORT, ILL. A division of Honeywell In Canada: Honeywell Controls Limited, Toronto 17, Ontario Honeywell MICRO SWITCH PRECISION SWITCHES Twist It 'til It Snaps and It Still WON'T LEAK The new improved Fusite V-24 Glass is so solidly fused to the stainless pins that 180° twisting won't break the bond between glass and metal. Here is the line of hermetic terminals that is so resistant to both mechanical and thermal shock that terminals require no special nursing in application. Weld them, solder them, treat 'em rough—your assembly will remain hermetic, free of cracks under Statiflux testing. Only V-24 Glass developed and smelted here in our own plant can produce terminals that give you such latitude in your production operation. Wide variety of combinations of size, flange treatments, pin types and placement. Write Dept. M-1 today stating your application and we'll send appropriate samples for your own testing. THE FUSITE CORPORATION 6000 FERNVIEW AVE., CINCINNATI 13, OHIO In Europe: FUSITE N. V. Königsweg 16, Almelo, Holland Cable assemblies by BENDIX Specialized designs for the most exacting requirements The versatility of design and reliability of performance offered by Bendix Cable Assemblies result from over a quarter century of precision manufacturing in this field. Our outstanding research and design facilities are available for custom designing cable assemblies to meet your specialized requirements on each installation. Cable assemblies shown are typical Scintilla Division developments in cabling for aircraft, electronic and missile applications. MISSILE CONTROL CABLE: This cable is fabricated using both Benseal (a plastic molded covering) and Bendix electrical connectors. Protects vital circuitry controlling the firing of missiles. THERMOCOUPLE HARNESS: Flexible, completely sealed and suitable for continuous operation in ambient temperatures of -65°F to 1500°F. Thermocouples are singly detachable and the sealed harness eliminates any chance of trouble from altitude, moisture or other contaminants. CONTROL HARNESS: This configuration, encased and sealed in metal braid and complete with junction box, can safely withstand the adverse effects of engine environment such as heat, vibration, and oils. FUEL CELL CABLE: Safely conducts electricity to fuel control valves, pumps, switches and gaging devices immersed within fuel cells. Features: unbroken stainless steel bellows type conduit, double layer protection between current carrying conductors, stainless steel integral connector shells. HEAVY DUTY CABLE: Ground support cable assembly built and designed for hard usage at missile launching sites. Heavy duty moldings and a tough neoprene tubing combine to resist wear. RIBBON CABLE: Ribbon type cable terminated to both standard MS or Bendix Pygmy® connectors. Advantages offered by this type of wiring include durability, performance, lightness, plus minimum space requirements. Export Sales & Service: Bendix International Division, 205 E. 42nd St., New York 17, N.Y. Canadian Affiliate: Aviation Electric Ltd., 200 Laurentien Blvd., Montreal 9, Quebec SCINTILLA DIVISION SIDNEY, NEW YORK Bendix AVIATION CORPORATION Small Recorder Sales Climb Rising sales rate in battery-operated recorders holds promise of brisk component sales, say manufacturers, as consumer interest grows Industry emphasis on small size and portability of electronic gear is becoming increasingly evident in the manufacture of tape recorders. Estimate by one audio manufacturers' group is that slightly more than thirteen percent of all models now on the market are battery operated. About one-third of the battery-operated models are transistorized. Tape recorders in general are now enjoying what one firm describes as the "steepest sales climb" in tape-recorder history. Predictions by a major tape manufacturer are that yearly sales of tape recorders, amounting to some 600,000 this year, will total 865,000 units by 1960. Dollar volume is expected to hit $151 million in the next two years, an increase of almost one-half over present figures. Performance Although many battery-operated tape recorders have audio characteristics that leave much to be desired from the hi-fi enthusiast's point of view, a large number of them are capable of response curves extending from 50 to 15,000 cps. A number of manufacturers are using spring motors to reduce power drain on recorder batteries. The spring motors are used to activate the transit mechanism, while the batteries supply power to the electronic portion of the unit. Some spring motors are designed to allow rewinding while the unit is in use, while others must be switched off to rewind. Almost without exception, the battery operated models are available with more than one transit speed. A number of models feature speeds of 3$\frac{1}{2}$, 7$\frac{1}{2}$, and 15 inches per second. There are several models that move tape at 1$\frac{1}{2}$ ips. Sizes vary from units as big as briefcases weighing close to 20 pounds, to 9$\frac{1}{2}$-in. models weighing closer to six pounds. While following the trend to miniaturization, some tape recorder manufacturers have not forgotten the great interest in stereo now prevalent. A substantial portion of the battery operated models are dual track units equipped for stereo playback. Some models are available with four-track heads. Pricing Current prices for portable recorders hover at about the $400 mark although there are exceptions both above and below this price. The beginnings of European competition are being felt in this field. A number of factors have caused the rise of the battery operated recorder. Some spokesmen for the recorder business say the increase is due to growing demands on broadcasters and record companies for records of events taking place away from conventional power sources. Many manufacturers are banking on the belief that the tape recorder has, in many cases, become the businessman's working tool. Business Uses One example of the way portable sound is used is being demonstrated to good advantage by a manufacturer of retail consumer goods. A major part of the firm's sales campaign hinges on radio and tv commercials. Company salesmen are provided with tapes of the radio-tv message so that they can give the retailer an accurate rundown of what the firm is doing to help him sell the product. In addition to sales demonstration, the salesmen also use the recorders to keep notes and data while on sales trips, and to record consumer comment on the products they are selling. Another firm is contemplating the use of portable tape recorders for its time-and-motion study personnel. The group would go through the plant equipped with recorders to make verbal notes of changes in procedure, employee comment, and other information. Electronic Laboratory Goes to Sea Plotting and recording gear (left) is among equipment RCA installed and will operate on S. S. American Mariner, new "missile measurement ship" now active on the Atlantic Missile Range. Huge dish is described as largest tracking radar antenna afloat. NOW, 400 TO 985 MEGACYCLES SPANNED WITH JUST TWO EIMAC 10KW KLYSTRONS Exceptionally wide frequency coverage, 400 to 985 megacycles, is now available with just two interchangeable klystron amplifiers using the Eimac 4KM50,000LA and LQ 10 KW klystrons. This important tropo-scatter and UHF-TV range can now be covered with a single transmitter. In addition, both tube types offer exclusive design advantages that have made Eimac klystrons the most widely used power tubes in tropo-scatter networks. Field-Proved External Cavity Design Extra wide tuning range with single set of tuning cavities. Lower original cost. Tube replacement cost much lower since external tuning circuitry need not be replaced. Uniform bandwidth through inductive tuning plus greater broadbanding by external cavity loading. Wide Range Load Coupler One coupler covers entire frequency range. Modulating Anode Provides simplified overload protection. Protects cathode from internal arc damage. EMA Cathode Combines ruggedness and long life of a pure metal emitter with the high efficiency of an oxide cathode. Extra large area cathode conservatively rated for exceptional reliability. Eliminates need for high voltage bombarder power supply, reducing system cost and total power consumption. Series Connected Body Magnet Coils Permits use of single power supply and control for body magnets. Performance Proved Reliability In tropo-scatter service, individual Eimac klystrons have logged more than 25,000 hours air time. EITEL-MCCULLOUGH, INC. San Carlos, California CIRCLE 19 READERS SERVICE CARD ultra-miniaturized for limited space TinyMike ceramic capacitors TINY MIKE "the ceramic with the million dollar body" SPECIFICATIONS Capacitance Values Available: .005, .01, .02, .05, and .1 mfd. Diameters: .350" to .625" Working Voltage: 50 VDC Immediately available in production quantities! Ideal for limited space and low-voltage requirements of portable radios and a variety of other miniature battery-powered and line-powered equipment. Excellent for bypass and coupling. Tough phenolic coating affords excellent insulation while protecting against severe humidity and vibration. For further information, write for Bulletin SEB-2 to Cornell-Dubilier Electric Corporation, South Plainfield, New Jersey. Consistently Dependable CORNELL-DUBILIER CAPACITORS Soviets Reveal Trade Transistorized computers, machine tool controls and other electronic gear are among items Russia wants to sell United States NEW YORK—Soviet Union is offering as part of a new trade campaign to sell small, transistorized computers and electronic instrumentation to the U.S. and wants to buy other electronic equipment, some of which is now denied to it as strategic material, ELECTRONICS learned exclusively. Following a private conversation with Soviet Deputy Premier Mikoyan at the Soviet embassy in Washington, our staffer was introduced to N.N. Smeliakov, new chairman of the board and president of Amtorg Trading Corp., USSR's export-import agency in U.S. In an exclusive interview, Smeliakov said the Soviets believe they have products in "many areas of electronic instrumentation in which the U.S. does not have commercial equivalents." He explained that he could not give specific technical product details, but said that Amtorg was planning to publish a quarterly magazine in English that would contain information about products the USSR wants to sell here. Items for Sale Smeliakov arrived unobtrusively in this country as part of Soviet Deputy Premier Mikoyan's party and quietly remained behind to assume his new duties. He said he was formerly chairman of the economic council of the Gorky district. According to Smeliakov, the "areas" of instrumentation in which the Soviets have products that would interest American firms inAims clude: machine tool controls, spectrographic analyzers, and rotational and linear speed indicating devices. The Soviets also want to sell new transistorized computers and cameras with electronic accessories. The USSR, he said, wants to buy from the U.S. complete chemical factory equipment including all of its electronic instrumentation, equipment for manufacturing synthetic fibers and plastic tubing. In addition, Smeliakov said the USSR is interested in promoting patent licensing agreements. He said the Soviets are now considering requests from U.S. firms who want Russian licenses covering equipment manufacture. The Soviets, he added, would like to obtain U.S. licenses in electronics, chemistry and metal-working. An aide to Smeliakov cited radiosondes used during the International Geophysical Year as an example of electronic items already purchased in the U.S. He said an application to buy replacement radio, TV tubes is pending. With regard to the proposed sale here of Russian electronic products, Smeliakov stressed that the Soviets want to sell only equipment, not components. Among other items that fit in this category is food processing equipment, some of it apparently controlled electronically. One example is equipment that automatically separates crabs from their shells and packs them. X-Ray Sampler Automatic x-ray fluorescent spectrograph made by North American Phillips is used by Haynes Stellite Co. to test composition of metal alloy batches. Machine compares batch sample with known sample and prints results on tape. Cera-Mite Ceramic Capacitors are now smaller, more stable... thanks to Sprague's new ceramic body Formulation 40. The increased dielectric constant of this newly developed ceramic body gives Cera-Mite Capacitors three times the capacitance per unit size than heretofore possible. Capacitance change with temperature over the operating temperature range is negligible. Cera-Mite Capacitors are now available in Formulation 40 from .001 to .02 μF, 250, 500 and 1000 volts d-c. Engineering Data Sheets 6106 and 6120 list complete ratings and specifications. Address literature requests to Technical Literature Section, Sprague Electric Company, 35 Marshall St., North Adams, Massachusetts. SPRAGUE the mark of reliability SPRAGUE COMPONENTS: CAPACITORS • RESISTORS • MAGNETIC COMPONENTS • TRANSISTORS INTERFERENCE FILTERS • PULSE NETWORKS • HIGH TEMPERATURE MAGNET WIRE CERAMIC-BASE PRINTED NETWORKS • PACKAGED COMPONENT ASSEMBLIES Now with General Plate Electrical Contact Tape... You Can SAVE UP TO 40% On Contact Cost In addition . . . Contact Tape permits: - Broader latitude in contact assembly design - Smaller contacts for same electrical loads - Weight-saving - Simpler material handling General Plate Electrical Contact Tape can be applied to any large-volume contact design, permitting the automatic assembly of two or more parts in a single operation. Tape contacts are easily attached by spot welding methods. They are self-aligning... allow broader assembly tolerances. Because of this, tape contacts reduce assembly costs and eliminate or reduce adjustment time. Tape contact material is supplied in long continuous lengths which simplify material handling. In addition to supplying clad electrical contact tape material, General Plate is equipped to weld contact tape sub-assemblies for you. Design engineers are invited to make use of General Plate contact engineering services... for material selection... parts design... samples. Let us make an electrical contact cost analysis on products you want to automate. Find out how General Plate electrical contact tapes, as well as other clad contacts, can be put to work for you. METALS & CONTROLS CORPORATION General Plate Division 1302 Forest St., Attleboro, Mass. FIELD OFFICES: NEW YORK * CHICAGO * DETROIT * INDIANAPOLIS * MILWAUKEE * PASADENA TOTAL DESTRUCTION EXPECTED! YET RECORDS REMAIN INTACT LET US TELL YOU THE DRAMATIC 409 STORY Century Oscillograph Century can tell you of dramatic incidents where little has remained of either the vehicle or its instrumentation but complete accurate — permanent — reproducible test records have been salvaged from even totally mutilated 409 Century Oscillographs! Today's 409 Series of Century Oscillographs Have Features Usually Only Found In Large Laboratory Units. - 13-lbs. weight — Size 12" x 6 - 15/16" x 5" - 12 Recording Channels - Easy Trace Identification - Permanent - Reproducible High Contrast Record - Up to 40 hours continuous recording - Provision for remote operation CENTURY ELECTRONICS & INSTRUMENTS, INC. 1353 N. UTICA • TULSA, OKLAHOMA Announcing BEN-HAR "1258" the most flexible Silicone Rubber Insulating Tubing ever developed... and the toughest Never before has there been an insulating tubing with the remarkable flexibility of Ben-Har "1258" Extruded Silicone Rubber Tubing... and it's actually less expensive than conventional Class H tubings and sleevings, with higher rated temperature performance. 300% more flexible than silicone varnished glass. 700% more flexible than Teflon. Ben-Har "1258" retains its flexibility after continuous service at 250°C. Equally serviceable at -85°C temperatures encountered in high altitude operation. Ben-Har "1258" uses a new silicone rubber formula. It is highly resistant to abrasion and cut-through. It is especially designed for resistance to corona attack and harmful radiation effects. Ben-Har "1258" conforms to wires and connections being covered. Its expandability assures snug fit and minimizes vibration. Ben-Har "1258" is made by a new (patent pending) extrusion process which permits substantially more accurate dimensional control than required by ASTM — D — 922. Available in standard wall thicknesses of .015" and .035" and in a complete range of colors. Special dimensions can be custom-engineered. Write for samples and data or ask to see a Bentley, Harris representative. BENTLEY, HARRIS FLEXIBLE SLEEVINGS BENTLEY, HARRIS MANUFACTURING CO. 200 BARCLAY STREET CONSHOHOCKEN 4, PA. • Telephone, Norristown, Pa.: Taylor 8-7600 Electronic 'Mine' Halts Tank War games device now undergoing tests employs a completely transistorized circuit ELECTRONICALLY-OPERATED antitank mine simulator system developed by Army's Combat Operations Research Group is slated for extensive use in tests, training and maneuvers. When a tank runs over a practice mine during maneuvers, the system puts the tank out of action temporarily, simulating a tank being destroyed by a real mine during combat. System was developed and tested at Fort Monroe, Va., by civilian scientists of Technical Operations, Inc., Burlington, Mass., and officers of Continental Army Command. When tank runs over mine pressure plate, mine emits electromagnetic signal which is picked up by one of two receiver coils mounted on tank's belly. Signal is carried to receiver on tank fender, where it is amplified and carried by cable to stopping mechanism in engine compartment. Mechanical linkage actuated by receiver signal shifts tank transmission into neutral. Army says entire circuit is transistorized. Environmental Testing Expands A NEW torture chamber for electronic equipment and components went to work at the U. S. Army's Environmental Test Division, Frankford Arsenal, Philadelphia. The giant rain and sunshine chamber, duplicates practically every extreme and characteristic of rain and sunshine found in nature. Size of raindrops, their velocity, rainfall per square inch along with accompanying air temperature and wind velocity can be controlled. Sunshine can be varied from sunrise at the pole to high noon on the equator. Another new environmental chamber at the arsenal is a humidity and ozone test room which for the first time simulates the corrosive effect of ozone. These units and other new environmental equipment recently installed at the arsenal add up to $1½ million in value. The arsenal's test division has blossomed under growing military recognition of the importance of environmental testing. It now has $5 million worth of testing equipment. A giant step has been taken in the U.S. military development program with contracts for the creation of an unprecedented primary strategic weapon system. It is the Air Force DYNA-SOAR, now in Phase-I design stage by a six-company project team under Martin direction. DYNA-SOAR—the most advanced military weapon system now in development—is a pilot-controlled bomber-reconnaissance space vehicle, its mission being to circle the earth at orbital velocity, with controlled aircraft landing capabilities. It will be propelled by several stages of rocket boosters, enabling it to operate from ground level to the ionosphere at hypersonic speeds. In an entirely new and advanced concept of integrated industry coordination, the six companies teamed in this No. 1 military program constitute top capabilities in the basic areas of airframe, propulsion and radar guidance system development. Bell, a pioneer in the boost-glide field, will design and build the airframe of the vehicle...Bendix will develop communication, telemetry, hydraulic and electrical power conversion systems...Goodyear will produce the crew-escape capsule and the radar systems...Minneapolis-Honeywell will be responsible for guidance and navigation to keep DYNA-SOAR on course and supply position and velocity information to the crew. American Machine & Foundry’s responsibility is an advanced system of ground handling and launching equipment...And Martin will establish the configuration and design of the rocket boosters, carry out an experimental aerodynamic program for the complete vehicle, and assemble a full-scale mockup of the system. Because of the challenging technical problems involved, the presidents of the six companies—aggregating assets of over $2 billion—comprise an active advisory panel, with their top engineering teams participating. Never before in military history has so formidable a task force of specialized industrial capabilities been applied against such an advanced concept. MEETINGS AHEAD Feb. 1-6: American Institute of Electrical Engineers, Winter General Meeting, Statler Hotel, N. Y. C. Feb. 12-13: Transistor & Solid-State Circuit Conf., AIEE, PGCT of IRE, Univ. of Penn., Philadelphia. Feb. 12-13: Electronics Conference, AIEE, IRE, ISA, CPS, Eng. Soc. Bldg., Cleveland. Feb. 16-20: Western Audio Convention, Audio Eng. Soc., Biltmore Hotel, Los Angeles. Mar. 3-5: Western Joint Computer Conf., AIEE, ACM, IRE, Fairmont Hotel, Los Angeles. Mar. 5-7: Western Space Age Conf. and Exhibit, L. A. Chamber of Commerce, Great Western Exhibit Center, Los Angeles. Mar. 15-18: National Assoc. of Broadcasters, Annual Convention, Conrad Hilton Hotel, Chicago. Mar. 23-25: Flight Testing Conf., ARS, Daytona Beach, Fla. Mar. 23-26: Institute of Radio Engineers, IRE National Convention, Coliseum & Waldorf-Astoria Hotel, New York City. Mar. 31-Apr. 2: Millimeter Waves Symposium, Polytechnic Inst. of Brooklyn, USAF, ONR, IRE, USA Signal Research, Engineering Societies Bldg., N. Y. C. Apr. 5-10: Nuclear Congress, sponsored by over 25 major engineering and scientific societies, Public Auditorium, Cleveland. Apr. 6-9: British Radio and Electronic Components Show, Great Hall, Grosvenor House, Park Lane, London, W.I. Apr. 13-15: Protective Relay Conf., A & M College of Texas, College Station, Tex. Apr. 14-15: Industrial Instrumentation & Control Conf., PGIE of IRE, Armour Research Foundation, Illinois Inst. of Tech., Chicago. Apr. 16-18: Southwestern IRE Conf. and Electronics Show, SWIRECO, Dallas Memorial Auditorium & Baker Hotel, Dallas. There's more news in ON the MARKET, PLANTS and PEOPLE and other departments beginning on p 74. He's getting results... WITH THE NEW BRUSH RECORDER MARK II So can you. The versatile Mark II is an integrated oscillograph package—a readout tool for engineers and technicians everywhere... in the shop... in the lab... or in the field. Just plug it in... put it to writing... anywhere. PERFORMANCE SPECIFICATIONS Recordings—Uniform, crisp, easily reproduced. Trouble-free ink writing on precision chart paper. Channels—Two analog, plus two event markers. Sensitivity—Maximum of 10 mv/chart line (mm); range, 10 mv to 400 v. Input—Differential; impedance 5 megs each side to ground. Frequency Response—D.C. to 100 cps. Write for free booklet 2521A for complete specifications. Immediately available from stock. Price $1350. brush INSTRUMENTS DIVISION OF CLEVITE CORPORATION 37TH AND PERKINE CLEVELAND 14, OHIO Instrumenting the Explorer I Satellite Design philosophy employed prior to successful launching of the Explorer I satellite was to achieve maximum reliability within the predicted environment. Here are the results of design decisions based on estimated effects. By HENRY L. RICHTER, Jr., WILLIAM PILKINGTON, JOHN P. EYRAUD, WILLIAM S. SHIPLEY and LEE W. RANDOLPH, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, Cal. RESEARCH LEADING to the instrumenting of the Explorer I satellite (1958 Alpha) ranged from consideration of the basic physics which determines the environment of a satellite to the final environmental testing of the entire satellite itself. A philosophy of instrumentation of minimal-weight satellites was evolved and will be set forth in the matériel that follows. Several of the characteristics of the payload were determined by the characteristics of the launching vehicle. The allowable weight of the payload section (including all structure forward of the fourth-stage motor case) was set at under 20 lb. The physical dimensions of this section were indicated by the vehicle configuration; the spin stabilizing of the high-speed stages imposed an additional restraint on the design of the payload. The desire to provide a maximum operating life of the payload along with the transmission of sufficient data to insure the success of the experiment led to the development of the Microlock communications system. OBJECTIVES—Concisely stated, the objectives met in equipment design were high reliability, sufficient receiver sensitivity consistent with minimum power levels to insure continuous tracking, development of telemetry techniques to insure wide geographical coverage and maximum lifetime, and the application of methods to keep the information bandwidth to a minimum. Two completely independent radio transmitters are used in the Explorer, each with its own power supply and antenna. This arrangement provides reliability in the form of redundancy. One transmitter operated at 108.03 mc with an output of 60 mw. The low-power unit operated at 108 mc at 10 mw. The high-power unit, using amplitude modulation, insured the recording of telemetry signals by nonprofessional equipment all over the earth. Because of the higher power, this transmitter operated for only a 2-week period. The 10-mw transmitter provided tracking data for two months, which was the calculated operating lifetime of this unit. Small-deviation phase modulation, which is compatible with the low power level, was used as the telemetry system. TRANSMITTERS—In Explorer I there were two similar transmitters, each one separate and self-sufficient. They were not interconnected in any way except through radiative couplings between two separate antennas and through the sharing of an input to one telemetering channel. The 10-mw unit was heard continuously for as long as 35 min during a pass (near apogee). This probably established a distance record for such a low-power transmitter, as the satellite traveled approximately 10,000 miles in 35 min and was a minimum of 5,000 miles from the receiver at the most distant point. Transistors used in these units are a selected version of the WE 53194 which itself is a version of the original BTL 2039 transistor. The 2039 is a germanium diffused-base transistor with excellent characteristics for high-frequency operation. The use of these transistors in the r-f circuitry of the Explorer satellite made it possible to have an overall efficiency of better than 25 percent including power used by the oscillator, doubler buffer, and modulator. This does not include the power used by the cosmic-ray package. An equivalent circuit for the 2039-type transistor is shown in Fig. 1. It can be seen that the output impedance of this transistor is low at frequencies of the order of 100 mc and that at these frequencies the input impedance is also low in the grounded-base configuration. Both qualities are advantageous for low-voltage, low-power oscillators and amplifiers. It is difficult to obtain reasonable efficiencies at the low powers desired in beacons of this sort using vacuum tubes. BLOCK DIAGRAM—Figure 2 shows a block diagram of both transmitters. Figure 2A shows the low-power transmitter which consists of a 54-mc crystal-controlled oscillator with a modulator producing phase modulation at 54 mc. A second r-f stage acts as a doubler and buffer amplifier with a total output of approximately 10 mw. This output is phase-modulated with four channels of telemetry to approximately 14-deg phase deviation per channel. The output from this transmitter is radiated... by an unsymmetrical dipole antenna produced by electrically separating the nose cone of the vehicle from the shell and driving the nose cone against the shell as a dipole. The pattern of such an antenna is similar to that of a dipole, but with the main lobes bent slightly to the rear of the vehicle. The high-power transmitter of Fig. 2B is similar. The battery pack supplies a slightly higher voltage; the oscillator generates 54.015 mc and is not modulated as is the low-power transmitter. The second transistor acts as a doubler and buffer. Amplitude modulation is produced by varying the voltage applied to the collector of the doubler-buffer transistor. The r-f power output with modulation applied is approximately linear from 20 to approximately 5 v. ANTENNA—Output of this transmitter goes through an antenna phasing and matching network into a turnstile antenna which is made up of four whip antennas. These antennas are perpendicular to and spaced at 90-deg intervals about the body of the missile, forming a circularly polarized antenna pattern. Figure 3A shows a schematic diagram of the low-power transmitter. The transmitter is powered by a series of six mercury batteries from which it draws approximately 5 ma current at about 8 v d-c. Crystal-controlled oscillator $Q_1$ uses a WE 53194 transistor and oscillates at 54 mc. The oscillator is a grounded-base type with feedback from a small turn on the tank coil through capacitor $C_1$ to the fifth-harmonic 54-mc crystal. Inductor $L_1$ is wound on resistor $R_1$ and placed in parallel with the crystal. The inductor resonates the capacitance of the crystal. PHASE MODULATION—In Fig. 3A resistor $R_4$ stabilizes the feedback loop by reducing the effect of transistor input impedance changes. Capacitor $C_2$ is used as a d-c blocking capacitor in the feedback circuit. Phase modulation is produced by varying the voltage applied to the collector of oscillator $Q_1$. One side of the tank is bypassed through capacitor $C_3$ which effectively grounds that side to r-f but allows the a-f sum voltage from the telemetry oscillators to be applied in series with the d-c supply. The collector of a transistor of this type is equivalent to a back-biased diode and has a capacitance which is voltage-dependent; thus, the voltage applied to the tank circuit produces a proportional variation in the tank tuning. This produces in the stable crystal-controlled oscillator a small-angle phase modulation. A tap on the battery supply brought to the base of the transistor with resistor $R_3$ in the emitter circuit provides fixed bias. There is some loss of efficiency with this type of bias but it has a high degree of stability. CONVERSION—Output from the oscillator is coupled by a small turn around the tank coil at fairly low impedance to the emitter of doubler-buffer $Q_2$. The output desired is a 108-mc signal. It is also desirable to have the conversion as efficient as possible, which calls for approximately class-C operation. For maximum efficiency, the angle of conduction in the emitter of $Q_2$ must be fairly small producing short pulses at a 54-mc rate. The amplified pulses appear as 108-mc energy in the resonant tank circuit. Bias for the doubler-amplifier is provided by r-f from the oscillator across resistor $R_6$. An antenna-matching network is used between the 50-ohm output connector and the nonsymmetrical dipole from which the power is radiated into space. HIGH-POWER TRANSMITTER—R-f circuitry of the 60-mw transmitter is shown in Fig. 3B. Oscillator $Q_3$ is almost identical to the low-power version. This unit does not have phase modulation applied in the manner described for the low-power beacon, but power from the oscillator $Q_3$ is coupled into an amplifier-doubler stage $Q_4$ and the modulation applied at the collector of the doubler in a manner similar to plate modulation of a vacuum tube. Because of the resistance of the transformer $T_1$, the 15-v battery voltage is dropped to approximately 14 v at the collector of buffer $Q_4$. To this is added an audio voltage of approximately 8-v peak which produces about 50 percent amplitude modulation of the carrier. Output of this transmitter is coupled through a matching system consisting of lengths of miniature 50-ohm cable, cut to produce approximately 90-deg phase rotation from each antenna to the next. Actually, the circular pattern was designed to have some elasticity so that spin could easily be measured from the r-f signal-strength records of the ground receivers. AMPLITUDE MODULATION—Amplitude modulation of the high-power beacon is accompanied by some phase modulation which is convenient for telemetry when using phase-locked receivers. The basic structural material used to support the electronic components was micarta because it is a good thermal insulator with excellent mechanical properties. A thermal time constant of several hours was desired for the internal electronics so that external temperature extremes would not cause malfunctions. All the electronics including batteries were thermally connected to produce the longest reasonable time constant. The telemetering subcarrier oscillators incorporated in the Explorer I satellite are of two basic design configurations. One type is a resistance-controlled oscillator (rco) wherein the subcarrier frequency varies as a function of the change in input resistance. The second type is a current-controlled oscillator (cco) whose frequency is varied by a change in input current. The telemetry channels used are 2, 3, 4, and 5, whose frequency ranges are 518-602, 675-785, 888-1,032, and 1,202-1,398 cps, respectively. The two telemetering systems are completely self-contained in that each system has its own power supply consisting of 4 mercury-cell batteries. The total power consumption for each system is approximately 2.5 mw. The telemetry systems for the two transmitters are arranged as indicated in Table I. For phase modulation of the low-power transmitter the low-impedance winding on each subcarrier-oscillator transformer is connected in series to form the modulation transformer. The amplitude-modulated high-power transmitter requires only the addition of a class-A amplifier-modulator stage in the transmitter section. The telemetering system utilizes the same low-impedance output windings as in the low-power transmitter but is capacitively coupled to the class-A amplifier. RESISTANCE-CONTROL—The type of resistance-controlled oscillator used in Explorer I is shown in Fig. 4A. The simplicity of the circuit and operation made this oscillator configuration most advantageous. The frequency limit of this circuit is related directly to the tuning capacitance ratio of $C_1$ and $C_2$. For the case of a high $C_1/C_2$ ratio, the frequency deviation obtainable is limited to less than the $\pm 7.5$ percent necessary in telemetering subcarrier channels. In the case of a low $C_1/C_2$ ratio, the Q of the tuned circuit drops to an impractical value. Actual limits are approximately $1 \leq C_1/C_2 \leq 3$. When used with telemetering subcarrier oscillators, a $C_1/C_2$ ratio of 1.5 is about optimum. CURRENT-CONTROL—The typical current-controlled oscillator shown in Fig. 4B uses a relatively new method for controlling oscillator frequency: time-controlled reactance modulation. This method is made possible by the characteristics of the transistor. The operating frequency of a conventional L-C oscillator can be altered by introducing an alternating current that is of the same frequency but is 90 deg out of phase with the oscillator voltage. The frequency shift thus produced is proportional to the amount of additional current introduced into the tuned circuit. Oscillator frequency shift can be obtained using a transistor employed as a time-controlled reactance modulator. The portion of the cycle during which this reactive current is introduced can be Table I—Explorer Telemetry System \| Channel \| Measurement \| Subcarrier Type \| \|---------\|----------------------\|-----------------\| \| 2 \| Skin Temp. \| 10 mw rco \| \| \| \| 60 mw rco \| \| 3 \| Nose Cone Temp. \| rco rco \| \| 4 \| Meteorite Impact \| rco — \| \| 4 \| Meteorite Count \| —— cco \| \| 5 \| Cosmic Ray Count \| cco cco \| controlled by d-c current introduced into the control transistor. By this new method, frequency modulation is achieved with minimum dependence upon temperature-sensitive parameters. TESTING AND CALIBRATION—Environmental test specifications for the Explorer satellite prescribed two complete testing procedures: flight-acceptance and type-approval tests. Flight-acceptance tests, applied to all units prepared for flight, including spares, were designed to subject the units to an environment simulating that encountered in flight. The type-approval tests, applied to a sample payload, were designed to verify that the payload design was capable of surviving an environment more severe than that expected, as well as surviving the flight-acceptance test and then the flight. The use of 100-percent flight-acceptance testing in the Explorer program, in preference to any sampling or test-to-failure plan, was dictated by the complete lack of statistical information concerning the reliability of the units and by the high reliability desired. Furthermore, flight-acceptance testing was the only conceivable technique which would provide assurance that custom-made r-f transmitters, such as the Microlock beacons, would provide satisfactory signals for low-power reception while subjected to the severe environmental conditions expected in the launch and orbiting phases of the Explorer's operating life. Basically the program was broken into two parts: thorough and accurate calibration of the telemetering equipment; and testing to assure that the equipment not only performed satisfactorily over the expected temperature environment but also during the initial launch-phase environment. MICROMETEORITES—Two types of micrometeorite detectors are used in Explorer I: a parallel combination of twelve wire-grid detectors; and an impact microphone and its associated amplifier. In the grid type, a severed wire in one of the grid structures caused by a micrometeorite of sufficient size and velocity produces a small step increase in resistance. This change of resistance, when sensed by the rco, results in a step increase in subcarrier frequency. To assure accuracy, a flight erosion gauge with a multiple-switching network is used for calibration. Frequency against temperature data for the impact microphone is obtained by subjecting both the beacon and the microphone equipment to the applied temperature. Thus, if the scaler output voltage varied with temperature, it is automatically included in the frequency calibration. PARTICLE MASS—Determination of microphone sensitivity is made by dropping glass beads of known size and density on the satellite shell from various heights. Knowing the height necessary to actuate the scaler and the size of the glass bead, the required momentum averaged over the entire shell was found to be 0.012 gm-cm/sec. Therefore, if a velocity of 40 km/sec is assumed for a micrometeorite, the minimum detectable particle mass is found to be $3 \times 10^{-9}$ gm. The second phase of the testing program consisted of subjecting the payload to an environment similar to that expected during flight. The remainder of the environmental testing was carried out in the following order: noise vibration to simulate the firing of the fourth-stage motor; centrifuge test to simulate the linear acceleration due to the firing of the fourth-stage motor; spin test at 750 rpm; and altitude test to check out the high-voltage circuitry. PERFORMANCE—The performance of the payload during environmental testing proved to be extremely satisfactory. The only major problem encountered was in the altitude test. It was found necessary to provide more adequate high-voltage breakdown protection. REFERENCES (1) H. L. Richter, Jr., W. F. Sampson, and R. Stevens, Microlock, A Minimum-Weight Radio Instrumentation System for a Satellite, to be published in Jet Propulsion. (2) F. M. Riddle, Patent No. 2,728,049, assigned to California Institute of Technology. Magnetic Drum Provides Drum recording system developed to make analog simulations in designing continuous-processing system provides time delay. Precision of 0.1 percent between recorded and played-back low-frequency analog voltages is exceeded in highly stable system applicable also to tape. By H. L. DANIELS and D. K. SAMPSON, Remington Rand Univac, Division of Sperry Rand Corp., St. Paul, Minn. Precision of 0.1 percent in a magnetic-recording system was required for analog simulation of transport delays in designing a continuous-processing system. A relatively uncomplicated recording technique is described that achieves such precision with a high degree of stability. A typical transport delay is the temperature-time function of a fluid flowing at a variable rate through a long insulated pipe. The delay is the time displacement of the temperature function between points of intake and discharge. Continuously variable delay was required over a wide range without interruption or degradation of the function. This requirement made conventional electrical delay lines unfeasible. The application required delays of 5 to 20 sec for analog signals ranging between -50 and +50 volts. Accuracy within 0.1 percent was specified for frequency components from zero to one cps. Gradual degradation of accuracy was allowable above one cps, with response signal not down more than 3 db at 30 cps. Noncontact magnetic recording on the surface of a rotating drum was selected as the basic delay mechanism because of its freedom from considerations of head and surface wear. Control of delay could be provided by adjustment of rotational speed or of angular displacement between recording and playback stations. The magnetic record form in Fig. 1A is a plot of the analog signal using a transversely magnetized line on the surface of a strip-form recording medium. The time axis is represented by coordinates along the length, and instantaneous values are represented by coordinates across the strip. Playback Principle The playback method in Fig. 1A uses a conventional but thin ring-form playback head that crosses the record at constant velocity. Its gap remains parallel to the direction of motion of the medium and perpendicular to the direction of magnetization of the recorded line. Time between $T_1$ of crossing a fixed reference line and $T_2$ of crossing the recorded function line is translated into a proportional voltage, as shown in Fig. 1B. A linearly rising voltage is initiated at $T_1$ and abruptly returned to zero at $T_2$. If the record is scanned at a rate sufficiently high relative to the velocity of the medium, the composite of the peaks of the resulting modulated sawtooth becomes the desired electrical playback. The playback head, shown in Fig. 2, comprises a rotating structure carrying eight ring-form heads with their gaps uniformly spaced around a cylindrical surface. The series-connected coils are connected to the electronic circuits through slip rings. The peripheral spacing between gaps is made at least equal to the active width of the recording medium to avoid ambiguity. The surface of the recording medium is... Adjustment of two potentiometers is required to zero system. Because there is little interaction between the two settings, system can be adjusted with one repetition of the two steps. Permanent magnet at left erases drum before it rotates to recording scanner. Curvature of drum assures that recording gaps are at constant distance from drum. curved to maintain constant spacing to the gaps. A rotating reference track of magnetic oxide has a permanent recorded pulse for each active gap. A fixed playback head reads this track to supply reference pulses, which are generated just before each rotating head enters the active area of the medium. Recording Principle The recording arrangement shown in Fig. 3 is substantially a reversal of the playback method. The analog voltage and the sawtooth are fed to a voltage comparator. At the instant they are equal, the comparator generates a write signal that initiates a pulse of current in the head and records a mark on the medium. A series of these marks represent, by their composite pattern, the wave form of the input voltage. The powdered-iron transfers shown in Fig. 4 were made from several actual recordings. They were obtained by dusting the surface of the medium with finely divided iron powder and transferring the powder adhering to the magnetic discontinuities of the medium to pressure-sensitive cellophane tape. In the prototype equipment, the medium was erased by a longitudinally saturating d-c wipe prior to recording. The resulting magnetic discontinuity formed between the uniformly saturated area and the transversely magnetized line is readily readable with adequate resolution. Inherent Errors One source of error inherent in the system involves the relative velocities of the medium and the transverse scanning gaps. If the medium velocity is $v_m$ and the gap velocity is $v_g$, the crossing line of the gap is inclined at an angle $\tan^{-1}(v_g/v_m)$ to the longitudinal axis of the medium. This source of difficulty is eliminated by making the ratio $v_g/v_m$ in playback equal to that in recording. Another source of distortion stems from the effective dimension of the gap across the head and normal to the direction of scan. Even if gap width were reduced to zero, the gap would have an effective dimension along the length of the medium of perhaps 15 to 20 mils under noncontact conditions. The result of this type distortion is shown in Fig. 5. It vanishes when the recorded line is parallel to the axis of the medium and becomes increasingly serious with increasing inclination of the line. Two types of deterioration may be caused by the continuous-line recording of a series of discrete marks. One involves a relationship between medium velocity, scanning rate and effective width of recording and playback gaps such that successive marks overlap along the axis of the medium, as in Fig. 4. The other involves having the marks physically separated longitudinally. Longitudinal overlap yields non-harmonic distortion in a manner similar to that shown in Fig. 5. Longitudinal separation, on the other hand, is entirely free from such distortion provided playback scanning is so synchronized that the scanning gaps are properly centered on the recorded marks. Prototype Construction The reading and recording scanners are mounted so that the gaps of the two units are separated by 180 degrees of arc around the aluminum drum. The drum can be driven either synchronously or with controlled variable speed. Drum and scanners are mounted on a normalized cast-aluminum base. The scanners are adjusted so that spacing between gaps of the read-record heads and the medium are between 0.0015 and 0.002 in. The scanner disk is mounted directly on the shaft of a 3,600-rpm hysteresis synchronous motor. The heads were roughly positioned radially in fabrication with set-screws. They are held in place permanently after wiring by embedment in a resin whose thermal expansion coefficient approximates that of the aluminum disk. Longitudinal erase is achieved with a permanent magnet with properly shaped pole pieces. Generation of Reference Pulses A single line of pulses is written on the drum by rotating the drum with the scanner stationary, as shown in Fig. 6. One read-record head is energized and its gap positioned near the edge of the drum. The drum is then stopped and each scanner is rotated. The played-back and amplified pulse from each scanner is used to trigger a writing circuit connected to its reference head. Thus pulses are permanently written on the reference track at the exact spacing of the read-record heads. Two sawtooth-control flip-flops such as shown in Fig. 7 are used, one for the recording and the other for the reading sawtooth generator. When flip-flop output is negative with respect to the reference voltage shown as zero set in Fig. 7B, sawtooth output is dropped through the diode gate to the reference voltage. A start-sawtooth pulse makes flip-flop output positive. Voltage at the sawtooth output in Fig. 7B begins to rise toward ground potential. Sawtooth Output Sawtooth output is returned to reference level by switching the flip-flop back with a writing or a played-back signal pulse. Extreme linearity of the sawtooth circuit is obtained by the reflexing arrangement shown in Fig. 7B. When sawtooth output is clamped to the reference voltage because of negative output from the flip-flop, voltage at the left of $C_1$ is returned to ground through the 6AL5 clamp. At the right of $C_1$, voltage is essentially that appearing at the cathode of $V_s$. When output voltage is allowed to rise, the cathode voltage of $V_s$ follows closely. Because $C_1$ is large, the drop across $R_1$ is maintained nearly constant. This ensures a linearly rising voltage at the sawtooth output. there is little interaction between the two settings, the system can be adjusted by one repetition of the two steps. The voltage comparator shown in Fig. 8 is similar to the multiar circuit. When amplitude of the sawtooth exceeds analog voltage, the positive feedback loop of a blocking oscillator is completed through a conducting diode. The blocking oscillator conducts, triggering a thyratron writing circuit. Peak-Reading Circuit The peak-reading and filter circuit used to recover the analog waveform from a modulated sawtooth is shown in Fig. 9. Charging current for the 0.05-$\mu$f capacitor in the cathode circuit of $V_{in}$ exists when instantaneous voltage of the modulated sawtooth appearing at the grid exceeds cutoff, as referenced to the instantaneous voltage of the recovered analog appearing at the cathode. When cutoff does exist, the capacitor discharges through the one-megohm resistor. Discharge rate is equal to the maximum rate of change of voltage for the highest possible analog frequency. A conventional RLC filter follows the peak-reading circuit. Desired performance of the recorder is a condition in which overall gain is exactly unity, a-c signal variations of the input are exactly reproduced at the output and there is no d-c voltage shift between input and output. Because departures from ideal performance under continuous record-playback operation were too small to measure, a recirculation technique was adopted. Output was connected directly to input after a function had been initially recorded on the drum. Recirculating the function through the recorder progressively exaggerated systematic errors. Output was then recorded with a direct-writing pen recorder. Performance A played-back, 40-v peak-to-peak, 0.75-cps sine wave is shown in Fig. 10 after zero, 10 and 100 cycles of recirculation. Peak-to-peak amplitude is virtually unchanged after 100 cycles, but the signal has drifted 3 v in the negative direction. Assuming constant drift rate, a d-c shift of 0.03 v/cycle of record and playback is indicated. Since peak-to-peak recording and playback amplitude is 100 v, precision is 0.03 percent of full scale immediately after zeroing. The oscillograms in Fig. 10B and 10C were taken at one-hour intervals after those of Fig. 10A with no further adjustments. In Fig. 10B, after 100 cycles of recirculation, d-c level has drifted 3 v and amplitude has diminished about one v. In Fig. 10C, after 100 cycles, d-c level has drifted 5.6 v and amplitude has diminished 7.25 v. After 100 cycles of recirculation, positive peaks of the sinusoid are narrowed in the time direction and negative peaks are broadened. Also progressive attenuation of peak-to-peak amplitude results because higher frequency components are generated in the positive peaks than the low-pass output filter will accommodate. Inherent distortion and the resultant filtering action is even more evident with square and triangular waves, as is shown in Fig. 11 and 12. A one-cps sine wave of 0.3 v peak-to-peak was recorded, read back and reproduced on a direct-writing recorder. Input voltage was then reduced to zero and noise level recorded. Noise did not exceed 0.1 peak-to-peak. Since the linear range of the recorder exceeds 100 v peak-to-peak, dynamic range is in excess of 60 db. Frequency response is essentially flat from zero to 20 cps, with 3-db attenuation at about 30 cps. There appears to be no serious obstacle to adapting the principle used here to tape to provide extended records for permanent storage. Wideband Amplifier Design Data Circuits, relationships and equations are presented to help the circuit designer confronted with the problem of securing both high gain and wide bandwidth. By RICHARD H. ENGELMANN, Associate Professor of Electrical Engineering, Univ. of Cincinnati Two basic variables of wideband-amplifier circuits are the tube and the type of configuration used. The tube determines transconductance and, in part, total capacity from plate to ground. The type of circuit determines the advantage factor and the bandwidth narrowing function for each stage. Three basic maximally flat wideband-amplifier circuits and their equivalents are given in Fig. 1. These circuits may be compared readily with data in Table I. The maximum voltage gain per stage and the overall gain of these and other amplifiers are calculated from Eq. 1 and 2. \[ G_S = \frac{g_m}{C} K F_N \frac{B_T}{R_{EQ}} = g_m R_{EQ} \] (1) Overall Gain \[ G_T = G_S^N = \left[ \frac{g_m}{C} K F_N \frac{B_T}{R_{EQ}} \right]^N \] (2) $ B_S $ = bandwidth of one stage $ B_T $ = overall bandwidth in rad/sec $ = B_S F_N $ $ C $ = total cap, plate to ground $ = C_{in} + C_{out} + C_{env} $ $ F_N $ = bandwidth narrowing factor for $ N $ stages $ g_m $ = tube transconductance $ G_S $ = voltage gain per stage $ G_T $ = overall gain of ampl $ K* $ = advantage factor $ = $ ratio of gain bandwidth product of any stage to the gain-bandwidth product of a single stage ampl with a resistance load only, using the same tube $ R_{EQ} $ = an equiv load resist solve for $ G_T $ for enough values of $ N $ until $ G_T $ is sufficiently large effect of $ K $ should be kept in mind when comparisons are made --- TABLE I—Formulas and Parameter* Voltage Gain Per Stage \[ G_S = \frac{g_m}{C} K F_N \frac{B_T}{R_{EQ}} = g_m R_{EQ} \] (1) Overall Gain \[ G_T = G_S^N = \left[ \frac{g_m}{C} K F_N \frac{B_T}{R_{EQ}} \right]^N \] (2) $ B_S $ = bandwidth of one stage $ B_T $ = overall bandwidth in rad/sec $ = B_S F_N $ $ C $ = total cap, plate to ground $ = C_{in} + C_{out} + C_{env} $ $ F_N $ = bandwidth narrowing factor for $ N $ stages $ g_m $ = tube transconductance $ G_S $ = voltage gain per stage $ G_T $ = overall gain of ampl $ K* $ = advantage factor $ = $ ratio of gain bandwidth product of any stage to the gain-bandwidth product of a single stage ampl with a resistance load only, using the same tube $ R_{EQ} $ = an equiv load resist solve for $ G_T $ for enough values of $ N $ until $ G_T $ is sufficiently large effect of $ K $ should be kept in mind when comparisons are made Relations Used in Amplifier Design Screen grid supplies have been ignored. Equiv circuits in Fig. 1 are based on assumptions that $C_s$, $R_G$, $R_E$ and $C_K$ will have effects only at low frequencies and that $R_G$ and $r_e$ are much larger than other impedances encountered in the circuits. Capacitor $C_1$ is output capacitance of the tube plus stray capacitance in parallel with it: $C_1 = C_{stray} + C_{stray}$. $C_2$ is input capacitance of next stage plus its parallel stray capacitance: $C_2 = C_{in} + C_{stray}$. All these capacitors may be augmented artificially, and must be in some cases. \| Ampl Circuit \| $K$ \| Bandwidth Narrowing Factor, $F_N$ \| Parameter Relations \| Values of $F_N$ for $N$ stages \| \|--------------\|-----\|----------------------------------\|---------------------\|-------------------------------\| \| (A) R-C Ampl \| 1 \| $\sqrt{2^{1/N} - 1}$ \| $R = R_{EQ}$ \| 1 0.643 0.51 0.435 0.386 0.35 0.323 0.301 0.283 0.268 \| \| (B) Shunt Peaked \| 1.722 \| $\sqrt{(2^{1/N} - 1)} \left(1 + \sqrt{1 + \frac{23.3}{2^{1/N} - 1}}\right)$ \| $R = R_{EQ}$ $L = 0.414 R^2 C$ \| 1 0.773 0.679 0.622 0.583 0.554 0.53 0.511 0.494 0.48 \| \| (C) Shunt Peaked Plus R-C \| 1.1 \| $\sqrt{2^{1/N} - 1}$ \| $R = \sqrt{2} R_{EQ}$ $L = 0.500 R^2 C$ \| —1 —— 0.802 —— 0.714 —— 0.66 —— 0.621 \| \| (D) Feedback Pair \| 1.1 \| $\sqrt{2^{1/N} - 1}$ \| $R = \sqrt{2} R_{EQ}$ $R_t = g_m R^2 > R$ \| —1 —— 0.802 —— 0.714 —— 0.66 —— 0.621 \| \| (E) Series-Peaked \| $C^/2C_1$ or $3C/2C_2$ \| $\sqrt{2^{1/N} - 1}$ \| $R = R_{EQ}$ $C_1 = 3 C_1$ $L = 2.67 R^2 C_1$ \| 1 0.863 0.799 0.758 0.728 0.705 0.686 0.67 0.657 0.645 \| * $C = C_1 + C_2$. Advantage factor is = to or < 2. Use the form which yields the value less than 2 using the original values of $C_1$ and $C_2$. Note from relationship between $C_1$ and $C_2$ that one element in general must be augmented. The augmented value is used in the parameter-relationship equations. In the following examples, a 12BV7 tube is used throughout. For this tube, $g_m$ is 13,000 $\mu$mhos; $C_{est}$ is 3 $\mu$pf; $C_{is}$ is 11 $\mu$pf. Stray capacitances $C_{stray}$ and $C_{stray}$ are assumed equal, each having a value of 5 $\mu$pf. Therefore, $C_1$ is 8 $\mu$pf; $C_2$ is 16 $\mu$pf; and $C$ is 24 $\mu$pf. Radical $g_m/C$ is 542 $\times 10^4$ rad/sec, which is the gain-bandwidth product for a single R-C stage. DESIGNING THE CIRCUIT—As an example, assume that the circuit calls for an overall bandwidth of 10 mc and overall gain of 5,000. How many stages are required and what are the circuit parameters using (A) resistance-capacity stages, (B) shunt-peaked stages, (C) series-peaked stages? To solve (A), convert 10 mc to rad/sec and obtain 62.8 $\times 10^4$ rad/sec for $B_T$. For the R-C amplifier, $K$ equals 1. The maximum value of $G_s$ possible is calculated from equation (1), taking $F_N = 1$. This yields 8.63. To avoid extra work, calculate the minimum number of stages required under this ideal condition of no bandwidth narrowing from 8.63$^x$ equal to 5,000. In this case find the $G_s$ and $G_r$ values beginning with $N$ equal to 4. For each value of $N$ above 4, $G_s$ is calculated using Eq. 1; and $G_r$ is calculated using Eq. 2. For this problem 10 stages yield insufficient gain. Using the equation $\sqrt{2^{1/N} - 1}$ for the R-C amplifier, in Table I find that $N$ equal to 11 yields a gain of 5,900, which is adequate. Under this condition, $G_s$ equals 2.2 and consequently $R$ equals $G_s/g_m$ equals 169 ohms from Eq. 1. To solve part (B): If shunt-peaked stages are used, $K$ equals 1.722, and the maximum value of $G_s$ is equal to 14.9. Using the ideal case of no bandwidth narrowing, calculate $N$ greater than 3 from 14.9$^x$ equal to 5,000. Again $G_s$ and $G_r$ are calculated for each value of $N$. For $N$ equal to 4, $G_s$ equals 9.25 and $G_r$ equals 9.25$^x$ or 7,200. We now calculate components from the parameter relationship equation and Eq. 1 in Table I: $R$ equals 712 ohms; and $L$ equals 5.03 $\mu$H. To solve part (C): If series-peaked stages are used, first calculate the advantage factor. This will be the smaller of the two forms $K$ equals $C/2C_1$ equals 1.5 and $K$ equals $3C/2C_2$ or 2.25. Use the 1.5 for $K$, and $C_1$ must be augmented by 8 $\mu$pf to satisfy the required relationship between $C_1$ and $C_s$. Note that the use of the augmented value of $C_1$ in the second form for $K$ yields $K$ equals 1.5 again. Because $C_2$ must equal $3C_1$, the advantage factor in many cases is reduced below the ideal of 2. From Eq. 1, the maximum value of $G_s$ is 12.95 and the minimum number of stages possible is $N > 3$ from 12.95$^x = 5,000$. Beginning calculations with $N$ equal to 4, find $G_s$ equal to 12.95 $\times F_x$ equal to 12.95 $\times 0.758$ equal to 9.8; and $G_r$ equal to 9.8$^x$ or 9,100. The parameters are calculated as before: $R$ equals 754 ohms; $L$ equals 12.1 $\mu$H. Capacitance $C_1$ is increased by 8 $\mu$pf. Solutions can be obtained for combinations of these circuits using the data in Table 1. Compact one-mc transistorized oscillator yields a frequency stability of one part in $10^9$ per day at normal room temperature. Total weight of oven and oscillator is 2.5 lb. A 12-lb, 45-v battery can furnish both oven and circuit power for 72 hours at room temperature. By JOSEPH F. MERCURIO, JR., Lincoln Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Lexington, Mass. Modern communication and radar systems place stringent requirements on stability of oscillators. The oscillator to be described exhibits a stability of one part in $10^9$ per day at a frequency of one mc for operation at 25 C ± 10 C. A normal slow variation of ambient temperature from 25 to 50 C yields a frequency change of two parts in $10^6$. Figure 1 illustrates the effect of varying the oven temperature at the rate of 8 C per hour from 0 to 50 C. Figure 2 shows the transient response of the oven and oscillator to a temperature change of 5 deg per minute from 27.5 to 50 C. Major factors related to the stability are the crystal, the oven, the circuit configuration and selection of components. Crystal Units The one-mc crystal is an AT-cut crystal with a Q of 1.6 million. It is designed for operation at 60 C. In the operating range, the temperature coefficient of the crystal is 0.146 cycle per deg C. Series impedance at resonance is about six ohms. A 20-g shock for eight milli-sec results in a frequency change of 15 parts in $10^6$. A new design of crystal mounting is said to reduce the effect of shock considerably. The James Knights crystal is mounted in the horizontal plane and is supported by a spring structure. Insulating medium for the General Radio oven is a vacuum flask. At a room temperature of 25 C, an average power of two watts maintains the oven at a temperature of 60 C. Oven temperature remains constant within a few hundredths of one deg with normal slow changes in ambient temperature. A heavy-duty 45-v battery can act as a power source for the oven for a 72-hour period. A transistor serves as a switching device to deliver power to the heating element. If a-c power is available, the heating element can be controlled by a thyratron through the same power connector used with the battery. In both methods of oven control, the control circuit is not troubled by contact resistance of the thermostat. Since the oven was made for use in a tv transmitter monitor, it was necessary to modify it considerably to package the oscillator. However, the thermal time constant was not changed appreciably. A roughing oven enclosing the oven described would improve the instability caused by thermal shock. Circuit Description Basic aim of the circuit is to reduce undesirable phase shift in the amplifier portion of the oscillator and to maximize the phase-angle change across the feedback network as a function of frequency. Variations in temperature and supply voltage can introduce a change in phase angle of the amplifier. To alleviate temperature and voltage effects, the entire oscillator circuit and a transistor voltage regulator were placed in the oven. Since tuned amplifiers could introduce phase problems, the amplifier was designed to be of broad bandwidth. Because crystal impedance is six ohms, the crystal must be terminated in a low impedance to provide a high-Q feedback network. Figure 3 shows the oscillator and voltage-regulator circuits. A three-stage grounded-base transistor amplifier delivers the necessary power gain. The output transformer requires a 23 to 1 turns ratio to drive the three-ohm termination of the crystal from a grounded-base stage. A turns ratio of 3 to 1 is used for the interstage transformers. Amplitude limiting in the final amplifier is accomplished with two diodes placed in opposite polarity across the output transformer. Since the circuit operates at 60 C, silicon transistors are used. It is possible to change frequency of the oscillator slightly by adjusting the trimmer capacitor in parallel with the feedback capacitor. A change of 30 μf varies the frequency by 0.4 cycle. The rms voltage output of the oscillator is 3 mv. Stability of the oscillator was measured by multiplying the one-mc output to 100 mc. Tests were made to determine effects of the multiplier chain. No variations within the resolving power of the measuring equipment (parts in $10^6$) were introduced. The 100-mc signal produced by the multiplier was mixed with a 100-mc signal from a National Radio Atomichron. This latter unit has a five-mc source stable to one part in $10^6$. By offsetting the frequency of the one-mc transistor oscillator so that it was 3.9 cps below one mc, a beat note of 390 cps appeared at the mixer output. This audio frequency was delivered to a 400-cps frequency meter having a direct output voltage proportional to frequency. A recorder displayed variations in the d-c output of the frequency meter. Figure 4 is a block diagram of the measuring equipment. Maximum deviation over a 24-hour period was one part in $10^6$. Similar results were obtained by using the same technique to measure drift between two of the transistor oscillators. Another method of measurement involved the Lissajous pattern produced by two of the transistor oscillators. By introducing distortion in one of the oscilloscope inputs to distort the Lissajous pattern, one can measure the number of minutes required for the phase difference between the two oscillators to shift by 360 deg. Research on this project was supported by the Army, Navy and Air Force under contract with MIT. F-M Tuner Adapter for Four-tube unit separates subcarrier signal from output of standard f-m tuners and, after demodulation, matrixes it with main signal to provide two stereophonic channels. Though designed for Crosby system of multiplex transmission, provision is made for use with other systems By LEONARD FELDMAN, President, Madison Fielding Corporation, Brooklyn, N. Y. STEREOPHONIC BROADCASTS attempted to date have had various shortcomings. Simultaneous a-m/f-m stereo broadcasts, using one of the two media for each channel, result in one good channel and one relatively inferior channel; also, the listener equipped with only one type of receiver hears a highly unbalanced program which favors the left or the right. Twin f-m stations pooling their efforts for stereo eliminate the first of these shortcomings, but they retain the second and also reduce the number of programs that can be transmitted on the f-m band in any given area. Development of the Crosby f-m multiplex stereophonic system affords two channels which together are as good as the single channel used in conventional f-m transmissions. In addition, the listener to a stereo transmission with a conventional f-m receiver hears a complete and balanced monophonic signal. This article describes an inexpensive converter that, when used in conjunction with a conventional f-m tuner or receiver, will separate the two stereo channels. The unit requires no tuning or other periodic adjustments and its circuits are effective only during periods of stereo transmission. Transmission System Figure 1 shows the transmission setup for the Crosby system. A two-channel signal is supplied from a stereo tape or disk, or two properly positioned microphones. The two channels, $A$ and $B$, are added in-phase in a mixing network to obtain an output signal that is the sum of $A + B$. This sum signal is used to modulate the f-m transmitter in the usual way. It is therefore this total-program signal that the listener equipped with only a conventional f-m receiver will hear. The $B$-channel signal is also passed through a phase inverter; the $-B$ output signal is added to the $A$ signal in another mixing network to obtain an output signal which is $A-B$, the difference between the two channels. This signal may be thought of as the stereo-content signal. The $A-B$ signal is used to modulate a 50-ke generator to a maximum deviation of $\pm 25$ ke. Thus, the frequency limits of this subsidiary generator are 25 ke and 75 ke. This f-m is used to further modulate the f-m transmitter. Since the total permissible deviation per f-m channel is $\pm 75$ ke, equal deviation is assigned to the main carrier and the 50-ke subcarrier, or a $37\frac{1}{2}$ ke maximum deviation for each. Subcarrier modulation will always be constant at $37\frac{1}{2}$ ke whereas the main $A + B$ modulation will vary in accordance with audio content as always. In any case, the total bandwidth requirement will never exceed the allowed 75 kc on each side of the r-f carrier. For the monophonic listener, the reduced primary audio modulation (to $37\frac{1}{2}$ ke) will result in a 6-db reduction of audio amplitude. Advances in f-m tuner signal-to-noise and quieting sensitivity design are such that this slight decrease in sound level can be deemed unimportant. In the case of stereo listening, no reduction in sound level results. Both the $A + B$ and $A - B$ signals are preemphasized in accordance with standard practice. Reception System Figure 2 is a block diagram of the system needed to receive the Multiplexed Stereo FIG. 1—Basic Crosby multiplex transmission system for two stereophonic channels The $A - B$ signal also undergoes phase inversion to produce a $-(A - B)$ signal that is added to the main $A + B$ signal to produce $(A + B) - (A - B)$ or $2B$. Noise Figure The factor of two in each case is relative, depending upon the amplification in the particular circuits; it substantiates the earlier hypothesis that no signal-to-noise deterioration results when listening to stereo. The subcarrier noise figure is somewhat better than the main-carrier noise figure, so when the two are remixed, the noise figure of each channel ($A$ and $B$) is actually better than that of an equivalent monophonic transmission. The complete circuit diagram of the converter unit is shown in Fig. 3. Amplifier $V_{4A}$ equates the level of the primary ($A + B$) audio with subsequently demodulated ($A - B$) components. The signal from the multiplex output of the f-m tuner is passed through cathode follower $V_{1A}$ to provide isolation and a proper source impedance for the filters to follow. While the circuit parameters used suggest nonlinear operation of this stage, sinusoidal reproduction at this point is not necessary as only frequency variations of the subcarrier contribute to the final demodulated output. Maximum gain (minimum loss) was the governing factor, rather than minimum distortion. As both the main audio and the subcarrier are available at the multiplex output of any standard f-m tuner, it would have been possible to provide only one input on the converter, with subsequent separation taking place in the converter itself. This was avoided for two reasons: (1) the main audio signal derived at the discriminator or ratio detector of an f-m tuner lacks the necessary high-frequency deemphasis characteristic. While a deemphasis network could have been built into the converter this would have duplicated parts already present in the tuner and increased cost. (2) Many jacks of present-day tuners have an isolating capacitor that is adequate for passing the subcarrier but hardly adequate for coupling audio to the high-impedance input of the converter. Filters The filters that follow $V_{1A}$ are necessary to completely eliminate all audible frequencies thus far accompanying the subcarrier. Since these frequencies extend to 15 kc, the cut-off point of both high-pass sections is 20-kc. The single low-pass section has a cut-off frequency of 75 kc, to restrict demodulated noise of the bandwidth necessary for proper functioning of the rest of the circuit and no more. Terminating and source impedances are 1,200 ohms. It was found that 10-percent resistors and 5-percent capacitors and inductors were satisfactory. For the high-pass sections, a leeway of $\pm 3$ kc for the 3-db attenuation point will not deteriorate performance, as the highest audio frequency transmitted is 15 kc, fully 5 kc removed from the beginning of the nominal passband. In a positive direction, 25 kc is the first frequency of interest in the subcarrier. This frequency is attained only under conditions of 100-percent (25 kc) modulation of the subcarrier; with the amplitude available from most tuners, an attenuation of as great as 6 db at 25 kc will not affect limiting, demodulation or noise figure. The low and high-pass characteristics of the filter sections are shown in Fig. 4. The f-m subcarrier is amplified by $V_{1n}$ and $V_{2a}$; the latter also affords partial saturation limiting because of the large voltage swings in its plate circuit. Detection At this point in the circuit, the classic approach would have been to provide further limiting and subsequent f-m detection by any one of the several techniques available. Anticipated variations in subcarrier level because of different tuners used, cable lengths and other factors discouraged this approach, as full limiting could not be relied on unless more stages were incorporated. Also, as it has been decided to employ pulse or counter detection, waveshapes had to be consistent and fixed for proper pulse differentiation and minimum distortion in the recovered audio signal. For these reasons, the actual subcarrier is abandoned at this point and is used merely to generate or trigger a series of square waves utilizing the monostable multivibrator consisting of $V_{2s}$ and $V_{2a}$. The time constants were chosen to produce consistently shaped wave trains at any frequency from 25 kc to 75 kc. Thus, any amplitude of subcarrier of about 0.1 or more at the multiplex input jack will produce a steep, high-amplitude square-wave train suitable for differentiation in the network in the grid circuit of counter detector $V_{2s}$. Parameter Choice The choice of the parameters in the differentiation network involved a classic compromise, that of gain versus distortion. A time constant of 1 $\mu$sec or three times that of 0.33 $\mu$sec, as finally chosen, would have yielded an audio output in the plate circuit more than twice as great. Unfortunately, the lowest frequencies of pulse trains would also undergo severe amplitude and shape distortion, which would in turn manifest itself as high-order second-harmonic distortion in the recovered $(A - B)$ audio. Properly designed, the counter detector is extremely linear and highly suitable at the frequencies under consideration. The r-c networks in the plate circuit of $V_{1n}$ remove residual subcarrier components and the necessary 75-$\mu$sec deemphasis. Matrixing The recovered $(A - B)$ signal is fed to $V_{1n}$ and derived in phase at its cathode and out of phase, $-(A - B)$, in its plate circuit. The two signals are then mixed in means for adjusting the level of the monophonic $A + B$ signal from tuners of different manufacturers. Switch $S_1$ is shown in the position required for Crosby-system stereo transmissions. If this system gains universal approval, $S_1$ will probably be eliminated. Until that time, it is conceivable that some stations may wish to transmit other types of f-m stereo signals, in which channel $A$ may be broadcast through regular f-m and channel $B$ through the f-m subcarrier. In that event, $S_1$ will enable the user to extract subcarrier audio from one output jack and main audio from the other. In either case, connection is made from the two output jacks to high-level high-impedance inputs of two single-channel amplifiers or a dual-channel stereophonic amplifier. In the absence of stereo broadcasting, the dimension control may be adjusted for normal f-m reception from both speaker systems. Under these conditions, amplifier volumes would be adjusted to provide equal volume from each of the speaker systems. Then, when the dimension control is used on the occasion of stereo broadcasting, perfect spatial balance will be automatically achieved. Performance For the main channel, the gain is $-3$ db with a frequency response of 20 to 18,000 cps $\pm 1$ db. Harmonic distortion is less than 0.3 percent for the 0.4-v output obtained with 37.5-kc maximum deviation when fed from a ratio-detector type tuner. The subchannel has a response of $-11$ db at 8 kc and is flat from 20 to 15,000 cps $\pm 1$ db when fed with a signal having standard 75-$\mu$sec preemphasis. Full limiting of the subcarrier channel is obtained with as little as 60 mv input; up to several volts input can be handled without overload. Output of the adapter is 0.4 v for 25-kc (maximum) deviation of the subcarrier and the harmonic distortion is less than 1 percent over-all for full deviation of the sub and main carriers. Up to 6,000-cps, phase error between the $A + B$ and $A - B$ channels is less than 15 deg. Tape Recording System Pulse duration recording technique and 31-channel block format give large information content, minimum dead space and effect from tape skew plus ability to selectively rerecord on individual blocks. Unique electronically controlled pneumatic tape transport permits high rate of information transfer. By WAY DONG WOO, DATAmatic Div., Minneapolis-Honeywell Regulator Co., Newton Highlands, Mass. Novel recording techniques are enabling a data processing system to handle information at a rate of 60,000 digits or 40,000 alpha-numeric characters a second. This article describes the information format, read and write circuits, and tape transport mechanism which give the system the required speed and capacity. Information Format Magnetic tape is the common medium of information transfer throughout the system. A 3-inch wide tape capable of accommodating 36 magnetic channels is used. Three channels control and position the tape, 31 contain recorded information, and two are spares. Information is recorded in blocks of 62 words, 2 words in each of the 31 information channels. Start and finish of each block is indicated by marks on the control and position channels. An interlace recording technique minimizes the dead spaces between blocks required to accelerate the tape and eliminates the need for rewinding. Interlacing is done by recording on every other block while the tape is moving in the forward direction, then recording in reverse to fill in unused blocks as shown in Fig. 1A. A full reel of tape contains 50,000 blocks: blocks numbered 1 through 25,000 are used during the forward cycle and 25,001 through 50,000 during the reverse cycle. Magnetization of the block mark channels and the signal as it appears when the tape is played back are shown in Fig. 1B, 1C and 1D. To assure that recording begins at the proper point, the positive pulse appearing in the forward or reverse mark channels must occur with the check pulse in the check mark channel. Positive and negative pulses in the forward or reverse mark channels indicate the respective beginning and end of reading. Recording Technique A pulse-width-modulation technique is used for magnetically recording binary digits on the tape information channels. Binary digits are represented by the interval of time between two successive reversals of magnetization of the tape. An example magnetic pattern is shown in Fig. 2. During playback, peak output voltages are obtained when the head passes through a reversal of magnetization. Alternate peak voltages are generated every 31 or 62 μsec. Information is conveyed by frequency deviation of the carrier and not by variation of amplitude. Since noise causes fluctuation of amplitude, a lower signal-to-noise ratio can be tolerated than in conventional recording systems. Erasing of previous recording is not necessary when new words are recorded. Since the magnetic medium is subjected to saturation of one polarity or the other, the resultant magnetization of the tape is completely independent of its history. This feature allows information blocks to be selectively altered without disturbing adjacent blocks. Also, need for synchronization of pulses in different channels... Speeds Data Processing Operator starts DATAmatic 1000 magnetic file unit. Reel holds 2,700 feet of 3-in. wide tape containing over 37 million decimal digits. is eliminated thereby removing skew as the limiting factor in obtaining maximum pulse density. Writing Circuits A block diagram of the magnetic tape writing circuits is shown in Fig. 3. The 106 bits of the two words to be written in each channel are stored in the shift register and are read out serially during recording. A ZERO output permits clock pulses to be applied to the binary flip-flop every 31 μsec. A ONE output, however, energizes a one-shot multivibrator which actuates the inhibit gate for 44 μsec. This action permits only the second, or 62-μsec, clock pulse to be fed to the binary flip-flop. After being amplified, the flip-flop output is applied to the head selected by the selection circuit. Writing current is reversed in the selected head in 31 μsec for a ZERO and in 62 μsec for a ONE. The circuit used to apply the output of the binary flip-flop to a selected head in the remotely located magnetic file unit is shown in Fig. 4. Magnetic recording transformers $T_1$ and $T_2$ associated with the selected head are connected to +190 v; transformers of all unselected heads are connected to +160 v. Since the voltage applied to the selected head transformers exceeds the amplifier B+ voltage, plate currents from tubes $V_1$ and $V_2$, flow in the transformer primary generating +60 ma of magnetization current in the head winding. Diodes $D_1$ and $D_2$ clamp the amplifier end of all head transformer primaries at the plate supply voltage, while voltage $E_1$ on the other end of unselected head transformer primaries is held at +160 v. Since the back resistance of series diodes $D_3$ and $D_4$ is high, current cannot flow in unselected heads. Pulse-width modulation results in different length words in different channels thus, signals are necessary to indicate where information begins and ends. Writing starts when the beginning mark from the block mark channel is detected. A few ZEROES followed by a ONE, which are not information bits, are then written. After the 106 information bits are recorded, another ONE and a few ZEROES are written. The noninformation ONE bits, called sentinals, serve to signal the start and finish of the information bit recording. The ZERO bits preceding and following the sentinel bits are used to make certain that at least one ZERO is read in spite of tape skew, delays and the like. Reading Circuits A block diagram of the tape reading circuits is shown in Fig. 5. Information bit content and corresponding read head output waveform are shown in Fig. 6A and 6B. Signals from a head are amplified and gated on when the associated channel is read. The gated signal is again amplified, differentiated and phase split to give the waveform shown in Fig. 6C. Since the signal is differentiated, crossover points occur through the base lines at the positive and negative peaks of the original head signal. The outputs of the amplifier and differentiator are fed into the opposite inputs of the binary flip-flop. The two flip-flop outputs are then differentiated, mixed and fed to a one-shot multivibrator. The multivibrator output signal, shown in Fig. 6D, contains a 14 μsec negative pulse for every change in polarity of tape magnetization. The train of pulses is now applied to the time interval detector circuit shown in Fig. 7. In the quiescent state, point $A$ is at +1.3 v while $B$ and $C$ are at ground potential. If a large negative pulse arrives, the potential of points $A$ and $B$ is driven down to −75v and clamped there by diodes $D_1$ and $D_2$. When the input pulse disappears, the potential at points $A$ and $B$ rises exponentially towards +160 v with a time constant $R_1 (C_1 + C_2)$. As soon as point $B$ rises to ground potential, $V_{1a}$ conducts driving the potential of point $D$ from −13 v to ground. Tube $V_{1b}$ then conducts raising the potential of point $E$ to ground triggering blocking oscillator $V_2$ which delivers a 13-ma pulse to the core winding in the magnetic shift register. Time constant $R_1 (C_1 + C_2)$ is set to raise points $B$ and $C$ from −75 v to ground in 30 μsec. If a zero bit is read, time delay between successive pulses is only 17 μsec; therefore, no magnetization pulse is generated. However, if a one bit is read, time delay between successive pulses is 48 μsec and a pulse is delivered to the shift register. Tape Transport Mechanism Two continuously counter rotating capstans driven by a synchronous motor and traveling at circumferential speeds of 100 ips move the tape. Capstan surfaces contain a number of small holes which are connected to a pneumatic suction system through electrically operated valves. To stop the tape, the suction is removed from the capstan and applied to brake surfaces located under the chosen head. A schematic diagram of the driving circuits is shown in Fig. 8. The two capstans and brakes are connected to the vacuum and the low pressure compressed air reservoirs through a valve system containing three control vanes; one for the brake surfaces, and one each for the counter rotating capstans. Each vane together with its air passage forms a bistable pneumatic flip-flop. In one state the capstan or brake surface is connected to the vacuum, in the other to the pressure reservoir. The vanes are set at one of the two positions when pulses are applied to the two actuators. When a go forward pulse is received, it is amplified by $V_{1a}$ and used to energize the one-shot delay tube $V_2$ which delivers a 3.5 millisecond positive pulse. Through cathode follower $V_{1a}$, the vacuum actuator is energized with a current of 1.5 amp through the plate circuit of $V_2$, thereby connecting the forward capstan to the vacuum. The output of $V_{1b}$ also energizes the low pressure actuator which removes the brake. Similarly when a stop forward pulse is received, the one-shot-delay tube $V_2$ becomes operative delivering a pulse of 2.5 millisecond to the low-pressure actuator which disconnects the forward moving capstan from the vacuum and connects it to the low pressure air line. Output of $V_{1b}$ also energizes the vacuum actuator which brakes the tape to a stop. In cases where a go forward command is received before 2.5 millisecond has elapsed from the last stop forward command, the effect of the stop command is immediately overridden by a cancel circuit consisting of coupling capacitor $C_1$. The negative pulse on $V_{2a}$ cuts off $V_{2a}$ under all circumstances, thereby causing the output of $V_2$ to immediately return to a negative value. This action cuts off tubes $V_2$ and $V_1$ with the result that low pressure and vacuum actuators immediately energize moving the tape forward. A similar circuit is used for the reverse drive. REFERENCE (1) R. B. Lawrence, R. E. Wilkins and R. A. Pendleton, Apparatus for Magnetic Storage on Three-Inch Wide Tapes, Proc EJCC, 1957. This is Aeronutronic — men, ideas, and the tools for research. Aeronutronic — a dynamic new name in science — created by the Ford Motor Company to meet the demanding technological needs of a nation on the move. Aeronutronic is moving into the future and moving fast. Space sciences, missile technology and space vehicles... computers, electronics... tactical weapon systems... these are major research, development and manufacturing activities conducted at ASI's modern 200-acre Research Center under construction at Newport Beach, California. Exceptional engineers and scientists are needed now. If you are forward-looking and want to be an important part of a forward-moving organization, you'll find a new challenge and rewarding future at Aeronutronic — where men set ideas in motion. For information regarding positions, interests, facilities or products, write to Mr. K. A. Dunn, Aeronutronic Systems, Inc., Bldg. 8, 1534 Air Way, Glendale, California, or call CHapman 5-9551. OFFICE OF ADVANCED RESEARCH • SPACE TECHNOLOGY DIVISION • COMPUTER DIVISION • TACTICAL WEAPON SYSTEMS DIVISION AERONUTRONIC a subsidiary of FORD MOTOR COMPANY NEWPORT BEACH, GLENDALE, SANTA ANA AND MAYWOOD, CALIFORNIA Waveguide Data Charts Double and triple-post susceptance data charts permit design of X-band waveguide filters with high precision. By ELIO SION, Airborne Instruments Lab., Div. of Cutler-Hammer, Inc., Mineola, N. Y. INDUCTIVE POSTS offer one of the simplest and most economical ways of designing multiple-cavity X-band waveguide filters. These charts can be used to design filters with a bandwidth as narrow as 0.8 percent. Constructed ten-cavity one-percent bandwidth filters had insertion losses of less than 0.75 db at midband. The low susceptance sections of the filter employed two-post structures, while the high-susceptance cavities used the three-post structure. In actual filter design, the cavity sections are made slightly shorter than calculated. The filter sections are tuned by capacitive screws or capacitive dimpling. For triple posts, cavity Q's in the order of 6,300 were obtained, and Q's of 5,000 were obtained for double posts. Cavity designs consisted of silver posts in silver-lined X-band waveguide. A silver plated hemispherically tipped tuning screw was used for tuning. Length $L_{\text{corr}}$ is determined using the correction curves. In the example given on the chart, the calculated length of the second cavity, namely the distance between $B_2$ and $B_3$ is, $$\frac{1}{2} L_{\text{corr}} + \frac{1}{2} L_{\text{corr}},$$ hence this is equal to 0.963 inch. Now with Hughes Systems Development Labs. NEXT TIME...LOOK TO LEACH/INET FOR PRECISE GROUND POWER This INET 400-cycle ground power unit was tailor-made for the Atlas. The unit operates in parallel with the missile's power system and provides remote control regulation. Frequency regulation is ±0.2%. With shock load equal to a third of rated output, frequency recovers to ±0.2% in 0.15 seconds. Voltage regulation is ±0.5% with recovery time at 0.30 seconds. LOOK TO LEACH INET DIVISION LEACH CORPORATION 18435 SUSANA ROAD, COMPTON, CALIFORNIA DISTRICT OFFICES AND FIELD REPRESENTATIVES IN PRINCIPAL CITIES OF U.S. AND CANADA • EXPORT: LEACH CORPORATION, INTERNATIONAL DIVISION Theodolite References Jupiter Guidance AZIMUTH orientation of inertially guided missiles before launch establishes a frame of reference without which the missile could not navigate to its target. The irrevocable nature of inertial guidance after blast off spurred development of a highly accurate azimuth theodolite by Perkin-Elmer. The prototype and operational requirements have been supplied for the Redstone Arsenal for use with the Jupiter missile. Optical and electronic techniques are combined in the theodolite to form a closed servo loop. Accuracy is characterized by the system's ability to detect deviations within the angle subtended by a dime placed a mile away. Operation The theodolite detects discrepancies in alignment of basic monitored equipment by continuous observation of reflections from a mirror mounted on the stable platform of the guidance package. Rotational discrepancies cause error signals that are applied as corrective signals to drive elements of the monitored equipment via a closed loop between theodolite and missile. The monitoring optical system consists of two modulated light sources, a telephoto lens as the objective, a beam dividing vee prism and a multiplier phototube. The system is shown in Fig. 1. Light from the sources is reflected from a mirror or prism mounted on the stable platform. Two glow discharge lamps used as sources are modulated at 400 cps in phase opposition. The two lamps are each imaged at the focal plane of the telephoto objective by separate condenser systems. A prism-shaped mirror reflects the beams along the optical axis of the objective lens. The resultant signal produced by the multiplier phototube is a function of the angular displacement of the monitored mirror from the squared-on position. This 400-cps signal is in phase or 180 degrees out of phase with the reference voltage, depending on the direction of deviation. If the monitored mirror is squared on with the optical axis, reflected light will re-enter the objective, fall on the opposite side of the prism and be lost in the source. Thus by being perpendicular to the line of sight, a null results. Tie-in to the geographical reference is achieved with a survey theodolite incorporating an accurate azimuth circle and sighting telescope. Desired angle between reference and monitoring line of sight is set off using the azimuth circle. The zero setting is determined by autocollimating both systems from a common test mirror. Error Signal If the monitored mirror is rotated in azimuth even slightly, returning beams will not be centered on the optical axis and will pass through a slit (which is ground and polished on the apex of the prism) and strike the multiplier phototube, shown in Fig. 2. An error signal is produced which, by its phase, represents direction of azimuth deviation and, by its magnitude, the amount of error. Error signals drive the stable Kepco TRANSISTORIZED V.R.P.S.* VOLTAGE REGULATED POWER SUPPLIES Model SC-18-2M 0.1% REGULATION STABILITY \| MODEL \| DC OUTPUT VOLTS \| DC OUTPUT AMPS. \| \|-----------\|-----------------\|-----------------\| \| SC-18-0.5 \| 0-18 \| 0-0.5 \| \| SC-18-1 \| 0-18 \| 0-1 \| \| SC-18-2 \| 0-18 \| 0-2 \| \| SC-18-4 \| 0-18 \| 0-4 \| \| SC-36-0.5 \| 0-36 \| 0-0.5 \| \| SC-36-1 \| 0-36 \| 0-1 \| \| SC-36-2 \| 0-36 \| 0-2 \| \| SC-3672-0.5 \| 36-72 \| 0-0.5 \| \| SC-3672-1 \| 36-72 \| 0-1 \| 0.01% REGULATION STABILITY \| MODEL \| DC OUTPUT VOLTS \| DC OUTPUT AMPS. \| \|-----------\|-----------------\|-----------------\| \| SC-32-0.5 \| 0-32 \| 0-0.5 \| \| SC-32-1 \| 0-32 \| 0-1 \| \| SC-32-1.5 \| 0-32 \| 0-1.5 \| \| 2SC-32-1.5 \| 0-32 \| 0-1.5 \| \| DUAL OUTPUT \| 0-32 \| 0-1.5 \| \| SC-32-2.5 \| 0-32 \| 0-2.5 \| \| SC-32-5 \| 0-32 \| 0-5 \| \| SC-32-10 \| 0-32 \| 0-10 \| \| SC-32-15 \| 0-32 \| 0-15 \| \| SC-60-2 \| 0-60 \| 0-2 \| \| SC-60-5 \| 0-60 \| 0-5 \| \| 2SC-100-0.2 \| 0-100 \| 0-0.2 \| \| DUAL OUTPUT \| 0-100 \| 0-0.2 \| \| SC-150-1 \| 0-150 \| 0-1 \| \| SC-300-1 \| 0-300 \| 0-1 \| the most complete line of POWER SUPPLIES Kepco offers more than 120 standard voltage regulated power supplies covering a wide range of transistor, tube and magnetic types. For complete specifications, write for Brochure B-591 0.02% REGULATION STABILITY COMPACT PACKAGE TYPE \| MODEL \| DC OUTPUT VOLTS \| DC OUTPUT AMPS. \| \|-----------\|-----------------\|-----------------\| \| PSC- 5-2 \| 0- 7.5 \| 2 \| \| PSC-10-2 \| 7.5-12.5 \| 2 \| \| PSC-15-2 \| 12.5-17.5 \| 2 \| \| PSC-20-2 \| 17.5-22.5 \| 2 \| \| PSC-28-1 \| 22.5-32.5 \| 1 \| \| PSC-38-1 \| 32.5-42.5 \| 1 \| Kepco INC. 131-38 SANFORD AVENUE • FLUSHING 55, N.Y. • INDEPENDENCE 1-7000 A story without an ending! The Versatility of TAYLOR Vulcanized Fibre What this material is . . . Vulcanized fibre is truly one of the wonder materials of all times. It is hard and dense, with excellent physical, mechanical and electrical properties. It is tough and resilient—has high resistance to impact, abrasion, wear, organic solvents, oils and gasoline. It is attractive and light in weight. What can be done with it . . . Vulcanized fibre can be machined, turned, stamped and punched. It can be formed, sawed, drilled, planed, milled and chiseled. It can be hammered, shaved, threaded, buffed and sanded. It can be decorated by lacquering, painting, printing and engraving. It can be laminated. How it can be used . . . Vulcanized fibre can be used for welders' helmets, golf club face inserts, carrying cases, track and motor insulation, and abrasive discs. It can be used for switch parts, gears, sliding door guides, shuttles, bobbin heads, labels and tags; for facings, table tops, partitions and kitchen utensils. There is no end to the things that can be done with it and the applications for which it is suited. For more complete information on the forms and grades available, contact TAYLOR FIBRE CO., Norristown 40, Pa. Thyratron Used for Bistable Circuit DEVELOPMENT of a tester for checking out repaired dial telephones led to an experimental bistable circuit. It uses a triode, a thyratron and only three other components. FIG. 1—Triade-thyratron bistable circuit delivers large pulses without being sensitive to changes in load. Conventional flip-flops were unsuitable for the particular application because they are sensitive to changes in load characteristics when handling large pulses. A thyratron was used because its plate-to-cathode voltage does not change with changes in current. ![Fig. 2—Normal condition of monostable circuit is the ON state](image) The load can be entirely in the plate or cathode circuit of the flip-flop shown in Fig. 1, and an external load may be directly coupled. Triggering is unaffected by changes in plate current. Since the circuit does not have regenerative feedback, somewhat larger triggering pulses are required. Time required for transition from OFF to ON state depends on breakdown time of the thyratron (about 5 μsec). Transition from ON to OFF state is about equal to the rise time of the trigger waveform. Operation* In the OFF state, both tubes are cutoff. An external positive pulse fires the thyratron and causes the triode to conduct. Because the triode grid is positive with respect to its cathode, it draws grid current. However, the thyratron grid is at a lower potential than its cathode so it delivers current. The circuit therefore locks in a stable condition. An external negative pulse cuts off the triode, opening the thyratron cathode circuit and returning the circuit to its OFF state. Other vacuum tube-thyratron circuits can be derived from the basic circuit. A monostable circuit is shown in Fig. 2. This material was abstracted from The Western Electric Engineer, Oct. 1958, p 21-24. New Self-Sustained Emission Tube Magnesium oxide cold cathodes are a new electron source discovered at the Signal Corps Research and Development Laboratory, in the course of a study of the self-sustained secondary emission. Use of this cathode in a pre-production model of an audio output tube was recently demonstrated jointly by Tung-Sol Electric and the Army. The cathodes were first discovered when thin MgO layers were deposited on a nickel base and bombarded with electrons possessing sufficient energy to produce secondary electron emission from the MgO. When the bombarding beam was turned off, the MgO layer continued to emit electrons without external stimulus. Neither heat, nor external light was necessary to keep alive the emission current. By varying the voltage at the collector electrode, this self-sustained current could be easily controlled for many hours from a few microamps to several tens of milliamperes. A simple technique was finally developed which was suitable for large scale production of efficient and reproducible MgO cathodes. The resulting cathodes were successfully employed in electron tubes under a Signal Corps contract with Tung-Sol Electric Inc. Mechanism Of SSE When emission starts from MgO a positive charge is developed at the surface of the MgO layer. Since the cathode coatings are thin, a high electrical field is created across the coatings. It is assumed that under the influence of this field, electrons multiply by an avalanche process, and gain sufficient energy to enter the vacuum. The avalanche of electrons is assumed to be the result of a photoelectric effect in which photons are ejected during the recombination of positive ions with electrons. This concept can be considered only as a first approximation at present. The Tube The first pre-production tube developed was an audio output amplifier (see Fig. 1). It develops 900 mw of power to drive a loudspeaker. Outwardly it looks exactly like a hot cathode tube since it is made of similar parts. The power required to run one hot cathode of the conventional type is sufficient to run ten magnesium oxide cold cathodes. The cold cathodes require only three quarters of a watt per cathode totalling seven and a half (7.50) watts for the ten of them. This refers to cathode power only, not to plate or total power. The plate power is the same for one cold cathode tube as for one thermionic tube. It is not necessary to have a filament transformer or separate battery to run the cathode in a cold cathode tube. The cathode itself can be run on a small portion of the direct current supply used for total operation of the tube. This applies also to the filament used momentarily for starting emission. Advantages of the cold-cathode tube are: less cathode power required for operation, quick starting, longer life, and no trouble from faulty heater operation. The disadvantages are: even though the overall power is substantially less, a minimum voltage of about 300 volts is necessary for operation at present; the present tubes are not self starting; a starting means must be provided; the tubes are slightly more complex internally. The two types are about equal with respect to cost and noise level. One of the early tubes has been in continuous operation for 14,000 hours without any decrease in the emission. Applications Development work now is concentrated on other types of cold-cathode tubes. One is a preamplifier that will produce more amplification than any commercial hot-cathode tube. Sample tubes of this kind have already been produced successfully. Another development presently under way is a cold cathode electron gun for use in cathode ray tubes for television, and in klystrons, travelling wave tubes and the like. In the design stage is a flat, picture-on-the-wall display device for television or radar. It appears to be possible to produce brightness in such a device greater than that of any present picture tube. Other applications include garage door openers, electronic computers where the elimination of the heater For HIGH Insulation Resistance and Low Power Factor AEROVOX Polystyrene Capacitors are wound with NATVAR Styroflex® AEROVOX Corporation, with ten plants from coast to coast, have been manufacturing capacitors since 1922. As leaders in the field, they have been quick to take advantage of new and better materials, and to anticipate the demands of the fastest growing industry—electronics. They use Natvar Styroflex because it has all of the outstanding properties of polystyrene, plus complete flexibility, toughness and uniformity. Natvar Styroflex is available in standard thicknesses from .0004" to .006" in rolls from ½" to approximately 10" in width. Ask for data sheet St-1. Natvar Products - Varnished cambric—cloth and tape - Varnished canvas and duck - Varnished silk and special rayon - Varnished—Silicone coated Fiberglas - Varnished papers—rope and kraft - Slot cell combinations, Aboglas® - Isoglas® sheet and tape - Isolastane® sheet, tape, tubing and sleeving - Vinyl coated—varnished tubing and sleeving - Extruded vinyl tubing and tape - Styroflex® flexible polystyrene tape - Extruded identification markers We will be very happy to supply information on any of our products on request. would pay dividends in reliability and in total power drain, industrial and automation control circuits for the same reasons, telephone cables buried at the bottom of the sea where the unlimited life would be advantageous and in earth satellites where the low power drain would make operation on solar batteries feasible and where the long life and resistance to radiation from outer space would provide reliable functioning for years of orbiting. An interesting feature of the cold cathode is its ability to sustain emission continuously at extremely low currents without danger of going out, and to start up again instantly. This offers a decided advantage when a small "keep-alive" current at adequate voltage is available. Restarting times have been measured as fast as one thousandth of a second. Semiconductors for Strain Gages Most commonly used metal-wire strain gages have gage factors $(dR/RS$ where $R$ is resistance of the unstrained element and $dR$ is change of resistance with strain $S$) between two and four. But germanium and silicon used in strain gages give gage factors of up to 150 and 175, respectively, according to the January 1959 issue of Bell Laboratories Record. With semiconductor gages, stress forces can be large since semiconductors are strong materials. They respond to torsional and shearing forces which wire-type gages do not. Figures 1 and 2 show two versions of the semiconductor gages. Figure 1 is a drawing of a displacement gage while Fig. 2 shows the configuration of a torsional gage. The torsional unit consists of a cylindrical crystal of germanium cemented to a solid support at one end. Electrodes one to six are attached as shown. With the proper biasing voltage, current flows from electrode three to five and from six to four. Electrodes one and two are normally neutral. But when a torque is applied to the free end of the cylinder, a voltage is generated across them. The voltage is directly proportional to torque and no balancing bridge is required. Stripline Resistors Have Mica Base AVAILABLE as matched loads, fixed pads, variable attenuator elements, and terminations, Stripline resistors developed by Filmohm Corp. exactly match the shape and configuration of the Stripline circuit. A thin film of specially selected natural mica is used for the base. The resistance film is an alloy of pure metals about 50 millionths of an inch thick and sealed with a thin coating of quartz. The mica base is made as thick as the height of the copper conductor (2-mil mica for 1.8-mil copper and 3-mil mica for 2.8-mil copper). Width is equal to width of the copper and length is determined by electrical match, power and resistance. To install the resistor, a section of Stripline is etched out. The resistor is placed on the plastic dielectric between the copper conductors. Electrical contact is achieved by using conductive silver epoxy cement to join the silver tab on the resistor to the copper strip. The final step is to adhesive varnish the resistor and contact areas. Cut potentiometer contact paths 6 to 10 times FASTER with the S.S.WHITE Airbrasive Unit. It gas-propels a fine stream of abrasives to give fast, uniform, perfectly controlled cutting action. The cutting action will not affect even the finest wires...or create heat to damage wires or surrounding varnish. Cuts lines as fine as .008"! For more information about this amazing new industrial tool, ask for Bulletin 5705A. S.S. WHITE INDUSTRIAL DIVISION, Dept.-EU, 10 E. 40th St., New York 16, N.Y. Western Office: 1839 West Pico Blvd., Los Angeles 6, Calif. TIGHTER CONTROL and coordination among purchasing requirements, inventory, production schedules and quality control has been gained by Magnetic Amplifiers, Inc., New York, N. Y., with an uncomplicated procedure which the firm calls kitting. Component parts for each subassembly and major assembly are gathered together before the assembly reaches the production floor. Parts for small assemblies are placed in clear plastic bags. Parts and subassemblies for major assemblies are boxed. The parts are delivered to production personnel in numbered and sealed kits. Cost of the procedure, the firm reports, is at most slight. In many cases, it leads to substantial savings by smoothing work flow. It has worked as well for large and small lot production. Since all parts shortages are discovered prior to assembly, downtime while assemblers hunt for parts or go to the stockroom is negligible. Production personnel get all materials for each unit at one time and can make no mistakes in parts selection. Records are kept on a unit basis, giving preproduction quality control history of each assembly and its parts. Shortages Noted Two cards are placed in each kit. One is an identification and quality control routing ticket. The other is a shortage card, listing any parts missing from the kit. These eliminate any confusion on the production line. Production control personnel determine whether incomplete kits are to be released for assembly. Normally, kits are not released unless the parts can be readily added late in assembly. The cards give added flexibility to production scheduling. If parts of the assemblies are to be changed after the kits are released, this can be done all at once on kits still unassembled. First step in kitting is to obtain, inspect and accumulate parts for a production run. When a reasonable inventory of open stock and specially-ordered parts is on hand, the kits are made up. Materials in the stockroom are preassigned to particular jobs, but are stored by type as well as job for inventory control purposes. Kitting areas and tables are set up adjacent to prekitting storage areas. Kitters are guided by parts lists. The shortage cards are filled out and are also used to make up shortage lists which are referred to purchasing for a followup. Subassemblies are kitted first because often sufficient subassembly parts are on hand before final assembly materials are received. After assembly and testing, these are routed back into final assembly kits. Assembly Guides Assemblers are instructed in proper assembly techniques when they receive the kits. In addition, models, assembly drawings, color photos or black and white photos are provided as guides. The models have been previously tested and approved. Photos are used when models are Aerovox CERAFL Capacitors CERAFL...positively the smallest ceramic capacitors available anywhere. These remarkably ultra-miniature units are designed primarily for airborne and spaceborne equipment, transistorized circuit applications in hearing-aids and other critical applications where space and weight are at an absolute premium. CERAFL...provides completely new design and construction features in a ceramic capacitor. This unique construction makes it possible to obtain extremely high capacities per unit volume. CERAFL...units are rugged ceramic capacitors of proven reliability for operation at temperatures from -55°C to +85°C and to 125°C when derated to 50 volts. Available in capacities from 10 mmf. to 100,000 mmf. in working voltages of 30 and 100 vdc. in axial or radial lead construction. They will meet or surpass all the requirements of MIL-C-11015A. Write today for complete technical information on these ultra-miniature Cerafil Capacitors to... OLEAN, NEW YORK ELECTRONICS—February 6, 1959 not available or when the lot is too small to warrant preparation of a model. The firm has a photo file covering every type of unit previously made by the firm. Skates Roll Potted Parts to Cure Oven SKATE CONVEYORS are used to deliver a steady supply of encapsulated assemblies to the curing oven at Reliance Electric and Engineering Co., Cleveland, Ohio. Subassemblies are interconnected in a bird cage frame. After test, the assemblies are locked in a SEE THE NEW 1959 LINE OF PRICE RELAYS Write or Call PRICE ELECTRIC CORPORATION Frederick, Maryland MONument 3-5141 Tanks in background agitate compound 2-part aluminum mold. The molds go, 4 at a time, into a frame which rides on the wheels of a double-decked skate conveyor. The conveyor holds 100 units. Thermosetting compound is poured into the molds at one end of the conveyor and the units are cured in an oven at the other end. The technique is used in the production of up to 2,000 motor control building blocks monthly. Wrap-Around Rubber "Tails" Hold Wiring WIRING BUNDLES in the Bomarc missile, made by Boeing Airplane Co., Seattle, Wash., are secured with rubber "mouse tails", tapered at one end and with a button on the other end. The tapered end of the tail is passed through a small hole in the chassis, looped around the bundle and reinserted in an adjacent hole. The button acts as a stop so the tough rubber can be cinched up tight. Elasticity permits the tapered end to be pulled through the hole. The rubber expands when tension is released, so the rubber becomes its own stopper. Boeing reports the tails are quicker to install and hold the bundles more securely than waxed string formerly used. Painter shows 'mouse tail' snugging wiring to chassis Cutaway view of bundle secured by "mouse tail" Now Measure TRUE RMS from 100 microvolts to 320 volts REGARDLESS OF WAVEFORM with the Ballantine Model 320 Voltmeter REPRESENTING: A distinctly new departure in VTVM design. FEATURING: A built-in calibrator; — easily read 5-inch log meter; — immunity to severe overload; — useful auxiliary functions. BRIEF SPECIFICATIONS: VOLTAGE RANGE: ............ 100 microvolts to 320 volts DECIBEL RANGE: ................ -80 dbv to +50 dbv FREQUENCY RANGE: .......... 5 to 500,000 cycles per second ACCURACY: ........... .3% from 15 cps to 150KC; 5% elsewhere Figures apply to all meter readings MAXIMUM CREST FACTORS: 5 at full scale; 15 at bottom scale CALIBRATOR STABILITY: .0.5% for line variation 105-125 volts INPUT IMPEDANCE: .... 10 Ma. and 25 µuf, below 10 millivolts 10 Ma. and 8 µuf, above 10 millivolts POWER SUPPLY: ........... 105-125 volts; 50-420 cps, 75 watt Provision for 210-250 volt operation DIMENSIONS: (Portable Model) .... 14 3/4" wide, 10 1/4" high, 12 3/4" deep—Relay Rack Model is available WEIGHT: ......................... 21 lbs., approximately PRICE: $425 Write for the New Ballantine Catalog describing this and other instruments in greater details. BALLANTINE LABORATORIES, INC. Boonton, New Jersey ON THE MARKET VTVM small size METRONIX, INC., Chesterland, Ohio. Designed to meet MIL-T-945A, model SPD-25 electronic voltmeter is especially suitable for use in aircraft, missiles and ground support equipment. It occupies panel space of only 2$\frac{1}{2}$ by 2$\frac{1}{2}$ in. and is less than 6 in. deep. Unit is available in any range from 0 30 mv to 0/300 v. Frequency response is 40 cps to 50 kc. Input impedance is 1 megohm, 15 $\mu$f. Circle 200 on Reader Service Card. H-F Generators light weight D&R LTD., 402 E. Gutierrez, Santa Barbara, Calif., has developed a small light weight generator suitable for a missile power supply. Capable of being driven by a hot gas turbine or other suitable means, the model D-1309 develops 100 w of power at 6,000 cps with shaft speeds up to 60,000 rpm. Featured in the design are low internal impedance, low starting torque, low inertia, reliability. Circle 201 on Reader Service Card. D-C Power Supply silicon rectifier GATES ELECTRONIC CO., 2090 Barnes Ave., Bronx 62, N. Y., announces a new line of silicon power rectifiers. Operating entirely without electronic tubes, the units consist of a double wound varnish impregnated step-down transformer, full wave silicon rectifier, a varnish impregnated reactor and filtering network. A unique protection circuit on models 15GX and 20GX indicates when continuous ratings are exceeded by flashing overload warning light on front panel. The units are designed for rack mount, but may also be used for bench testing at slightly additional cost. Circle 202 on Reader Service Card. Cathode-Ray Tube for airborne uses FERRANTI, LTD., Hollinwood, Manchester, Lancs., England. A new micro-spot crt is capable of resolving 5,000 lines. Measuring 5 in. across, the 5 '71 CM tube has been developed for airborne applications. The spot size is less than 0.001 in. in diameter. The high resolution has been made possible by the use of an exceedingly fine screen and an entirely novel design of electron gun using two focusing elements, one of which is electromagnetic and external to the tube, while the other is electrostatic and of fixed focal length. Circle 203 on Reader Service Card. Converter analog/digital RADIATION, INC., P. O. Box 37, Melbourne, Fla. The 12-bit Radicon converts analog information to digital (and digital to analog) for use in modular data systems. It provides visual display and six selectable output codes compatible with most commercial digital computers. It features asynchronous operation at up to 24 kc word rate, accuracy to ±0.025 percent fullONE INTEGRATED SOURCE for Ceramic-to-Metal Seals Standard types of Alite high voltage bushings are available in various sizes and configurations. INSIDE LOOK AT ALITE— Fact-packed, illustrated Bulletins A-20 and A-7R just off the press. Give vital technical data and product information. Write today. In all phases of planning for ceramic-to-metal seals—from design to finished assembly—you can rely on ALITE for the know-how and "do-how" required to produce highest quality ceramic-metal components for critical applications. High alumina Alite is the ideal material for making rugged, high performance hermetic seals and bushings. It has superior mechanical strength, high temperature and thermal shock resistance, plus reliable electrical characteristics. Our complete high temperature metalizing and bonding facilities assure delivery of the finest seals available—mass-spectrometer tested for vacuum-tightness. Please contact us for valuable performance data and information regarding ceramic-to-metal applications...no obligation. ALITE DIVISION U. S. STONEWARE Orrville, Ohio New York Office 60 East 42nd St. NOW 0.1 to 525 KC in one compact reliable ultrasonic spectrum analyzer PANORAMIC'S NEW SB-15 ... designed for maximum application utility, reliability and automaticity for - Ultrasonic Spectrum Analyses - Harmonic and Cross Modulation Investigations - Ultrasonic Vibration and Noise Measurements - Telemetering - Monitoring - Attenuation Measurements of Filters and Transmission Lines In the all-new, precisely developed SB-15, you get expanded frequency coverage ... all the way to 525 kc! With a single, complete unit, only 8 3/4" high. Check these specifications for the SB-15: - Continuously calibrated sweep width from 200 KC to 1 KC - Exceptional stability at reduced sweep widths - 100 cps resolution capability - Independently variable resolution or automatically optimized resolution to suit your needs - Continuously variable sweep rate from 1 cps to 60 cps For Single Line Frequency Response Curve Tracing ... just add the PANORAMIC G-15 ... highly selective ... discriminates against noise and hum ... virtually unlimited dynamic range. Valuable for analyzing telemetering and carrier current system components, transformers, filters, transducers, amplifiers, receivers and various networks and devices. GET the full story on the many other uses of the SB-15. WRITE, WIRE, OR PHONE for detailed specifications bulletin; and ask to be put on our regular mailing list for The PANORAMIC ANALYZER featuring application data. Microwave Equipment for 6 kmc band GENERAL ELECTRIC Co., Syracuse, N. Y., has introduced a new series of microwave equipment designed to operate in the 6 kmc band. This addition to the existing 2 kmc line places GE in a position to offer the communication industry a microwave line operating in both frequency bands. The 6 kmc line offers 120 channels to microwave users. The company will now offer both time division and frequency division multiplexing with its 6 kmc products and will continue to supply time division with its 2 kmc equipment. Circle 205 on Reader Service Card. Logic Circuits transistorized ERIE RESISTOR CORP., Erie, Pa., announces the first of a line of high speed transistorized plug-in modules for digital equipment and system construction based primarily upon the NOR logic. These units are designed to work at speeds in excess of 2 mc under typical loading conditions. The module is designed to fit a standard 7 pin inline subminiature tube socket. Up to 144 units may be mounted on a standard 3 1/2-in. by The exploration of outer space has taken a new step forward with the completion of the new giant radio antenna which has recently been installed by JPL at Goldstone near Barstow, California. This huge "dish," 85 ft. in diameter, enables the Laboratory scientists to probe still farther into space problems. The Goldstone antenna is presently tracking rocket probes far out in space. Information thus obtained from Explorer satellites and Pioneer space probes is being reduced and studied to provide invaluable basic data for future space programs. The Goldstone link from space to earth will be extended from the present range of 500,000 miles to many times that figure, bringing the planets Mars and Venus within its reach. This activity is part of the research and development program operated by JPL for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. JET PROPULSION LABORATORY A DIVISION OF CALIFORNIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY PASADENA • CALIFORNIA OPPORTUNITIES NOW OPEN IN THESE CLASSIFICATIONS APPLIED MATHEMATICIANS • ENGINEERING PHYSICISTS • COMPUTER ANALYSTS • IBM-704 PROGRAMMERS FIELD ELECTRONIC ENGINEERS • SENIOR R.F. DESIGN ENGINEERS • STRUCTURES AND DEVELOPMENT ENGINEERS THE FLYING SUBMARINE "Flying Submarine" describes AMPHENOL's new MINNIE 67 series connector; it may seem a large and unlikely name to fasten on such a small connector, but it's quite accurate. Here's why: The performance conditions under which these miniature "E" connectors will operate reliably are exactly like those encountered by a submerged submarine—flying at 80,000 feet altitude. "Flying Submarine" also means altitude-moisture resistant. Under a test recently devised by industry and the armed services, wired MINNIE's are completely submerged in salt water, altitude cycled to 80,000 feet for one minute, 65,000 feet for one half hour and then returned to ambient pressure for another half hour. Following this test, the minimum insulation resistance of MINNIE connectors is 1000 megohms, well in excess of the 100 megohms required by MIL-C-5015 after moisture exposure. What can a "Flying Submarine" do for you? If you use electrical connectors in aircraft, missile or naval applications (including non-flying submarines), MINNIE connectors provide assured environmental resistance to moisture at sea level and at high altitudes. Write for complete information on AMPHENOL's MINNIE connectors! AMPHENOL's Authorized Industrial Distributors stock Minnie's and other standard AMPHENOL components—and provide on-the-spot delivery. connector division AMPHENOL-BORG ELECTRONICS CORPORATION chicago 50, illinois 19-in. rack panel. Each module measures 0.750 in. high, 0.687 in. wide and 0.297 in. thick. Alternative packaging for other uses is available. The standard unit contains 4 inputs. Circle 206 on Reader Service Card. Stereo Recorder professional type INTERNATIONAL RADIO & ELECTRONICS CORP., Elkhart, Ind., is now marketing a stereo tape recorder for satellite tracking. The machine has 14 in. reels. Speeds include $1\frac{1}{2}$, $3\frac{3}{4}$, $7\frac{1}{2}$ and 15 ips. Signal to noise ratio is claimed to be outstanding. Price is $805. Circle 207 on Reader Service Card. Fasteners dual-purpose TINNERMAN PRODUCTS, INC., Cleveland, Ohio. Four spring steel J-type Speed Nuts provide both the fasteners and the grounding of the loudspeaker to the chassis in portable tv sets. One of the new dual-purpose fasteners is quickly and easily snapped on each corner of the speaker flange. Once positioned, the fastener retains itself firmly in screw-receiving position providing an "extra hand" for the final assembly of the speaker to the chassis. The speaker is then positioned and the screws driven, completing the assembly in a matter of seconds. One corner of the lower leg of the new fastener is MAKE YOUR MARK in greater St. Petersburg Where work and play are combined—profitably! This fast-growing electronics, nucleonics and mechanical engineering and research center of Florida invites you to join these major business firms who have located in this area. Available skilled workers, excellent schools, fine transportation make an ideal community in which to live, work and play where most people dream of retiring. Write on your letterhead today for informative literature. Note: Persons seeking positions with St. Petersburg industries, please write Florida State Employment Service, 1004 First Avenue North. ST. PETERSBURG CHAMBER OF COMMERCE Jack Bryan, Industrial Director Dept. SA St. Petersburg, Florida TUBE PROBLEM: An amplifier manufacturer was plagued by noise, microphonics and hum that developed in the high gain stages of his amplifiers. Sonotone engineers were consulted on the problem. SONOTONE SOLVES IT: Sonotone engineers discovered that they could correct all three complaints by redesigning just one tube. RESULTS: The heater element was changed to a coil heater, eliminating the hum. And rigid controls on the mount structure and processing reduced microphonics and noise. This resulted in the Sonotone reliable type 7025. It's now available for initial equipment and replacement purposes. Let Sonotone help solve your tube problem, too. Line Printer transistorized BURROUGHS CORP., 460 Sierra Madre Villa, Pasadena, Calif., has developed a transistorized line printer which will select, edit and print out data from a computer or magnetic tape at rates up to 1,500 lines per minute. The high-speed printer is integrated with the new Burroughs 220 electronic data processing system. It features online or off-line operation, buffer data storage and automatic editing—all under plugboard control. Used on-line, the printer system takes advantage of the computer's electronic speed to produce up-to-the-second reports directly from the data processor. Off-line, it edits and transcribes data from Burroughs 220 magnetic tape storage units, freeing the computer for other processing jobs. Circle 209 on Reader Service Card. Servo Multiplier miniaturized INDUSTRIAL CONTROL CO., 805 Albin Ave., Lindenhurst, L. I., N. Y. The SL-1024 is a high performance, miniaturized servo multiplier driven by d-c data. It consists of a servo loop that positions a shaft to follow a ± d-c signal, and a multisection pot for computation. Unit uses a high reliability transistor-magnetic amplifier, with all circuits sealed for maximum life. The only power required is 117 v (Continued on p 84) PRESENT SUBSCRIBERS —Please Note! This subscription coupon is for NEW subscribers. It is not intended as a renewal notice. If you are already personally subscribing, we shall appreciate your passing the form to one of your associates. Thank you. Mail Reply to: McGraw-Hill Pub. Co., Electronics, 330 W. 42nd St., N. Y. 36, N. Y. NEW Subscription ORDER FORM O.K.—put me down for a personal subscription to "electronics" . . . giving me benefit of your weekly editorial service . . . Check here □ for 1 year, $6 □ for 2 years, $9 □ for three years, $12 Name ____________________________________________ Company Name ______________________________________ Street _____________________________________________ Product Mfrd. Or Service _____________________________ Street _____________________________________________ Position ___________________________________________ Number of Employees ________________________________ City _____________________________________________ Zone _____________________________________________ State _____________________________________________ Foreign Rates (1 year) Canada $10, Other Foreign $20 Please fill out card completely for best service Now... DIALCO Pilot Lights with Built-in Resistor (18,000 ohms) (a patented DIALCO feature) and the NEW High Brightness Neon Glow Lamp NE-51H 8 TIMES BRIGHTER A New Advance in Pilot Light Design by DIALCO: Three basic advantages are incorporated in this series of DIALCO assemblies: (1) Built-in resistor for direct use on 125 to 250 volt circuits . . . (2) New plastic lens designed to give attractive "halo" effect . . . (3) New High Brightness Neon Glow Lamp NE-51H. This lamp may be operated at about 3 times the level of current that may be applied to the standard lamp, and it will produce 8 times as much light—with long life! Very low power is required, less than 1 watt on 250 volt circuit. Recommended for AC service only. In the DIALCO assembly, the built-in current limiting (ballast) resistor (18,000 ohms) is completely insulated in moulded bakelite and sealed in metal (U. S. Patent No. 2,421,321). . . Small space required—units are available for mounting in 9/16" or 11/16" clearance holes . . . A wide choice of optional features includes lens styles, shapes, and colors; terminal types; metal finishes, etc. . . Meet applicable MIL Spec and UL and CSA requirements. All Assemblies Are Available Complete with Lamp SAMPLES ON REQUEST—AT ONCE—NO CHARGE DIALIGHT CORP., 58 Stewart Ave., Brooklyn 37, N. Y. Send brochures □ for NE-51H Neon lamp □ Sub-Miniatures □ Oil-Tight Name ____________________________________________ Company __________________________________________ Address __________________________________________ Foremost Manufacturer of Pilot Lights DIALIGHT CORPORATION 58 STEWART AVE., BROOKLYN 37, N. Y. • HYacinth 7-7600 CIRCLE 43 READERS SERVICE CARD 400 cps. Typical input signals are within ± 100 v d-c, with static error under 0.25 percent and full scale travel within 0.5 sec. Output position is indicated on a calibrated dial. Circle 210 on Reader Service Card. Decimal Selector for counter use NAVIGATION COMPUTER CORP., 1621 Snyder Ave., Philadelphia 45, Pa., announces a new decimal to four line binary code converting switch, model 319C, which can be used to preset the "complement nine" binary code directly into their model 190A or 312 transistorized binary decimal counters. The selected decimal number is converted into four line binary code and is controlled by four diode "gates" at the output points. With "complement nine" presetting, the carry pulse from the last decade can be used as a "stop" pulse in a counting operation and no resetting is needed. Circle 211 on Reader Service Card. TWT Amplifier for modern radar VARIAN ASSOCIATES, 611 Hansen Way, Palo Alto, Calif. The VA-125 is a one megawatt, 2.7-3.0 kmc, twt amplifier for modern radar. It gives systems engineers greater freedom in radar design. A broadband, high gain, liquid cooled twt pulse amplifier, it is intended to cover a large portion of the S-band without tuning and is for use in coherent high power radar appli- --- Acme 2002 Potting Compound Recommended For All MINIATURIZED UNITS ACME 2002 POTTING COMPOUND is unaffected by climatic changes and assures 100% protection against extremes of temperature ranging from -100° F. to +185° F. Developed to withstand elevated and subzero conditions, ACME 2002 forms a hard, moisture-proof seal that will not crack or become brittle when subjected even to sudden changes in temperature. Exterior casings are not necessary. There are many Acme Compounds for various applications. Let us help you. Integrated Electrical Products of Highest Quality for Over Fifty Years ACME WIRE CO. NEW HAVEN, CONN. MAGNET WIRE • COILS VARNISHED INSULATIONS INSULATING VARNISHES AND COMPOUNDS CIRCLE 66 READERS SERVICE CARD February 6, 1959 — ELECTRONICS MICRO MINIATURIZATION FOR DIGITAL COMPUTERS 12 resistors, 4 capacitors, 4 diodes and 4 transistors... all are contained in the complete flip-flop circuit illustrated above. At the Hughes Research & Development Laboratories, dramatic reduction in component size is symbolic of the advances in the digital computer art...advances which are preparing the digital computer for its role as a system control in space. In addition to developing new digital circuits and components, Hughes engineers are delving into other digital computer space mission tasks such as navigation guidance and control, communications processing and display, vehicle control, mission programming. An intensive Hughes program in digital computer systems has created openings for creative engineers and physicists with degrees from accredited engineering universities in the following fields: CIRCUIT and COMPONENT DEVELOPMENT: Digital Computer Analysis, Microcircuitry and Cryogenics, Solid State Physics, Magnetic Storage Devices. SYSTEMS ENGINEERING: Closed-loop Digital Control, Digital Sensing and Conversion, Radar and Communications Information Processing, Inertial Navigation. The salary structure for these personnel reflect the exceptional backgrounds required and the unusual challenge of the projects. Inquire by writing directly to: Dr. Allen Puckett, Associate Director Systems Development Laboratories HUGHES Hughes Aircraft Co., Culver City 15, California Test: in progress Readout: instantaneous Immediately evaluate your test results, using new, extra-thin Kodak Linagraph Direct Print Paper in suitable moving-mirror galvanometer oscillographs. No wet processing! Records can be read as they're being made. And you get sharp, legible traces to 30,000 i.p.s. New Kodak Linagraph Direct Print Paper on extra-thin base provides extra footage for longer runs. Sizes on request. For complete details, write to: EASTMAN KODAK COMPANY Photo Recording Methods Division Rochester 4, N.Y. Converter transistorized ELECTROSOLIDS CORP., 13745 Saticoy St., Panorama City, Calif., announces a new transistorized converter. The transformer-rectifier unit is constructed of PN-junction type diodes to effect a weight saving that results in a 200-ampere unit weighing only 17 lb. The 28-v unit accepts three phase input power at 400 cps, 115/200 v. Model W-1328 converter uses solid state components throughout, with operating life expectancy in excess of 50,000 hr. Circle 213 on Reader Service Card. Motor Generator size 11 SERVO DYNAMICS CORP., Somersworth, N.H. Manufactured in 400 cycles, the model 11GM152 motor generator is designed to operate between 6 and 200 v. The no load speed is 6,000 rpm with a power input of 3.5 w at 0.053 ampere. Effective resistance is 3,780 ohms. Output shafts are designed to customer requirements. Linearity is Model 5 Radiohm® 1/4 watt multiple miniature variable resistor (Component Density = 16.2 per cu. in.) up to 4 variable and 9 fixed resistors on a single steatite plate measuring 2 1/4" x 3/4" x 15/32", including knobs... proportionally smaller when fewer variable resistors are required. ECONOMY: Installed cost is considerably lower than larger variable resistors and separate fixed resistors. Substantial savings result from reduced production assembly costs. RELIABILITY: Steatite bonded resistance elements assure high stability and noise-free operation. Conservative ratings provide an extra margin of safety under maximum load or severe environmental conditions. VERSATILITY: The Model 5 Radiohm® is available with one to four variable resistors, with horizontal or vertical mounting brackets, plug-in terminals for printed circuit boards or wire leads for metal chassis. SUPERIOR KNOB CONSTRUCTION: Unusual design permits adjustment with internal or external hexagon wrench, screwdriver, or by fingertip. SPECIFICATIONS: Resistance Range: 1000 ohms to 5 megohms, linear taper. Wattage Rating: 1/4 watt at 70° C. ambient. Breakdown Voltage: 1250 Volts RMS, between adjacent sections and to bracket. End Resistance: Less than 1% of total. Rotational Life: Less than 5% resistance change after 250 rotations. Initial Torque: 2 inch ounces average. Write for Centralab Bulletin EP-539 giving full specifications on the Model 5 Radiohm® series. * Cubic inch, rather than cubic foot, is used to provide a more realistic and more readily visualized standard of comparison. 0.5 percent. Ambient operating range is $-65$ C to $+200$ C. Body length is 1.875 in. Circle 214 on Reader Service Card. VOM Analyzer highly sensitive WESTON INSTRUMENTS, Division of Daystrom, Inc., Newark 12, N. J. Model 980 Mark II analyzer, a highly sensitive and extremely sturdy volt-ohm-milliammeter, was engineered to provide for a wide range of test measurement applications in the electrical and electronic fields. It has a d-c sensitivity of 20,000 ohms v, and an a-c sensitivity of 1,000 ohms/v. It offers accuracy within 2 percent full scale d-c and 3 percent a-c. Range and function-switching is greatly simplified by use of a single dial control. The Cormag mechanism protects the instrument against magnetic disturbances, and electrostatic shielding assures accurate measurements at high d-c voltage. Circle 215 on Reader Service Card. Analog Computer all solid-state SOUTHWESTERN INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS Co., 2831 Post Oak Road, Houston 19, Texas. The CM-2 analog computer is an all solid-state unit which can reliably perform all-purpose mathematical computations. It consists of operational amplifiers, logarithmic networks and scaling potentiometers. Use of transistors and magnetic amplifiers in place of vacuum --- Booker & Wallestad is a plastics molder especially equipped for low-cost production of PRECISION MINIATURE PARTS Substantial savings and precision quality... These are the two advantages Booker & Wallestad are delivering to some of the best-known names in industry. They are the reasons why Booker & Wallestad is probably the nation's foremost custom molder of miniature plastic parts. Exacting specifications are met in any quantity, using any molding compound. Unique production processes sharply reduce mold costs and set-up charges. Unit costs are dropped. Short runs can be justified, even very limited quantities for model testing or sales samples. To see exactly how these benefits apply to your requirements, submit prints to Booker & Wallestad for quotation. booker & wallestad, inc. Unusual SKILL and ECONOMY in custom plastics molding... 3332 Gorham Ave. • Minneapolis 26, Minn. CIRCLE 47 READERS SERVICE CARD February 6, 1959 — ELECTRONICS KNOW YOUR NEW WORLD by reserving your copy of THE NATURE OF THE IONOSPHERE—AN IGY OBJECTIVE, special February issue of PROCEEDINGS OF THE IRE. On these pages you will find a distillation of 18 months of an intensive international effort. Set against a background of earlier work, here is a new compendium of engineering knowledge edited to your special interests. Here is your new frontier. PARTIAL CONTENTS OF IONOSPHERE-IGY ISSUE "The Earth and its Environment" by S. Chapman, U of Colorado "The Constitution and Composition of the Upper Atmosphere" by M. Nicolet, Radio and Meteorology Institute, Belgium "The Normal F-Region of the Ionosphere" by D. F. Martyn, Radio Research Labs. CSIRO, Australia "The Normal E-Region of the Ionosphere" by E. V. Appleton, U of Edinburgh, Scotland "The D-Region of the Undisturbed Ionosphere" by J. J. Gibbons & A. H. Waynick, Penn State U "The Distribution of Electrons in the Ionosphere" by J. O. Thomas, U of Cambridge, England "Motions in the Ionosphere" by C. O. Hines, Defense Research Board, Canada "Meteors in the Ionosphere" by L. A. Manning & V. R. Eshleman, Stanford U "Atmospheric Whistlers" by R. A. Helliwell, Stanford U & M. G. Morgan, Dartmouth U "Radiation and Particle Precipitation upon the Earth from Solar Flares" by L. G. B. Biermann & R. Lust, Max Planck Institute for Physics and Astrophysics, Germany "The Very-Low-Frequency Emmissions Generated In The Earth's Atmosphere" by R. M. Gallet, National Bureau of Standards "The F-Region During Magnetic Storms" by K. Maeda, Kyoto U & T. Sato, Shiga U, Japan "Aurora Phenomena" by E. N. Parker, U of Chicago "Rocket Observations of the Ionosphere" by H. Friedman, U. S. Naval Research Lab. "Earth Satellite Observations of the Ionosphere" by W. W. Berning, Aberdeen Proving Grounds "Exploration of the Upper Atmosphere with the help of the 3rd Soviet Sputnik" by V. I. Krassovsky, Institute for Atmospheric Physics, Moscow THE INSTITUTE OF RADIO ENGINEERS 1 East 79th St., New York 21, N. Y. Enclosed is company purchase order for the February 1959 issue on I.G.Y. and Ionosphere. Send this special issue of THE NATURE OF THE IONOSPHERE—AN IGY OBJECTIVE to: NAME__________________________________________________________ COMPANY_______________________________________________________ ADDRESS_______________________________________________________ CITY & STATE___________________________________________________ All IRE members will receive this February issue as usual. Extra copies to members, $1.25 each (only one to a member) THE LEGENDARY FIREBIRD, the Phoenix, rose young and strong again and again from flames... This is the new Norton Firebird—symbol for the exciting new fused materials made in Norton's electric furnaces. tubes provides the reliability and ruggedness needed for industrial applications. An integral programming board inside the cabinet facilitates programming of functions. Circle 216 on Reader Service Card. New booklet on TITANIUM compounds and other electrochemicals E. B. WIGGINS OIL TOOL CO., INC., 3424 E. Olympic Blvd., Los Angeles 23, Calif., has developed a new Inst-O-Matic connector compatible with existing exotic and cryogenic fluids in the missile and rocket field. It has an expanded temperature range of -320 to +650 F due to the development of a new sealing design. Circle 217 on Reader Service Card. Quick Connector light in weight Born in flames, like the legendary Phoenix, Norton electrochemicals gain new power to perform new wonders. Titanium, a basic metallic element discovered in 1789, is now revitalized in Norton electric furnaces. Results are titanium di-boride, titanium carbide, titanium nitride, titanates and other compounds. These high-melting compounds have already proved their value as source materials, components of cermets, metallurgical additives and electrical conductors. Like all Norton electrochemicals they have definite potentials for many new applications. The new booklet brings you important facts on how Norton electrochemical developments may benefit your own processing. Write for it to NORTON COMPANY, Electro-Chemical Division, 946 New Bond Street, Worcester 6, Massachusetts. Wire Wound Resistors hexagonal case BRADFORD COMPONENTS, INC., 65 South Ave., Salamanca, N. Y. A new ceramic wire wound resistor series, Hex-Ohms, are precision resistors with efficiencies equal to many of the high priced units. The resistance wire is uniformly wound on a fiber glass core and sealed into the hexagonal ceramic case with a special moisture resistant silicone cement. The ceramic case is an excellent insulator capable of withstanding 1,250 v break-down tests. The new hexagonal design provides very good heat dissipation so that the Sola packs 6 amps of 300-watt regulated dc power into $5\frac{1}{4}$ inches of relay-rack space Looking for a source of regulated dc power that fits into a small space? You'll probably find that the Sola Constant Voltage DC Power Supply offers what you want. This compact unit has exceptional performance characteristics, too—it delivers current in the "ampere range," regulates within $\pm 1\%$ even under a $\pm 10\%$ variation in line voltage, has less than 1% rms ripple, and even tolerates dead shorts. It is 80% efficient and has a very low static output impedance. How's it done? Sola managed it through a balanced assembly of three complementary components...a special Sola Constant Voltage Transformer is teamed up with a semiconductor rectifier and a high-capacitance filter. Electrical characteristics of the transformer maximize most of the advantages of the rectifier and filter, while virtually eliminating all their disadvantages. The resulting regulated dc power supply is simple, highly reliable, compact and moderately priced. These benefits are exhibited by the entire line of Sola dc power supplies. Sola has designed and produced hundreds of ratings to meet requirements of equipment manufacturers. The company is set up to handle specific needs for custom-designed units in production quantities. A Sola sales engineer can supply all the facts. In addition to this custom service, Sola currently stocks six models ranging from 24 volts at six amps to 250 volts at one amp. For complete data write for Bulletin 7B-CV-235 Sola Electric Co., 4633 W. 16th St., Chicago 50, Ill., Bishop 2-1414 • Offices in principal cities • In Canada, Sola Electric (Canada) Ltd., 24 Canmotor Ave., Toronto 18, Ont. units operate at lower temperatures than other type resistors. They are made in 4, 5, 7, 10 and 12 w sizes within 10 percent tolerance. Circle 218 on Reader Service Card. Floating Zone Unit for Metal Refining and Crystal Growing A new floating zone fixture for the production of ultra-high purity metals and semi-conductor materials. Purification or crystal growing is achieved by traversing a narrow molten zone along the length of the process bar while it is being supported vertically in vacuum or inert gas. Designed primarily for production purposes, Model HCP also provides great flexibility for laboratory studies. Features - A smooth, positive mechanical drive system with continuously variable up, down and rotational speeds all independently controlled. - An arrangement to rapidly center the process bar within a straight walled quartz tube supported between gas-tight, water-cooled end plates. Placement of the quartz tube is rather simple and adapters can be used to accommodate larger diameter tubes for larger process bars. - Continuous water cooling for the outside of the quartz tube during operation. - Assembly and dis-assembly of this system including removal of the completed process bar is simple and rapid. Electronic Counters Solid-state units THE REDFORD CORP., Lake Luzerne, N. Y., has available electronic counters for both laboratory and production control service. Taking advantage of the newest developments in semiconductor circuitry, the line assures highly reliable operation. Other features are compact size, low current usage, easy installation and silent performance. Counting rate is 500 pps or less. Circle 219 on Reader Service Card. Servo System Analyzer For rack or bench SERVO CORP. OF AMERICA, 20-20 Jericho Turnpike, New Hyde Park, L. I., N. Y. Measuring phase, transient response and gain, the new model H Servoscope facilitates fast, accurate plotting of Nyquist, Bode or Nichols diagrams. It covers frequency ranges 0.1 to 2.0 cps and 1.0 to 20 cps, and provides phase measurements to ±1 deg accuracy. Direct reading of both amplitude and frequency plus direct readout of phase log simplify operation. Frequency accuracy is ±5 percent of setting, rather than --- Attention! From February 20 to February 24, 1959 will be held the Second International Exposition of Electronic Spare Parts in Paris PARC DES EXPOSITIONS PORTE DE VERSAILLES the world's largest display in the field of Electronics FOR INFORMATION: FEDERATION NATIONALE DES INDUSTRIES ELECTRONIQUES (S.D.S.A.) 23 RUE DE LUBECK, PARIS 16°—PAS.01.16 For HEAVY DUTY WORK! Severest Electrical Services! JONES PLUGS & SOCKETS 500 SERIES Proven Quality For 5,000 Volts 25 Amperes per Contact Alterable by circuit Characteristics. Socket contacts phosphor bronze knife-switch type, cadmium plated. Plug contacts hard brass cadmium plated 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, and 12 contacts. Plugs and sockets polarized. Grounding terminal from terminal and terminal to ground. Caps and brackets steel parkerized (rust-proofed). Plug and socket blocks interchangeable in caps and brackets. Terminal connections easily accessible. Cap insulated with canvas bakelite. Write for Jones BULLETIN 22 for full details on line. HOWARD B. JONES DIVISION CINCH MANUFACTURING CORPORATION CHICAGO-24, ILLINOIS SUBSIDIARY OF UNITED CAR FABRICATORS CORP. CIRCLE 54 READERS SERVICE CARD Insulation Resistance High Voltage Breakdown Non-Destructive Testing Leakage Current • Shorts HYPOT® Over-potential tests of motors, cables and components at 150 kv and up, a-c or d-c. Breakdown and excess leakage current indicated by meter, audibly or lights for automated production. HYPOT® Model 412 provides 1500 v a-c test in a portable instrument for production and maintenance. Insulation breakdown and excess leakage current indicated by separate lamps. Complete ... $137.50. Write for bulletin "Practical High Potential Testing". VIBROTEST® Megohmmeter Measurement of insulation resistance to 50,000 megohms is easy with this modern megohmmeter. VIBROTEST® Model 201 reads resistance to 200 megohms at 500 v d-c. Also has 0-2000 ohm and 0-150-300-600 v a-c and d-c ranges. Direct reading, no computations. Complete $136.50. Write for bulletin "VIBROTEST", 10-35.8 ASSOCIATED RESEARCH, Incorporated Electrical Testing Instruments Since 1936 3781 W. Belmont Avenue • Chicago 18, Illinois CIRCLE 55 READERS SERVICE CARD ELECTRONICS — February 6, 1959 of full scale. Model H generates sine wave and modulated carrier waveforms. Weight is 30 lb. Price is $1,785. Circle 220 on Reader Service Card. Composite Metal fully preplated AMERICAN SILVER Co., 36-07 Prince St., Flushing 54, N. Y., has available a new composite metal possessing all the superior qualities of conventional clad metal strip, yet priced substantially lower than clad metals. Thermo-Lay strip is a hard, dense layer of metal electrolytically deposited, then heat-treated to achieve a metallurgical bond to a base metal strip, and finally rolled to finished thickness and temper. It is of especial use to the electronics-electrical industry for such applications as contact wiping arms, switches, contact points and springs, flexible wave guides, terminals, and tuners. Circle 221 on Reader Service Card. Pulse Transformers encapsulated TECHNITROL ENGINEERING CO., 1952 E. Allegheny Ave., Philadelphia 34, Pa., announces a new series of miniature encapsulated pulse transformers wound on high permeability ferromagnetic cores. The T series have a range of pulse widths from 0.1 to 25 μsec for vacuum tube or transistor blocking oscillator and interstage coupling applications. Circle 222 on Reader Service Card. Servo Amplifier fully potted BULOVA WATCH Co., Woodside 77, N. Y. For continuous operation in a temperature range of −55 C to +125 C, the AMP-298 servo amplifier utilizes all silicon resistors. Fully potted, the new amplifier of... Oscilloscope large screen EASTERN PRECISION RESISTOR CORP., 675 Barbey St., Brooklyn 7, N. Y. Designed for use with telemetering and data processing equipment, this large screen oscilloscope features a 17-in. crt. Component parts can be removed and mounted in any standard 19-in. rack. Both the X and Y axis have 1 percent linearity. Other features include: magnetic deflection, constant deflection sensitivity, hand calibrated controls, small spot size and high resolution. Amplifier response is rated at 10 mv sensitivity up to 500 kc, with accurately calibrated time base system for both driven and recurrent operations. Circle 224 on Reader Service Card. Toroidal Inductors hermetically sealed ARNOLD MAGNETICS CORP., 4613 W. Jefferson Blvd., Los Angeles 16, Calif., announces the series 782 miniature toroidal inductors. Units have an inductance value from 0.1 millihenry to 500 millihenries, with a useful frequency range of from 10 kc to 100 kc. Circle 225 on Reader Service Card. Delay Timer plug-in type G. C. WILSON & Co., Huntington, W. Va., announces an electronic delay timer completely self-contained in a steel can with octal radio type plug for mounting and wiring connections. The timer employs a unique circuit to control the breakdown of gas tubes and to provide timing delays from 0.003 to 300 sec unaffected by variations in line voltage. It requires no warmup and consumes less than 2 w. Unit can be provided with either a spdt relay or 3 pdt relay, or can be furnished to operate a relay external to the timer. Circle 226 on Reader Service Card. A-C VTVM 10 cps to 4 mc REPUBLIC ELECTRONIC INDUSTRIES CORP., 111 Gazza Blvd., Farmingdale, L. I., N. Y. Model VA-104 a-c vtvm incorporates such features as long life electrolytic capacitors as well as output jacks permitting the use of the instrument as a high gain, 4 mc wide-band amplifier with a maximum gain of 50 db. Voltage range is 0.001 v to 300 v in 12 ranges. Overall accuracy is ±2 percent. Circle 227 on Reader Service Card. ATRACT AND HOLD TECHNICAL PERSONNEL STRATEGIC LOCATION FOR GROWTH INDUSTRIES DAYTONA BEACH FLORIDA Metropolitan Area Industrial Sites Daytona Beach, the east-to-west terminal on the north-to-south route of the projected Federal Limited Access Freeway System, gives industry a plus for the future. Write for new 101 page Industrial Brochure R. H. MILES, MGR. INDUSTRIAL DEPARTMENT CHAMBER OF COMMERCE DAYTONA BEACH, FLORIDA CIRCLE 62 READERS SERVICE CARD You can reduce GERMANIUM WASTE with these new paper-thin Felker Diamond Blades! Here's good news to all crystal cutters, germanium, quartz, silicon, barium titanate, etc.! Felker DI-MET metal bonded diamond blades are exceedingly thin, greatly reducing amount of expensive crystal lost in the cut! Special blades are supplied for either wafering or dicing insuring maximum efficiency and savings of material! Fast cutting, smooth finishes, long blade life, utmost reliability...you get them all in Felker DI-MET...originators of the first commercial diamond abrasive cut-off blades! Available from your Felker Distributor...or write direct. FELKER MANUFACTURING CO. Torrance, California First in Diamond Cut-Off Blades! CIRCLE 63 READERS SERVICE CARD Literature of MATERIALS Paper-Base Laminate. Synthane Corp., Oaks, Pa., has prepared a new engineering bulletin on grade EP-22, a paper-base, epoxy resin laminate and one of its latest products especially designed for printed circuit and other electronic applications. Circle 230 on Reader Service Card. COMPONENTS Deposited Carbon Resistors. The Kidder Co., 24 So. Springfield Road, Clifton Heights, Pa. Bulletin 100 describes computer-type ½ w deposited carbon resistors which are designed to combine accuracy, long stability and economy for close tolerance application. Circle 231 on Reader Service Card. Magnetic Circuits. The Indiana Steel Products Co., Valparaiso, Ind. A recent issue of Applied Magnetics presents a detailed discussion of permanent magnetic circuits. Circle 232 on Reader Service Card. Transistor Types. Philco Corp., Lansdale Tube Co. Division, Lansdale, Pa., has published a brochure giving a brief description of the company's transistor types designed for reliable performance, stability of operation and long life. Circle 233 on Reader Service Card. Delay Lines. Control Electronics Co., Inc., Huntington Station, N.Y., is now offering a handy form for the specification of lumped and distributed constant delay lines. Circle 234 on Reader Service Card. EQUIPMENT Bobbin Winder. Boesch Mfg. Co., Inc., 45 River St., Danbury, Conn. Bulletin BW2 covers the design, operation, standard and optional equipment and outstanding features of a fast, versatile and completely automatic winder for bobbins, solenoids, resistors, reRadar Data Processing. Burroughs Corp., 6071 Second Ave., Detroit 32, Mich. A recent brochure contains descriptions of the function, capabilities, performance and future possibilities of the AN/FST-2 SAGE coordinate data processing system. Circle 236 on Reader Service Card. Fans and Blowers. McLean Engineering Laboratories, Box 228, Princeton, N. J. A new 36-page catalog features packaged fans, blowers, and accessory equipment used in conjunction with the cooling of electronic or electrical apparatus. Circle 237 on Reader Service Card. Power Supplies. Lambda Electronics Corp., 11-11 131 St., College Point 56, N. Y. A 34-page catalog covers a line of power supplies for laboratory and industry. Units described are guaranteed by the company for five full years. Circle 238 on Reader Service Card. FACILITIES Testing Facilities. United States Testing Co., Inc., 1415 Park Ave., Hoboken, N. J. Included in bulletin 5801 is a detailed description of the company's engineering facilities and services, which cover a broad range of subjects, from environmental studies to electronics, instrument calibration, and reliability testing and failure analysis. Circle 239 on Reader Service Card. Cryogenics. Stearns-Roger Mfg. Co., 660 Bannock St., Denver 17, Colo. A 12-page brochure covers in text and pictures the extensive activities and services of the company in the specialized fields of ground support facilities for missiles, cryogenic engineering and handling equipment, and nuclear engineering and manufacturing. Circle 240 on Reader Service Card. Noise problems and signal distortion, always solid obstacles to the use of sensitive low-level pickups for PDM, are now eliminated by CEC's PLEXICODER. Providing PDM conversion and commutation of the signals from flux and strain gages, resistance thermometers, thermocouples, and other low-level pickups, the PLEXICODER employs no troublesome filters, amplifiers or mechanical wiper arms. Operation is based on a noise-free galvanometer optical system with inherent filtering characteristics. The PLEXICODER is ideally suited for use with data handling systems, engine test stands, and missile ground-checkout equipment. Operating at speeds up to 900 samples per second, it easily accommodates 90 low- or high-level inputs in any combination. The PLEXICODER utilizes simple oscillograph-proved techniques for adjustment and calibration. It is designed for a minimum of 1000 service-free hours of operation. Call your nearest CEC sales and service office for full information, or write for Bulletin CEC 1599-X11. Transducer Division CONSOLIDATED ELECTRODYNAMICS / 300 N. Sierra Madre Villa, Pasadena, Calif. FOR EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES WITH THIS PROGRESSIVE COMPANY, WRITE DIRECTOR OF PERSONNEL CIRCLE 64 READERS SERVICE CARD Directors Head Departments AN UNUSUAL management feature is paying off for Calvideo, independent West Coast TV picture tube producer. It's this: Each member of the closed corporation's board is also a department head. With annual sales approaching $5 million, Calvideo recently moved into a new 40,000 sq ft building in Compton, Calif. Firm's optimistic business outlook as a producer of tubes for monitoring, radar, camera pickup, etc., is evident in plans for a 20,000 sq ft wing to the building on the 2.5 acre lot. Construction of the new addition will probably occur in 1960. President Steve Tidick, 37, (at left in picture) started business in '51 with 15 employees making 35 cathode ray tubes daily. Now his hand-picked youthful management staff (average age 36), all of whom got their early training with major tube companies, supervise 200 workers. By end of 1959's first quarter, production will be 1,000 CRT's daily, not counting special-purpose tubes. Sales manager Gil Sherman (shown at right) reports Calvideo has its own truck fleet (prominently displaying the company's emblem) for distribution of its goods. Calvideo serves 16 states. Though sales are now mostly in the West and for export, the company is prepared to branch out nationally. Sixty-five carts on a 136-ft track, controlled by a timer, convey tubes to and through the baking oven, greatly cutting down on manual labor. The oven operates on a treadmill and permits automatic cycling of tubes. Tubes are fired face down, neck up, allowing freer escape of gases to make a clear tube. Plant also has an overhead conveyor belt, saving both time and space. Calvideo Electronics Corp. of Hawthorne, Calif., founded in 1958, will continue functioning as a separate entity. This plant makes components and test equipment for guidance and detection systems for the radar industry. Dolberg Advances at Philco Corp. CHARLES E. DOLBERG has been named manager-systems management planning for Philco Corporation's Government and Industrial Division. He will report directly to S. C. Spielman, director of engineering, and continue in his present capacity as manager of air traffic control engineering. Since joining Philco in 1942, Dolberg has been engaged in research, development and management of such projects as microwave communications, airborne and ground radar systems, video data processing, military television, underwater devices and missile fusing. He also holds eight patents dealing with radar equipment. Ampex Promotes William T. Frost WILLIAM T. FROST, engineer with the video development unit of Ampex Corporation's Instrumentation Engineering Department, has been promoted to staff engineer. Frost joined Ampex in July, 1958, after 10 years with the British Broadcasting Corp. in London. While there his research work contributed significantly to the science of magnetic recording, particularly with respect to high frequency signals. Mark Products Hires Mueller ANDREW A. MUELLER recently joined Mark Products Co., Morton Grove, Ill., as plant manager. In this capacity he will direct the production and engineering departments of the firm. Mark Products specializes in the design and manufacture of antenna systems for communications services including parabolas for microwave point to point and heliwhips for mobile use. Mueller has previously been emCDF Dilecto® paper-base laminates for the workhorse insulation jobs For everyday mechanical-electrical parts that receive tough punishment and must have excellent physical and dielectric properties at low cost, the CDF phenolic paper-base line is outstanding. Economy. CDF paper-base grades machine readily into intricate parts. Some are flame-retardant. Others are especially adaptable for punching. All are economical for the value delivered. Fabrication Facilities. CDF has excellent and extensive plastics-fabrication facilities for turning out finished Dilecto parts to your specifications—better and more economically than you can do it yourself. Save the time and trouble of intricate fabrication by using CDF's specialized facilities. See Sweet's, Electronics Buyers' Guide, and the other directories for the phone number of the CDF sales engineer nearest you. Or send us your print or problem direct, and we'll return a recommendation of the right Dilecto grade for your need. CDF makes Di-Clad® printed-circuit laminates, Diamond® Vulcanized Fibre, CDF products of Teflon®, flexible insulating tapes, Dilecto laminated plastics, Carbon® molded products, Micabond® mica products, Spiral Tubing, Vulcoid®. Trademark of Continental-Diamond Fibre Corporation †Du Pont trademark for its TFE-fluorocarbon resin \| Typical Property Values—Dilecto Paper-Base Laminates in Sheet Form \| \|---------------------------------------------------------------\| \| \| X-13 (NEMA X) \| XP-13 (NEMA P) \| XX-13 (NEMA XX) \| XX-13 FR (Fire-retardant) (NEMA XX) \| XXXP-28 (NEMA XXXP) \| \| ROCKWELL HARDNESS (M SCALE) \| 100 \| 95 \| 110 \| 108 \| 90 \| \| TENSILE STRENGTH Iw (1000 psi.) \| 20 \| 12 \| 16 \| 17 \| 12 \| \| FLEXURAL STRENGTH Iw (1000 psi.) \| 27 \| 16 \| 17 \| 20 \| 18 \| \| COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH (1000 psi.) \| 40 \| 25 \| 35 \| 41 \| 22 \| \| WATER ABSORPTION (% in 24 hrs.) 1/16" thickness \| 3.5 \| 3.0 \| 1.4 \| 1.2 \| 0.6 \| \| MAXIMUM CONTINUOUS OPERATING TEMPERATURE (°C.) \| 120 \| 120 \| 120 \| 120 \| 120 \| \| DIELECTRIC STRENGTH perp. to lam. (VPM) \| 800 \| 800 \| 650 \| 700 \| 800 \| \| DIELECTRIC STRENGTH parallel to lam. (kV.) \| 50 \| 50 \| 60 \| 70 \| 75 \| \| DISSIPATION FACTOR at 1 mc, Cond. A \| 0.042 \| 0.038 \| 0.034 \| 0.038 \| 0.027 \| \| DIELECTRIC CONSTANT at 1 mc, Cond. A \| 5.5 \| 4.6 \| 4.7 \| 4.8 \| 3.6 \| \| ARC-RESISTANCE (seconds) \| 8 \| 4 \| 4 \| 10 \| 10 \| \| INSULATION RESISTANCE (megohms) ASTM D-257, Fig. 3 \| 100 \| 100 \| 1,000 \| 1,000 \| 600,000 \| \| AIEE insulation class \| A \| A \| A \| A \| A \| CONTINENTAL-DIAMOND FIBRE A SUBSIDIARY OF THE COMPANY • NEWARK 16, DEL. TI Moves Region Sales Office TEXAS INSTRUMENTS INC. has moved its eastern region sales office from New York City to Elizabeth, N. J. This region office will coordinate the efforts of its own staff of TI sales engineers and those headquartered in district offices—one in Garden City, Long Island, N. Y., headed by J. F. Hegarty (picture), and another in Camden, N. J. R/S Electronics Names Isabeau APPOINTMENT of John Isabeau as senior project engineer at R/S Electronics Corp., Palo Alto, Calif., was recently announced. Isabeau specializes in the engineering employed by the Glenn L. Martin Co., Baltimore, Md.; A. C. Nielsen Co., Chicago, Ill.; and Chicago Aerial Industries, Chicago, Ill., as chief, Engineering Laboratories. Growth Opportunity for Electrical Engineers. To meet the growing demand for our services we offer steady employment, high salary, profit sharing, paid vacation, group life and hospitalization insurance, sick leave policy, retirement program, etc. Located on shore of Lake Erie. Fishing, boating, swimming at your doorstep. Ideal community life. Thirty minutes from Buffalo via thruway. Replies held in strict confidence. neering of both conventional and transistorized models of high-frequency electronic devices and will be assigned to the company's Electronics Division. He was formerly associated with the Zenith Radio Corp., Chicago, Ill., as a research engineer. News of Reps Snelling-Bogossian Co. of Hamburg, N. Y., is the new selling agent for DuMont scientific instruments in upper New York State. Rep firm replaces Edward A. Ossmann and Associates in all upstate N. Y. except Putnam and Rockland counties. These two counties have been transferred to Gawler-Knoop Co., of Roseland, N. J., DuMont instrument rep for the greater New York, northern New Jersey, greater Philadelphia, and the District of Columbia areas. General Transistor Corp., Jamaica, N. Y., recently named two sales rep organizations to handle its products. Charles W. Lienau & Co., of Silver Spring, Md., will cover Virginia, Maryland and the District of Columbia; and McLoud & Raymond Co. will serve in Colorado, Wyoming, Utah, New Mexico, southeastern Idaho and El Paso County in Texas. The line of wave filters, toroidal and magnetic components and lumped-constant delay lines of Wahlgren Magnetics, Pasadena, Calif., will be represented by the G. S. Marshall Co., of San Marino, Calif. Radiation Counter Laboratories, Inc., Skokie, Ill., has appointed the Hyde Electronics Co. of Denver, Col., as representative in Montana; Wyoming; Idaho, south of Idaho County; Colorado; Utah; New Mexico; western Kansas; and in El Paso, Texas. Aerol Associates of Beverly Hills, Calif., are now the sales reps in thirteen western and southwestern states for electronic connector manufacturer, H. H. Buggie, Inc., Toledo, Ohio. expecting a check? You'll get it quicker if you gave your postal delivery zone number with your address. The Post Office has divided 106 cities into postal delivery zones to speed mail delivery. Be sure to include zone number when writing to these cities; be sure to include your zone number in your return address—after the city, before the state. COMMENT Case of a Substitute Amplifier Since the article ("Voltage Comparator With High-Speed Switches," p 56, Jan. 30) was sent to your magazine, the authors, J. W. Higgenbotham and H. H. Douglass, have begun using a different and better a-c amplifier. They feel that the article does not properly reflect this advancement in the state of the art unless a diagram of the new a-c amplifier is substituted in place of the one you now have, Fig. 3. Accordingly, I am sending you a quick drawing of the new diagram which we would like to substitute for Fig. 3. The amplifier consists of a pair of 2-transistor complementary-coupled stages, coupled by a transformer. Each stage employs heavy d-c feedback to control the d-c operating point, plus a smaller amount of a-c feedback to control gain. The problem of leakage-current amplification, common to all d-c amplifiers, has been eliminated by placing a diode in the emitter of the 2N43 transistor and connecting a thermistor from the supply voltage to its base. This technique ensures that the second transistor can be completely cut off by the first transistor, even at maximum rated junction temperature. Experience has shown this configuration to be exceptionally stable and flexible. Wide variations in input impedance and voltage gain are possible merely by changing the value of feedback resistors $R_1$ and $R_2$. WILLIAM B. WELLING THE MARTIN CO. BALTIMORE February 6, 1959 — ELECTRONICS AN INVITATION TO JOIN ORO Pioneer In Operations Research Operations Research is a young science, earning recognition rapidly as a significant aid to decision-making. It employs the services of mathematicians, physicists, economists, engineers, political scientists, psychologists, and others working on teams to synthesize all phases of a problem. At ORO, a civilian and non-governmental organization, you will become one of a team assigned to vital military problems in the area of tactics, strategy, logistics, weapons systems analysis and communications. No other Operations Research organization has the broad experience of ORO. Founded in 1948 by Dr. Ellis L. Johnson, pioneer of U. S. Opssearch, ORO's research findings have influenced decision-making on the highest military levels. ORO's professional atmosphere encourages those with initiative and imagination to broaden their scientific capabilities. For example, staff members are taught to "program" their own material for the Univac computer so that they can use its services at any time they so desire. ORO starting salaries are competitive with those of industry and other private research organizations. Promotions are based solely on merit. The "fringe" benefits offered are ahead of those given by many companies. The cultural and historical features which attract visitors to Washington, D. C., are but a short drive from the pleasant Bethesda suburb in which ORO is located. Attractive homes and apartments are within walking distance and readily available in all price ranges. Schools are excellent. For further information write: Professional Appointments OPERATIONS RESEARCH OFFICE ORO The Johns Hopkins University 6935 ARLINGTON ROAD BETHESDA 14, MARYLAND One Best Bet in 1959 ... I would like to take this opportunity to add my congratulations to all the others you have received on the revised format of ELECTRONICS. DONALD T. WORTHINGTON ROME AIR DEVELOPMENT CENTER ROME, N. Y. A Confusion of Corporations We have noted with pleasure your mention of Narda Ultrasonics stock on p 19 of your Jan. 16 issue (Financial Roundup). You now list the stock quotations on the common stock of Narda Microwave, and since there seems to be some confusion between the two companies, we feel it would be of interest for you to list the common stock quotations on Narda Ultrasonics, which are entirely separate and distinct quotations from Narda Microwave. GERALD B. VEGA NARDA MICROWAVE NARDA ULTRASONICS MINEOLA, N. Y. Reader Vega's point is well taken, and the editor of our financial pages assures us that we will start carrying listings for both stocks in the near future. Kudo I would like to compliment you on the accurate and quite readable condensation of my paper ("Storage Tube Has Symmetrical Guns," p 60, Jan. 2). I would also like to thank you for the opportunity to publish the results of our development, and for the speed with which the article was published. MICHAEL F. TOOHIG ITT LABORATORIES FORT WAYNE, IND. The thanks are ours, and bounce right back to author Toohig for having provided us with an article of great interest, articulately presented in the first place, and accompanied by the finest in cooperation. The pleasure was ours... ANY TYPE TERMINAL for RADIO, TELEVISION, COMMUNICATIONS and ELECTRONIC APPLICATIONS Malco supplies terminals for all standard and special requirements. Send blueprint or specifications for specific information and prompt quotation. REQUEST BULLETIN 552 Malco TOOL and MANUFACTURING CO. 4023 W. LAKE ST. • CHICAGO 24, ILL. CIRCLE 74 READERS SERVICE CARD ENGINEERS...PHYSICISTS NEW opportunities at Motorola in Chicago give yourself and your family all the big city advantages at a relaxed midwest pace, while you ADVANCE YOUR CAREER Outstanding career opportunities are waiting at the many Motorola research and development laboratories in the Chicago area. This is your opportunity to advance your career with a swiftly expanding company, working in the most modern and well instrumented laboratories...with liberal employee benefits, including an attractive profit sharing plan and association with men of the highest technical competence. You'll like living in one of the beautiful suburbs of the playground of the midwest, where there are endless social, cultural, and educational activities to choose from the year-round. Exciting life or quiet life—Chicago offers either. MILITARY POSITIONS OPEN - Radar transmitters and receivers - Radar circuit design - Antenna design - Electronic countermeasure systems - Military communications equipment design - Pulse circuit design - IF strip design - Device using klystron, traveling wave tube and backward wave oscillator - Display and storage devices CIVILIAN POSITIONS OPEN 2-WAY RADIO COMMUNICATIONS - VHF & UHF Receiver • Transmitter design & development • Power supply - Systems Engineering • Selective Signaling • Transistor Applications • Crystal Engineering • Sales Engineers PORTABLE COMMUNICATIONS - Design of VHF & UHF FM Communications in portable or subminiature development. MICROWAVE FIELD ENGINEERS Write to: Mr. L. B. Wrenn Dept. D MOTOROLA, INC. 4501 Augusta Blvd., Chicago 51, Ill. ALSO...there are excellent opportunities in PHOENIX, ARIZONA • RIVERSIDE, CALIFORNIA ENGINEERS—BSEE, MSEE, PhD HIGH-LEVEL OPENINGS for SPECIALISTS in HYPERSONIC VEHICLE COMMUNICATIONS The Missile and Space Vehicle Dept. (General) Electric has immediate openings in the design and development of systems for communication through ionized media and infrared. Maximum personal contribution is assured by working in small study groups on: - Coding, multipath and associated signal propagation problems. - Research and Development of electronic, optical and infrared systems applicable to advanced missiles and space vehicles. - Theory and analysis of operational requirements for design and development of missile and space vehicle communications. These high level positions require a background in advanced systems development, high order of creativity and analytical ability. Advanced degrees are preferred. Please submit your qualifications in complete confidence to: Mr. R. L. Eddy, Dept. 702-2 Professional Placement GENERAL ELECTRIC Missile and Space Vehicle Department 3198 Chestnut St. Philadelphia 4, Pa. February 6, 1959 — ELECTRONICS complete systems missile tracking ground-space communications airborne instrumentation range design and operations data processing these are the pursuits of PHILCO WESTERN DEVELOPMENT LABORATORIES PALO ALTO For industry, for the military . . . for ground, air or space . . . electronic and electromechanical systems designed and developed in superb new Palo Alto facilities . . . by the world's finest new team of senior specialists. A rewarding share in this can be yours; your confidential inquiry is invited. Urgently needed. Ph.D., MS, BS in ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING ENGINEERING PHYSICS MECHANICAL ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS experienced in any of our basic pursuits in military electronic systems. Please write H. C. Horsley, Dept. E. PHILCO WESTERN DEVELOPMENT LABORATORIES 3875 Fabian Way, Palo Alto, California A part of the Government and Industrial Division of Philco Corporation Measuring phase stability vs. temperature during prototype equipment development Developmental helical antenna, part of sophisticated new direction-finder system Pattern measurements—vital to development of microwave dish antennas 60' parabolic receiving antenna for missile telemetry and tracking ENGINEERS SCIENTISTS ERCO A pioneer and one of the leading producers of electronic flight simulators, is increasing its engineering activity to include volume engineering programs in the fields of analog and digital computer techniques, telemetry, transistor applications and light/optical scanners. It is also rapidly expanding its research and development operations in the fields of ionospheric propagation & UHF communications. Challenging and diversified assignments in product design and research and development are offered by this constantly growing organization to the career-minded engineer or scientist who wishes to combine stability with the latitude necessary for rapid professional and financial growth. Immediate openings exist for qualified, professional personnel whose areas of experience coincide with the following requirements: DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMS CIRCUIT DESIGN (ALL LEVELS) BSEE, far transistor circuitry, application, analog and digital computer techniques, DC amplifiers, simulation, telemetry and design of systems and components. BS in Physics, plus experience in one or more of the following: optics, hydraulic instrumentation, human engineering, numerical analysis, computer techniques. AERODYNAMICIST BS in Aero E, plus 3 years' experience in aerodynamics, preferably in airplane stability control, power plants, performance or simulation. TECHNICAL WRITERS BS in EE or Physics, or equivalent, plus 2 years' experience in the preparation of operational and maintenance, manuals and engineering reports concerning electronic systems and components. RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMS IONOSPHERE PHYSICIST BS degree with 3 to 5 years' experience in the study of ionospheric phenomena. Familiar with present state-of-the-art in upper atmosphere and have an understanding of present programs using rockets and satellites for studies in F & F regions and beyond. Will work with radiation problems spanning VHF to VHF range of frequencies with emphasis on HF backscatter techniques and their applications to communications. Will design and conduct field experiments. GLOBAL COMMUNICATIONS SPECIALISTS BS degree plus 5 to 10 years' experience embracing theoretical as well as practical knowledge of communications system design involving F-layer ionospheric propagation techniques. Working knowledge of modern high-power RF transmitters and HF receiving Systems. ELECTRONIC PHYSICIST BS degree with 3 to 5 years' experience in diffusion pump high-vacuum techniques and have an understanding of classical gas discharge physical phenomena. Will conduct laboratory investigations and simulated upper atmosphere experiments. EXCELLENT SALARIES commensurate with education and experience MODERN COMPANY BENEFITS including educational assistance plan RELOCATION ASSISTANCE IDEAL LIVING CONDITIONS in suburban Washington, D.C. EXPENSE-PAID INTERVIEWS WITH SELECTED APPLICANTS Send Resume Stating Education & Experience to: Mr. R. J. REID, Technical Employment Manager ERCO PLANT Nuclear Products — Erco DIVISION OF ACF INDUSTRIES INCORPORATED RIVERDALE, MARYLAND WARFIELD 7-4444 ADVANCED ELECTRONICS CENTER AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY DISPLAY DEVICES AND TECHNIQUES Several unusual openings for Electrical Engineers with 3 to 5 years' advanced engineering experience and the ability and initiative to make individual contributions. These engineers will work on research programs leading to advanced developments in: Display devices for airborne weapons systems — flight control, fire control, IR, radar and CIC — CRT circuits, computer read-in and read-out and solid state, color and 3-D display techniques. Located at Cornell University in beautiful Ithaca, New York, the Advanced Electronics Center affords you unrivalled opportunity for extending your professional education on the tuition refund program. Write in complete confidence to: Dr. Paul Doigam, Div. 27-IVF ADVANCED ELECTRONICS CENTER AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY GENERAL ELECTRIC Ithaca, New York ELECTRONIC and ACOUSTICAL ENGINEERS WANTED By Electro-Voice, Inc. For research, development and design. Excellent opportunity for advancement and interesting work in rapidly expanding company. Write: Vice President for Engineering, Electro-Voice, Inc., Buchanan, Michigan NEED ENGINEERS Place an "Engineers Wanted" advertisement in this EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES section. It's an inexpensive, time saving method of selecting competent personnel for every engineering job in the Electronics industry. The selective circulation of ELECTRONICS offers you an opportunity to choose the best qualified men available throughout the industry. NUCLEAR PHYSICISTS THEORETICAL PHYSICIST to evaluate radiation effects on complex electronic airborne systems and components and perform theoretical experiments in nuclear physics, cosmic radiation, astrophysics, magnetic phenomena, tropospheric properties. Goal of assignment: To further understanding of basic physical environment encountered by advanced weapons systems. Must have advanced degree in Physics and three years' experience in nuclear radiation physics. Knowledge of reactor testing techniques essential. 704 PROGRAMMER ANALYST to study data flow diagrams and write the differential equations of a circuit diagram. Should be familiar with transforms, numerical analysis, nuclear shielding techniques, and construction of a mathematical model of a nuclear reactor. Assignment entails: investigating analog and digital real-time control systems using high-speed electronic digital and/or analog computer; shielding of components from nuclear radiation. Must have M.S. in Physics and at least two years' experience in control systems analysis and/or nuclear shielding techniques. ADVANTAGES OF IBM A recognized leader in the electronic systems field . . . products used for both military and commercial work . . . advancement on merit . . . company-paid relocation expenses . . . liberal company benefits . . . salary commensurate with ability and experience. WRITE, outlining your qualifications and experience, to: Mr. P. E. Strohm Dept. 554B IBM Corp. Owego, New York Scope and adventure in RCA BMEWS engineering positions On the Ballistic Missile Early Warning System, you work with equipments which are largest in their fields . . . the most complex project in military electronics . . . exploring interesting areas of scientific unknowns. Immediate openings include positions for: PROJECT ENGINEERS—assume systems responsibility during installation, checkout and integration and provide engineering leadership thereafter. EE, plus advanced theoretical knowledge. DESIGN ENGINEERS—association with equipments through initial design and responsibility for checkout, integration and redesign. EE or ME, circuit design and field experience desirable. Work at desirable New Jersey locations . . . or on field assignments (temporary or permanent) in Alaska and other areas. Excellent salaries, plus added compensation for field assignment. Unusual opportunities for rapid advancement. Complete RCA benefit program for you and your family. For details, act today! Mr. Robert Vincent RCA, Dept. BM-4B 1809 Bannard St., Riverton, N. J. Have ______ Project Engineer ______ Design Engineer experience you need on BMEWS. NAME_____________________________________________________ ADDRESS___________________________________________________ CITY_________________________ ZONE_____ STATE______________ RCA SERVICE COMPANY A DIVISION OF RADIO CORPORATION OF AMERICA ENGINEERS Which Facts About SANDERS ASSOCIATES, INC. Are Important to You in a Career? THE WORK: Diversified systems and components. Missile, space vehicle, radar, Panar, surveillance, ECM, computer, servo systems and circuitry development and study. Gyro, hydraulic servo valves, vacuum tube and microwave components development. SALARIES: Open. More than competitive nationally, based on the individual. COST-OF-LIVING: Low. No state income tax, no sales tax; low housing and living costs. THE COMPANY: Growth based on technical excellence—from 12 to 900 employees on own capital in only 7 years. LOCATION: Ideal. Less than an hour from downtown Boston, mountains and ocean beaches. Nashua, New Hampshire is an attractive city of 40,000 surrounded by picturesque small communities. Shopping facilities, schools and medical districts are excellent, and Nashua provides a safe, wholesome and friendly environment for your family. Continued Growth Creates Immediate Openings: 1. STUDY & SYSTEMS. Senior & Doctorate. Weapons Systems. 2. RELIABILITY. Junior thru Senior. Circuitry Background. 3. SPECIFICATION & STANDARDS. Section Head. Circuitry Background. 4. SYSTEMS. Senior. Countermeasures, Radar, Missile, Electronics. 5. GYROS. Senior. Theoretical Analysis & Development. 6. SALES. Senior. Rate gyros, hydraulic, components & systems. 7. RECEIVERS. Senior. Front ends, IF's. 8. ELECTRONIC PACKAGING. Senior Mechanical. 9. MICROWAVE. Junior thru Section Head. Systems or Components. 10. CIRCUIT DESIGN. Junior thru Senior. Transistor or Tube. 11. ELECTRONIC PRODUCT DESIGN. Junior thru Senior. BSEE. 12. TEST EQUIPMENT. (Circuits). Junior thru Senior. Transistor or Tube. Please send resume, including salary desired, to Lloyd R. Ware, Staff Engineer. SANDERS ASSOCIATES INCORPORATED Nashua, New Hampshire ENGINEERS Senior Project & Staff Positions in Development of ADVANCED CELESTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEMS Qualifications should include previous responsible experience in analog and digital computers, advanced electronic techniques and navigation concepts. FIELD ENGINEERS For Development and Flight Evaluation Work. PRODUCT ENGINEERS For Design of Field Test Equipment for Electromechanical Systems. Enjoy unusual opportunity for growth...a stimulating professional environment...with one of America's finest developers and manufacturers of flight instrumentation. Send resume, in confidence, to T. A. DeLuca. PROFESSIONAL SERVICES CROSBY LABORATORIES, INC. Murray G. Crosby & Staff Radio - Electronic Research - Development & Manufacturing Communications, FM & TV 298 Robbins Lane, Syosset, New York WElls 1-3181 ERCO RADIO LABORATORIES, INC. Radio Communications Equipment Engineering - Design - Development - Production Our 20-year record in Ground Communication and Radio Beacons Garden City • Long Island • New York ALBERT PREISMAN Consulting Engineer Television, Pulse Techniques, Video Amplifiers, Patent technical consultation. 616 St. Andrews Lane, Silver Spring, Maryland Engineering Opportunities of a High Order in Creating Complex Identification & Tracking Equipments at General Electric's Missile Detection Systems Section To locate a 15,000-mph missile despite complicating factors such as the varying refractive index of the troposphere and ionosphere, a high degree of systems sophistication is of paramount importance. Growth opportunities commensurate with the creative and analytical demands implicit in such requirements are open now for experienced electronic engineers at G.E.'s Missile Detection Systems Section in these areas: - Research & Development of New Detection Techniques - Initiation & Development of Proposals - Definition and Direction of Equipment Design - Engineering Liaison with Military & Engineering-Manufacturing Sub-Contractors Salaries fully competitive, commensurate with experience Write in confidence to Mr. James P. Kinsella, Div. 27-WE Missile Detection Systems Section HEAVY MILITARY ELECTRONICS DEPT. GENERAL ELECTRIC Court Street, Syracuse, New York RCA MOORESTOWN AND ATLAS Responsibility for the development, design and production of an advanced launch control system for the Atlas missile is one of the charters of RCA Moorestown. The system is designed to perform two primary functions: To determine the operational readiness of the missile and to control the actual launching of the ICBM into space. The Atlas launch control system complex requires over 200 cabinets of relay logic and newly developed transistorized digital and analog computer circuitry. Of critical significance in the development of the complex are the problems of reliability and accuracy, necessitating the use of advanced transistorized techniques. The challenge of the project is increased by the need for obtaining and integrating information from many associate contractors and by the problems of concurrent research, development and production. The breadth and complexity of the Atlas launch control system are creating stimulating assignments in systems, projects and development engineering. Engineers, scientists and managers interested in contributing to this program—or to other challenging weapon system projects—are invited to address inquiries to Mr. W.J. Henry, Box V-10-B. ENGINEERING SALES MANAGER ABOUT THE POSITION: Work with top echelon, blue-chip corporation executives and engineers on some of the most advanced electronic and electrical projects of our time. Complete responsibility for sales programming, execution and evaluation. ABOUT THE COMPANY: World's largest manufacturer of specialized high temperature insulation materials. World's first producer of vitreous synthetic mineral. Leader in high reliability, mechanical switches. Located in metropolitan New York area. ABOUT YOU: EE degree or strong electronics engineering background. Familiarity with insulation materials and telemetering experience desirable. If you can fill the challenging requirements of this executive position, please write immediately giving full details and salary desired. P-9757 Electronics Class. Adv. Div., P. O. Box 12, N. Y. 36, N. Y. ENGINEERS Progressive research and development concern in the Chicago area is in need of several capable engineers to complete their expansion program. E. E. or Physicist with a good mathematical background will have an excellent opportunity for advancement. Will consider recent grads. Profit sharing plus usual fringe benefits. Reply in confidence. P-9726 Electronics 520 N. Michigan Ave., Chicago 11, Ill. ENGINEER, RESEARCH Must have degree in physics or electric or mechanical engineering. Beginning opportunity for young man beginning his career to carry out projects on his own, with supervision, guidance, from design through testing and installation stages. Please send resume to Personnel. GREAT LAKES PIPE LINE COMPANY P. O. Drawer 2239, Kansas City 42, Missouri POSITIONS WANTED Wanted—Concern needing top-quality engineering—BME and BEE degrees—10 years experience in industrial, military, and missile fields—prefer Mid-West location. PW-9626, Electronics. Sales Engineer with successful record of accomplishment with components in electronic and electro-mechanical field in N. Y., desires affiliation with concern in Los Angeles area. Graduate, English, age 28, with ability to carry on preliminary discussions on engineering level. Have highest recommendations. Five figure compensation. Available for interview at Los Angeles office three weeks at I.R.E. Show in N. Y. Position must be exceptional opportunity or not interested. PW-9752, Electronics. DON'T FORGET the box number when answering advertisements. It is the only way we can identify the advertiser to whom you are writing. Immediate Openings at ELECTRIC BOAT DIVISION OF GENERAL DYNAMICS CORPORATION Birthplace of the Atomic Submarine Now Building first 2 Ballistic Missile POLARIS Subs RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT DEPARTMENT ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS EE, ME or Physics degree required. Responsible for conceptual engineering and system analysis of large complex devices employing a combination of electrical, electronic, electromechanical, hydraulic and pneumatic systems. Should be familiar with servomechanisms theory, experienced in use of analog or digital computers as a design tool, and have a good grasp of mathematics. Will work on proposal preparation, feasibility studies and execution of hardware contracts. CIRCUITS—BSEE OR PHYSICS Responsible for conceptual and engineering production of electronic equipment. Familiar with servomechanisms and analog computer theory. Experienced in use of semiconductor, magnetic amplifiers, and vacuum tube circuit elements; good grasp of mathematics. SERVOMECHANISMS For engineering design of servomechanisms in both the instrument and multiple horsepower class. Will interpret performance specifications and be responsible for design of a system including stability studies and the calculation of other performance criteria. ENGINEERING SECTION—DESIGN DEPARTMENT Circuit Development and Systems Installation assignments concerning application of missile fire control and shipboard navigation systems. Requires EE degree and minimum of 2 years missile or navigation system experience. Development of Circuits and Equipment in conjunction with missile and navigation systems installations aboard submarines. Requires EE degree with advanced courses and experience in servomechanisms. * * * * * The professional development offered engineers at Electric Boat—largest and most highly trained engineering and design staff of any private shipyard in the United States—is outstanding in every way. Electric Boat's location, in the New England community of Groton on the Connecticut shore near New London, provides excellent living and working conditions—just half way between New York and Boston. To arrange interview appointment, send resume to James P. O'Brien, Technical Employment Supervisor. GENERAL DYNAMICS CORPORATION ELECTRIC BOAT DIVISION Groton, Connecticut NEW ENGLAND OPPORTUNITIES for ELECTRONIC ENGINEERS - SYSTEMS - COMMUNICATIONS - INSTRUMENTATION - CIRCUIT DESIGN - SEMI-CONDUCTORS - MICROWAVE Your Resume is assured PROMPT and CAREFUL CONSIDERATION for these RESPONSIBLE FEE PAID POSITIONS. SOS PERSONNEL BUREAU 127 Tremont Street • Boston 8, Mass. FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION About Classified Advertising Contact The McGraw-Hill Office Nearest You. ATLANTA, 3—1301 Rhodes-Haverty Bldg., Jackson 3-6951 M. H. MILLER BOSTON, 16—350 Park Square, Hubbard 2-7160 D. J. CASSIDY CHICAGO, 11—520 No. Michigan Ave., Mohawk 4-5800 W. J. HIGGINS—D. C. JACKMAN CLEVELAND, 13—1164 Illuminating Bldg., Superior 1-7000 W. B. SULLIVAN DALLAS, 1—1712 Commerce St., Vaughn Bldg., Riverside 7-5117 GORDON JONES—F. E. HOLLAND DETROIT, 26—856 Penobscot Bldg., Woodward 2-1793 D. M. WATSON LOS ANGELES, 17—1125 W. 6 St., Huntley 2-5450 R. L. YOCOM NEW YORK, 63—500 Fifth Ave., Oxford 5-5959 D. T. COSTER—R. P. LAWLESS PHILADELPHIA, 3—Six Penn Center Plaza, Douglas 8-4330 T. W. MCCLURE—H. W. BOZARTH ST. LOUIS, 8—3615 Olive St., Jefferson 5-4867 SAN FRANCISCO, 4—68 Post St., Douglas 2-4600 R. C. ALCORN SEARCHLIGHT SECTION (Classified Advertising) BUSINESS OPPORTUNITIES EQUIPMENT - USED or RESALE • LEASE OR PURCHASE CONTRACT • 30,000 square feet of floor space—brick, tile & concrete. Available for immediate occupancy. Located on two national highways and two state highways, in city, with Santa Fe and M K & T Railroads. Inquire— WOODWARD INDUSTRIAL CORPORATION BOX 129 WOODWARD, OKLAHOMA KLYSTRON POWER SUPPLY with a MEMORY No more fiddling with reflector voltage adjustments when you switch between cw and square wave...because of just one of the typically advanced features of this low-medium voltage Klystron Power Supply. Ever double-mode a Klystron? Not with our model 809! Again, the thoughtful engineering that goes into every PRD product assures the user of self-protection against errors. Even little things like the built-in beam voltage and current meter prevent guessing and doubt during runs. And when it comes to 'scoping the Klystron...compare the CRT display of a tube powered by the 809 and you'll see for the first time what a really sharp trace looks like! For complete details, send for our data sheet F-10. P.S. In case you don't have our latest catalog, E-8...160 pages, chock-full of useful data...dash off a note on your company letterhead. POLYTECHNIC RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT CO., INC. 202 Tillary St., Brooklyn 1, N.Y. Ulster 2-6800 CIRCLE 75 READERS SERVICE CARD INDEX TO ADVERTISERS Acme Wire ........................................ 84 Addo-X .................................................. 6 Aeronutronic, a Subsidiary of Ford Motor Company ............... 59 Aerovox Corporation .................................... 71 American Television & Radio Co. ..................... 90 Amphenol Corporation Electronics Corp. ................. 78 Associated Research Inc. .............................. 93 Avion Division—A.C.F. Industries ....................... 15 Buillantine Laboratories, Inc. ........................ 73 Burnstead Still & Sterilizer Co. ....................... 12 Beaver Gear Works Inc. .................................. 95 Bendix Aviation Corp. .................................. 26 Bentilla Division ........................................ 26 Beatty, Clark Mfg. Co. .................................. 34 Booker & Wallstedt, Inc. ................................. 88 Bourns Laboratories, Inc. ............................... 19 Brush Instruments Division of Clevite Corp. ............. 38 Canoga-Division Underwood Corp. ......................... 23 Centraub, A Division of Globe-Union .................... 87 Century Electronics & Instruments, Inc. .................. 33 Consolidated Electrodynamics ............................. 97 Continental-Diamond Fibre Div. of the Budd Company, Inc. .... 99 Cornell-Dubilier .......................................... 39 Cosser Canada Limited .................................... 90 Curtiss-Wright Corp. ..................................... 93 Dano Electric Co. ........................................ 102 Daytona Beach Chamber of Commerce ....................... 96 Daylight Corporation ..................................... 33 Eastman Kodak Company ................................... 86 Elfe McCallough, Inc. .................................... 28 Federation Nationale Des Industries Electroniques .......... 92 Felker Mfg. Co. ........................................... 96 Film Capacitors Inc. ..................................... 102 Forbes & Wagner Inc. ..................................... 100 Fusele Corp., The ........................................ 25 Gabriel Electronics Division ............................. 88 General Electric, Semiconductor Prod. Dept. ............... 8, 9 General Transistor Corporation .......................... 17 Good-all Electric Mfg. Co. ............................... 94 Greene-Shaw Co., Inc. ..................................... 94 Gudebrod Bros., Silk Co., Inc. .......................... 80 Hewlett-Packard Company ................................. 2nd Cover Heynem Mfg. Co. ......................................... 84 Hickok Electrical Instrument, Co. The. ................... 65 Hughes Aircraft Corp. .................................... 85 I-T-E Circuit Breaker Company ............................ 29 Institute of Radio Engineers, The. ........................ 59 Jet Propulsion Laboratories ............................... 77 Jones, Howard B. Division Clinch Mfg. Corp. .............. 93 Kennedy & Co., D. S. ..................................... 3 Kepeo Inc. ................................................ 63 Kintel—A Division of Coma Electronics, Inc. .............. 3rd Cover Lampkin Laboratories, Inc. ............................... 94 Leach Corp., Inet Division ............................... 61 Lepel High Frequency Laboratories, Inc. .................. 92 Link Aviation, Inc. ........................................ 16 Malco Tool & Mfg. Co. .................................... 103 Martin Company ............................................. 36, 37 McLean Engineering Laboratories .......................... 86 Melpar Inc. .................................................. 68 Metals & Controls Corp. ................................... 32 Microswitch, A Division of Honeywell ....................... 24 Natvar Corporation ........................................ 67 North Electric Company ................................... 14 Norton Company—Electro-Chemical Div. ..................... 90 Operations Research Office (ORO) .......................... 103 Packard Bell Electronics ................................. 7 Parametric Radio Products Inc. ............................ 76 Polytechnic Research & Development Co., Inc. ............... 114 Price Electric Corp. ...................................... 72 Radio Corporation of America, Electron Tube Div. ........... 4th Cover Raytheon Mfg. Co. ........................................ 5 Kohn Mfg. Co. ............................................. 18 St. Petersburg Chamber of Commerce ......................... 70 Schubert Organ Corp., The. ................................ 84 Sola Electric Co. ......................................... 91 Sometime Corp. ............................................. 80 Space Technology Laboratories, Inc. ....................... 13 Sprague Electric Company ................................. 80, 81 Stackpole Carbon Co. ....................................... 21 Stokes Corp., F. J. ........................................ 85 Taylor Fibre Co. ........................................... 64 Texas Instruments Incorporated ........................... 10 Trad Electronics Corp. .................................... 102 U. S. Stoneware, Alite Division ............................ 75 White S. S., Industrial Division ........................... 69 Professional Services ...................................... 114 CLASSIFIED ADVERTISING F. J. Eberle, Business Mgr. EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES 104-111 EQUIPMENT (Used or Surplus New) For Sale .................................................. 111-113 ADVERTISERS INDEX A & M Instrument Service Inc. ............................. 112 Electro-Voice Inc. .......................................... 106 Electronic Laboratory Supply Co. .......................... 112 Erco Plant Nuclear Products, Erco Div. of ACF Industries Inc. .... 106 General Dynamics, Electro Boat Div. ....................... 111 General Electric Co. ....................................... 104-106-109 General Motors ............................................. 110 Great Lakes Pipe Line Company ............................. 110 Heinrich, John M. .......................................... 112 Industrial News for Industry Inc. .......................... 109 International Business Machines Corp. ...................... 107 Kollman Instrument Corp. .................................. 108 Legri S. Company .......................................... 112 Liberty Electronics Inc. .................................... 113 Monmouth Radio Laboratories ............................... 112 Motorola Inc. .............................................. 104 Philco Western Development Laboratories .................. 105 Radiation Inc. ............................................. 109 Radio Corporation of America ............................... 110 Radio Research Instrument Company ........................ 113 RCA Service Company, Div. of Radio Corp. of America ............................ 107 R. W. Electronics .......................................... 112 Sanders Associates Inc. .................................... 108 S O S Personnel Bureau .................................... 111 Technical Systems Corp. ................................... 113 Woodward Chamber of Commerce ............................. 111 See advertisement in the June, 1958 Mid-Month ELECTRONICS BUYERS GUIDE for complete line of products or services. This index is published as a service. Every care is taken to make it accurate, but ELECTRONICS assumes no responsibilities for errors or omissions. ONLY KIN TEL DIGITAL VOLTMETERS GIVE YOU ALL THESE ADVANTAGES 1. SINGLE-PLANE READOUT: KIN TEL digital voltmeters employ a simple projection system to present numbers on a readable single plane...no superimposed outlines of "off" digits...reduced possibility of error. Standard pilot lamps give extra long life. 2. ADVANCED CIRCUIT DESIGN: Transistors employed where they contribute to performance and reliability...relay drive coils energized with DC as in telephone type service to provide long, trouble-free operation...automatic, continuous standard cell calibration. No electronic circuitry in readout allows easy remote mounting. Sensitivity control permits stable reading of noisy signals. 3. MANUFACTURING EXPERIENCE: KIN TEL has manufactured over 10,000 "standard cell accuracy" DC instruments on a true production line basis. Only by this method, by years of repeated manufacturing experience, by an over-all awareness of the accuracies and tolerances involved, is it possible to guarantee consistent accuracy and reliability...to assure real value for every dollar you invest. 4. NATIONWIDE APPLICATION ENGINEERING FACILITIES: KIN TEL has engineering representatives in every major city. An experienced staff of over 200 field engineers is always immediately available to help solve your application problems, provide technical data, or prepare a detailed proposal. Factory level service is available in all areas. 5. DESIDERATE SPECIFICATIONS (MODEL 401B DC DIGITAL VOLTMETER): Display...4 digit with automatic polarity indication and decimal placement. Total display area 2" high x 7½" long, internally illuminated. Each digit 1⅛" high. Automatic Ranges...0.001 to 999.9 volts covered in 4 automatic ranges. Sensitivity control provides gain ÷10 setting and least digit sensitivities of .1, 1, and 10 mv. Accuracy...0.01% ±1 digit. Counting Rate...20 counts per sec., providing average balance (reading) time of 1 sec. Reference Voltage...Chopper-stabilized supply, referenced to an unsaturated mercury-cadmium standard cell. Input Impedance...10 megohms, on all ranges. Output...Visual display, plus print control. Automatic print impulse when the meter assumes balance. No accessories required to drive parallel input printers. Input...115 volt, 60 cycle, single phase, approx. 75 VA. Dimensions...Control unit, 5¼" high x 19" wide x 18" deep. Readout display, 3½" high x 19" wide x 9" deep. Weight...Approx. 40 lb. Price...$2,450. 6. WIDE RANGE OF MODELS—ACCESSORIES—SPECIAL SYSTEMS: Versatile "digital building blocks" permit measurement of AC, ohms, ratios of AC and DC, automatic scanning of multiple inputs...4- or 5-digit models. Preamplifiers increase digital voltmeter sensitivity to 1 microvolt DC, 10 microvolts AC. Buffers permit driving typewriters, tape punches and printers. KIN TEL's Special Products Department can design and manufacture digital instruments to meet special requirements...complete digital systems for data logging, missile checkout and automatic production line testing. Write today for descriptive literature or demonstration. 5725 Kearny Villa Road, San Diego 11, California GOING STEADY! ...DESIGNERS AND RCA-6AU6, A PREFERRED TUBE TYPE Thumb through any stack of entertainment-equipment circuits. Go back a dozen years. Note the rf, if, af, and limiter stages and you'll find one thing especially common to a large number of the circuits...the 6AU6, an RCA original. As the result of continuing efforts to offer quality typical of all Preferred Tube Types, the RCA-6AU6 is still a steady design favorite. Here are some of the latest reasons why. RCA-6AU6 is rugged...larger-than usual cathode diameter and rigid fit of the mica supports to the cage assembly increase sturdiness and reduce microphonics. RCA-6AU6 is reliable...offers "reserve power" because of enlarged emissive-cathode area. Cathode is of special alloy that reduces interface and grid loading, substantially extends useful tube life. A built-in shield completely surrounding the cage assembly and connected to grid #3 minimizes intertube coupling and adds to structural rigidity. A double helical-wound heater reduces magnetic hum. RCA-6AU6 is 100% tested for rf noise, shorts and continuity, transconductance, gas, plate current and static emission. Little wonder designers have been "going steady" with the RCA-6AU6. Ask your RCA Field Representative for further information. He'll be glad to help. RCA FIELD OFFICES EAST 744 Broad St. Newark 2, N. J. HUmboldt 5-3900 MIDWEST Suite 1154 Merchandise Mart Plaza Chicago 54, Ill. WHeitehall 4-2900 WEST 6355 E. Washington Blvd. Los Angeles 22, Calif. RAymond 3-8361 RADIO CORPORATION OF AMERICA Electron Tube Division Harrison, N. J.
Scalable Asynchronous Gradient Descent Optimization for Out-of-Core Models Chengjie Qin\textsuperscript{†}\textsuperscript{} Martin Torres\textsuperscript{†} Florin Rusu\textsuperscript{†} \textsuperscript{†}University of California Merced, \textsuperscript{‡}GraphSQL, Inc. \{cqin3, mtorres58, frusu\}@ucmerced.edu ABSTRACT Existing data analytics systems have approached predictive model training exclusively from a data-parallel perspective. Data examples are partitioned to multiple workers and training is executed concurrently over different partitions, under various synchronization policies that emphasize speedup or convergence. Since models with millions and even billions of features become increasingly common nowadays, model management becomes an equally important task for effective training. In this paper, we present a general framework for parallelizing stochastic optimization algorithms over massive models that cannot fit in memory. We extend the lock-free HOGWILD!-family of algorithms to disk-resident models by vertically partitioning the model offline and asynchronously updating the resulting partitions online. Unlike HOGWILD!, concurrent requests to the common model are minimized by a preemptive push-based sharing mechanism that reduces the number of disk accesses. Experimental results on real and synthetic datasets show that the proposed framework achieves improved convergence over HOGWILD! and is the only solution scalable to massive models. 1. INTRODUCTION Data analytics is a major topic in contemporary data management and machine learning. Many platforms, e.g., OptiML [38], GraphLab [26], SystemML [12], Vowpal Wabbit [1], SimSQL [2], GLADE [4], Tupleware [7] and libraries, e.g., MADlib [15], Bismarck [11], MLlib [37], Mahout\textsuperscript{†}, have been proposed to provide support for parallel statistical analytics. Stochastic gradient descent is the most popular optimization method used to train analytics models across all these systems. It is implemented – in a form or another – by all of them. The seminal HOGWILD!-family of algorithms [28] for stochastic gradient descent has received – in particular – significant attention due to its near-linear speedups across a variety of machine learning tasks, but, mostly, because of its simplicity. Several studies have applied HOGWILD! to parallelize classical learning methods [33, 11, 25, 9, 8, 5] by performing model updates concurrently and asynchronously without locks. Due to the explosive growth in data acquisition, the current trend is to devise prediction models with an ever-increasing number of features, i.e., big models. For example, Google has reported models with billions of features for predicting ad click-through rates [27] as early as 2013. Feature vectors with 25 billion unigrams and 218 billion bigrams are constructed for text analysis of the English Wikipedia corpus in [20]. Big models also appear in recommender systems. Spotify applies Low-rank Matrix Factorization (LMF) for 24 million users and 20 million songs\textsuperscript{2}, which leads to 4.4 billion features at a relatively small rank of 100. Since HOGWILD! is an in-memory algorithm, it cannot handle these big models – models that go beyond the available memory of the system – directly. In truth, none of the analytics systems mentioned above support out-of-memory models because they represent the model as a single shared variable—not as a partitioned dataset, which is the case for the training data. The only exception is the sequential dot-product join operator introduced in [32] which represents the model as a relational table. Parameter Server [22] is an indirect approach that resorts to distributed shared memory. The big model is partitioned across several servers, with each server storing a sufficiently small model partition that fits in its local memory. In addition to the complexity incurred by model partitioning and replication across servers, Parameter Server also has a high cost in hardware and network traffic. While one can argue that memory will never be a problem in the cloud, this is not the case in IoT settings. The edge and fog computing paradigms\textsuperscript{3} push processing to the devices acquiring the data which have rather scarce resources and do not consider data transfer a viable alternative—for bandwidth and privacy reasons. Machine learning training in such an environment has to consider secondary storage, e.g., disk, SSD, and flash cards, for storing big models. Problem.* In this work, we investigate parallel stochastic optimization methods for big models that cannot fit in memory. Specifically, we focus on designing a scalable HOGWILD! algorithm. Our setting is a single multi-core server with attached storage, i.e., disk(s). There is a worker thread associated with each core in the system. The training data as well as the model are stored on disk and moved into memory only when accessed. Training data are partitioned into chunks that are accessed and processed as a unit. Several chunks are processed concurrently by multiple worker threads—data-parallel processing. While access to the training data follows a well-behaved sequential pattern, the access to the model is unpredictable. Moreover, there are many model accesses for each training example—the number of non-zero entries in the example. \textsuperscript{}Work mostly done while a Ph.D. student at UC Merced. \textsuperscript{†}https://mahout.apache.org \textsuperscript{2}http://slideshare.net/MrChrisJohnson/algorithmic-music-recommendations-at-spotify \textsuperscript{3}https://techcrunch.com/2016/08/02/flow-fog-computing-pushes-iot-intelligence-to-the-edge/ Thus, the challenge in handling big models is how to efficiently schedule access to the model. In the worst case, each model access requires a disk access. This condition is worsened in data-parallel processing by the fact that multiple model accesses are made concurrently by the worker threads—model-parallel processing. Approach.* While extending HOGWILD! to disk-resident models is straightforward, designing a truly scalable algorithm that supports model and data-parallel processing is a considerably more challenging task. At a high-level, our approach targets the main source that impacts performance – the massive number of concurrent model accesses – with two classical database processing techniques—vertical partitioning and model access sharing. The model is vertically partitioned offline based on the concept of “feature occurrence” – we say a feature “occurs” when it has a non-zero value in a training example – such that features that co-occur together require a single model access. Feature co-occurrence is a common characteristic of big models in many analytics tasks. For example, textual features such as $n$-grams$^4$ which extract a contiguous sequence of $n$ words from text generate co-occurring features for commonly used sentences. Gene sequence patterns represent an even more widespread example in this category. It is important to notice that feature co-occurrence is fundamentally different from the feature correlation that standard feature engineering processes [24, 41, 6, 17] try to eliminate. In feature engineering, correlation between features is measured by coefficients such as Pearson’s coefficient [13] instead of co-occurrence. In this work, we are interested exclusively in what features co-appear together. Thus, we refer to “feature co-occurrence” as “correlation”. During online training, access sharing is maximized at several stages in the processing hierarchy in order to reduce the number of disk-level model accesses. The data examples inside a chunk are logically partitioned vertically according to the model partitions generated offline. The goal of this stage is to cluster together accesses to model features even across examples—vertical partitioning achieves this only for the features that co-occur in the same example. In order to guarantee that access sharing occurs across partitions, we introduce a novel push-based mechanism to enforce sharing by vertical traversals of the example data and partial dot-product materialization. Workers preemptively push the features they acquire to all the other threads asynchronously. This is done only for read accesses. The number of write accesses is minimized by executing model updates at batch-level, rather than for every example. This technique, i.e., HogBatch [31, 35], is shown to dramatically increase the speedup of HOGWILD! – and its convergence – for memory-resident models because it eliminates the “pingpong” effect [35] on cache-coherent architectures. Contributions. We design a scalable model and data-parallel framework for parallelizing stochastic optimization algorithms over big models. The framework organizes processing in two separate stages – offline model partitioning and asynchronous online training – and brings the following major contributions: - Formalize model partitioning as vertical partitioning and design a scalable frequency-based model vertical partitioning algorithm. The resulting partitions are mapped to a novel composite key-value storage scheme. - Devise an asynchronous method to traverse vertically the training examples in all the data partitions according to the model partitions generated offline. - Design a push-based model sharing mechanism for incremental gradient computation based on partial dot-products. - Implement the entire framework using User-Defined Aggregates (UDA) which provides generality across databases. - Evaluate the framework for three analytics tasks over synthetic and real datasets. The results prove the scalability, reduced overhead incurred by model partitioning, and the consistent superior performance of the framework over an optimized HOGWILD! extension to big models. Outline. Preliminaries on stochastic optimization and vertical partitioning are presented in Section 2, while HOGWILD! is introduced in Section 3. The high-level approach of the proposed framework is presented in Section 4, while the details are given in Section 5 (offline stage) and Section 6 (online stage). Experimental results are included in Section 7, related work in Section 8, while concluding remarks and plans for future work are in Section 9. ## 2. PRELIMINARIES In this section, we give an overview of several topics relevant to the management and processing of big models. Specifically, we discuss gradient descent optimization as the state-of-the-art in big model training, key-value stores as the standard big model storage manager, and vertical partitioning. Big model training. Consider the following optimization problem with a linearly separable objective function: $$\Lambda(\vec{w}) = \min_{\vec{w} \in \mathbb{R}^d} \sum_{i=1}^{N} f(\vec{w}, \vec{x}_i; y_i)$$ \hspace{1cm} (1) in which a $d$-dimensional model $\vec{w}$ has to be found such that the objective function is minimized. The constants $\vec{x}_i$ and $y_i$, $1 \leq i \leq N$, correspond to the feature vector of the $i^{th}$ data example and its scalar label, respectively. Gradient descent represents the most popular method to solve the class of optimization problems given in Eq. (1). Gradient descent is an iterative optimization algorithm that starts from an arbitrary model $\vec{w}^{(0)}$ and computes new models $\vec{w}^{(k+1)}$, such that the objective function, a.k.a. the loss, decreases at every step, i.e., $\Lambda(w^{(k+1)}) < \Lambda(w^{(k)})$. The new models $\vec{w}^{(k+1)}$ are determined by moving along the opposite gradient direction. Formally, the gradient $\nabla \Lambda(\vec{w}) = \left[ \frac{\partial \Lambda(\vec{w})}{\partial w_1}, \ldots, \frac{\partial \Lambda(\vec{w})}{\partial w_d} \right]$ is a vector consisting of entries given by the partial derivative with respect to each dimension. The length of the move at a given iteration is known as the step size—denoted by $\alpha^{(k)}$. With these, we can write the recursive equation characterizing the gradient descent method: $$\vec{w}^{(k+1)} = \vec{w}^{(k)} - \alpha^{(k)} \nabla \Lambda \left( \vec{w}^{(k)} \right)$$ \hspace{1cm} (2) To increase the number of steps taken in one iteration, stochastic gradient descent (SGD) estimates the $\Lambda$ gradient from a subset of the training dataset. Notice that the model update is applied only to indices with non-zero gradient which correspond to the non-zero indices in the training example. In order for SGD to achieve convergence, the examples have to be processed in random order at each iteration. Parallelizing SGD is not straightforward because of a chain dependency on model updates, where the current gradient relies on the previous update. Two classes of parallel SGD algorithms stem from this problem. Model-merging SGD [43, 31] simply ignores the dependencies across data partitions and averages the partial models. HOGWILD! [28, 35] is a parallel lock-free SGD algorithm for shared-memory architectures that allows multiple threads to update a single shared model concurrently, without any synchronization primitives. The resulting non-determinism enhances randomness and guarantees convergence for sparse models. --- $^4$https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N-gram In big model gradient descent optimization, the model $\vec{w}$ is too large to fit in memory. There is no assumption about the relationship between $d$ and $N$—the number of examples can or cannot fit in memory. This makes gradient computation and model update considerably more complicated. In [32], the out-of-core dot-product $\vec{w} \cdot \vec{x}_i$ is identified as the primordial operation for big model training. In order to compute the out-of-core dot-product, the model $\vec{w}$ is range-based partitioned into pages on secondary storage. Each training example $\vec{x}_i$ accesses the model by requesting its corresponding pages. A two stage solution is proposed to optimize the dot-product computation. In the reordering stage, groups of examples $\vec{x}_i$ are partially reordered to minimize the number of secondary storage accesses to model $\vec{w}$. In the batch stage, the requests made to the same model partition are aggregated into a single mega-request. This reduces the number of calls to the model storage manager. However, the solution proposed in [32] has several limitations. First, the dot-product join operator is serial, with each dot-product $\vec{w} \cdot \vec{x}_i$ being computed sequentially. Second, range-based partitioning wastes memory since model entries are grouped together rather arbitrarily, based on their index. Finally, it is assumed that all the model pages accessed by an example $\vec{x}_i$ fit in memory. In this work, we address all these limitations and propose a scalable model and data-parallel SGD algorithm. While our focus is on disk-resident models, a similar problem exists between main memory and cache—how to optimize model access to cache? We let this topic for future work. Key-value stores. Parameter Server [22] tackles the big model problem by partitioning the model $\vec{w}$ over the distributed memory of a cluster of “parameter servers”. Essentially, the model is stored as (key, value) pairs inside a memory-resident distributed hash table, with the model index as key and the model value as value. This storage configuration allows the model to be accessed and modified by individual indices and avoids the drawback of wasting memory in range-based partitioning. Key-value representation is also more compact when storing sparse models considering that only the non-zero indices are materialized. In this work, we focus on disk-resident key-value stores instead of distributed memory hash tables. Disk-resident key-value stores implement optimizations such as log-structured merge (LSM) trees. LSM trees [29, 3] are data structures optimized for random writes. They defer and batch disk writes, cascading the changes from memory to disk in an efficient manner reminiscent of merge sort. The scalable write performance of LSM-trees can be particularly useful for SGD since the model is updated frequently. Key-value stores also provide concurrent access to key-value pairs by applying sharding techniques on keys. Sharding splits the keys into different partitions in the buffer manager, allowing concurrent lock-free access to keys in distinct partitions. Key-value stores have a limited interface, where values are retrieved and updated using a simple get/put API. Even though get/put operations allow direct access to every index of the model $\vec{w}$, a large number of these operations have to be performed for big models. These can significantly amplify the overhead of the API function calls. In this paper, we study how to utilize the advantages of disk-based key-value stores for big models in order to reduce the number of get/put calls. Vertical partitioning. Vertical partitioning [16, 42] is a physical design technique to partition a given logical relation into a set of physical tables that contain only a subset of the columns. One extreme is column-store, where each column of a table is stored as a partition. The other extreme is row-store, where there is only one partition containing all the columns. The purpose of vertical partitioning is to improve I/O performance for queries that access only a subset of the columns of a wide table by reading smaller vertical partitions instead of the full table. Vertical partitioning algorithms seek to find the optimal partitioning scheme for a given workload consisting of a set of SQL statements. The drawback of vertical partitioning is that the workload has to be known beforehand and extra cost is incurred when different vertical partitions are joined back to reconstruct the original table. There has been an abundance of work proposing vertical partitioning algorithms for different scenarios. The survey and detailed comparison in [16] is an excellent reference. In this work, we propose to use vertical partitioning techniques in order to improve the I/O performance of disk-based key-value stores by reducing the number of get/put requests made to the model $\vec{w}$. Moreover, different (key, value) pair partitions can be accessed concurrently. ### 3. HOGWILD! FOR BIG MODELS In this section, we introduce the original shared-memory HOGWILD! algorithm [28] for stochastic gradient descent optimization and provide an immediate extension to big models. Then we identify the limitations of the straightforward algorithm and specify the challenges that have to be addressed to make it scalable. Algorithm 1 HOGWILD! 1. for $i = 1$ to $N$ do in parallel 2. \[ \vec{w}^{(k+1)} \leftarrow \vec{w}^{(k)} - \alpha^{(k)} \nabla \Lambda \left( \vec{w}^{(k)}, \vec{x}_{\eta^{(i)}}; y_{\eta^{(i)}} \right) \] HOGWILD! Conceptually, HOGWILD! is a very simple algorithm. It iterates over the examples $\vec{x}_i$ and applies the model update equation (2). However, this is done in parallel and the order in which examples are considered is random. Since there is no synchronization, the model at step $k + 1$ can be written concurrently by multiple threads. This happens, though, only for the common non-zero entries—an example updates only its non-zero entries. As long as the examples are sparse relative to the number of features in the model, [28] proves that HOGWILD! achieves the same convergence as the serial implementation of SGD. Due to the complete lack of synchronization, it is expected that HOGWILD! achieves linear speedup. However, this is not the case for modern multi-core architectures because of the implicit cache-coherency mechanism that triggers the “pingpong” effect [35]. Fortunately, this effect can be eliminated by a simple modification to the algorithm—instead of updating model $\vec{w}$ for every example, we update it only once for a batch of examples. This technique is known as mini-batch SGD and requires each thread to make a local copy of the model $\vec{w}$. Algorithm 2 Big Model HOGWILD! 1. for $i = 1$ to $N$ do in parallel 2. for each non-zero feature $j \in \{1, \ldots, d\}$ in $\vec{x}_{\eta^{(i)}}$ do 3. \[ \text{get } \vec{w}^{(k)}[j] \] 4. \[ \text{compute } \nabla \Lambda \left( \vec{w}^{(k)}[j], \vec{x}_{\eta^{(i)}}; y_{\eta^{(i)}} \right) \] 5. end for 6. \[ \vec{w}^{(k+1)} \leftarrow \vec{w}^{(k)} - \alpha^{(k)} \nabla \Lambda \left( \vec{w}^{(k)}, \vec{x}_{\eta^{(i)}}; y_{\eta^{(i)}} \right) \] 7. for each non-zero feature $j \in \{1, \ldots, d\}$ in $\vec{x}_{\eta^{(i)}}$ do 8. \[ \text{put } \vec{w}^{(k+1)}[j] \] 9. end for 10. end for Naive HOGWILD! for big models. In the case of big models, the vector $\vec{w}$ cannot be fully stored in memory—not to mention replicated across threads. Since only portions of the model are cached in memory, every model access is potentially a disk access. Thus, model accessing becomes a series of requests to the storage manager—instead of simple memory references. This raises the question of how to store and retrieve the model from disk, i.e., what is the optimal model storage manager? Since the model is accessed at index granularity, a key-value store, e.g., LevelDB, makes for the perfect storage manager—the model index is the key and the model value corresponds to the payload. While in-memory key-value stores have been used before for model access due to their simple get/put interface [22, 5], as far as we know, this is the first attempt to use a disk key-value store for model management. The immediate extension of HOGWILD! to big models—shown in Algorithm 2—requires a get and a put call for each non-zero feature in an example, thus the explicit loops over the features. Given that there are many such non-zero features for every example, this puts tremendous pressure on the key-value store. The relatively random distribution of non-zero features across examples worsens the condition—to the point where the implicit sharding characteristic to key-value stores becomes irrelevant. Moreover, considering that half of the requests are put, the number of merge operations incurred by the LSM-tree is also high. While the number of put requests can be reduced with the mini-batch technique, this is hardly sufficient for big models because each get may require disk access. As with any other storage manager, key-value stores resort to caching in order to reduce the latency of get/put operations. Thus, they are susceptible to cache thrashing because the order in which get/put requests are issued matters. The naive HOGWILD! extension does not consider the request order inside a thread or across threads. Finally, the complete independence between threads in HOGWILD! becomes a limitation in the case of big models because model access is considerably more expensive than a memory reference. Copying a model index locally inside a thread becomes necessary—not an option specific to mini-batch SGD. This local copy provides an alternative for sharing that bypasses the key-value store and has the potential to eliminate the corresponding disk accesses from other threads. In this section, we provide a high-level overview of the proposed approach. The details are presented in subsequent sections. Correlated indices. We illustrate the main idea of the proposed framework based on the example depicted in Figure 1. The sparse training examples $X = \{\vec{x}_{1,1}, \ldots, \vec{x}_{1,4}, \ldots, \vec{x}_{3,1}, \ldots \vec{x}_{3,4}\}$ are organized in 3 partitions as shown in the figure. The dense big model $\vec{w}$ is stored on disk with its working set $\vec{W}$ consisting of indices 1, 4, 5, and 6, respectively, kept in memory. It can be seen that partitions have correlated features, i.e., indices that co-occur across (almost) all the examples in the partition. For example, indices 2 and 3 in partitions 1 and 3 co-occur in 3 examples, while indices 1 and 5 co-occur in all the examples of partition 2. While index correlation is emphasized in Figure 1, this is a rather common characteristic of big models across analytics tasks in many domains—several real examples are provided in Section 1. We design the scalable HOGWILD! framework by taking advantage of index correlation in both how the model is stored on disk and how it is concurrently accessed across threads. There are two stages in the scalable HOGWILD! framework. The offline stage aims to identify index correlations in the training dataset in order to generate a correlation-aware model partitioning that minimizes the number of get/put requests to the key-value store. In the online training stage, the model partitioning is used to maximize access sharing across threads in order to reduce the number of disk-level model accesses. We illustrate how each stage works based on the example in Figure 1. Offline model partitioning. Existing solutions do not consider index correlation for storing and organizing the model on disk. They fall in two categories. In the first case, each index is assigned an individual key that is retrieved using the key-value store get/put interface [22]. This corresponds to columnar partitioning and incurs all the limitations of the naive HOGWILD! extension. Range-based partitioning is the other alternative [32]. In this case, indices that are adjacent are grouped together. For example, the range-based partitioning of model $\vec{w}$ constrained to two indices groups pairs \{1, 2\}, \{3, 4\}, and \{5, 6\}, respectively. However, this partitioning does not reflect the correlated indices in the training dataset, e.g., indices 2 and 3 still require two requests. An optimal partitioning of the model $\vec{w}$ groups indices \{1, 5\}, \{2, 3\}, and \{4, 6\}, so that indices 2 and 3 are concurrently accessed, effectively minimizing the number of requests to the model. We propose a novel solution to find the optimal model partitioning by formalizing the problem as the well-known vertical partitioning [16] in storage access methods (Section 5). Asynchronous online training. Data and model partitioning facilitate complete asynchronous processing in online training—the partitions over examples $\vec{x}_i$ are processed concurrently and themselves access the model partitions generated in the offline stage concurrently. This HOGWILD! processing paradigm—while optimal in shared-memory settings—is limited by the disk access latency in the case of big models. Model partitioning alone reduces the number of accesses for the correlated indices inside a training example—partition 2 incurs a single access to indices 1 and 5 for each example in Figure 1. However, it does not address correlated index accesses across examples and across threads. In Figure 1, we illustrate the case when data examples $\vec{x}_{11}$, $\vec{x}_{21}$, and $\vec{x}_{31}$ access the model $\vec{w}$ concurrently. The order in which requests are made plays an important role in enhancing cache locality. For example, if $\vec{x}_{11}$ and $\vec{x}_{21}$ request index 1 while $\vec{x}_{31}$ requests index 2, the opportunity of sharing access to index 2—used by all the examples—is completely incidental. The same reasoning also applies to the examples inside a partition. At a first look, coordinating model access across partitions seems to require synchronization between the corresponding threads—exactly the opposite of the HOGWILD! approach. This is not the case. We devise an asynchronous solution that traverses the training examples in all the data partitions vertically, according to the model partitions generated offline. This enhances cache locality by allowing the same model index to be used by all the examples inside a partition. With this, partition 2 in Figure 1 incurs a single access to indices 1 and 5 for all the examples. In order to guarantee access sharing across partitions, we design an asynchronous mechanism in which partitions preemptively push the indices they acquire to all the other concurrent partitions. This is done only for get accesses. Following the example in Figure 1, when $\vec{x}_{31}$ obtains index 2, it pushes it to $\vec{x}_{11}$ and $\vec{x}_{21}$, effectively eliminating their request for index 2. The online stage is presented in Section 6. Convergence considerations. We pay careful attention not to impact the convergence characteristics of the original HOGWILD! algorithm. Quite the opposite, the experimental results in Section 7 show that our use of correlation not only preserves the convergence of HOGWILD!, but improves it. This is in line with the results obtained in [40] where an orthogonal approach based on the concept of conflict graph is proposed. Abstractly, model partitioning is equivalent to the conflict graph—a partition corresponds to a connected component in the graph. Both are considered as a unit in model updates. As long as there is no interaction between partitions, i.e., connected components, [40] proves that a higher convergence rate than HOGWILD! can be achieved. When that is not the case, we get the default HOGWILD! behavior. We improve upon this by applying mini-batch updates. Instead of updating the model for each example—extremely inefficient because of the massive number of expensive put calls—we execute a single put for a batch. In order to avoid local model staleness [35], we precede the put with a get to obtain the latest model. This technique is shown to drastically improve convergence upon HOGWILD! [35]. To summarize, the proposed scalable HOGWILD! framework has the convergence guarantees given in [40] when partitions do not overlap and the HogBatch [35] behavior otherwise. ## 5. MODEL ACCESS MANAGEMENT In this section, we present the offline model partitioning stage which serves to identify correlated indices in the training examples. The goal is to generate a correlation-aware partitioning that minimizes the number of model requests, i.e., get/put calls, for the entire dataset. This translates into a corresponding reduction in the number of disk accesses. To this end, we propose a composite storage scheme that maps correlated indices into a single key in the key-value store. We find the correlated indices by formalizing model access as vertical partitioning. We design a scalable frequency-based vertical partitioning algorithm able to cope with the dimensionality of big models and the massive number of training examples. The complete process is illustrated in Figure 2. Model storage. In a straightforward implementation, each index and value in the model are stored as a key-value pair. For example, model index 2 in Figure 1 is represented as the key-value pair $(2 : 1.2)$, while model index 3 is mapped into $(3 : 1.0)$. Each of them is accessed independently with separate get/put calls. We introduce a novel composite storage scheme that considers index correlation and stores multiple indices under the same key. Following the example, since model indices 2 and 3 are correlated, the key-value pairs $(2 : 1.2)$ and $(3 : 1.0)$ are grouped together and stored as a composite payload under the new key $(a : (2 : 1.2), (3 : 1.0))$. The key feature of the composite storage scheme is that model indices are not stored individually, but clustered based on the correlations among them. This composite key-value mapping reduces the number of get requests to the key-value store, thus the number of disk seeks. The tradeoff is an increase in the payload size. We introduce a vertical partitioning algorithm that quantifies this tradeoff when deciding to merge two indices. Although we propose the composite scheme for disk-based key-value stores, it may also be beneficial for in-memory hash tables since grouped indices are fetched to cache with a single instruction. Model vertical partitioning. Given the set of training examples, the purpose of model partitioning is to identify the optimal composite key-value scheme. Specifically, we have to determine the number of keys and the payload corresponding to each key. The output of model partitioning is an index map that assigns correlated original indices to the same new index. For example, in Figure 2, index 2 co-occurs with index 3 seven times and index 1 co-occurs with index 5 four times. In the index map, index 1 and 5 are mapped to the same key $a$, while index 2 and 3 are mapped to key $b$. The remaining indices, 4 and 6, are mapped individually to $c$ and $d$, respectively, even though index 6 co-occurs four times with index 2. The strategy to manage the index map—which can be extremely large for big models—is determined by the model partitioning algorithm. We can rewrite the set of training examples based on the computed index map as shown in Figure 3. Each training example $\vec{x}_i$ contains at most four keys, each of which possibly being a composite key. We emphasize that this rewriting is only logical—we do not create a new copy of the training data. The mapping is applied only during online training. Our solution to model partitioning is inspired by vertical partitioning, where a similar problem is solved for optimal physical design at a much smaller scale—the number of columns in a table is rarely in the order of hundreds and the number of queries in the workload is rarely in the millions. Model partitioning can be mapped elegantly to vertical partitioning as follows. The training data correspond to the query workload, with each sparse example vector corresponding to a query and the non-zero indices to the accessed columns. The big model is equivalent to the logical relation that has to be partitioned. The difference is that the big model is essentially a one-row table that does not incur any join cost when partitioned. However, the cost of having small model partitions comes from the extra get requests made to the key-value store. As far as we know, we are the first to identify model partitioning as a vertical partitioning problem. Vertical partitioning algorithm. We design a bottom-up model vertical partitioning algorithm [16, 42], depicted in Algorithm 3. It takes as input the model index set $I$, the sparse training examples $X$, and the cost function $cost(s)$ which computes the access cost for a partition of size $s$. It returns a model partitioning that minimizes the overall model access cost for the training set $X$. The algorithm uses a bottom-up greedy strategy inspired by [14]. The main loop is from line (2) to line (16). Initially, each model partition contains a single index. At each iteration, a pair of partitions that generate the largest reduction in the model access cost are merged together into a partition. This pair of partitions are identified by examining all the possible pairs of partitions in the current partitioning. The process repeats until no pair of partitions can be found to reduce the overall access cost. Computing the reduction in cost of merging two partitions requires a pass over the training vector $X$. This is time-consuming when $X$ contains a large number of examples—the case in analytics. Hill-Climb [14] alleviates this problem by pre-computing the cost for all $O(2^d)$ partition pairs, where $d$ is the dimensionality of the model. Considering the size of $d$ for big models, this method is impractical. Instead of pre-computing all $O(2^d)$ partitions, we compute an affinity matrix $AF$ for the current partitioning at the beginning of each iteration (lines (3)–(6)). An entry $AF[i][j]$ in the affinity matrix represents how many times partition $i$ co-occurs with partition $j$ in the vector set $X$. Thus, the affinity matrix $AF$ is symmetric, with the diagonal value $AF[i][i]$ representing how many times partition $i$ appears. Using the affinity matrix, the subsequent computation of the merging cost can be performed without scanning the example set $X$ for every candidate pair (lines (10)–(11)). This is an important optimization because of the size of $X$. Cost function. Assuming model indices are read from disk with no caching, the cost of reading a single index $i$ is $c_i = t_s + t_u$, where $t_s$ is the disk seek time and $t_u$ is the time to read a one unit payload, i.e., one key-value pair. Assume also that only one disk seek is required per read. When indices $i$ and $j$ are grouped together under the same key, the cost of reading either of them is $c_{ij} = t_s + 2 \cdot t_u$. Essentially, combining two indices generates a payload with twice the size, while the disk seek time stays the same. Given a partition $P_i$, the cost of accessing it is $cost(P_i) = t_s + \|P_i\| \cdot t_u$. This is the cost function used in the model vertical partitioning algorithm. Thus, the overall cost of accessing partition $P_i$ across the set $X$ is $AF[i][i] \cdot cost(\|P_i\|)$. Sampling & frequency-based pruning. The time complexity of Algorithm 3 is $O(Nd^2)$, where $N$ is the number of examples in the vector set $X$ and $d$ is the dimensionality of the model. Given the scale of $N$ and $d$, this complexity is infeasible for practical purposes. We propose a combined sampling and frequency-based pruning technique to reduce the number of examples and model indices considered by the algorithm. First, reservoir sampling [39] is applied to extract a sample of $N' \ll N$ examples. Second, frequency-based dimension pruning is executed over the samples. This involves computing the frequency of each model index occurring in the training data. Only the top-k most frequent indices are preserved and used in model partitioning. The non-extracted indices are kept as individual partitions. The intuition behind pruning is that infrequent indices have a reduced impact on reducing the partitioning cost. In the extreme case, an index that does not appear at all should not be considered for merging. Computing top-k over big models is challenging due to the size of the domain, i.e., the dimensionality of the model. Exact computation requires disk access to preserve the counts for all the indices. A key-value store can be used for this purpose. Alternatively, approximate top-k methods based on sketches [34] have been shown to be accurate and efficient. This is what we use in our implementation. 6. ASYNCHRONOUS BIG MODEL SGD In this section, we present how the scalable HOGWILD! framework performs asynchronous updates on vertically partitioned big models. Recall that the model indices are mapped to a smaller set of new keys (Figure 2). Two challenges have to be addressed. The first challenge is how to perform the SGD updates when the training data and the model have different representations. The index map built in the offline stage is used to translate between the two representations at runtime. The second major challenge is how to efficiently access the partitioned model such that disk requests are shared across partitions. We introduce a novel push-based mechanism to enforce sharing by vertical traversals of the example data and partial dot-product materialization. On-the-fly data mapping. In order to accommodate the composite model storage scheme generated offline, we map the example vectors according to the index map. This is done on-the-fly, when the example is used in training. For example, in Figure 3, $\vec{x}_2$ in partition 1, which originally has three non-zero indices $(2:1)$, $(3:4)$, and $(6:2)$, respectively, is mapped into a vector with only two non-zero indices – $(b:(2:1), (3:4))$ and $(d:(6:2))$ – in which $b$ is a composite key. Due to the correlation-aware model partitioning, the number of model requests made by example $\vec{x}_2$ is effectively reduced by 1 with data mapping. During parallel processing, data mapping is executed concurrently across all the active partitions. Since data mapping is a read-only operation to the index map, a single copy is shared across partitions. Concurrent model access. Supporting the asynchronous HOGWILD! access – multiple data partitions request and update the model concurrently, without any synchronization – is considerably more difficult when the model is stored on disk than when it is in memory because the overhead of accessing distinct model indices differs dramatically. The overhead of accessing indices that are in the key-value store cache is considerably smaller than the overhead for indices on disk. We examine several alternatives to this problem. Batching and reordering have been proposed to improve disk-based model access locality in a serial scenario [32]. The idea is to buffer model requests and reorder them such that requests to the same model indices are grouped together in order to share model accesses. This technique not only reduces the number of model requests, but also improves cache locality. We can extend the technique to parallel settings by aggregating requests from multiple partitions and performing the serial algorithm. However, this introduces synchronization between partitions – fast partitions have to wait for slow partitions to finish their updates – and results in poor speedup—not much higher than the serial baseline. A more scalable strategy is to perform batching and reordering locally for each partition and allow the model requests to proceed concurrently without synchronization. Although this alternative provides higher concurrency, it suffers from poor cache locality since the indices requested by distinct partitions can be arbitrarily different. Push-based model access sharing. We propose a novel push-based sharing technique that supports scalable asynchronous model access while achieving good cache locality. When a partition acquires a model index, it preemptively pushes the corresponding value to all the active partitions, before they start their own requests. This is realized with an inverted index data structure. Pushing achieves better cache locality since, otherwise, the model value may have been already evicted from the key-value store cache at the time other partitions are requesting it. Push-based sharing is an optimistic strategy that assumes the same model index is required by other partitions as well. When this is the case, it not only improves cache locality, but also saves other partitions from requesting the model, which increases contention to the key-value store. Reducing contention is a critical optimization in concurrent settings. Inverted index. In order to further increase cache locality, a key-to-vector inverted index is built for each partition, before starting to request model indices. The inverted index is essentially a hash table having as key the model index and as value the example vectors that need the corresponding index. For example, in Figure 3, model index $a$ is requested by examples $\vec{x}_1$, $\vec{x}_3$, and $\vec{x}_4$ in partition 1, shown in the first entry of the inverted index for partition 1. The inverted index guarantees that each model value required by a partition is requested only once. Partitions start to access model values only after they build their inverted index. Notice that preemptive model pushing happens concurrently with inverted index building, i.e., while a partition is building the inverted index some of the entries can be served by pushed model values from other partitions. Thus, highly-concurrent operations on the inverted index data structure are critical in achieving high speedup. We realize this with the concurrent cuckoo hash table [23] in our implementation. We illustrate how the push-based model access strategy uses the inverted indexes based on the example in Figure 3. At the time instant shown in the figure, partitions 1, 2, and 3 have all finished data mapping and have started to access the model concurrently. Partitions 1 and 3 are ahead of partition 2 in that both of them have completely built their inverted indexes and started to request model values from the key-value store, while partition 2 has built an inverted index only for examples $\vec{x}_5$ and $\vec{x}_6$. Assume that partition 1 is the first to request pair $(a : (1 : 1.9), (5 : 0.7))$ from the key-value store. It subsequently pushes this pair to partitions 2 and 3, both of which are requiring key $a$. After getting key $a$, partition 3 skips it and requests key $b$ instead. Meanwhile, partition 2 continues building its inverted index. A similar action happens when partition 3 gets key $b$. The pair $(b : (2 : 1.2), (3 : 1.0))$ is pushed to partitions 1 and 2, saving partition 1 from requesting key $b$ again. The dashed arrows in Figure 3 denote the model pushing directions. Notice that, even though partition 2 has not finished building its inverted index, examples $\vec{x}_5$ and $\vec{x}_6$ are still able to process indices $a$ and $b$, respectively. Asynchronous model updates. While preemptive pushing increases concurrency, maintaining multiple copies of the model for each partition is impractical given the scale of big models. We avoid this by pre-aggregating the pushed model values for each example vector. This is possible due to the nature of analytics tasks having as primitive computation the dot-product between an example vector and the model [32], i.e., $\vec{x}_i \cdot \vec{w}$. Dot-product is essentially a sum over the product of non-zero indices in $\vec{x}_i$ and $\vec{w}$. While [32] requires fetching in memory all the $\vec{w}$ indices corresponding to non-zero indices in $\vec{x}_i$, in this work, we support partial dot-product computation. Each example is attached a running dot-product that is incrementally computed as indices are acquired—or pushed by other partitions (Figure 3). Only when the dot-product is complete, the example can proceed to gradient computation. Instead of applying the gradient to the model for each example vector, we accumulate the gradients within one partition and execute batch model updates, i.e., mini-batch SGD. An inherent issue with mini-batch SGD is that each partition can read stale model values which do not reflect the updates from other partitions [35]. The staleness is more problematic for big models because processing a batch takes longer. In order to reduce staleness, we introduce an additional get call before the model is pushed to the key-value store. This get is only for the model indices updated inside the batch and guarantees that correlated indices co-located in the same composite key— but not accessed by the batch— are not overwritten with stale values. This minor complication is the consequence of co-locating correlated indices. From experiments, we observe that the additional get has a major impact on convergence, without increasing the execution time. ## 7. EXPERIMENTAL EVALUATION In this section, we evaluate the convergence rate, scalability, and efficiency of the proposed HOGWILD! framework on four datasets— two synthetic and two real— for three popular analytics tasks—support vector machines (SVM), logistic regression (LR), and low-rank matrix factorization (LMF). We also study the isolated effect of model partitioning and push-based sharing on the number of disk accesses. We take as a baseline for comparison the HogBatch extension of the naive HOGWILD! algorithm which is shown to be considerably superior in practice [31, 35]. HogBatch buffers the gradient for a batch and executes a single model update, effectively reducing the number of put calls to one. Since this method is logically equivalent to our proposed solution, it allows for a more in-depth comparison for the same set of configuration parameters, e.g., partition size and step size. We denote HogBatch as KV (key-value) and the proposed method as KV-VP (key-value with vertical partitioning) throughout all the results. The serial dot-product join operator [32] corresponds to the KV-VP-1. We do not consider distributed solutions based on Hadoop, Spark, or Parameter Server because our focus is on single-node shared-memory parallelism. Specifically, the experiments answer the following questions: - What is the effect of model partitioning and push-based sharing on the convergence rate and the number of disk accesses as a function of the degree of parallelism available in the system? - How do vertical model partitioning and push-based sharing improve runtime and reduce disk access with respect to the baseline HOGWILD!? - How scalable is the proposed solution with the dimensionality of the model, the degree of parallelism, and the key-value store cache size? - What is the sensitivity of offline model partitioning with respect to the model dimensionality, the size of the training dataset, and the frequency-based pruning? - How much overhead does the key-value store incur compared to an in-memory implementation for small models? ### 7.1 Setup Implementation. We implement the proposed framework as User-Defined Aggregates (UDA) in a parallel database system with extensive support for executing external user code. We extend the HOGWILD! UDAs from Bismarck [11] with support for big models and implement the runtime optimizations presented in Section 6. The database supports multi-thread parallelism and takes care automatically of all the aspects related to data partitioning, UDA scheduling, and resource allocation. The user has to provide only the UDA code containing the model to be trained and the example data. The model is stored in HyperLevelDB [10]—an embedded key-value store forked from LevelDB$^5$ with improved support for concurrency. The UDAs access HyperLevelDB through the standard get/put interface. There is a single HyperLevelDB instance shared across the HOGWILD! UDAs. This instance stores the shared model and manages access across all the HOGWILD! UDAs. The inverted indexes are implemented using the highly-concurrent cuckoo hashmap data structure [23]. Each HOGWILD! UDA has an associated inverted index that is accessible to other HOGWILD! UDAs for push-based sharing. The offline model partitioning algorithm is also implemented using UDAs. A UDA computes approximate index frequencies using sketch synopses. These are fed into the UDA for vertical model partitioning. Essentially, our code is general enough to be executed by any database supporting UDAs. System. We execute the experiments on a standard server running Ubuntu 14.04 SMP 64-bit with Linux kernel 3.13.0-43. The server has 2 AMD Opteron 6128 series 8-core processors—16 cores—28 GB of memory, and 1 TB 7200 RPM SAS hard-drive. Each processor has 12 MB L3 cache, while each core has 128 KB L1 and 512 KB L2 local caches. The average disk bandwidth is 120 MB/s. \| Dataset \| #Dims \| #Examples \| Size \| Model \| \|-------------\|-------\|-----------\|--------\|-------\| \| skewed splice \| 1B \| 1M \| 4.5 GB \| 12 GB \| \| \| 13M \| 500K \| 30 GB \| 156 MB\| \| matrix \| 10Mx10K \| 300M \| 4.5 GB \| 80 GB \| \| MovieLens \| 6Kx4K \| 1M \| 24 MB \| 120 MB\| Methodology. We perform all the experiments at least 3 times and report the average value as the result. Each task is ran for 10 iterations and the reported time per iteration is the average value across the 10 iterations. The convergence rate is measured by the $^5$https://rawgit.com/google/leveldb/master/doc/index.html Figure 4: (a) Convergence over time. (b) Time per iteration. (c) Speedup over serial KV. (d) Number of key-value store requests. objective function value at the end of each iteration. The time to evaluate the objective function value is not included in the iteration time. We always enforce data to be read from disk in the first iteration by cleaning the file system buffers before execution. Memory constraints are enforced by limiting the HyperLevelDB cache size to 1 GB across all the executions. Even with this hard restriction, HyperLevelDB uses considerably more memory – up to double the cache size – in the LSM-tree merging phase. This limitation guarantees that disk access is incurred for the large models used in the experiments. While the small models can be cached entirely by HyperLevelDB, in this case the results clearly show the benefit of reducing the number of model requests. Measurements. We report the following measurements: - loss over time represents the objective value as a function of the execution time. This measurement is taken for configurations with 1, 8, and 16 threads. The loss over time characterizes the convergence rate and how it changes with the number of threads. The purpose of the experiments is to identify the difference between the proposed method and HogBatch for a given set of configuration parameters, not to find the optimal hyper-parameters that give the best convergence rate. - speedup is measured by dividing the execution time per iteration to the serial (1 thread) execution time for the baseline method. We do this for configurations with 1, 2, 4, 8, and 16 threads, respectively, and also report the average time per iteration separately. Speedup shows how scalable each method is. - number of requests corresponds to the number of calls to the key-value store, while number of reduced requests to the number of requests saved by vertical partitioning. - model partitioning time quantifies the overhead of the offline vertical partitioning stage. Datasets and tasks. We run experiments over four datasets—two synthetic and two real. Table 1 depicts their characteristics. skewed contains sparse example vectors with dimensionality 1 billion having non-zero entries at random indices. The frequency of non-zero indices is extracted from a zipfian (zipf) distribution with coefficient 1.0. The index and the vectors are randomly generated. We do not enforce any index correlation in generating the example vectors. However, the high frequency indices are likely to be correlated. On average, there are 300 non-zero entries for each vector. The size of the model is 12 GB. matrix is generated following the same process, with the additional constraint that there is at least a non-zero entry for each index—if there is no rating for a movie/song, then it can be removed from the data altogether. splice [1] is a real openly-available dataset for distributed gradient descent optimization with much higher index frequency than skewed—close to uniform. MovieLens [11] is a small real dataset—both in terms of number of examples and dimensions. We emphasize that the model size, i.e., dimensionality, is the main performance driver and the optimizations proposed in this paper are targeting the model access efficiency. The number of examples, i.e., size, has only a linear impact on execution time. We execute SVM and LR over skewed and splice – we include only the results for SVM due to lack of space; the LR results are similar – and LMF with rank 1000 over matrix and MovieLens. We choose the dataset-task combination so that we cover a large set of configurations that illustrate the proposed optimizations. ### 7.2 Results The results for online model training are depicted in Figure 4. We discuss the main findings for each measurement across all the experimental configurations to facilitate comparative analysis. Convergence rate. The convergence rate over time of the baseline (KV) and the proposed scalable HOGWILD! (KV-VP) for three degrees of parallelism (1, 8, and 16) are depicted in the (a) subplots of the figure. KV-VP achieves similar—and even better—loss than KV at each iteration. This is also true for all the thread configurations and is especially clear for splice, which does not achieve convergence in the figure. Thus, parallelism does not seem to degrade convergence. The reason is our mini-batch implementation of SGD. While KV-VP converges faster as we increase the number of threads, this is not always true for KV – 16 threads are slower than 8 threads – due to a larger time per iteration. KV-VP always outperforms KV for the same number of threads. Even more, KV-VP-8 outperforms KV-16 in all the configurations. As a result, KV-VP achieves the same loss 2X faster for splice and matrix, 3X for skewed, and 7X faster for MovieLens. The gap is especially wide for MovieLens, where even the 1 thread KV-VP solution outperforms KV-16. This happens because LMF models exhibit massive index correlation that is successfully exploited by vertical model partitioning—we generate matrix without correlation. The 1 thread results isolate perfectly the effect of model partitioning since there is no sharing. When index correlation is high—the case for skewed and MovieLens—KV-VP significantly outperforms KV. Time per iteration. The execution time per iteration is depicted in the (b) subplots of Figure 4. As the number of threads doubles, the execution time roughly halves. This is generally true up to 8 threads. At this point, the number of concurrent model requests overwhelms HyperLevelDB. The effect is considerably stronger for the baseline solution—the time goes up for 16 threads, except for matrix. Due to reducing the number of model requests through push-based sharing, KV-VP-16 still manages to improve upon KV-VP-8—at a lower rate, though. The isolated impact of vertical model partitioning is best illustrated by the 1 thread execution time. In this case, KV-VP is exactly the same as KV, plus model partitioning. The more index correlation in the training examples, the higher the impact of model partitioning. skewed and MovieLens clearly exhibit this with execution times that are as much as 3X faster for KV-VP than KV. Speedup. The speedup corresponding to the time per iteration is shown in the (c) subplots of Figure 4. The reference is the execution time for KV-1. The speedup ranges between 4X for splice and 14X (almost linear) for MovieLens. In the case of LMF, the number of model requests is two times the rank, e.g., 2000. While KV has to execute this number of requests for each training example, model partitioning reduces the requests to 2—in the best scenario—for KV-VP. The three orders of magnitude—probably less, on average—difference in the number of requests is the main reason for the (almost) linear MovieLens speedup. Push-based sharing is reflected in the KV-VP speedup over its serial instance KV-VP-1. This follows the same trend as the speedup over KV-1 and is in line with the execution time per iteration. Number of key-value store requests. The effect of model access sharing across threads is depicted in the (d) subplots of Figure 4. Independent of the number of threads, KV issues the same number of requests. Sharing is only incidental—in the HyperLevelDB buffer manager. The number of requests in KV-VP decreases with increasing the number of threads. This shows that push-based sharing is able to reuse a model index across multiple threads. The reuse is larger for the correlated datasets skewed and MovieLens. The reduction in the number of requests between KV-1 and KV-VP-1 is entirely due to offline model vertical partitioning. It ranges between 4X and 100X—for the highly-correlated MovieLens dataset. Offline vertical partitioning impact on the number of key-value store requests. Figure 5 depicts the reduction in the number of model index requests for three values of $K$ used in frequency-based pruning. The baseline is $K = 0$ which corresponds to no partitioning, i.e., each index is a separate key. The results show that the number of model requests is reduced by a very significant margin – as much as $4 \cdot 10^7$ – even when only the most frequent 100 indices are considered in partitioning. Thus, we use $K = 100$ to generate the model partitions for the experiments in Figure 4. Key-value store cache size effect on big models. Figure 6 depicts the time per iteration as a function of the cache size for skewed and matrix – the big models in the experiments – with 16 threads. As expected, with the increase of the cache size, the execution time decreases because more data can be kept in memory. A small cache of 100 MB increases the KV execution time dramatically, especially for matrix. While a 10 GB cache provides improvement, this is relatively small—a factor of $2X$ or less. Key-value store vs. in-memory implementation. We compare a memory-based key-value store with the HOGWILD! implementation in Bismarck [11] for the small models that fit in memory—splice and MovieLens. There is no difference in our code, except that the key-value store is mapped to tmpfs\footnote{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tmpfs}—a memory-based file system. The goal is to identify the overhead incurred by the function calls to the key-value store. Figure 7 depicts the time per iteration for 16 threads. While the execution time of both KV and KV-VP improves when compared to the disk-based key-value store (Figure 4), KV-VP is hardly slower than the in-memory HOGWILD! This proves that storing the model in an optimized key-value store incurs minimal overhead – less than 5% – over a stand-alone solution. Table 2: Vertical partitioning time (in seconds). \| K \| skewed \| splice \| matrix \| MovieLens \| \|-----\|--------\|--------\|--------\|-----------\| \| 100 \| 722 \| 79 \| 52 \| 55 \| \| 500 \| 2028 \| 1404 \| 224 \| 181 \| \| 1000\| 3054 \| 4075 \| 344 \| 600 \| Vertical partitioning time. The time to perform the offline vertical model partitioning algorithm (Algorithm 3) is shown in Table 2. It is important to emphasize that this algorithm is executed only once for a given dataset. Moreover, this happens offline, not during training. Since Algorithm 3 is iterative, the execution time depends on the number of iterations performed – which are strongly dependent on the training dataset – and the number of samples $N'$ considered by the algorithm. We observe experimentally that a 1% sample provides a good tradeoff between running time and partitioning quality. Table 2 shows that – as the pruning criteria is relaxed, i.e., $K$ increases – the partitioning time increases. This is because the number of candidate partitions becomes larger. With the most restrictive pruning ($K = 100$), model partitioning takes roughly a KV-VP-16 iteration. 8. RELATED WORK In-database analytics. There has been a sustained effort to add analytics functionality to traditional database servers over the past years. MADlib [15] is a library of analytics algorithms built on top of PostgreSQL. It implements the HOGWILD! algorithm for generalized linear models, such as LR and LMF, using the UDF-UDA extensions. Due to the strict PostgreSQL memory limitations, the size of the model – represented as the state of the UDA – cannot be larger than 1 GB. GLADE [31] follows a similar approach. Distributed learning frameworks such as MLlib [37] and Vowpal Wabbit [1] represent the model as a program variable and allow the user to fully manage its materialization. Thus, they cannot handle big models directly. The integration of relational join with gradient computation has been studied in [18, 19, 36]. In all these solutions, the model fits entirely in memory and they work exclusively for batch gradient descent (BGD), not SGD. The Gamma matrix [30] summarizes the training examples into a $d \times d$ matrix. While Gamma matrix provides significant size reductions when $d < N$, it cannot be applied in our setting where $d$ is extremely large. Moreover, SGD does not benefit from the Gamma matrix because an update is applied for every example, while Gamma matrix summarizes all the examples across each dimension. Big models. Parameter Server [21, 22] is the first system that addresses the big model analytics problem. Their approach is to partition the model across the distributed memory of multiple parameter servers—in charge of managing the model. In STRADS [20], parameter servers are driving the computation, not the workers. The servers select the subset of the model to be updated in an iteration by each worker. Instead of partitioning the model across machines, we use secondary storage. Minimizing the number of secondary storage accesses is the equivalent of minimizing network traffic in Parameter Server. The dot-product computation between training data and big models stored on disk is considered in [32]. Batching and reordering are proposed to improve disk-based model access locality in a serial scenario. Moreover, model updates require atomic dot-product computation. The proposed framework is both model and data-parallel, does not reorder the examples, and supports incremental dot-product evaluation. Stochastic gradient descent. SGD is the most popular optimization method used to train analytics models. HOGWILD! [28] implements SGD by performing model updates concurrently and asynchronously without locks. Due to this simplicity – and the near-linear speedup – HOGWILD! is widely used in many analytics tasks [33, 11, 25, 9, 8, 5]. HogBatch [35] provides an in-depth analysis of the asynchronous model updates in HOGWILD! and introduces an extension – mini-batch SGD – that is more scalable for cache-coherent architectures. This is our baseline for comparison. [40] partitions the training examples based on the conflict graph which corresponds to a model partitioning. This reduces model update conflicts across data partitions and results in higher speedup and faster convergence. While the proposed framework also applies model partitioning, the method and the target are different—reduce the number of model requests. Model averaging [43] is an alternative method to parallelize SGD that is applicable to distributed settings. Only HOGWILD! can be extended to big models. Averaging requires multiple model copies – one for each thread – that cannot be all cached in memory. A detailed experimental comparison of these methods is provided in [31]. ## 9. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK In this paper, we present a general framework for parallelizing stochastic optimization algorithms over big models that cannot fit in memory. We extend the lock-free HOGWILD!-family of algorithms to disk-resident models by vertically partitioning the model offline and asynchronously updating the resulting partitions online. The experimental results prove the scalability and the superior performance of the framework over an optimized HOGWILD! extension to big models. In future work, we plan to explore two directions. First, we will investigate how the offline model partitioning can be integrated with online training. Second, we plan to explore how similar techniques can be applied when moving data from memory to cache. Acknowledgments. This work is supported by a U.S. Department of Energy Early Career Award (DOE Career). We want to thank the anonymous reviewers for their insightful comments that improved the quality of the paper significantly. ## 10. REFERENCES [1] A. Agarwal et al. A Reliable Effective Terascale Linear Learning System. Machine Learning Research, 15(1):1111–1133, 2014. [2] Z. Cai et al. Simulation of Database-Valued Markov Chains using SimSQL. In SIGMOD 2013. [3] F. Chang et al. Bigtable: A Distributed Storage System for Structured Data. ACM TOCS, 26(2):4, 2008. [4] Y. Cheng, C. Qin, and F. Rusu. GLADE: Big Data Analytics Made Easy. In SIGMOD 2012. [5] T. Chilimbi, Y. Suzue et al. 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FOR A CASSETTE DUPLICATION James Reising SHORT RUN CASSETTE DUPLICATING Norman H. Crowhurst db VISITS—SUPERSCOPE TAPE DUPLICATING LETTERS THEORY AND PRACTICE Norman H. Crowhurst omitted this month THE AUDIO ENGINEER'S HANDBOOK George Alexandrovich THE SYNC TRACK John Woram NEW PRODUCTS AND SERVICES—AES SHOW ROUNDUP SOUND WITH IMAGES Martin Dickstein BOOKCASE CLASSIFIED PEOPLE, PLACES, HAPPENINGS ABOUT THE COVER - The six duplicators on our cover all make copies of cassettes but Norman H. Crowhurst's survey of short-run duplicators looks at cartridge and open reel too. On the cover in clockwise fashion, starting at 12 o'clock, Pentagon, Infonics, Ampex, Telex, Rawdon-Smith, and Electro-Sound. db is listed in Current Contents: Engineering and Technology, \| Robert Bach \| Larry Zide \| \|-------------\|------------\| \| PUBLISHER \| EDITOR \| \| Bob Laurie \| John Woram \| \|------------\|------------\| \| ART DIRECTOR \| ASSOCIATE EDITOR \| \| A. F. Gordon \| Marilyn Gold \| \|--------------\|--------------\| \| CIRCULATION MANAGER \| COPY EDITOR \| \| Eloise Beach \| Richard L. Lerner \| \|--------------\|-------------------\| \| ASST. CIRCULATION MGR. \| ASSISTANT EDITOR \| \| GRAPHICS \| Crescent Art Service \| db, The Sound Engineering Magazine is published monthly by Sagamore Publishing Company, Inc. Entire contents copyright © 1972 by Sagamore Publishing Co., Inc. 401 Old Country Road, Plainview, L.I., N.Y. 11803. Telephone (516) 433-6530. db is available for those individuals and organizations interested in audio-recording, broadcast, audio-visual, sound reinforcement, consultants, video recording, film sound, etc. Applications may be made on the subscription form in the front of each issue. Single copies are $6.00 per year ($7.02 per year outside U.S. Possessions, Canada, and Mexico). U.S. funds. Single copies $1.00 each. Controlled Circulation postage paid at Harrisburg, Pa. 17105. Editorial, Publishing, and Sales Offices: 401 Old Country Road, Plainview, New York 11803. Postmaster: Form 3579 should be sent to above address. letters The Editor: I have read with interest the article by Mr. Eric Small in your August 1971 issue, "Problems of Mono-Stereo Broadcasting Compatibility." The center channel build-up and loss problem which was discussed by Mr. Small is one that was solved by the CSG (Compatible Stereo Generator) that I invented and for which a patent will soon issue. Mr. Small points up the problem of compatibility well. As a matter of fact, I believe I was the first to make Eric aware of this problem during the time he was working for MGM records. At that time MGM was already using one of my CSG Compatible Stereo Generators which they put into use early in 1968. Further discussion with Mr. Small took place in May of 1970 when I was a member of an AES panel which discussed methods of creating compatible stereophonic program material which could be played and broadcast monophonically with exact aesthetic taste. For what it may be worth, CSG units have been available since 1968 and are now being sold to broadcasters and recording studios. Many are in use at this time. This is why so many compatible records have been produced. The phase-shift technique for reduction of center channel build-up (and preservation of same) discussed by Eric is the heart of the CSG system and was the subject matter of a paper which I presented to the AES Convention in May 1970. There were papers written by other authors prior to my technical presentation on CSG, but all of these authors whose remedies suggested phase-shift or quadrature either learned of the method by my direct disclosure, second-hand disclosure, or pure "hindsight". It surprises me that my paper was not even noted in Small's bibliography. Howard Holzer Holzer Audio Eng. Corp. Van Nuys, California 91401 MR. SMALL RESPONDS The Editor: Mr. Holzer's letter has several interesting points. He informs us of the fact that I learned of the application of 90-degree phase shift networks from him at MGM Records. His CSG purportedly solves the entire problem of center channel buildup with "exact aesthetic taste." He notes that I failed to include his AES paper in The best of the past wasn’t good enough for Bang & Olufsen Most top quality amplifiers and receivers offer you less than 1% harmonic distortion, but when the signal reaches your speakers, there is trouble. Many speakers produce up to 5% distortion. Some popular models run as high as 15%! At Bang & Olufsen, we don’t stand for that type of performance. So, the B & O Beovox Model 5700 now available in the United States offers you performance as distortion-free as the rest of your system...less than 1%. Here’s how this remarkable accomplishment was achieved. B & O 5700 Employs World’s Largest Dome Speaker In a joint effort with the famous engineers of Rola Celestion of England, Bang & Olufsen developed the world’s largest dome speaker for use as a midrange unit. This 2¼” soft dome is employed from 5,000 Hz all the way down to 500 Hz. The unique aspect of such extended response in the midrange allows use of a bass system that need not work over 500 Hz. Since cone break-up can occur in the high range of woofer response, this distortion is eliminated. ABR System Provides Bass Fidelity, Compactness The 5700 contains one active 10” woofer and a passive 10” Auxiliary Bass Radiator that amplify each other for very low distortion and improved transient response. The passive ABR permits tuning of the cabinet to a lower natural resonance in a small space. The passive unit will continue to oscillate further down the frequency spectrum than the woofer itself. This means that we can reproduce lower frequencies. Distortion, which is normally most pronounced around the bass resonance, is reduced to less than 1% because the woofer is now required to oscillate at only half the amplitude. The new Beovox 5700 by Bang & Olufsen is a most unusual unit designed for those who appreciate the purity of uncolored sound. It’s just one of four new models of B & O speakers. Ask your dealer for a demonstration. BEVOX 5700 $285 ea. Brazilian Rosewood or Burmese Teak Bang & Olufsen of America, Inc. 2271 Devon Avenue / Elk Grove Village / Illinois 60007 / (312) 595-1320 Audiometric-type transducers make our headphones better. Better than any headphone you've ever tried. You can hear the difference: clear, live, distortion-free sound. But even more important, performance and sound are the same, all day, every day. Because our audiometric-type elements are absolutely stable to give you consistent performance at all times. Originally, we developed audiometric elements for clinical hearing tests and measurements. This required elements that remain totally stable even with changes in temperature or humidity. Sensitive elements that respond efficiently to variances in frequencies and power input. Elements capable of sound reproduction at over 130 dB sound pressure level with very low distortion and without burning up. Now we've modified and adapted this audiometric transducer element to give you a series of thoroughly professional headphones. Headphones you can rely on for stable performance — day in, day out. Clear and undistorted so you can truly monitor sound quality and balance and not just signal presence. We make two series of professional models to meet your needs Series 1325 for stereo monitoring and series 1320 for communications, with optional noise cancelling boom microphone. Try our better hear muffs at better dealers — or write for free information. You'll hear more from Telex. PRODUCTS OF SOUND RESEARCH TELEX® COMMUNICATIONS DIVISION 9600 ALDRICH AVENUE SOUTH • MINNEAPOLIS, MINNESOTA 55420 CANADA: DOUBLE DIAMOND ELECTRONICS, LTD., Ontario EXPORT: ROYAL SOUND COMPANY, INC., 409 North Main Street, Freeport, N.Y. 11520 U.S.A. THE SANSUI QSE-1 IS ALL YOU NEED TO ENCODE 4 FULL-FIDELITY CHANNELS — AND NOTHING ELSE. Just add it to your existing equipment for instant conversion and here's what you have going for you: (1) It yields accurate sound-source location in every direction for startling live-sound ambience. (2) It's in broadcast and recording use today with outstanding results. (3) A complete line of complementary Sansui home hardware is available now. In fact, thousands of Sansui decoders are in users' homes already. (4) It's compatible with 2-channel stereo and other four-channel matrix systems. To be more specific: Its ingenious ±"J" phase shifters completely eliminate the signal dropouts and shifts in sound-source location that plague other matrix systems. Its symmetrical treatment of all four channels can accurately pick up and relocate in reproduction any sound source over a full range of 360°—so there are no limits to total freedom and flexibility in using creative studio and psychoacoustic techniques. And present standards of frequency response, signal/noise ratio and dynamic range are maintained. It reproduces flawlessly on present two-channel stereo and monophonic equipment. And it will produce four-channel output not only through matching Sansui hardware, but through all other available decoders—and there are 600,000 of them world-wide today. Thousands of them are Sansui QS-1 Synthesizer/Decoders that will decode it flawlessly. So will any of the full line of matching Sansui 4-channel receivers and converters for existing two-channel systems—made by the most respected name in stereo today throughout the world, and a recognized pioneer in four-channel sound. Can you afford not to make this simple addition? Experiment with one right now. Learn what other recording and broadcast studios everywhere, now working with the QSE-1 Encoder, are finding out for themselves. Confirm their astonished conclusions. For full details, contact your nearest Sansui office now. SANSUI ELECTRONICS CORP. Sansui Electronics Corp. New York 32-17, 61st Street, Woodside, N.Y. 11377. Tel.: (212) 721-4408. Cable: SANSUILEC NEW YORK. Telex: 422633 SEC UI. Sansui Electric Co., Ltd. Los Angeles Tokyo 333 West Alondia Blvd. Gardena, Calif. 90247. Tel.: (212) 532-7670. 14-1, 2-chome, Izumi Suginami-ku, Tokyo 168, Japan. Tel.: (03) 323-1111. Cable: SANSUIELEC. Telex: 232-2076. Sansui Audio Europe S.A. Belgium Diacem Building Vestingstraat 53-55. 2000 Antwerp. Tel.: 315663-5. Cable: SANSUIEURO ANTWERP. Telex: ANTWERP 33538. Vernitron Ltd. Germany, W. U.K. 6 Frankfurt am Main, Reuterweg 93. Tel.: 33538. Thornhill Southampton S09 SOF. Southampton 44B11. Cable: VERNITRON SOTON. Telex: 47138. Clean up Noise Pollution with the Model 1000 Dynamic Noise Filter A Signal Controlled Automatically Variable Bandpass Filter Which Reduces Noise When Playing Any: Master Tape; Multitrack Mix; Prerecorded Tape; Cartridge; Cassette; Record; FM Program; Video Tape Sound; with no audible effect on either music or speech 1, 2, 3, or 4 Channels Use Epoxy Plug-in Modules Features Bandwidth Dynamically Controlled By the Music Noise Attenuation Up To 25 dB @ 30 cps and 22 dB @ 10 kc Response To Musical Content Flat .2 dB A Transient Extends the Bandwidth to 32 kc in 1 ms Attenuates Noise Above and Below the Audio Range Less Than .1% Total Harmonic Distortion Dynamic Range 100 dB 1 dB Insertion Gain 10 dB Unweighted Tape Noise Reduction Output dc Coupled, -11 V Open Circuit Delivers 18 dBm into 600 ohms or 16 dBm into 150 ohms 1, 2, 3 or 4 Channels Available on 1 3/4" Rack Panel Stereo Channels Ganged in Pairs or Independently Plug-in Epoxy Encapsulated Modules for Ease of Servicing Active Transformer Input, 100k or 600 ohms Highest Quality Materials and Components Guaranteed for Two Years For full information write: BURWEN LABORATORIES 12 Holmes Road LEXINGTON, MASS. 02173 (617) 861-0242 The Editor: Robert C. Ehle's Technique of Electronic Music in June and July was another interesting and welcome addition to audio literature. But I'm surprised that people are still confused about tremolo and vibrato. On page 30 (June), Mr. Ehle says that tremolo is amplitude modulation, or a variation of amplitude or volume in a musical sound. What he's talking about is vibrato. Tremolo is a quick reiteration of the same or different tones, as in the bowed tremolo of stringed instruments. Vibrato is a periodic pulsation of pitch, loudness or timbre. Thomas R. Haskett New York, N.Y. The Editor: In a recent "Letters to the Editor" column, David Hancock and Robert Orban have commented upon my recent writings on behalf of the Fairchild 641 Cutter system. Their arguments embody some of the shortcut thinking and logical non-scepticism of which I complained in my original article, so I'd like to take this opportunity to shoot down several of their arguments in the interest of straight thinking in this field, representing as it does such a crucial link in the audio chain. Orban begins by accusing me of failing "to recognize the difference between the sum of the powers in the left and right stereo channels and the sum of the voltages in these channels." My description of the operation of the 641 was confined to the instantaneous displacements which take place at the stylus tip when its operational mode is set for maximum vertical rolloff at the bass end. With its multiple class A amplifiers reading out through a hefty complement of ceramic tubes, added to the massive magnetic circuit which surrounds the armature, the 641 has more than enough capacity to deliver whatever power levels are required of it. Hancock complains bitterly of the mass of the 641 cutterhead, and says it can't be successfully mounted on any cutting lathe without using an advance ball. I have personally produced well over 25 LP albums which were mastered with a 641 cutter mounted on a Neumann lathe with variable depth control. Hancock exposes himself immediately as having dismissed the 641 on the basis of a hasty and superficial study of the problem; he compromises himself as a serious student of the art when he lectures us at length on how we mustn't "tailor response curves for the engineer's convenience," and in the same breath tells us he prefers a cutterhead the size of a pack of cigarettes because it's more convenient to use. Given the limitations of today's magnetic materials, no cutter of that size is going to be able to cut the levels that a large cutter like the Fairchild can handle. Nor does the "European finesse" of Hancock's cutter exceed that of the 641; the low effective mass of the 641 armature is one of its most shining features. On the subject of "convenience," by the way, let me point out that the vertical attenuation on the 641 cutter system is achieved by turning a selector switch. It is neither more nor less "convenient" for the recording engineer to have this switch in one position or the other. In neither position is there either more or less likelihood of Hancock's feared "groove discontinuities." Hancock's next boner is his statement that I ascribe the stereo effect solely to directional factors. Wrong. I did not state in my article anything about my beliefs as to what elements add up to create the stereo phenomenon. For the record, I may say here that in addition to directional (intensity) effects, I recognize not only the considerable importance of phasing, but also different degrees of "presence," etc. However, my article dealt with the 641 and its operation, an operation which leaves untouched all elements of stereo performance except those having to do with directionality, and which, further, only touches upon directionality in the frequency range at which the human ear can't detect it. Therefore, there was no reason to discuss in that particular article anything but directionality. Hancock and Orban share together Fulfilling a longstanding demand, the creators and manufacturers of the world famous Nagra ¼" tape recorders, now make available the same high-quality type instrument in the form of a two-track stereo recorder. With power self-contained, the Nagra stereo recorder surpasses in versatility any other stereo product offered today and is guaranteed to have the world renowned lasting qualities synonymous with all Nagra instruments. Unlike other recorders, whose usefulness can become limited with time, the forward looking functions that have been incorporated in the design of the stereo Nagra, will give the instrument a built-in future of expanding capabilities. THE STEREO RECORDER WITH THE BUILT-IN FUTURE HIGHLIGHTS Two high quality channels, modular and complete when delivered. NAB and the new and only NAGRAMASTER—the new way to record music. New and only two needle modulometer. New and only measurement of future disc cutting width at time of original tape recording. New and only microphone phase checking and reversing switch. New and only clutch coupling of left and right channel mixing dials when desired. New and only limiter under switch control. New and only adaptation capability for latest low noise systems. PLUS ALL THE NORMAL FEATURES REQUIRED FOR STEREO RECORDING AND RETAINING THE BASIC FEATURES THAT HAVE MADE NAGRA WORLD FAMOUS DETAILED BROCHURE AVAILABLE ON REQUEST UNITED STATES DISTRIBUTION — SERVICE — SALES NAGRA MAGNETIC RECORDERS, INC. 19 WEST 44th STREET, ROOM 715 • NEW YORK, NEW YORK 10036 • (212) 661-8066 Exclusive Distributor in Canada BRAUN ELECTRIC CANADA, LTD. 3269 AMERICAN DRIVE MISSISSAUGA, ONTARIO, CANADA (416) 677-3243 Southern California — Service — Sales RYDER MAGNETIC SALES CORP. 1118 NORTH HILL STREET HOLLYWOOD, CALIF. 90038 (213) 469-6391 the next bit of illogic, which goes as follows: during the matrixing of a left-right signal into a vertical-lateral signal a phase-shift error may occur which would result in an imperfect restoration of the original left-right signal at the re-matrixing stage; therefore the 641 system is a failure. Non-sequitur of all non-sequiturs! Everything we do in electronic manufacturing is accompanied by error. The great achievement of modern technology is that we have learned to keep these errors so small that their cumulative effect at the end of the audio chain is scarcely felt by the listening ear. These errors are embodied in manufacturing tolerances applied at every stage along the way. Any error of phase which the 641 matrixing circuitry may introduce is certainly miniscule, and, like other tolerances, very comfortably within a limit which no human ear will ever detect. We can perhaps excuse Hancock, who is apparently not experienced in design and manufacturing, but Orban is evidently a designer and manufacturer of a matrixing unit which, by the way, purposely shifts phase in the difference signal! Hancock again errs when he hypothesizes a deterioration of phase relationships due to vertical attenuation at low frequencies—a deterioration which he is unable to demonstrate. Hancock is also eager to dismiss the importance of limiting pointless vertical excursions of pickup cartridges. Such large excursions, occurring as they do in the relatively higher bass range amplitudes, sop up a large percentage of the operational capacity of the cartridge, leading to an inevitable compromise in overall sonic definition. If the sonic results of these vertical meanderings are not even detectable by the human ear, how can we justify using up so much of the performance capability of the cartridge for their slavish reproduction? Orban dwells upon the subject of power, and manages to muddle the subject into a state of complete obfuscation. He leads off by repeating the classic error that a stereo groove cut with vertical bass rolloff produces a “loss of power”. There is no loss of power. The cutterhead has power to burn. The groove modification merely needs to draw less of it than would be the case if the groove were unmodified. You don’t need the algebra of complex numbers to reach that conclusion. You can see it by inspection. The energy in the difference channel is used only for the purpose of telling the two music channels how much and in what manner they should differ from one another in the distribution of the total musical program which lies in the summation channel. When we employ bass-end limiting in the difference channel we need less total power in the difference channel because we are purposely reducing the total extent to which the difference channel is directing the two music channels to differ from one another; i.e., we are using full energy to preserve the differences in those ranges where differences can be appreciated by music listeners, but we are reducing energy and minimizing differences in those ranges in which such differences are undetectable by music listeners. By an extension of this logic, a mono groove is a special case of a stereo groove, in which the difference channel has no energy in it because the two music channels are not being told to differ from each other in any respect. If Orban and his colleagues will just apply themselves for a few minutes with pad and pencil, they’ll soon be able to prove to themselves that we have no right to continue inferring the existence of an analogue between the aggregate power drain by the armature of the cutter and the aggregate power delivered by the stereo speakers at the end of the chain. The stylus displacements I showed in my article will deliver the corresponding displacements in the speaker cones, and the aggregate summation of the linear excursions of the total speaker cone area will be the same whether the cutter is or is not rolled off in the vertical plane at the low end. The distribution will be different but not the total volume of air displaced. Therefore, there is no power loss in the listening room. Orban gives us several displays of notational prestidigitation leading to such conclusions as: “if we modify the frequency response of either the sum or difference channel, as Mr. Schulze proposed, then we will affect the stereo reproduction.” Yes, we certainly will—in precisely the manner I described in my article and in a frequency range in which the effect will not be detectable by human listeners. Again: “the sum of the powers in the left and right channels is proportional to the sum of the powers in the sum and (unmodified) difference signals.” Right on, Mr. Orban. Not only are the sums proportional, they are identical, as they arise from vector resolutions of the same resultant, as taken from different sets of axes. C’mon, now, everybody. Sharpen up your pencils and do some real thinking about stereo cutting! Richard Schulze Philharmonic Standard Corporation Acton, Massachusetts Boom Boon. We've taken our most versatile, best-performing unidirectional studio microphone, the Shure SM53, and made it even more versatile by developing a complete boom accessory system that equips the SM53 for every conceivable boom and "fish-pole" application! Shure design engineers started with a major breakthrough in design: a small, lightweight, extremely effective isolation mount. They developed a super-flexible isolation cable, a pair of highly-efficient front-and-rear windscreens, and a 20" boom extension pipe. Finally, they developed a complete boom assembly that combines unusually small size with superb control and noise isolation. Result: an accessory lineup that makes every Shure SM53 studio microphone a complete microphone system! Write: Shure Brothers Inc., 222 Hartrey Ave., Evanston, Ill. 60204. Norman H. Crowhurst THEORY AND PRACTICE - Most of the textbooks that cover measurement deal quite effectively with the difficulties in measuring voltage on old-fashioned tube circuits, leading to the importance of ohms per volt under various circumstances. What has not been so effectively covered is the corresponding difficult in measuring currents, under equivalently critical conditions. To set the stage for this little discussion, the point usually well covered is that voltage must be measured without disturbing the conditions in the circuit appreciably. And what appreciably means depends on the individual circuit being measured. Using the tube example, and supposing we want to measure plate voltage: if the plate current is, say 10 milliamps, and the meter used to measure voltage only takes 50 or 100 microamps for full scale reading, the current taken by the meter will not disturb the circuit worth mentioning. No commercial meter can tell the difference between 10 milliamps and 10.05 milliamps (assuming the meter goes to full-scale reading). But if the plate current is, say 500 microamps, then the current taken by the meter used to read plate voltage will disturb the circuit appreciably, and the reading obtained will be falsified by this fact. The problem is even more difficult in the average working grid-to-cathode circuit of a tube (except for power output tubes). The d.c. resistance of the circuit is usually of the order of a megohm, and the voltage may be as low as 1 or 2 volts, and is unlikely to be much more than 10 volts. To measure this with any accuracy, the instrument used must have an input resistance of at least 10 megohms, and be sensitive to measure whatever the voltage happens to be with some accuracy. The best moving-coil instruments require about 20 microamps to obtain full-scale reading, which means that they are rated at 50,000 ohms per volt of full-scale reading. Suppose that a full-scale reading of 10 volts would provide a sufficiently accurate indication of the grid-to-cathode voltage, which is expected to be in the region of 1.5 volts. The best moving-coil voltmeter would have a resistance of only 500,000 ohms on the 0-10 volt scale. Assume that the d.c. resistance in the grid circuit is 1 megohm: then the total resistance now virtually shunted across the 1.5 volt source is 1.5 megohms, of which only 0.5 meg is in the meter. So the voltage the meter measures will not be 1.5 volts (assuming that voltage is there before the meter is connected) but 0.5 volt. That could hardly be called a reliable measurement. About all the use it could serve is to show that some voltage is present from which you can conclude that it may very well be 1.5 volts, but you have no means of measuring it without disturbing it. You can probably observe other quantities in the circuit, from which to make deduction, such as the plate voltage and/or current. The cathode-to-grid bias serves to hold down plate current. So applying the voltmeter reduces the bias to about one-third—that is assuming the 1.5 volts is there before you connect the meter to measure it. How much this change in bias affects plate current will depend on where the intended operating point is. If 1.5 volts has the tube biased almost to cut-off, then reducing this bias to one-third would multiply plate current far more than three times, and produce some corresponding change in plate voltage, depending on plate circuit values. On the other hand, if the normal 1.5 volts bias only shifts the plate current a little below that at zero bias, the value at 0.5 volt bias would not be very different. If you want to get a little more significant an idea of the bias that is actually there, before the meter is connected, you might combine plate measurements with grid measurements, as follows. Assume plate supply voltage is 250 (you check this) and that plate voltage, before you connected the grid voltage meter, is 180. This means 70 volts are dropped in the plate resistor, due to plate current. Now you connect the meter to measure grid voltage, leaving the plate voltage meter connected. As well as the grid voltage meter registering 0.5 volt (as closely as you can read, at the low end of the 0-10 volt scale), the plate voltage drops from 180 to 90 volts. This means that the voltage in the plate resistor has risen from 70 to 160 volts—more than twice. Now short the voltmeter in the grid circuit momentarily—only just long enough to read the plate voltage change, because this condition may over-run the tube. Suppose the reading now drops to 50 volts. This means that the plate resistor is now dropping 200 volts. Let us try to interpret that, as far as we can, assuming we have no more We compared our new deluxe preamp to a 10¢ piece of wire. First we ran a signal through a 10¢ length of shielded cable. What came out the other end was, of course, audibly identical to what went in. Then we ran the same signal through our new TA-2000F preamplifier, and ran an A-B comparison between its output and the wires. Both were audibly identical. As we'd expected. This is not to say that sufficiently precise instruments could not detect inaudible differences between our preamp's signal transmission and a wire's. Whereas a straight wire has no distortion whatsoever, we must admit to having some—three hundredths of one per cent harmonic, and five hundredths of one per cent intermodulation, maximum, at rated output. And whereas a wire theoretically does generate some noise, its signal-to-noise ratio is still somewhat better than the 73dB obtained through the TA-2000F's phono inputs, or even the 90dB obtained through our Aux, Tape and Tuner inputs. But, as you'd expect, the big difference in price between our deluxe preamp and two feet of cable, buys a great deal more than just a pure, clean signal. As our preamp's 58 levers, switches, meters, knobs and jacks would indicate. NEARLY 2,000 RESPONSE SETTINGS Six of those controls are devoted to precise adjustment of frequency response. The calibrated, 2dB-per-step, bass and treble controls have switches that adjust their turnover frequencies, so you can choose how deeply the tone controls will affect—or not affect—the midrange. Still another switch cuts the tone controls out of the circuit altogether. And a single knob controls the sharply-cutting, 12dB-per-octave, 50Hz and 9kHz filters. Together, these six controls give you a choice of 1,935 precisely repeatable response settings including flat (10Hz-100kHz, +0.-2dB) response. The facilities for tape recording are exceptional and unique: you can record on two tape decks at once, monitoring either (or your program source) at the flick of a switch. You can dub from one machine directly to the other, without external patching or connections. For straight microphone recordings, there's a mic input position on the function selector knob; for voice-over-music, there's a separate mic level control that diminishes all other input signals as it increases the microphone level. And, of course, the two, front-panel VU meters, are as useful for testing as they are for monitoring record levels. TOTAL INPUT AND OUTPUT FLEXIBILITY The TA-2000F can feed two stereo amplifiers (and an additional monophonic or center-channel amp) at one time, at either a 1 volt or 300mV level. The second amplifier output could also be used for still another tape recorder, should you wish to use the ultra-versatile tone controls and filters in recording. The front-panel output jack feeds both high- and low-impedance headphones, or can be used as a tape output, by suitable adjustment of its independent level control; the same knob also controls the center-channel output. Five of the 8 rear-panel stereo inputs have rear-panel level adjustments. A sixth—the Phono 1 input—has a switch that selects three separate input impedances at the normal 1.2mV sensitivity setting, and two more impedances at the 0.06mV setting that lets you use even the lowest-output cartridges. 96 TRANSISTORS VERSUS A SINGLE WIRE But all these features merely make our TA-2000F more versatile than any wire. They don't explain how we can come so close to the wire's pure, unadulterated performance. That explanation will rest with our circuit designers, and with the 96 high voltage, and Field Effect transistors they used. THE TA-3200F: AN AMPLIFIER TO TRULY COMPLEMENT OUR PREAMP A preamplifier like the TA-2000F deserves, of course, its complement in a power amplifier. Not too surprisingly, we make one: the Sony TA-3200F. Its fully direct-coupled circuitry produces 200 watts continuous (RMS) at 8 ohms, with power bandwidth from 5 to 35,000Hz. IHF Dynamic Power is rated at 320 watts into 8 ohms (and fully 500 watts into a 4 ohm load). Its distortion, at a listening level of one half watt, matches the preamplifier's at 0.03%; at full rated output, it is still a mere 0.1%. And the signal-to-noise ratio is 110dB. Our amplifier's facilities nearly match our preamp's. The 3200F has controls you've rarely, if ever, seen on power amps before: switch-selected stereo input pairs; a speaker selector switch; a power limiter (which holds output down to 25 or 50 watts, should you so desire), and a rear-panel switch that lets you limit bass response below 30Hz... instead of letting it extend to 10Hz. For further information, see your Sony dealer, or write us. Or wire. Sony Corporation of America, 47-47 Van Dam Street, Long Island City, N.Y. 11101. information available. The change from zero voltage to 0.5 volts, as measured by the meter, is 40 volts at the plate. The change from zero to the condition when the meter is removed is 130 volts at the plate. So the best guess that this information can give is that grid voltage without the meter connected is $ \frac{130}{40} \times 0.5 = 1.6+ $ volts (it would not be safe to venture any closer figure than that). But now you turn to the solid-state counterpart of the tube amplifier circuit—one of the many transistor circuits—and the picture changes. Now what controls collector (or emitter) current, is not so much base voltage as base current. This almost completely inverts the problem we have just discussed. That problem was one where the circuit impedance is very high, across which you want to measure a quite low voltage. In the solid-state counterpart, the circuit impedance (base input resistance) is usually quite low (and, to boot, quite variable) and you want to measure a quite low current value. If you open the circuit and put any kind of current meter in series, you disturb the circuit voltage. The more usual procedure is to measure a voltage across a resistor that will tell the current through it, that happens to be the same as that going into the base terminal of the transistor. But since the resistor probably has a high value, and the current through it is quite low, the voltmeter connection may well add to the current flowing into the base, upsetting the circuit, in a similar, but different way, from the upset produced in measuring the grid-to-cathode voltage in the tube circuit. In that instance, measuring the bias current may not be the easiest way to arrive at the operating condition. The voltage across the resistor that controls bias current may be easier to measure by a method that does not involve shunting it with a meter. If the "top end" of the resistor goes to supply point, and the bottom end to the base, with emitter at some potential not far from the other supply potential, measuring emitter voltage from the top end will come very close to measuring the voltage across the resistor in question. The value of the resistor can be measured with the equipment off, and then the current through it can be calculated by ohms law. However, this may not be the same as the base current, especially if potentiometer biasing is used. In this case you need to know the value of the other resistor and the voltage across it, too. Then both currents can be calculated, and base current is the difference. For example, if the top resistor is 100 k and the bottom one is 10 k and these values check out on a resistance measurement; then if supply is 12 volts, and the emitter voltage is 0.75 volt, base voltage will be a little higher than 0.75 volt. You could measure it, but the meter may disturb the base current, which in turn would affect collector-emitter current, invalidating the reading, because emitter voltage would change. If the transistor is of a germanium type, it is safe to assume that base-emitter voltage is not more than 0.1 volt, making base voltage (that across the 10 k resistor) 0.85 volt. If it is a silicon type, the base-emitter voltage will be considerably more. Assume for the moment it is a germanium type. The 0.85 volt across 10 k will pass 85 microamps. Taking 0.85 from the 12 volt supply leaves 11.15 volts across the 100 k resistor, which will thus pass 111.5 microamps. The difference is base current $ 111.5 - 85 = 26.5 $ microamps. Because the base current is, in this instance, a small part of the total current (i.e. much less than half) any error in calculation will seriously invalidate the value obtained. In a sense, it would be better to measure current directly. However, the only way to do this would be to insert a meter in series right at the base. And a meter sensitive enough to give a reliable indication of the order of 25 microamps will have an appreciable voltage drop across it—say 100 millivolts. To see what effect this will have, first calculate the voltage in the absence of base current. The 100 k and 10 k in series will produce $ \frac{1}{11} $ of 12 volts across the 10 k resistor, or 1.09 volts. Assume the base current would be 25 microamps, without the meter in series. The source resistance, equivalent to 100 k and 10 k in parallel (by Thevenin's theorem) is 9.1 k, so 25 microamps will drop about 230 millivolts, to $ 1.09 - 0.23 = 0.86 $ volt. Putting the meter in series will drop (assuming nothing else changes, which cannot be true) another 100 millivolts, making 330 total, and dropping base voltage from 0.86 to 0.76, which will probably change emitter current and thus the reflected base current. You do not know where you are. This brief exploration should have shown the problems of getting reliable measurements, in solid-state circuits, that closely parallel the similar problems an earlier generation had measuring the corresponding quantities in tube circuits. In a later discussion we will get into a little more detail about measurements in circuits, and how they can be corrected for such difficulties. total tape duplicating with "BUILDING BLOCK" simplicity CASSETTE TO CASSETTE, REEL TO CASSETTE, REEL TO REEL The Telex series 235-1 is more than just another tape duplicating system. It is a concept based on modular "building blocks" which complement each other and provide total flexibility for tape duplicating. It solves the problems of interfacing between open reels and cassettes. It is a system designed for future expansion. Engineered to make tapes of true, professional quality. And it's priced within your budget. The Telex system consists of only five basic units. 1. Solid state modular electronics containing amplifiers, meters and controls. This unit works with any combination of ten cassette or reel slaves. 2. Cassette master play transport. 3. Open-reel master play transport. 4. Cassette slave record transport. Records three cassettes simultaneously. 5. Open-reel slave record transport. The five units are totally compatible. Intermix cassette and open-reel master or slave transports to suit your duplicating requirements: cassette to cassette, reel to cassette, reel to reel, or even cassette to reel. All units fit into table top consoles of uniform size so when your requirements change, you just add more units. It's that simple. Telex series 235-1 is heavy duty equipment with hysteresis synchronous motor tape drives, momentary push button controls and time delay circuits for smooth, positive tape handling. Selected premium grade duplicator heads provide long life and excellent frequency response. And fail safe, automatic features enable non-technical personnel to operate the system efficiently. Telex "building blocks" make a totally flexible and complete duplicating system. It's the sensible approach, designed to meet your needs today, next month and in the years to come. Made in the U.S. to professional standards. TELEX COMMUNICATIONS DIVISION 9600 ALDRICH AVE. SO. • MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. 55420 DBS PLEASE SEND INFORMATION ON DUPLICATOR. NAME TITLE INSTITUTION ADDRESS CITY STATE ZIP PRODUCTS OF SOUND RESEARCH TELEX® COMMUNICATIONS DIVISION 9600 ALDRICH AVENUE SOUTH • MINNEAPOLIS, MINNESOTA 55420 CANADA DOUBLE DIAMOND ELECTRONICS LTD. 34 Progress Avenue, Scarborough 1, Ontario EXPORT ROYAL SOUND COMPANY, INC. 409 North Main Street, Freeport, N.Y. 11520 John M. Woram THE SYNC TRACK Perhaps more than any of the other recording tools, microphones are the greatest variable at the studio. Although the other equipment—console, speakers, tape recorders, remains the same from month to month, microphones have a way of getting moved about and replaced continually, between—as well as during—recording sessions. In a large studio operation, you can often tell who the engineer is by observing what microphones are being used, and where they are placed. At the db Forum on Microphones (April 1971) the panelists rarely agreed on anything having to do with selecting the right mic for a particular application. Over the years, I’ve become particularly interested in experimenting with different microphones, leaving others to discuss the nuances of vented ports, infinite baffles, and acoustic suspension—all of which have something to do with loudspeakers. (Or at least I think they do.) I can easily bore any group to tears by considering aloud the advantages of omnidirectional polar patterns, or the merits of ribbons. When the discussion turns to wow and flutter, I usually remember something that needs doing in another room and leave before its my turn to be profound. Of course, microphones are a very convenient thing to become interested in, since they are so easily manipulated during a session. When the producer complains about what he hears, you can hardly get up and change consoles. Even changing speakers will take too much time. However, you can go out and put up a different microphone. The new mic may be no better, but it will be different. “That’s even worse,” cries the voice over the talk-back, so you plug in still another. “Now you’ve gone too far the other way.” Looking knowledgeable, you dash to the mic cabinet and return with the original mic. “That’s it! Perfect!” shouts the producer. Returning to the control room, you tell him its a specially designed unit that you only use for special situations. He thinks you’re a genius, you think he’s an idiot, and everyone’s happy. Anyway, being interested in mics, it was only a matter of time before I met the Shure Brothers crew at one of the A.E.S. conventions, and got into a long discussion about their model 546, which I had been using on trumpets. Thus began an on-again, off-again chat that is now in its third year, I think. Somewhere along the way, I proposed the idea of doing a recording session using only Shure microphones. The Shure crew expressed tentative interest. Not that they objected to anyone recording exclusively with their microphones, but, was it likely that a recording engineer would actually do such a thing in a typical studio situation? Probably not, I know I wouldn’t. And no engineer in his right mind would tell a paying customer that only one manufacturer’s microphones were available. However, if we schedule a session whose primary purpose is to test microphones, we may all learn something in the process. By keeping the various microphones on separate tracks, we can later on analyze the tracks and perhaps reach some admittedly subjective conclusions about the microphones. Certainly, some tracks will sound better than others, and if we can come up with something that no one likes (for me, that’s easy) maybe we can also figure out why, and what’s to be done. The project was still in the talking stage when the 1971 spring convention took place in California. I had just signed on at Vanguard Records. Among other little goodies, Vanguard uses Neve consoles, which meant that the project would be done through a Neve board, if and when. And there at the convention, right next to the Shure exhibit, was a Neve console. At once, the project took on a new dimension. If we could get the work done before the fall convention, what about bringing the 16-track master tape in and playing it back through the Neve console? The Convention visitor might be able to sit at the console and get some idea of what all the knobs and switches do, as he attempts a 16-to-2 mixdown. And, we could run lines to the Shure booth so that listeners there could audit each individual track and make their own evaluations of the various microphones used. Providing the comments did not take the form of hysterical laughter, they might prove a valuable addition to our own observations. Next step—preparing for the recording session. Composer-arranger Lee Holdridge joined the planners and in a little while submitted the first movements of a ballet score he was working on. The arrangement would use rhythm section, strings, harp, woodwinds, brass, tenor soloist and chorus, and would make an ideal vehicle for exposing the microphones to a variety of instruments. At the session, the rhythm section was recorded first, followed by the strings, harp and woodwinds, and still later by the brass. A few days later, the voices were added. I think the final tape turned out rather well, considering our self-imposed limitation—using only Shure mics. That's certainly a left-handed compliment to a company that has sent in a case of microphones and contributed a lot of engineering knowhow to the project. Yet, microphone quality being so subjective—and illusive—the probability is at best remote, that any recording engineer will find all his favorite microphones for every instrument within the catalog of just one manufacturer. But, by being obliged (willingly, in this case) to confine my selection to one line, I made some interesting discoveries. After the session, some of my earlier favorites were discarded in favor of a Shure mic. Others were not. I still prefer Neumann and AKG condensers for many applications. And who could get along without the sensational Beyer M160, as well as their other ribbon mics? And the Electro-Voice 635A remains indispensable, as does the RE-20. And so on. Come to think of it. I haven't really discarded any mics, although I have done some reshuffling. Conclusion If I had to rate the final tape, I would say the rhythm section was excellent, the brass also quite good, although others will certainly look for a different sound. The strings and vocal parts --- It looks a lot like the old man. What a mike he was. What presence. What a shame he had to go. From 1947 to 1960, the U 47 revolutionized the recording and broadcasting industries. And now his kid has arrived on the scene. The U 47 fet. Its subjective quality is unchanged, because its head enclosure is just as it was twenty-five years ago. (You see, it's primarily the shape of the grille that gives a microphone its unique sound, and the demand for the U 47's distinctive sound has never slackened.) What's new about the U 47 fet? Everything that 1972's state-of-the-art makes possible—op amps and all! It is protected against wind and pop interference. Its capsule is elastically mounted to isolate it from mechanical shock disturbances. The U 47 fet features both a 10 dB overload protection switch at the input of its internal electronics and a 6 dB switchable output pad to permit matching to highly sensitive microphone input circuits. A low-frequency roll-off is provided by a third switch. It goes without saying that the U 47 fet features compatible "Phantom"* powering. But it's hard to believe that it has a dynamic range of 136 dB, as compared to the old man's 86 dB. That's 50 dB wider! The result: a great new microphone that adds lustre to a great old reputation. The old man would have been proud. For additional information, call or write: GOTHAM AUDIO CORPORATION 2 West 46th Street, New York, NY 10036 (212) 265-4111 1710 N. LaBrea Avenue, Hollywood, CA 90046 (213) 874-4444 In Canada J-Mar Electronics Ltd. multitape duplicators 5- and 7-channel reel-to-reel duplicators available in quarter-, half- and full-track configurations. 1:1 or 2:1 copy ratios run at 60 and 30 ips, respectively. 5- and 9-channel cassette models feature 1.5 ips loop-out-of-cassette duplication with a true frequency response of 50 - 12,000 Hz. Use either reel (3.75 and 7.5 ips) or cassette masters. This equipment is manufactured and tested on a one-by-one basis with a quality and precision unobtainable in mass produced machines. Head alignment kits, cassette extraction tools and splicing blocks also available. For free brochure, write: RAWDON SMITH ASSOCIATES, INC. 1735 twentieth street, northwest washington, d. c. 20009 (202) 332-1522 Instrument 1 Fender Bass 2 Drums—Overhead Left 3 Drums—Floor Tom-Tom 4 Drums—Bass Drum 5 Drums—Snare 6 Drums—Overhead Right 7 Percussion—Bells, Tamborine 8 Percussion—Tympani 9 Organ 10 Piano 11 Guitar—Electric 12 Guitar—Acoustic 13 1st Violins 14 2nd Violins 15 Violas, Celli, Basses 16 Harp 17 Woodwinds 18 Strings—Overall Left 19 Strings—Overall Right 20 Trombones 21 French Horn 22 Trumpets 23 Brass—Overall Left 24 Brass—&Overall Right 25 Chorus and Soloist Mic A95P Transformer SM76 Omni SM53 Cardioid SM50 Omni SM60 Omni SM76 Omni SM57 Cardioid SM53 Cardioid SM33 Ribbon, Cardioid SM60 Omni SM57 Cardioid SM76 Omni SM60 Omni SM60 Omni SM53 Cardioid SM76 Omni SM33 Ribbon, Cardioid 300 Ribbon, Figure 8 300 Ribbon, Figure 8 SM53 Cardioid SM76 Omni SM57 Cardioid 300 Ribbon, Figure 8 300 Ribbon, Figure 8 SM53 Cardioid The Shure mics used at the session (continued from page 15) were good although I would prefer a more open sound—by which I suppose I mean a condenser. In the Forum on Microphones, we discussed condenser sound, without coming to any provable conclusions. As usual, personal taste plays such an important part, even if we're not sure just what it is we like about the condenser sound. When the tape was eventually brought to the fall 1971 convention, and played back at the Shure and Neve booths some listeners commented favorably on the string sound. And at least a few trained listeners didn't particularly care for some of the tracks that I thought were rather good. Once again, the personal taste factor. So, where are we? We haven't really learned anything we didn't already know. I still would not want to be compelled to limit my choice of microphones to one manufacturer. Yet, this finished sixteen-track tape is really quite good, and we've gotten excellent results in the mixdown. No condenser microphones were used on the session, nor was any equalization added. Eq. galore is available on the Neve board, but we did not want to confuse the issue, which was to evaluate microphone performance. We all took extensive notes, which are now being studied and compared with the laboratory tests on each of the microphones that were used on the session. Trying to draw some conclusions from a comparison of lab tests with field tests is a precarious undertaking—I'm not sure if any conclusions can actually be made this way, but we shall try. One conclusion comes to mind at this time. Multi-track recordings are usually made a few tracks at a time. A lot of time can be spent getting each track to sound just right all by itself, out of context with the complete recording. Some of this is unavoidable, since at the beginning of the session the complete recording is still a long way away. Yet, the adjustments that are made to a track heard out of context are rarely entirely suitable once that track is heard in its proper perspective. A lot of time can be wasted, getting each of sixteen tracks tailored so that it can stand on its own, something which it will never be called on to do. In our experiment, once each track sounded clean and reasonably accurate, we left it alone. At the mixdown session, we seemed to have more flexibility, and did not have to spend a lot of time trying to override settings that had sound good at the time they were recorded. The conclusion? Don't get over involved in echo, equalization, limiting and what not during the session. Remember a little goes a long way—usually in the wrong direction. No, this doesn't mean joining the "We'll fix it in the mix" school either. But when something doesn't sound just right as it's being recorded, think about changing a microphone or two before you reach for that eq. knob. Later on you can change the equalization, but they haven't built a computer yet that will allow you to change microphones during a mixdown. At least Shure Brothers hasn't. Our "little dipper" cleans up sound pollution for less than $500! The Universal Audio Model 565 "Little Dipper" Filter Set cleans up problem tracks made under adverse conditions such as remote pickup or location filming. Whistles, heterodynes, hum, and other coherent sound can be filtered out, with no audible effect on the quality of the music or voice. Semi-coherent noise—motion picture camera noise, fluorescent fixture buzz, can be greatly reduced, as can the incoherent noise of jet aircraft, noisy amplifiers, and general background noise. Also, the versatile 565 can be used for many other tasks and effects: - "Phasing" and other unique effects - Sharp enhancement of any audio frequency - Simultaneous elimination of any two audio frequencies - Harmonic distortion filtering - Wave analysis FEATURES - Two variable width notch/pass filters, lo-pass filter, hi-pass filter, all continuously tunable - Zero insertion loss or 20 dB gain - Extremely low noise and distortion See your dealer or write for complete specifications. Automated Processes' console had 24 flexible inputs and sixteen outputs along with a built-in patch bay. Circle 99 on Reader Service Card. The Fnörk, a sixteen input, two output stereo console that you can carry around in an attache case. Circle 52 on Reader Service Card. This control board from Spectra-Sonics provides twenty-channels in and sixteen channels out. Circle 69 on Reader Service Card. Ready to use mixing desks, such as this solid-state modular unit are available from Norelco. Circle 79 on Reader Service Card. Multi-Track Inc showed a low cost but versatile console with twelve tracks in and eight out. Circle 59 on Reader Service Card. RCA showed a console that combined versatility with attractive visual appearance and useful function. Circle 84 on Reader Service Card. Complete signal automation is achieved on this ten-channel broadcast console from CCA. Circle 62 on Reader Service Card. Langevin specialized in customized small consoles for specialized purposes, such as these two. Circle 55 on Reader Service Card. Audio Designs offers this mix-console especially for quad use as it has capability for 4-2-1 use. Circle 67 on Reader Service Card. Bozak professional equipment includes amplifiers, mixers, and mixer-amplifiers for mono or stereo use. Circle 83 on Reader Service Card. A professional 6 channel stereo mixer at a price everyone can afford. Noise -127 dbm. Output +20 dbm into 600 ohms. Integral VU meters. Switchable mic preamp gain. IC circuitry. 117 VAC or battery operation. Switchable low frequency cutoff. A-B post. Beyer and Triad transformers. See your dealer or order direct postpaid from Prokit. PROKIT DIVISION, GATELY ELECTRONICS 57 WEST HILLCREST AVE. • HAVERTOWN, PA. 19083 • 215-446-1415 AUTOMATIC ATTENUATORS, "AUTO-TEN"® The Auto-Ten is a signal operated gate—soft switch designed to reject unwanted signals or noise below variable pre-set thresholds. It can be used for automatic and noise free switching, compression, expansion and equalization. All functions are carried out by means of light coupled components; plug-in incandescent bulbs drive solid state LDRs (light dependent resistors), providing smooth and fast response. Auto-Ten is used for: 1. Gating of audio lines to eliminate unwanted low-level signals (noise, etc.) or changing the gain of the lines. 2. The Auto-Ten control circuit acts as a variable resistor in an audio circuit, and will perform the function automatically, its operation being triggered at variably pre-set levels by the same audio signal it is controlling, or by another audio channel, or vice versa. 3. In Public Address Installations: Auto-Ten in each channel minimizes feedback from the always-open mike. If there is no useable signal, Auto-Ten automatically closes the channel, opening again only when there is sufficient signal level, thus providing effective feedback control and allowing higher average PA levels. 4. With Compressors and Limiters: A major problem is the "breathing" effect, the build-up of noise when there is no information present to compress or limit. Auto-Ten can be set to close the channel in the "no information" mode, thereby eliminating noise buildup. 5. Acoustic Control: When recording. With multiple microphone pickup, leakage of unwanted sounds into unused but "live" microphones detracts from the final recording. Also often isolation screens are used in an attempt to isolate sections of an orchestra. The Auto-Ten provides up to 10 db greater isolation than the conventional acoustic screens. Through the use of its variable threshold and release time, the Auto-Ten can also make apparent changes in acoustic conditions in a studio or hall. 6. Automated Station and T.V. Audio Use: The Auto-Ten can provide an automated signal switching system. In live TV pickups using multi-microphones, with an Auto-Ten in each channel, when there is no useable signal present in a particular set area, the microphone channels close and open automatically, resulting in a reduction of set noise pickup. 7. Tape Editing & Mixing: It is possible with the Auto-Ten to obtain noise reduction on several tracks coming into a mixing console rather than only on the final mixed channel. This provides the mixer with greater flexibility in governing the amount of noise reduction for each track mixed, and Auto-Ten eliminates the opening or closing of "pots" at the end of a loop or track. An Auto-Ten used in each channel will allow only useable program material to be recorded from each track, eliminating noise buildup from multitrack transfers. 8. Tape and Film Noise Reduction: In situations requiring reduction of noise, reduction of only 6 or 8 db is sometimes more desirable than total reduction, because total lack of noise sounds unnatural. The Auto-Ten can be adjusted to give anywhere from 3 to 60 db of noise reduction. With an Auto-Ten in the playback channel, low level print-through sounds can be eliminated. This is important in the production of tapes where there may be long pauses between words. 9. A "Ducker" for Automatic Mixing in paging Broadcast, Recording and Public Address Systems: The Auto-Ten handles two inputs—one program channel taking precedence, and "ducking" or fading the second channel, e.g., one channel may be background music and the other announcements. As the announce microphone is used, the music channel automatically fades 3 to 60 db (pre-set), and smoothly comes back to normal level after completion of the announcement. OPERATION OF THE AUTO-TEN A sensing amplifier, which continuously monitors an audio channel, controls the light output of a quick response incandescent bulb, which is light coupled to two independent cadmium sulfide light-dependent resistors (LDRs) which act as variable resistors in attenuation networks. Since the LDR is the only active component in the audio circuit, it introduces no distortion or frequency discrimination. The sensing amplifier has two knob controls, threshold and release time. When monitored signal falls below threshold, information can be variably attenuated from 3 to 60 db. Release time, being variable from 7 to 300 milliseconds, permits slow or rapid attenuation of the signal as desired. The amplifier triggers only on signals exceeding pre-set threshold, converting the audio signal into a light beam which shines on the LDRs. When the triggering signal falls below threshold, the light beam decays at the pre-set "release time" rate. The presence of two LDRs at each light source allows the units to perform two functions simultaneously, noise and distortion free. E.g., in "ducking" one LDR is used for expansion of mic channel, while the second cell is used for compressing a second channel. Since the sensing amplifier is isolated from the two LDR control circuits, triggering can be accomplished by an independent audio channel, while the unit controls two different independent audio channels. Signal levels as low as .01 volt are sufficient to trigger the sensing circuit. Model 661TL (Integra I) See specifications chart Requires 6.3 V AC or DC 70 ma power supply. Model 692DAT (Integra II) Card The 692DAT performs functionally the same as Model 661, except that: 1. It is a DOUBLE UNIT, containing two light sources and four LDRs. 2. It is housed on a 3/9/16" x 5" printed circuit board with provision for external REMOTE CONTROLS when required. The board has gold plated contacts and mating connector is supplied. 3. Uses GE377 plug-in bulbs. MOUNTING INFORMATION The 692DAT card can be rack mounted using Fairchild 692RM capable of accepting 16 Integra II cards. If single card is to be used, single card holder Model 692SCH in conjunction with 662RM will mount the card in the rack using 5⅛ inches of vertical space and 1½ width. The 692DAT card can be incorporated into any system which has power supply voltage of 6.3 or 24 volts. Any Fairchild power supply can power the card. SPECIFICATIONS \| \| 661TL \| 692DAT \| \|----------------------\|-------------\|-------------\| \| Minimum input level: \| -35 dbm \| -40 dbm \| \| Maximum input level: \| +20 dbm \| +20 dbm \| \| Frequency response of sensing circuit: \| 20 Hz - 20 kHz \| 20 Hz - 20 kHz \| \| Frequency response of CDS cells: \| flat \| flat \| \| Distortion: \| immeasurable \| immeasurable \| \| Response time: \| 3 milliseconds \| 3 milliseconds \| \| Release time: \| Variable 0.03 to 7 secs. \| Variable 0.03 to 7 secs. \| \| Power requirements: \| 6.3 at 70 ma V AC or DC \| 6.3 V or 24 V DC at 70 ma per section \| \| Size: \| 1 ½" W x 5 ¾" H x 6 ½" D \| 3 ¾" W x 5" H \| \| Bulbs: \| GE-2114 \| GE-377 (2) \| ARCHITECTS & ENGINEERS SPECIFICATIONS: AUTOMATIC ATTENUATOR, (661TL) An automatic attenuator shall be used to change the gain of the audio chain. The device shall be placed at the input or the output of the amplifier, and then strapped to attenuate up to 60 db from its normal operating level, depending on the action and setting of the controls. The automatic attenuator shall accommodate input impedance up to 600 ohms and shall work into impedances from 150 ohms or higher. It shall be activated by input levels from —35 db to +20 dbm. It can operate into an inductive or resistive load. The attack time of the automatic attenuator shall be 3 milliseconds. The attack time shall be defined as the time required for the unit to go "on" or "off" the signal. The automatic attenuator shall have variable release constants that will determine the time required for the device to accomplish attenuation or reduction in gain of the amplifier or other equipment following the automatic attenuator. This time can be varied from 300 milliseconds to 7 seconds. The automatic attenuator's front plate shall contain two controls: (1) threshold and (2) release time. The unit shall employ solid state design and components and shall not introduce distortion or noise due to its use in any circuit. The unit shall require 6.3V AC or DC at 70 ma for operation. It shall weigh less than 24 ozs. The automatic attenuator shall be capable of automatic "ducking", e.g., the signal from one channel shall reduce the gain of another channel, both channels being controlled by the automatic attenuator. The range of automatic ducking shall be adjustable from 1 to 60 db by strapping it externally, if necessary. The device shall contain an on-off switch so that it and its effect shall be instantly by-passed if desired. It shall also contain a visual means of monitoring auto-ten action. The automatic attenuator shall be 1 ½" wide, 5 ¾" high and 6 ½" deep. The front panel shall be brushed and anodized, and operating nomenclature shall appear on the front. brushed aluminum anodized dressplate. The automatic attenuator shall be FAIRCHILD Integra series Auto-Ten Model 661TL. ARCHITECTS & ENGINEERS SPECIFICATIONS: DOUBLE AUTOMATIC ATTENUATOR, (692DAT) The double automatic attenuator shall consist of two completely independent automatic attenuators on one card and shall be used to change the gain of an audio chain or line. When placed at the input or output of the amplifier, the automatic attenuator device will cause the gain of the amplifier following to be changed from 1 to 60 db from its normal operating level, depending on the action and setting of the automatic attenuator. Sensing inputs of the devices shall have an input impedance of 10,000 ohms, bridging, and shall be activated by input levels from —40 db to +20 dbm. The attack time of the automatic attenuators shall be 3 milliseconds. Three release time constants ranging from 0.3 seconds to 7 seconds may be obtained by proper strapping of connector terminals. The use of an external rheostat will enable the release time to be varied continuously over this range. The double automatic attenuator shall be contained on a 3 ¾" x 5" epoxy glass PC plug-in board with dip-soldered connections. A mating connector socket shall be included. It shall operate from a power source of 6.3 V or 18-24 V DC. The double automatic attenuator shall be FAIRCHILD Model 692DAT Auto-Ten. The newest baby is Allison Research's plug-in voltage controlled amplifier, UCA-1. Circle 57 on Reader Service Card. Many options are offered by Quad-Eight for this sixteen input and sixteen output console. Circle 64 on Reader Service Card. As an adjunct to their consoles, you can get this completely automated programmer from Olive. Circle 65 on Reader Service Card. Fairchild Sound set up a board on which they displayed their new line of i.e. op amp audio cards. Circle 56 on Reader Service Card. Extreme versatility was shown by this ARP synthesizer as guests made it make music. Circle 98 on Reader Service Card. A variety of sound-reinforcement units can be had from DuKane. These Medallion Series are typical. Circle 78 on Reader Service Card. Systron-Donner Model 7127 is a two tone audio testing generator with each channel tunable individually. Circle 81 on Reader Service Card. Quad encoding and decoding was demonstrated from tape and disc by Sansui using their QS equipment. Circle 96 on Reader Service Card. CBS-Columbia Records had a setup to demonstrate the encoding and decoding of their SQ quad discs. Circle 97 on Reader Service Card. First in a line of do-it yourself kits from Gately is this six-channel stereo mixer. Circle 63 on Reader Service Card. Q.C. For Cassette Duplication The author is deeply involved in mass duplication of cassettes for the education field and is thus able to point to a principle rejection problem and its possibility of elimination. When the cassette's internal friction rises above a certain level, the takeup reel will suddenly stop spooling tape... The convenience and practicality of tape cassettes for instruction have helped to make our company one of the leading names in educational tapes. Although we continue to offer reel-to-reel tapes, they have been eclipsed by the popularity of cassettes and our production volume has risen to 3000 cassettes per shift. Although our field experience has been good, we have had some returns, most due simply to jamming. When a tape will not move in the customer's machine, the cassette comes back to us. Jammed cassettes are easy to spot when checking through returned goods. Usually part of the tape will appear outside the cassette, or will be badly wrinkled. The takeup hub has stopped spooling tape for some reason, and the tape has wound around the capstan, pressure roller, or both. Some returns involve customer complaints of severe wow and flutter, normally an indication of excessive friction on the supply hub. In any event, these returns are my problem—my responsibilities include quality control. My first step was to make heavy use of our WATS lines to talk with the teachers who returned the cassettes, and to call the salesmen and dealers involved to get all the information I could. I found that about 90 per cent of the cassette returns were due to high internal friction—there was more drag on the tape than the takeup drive could overcome when it was in the play mode. Internal friction in a cassette originates in many areas. The edges of the tape packs rub against the slip sheets, the bearing surfaces between the packs and the cassette walls. Drag is created as tape passes over rollers and pressure pads, and the rotation of the hubs creates additional resistance. When the cassette's internal friction rises above a certain level, the takeup reel will suddenly stop spooling tape—which is the time that a jam may occur. This could be due to excessive friction on the supply side, which the drive mechanism cannot overcome, or to stalling of the takeup drive while the capstan continues to feed tape. I measured the torque on the takeup hub in about fifty assorted cassette machines, and with that background I devised a method of measuring internal friction in cassettes. I took a drive with an adjustable clutch and calibrated it so that I could measure its winding torque. The torque range in machines I checked ranged from 40 to 84 gram-centimeters, and I set the clutch of the test unit at 63 so as to be in the middle of the range. This drive has a pressure roller I can deactivate while it is in play mode. I prepared a group of test cassettes, loading a 31-minute program in one side of a C-60 tape—knowing that problems are more likely to appear when a small overload is present. When one of these cassettes stopped running before the end of tape, without the pressure roller in position, I knew I had a possible jam. Next, I would set the roller back in its normal position and time the remaining amount of tape to determine which cassettes stopped early and which ran most of their tape before stalling. I felt that I was on the right track with this approach, and my belief was reinforced when a manufacturer with similar concerns introduced a new instrument specifically designed to perform the same type of test. Made by Information Terminals Corporation of Mountain View, James Reising is chief engineer of Imperial International Learning Corporation of Kankakee, Illinois. I felt I was on the right track with this approach... Each cassette is given four tests...we thus have checked both spools in full and empty condition. California, it is called the M-200 Torque Tester. It has a meter calibrated to display torque within a cassette, in gram-centimeters and ounce-inches. The user simply places a test cassette on the instrument's deck and presses the start button. An 8-gram-centimeter holdback torque can be switched in and out with a lever, in accordance with American National Standards Institute specifications. This holdback torque puts a small internal strain on the tape to simulate operating conditions inside the cassette. Essentially, this torque tester duplicates the procedure I had devised, with such refinements as a numbered readout—with two ranges of 30 and 60 gram-centimeters full scale. I purchased this instrument as soon as I learned of its availability, and it is in daily use. We run tests with the 31-minute program described earlier, keeping the holdback torque switched on at all times. Each cassette is given four tests. Torque is recorded on the A side with a nearly-empty takeup reel, and the cassette is then turned over to get a B side reading with the takeup reel nearly full. The tape is then wound onto the other spool and another set of measurements is made for each side. We thus have checked both spools in full and empty condition. Typical readings with an excellent cassette run around 12 gram-centimeters for a nearly-empty spool and 50 for a nearly-full spool. A poor cassette might read 25 empty and 78 full. We add all four readings from each test to arrive at an index number, and we have established 150 as the maximum allowable figure. If the meter hits the peg, I arbitrarily add another ten points to the index number for that test. The lowest number we have recorded to date has been 99, and the highest more than 200; checks of field returns show an average index figure of 190. Our tests have included every make of cassette we could obtain, and we have learned a lot—particularly the advantage for us to load our tapes in high-quality cassettes. We now specify pin-and-roller construction and other design features which keep internal friction low, and we check production lots constantly to assure effective quality control. The cassette duplication field is young, and the state of the art is advancing rapidly. I consider instrumentation like this to be highly productive in solving a common cassette quality control problem. --- SUDDENLY—IT'S 1937!* Community Light & Sound introduces the bass horn—with efficiency that harkens back to the theatre horns of the 30's when 20 watts could make the screen talk. Only now, in the 70's, our Fiberglas Leviathan will take 20 times that power, and produce 136 dB in the process. It weighs 115 pounds (less drivers) and nests to 30" length to travel — the Leviathan is truly a portable bass horn. The RH60 radial horn pictured, also of Fiberglas, is considered by its users to be the best horn of its type available. Please write or call for further information. We aren't really doing anything new, we're just doing it right. COMMUNITY LIGHT & SOUND 4041 Ridge Avenue, Philadelphia, PA 19129 • 215-849-2892 Dealer inquiries invited Cassettes are an extremely rapidly growing market, a form of packaging for recorded material. This is probably because, as a source of recorded material, the tape cassette has several advantages over disc, particularly in the area of handling ease. For many applications, this makes the cassette a desirable replacement for the disc record. But the problems in production of various length runs in this medium are quite different from those by now well recognized in the disc record industry. For the cassette counterpart of the kind of disc that sells a million copies (or even slightly less) the most economic process is to use a tape bin for transferring program endlessly onto large pancakes of 150-mil tape. This is later chopped up and put into cassettes by automated machines, making production of recorded cassettes in large quantity competitive with their disc counterpart (This was described in Tape Duplicating—A Status Report. db, Nov. 1970.) However, that process involves far too large a capital investment for the people who are only starting in the ...it is easier, simpler and less costly to produce small numbers of cassette copies by methods less elaborate than the large quantity process. business, and the setup is too cumbersome to achieve the same economy on a short run. Just as a few discs can best be made without going through the whole mass-production process, so it is easier, simpler and less costly to produce small numbers of cassette copies by methods less elaborate than the full-scale, large quantity process. Many of these short-run alternatives duplicate the program content with the tape already in the cassette. This is the counterpart of using blank acetates for making one or two discs. Tape, particularly in cassettes, has some attractive advantages in areas not suited for disc recording, e.g. for the roving reporter, with a cassette recorder slung over his shoulder, or for more formal interviewing, or even for just casual recording under "live" conditions, almost anywhere. The disc recorder requires a highly stable location in which to operate successfully, while the cassette tape recorder is at home anywhere. And it seems a natural to make copies by playing the original back and recording a copy in another cassette, using a blank like the one used earlier to make the original. If you want to make only one extra copy, maybe you can use a couple of ordinary recorders, one to play back and the other to record, running both of them at normal speed. But as soon as you want to make even a few more copies, the time for making the transfer begins to seem interminable. This makes apparent the need for expedited in-cassette duplication. This article is about the new developments in this direction. DIFFERENT APPROACHES We still meet people who have never tried even listening to a cassette, who assert that they will never work, or will never produce quality recordings, because you need much more than 1½ in./sec. to get quality recording. A decade or so ago, their viewpoint would have seemed sane to the rest of us: running tape that much slower than the 7½ or 15 we were used to could only result in a sacrifice in quality. At one place I visited while collecting information for this article, a new rep just learning about cassettes raised the question, "But isn't that still true? Isn't this relationship between tape speed and quality sort of basic?" To which the answer, as the people referred to in the previous paragraph will insist, is "yes." What makes the difference is that modern tape materials and improved head design have changed the relative parameters, so that tape speeds formerly necessary for high fidelity are now capable of responding up into frequencies of utility only to the birds and the bees. CHOICE OF CASSETTES However, as this question elicited its answer, the same need for precision still exists—is in fact amplified by the lower tape speeds. Cassettes can be made in various qualities, with appropriately corresponding costs, and the economics of producing and selling one's merchandise dictates to some degree where one puts one's money. This choice in turn relates to relative quantity questions. What price to pay for the cassettes? The man who wants to make a few, high-quality copies may be content to pay a dollar or two more for the plastic case that holds his tape. But any duplicator who makes a dozen or more copies at a time finds the possibility of using the lowest-cost cassette that is feasibly usable much more attractive. The money saved can more profitably be invested in equipment for improving the quality of copies made in those cassettes. That kind of decision extends throughout this discussion, and it is surprising at how many points there is more than one way to go. In itself, cassette-to-cassette duplication is essentially a step (and a rather large one, taken in aggregate) between making just one copy of one tape, and turning out copies by the million. Obviously, such a big transition can best be accommodated in several steps! The high-quantity process is fast, but involves costly equipment. Speeds up to 240 in/sec. are used, and the endless tape bin for the master completely avoids costly time loss for rewinding, because on completion of one transfer, using however many slaves are coupled to the one master, the beginning of another can follow immediately with no time delay. Each slave can make a copy of a 30-minute tape every 14 seconds. So 14 slaves will achieve an output of 1 a second. But to achieve such an output rate, a very large capital investment is involved. In addition to the costly master and slave units and the bin, there are many more units to complete the production chain. There must be an adequate number of tape leading machines to keep pace with the duplication rate and there should be various quality control checks. All these items involve more, relatively expensive equipment. As blank, unrecorded tape is normally loaded into cassettes for use by people who want to make individual recordings, it seems logical that short-run duplication could be made much less expensive by utilizing such preloaded cassettes and performing the transfer with the tape already in the cassette. This means they are ready for --- Pentagon The professional’s choice... high speed in-cassette and open reel duplicators Expendability is but one of the many advantages Pentagon offers you, the professional. Pictured here is a basic three-unit system capable of providing copies quickly from either a reel to reel or cassette master, copies in three different formats; in cassette, 150 mil open reel (for later loading into cassettes), and ¼” open reel copies. A TRULY FLEXIBLE SYSTEM. All Pentagon duplicators come with the following professional features . . . - ACCUTRACK METERING - MODULAR DESIGN - BIAS READOUT - SYNCHRONOUS CAPSTAN MOTORS - CASSETTE HIGH TORQUE START-UP See why Pentagon should be your first choice when it comes to high speed duplicating equipment. WRITE Pentagon Industries, Inc. 4751 NORTH OLcott AVE. CHICAGO, ILLINOIS 60656 A readily transportable unit from Computerized Electronic Education (CEE). A copy maker in two models (DC-1542 for 2-track, DC-1544 for four track), it is capable of making from 4 to 20 copies (by using additional slaves. The reel master uses 15 in/sec for material recorded at 3¾; the cassette master runs at 7½. Cassettes copy at 7½. How fast can the transfer be made? or adequate copies. If the user's recorder can handle the cassettes, with whatever limitations may be imposed by that cassette-machine interface, the duplicator should be capable of producing the best possible copy within that cassette, however "cheap." This means that the guides and transport mechanism built into the cassette must, to some degree at least, be a part of the recording mechanism. This is what imposes the limit to duplicating speed. The highest speed achieved to date, in a system that keeps the tape inside the cassette, is 30 in/sec., which is 16 times normal playing speed, allowing a 30-minute tape to be transferred in 1½ minutes. Several manufacturers have tried this, but most report that so far they find it not too reliable in quality and that it is much more dependent on cassette quality than the lower speeds. RECORDING OUT OF CASSETTE An alternative process is appearing on the scene. At the moment of writing, Ampex gives details of this, with machines just now available. The method is to use a vacuum to suck the tape out of the cassette into an external transport mechanism, making the transport more independent of cassette quality. The Ampex machine (the CD-200) runs at 75 in/sec., which is 40 times normal playing speed, enabling it to run a 30-minute tape in ¾ minute. Time for rewinding the master makes the total time from start of one run to start of the next a little over a minute. Another approach to solution, having some similarities and some differences with this philosophy, uses a common capstan for master and slave units, in one or other physical layout. This has the advantage of locking tape movement together mechanically, so flutter and wow, as well as speed variation, is less of a problem. CHOICE OF TAPE Before getting into other problems encountered and methods of solving them, one feature is common to all: selecting the quality of tape used. It must be of the smooth type known in the trade as calendared. This is because, at the low playing speed (1¾ in/sec. good head contact is essential for high frequency response (even more so than at the earlier speeds). Only the fine-grain, highly polished tape makes this possible. And for transfer at the higher duplicating speed, the close contact is at least equally essential—and somewhat more difficult to achieve. Also, however good the tape, there is some rub-off at the heads, as well as the abrasive tendency to wear the heads. This means that frequent head cleaning is essential to good duplicating, and that heads need replacing at intervals, to maintain quality. Having dismissed those general questions, we will move to some of the details. MORE SLAVES The first in-cassette duplicators used one cassette as master, electronically coupled to one or more slaves on which the program contained in the master is recorded, at whatever speed proved possible in the design used. While this does step up production capability, as compared with recording... from one machine to another at normal playing speed, it is not long before this process in turn begins to seem too slow: it still takes a long while to copy a few dozen tapes. INTERMEDIATE STEPS TO THE MASS METHOD Once a facility is established, the pressure begins to rise for turning out more and more copies. This can be achieved, either by multiplying up the number of slaves running off one master, or by moving toward a faster system (or both). With the notion of making it easier to progress from slower to faster systems, as well as other possible intermixes, flexible systems have begun to appear: providing reel to cassette, cassette to reel, as well as cassette to cassette, and also recording on pancake—150-mil tape on a reel, which can be cut up and put into cassettes later. The vacuum system, which extracts the tape from the cassette to use an external transport mechanism, involves a complete new system—it does not use any part of the simpler in-cassette duplicator system that the user may have had before. Even though transfer is faster, it still loses time on master rewind. Also, there is some appeal to using a system built of flexible units that can later be integrated into a system capable of a higher production rate. Whichever in-cassette recording method (totally in cassette, or with vacuum extraction to use external transport consisting of capstan, guides and recording head) the cassette's tape feed and takeup mechanism are still part of the complete transport, and can interfere with smooth operation. A step that can help with this, whichever in-cassette recording method is used, is a controlled rewind of the blank tape before duplication. TAPE MOVEMENT PROBLEMS Smooth flow of the tape, particularly at higher speeds, but also to a degree at normal playing speed, depends on the inter-layer pressure of the tape on the feed spool of the cassette. To achieve optimum handling, the blank tape in the cassette is rewound at a steady rate, with precision-controlled drag on the feed spool that assures correct tension and inter-layer pressure, as the tape builds up on the takeup spool. Before the advent of in-cassette duplication, a similar problem had been encountered in the bulk process. Occasionally a cassette would jam up in the user's tape player, because it had been poorly loaded. The remedy was found to be the use of controlled tension in feeding the tape into the cassette, which may be achieved, either in the initial loading of the recorded tape, or by controlled rewind after loading. Some people who duplicate in cassette also use such a controlled rewind after duplication as precaution against this problem developing. POSSIBLE MARKETS Readers of db are drawn most from professional audio, and thus think in terms of duplication as a professional function, to be performed in a professional duplicating studio, tailored to cater for a particular market range. However, the nature of cassette recorders and the attendant advantages over previous media opens a whole field of potential applications, many of which include the need for duplication facilities at the user end, rather than as part of marketing something recorded. --- The method is to use a vacuum to suck the tape out of the cassette into an external transport mechanism . . . --- NOW, from the people who brought you the world-famous ELECTRO SOUND high-speed industrial duplicator, the sensational ELECTRO SOUND in-cassette duplicator The Mark 1 Cassette Duplicator has every feature you want for ease and economy of operation and quality of output. You can increase your capacity as you need it — up to eight slaves can be added simply by plugging them in. All of our experience in developing, marketing and using the world's leading heavy-duty tape duplicating system has gone into this equipment to insure outstanding performance and durability. Don't forget our winder — We also make the most popular winding machine on the market today. With it, you can load your own cassettes and tailor them precisely to any program length, with great economies in both time and money. (It certainly beats whatever you are doing now trying to fit, say, 40 minutes of program material on a C-30 or C-60 stock cassette.) --- ELECTRO SOUND, INC. A Subsidiary of Viewlex, Inc. Executive Offices: 237 West 54th Street, New York, N.Y. 10019 Plant: 725 Kifer Road, Sunnyvale, Calif. 94086 International distributor: AUDIOMATIC CORPORATION, 237 West 54th St., New York, N.Y. 10019 Magnetic Research Co.'s model 4002 is a cassette to cassette duplicator that puts the master and four copies to be made in the same drawer and drives them all from a common capstan, using 30 in/sec transfer speed. An end-of-tape sensor disengages the capstan at the end of recording. ... however good the tape, there is some rub-off at the heads, as well as the abrasive tendency to wear the heads. SOME MECHANICAL PROBLEMS Some of the problems that beset the short-run copier who operates professionally will also concern school and other non-professional users, although neither may anticipate the problems before they run into them. Two mechanical problems concern the length of lead-in provided, or to be provided, and the length of tape to be used for making a copy, or for the master to be copied. A master, or original cassette tape, can be recorded with almost no lead-in. The cassette may have the tape tight at one end, and when the record button is pressed, it starts recording within an inch or so of this end position. The auto-sensor type cassette, which has a small piece of foil at the end of the tape that triggers a tone, emitted by the recorder when the end of a tape side is reached, is likely to record from about an inch of the beginning, clear off the end, on each side of the tape. It is virtually impossible to copy such tapes from end to end, even at normal playing speed, unless the blank tape used for the copy is a little longer than the original master, and/or the original is fitted with lead-ins to facilitate copying. Performing duplication at higher than normal playing speed increases the problem, because then the run-up and stop times must allow a foot or so of tape, at least. Once alerted to this situation, people who make the original recordings can easily be instructed to put a blank space at the start of the tape, before they start recording. Maybe the auto-sensor should not be used as a key to end the "side." True it is a useful device for purposes such as interview. The interviewer and interviewee are apprised by the beep that the recorder has run out of tape on that side. The interviewer flips that cassette out, either turns it over, or pops in another one, and the interview is resumed by backing up a little to repeat some of the dialog that may have been missed by the recorder when the beep started. However, while that may be good for interviews, and the finish of a side can be appropriately edited in the course of copying, for a planned program that is not such a good idea. It would be better to plan on a time basis—most school presentations must have time limits anyway—so that the program will finish before the end of the tape is reached. Closely related with this "filling to the ends" problem is the one of starting and stopping both master and slaves in such a way that the whole recording is transferred at duplicating speed, with minimum loss of active tape at the ends. Use of a common capstan is one way to overcome much of this problem in one step, or in the master-and-slave mechanism systems, the master can have additional leader at the ends, so it can be started a moment before the slaves and stopped a moment after they are. One method of shortening start-up time is to have the capstan already running. Getting all the mass, necessary to achieve stability of speed during duplicating at the higher-than-normal speed, takes a considerable length of tape. By having the capstan already running and merely engaging the tape by means of the pressure roller when the tape is to start, the time taken (and corresponding footage, or "inchage") is considerably reduced. But this method introduces another problem: the takeup motor, or drive must start virtually instantly, to match the Master and slaves in this Telex reel-to-cassette system feature two-speed hysteresis synchronous motor drives. Electronics are of plug-in design so the system can be expanded to nine slave transports without additional electronics. Versions of the system are available in half-track one or two channel and quarter track two and four channel. Ampex's CD-200 cassette-to-cassette duplicator is five times faster than in-cassette duplicators by virtue of its vacuum system that draws out the tape from the cassette so that it is run over guides and heads outside the cassette. The master unit on the right can drive up to five slave units. Note the automatic loader; the slave will also reject defective cassettes. initial movement of the tape as it engages the capstan, without developing too much tape tension at any time, particularly during normal running. Another part of the same problem is that, not only must timing be correct, so the program starts at the beginning of the copy—not too early, not too late—but all tapes must be totally under control at all times, during starting and stopping operations particularly. So a good system needs some kind of logic or timing arrangement, to ensure that everything happens smoothly, in correct order, and timed for perfect control. Such logic or timing can be achieved by a variety of combinations. Magnetic-type contact relays can be electrically sequenced with controlled delay times. Or the whole control circuit can be solid-state sequenced, with the necessary timing built in. Every action must be built to include the purely mechanical actions or reactions, due to inertia of the moving parts. Much design work has gone into this aspect of a well-designed unit. TAPE LENGTH PROBLEMS Copying still involves a little problem, which is being solved. Cassettes come with standard nominal lengths of blank tape loaded into them. Until recently, these lengths... A cassette winder, used either before or after recording, ensures that tape moves freely by being wound at the correct tension; this model winds six cassettes at a time. Once a facility is established, the pressure begins to rise for turning out more and more copies. copy cassettes, except for variable length leaders, as may occur due to different lengths of tape inserted. But there is another length problem. Sometimes program does not anywhere near fill the time available in the cassette, for one reason or another. A 30-minute cassette may have only 13 minutes recorded on it. Does one record the 13 minutes' worth and cut the tape short, removing the extra so as to leave only adequate leader at each end? For the school type a-v use, a variety of answers can apply here, and the copier should be aware of these possibilities. First, how are the tapes to be used? Is the program going to be recorded and stored for an indefinite number of future uses, possibly never being erased and used over? If so, it makes sense to cut the tape short. In such cases, sometimes the practice is to record the same program on both sides of the copy, so the cassette never needs rewinding. After one student has used it, it is ready for the next student to use, playing it in the opposite direction. But the poorer school districts may not want to commit themselves to such a large investment in cassettes and storage for them as this approach would involve. They may prefer to erase and use over more often. In this case, cutting a 30-minute tape to 13 minutes would spoil that cassette for future use, when a longer recorded item may be desired. This leaves the question as to how the tape shall be used, in both the original and the copy. If only one side is used on the original, with two sides on the copy (identical) then the question concerns only the copy, but the basic question is similar. You start recording with a 30-minute cassette of tape, and a suitable leader length to make it copiable, and you record, say 17 minutes' worth. Now what? You have decided to keep the cassette's 30-minute length of tape, so you do not cut off the spare length of blank tape. But do you flip the cassette at the point where recording the first side ends, and record the second side so it finishes at the end of the tape? Or do you run the tape out on side 1, using fast forward (or fast rewind after flipping) so the other side also starts at the beginning of the tape on that side? This question cannot be decided here. Different decisions will be made in individual instances, based on a variety of factors that we need not be concerned with. The important thing is to be aware of the question and its possible answers. Multitape uses a common capstan system to go from open reel masters to the cassette slaves. A torque gauge is used to check the torque provided by the controlled tension device on the feed spool shaft. COPYING PROBLEMS Reverting to the copying of professional audio tapes, the program content can be 2-, 4- or 8-track and it can be mono or stereo. This creates a variety of possible track directions (as well as widths) on the tape. Precise positioning of the tracks is vital because, being so narrow and so closely spaced, very little lateral movement of the tape will move the head from one track to another. The low speed used for playing and recording has already made azimuth critical to high frequency performance. Increasing the number of tracks and thus reducing individual width of track and spacing between them, complicates the transport mechanism problem of insuring that tracks are correctly located on the tape. One step toward improving the performance of the in-cassette variety of duplicator (as compared with the variety that uses external transport with a vacuum extraction of the tape) is the use of extra guides, spaced further along the tape from the head, by utilizing additional apertures in the cassette for this purpose. This approach is being adopted by at least one company. Another somewhat minor complication, that can result in embarrassment unless care is taken, is the fact that the order of tracks on stereo reel to reel differs from that adopted for cassettes. On 4-track stereo, reel to reel, one direction uses tracks 1 and 3, while the reverse direction uses tracks 2 and 4 (which become 1 and 3 when the reels are flipped). On a 4-track cassette, one direction uses tracks 1 and 2, while the reverse direction uses tracks 3 and 4 (which become 1 and 2 when flipped). Thus, if 4 tracks from a reel-to-reel tape are transferred to 4 tracks on a cassette, using the same track sequence, one channel of stereo is going to get paired with the other one from the opposite direction, playing backwards! The inside tracks need transposing. A convenient way to take care of this is with a switch that makes the change when the different medium is used. Crowding more tracks onto the tape also creates another problem: the avoiding of crosstalk is more acute. For normal duplicating, time economy is effected by transferring both (or all) tracks at once. With 2-track tape, this means one track is duplicated forwards and one backwards, at the same time. With multi-track crowding so many into such a small width makes electrical cross-talk much more difficult to avoid, because the windings and magnetic circuits on the heads are so close to one another. It is sometimes advantageous, to minimize this effect, to transfer tracks separately in opposite directions. But when this is done on a machine that has a full set of heads and accompanying electronics, it is important to kill the unused electronics by some means, so that they do not generate unwanted noise, deteriorating available dynamic range, as a price for reducing crosstalk. One master and two slaves in this Electro-Sound system. More slaves, up to a total of eight can be added to this cassette-to-cassette system. It's a pleasant short trip from downtown Los Angeles to San Fernando where the Superscope plant is located. It is not too far from the other plants and offices of Superscope Inc., the parent firm. Superscope Recorded Tapes is a duplicating firm that has both its own label of recorded tapes, including open reel, cartridge, and cassette, and does custom work on both large and small scale for outside firms. Our camera toured the plant and came up with a group of pictures that pretty much detail the operation. We wish to thank many at the company and in particular Murray Goldman for kindness and cooperation during our visit. Superscope's custom mastering equipment includes Scully transports, Dolby noise-reduction units, Langevin Graphic and Audio Design equalization modules, Universal Audio limiters, and Allison Research Kepex modules. The short cassette duplicator bank, part of the 37-slave Gauss duplicator system. The historical data card system above follows the pancake throughout its life and provides control and quality feedback. Part of the main duplicating room. You can see the conveyor system for raw materials and finished goods. The Gauss loop bin and transport; this is one of five 1-inch, 1/2-inch, and Superscope-designed 3/4-inch loop bins in the facility. The young lady is doing an audio quality control checkout of a duplicated product. Cassettes are loaded here. This is just a portion of the seventy stations in the production assembly area. This machine uses pressure sensitive labels that are automatically applied to the finished cassette. Process quality control station for mechanical checks of loaded cassettes and eight-track tape cartridges. This life test bank is used to shuttle a finished tape back and forth as part of the company's environmental testing. Olive’s Series 2000 Console. You get what you want. We put a lot into the Series 2000 Console, so that you can get a lot out of it. But what goes in is only what you want and need. Your Series 2000 Console is built exclusively, particularly for you. Modular planning gives you a custom console, but without custom expense and delays. With Olive, what you get is what you want. And our only standard is excellence. Olive Electro Dynamics Inc 2670 Paulus Montréal 386, Québec Canada (514) 332-0331 Cable Olivel, Montréal Westlake Audio Inc 6311 Wilshire Blvd Los Angeles, California 90048 (213) 655-0303 Harvey Radio Company 444 Madison Avenue New York, N.Y. 10022 (212) 582-1500 Studio Supply Company 112 Cloverdale Court Hendersonville, Tenn 37075 (615) 824-5402 Studio-Technique 4 avenue Claude Vellefaux Paris (10e) France 206-15-60/208-40-99 Martin Dickstein SOUND WITH IMAGES SMPTE Technical Conference - Back in October, the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers held its 110th Technical Conference and Equipment Exhibit. The meeting took place in Montreal, Canada, ran a full week, and provided visitors to the sessions with many technical hardware demonstrations as well as talk and panel conferences. The SMPTE, well known to most, if not all, of the people associated with the audio-visual field, is a non-profit organization and one of its many aims is "to foster the advancement of engineering technology and to sponsor lectures, exhibitions and conferences designed to advance the theory and practice of engineering within the scope of the Society." At this session, some of the exhibitors provided technical papers on their exhibited equipment and the range of hardware covered the field from lenses to film processors, from cordless cameras to sophisticated audio-visual sound mixers and projectors. Among the exhibitors were Amega Research Corp. of Newark, N.J., manufacturer of specialized sound equipment for the recording and editing of film sound tracks; Bell & Howell; Canon; DuKane; GE: Hollywood Film Co.; among others from the U.S.A.; and Braun Electric; Central Dynamics; Clean Air Inc.; and MacKenzie Equipment Co.; of Canada. This is only a random selection, listed in alphabetical order only for convenience, and by no means is intended to show favoritism in any way. All exhibits were most satisfactory. Some of the topics covered in the talk and panel sessions included subjects such as laboratory practices (film, processing, techniques and equipment); television systems (t.v. studios, facilities, technology, transmission and distribution); Film for t.v. (concepts, equipment, production techniques); projection and theater design (rear, front, large screen and multi-screen ideas and installations); and photo-instrumentation (technology and systems for high speed photography and flow measurements). Also covered, in a two-day symposium, was the video cartridge/cassette/disc field, and it is to this portion of the proceedings we will devote our coverage at this time. The intent here is to take excerpts from several of the talks to indicate the feelings of the expert speaking. There is no intention of editing for editorializing or for personal comment or review. The excerpted portion is complete as shown and no direct or indirect comparison of viewpoints of the speakers is meant in the portions selected. The talks will be given in order of number and it should be understood that not all of the many papers given in this subject could be covered no matter how brief the individual portions quoted. However, no slight or comment is intended toward the papers not selected for excerpting. In the "Perspective Session", under the heading of "Video Cassettes, Boom or Bust?", Mr. Gordon Thompson of Bell-Northern Research Labs., Ottawa, said at the beginning of his talk: "In order to set the analysis that follows in perspective, let us divide the field of video cassettes, etc. into three classes: the pre-recorded sort of thing that emulates today's phonograph and audio cassette business, the do-it-yourself kind of business that is typified by the Port-a-Pac video tape recorder and resembles the present day audio tape recorder, and finally an electronic delivery system." In summing up his discussion of the first of the above classes, Mr. Thompson says: "In review, I am concerned about the content of the pre-recorded video cassette being adequately suited to generate a mass market because of our present low level, but rapidly increasing level, of visual literacy and our culture's tendency to accept television-like presentations as figure rather than ground. (Ed. note: The Gestalt theory was introduced and explained briefly at the beginning of his talk to explain the use of figure and ground references.) I am not too concerned by the high prices of the material in the first place and suggest this may in fact cause the conventional sort of material to be re-examined." In his discussion of the distribution of pre-recorded cassettes, Mr. Thompson concluded this part of the talk with: "Certainly the issue as to whether cassettes are a boom or bust will not be a simple binary one. The probable future lies somewhere in between. Educational and training markets alone can sustain a fairly large industry. The mass entertainment market may, however, be far more complex than that which motivates the phonograph record business. Whether or not the technology can be developed to permit the development of interactive video systems that would stimulate a really new business remains to be seen as does the cost of such a system." Mr. Thompson's conclusion, after discussions on the other two classes introduced at the beginning of the talk, was: "Video cassettes, boom or bust? Not really either, but rather a step along the way to more complex, rather than complicated, systems of the future. Systems that seem to have some intelligence, and appear concerned about the satisfaction they are giving to the individual users. I believe we still have a long way to go, and that all three classes of these presently emerging video systems will play their parts as components of an even greater synthesis." In a technical session on video cassettes, one of the speakers, Mr. J. Bernhart, of the French National Television Office of Paris had this to say: (Ed. note: this talk was given by Mr. Hans Wohlrab for Mr. Bernhart and is being quoted from a rough translation.) "To wish to settle at the moment on a definitive standardization would mean in large part to freeze design possibilities and block highly desirable broad systems studies. "To speak of standardization is to fix common techniques within the framework of a given family of users. "When applied, these principles lead not to a similarity of players (not to say an industrial monopoly) but to their adaptation to a standard for recording and playback. This is fundamental to a coherent plan for the production and distribution of software. "The problem of standardization exists at all steps in the manufacture of hardware and software." After mentioning the various methods and media presently in use and under consideration, and an in-depth discussion of the variations in each of the systems, Mr. Bernhart's conclusion is: "We may accept that imposition of a standard from this moment on would risk discouraging all of the development that is highly suitable for the systems as a whole. "On the other hand, permitting each manufacturer without reservations to commercialize a different model, incompatible with the norms used by his competitors, would be in defiance of good sense. We would then be participating in the creation of a 'gadget for the rich', in the words of Mr. Guher. "Already we are suffering from the disparity in standards in color and in scanning. "Within a given family only one standard should prevail. "I earnestly hope that, concerning the suggestion made right here of the creation of a permanent commission, under the aegis of Billboard VIDCA, that it will be set up, and that the manufacturers will subscribe to it, if not with enthusiasm, at least with reason. "Is not the interest joint between the users and the manufacturers?" * * * For your future reference, mark your calendar for the next SMPTE Winter Television Conference in the Sheraton-Dallas Hotel on February 4 and 5, and the SMPTE Technical Conference at the N. Y. Hilton Hotel, April 30 through May 5. Both of these sessions will include papers on the use of video tape, film, and equipment of all kinds for application in t.v. production and distribution. For details and information as well as membership the Society can be reached easily by phone or mail at its New York offices. Heavy Power. 700 Watts. (High fidelity. The concept isn't new — but the power you need to hear it is.) High fidelity means low distortion. A good amp will give you low distortion — when it's not clipping. But your typical 150 watt per channel number is going to clip. Even with the best and most modern speaker systems, there's just not enough power to avoid overload during low frequency passages. And on musical peaks. You need heavy power to prevent clipping, overload — and distortion. Phase Linear is heavy power. 700 watts. It's the untypical solid state amplifier with the three year guarantee — on parts and labor. 700 watts of high fidelity power at $779 suggested retail price. That's not typical either. POWER at CLIPPING — 450 watts per channel R.M.S. at 8 ohms. 720 watts per channel, R.M.S. at 4 ohms. 270 watts per channel R.M.S. at 16 ohms. FREQUENCY RESPONSE — 0 to .25 mHz. DAMPING RATIO — 1,000 to 1, @ 20 Hz. HUM & NOISE — Better than 100 dB below 350 watts; typically 110 dB. write 405 Howell Way, Edmonds, Wa. 98020 for information. BOOKCASE As a service to our readers we are pleased to offer these books from prominent technical publishers. All prices listed are the publishers' net. Shipping charges are included. Use the coupon at the bottom of the page or give the complete title, author and coupon number. Be sure to indicate quantity on the special instructions line if more than one copy of a title is wanted. Full payment must accompany your order. We cannot ship c.o.d. Checks or money orders should be made payable to Sagamore Publishing Company, Inc. Because of the time required to process orders, allow several weeks for the receipt of books. Radio Engineering Handbook, 5th Ed. Henney. Prepared by a staff of specialists, this working manual of radio science provides information on each of the branches of radio engineering, with emphasis on working practice, final working formulas, dimensions, and actual useable circuits. 1959. 1,800 pp. $31.50 Circle 36 on Coupon Below Radio Transmitters Gray and Graham. Provides, in a logical, easy-to-understand manner, a working knowledge of radio transmitters for quick solution of problems in operation and maintenance. 1961. 462 pp. $16.00 Circle 40 on Coupon Below Electronic and Radio Engineering, 4th Ed. Terman. A thorough coverage, in easy-to-understand terms, of those principles and techniques which are the basic tools of the electronic and radio engineer. 1955. 1,078 pp $19.50 Circle 39 on Coupon Below The Technique of the Sound Studio by Alec Nisbett. This is a handbook on radio and recording techniques, but the principles described are equally applicable to film and television sound. 264 pages; 60 diagrams; glossary; indexed: 5 ½ x 8 ½; clothbound. $13.50 Circle 1 on Coupon Below Radio Broadcasting edited by Robert L. Hilliard. Each of the five chapters has been written by a prominent educator with an extensive background of practical experience in commercial and educational broadcasting. 190 pages: 6 ¼ x 9 ½; indexed; clothbound. $6.95 Circle 2 on Coupon Below Transistors for Audio Frequency (Audio-Frequency Amplification) by Guy Fontaine. 1967. This systematic and detailed treatment of the application of transistors in audio-frequency amplifiers shows how the published transistor characteristics are related to the principles of design. An ideal textbook or reference on the subject for engineers and advanced technicians. 384 pages, 5 ½ x 8; illus.; clothbound. $7.95 Circle 12 on Coupon Below Closed-Circuit Television Handbook by Leon Wortman. Gives comprehensive detailed information about the field in an easy-to-understand presentation, suited to those who plan to use, install, and service cctv. 288 pages: 5 ½ x 8 ½; clothbound. $5.95 Circle 18 on Coupon Below An Alphabetical Guide to Motion Picture, Television, and Videotape Production Levitan. This all-inclusive, authoritative, and profusely illustrated encyclopedia is a practical source of information about techniques of all kinds used for making and processing film and TV presentations. Gives full technical information on materials and equipment, processes and techniques, lighting, color balance, special effects, animation procedures, lenses and filters, high-speed photography, and much more. 1970. 480 pp. $24.50 Circle 35 on Coupon Below Integrated Circuits Motorola. This complete, authoritative volume of design and construction techniques for modern integrated circuits covers theory, thin-film techniques, diodes, transistors, thermal design, and other vital aspects. 1965. 373 pp. $13.75 Circle 30 on Coupon Below Basic Bibliography of Science and Technology McGraw-Hill. Important to the researcher, librarian, or student, this reference book lists and describes over 8,000 outstanding books in every scientific and technical field. A topical index organizes all subject headings into about 100 general categories enabling the reader to locate quickly the listings which pertain to his field of interest. 1966. 738 pp. $19.50 Circle 34 on Coupon Below Noise Reduction Beranek. Designed for the engineer with no special training in acoustics, this practical text on noise control treats the nature of sound and its measurement, fundamentals of noise control, criteria, and case histories. Covers advanced topics in the field. 1960. 752 pp. $19.50 Circle 33 on Coupon Below The Audio Cyclopedia (2nd ed.) by Dr. Howard M. Tremaine. New and updated, here is the complete audio reference library in a single volume. It provides the most comprehensive information on every aspect of the audio art. This new edition includes the latest audio developments including the most recent solid-state systems and integrated circuits. It covers all subjects in the fields of acoustics, recording, and reproduction with more than 3400 related topics. Each topic can be instantly located by a unique index and reference system. More than 1600 illustrations and schematics help make complicated topics masterpieces of clarity. 1760 pages: 6 ½ x 9-3/8; hardbound. $29.95 Circle 20 on Coupon Below Circuit Design for Audio, AM/FM, and TV Texas Instruments. Texas Instruments Electronics Series. Discusses the latest advances in electronic design and application which represent the results of several years research and development by TI communications applications engineers. Emphasizes time- and cost-saving procedures throughout. 1967. 352 pp. $14.50 Circle 32 on Coupon Below Acoustics—Room Design and Noise Control by Michael Rettinger. 1968. The enormous problems and hazards presented by noise are dealt within an orderly and practical manner. With many charts, graphs, and practical examples, the text covers the physics of sound, room acoustics, and design, noise and noise reduction. 392 pages; hardbound. $17.50 Circle 21 on Coupon Below Sagamore Publishing Company, Inc. 980 Old Country Road, Plainview, N.Y. 11803 Please send me the books I have circled below. My full remittance in the amount of $........... is enclosed. N.Y. State residents add 6% sales tax. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 Name ........................................................ Street Address .................................................. City ........................................... State ............... Zip....... Special Instructions .............................................. Canada and foreign: Add $1.00 per book CLASSIFIED Closing date is the tenth of the second month preceding the date of issue. Send copy to: Classified Ad Dept. db, The Sound Engineering Magazine 980 Old Country Road, Plainview, N.Y. 11803 Rates are payable in advance and are 50¢ a word for commercial advertisements. Non-commercial and employment offered or wanted placements are 25¢ a word. The count should include addresses and telephone numbers. These rates apply only to standard style and type size classifieds. FOR SALE SOLID-STATE AUDIO PLUG-IN OCTAL (1" Dia x 2" H) modules. Mic preamps, disc & tape preamp-equalizers, tape bias osc. & record ampl., power amps & power supplies. Send for free catalog and audio applications Opamp Labs., 172 So. Alta Vista Blvd., Los Angeles, California 90036. NEW YORK'S LEADING supplier of professional recording equipment and hi-fi stereo components. All major brands, in stock. Call for quote—sales—service—leasing—trade-ins. Martin Audio, 320 West 46th Street, New York, N.Y. 10036. Telephone: (212) 265-6470. AMERICA'S LARGEST SELECTION of new and used broadcast and recording equipment! Latest bulletins available. The Maze Corporation, P.O. Box 6636, Birmingham, Ala. 35210. WHATEVER YOUR EQUIPMENT NEEDS—new or used—check us first. Trade your used equipment for new. Write for our complete listings. Broadcast Equipment & Supply Co., Box 3141, Bristol, Tenn. 37620. FREE TECHNICAL CONSULTATION with purchase. Recording/broadcasting studios and performing arts, sound reinforcement—customized consoles, recorders, microphones, equalizers, compressor/limiters, monitoring systems. Call or write for quotations, specifications, listings. Frankford/Wayne Laboratories, 212 N. 12th, Philadelphia, Pa. 19107. (212) 561-1794. SCULLY 284-8 in console with syncmaster. Excellent condition 2½ years old. $6750.00. P.O. Box 57, Wallingford, Conn. 06492. ALTEC HORNS AND DRIVERS in like new condition. Models: 311-60, 311-90, 203B, 1005B, 288C, 291-16A, 290E. Celebration, 161 Gray Road, Ithaca, N.Y. (607) 272-8964, 273-3348. CASSETTE DUPLICATORS—closing a-v department. High discounts. W.G. Industries, 610 Latham Drive, Wynnewood, Pa. 19096. DAVEN 10-B transmission set. Excellent condition. $400.00. Caltronic Laboratory, P.O. Box 36356, Los Angeles, California 90036. STELLAVOX PORTABLE STEREO RECORDER. Swiss-made, battery-operated, synchronous, 8 lbs., 10½-inch reels, very low hours, many accessories. Save hundreds. John W. Ackley, 310 East 71, New York, N.Y. 10021. (212) 861-8299. WANTED WANTED. REK-O-KUT 150 or 240 lpi leadscrews for M-12S cutting lathe on a TR-43H turnable. Eduardo L. Lozano, Urdiales 307-A, Monterrey, N.L. Mexico. WELL KNOWN REP ORGANIZATION interested in consumer and commercial sound products for the New York and New Jersey metropolitan territory. Write Box 1-A, db Magazine, 980 Old Country Road, Plainview, N.Y. 11803. EMPLOYMENT LOUDSPEAKER DESIGN ENGINEER. JBL is the acknowledged leader in the design and manufacture of innovative products for the home high fidelity market. The Transducer Engineering facility at JBL is now expanding to meet the increasing needs of a diversified and growing market. There are immediate openings for engineering personnel with specific experience in loudspeaker theory, design, and construction. Several challenging positions are available which offer continuing research and development opportunities in the original design of loudspeakers and loudspeaker systems. The range of responsibility includes administration, research, conceptual design, prototype construction, manufacturing support and cost goal achievement. Minimum requirements: BS in EE, ME or Physics, and two or more years transducer engineering experience. Salary and level of assignment based on qualifications. Send resume to Vice President, Engineering Administration, James B. Lansing Sound, 3249 Casitas Avenue, Los Angeles, California 90039. An equal opportunity employer. ENGINEER/MIXER, four years experience, familiar with 16-track. Jonathan Salak, 6 Van Ness Road, Binghamton, N.Y. 13905. (607) 797-3909. PART-TIME auditorium - reinforcement - systems designer wanted in greater New York area. Write Box 11-A, db Magazine, 980 Old Country Road, Plainview, N.Y. 11803. PROFESSIONAL RECORDING PERSONNEL SPECIALISTS. A service for employers and job seekers. Call today! Smith's Personnel Service, 1457 Broadway, N.Y.C. 10036. Alayne Spertell 212 W1 7-3806. Election of George Alexandrovich, Sr., as a vice president of Robins Industries Corp., College Point, N.Y., has been announced by Herman D. Post, president. Mr. Alexandrovich is also vice president of Fairchild Sound Equipment Corporation, a Robins subsidiary. The Fairchild unit, which Mr. Alexandrovich joined in 1956, specializes in standard and custom components and systems for broadcasters and the professional audio industry. Robins is known for its magnetic and perforator tapes, cassettes, tape cartridges and accessories for consumer electronics and data processing. As a corporate vice president, Mr. Alexandrovich will be deeply involved in all technical aspects of the company, Mr. Post said. Mr. Alexandrovich has written widely on audio engineering subjects, in addition to his regular db column and holds a number of patents on related products. Fire on Thanksgiving Day caused an estimated $1 million or more damages at Crown International of Elkhart, Indiana manufacturers of professional tape recorders and quality high-fidelity products. Clarence C. Moore, president, estimated that 60 per cent of the facility was completely destroyed despite the efforts of eight fire departments called to battle the blaze. There were no reports of injuries as the plant was closed for the holiday. Two firemen suffered from smoke inhalation and were hospitalized but are now recovering. Employees reported for work as usual Friday, November 26, 1971, and began to repair the remaining facilities for occupancy Monday for business as usual. Arrangements have been made for temporary production facilities in the area according to Clyde W. Moore, vice president marketing. RCA has announced it is phasing out its magnetic products business, which includes computer tapes and disc packs as well as audio and video recording tape. The company said this action is being taken as part of RCA's withdrawal from the general purpose computer field. Prior to undertaking the phase out, discussions were initiated with various firms regarding the possible sale of the magnetic products business. RCA said the estimated costs associated with the phase out of its magnetic products business are included in the $250 million extraordinary charge related to the company's withdrawal from the general purpose computer business. William G. Eagle has been named manager of indirect sales at Philips Broadcast Equipment Corp., it is announced by James L. Wilson, vice president of marketing. Mr. Eagle will direct the efforts of the company's national network of distributors handling Norelco commercial video, or closed circuit television systems. Philips Broadcast is a subsidiary of North American Philips Corporation. Prior to joining Philips Broadcast, Mr. Eagle was vice president of Joseph Plasencia, Inc., exclusive export agent for a number of U.S. manufacturers of systems and equipment for the broadcast, closed circuit, cable television and two-way radio fields. Before that, he was with General Electric Company, first as western regional representative for microwave sales, and subsequently as Latin American area manager for broadcast and c.c.t.v. systems. Earlier, Mr. Eagle served in various managerial positions in the international operations of Collins Radio Company. David Neve, general manager of Rupert Neve, Incorporated, announces the appointment of Rodney D. Titcomb as marketing manager. Mr. Titcomb, formerly with Westinghouse Electric Corporation, will be responsible for the marketing activities of both Rupert Neve, Incorporated, and Rupert Neve of Canada, Ltd. An electrical engineering graduate, he brings 13 years of marketing experience to his new assignment. Nortronics Company, Inc. has announced its entry into the Japanese market through a joint venture with Alps Electric Co., Ltd. of Japan, the largest manufacturer of electronic components in Japan. Alps-Nortronics Company, Inc., to be located in Yokohama, will be owned equally by Nortronics and Alps and will manufacture and sell mini-digital and digital type magnetic recording heads. The joint venture was formed to manufacture and sell to the expanding Japanese and Southeast Asia industrial, computer and mini-computer markets. "Two separate licensing agreements have been signed," said John Yngve, president of Nortronics. Nortronics Company, Inc., has licensed the joint venture (Alps-Nortronics Company, Inc.) to use the techniques and advanced technology developed by Nortronics, and also has signed a similar licensing agreement with the Magnetic Head Division of Alps Electronic Co. Ltd. As a third aspect of the agreement, the joint venture company will take over the marketing and servicing in Japan and Southeast Asia of Nortronics products which are manufactured in Minnesota. David Sarnoff, honorary chairman of RCA and one of the dominant figures in the world of communications for more than 50 years, died December 12, 1971 in his home in New York City after a lengthy illness. He was 80 years old. Born on February 27, 1891, in the small village of Uzlian, near the city of Minsk, Russia, he was brought to the United States by his parents in 1900. A friendly understanding. A phrase that perfectly describes the relationship between Revox tape recorders and Beyer microphones. One fine piece of equipment uniquely complementing another. Wherever you go, you'll find these two thoroughgoing professionals working together. On location and in the most demanding studio situations. Both Revox and Beyer are expressions of the same European dedication to meticulous craftsmanship and superior technology. For example, take the new Revox A77 Mk III. It's the successor to the critically acclaimed Revox A77, the machine that moved Stereo Review to comment, "We have never seen a recorder that could match the performance of the Revox A77 in all respects, and very few that even come close." Or take the new Beyer M500 microphone. You've never used anything quite like it. It combines the sharp attack of a condenser and the sturdy reliability of a moving coil with the unduplicatable warmth of a ribbon. And Beyer makes a number of other microphones to satisfy virtually any broadcasting or recording requirement. Together or separately, these sophisticated instruments provide the ideal solution to the problem of versatile, high quality, low cost recording. Your nearest Revox-Beyer dealer will be pleased to demonstrate any of these fine products for you. After that, you can arrive at your own friendly understanding. For additional information and complete technical specifications, write: Revox Corporation, 155 Michael Drive, Syosset, New York 11791. Real proof, in real time, that a new order of quality is here. Using a Bruel & Kjaer Type 3347 Real-Time 1/3-octave Analyzer, we plotted room response in some of the busiest recording studios in the country. Then we repeated the response measurements substituting a new Electro-Voice SENTRY IV speaker system for the existing studio monitor. In every case the SENTRY IV was measurably flatter. Measurably wider range. Even where broad-band equalization had been attempted and was in use (versus the SENTRY IV unequilized). But perhaps most impressive, the working studio engineers judged the SENTRY IV subjectively better sounding than the speaker systems they had been using for years. In every single studio! There are a host of good reasons why, including lower distortion and outstandingly uniform dispersion from the first new sectoral horn design in 25 years. With response at 60° off-axis that is identical to on-axis performance. Plus three new drivers, full-range horn loading, and a computer-aided design that led to more efficiency and higher power handling than any of the standard monitors. You can read about SENTRY IV design in an AES paper reprint we’ll send you. It was written by our Ray Newman (left) the man behind the SENTRY IV. We can also show them curves and specs that make impressive reading. And even better listening. But we know you won’t be truly convinced until you hear the SENTRY IV. That’s why we’re scheduling studio demonstrations now all across the country. You can arrange an audition through your E-V sound specialist. Or write us today. But be prepared to accept a new standard in sound. The Electro-Voice SENTRY IV monitor speaker system. Sentry IV Professional Monitor and Sound Reinforcement Loud Speaker Response: 50 — 18,000 Hz. Dispersion: 60° x 120° from 600 to 15,000 Hz. Power Handling: 50 watts RMS full range (in excess of 125 watts with high-frequency attenuation). 27-3/4" w. x 70-5/8" d. x 50-3/4" h. as shown. Weight: 148 lbs. $495.00 suggested professional retail net. ELECTRO-VOICE, INC., Dept. 121BD, 686 Cecil Street, Buchanan, Michigan 49107 In Canada: EV of Canada Ltd., 345 Herbert Street, Guelph, Ontario In Europe: Electro-Voice, S.A., Lysa-Strasse 35, 2560 Nidau, Switzerland Electro-Voice a GULTON subsidiary Circle 12 on Reader Service Card www.americanradiohistory.com
AN ACT relating to Vermin Fencing and the Destruction of Vermin and for other purposes incidental thereto. [Assented to 6th February, 1909.] BE it enacted by the King's Most Excellent Majesty, by and with the advice and consent of the Legislative Council and Legislative Assembly of Western Australia, in this present Parliament assembled, and by the authority of the same, as follows:— PART I.—PRELIMINARY. 1. This Act may be cited as the Vermin Boards Act, 1909. Short title. 2. In this Act, unless the context or subject matter otherwise indicates or requires,— "Board" means the Board of a Vermin District; "District" means a Vermin District constituted under this Act; "Holding" means any land or collection of lands constituting and worked as one property, whether held or occupied under pastoral lease, or in fee simple, or under conditional purchase lease or otherwise, and whether under the same title or different titles, or under titles of different kinds; "Manager" means the resident manager of a holding of which the owner does not reside in the District; "Member" means a member of a Board of a Vermin District; "Minister" means the Minister for the time being charged with the administration of this Act; "Owner" means the person for the time being entitled to possession of a holding; "Resident" means a resident in the District; "Vermin" means rabbits and wild dogs and any other animals which the Governor may declare to be vermin for the purposes of this Act. PART II.—CENTRAL ADMINISTRATION. 3. This Act shall be administered by the Minister for Agriculture, or such other responsible Minister of the Crown as the Governor may from time to time appoint. 4. The Governor may from time to time appoint and dismiss a Chief Inspector, inspectors, and other officers for carrying this Act into effect. 5. All moneys appropriated by Parliament for the purposes of this Act shall be paid into a fund called the Central Vermin Fund, and shall be applied for the following purposes, that is to say,— (a.) For defraying the necessary expenses of the administration of this Act; (b.) For paying to the Board of any District any part of the amount of the cost and expenses incurred by such Board during such year in repairing or maintaining any fencing originally erected at the public expense; (c.) For making advances by way of loan to any Board under the provisions of this Act; (d.) And generally in such manner as the Minister may from time to time direct for defraying or contributing towards the cost of any measures taken for the prevention of the incursion or migration or for the destruction of vermin, or for repaying to the Board of any District any costs or expenses incurred by such Board in carrying out the provisions of this Act. PART III.—VERMIN DISTRICTS. 6. (1.) The Governor may, by Order-in-Council,— (a.) Constitute any road district a Vermin District for the purposes of this Act; (b.) Unite two or more Districts into one District; (c.) Divide a District into two or more Districts; (d.) Alter the boundaries of a District; and (e.) Abolish a District. (2.) When a District is divided into two or more Districts, or a portion is severed from one District and included in another District, and in every other case in which it may in consequence of the alteration of the boundaries of the Districts or otherwise be necessary so to do, the Governor may in like manner declare and apportion the assets and liabilities of the respective Boards between them. (3.) In any of the cases aforesaid if the Boards affected are indebted to the Crown in respect of money advanced by way of loan, the Governor may in like manner declare and apportion the liabilities of the respective Boards in respect of such loan. (4.) Every such Order-in-Council shall have the same effect as if it were a part of this Act, so that the rights and liabilities of the respective Boards and their respective powers, rights, and authorities in respect of their assets shall be as declared by the Order-in-Council. PART IV.—BOARDS OF VERMIN DISTRICTS. 7. For every District there shall be a Board, which shall consist of so many members as may, from time to time, be prescribed by the Governor, and such members shall be elected or appointed as hereinafter provided. 8. Every Board shall be a body corporate under such title as the Governor shall from time to time determine, and shall have perpetual succession and a common seal, and by such name shall be capable of suing and being sued and of doing and suffering, subject to this Act, all other acts and things as bodies corporate may by law do and suffer. 9. (1.) Until the first election of the members of a Board the members shall be appointed by the Governor. (2.) The members of a Board appointed by the Governor under this section shall go out of office on the third Thursday in March in the year next following the constitution of the District. (3.) The first election of members of a Board shall be held in every District on the third Thursday in the year next following the constitution of the District, and thereafter an election shall be held annually on the third Thursday in March in every year. 10. Every elected member of a Board shall go out of office on the third Thursday in March in the year next following his election. 11. Every owner, part owner, or manager of a holding within the District, if such holding is rateable under this Act, shall be qualified to be elected a member of the Board. 12. Every person being an elector under the Roads Act, 1902, in respect of land within the district shall, if such land is rateable under this Act, be qualified to vote at an election of members of the Board. 13. Every person qualified to vote at an election of members of a Board shall have a number of votes according to the following scale: \| Acreage of Holding \| No of Votes \| \|--------------------\|-------------\| \| Under 10,000 acres \| One vote \| \| Exceeding 10,000 acres and not exceeding 100,000 acres \| Two votes \| \| Exceeding 100,000 acres \| Three votes \| 14. (1.) The proceedings in relation to elections held under this Act, and the rules, forms, and directions incidental thereto, shall be in accordance with regulations made under this Act. (2.) Such regulations may, mutatis mutandis, adopt the provisions of the Roads Act, 1902, relating to elections under that Act. 15. The office of a member shall be vacated— (a) if he is disqualified, or ceases to be qualified under this Act; or (b) if he is absent from two or more consecutive ordinary meetings of the Board without leave obtained from the Board in that behalf; or (c) if he resigns by notice in writing addressed to the clerk of the Board. 16. (1.) Any extraordinary vacancy in a Board shall be filled by the appointment by the Board of a member in place of a member whose seat has become vacant. (2.) The member so appointed shall hold office until the first annual election after his appointment. 17. A Board shall be deemed to be duly constituted and may transact business immediately upon its election or appointment, but a notification of an election or appointment of members shall be published in the "Government Gazette" as soon as conveniently may be after such election or appointment. 18. When no members, or an insufficient number of members, have been elected to a Board, the Governor may appoint a sufficient number of persons to be members of the Board in the place of the members who ought to have been elected. 19. Every inspector appointed under this Act by the Governor shall be ex officio a member of every Board in addition to the elected or appointed members. But not more than one such inspector shall act at any meeting of a Board. 20. The Board may, from time to time, fix the place where meetings shall be held, and may adjourn any meeting to any other place. 21. At the first meeting of every Board after its election or appointment the Board shall elect one of its members to be chairman. 22. (1.) The Board shall appoint a clerk to the Board. (2.) Any member of the Board may perform the duties of the clerk in the absence or during a vacancy in the office of the clerk. 23. Ordinary meetings of the Board shall be held at such times, not being less than once in each quarter, as the Board shall determine. 24. (1.) Special meetings may be held at any time— (2.) The chairman may call a special meeting at any time, and on the request in writing of three members of the Board he shall call such meeting. (3.) If the chairman refuses or for seven days fails to call such meeting upon such request, any three members may call such meeting by notice in writing signed by them stating the object of such meeting and the time and place of holding the same. 25. The clerk shall, unless and until otherwise provided by by-law, send by post to every member of the Board fourteen days' notice of every meeting, specifying the time and place of meeting, and, in the case of a special meeting, the business to be done thereat. 26. (1.) At all meetings of the Board a majority of the members for the time being shall form a quorum. (2.) The clerk, in the absence of all the members, or any member present alone, or the majority of members present at a meeting at which there shall be no quorum, may, at the expiration of half an hour from the time fixed for such meeting, adjourn the same. (3.) Any business which could have been transacted at such meeting may be transacted at the adjourned meeting. 27. At every meeting of the Board the chairman, or in his absence such member as the members assembled shall elect for that purpose, shall preside, and shall have a deliberative vote, and, in case of equality of votes, a casting-vote. 28. Notwithstanding any vacancies in the office of member of a Board, the business of the Board shall be carried on by the member or members actually in office, who shall have all the powers of the Board. 29. All proceedings of the Board, or of any person acting as a member of the Board, shall, notwithstanding any defect in the election or appointment of the members of such Board, or any of them, or of any person acting as aforesaid, or that they or any of them were incapable of being members of the Board, be as valid as if such members or member, or such person, had been duly elected or appointed, and was capable of being a member. 30. The Board shall cause minute books to be kept of all the meetings of the Board, and of the proceedings thereat. 31. (1.) Such minute-books shall, at all reasonable times, be open to the inspection of— (a.) A member of the Board: (b.) A creditor of the Board: (c.) A ratepayer of the District. (2.) Creditors and ratepayers shall pay one shilling for each such inspection, and may take copies of a minute. 32. Every minute purporting to be such minute as aforesaid and to be so signed, or a copy of or extract from any such minute purporting to be attested by the seal of the Board, shall be received as evidence in all Courts, and before all persons, without proof that the meeting to which the same refers was duly convened or held, or that the persons attending thereat were members of the Board, or of the signature of the chairman, or of the fact of his having been such chairman, or of the affixing of the seal; but all such matters shall be presumed until the contrary is proved. 33. The Governor may suspend the powers and functions of a Board for such time as he may think proper, or may abolish a Board if it shall appear to him that such Board— (a.) Refuses or neglects to perform the duties and functions imposed and conferred upon such Board by this Act; or (b.) Refuses or neglects to declare or levy any rates which such Board should declare or levy; or (c.) Makes default in the due payment of an instalment of principal and interest due on a loan; or (d.) Has misappropriated or has appropriated for any purpose not contemplated by this Act any of the moneys at the disposal of the Board, or any part of the revenue of the Board. 34. When the powers and functions of a Board are suspended or the Board is abolished, the Governor may authorise the Minister to exercise all the powers, authorities, functions, and duties of the Board so suspended or abolished during the suspension of the Board, or until a new Board is appointed or elected. 35. All property, real and personal, and all powers, authorities, immunities, rights, privileges, functions, obligations, and duties vested in or imposed on the Board by any means whatsoever shall, by force of this Act, be transferred to and vested in the Minister while the powers and functions of the Board are suspended, or upon the abolition of the Board. PART V.—POWERS OF BOARD. (1.) In relation to fences. 36. (1.) The Board may— (a.) Erect fences or improve existing fences; (b.) Alter, maintain, repair, or renew fences; (c.) Affix wire netting or other appliances to fences; (d.) Search for and destroy vermin and take such means as may appear to be expedient for the destruction of vermin. (2.) The Board, for the purposes aforesaid, and its officers, servants, and agents— (a.) May enter upon any lands within the District; (b.) May cut timber thereon; (c.) May clear the land on each side of any fencing erected or to be maintained by the Board; and (d.) May do all other acts and things necessary or expedient without being liable to any owner or occupier upon any claim or demand whatsoever in respect thereof. 37. The Board may cause to be affixed and kept affixed to any fence within the District, whether it was erected by the Board or not, wire netting or any other appliance which the Board think desirable for the purpose of preventing the incursion or migration of vermin. 38. The Governor may place under the control of the Board any fence heretofore or hereafter erected at the public expense. 39. (1.) If any fence erected by or under the control of the Board is, with the consent of the Board, made use of by the owner of any holding in fencing his holding, such owner shall become liable to pay to the Board an annual sum equal to interest at the rate of five pounds per centum per annum upon the value to such owner of the fence so made use of. (2.) If any such fence is, with the consent of the Board, made use of by the owners of adjoining holdings as a dividing fence in fencing their holdings, each owner shall become liable to pay to the Board an annual sum equal to interest at the rate of five pounds per centum per annum on a moiety of the value to such owner of the fence so made use of. (3.) If any fence belonging to the owner of any holding is altered, repaired, improved, or renewed by the Board, such owner shall become liable to pay to the Board an annual sum equal to interest at the rate of five pounds per centum per annum on the cost of such alteration, repair, improvement, or renewal. 40. Upon any liability arising under the last preceding section, the following provisions shall apply:— (1.) The annual sum or interest shall become a debt due to the Board from the owner and his successors in title. (2.) The annual sum or interest shall be payable on the same day in every year, and such day shall be fixed by the Board. (3.) If default is made in respect of any annual sum so payable by way of interest as aforesaid, such annual sum, together with one-tenth more by way of penalty, shall be recoverable, and payment thereof may be enforced by the Board in the same manner in which rates under this Act may be recovered, and payment thereof enforced by a Board. (4.) The owner of the holding may at any time pay to the Board the capital amount in respect of which the annual sum is so payable by way of interest as aforesaid, together with all such interest for the time being due or owing to the Board. Upon such payment as aforesaid, the Board shall give to such owner a certificate stating that the annual sum so payable by way of interest as aforesaid is redeemed. 41. If any dispute shall arise between the Board and the owner of any holding as to the value of any fence, or the cost of the alteration, repair, improvement, or renewal of any fence, such dispute shall be determined by arbitration under the provisions of "The Arbitration Act, 1895." (2.) In relation to the Destruction of Vermin. 42. A Board may cause to be served upon the owner of any holding situated wholly or partly within the District, a notice in writing and requiring such owner to forthwith take effective measures for the destruction of vermin on such holding. 43. (1.) If the owner shall, for a period of thirty days after the service of such notice, neglect or fail to comply with the requirements thereof, the Board may authorise any person, with or without assistants, to enter upon the holding and take all such measures, and do all such things as to him may appear expedient, for the purpose of ensuring the destruction of vermin upon the holding. (2.) Any person so authorised may enter and remain upon the holding, with or without assistants, and may take any such measures, and do any such things during such period as may in his opinion be necessary for such purpose as aforesaid. 44. If the person so authorised is satisfied that such owner is doing all such acts, matters, and things as may be necessary for the destruction of vermin on the holding, such person may from time to time postpone entering upon the holding, or in the event of his having entered, may withdraw therefrom upon the owner paying all costs, charges, and expenses incurred by such person up to the time of such withdrawal. 45. Where any person so authorised has incurred any costs, charges, or expenses in taking or destroying vermin found upon the holding, the amount of such costs, charges, and expenses shall be recoverable from the owner, and payment thereof may be enforced by the Board in the same manner in which rates may be recovered, and payment thereof enforced under this Act. 46. A Board may grant bonuses for the destruction of vermin within its District at such rates and subject to such conditions as may be prescribed by regulation. PART VI.—FUNDS OF BOARDS. (1.) Rates. 47. For the purpose of creating a fund for carrying out the provisions of this Act, the Board of each District shall, in every year, make and levy a vermin rate on every holding within the district: Provided that such rate shall not in any year exceed two shillings for every one hundred acres of a holding: Provided also that no rate shall be made or levied on any holding of less than one hundred acres. 48. A rate shall be deemed to have been duly made on an entry thereof being made in the minute book of the Board: Provided that notice thereof shall be served on the owner or manager of every holding on which such rate is made and levied. 49. A Board may make and levy a second rate during any year: Provided that the amount of a second rate so made and levied within one year shall not, together with the first exceed two shillings for every one hundred acres. 50. (1.) Rates shall be paid to the Board, and shall be payable forthwith after the making thereof, and may be levied and recovered by or under the authority of the Board by distress in like manner as rent under a lease is recoverable, or in a summary way before two or more Justices of the Peace. (2.) Where any such rate is levied by distress, a warrant under the hand of the chairman of the Board shall be a sufficient warrant and authority. 51. If the moneys actually raised by a rate within any District and remaining unexpended at the end of any year appear to be sufficient for carrying out the provisions of this Act in such District for another year, the Governor may direct that the owners in the District shall be exempt from the payment of any rates under this Act for such period as he may think fit. (2.) Loans. 52. The Minister may, from time to time, advance to any Board by way of loan, out of any moneys appropriated by Parliament for that purpose such sums as the Minister may think fit for carrying out the provisions of this Act. 53. All moneys so advanced to a Board, together with interest thereon, shall be repaid to the Minister as may be agreed upon at the time of granting the loan: Provided that the Minister may permit a Board to pay off the whole or any portion of any moneys at any time before the same may become due; and in such case the Board shall be entitled to a proportionate rebate of interest, to be adjusted by the Minister. 54. During the currency of a loan to a Board all moneys derived from rates levied by the Board in each year shall be applied for the purpose of paying the instalments payable to the Minister during that year, and the surplus only of such moneys shall be applicable for the other purposes prescribed by this Act. 55. If at any time the payments due by a Board to the Minister are in arrear, the Minister may forthwith take possession of any moneys and other property vested in the Board, and may make and levy rates under the provisions of this Act, and for that purpose shall have and may exercise all the powers of the Board. 56. The Minister shall, from time to time, be allowed credit for any sum or sums of money advanced or paid by him to any Board in pursuance of the provisions of this Act; and a receipt under the hand of the chairman or clerk of the Board shall be sufficient discharge of the Minister in respect of such sum or sums of money respectively. (3.) Application of Funds. 57. All moneys received by a Board under this Act shall be paid into a fund called The Vermin Fund of the District, and shall be applied for all or any of the purposes following, that is to say— (1.) For defraying the necessary expenses of the administration of this Act within the district, including the reasonable travelling expenses of the members of the Board and its officers and servants; (2.) For defraying the cost of the erection, alteration, improvement, maintenance, or renewal of fences for the purpose of preventing the incursion or migration of vermin; (3.) In payment of the interest on and in repayment of the principal of any loan to the Board; (4.) For defraying the cost of the destruction of vermin within the District. PART VII.—OFFENCES AND PENALTIES. 58. If any member of a Board who is disqualified or whose office has become vacant continues to act as a member of the Board, he shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding fifty pounds. 59. Any person who in a Vermin District, without the sanction of the Board, cuts, breaks, injures, or destroys any fence to which wire netting or any other appliance for preventing the passage of vermin is affixed, or any wire netting or other such appliance affixed to a fence, shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding one hundred pounds and not less than twenty pounds. 60. Any person who in a Vermin District wilfully or negligently leaves open a gate in a fence erected for the purpose of preventing the passage of vermin, or causes any cattle or sheep to be confined, encamped, or shut in against any such fence so as necessarily to be or remain in close proximity thereto, or removes, opens, or in any way tampers with any flood-gate or other barrier, shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding one hundred pounds. 61. Any person who obstructs, or resists, or hinders any authorised person in the prosecution of his work or in the execution of any power vested in him under or in pursuance of the provisions of this Act shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding fifty pounds. 62. All penalties incurred for any breach of this Act or any regulation thereunder may be recovered in a summary way before any two or more Justices of the Peace. 63. In any proceedings to recover the amount of any costs, charges, or expenses recoverable by a Board, it shall be sufficient to produce the certificate of the Board signed by the chairman, and such certificate shall be prima facie evidence that such costs, charges, and expenses were actually and lawfully incurred by a person authorised by the Board in that behalf, and the onus of disproving the amount shall be upon the defendant. 64. The description of any holding inserted in any notice under this Act need not define the land referred to, but shall be sufficient if it make such reference to the land, either by name or boundaries or otherwise, as to allow of no reasonable doubt as to what land is referred to. 65. In any case where a notice is required to be served upon the owner or manager of a holding, such notice may be served upon such owner or manager either by delivering the same to him personally or to his agent, or by leaving the same at his usual or last known place of abode, or by posting the same as a letter addressed to him at his usual or last known place of abode. 66. No person shall be deemed a trespasser or be liable for any damage occasioned by him by reason of the execution of any of the powers vested in him under or in pursuance of the provisions of this Act unless such damage is occasioned otherwise than in the reasonable exercise of such powers: Provided that before any poison is laid upon any holding by any such person he shall give to the owner of such holding seven days' notice in writing stating when and where such poison is to be laid. 67. The Governor may make regulations for carrying this Act into effect, and may impose a penalty not exceeding twenty pounds for any breach thereof.
Focusing in on structural genomics: The University of Queensland structural biology pipeline Munish Puri\textsuperscript{a,1,}, Gautier Robin\textsuperscript{a}, Nathan Cowieson\textsuperscript{a,e}, Jade K. Forwood\textsuperscript{b}, Pawel Listwan\textsuperscript{b,c}, Shu-Hong Hu\textsuperscript{a}, Gregor Guncar\textsuperscript{b,2}, Thomas Huber\textsuperscript{b,d}, Stuart Kellie\textsuperscript{a,b,c}, David A. Hume\textsuperscript{a,b,c,e}, Bostjan Kobe\textsuperscript{a,b,e}, Jennifer L. Martin\textsuperscript{a,b,e} \textsuperscript{a}Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia \textsuperscript{b}School of Molecular and Microbial Sciences, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia \textsuperscript{c}Cooperative Research Centre for Chronic Inflammatory Diseases, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia \textsuperscript{d}Department of Mathematics, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia \textsuperscript{e}ARC Special Research Centre for Functional and Applied Genomics, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia Received 14 July 2006; received in revised form 22 September 2006; accepted 25 September 2006 Abstract The flood of new genomic sequence information together with technological innovations in protein structure determination have led to worldwide structural genomics (SG) initiatives. The goals of SG initiatives are to accelerate the process of protein structure determination, to fill in protein fold space and to provide information about the function of uncharacterized proteins. In the long-term, these outcomes are likely to impact on medical biotechnology and drug discovery, leading to a better understanding of disease as well as the development of new therapeutics. Here we describe the high throughput pipeline established at the University of Queensland in Australia. In this focused pipeline, the targets for structure determination are proteins that are expressed in mouse macrophage cells and that are inferred to have a role in innate immunity. The aim is to characterize the molecular structure and the biochemical and cellular function of these targets by using a parallel processing pipeline. The pipeline is designed to work with tens to hundreds of target gene products and comprises target selection, cloning, expression, purification, crystallization and structure determination. The structures from this pipeline will provide insights into the function of previously uncharacterized macrophage proteins and could lead to the validation of new drug targets for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and arthritis. © 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. Keywords: High throughput crystallography; Protein expression; Macrophage proteins; Crystallization; Structural genomics Contents 1. Introduction .................................................. 282 2. High throughput crystallography ......................... 284 2.1. Target selection ........................................... 284 2.2. Cloning ..................................................... 284 2.3. Expression and purification ............................ 285 2.4. Crystallization ............................................ 286 2.5. Crystal to structure ...................................... 286 2.6. Protein function in macrophages and other outcomes of the pipeline ............................... 286 3. Impact of SG .................................................. 287 3.1. Functional assignment ................................... 287 Corresponding author at: Institute for Molecular Bioscience, Queensland Bioscience Precinct, University of Queensland, 306 Carmody Road, St. Lucia, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia. E-mail address: firstname.lastname@example.org (M. Puri). \textsuperscript{1} Present address: Fermentation and Protein Biotechnology Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology, Punjabi University, Patiala, India. \textsuperscript{2} On leave from the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Josef Stefan Institute, Ljubljana, Slovenia. 1. Introduction Structural biology has emerged as one of the most powerful approaches for defining the functions of proteins; this capacity is based on the observation that the evolutionary constraints for three-dimensional structures of proteins are higher than for sequences (Thornton et al., 2000; Yakunin et al., 2004). The strong predictive power of structure in functional annotation has resulted in the rapid growth of the new field of structural genomics (SG) (or structural proteomics) (Burley, 2000) and to the rapid development of novel high throughput technologies (Stevens and Wilson, 2001). In addition to expediting functional characterization of gene products, SG initiatives will also provide a comprehensive view of the protein structure universe, by determining the structures of representative proteins from every protein fold family and thereby filling in protein fold space (Todd et al., 2005). SG outcomes will also identify novel drug targets (Buchanan, 2002) and advance our understanding of protein evolution. Overall, SG research promises to have a major impact on the life sciences, biotechnology and medicine (Hol, 2000). To meet these goals, high throughput (HT) or parallel processing approaches have been developed for producing protein samples for structural biology and functional studies (Lesley et al., 2002). X-ray crystallography is the most widely used approach for protein structure determination, accounting for ~85% of structures in the Protein Data Bank (http://www.rcsb.org/pdb/) (Berman et al., 2000) though most SG initiatives use both crystallography and NMR approaches. SG consortia have been established around the world (Table 1) for the systematic high throughput determination of protein structures on a genome-wide scale (Brenner, 2001). \| Centre/consortium \| Location \| Organism/focus \| \|-------------------------------------------------------\|----------\|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Berkeley Structural Genomics Center (BSGC) \| USA \| Structural representation of the genomes of two pathogens, Mycobacterium genitalium and Mycobacterium pneumoniae \| \| Midwest Center for Structural Genomics (MCSG) \| USA \| Proteins from all three kingdoms of life \| \| Northeast Structural Genomics Consortium (NEGS) \| USA \| Small proteins from eukaryotic model organisms such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Caenorhabditis elegans and Drosophila melanogaster \| \| New York Structural Genomics Research Consortium (NYSGXRC) \| USA \| Biologically interesting proteins from model organisms and humans \| \| Southeast Collaboratory for Structural Genomics (SECSG)\| USA \| C. elegans and Pyrococcus furiosus and selected human proteins \| \| TB Structural Genomics Consortium (TB) \| USA \| Mycobacterium tuberculosis proteins, particularly potential drug targets and novel folds \| \| Joint Center for Structural Genomics (JCSG) \| USA \| Thermotoga maritima, novel folds from C. elegans, and human proteins implicated in cell signaling \| \| Center for Eukaryotic Structural Genomics (CESG) \| USA \| Arabidopsis thaliana proteins; technology development for eukaryotic proteins \| \| Structure 2 Function Project (S2F) University of California Berkeley \| USA \| Functional characterization of hypothetical proteins from Haemophilus influenzae \| \| Structural Genomics of Pathogenic Protozoa consortium (SGPP) \| USA \| Proteins from major global pathogenic protozoa, Leishmania major, Trypanosoma brucei and Plasmodium falciparum \| \| Montreal-Kingston Bacterial Structural Genomics Initiative (BSGI) \| Canada France \| Structures of potential virulence factors from pathogenic bacteria Discovery of new antibacterial gene targets among evolutionary conserved genes of uncharacterized function \| \| Bacterial Targets at IGS-CNRS (BIGS) \| France \| \| \| Oxford protein production facility (OPPF) \| UK \| Biomedical relevance of human pathogens, in particular Herpes viruses \| \| Structural Proteomics in Europe (SPINE) \| UK \| Targets include human proteins implicated in cancer and neurodegenerative diseases \| \| The Israel Structural Proteomics Center (ISPC) \| Israel \| Increase the efficiency of protein structure determination \| \| Marseilles Structural Genomics Programe (MSGP) \| France \| Focus on bacterial, viral, and human ORFs \| \| Mycobacterium Tuberculosis Structural Proteomics Project (XMTB) \| Germany \| Identify lead compounds against XMTB, using a structure based approach \| \| Protein Structure Factory (PSF) \| Germany \| Human proteins to understand health and disease \| \| Paris-Sud Yeast Structural Genomics (YSG) \| France \| Non-membrane proteins of unknown structure \| \| RIKEN Structural Genomics Initiative (RSGI) \| Japan \| Proteins of biological and medical interest from mouse, A. thaliana and Thermus thermophilus \| \| Integrated Center for Structure and Function Innovation (ISFI) \| USA \| Developing and applying technologies to overcome bottlenecks of production of soluble protein and protein crystallization \| Some consortia target the proteomes of thermophilic organisms, which offer the advantage of working on small stable proteins, on which high-throughput methodologies can be tested (Yee et al., 2003). Although specialist membrane protein SG projects have recently emerged (Walian et al., 2004) the focus of SG consortia has been, for the most part, on soluble proteins. TargetDB (http://targetdb.pdb.org/statistics/Target-Statistics.html) reveals that 21 SG consortia have contributed over 2500 crystal structures since September 2000. The quality of the structures and size of the proteins are comparable to those solved by traditional structural biology approaches (Todd et al., 2005). In terms of contributing to fold space, SG consortia have been estimated to contribute around half of all novel structures reported over a recent 1-year period (Chandonia and Brenner, 2006). Furthermore, TargetDB reports that 50% of structures determined by SG consortia have less than 30% identity to known protein structures, though only around 16% of structures solved by SG were deemed to represent a new fold or superfamily (Chandonia and Brenner, 2006). The average cost of determining a protein structure by SG consortia in the US was estimated at US$138,000; this figure increases with the novelty of the protein to $1M for a representative of a structurally uncharacterized family and US$2.2M for a representative structure of a new superfamily or fold (Chandonia and Brenner, 2006). These statistics show that the costs of novel protein structure determination within structural genomics consortia are still relatively high. These cost estimates make a strong case for the development of smaller, more cost-efficient research programs to tackle medically significant proteins. At the University of Queensland (UQ) in Australia such a pipeline has been established. The UQ pipeline takes advantage of developments in high throughput processing and applies these to the parallel processing of hundreds rather than thousands of protein targets. Most importantly, the UQ pipeline has a clear focus on protein targets that are biologically or biomedically significant. Specifically, the initiative explores the structural biology of proteins that are highly expressed in macrophages and potentially involved in the immune response. Because this population of proteins includes many of unknown structure and function, structure determination will provide insight into their mechanisms of action. In addition, it will potentially identify novel therapeutic targets and provide the all-important structural starting point for the rational design of novel drugs. Two factors contributed to the decision to work on this specific set of proteins: (1) biomedical significance and (2) feasibility. (1) Biomedical significance: macrophages are specialized cells that represent the first line of defense against potential pathogens; they comprise 15–20% of cells in most organs, and are particularly abundant at the routes of pathogen entry such as lung, skin, gut and genitourinary tract (Hume et al., 2002). When a potential pathogen is recognized, the macrophage engulfs and attempts to destroy the foreign organism. The structures of proteins that regulate macrophage function therefore may form the basis for two classes of therapeutics. One option is to amplify the toxic function of macrophages to destroy foreign organisms or tumor cells more effectively. The second option is to selectively suppress the macrophage activation response as the basis for the treatment of conditions like septicaemia and toxic shock, arthritis and other chronic inflammatory diseases (Duffield, 2003). (2) Feasibility: full length cDNAs encoding proteins expressed in mouse macrophages, including many novel proteins, are available because of the extensive polling of the macrophage transcriptome through the FANTOM consortium (Okazaki et al., 2002; Wells et al., 2003b; Carninci et al., 2005). Furthermore, UQ has substantial in-house macrophage cell biology expertise that will add value to the structural and functional studies. The focused HT structural biology strategy developed at UQ uses gene expression profiling for target selection so that structural information can rapidly be linked to function (Fig. 1). Through array profiling, hundreds of proteins have been identified, including many of unknown function, that are expressed in a restricted manner in the macrophage lineage or are induced by pro-inflammatory stimuli. These molecules are considered candidate regulators of innate immunity. ![Schematic diagram showing the strategy adopted by the UQ structural genomics group for parallel processing of mouse macrophage proteins.](image) Fig. 1. Schematic diagram showing the strategy adopted by the UQ structural genomics group for parallel processing of mouse macrophage proteins. The third panel shows the crystal structure of latexin, which was solved at UQ using the pipeline. Latexin is the only known mammalian carboxypeptidase inhibitor, and is related in structure to cystatins, cysteine protease inhibitors (Aagaard et al., 2005). In this article, we describe the parallel processing pipeline developed at UQ and aimed at determining the biological (cellular) and biochemical (molecular) functions of important uncharacterized or novel macrophage proteins that are likely to play a role in the immune response and in inflammation (Aagaard et al., 2005; Cowieson et al., 2005). 2. High throughput crystallography The five key stages in the process of high throughput crystallography (HTC) (Fig. 2) are: (1) target selection; (2) cloning; (3) expression and purification; (4) crystallization screening and optimization; (5) crystal structure determination. Details of the procedures employed at UQ for each of these steps are described below. In addition a further step has been initiated at UQ to incorporate cell biology into the structural biology program; initially, this will involve the investigation of functional consequences of over-expression of the target proteins in macrophage cells and cellular localization studies. 2.1. Target selection The first crucial step in any structural genomics project is the selection and prioritization of target proteins for structure determination; the selection criteria vary depending on the SG program. Targets are often selected because they are likely to have a novel fold or are representative of a large protein family for which no structure is known. These criteria ensure that resulting structures will contribute to the fundamental aim of structural genomics to fill in fold space. Proteins are also more likely to be selected if they are considered to be tractable for structure determination. Thus, for example, targets that are predicted to be membrane proteins or that are cysteine-rich would be less likely to be selected under this criterion. The more rigorous the criteria used for selection, the greater the chances of progression through the pipeline and the more value there is in those structures that emerge from the pipeline. At UQ, gene expression analysis is included as a criterion for target selection to maximize biological and biomedical value of selected targets. The combination of expression profiling and HT structural analysis provides a very powerful way to identify protein function, as the former suggests a cellular role of a protein (e.g. involvement in a pathway), while the latter suggests a molecular (biochemical) function (e.g. an enzymatic function). At the same time, this strategy retains the cost-effective nature of pursuing the technically more tractable structures first. The biological focus is therefore on proteins that are likely to play a role in the immune response and inflammation (Wells et al., 2003a). The genes corresponding to selected proteins are those that we have shown, using cDNA microarray experiments, to be (a) expressed selectively in macrophages and/or (b) transcriptionally regulated following stimulation of mouse macrophages and/or (c) transcriptionally regulated in mouse models of arthritis or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Genes that meet these selection criteria are then further filtered to remove those that do not have human orthologues (sequence identity minimum of 70%). This criterion filters out wrongly predicted open reading frames and simultaneously ensures that the selected mouse proteins will yield information that can be translated to human biology. Targets that are greater than 60 kDa are rejected because these are unlikely to express well in bacteria. Targets that are less than 10 kDa are also rejected because these are more likely to be spurious open reading frames. Sorting signals are predicted using PSORT (Nakai and Horton, 1999) and transmembrane regions are deleted from the expression constructs. Candidate transmembrane regions were annotated systematically by the FANTOM consortium (Okazaki et al., 2002). Targets that have transmembrane regions or sorting signals are not necessarily filtered out during selection of UQ targets, but these regions of sequence may be removed if the targets are selected for further processing. Target proteins for which structures are already known are filtered out after identification by BLAST (Altschul et al., 1990) comparison with sequences in the Protein Data Bank or by threading and secondary structure prediction using 3D-PSSM (Kelley et al., 2000). The cutoff used at UQ is 30% pairwise sequence identity with a protein of known structure. Proteins with lower than 30% identity may have similar structures, but they are difficult to model reliably. The Pfam database (Bateman et al., 2004) is used at UQ to identify whether targets have individual domains that are structurally characterized; such targets may still be selected if other domains in the sequence are not structurally characterized. 2.2. Cloning Modern molecular biology approaches are well-suited to automation and handling of large numbers of genes. At UQ, Modified Gateway Cloning Forward primer 1 (gene specific) 5'- Linker 4aa -- template specific sequence- 3' Forward primer 2 (adapter primer) 5'- attB1+Shine-Delgarno+Kozak 6x His Linker 4aa 3' 5'- attB1+Shine-Delgarno+Kozak 6x His Linker 4aa target cDNA 3' BP recombination vector Target cDNA attB2 vector Entry Vector construct ATG-start LR reaction Stop Expression vector — eg. pDEST 14 MKHHHHHSGAM-target protein 6xHis Fig. 3. Modified Gateway Cloning allowing the generation of a “minimal” hexa-histidine affinity tag. A two-step PCR is performed to incorporate the hexa-histidine affinity tags; firstly, gene specific primers containing a 12-nucleotide adapter are used to amplify the target gene from a cDNA template using the PCR reaction. Adapter primers are then incorporated that encode the affinity tag during a second round of PCR. The GATEWAY cloning technology is then applied as per described in the Invitrogen manual to incorporate the amplified PCR products into a pDONr entry clone using the BP reaction, and subsequently in the pDEST14 expression vector using LR cloning (Listwan et al., 2005). BP (a reaction between an expression clone ‘attB’ flanked PCR product and a donor vector containing ‘attP’ sites to create an entry clone), LR (a recombination reaction between an entry clone ‘attL’ and a destination vector containing ‘attR’, mediated by host of recombination proteins, to create an expression clone. Standard 96-well plates are used with a Biomek 2000 liquid handling robot to perform most of the steps involved in cloning and in subsequent small scale protein expression screening. A modification of the Invitrogen Gateway® system is used to clone PCR products into an entry vector (Fig. 3). Transformation is performed in the standard manner by heat shock into chemically competent cells. Colonies are then picked manually into 1-ml cultures in a 96-well plate and grown overnight; plasmid purification from these cultures is automated by using the Biomek robot and commercial 96-well compatible kits. A novel nested PCR modification of the Gateway® cloning system was developed at UQ to adapt the resulting expression construct better for structural biology applications (Listwan et al., 2005). Using this approach, genes cloned into the donor vector are recombined into the expression vector without the need for specific AttB sites; the redesigned expression vector is also engineered to express fusion proteins with very short hexahistidine tags. 2.3. Expression and purification Bacterial expression systems represent the cheapest, quickest and easiest means of producing recombinant protein. However, the percentage of targets that proceed through the pipeline to yield soluble, purified protein from a bacterial expression system is dependent on many variables including those described above in target selection, as well as the presence of rare codons in the target gene and the particular experimental methods chosen (Braun et al., 2002). Expression of mammalian proteins in bacteria has a much lower success rate than expression of bacterial proteins. For specific types of targets, such as membrane proteins, a range of bacterial strains are often trialled (Miroux and Walker, 1996). Expression vectors usually incorporate engineered tags to enable affinity purification of the target protein. Common examples include the hexa-histidine (6xHis), glutathione S-transferase (GST), maltose-binding protein (MBP), or thioredoxin (TRX) tags. The type of tag used can influence both expression levels and the solubility of expressed proteins (Hammarstrom et al., 2002). The 6xHis tag is small enough that the expressed proteins can often be crystallized without the need to remove the tag (Lesley et al., 2002). At UQ, the strategy is to use bacterial expression systems to generate recombinant 6xHis-tagged mammalian proteins. The expression vectors, each containing a gene coding for a mouse macrophage protein, are transformed by heat shock into chemically competent Escherichia coli cells (strain BL21(DE3)pLysS). The cells are cultured in small scale (1 ml) overnight in 96-well plates and induction of expression involves autoinduction media (Studier, 2005). These media allows for fully automated growth of cultures to high optical densities without the need for monitoring growth. For HT, the traditional means of cell lysis to release recombinant proteins (sonication or freeze-thawing cycles) are unsuitable. At UQ, the 96-well frozen cell pellets are lysed using a chemical lysis reagent. The recombinant proteins are purified in HT using the Biomek liquid handling robot and magnetic metal affinity resin. The nickel-containing resin binds to the 6xHis-tagged proteins; unbound cellular debris is removed by washing and the 6xHis-tagged fusion proteins are eluted with a gradient of imidazole (20–250 mM). The purification of 96 ml × 1 ml cultures in a 96-well plate format, from cell culture to eluted protein, is completed within 90 min using the automated liquid-handling workstation. To analyse expression levels and solubility, we make use of the LabChip90 automated electrophoresis system for DNA and proteins (www.caliperls.com). Samples of whole-cell extracts, soluble fractions and elutions from metal affinity resin are analyzed on a protein chip in 96-well format. The resulting information from these small-scale expressions allows identification of targets that are produced in soluble form in bacteria. These protein targets are then expressed in large scale (1–2 l) for crystallization trials and the proteins purified by metal affinity and size exclusion chromatography. Protein purity and homogeneity is further checked by MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry (Leushner, 2001), by gel filtration chromatography, circular dichroism (Kelly et al., 2005) and by dynamic light scattering (Wilson, 2003) prior to progression through to crystallization trials. The solubility of expressed proteins is a major bottleneck, particularly when expressing mammalian proteins in bacteria. We have also developed a matrix-assisted refolding approach in which correctly folded proteins are distinguished from misfolded proteins by their elution from affinity resin under non-denaturing conditions. The assay can be applied to insoluble proteins on an individual basis but is also suited to automation (Cowieson et al., 2006). 2.4. Crystallization The production of diffraction-quality crystals by screening variables such as precipitants, pH and temperature often represents another bottleneck in SG pipelines. The number of parameters to be evaluated results in a large multi-dimensional sampling space, but in most cases the amount of protein available is small, so that the number of crystallization experiments needs to be minimised. A recent advance has been the introduction of methodology that allows the set-up of crystallization trials using nanolitre amounts of protein (Stevens and Wilson, 2001). The most common method used for crystallization screening is vapor diffusion, either by hanging drop or sitting drop; both are amenable to HT application in 96-well plate format. Free interface diffusion methods have also been developed (Hansen et al., 2002) that are suited to HT. Robots are now commonly used for all three steps in crystallization (Bard et al., 2004), namely preparation of crystallization formulations, small volume (50–200 nl) crystallization experiment set-up and monitoring of the crystallization experiments. Furthermore, many crystallization screens are available commercially (e.g. Hampton Research, Emerald Biostructures, Jena Bioscience, Molecular Dimensions) or can be prepared based on previously identified successful formulations (Page et al., 2003). At UQ, the crystallization pipeline involves first establishing the optimal protein concentration, by using a pre-screen from Hampton Research. Then for each purified protein, a panel of five commercial or lab-prepared screens are set-up at two different temperatures (20 °C and 4 °C). The 100 nl + 100 nl sitting drops in the 96-well tray format are set-up using a TTP LabTech Mosquito robot and experiments are monitored using a DeCode Genetics Crystal Monitor. Hits are then optimized by setting up focused screens (Senger and Mueser, 2005). 2.5. Crystal to structure Over the past 15 years, the process of protein structure determination by crystallography has been revolutionized by developments in methodology, hardware and software. Indeed, it is now possible to determine the structure of a novel protein in a matter of hours from the time data measurement begins. The improvements are due to faster and simpler phasing methods such as multiple (MAD) and single wavelength anomalous dispersion (SAD) (Hendrickson, 1999), more intense X-ray sources (lab-based and at synchrotron beamlines) allowing quicker data collection and measurement of higher resolution data, improvements in computing hardware and more robust and automated software packages for processing and solving structures (Lamzin and Perrakis, 2000). At UQ, the structure determination process uses the standard approaches of cryocrystallography and MAD phasing from selenomethionine (SeMet)-substituted protein crystals. Crystals of native protein are flash-cooled in a nitrogen gas stream at ~100 K after soaking in a suitable cryoprotectant. X-ray diffraction quality of protein crystals is assessed using the laboratory equipment. When diffraction-quality crystals are obtained and a suitable molecular replacement model is not available, the protein is expressed in minimal media in the presence of SeMet to produce SeMet-labelled protein crystals for use in MAD phasing at a synchrotron. Standard crystallographic packages are used to process and phase the data and to visualize and refine structures (Aagaard et al., 2005). 2.6. Protein function in macrophages and other outcomes of the pipeline In such a comparatively small program, proteins that are cloned into expression plasmids and which fail to express in bacteria, or which are not soluble, or which fail to generate crystals, represent a significant loss of productivity. The advantage of using the Gateway system is that the cDNAs can be cloned from the entry vector into mammalian expression vectors to enable us to investigate function in the absence of structural outcomes. We have now begun to systematically clone candidate targets into commercial mammalian destination vectors, and into an inducible expression system. These vectors can be transiently or stably transfected into the mouse macrophage cell line, RAW264. Epitope or His-tags are used to localize the expressed protein within the cell, and if expression is successful, to extract and purify the protein and aid in the identification of binding partners. Over-expression of the target protein may modify the biological function of the cells; we can routinely assay cell proliferation, adhesion and spreading, and inducible production of inflammatory cytokines. Clearly, for proteins that do generate crystal structures, such information, combined with information about mRNA expression and regulation in macrophages, can reinforce and strengthen structure-based functional inferences. In the event that a soluble protein is produced but fails to crystallize, we have initiated an alternative approach to gain structural information using chemical cross-linking. The assignment of proximity relationships, combined with molecular modeling, provides the structural information in this case. We used this method to identify the site of interaction between latexin, the first crystal structure from the UQ structural genomics program, and its partner protein carboxypeptidase A (Mouradov et al., 2006). 3. Impact of SG Each new protein structure, whether it originates from an international consortium or a small focused program like that at UQ, provides a wealth of information for fundamental, applied and strategic research. For example, when a new protein fold is revealed, the database of known protein folds is enriched, and when the function of a new protein is determined, novel structure–function relationships are established (Zhang and Kim, 2003). In this section we comment briefly on the impact of SG protein structure outcomes. 3.1. Functional assignment A major goal of SG initiatives is the identification of function for uncharacterized gene products. It is estimated that over 2/3 of structures of proteins of unknown function can be used to directly infer a molecular function (Christendat et al., 2000; Kim et al., 2005), most often because the structures are remote homologues of proteins of known function (evaluated for example using DALI (Holm and Sander, 1994) and SCOP (Murzin et al., 1995)) or because ligands fortuitously co-crystallize bound to the protein. For uncharacterized proteins with a new fold, in silico approaches are being developed to use structure to locate binding sites and to help assign function (Laskowski et al., 2005; Pal and Eisenberg, 2005). 3.2. Other implications of SG outcomes As described in Section 1, one of the major goals of SG is to provide representative structures for every protein fold family. These representative structures can then be used as templates to generate protein models for all other members within that protein family (Chance et al., 2004), using automated methods such as MODELLER (John and Sali, 2003). In addition, the wealth of structural information will underpin fundamental improvements in knowledge including protein folding, protein structure prediction, and protein evolution. In terms of biomedical impact, structural data will facilitate the design of improved therapeutic agents by allowing comparison of functionally similar protein structures from pathogens and hosts, or proteins from diseased and normal tissues. 3.3. Drug and drug-lead discovery It is now widely accepted that protein structure is critical for the design of new drugs. However, the impact of SG and HT technology is now extending beyond structure determination and into new approaches for drug and drug target discovery (Claverie et al., 2002). In this context, X-ray crystallography has a major advantage of defining ligand-binding sites in intricate detail (Kuhn et al., 2002). Drug-like fragment libraries have been developed that sample chemical space more efficiently than ligand-based screens (Hann et al., 2001), and these are screened with a single target protein to identify fragments that bind and to define precisely the binding sites (Blundell and Patel, 2004). These approaches rely on robots for soaking the crystals with the fragment cocktails and to collect the X-ray diffraction data. Automated software is also being developed to identify the fragments that bind. Those drug-like fragments that are found to bind to a protein target (the hits) become the starting point for medicinal chemistry to develop potent and selective leads that may then further evolve into drugs. 4. Outputs from UQ SG pipeline A total of 318 macrophage genes have been processed in three rounds of expression screening at UQ. The Gateway® approach was used to successfully clone 220 of these mouse protein targets into bacterial expression vector. These generated 52 soluble mouse macrophage proteins that have entered crystallization trials. Crystals have been produced for 6 of the 52 proteins and two crystal structures have been solved. One of these two structures is that of latexin, also referred to as tissue carboxypeptidase inhibitor, which is the only known mammalian carboxypeptidase inhibitor. The structure reveals that latexin comprises two cystatin folds in tandem (Aagaard et al., 2005) (Fig. 1). The cystatin fold is commonly found in inhibitors of cysteine proteases, but has not before been observed in tandem as a pair. The second structure solved is that of long chain acyl-CoA thioesterase (Serek et al., 2006). The success rates from the UQ pipeline to date for the 318 mouse macrophage proteins (16% soluble per selected target; 12% crystals per soluble protein; 33% structures per crystal) is comparable to the success rates reported in TargetDB for eukaryotic proteins (8% purified per selected target; 24% crystallized per purified protein; 33% structures per crystal, for 57,153 eukaryotic targets, 12 September 2006). 5. Conclusion Parallel processing of thousands of protein targets is now a reality for SG consortia. However, these approaches are not limited to genome-wide studies of protein structure. On the contrary, the established protocols and automated infrastructure open up enormous possibilities for other protein science programs, because it provides the speed and throughput necessary to rapidly identify, from hundreds or thousands of starting constructs, those proteins, expression systems, crystallization conditions or crystals, which structural studies should focus on. We have employed exactly that strategy at UQ, by using techniques and infrastructure suitable for an academic laboratory and focusing on proteins with strong biological importance. We note that several other academic labs have developed structural genomics technology in what has been termed “medium-throughput” structural biology projects (Claverie et al., 2002; Vincentelli et al., 2003; Segelke et al., 2004; Busso et al., 2005; Moreland et al., 2005). The next goal for academia and consortia alike will be to progress from a high-throughput to a higher-output mode, and to proceed from analyzing “low-hanging fruit” to addressing technically challenging targets such as membrane proteins and macromolecular assemblies. Acknowledgements MP thanks DEST for the award of an Australia-Asia Fellowship. The work at UQ is supported by an Australian Research Council (ARC) grant to JLM and BK. 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Upon the reading and filing of the following papers in this matter: (1) Notice of Verified Petition by petitioners dated January 3, 2018, and supporting papers; (2) Notice of Supplemental Second Amended Petition by petitioners dated April 4, 2018, and supporting papers; (3) Verified Answer and Return to Second Amended Petition by respondents dated April 24, 2018, and supporting papers; (4) Verified Reply to Answer pursuant to CPLR 7804 [d] by intervenor-respondents dated May 17, 2018, and supporting papers; (5) Submission Pursuant to CPLR 7804 [d] by intervenor-respondents dated May 10, 2018, and supporting papers; (6) Additional Submission Pursuant to CPLR 7804 [d] by intervenor-respondents dated May 11, 2018, and supporting papers; (7) Verified Reply to Answer Pursuant to CPLR 7804[d] by intervenor-respondents dated May 17, 2018, and supporting papers; (8) Verified Reply to Answer Pursuant to CPLR 7804 [d] by petitioners dated May 16, 2018, and supporting papers; and (9) Verified Reply to Answer pursuant to CPLR 7804 [d] by intervenor-respondents dated May 17, 2018, and supporting papers, it is ORDERED that the petition (seq.#001) and the second amended petition (seq.#002) are consolidated for purposes of this determination; and it is ORDERED that the petition (seq.# 001) is DENIED as moot; and it is ORDERED that the petitioner’s application pursuant to Article 78 of the CPLR (seq.#002) is DENIED; and it is ORDERED that this matter shall be marked “disposed.” This action arises out of the denial of petitioners’ respective applications for permits to construct seasonal and removable docks at their homes in the Ida Smith area of the Village of Asharoken.$^1$ Their applications were filed with the respondent The Incorporated Village of Asharoken (“the Village”) and were then referred to respondent The Incorporated Village of Asharoken Environmental Review Board (“ERB) for review. ERB conducted a series of public hearings and received documentary evidence as well as hearing testimony. ERB issued written decisions, which were submitted to respondent The Incorporated Village of Asharoken Board of Trustees (“the Board”), recommending that the applications be denied and setting forth the reasons for those recommendations. The Board found that the petitioners had not satisfied certain provisions of Article IVA of Chapter 125 of the Code of the Village of Asharoken (“the Dock Code”) and issued resolutions denying the applications. Petitioners have commenced this proceeding pursuant to Article 78 of the CPLR seeking an order annulling, setting aside, and reversing the Board’s resolutions and granting the petitioners’ applications without the imposition of any further conditions or any further review under the New York State Environmental Quality Review Act (“SEQRA”) on the asserted grounds that the Board’s findings were arbitrary and capricious, an abuse of discretion and affected by an error of law in that the Board allegedly disregarded petitioners’ riparian rights. Respondents and intervenor-respondents are opposing the application on the grounds that there was ample evidence in the record to support the Board’s findings and that the Dock Code represents a reasonable and lawful restriction of petitioners’ riparian rights. Respondents and intervenor-respondents contend that in the event the court annuls and sets aside the Board’s resolutions, the applications must be returned to the Board to make a SEQRA determination of significance. $^1$The original petition (seq. #001) was amended and effectively superceded by the second amended petition (seq. #002). Accordingly, the original petition is denied as moot, and the current decision and order relates to the amended petition (seq. #002). regarding the proposed docks. Background Petitioners own properties that lie along Northport Bay, and each is seeking to construct a removable dock extending over the beach and foreshore and into the waters of the bay. The proposed docks would be roughly parallel to each other and approximately three hundred feet apart. Prior to filing their applications for permits to build the subject docks, they each applied to the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (“the DEC”) for permits from the DEC as required by the ECL given that Northport Bay’s shoreline is a tidal wetland under Article 25 of the Environmental Conservation Law. The DEC determined that each proposed dock was a “Type II” action under SEQRA and issued permits to both petitioners to construct the docks. The New York State Department of State (“the DOS”) has designated Northport Bay as a Significant Coastal Fish and Wildlife Habitat, thus making it a requirement that petitioners submit their dock proposals to the DOS to determine whether their proposals were consistent with New York State’s Coastal Management Program. The DOS determined that each proposal met the DOS’s general consistency concurrence criteria. Pursuant to 42 USC § 403, a dock cannot be built in navigable waters outside of a harbor without the approval of the federal government. Petitioners therefore applied to the United States Army Corps of Engineers (“ACE”) for permits for their docks, which were issued. After obtaining the appropriate approvals and permits from DEC, DOS, and ACE, petitioners filed their applications for permits to build the docks to the Village. Both were filed on September 25, 2015. The applications to the DEC, DOS and ACE, as well as the applications filed with the Village, were prepared by petitioners’ environmental experts, Land Use Ecological Services, Inc. (“Land Use”). Petitioners’ dock permit applications were referred to ERB, which is tasked with reviewing such applications, holding public hearings, and making recommendations to the Board. ERB held seven public hearings regarding the applications – on November 23, 2015, May 23, 2016, June 27, 2016, July 25, 2016, October 24, 2016, September 25, 2017 and October 30, 2017. ERB heard testimony from Dan Hall, an ecologist employed by Land Use, intervenor-respondent Robert Holmes, Holmes’ attorneys Kenneth P. Savin and Frederick Eisenbud, the attorney for the Village, petitioners’ attorney Michael McCarthy, Dr. Ron Abrams, an environmental expert employed by Dru Associates, Inc. (“Dru”), a firm of environmental consultants engaged by Holmes, and residents of the Asharoken community. After the fifth hearing, which was held on October 24, 2016, ERB recommended that the Board hire an independent environmental consultant in the hope of shedding light on the conflict in expert opinions that had been rendered during the course of the proceedings. Accordingly, the Village hired GEI Consultants (“GEI”), which issued a draft report, followed by a superseding revised report and, ultimately, a final report dated July 31, 2017. All GEI reports were submitted to ERB for review. ERB considered documentary evidence in the form of letters from Asharoken community members both in support of and against the proposed docks, reports from Land Use, Dru and GEI, photographs, drawings and visual renderings, emails from petitioners, The initial design for each of the proposed docks called for a T-shaped structure. In response to objections raised at the initial ERB hearing held in November 2015, Land Use filed supplements to the applications that included revised plans that reduced the width of the T cross-bar in the each of the docks. At the sixth ERB hearing held on September 25, 2017, ERB voted 3-2 in favor of recommending that the Board disapprove petitioners’ applications for dock permits. On October 30, 2017, ERB issued identical written decisions as to each of the petitioners’ respective applications, setting forth their findings. The ERB’s findings in pertinent part were as follows: “4. In adopting Article IVA of Chapter 125 of the Code of the Village of Asharoken, entitled “Docks,” the Board of Trustees of the Village of Asharoken determined that, for ecological, public enjoyment, public navigation, aesthetic, public health, safety and welfare reasons, docks in the “Ida Smith property” need to be regulated. 5. Section 125.22.5(B) of Article IVA of Chapter 125 of the Asharoken Village Code provides that the Environmental Review Board shall recommend the issuance of a dock permit only when it is determined that the dock will not provide any of the adverse effects enumerated in Section 125.22.2 and the dock meets the conditions set forth in Section 125.22.5(B). The adverse effects enumerated in Section 125.22.2 relate to: A. Environmental, B. Pollution, C. Swimming, D. Navigation, E. Aesthetics and F. General. 6. Since all docks affect, to some degree, the environment, pollution, swimming, navigation and aesthetics, the Board interprets Section 125.22.5(B) of the Asharoken Village Code to provide that the Environmental Review Board shall recommend the issuance of a dock permit only when it is determined that the dock will not significantly provide any of the adverse effects enumerated in Section 125.22.2. 7. With respect to A. Environmental - the Board finds that Applicant did not demonstrate that the dock will not significantly impede the tidal and littoral flow of waters, which impediment can cause significant collection of flotsam and decaying marine and plant life on and above the shoreline. The Board further finds that the Applicant did not demonstrate the dock will not result in significant accretion of sand and seaweed in and around the dock, which interferes with the environmental quality of the waterfront. 8. With respect to B. Pollution - the Board finds that Applicant did not demonstrate that the dock will not significantly increase pollution near the shoreline resulting from running, idling or testing of boats alongside of the dock. 9. With respect to C. Swimming - the Board finds that the one hundred thirty (130) feet length of the dock will be an obstacle to lateral swimming along the shoreline. 10. With respect to D. Navigation - the Board finds that the one hundred thirty (130) feet length of the dock will interfere with the movement of sailboats tacking to and from the beach and the movement of rowboats, canoes and small boats along the shore. 11. With respect to E. Aesthetics - the “Ida Smith property” has a crescent beach. One dock is located in the northwest end of the “Ida Smith property,” at 271 Asharoken Avenue, which predates the adoption of Article IVA. Two docks are located at the southeast end of the “Ida Smith property” at 123 Asharoken Avenue and 131 Asharoken Avenue, which also predate the adoption of Article IVA. The properties between these existing docks have an unobstructed vista of Northport Bay. The dock would be located near the center of the crescent beach, thereby significantly adversely impacting the unobstructed vista of Northport Bay. 13. With respect to the conditions set forth in Section 125.22.5(B), the Board finds that: (a) The dock is not designed and constructed in such a manner as to minimize any adverse environmental effect on the waters of the area and to allow for adequate flow-through of waters while the dock is resting in the water. The Board also agrees with the recommendation of GEI Consultants, Inc., P.C. that modular polyurethane flotation pontoons/drums should be used instead of twenty (20) feet long floats to reduce impacts from interference with the tidal and littoral flow of water. (b) The length of the dock will impede the navigation of vessels, as discussed in Finding No. 10; and (c) The “T” configuration at the end of the dock results in the width of the dock to exceed four (4) feet.” On November 30, 2017, Land Use submitted revised drawings of the proposed docks to the Board which eliminated the T configuration and adopted an alternative design for the docks’ floats as was suggested by GEI in its final report. On December 5, 2017, the Board voted to adopt the findings of the ERB and disapprove the applications.$^2$ $^2$Petitioners and intervenor-respondents contend that the Village respondents left out materials in the return that were properly submitted to the Board before a vote was taken on the petitioners’ applications. The Village respondents consented to petitioners and intervenor-respondents submitting materials to the court to consider them as part of the administrative record. Accordingly, the court is deeming those materials part of the administrative record. The materials in question are as follows: (1) Emails dated November 20, 2017 from petitioner Akeson; (2) Revised dock plans from petitioners’ Since the Board’s determination was made after informational public hearings, as opposed to a quasi-judicial evidentiary hearing, the question before the court is whether the determination was affected by an error of law, or was arbitrary and capricious or an abuse of discretion, or was irrational (Zupa v Board of Trustees of Town of Southold, 54 AD3d 957, 957, 864 NYS2d 142 [2d Dept 2008]; see CPLR 7803[3]; Matter of Scherbyn v Wayne-Finger Lakes Bd. of Coop. Educ. Servs., 77 NY2d 753, 757-758, 570 NYS2d 474 [1991]). “It is well settled that in reviewing administrative action a court may not substitute its judgment for that of the agency responsible for making the determination, but must ascertain only whether there is a rational basis for the decision or whether it is arbitrary and capricious” (Warder v Bd. of Regents of Univ. of State of N. Y., 53 NY2d 186, 194 [1981]). “The arbitrary or capricious test chiefly ‘relates to whether a particular action should have been taken or is justified . . . and whether the administrative action is without foundation in fact’” (Pell v Bd. of Ed. of Union Free School Dist. No. 1 of Towns of Scarsdale and Mamaroneck, Westchester County, 34 NY2d 222, 231 [1974], quoting, 1 N. Y. Jur., Administrative Law, § 184, p. 609). “Arbitrary action is without sound basis in reason and is generally taken without regard to the facts” (Pell v Bd. of Ed. of Union Free School Dist. No. 1 of Towns of Scarsdale and Mamaroneck, Westchester County, supra). The court must determine “whether there is a reasonable fulcrum of support in the record to sustain the [administrative] body’s findings” (Furey v Suffolk County, 105 AD2d 41, 44 [2d Dept 1984] [internal quotations omitted]). Here, Dr. Ron Abrams of Dru submitted reports and letters to ERB as well as the Board and testified at one of the ERB public hearings. According to Dr. Abrams, the Ida Smith area is such an ecologically sensitive area that any dock could cause significant long-lasting adverse impacts on the marine environment that could potentially degrade the irreplaceable fish and wildlife habitats in the area. In Dr. Abrams’ opinion, the proposed docks would cause negative changes in long shore water flows, which will result in accumulation of debris and algae in the sensitive Ida Beach area, as well as significant accretion of sand and seaweed in and around the proposed docks. Dr. Abrams opined that the docks would have a negative impact on important marine species in the area. He also opined that the proposed docks will change the hydrodynamics of the inshore zone and that the docks would have a negative impact on lateral swimming along the beach as well as use of kayaks and paddle craft. For the most part, Dr. Abrams’ opinions contradicted those expressed by other experts who environmental consultant and accompanying letter; (3) Letter from petitioners’ attorney dated December 1, 2017; (4) Transcript of Board meeting of December 5, 2017; (5) Letter by Dru to the Board in support of ERB’s recommendations; (6) Letter signed by twenty-five Ida Beach residents (members of intervenor-respondent Asharoken Bayside Association) supporting ERB’s recommendations; (7) Letter by Eisenbud dated December 5, 2017 to the Mayor of the Village of Asharoken and individual members of the Board. Intervenor-respondents offered “other letters from the community” but no copies were provided to the court for review. presented testimony or reports, or both, to the ERB, although Land Use did admit that the proposed docks would have some limited impacts on lateral swimming and, as the Village respondents point out, Land Use’s stated opinion that the docks would not be a significant obstacle for qualified sailors implies that a concession by Land Use that the length of the proposed docks would present a significant obstacle for novice sailors. It was lawfully within ERB’s discretion to choose to credit Dr. Abrams’ opinion over the other conflicting expert opinions that were presented, as it did here (see Matter of Power Auth. of State of N.Y. v Williams, 101 AD2d 659, 475 NYS2d 901 [3d Dept 1984]; Winston v Freshwater Wetlands Appeals Bd., 254 AD2d 363, 678 NYS2d 654 [2d Dept 1998]; Forrest v Grossman’s Lumber, 175 AD2d 498, 572 NYS2d 774 [3d Dept 1991]); ERB’s and, ultimately, the Board’s decision to rely on the conclusions of Dr. Abrams did not render their respective determinations arbitrary, capricious or lacking in a rational basis (Ball v New York State Dept. of Environmental Conservation, 35 AD3d 732, 732, 826 NYS2d 698 [2d Dept 2006], citing Gladstone v Zoning Bd. of Appeals of Inc. Village of Southampton, 13 AD3d 445, 785 NYS2d 697 [2d Dept 2004]; Seven Acre Wood Street Associates, Inc. v Town of Bedford, 302 AD2d 532, 533, 755 NYS2d 275 [2d Dept 2003]; Winston v Freshwater Wetlands Appeals Bd., supra). Dr. Abrams noted that the precedent that would be created by approving the docks would encourage other nearby property owners to apply for permits to construct docks, which would result in a proliferation of docks in the Ida Smith area, amplifying the negative environmental impact upon the area that would be created by the two proposed docks, a concern that was shared by others who expressed opposition to the construction of the docks in the Ida Smith area. As Dr. Abrams stated in his report to ERB dated July 25, 2016, “[the] addition of first two and eventually many docks will of course increase boating activity [in the Ida Smith area] and along with it increases in the amounts of oil, waste and disturbance to the sea bottom.” It was not inappropriate for the Board to consider Dr. Abrams’ opinion concerning the adverse precedential consequences that granting the petitioners’ applications would have on the Ida Smith area as weighing against permit approval (see, e.g., In the Matter of Michael Matthews, Applicant, 2004 WL 1158832 [NY Dept Env Conserv 2004]; Kleinknecht v Brogan, 165 AD3d 934, 86 NYS2d 852 [2d Dept 2018]). As to the potential impact that the proposed docks would have on the aesthetics of the Ida Smith area, a number of residents of the area, including the intervenor-respondents, submitted photographs, visual renderings, letters and testimony to ERB and later to the Board depicting and/or describing the existing aesthetics of the Ida Smith area, and the impact that the proposed docks and then the feared proliferation of docks that would follow would have upon those aesthetics. The evidence presented showed that the Ida Smith area is a crescent-shaped beach, with one dock on the northwest end of the crescent, and two docks on the southeast end. These three docks pre-dated the enactment of the Village Dock Code in 1994. The properties between these existing docks enjoy an unobstructed vista of Northport Bay. The proposed docks would be located at the center of this vista, and their construction would necessarily adversely impact the aesthetics of the Ida Smith area. In his report of July 25, 2016, Dr. Abrams noted that “the purpose of installing a dock is to host boats, so the results [of the construction of the proposed docks] will be that both water craft and linear visual obstructions will be present and will plainly alter the existing aesthetics of the Ida Smith area.” In his report to ERB dated October 10, 2016, Dr. Abrams stated “[a]s a precedent-setting action, [the proposed] docks will have an enormous potential to create a lasting visual change to an area designated for its pristine beauty.” Petitioners argue that the Board’s determinations denied the petitioners their riparian rights and were therefore affected by an error of law. A riparian owner has the right of reasonable, safe and convenient access to navigable water (see Tiffany v Town of Oyster Bay, 234 NY 15, 21 [1922]). This right includes the right to make this access a practical reality by building a pier or “wharfing out” (see Town of Oyster Bay v Commander Oil Corp., 96 NY2d 566, 571, 734 NYS2d 108 [2001]). What is considered a reasonable, safe and convenient use of the upland owner’s riparian rights is defined on a case-by-case basis (see Town of Hempstead v Oceanside Yacht Harbor, 38 AD2d 263, 266, 328 NYS2d 894 [2d Dept 1972]. Riparian rights are not unfettered and must yield to the legitimate governmental exercise of police power. “Specifically, the right of access for navigation and the ‘right to make a landing, wharf or pier for one’s own use or for the use of the public, are subject to such general rules and regulations as the Legislature may see proper to impose for the protection of the rights of the public, whatever those may be” (Stutchin v Town of Huntington, 71 FSupp2d 76, 101 [EDNY 1999], quoting Thousand Island Steamboat Co. v Visger, 179 NY 206, 210, 71 NE 764 [1904]; see Matter of Haher’s Sodus Point Bait Shop v Wigle, 139 AD2d 950, 951, 528 NYS2d 244 [4th Dept 1988]; Town of Islip v Powell, 78 Misc2d 1007, 358 NYS2d 985 [Sup Ct, Suffolk County 1974, Lazer, J.]; Rottenberg v Edwards, 103 AD2d 138, 141, 478 NYS2d 675 [2d Dept 1984]). The court finds that the respondents appropriately applied the rules and regulations imposed by the Village Code to protect the rights and interests of the public (see Stutchin v Town of Huntington, 71 FSupp2d at 101). The Code of the Village of Asharoken notes that “… various means already exist for owners to access their boats, including private rowboats, membership in various nearby yacht clubs, public mooring facilities in Northport, Centerport and Huntington Harbors, commercial marine supply companies providing launch service and moorings and the Village of Northport dock.” (Village Code § 125.22.3). Accordingly, the petitioners’ riparian rights of access to navigable portions of the Northport Bay were not denied by the respondents’ denial of their respective applications to construct the proposed docks, but merely limited petitioners’ mode of access to the other various means already in existence in the area (see Stutchin v Town of Huntington, 71 FSupp2d 76, 102 [EDNY 1999]; Montero v Babbitt, 921 FSupp 134, 139 [EDNY 1996]). Thus, petitioners’ argument that the Board’s determination unlawfully denied them of their riparian rights is unavailing. For all of the above reasons, the court finds that the Board’s determinations regarding the petitioners’ respective applications were not affected by an error of law, nor were they arbitrary and capricious, an abuse of discretion, or irrational. Therefore, petitioners’ application pursuant to Article 78 of the CPLR is denied. The court has considered the remaining contentions of the parties and finds that they do not alter the foregoing determination. The foregoing constitutes the decision and order of the court. Dated: 9/10/2019 Riverhead, New York HON. SANFORD NEIL BERLAND, A.J.S.C. X FINAL DISPOSITION NON-FINAL DISPOSITION
IN SEARCH OF THE PROMISED LAND: THE TRAVELS OF EMILIA PARDO BAZAN María Gloria MUÑOZ-MARTIN, University College London, Ph.D. in Spanish and Latin-American Studies, 2000 ProQuest Number: U642760 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. ProQuest U642760 Published by ProQuest LLC (2015). Copyright of the Dissertation is held by the Author. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. ProQuest LLC 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, MI 48106-1346 ABSTRACT The object of this thesis is to explore Pardo Bazán's approach to travel as an aesthetically rewarding experience and also as a soul-searching exercise in which she voices her opinions and concerns with regard to the state of late nineteenth-century Spain and compares it to some other European countries. Indeed, in the Galician author's chronicles, which reveal her versatility and multifaceted interests as a travel writer, the journey itself takes second place to cultural, social, political, artistic, religious, and intellectual considerations. Another aspect of Pardo Bazán's travel works that this study will develop is her uneasy stance with regard to progress, technological advancement, and modern civilization, as illustrated, principally, in her foreign chronicles. For it is her apprehension and at times aversion to modern technology that place her in an anachronistic position in relation to some of the events and places covered in her travel accounts. Pardo Bazán's obsessive longing for the past, as well as her generalized rejection of the aesthetic canons and artistic achievements of the nineteenth century (a period she regarded as lacking in spiritual and religious values), will also be revealed as playing a significant part in her approach to travel writing. In addition, the author's ambivalent attitude to France will be considered, together with her internationalism (which was never at odds with her Spanishness), and the progressive and painful realization that, in the social, industrial, and cultural spheres, her country lagged well behind most of its European neighbours. Overall, this thesis will trace Pardo Bazán's journeys through her homeland and elsewhere in Europe as she attempts to identify the ills that beset turn-of-the-century Spain, suggest some possible solutions, and ultimately seek out among the advanced European nations she visited a role model worthy of emulation by her own country. # TABLE OF CONTENTS ## CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1. The Making of a Travel Writer 2. Some Feminist Concerns 3. Approaching Pardo Bazán's Travel Works 4. Secondary Sources 5. Justification of Approaches Adopted ## CHAPTER 2 EARLY SKETCHES: DE MI TIERRA 1. Introduction 2. The Travel Experience 3. Train Travel 4. The Autobiographical Element in De mi tierra 5. Spain's Artistic Heritage 6. The Sublime and the Prosaic, Folklore, and Local Colour 7. Progress versus Tradition 8. Mother Nature, Paganism, and Romanticism 9. The Past 10. The Patria, Regionalism, and Separatism 11. Conclusions ## CHAPTER 3 MI ROMERÍA: PARDO BAZÁN'S POLITICAL, RELIGIOUS AND ARTISTIC PILGRIMAGE 1. Introduction 2. The Recording of the Travel Experience and its Depiction in Mi romería 3. The Religious and the Mystical Experience in Mi romería 4. Christianity versus Paganism 5. The Nineteenth Century 6. The Political Theme in Mi romería 7. Conclusions ## CHAPTER 4 A MONARCHIST AT A REPUBLICAN CELEBRATION: AL PIE DE LA TORRE EIFFEL 1. Introduction 2. The Sense of Travel and Place, and Some Thoughts on Spaniards in Paris 129 3. The Political Implications of the 1889 Universal Exhibition 134 4. Spain at the Universal Exhibition: Politics, Economics, and Culture 140 5. Progress, Machinery, Art, Nature, and Spiritual Purification 145 6. Pardo Bazán's Belligerence and the Spanish Military 154 7. The Monarchy 158 8. Pardo Bazán's Attitude to France 162 9. Conclusions 164 CHAPTER 5 IN SEARCH OF A ROLE MODEL FOR SPAIN: POR FRANCIA Y POR ALEMANIA 169 1. Introduction 169 2. Technological Advancement, Progress, and Modern Civilization 170 3. The 1889 Universal Exhibition 174 4. Spain's Glorious Past and the Conquistadors 178 5. Journeying on 181 6. Pardo Bazán and Travel Writing 192 7. Pardo Bazán vis-à-vis France 197 8. Conclusions 200 CHAPTER 6 A JOURNEY TO SPAIN'S ARTISTIC AND HISTORIC PAST: POR LA ESPAÑA PINTORESCA 203 1. Introduction 203 2. The Travel Experience in Por la España pintoresca 204 3. Santander and its Province 213 4. Castile 228 5. Galicia 241 6. Conclusions 248 CHAPTER 7 ANOTHER DISASTER FOR SPAIN: CUARENTA DIAS EN LA EXPOSICION 256 1. Introduction 256 2. The Travel Experience 258 3. The 1900 Paris Exhibition: An Overview 263 4. Spain at the 1900 Universal Exhibition 274 5. The Colonial Issue and the "Disaster" of 1898 290 6. Latin America and its Representation at the 1900 Exhibition 296 7. Pardo Bazán's Attitude to France 300 8. Conclusions 304 CHAPTER 8 "ME DUELE ESPAÑA": POR LA EUROPA CATOLICA 309 1. Introduction 309 2. Travel and Spain's Europeanization 311 3. On the Way to Belgium 320 4. Belgium 322 5. France 338 6. Portugal 340 7. Castile 345 8. Aragón 357 9. Catalonia 361 10. Conclusions 370 CONCLUSION 374 WORKS CONSULTED 384 1. The Making of a Travel Writer Emilia Pardo Bazán (1851-1921) was one of the most prolific writers of nineteenth-century Spain. In a career which spanned over forty-five years, Pardo Bazán wrote nineteen novels, twenty-one novelas breves, well over five hundred short stories, many monographs and articles on a wide variety of subjects, two cookery books, and seven travel works. It could also be added that she was the most travelled writer of nineteenth-century Spain, with the possible exception of Juan Valera, who was in the diplomatic service. Between 1871 and 1874, in what was to be her first European tour, Pardo Bazán visited Paris, Vienna, Venice, Verona, Geneva, and London. Between December 1887 and January 1888, the author travelled to Rome as a correspondent for the Madrid newspaper, El Imparcial. Her first travel work, entitled Mi romería, in which she recounts her journey to and experiences in the Italian capital, appeared in book form in 1888. That same year she published De mi tierra, a collection of travel pieces and essays on the folklore and art of her native Galicia. Al pie de la torre Eiffel and Por Francia y por Alemania, in which Pardo Bazán narrates her experiences at the Paris Universal Exhibition of 1889 and related travels, appeared in 1889 and 1890 respectively. Por la España pintoresca, published in 1895, is a compilation of some travel pieces written by Pardo Bazán following trips taken between 1889 and 1893. In 1900, her articles on the Paris Universal Exhibition of that year appeared in book form under the title of Cuarenta días en la Exposición. The impressions collected during her travels through Belgium, France, Portugal, and parts of Spain were published in 1902 in Por la Europa católica. Judging by her comments in the "Apuntes autobiográficos" which prefaced the first edition of Los pazos de Ulloa (1886), it seems that Pardo Bazán's first attempts at travel writing were made during her European tour of 1871-74, accompanied by her parents and husband. In 1871, after the election of Amadeus of Savoy as King of Spain and the demise of the Progressive Party to which Pardo Bazán's father belonged, the entire family moved to Paris in order to escape the turmoil that occurred in the wake of the Revolution of 1868. During her travels through France, Italy, and Austria she wrote her first passages of prose in the form of a travel journal, which she then decided was not worthy of publication: Sobre las mesas de las fondas, sobre mis rodillas en el tren, con plumas comidas de orín y lápices despuntados, tracé mis primeras páginas de prosa; el indispensable Diario de viaje, que no se me ocurrió publicar, ni lo merece. (Pardo Bazán, 1973: 709) And it was during her stay in Paris in 1871 that she obligingly performed her first duties as the "parfait voyageur", which later, in 1906, she summarized as follows: Ces devoirs [...] consistent à visiter les monuments un par un, ce qui est très ennuyeux et non moins inutile. Je ne l'ai plus refait depuis. Je vais où il me plaît, et je plains sincèrement ceux qui s'obligent à admirer à jour fixe, à heure fixe, telle ou telle vieillerie, alors qu'il y a tant de belles choses qu'aucun guide n'indique. (Gómez Carrillo, 1906: 458) After her return to Spain, Pardo Bazán became acquainted with Francisco Giner de los Ríos who introduced her to Krausismo, the German philosophy in vogue at the time amongst many Spanish intellectuals. Although Pardo Bazán never embraced Krausismo, apparently preferring to occupy her time in the reading of "sounder" philosophers, such us Schelling, Fichte, Kant, Hegel, Saint Thomas, Descartes, Plato, and Aristotle (Pardo Bazán, 1973: 711), she did strike a close and long-lasting friendship with Giner, who was to become her mentor and adviser. In an article published in La Ilustración Artística of 1 March 1915, Pardo Bazán paid homage to the recently deceased Giner, and noted how he would urge her to enhance her writing career and broaden her horizons through travel and through contact with foreign places so that practice would contribute to increasing her Spanishness, her casticismo: Era Giner partidario de que el escritor se hiciese íntimo de sí mismo; de que penetrase en su santuario y no renegase del manantial en que acostumbraba a beber: pero también de que recorriese el mundo, viajase, recibiese las influencias del aire exterior, y por ellas se hiciese doblemente castizo. (Pardo Bazán, 1972: 337) In another article published in March 1915, this time in La Lectura, Pardo Bazán acknowledged her debt to Giner for always encouraging her to travel and to enrich her knowledge, but without forgetting her Spanish roots (Pardo Bazán, 1973: 1520). It is this double perspective that makes Pardo Bazán's travel chronicles so interesting since, regardless of her geographical location at the time of writing them, Spain is always in her mind: "El alma, sin querer, está siempre orientada hacia la patria" (Pardo Bazán, [1890]: 186). Hence the constant comparisons, often to the detriment of her home country, that she makes between Spain and the nations visited. In the article of La Ilustración Artística mentioned above, Pardo Bazán also praises the way Giner would advise his students to get to know Spain, its people, its villages, its idiosyncrasies, its monuments, and its customs, in order to return to the pure and uncontaminated roots of Spanish culture (Pardo Bazán, 1972: 340-41). Indeed, this is what Pardo Bazán sets out to do in De mi tierra (1888), Por la España pintoresca (1895), and the Spanish section of Por la Europa católica (1902), as will be shown later. In September 1880, the doctors advised Pardo Bazán, who was suffering from a liver complaint, to go to Vichy to take the waters. Since the journey involved a good deal of travelling through Spain and France, she decided to write an account of her experiences. But after some reflexion, and possibly still influenced by the poor quality of her unpublished "Diario de viaje", she changed her mind and decided to devote herself to novel writing instead. In the preface to Un viaje de novios (1881) she gives her unfavourable opinion of some travel works and justifies her decision to write a novel against the background of the Vichy trip: Después acudió a mi mente el tedio y enfado que suelen causarme las híbridas obrillas viatorias, las "Impresiones" y "Diarios", donde el autor nos refiere su éxtasis ante una catedral o punto de vista, y a renglón seguido cuenta si acá dio una peseta de propina al mozo, y si acullá cenó ensalada, con otros datos no menos dignos de pasar a la historia y grabarse en mármoles y bronces. Movida de esta consideración, resolví novelar, haciendo que los países por mí recorridos fuesen escenario del drama. (Pardo Bazán, 1973: 571) Pardo Bazán's travel works are not certainly obrillas in the derogatory sense implied by this term, but to some extent they can be considered as hybrid with regard to the wide variety of issues covered and the blend of objectivity and subjectivity, of reverie and reality, of the prosaic and the sublime which is the hallmark of many of her travel collections. Moreover, on many occasions the author does indeed convey her ecstasy at the sight of a beautiful monument, an artistic creation, or Nature itself. In an assessment of Pedro Antonio de Alarcón's travel books published in her literary review Nuevo Teatro Crítico in January 1892, Pardo Bazán voices her views on travel literature and on what travel signifies for the average Spaniard. She argues that Spaniards, contrary to other Europeans, do not travel for aesthetic reasons, for pleasure, or out of curiosity. For the ordinary Spaniard, she adds, travel equals vexation, hardship, and discomfort. Spaniards only travel out of necessity or to comply with established social customs, such as their yearly summer vacation: En España no existe la noción estética del viaje: el que hace la maleta para salir de su casa no busca recreo, obedece a circunstancias que le imponen la necesidad de trasladarse, o a la moda que obliga a un veraneo insípido, formulista, regulado de antemano por la rutina consuetudinaria. (Pardo Bazán, 1973: 1400) Most Spaniards, she claims, regard travel as a kind of punishment, an unnecessary expense, or a risky business: "Aquí no se ha modificado aún el concepto penal, digámoslo así, del viaje. Viajar es, para la inmensa mayoría, sinónimo de derroche triste, mezcla de padecimientos, privaciones, riesgos y vejámenes" (Pardo Bazán, 1973: 1400). And yet, Pardo Bazán herself has no qualms about expressing her displeasure when she is inconvenienced by an inefficient railway system, or suffers over-priced hotel accommodation, poor food, or uncomfortable lodgings. However, she argues that Alarcón provides an exception to the Spanish attitude of regarding travel as hardship, risk, and vexation: "En esta cuestión como en otras varias, Alarcón no parece español genuino" (Pardo Bazán, 1973: 1400). But perhaps, the Galician writer's countrymen were after all justified in their reservations about travel, since, as Paul Fussell observes: "Etymologically a traveler is one who suffers travail, a word deriving in its turn from Latin tripalium, a torture instrument consisting of three stakes designed to rack the body" (Fussell, 1980: 39). Pardo Bazán agrees with Alarcón that the travel account should be regarded as the reflection of the temperament of the traveller and nothing else. She also claims that the travel writer imprints his or her own character on the descriptions of the places visited. If this approach, she notes, renders the travel narrative somehow subjective, it matters not, because if what the public wants is an impersonal account, this need is better served by objective guidebooks and textbooks: Supo Alarcón que el viaje escrito es el alma de un viajero, y nada más; que a los países y comarcas les infunde el escritor su propio espíritu (porque para libros de viajes objetivos, ahí están las Guías y las Descripciones geográficas, hidrográficas, arqueológicas e históricas). (Pardo Bazán, 1973: 1400) In fact, it will be seen that Pardo Bazán leaves such a strong personal imprint on her travel accounts that the objectivity of her chronicles is often compromised. It is never her purpose to merely report on what she sees, and her descriptions are always accompanied by comments of a personal nature which leave no doubt as to her stance on specific objects or issues. Indeed, on very rare occasions does Pardo Bazán act as an impartial observer or detached narrator: she is normally the protagonist or at least one of the main characters featured in her chronicles,¹ and her account of the places and countries visited is not just descriptive but also often highly judgemental. In effect, Pardo Bazán tends to use her chronicles to hammer home a particular point very close to her heart, because her convictions always seem to accompany her. As Beatrice Erskine notes: "She was intensely alive, a woman of strong feelings, of strong prejudices perhaps, but one who was always true to herself and her convictions" (Erskine, 1921: 242). For Pardo Bazán, the travel account is able to create and --- ¹ In this way, Pardo Bazán is far removed from the ordinary neutral reporter, "a coolly invisible collector of data-bits, a figure quite unlike the traveler", that Mark Z. Muggli regards as "the centre of the journalistic ideal, and of each journalistic text" (Muggli, 1992: 180). convey beauty as well as stir up human emotions of the noblest and most sublime kind, and, in consequence, it should be highly regarded: "El viaje escrito es género poético (entendiendo la palabra en su sentido más amplio y alto)" (Pardo Bazán, 1973: 1400). Often, when Pardo Bazán encounters in her travels a particularly beautiful location, monument, or artistic creation she falls prey to a kind of poetic trance and, at this point, her travel chronicles, although written in prose, acquire an intensely lyrical quality. But it is also true that she can break the most sublime poetic spell by pulling her readers out of their reverie with an "untimely" prosaic comment when least expected. As Carmen Bravo-Villasante observes: "Este prosaísmo voluntario deshace a veces sus mejores páginas poéticas; mediante una sola palabra ella misma destruye el encanto. [...] La mujer poeta parece luchar con la mujer sabia" (Bravo-Villasante, 1973: 107). Indeed, in the essay entitled "Luz de luna", part of the collection gathered in De mi tierra, Pardo Bazán readily admits to this dichotomy: "Yo [...] renegaba de esta pícara dualidad mía, de esta complejidad de mi ser que, permitiéndome sentir el valor inestimable de la ilusión poética, me obliga al mismo tiempo á analizarla y por consiguiente á destruirla" (Pardo Bazán, 1984: 70-71). In her essay on Alarcón, Pardo Bazán suggests that the travel book is just as much an art form as the novel, in that it can make the reader relive the emotions felt by the traveller when confronted by the beauty of a particular location: "Y que un libro de viajes que comunique al lector la impresión producida por una comarca en una organización privilegiada para ver y sentir... lo que no ven ni sienten los profanos, es tan obra de arte como una novela" (Pardo Bazán, 1973: 1400-01). This spiritual "communion" between the reader and the travel writer is also true of Pardo Bazán's own travel works, in the sense that often her chronicles seem to reflect her innermost feelings, and this apparent openness, coupled with the passion of her convictions, gives an impression of intimacy and immediacy that she attempts to transmit to her readership. But regardless of the impression the writer may create in the reader's mind, there is of course very little that is spontaneous or immediate in travel writing. Travellers usually do not write their complete accounts as they go along, and the letters to distant friends contained in those travel journals which take the epistolary form may be written once the author is safely back home. There is also a great deal of telescoping, selection, and re-ordering of the material, perhaps to manage it better and perhaps to optimize the impact the narrative will have on the reader. As Percy Adams notes, the récit de voyage "is not just a set of notes jotted down each day or whenever the traveler has time, [...] but far, far more often the account has been reworked, changed in translation, polished, edited, often with collaboration" (Adams, 1983: 280). Therefore, travel accounts are frequently highly contrived, despite the impression of spontaneity or immediacy the reader may perceive. As Sara Mills observes, although one cannot ignore that travel texts are the product of a journey undertaken, one cannot take for granted that these texts provide a straightforward, truthful account of factual events, and in any analysis of travel literature the critic must always consider the fictionalizing possibilities. within the reach of the writer (Mills, 1973: 200). Another characteristic of travel writing may be the inclusion of digressions and interpolated stories which, although at times apparently irrelevant, add variety and alter the pace of the narrative. For Adams, such digressions are an essential part of the travel book because they help to lend authenticity to the account: "What may be called digressions in some forms of literature are for travel accounts structurally inherent" (Adams, 1983: 209). Moreover, he argues that this "vertical" plotting is just as necessary to travel writing as the itinerary followed by the traveller and the reporting of what he or she sees (Adams, 1983: 206). Similarly, Pardo Bazán observes in Por la Europa católica: "Si siempre me gustan las digresiones, en viaje especialmente las encuentro sabrosas y necesarias" (Pardo Bazán, [1902a]: 249). However, in the case of the Galician writer, as will be seen later, her penchant for digressions causes her at times to lose her way in some of her travel chronicles, rendering the narrative somewhat disorderly and disjointed. Pardo Bazán claims there are two ways of travelling: "Con el cuerpo sólo, y con el cuerpo en compañía de la imaginación y el entendimiento, cultivados y bien amueblados. La mayor parte de los que viajan llevan consigo el cuerpo no más, y juzgan de un viaje con arreglo a los datos que el cuerpo suministra" (Pardo Bazán, 1973: 1404). Certainly, for the Galician author travel is not simply a physical activity. Sometimes, she travels for pleasure and recreation -- this is particularly the case with De mi tierra and Por la España pintoresca -- but more often she is driven by cultural, social, political, religious, and intellectual considerations. Indeed, in her travels she takes with her a cultural and intellectual baggage which she hopes to enrich and share with her fellow countrymen. Thus, her chronicles are not primarily the reflection of a physical experience even if, on occasions, she may comment on the discomfort endured or the effort involved in a particular journey. Furthermore, Pardo Bazán argues in her essay on Alarcón's travel works that when the traveller is an artist, he travels in retrospect: that while physically he is based in the present, his fantasy is set in the past. Therefore, he remains an anachronism because, historically speaking, he is misplaced: "Porque todo el que viaja como artista comete anacronismo; vive con sus órganos en el presente, con su fantasía en lo pasado" (Pardo Bazán, 1973: 1405). In many of the author's travel works there is an unequivocal longing for the past, for better times gone by, which she frequently associates with the chivalrous Middle Ages or the glorious days of the Spanish Empire in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Indeed, she enjoys wallowing in the nostalgia, melancholy, and sometimes _morbidezza_ she feels when recollecting the past, and this attitude renders Pardo Bazán a perfect example of the anachronism she herself regards as one of the hallmarks of the travel writer. 2. Some Feminist Concerns Manuel de la Cruz describes Pardo Bazán as "varonil por su estilo, por sus empeños, por el fondo pasional de sus lucubraciones, toda su obra parece labor de un escritor del sexo fuerte" (Cruz, 1924: 286). Indeed, in a letter written to Galdós in 1889, a year before the death of her father, Pardo Bazán expresses her wish to be financially independent from her parents through her income as a writer and journalist, and regards this attitude as part of her increasing "masculinization": Me he propuesto vivir exclusivamente del trabajo literario, sin recibir nada de mis padres, puesto que si me emancipo en cierto modo de la tutela paterna, debo justificar mi emancipación no siendo en nada dependiente; y este propósito, del todo varonil, reclama de mí fuerza y tranquilidad. Si pensase en este dualismo mío interior, no cumpliría mis compromisos editoriales, porque dormiría mal, estaría rendida el día siguiente, y adiós producción, y adiós 15 cuartillas diarias. Lo dicho, esta especie de trasposición del estado de mujer al de hombre, es cada vez más acentuado en mí, y por eso no tengo tanta zozobra moral como en otro caso tendría. De los dos órdenes de virtudes que se exigen al género humano, elijo las del varón... y en paz. (Pardo Bazán, 1972: 16) In fact, the adoption of masculine attributes by nineteenth-century female travellers is a phenomenon that cannot be ignored, and probably stemmed from the need to survive in a field which hitherto had been dominated by the male. Mary Russell sees the "masculinization" of these women as part and parcel of the process of self-identification: "The history of the woman traveller and her journey towards self-identification mirrors the development of the female consciousness as a whole. With rare exceptions [...] the early women travellers had little conception of themselves as women. Some [...] actually perceived themselves as men" (Russell, 1994: 218).² Although Russell claims that it would be inappropriate to place all nineteenth-century women travellers under the umbrella of feminism (Russell, 1994: 26), Mills, on the other hand, observes: "By judicious quotation and selective reference to their authors' lives, it is possible to depict these writers and their narrative figures as proto-feminists who live up to the titles 'indomitable' and 'eccentric'" (Mills, 1993: 4). Indeed, despite the fact that Pardo Bazán's feminism was somewhat class-based, for it tended to focus on the position of the female from the upper classes, she is often regarded as one of the leading feminists of nineteenth-century Spain.³ Alfredo Carballo Picazo describes the author's commitment to the feminist cause thus: "Le duelen muchos aspectos de España [...]. Y, sobre todo, la situación de la mujer. Esfuerzo titánico, la lucha contra la muralla de incomprensión, lucha sin cuartel. En novelas, en artículos, en conferencias, se bate doña Emilia en defensa del sexo femenino" (Carballo Picazo, 1965: 363). Carmen de Burgos, for her part, claims that Pardo Bazán's courage and example "ha sido más eficaz para la mujer española que todas las predicaciones y campañas feministas" (Colombine, 1921: no --- ² In fact, Dea Birkett and Sara Wheeler argue that since the possibility of becoming something other was particularly attractive for women, many Victorian female writers were delighted to be referred to and treated as men on their travels (Birkett, 1998: xi). ³ Pardo Bazán's best-known feminist work is her essay "The Women of Spain", published in the Fortnightly Review in 1889, and then in Spanish a few months later in La España Moderna. In this essay, she discusses in some depth the situation of the contemporary Spanish female from different social backgrounds. There is little doubt that in Pardo Bazán's feminist concerns, her father, as well as John Stuart Mill, the eighteenth-century Benedictine monk Feijóo (and in particular his essay "La defensa de las mujeres"), and Giner de los Ríos, the Krausist founder of the Institución Libre de Enseñanza, played a significant part. Rebuffing the prejudices of a society which did not believe in the education of the female, Don José Pardo Bazán set out to encourage his daughter's thirst for learning and imbued young Emilia with the principle of the moral and intellectual equality of the sexes. Soon after his death, Pardo Bazán observed of her father, mentor, and teacher: Guiado por ese instinto, juzgaba y entendía de un modo diferente de como juzga la mayoría de los hombres, que con haber tratado y después a bastantes de los que aquí pasan por superiores, en esta cuestión de los derechos de la mujer rara vez los he encontrado a la altura de mi padre. Y repito que así le oí opinar desde mis años tiernos de suerte que no acertaría a decir si mi convicción propia fué fruto de aquella, o sí al concretarse naturalmente la mía, la conformidad vino a corroborar y extender los principios que ya ambos llevábamos en la médula del cerebro. ("Stuart Mill", Nuevo Teatro Crítico, No. 17, May 1892: 70, cited in Clémessy, 1981, I: 256) The philosopher and economist John Stuart Mill, who in 1867 submitted a Bill to the House of Commons requesting that women should be given the vote (Rodríguez, 1991: 148), was a major contributor to the emergence of the women's movement in Britain. In his essay The Subjection of Women (1869), Mill proceeds to dismantle block by block the Victorian edifice of male prejudice against women. Mill realized that the subjugation of women was a tradition so deeply entrenched in popular sentiment and so widely maintained in Western society that it had become "an almost universal opinion" (Mill, 1975: 428). He refers to writing as "the only mode of publicity" allowed to women to express their feelings, and it is in these writings that they voice their protest at the way they are treated by society (Mill, 1975: 442). The British Establishment, however, held very different views: "Whatever Mr. John Stuart Mill may think, England is not prepared for either female suffrage or a female Parliament, for women as [...] public lecturers, public speakers, doctors, lawyers, clergy, or even, to any much greater extent than at present, as authors" [my italics] (Murray, 1869a: 465). In an article published originally in La Lectura in March 1915, Pardo Bazán acknowledged her debt to Giner de los Ríos who had introduced her to Stuart Mill's The Subjection of Women, which she had later translated and incorporated in her "Biblioteca de la Mujer" (1892) with a prologue written by her: Era Giner resueltamente feminista. Todo lo que atañía al mejoramiento de la condición de la mujer le interesaba en el más alto grado. Por él conocí yo la famosa obra de Stuart Mill La esclavitud femenina, que tanto influyó en el movimiento feminista de Inglaterra y que hice traducir y publiqué en castellano cuando aún creía, ilusionada, que pudiese aquí importarle a alguien tales asuntos. (Pardo Bazán, 1973: 1522) However, Pardo Bazán's disillusionment with the feminist cause in Spain, which occurred around 1913, is reflected in a letter written to the editor of La Voz de Galicia on 8 July of that year. In it, she refers to her foundation of the "Biblioteca de la Mujer" in 1892,$^4$ in an attempt to familiarize the Spanish female with the women's movement that was thriving at the time in the United States and in other European countries. She also speaks of the lack of concern of the Spanish woman for her own emancipation which, in her opinion, explains the backwardness of the feminist movement in Spain (Bravo-Villasante, 1973: 285). Indeed, in The Land of the Castanet (1896), the American scholar and journalist Hobart C. Chatfield-Taylor had this to say about Pardo Bazán and the absence of the "New Woman" in Spain: Progressive womanhood, too, has its representative in Señora Emilia Pardo-Bazán, a clever and prolific novelist [...] who has a distinct place in Spanish contemporaneous literature. She stands somewhat alone, however, as the new woman has not found her way to Spain, and Spanish women are content to remain in the useful sphere for which nature created them. (Hobart C. Chatfield-Taylor, The Land of the Castanet, new edition, Duffield, New York, 1906: 50, cited in Hilton 1952b: 137)$^5$ --- $^4$ Pardo Bazán's militant feminism reached its peak in the early 1890s due mainly to two important events in her life: the rejection, in 1889, of her candidature to the Real Academia de la Lengua, one of the most important male preserves of Spain's cultural scene, and the death of her father, a committed feminist, in 1890. $^5$ Mills regards the period 1870-1930 as that of the "New Woman", "where great transformations were taking place in terms of women, both politically, in terms of the vote and Soon after the outbreak of World War I, Pardo Bazán published an article in La Ilustración Artística in which she speaks of the efforts made by the feminist movement in Europe in favour of disarmament. By then, her pessimism with regard to the emancipation of the Spanish female was such that she even denied the existence of any kind of feminist movement in her home country. Indeed, she argued that, so far as the women's movement was concerned, the Spanish female lagged two centuries behind that of more advanced nations (Bravo-Villasante, 1973: 292-93). Some four years later, in an interview given to José Francés in 1918, the Galician writer finally conceded defeat: "En España, el feminismo no avanza un paso, a pesar de tanto como se habla de él y de tantas apariencias como pudieran hacer suponer que no tardará en alcanzar algunos triunfos" (Francés, 1920b: 53). Yet despite these pessimistic thoughts, it could be argued that together with the jurist and sociologist, Concepción Arenal, and the Krausists, led by Giner de los Ríos, Pardo Bazán made a significant contribution to the betterment of women's education in Spain by denouncing its inadequacies and calling for sexual equality in educational matters. Moreover, she fought tirelessly and outraged many with her crusade to show that women's alleged intellectual inferiority was a myth to which their cultural starvation had contributed significantly. changes in legal status, and socially, in terms of permissible dress and behaviour" (Mills, 1993: 104). Russell, for her part, sees the "New Woman" as the product of the women's movement of the last quarter of the nineteenth century, a female enjoying financial independence and a sound education (Russell, 1994: 23-24). 3. Approaching Pardo Bazán's Travel Works In this thesis, a text-by-text chronological approach to Pardo Bazán's travel works has been adopted, judging and analysing each chronicle separately as an independent unit, in order not to undermine its individuality, "personality", or the subject-matter which forms and provides the core of each collection. In effect, although the travel works examined in this study were originally published as newspaper or magazine pieces, the author herself saw fit to gather them in book form as single, individual works. This text-by-text approach makes it possible to follow in a sequential manner the development and evolution of Pardo Bazán's preoccupations, concerns, views, and beliefs, even if in some instances the passage of time did not necessarily contribute to resolving the ambivalence and contradictions displayed by the author with regard to some issues, or indeed reveal any progress in her thought and opinions in certain areas. Also, and given the period over which the works extend, the chronological approach makes it easier to establish whether the various motifs were granted a different level of importance at different points in time. In fact, by assessing the texts individually and sequentially, contrasting and comparing them to one another, it becomes possible to identify more effectively the recurrent themes of the chronicles, detect the author's changing attitude, if any, and finally bring together in an analytical conclusion what the corpus of Pardo Bazán's travel works discloses about the author herself, her ideology, and general outlook. This work-method, however, also presents some drawbacks. For instance, there is a danger of repetition in the discussion of the motifs or concerns that reappear in several of the chronicles; or perhaps of failing to make an essential connection between two or more works because of the time-gap between them. Also, there exists the possibility of becoming sidetracked from the main themes and getting too involved with minor details as one makes one's way through the narratives. In order to avoid these pitfalls, the principal motifs or concerns have been foregrounded within most chapters, thus combining the text-by-text approach with a thematic approach whenever appropriate. An overall thematic approach could have been adopted, with chapters dedicated to the main themes, concerns, and preoccupations found in the corpus of Pardo Bazán's travel chronicles. However, this would have resulted in a dismemberment of the texts, transforming them into disjointed, fragmented, and possibly confusing pieces of narrative, thus jeopardizing what the author wished to preserve: their integrity as individual, independent, and artistically valid collections. Also, there is the risk of blurring the chronological evolution of the author's thinking which is, on the other hand, easily traceable in the text-by-text sequential approach. Finally, the methodology chosen in studying Pardo Bazán's works in sequence emulates the act of travel itself, since, after all, a journey is effectively a linear progression, a series of forward movements, even if the digressions of which the author is so fond and which abound in her chronicles can on occasions throw the narrative off course and provide the "vertical" plotting that Adams, as mentioned earlier, sees as inherent in travel literature. In brief, by tracing Pardo Bazán's steps in her journeys through Spain and elsewhere, this thesis becomes a linear itinerary which mirrors and runs parallel to that taken by the author herself. It must also be noted that Pardo Bazán's travel works require a detailed examination because they are densely written, and a single paragraph can contain valuable references to various subjects which, like the pieces of a mosaic, contribute to creating a general picture of the author's ideology. Since her travel chronicles are not limited to straightforward descriptions of the physical world and frequently one deals with erudite and complex pieces of narrative, a minute analysis of her writings is advisable if their full meaning and implications are to be grasped in their entirety without overlooking any important aspects. 4. Secondary Sources Since no bibliography can be exhaustive, an attempt has been made to select and give pride of place to those secondary sources which afford a better understanding of Pardo Bazán as a woman and as a writer, of her views, her epoch, the events reported on, and the places visited. Especially revealing on the personal front are Pardo Bazán's own "Apuntes autobiográficos" (1886) (the only known piece of autobiographical narrative published by the author), her candid letters to her friend and lover Galdós, and Carmen Bravo-Villasante's biography, which, although somewhat uncritical, does contain some interesting personal details and rare material. References will also be made to Pardo Bazán's Paris lecture "La España de ayer y la de hoy", delivered shortly after the "Disaster" of 1898, since it constitutes a soul-searching exercise in which the author re-examines her patriotism and reassesses her attachment to Spain's glorious past. An analysis of Pardo Bazán would be incomplete without appropriate reference to Nelly Clémessy, an authority on the author, whose articles, lectures, and particularly her awesome study of Pardo Bazán with its extensive bibliography provide an indispensable source of knowledge about the author's life, literary career, preoccupations, ideals, and mentality. Also highly illustrative are Delfín García Guerra's perceptive assessment of Pardo Bazán's ideology, and Ronald Hilton's various essays on the author, where he discusses, inter alia, her attitude towards France, her pro-European tendencies, and her political allegiances, all of which are relevant to this thesis. For general information on Pardo Bazán's life and career, the works of Robert Osborne, Walter Pattison, and Maurice Hemingway are drawn on. In order to demonstrate Pardo Bazán's associations with the so-called Generation of 1898, her status as precursor of the tenets of this generation, and her internationalism, reference will be made to the oeuvre of some of the writers of 1898 themselves (Azorín, Unamuno, Antonio Machado). Further material is sought, because of their recognized knowledge of the subject, in the works of such prestigious literary historians as Carlos Blanco Aguinaga and Pedro Laín Entralgo. The historical contextualization is provided by references to contemporary texts, magazine and newspaper articles, both Spanish and foreign, that either deal with Pardo Bazán herself (interviews, assessments, and posthumous tributes), her times, her writing career, or the events featured in her chronicles. Particularly useful here are the interviews given by the author to Carmen de Burgos (Colombine), Enrique Gómez Carrillo, and José Francés because of their intimate nature and apparent frankness, or Manuel Gálvez's eloquent and perceptive tribute to Pardo Bazán's achievements soon after her death. Antonio Díaz Benzo's appraisal of the author's coverage of the 1889 Paris Exhibition is, although unnecessarily harsh, valuably revealing about the author's weaknesses as a reporter at that particular event. An alternative, complementary, and often corroboratory view of Pardo Bazán's impressions of the 1900 Paris display is found in the reporting of The Times, the poignant account of another journalist and disillusioned patriot, César Silió, the devastating criticism contained in the articles of the Heraldo de Madrid, the jubilant and exultant chronicles of Rubén Darío, and the French viewpoint as presented by Eugène-Melchior de Vogüé. A significant contribution to this historical contextualization, but this time with an emphasis on Spain, is made with Pardo Bazán's own journalistic articles, as gathered in the collections La vida contemporánea (1896-1915) and De siglo á siglo (1896-1901), which, apart from demonstrating the author's talent as a journalist, provide firsthand information on Spain's society, culture, politics, and plight at the turn of the century. Moreover, cross-referencing to these works helps to detect any inconsistencies in or deviations from the statements made by the author in the chronicles covered in this study. Further material is also extracted from the author's Obras escogidas and from the third volume of her Obras completas, a compilation of literary criticism, essays, personal impressions, biographical sketches, lectures given, and the prologues to some of her major works. In brief, these sources have been selected because, between them, they provide a counterbalance, a confirmation, or even occasionally a disclaimer to the general line of thought contained in Pardo Bazán's travel chronicles. A British view of the nineteenth century and a revealing contrast with what was taking place in Spain and in some of the countries visited by the author are afforded by John Murray's reputable Quarterly Review, which covers a wide spectrum of subjects such as railways, women travellers, politics, world travel, religion, international affairs, and social issues. The more scholarly historical, cultural, and economic background is sought in the works of such renowned historians and economic historians as Gabriel Tortella, Miguel Martínez Cuadrado, Miguel Artola, Raymond Carr, and Manuel Tuñón de Lara. With regard to travel, appropriate reference will be made to some of the critics and theorists of travel literature: including Percy Adams, Paul Fussell, and Michel Butor. Also worthy of a mention are Mark Z. Muggli's essay on the problems of journalistic travel writing, Sara Mills's feminist theoretical approach to the narratives of early women travellers, and Mary Russell's interesting assessment of the motivations and tribulations of these female pioneers. In addition, Alan Sillitoe's compilation of the views and experiences of nineteenth-century travellers provides a useful counterbalance to Pardo Bazán's own findings. However, in this thesis pride of place will be given to some of the author's contemporary fellow travel writers: Henry James and his charming portrayal of Italy around the time of Pardo Bazán's journey to that country; Juan Valera, possibly the most travelled writer of nineteenth-century Spain, a chronicler of the period, a close personal friend of the author, and with a cultural baggage similar to that of Pardo Bazán, and Rubén Darío, the author's favourite modernista writer, a good friend of hers, an admirer of French culture, a much-travelled journalist, and a chronicler, critic, and observer of Spanish society in the wake of the "Disaster" of 1898. But the most valuable point of comparison comes with the travel works of Alarcón. Alarcón provides a significant reference point with regard to Pardo Bazán's travel writing for several reasons: they were contemporaries and members of the so-called Generation of 1868 (Martínez Cuadrado, 1973: 540); both were accomplished travel writers who journeyed extensively in Spain and abroad; the places they visited coincided on some occasions, and Pardo Bazán's 1892 essay on Alarcón's travel works is probably the most revealing piece written by the author on her own approach to travel writing and on what she believed the travel experience should encapsulate. Although it is not the object of this thesis to indicate whether Pardo Bazán's travel works were influenced by those of Alarcón, some interesting similarities as well as contrasts will be shown to exist in the comments made by both writers during their travels through Spain and elsewhere. But even if the influence Alarcón may have had on the author is debatable, what is undeniable is Pardo Bazán's admiration for Alarcón's skills as a travel writer. Indeed, although in her 1892 essay she dismisses De Madrid a Nápoles (1861) as "el libro de viajes menos castizo y menos sentido de Alarcón" (Pardo Bazán, 1973: 1401-02), she is highly complimentary about La Alpujarra (1874). She calls it an "evocación histórica no indigna de la pluma de un Thierry" (Pardo Bazán, 1973: 1404), and admits when discussing Viajes por España (1883) that "Alarcón atesoraba singularísimas disposiciones para el género. [...] ¡Cómo luchar con el recuerdo de la paleta de Alarcón!" (Pardo Bazán, 1973: 1405). Finally, Pardo Bazán concludes that she regards the Andalusian writer as "maestro inimitable en el cuento y el viaje" (Pardo Bazán, 1973: 1406), and acknowledges that some of Alarcón's travel works "no tienen par en nuestras letras" (Pardo Bazán, 1973: 1409). But perhaps what attracted Pardo Bazán most to Alarcón was what she regarded as the already mentioned anachronistic stance of the artistic travel writer: "Nadie persistió en el viaje retrospectivo como Alarcón" (Pardo Bazán, 1973: 1405). 5. Justification of Approaches Adopted As mentioned above, cross-referencing to Pardo Bazán's journalistic articles and essays will be used to trace the evolution of her ideology, to support or disprove any of the opinions voiced in her chronicles, and to contribute to the historical contextualization of her travel chronicles. However, cross-referencing to the writer's fiction has not been undertaken since this thesis deals only with supposedly factual accounts, whose narrative voice will often be different from that found in the author's novels and cuentos. Indeed, since the publication of Wayne C. Booth's The Rhetoric of Fiction (1961), it has been widely recognized that the narrative voice which speaks to the reader in a work of fiction is not that of the writer but rather that of an implied author, "official scribe", or the author's "second self" -- a persona that the writer assumes either consciously or unconsciously (Booth, 1961: 71). Therefore, although it is possible to find some common themes and settings in Pardo Bazán's travel works and fiction, an attempt to establish a shared ideology in both genres or to use her novels to confirm or undermine the statements made in her chronicles would be speculating on the basis of the narrative voice or the opinions of characters of a given work of fiction. As Booth warns: "It is only by distinguishing between the author and his implied image that we can avoid pointless unverifiable talk about such qualities as 'sincerity' or 'seriousness' in the author" (Booth, 1961: 75). On a separate issue, Linda Kraus Worley has argued that in the writings of early female travellers there is an underlying awareness of the contradictions involving their behaviour with reference to what was expected of the stereotypical nineteenth-century female. Not only had they ventured into the outside world, "but the very act of writing -- especially a travel narrative with its strongly autobiographical element -- might reveal an unwomanly preoccupation with the self" (Worley, 1986: 40). Although Pardo Bazán's travel chronicles contain a significant amount of autobiographical detail, in particular De mi tierra, Mi romería, and Al pie de la torre Eiffel, they do not reveal any of the "tensions" mentioned above because the author, who saw herself as a serious feminist, did not harbour any doubts as to the right of women to travel and broaden their cultural and intellectual horizons. Nor did she suffer from the "anxiety of authorship", defined by Sandra M. Gilbert and Susan Gubar as "an anxiety built from complex and often only barely conscious fears of that authority which seems to the female artist to be by definition inappropriate to her sex" (Gilbert, 1979: 51). Therefore, since Pardo Bazán did not travel or write as a gendered individual with a role limited or imposed by her sex, an analysis of her chronicles in terms of gender has not been included in this thesis. What will also be excluded, because it is not central to this study, is a full-scale analysis of class issues. However, numerous references will made to Pardo Bazán's upper-middle class background, her aristocratic connections, her privileged position as a traveller, her annoyance when treated like an ordinary viajero, her anti-democratic concept of social organization, and her elitist approach to some issues. At this point, mention should also be made of the omission from the thrust of this thesis, given their marginal relevance to the ensemble of Pardo Bazán's travel works, of the theories of the Picturesque. The Picturesque, a set of interpretations, ideas, and conventions concerning the pictorial appreciation of landscape, played a significant part in the development of aesthetic theory regarding travel narratives, poetry, painting, architecture, and landscaping during the eighteenth century.$^6$ Broadly speaking, it consisted $^6$ For further information on the Picturesque see, for example, Christopher Hussey, The Picturesque: Studies in a Point of View, Cass, London, 1967 (first published 1927); Stephen Copley and Peter Garside (eds), The Politics of the of the idealization of Nature in order to make it conform with the works of such painters as Salvator Rosa, Gaspard Dughet, and Claude Lorrain, and with the poetry of some classics (Virgil, Homer, and Theocritus). The first Picturesque tourists set out to "discover", in the last two decades of the eighteenth century, the areas of North Wales, the Scottish Highlands, and the Lakes, in search of the British scenery which resembled the Arcadian and picturesque scenes represented by the above painters and poets (Andrews, 1989: viii). These educated amateur enthusiasts of fine landscape would write bucolic descriptions and would often invoke pastoral poetry in their accounts in order to associate the scenery with idyllic images and to recreate "that mythical time set in an eternal spring when man lived in harmony within his society and with the natural environment" (Andrews, 1989: 5). In Picturesque landscape painting, the human figures became increasingly subordinate, so as not to interfere with Nature. The "unobtrusive" figures favoured by Picturesque artists were beggars, gypsies, and idle shepherds (Andrews, 1989: 25). Moreover, the lines of mountains are roughened and irregularized and the scenery is artistically manipulated, since some of the theorists of the Picturesque had reservations about "Nature's own competence in designing her landscapes" (Andrews, 1989: 31). Indeed, "close attention to nature was of little importance to the artist who was painting Picturesque: Literature, landscape and aesthetics since 1770, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1994; Sidney K. Robinson, Inquiry into the Picturesque, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago and London, 1991; Elizabeth A. Bohls, Women Travel Writers and the Language of Aesthetics, 1716-1818, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1995. to a formula" (Andrews, 1989: 34). In brief, the Picturesque representation of Nature is formulaic. Nature is embellished and "improved" according to certain conventions. And in adapting itself to art, Nature becomes a "composition". Moreover, landscapes are dramatized to suit the Picturesque tastes of the artist. In the late eighteenth century, the Picturesque, as a prelude to Romanticism, begins to show a fascination with ruins, which inspired both "pleasing melancholy" and "agreeable horror" (Andrews, 1989: 41). And the search for melancholy became one of the main motivations for Picturesque tourists to visit ruined castles and abbeys (Andrews, 1989: 42). In effect, ruined buildings invaded by Nature became part of the Picturesque iconography: "A temple or palace of Grecian architecture in its perfect entire state [...] is beautiful; in ruin it is picturesque" (Uvedale Price, Essay on the Picturesque, 1794, cited in Andrews, 1989: 58). Moreover, ruins represented the surrender of art to Nature, with the Picturesque theorist relishing the dilapidation by time and weather of formal buildings (Andrews, 1989: 226). Like the educated Picturesque tourist, Pardo Bazán travels on occasions for aesthetic gratification, and the pictorial approach in her landscape descriptions will be noted in subsequent chapters. However, she does not appear to dramatize her depictions of the natural environment, nor indeed embellish or improve Nature to comply with Picturesque conventions. On the other hand, there are indications that every time she comes into contact with Nature, the poet inside her makes an appearance, resulting, on occasion, in rather bucolic and idealized depictions of the natural environment. And yet, her idealizing tendencies normally focus on the individuals who command her admiration rather than on Nature itself: Leo XIII and the Pretender in Mi romería, Edison, Hernán Cortés, and Dr Leopoldo Arnaud in Por Francia y por Alemania, Dr Enrique Madrazo in Por la España pintoresca, Pasteur in Cuarenta días en la Exposición, and the Bishop of Liège in Por la Europa católica. Moreover, as opposed to Picturesque painting, her descriptions of the Galician landscape and her costumbrista scenes are often "populated" by peasants and other colourful figures, whom she does not regard as interfering with Nature. On the contrary, these human figures are portrayed as an integral part of the landscape. Also, while the Picturesque is anti-utilitarian and shuns the description of people at work in the countryside, Pardo Bazán often depicts her peasants performing everyday tasks. It is true that occasionally the author presents a marriage or alliance between Nature and ancient monuments (this will be noted in Chapter 2). But she does not convey the notion of the surrender of art to Nature. In her case, invading Nature is used to create an impression of neglect and abandonment. In addition, Pardo Bazán, like the Picturesque tourist and probably due to her post-Romantic inclinations, wallows in the nostalgia and melancholy that derelict and ruined buildings inflict on her. However, contrary to Picturesque theorists, she does not revel in the dilapidation by time and weather of historic buildings. Indeed, she is constantly calling for the restoration of Spain's neglected artistic heritage. But possibly where Pardo Bazán differs most from the Picturesque is in her trust on Nature's competence to create -- like an accomplished craftsman or architect and without need for artistic manipulation -- beautiful and "picturesque" scenery for the traveller, painter, or poet to enjoy. The historical contextualization dealing with the period and the places has been provided, as mentioned earlier, by references to contemporary texts, newspaper and magazine articles, both Spanish and foreign, Pardo Bazán's own journalistic production, the works of professional historians, and the accounts of travellers and reporters who visited the same places or attended the same events as the author. A more complete historical contextualization could have been possible, but it would have stolen precious space from the analysis of the author's chronicles. Instead of there being a separate chapter on the literary qualities of the author's travel writings, relevant considerations will be interspersed throughout this study, alongside the piece of text or passage under analysis. In fact, earlier in this chapter reference was made to the hybrid quality of the author's chronicles, the personal imprint she leaves on her works: their often compromised objectivity, the resistance of the narrative voice to act as a mere observer or detached narrator, the judgemental tone of the accounts, their occasionally lyrical quality, their apparent frankness, which contributes to creating an impression of intimacy and immediacy, and the abundance of digressions. Chapter 2, which focuses on De mi tierra, will emphasize the autobiographical elements in the author's travel accounts, the mixture of the sublime and the prosaic that characterizes some of them, the poetic and idyllic descriptions of the natural environment, the sensual depiction and sensory perception of Nature, and the frequent use of the pathetic fallacy. Chapter 3, which looks at Mi romería, foregrounds the strategies used to authenticate and lend credibility and authority to the narrative, the multifaceted quality of the writings, the fine landscape descriptions, the guidebook approach adopted in some passages, the inclusion of the macabre, as well as the "confessional" tendency and the mystical overtones of part of the account. In the assessment of Al pie de la torre Eiffel (Chapter 4), reference will be made to the disadvantages of the selective and personal nature of the writings, the emphasis on aesthetic concerns to the detriment of the technological side of the descriptions, and the fragmentation of the narrative caused by excessive asides. Chapter 5, which looks at Por Francia y por Alemania, will examine what Pardo Bazán herself identifies as the essential characteristics of her chronicles, and will foreground the anachronistic stance of the writings vis-à-vis some objects or persons featured in the accounts, the contradictions that become one of the hallmarks of the author's writings, and the sentimentality that can occasionally permeate the accounts. In Chapter 6 (which focuses on Por la España pintoresca) there is an assessment of how the incorporation of a multiple viewpoint enlivens the narrative and lends authenticity to the writings, of how the absence of date indicators and of a constant itinerary renders the collection slightly disjointed, and of the multifaceted quality of the writings. Reference will also be made to the pictorial and colorista leaning of the descriptions, the fascination with the beauty of Nature and its creations, the sensory perception of Nature, the lack of diligent research, and the subjective and personal approach of the narrative. Chapter 7, which deals with Cuarenta días en la Exposición, will foreground the selective nature of the writings, the personification of inanimate objects, the difficulties in dealing with progress when it is a mere abstract concept, the critical, recriminating (and yet constructive), passionate, poignant, emotional, and bitter tone of the reporting, and the way the author's patriotism can colour the impartiality of the accounts. Finally, Chapter 8 (on Por la Europa católica) will reveal the pro-European tenor of the writings, the projection of travel as a vehicle for the modernization of Spain, the way the narrative skips thorny issues that could undermine the argument proposed by the author, the reverent attitude of the writings towards those figures who command the author's admiration, and her attachment to costumbrismo. There is also the striking inclusion into a supposedly factual account of a piece of speculative writing (concerning the theft of jewels from the Virgen del Sagrario), her indifference in this material to the barrenness of Castile, the personification of machines, and the patriotic tenor of the narrative. Was Fardo Bazán a tourist, a traveller, or both? The differentiation between these two concepts or between tourism and travel is problematic because the activities associated with them partly coincide. Also, these terms are slippery since they do not carry the same connotations now as a century ago. Fussell argues that prior to the advent of the rudimentary phase of tourism in England in the mid-nineteenth century there was travel, and before travel there was exploration. He links exploration with the Renaissance, travel with the bourgeois age, and tourism (because of its egalitarianism) with our own proletarian epoch, but with obvious overlaps. He adds that although the explorer, the traveller, and the tourist all make journeys, the explorer seeks the undiscovered, the traveller that which has been discovered, and the tourist looks forward to enjoying that which has been discovered and prepared for him. Also, while the explorer relishes the potential dangers of the unknown, the tourist prefers the security of an organized trip, and the traveller combines as best he can the thrills of the unpredictable with "the pleasure of 'knowing where one is' belonging to tourism" (Fussell, 1980: 37-39). In addition, whereas tourists tend to take with them the customs and way of life of their countries of origin, travellers often seek to experience at first hand novel cultures and "otherness". This differentiation, however, has become rather blurred in recent times due to the increasing homogeneity of mankind caused by "the universal advance of a technological mass-produced culture" (Cocker, 1992: 244). Furthermore, while tourism evokes large numbers of people heading for popular destinations, travel, on the other hand, still holds an elitist aura: a few, privileged ones, journeying to exotic or little-known places. But the distinction between travel and tourism or between travellers and tourists also involves some class and education issues. For instance, nineteenth-century tourists were regarded with contempt by some or their peers, for "the educated and snobbish considered themselves 'travellers'" --- 7 "La manada va contra la esencia misma del viaje" (Cela, 1978: 525). rather than 'tourists', reluctant to associate with the uncultured mob who were thought to give their country a bad name" (Sillitoe, 1995: 3). Moreover, prior to the advent of tourism, travel was associated with study, and, contrary to tourism, it implied "variety of means and independence of arrangements" (Fussell, 1980: 39, 41). The distinction between travellers and tourists is even more difficult in the case of Pardo Bazán given her multifaceted interests as a travel writer and the various roles she assumes during her journeys. Since none of the negative connotations often associated with tourists (limited financial means, lack of education, superficiality) are relevant to the author, she should be generally regarded as a traveller, and a privileged one too, as will be established later. However, it is also true that in some of her travel works she occasionally indulges in touristic pursuits. But she always displays the behaviour of a knowledgeable and erudite tourist. In brief, although it is appropriate to point out the complexities of attempting to distinguish between travel and tourism and between travellers and tourists, Pardo Bazán's abilities as a travel writer remain largely unaltered by such considerations. 1. Introduction In 1884 Pardo Bazán founded the society "El Folklore Gallego". Between that year and the end of 1887, she wrote various essays, delivered some lectures, and travelled through Galicia and other parts of Spain. Then in 1888 she published De mi tierra, a collection of seven travel pieces and seven essays on the folklore and art of her native Galicia. This work, together with Por la España pintoresca (1895), reveals better than any other of Pardo Bazán's chronicles, what she termed the "aesthetic notion" of travel, that is, when the journey is made for recreation and artistic gratification, so that the traveller can delight in the beauty of the places visited and the surrounding landscape. The setting for this work is thoroughly local and intimate: the author's own beloved Galicia, the terruño where she feels at ease as a writer and as a human being. In the prologue, Pardo Bazán warns that this work has not been written to bear the scrutiny of literary criticism and is subjective in tone: "Compónese este libro de elementos diversos, unificados por la nota común de referirse á autores, libros, monumentos y paisajes de mi tierra: en las páginas que hoy salen á luz, resuena el acento apasionado y asoma el tierno interés que inspiran las cosas familiares, no el riguroso análisis crítico" (Pardo Bazán, 1984: 7). She willingly acknowledges the weakness she feels for her native region, and with this admission she is presumably justifying the fact that her portrayal of the idiosyncrasies of Galicia is going to be somehow biased: "Que me arroje la primera piedra el escritor ajeno á flaquezas tan disculpables, exento de piedad y amor por el pedazo de España donde haya nacido" (7). The aim of this work, Pardo Bazán argues, is to make Galicia better known to the rest of Spain so that it can stand on an equal footing with other Spanish regions. She no longer wishes Galicia to be regarded as a kind of sub-region, isolated from the rest of the country by its peculiar culture, folklore, and traditions. The author also intends to make Galicians aware of their intellectual and creative potential in order to make them proud of their cultural heritage (9). Indeed, the aggressiveness she displays in some passages could well be explained by the low esteem in which Spaniards in general tended to hold her home region (Pattison, 1971: 21). And yet, in spite of Pardo Bazán's unwavering support of Galicia, her insistence on the superiority of Castilian over Galician, her refusal to write in gallego, and her rejection of the separatist aspirations harboured by some of her contemporary fellow Galicians, caused many of them to turn against her as they came to regard Pardo Bazán as an outsider whose affection for Galicia was a mere cosmetic exercise. For instance, Walter Pattison argues that for Eduardo Pondal, one of the Galician poets honoured by Pardo Bazán in De mi tierra, "Doña Emilia is an outsider who sees the region as 'picturesque,' and views it with 'benevolent superiority' through 'the elegant lorgnette of an aristocrat and mundane cosmopolite'" (Pattison, 1971: 9). Whether her love for this isolated corner of Spain was that of a stranger, as her detractors claimed, or she truly loved it as an artist and devoted daughter, is open to debate, but what comes through in De mi tierra is that Galicia was an integral part of Pardo Bazán's being. Although De mi tierra is often regarded as Pardo Bazán's minor travel collection, it affords a useful insight into the author's approach to travel literature, anticipates some recurrent themes in her chronicles, provides an indication of the idiosyncrasies of her travel accounts, and raises some important issues regarding the strong autobiographical element in Pardo Bazán's travel writing. 2. The Travel Experience In De mi tierra, Pardo Bazán, as mentioned in her essay on Alarcón's travel works (Pardo Bazán, 1973: 1404-05), travels with the body and the spirit, for as she herself remarks after an exhausting day at the monastery of Rivas de Sil: "La satisfacción de una jornada provecha para el alma y para el cuerpo" (240). The tone of the travel narratives is relaxed because, apart from Pardo Bazán being on home ground, the journey is apparently made for spiritual gratification, pleasure, and recreation. In effect, in this collection the author ranks amongst those viajeros who find in travel "a constant, ever-recurring, pleasure -- the true medicine of the nineteenth century" (Murray, 1869b: 479). In De mi tierra, as in Por la España pintoresca, travel is presented as a collective activity to be enjoyed with others. The firstperson plural is often used, and on two occasions the author provides the names as well as information on the circumstances of the other members of her party (183, 212). In this highly descriptive work, with its strong sense of movement, the author speaks of the physical effort demanded by some of her excursions and mentions the means of transportation used (landau, omnibus, carriage, on foot, and, most often, the train). Temporal markers abound ("Serían las doce de la mañana. El sol, que nos había freído los sesos durante el último cuarto de hora, pareció eclipsarse" (214); "Salimos hacia Casdemiro á las tres próximamente" (183); "Se convino en que no era posible emprender la jornada de Celanova antes de las ocho de la mañana" (192)), and Pardo Bazán is eager to convey precise information on the distances that separate two destinations and on the time involved in the journeys. For a travel work, De mi tierra is not very prolific in landscape descriptions. In fact, there are only eight rather brief depictions of the Galician landscape (189, 224, 229, 230, 231, 241-42, 265, 268), and most of these refer to an untamed, wild, and threatening Nature. For example: "Al regresar á Orense caía la noche; el río era una línea irregular trazada con lápiz-plomo, las montañas, color violeta oscurísimo, nos encerraban, como sucede siempre en estas carreteras del Rivero, en que parece no haber salida posible" (189-90). This would suggest that in this particular collection Pardo Bazán prefers to focus on the physical description of artistic monuments in relation to their natural surroundings rather than on the landscapes themselves. There is the indication that some of the pieces in De mi tierra were penned immediately after the event, so that the passage of time would not hinder Pardo Bazán's recollection of her experiences as a traveller. Indeed, she appears eager to jot them down while they are still fresh in her memory. Thus, in "La casa solariega del Padre Feijóo", she observes: "Antes que se disipe la impresión de este delicioso paseo y esta serena tarde, voy á conservarla entre las hojas de papel" (183). However, in other instances there is the clear suggestion that her impressions were recorded some time after the journey. For example, the fact that in "Rivas del Sil" she quotes from Enrique Flórez's La España sagrada (229) would indicate that this account was written after having consulted some secondary sources. Also, in the essay "Una visita á San Rosendo y su monasterio, en Celanova", Pardo Bazán quotes from old texts and manuscripts on the history of the monastery (194). Furthermore, the richness of historical information included in most pieces would also suggest that many of the travel essays gathered in De mi tierra were presumably penned a posteriori and after drawing information from other works. 3. Train Travel In his Hand-book for Travellers in Spain (1845), Richard Ford says of Spain: "This, the most romantic and peculiar country in Europe, may in reality be visited throughout its length and breadth with ease and safety, for travelling there is no worse than it was in France or Italy in 1814, before English example forced improvements" (cited in Sillitoe, 1995: 136). While Britain's first railway line (Liverpool-Manchester) was opened in 1830 and France's public railways were first introduced in 1836 (Murray, 1868: 288, 315), in Spain, 1851 (the year of Pardo Bazán's birth) saw the inauguration of the country's first railway line between Madrid and Aranjuez (Bravo-Villasante, 1973: 16). In fact, the Plan General de Ferrocarriles was submitted to the Cortes by Bravo Murillo's government on 3 December 1851, but with the exception of some short stretches of railway track (Barcelona-Mataró, Madrid-Aranjuez, Langreo-Gijón), the construction of a national rail network did not begin in earnest until the implementation by the Progressives of the 1855 Ley General de Ferrocarriles. This party, which favoured Spain's economic development and the importation of foreign capital, believed that the construction of a railway system was essential for the modernization of the national economy (Tortella, 1981: 108-09). John Murray, for his part, also hoped that the railways would end Spain's isolation in Europe, because by "bringing foreign visitors into the country, and enabling native Spaniards to extend the range of their travels and ideas, they will probably break down those moral and material barriers which have hitherto so completely separated Spain from other nations" (Murray, 1862b: 168-69). Between 1856 and 1866, 4500 kilometres of track were built, an average of 450 kilometres per year, and never to be surpassed. In 1866 there were 5000 kilometres of track in operation -- compared to 19,000 kilometres in Britain and 14,400 kilometres in France in 1867 (Murray, 1868: 325) -- and although construction ceased abruptly during the critical period of the late 1860s, it recommenced in the last quarter of the nineteenth century (Tortella, 1981: 111). Thus, by 1900 Spain had a rail network of 13,200 kilometres, a significant success which pivoted on several factors: the government's support, a massive injection of foreign capital and technology (mostly French), and the domestic investment and initiative provided mainly by the Basque Country, Catalonia, and Valencia (Tortella, 1981: 109). Other major achievements of the last quarter of the nineteenth century were the rail link between Galicia and Asturias and the national network, the construction of the Bilbao-San Sebastián coastal railway, the Madrid-Cáceres-Portugal connection, and the Huelva-Seville line (Tortella, 1981: 111). It is possible that these developments account for the words of praise that A. & C. Black's 1892 guide bestows upon Spain: The improvements affected [sic] in the country during the last decade, in the directions of travelling facilities, hotel, police, and sanitary arrangements, are hardly credible. The hotels in the principal cities are now equal to those of any other country; while the complete network of well-appointed lines of railway enables the traveller to visit the finest and most interesting localities in a short space of time, with comfort and with safety. (Cited in Sillitoe, 1995: 147) Although at times Pardo Bazán travelled by landau, omnibus, or even on foot, most of her trips, both in Spain and abroad, were made by train. Hence the significant number of comments on train travel that feature in her travel works, and De mi tierra is no exception. For example, the essay "Rivas de Sil" begins on a pessimistic note with the author presenting the compartment of the train that will take her and her travelling companions to Rivas de Sil as a kind of prison: "A las cinco de la madrugada, con una niebla pálida y fría que encapotaba el horizonte, [...] dejamos la fonda de Monforte y caímos, soñolientos, y desalentados sobre los cojines del departamento en que iríamos cautivos hasta la estación de Rivas de Sil" (227). Regarding the hospitality shown to her party by the staff of the local railway station, Pardo Bazán airs her views on the benefits of train travel. And although in later travel collections she often complains of the inadequacies of the railway system both in Spain and abroad, in De mi tierra the train is presented as an instrument of progress and civilization which serves, she argues, to bring people from different areas closer together, thus promoting a feeling of fraternity (241). On the other hand, in the piece entitled "Marineda" it is the ocean and not the train that is presented as having contributed to the progress and prosperity to the town. What in effect has brought civilization to La Coruña is, according to Pardo Bazán, the ocean, for it has opened it up to the world and to other cultures. In this instance, the train is presented as a kind of predator that is only interested in the natural riches of the area. Its role, on this occasion, is limited exclusively to commercial purposes: "El tren, como aquí dice gráficamente el pueblo, sólo vino á llevarse las merluzas. Marineda era lo mismo antes de que por sus campiñas cruzase silbando 'la rauda locomotora'. Tenía el mar, el mar civilizador, el sagrado Océano..." (269-70). Pardo Bazán's love-hate relationship with train travel, her frustration at what she saw as the deficiencies of this means of transport, as well as the measures she advocated to remedy them, will be mentioned in subsequent chapters. 4. The Autobiographical Element in De mi tierra One can speak of the interaction between travel works and other kinds of writing, for, as it has been frequently pointed out, travel literature shares borders with other literary genres such as autobiography, biography, and history (Dodd, 1982: vii). Indeed, Percy Adams argues that for some readers travel writing is a form of memoir writing, autobiography, or historical autobiography (Adams, 1983: 165). Murray, for his part, argues that travel writing ranges from the entirely subjective (often fragments of autobiography) to the completely objective (in which the writer describes only visible objects), and that in between these two extremes the author arranges pieces of criticism, personal experience, history, narrative, sentiment, science, or whatever attracts his attention. Murray concludes that "the tourist to whom [...] self is the most important object, naturally keeps nearest to the terminus of autobiography" (Murray, 1858a: 348). Some critics, however, continue to regard travel literature as a sub-genre that fits uneasily somewhere between fiction and autobiography. Bravo-Villasante has argued that most of Pardo Bazán's works contain a significant amount of autobiographical details (Bravo-Villasante, 1973: 157), and this is in fact true of De mi tierra and other travel collections. Interspersed in the narrative, the reader finds many elements which refer back to Pardo Bazán herself, her life, her experiences, her family, her friends, her idiosyncrasies, and so on, possibly to emphasize the veracity or intimacy of her approach. For example, the first paragraph of the essay entitled "Una visita á San Rosendo y su monasterio, en Celanova" reads: "Allá en mi niñez, y como una leyenda de familia, había oído referir que mi tío, el conde de Torremúzquiz, jefe de la rama de Mosquera, tenía, á título de descendiente de San Rudesindo ó Rosendo, el derecho de entrar bajo palio en la catedral de Orense" (191). But the piece with the strongest autobiographical flavour in the entire collection is "Marineda", in which Pardo Bazán goes back to La Coruña of her infancy and reminisces about her time as a child there. In the "Apuntes autobiográficos" (1886), Pardo Bazán mentions her liking for autobiography in the shape of diaries, letters, or memoirs in which the writer divulges details of his life with decorous sincerity. She laments that although this genre is very popular abroad, it does not have many followers amongst the Spanish reading public or the writers themselves, who regard autobiographies with suspicion. She is convinced that there is always a link, of an intimate nature, between the writer and his works (Pardo Bazán, 1973: 698-99). The author also claims that by including autobiographical information the writer is not displaying a pedantic streak, and that it is possible to speak of oneself in an objective and sincere way. Furthermore, she argues that the writer should feel the need to bare his soul to the reader (as she does), in order to achieve the spiritual communion she regards art to be: Del pico de la pluma apoyado sobre la cuartilla en blanco sube por la mano al corazón [...] un afán irresistible de comunicar al público lo más recóndito de nuestro pensar y sentir. Bien mirado, el arte no es otra cosa sino la comunión del alma individual con el alma colectiva, si vale llamarla así. (Pardo Bazán, 1973: 699) The author does certainly practise what she preaches, for some of her travel chronicles contain episodes which amount to a soul-searching exercise on her part. This is particularly true of Mi romería (1888), where Pardo Bazán examines both her religious and political sentiments in front of her readers. Indeed, in the above quotation writing is suggested as a kind of confessional activity that predisposes the writer towards self-revelation. It would be legitimate to ask whether Pardo Bazán's defence of the autobiographical genre and the inclusion of autobiographical details in her chronicles are in a way connected with the attitudes of nineteenth-century society to female-authored literature and the preoccupation of that period with limiting women's literary efforts to exclusively the realm of the personal and emotional (Mills, 1993: 96).¹ For example, women's travel writing of that time often has a strong autobiographical flavour and takes the form of diaries, letters, or a combination of the two because, whilst men had monopolized public speech for centuries, women's opinions had been confined to a domestic or private context. Indeed, for a woman to express her views publicly was regarded as unfeminine and improper and this, as Mills notes, would explain why some nineteenth-century female writers "refused to put their names to their literary writing and others simply decided against writing or used pseudonyms" (Mills, 1993: 41). Those brave enough to sign their works would normally concentrate on the --- ¹ Indeed, "the emotional terrain is traditionally seen as the territory of women writers" (Birkett, 1998: x) because, as Mary Morris observes, women had been denied the outside journey for so many years that they were forced to turn inwards instead, into their emotions (Morris, 1992: 25). kind of "factual" writing which required little or no "authorizing", and which would focus on personal information and "non-serious" topics, such as autobiography and travel writing (Mills, 1993: 81) -- "the 'lesser' subjects reserved for ladies as becoming to their inferior powers" (Gilbert, 1979: 64). Carmen Martín Gaite, casting her eyes back three hundred years, sees the works of St Teresa of Avila as a prime example of the problematic relationship that has existed for centuries between women and writing (Martín Gaite, 1993: 61-62). Indeed, when writing the Libro de su vida, an autobiographical work, Teresa was faced with two major obstacles. First, she had to deal with the prejudices of a patriarchal society that regarded women as passive and silent individuals, and, in addition, with the stringent censorship laws of the Catholic Church at a time when the Inquisition was at its most fierce. Second, she had to find a way of expressing, in a matter-of-fact and straightforward language, something which could not possibly be explained in human terms because her spiritual experiences were not of this world (Martín Gaite, 1993: 63). However, Teresa threw caution to the wind and confided her innermost feelings to the written word. Somehow, she had to render believable the story of her spiritual relationship with God, and her Libro de su vida became "uno de los testimonios más impresionantes del poder expresivo de la palabra femenina para roturar terrenos salvajes" (Martín Gaite, 1993: 68). Teresa, just like many female travel writers of the nineteenth century, was opening new ground for women's writing, and also like her fellow women of three hundred years later she ventures into what hitherto had been unexplored territory and proceeds to conquer it, having only the weapons of her pen, her sincerity, and her talent. At this point it is worth remembering Pardo Bazán's interest in Spain's mystics (which began shortly after her introduction to Krausismo around 1873 (Pardo Bazán, 1973: 710) and culminated in the publication in 1882 of her San Francisco de Asís), her mystical ecstasy during the celebration of the papal mass in Mi romería (Pardo Bazán 1888: 87),² and her comments in the "Apuntes autobiográficos" in which she admits to having read St Teresa of Avila's Las moradas and to having felt inspired by the words of the saint (Pardo Bazán, 1973: 710). So was Pardo Bazán influenced in any way by Teresa's writing and by her rebellious attitude to male censorship? The Galician writer, as a female, did certainly venture into uncharted territory with her travel works. Teresa, like Pardo Bazán, was also a traveller, in the sense that she travelled through Spain opening new Carmelite convents.³ They were both declared admirers of the chivalric romances, a totally escapist genre, which, like travel writing, transports the reader to new and exciting (although fantastic) places, and depicts a medieval knight wandering in search of chivalrous --- ² This will be discussed in Chapter 3. ³ Russell recalls how Teresa of Avila travelled through the rough roads of sixteenth-century Spain, preaching her reform of the Carmelite order (Russell, 1994: 41). adventures.\textsuperscript{4} Both women often digress from the subject at hand and become sidetracked from the main narrative flow. And Pardo Bazán, like the saint from Avila, also speaks in \textit{Mi romería} of the inadequacies of human language to express that which belongs to the realms of the spiritual: "Y la expiación de mis pecados de orgullo, si alguna vez los cometí, es no atinar á decir bien lo que mejor he sentido nunca" (Pardo Bazán, 1888: 91). This possible parallelism between both writers is an issue worth exploring although it does not fall within the scope of this thesis. 5. Spain's Artistic Heritage \textit{De mi tierra}, as mentioned in the introduction to this chapter, anticipates some recurrent themes in Pardo Bazán's travel writing, one of them being the author's concern with the preservation of Spain's artistic and cultural heritage. Indeed, in \textit{De mi tierra}, as in \textit{Por la España pintoresca}, there is a constant preoccupation with the deterioration and loss of Spain's artistic heritage, possibly because Pardo Bazán regards the nation's historic treasures as repositories of what had been a glorious past. And in order to attract attention to what she sees as sheer neglect on the part of the government, she often compares the backwardness of Spain, \textsuperscript{4} It can in fact be argued that travel literature, too, has a kind of escapist aura, in the sense that both the writer and the reader of this particular genre could be seeking to escape from a mundane existence in return for the excitement and adventure of a journey to unknown places. As Morris notes: "Travelers [...] are dreamers. [...] Like readers of romances, we think that anything can happen to us at any time. We forget that this is not our real life [...]. We keep moving [...] whether by train or daydream" (Morris, 1992: 27-28). where national treasures and monuments are uncared for, with the attention paid to conservation in more concerned nations: Galicia merece que se atienda á sus riquezas arquitectónicas como se atiende á las de otras provincias españolas; y el rostro se enciende de rubor y los ojos se nublan de llanto cuando los tesoros del arte, que en naciones más felices se conservan como debe conservarse lo que no tiene sustitución posible en el mundo, desaparecen del territorio al cual servían de preciado blasón. (200) In addition, Pardo Bazán laments the derelict condition of some ancient and historic monuments, and is adamant they should be preserved for posterity as part of the artistic and cultural heritage of the nation (206). In her chronicles, the author seems to be particularly attracted to religious monuments, whether they be cathedrals, churches, convents, or monasteries, and this interest could, of course, be an indication of her religiousness. However, in the essay entitled "La casa solariega del Padre Feijóo", she also reveals a respect for other ancient things, for the solera of buildings and antique pieces of furniture. In addition, in De mi tierra Pardo Bazán presents an "alliance" between historic monuments and Nature itself, for rarely is such a monument mentioned without it being described in relation to its natural surroundings. For instance, although in "Una visita á San Rosendo y su monasterio, en Celanova" Pardo Bazán is principally concerned with the architectural virtuosity of the monastery, she includes a brief but telling description of the manifestations of Nature within this religious precinct: Tan rectos, gruesos é iguales crecen los robles centenarios, que los tomamos por castaños al pronto. Aparte de la mullida alfombra de yerba que cubría el suelo, otra de aromáticos y cortados helechos entapizaba la esplanada ó claro donde se alzaba la marquesina, á fin de que ni un grano de polvo manchase la suela de nuestro calzado. (207) In the piece entitled "En el castillo de Sobroso", rampant Nature has taken over the building with the climbing ivy covering parts of the castle and hiding from view its noble lineage: "La invasora hiedra oculta por completo las medias lunas y los roeles del escudo que campea sobre la puerta de honor" (211). Later in this same essay, Nature is presented as an ornament that engulfs and enhances the beauty of the fairy-tale castle: "La naturaleza parecía complacerse en adornar con vegetación espléndida al combatiente feudal dormido, ó por mejor decir, encantado entre los laureles que acaso fecundizó con sangre" (214). In "Rivas de Sil", Pardo Bazán pauses in the middle of the description of the architecture of the monastery to interpolate a brief description of the building's natural surroundings: "La naturaleza, ese gran escenógrafo, ha tendido tan oportunos festones de hiedra, tan graciosos tallos de zarzamora, que la poesía del lugar se duplica y su colorido romancesco y misterioso domina el alma y los sentidos, embargándolos con la dulce pena, la morbidezza exquisita de la contemplación" (240). And in "Impresiones santiaguesas" the marriage between Nature and historic buildings is further emphasized: "Paseando una tarde por las cercanías de Santiago, fuí á parar al antiguo convento de San Lorenzo, que según la frase gráfica de Neira de Mosquera, se pierde, se hunde, y brumado por el corpulento ramaje de los árboles que nacieron en torno suyo, levanta su descarnada torre" (243-44). Interestingly, a similar association is also suggested by Azorín in "Una hora de España" (1924): "En las laderas del castillo, en los fosos, en los mismos muros, los claveles se mezclan a las flores moradas de la malva [...]. Dentro de la fortaleza, [...] las matas de alhelí cuarenteno cubren el piso, y en abril, sus flores aterciopeladas, de color morado, forman una tupida y vistosa alfombra" (Azorín, 1982: 585). De mi tierra also contains an early indication, although veiled at this stage, of Pardo Bazán's conviction that the nineteenth century was a period of artistic barrenness and lack of creativity: "No, yo no me puedo resignar á que se abandone y pierda lo que nos legaron siglos más creadores de la belleza plástica que este nuestro. Malhaya quien tocó irrespetuosamente á la España monumental" (206). The author's antipathy towards the century in which she was born strengthened with the passage of time until it became, as will be noted in subsequent chapters, a recurrent theme in most of her travel collections. 6. The Sublime and the Prosaic, Folklore, and Local Colour Another characteristic of Pardo Bazán's travel writing is the ease with which she moves from the religious, to the artistic, to the sublime, and finally to the mundane. Indeed, it is as if she enjoyed breaking the spell that has been cast on the reader and bringing him abruptly back to reality. In the essay entitled "En el castillo de Sobroso", Pardo Bazán has her and her party entranced by the tales of ghosts recounted by their guide, Tradición: La más romántica leyenda de Sobroso es Floralba, la infiel esposa del viejo conde que, abandonada por su seductor, ronda noche y día en torno del castillo donde fué castellana y señora en otro tiempo. [...] Desde entonces, hasta hoy mismo, al sonar la media noche en punto, Floralba, vestida de blanco, con el pelo flotante, gimiendo e implorando piedad, se aparece sobre la torre del Homenaje y llama en vano á los portones. (216, 217) As they sit on the floor, surrounded by ancient walls and listening to Tradición, they consider remaining in the castle until midnight, the witching hour, to await the arrival of Floralba's ghost. But even if Floralba does not make an appearance, the other spirits of the valley will make their presence known: Pensando en tales historias, que nada tienen que envidiar á las que aun se cuentan al borde el Rin, [...] se nos había pasado por las mientes cierta idea [...]. Aguardar, á las doce de la noche, la aparición de Floralba... Puede que la blanca y arrepentida castellana no nos hiciese el gusto presentándose; mas de fijo que la luna, Floralba de nuestro planeta, á cosa de las once ya dibujaría en el cielo un airoso creciente, y á su luz y á la de la hoguera, el torreón adquiriría vida fantástica, y del valle se alzaría, entre argentina bruma, larga procesión de espíritus... (217-18) And then, abruptly, as if the enchantment had suddenly been broken, Pardo Bazán abandons the land of fantasy, comes back to the real world, and comments on the unsuitability of spending the night alfresco if one wishes to avoid contracting rheumatism: "En fin, el reuma es cosa desapacible, y á Mondariz, después de todo, no se viene para ganar alifafes, sino para curarlos" (218). And with this sudden change in the tone of the narrative, the reader is brought back to a prosaic reality, far removed from the realms of the supernatural. But perhaps, as Bravo-Villasante notes, this is Pardo Bazán's way of curtailing an overactive fantasy and of affirming the line of rational thought that characterizes her (Bravo-Villasante, 1973: 107). Contact with Nature brings out the lyrical tendencies in Pardo Bazán's writing, causing her at times to poeticize the account of her experiences as a traveller. For instance, in "Una visita á San Rosendo y su monasterio, en Celanova", her description of the lunch offered by the monks to their visitors under the natural canopy of the ageing oaks has an idyllic quality to it: Era digno de una edad artística y tenía sus lejos y perfiles de banquete ateniense, el espectáculo de nuestra comida en la robleda. El cielo sin una nube; el toldo y la mesa inundados de ramaje y flores. [...] Los robles, majestuosos y protectores, ofreciendo su misteriosa sombra y la augusta serenidad de sus viejas cabezas al cuadro; la música, bastante lejana para aumentar el gusto y no estorbar las conversaciones: y alrededor, en círculo inmenso, todo un pueblo de instintos cultos y feliz carácter, que iba y venía por entre la arboleda, remedando improvisada fiesta campestre, y con su regocijado rumor, análogo al murmulio de las hojas que la brisa halaga, nos acompañaba y hacía coro, sin distraernos ni causarnos la más leve molestia. A hora tan oportuna empezó y terminó el festín, que cuando Emilio Ferrari recitaba del modo que él sabe hacerlo, el canto primero de Pedro Abelardo, el día estaba justamente al declinar; y cuando nos alzamos de la mesa, asomaba apenas el lucero vespertino. (207-08) The above would seem to indicate that every time Pardo Bazán comes into contact with Nature, even if this detail of Nature is a grove of oak trees enclosed by ancient stones, the poet inside her makes an appearance and indulges in bucolic and idealized descriptions, as in the passage just quoted. Pardo Bazán also likes to introduce a touch of folklore or local colour into her travel collections, principally those dedicated to Spain, and in De mi tierra this element is incorporated into the narrative in the shape of picturesque characters, such as the guide Tradición in "En el castillo de Sobroso", the shepherd in "Rivas de Sil", and the alquilador in "Marineda". Also, in this last travel piece Pardo Bazán emphasizes the touch of local colour by including a scene in typical costumbrista tradition, a market day in Marineda (La Coruña): Labriegos y labriegas inundan la ciudad, trayendo en sus cestas los frutos del establo, del corral y de la huerta. Son de ver las pintadas gallinas, las palomas asustadizas, la legumbre húmeda aún del fresco rocío de la mañana, que resbala en aljófares por las satinadas hojas de repollo y escarola, ó hace brillar como coral pulido los rojos tomates. Dejan los labriegos á las placeras su sana y apetitosa carga, y derrámanse por calles y callejuelas en busca de artículos de primera necesidad y otros superfluos. Yo les veo mil veces en el lugar llamado Campo de la Leña (y también de la Horca) pararse fascinados por alguna bujería que se vende en las barracas. Apenas comienza el ajuste, es de notar la maña que para el regateo despliega el campesino, y la habilidad casi judaica con que el vendedor le acorrala, tejiendo mañosamente la red en que al cabo han de ir á prenderse los cuartos que con amor acaricia la mano callosa del marchante. (286-87) This attachment to costumbrismo is presumably part and parcel of Pardo Bazán's search for the roots of Spanish culture, a quest she had been encouraged in by her mentor and teacher, Giner de los Ríos (Pardo Bazán, 1972: 340-41). 7. Progress versus Tradition Pardo Bazán's aversion to machinery and factories is well documented. In the "Apuntes autobiográficos" she speaks of her visits to the cigar factory of La Coruña while researching for her novel La Tribuna (1883), and presents the factory as Dante's Inferno, a living hell on earth where the damned are reduced to the state of mere machines: "El verdadero infierno social a que puede bajar el novelista, Dante moderno que escribe cantos de la comedia humana, es la fábrica, y el más condenado de los condenados, ese ser convertido en rueda, en cilindro, en autómata. ¡Pobres mujeres las de la Fábrica de La Coruña!" (Pardo Bazán, 1973: 725). Her dislike of machines is also foregrounded in Por Francia y por Alemania (1890), the sequel to her chronicles on the Paris Exhibition of 1889, when, forced by her duty as a journalist to report on the latest technological advances, she has no choice but to visit the "dreaded" "Palacio de las Máquinas" (Pardo Bazán, [1890]: 1-13). In De mi tierra, too, there are clear indications of the author's abhorrence of factories and machinery. However, she also realizes that factories are a necessary evil if Marineda (La Coruña) is to become a prosperous and thriving community: Las fábricas no me gustan, y como no me gustan, apenas las visito. Lo poco que las he frecuentado bastó á convencerme de que no las entiendo. [...] Las máquinas me inspiran no sé que repulsión vaga, y cuando veo el motor que estira y encoge su zanca de gigante, un malestar indefinible se apodera de mí. Con la razón, me alegraría mucho de que Marineda se cubriese de fábricas, siempre que no tuviese yo que recorrerlas. (277, 278) Such observations suggest that Pardo Bazán's attitude to progress encapsulates two contradictory opinions. On the one hand she advocates development and regeneration for Galicia, but, on the other, she displays a conservative attitude which is opposed to drastic changes. Indeed, she wants Galicia to move forward in time, to progress and advance, and yet she laments that industrialization will result in the loss of some of the region's traditions and local characters. For instance, in her essay entitled "Marineda", Pardo Bazán dwells at some length on a local figure, the alquilador, who would rent out his donkeys to visitors and take them on guided tours of the area (284-85). With a note of sadness, she adds that the alquilador and his donkeys have now been replaced by more modern means of transport which, in a way, have undermined the previous charm of these local outings (286). And yet, in this same essay, La Coruña is presented as a microcosm of nineteenth-century Spain and of Spain's rejection of commercial development and progress. According to Pardo Bazán, Marineda neglects to sell its potential as a tourist destination and lives enclosed in itself, refusing to see that a regular tourist trade would revive its dying economy: Marineda, cuyo destino y porvenir es ser un encantador punto de baños y veraneo, no se ha penetrado aún de esta verdad, y se empeña en vivir de sí misma, realizando un fenómeno de autofagía. Entre este error, y la poca unión de sus elementos, desde hace algunos años su prosperidad no aumenta, y su comercio decae. (279) Indeed, Pardo Bazán's ambivalent and contradictory attitude to progress will be discussed in more depth in the chapters dedicated to the 1889 Paris Exhibition. 8. Mother Nature, Paganism, and Romanticism Pardo Bazán delights in the contemplation and description of the natural environment, and this love for the manifestations of Nature is another recurrent theme in her travel works. As Azorín observes in "Madrid" (1941): "Doña Emilia ha sentido el paisaje. Con más fuerza, con más amplitud, con más hondura que sus coetáneos, ha escrito doña Emilia la Naturaleza" (Azorín, 1982: 901). Indeed, in the essay entitled "El olor de la tierra", dedicated to the Galician poet Valentín Lamas Carvajal, Pardo Bazán's sensual understanding of Nature becomes evident. For her, Nature appears to have a palatable and tactile quality, and penetrates the body through the senses of touch, smell, sight, and hearing: Recostada en el más florido de los veirales que rodean á la Granja de Meirás, con las manos hundidas en el balsámico y aterciopelado matorral de mentas y trébol, á dos pasos de mí el castañar rumoroso, me llegaba sin embargo, más enérgico y sano que el de las plantas silvestres, el olor de la negra tierra, no inficionado aun con el horrible abono animal, la capa de crustáceos que envenena el aire puro de la Mariña hacia fines de Septiembre. (51) Pilar Gónzalez Martínez has argued that in the early part of Pardo Bazán's writing career, "Emilia propugna una naturaleza mítica, autónoma, a la que le coloca atributos del orden de lo humano. [...] Pardo Bazán no diferencia sustancialmente el organismo vegetal, el organismo animal y el organismo humano. Para ella, el orden de la materia y de la naturaleza es un 'orden autónomo'" (González Martínez, 1988: 86, 91). In fact, the piece "Luz de luna" illustrates Pardo Bazán's wide use of the pathetic fallacy in her presentation of Nature as a living entity which breathes, feels, speaks, and hears: "Creo firmemente que hay aromas, sonidos, colores, formas y hasta maneras de soplar el viento, de mujir el mar y de besarse suavemente las frondas del arbolado" (67). Such sentiments also raise the issue of the "pagan" undertones which inform the associations often made by the author between the exaltation of Nature and the religious experience. For example, the essay "El país de las benditas ánimas" indicates that for Pardo Bazán the contemplation of Nature and of --- 5 Such sensory perceptions of Nature are also present in the piece dedicated to the province of Orense (Galicia) in Por la España pintoresca (Pardo Bazán, [1895c]: 165-66). artistic beauty is more conducive to a religious experience than the shrines built by the local people. Also in this piece, she describes her religious fervour when, during her visit to the monastery of Los Canedos, she was surrounded by and in awe of the beauty of Nature: ¡La emoción religiosa, derivada de la contemplación artística, es tan bienhechora, tan digna de un espíritu abierto á la belleza! Francamente, [...] ¿no hay algo que nos eleva y nos hace mejores en espectáculos como aquel que nos ofrecieron Los Canedos, el conventillo franciscano deshabitado y derruido? Desde la cima de la torre [...] veíamos todo el valle y la vega de Puenteareas flotando en el rosado vapor del último rayo solar. A nuestras espaldas, el bosque de pinos y alcornocales centenarios, cuyas copas formaban cortinas de verdura á la torre, y que, sin embargo, dominaba con la majestad de su grandeza, el soberano cedro del Líbano, [...] que apenas cabe en el recinto del vasto patio conventual, y hace soñar con viajes á Oriente, á las cimas de donde bajó la revelación y donde se consumó la redención del género humano. (224-25) However, it is also possible that this correlation between the contemplation of Nature and the religious experience stems from Pardo Bazán's perception of the natural environment as the living proof of the greatness of the Creator: "[Un Prelado] labró para asilo un pequeño eremitorio donde meditar y macerarse y vivir en comunión estrecha con la naturaleza y con Dios que en ella resplandece" (244). Interestingly, similar sentiments are expressed by Alarcón in his travel work, La Alpujarra (1874): "A solas con la augusta Naturaleza, en la vecindad del cielo y en íntimo coloquio con el Criador" (Alarcón, 1968: 1629). Although Pardo Bazán was a devout Catholic, this Nature-religion duality could be regarded as being inherently pagan because she appears to be implying that, like the Celts, the original settlers of Galicia, she, too, is a worshipper of Nature. Indeed, in the piece entitled "Luz de luna", Pardo Bazán claims to like Eduardo Pondal's poetry because its originality lies in its emphasis on primitive people and pagan rituals: "Con el incidente del fantasma fingido por la enredadera, intento yo explicar el celticismo prehistórico, el osianismo y las reminiscencias ancestrales, en que consiste la originalidad de Eduardo Pondal" (71). In this essay, with its strong accent on Galicia's ancient past, the author looks with nostalgia at the Celtic origins of the Galician race, sees Pondal as a kind of bard or Celtic minstrel, and speaks of transmigration and reincarnation, observations which are rather striking considering Pardo Bazán's Catholic credentials: "Eduardo Pondal, con su gabán y su hongo, ha venido á ser el bardo --no hay que reirse, pues las almas de los que fueron parece como que se cuelan á veces, por caprichosa metempsícosis, en el cuerpo de los que son" (71). In effect, the entire essay, with its heavy Romantic evocations, is reminiscent in parts of some of Bécquer's Levendas, such as "El monte de las ánimas", and, above all, "El rayo de luna". The following description has a Gothic, eerie flavour, which can be associated with Romanticism: Las copas de los pinares de mi tierra se agitan con ese ruido especial, semejante al del Océano cuando se oye á distancia y en días tormentosos. Mas lo que de día es zumbido vago, [...] es, de noche, al brillar la luna, grave aunque contenido canto llano, que infunde cierto pavor religioso. Entonces predomina en él la larga u! la vocal del terror. [...] ¿Quién no ha notado el efecto fantástico que produce de noche el ruido más vulgar? Y el de las copas de los pinares es de verdad temeroso, hecho de molde para exaltar la imaginación. (68) And certainly the following material could have been inspired by Bécquer's Leyenda "El rayo de luna" or by Espronceda's El estudiante de Salamanca: Una noche de verano, en la Granja de Meirás, hallándose las ventanas abiertas de par en par y reunida tertulia numerosa, alguien dijo que frente á la casa estaba una mujer, ó más propiamente un fantasma, vestido de blanco y con los brazos extendidos. [...] Era, en efecto, la verdadera figura de una mujer alta, con túnica flotante, que nos tendía los brazos y que de cuando en cuando columpiaba la cabeza y el cabello undoso [...]. La causa del fenómeno: una enredadera sumamente tupida y frondosa, que trepaba por el limonero, y cuyo follaje claro, al resplandor de la luna, se perfilaba imitando el realce y las líneas indecisas de un cuerpo. (70) Moreover, as in many works by Bécquer and Espronceda, the episode ends in disappointment and disillusionment for the poet, in this case, Pardo Bazán. A little later she speaks of one of the great scandals associated with the Romantic period: the publication in the eighteenth century, by the Scottish writer James Macpherson, of the translation of the poems of the Gaelic bard Ossian, which were subsequently proved to be spurious. Yet Pardo Bazán, far from condemning Macpherson's trickery, praises his initiative in reviving the essence of a forgotten literature: Macpherson no fue un falsificador vulgar, sino un hombre de genio, que benefició, aunque mezclándole tantos elementos extraños, el tesoro de una literatura rica y perdida, y trajo al arte un elemento con legítimo derecho á la existencia, puesto que había sido expresión artística de varias razas congéneres. (75) The author's admiration of and devotion to Nature, her recollection of ancient pagan rituals, her idealization of primitive cultures, and her spooky descriptions all seem to indicate a continuing Romantic inclination on her part which is evidenced in the tone and content of some passages in De mi tierra. 9. The Past As mentioned in Chapter 1, the longing for a distant past is a common motif in Pardo Bazán's travel works, and De mi tierra is no exception. For example, in her essay "Rivas de Sil", she combines the delights of a contemplative and ascetic existence with her penchant for going back in time: ";Quién pudiera, retrocediendo nueve siglos, ver el monte ripense cuando subían por él los monjes á su abadía y los anacoretas á sus doce ermitas, desparramadas en la falda, donde se retiraban á mayores austeridades y á más estrecho trato con Dios!" (232). And a little earlier she reiterates her yearning for a return to the days of splendour of the monastery of San Esteban de Rivas de Sil in the tenth century: "La imaginación se exalta y echa de menos --con la ardorosa saudade que inspira lo imposible--el tiempo en que la sandalia del justo Frankila hollaba este musgo virgen y resonaba sobre estos peñascales" (230). In the piece entitled "Marineda", Pardo Bazán speaks of the special emotion that engulfs her at the sight of ancient monuments. With time, it seems, that emotion turns into pain: "Esa emoción especial que me causan los monumentos de otras épocas, y que á la larga, llega á ser dolorosa" (269). This special feeling of which she speaks is, in earlier essays of De mi tierra, a kind of obsessive melancholy or yearning for bygone centuries which she often associates with a glorious and triumphant Spain that no longer exists. Moreover, she is presumably using the past as a kind of emotional shield which protects her from the decline of Spain as a military, political, and cultural power. Indeed, in a letter written to Azorín on 17 March 1898, Pardo Bazán readily admits to her "weakness" for Spain's past: "España no tiene más que pasado; pero un pasado que nos atrae a todos en razón de las deficiencias y miserias del presente" (Bravo-Villasante, 1973: 226). However, in her lecture "La España de ayer y la de hoy", delivered at the Salle Charras in Paris on 18 April 1899, Pardo Bazán acknowledged that she, like many of her compatriots, was also to blame for Spain's plight, because instead of confronting the reality of the ills that beset her country she had sought solace in the past, in the glorious days of Spain: "Cansada y desalentada solía volver al legendismo. Cerraba los ojos por no ver la España actual; miraba únicamente hacia el pasado; el pasado era estético, y la estética consuela" (Pardo Bazán, [1899]: 82). With brutal candour and sincerity she gives her opinion on the state of Spain the year after the "Disaster" of 1898 and speaks of what she terms the "leyenda dorada", created collectively by all Spaniards, and which "ha preparado nuestros desastres y nuestras humillaciones" (Pardo Bazan [1899]: 62). This "Golden Legend", she concludes, is potentially more harmful than the "leyenda negra" because it involves the apotheosis of the past (Pardo Bazán, [1899]: 63). It would appear that the events of 1898 and the culture acquired through much reading and travelling made Pardo Bazán realize the need to confront the present, however painful it might be, instead of sheltering behind the past, behind Spain's "Golden Legend", which under the guise of tradition and traditional values had prevented many Spaniards from facing the decline of their country. However, and this emerges very clearly in her Spanish travel works, the Galician writer never quite managed to totally sever her emotional links with the glorious Spain of the past: the Spain of the Reconquista, the Empire, or the War of Independence. 10. The Patria, Regionalism, and Separatism Another recurrent theme in Pardo Bazán's travel works is her exaltation of her country. In the "Apuntes autobiográficos", the author observes that she felt patriotic ardour for the first time as a small child when she witnessed the arrival in La Coruña of the victorious Spanish army after the African war of 1858. Driven by the nascent patriotism that was to remain with her for the rest of her life, young Emilia wrote some poems to the triumphant soldiers (Pardo Bazán, 1973: 700). For the Galician writer, the nation is a superior and almost divine entity whose integrity can never be undermined by incompetent politicians: Sacaba en limpio que el desenlace de la guerra y aquella entrada de las tropas en La Coruña representaban algo muy grande y digno de ser celebrado, algo que no era del Gobierno --de quien solía yo oír pestes en mi casa--, sino de otra cosa mayor, tan alta, tan majestuosa, que nadie dejaba de reverenciarla: la Nación. (Pardo Bazán, 1973: 701) She adds that life, experience, and learning have not altered in any way her patriotic stance, and sees the lack of patriotism that affects those who are misguided by contemporary intellectual trends as a sign of the loss of national pride and of the decadence of some nations, including her own (Pardo Bazán, 1973: 701). In her essay "La poesía regional gallega" in De mi tierra, the author, whilst discussing regionalism and separatism, speaks of how in some underprivileged areas, such as Galicia, the affection for one's home region can sometimes degenerate into resentment against the leading regions of Spain and against the country as a whole. And this animosity explains, in her opinion, why for the more regionalist of gallegos their understanding of the term patria is limited to their native Galicia (38). Yet although Pardo Bazán may support regionalism when it represents the undying and uncompromising love for one's birthplace, she is no separatist. For her, Spain, the patria, --- 6 In Por la Europa católica (1902), the author overtly expresses her condemnation of Catalan separatism (Pardo Bazán [1902a]: 235, 247). is a higher political and cultural entity than the region, and she is adamant that the nation's unity must never be jeopardized by regionalist aspirations: Galicia no es sino la tierra, algo íntimo y dulce, algo quizás más caro al corazón, más necesario para la vida que la misma patria: pero la patria representa una idea más alta aún, y la patria [...] es España, inviolable en su unidad, santa en sus derechos. (40) And while, as a Galician, Pardo Bazán does not hesitate to quote some of Rosalía de Castro's most anti-Castilian outbursts: "Castellanos de Castilla,/ tendes corazón de ferro.../ ¡Solo hai para min, Castilla,/ a mala ley que che teño!" (40), she also persists in her condemnation of separatism and of the principle of federal republicanism advocated by Pi y Margall, which, in her opinion, has undermined the unity of the patria: Conviene decir que el mal del separatismo es por ahora bien leve en Galicia; que este pueblo, práctico y serio en medio de su misma postración, no ha dado la menor señal de que le cruce por las mientes tan peligrosa autopía, la cual, por hoy, sólo se ha manifestado tímidamente en la serena esfera del arte, siendo recogida por algún político del sistema, como el sabio Pi y Margall, que reconoce en las literaturas regionales el signo de una idea preconizada por él --idea que ya originó á la patria graves daños y aun puede ocasionárselos mayores--. (41) Indeed, Pardo Bazán's overt indictment of separatist regionalism, coupled with the little space dedicated to Rosalía de Castro in her essay "La poesía regional gallega", caused much displeasure to the historian Manuel Murguía, Rosalia's husband and one of the champions of Galician regionalism. 11. Conclusions Perhaps one of the more striking features of De mi tierra is its apparent sincerity. Whether one chooses to agree or disagree with Pardo Bazán's ideas, one cannot help but be surprised by the Galician writer's candour. Pardo Bazán believed in voicing her views and opinions openly, and her seeming frankness is one of the trade marks of her travel chronicles. As Federico Carlos Sainz de Robles has noted: Muchas son las virtudes que pueden señalarse en las obras de Emilia Pardo Bazán. La primera de ellas: la sinceridad. [...] Leyendo las obras de la Pardo Bazán nos damos cuenta cabal de sus sentimientos religiosos, de su ética social, de sus gustos literarios, de sus ideas políticas, de su irrenunciable feminidad hogareña, de sus conceptos estéticos, de sus reacciones frente a los problemas inmediatos de cada día. (Pardo Bazán, 1943: xlii, xliii) As in the case of Por la España pintoresca (1895), De mi tierra comes across as slightly disjointed and fragmentary because it consists of a medley of essays and travel pieces put together as an afterthought. Also, in the travel section, which consists of just seven pieces, the lack of a continuous --- 7 "La casa solariega del Padre Feijóo", "Una visita á San Rosendo y su monasterio, en Celanova", "El castillo de Sobroso", "El país de la benditas ánimas", "Rivas de Sil", "Impresiones santiaguesas", and "Marineda". itinerary and the hopping between places contribute to this lack of unity. In effect, the only hilo conductor or common denominator to the entire collection is Galicia and the author's undeniable affection for this Spanish region. In other words, De mi tierra is essentially an apology for and an exaltation of Pardo Bazán's beloved Galicia, of its people, of its traditions, of its culture, of its poets, of its artistic treasures, and, above all, of its natural environment seen as the living proof of the existence and splendour of the Creator who has lavished His gifts on this isolated corner of Spain. The most obvious difference between De mi tierra and Pardo Bazán's later travel works is its intimate and private nature. The reader is given a devoted Galician speaking about her much-loved terruño and expressing her fears and aspirations for what she sees as a forlorn Spanish region. In effect, De mi tierra, contrary to other travel collections and with the exception of some passages in Mi romería, is highly introspective: it frequently looks inwards into the soul of Galicia, of its people, and into the Galician soul of Pardo Bazán herself.$^8$ In her essay on Alarcón's travel works Pardo Bazán argues that some regional writers reign supreme over the physical descriptions of their native areas (Pardo Bazán, 1973: 1406). And this is in fact true of De mi tierra, which, while affording the ideal scenario for the author's renowned descriptive writing, also provides a rich and colourful literary mosaic of Galicia as Pardo Bazán attempts and --- $^8$ As in the case of Mary Morris and her travel journals (Morris, 1992: 29), De mi tierra amounts in parts to Pardo Bazán's engaging in a dialogue with herself. succeeds in immortalizing "el lindo redil donde dormí cuando corderillo" (287). CHAPTER 3 MI ROMERIA: PARDO BAZAN'S POLITICAL, RELIGIOUS, AND ARTISTIC PILGRIMAGE 1. Introduction The structure chosen by Pardo Bazán for Mi romería is that of a travel journal, with entries for almost every day of her trip. The work encompasses the author's impressions and experiences of her trip to Italy, via France, between December 1887 and January 1888, to attend the celebrations in Rome of Pope Leo XIII's jubilee. The epilogue, one of the most interesting and controversial parts of this collection, contains the account of Pardo Bazán's visit to the Pretender, Don Carlos, in his Venice palace, and also her "Confesión política", in which she speaks of the conflict between what she terms the Old Spain and the New Spain. In Mi romería, Pardo Bazán went to Italy as a feature writer for the Madrid newspaper, El Imparcial, where her chronicles were serialized between 19 December 1887 and 27 February 1888, before being published in book form later that year. The "Advertencia á quien leyere este libro", which as a kind of prologue introduces Mi romería, anticipates some of the main themes and characteristics of the account, such as, for instance, the striking combination of Christian and pagan elements that coexist in this work. Pardo Bazán informs her readers that from her trip to Italy she has brought back a diverse collection of objects and mementoes which, she claims, reflect both Mi romería and her spirit: "Caprichoso conjunto de elementos cristianos y paganos, de aficiones artísticas y adhesiones personales, que en su variedad y aparente desorden refleja y simboliza, no sólo la obra que hoy sale á luz, sino el alma de su autora" (Pardo Bazán, 1888: 6). Anticipating yet another important aspect of this travel collection, its pro-Carlist tenor, the author alludes to her article on Don Carlos and argues that the Spanish reading public has been denied the information to which it is entitled in order to judge this controversial political figure (7). She knows that her article on the Pretender will encounter much polemic and criticism in both camps (Carlist and Liberal), but she believes it is her duty to report the facts as she sees them (7-8). The author ends her "Advertencia" by asking for forgiveness if any of the terminology used in her religious chronicles appears irreverent or offensive to some. And this, again, anticipates another important feature of this collection, and one which will be discussed later, the pagan or profane connotations of Pardo Bazán's religious experience: No faltó quien me dijese que el epígrafe del artículo sobre la misa jubilar de Su Santidad, El fantasma blanco, suena á atrevido é irreverente para la sacra persona del Pontífice. ¡Yo, que lo escribí con lágrimas en los ojos y el corazón inundado de ternura hacia el encantador viejecito! Me apresuro, me apresuro á declarar que usé la palabra fantasma, no en el sentido de visión espantable y horrenda (¡horrendo León XIII!), sino en el de cosa que parece sobrenatural y soñada. (8-9) But she also adds that furnishing an opinion on debatable religious matters does not contravene the religious beliefs held by a writer and should not curtail freedom of expression: "El campo de las cuestiones libres y opinables es dilatadísimo, y la rienda de oro de la fe no le ha cortado jamás los vuelos á Pegaso" (9). It is noteworthy that to advocate freedom of speech on religious issues she chooses a mythological, and therefore pagan, creature. 2. The Recording of the Travel Experience and its Depiction in Mi romería The narrative straightaway addresses the journey to be undertaken, with the opening section, "A Roma", presenting Pardo Bazán in the parish church of San Luis purchasing her ticket for the pilgrimage (11). Subsequently, in late December 1887, the author travelled by train to Rome. Her itinerary took her from Madrid to Hendaye and then via Lourdes to Toulouse, Cette, Marseilles, Montecarlo, Ventimiglia, Genoa, and thence to Rome. The journey took five days and six nights, with the convoy of pilgrims arriving in Rome on 24 December 1887. In the "Advertencia", Pardo Bazán claims to have written Mi romería "on the move": "Bien lo saben mis compañeros de romería, que me las vieron trazar sobre la mesa de la fonda ó de algún cafetín de estación ferroviaria, mientras no servían la taza de dudoso brebaje, ó no llegaba el esperado tren" (6). This claim is further emphasized at the end of the section entitled "Una salve": Y mientras no llega el tren donde hemos de proseguir nuestra ruta hasta Cette, me siento á una mesa de mármol, en el comedor de la estación, y entre el bureo, las idas y venidas, la conversación de los romeros, rodeada de señores sacerdotes, deanes, magistrales y párrocos que se interesan mucho por el buen resultado de mi garrapateo y por la pronta terminación de estas cuartillas, [...] trazo estos renglones, que le tocaban á Ortega Munilla, y que saldrán como Dios quiera. (37) Indeed, this approach was referred to by the Galician writer a year later in Al pie de la torre Eiffel, and in very similar terms, when she mentions: Aquellas crónicas escritas á lo mejor en el rincón de una estación de ferrocarril, en la mesa de un café, en el salón público de un hotel, entre el bullicio de las conversaciones y los acordes del piano; unas veces con frío, otras con sueño, otras con apetito de despachar el almuerzo ó de salir á beber la taza de café turco. (Pardo Bazán, [1889]: 64) But why is Pardo Bazán so keen to bring attention to this point? While it is possible that she wants to make allowances for any flaws or omissions in the narrative, the main reason is probably that she is trying to create an impression of veracity, immediacy, and freshness, as if no real structuring had gone into the text and as if hardly any time had elapsed between the events and their recording. In effect, Pardo Bazán's references to her work-method are almost certainly an attempt to authenticate and lend credibility and authority to the narrative. It is also possible that she was heeding Alarcón's advice, as contained in his "Historia de mis libros" (November 1884), in which the novelist, referring to his De Madrid a Nápoles (1861), insists that for travel works to be spontaneous, fresh, truthful, natural, and devoid of literary artifice they must be written as the traveller goes along, during or immediately after the event. There are, in fact, striking similarities between the words uttered by Pardo Bazán, as quoted above, and those of Alarcón to emphasize that their chronicles were written in transit: "En ferrocarril, en silla de postas, a caballo, en mulo, embarcado, marchando a pie; [...] en los cafés, en los palacios de los Reyes, en las estaciones y posadas del camino; dondequiera que veía, pensaba, sentía o me contaban algo, allí tomaba nota de ello" (Alarcón, 1968: 15). The Andalusian novelist argues that it is precisely the coarseness ("crudeza") and confusion stemming from this approach that differentiate travel writing from "los relatos de la imaginación", such as the novel, which are the product of a reality that has been "seasoned" by reflexion, philosophy, and art. Travel accounts, Alarcón notes, must resemble "fotografías escritas", thus conveying an impression of verisimilitude and frankness that will make the reader assume the role of traveller himself (Alarcón, 1968: 15). The fact that Mi romería is written in the first-person singular as, of course, are nearly all accounts of this kind, also enhances the notion of immediacy because there is no narrator to mediate between the writer and the reader. On the other hand, the use of the first-person narrative voice also raises questions concerning the objectivity, credibility, and reliability of a chronicle since no second voice is present to substantiate what is being said. Indeed, as the reader starts into the following section, entitled "Viaje de recreo... espiritual", some doubts may arise as to Pardo Bazán's claims in general, for it is apparent that she has not been entirely honest with her readership. A claim made in the introductory "Advertencia" was that she had not consulted any external sources: "Por primera vez de mi vida he escrito así, machacando el hierro hecho ascua, sin meditar ni consultar obra alguna" (6). But in the fourth section, in order to substantiate her allegations concerning the hostility endured by the Spanish pilgrims, she has no qualms about quoting some passages from José María León y Domínguez's De Cádiz á Roma (47-48). And in the section entitled "Los santos novísimos", Pardo Bazán once again undermines the claims made in the "Advertencia" as she admits to having consulted external sources to gather information about certain Spaniards soon to be canonized. The excuse she offers for this "deviation" from her self-imposed condition is her commitment as a researcher to keep her readers well informed (93-94). It therefore transpires that not only has she used external sources, but that these texts were presumably consulted after the trip and the appropriate passages inserted in the chronicles a posteriori. So the sense of immediacy and freshness Pardo Bazán apparently strives to create does not refer to everything in her account. In the section entitled "A Roma", there is a striking contrast between Pardo Bazán's own approach to travel (as something which should be pleasurable and trouble free) and that of an old woman who travels "con lo puesto" because her main concern is to see the Pope and "ganar muchas indulgencias, ganar el cielo" (13). The Galician writer cannot help but admire the old lady's rather transparent approach to religious pilgrimages. In modern times, she argues, most pilgrims appear to be more preoccupied with the comforts of travel than with the religious motivation that prompted their journey in the first place (14). There is little doubt that the prospect of the journey has an exhilarating effect on Pardo Bazán, and as the train taking the pilgrims to Rome pulls out of Madrid, she attempts to transmit her enthusiasm and expectation to the reader: "Yo siento esa palpitación de júbilo y esperanza que se experimenta al poner el pie en el puente de la nave cuando el viento favorable hincha las velas y el blando oleaje acaricia la proa con amoroso arrullo" (18). Indeed, here she appears to rank among those described by Adams as "the lovers of travel for the sake of travel" (Adams, 1983: 68). However, as way of contrast and anticipating an opinion she was to voice four years later in her assessment of Alarcón's travel works, the Galician writer also emphasizes that Spaniards tend to regard travel as vexation, discomfort, and hardship, especially when the journey is in fact a religious pilgrimage, where a certain degree of discomfort is assumed as part of the experience (14). Indeed, judging by what he observes in De Madrid a Nápoles, the term pilgrimage appears to conjure unpleasant associations for Alarcón, too: "¡Una peregrinación a Roma no debe hacerse sin dolor ni peligro! (Alarcón, 1968: 1412). Although Pardo Bazán claims that the comforts and luxuries of life are there to be enjoyed, she feels they should always come second to religious and artistic considerations: "Toda persona cabal debe ser por turno ateniense y espartana: saborear los refinamientos suntuarios de la vida, y saber desdeñarlos cuando se le ofrece un deleite más exquisito aún, el goce de la fantasía y el grado supremo de la emoción artística, sublimada por la religiosa" (16-17). Thus, she appears to suggest that the religious and artistic experience requires a kind of self-denial on the part of the individual if its true meaning is to be grasped in its entirety. It transpires that the religious journey undertaken by Pardo Bazán and her fellow pilgrims differs from the average trip in that the warmth and camaraderie that exist among them serve to reveal the inner self of each traveller: "Los romeros no somos únicamente trescientas personas que se trasladan de un punto á otro: somos un pedazo del pensamiento nacional que anda, y este movimiento y este roce determinan un calor, una energía moral, á cuyo impulso los caracteres típicos adquieren su realce todo y el hombre interior se revela bajo la capa, el gabán, la sotana, las episcopales vestiduras" (22). She welcomes this communal approach to travel, far removed from the indifference of "esos viajes al uso moderno" where travellers tend to keep to themselves and make small talk about the most trivial aspects of their trip (21-22). Moreover, each compartment of the train is presented as a kind of microcosm containing examples of the most representative types of religious followers (29). During the outward train journey, Pardo Bazán, the pilgrim, is superseded briefly by Pardo Bazán the fiction writer or novelist. Indeed, as she herself notes: "La romería estimula mis aficiones de observadora" (15), in this instance, of human nature. Confined in the narrow space of her train compartment, the author proceeds to study her fellow travellers in order to determine their potential as characters of a novel. First she focuses her attention on a retired army officer, both a devout Catholic and a seasoned traveller, whose features, she claims, reveal an honest and serious character (22-23). Her second potential personaje is a young Andalusian priest, articulate, funny, and talkative, a true representative of "la mocedad, la alegría y chuscada meridionales" (23). She then looks at another ex-army man who, after refusing to pledge allegiance to King Amadeus of Savoy, joined the Carlist forces and fought with them (24). Next she sketches two more passengers, both of whom happen to be bishops: the first one is a "polemista insigne" (26) and the second one, whom she describes as humbly dressed and unaffected by the luxurious trappings which typify these emissaries of the Church, "es de los que predicen con el aspecto, sin que por eso alardee de desaliño ni de penitente y huraña aspereza" (27). Finally, she turns her attention to an inexperienced madrileño who, unaccustomed to travelling, forgets to collect his ticket on departure and is removed from the train, and to a seasoned romero who comes well provided to keep hunger at bay during the journey (28). On this point, Adams speaks of the "coach motif", drawn from travel literature by the eighteenth-century novel, and used by the novelist for transporting his characters, selecting them so that they can be described, getting them to tell stories of themselves or of other people, or engaging them in conversation (Adams, 1983: 223). And in Mi romería it could be argued that during the brief spell when Pardo Bazán --- 1 Alarcón, too, in his travel work La Alpujarra (1874), takes on the mantle of a novelist when he encounters a cortège in the middle of the mountains, and immediately embarks on all kinds of suppositions regarding the status of the members of the party, their relationship to one another, and the object of their trip (Alarcón, 1968: 1532). behaves like a novelist, she is in fact using the "train motif", with the same intentions as her predecessors of a hundred years earlier. In this collection, the author presents the travel experience, and the concomitant hardship, as a kind of social-levelling device among the pilgrims. To hammer home this notion, she tells, in the form of an anecdote, how all the occupants of her compartment (with the exception of the Bishop of Salamanca) and regardless of their social background, collaborated in the preparation of a chocolate drink in a rather curious machine provided by one of the pilgrims (28-29). In effect, Pardo Bazán's "democratic" approach to the pilgrimage had already been stressed at the very beginning of the trip: "Casi me irrita pensar que en el próximo viaje se dividirá el tren, como siempre, en coches de primera, segunda y tercera, pues desearía que fuésemos iguales todos, como hermanos" [my italics] (15). In the section entitled "Una salve", the Galician author describes in a humorous way the problems encountered when attempting to purchase some food at the local inn in Hendaye, and how her frustration and hunger led her to steal three apples (33-34). Here again is the notion that the difficulties of the journey tend to bring the travellers closer together, and that the spirit of camaraderie helps them forget their troubles: "En suma, almorzamos frugalmente sobre el regazo, pero en excelente armonía y riéndonos de tanta peripecia" (34). Pardo Bazán begins this particular section by describing some of the problems and vexation endured by her and her fellow pilgrims involving their tickets and luggage tags (31- 33), and, indeed, in 1897 Karl Baedeker was to note: "Mistakes" are far from uncommon on the part of the ticket-clerks or the officials who weigh luggage. [...] During the last few years an extraordinary number of robberies of passengers' luggage have been perpetrated in Italy without detection, and articles of great value should not be entrusted to the safe-keeping of any trunk or portmanteau. (Cited in Sillitoe, 1995: 75) Later in Mi romería, the author claims that she almost welcomes the difficulties encountered whilst travelling because they provide her with material for her pen. Nevertheless, she wishes to emphasize the abominable organization of the present trip: "Doy fe de que á mí, por mí, casi no me pesa de ello. Los observadores somos como los médicos: decimos ¡qué hermosa enfermedad! ¡qué caso tan bonito! Yo me distraigo y tomo notas y me río [...]. Pero si tocan á declarar cómo anda esto, juro y perjuro que anda remalísimamente [...]. La romería, en su parte material, es un desbarajuste" (48). In effect, the entire text is scattered with reminders of the unpleasant side of travelling: long delays, physical exhaustion, bad organization, freezing temperatures, lack of sleep, and so on. So perhaps Pardo Bazán can, after all, associate herself with the average Spaniard who, as she herself was to point out, regarded travel as primarily discomfort, frustration, and aggravation. However, there is the clear indication in Mi romería that the religious purpose of the journey and the inner cheerfulness of the Spanish race help the pilgrims endure as best they can the hitches of the journey (39). Moreover, the beautiful scenery and the good weather that welcomes the pilgrims as they approach Lourdes contribute to distract from the hardship of the trip and inspire Pardo Bazán to display her skills at paisajismo, while also using appropriate religious images: El cielo se ha despejado y el lindísimo país que vemos por las ventanillas nos embelesa. Las cimas de los montes se nos aparecen á lo lejos nacaradas por el sol y vestidas de nieve tan inmaculada como la Virgen [...]. Las nevadas cumbres son coronas de la Concepción purísima; los laureles rosa, y las hiedras que adornan estos muros calcinados, estas graciosas aldeillas meridionales descritas por Alfonso Daudet, se tienden como ramillete balsámico á los pies de la Mujer sin tacha. [...] De repente, sobre un anfiteatro de montañas, con la nieve detrás, escénicamente dispuesto como la decoración de una comedia de magia, aparece el Santuario, y de cada departamento brota una aclamación delirante: ¡Viva la Virgen! (34-35) But further travel problems await the pilgrims. At Toulouse, they endure a five-hour delay and are unable to sleep or visit the city (37). Upon their arrival in Cette, another delay besets the travellers. However, a walk around the town, a visit to the port, and a hearty breakfast at the hotel soothe their irritation (39-40). Here at Cette, the convoy of romeros is arbitrarily divided into three groups, and during the long wait at the railway station Pardo Bazán focuses her attention on two rather curious travelling companions. These are "la inevitable inglesa de todos los trenes", who despite the freezing temperatures decides to take a walk on the platform, and an innocent-looking wine merchant who had been wrongly suspected of having stolen the watch of one of the pilgrims (41). Again, this is almost a reminder of her calling as a novelist, a constant observer of human nature in search of potential characters for her fiction. The next stop is Marseilles, and while Alarcón refers to this French city as "la Puerta principal de Europa" (Alarcón, 1968: 1200), the Galician writer is more preoccupied with the revolutionary associations of Marseilles, dismissively alluding to it as "la ciudad revolucionaria, Marsella, la roja" (42). After a good night's sleep and a delicious breakfast at a local hotel, Pardo Bazán and some of her travelling companions take a tour of the city. They also visit the port and the local shops, and acquire some typical chapelgorris (43). Following their arrival in Ventimiglia, the pilgrims have to endure a customs inspection and a further long wait before catching the train for Rome (45). At this point, Pardo Bazán launches yet another ferocious attack on the rail company for the inconvenience, humiliation, and sheer rudeness inflicted on the travellers (47-48). And yet, one finds that most train travellers in Europe around that time were in a similarly vulnerable position vis-à-vis railway companies. Indeed, Murray describes the relations between Britain's three hundred railway companies and their disadvantaged passengers thus: "To the tender mercies of this heterogeneous society of companies are our 163 millions of travelling public handed over, a helpless mass. [...] They cannot, of course, know what train is before them, or what train will follow them; nor can they be aware of any of the thousand and one risks to which they are exposed" (Murray, 1862a: 2). In Genoa, an eight-hour delay awaits the travellers. Although in Italian Hours (1909) Henry James comments that "in the wonderful crooked, twisting, climbing, soaring, burrowing Genoese alleys the traveller is really up to his neck in the old Italian sketchability" (James, [1959]: 114), Pardo Bazán has to limit herself to touring a part of the city, which she describes as having "la severidad de los grandes monasterios: es suntuosa y helada" (50). She visits the cemetery, with its wonderful marble statues, and goes to a couple of churches. Unfortunately, though, the freezing temperatures and the physical exhaustion accumulated during the journey undermine her enjoyment (50-51). In his eight-volume series of guidebooks, The Cities of Northern Italy (1883), Augustus J. C. Hare presents Italy and the Italians in a positive light: During eight whole winters spent at Rome, and years of travel in all other parts of Italy, the author cannot recall a single act or word of an Italian of which he can justly complain; but, on the contrary, has an overflowing recollection of the disinterested courtesy, and the unselfish and often most undeserved kindness, with which he has universally been treated. (Cited in Sillitoe, 1995: 78) Pardo Bazán, however, disagrees with Hare on the innate courtesy of Italians, and in the piece entitled "Viaje de recreo... espiritual", she speaks of the hostility shown towards the Spanish pilgrims (especially the members of the clergy) and the humiliation endured by them during their journey through France and Italy (45). Suffering from feelings of persecution, the author adds "hay deliberado propósito de mortificarnos" (46). This sentiment is reiterated soon after her arrival in the Eternal City, for the reception that awaits the Spanish pilgrims there is cold and indifferent, and Pardo Bazán immediately compares the hypocrisy of the Italians with the warm and hospitable nature of Spaniards (70-71). However, once in Rome, the excitement of discovering a city unknown to her makes Pardo Bazán forget her physical exhaustion and other cares. Indeed, almost immediately after her arrival she heads for the Vatican to view the exhibition of gifts given to Leo XIII on the occasion of his jubilee (54), of which she provides a detailed description (55-57). The fact that she is forced to spend Christmas Eve in Rome away from her family, fills Pardo Bazán with melancholy. She speaks with nostalgia of her home in La Coruña (which she refers to, as usual, by her fictional name for it, Marineda) and remembers her absent children (57-58). It is a moment of great tenderness in which the reader is addressed not by Pardo Bazán the traveller, reporter, or pilgrim, but by Pardo Bazán the devoted mother and the homesick Spaniard who yearns for a traditional Nochebuena. Alarcón, too, during his Italian trip of 1860 fell prey to the feeling of longing for the homeland that affects some travellers when abroad: "Salid de vuestra patria, recorred ajenas ciudades, estudiad extrañas costumbres, y veréis y sentiréis que la patria existe, que cada hombre tiene una patria, como tiene una madre, y que esa patria y esa madre no se pueden reemplazar con otras" (Alarcón, 1968: 1363). The Andalusian writer, like Pardo Bazán, finds himself in the Piazza di Spagna on Christmas Eve, and also like the Galician novelist devotes himself "¡a soñar con la patria y con la familia!" (Alarcón, 1968: 1446). Putting her sadness aside, Pardo Bazán decides to find out what a traditional Italian Christmas Eve has to offer. To her surprise, the Eternal City is quiet. There is no sign of jubilation or religious exaltation. Rome is not apparently aware that the Child Jesus has been born (59). Similarly, Henry James speaks of the "shrunken proportions of Catholicism" in Italy, adding: "It's as if the churches had been made so for the world, in the social sense, and the world had so irrevocably moved away. [...] The only thing at all alive in the melancholy waste they collectively form is the smell of stale incense" (James, [1959]: 173). Whilst in Rome, Pardo Bazán behaves very much like a tourist. Indeed, after describing a costumbrista scene in the proximity of Santa Trinità dei Monti (61), the author visits the church of San Giovanni in Laterano, delights in the angelic voices of the choir (62-68), and describes the lavish interior (66-67). She also goes to the Via Appia, where she dwells on the enigmatic sepulchres that line it, and to the catacomb of the Capuchins, where she contrasts the pagan and ultra-Christian concepts of death (110-16) while indulging in the macabre description of the exvotos and mummified bodies of the monks buried there (112-15). Yet all this time she makes no mention of the other tourists who are presumably in the Italian capital and whom James accuses of undermining the enjoyment of the city where pilgrims find it difficult to keep their devotion alive: "It is the general oppressive feeling that the city of the soul has become for the time a monstrous mixture of watering-place and curiosity-shop and that its most ardent life is that of the tourists who haggle over false intaglios and yawn through palaces and temples" (James, Oblivious to such concerns and accompanied by Luis Llanos, her friend and guide during her stay in Rome, Pardo Bazán visits the Forum, the Palatino, several museums, and the Catacombs, and while she dismisses guidebooks in general as being "sosas y pálidas" (126), she is fascinated by the vivid explanations of her obliging and knowledgeable cicerone. In this particular section (and this is most unusual in Pardo Bazán's chronicles), the author's narrative voice is almost completely taken over by that of Llanos, with her role being thus reduced to that of mere scribe who recounts the words uttered by her guide. And, ironically, it is at this point that the narrative acquires the typical overtones of the guidebooks the author dislikes so much. Despite these touristic pursuits, Pardo Bazán still finds the time, as she often does in her foreign chronicles, to gather firsthand information from some knowledgeable locals on what is occurring in their country. In this respect, her travel works are far removed from what Murray terms "philosophical tours", produced "by hasty travellers who guessed rather than gathered their information" (Murray, 1858a: 352). Indeed, the Galician writer claims she likes to obtain her information not from books or newspapers, but from direct sources, from the people she meets and from whom such information "brota más sincera y viva, más caldeada en la fragua de la voluntad" (74-75). In this instance, she is very much the reporter or researcher, using her connections as a privileged traveller to interview the people with inside knowledge on what is really happening in Italian politics. Later in Mi romería, Pardo Bazán travelled by train to Florence, "la ciudad más monumental y más rica en obras de arte que acaso adorna al mundo" (138). Overwhelmed by the artistic wealth of the city and with little time in which to see it -- "Florencia requiere quince ó veinte días de religiosa contemplación" (137) -- the author, this time playing the part of art critic, focuses her attention on the Michelangelo sculptures which decorate the tombs of the Medicis (141-43). The next stop is Padua, and during her visit to the Basilica of St Antony, Pardo Bazán loses herself in disquisitions about the saint's hagiography (147-50), but she also includes a description of some of the artistic treasures housed in the temple (151-53). While Alarcón is fascinated by the decorations of the chapel dedicated to St Antony (Alarcón, 1968: 1354), Pardo Bazán is much more interested in the teeth and mummified tongue of the saint kept in a reliquary (150-52), another indication of her taste for the macabre that often emerges in her travel works. Interestingly, Henry James also indulges in some macabre pursuits in his Italian Hours, and when in Milan he examines the "shriveled mortality" of two saints, whose mummified bodies are housed in the cathedral (James, [1959]: 89-90). While in Loreto, the next stop in her itinerary, Pardo Bazán delves into Italian folklore and recounts, with a touch of mockery, how the sanctuary of Loreto came to be located miraculously in Ancona (156-59). Perhaps this is one of the episodes for whose irreverence she apologizes in the "Advertencia". However, her disrespect may be justified since Murray qualifies the "itinerary" of Loreto as "the most incredible of ecclesiastical legends" (Murray, 1853: 442). Pardo Bazán began her journey back to Spain by train on 18 January 1888 as part of a group of twenty-five pilgrims. The return trip was much more pleasurable for the travellers than the outward leg, when they had so much to endure: Un mes antes habíamos rodado [por aquel mismo camino] como pelotas, sufrido persecuciones y calamidades sin número, cabeceado de sueño deteniéndonos á horas increibles, y asaltando las cantinas de la estación para beber cuatro sorbos de caldo, mientras el silbato de la locomotora se mofaba de nosotros como un pájaro burlón, convirtiendo en segundos los minutos reglamentarios. (165-66) Also, on the journey home Nature appeared to be smiling on the pilgrims. The weather is milder and the landscape is breathtakingly beautiful: La impresión del regreso en mi alma es la de una restauradora paz y una cordialidad infinita de la naturaleza. Hace un tiempo primaveral, delicioso; pasamos de día por Niza, Monte Carlo y San Remo, y los ojos se nos deslumbran con el riquísimo azul del Mediterráneo y el verde y oro de los naranjales, que nunca se acaban. (166) Alexander Baillie Cochrane, in his Young Italy (1850), was also captivated, like the Galician writer, by the stunning Mediterranean landscape: "The few square miles round Cannes and Nice, enclosed between the amphitheatre of the maritime Alps and the sea, is at once the perfection of climate and the garden of Europe" (cited in Murray, 1850: 533). Soon after arriving in Lourdes, Pardo Bazán heads for the sanctuary, where she is taken aback by the fervour inspired by the candle-lit effigy of the Virgin. Although moved by the scene, the author is not entirely taken over by it. She is no longer the pilgrim, but a detached reporter or observer, describing the religious spectacle that unfolds in front of her eyes but without fully participating in it (168). Overall, in Mi romería the travel experience is presented by Pardo Bazán as unpleasant and troublesome, and in transmitting this message she is placing herself firmly in the camp of those Spaniards who regarded travel as primarily hassle and hardship. And although at one point in her account she claims that with religious pilgrimages the spiritual experience must always come second to the luxuries of life (52), Pardo Bazán, the epicurean cosmopolitan, is not quite prepared to renounce modern-day comforts or the privileges she normally enjoys as a traveller. The redeeming factor here is that, despite everything and fortunately for the author, the journey has an exhilarating effect on her that she is eager to transmit to the other pilgrims and to her readership. There is also the aesthetically rewarding experience of the sight of beautiful scenery and the visits to historic and artistic monuments. What is unclear from the text is whether it is the journey or the religious purpose of the trip that acts as a kind of social-levelling device among the pilgrims. But what does transpire from the work is that the difficulties and hindrances of the journey create a feeling of camaraderie among the travellers which helps them overcome their troubles. Mi romería is probably Pardo Bazán's only travel collection in which she appears to be more interested in the people who travel with her than in the actual places visited, at least while she is on the train. The fact that she is confined for long periods to her train compartment with little to occupy her mind, or to some station café having to endure lengthy delays, presumably explains this unusual interest in her fellow travellers and the significant amount of social interaction in the first part of the account. It is also noteworthy that during the outward leg Pardo Bazán makes few attempts at describing the landscape seen from the train window, preferring instead to focus her attention on interiors and thereby stressing the sense of confinement. 3. The Religious and the Mystical Experience in Mi romería It seems that Pardo Bazán's religiousness is reawakened as soon as her pilgrimage to Rome begins: "La romería [...] refresca mi cariño hacia la Iglesia santa" (15). Indeed, she is overjoyed at the prospect of going to Rome, the spiritual centre of the Catholic world: "Salgamos, pues, con el corazón satisfecho, la mente excitada y la alegría propia de nuestra fe en el rostro; éste es un hermoso día. Vamos á Italia y á Roma, á la cuna del mundo latino y al centro de nuestra vida espiritual" (18). Thus, the author experiences a sense of religious anticipation as soon as the train leaves for Rome. Beatrice Erskine speaks of the "exalted mysticism" of Pardo Bazán's earlier writings (Erskine, 1921: 242), while Pattison claims that after the publication of San Francisco de Asís, "Doña Emilia first intended to compile a history of Mysticism in Spanish literature. At the beginning of the winter of 1882 she was in Santiago investigating her new subject in the university library. But Mysticism was pushed aside for Naturalism" (Pattison, 1971: 42). Yet in Mi romería, published a few years later, Pardo Bazán's mysticism was very much alive, and constitutes a significant feature of the work. For example, during the celebration of the papal mass the author falls prey to a kind of mystical ecstasy, and at the moment of the consecration she describes herself as engulfed by a feeling of supreme happiness which strongly resembles the arrobamiento místico of St Teresa of Avila, one of the Spanish mystics greatly admired by the Galician writer (Pardo Bazán, 1973: 710). As she is completely taken over by the experience of the papal mass, she can no longer hold back the emotions that struggle to be set free. She ceases to be aware of her body and mind, and remains motionless as she attempts to assimilate and cope with an unfamiliar feeling: Estaba en pie, inmóvil, sin respirar, corriéndome dos hilos de lágrimas por las mejillas. Lloraba en silencio, con una felicidad interior tan grande y tan verdadera, que creía no estar en el mundo. Ni sentía la vida orgánica de mi cuerpo ni la función de mi cerebro (cosas que, aun dormida, noto vagamente); no pensaba, ni discurría, ni comprendía, pero se me iba derritiendo el corazón, y un dulcísimo delirio me vedaba mirar al altar mismo. (87) However, Pardo Bazán knows that because of her profane inclinations the account of her mystical experiences will be regarded with suspicion and disbelief. Moreover, she is even unsure whether she is doing the right thing by narrating such intimate sentiments: No me importa que esta impresión tan real y tan profunda sea ó no creída; ignoro si hago bien ó mal en narrarla, y sobre todo en analizarla, pues acaso al destapar el pomo se evapora la preciosa esencia; quizás no faltará quien la eche á broma ó la juzgue incompatible con mi estado habitual de equilibrio, con mis aficiones literarias, harto profanas y libres, con la especie de frialdad y pesadez de espíritu que engendra la vida mundana, con mi horror al sentimentalismo y al lirismo, con otras muchas cosas que son de nuestro siglo. (87-88) Interestingly, Alarcón also fell prey to a kind of mystical trance as he awaited the arrival in St Peter's of Pope Pius IX for mass on 25 December 1860, and for him the experience was just as unfamiliar as for Pardo Bazán: "El corazón me latía con irresistible violencia: sentí frío y ganas de llorar... ¡Me desconocía en aquel momento, o, más bien, antes me había desconocido!" (Alarcón, 1968: 1448). The Galician writer, like Alarcón, is surprised by her reaction to the mass officiated by the Pontiff. Until then she had been unaware that her religious fervour and sensitivity were so near the surface: "Convengo en que también me sorprendí de mi propia impresión. Sabía que era católica, no que lo fuese tan apasionadamente" (88). Yet her mystical ecstasy was only temporary. Indeed, as soon as the pageantry and magnificence of the ceremony diminish, Pardo Bazán wakes up from her religious ecstasy, as one does from a dream, and devoid of her previous religious ardour she is transformed from a participant into a simple spectator who, if not indifferent, is merely curious: Mas no bien el Papa se bajó de la silla y sólo quedaron dominando la multitud los dos blanquísimos flábulos de plumas, se desvaneció en mi alma el sentimiento que me impulsaba á lamentar no parecerme siempre al pueblo en la frescura del corazón. Volví á ser la espectadora, no indiferente, pero sí curiosa, que estudia cada detalle con deleite artístico, que sorprende los efectos de luz y la expresión de los rostros. (86) The author attempts to relive the experience but fails miserably. Her heart feels heavy and her pen fails to capture the precise emotion and jubilation that engulfed her. Only God knows how close to Him she came to being: En mí sólo ha durado algunas horas la visita del ángel. Busco aquellos sentimientos, y ya no los encuentro [...]. En fin, por espacio de un día al menos se ha liquidado la nieve, y subido convertida en cálido vapor hasta el cielo. (90) And Pardo Bazán, unable to describe the experience of a religious fervour of which she believed herself incapable, has to admit defeat and acknowledge, just as St Teresa did in El libro de su vida, the inadequacy of human language to express that which belongs to the realms of the spiritual and the mystical (91). Moreover, it seems that her religious ardour requires pomp and ceremony to manifest itself, and it soon dissipates once the visual impact is removed. This section, entitled "El fantasma blanco", provides, possibly more than any other in Mi romería, an interesting insight into the author's understanding of religion and what she believes the religious experience should involve. Her reaction to the papal mass reveals for Pardo Bazán a facet of her Catholicism of which she had previously been unaware. Until then she did not know that her religious sensitivity could, with the appropriate stimuli, rise to the surface and become a kind of mystical ecstasy. In effect, and from a religious standpoint, her trip to Rome thus becomes, albeit briefly, a journey of spiritual self-discovery. 4. Christianity versus Paganism Without a doubt, one of the more striking features of Mi romería is the contrast between Christianity and paganism (or at least the profane) which is already anticipated by the curious collection of items brought back by Pardo Bazán from her trip to Italy, as described in the "Advertencia". And where this dichotomy or duality is most noticeable is in the presentation of the figure of Pope Leo XIII. One of the focal points of Pardo Bazán's pilgrimage is to meet the Pontiff in person. As she awaits with great expectation and excitement the departure of the train that will take her to Rome, Pardo Bazán visualizes Leo XIII thus: Para ese Sér, desde hace largos meses, hermosas y aristocráticas manos recaman sobre raso, muselina y tercioplelo, con oro, aljófares y sedas, ornatos dignos del fastuoso Oriente; incrustan y cincelan los orifices el cálix cuajado de brillantes que han de elevar sus puras manos en el sacrificio incruento; [...] y envían las reinas y las princesas broches de pedrería, con que adornará su pecho lo mismo que una desposada en el día de las bodas. A las plantas de ese Sér van á arrodillarse [...] gentes de toda nación; hacia ese Sér se alza aclamación inmensa en todas las lenguas del mundo, y le llaman Padre todas las razas; y cuando extiende la diestra y abre los labios para bendecir, su voz resuena en todos los ámbitos del orbe. (17-18) This description is somewhat reminiscent of that of a pagan idol which remains impassive as its followers bestow gifts, wealth, and riches upon it. The religious leader, as projected by Pardo Bazán, assumes almost non-human characteristics, thus becoming a kind of icon or deity. The fact that she refers to the Pope as "ese Sér", further supports this interpretation. There is little doubt that Pardo Bazán felt great respect and admiration for the Pontiff. Overcome by her devotion, she describes him as a kind of ethereal figure or Holy Ghost who is present in every corner of the Eternal City, accompanying and inspiring the pilgrims: El Papa llena á Roma: oculto, retraído, invisible, envuelto en la dorada aureola que le forma el amor y el tributo de la cristiandad entera, él es el alma de la ciudad. No le vemos, como no vemos el aire que alimenta nuestra vida ni la sangre que la sostiene; pero le respiramos. Es inaccesible, y sin embargo le sentimos en derredor nuestro, influyendo en nuestro albedrío con acción psíquica inexplicable. (75) As in her depiction of Leo XIII in the piece entitled "A Roma", the Pope is presented as some kind of fetish, inaccessible and unassailable, and lacking in human characteristics, and if Pardo Bazán's intention is to gain the affections of the reader for the Pope, she probably fails. The figure of the Pontiff, as projected by the author, does not inspire love or affection but awe and fear, because the impression she conveys is that of Leo XIII as a rather ghost-like and sinister entity. The first four words of the section entitled "El fantasma blanco" dispel any doubts as to whether or not Pardo Bazán managed to see the Pope: "Ya le he visto" (81). It is as if in a childish way she could no longer hold back her excitement: she has to share the good news with the reader, with no time to build up the suspense. Strikingly, though, her description of the interior of St Peter's, as a select few await the arrival of the Pope, is reminiscent of an opening night at the theatre, with the Pontiff playing the leading role: Al ver en frente el inmenso escenario, á mi izquierda la tribuna diplomática, deslumbradora de bordados y cruces; á mi derecha las patricias romanas luciendo sus mantillas de encaje sujetas con ricos joyeles, y debajo de mí los bancos destinados á canónigos, obispos y patriarcas; al tender la vista por el templo colosal inundado á torrentes con la luz que se despeñaba de la gigantesca cúpula, [...] experimenté la satisfacción del aficionado á música que asiste al estreno de una ópera del más excelso compositor y se encuentra dueño del mejor sitio, á conveniente distancia de la orquesta, y en punto de no perder detalle de la representación ni nota de la música. (82) However, the Galician writer, aware of the irreverence of the profane connotations of her description, asks for forgiveness. Furthermore, she confesses that prior to the appearance of the Pontiff the pomp and ceremony of the occasion, and not the spiritual experience, represented the main attraction for her: He resuelto declarar sinceramente que éstas eran al principio mis impresiones para que la confesión sirva de castigo á mi frialdad y á mis ráfagas de paganismo. [...] Claro que la gran solemnidad pontificia nunca se me figuró, rigurosamente hablando, una función teatral, aun considerando tan sólo su parte externa, la magnífica pompa que la rodea y realza; pero reconozco que esta pompa, este artístico y ostentoso ceremonial eran para mí lo más atractivo. [My italics] (82-83) Whereas elsewhere, gloomy and derelict churches awake in Pardo Bazán a religious feeling, the luxurious interior decorations of Roman churches assail her with a kind of jubilation and exaltation which borders on paganism: Hasta el día de hoy no me habían producido emoción religiosa sino las iglesias solitarias, un poco obscuras, mejor si son góticas, amenazan ruina y las pudre la humedad [...] Un estado de alma en que no se advierte más que serena alegría, plenitud vital que duplica el goce de existir, de pensar y de entender, eso me producen á mí los soberbios templos de Roma, donde la profusión de oro, plata, bronce, malaquita, cornalina, jaspes y alabastros, la majestad arquitectónica, el aparato de las esculturas, parece que comunican al vivir humano cierta magnificencia y nobleza propia de las grandes épocas históricas paganas, cierto vigoroso júbilo que nos acerca al estado olímpico de los semidioses. [My italics] (83-84) Presumably influenced by the pagan exaltation that highly ornate Roman churches inspire in her, Pardo Bazán's description of the Pope's arrival in St Peter's conveys, once again, the image of a mannequin or puppet, a pagan idol which, overburdened by the weight of the riches its followers have lavished on it, is paraded in front of the crowd. There is no physical substance to this Pope (the title of this section is, it should be emphasized, "El fantasma blanco"). He has an ethereal and supernatural quality to him. It is a vision, not a flesh and blood individual. Pardo Bazán, nevertheless, is deeply moved by the entire spectacle and experiences a kind of religious ecstasy: Cuando por cima del bosque de cabezas, suspendida en el aire como una visión celeste, flotando y bogando después por entre las olas del gentío, divisamos la silla gestatoria; cuando distinguimos la forma del Pescador de hombres, blanco y dorado, abrumado bajo el peso de sus riquísimas vestiduras, de la pedrería de sus joyas; cuando ya vimos su rostro pálido y el movimiento sobrenatural de su brazo al bendecir, sentí el primer escalofrío, el primer estremecimiento psíquico extraño, y, de pie en la silla, como estaban todas las señoras, temí caerme y me apoyé en la primera espalda que pude. (84) It is interesting to note the similarities between this description and that of Alarcón as he witnessed the arrival in St Peter's of Pope Pius IX on 25 December 1860. This Pontiff is also portrayed as some kind of deity or pagan god: ¡Es la primera vez que contemplo a un ser humano llevado real y efectivamente en procesión, levantado en apoteosis, divinizado, como solemos verlos en representaciones teatrales o en cuadros referentes a héroes de otros pueblos o de otros siglos! [...] Rodeábale una nube de incienso; anchos abanicos de pluma agitaban el aire en torno de él; un alto palio cobijaba las andas; las gentes se arrodillaban a su paso... Era un dios. [My italics] (Alarcón, 1968: 1448) With regard to such analogies, it is worth recalling Murray's words that "there has ever been a traditional influence essentially classic and pagan in the Roman Catholicism of Italy. All its ceremonies, pomps, and observances show it" (Murray, 1861b: 471). In an attempt to share with her readers her admiration for Leo XIII, Pardo Bazán explains what kind of person the Pontiff is. As on previous occasions, in the section entitled "Una audiencia y una grilla", she proceeds to describe him as a kind of ethereal being, all spirit and little substance: Más que un organismo humano, parece su cuerpo un pretexto para que esté un alma en el mundo. [...] Las líneas etéreas de su cuerpo y rostro; la transparencia de su tez, semejante á vaso de alabastro con una luz puesta dentro; la blancura argentina de sus canas; su cándida veste; su andar ligero, que apenas se apoya en el piso; todo le da aspecto de sér celestial, ya exento de las imposiciones de la materia y de las groseras funciones biológicas. Ni carne ni sangre: espíritu no más en este hombre. [My italics] (119, 120) Alarcón, on the other hand, who is determined to see "al hombre detrás del Pontífice" (Alarcón, 1968: 1460), presents Pope Pius IX very much as a flesh and blood individual, albeit idealized: Pío IX tiene sesenta y nueve años: es alto y fuerte: su apostura revela a un mismo tiempo cierta marcial franqueza y profunda humildad apostólica. [...] A la viveza de sus ojos se contrapone la pacífica bondad de su boca [...]. No obstante su avanzada edad, brilla en su frente un destello de juventud, y, según pude ver luego, este venerable anciano [...] conserva la agilidad y el fuego de sus mejores años. [My italics] (Alarcón, 1968: Indeed, the only time Leo XIII acquires some kind of physicality in Mi romería is during his audience with the pilgrims, emotionally described by Pardo Bazán thus: Cuando salió el Papa de detrás del cortinaje purpúreo, repentinamente, le ví al lado de Ortega Munilla y al mío. Y breves momentos después sentí un halago tierno, cariñoso, conmovedor, una caricia de abuelo y de santo, una mano pura, suavísima, que se apoyaba en mi cabeza [...]. La mano del Papa me ceñía las sienes con dulce violencia: le tomé la otra, que llevaba medio vestida con blanco mitón de lana, y se la cubrí de besos. El corazón se me deshacía de ternura. (118-19) Subsequently, there are more non-Christian elements in Pardo Bazán's description of the Pope: she compares him to the Trimurti, the Hindu Trinity composed of the deities Brahma, Siva, and Vishnu (120), and also adds that the poetry written by the Pontiff ("Dicen que León XIII escribe hermosos versos latinos") makes him worthy of a place on Mount Parnassus (120-21). The contradiction that emerges from all this is that there appear to be irreconcilable differences between the Pope as God's representative on earth, as the head of Catholicism, as the Vicar of Christ on earth, and the near-pagan idol or deity portrayed by Pardo Bazán. Another contradiction in terms is that involving what the author regards as the ethereal quality of Leo XIII. How can the Pontiff be "ethereal" if he is supposed to be the successor of Peter, the rock upon which the Catholic Church was built?: "Tu es Petrus, et super hanc Petram oedificabo Ecclesiam meam" (Matthew 16. 18). One would assume that the Pope ought to project an image of solidity, substance, and strength. Later, in the section entitled "Loreto", Pardo Bazán brings once again some pagan connotations into the description of another religious figure, in this case, the Virgin Mary: Y entre el marco de estas paredes parduzcas, de oriental sabor [...], se ve algo que deslumbra y ciega, algo semejante á un ídolo asiático, una Virgen de negro rostro incrustada en una funda de forma de campaña, donde, sin exageración alguna, no hay ni el espacio de un dedo que no esté cubierto de piedras preciosas: las turquesas enormes, los zafiros, los carbunclos, las esmeraldas y los brillantes despiden reflejos encendidos é irisados, y parece la obscura casita de los viejos muros caverna encantada de Las mil y una noches que oculta y cela tesoro riquísimo. (160) As in her depiction of the Pope, Pardo Bazán associates luxury, riches, and jewels with non-Christian idols and deities. Similarly, in the section entitled "Dos muertes", the author looks at two contrasting ways of understanding death: the pagan way of classical Rome and the ultra-Christian way of the Capuchins. For this religious order, with its total disregard for worldly possessions, what mattered was the afterlife. Death was the awaited amada and a means to an end: eternal life (110-11). Pardo Bazán, the admirer of beauty, appears to be more attracted, even if it is just for aesthetic reasons, to the pagan concept of death as "el regreso al seno de la naturaleza madre" (110) than to that of the Capuchins, however spiritually rewarding the latter perception may be. All the above indicates that Pardo Bazán's description and understanding of Christian events, places, symbols, and concepts normally include profane or even pagan connotations which appear to be in direct conflict with the subject-matter. The frequently pagan overtones of the author's religious experience are possibly a symptom of her continuing Romantic inclinations, as mentioned in Chapter 2. But the Christian-pagan duality of Mi romería could also be linked to the city of Rome itself with its first pagan, then Christian, and finally Renaissance associations. In other words, it is likely that Pardo Bazán saw Italy as a mixture of Christianity and paganism, even in the closing stages of the nineteenth century. Alarcón, too, fell under the spell of this duality, and of his visit to the Colosseum in the moonlight he observed: He temblado, en fin, he llorado y hasta he balbuceado una plegaria en aquellos sitios que representan la agonía de un mundo y el nacimiento de otro... ¡Noche inolvidable! ¡Todas las tempestades de lo futuro serán insuficientes a oscurecer en mi memoria la claridad con que tu luna bañaba hace poco de religiosa melancolía los restos del naufragio de las edades paganas! (Alarcón, 1968: 1427) Rome's pagan-Christian dichotomy emerges clearly in Alarcón's words: he is admiring a monument which typifies pagan Rome, and yet he is praying to a Christian god. Furthermore, he also notes that the Colosseum, "el antiguo teatro maldito", now houses a gigantic cross in the middle of the arena to mark the place where a Catholic priest leads the people of Rome in prayer every Friday evening (Alarcón, 1968: 1430). Finally, the inherent pagan overtones of certain Christian rituals should be borne in mind. For instance, commenting on the Easter Week celebrations in Spain in March 1899, Darío foregrounds the pagan connotations of this religious festivity. For him, it is the pomp, ceremony, and luxury of the religious processions that transform these manifestations of Christianity into an almost pagan festival: por todas partes retoña [...] la raíz cristiana, por tantos motivos; pero la savia pagana de la tierra no está destruida. La latina se explica. Se gusta en las procesiones de la pompa, de lo oros lujosos, de la decoración de las imágenes, y con el pretexto de la devoción se da suelta a los nervios y a la sangre, floreciendo de rojo la España Negra. (Darío, 1987: 112) 5. The Nineteenth Century Pardo Bazán's innate dislike for the century of her birth was commented on in Chapter 2. With the passage of time, this hostility increases to the extent that it becomes a recurrent motif in many of her travel chronicles. Although in De mi tierra, the author's criticism of the nineteenth century was rather veiled, in Mi romería she voices her views openly. Indeed, during the journey back home through Italy and France, Pardo Bazán speaks of the modern and tasteless architecture of the new hotels built on the coast to accommodate the tourists. In her opinion, these buildings detract from the natural beauty of the area: ¡Cuán poco artística es nuestra época, al menos en lo que se refiere a arquitectura! [...] A la edad moderna no se le ha ocurrido cosa mejor que sembrar este mitológico país de los horribles hoteles que ahora se estilan, grilleras de ladrillo, cal y pizarra, en cuyas fachadas, teñidas del rosa salmón más inicuo, se ostenta el gigantesco reclamo de un dentista norte-americano ó anuncios del agua maravillosa de Sarah Félix... ¡Ah, siglo décimo nono! ¡Ah, siglico de cartón! (166-67) Thus for Pardo Bazán one of the characteristics of the nineteenth century is its lack of taste and aesthetic values. Such belief is reiterated in her description of the sanctuary of Lourdes: what she finds attractive about Lourdes are the elements created by Nature, and she sees man's contribution to the sanctuary as a blemish on the beauty of the natural setting (169). As she watches the dimly lit effigy of the Virgin of Lourdes, a prayer, thinly disguised as part of the narrative flow, finds its way into Pardo Bazán's pen: Virgen blanca, la que estás en la negra gruta, tú sabes que en los tiempos que atravesamos rara es el alma que no siente la parálisis parcial ó total, el alma que no gasta muletas. Bien como las alas del ángel movían la superficie de la piscina probática, conviene que tu soplo agite nuestros espíritus. Y entonces colgaremos las muletas en tu gruta, así sean de oro con perlas y esmaltes. (169) In this particular passage her concerns are not aesthetic or artistic, but religious, for here she is referring to a lack of religious faith marking the nineteenth century, a period of spiritual barrenness, according to the Galician writer. In the lecture "El porvenir de la literatura después de la guerra" delivered at the Students' Hall of Residence of Madrid Central University on 5 December 1916, Pardo Bazán argued that religion had been another victim of modern times and that its decline was clearly linked to some of the dominant ideas of the eighteenth century. One hundred years later, she added, the vicious attacks against religion had been superseded by a total indifference to and a lack of awareness of the existence of the soul, and by the adherence to Joseph-Ernest Renan's theory of the supremacy of science over religious beliefs. Thus, the individual, after being deprived of all hope, was left alone in a spiritual vacuum (Pardo Bazán, 1973: 1546). In fact, similar concerns were also expressed by Alarcón in his travel work La Alpujarra: La antorcha de la filosofía moderna, en lugar de iluminar la mente de los desheredados por la fortuna, la ha incendiado, dejándola llena de humo y de cenizas. [...] Creían algo, amaban algo, respetaban algo, adoraban algún ideal, y hoy no creen, aman respetan ni adoran, sino lo concerniente a sus sentidos corporales. (Alarcón, 1968: 1546) But it is not only spiritual impoverishment that Pardo Bazán sees as marking the nineteenth century. To counteract what she perceives as the artistic indigence of the century, the author often seeks solace in the past, and in Mi romería she finds comfort in the legacy of classical Rome. It is the remembrance of the past that makes it possible for her to survive the present: Allá, en las márgenes del Tíber, dejamos en prenda una porción importantísima de nuestro sér, aquélla con que percibimos el ritmo de la historia y del arte y conseguimos, con ayuda de la imaginación, vivir en los siglos muertos. De Roma me queda en el paladar como el dejo de un licor divino, del cual sólo me dieron á probar unas gotas. (171) In Mi romería, and in later travel collections, the nineteenth century is presented by Pardo Bazán as a period of artistic, creative, and religious barrenness, and this frequently compels her to look to bygone centuries for comfort and reassurance: "Miremos siempre hacia atrás; el pasado se ríe del presente" (153). 6. The Political Theme in Mi romería In the "Epílogo" to Mi romería, in which the reader is addressed by Pardo Bazán the political writer, not the tourist or the pilgrim, the author recounts the impressions of her visit to Don Carlos, the Pretender, in Venice in January 1888. The encounter was also attended by José Ortega Munilla (the other reporter of El Imparcial), Antonio Juan de Vildósola (the editor of the Carlist newspaper, La Fe), the Count of Melgar, (the secretary of Don Carlos), and José Suárez de Urbina, a Carlist war reporter (Melgar, 1940: 110). In his chronicle of the encounter, Ortega Munilla notes that the conversation turned from the very beginning to politics and that it centred on Spain. He also adds that during lunch "la conversación fué totalmente dirigida por la gran escritora. Y D. Carlos la oía con reverencia y admiración" (Ortega Munilla, 1921: 7). In this epilogue, Pardo Bazán is preoccupied with appearing objective, impartial, and fair in her portrayal of the Pretender, and to support her allegations of impartiality she refers the reader to other "independent" sources such as the Italian senator Pierantoni, a man of great repute, who had also been pleasantly surprised by Don Carlos's persona (182-83). Pardo Bazán begins with a description of the Pretender, as the paragon of male beauty and as a kind of flawless Adonis, which is highly idealized and reminiscent of the classical statues of Ancient Greece or Rome, thus indicating another influence of the pagan sculptures she has admired in the Eternal City: Es D. Carlos de elevadísima estatura, que en hombre menos bien proporcionado y apuesto parecería colosal. La cabeza, ni grande ni chica, campea airosa sobre el arrogante busto. Los ojos, obscurísimos y ensoñadores, atenúan el carácter, obstinado de puro correcto, de la intachable nariz. El pelo es de ébano; la barba, de seda negra, con dos ó tres hilos argentinos, distribuída por la naturaleza con tan buena gracia, que sin extralimitarse en el cuello ni las mejillas adorna con varonil gravedad el simpático rostro. [...] La mano merece notarse: es una nobilísima extremidad humana, que revela en su dueño, al par de la inteligencia y la exquisita pulcritud de la vida civilizada actual, el vigor necesario para aferrar la tajante de los antiguos paladines. (183-84) Ironically, although in La cuestión palpitante (1882-83) Pardo Bazán mocks Rafael and Gilliatt, the highly idealized Romantic heroes of Lamartine and Victor Hugo respectively -- "¡Cuán preferible es retratar un ser humano, de carne y hueso, a fantasear maniquies"! (Pardo Bazán, 1973: 584) -- in Mi romería her description of Don Carlos runs along similar lines. Moreover, there is also a striking contrast between the above portrayal, which emphasizes the physicality of the Pretender, and the author's earlier depictions of Leo XIII, which foregrounded the ethereal and spiritual attributes of the Pontiff. Pardo Bazán can find no flaw in this man who has the body and the physique of a king. In effect, for the Galician writer the Pretender is the living embodiment of the monarchy (185), an institution very close to her heart, and her appraisal of Don Carlos as an entirely suitable and befitting candidate for the Spanish throne is again reiterated in the message she writes in the visitors' book of the Pretender: Si yo no tuviera hace años la triste convicción de que ha palidecido el sol de la gloria hispana y su fortuna ha desplegado las alas para ir a posarse en otras regiones del mundo, hoy lo creería viendo al Rey que el destierro nos niega y que honraría la estirpe de Borbón más que el animoso Felipe V y el justo Fernando VI. (Melgar, 1940: 111) And on different tack, the author, as a declared admirer of art and beauty, is also fascinated by Don Carlos's artistic taste, as reflected in the decoration of his home, the palace of Loredán: Desde los mástiles rojo y gualda para atar las góndolas en el desembarcadero, hasta el último clavo de la señorial mansión, todo indica el gusto refinado e inteligente del hombre moderno, educado por largos viajes, que prueban el arrojo y actividad del espíritu y la robustez del organismo en quien por recreo los emprende. (190) It is certainly striking that the Pretender, the leader of a movement which stood for absolutism, the Inquisition, censorship, and cultural conservatism, is presented by the Galician writer as an "hombre moderno". Yet, of course, the objectives of Carlism were the perpetuation of the social and political forces which had characterized Fernando VII's absolutism: the Church, the aristocracy, and the monarchy, whose power and influence the Liberals had set out to undermine. Judging by what Pardo Bazán says of her encounter with the Pretender in her Polémicas y estudios literarios (1892), it would appear with hindsight that by 1888, the year of her visit to Venice, her more liberal ideas were beginning to erode her Carlist principles, even if she was still unaware of this fact. What she does admit to is that by 1892 she no longer regarded herself as identified with the stringent Carlist principles of her youth, but with the more liberal tenets of the present: "Sea como quiera, el mismo Don Carlos, que me calificó de escritora liberal, vio tal vez mejor que yo misma el estado de mi conciencia, y creo que cumplo como buena al declarar --sin detrimento de mi respeto al príncipe expatriado-- que ya estoy, no identificada con mi época, sino probablemente un poco más adelante" (cited in Osborne, 1964: 28). Indeed, Ortega Munilla, like the Pretender, also suggested Pardo Bazán's estrangement from Carlism at the time of the Venice visit: "Yo no sé si Emilia Pardo Bazán experimentó alguna amargura en ese viaje y en esa visita a Loredán. Lo único que sé es que, poco más tarde, ella se separaba de su misión amorosa a las tradiciones" (Ortega Munilla, 1921: 7). Thus, it seems that by 1888 Pardo Bazán's affections were less with the Carlist cause than with the person of the Pretender himself. In other words, her sympathies had shifted from a political movement to the person who embodied the principles of Carlism. The second section of the "Epílogo", entitled "Confesión política", provides an interesting and revealing insight into Pardo Bazán's political allegiances. She begins her "confession" by speaking of the Revolution of 1868 and by admitting that although at first she was attracted to its political ideals, the excesses of the Septembrina forced her in the opposite direction: "De familia liberal, acogí con simpatía el movimiento; en breve los desplantes y excesos de la Gloriosa me arrojaron en sentido contrario, hacia la reacción completa" (193). By "desplantes y excesos" she is presumably referring to the anti-religious and anti-clerical excesses of the Gloriosa, which in her "Apuntes autobiográficos" she describes thus: "Los brutales excesos de la demagogia clerófoba; el Congreso vuelto blasfemadero oficial; las imágenes fusiladas; los monumentos del arte derribados con saña estúpida; las monjas zarandeadas y tratadas con menos miramiento que si fuesen mozas de partido; la rapacidad incautadora y, en suma, la guerra sistemática al catolicismo" (Pardo Bazán, 1973: 708). There is little doubt that the Revolution of 1868 marked Pardo Bazán, and it is even possible, as Ronald Hilton suggests, that it awakened her to the confrontation between the Old Spain and the New Spain (Hilton, 1952a: 293). Indeed, even as late as 1915, the ghost of the Septembrina was still haunting her. In an article published in La Ilustración Artística of 26 July 1915, the author refers to the Gloriosa in terms of chaos and social collapse, and remembers how Madrid's upper classes fled the country in order to escape the revolutionary hordes. But at the back of the minds of these political refugees the restoration of the monarchy was already taking shape (Pardo Bazán, 1972: 343). In Mi romería, the author claims that after the Restoration of the Bourbon monarchy in 1875 she lost interest in politics, devoting her entire time to literary pursuits, and adds that although her political ideas mellowed with time, her basic beliefs remain unaltered (194-95). But can Pardo Bazán's claim be taken at face value? Judging by her travel chronicles, politics, both domestic and foreign, remained very close to her heart, and they tend to surface when least expected, even if in some collections, such as Por la España pintoresca, this preoccupation is entirely absent. What Pardo Bazán does reveal is a strong aversion to ambitious, selfish, and self-centred politicians for whom their personal achievements on the political arena and their thirst for power are more important than the good of the nation. And in Mi romería she paints a bleak and pessimistic picture of post-Restoration Spain as the ideal breeding ground for egotistic politicians who do not regard the well-being of Spain as of paramount importance (197-98). Indeed, Pardo Bazán's disappointment with Cánovas del Castillo's Restoration settlement is evident, and although in Mi romería she acknowledges that the Restoration has brought peace to Spain, it has been, she argues, at the cost of a meek and weak government that is bleeding the nation to death (198). At this point, the writer delves into what can be regarded as the core of her "Confesión política", that is, the Spanish problem presented as the conflict between the Old Spain and the New Spain. Of the two, Pardo Bazán favours the Old Spain, presumably because her origins and what she represents are deeply rooted in that system. Here it is important to remember the aristocratic, conservative, and Catholic circles in which Pardo Bazán moved and with which she was associated both intellectually and emotionally. In effect, in the preface to her Poetas épicos cristianos (1879) she admits to being a neo-Catholic at the time of writing that work, observing: "Este libro es hijo del estado de mi alma en 1878 y 79: era yo entonces lo que suele entenderse por neocatólica" (Pardo Bazán, [1895a]: 9). For the author, constitutional government and the parliamentary system institutionalized by the New Spain are pernicious for the country, and she uses vigorous language to reflect her disappointment at what she sees as the shambles of the democratic process: De las aspiraciones que ésta [la Nueva España] trajo consigo, es el constitucionalismo y el sistema parlamentario la que le costó más esfuerzos y sangre y la que proclamó como dogma fundamental. [...] Pero va arraigándose en las conciencias la persuasión de que el sistema representativo, tal y como hoy existe, es aparato lúgubre y funesto, á cuya sombra se trama nuestro daño; mampara solemne, tras la cual se consuma la ruina, acabamiento y perdición de España. (196, 197) Here she is referring to the two-party system in operation in Spain during the Restoration whereby the two main factions (Conservative and Liberal) would monopolize power and alternate in office for pre-established terms. Under this political "arrangement", known as the turno pacífico, the elections became a charade in which the results were agreed beforehand following a long process of negotiation (encasillado) between the government and the opposition, aimed at achieving a comfortable majority in Parliament. Thus, the struggle for political power would take place prior to the election itself: "En esas condiciones el Gobierno parlamentario es claramente una ficción. Pero una ficción que dio un pasable juego durante un cuarto de siglo, mientras Cánovas y Sagasta mantuvieron la hegemonía casi indiscutida de dos grandes partidos que aceptan las reglas del juego como un compromiso político de honor" (Luis Sánchez Agesta, Historia del constitucionalismo español, Instituto de Estudios Políticos, Madrid, 1955: 342, cited in Tortella [Jover Zamora], 1981: 292). Yet although in her writings of the 1880s and 1890s Pardo Bazán portrays the parliamentary government of the Restoration as weak and subject to exploitation by ambitious and self-serving politicians, at no time, as David Henn notes, does she mention the need to reform the system in order to transform it into a representative and democratic one (Henn, 1988: 139). In other words, regardless of her indictment of Spain's political sins the author does not suggest a viable alternative which might lead to the reform and regeneration of the country. This would seem to confirm Nelly Clémessy's claim that despite Pardo Bazán's liberal tendencies the Galician writer had no faith in democracy. She always held a very aristocratic concept of social organization, and although she recognized that the monarchic system was not without flaws, she saw it as the fairest form of government (Clémessy, 1981, II: 511). In Mi romería, Pardo Bazán argues that since the first Carlist war (1833-39), the Old Spain has been represented by the Carlists and the New Spain by the Liberals. But the present conflict which divides Spain is, she claims, no longer about who should inherit the throne; it is about opposing political ideas and the clash between the past and the present (199). This conflict to which she alludes was, in fact, as Hilton notes, the confrontation between Catholic conservatives and anti-clerical liberals. While the former claimed that Spain had to be rescued and kept at bay from pernicious foreign influences, the latter affirmed it was necessary to remove the dead tissue that, within Spanish society, was poisoning the country. Furthermore, they argued that Spain should open its doors to the constructive influences of Europe's more advanced nations (Hilton, 1952c: 298). In the closing stages of her "Confesión política", the author adds that the reins of the country should be placed in the hands of independent, robust, and powerful institutions (205). Here she is probably suggesting that Spain should be governed by a strong and independent monarchy, that is, a non-parliamentary and absolute monarchy such as that represented by the Pretender. Indeed, the final message of her "Confesión" appears to confirm this suggestion. As she leaves Don Carlos, Pardo Bazán is engulfed by the sadness that surrounds the palace of the monarch fated not to be king. The tragedy for her is that the resident of the Loredán palace could well be the miracle worker Spain so badly needs: "Cruzábamos el Gran Canal dirigiéndonos á la estación del ferrocarril; miré hacia las ventanas de Loredán, y una inmensa tristeza embargó mi alma. [...] Allí se quedaba tal vez el remedio y la salvación Overall, and in spite of Pardo Bazán's sympathies for Carlism and for what this cause represented, a tone of reconciliation prevails in this last section of Mi romería, where she expresses her wish for the two Spains to unite, settle their differences, and then march together towards a glorious future (201). Yet despite the conciliatory tenor of Pardo Bazán's recommendations, her article caused a major rift within the Carlist party between the so-called carlistas and integristas. On 1 June 1888, Ramón Nocedal, the editor of the extremist Carlist newspaper El Siglo Futuro, wrote to Don Carlos asking him to make his stance clear. The reply of the Pretender on 14 June of that year read as follows: No es cierto que entre los tradicionalistas haya dos banderas [...]. Publica una escritora liberal apreciaciones personales en La Fe, [...] y tú te apresuras a propalar entre tus lectores que se ha levantado aquella nueva bandera en nuestras filas [...]. Te bastaba haber dicho que aquella escritora, extraña a nuestro campo, gozaría de cuantos méritos literarios se quisiera, pero carecía de autoridad política. (Cited in Bravo-Villasante, 1973: 162) Don Carlos's reply is interesting in that he refers to Pardo Bazán as a liberal writer and an outsider, and refuses to grant her any political authority by undermining her assessment of Spain's political scene. At this juncture, Pardo Bazán could well have felt betrayed or at least disappointed by the words of the Pretender, the man she had set out to vindicate in the impressions of her visit to Venice. Disillusioned by the rigidity and intransigence of Carlism, Pardo Bazán wrote in 1888: "No puedo, no, ver con indiferencia que aún corre por las venas de España este licor que sólo debiera ser rancio, y hoy es ponzoñoso en fuerza de su misma vejez" (Bravo-Villasante, 1973: 163). This marked the end of what Pardo Bazán herself termed her "carlismo posibilista", and shortly afterwards she became a supporter of Cánovas del Castillo's Conservative party (Bravo-Villasante, 1973: 163-64). The author's disappointment at having failed to see a reconciliation between the Old Spain and the New Spain must have been significant. But perhaps what troubled her most was the realization that, by 1888, the venom which had poisoned Spain's internal politics for many decades had lost none of its potency. 7. Conclusions Although in Mi romería, Pardo Bazán, as is customary with her, does indulge in some name-dropping, her contacts in Spain and abroad can do nothing to alleviate the hardship of her journey to Italy. To her chagrin, she finds herself in a vulnerable position in that she is not the privileged traveller the reader encounters in later chronicles: she is just one of the three hundred anonymous and helpless pilgrims who are forced to endure the bad organization and conditions of the trip. Indeed, contrary to other travel collections, in Mi romería Pardo Bazán is treated very much like any other viajero, and her frustration at this "democratic" treatment emerges in the work despite the various references to the camaraderie among the pilgrims and to the travel experience (and the resulting hardship) acting as a kind of social-levelling device. Although at one point the author claims she welcomes the difficulties of the journey because they provide material for her pen, she has problems reconciling her easy-going approach to travel (and the preferential treatment she usually enjoys) with the vexation and discomfort suffered during the outward leg of her Italian trip. Adams argues that "lasting" authors of travels should be able to combine several disciplines or play several roles in their accounts (Adams, 1983: 281), and, in effect, one especially interesting aspect of Mi romería is that it shows Pardo Bazán at her most versatile as a travel writer: she is the traveller, the pilgrim, the novelist, the tourist, the art critic, the historian, the homesick Spaniard, the political writer, and the patriot. And it is the combination of these multifaceted pursuits that transforms Mi romería into an artistic, political, and religious pilgrimage in which Pardo Bazán conveys, and at times confronts, her views in these three areas of interest. Indeed, in the case of the Galician writer, as in that of earlier pilgrims, "the devotional interest is no longer so exclusive as to preclude the notice of other features not directly connected with it" (Murray, 1854b: 359). From a religious standpoint, Mi romería is also a journey of self-discovery as the author attempts to understand and cope with a religious experience hitherto unknown to her. However, what undermines the potential merit of Pardo Bazán's religiousness is that it appears to be prompted by rather profane trappings, such as the pomp and ceremony of the celebrations she attends in Rome. Indeed, her fervour, as depicted in Mi romería, comes across as a religious sentiment which penetrates through the senses instead of emanating from the heart. And although there can be no doubt that in her pilgrimage to the Eternal City Pardo Bazán attempts to become a better Catholic and to feel the religious fervour in a more devout way, it is also apparent that she is fully aware of and struggles with the profane overtones of the religious sentiment as experienced by her. One aspect of Mi romería that proves difficult to reconcile is the Christian and pagan connotations that coexist rather uncomfortably in this work. This duality could well be explained, as mentioned earlier, by the fact that Rome, the setting for the greater part of this work, was first a pagan and then a Christian city. It is possible that Pardo Bazán, without realizing it, has fallen under the spell of the Eternal City where, as she herself notes, pagan and Christian elements still jostle for position: En esta Roma, donde parece que á la vuelta de tantos siglos aún continúan luchando Cristo y Jove; en esta Roma bifronte como el antiguo Jano, en que se pueden visitar con pocos minutos de intervalo los salones testigos de las orgías imperiales y las Catacumbas, rellenas de huesos de confesores de la fe. (107) This dichotomy is also mentioned by Alarcón prior to his arrival in Rome: "Vamos a entrar [...] en la capital del Paganismo y del Cristianismo; en la morada de los Césares y de los Papas" (Alarcón, 1968: 1422), while Henry James notes that "in Rome you stumble at every step on some curious pagan memorial, often beautiful enough to make your thoughts wander far from the strange stiff primitive Christian forms" (James, [1959]: 338). In the section entitled "Acqua Vergine", Pardo Bazán succumbs to a Roman superstition: legend has it that all those who drink from the Fontana di Trevi at midnight on the eve of their departure will return to the Eternal City prior to their death. Pardo Bazán willingly complies; she dips her hand in the icy fountain and drinks its water. At this point one wonders whether in her journey to Italy she is in fact seeking some kind of spiritual regeneration or purification, the kind of purification that erases the past and allows the individual to be reborn. As González Martínez notes: En el agua todo se "disuelve", "toda forma" se rompe, todo lo que ha ocurrido deja de existir; nada de lo que antes existía perdura tras la inmersión en el agua [...]. Por destruir todas las formas, por borrar el pasado, el agua posee este poder de purificar, de regenerar, de nacer de nuevo... El agua purifica y regenera porque suprime el pasado, y restaura --aunque sólo sea por un instante-- la integridad de la aurora de las cosas. (González Martínez, 1988: 55) Alas, the reader is never told whether the gods smiled on Pardo Bazán in fulfilment of her wishes. The secret stays with her as she bids farewell to the Eternal City with a sentimental "Hasta la vista, Roma" (173). 1. Introduction In 1889 Pardo Bazán travelled to France as a feature writer for her friend José Lázaro Galdiano's recently founded review, La España Moderna,¹ to report on the Paris Universal Exhibition held that year. Her articles, mainly destined for publication in Spanish-American newspapers, were published in book form later in 1889 under the title Al pie de la torre Eiffel: (Crónicas de la Exposición). This account is in the epistolary form and consists of nineteen letters dated from 7 April to 14 July 1889. Cartas 1 and 2 were composed while Pardo Bazán was still in Madrid, and their object is to provide background information on France prior to her departure for Paris. Cartas 3 and 4 were written from Bordeaux, as the author made her way to the Universal Exhibition, and the rest of the entries were presumably penned in the French capital. Carta 7 contains what could be regarded as an advertencia, similar to that included in Mi romería. In it, Pardo Bazán warns that her chronicles will not be entirely dedicated to the Exhibition, for she intends to alternate this subject with personal opinions and impressions of individuals. --- ¹ The first number of La España Moderna appeared in January 1889. and topics of general interest (Pardo Bazán, [1889]: 107). Indeed, the fact that a significant part of Al pie sidesteps the Exhibition completely, focusing instead on Pardo Bazán's opinions, tastes, and interests, is pointedly noted by Antonio Díaz Benzo: "Creyendo leer cosas de París, me encuentro en su libro con cosas de usted" (Díaz Benzo, 1889: 17). Furthermore, in Carta 1 the author acknowledges her intention to be selective in her reporting on the Exhibition. She will be the only judge of what is worth describing in detail. Indeed, she announces that she is leaving for Paris "con objeto de escribir cuanto en mi opinión merezca ser referido del magno acontecimiento de la Exposición" [my italics] (1). This personal perspective, which would seem to indicate Pardo Bazán's intentions to act as a mediator between the Paris event and her readership, is again foregrounded by Díaz Benzo and robustly criticized: Todas las instalaciones y edificios de importancia que tiene la Exposición Universal de París no merecen para usted más atención que un rápido vistazo; los instrumentos y aparatos que usan los ingenieros los llama simplemente chismes, [...] hace caso omiso de los pabellones industriales; no admira ni estima la Galería de las Máquinas, siquiera como se admira y estima lo incomprensible, y no se determina á describir el Palacio de la Agricultura. [...] ¡Pues queda uno enterado de lo que había allí leyendo el libro de usted! (Díaz Benzo, 1889: 44-45) But in Carta 11, to which Díaz Benzo's comments refer, Pardo Bazán's selective approach could be justified since, as the title of the section indicates, she is only looking at the Exhibition "por fuera", delaying her inspection of the display "por dentro" "para cuando todas las instalaciones se encuentren completas" (188). 2. The Sense of Travel and Place, and Some Thoughts on Spaniards in Paris In Carta 1 of Al pie Pardo Bazán announces that during her stay in Paris she will be moving around the city and visiting, inter alia, some of the seediest spots of the Parisian underworld (18-20). However, this promise never materializes. In the same letter she also speaks of her experiences in Paris as a seasoned traveller and tourist but in retrospect, referring to previous stays in the French capital and adding: "La ardiente curiosidad que despierta París, pocos la habrán satisfecho con más detenimiento y holgura que yo. Sola y libre [...] la he recorrido sin perdonar callejuela" (15). Indeed, she briefly recalls her visits to the National Library, her evenings at the Opéra, her experiences in the best and also the humblest Parisian restaurants, her visits to the city's markets, her purchases in some of the most prestigious shops, her trips to the city's museums and art galleries, her soirées with Edmond de Goncourt, and so on (14-18). In this way, she is authenticating her credentials as a highly qualified guide to Paris and attempting to lend credibility and authority to her chronicles by demonstrating that she is fully familiar with the French capital, its institutions, and way of life. Furthermore, she mentions that she would welcome the chance to witness a public execution while in Paris -- "Espectáculo macabro y horrendo si los hay" (20) -- and as a justification for her macabre pursuits (often featured in her travel works) she observes: "No es frívolo afán de diversión lo que me incita á darme cuenta de todo, sino una especie de deber profesional, inherente á mis tareas de novelista y á mi condición de pensadora" (20). Pardo Bazán's penchant for the macabre also reveals itself in her three-day stay in Bordeaux, with her description, again in retrospect and referring to a previous trip, of the mummified bodies buried in the city's church of St Louis. She proudly announces how through her travels (which presumably have hardened her sensitivity) she has come to control her fear of gruesome and macabre spectacles: He mirado sin pestañear los ahogados del depósito secreto de la Morgue, extraídos después de permanecer cinco meses en el fondo del Sena; he penetrado de noche, á luz de un trémulo farolillo, en el pavoroso cementerio de los Capuchinos, en Roma; he recorrido las salas de enfermos graves del Hôtel-Dieu, y he visto depositar en el ataúd al difunto fallecido de terrible mal contagioso... Soy, pues, dueña de mí misma. (56-57) And it is while in Bordeaux that she recollects her stay in Barcelona the previous year, visiting the Universal Exhibition of 1888, which, free from professional commitments, she attended "como viajera perezosa, á gozar un mes de libertad y de recreo estético y ensoñador" (70). Once installed in Paris, Pardo Bazán refers, at the beginning of Carta 5, to the relative discomforts of the train journey from Bordeaux: Llegué á París en la madrugada del 4 [de Mayo], en un tren atestado de gente; imagino que la llevaba hasta dentro de los furgones. [...] "Fortuna --pensaba yo-- que estamos en tierra francesa. Allá en mi querida é incorregible patria, esto se habría convertido ya en tren botijo, y en lugar de los ocho asientos de cada departamento, iríamos aquí trece ó catorce personas hacinadas, molestándonos, y por consiguiente aborreciéndonos de todo corazón." (81-82) But after her arrival in the French capital, travel is sidestepped as Pardo Bazán concentrates her attention on the components of the Paris event and other ancillary pursuits. Earlier in Al pie Pardo Bazán noted that her stopover in Bordeaux helped alleviate the monotony of a trip undertaken many times before (55). Indeed, as she readily admits in the very first sentence of Al pie, her familiarity with Paris has undermined the excitement and anticipation that she would otherwise have felt as a traveller: "Si yo no conociese á fondo, casi palmo á palmo, la gran capital de Francia, ¡qué emoción experimentaría en estos instantes al encontrarme, como quien dice, puesto el pie en el estribo para salir hacia ella!" (1).² Here, and making no attempt at false modesty, the author presents herself as someone well acquainted with and able to appreciate Paris. Elsewhere in Carta 1, Pardo Bazán speaks in a patronizing and disdainful way of some of her compatriots who will be visiting the Universal Exhibition. She is referring to the unprepared and inexperienced average madrileño, travelling --- ² In fact, Al pie could almost be regarded as what Muggli terms a "domilogue", written "by residents or sojourners, rather than travelers", who "have become such fixtures in their foreign places that we -- not they -- are the travelers" (Muggli, 1992: 188). abroad for the first time to visit the Paris display. The fact that he does not speak the language, coupled with his unfamiliarity with French customs, will, she claims, turn this much-awaited trip into a nightmare. Hurriedly attempting to cover as much ground as possible, he sees all the sights and visits all the monuments, but without taking anything in. He becomes tired and irritable, and feels trapped by the crowds that surround him. The carefully calculated budget for the trip flies out of the window as soon as the unfortunate traveller crosses the border. Unforeseen expenses mount up, and the stay in Paris ends up costing much more than anticipated (21-25). Pardo Bazán, however, being a seasoned traveller, will take everything in her stride whilst visiting Paris: Yo, en cambio, estaré en mi elemento. Acostumbrada á viajar y familiarizada con París por largas residencias, cada cosa se me presentará en su verdadero horizonte, y el París moral é intelectual (el que no se ve con guías ni en un mes), se destacará de nuevo para mí sobre el murmullo ensordecedor del gran Certamen (25). Doubtless, she regards herself as one of those travellers who "have remained long enough in one province or place, [...] however often described before, to obtain that living acquaintance with it which always commands interest" (Murray, 1845d: 104). Her arrogant, patronizing attitude and the mockery to which she subjects the inexperienced traveller reflect a feeling of vain and unsympathetic superiority on Pardo Bazán's part: "¡Ah y qué cordialmente voy á reirme cuando encuentre por aquellas calles y aquellas instalaciones de la Exposición á mis vecinos del barrio de Salamanca, que no verán la hora de volver á catar su linfa del Lozoya y su puchero castizo" (24-25). She appears to overlook the fact that the average Spaniard does not share her privileged position which on this occasion at least allows her to travel freely with no budgetary constraints. With other visitors she is prepared to be more tolerant. Indeed, in the closing pages of Al pie Pardo Bazán speaks of her admiration for English travellers who refuse to be intimidated by the chauvinistic way in which the French exalt their customs, art, traditions, and national characteristics to the detriment of those of other nations. The English, a proud and energetic race with a strong sense of national identity, will not, she claims, play by these rules and, in consequence, their idiosyncrasies are respected by the French (293-94). Spaniards, however, eager to please and demonstrate their innate class by not questioning the extortionate prices charged by the French, become an object of ridicule in the neighbouring nation: "Pero nosotros, mansos corderos del turismo; nosotros que entramos en Francia resueltos á dejar que nos esquilen á trueque de probar nuestra hidalgía y finura (todo español acepta toda cuenta, es tradición y proverbio), nosotros somos el Quijote reidero, el figurón internacional, la víctima propiciatoria" (294). In this observation, Pardo Bazán is comparing the resolve and strong sense of national identity of English travellers with the exploitable chivalry of their Spanish counterparts, who are prepared to be hoodwinked on condition that their breeding is not compromised. Thus, she is possibly suggesting that chivalry in late nineteenth-century European travel is a liability rather than an asset, and that to behave like a trusting knighterrant is foolish. 3. The Political Implications of the 1889 Universal Exhibition Politics are never far from Pardo Bazan's mind, and in Al pie she uses every opportunity to establish a link between the Paris Exhibition and this topic so close to her heart. Indeed, as early as Carta 1, the Galician writer argues that so many nations have declined France's invitation to participate in the Paris Exhibition for political reasons. She claims that France has a tradition of revolutions and political unrest, and has attempted to transmit this instability and subversive tendency to other countries. The fact that the Exhibition commemorates the centenary of the French Revolution has apparently antagonized many nations, hence their decision to boycott the event (12-13). But despite this, Pardo Bazán is confident that the Paris Exhibition will be a total success: "¿Quién lo duda? La Exposición resultará; París rebosará de gente y harán su agosto los hosteleros, los tenderos, las cortesanas y las modistas" (14). The rejection by some foreign governments does not appear to undermine in any way the enthusiasm and --- 3 Indeed, Austria, Hungary, Belgium, China, Egypt, Spain, Britain, Italy, Luxemburg, Holland, Peru, Portugal, Romania, and Russia took part in the Exhibition, but not officially, while Germany, Sweden, Turkey, and Montenegro failed to be represented (The Encyclopaedia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, Literature and General Information, Eleventh Edition, New York, 1910-1911, 29 vols, vol. 10: 69). 4 In effect, The Times saw the event as a "great Exhibition, in which engineers, architects, and builders have vied in science, activity, and devotion in order to offer the world a work worthy of the genius of this country" ("Opening of the Paris Exhibition", The Times, 7 May 1889, p. 5). pride that the French feel about the Exhibition, which they regard as a common achievement (93). Pardo Bazán also notes that in the unlikely event that the Exhibition turns out to be a failure, the French government will be to blame for having arranged for the event to coincide with the one-hundredth anniversary of the fall of the Bastille, the most vivid symbol of the Revolution of 1789 and of the absolutism of the French monarchy (35). On this observation, which reveals a certain arrogance on Pardo Bazán's part, Díaz Benzo adds sarcastically: "No fué pequeña la [tontería] que cometió el Gobierno de Francia no consultando á usted la fecha y forma en que debía celebrar la Exposición. ¡Así se pierden las naciones!" (Díaz Benzo, 1889: 15). But in any case, the author's impressions of Paris soon after her arrival could not be more positive. The French capital is absolutely spotless. Paris is looking its best for the crowds arriving for the Exhibition and a feeling of national pride pervades the atmosphere. She offers the following description of the city of light or, as she refers to it, "una bacanal de luces": A lo largo de las fachadas, señalando las ventanas, puertas, molduras y cornisas hasta los pisos más altos, --- 5 The correspondent of The Times also speaks of the initial mistake committed by the French government "in desiring in every way to confound the Exhibition with the Revolution, and in trying to make a great display representing the progress of science and the arts as a result of a political revolution". Subsequently, however, "under the silent influence of public good sense at home and abroad, the Exhibition has dropped its intimate connexion with the Revolution, and the celebration of the centenary of that event is no longer to be regarded as the inauguration of the great display in the Champ de Mars" ("The Versailles Celebration", The Times, 6 May 1889, p. 7). las líneas de luz nacen y se destacan poco á poco, hasta que de repente queda toda la orilla derecha de París adornada con estrellas y girándolas de diamantes. [...] El Arco de Triunfo dibuja sobre la oscuridad nocturna un círculo de fuego. (102) Pardo Bazán goes on to observe that the Paris Exhibition is regarded by some French people as a way of getting back at the Germans: they may be militarily superior, but they lack the ingenuity and the organizational skills of the French who can charm the entire world into attending their Exhibition (84-85). At this point it becomes apparent to Pardo Bazán that the Paris Exhibition is as much about national psychology and politics as about inventions and industrial advancement. The Galician writer presents the event as acting as a kind of political wallpapering device for the French. The monarchists, putting aside the unhappy anniversary which for them the Exhibition commemorates, are engulfed by a feeling of national pride. Even the supporters of the disgraced General Boulanger decide to postpone their protests until after the event. And the average Frenchman, less preoccupied with politics, --- 6 Indeed, The Times remarked how in France "party spirit is silent in presence of the feeling of satisfaction and pride which has taken possession of the whole nation" ("The Versailles Celebration", The Times, 6 May 1889, p. 7). 7 The correspondent of The Times perceptively notes: "It seems already like ancient history to reflect that only a few months ago General Boulanger had a monopoly as regards the collecting of crowds in Paris, whereas to-night his name is not uttered, and he appears as if entirely forgotten" ("Opening of the Paris Exhibition", The Times, 7 May 1889, p. 5). welcomes the economic boom stimulated by the Exhibition (85).⁸ The morning of the inauguration, Pardo Bazán walks the Parisian streets sensing and breathing the excitement and anticipation which seize the French capital. Hundreds of thousands of people crowd the streets. They are all making their way, as if entranced, towards the new Colossus of the Eiffel Tower, which beckons at them from high up in the sky (92-93). As the landau of the President of the Republic makes its way down the Champs Elysées, the crowd gathered for the event apparently applauds with reservation and a touch of detached indifference.⁹ But the coldness of the people melts away as the band begins to play the first chords of "La Marseillaise". The crowd roars, electrified by the patriotism conveyed by the national anthem (97-98).¹⁰ With this description, the author seems to suggest that this crowd is the repository of the ardour, fervour, and convictions of the hordes that one hundred years earlier had taken the Bastille, and that the focus of attention is no longer the infamous prison but the Eiffel Tower, the contemporary emblem of the victory of 1789. Indeed, at the sound of "La Marseillaise", the time-gap magically disappears as the French people relive --- ⁸ "There is not a true Frenchman who is not enthusiastic in his desire to do what he can for the success of the great undertaking" ("The Versailles Celebration", The Times, 6 May 1889, p. 7). ⁹ The correspondent of The Times noted: "M. Carnot had arrived through a dense but not very enthusiastic crowd" ("Opening of the Paris Exhibition", The Times, 7 May 1889, p. 5). ¹⁰ In effect, soon after Carnot's arrival at the Exhibition, there began "an outburst of general popular enthusiasm which scarcely ceased the whole time that the Head of the State remained in the grounds" ("Opening of the Paris Exhibition", The Times, 7 May 1889, p. 5). the emotions and convictions which guided them in 1789: ¿Qué misterioso dinamismo ha puesto el genio del hombre en unas cuantas notas, en el rudimento de una melodía, para que [...] conserven su celeste virginidad y se levanten puras, incólumes, electrizadoras, en los momentos supremos de la vida del pueblo que las creó? (98) What comes as a surprise is to learn that Pardo Bazán, a staunch conservative and monarchist, idealizes the motives of those who stormed the Bastille. She then laments and criticizes the violent excesses committed by the liberators, who in turn adopted the same despotic practices as the representatives of the Ancien Régime: ¿Por qué el recuerdo de un hecho inspirado en el sentimiento más noble de piedad y justicia ha de ir unido á memorias tan sangrientas como las que son afrenta del mismo régimen despótico? [...] Arrasada la Bastilla, levantábase el terror del farol y de la guillotina. Pronto el degüello sería institución popular, y la libertad se daría un baño completo de sangre humana. (49) In the "Confesión política" of Mi romería, which was discussed in Chapter 3, it was noted that Pardo Bazán condemns the violent, anti-religious, and anti-clerical excesses of the Spanish revolution of 1868 (Pardo Bazán, 1888: 193). Indeed, in La Alpujarra (1874) Alarcón qualifies the Gloriosa as "una conspiración contra la Religión católica" (Alarcón, 1968: 1546), and it was anti-religious excesses that caused Pardo Bazán subsequently to reject the principles of this revolution. It is possible that with time she came to associate the violence she had witnessed in the wake of the Gloriosa with what she had learned about the bloody aftermath of the French Revolution. Be that as it may, in Al pie, even though implicitly, she appears to draw a parallel between both historical events. It seems that from a young age Pardo Bazán was fascinated with and had an idealized perception of the entire historical drama attached to the French Revolution. In her "Apuntes autobiográficos" (1886) she writes that after reading several books on the French Revolution as a child she came to regard this event as "el más interesante drama del mundo" (Pardo Bazán, 1973: 703). However, in the latter part of her career the political consequences of the French Revolution preyed on her mind. In an article published in La Ilustración Artística of 17 April 1905, in which she reviews Galdós's play Bárbara, the author suggests that the revolutionary spirit of 1789 continued to rule the destiny of Europe even after Napoleon's defeat at Waterloo in 1815 and after the restoration of the Bourbon dynasty in France (Pardo Bazán, 1972: 211-12). In any case, in Al pie the author claims that the carnage which took place in July 1789 is no cause for celebration, and that the date chosen for the Exhibition may well upset the feelings of those nations which, opposed to revolutionary practices, still have the monarchy as their system of government. The past should be laid to rest and the display should concentrate on the future. For the Galician writer, the Paris Exhibition should be a symbol for peace, harmony, and industrial development, and not a commemoration of violence and bloodshed (49-50). But what Pardo Bazán omits to mention is that bloodshed and violence were regarded by many Frenchmen as the price that had to be paid for freedom, and that the French would, of course, see 1789 as revolution and liberty.\textsuperscript{11} 4. Spain at the Universal Exhibition: Politics, Economics, and Culture In Carta 1, and in order to provide some kind of background to Spain's participation in the Paris Exhibition, Pardo Bazán speaks of the commercial relations between Spain and France and identifies the neighbouring nation as Spain's most valued trading partner (5-6). In effect, the free-trade policy of the Sexenio (1868-1874) was continued by the Liberals in the 1880s, and after their return to power in 1881 they set forth a policy of trade agreements, such as those signed with France in 1882 and with Britain in 1886. The trade with these two nations represented two thirds of Spanish exports and over half of the country's imports (Tortella, 1981: 154). Pardo Bazán also touches on the question of Spain's dependence on French technology, and is adamant that her country should overcome its technological inferiority in order to manufacture its own products, thus avoiding the crippling costs of French imports (5-6). Here she is referring to the way Spain became indebted to foreign investors during the nineteenth century, mainly those of France, Britain, Belgium, and Germany. Indeed, for the exploitation of its mining resources in the second half of the century, Spain, due to a shortage of domestic investors and to its low technological \textsuperscript{11} Indeed, the correspondent of \textit{The Times} alludes to "the great majority of the [French] nation, who support the principles of the Revolution as a patrimony of which they are proud" ("The Versailles Celebration", \textit{The Times}, 6 May 1889, p. 7). level, had to resort to the importation of foreign capital and technology. In the period 1850-91, 3371.7 million pesetas' worth of foreign capital was invested in Spain, which compensated for the accumulated deficit of the balance of trade for the same period, amounting to 3556.1 million pesetas (Tortella, 1981: 101, 102). The intervention of foreign businesses in the economy of nineteenth-century Spain is also noted by Carlos Blanco Aguinaga: "Durante la segunda mitad del XIX, en la urgente busca europea de materias primas y de terreno propicio para las inversiones [...], así como, en menor grado, en la busca de nuevos mercados, España llegó a ser importante zona colonizable" (Blanco Aguinaga, 1970: 22). The Galician writer laments that Spanish traditional goods and products now come second to their French substitutes because Spaniards favour French goods over those produced at home (6). But the counterbalance is provided, as Pardo Bazán notes, by the income obtained from the export of Spanish produce to France: Pero así y todo, Francia nos ofrece más de lo que nos lleva, tomando nuestros caldos, desde el añejo Valdepeñas al dorado Jerez, los minerales de nuestras sierras, el corcho de nuestros alcornocales, el aceite de nuestros olivos, la suave lana de nuestros borregos. (6-7) In effect, in the nineteenth century Spain's wine industry was widely spread over the entire Peninsula, with Andalusia and Catalonia as the main exporting regions. During this time, Spain exported large amounts of wine to France to be used for the coupage, and when phylloxera struck French vineyards during the period 1875-85 export figures increased significantly (Tortella, 1981: 83). Indeed, Raymond Carr notes that "from 1868 France began to import huge quantities of Spanish wine; between 1882 and 1892, with thirty steamers a week taking wine from Tarragona to French ports, Spain dominated the world wine market, a domination which was exploited with anarchic euphoria and little thought for the future" (Carr, 1982: 392). As in other industries, foreign capital did eventually move into Spain to take over the export sector of Spanish wines. Names like Terry, Garvey, Sandeman, Byass, Osborne, and Domecq (French) are proof of this foreign invasion. However, following the phylloxera infestation of Spanish vineyards between 1885 and 1905, a major economic crisis resulted in some provinces, such as Málaga, which led to a dramatic drop in wine exports (Tortella, 1981: 83). When commenting on trade relations between Spain and Germany, Pardo Bazán argues that high import tariffs ensure that Spanish exports to Germany are kept to a minimum. And yet, she adds, the Spanish market is flooded with substandard German goods imported at inflated prices. Hence, the author has harsh words for Germany and its wine, noting: ¿Qué ha de esperar España [...] de una nación populosa y vasta, amiga de empinar el codo y donde, sin embargo, sólo se consumen nuestros vinos por valor de dos millones quinientas mil pesetas? Nuestros vinos, esos néctares [...] tan diferentes de los aceitosos jugos de las viñas del Rhin, los cuales, á guisa de muchacha clorótica que se pinta las mejillas, necesitan que el color del cristal les disimule la palidez. (7) However, regardless of the protectionist behaviour of the Teutonic nation mentioned by the Galician writer, Germany's contribution to the development of Spain's economy in the second half of the nineteenth century was significant, with, for example, Spain exporting a good deal of its iron ore to Germany (Tortella, 1981: 53-54). Nevertheless, Pardo Bazán continues her diatribe against Germany and against the Spanish Liberal party's commercial and foreign policy towards this nation: Industrialmente, no cabe duda: estamos al lado de Francia más bien que al de Alemania, y las complacencias de nuestro Gobierno con el del Canciller en la cuestión de aranceles, no nos ha reconciliado con el país de los juguetes de plomo y los alcoholes amílicos. Pero políticamente... ya es harina de otro costal. (7) It is possible that by 1889, the year of the Paris Exhibition, the author was painfully aware of Spain's manipulation by Germany regarding its accession to the Triple Alliance. On 6 May 1887 Spain pledged allegiance to the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy) through Italy, because it was Bismarck's intention to avoid a direct connection between Spain and Germany which could appear threatening to France. The pact, prepared by Bismarck, had little to offer Spain and did not even recognize Spanish interests. Spain, for its part, undertook not to reach any kind of agreement with France which would be detrimental to any of the nations of the Triple Alliance. The treaty was renewed by Cánovas del Castillo in 1891 but not in 1895. Thus, in the fateful year of 1898 Spain stood alone and unaligned with any other European power (Tortella [Jover Zamora], 1981: 346-47). Renewing the economic theme, in Carta 9 the author notes how the French make a point of promoting at the Exhibition some of their most famous products, such as Sèvres porcelain and Gobelin tapestries, and suggests that were Spain not immersed in an economic crisis, it, too, could learn to promote its manufacturing industry which at present, she claims, just manages to stay afloat (149). As in Carta 1, Pardo Bazán laments that Spain lacks the confidence to promote its own products because it regards them as being of inferior quality to those of foreign origin. Moreover, she is greatly disappointed because not a single piece of Spanish porcelain or pottery is on show at the Paris Exhibition. Spain, she argues, should emulate Portugal's marketing skills, for that country's porcelain, although of inferior quality to that of Spain, is being exhibited at the display (163-64). Overall, she concludes that Spain's manufacturing industry is poorly represented at the event. The Spanish exhibits consist mainly of agricultural and food products, and these, as Pardo Bazán notes, are not manufactured goods, but the gifts of a generous Mother Nature combined with the expertise of traditional farming methods (170). Later, and on the issue of Spain's cultural contribution to the Exhibition, Pardo Bazán explains the difficulties which had to be overcome before a representative sample of Spanish painting could be exhibited at the Paris event. She criticizes the Spanish government's reticence when the time came to send some paintings to Paris: its ineptitude and shortsightedness, she stresses, could well have irreparably damaged the image and prestige of Spain's art (205). The author appears to use this section to discredit her country's government (headed at the time by the Liberal Práxedes Sagasta), whose sympathies towards France she had attacked earlier in Al pie (10-11), and also to emphasize what she sees at its inadequacies. However, after describing in detail the Spanish paintings on show at the Exhibition, Pardo Bazán praises the efforts made by the committee in charge of the display of her country's collection and concludes that, despite all the vicissitudes, the exhibition of Spanish painting has been very successful (218). It is noteworthy that the author's description of the paintings on show is rather amateurish, revealing an absence of in-depth knowledge of the subject. Yet, Pardo Bazán readily admits to this deficiency: "Al emitir un juicio comparativo entre naciones, es difícil no herir el amor propio de alguna, y más arduo decidir con equidad, sobre todo si no poseemos conocimientos sólidos y nos guía únicamente la afición y el gusto" (219). However, this lack of expertise does not prevent her from comparing Spanish and French nineteenth-century painting and concluding, in an authoritative tone, that Spanish artists are in no way inferior to their French counterparts (220). What comes to mind here is Murray's remark to the effect that travel writers tend to include a significant amount of criticism in their works, regardless of "whatever protestations of ignorance [with which] the author may preface his narrative" (Murray, 1858a: 359). Indeed, on occasions Pardo Bazán's robust patriotism certainly colours her opinions, prompting her to pass rather subjective and unsubstantiated judgements. 5. Progress, Machinery, Art, Nature, and Spiritual Purification Pardo Bazán's inherent dislike of factories and machinery in general was mentioned in Chapter 2, and in Al pie, even before arriving in Paris, she envisages herself suffocated by all the machinery, iron structures, and inventions featured at the Exhibition. Moreover, she anticipates that the experience will be so unpleasant that she will be forced to seek refuge in Nature and art, which will bring solace to a soul tortured by industrial advancement. Here, she is presenting an implicit antithesis between Nature and the industrial age, and between aesthetic values and progress: Mañana saldré de Burdeos hacia París, á fin de presenciar la ceremonia de la apertura. Sólo de oír nombrar tanta galería de hierro, tanta maquinaria, tanta electricidad, tanto ascensor vertical y oblicuo, tanta palanca y tanto endiablado invento como ostenta el Campo de Marte, parece que me entra jaqueca. ¿Qué será cuando los vea funcionar? Me refugiaré en los jardines, en los cuadros, en las estatuas, en el eterno asilo de las almas ensoñadoras: la Naturaleza y el Arte. (80) These observations present Pardo Bazán as being opposed to technology, progress, industrial advancement, and, in essence, to modern times. Later in the work, the Galician writer draws an interesting comparison between the models of the Bastille that were sold as souvenirs during the aftermath of the French Revolution, and the models of the Eiffel Tower purchased by the visitors to this Exhibition (105-06). Here, she seems to be making a parallel between the Bastille as the symbol of the autocratic ways of pre-Revolution France, and the Eiffel Tower as the embodiment of man's subjection to progress and modernity. In other words, the individual has changed one gaoler for another, because if prior to 1789 he was the prisoner of the Ancien Régime, he is now the slave of the demands of modern technology. In her account of the opening of the Paris event there is again the notion that the gardens which encircle the exhibition area act as a kind of oasis for Pardo Bazán. Surrounded by technological feats and by an enthusiastic public, she seeks solace in Nature. She dislikes crowds and feels trapped in them: Consigo salir de aquel chicharrero y beber á mis anchas el aire libre de los jardines. [...] Tengo una especie de fiebre rara, que podría llamar "la calentura de las multitudes." Porque andan por aquí más de doscientas cincuenta mil personas, y su continuo ir y venir, el vocerío de sus diálogos, forma una sinfonía que embriaga y roba toda tranquilidad. (100) This aversion to crowded and noisy spaces is also referred to in a letter written to Galdós during her stay in Paris: "La agitación y el mareo inherentes a estos certámenes me los echan a perder mucho" (Pardo Bazán, 1975: 75). Once at the Exhibition, Pardo Bazán's dislike of machinery and technical artefacts, as well as her lack of appreciation of technological achievements, become evident: Cada cual es como Dios le hizo, y á mí me falta la casilla de las máquinas, instrumentos y planos. [...] A cualquiera menos á mí se le ocurriría consagrar enfáticos elogios á la Galería de las Máquinas, que á todo el mundo admira por la audacia de su construcción y su magnitud [...]. Para mí esto es un problema científico magistralmente resuelto; pero comprendo que no sé apreciarlo; que no lo admiro ni lo estimo, á proporción de lo que debe de valer. (194, 195) But in spite of her reticence, the machines on display seem to beckon to Pardo Bazán. They, too, want to be part of her chronicle. They represent the future, progress, they deserve to be noticed. Pardo Bazán, the admirer of the past and of ancient monuments, is intimidated by these modern artefacts which, although constructed of cold metal, seem to have a life of their own. Indeed, she attributes human characteristics to them: Las máquinas andan, respiran, giran, funcionan; estos monstruos de hierro y acero viven con una vida fantástica, y parece que me dicen con su chirrido y su estridor: "¡Oh empedernida amante del pasado, oh admiradora infatigable de las catedrales viejas y de los edificios muertos! Describénos, que también nosotros merecemos que nos atiendas. Sé poeta para nosotros, como lo has sido para las góticas torres del siglo XIII. Mira que aunque parecemos unos pedazos de bruto metal, [...] en nosotros hay un poema: somos estrofas, somos canto." Yo las miro sonriendo, y salgo cuanto antes de allí, por temor á una jaqueca de las de primera clase, que me impediría escribir hoy estas notas. (99) Despite the touches of humour and self-mockery in this passage, it could be argued that the Galician writer is ill-equipped, both emotionally and professionally, to report on the technological side of the Exhibition, and that she only obliges because it is her journalistic duty. Indeed, although unnecessarily harsh, Díaz Benzo's comments seem to confirm this assumption: "Sale cuanto antes de allí [la Galería de las Máquinas] por temor á una jaqueca de las de primera clase. Sea, por caridad, más franca. Usted salió por no hablar de lo que no entendía, y ojalá hiciera siempre lo mismo [...] antes de escribir sin madura reflexión" (Díaz Benzo, 1889: 24-25). In effect, in Por Francia y por Alemania Pardo Bazán was to admit that "para los ignorantes como yo, lo bonito de la Galería consiste en las luces eléctricas" [my italics] (Pardo Bazán, [1890]: 4). Furthermore, and as was seen earlier, the author is much more interested in the political, cultural, and social implications of the Paris event than in the actual exhibits. Certainly, it seems that Pardo Bazán is only attracted to technological feats when they are aesthetically appealing. Thus, she is greatly impressed by and in awe of the illuminated fountains of the showground, whose waters glitter like a cascade of precious stones, and which she described as "tan hermoso fenómeno" [my italics] (250). Yet, uncharacteristically for Pardo Bazán, a detailed description of the technological intricacies of these fountains is in fact given in Carta 15 (250-51). In this particular instance, she puts aside the coldness she normally feels towards technological feats because the fountains appeal to her aesthetic values, and to beauty she is never indifferent. Of course, the most impressive (and lasting) technological achievement of the Exhibition was the Eiffel Tower, and on the night of the inauguration (6 May 1889) Pardo Bazán goes down to the Seine to inspect it ("el coloso de hierro de la Industria") at a close range. Overcome by the emotion of the moment and by the beauty of the fireworks which light up the Parisian sky, she forgets the prejudices that cold metal structures inspire in her. The Colossus acquires in Pardo Bazán's eyes a beauty, grace, and delicacy comparable only to those of the old churches of which she is so fond: La armazón del coloso [...] es un encaje finísimo de hierro, más calado que ningún rosetón ojival, de una gracia y de una delicadeza aérea. [...] Su densa y dura materia, bañada por la inmaterial hermosura de la luz eléctrica, se espiritualiza, y ese gigante de la industria semeja el ensueño de un poeta. (104) Here again, as in the case of the illuminated fountains, her anti-technology mentality succumbs to the Eiffel Tower's aesthetic impact. Pardo Bazán goes on to convey the notion that the celebrations of that night are a kind of pagan festival. The worshippers of the Republic, represented by the Colossus, dance in honour of their idol. Christ and His cross are symbolically trampled on as the crowd rushes to pay homage to the new god: Al oír el clamoreo de la ebria multitud, acudieron á mi memoria [...] las palabras que oí á un discípulo de Maistre, enemigo, por consiguiente, de la Revolución, y de la Exposición también: "París danzará sobre la fosa de su gloria y sobre el calabozo en que tiene encerrada la Cruz. Este centenario es la apoteosis del ateísmo, la sanción de cuantas iniquidades lleva cometidas el siglo XIX". (105) In this episode the Eiffel Tower is presented as the great symbol of technology, engineering, and modern attitudes. Paris and its Universal Exhibition are, in fact, depicted as a microcosm of what is happening in the rest of the world in the closing stages of the nineteenth century: the Christian religion has been superseded by the new "religion" of industrial advancement. Interestingly, the prosaic and near-pagan tenor of the celebrations was also noted by the correspondent of The Times: The absence of any religious ritual to-day was very marked. Had the Archbishop of Paris, accompanied by his clergy, been present to invoke a blessing on the Exhibition the ceremony would certainly have been much more impressive and less prosaic. [...] But to-night has quite eclipsed that annual celebration [the 14th of July] [...]. The public buildings have been lavishly illuminated [...]. All the principal streets, indeed, are ablaze with light, and all Paris is in the open air. ("Opening of the Paris Exhibition", The Times, 7 May 1889, p. 5) The notion of the nineteenth century as a period of spiritual barrenness and religious indifference is further emphasized by Pardo Bazán in Carta 8, where she calls for some kind of religious renaissance and admits that in order to compensate for the religious and spiritual vacuum of modern times she has sought solace in art: No me resigno con la indiferencia religiosa de nuestro siglo [...] y que me llenaría de puro gozo un renacimiento de las creencias y una nueva infusión de caridad. El mundo actual me parece seco y frío, lo cual no ha dejado de hacerme sufrir, siéndome preciso echar toda la corriente de mi espíritu hacia el lado del arte. En él he encontrado asilo seguro, y una convicción de que mi obra, parcial y subjetiva, valga poco ó casi nada, puede tener algún resultado objetivo y ser un holocausto en el altar de la verdad. (141) Has art, therefore, become a kind of surrogate religion for Pardo Bazán in which she invests her spiritual energy? The answer appears to be in the affirmative, judging by her earlier comments to the novelist Edmond de Goncourt: Mis goces más intensos y más duraderos, al arte los debí. No sólo ante un poema ó una página de primer orden, pero ante un cuadro, estatua, ánfora ó pieza de bronce bien labrado experimento impresiones tan delicadas y gratas, que no concedo á nadie pueda experimentarlas superiores. (121-22) Also in Carta 8, the author speaks of her manifest opposition to Positivism, a modern "religion" which offers no god, no temple, no miracles, and a "religion" which has no followers amongst those it attempts to redeem: Para abrazar una doctrina religiosa hay que tener fe en la palabra de su fundador, y yo no la tengo en la de Augusto Comte, y sí en la de Cristo. ¿Qué misera religión es esa de Comte, sin Dios, sin culto, sin templo, sin mártires, sin persecuciones, sin milagros, sin dinamismo social, sin eco en el seno mismo de la humanidad que pretende redimir? (141-42) Here, Pardo Bazán comes very close to the true definition of Positivism as a philosophy or scientific creed based on cold facts, observation, scientific evidence, and empirical knowledge, a "religion" that chooses to ignore the individual's spiritual needs and the metaphysical side of human existence. On the day of the inauguration, the author, overcome by her nostalgia for the deserted streets of central Paris, abandons the Exhibition and rushes to a particular church to pray. In this episode, the act of going to church acquires purifying qualities. It is possible that Pardo Bazán, feeling in a way contaminated both ideologically and physically by the "pagan" crowds surrounding her at the Exhibition, wants to cleanse herself, to purify her soul and her body in the peace and quiet of a church: ¡Qué soledad reinará en aquellas calles! ¡Qué tristeza respirarán los altos portones, las ventanas herméticamente cerradas, los escasos transeuntes que crucen el bulevar San Miguel ó las vías colindantes, en busca del silencioso hogar ó de la muda iglesia! Este pensamiento me llena de nostalgia, y determino [...] hacer una cosa que hoy no se le ocurrirá, tal vez, á ningún viajero: entrar en la iglesia de mi amada Virgen de las Victorias --que ha permitido que venciésemos á los franceses,-- y rezarle una Salve. (100-01) In Carta 8 of Al pie, Pardo Bazán's religious faith certainly rises to the surface. She may cultivate wordly activities, but she often feels the urge to pray and be close to God. And as in the letter dedicated to the opening of the Exhibition, the church, the temple is presented as a place which provides spiritual sustenance, and where the body and the mind are purified after having been contaminated by the profane pursuits which, for her, characterize modern life: Por lo que á mí toca, no negaré que experimento en grado altísimo la necesidad religiosa. A vueltas de mis estudios, de mis distracciones, de mis viajes, de mis aficiones artisticas, á veces paganas, mi fondo creyente resurge á cada paso, y llegan días en que necesito iglesia, como necesitaría, en lo material, el agua para So although on occasions the author may have seen art as a substitute "religion" for what she regarded as the spiritual barrenness of the nineteenth century, it is evident that the Christian religion continued to provide a safe haven to which she returned at troubled times in order to find peace within herself. 6. Pardo Bazán's Belligerence and the Spanish Military In Carta 11 of Al pie Pardo Bazán is, literally speaking, in a belligerent mood. She claims that war is inexorably linked with the advancement of civilization and that she mistrusts the "armed peace" which, like a threatening cloud, hangs over Europe (183). Indeed, she would welcome an open war if it served to clear the air and bring the present stalemate to an end: "Llegue enhorabuena el conflicto; descargue la nube, resuélvase el problema y sonría otra vez el sol" (186). Of course, the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, with the loss for France of Alsace and Lorraine, was still fresh in the memory of most Europeans, and this, coupled with the unification and ever-increasing military and industrial might of Germany, presumably explains the tensions described by the author. Still on a military note, Pardo Bazán argues that an idle army loses its raison d'être, its pride, its nerve, its self-respect, and its determination. To illustrate this point she gives as an example the present malaise which, in her opinion, assails the Spanish military: Durante los ocios de la paz, no sólo pierde la profesión militar su razón de ser, sino que se convierte en el más prosaico de los oficios. Basta ver en las capitales de provincia (de España hablo) á los oficiales de las distintas armas cómo se vuelven al cabo de poco tiempo de cuartel, descanso y vida doméstica. Lo primero que hacen es aborrecer su oficio; no querer ponerse jamás el uniforme; dejarse crecer el pelo y la barba, con manifiesto descuido; criar panza, casarse, cargarse de hijos y adoptar el tipo del ciudadano pacífico por excelencia. El pundonor quisquilloso, la galante caballerosidad, la resolución, la energía que la profesión militar lleva consigo, todo lo echa el oficial español en el desabrido pucherete de la familia modesta [...]. Olvidado de la galanura y elegancia marcial, va sucio, derrotado, sin botones y con el galonaje color de desteñido cobre; y, por último, sólo se acuerda de que abrazó lo que nuestros abuelos llamaban "la nobilísima carrera de las armas" el día que tocan á cobrar; el día en que cae del cielo --mal ganado-- el garbanzo maldito. (183-84) Pardo Bazán adds that, despite the high cost involved in maintaining this institution, in the event of war the army would fail miserably to protect the nation. The military, she claims, is a superfluous luxury that Spain cannot afford (185). The Spanish armed forces were in effect a significant drain on the country's financial resources, with 25.3% of the national budget between 1850 and 1890 invested in military expenditure (Guerra: 5228 million pesetas, 20.3% of the national budget; Marina: 1283 million pesetas, 5% of the national budget) (Tortella, 1981: 140). Another serious problem affecting the Spanish armed forces was the surplus of officers in relation to the number of soldiers. In 1898 Spain's military (with an 80,000-strong army) had six times France's number of officers although the French army comprised 180,000 men (Julio Busquets, El militar de carrera en España, Barcelona, 1971: 25, cited in Martínez Cuadrado, 1973: 248). In 1900 the military had 417 generals and 24,750 officers (Tortella [Ruiz], 1981: 462). By 1906 a mere 80,000 men were under the command of almost 50 generals and 18,000 officers, and it was not until 1912 that General Luque, war minister in Canalejas's cabinet, increased the number of soldiers to 135,000 (Tortella [Ruiz], 1981: 494-95). Pardo Bazán's allegations concerning the inability of the Spanish army to defend the nation were, of course, shown to be distressingly accurate during the Spanish-American War of 1898, when the weaknesses of this parasitical institution feeding off past glories were dramatically revealed. Indeed, in the edition of Al pie published shortly after the events of 1898, the Galician writer, with thinly veiled satisfaction, announces that her earlier predictions had been justified. However, displaying laudable equanimity, she also adds that she will not judge the army any more severely than other Spanish institutions (Al pie de la torre Eiffel, 1899: 5-6, cited in Hilton, 1952e: 14). The author's scathing attack on the Spanish military caused much controversy at home, not only in the press but also among the members of the armed forces. Antonio Díaz Benzo, under the pseudonym of "Un militar", published a leaflet entitled Al pie de la Torre de los Lujanes: contestación á las cartas de Doña Emilia Pardo Bazán tituladas "Al pie de la torre Eiffel" (1889). In the letter which introduces the leaflet, Díaz Benzo claims to be proud of belonging to an institution which protects the nation, and not to feel hurt by Pardo Bazán's comments although: Clava al Ejército español el acerado dardo de su fina sátira, envuelto entre las flores y bellezas de un galano estilo. No es ésta la mayor injusticia que el Ejército ha sufrido con la resignación que da la disciplina, pero injusticia al fin. Como las ofensas de una señora no alcanzan á los caballeros, no estamos ofendidos; pero ya que usted, con humorismo y desgaire, nos dedica algunas páginas, yo voy á contestarle en otras cuantas del mismo modo, porque los militares reservamos los ataques bruscos para los enemigos masculinos. (Díaz Benzo, 1889: 5-6) Overall, Díaz Benzo accuses Pardo Bazán of judging the army unfairly and of getting involved in questions that do not concern women. At the end he concludes that Pardo Bazán's Al pie: "Habla muchísimo bueno de usted, mucho mediano de sus amigos, muy mal de España, y pésimamente de nuestro sufrido Ejército, y poquisimo de la Exposición" (Díaz Benzo, 1889: 61). In Por Francia y por Alemania (1890), the sequel to Al pie, Pardo Bazán admits to being surprised by the controversy caused by what she calls her comments "de estilo entre humorístico y censorio" (Pardo Bazán, [1890]: 252) on the --- 12 The Torre de los Lujanes, situated on the eastern side of the Plaza de la Villa, opposite Madrid's Ayuntamiento, is supposed to have been the prison of François I after his capture in Pavia in 1525. This tower does, therefore, symbolize the very heart of Madrid and serves as a reminder of Spanish victories over France during the Golden Age (Hilton, 1952c: 306). Spanish army. To defend her position, she brandishes the banner of the writer's freedom of speech, adding that she finds no justification as to why the army should regard itself as above journalistic criticism (Pardo Bazán, [1890]: 252-53). She reiterates that it was never her intention to upset or offend anyone. In fact, she claims to have some very good friends who happen to be army officers and whom she holds in great esteem. Here, Pardo Bazán is in a conciliatory mood, but only up to a point, retorting that the large number of insulting letters received, most of them anonymous, made her change her mind about omitting her comments on the Spanish army from the new Spanish edition and the French translation of Al pie (Pardo Bazán, [1890]: 258-60). She would not be intimidated by anyone, not even by the Spanish military. 7. The Monarchy In Carta 2 Pardo Bazán paints a highly distressing and disturbing picture of the appalling and inhuman conditions endured by the prisoners of the Bastille. In this disease-ridden and vermin-infected hell on earth, the captives rotted away forgotten by God and man alike (37-38). By foregrounding the atrocities perpetrated at the Bastille and ignoring the abuses by the absolute monarchy in power at the time, the Galician writer is possibly attempting to shift the blame for the outbreak of the French Revolution from the wrong-doings of the monarchy to the practices of the infamous prison, which she projects as the epitome of everything that was evil, cruel, and wicked in the Ancien Régime (46-48). Indeed, in Carta 5 Pardo Bazán presents the monarchy as possessing an aesthetic appeal, as being the ornament or icing on the cake that events such as the Paris Exhibition really need. In other words, the monarchy adds glamour, and although this institution no longer carries any political weight, the author finds it indispensable for making such occasions visually impressive: "Ello es indudable: la Monarquía, casi anulada políticamente por el sistema constitucional, es una forma de Gobierno insustituible desde el punto de vista decorativo y externo: la piden los sentidos" (86). As an apparent believer in an independent, strong, and absolute monarchy, the Galician writer uses these comments, then, to attack the concept of constitutional monarchy. Pardo Bazán claims that the monarchy is popular because it represents (presumably in an idealized way) the social institution par excellence: the family. A nation may be fond of its king, but the appeal and devotion the monarch generates are always channelled through his immediate family: his wife and his children. It is, in her view, the king's family that endears the monarch to his people: El Rey, para conquistar nuestras simpatías --siquiera irreflexivas y momentáneas-- va escudado por el santuario de los afectos, por el símbolo de la gracia y del amor: la esposa y los hijitos. [...] Al pasar la carroza donde sonríen unas tiernas criaturitas, el pueblo --que tiene un fondo de bondad inagotable-- se enternece y aclama, sin sospechar cuánto revela de generosos sentimientos el acto de aclamar una institución porque la representa un angelote blanco y colorado, y porque al vitorearla se vitorea al Sancta Sanctorum del corazón humano... la dulce familia. (87, 88). The Galician writer develops this point by recounting an anecdote which supposedly occurred during the French Revolution. When the revolutionary hordes, that in July 1789 stormed the royal palace demanding the sacrifice of Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette, were told by the Queen that the Dauphin was asleep in the next room, their furore subsided and they tiptoed across the royal chamber in order not to disturb the young prince's sleep (89). However, Pardo Bazán, being a staunch supporter of monarchy, chooses not to allow that the monarch, in using his family as a kind of protective screen, is in fact manipulating the people by playing on their natural affections towards defenceless individuals. There are several reminders in Al pie to the effect that France, in the eyes of Pardo Bazán and in particular during the celebrations attached to the Exhibition, is a deprived country because it no longer has a monarchy as its state institution. In Carta 13, the Galician writer reiterates the need that, in her opinion, France has of such an institution. The role of the dethroned king is being played, inadequately she claims, by Marie-François-Sadi Carnot, the President of the Republic, and his wife. The author is adamant that Latin countries need a reigning monarch on whom to focus their ardour, and regards Carnot, the abstract embodiment of the Republic, as a poor substitute to act as a sounding-board for the people's affections (225). In Por Francia y por Alemania the author argues that the French are aware of this deficiency. Hence, their excitement every time a crowned head visits the Exhibition, including the Shah of Persia, the absolute monarch par excellence: "París el demoledor de Bastillas, el revolucionario, el heraldo de la libertad y la igualdad, y en vez de exclamar, como pedía la lógica, '¡Si serán brutos los persas!' hace lo mismo que ellos y se postra ante Nasaredino" (Pardo Bazán, [1890]: 68). This attitude of the French towards the monarchy was later reiterated in Pardo Bazán's article "A la rusa" (November 1896). Referring to the visit to Paris of Tzar Nicholas of Russia, she argues that the French display the same proficiency at decapitating reigning monarchs as they do at fêting them. The Tzar, who at the time of the French Revolution would have been regarded as a tyrant, is now honoured and entertained by the Parisians (Pardo Bazán, [1902b]: 42). Similar sentiments are indicated by Murray when he notes that though the French "have lost the old ennobling feeling, they have not lost the taste for the trappings of Royalty" (Murray, 1850: 535). Overall, Pardo Bazán's defence of the monarchy, as an institution badly needed by the French, relies on emotional and aesthetic arguments, on the visual attraction that this institution would provide for events such as the Paris Exhibition. After considering the justification the author makes for the monarchy, one could be forgiven for concluding that her "aesthetic" argument is nothing but a ploy to promote this institution in a country that has dispensed with it. Yet it is true that nineteenth-century constitutional monarchs, deprived of their absolute powers, had generally become ornamental figures. Indeed, this is the impression conveyed by Darío in his article "El Rey" (25 April 1899). For the Nicaraguan poet, the pomp and ceremony of royal occasions, having as their protagonist a now powerless monarch, have their historic value undermined as they acquire theatrical overtones which border on the comical. The parading of the king in public becomes a charade devoid of any political meaning. It is contrived, uninspiring, and totally artificial (Darío, 1987: 129). 8. Pardo Bazán's Attitude to France Judging by Pardo Bazán's observations in Al pie, it is clear that her attitude to France is ambivalent, as was the case with many educated Spaniards of the late nineteenth century. She recognizes that France, and Paris in particular -- "el cerebro del mundo" (14) -- have for long been the cultural, political, and intellectual centre of Europe (1-2). Yet at the same time she resents the pre-eminence of the neighbouring nation. This resentment appears to be linked to a deep-seated mistrust. Indeed, in Al pie she reiterates that for centuries France has been Spain's political and military adversary, always lurking in the background and waiting to profit from Spain's misfortunes. She refers to the French invasion that triggered the War of Independence and threatened to annihilate Spain, and speaks of the French as a treacherous race never to be trusted (7-9). Her dislike of France is further intensified by what she sees as that country's subversive influence on world politics and its attempts to transmit this instability to other nations (12-13). And although, as Hilton notes, she does admit that some good had resulted from the Revolution of 1789, she is too conservative to welcome openly the celebrations of its first centenary during the Paris Exhibition of 1889 (Hilton, 1953: 196). Another factor in Pardo Bazán's antipathy towards France is that it is an enclave of republicanism, that it proudly celebrates its republican status, and that this form of government is still flourishing, with some interruptions, one hundred years after the French Revolution. It is noteworthy that Carta 19 of Al pie, dated 14 July, the anniversary of the fall of the Bastille, is especially virulent against France and the French people. In fact, practically the entire section consists of a vitriolic diatribe against the host country. Pardo Bazán's monarchic devotion appears to have been unleashed by such a significant date, and what better way to express her repulsion for republicanism than by attacking what is possibly the most dramatically enduring modern symbol of this political system. Hilton, for his part, claims that Pardo Bazán feared that France's influence would undermine Spain's morality. Thus, as a counterbalance to Spain's "Black Legend", the Galician writer saw fit to create her own "black legend" of France, by presenting it as the epitome of vice and sinfulness (Hilton, 1953: 197). In effect, in Al pie Pardo Bazán refers to the ball she attended at the Paris Opéra some years earlier as "saturnal romana" and "lupanar inmundo" (296), adding that: "Aun en medio de la crápula y del vicio, el español conserva un poquitín de idealidad, unas miajas de honrada vergüenza" (296-97). Alarcón, too, in a note to the second edition of De Madrid a Nápoles, also speaks of the depravation of France's customs, of its impiety, and coarse materialism (Alarcón, 1968: 1206). Furthermore, he refers to the balls of Mabille as "lupanar público y al aire libre" (Alarcón, 1968: 1208), and condemns the immorality of the Cancán thus: "¡El Cancán..., que es indescriptible, que es el retozo bestial convertido en arte; que es el más grosero sensualismo llevado a la escena o paseado por los sitios públicos; que es, sin embargo, el non plus ultra del entusiasmo del pueblo parisién!" (Alarcón, 1968: 1225). Pardo Bazán's negative feelings towards France are exacerbated by her perception of a lack of knowledge on the part of the French with regard to Spain's culture, traditions, and history (291-92). In addition, she abhors the air of superiority and condescension apparently displayed by French people every time they speak of Spain. Indeed, this patronizing manner and disdain towards Spaniards are also noted by Alarcón: "¡Nosotros, míseros españoles, tan atrasados en la senda de la civilización, somos mirados desde aquí como una especie de africanos semisalvajes!... ¡Por eso, lo más que se nos otorga es una insultante benevolencia, una curiosidad maravillada, o una depresiva compasión!" (Alarcón, 1968: 1208). Finally, it should be noted here that in Por Francia y por Alemania, the sequel to Al pie, Pardo Bazán, as will be shown in the following chapter, openly admits to the anti-French tenor of her chronicles, attempts to justify it, but then adopts a more conciliatory attitude towards the neighbouring nation. 9. Conclusions Angel Guerra describes Al pie as "crónicas volanderas, amenas, interesantes" (Guerra, 1911: 336). Similarly, Bravo-Villasante observes: "Son crónicas amenas, entretenidas, escritas con soltura y ligereza periodística, y con la acostumbrada dosis de subjetivismo y elementos autobiográficos" (Bravo-Villasante, 1973: 168). Indeed, although this collection is supposed to be devoted to the 1889 Universal Exhibition, Pardo Bazán, as announced in the advertencia, often sidesteps this event and gets sidetracked into the realm of the personal. In fact, she could even be accused of neglecting the actual Exhibition in favour of personal pursuits. For instance, in Carta 9, half-way through Al pie and twenty-one days after her arrival in Paris, the author readily acknowledges: "De la Exposición propiamente dicha no he visitado despacio por ahora más que la exposición de los productos de las fábricas nacionales de Sèvres y los Gobelinos" (149). This egotistic approach and the fact that it takes a considerable time for the author to start reporting on the actual displays is noted, and with some malice, by Díaz Benzo: Lleva usted veinte días en París, y apenas ha escrito nada que se refiera á la Exposición [...] ¿No valdría más decir que, en vez de crónicas de la Exposición, había usted publicado las crónicas de lo que usted y sus amigos hacen, hablan y piensan, para que todos nos enteremos de sus mutuos rencores y de sus mutuos bombos? [...] Domina en ella tanto el yo sempiterno de su autora, que rinde y fatiga al lector más benévolo y pacienzudo. (Díaz Benzo, 1889: 29-30) Similarly, Carlos Mendoza concludes that Al pie "es muy curioso como documento, por el prominente relieve en que aparece la personalidad de la autora" (Mendoza, 1889: 731). In effect, Al pie suffers from what Murray terms the "egotism of autobiography" in travel literature (Murray, 1858a: 350), in the sense that it focuses more extensively on Pardo Bazán. herself, her aficiones, her interests, her dislikes, and her acquaintances than on the Exhibition itself. Indeed, in this particular collection the personal nature of Pardo Bazán's writing becomes one of its major drawbacks, for, as Murray observes, with regard to women travellers: When a lady invites you to accompany her, in her own person, through countries suggestive of outer impressions of the utmost interest and novelty, yet pauses every moment to tell you not only her own particular thoughts and feelings, but also those habits, peculiarities, preferences, and antipathies, which one would have thought even she herself on such an occasion would have forgotten, we feel tied to one who at home would be rather tiresome, but abroad becomes insufferable -- to one who never leaves self behind. (Murray, 1845d: 131) Another "weakness" of Al pie is the way Pardo Bazán indulges in constant digressions. Although on occasions, "digressions may readily be excused where they bring fresh life and vigour to the subject, and suggest new relations to the mind" (Murray, 1854a: 50), too often here they steal valuable space away from what should be regarded as the main topic of this collection: the 1889 Universal Exhibition and/or Pardo Bazán's impressions of her stay in France. A good example of this penchant is Carta 3, written from Bordeaux, and in which the author loses herself in observations on the murder of the Calle Fuencarral in Madrid instead of describing the French city. Again, Díaz Benzo is quick to point out this "deficiency": "Ya que nos escribía desde allí [Burdeos], parecía más natural que nos contase algo de aquella población. La verdad es que, pegue ó no pegue, ya ha llenado usted con eso unas cuartillas, y vamos andando" (Díaz Benzo, 1889: 18). In Carta 5, which presumably should be dedicated to the inauguration, Pardo Bazán becomes sidetracked once more as she discusses the aesthetic appeal of the monarchy. But at least she admits to this almost inadvertent aside: "¡Qué lejos ando de la inauguración!" (89). In effect, although most of the letters in Al pie touch on the Exhibition, only seven (Cartas 6, 10, 11, 12, 15, 16, and 17) are dedicated to the Paris display and even these have some minor digressions. These constant asides, however interesting, tend to fragment the narrative, rendering it rather disorderly and confusing. In fact, by attempting to cover too many issues, as she was to admit in Por Francia y por Alemania (Pardo Bazán, [1890]: 245), some of them totally irrelevant to the actual Exhibition, it could easily be argued that at times in Al pie Pardo Bazán loses her way, demonstrating a surprising lack of professional discipline and excess of self-indulgence for such an experienced writer and chronicler. To her credit, in the sequel to Al pie she readily acknowledges the many flaws of both works and asks for forgiveness (Pardo Bazán, [1890]: 245). As any perceptive reader may have anticipated from Pardo Bazán's comments in Carta 1, in her account of the Exhibition she adopts a largely selective approach which possibly deprives her readership of a comprehensive overview of all the different subjects covered at the Paris event. The one exception she makes, to her emotional cost, is to report on the machinery on display at the Exhibition, and only because she feels obliged to do so in her journalistic capacity. And it is in her inadequate coverage of the industrial aspect of the event that it becomes apparent that the Galician writer is not in the least interested in technological feats per se, not even as a demonstration of human creativity, inventiveness, or ingenuity. Indeed, in a letter written to Galdós from Paris on 18 June 1889 she openly admits to her disregard for technological progress: "Por ahora la Exposición para mí sólo se traduce en gasto, polvo, sudor, mareo y traqueteo de tren. Veremos si mañana, ante la torre Eiffel, mudo de pauta y canto un himno al progreso" (Pardo Bazán, 1975: 30). She is uncomfortable when surrounded by machinery and attempts to transmit this uneasiness to her readers. Here, surprisingly for such an educated woman, the author is displaying the fearful attitude of those who are intimidated by the unknown and by their own ignorance. In view of this, it is legitimate to wonder whether Pardo Bazán, with her devotion to the past and to ancient monuments and artefacts, is not in effect an anachronism in the midst of the Universal Exhibition, with its celebration of progress, technology, and modernity. Indeed, when the manifestations of progress appear threatening to her, she seeks refuge and solace in Nature and art, familiar ground in whose surroundings she feels totally relaxed. As with Henry James, it seems that for the Galician writer, too, "art is the one corner of human life in which we may take our ease" (James, [1959]: 129). 1. Introduction Por Francia y por Alemania: (Crónicas de la Exposición) takes the form of a travel journal and consists of nineteen letters and an epilogue. It was first serialized in José Lázaro Galdiano's review, La España Moderna, between July and October 1889, before being published in book form in 1890. Cartas 1 to 9 and 14 to 19 were written from Paris, and some of them deal with the Universal Exhibition of 1889. In Cartas 10 to 13, Pardo Bazán recounts her impressions of Switzerland, Germany, and Austria, to where she travelled as a kind of detour from her main destination: Paris and the Exhibition. In fact, the work can be regarded as a sequel to Al pie de la torre Eiffel (1889). In Por Francia y por Alemania, as in Al pie, the author does not allow the Paris Exhibition to monopolize her entire attention. In effect, of the nineteen letters (and an epilogue) that comprise this work, only six (Cartas 1, 2, 6, 7, 14, and 18) are dedicated to the Paris event. The others deal with such diverse issues as politics (Cartas 3 and 8), fashion (Carta 4), folklore and medieval traditions (Carta 5), the conquistadors (Carta 9), Switzerland, Germany, and Austria (Cartas 10 to 13), literature (Cartas 15 and 19), French theatre (Carta 16), and Galician music (Carta 17). Por Francia y por Alemania covers a time-span of just under three months: from 18 July to 8 October 1889, with the period 10 to 28 September spent in Switzerland, Germany, and Austria. This collection is particularly interesting because in the "Epílogo" Pardo Bazán identifies what she regards as the essential elements of the chronicles she writes. She observes that the style of these should be entertaining and interesting, free-flowing, calm, impetuous, colourful, and warm. They should appeal to people from all walks of life, regardless of their intellectual capability. She adds that the information conveyed should make easy reading, and that the impressions transmitted should be of a personal or even lyrical nature, because the time elapsed between the registering of the impressions and turning them into the written word is insufficient for the chronicler to be objective (Pardo Bazán, [1890]: 245-46). The implications of this definition will be discussed later. 2. Technological Advancement, Progress, and Modern Civilization Overcoming the aversion she had shown towards machinery in Al pie, Pardo Bazán decides to report in the first instalment of its sequel on the industrial side of the 1889 Exhibition. After all, she claims, her chronicles should not be exclusively concerned with politics, literature, and the picturesque (1). Perhaps her decision to tackle the industrial aspect of the Exhibition in the very first section has been prompted by the desire to put behind her, as early as possible, this unpleasant task. But despite her reticence and inherent dislike of machines, the author cannot help but be impressed by what she calls the "Galería de las máquinas", a gigantic structure supported miraculously in the air and apparently large enough to accommodate an entire army (2). However, after borrowing some technical material from more specialist writers in order to describe the technological intricacies of the "Galería" (2-3), she does admit that had it not been for her son Jaime's "aficiones científicas" she would not have visited the Gallery a second time (3). Pardo Bazán's aversion to mechanical artefacts borders on the pathological. Indeed, she claims that the sight of the machines turning all at once makes her feel physically ill: "Sólo de entrar en la galería y ver el incesante y periódico vaivén de tanto artilugio, me entra un malestar, un desasosiego, un azoramiento físico, que se convierten pronto en sufrimiento y alteración nerviosa" (3-4). And, as in Al pie, the author credits human qualities to the machines: Allí todo se mueve, todo anda: las máquinas sudan, gimen, trabajan como esclavas que son, con una tenacidad sombría e implacable. El puente rotatorio eléctrico gira lo mismo que un loco; las máquinas motrices respiran angustiadas; los cilindros no sosiegan; los aparatos telegráficos vibran de impaciencia; sólo las locomotoras duermen aburridas de su inacción; porque la máquina cuando se está quieta se fastidia, y tiene el aspecto más melancólico del mundo. (4) Thus for Pardo Bazán the "Galería de las máquinas", like the factories she detests so much, is reminiscent of a Dantesque world inhabited by threatening metallic monsters that breathe, sweat, and groan. She moves on to review the electrical installation of the "Galería" and, in a Romantic manner, portrays Thomas Edison as a nineteenth-century knight-errant, as the "caballero andante" of the chivalric romances: En la Edad Media se referían los hechos del caballero andante, del aventurero, que nacido en pobre cuna, pero dueño de potente talismán, iba por el mundo enderezando entuertos, descabezando gigantes y subyugando insulas. El caballero andante moderno es Edison, con su novelesca vida y su inverosímil suerte, que hará amarillear de envidia y soñar despiertos á la mayor parte de los pálidos alumnos de la Escuela Politécnica y de las Academias especiales. (5) These observations involve a strange marriage between past and present, and it is possible that Pardo Bazán presents Edison, the embodiment of technological progress, as a knight-errant because she can only come to terms with modern advances by placing them in an anachronistic temporal zone, in this case, the Middle Ages. Similarly, she anachronistically situates the Eiffel Tower (the epitome of modern engineering) in biblical times, by comparing it to the Tower of Babel (15-16). At first sight, it would appear that Pardo Bazán is fascinated with Edison and his accomplishments because she is a true believer in scientific advancement: "Cuando pienso en los adelantos de la electricidad de diez años acá; cuando recuerdo que hace tres lustros una lamparita eléctrica era una curiosidad y casi un milagro [...] me entran impulsos de creer á puño cerrado en el Progreso endémico y crónico" (8-9). But almost in the same breath, the Galician writer wonders whether modern civilization has perhaps sown the seeds of discontent. Has civilization become a race against time in which mankind is the main victim? Is scientific progress the cause of the spiritual malaise and anxiety of modern man? At the very least she has serious doubts about the benefits of technological advances: La que llamamos civilización ¿es más que una batalla sin tregua, para ganar un pan amargo, para cubrir necesidades ficticias y para vivir roído de cuidados en el ahogo perpetuo? Y cuando decimos que hemos llevado la luz, la ciencia y el progreso á una región salvaje, ¿no podríamos añadir que llevamos la inquietud, el desasosiego y las penas del alma? ¿Se suicidaban los aztecas, los pieles rojas, los australianos, antes de la llegada del europeo? (10) And yet, immediately after this soul-searching exercise, Pardo Bazán concludes that her bleak thoughts were triggered by her aversion to machines, an explanation that does not seem entirely plausible: "En el fondo, la ráfaga de pesimismo que me azota no es sino que me aburren las máquinas. Voy á figurarme que al lector le pasa dos cuartos de lo mismo, y á sacarle pronto de este infernal palacio de la electricidad y el vapor" (10). In effect, the Galician writer's pessimistic attitude with regard to the shortcomings of progress and inventions re-emerges shortly afterwards when she concedes that, ultimately, mechanical and scientific achievements contribute very little to the understanding of life: "No; basta de mecánica, industria y adelantos. Si me voy á cavilar entre ellos, me desesperará el pensamiento de que ni una línea ensanchan el oscuro límite del conocimiento esencial de las cosas" (13). As mentioned in Chapter 2 and based on Pardo Bazán's comments in Al pie and its sequel, it becomes apparent that her attitude to progress, technological advancement, and civilization in general is ambivalent. For although she often advocates progress and regeneration, principally with regard to backward Spain, her aversion to technology and mechanical artefacts belies such a stance. The fact that machinery and factories are an essential component of the progress she so strongly recommends, frequently escapes her. Moreover, she presents modern civilization as a two-edged sword, in the sense that she holds it responsible for the present spiritual malaise and anxiety of modern man. Contradictions are, in effect, one of the hallmarks of Pardo Bazán's writing and, as Delfín García Guerra has noted, they encapsulate such opposites as "su cosmopolitanismo y su provincianismo, su europeísmo y su españolismo, su libre-pensamiento y su tradicionalismo, su inconoclasis y su conformismo, su misticismo y su positivismo, [...] en fin, entre su condición y su deseo" (García Guerra, 1990: 32). 3. The 1889 Universal Exhibition In a letter written to Galdós during her stay in Paris, Pardo Bazán observes: "Algo de la Exposición (claro está) me gusta muchísimo" (Pardo Bazán, 1975: 75), and judging by her comments in Carta 14 she is probably referring to the international shows which feature the folklore of some of the more exotic nations represented at the event: "Yo confieso que extravagantes y todo, ó acaso por su misma extravagancia, fueron lo que más me interesó en la inmensa feria internacional" (157). Indeed, Carta 14 contains her mixed impressions regarding these shows. She is particularly displeased by the theatrical performance of some actors from Annam, whose spectacle she finds coarse, distasteful, and unappealing (158-60). Conversely, she is fascinated by the delicate physique and exquisite mannerisms of the dancers from Java, whose elegant and sophisticated routine is more to her taste (162-63). However, she then voices her repulsion at the show of some African tribesmen -- "diablos en figura de hombres" (165) -- whose performance consists largely of acts of masochistic self-mutilation. Yet Pardo Bazán is never indifferent to beauty, hence the praises she lavishes on Fatma, the attractive Tunisian dancer, whose enchanting physique and colourful attire she describes in detail (166-67). She next turns her attention to the show put on by Egyptian and Nubian performers, whose act includes some belly-dancing, the attraction of which escapes her: "Que no es bonito ver á una mujer casi inmóvil y con la tripa convulsa, me parece ocioso decirlo" (168). Pardo Bazán then comments on Spanish dancers brought to the Exhibition to provide a display of flamenco dancing. Their performance is apparently so inadequate and vulgar that she wonders whether these dancers are the genuine article of whether in fact they have been hired for the occasion from a local Parisian club (171). Subsequently, she reviews the show at the Bastille featuring the daring escape of Jean Latude (174), and the staging at the Tower of Nesle of a tasteless medieval spectacle devoid of all dramatic attributes but very well attended by the élite of Parisian society, including the exiled Spanish queen, Isabel --- 1 French-governed central Vietnam, which in 1884 was declared a French protectorate. II (174-77). Another popular show is that provided by the legendary Buffalo Bill, and in the author's opinion his success demonstrates that theatre audiences prefer cheap thrills to dramatic and historical content (177). In Carta 18 of Por Francia y por Alemania, Pardo Bazán bids farewell to the Exhibition. As autumn draws in and the cold weather lays siege to Paris, the Galician writer decides it is time to return to the warmer climate of her homeland. Besides, she does not wish to bear witness to the demolition and dismantling of the pavilions which have housed the exhibits of the Paris display. It is a moment of great sentimentality (which is not the norm in Pardo Bazán's travel writing), reminiscent of the farewell between two good friends: Dará tristeza asistir á esta obra de destrucción: causará pena, y muy grande, el ver [...] cesar, en fin, tanta actividad, movimiento y vida. Esto es preferible no presenciarlo; y cuando transcurrido algún tiempo vuelva á traernos la suerte á las orillas del Sena, poder creer que fué por arte de encantamiento, que fué la varilla de algún mágico prodigioso la que transformó este lugar y campo ya para siempre memorables. (217-18) Taking stock of the Exhibition, Pardo Bazán states that it has been a roaring success. The Paris event has been entertaining and has magnificently fulfilled its task as the showpiece of France's culture, scientific progress, wealth, and industrial might. Moreover, it has brought financial benefits to several sectors of the Parisian economy (218). Being a product of human enterprise, the Exhibition has had its flaws but, overall, the author has no hesitation in praising the organizational skills of the French and the successful combination of the different pursuits featured in the display where everyone found something of interest to see (218-19). Furthermore, she ventures that the Exhibition has been a spiritually rewarding experience which has made it possible for mankind to learn a little more about itself (219). However, returning to an issue already discussed in Al pie, Pardo Bazán expresses her doubts as to the benefits that, if any, the Exhibition will have for France's foreign relations. The Paris event, as a celebration of republicanism, has antagonized many European monarchies and perhaps has even contributed to prolonging and exacerbating the "armed peace" which like a dark cloud hangs over Europe's destiny (219). If, on the other hand, she argues, one looks at the Exhibition from an optimistic standpoint as the testimony of the cultural advancement of humanity, then France, regardless of its political system, has made itself worthy of the recognition and respect of the rest of Europe (219-20). In an ideal world, she concludes, international contests should be limited to the peaceful display of cultural might such as that witnessed on the occasion of the Universal Exhibition (220). So, overall, Pardo Bazán's impressions of the Paris display are largely positive. And although the pro-republican connotations of the Exhibition still concern her, the Galician writer, showing equanimity, acknowledges the organizational skills of the French and the contribution made by France to the advancement of technology and the propagation of culture. There is little doubt that despite the reservations Pardo Bazán may harbour concerning France, the 1889 Universal Exhibition has impressed her both emotionally and culturally. 4. Spain's Glorious Past and the Conquistadors Pardo Bazán begins Carta 9 by exalting the figure of Hernán Cortés who, she claims, has been vilified by some foreign writers: "Injusto anduvo Enrique Heine con nuestro conquistador al decir que había puesto su nombre de bandido al lado del sacro nombre de Colón, en el libro de oro de la historia. Nunca fué bandido Cortés, sino muy buen caballero y cristiano" (107). The author then moves on to describe the Galician explorer and traveller Dr Leopoldo Arnaud as a modern-day Hernán Cortés: "Un compañero de Hernán Cortés, nacido siglos más tarde, es lo que me pareció el doctor Leopoldo Arnaud" (107). In effect, in Por Francia y por Alemania Dr Arnaud is presented as a nineteenth-century conquistador, whose experiences of his travels in the Argentinian region of the Gran Chaco have been published as a travel journal: Según el dicho de Cicerón, [...] las obras de poesía y oratoria no tienen gracia ni deben ser admitidas sin mucha elocuencia; pero la historia verdadera y real, quoquo modo scripta delectat; y esta sentencia puede aplicarse al diario del doctor Arnaud, donde relata su viaje al través del Gran Chaco, inexplorada región americana que logró recorrer padeciendo muchos trabajos y necesidades, arrostrando grandes peligros, y engrosando el caudal de la ciencia geográfica con nuevos datos y preciosas instrucciones. (108-09)$^2$ Interestingly, Pardo Bazán regards Arnaud's account as being entirely factual, a kind of history book with no room for fiction or invention on the part of the writer. Indeed, she describes some of Arnaud's adventures and findings which, in a way, are reminiscent of those of another explorer, Christopher Columbus, as narrated in his Diario de a bordo, where the New World is presented as a Garden of Eden, as a paradise on earth, until things go terribly wrong and the initial dream becomes a nightmare. Thus, she observes of Arnaud's travels: A cada paso que adelanta el explorador por el deleitoso oasis de la prometida tierra, la naturaleza, al parecer tan benigna y próvida, le opone insidiosas asechanzas. Al empezar á comer, famélicas bandadas de canes le disputan el sustento. De noche, las garrapatas se le incrustan bajo la epidermis. El agua se agota, y vienen las inauditas torturas de la sed [...]. Después de las garrapatas, los tábanos y mosquitos; luego los repugnantes vampiros, que chupan la sangre del viajero fatigado. ¿Y qué diré de las tormentas, los aguaceros repentinos, furiosos y arrolladores, las ventolinas y huracanes, los relámpagos y rayos? ¿Qué del calor insufrible? ¿Qué de la escasez de víveres? (111) Pardo Bazán was interested in the events surrounding the discovery and conquest of the New World since childhood. In fact, in her "Apuntes autobiográficos" she proudly announces --- $^2$ Cortés also recounted his adventures in Mexico in several letter-despatches written to Carlos V in 1519-26 (Adams, 1983: 250). that by the age ten she had re-read Antonio de Solís's Conquista de México on countless occasions (Pardo Bazán, 1973: 703), and in 1914 she published Hernán Cortés y sus hazañas, the third volume of the series "Biblioteca de la Juventud", intended to popularize the figure of the conquistador whose memory, she argued, had been sadly neglected by some Spaniards. It is likely that Pardo Bazán's admiration for the conquistadors was linked to the fact that these men were often seen as the epitome of the glorious days of the Spanish Empire in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Indeed, commenting on her interview with the Galician writer in 1911, Carmen de Burgos observes of the conquistadors: "Doña Emilia ama la hermosa figura de esos aventureros extremeños, conquistadores, que encarnaban el alma potente de la gloriosa España de Carlos V" (Burgos, 1911: no page). And in Carta 18 of Por Francia y por Alemania Pardo Bazán admits to being particularly fond of Mexico because for her it represents the past glories and achievements of Spain during the time of the Conquest and the Empire: Méjico es el país del Nuevo Mundo que más curiosidad e interés me inspira, porque todo en él habla de nuestra gloria. Su pabellón es reproducción de un teocalli ó templo del antiguo culto azteca [...]. Adornan su fachada doce figurones de emperadores y dioses aztecas, entre los cuales está el horrento Vizlipuzli, que ante sus aras vió sacrificadas tantas víctimas españolas en la Noche Triste. (228) In effect, Mexico was a country which had been the scene of both Spain's "unexampled glory and humiliation" (Murray, 1864: 374). Some years later, in an article published in La Ilustración Artística of 20 March 1911, Pardo Bazán continues to regard Mexico as the most Spanish of all Latin-American countries, and presents Cortés as a kind of superman and the greatest conquistador of all: [México] la más española, en tradición y costumbre, de las Repúblicas sudamericanas [...]. México debe amar más a España, porque quiso la suerte que realizara su conquista el superhombre entre aquellos superhombres que eran (vistos en conjunto) los conquistadores. De aquellas águilas caudales, Hernán Cortés fue la de alas más vastas y vuelo más alto. (Pardo Bazán, 1972: 274) Given the above, it could be argued that the author's admiration for the conquistadors stems from her penchant for the past, for bygone centuries when Spain was the world's most powerful nation. Indeed, although she is always encouraging Spaniards to look forward and to progress in order to forge a prosperous future for their nation, her ideals remain firmly entrenched in the past. In a way, Pardo Bazán uses the past as a kind of psychological crutch on which she leans for support as she waits and hopes that Spain will eventually find a way out of its present economic, political, and social stagnation. 5. Journeying on After obtaining the required passport from the Spanish Embassy in Paris, on 10 September 1889 Pardo Bazán travelled from the French capital to Zurich by railway, or what she terms, "hipógrifo violento" (117). Subsequently, in Cartas 10 to 13 she recounts her impressions of Switzerland, Germany, and Austria, to where she has travelled as a kind of detour from her main destination. At the beginning of Carta 13, the author explains how her erratic nature and her fondness for travel determined her, once in France, to extend her itinerary to cover Germany and Austria, which held the added attraction of being unknown territories (147-48). Her first stop is Zurich, which surprises her for its cleanliness and tranquillity. This city is presented as a "neutral" or "aseptic" place and without the bustle of the big metropolis: El aspecto de la ciudad me produjo una impresión inexplicable de paz y reposo. Poca gente en las calles; escaso ruido, como no fuese el del trabajo en los edificios que se construían; las casas modestas, pero sin que ninguna revelase misería ó solamente estrechez en sus moradores; de mendigos, ni rastro; limpieza y tranquilidad por todas partes, y en suma la agradable apariencia de una ciudad racional y pacífica sin fiebre ni tráfago, [...] --un rincón de Europa ni envidiado ni envidioso, como el sabio de los versos inmortales. (118) Other travellers before the Galician writer had also commented on Switzerland's high standards of cleanliness. In his guide of 1838, John Murray notes that cleanliness is one of the Alpine country's assets, but only until the traveller reaches the Italian side of the Alps and goes into Savoy and Piedmont (cited in Sillitoe, 1995: 38). With regard to the --- 3 This is an obvious allusion to the opening of Calderón's La vida es sueño. accommodation on offer to travellers, the criticism of Murray and Baedeker's early guides on the poor quality of Swiss hotels and inns appears to have produced the desired effect, for in later editions hotels are presented as a Swiss speciality, and "the modern establishments are models of organisation on a most extensive scale. The smaller inns are often equally well conducted, and indeed in French and German Switzerland a really bad hotel is rarely met with" (cited in Sillitoe, 1995: 43). This impression is corroborated by Pardo Bazán, who in Carta 10 speaks of her Swiss hotel in highly complimentary terms (118). After a delightful breakfast at the hotel and equipped with all the information any reputable tourist would require on Zurich, the author sets out to explore the city (118-19). She travels to the summit of Mount Uetliberg by funicular, where she samples the local beer and a tasty piece of Gruyère (119). Subsequently, she remarks on the large number of English tourists staying in a charming hotel on Mount Uetliberg, where they remain for most of the summer or the autumn, enjoying the bird's-eye view (120). That evening, Pardo Bazán relaxes in the peaceful gardens which surround the statue of the religious reformer, Ulrich Zwingli, as she delves into Swiss history and evokes what she regards as the virtues of the Alpine country (120). Indeed, the author sees Switzerland as a role model for other European nations. In this non-belligerent and industrious country, she argues, the law is implemented and complied with; its moderate customs and aspirations result in a wholesome way of life; education is one of the priorities of its government; and the country's finances are kept healthy by honest politicians who use their office to serve the people instead of lining their own pockets (120-21). (This last remark is, presumably, an indirect reminder of the corruption which, Pardo Bazán claims, besets Spain's political scene (30-33)). It seems that Switzerland appeals to the Galician writer because it suits her orderly mind and epitomizes many of the values she holds dear: education, civilization, hard work, honesty, moderation, law and order, cleanliness, and a wholesome life-style. Indeed, for the author Switzerland is a country which keeps itself to itself and focuses its efforts on enhancing and improving the prosperity and well-being of its people. Implicitly, then, she is drawing a comparison between this prosperous nation and trouble-torn Spain. In her travels, Pardo Bazán is constantly looking for examples within Europe worthy of emulation by her home country, and Switzerland is presented as a most suitable candidate. Zurich is a welcome respite for the harrowed traveller who has spent several weeks surrounded by the frantic activity of Paris during the Exhibition. But Pardo Bazán's nature is much too active and restless for the fascination with Zurich's tranquillity to last. She needs constant mental stimulation, so, shortly after her arrival, she feels it is time to move on to a more exciting location: "A la larga ¿qué sé yo si tanta ecuanimidad acabaría por aburrirme? El espíritu necesita su oleaje, su mar viva y rugiente, y aquí no hay sino lagos, lagos que riza de tiempo en tiempo una brisa fresca" (123). On 12 September Pardo Bazán arrived in Munich, travelling from Zurich to Lindau in Bavaria first by train and then by boat. The author is pleasantly surprised by the diligence and courtesy of Bavaria's customs personnel and the efficiency of its railways (126). This impression is also shared by Murray who, in his handbook of 1858, describes the examination by German Customs as "strict without being vexatious. The Prussian douanier (often an old soldier invalided) is above taking a bribe, or rather, government regulates matters so as to prevent his taking one. [...] Strangers are treated with invariable civility, provided they conduct themselves becomingly" (cited in Sillitoe, 1995: 59). Pardo Bazán cannot help but notice that Germany is a country that lives in the shadow of an impending war and is getting ready for it. Indeed, she refers to the Teutonic nation as a "vasto cuartel", whose railways have been militarized so that when the time comes the troops can be deployed quickly and expediently (127). Germany's belligerent spirit thirty years prior to Pardo Bazán's visit was also remarked on by Murray. His handbook of 1858 says on Berlin: "The great number of soldiers gives to Berlin almost the air of a camp", and he adds that for the Grand Review of the garrison, which takes place near Berlin in the autumn, "20,000 troops are sometimes collected, and the manoeuvres last several days" (cited in Sillitoe, 1995: 61). The author is impressed by the monumental grandeur of Munich, Bavaria's capital, which reminds her of the magnificence of Florence (128). She notes that the shortness of her stay in Munich will force her to be selective with the monuments visited. Hence, she will focus her attention on Munich's museum of painting and on the Palace of Glory (Ruhmes Halle) (129). Indeed, her first visit is to the art gallery, where she delights in Murillo's street urchins (129-30). She then moves on to describe Munich's Palace of Glory, an enclave which houses the busts of Bavaria's notable citizens and is a kind of temple to human achievement, a tribute to the greatness of the fatherland, and an exaltation of the immortality of talent and ingenuity. Although she admits to the "podredumbre del cuerpo" (133), Pardo Bazán is adamant that the spirit of great men lives on and enriches the existence of those who survive them (132-33). It is interesting that as examples of Bavaria's famous achievers the author identifies by name just two, both of whom happen to be artistes: the painter Albrecht Dürer and the composer Christoph Gluck. She also welcomes the fact that in the Palace of Glory the statues of these illustrious men are physically separated from the "vulgo" (132). This seems to suggest that for the author the creation and appreciation of art is a kind of aristocratic pursuit outside the reach of the masses, an elitist quest only to be undertaken, enjoyed, and valued by a chosen, cultured, and talented few. Indeed, in Por la Europa católica she argues that: "Para la muchedumbre [el arte] no existe" (Pardo Bazán, [1902a]: 99). While in Munich, the Galician writer indulges in one of the comparisons of which she is so fond, and compares the recognition Bavaria bestows upon its great men with Spain's apparent disregard for its outstanding achievers: [Que] la Bavaria y el Templo de la Gloria llenan un fin altísimo, no lo desconocerá nadie que haya lamentado el desamparo de nuestras ciudades españolas, sin exceptuar á Madrid, donde tiene una estatua Espartero, y no la tienen ni Quevedo, ni don Juan de Austria, ni Tirso, ni Garcilaso, ni Quintana, ni el Duque de Rivas, ni..... ¿á qué citar? Podrían añadirse nombres y nombres, que la multitud olvida absolutamente, que va relegando á las sombras del pasado remoto --tan remoto ya para los que fallecieron ayer como para los clásicos del siglo de oro, porque la misma niebla los envuelve. (133-34) A similar sentiment was also expressed by Pardo Bazán in a lecture delivered on Espronceda soon after her appointment, in June 1906, as president of the literary section of Madrid's Ateneo, and in which she laments "el escaso culto que hay en España a los literatos muertos" (cited in Bravo-Villasante, 1973: 268). And in Por Francia y por Alemania the Galician writer insists it is high time to inculcate in Spaniards the notion of the immortality of genius, the fact that great men are not subject to the same natural laws as mere mortals, and this respect for talent, she argues, should be part of the education of the people (134). On 14 September Pardo Bazán was already in Nuremberg, but she does not comment on the journey or indicate how she got there. After her arrival, the author compares this German city with Avila and concludes that whereas Nuremberg, despite having evolved and grown, has managed to combine progress with its medieval charm, Avila, on the other hand, has retained its medieval appearance through sheer backwardness and decline. Indeed, Avila's palaces and fortresses have long been abandoned whilst the artistic beauty and historic interest of the city go unrecognized (138). With these comments, the author is foregrounding what she sees as Spaniards' endemic lack of culture and education which prevents them from appreciating and preserving their own artistic heritage. It is also interesting to note that whereas in De mi tierra Pardo Bazán portrays the Galician peasant as the living spirit of the pueblo, as the paragon of virtue, as the repository of local traditions and culture, as the incarnation of popular wisdom, and as the epitome of poetry, now she questions the ability of the "abulense" peasant to appreciate the artistic beauty of his own city: "Unicamente el labriego, envuelto en parduzcos harapos, goza á diario de tanta belleza y siente -- si cabe tal sentir en su cerebro rudo-- la poesía encerrada en los muros abulenses" [my italics] (138). Another reminder, perhaps, of her "aristocratic" understanding of artistic appreciation. Pardo Bazán's aesthetic concerns, always close to her heart, are triggered by the architectural beauty of Nuremberg, whose buildings and street adornments appeal to her because of their refreshing heterogeneity. On the other hand, she criticizes the aesthetic canons of Spain's city councils which, she claims, are determined to impress on every street and building the mark of uniformity and, in consequence, of tedium: En España el ornato consiste en hacer las cosas lo más tontas é insulsas posible: en que las fachadas se parezcan y sean idénticos los portales, en que nada sobresalga ni entre tenga la vista, en que nuestras viviendas presenten el gracioso aspecto de una hoja de papel de estraza con diez ó doce agujeros simétricos. [...] El ideal de la belleza para aquellos que Heine llama philister, y que desde Heine acá no han mejorado de gusto, es una ciudad semejante á una cárcel modelo: celdas á derecha é izquierda, numeradas y pintadas de gris. (139) It is possible that Pardo Bazán's damning comments stem from her vision of the nineteenth century as a period of aesthetic and artistic barrenness. However, considering the development of Spain's major cities in the second half of the nineteenth century, it would appear that the author's criticism was not totally unfounded. José María Jover Zamora notes how the inadequate structure of Spain's main cities to satisfy the demands of modern times resulted in the emergence, in the 1880s, of the ensanche,$^4$ aimed at providing accommodation for the urban population (Tortella [Jover Zamora], 1981: 326). The ensanches, mass-produced and built for practical reasons, were more concerned with the free flow of traffic than with community life. Thus the traditional square, used as a meeting point by the local people, was replaced by the bleak uniformity of identical streets built in a perfectly straight line (Tortella [Jover Zamora], 1981: 327), similar to those mentioned by Pardo Bazán.$^5$ In Por Francia y por Alemania, the Galician writer speaks of the way Madrid and other major cities struggle to solve the problems created by their respective ensanches (128), while Alarcón, in his Viajes por España (1883), is highly critical of Palencia's ensanche: "El prurito de derribar para ensanchar o reedificar, que se ha apoderado de Madrid, trasciende ya a las más apartadas y sedentarias villas... [...] En medio de aquellos nobles caserones de Palencia, están ya levantando --- $^4$ Land set aside for the construction of new buildings on the outskirts of a city, and the collective noun for the buildings constructed on that land. It is an urban phenomenon which becomes increasingly common in the second half of the nineteenth century. $^5$ The author's grievances against nineteenth-century urban architecture are also present in Por la España pintoresca (Pardo Bazán, [1895c]: 100). algunas jaulas de cinco pisos, para diez familias [...], que ponen espanto" (Alarcón, 1968: 1182). While in Nuremberg, Pardo Bazán loses herself in its winding and picturesque streets, visits Dürer's former house, and admires St Sebald's tomb, whose bronze statue she describes as "el más soberbio trabajo de bronce que he visto nunca" (141). At this point she remembers a particularly beautiful effigy of the Virgin, the location of which escapes her, for, in her travels, as she readily admits, "aborrezco tomar apuntes" (142). The author's fascination with the macabre and the gruesome re-emerges here in her description of the chamber of horrors at the castle of the Burgraves in Nuremberg, where the unfortunate prisoners endured the most appalling tortures, including the deadly embrace of the Iron Maiden: Nada falta allí: ni la silla con pinchos, que se calentaba al rojo blanco antes de que la ocupase el paciente; ni la máscara erizada interiormente de púas que, candente también, se aplicaba al rostro; ni la rueda en que se tendía el cuerpo formando arco para que sobresaliesen las coyunturas y pudiese quebrantarlas fácilmente la barra de hierro [...]. Es un museo de ferocidad humana que crispa los nervios, y más si se considera que gran parte de los instrumentos dan señales inequívocas de estar usados. (143-44) Unusually for Pardo Bazán, in her account of Nuremberg she touches on the gastronomic delights on offer to foreign visitors and advises future travellers what to eat and drink at the local restaurants (144-46). She ends the section on the city by encouraging any prospective tourists to wander through its historic streets and to evoke the past, for it is to the past, she argues, "al cual pertenece parte de nuestro entendimiento, casi todo nuestro corazón y toda nuestra fantasía" (146). On 20 September Pardo Bazán was in the spa town of Karlsbad, to which she had travelled by train. And it is from her train window that she notes and describes the contrast between the welcoming and luscious Nature of Bavaria and the angry, wild, and threatening landscape of Bohemia. As is customary in her travel works, the author personifies Nature: Entre Baviera y Bohemia las fronteras no son línea ideal trazada por el frío dedo del interés político, sino división impuesta por la naturaleza que, pacífica y frondosa en los valles del país bávaro, á partir de Eger frunce el ceño y se muestra plutónica y salvaje. Todo se vuelve gargantas y desfiladeros que encierran la vía férrea y parecen acceder de mala gana al paso del tren [...] A modo de arrugas en la cara de una abuela, cortan el valle de Karlsbad dos grietas hondas, producto de antiguas sacudidas volcánicas, que atarazando y haciendo añicos las enormes rocas primitivas de gneis, abrieron camino á los manantiales calientes. (148, 149) As in the case of Nuremberg, Pardo Bazán wanders through the streets of Karlsbad while dwelling on the history of the old spa town and describing some of the hydrotherapies to be had at the "Sprudel" (149-52). She ends her letter on Karlsbad by praising the facilities of the town's hotels and adding, in a humorous way, how uncomfortable, short, and narrow the local beds are: "Son un potro" (155). Overall, the tenor of Cartas 10 to 13 is relaxed and informal as Pardo Bazán leaves behind the bustle of the Paris Exhibition, her commitments as a journalist, and behaves very much like a tourist. Although the journeys themselves are hardly mentioned and landscape descriptions are rather scarce, there is a strong sense of movement as the author portrays herself travelling by different means and casually walking the streets of the cities visited. This middle part of the work, with its strong notion of being on the move and its touristic pauses, contrasts sharply with the first and last sections in which the author leads a rather sedentary life-style while reporting on the Paris Exhibition and resuming the role of feature writer and foreign observer. 6. Pardo Bazán and Travel Writing The "Epílogo" to Por Francia y por Alemania provides a useful insight into Pardo Bazán's opinion on travel chronicles. She begins this "Epílogo" by displaying a humbleness which is uncharacteristic in her. She begs forgiveness for the many flaws of both this collection and Al pie, adding that the need to cover much ground in a short space of time has resulted in a lack of profound observation and analysis, with the writer having to content herself with merely scraping the surface of the issues discussed (245). Indeed, on three occasions she notes that her chronicles have been written hurriedly (209, 250-51, 260). She also acknowledges that her intention to make her accounts entertaining, despite the arid nature of some of the topics covered, has forced her to be selective with the information conveyed to her readers, thus giving preference to the more mentally stimulating and amusing of her experiences (245). With these comments, the author is in fact justifying the exclusion from her chronicles of those items which, by her own admission, she finds uninteresting or unappealing (the industrial side of the Exhibition, for instance), as well as the inclusion of countless digressions. At this point, it is reasonable to wonder whether, as in Al pie, the many asides of which Pardo Bazán is so fond and which abound in Por Francia y por Alemania (some of a physical nature, such as her detour via Switzerland, Germany, and Austria), have not, in effect, stolen some precious space from the actual reporting on the Exhibition. Pardo Bazán's digressions from the main topic of discussion are often prompted by aesthetic considerations and by the fascination that beauty and beautiful things hold for her, possibly derived from her upper-class background and her acute sensitivity to anything aesthetically pleasing. In Andrés González Blanco's words: Nunca ha perdido de vista la autora de La Tribuna [...] que es una dama de alta clase, y en la mayoría de sus obras se siente la mano fina y blanca, no deformada por el trabajo, que se va posando sobre todas las cosas delicadas de la vida, señalándolas al lector como partículas de belleza [...]. En el fondo, doña Emilia Pardo Bazán no puede olvidar que es condesa; y se detiene extasiada allí donde hay un mueble raro, un bibelot rico, un abanico antiguo, como los que ella gusta de coleccionar. [My italics] (cited by Sainz de Robles in Pardo Bazán, 1943: xlvi) Indeed, in Carta 14 of Por Francia y por Alemania the Galician writer is fascinated by the exquisite beauty and delicacy of some of the dancers from Java, whom she describes thus: Las bailadoras, parecen, más que mujeres armadas con las seducciones y gracias propias de su sexo, idolitos, bibelots, esculturas de Tanagra llamadas á ocupar sitio en una cristalera. Tres son feas, graciosamente feas: la cuarta muy bonita, de correctas y delicadas facciones, oblicuos y graves ojos, mejillas menudas y redondas como las de las figurillas egipcias, labios puros y color de limpio cobre. (162)⁶ But to return to the "Epílogo" to Por Francia y por Alemania, and what Pardo Bazán regards as the essential elements of her chronicles, she observes that their style should be entertaining and interesting, free-flowing, calm, impetuous, colourful, and warm. They should appeal to people from all walks of life, regardless of their intellectual capability. She adds that the information conveyed should make easy reading, and that the impressions transmitted should be of a personal or even lyrical nature, because the time elapsed between the registering of the impressions and turning them into the written word is insufficient for the chronicler to be objective (245-46). One could argue that by identifying the principal characteristics of her travel chronicles, Pardo Bazán is in effect revealing some of her main traits as a professional writer. Her linguistic facility and her renowned temperamento colorista contribute to the ease with which her narrative flows and to the touches of colour that adorn many of her descriptions. On the other hand, it should be pointed --- ⁶ Note the use of the term bibelot in both quotations. out that her style is not always calm. Pardo Bazán is a passionate woman, and when she believes that something dear to her (normally Spain) is being vilified or unjustifiably criticized, she does not hesitate to rebuff in a passionate, outspoken, and at times vitriolic way any such attacks. She is equally enthusiastic in the defence of her political views and of what she believes are the best options for the political future of Spain. It must also be said that Pardo Bazán's chronicles are not pitched at all levels of the reading public. She is an erudite observer and, as such, she writes for the relatively educated reader of La España Moderna, El Imparcial, or any other reputable publication that hires her services. In effect, as Clémessy notes, the author's readership consisted principally of Spain's ruling and influential classes: the middle and the high bourgeoisie, members of the liberal professions, high-ranking civil servants, landowners, politicians, intellectuals, some aristocrats, and some female followers (Clémessy, 1981, I: 172). Moreover, the Galician writer takes for granted a considerable cultural baggage on the part of her reading public. Indeed, at one point in Por Francia y por Alemania she refers to "la cultura artística del que nos lee" (132), and it could therefore be argued that, to a certain extent, she adopts the motto quoted by Wayne Booth "I write. Let the reader learn to read" (Booth, 1961: 90), --- 7 In a letter to Galdós she describes herself as "una mujer de tan desatadas pasiones como yo" (Pardo Bazán, 1975: 38). 8 In the "Apuntes autobiográficos" she admits to her "inveterado apasionamiento en defender a España de acusaciones gratuitas" (Pardo Bazán, 1973: 720). showing little tolerance of any possible cultural weaknesses on the part of her readership. Pardo Bazán's impressions, as contained in her travel chronicles, are indeed of a personal and even lyrical nature. Very rarely does she act as a detached observer. The information and views conveyed are often mediated or vitiated by the author's stance with regard to the matter under discussion. Moreover, she uses the genre of travel literature as a vehicle which ultimately serves the purpose of transmitting the writer's personal impressions on any given subject. Pardo Bazán was a knowledgeable woman who, rightly or wrongly, was always ready to venture her opinion on practically everything, and this erudition, confidence, or vanity features strongly in her chronicles. Finally, by arguing that the time-gap between registering impressions and turning them into the written word is too short for the chronicler to be objective, the author could be attempting to create an impression of immediacy, freshness, spontaneity and, therefore, of credibility by implying, in a tacit way, that there was no time to manipulate or alter in any way the information transmitted. In Por Francia y por Alemania Pardo Bazán associates her travel chronicles with journalistic writing, suggesting that such works must be closer to the spoken work, to an invigorating conversation, than to a display of lofty didacticism. She claims that if the reader is in search of instruction, then he or she should buy a book. The purpose of journalistic writing is, she argues, to entertain and interest, and, therefore, what is expected of the chronicler, she states, is a display of personality and wit, even if it borders on the presumptious. These attributes, she adds, differentiate the fast-flowing journalistic chronicle from the matured, learned, and ponderous literary text readily available in all bookshops and libraries (245-46). Regarding Pardo Bazán's rejection of a didactic approach in travel writing, it is worth noting that although she frequently expressed her opposition to didacticism in literature, she found it very difficult to abide by her pronouncements. Adams establishes an interesting link between travel writing (as education and as a means of structuring experience) and the Bildungsroman, arguing that "travelers with broad, inquisitive, or trained minds observed, read, listened, wrote, and then taught" (Adams, 1983: 188). Indeed, in the case of Pardo Bazán her didactic inclinations impregnate her travel chronicles, possibly because of her firmly held convictions, and her attempts at persuasion are constantly evident. Guidance is always offered to the reader, as if he or she could not be trusted to make the right choice or come to the right conclusion. In the words of Clémessy: "En la obra de la Condesa se transparenta cierto afán de enseñar al público, de ilustrarlo, de despertar su juicio crítico, orientándolo" [my italics] (Clémessy, 1975: 11). 7. Pardo Bazán vis-à-vis France In the "Epílogo" to Por Francia y por Alemania, Pardo Bazán also decides to confront her feelings about France. In a convoluted way, she admits that both this chronicle and Al pie contain an excess of galofobia because they were largely written for Latin-American newspapers (246-47). Presumably, the Francophobia to which the author refers is an indication of her animosity towards France, for it was to this country rather than to Spain that the new generation of Latin-American intellectuals was turning in search of inspiration and innovative ideas. In effect, Pardo Bazán argues that "en América conviene excitar un poco la fibra del afecto hacia España" (248). The author's indignation at France's attempts to usurp Spain's place in the affections of Latin-American countries that she believed owed a debt of gratitude to the mother country (Hilton, 1953: 193), is also present in her review of Jorge Huneeus Gana's Estudios sobre España (Santiago de Chile, 1889). In his work, Huneeus exhorts his fellow Latin Americans to shun France's influence and to turn their eyes towards the "madre patria", and it is with much enthusiasm that Pardo Bazán welcomes the return of the prodigal son to the bosom of his mother country: "Debemos regocijarnos al comprobar que cada día se acercan más a la madre común los países hispano-americanos, y sacudiendo el yugo de la imitación francesa, buscan sus modelos [en España]" (La España Moderna, June 1889: 202, cited in Hilton, 1953: 201). Now Pardo Bazán seems anxious for both Al pie and its sequel not to be regarded as Francophobic writing (247), and attempts to temper their anti-French tenor by presenting it as a "necesidad retórica" (249), aimed, apparently, at undermining France's image in the eyes of Latin-American readers. Also in the "Epílogo" to Por Francia y por Alemania, the Galician writer is determined not to have her patriotism questioned. However, as a realist and after having witnessed France's might at the Universal Exhibition, she has no choice but to pay homage to that country's cultural, artistic, and technological prowess. But she is also cautious with her praises by warning, once again, that France cannot be trusted politically and that Spain's emulation of its neighbour must be selective (247-48). Indeed, in Al pie, in order to emphasize the insurmountable differences that separate Spain and France, Pardo Bazán denies any possible brotherly links between these two nations as she scorns the notion of "pueblos latinos": "Políticamente, Francia es nuestra eterna adversaria, y raya en niñería candorosa figurarse que una tendencia histórica demostrada por la acción de muchos siglos, va á suprimirse ó modificarse merced á dos ó tres poesías y artículos sentimentales y á una supuesta confraternidad de los pueblos latinos" (Pardo Bazán, [1889]: 7-8). Some years later, however, she was to reverse this opinion as she proclaimed the unity of Catholic and Latin nations, with France holding the key to the prosperity of the Latin race (Hilton, 1953: 194). A significant factor in the author's anti-French attitude appears to be the alleged chauvinism of the French which, she claims, leads them to dismiss the achievements of other nations. Indeed, in Por Francia y por Alemania she argues that the French will always attempt to undermine any Spanish accomplishment likely to earn the country some recognition in the eyes of Europe (86). Similarly, Juan Valera, in his article "Mérito y fortuna" (1896), blames France for the lack of knowledge of Spain's artistic achievements in the world, and accuses the neighbouring nation of acting as a kind of filter or barrier which prevents Spain from being better known abroad (Valera, 1958: 1027). But regardless of any resentment Pardo Bazán may have harboured against France, on the other side of the coin there was the admiration that as an intelligent and learned woman she was bound to feel for France's culture, science, art, literature, erudition, wealth, and civilizing influence. France, by her own admission, was a strong, powerful, educated, and energetic nation, and the author continued to hope that, with time, these epithets would also be applicable to Spain (248). In view of this, it is reasonable to assume that Pardo Bazán felt a grudging admiration for France, and that she was optimistic that, in the future, Spain would be in a position to match its neighbour's achievements. 8. Conclusions In Por Francia y por Alemania, Pardo Bazán's sedentary lifestyle during her stay in Paris while reporting on the Exhibition contrasts sharply with the sense of movement created by her journey through Switzerland, Germany, and Austria. As in Mi romería, the travel experience is presented as having an exhilarating effect on the author, and the excitement she feels as a traveller at the discovery of hitherto unknown countries comes through in the account of her experiences. But even if in the first and last sections of the collection travel is sidestepped, Carta 9 is dedicated to the traveller/explorer Leopoldo Arnaud and the account of his travels through the Gran Chaco. Thus, the reader learns through the mediation of Pardo Bazán the hardship and tribulations endured by Arnaud in his journey of exploration. So, in a way, she does delve into the travel experience even if in an indirect manner and through secondary sources. It could also be argued that travel is not discussed while Pardo Bazán is in Paris because the Exhibition is effectively a microcosm of the world, and, as such, without stepping outside the actual showground and without having to endure the discomfort inherent to travel, the author is able to study at first hand the characteristics of the countries represented at the event. As Pardo Bazán herself observes: "Diría que mejor se aprecia aquí el color local, que viajando: viajando habrá que buscarlo y encontrarlo desparramado, y acaso oculto: aquí nos lo dan preparadito, porque de propósito eligieron en cada país lo más típico y saliente para regalárnoslo" (158).⁹ In Pardo Bazán's foreign travel works she is often seen looking for a role model for Spain. In a way, she acts as a kind of pilgrim searching for the promised land whose example will bring Spain hope and will rescue it from its present decline. In Por Francia y por Alemania this honour is shared by France and Switzerland, although she is not yet prepared to present the neighbouring nation as worthy of total emulation by Spain. This will happen later, in Cuarenta días en la exposición. But for the time being, she limits herself to exalting some of France's virtues and is careful to temper her praises. On the other hand, her impressions of Switzerland are totally positive and without reservation. Indeed, in Por Francia y por Alemania the Alpine country is suggested as a role model not just for Spain but for Europe as a whole. Regarding Pardo Bazán's difficult relationship with --- ⁹ Another possible interpretation is, of course, that some of the world's greatest nations have figuratively "travelled" to Paris, where they have made themselves available to the scrutiny of "sedentary" travellers. France, Hilton notes that although in her youth the Galician writer, sharing an attitude which had prevailed in Spain for over a century, was, like most Spanish conservatives, resentful towards France, in her latter years her outlook on this country changed to the extent that she became regarded as Spain's leading Francophile (Hilton, 1953: 193). Indeed, Enrique Gómez Carrillo quotes her as saying in 1906 that after delivering in Paris her lecture "La España de ayer y la de hoy" (1899): "J'ai commencé à considérer la France comme une seconde patrie, comme un pays où je ne suis pas complètement étrangère" (Gómez Carrillo, 1906: 460). In fact, Por Francia y por Alemania marks a turning-point in Pardo Bazán's attitude towards France. Whereas Al pie is full of mistrust and disdain for the neighbouring nation, in its sequel she appears to come to terms with France's cultural, artistic, scientific, and intellectual superiority. After having visited and admired the successful 1889 Universal Exhibition, the reality of France's influence can no longer be ignored or underestimated. It is to Pardo Bazán's credit that she admits to this and that in the "Epílogo" she attempts to temper the anti-French tenor of this and her previous work. Although some Francophobic sentiment is still present in Por Francia y por Alemania (particularly in Carta 7, in which she defends Spanish painters against the alleged injustices of the French jury), it is much more subdued and controlled than in Al pie. CHAPTER 6 A JOURNEY TO SPAIN'S ARTISTIC AND HISTORIC PAST: POR LA ESPAÑA PINTORESCA 1. Introduction Por la España pintoresca: Viajes, published in 1895, is a compilation of travel pieces written by Pardo Bazán following trips taken between 1889 and 1893. The work consists of three sections in which the author recounts the impressions of her journeys through the province of Santander, Castile, and Galicia. Her essays on Santander and its province were first serialized in La Epoca between 17 August and 19 November 1894. The articles on Castile were first published in the Nuevo Teatro Crítico between 5 May and 12 December 1891, and her pieces on Galicia first appeared in the Madrid newspaper, El Imparcial, on 6 and 20 October 1890, and 24 July 1893. This collection deals with very different parts of Spain and also reveals some of the most important artistic treasures of the regions visited by the author. In effect, it discloses the natural and artistic diversity of Spain. Pardo Bazán herself notes in Por la España pintoresca that one cannot speak of a single Spain, since there are as many Spains as there are regions (Pardo Bazán, [1895c]: 111), and in her article "El viaje por España", published in La España Moderna of November 1895, she also proposes the notion of a plural Spain: "España es múltiple, compleja, y sus regiones contrastan violentamente las unas con las otras; [...] España [...] nunca revestirá un solo color, sino todos los del arco iris, con la caprichosa variedad del rico mosaico" (Pardo Bazán, 1895b: 94). In Por la España pintoresca the author meets local people, employs the services of some of them, and at times talks freely with her new acquaintances. This social intercourse is occasionally a search for local colour (this will be discussed later), at times an indication of her journalistic tendencies, and possibly even a manifestation of her calling as a novelist (as an observer/researcher of human nature). These encounters also contribute to lending credibility, authority, immediacy, freshness, and verisimilitude by incorporating, not just the author's single perspective, but also a kind of multiple viewpoint which, besides enlivening the narrative, also serves to authenticate the account. 2. The Travel Experience in Por la España pintoresca In contrast to other travel collections, such as Al pie or Cuarenta días, in which the author is based in one particular place for most of the time, in Por la España pintoresca there is a great deal of movement, of physical activity, of hopping between places, walking around, and going on local outings. Indeed, Pardo Bazán speaks with relish of her walks in Santander, Alcalá, Guadalajara, Sigüenza ("Con gran mortificación de los pies" (107)), Valladolid, Medina de Rioseco, and Toledo. The reader also learns of her excursions to Ontaneda (15), Villacarriedo (22), the Pas valley (27), Comillas (69), the Altamira caves (79-87), and San Pedro das Rocas (166-80). This close contact allows the author to appreciate at first hand, and not from the distance of a train window, the beauty of Nature, the idiosyncrasies of the locals, and the artistic qualities of the monuments she comes across in her travels. However, the principal means of transport used by Pardo Bazán in this collection is the train. In the opening piece she travels from Palencia to Santander by train, and although she is very attracted to the scenery she can admire from the carriage window, she makes the following comments on the discomfort of train travel: Declaro que el recorrido entre Palencia y Santander es capaz de quebrantar los huesos á quien los tenga más flexibles y resistentes. Sin duda la vía se encuentra desnivelada, y aun cuando el tren no va de prisa, lleva un traqueteo intolerable. A fin de olvidar la molestia, hay que colgarse de las ventanillas y distraerse con el paisaje, cada vez más fresco y grandioso. (8) A similar view is expressed in her article "La pierna del gobernador" (September 1901), in which she justifies Spaniards' aversion to travel by foregrounding the hardship and discomfort involved in travelling in Spain, especially by train: "Como se viaja tan poco en nuestro país (y no hay que extrañarlo, vistas las infinitas molestias que entrañan aquí los viajes), en invierno y de noche es frecuente que en un departamento se vaya solo" (Pardo Bazán, [1902b]: 247). Indeed, during her stay in Toledo the author complains about the apparently ludicrous train timetable which allows visitors only four hours in which to explore the city, unless they are prepared to stay overnight, and calls for a more efficient service and faster trains (135-36). Alarcón, too, in his Viajes por España (1883), speaks with frustration, but also with a touch of humour which is absent from Pardo Bazán's narrative, of the one-hour wait that travellers to Salamanca have to endure in Medina del Campo as a result of "los altos e incomprendibles designios de las Empresas, que no han juzgado conveniente ahorrar a los viajeros esta hora de detención" (Alarcón, 1968: 1131). Overall, train travel features strongly in Por la España pintoresca, which depicts on its cover a woman looking out of a carriage window and, in an inset, a travelling locomotive. There are, however, other methods of travel sometimes employed during these journeys. For example, the horse-drawn carriage, which Pardo Bazán finds much more preferable in the summer to "los remolinos de polvo y el cunear del tren" (9), or the omnibus, that she uses while in Orense (166). In Por la España pintoresca, as in De mi tierra, the travel experience is presented as a collective activity, with the first-person plural being widely used. On four occasions Pardo Bazán mentions her daughter Blanca (85, 109, 125, 132) and another female travelling companion (96), and during her stay in Toledo she gives the names of the members of the party who visit the city with her (134-35). Also, in the piece on San Pedro das Rocas the author meets some old friends who had accompanied her on previous excursions -- "mis perpétuos amigos, mis infatigables excursionistas" (163) -- and rejoices at the prospect of exploring new places with them and sharing the excitement of the journey ahead (163-64). In this collection, Pardo Bazán follows in the footsteps of previous travel writers and their works: Rodrigo Amador de los Ríos's España, sus monumentos y artes, Amós Escalante's Costas y montañas -- "breviario del excursionista por la Montaña" (18) -- Galdós's Cuarenta leguas por Cantabria, and Enrique Flórez's La España sagrada. In fact, she quotes freely from these texts and some of the historical background included in her description of the places visited is drawn from the above works. So, besides the companionship provided by her fellow excursionistas or viajeros, Pardo Bazán also travels, figuratively, in this collection in the company of other travel writers, and this, in turn, enhances her perception of travel as a collective enterprise to be enjoyed, as mentioned above, with others. But overall, Por la España pintoresca contains few comments on the journeying from place to place, and frequently there is no indication as to how Pardo Bazán travelled between any two locations. For instance, in the last piece on Santander she proclaims her departure from that city: "Adiós, Santander, que nos vamos á Torrelavega y Santillana" (42), and immediately afterwards she announces her arrival in Santillana del Mar: "Ya estoy en este pueblo sorprendente" (42), omitting to explain how she got there. In effect, in Por la España pintoresca the journey takes second place to cultural, artistic, historical, and principally aesthetic considerations, for, as the Galician writer herself states in her article "El viaje por España": "El viaje por España es, ante todo, viaje de estudio y de cultura, aunque también de recreo en muchos sentidos" (Pardo Bazán, 1895b: 95). How the author travelled to one of the destinations covered in the work matters far less than her impressions of what she found in each place visited. Yet, this lack of information, coupled with the fact that with only three exceptions (89, 138, 191) no date indicators are provided, renders the entire collection (possibly because of the time-gap between the various trips) slightly disjointed. In other words, there is no continuity of movement between the different sections of the work because there is no constant itinerary that would allow the reader to follow the writer in her journeys through the various regions of Spain. In this collection, as in most of her others, Pardo Bazán is in a privileged position when she travels.$^1$ She is no ordinary traveller, but a celebrated writer, highly regarded by some of the people she encounters during her journeys, and whose family connections and friendship with important local dignitaries enable her to visit many of the sights which are normally closed to public viewing. Moreover, in many instances she enjoys a preferential treatment which is not on offer to the average tourist. For example, while in Santander she is ushered into Menéndez y Pelayo's library by the savant's own parents and brother (37). During her visit to Galdós's house in Santander she is accompanied by the novelist himself (40), and in Santillana del Mar she is the guest of the Marquess of Casa Mena, and the Marquess of Robledo (42, 52). While in Guadalajara, her friendship with the provincial governor (an old friend of her father's, and who had known the author since her infancy) facilitates her access to three major monuments in the city (96). Then, upon her arrival in Sigüenza, the author is fêted by the town's mayor (103), and on Good Friday she is invited to lunch by the local bishop (109). Her visit $^1$ The exception here is, of course, the outward journey in Mi romería. to Toledo is also rendered much more interesting because of the intervention of her friend, Cardinal Payá: "Gracias á la atención del Cardenal, las dignidades del Cabildo se molestaron en enseñarnos detalladamente algo de lo que no siempre ven los turistas" (148). While Spain's plurality is indicated in Por la España pintoresca, so too is the spectrum of roles played by Pardo Bazán in this collection, where her multifaceted interests as a travel writer come through just as they did in Mi romería. For instance, while in Ontaneda she is the bañista and the explorer, who takes the waters in the local spa, goes exploring the nearby villages, and speaks of her "impaciencia por registrar la Montaña" (15). During her visit to Quevedo's country home, the author adopts the role of botanist, describing in detail the different varieties of flowers and bushes that populate the nearby field (21-22). On her visit to the palace of Soñanes, she is the art historian and the folklorist, who recounts the architectural intricacies of the palace and the popular legend associated with the building (23-24). While in the Pas valley, Pardo Bazán becomes the folklorist, the anthropologist, and the costumbrista, as she goes searching for the local material that only the pasiegos can provide and delves into their traditions and ethnic origins (25-27). During her visit to Dr Enrique Madrazo's hospital, she assumes the role of science reporter who interviews the physician and describes the treatments offered by the clinic (29-33). In Santander, Pardo Bazán is again the reporter who converses with the survivors and witnesses of the explosion of the munitions ship, the Cabo Machichaco (34-35), as well as the literary pilgrim to Menéndez y Pelayo's library. and Galdós's study (37-39). While still in Santander, the author reverts to the role of amateur science reporter in her superficial description of the work carried out by the local marine biology station (40-42), and during her stay in nearby Santillana, she is both the knowledgeable tourist who visits the town's abbey and the hagiographer who recounts the life of Santa Juliana and studies hagiographic symbols (45-48). Also in Santillana, Pardo Bazán becomes the genealogist and the heraldry aficionado, as she explores the lineages of the village's ancient families and describes their coats of arms (56-60). Her subsequent stay in Comillas involves an incursion into late medieval history on the subject of Juana la Beltraneja (61-62), some touristic pursuits in the shape of her visit to the local palace, seminary, and museum (73-76), and a literary pilgrimage to Calderón's family roots (66-68). Then, during her visit to the Altamira caves, Pardo Bazán is again the explorer and archeologist who moves through the earth's entrails, as well as the reporter who tells how the paintings were discovered and informs on the arguments surrounding their authenticity (77-87). At the beginning of the section on Castile, the author plays the role of seasoned travel writer, advising future viajeros where to stay and the places to explore (88-89), while in Alcalá she is the historian and scholar who visits the local archives and the now deserted university (91-93). And it is during this visit to Alcalá that Pardo Bazán's taste for that common feature in her travel works, the macabre, re-emerges as she relishes the prospect of seeing the relics of two young martyrs and the mummified body of San Diego (94). When in Guadalajara, she is again the tourist, walking about, visiting, and describing the local sights (96-103), and the same applies to her stay in Sigüenza (104-10). However, while in Valladolid she is shown to be the knowledgeable art critic who visits and describes the wooden sculptures housed in the local museum (111-21). The same can be said of her stay in Rioseco, where she visits four churches (126-32). Interestingly, in Toledo Pardo Bazán is presented as an ill-prepared tourist, inadequately shod to walk the steep streets and lacking a manageable guidebook to the city (136-38). However, this does not undermine her enjoyment as an art critic of the visit to some of Toledo's religious monuments (139-42). This section demonstrates more than any other in this collection Pardo Bazán's many roles as a travel writer: the author is a moralist who criticizes the irrevent use of Toledo's cathedral as a place for romantic encounters (143), a religious pilgrim attending one of the city's Easter processions (144-45), a folklorist who recounts the story of Juanelo Turriano and defends the popular attraction of legends (150-53), a literary pilgrim who visits the setting of Cervantes's La ilustre fregona (156-58), and finally a defenceless tourist whose stay in the city is marred by the unsolicited services of a self-appointed guide (158-60). In the later section on San Pedro das Rocas, Pardo Bazán is the excursionista and the paisajista who "discovers" and describes some of Orense's mountains (163-73), and while in Betanzos, the author becomes the costumbrista writer, depicting in a scene full of local colour the country fair held there (188-89). Another noticeable aspect of Por la España pintoresca is that throughout the collection there is the clear indication of shortness of time, of haste: "Esa fatalidad que hace que siempre se quede atrás en los viajes algo que de veras importa" (120). It seems that there is insufficient opportunity to explore and enjoy at leisure all the natural and artistic treasures Spain has to offer. Thus, the journey is made "con tiempo tasado y medido en demasiá" (148). Indeed, Pardo Bazán describes herself as a "viajero de paso" (17) and, as such, she is selective with the monuments she visits and with the information she conveys to her readers: "Como yo no pretendo sino archivar aquí fugaces impresiones, he de limitarme á recordar lo que más se me grabó en la memoria, lo que más recreó mi espíritu" (105). Anticipating some recrimination on the part of her reading public, the author justifies her selective and partial approach thus: "Yo no escribo guías; voy á donde me lleva mi capricho, á lo que excita mi fantasía, al señuelo de lo que distingue á una población entre las demás de España" (121). Very similar sentiments are also expressed by Alarcón in De Madrid a Nápoles (1861): "Yo no escribo la Guía de Turín, sino mis propias impresiones. Apresurémonos, pues, a referir y copiar aquellas escenas y panoramas que más nos hayan sorprendido en esta capital" (Alarcón, 1968: 1280). In the case of Pardo Bazán, there is a touch of vanity in these words uttered by the author, the free spirit, the privileged viajero, who travels, at least in this chronicle, for leisurely, artistic, and aesthetic pursuits, with no financial constraints. Indeed, bearing in mind the fact that these pieces may well have been commissioned for publication, this collection nonetheless transmits the impression of those travel works which record "wanderings of great length, undertaken solely for pleasure and curiosity, consuming much time and money, and as such indulged in especially by those who have both at their command" (Murray, 1845d: 119).² 3. Santander and its Province The first essay of Por la España pintoresca finds Pardo Bazán travelling by train from Palencia to Santander and looking forward to exploring "el único punto de la zona cantábrica que no había yo visitado nunca" (7). The short journey made between Renedo and Ontaneda by horse-drawn carriage confirms for the author the physical similarities she had suspected existed between the Santander area and her beloved Galicia: "Es el mismo verdor, [...] el mismo campo, que oculta cuidadosamente el ingrato color del terruño bajo espesísimo vellón de hierba y flores..." (9). Pardo Bazán's journey of exploration begins by drawing the reader's attention to the fact that several famous Spanish writers either lived in Santander or their families came from that province: Préciese y alábase la Montaña de que, si bien hasta el presente siglo no rodó en ella la cuna de escritores de alta fama, en cambio, de linaje montañés y de solar radicado en esta tierra proceden algunos de tan universal --- ² Muggli notes how Fussell, in The Norton Book of Travel (1987), argues that the travel writer's essential motivation to travel should be a "nonutilitarian pleasure". However, one cannot ignore, as Muggli observes, that "many writers have traveled on publishers' advances, and many others have had clear prospects of later publication" (Muggli, 1992: 181-82). This latter assertion appears to be applicable to Pardo Bazán and her travel works, despite the impression she strives to create in some of them. renombre como el marqués de Santillana, Garcilaso de la Vega, Lope de Vega, Calderón de la Barca y D. Francisco de Quevedo. (16) In the very first paragraph of the work she had in fact made a reference to the province of Santander as "la tierruca" of one of the most important regional writers of nineteenth-century Spain: José María de Pereda (7). However, the author's annoyance and frustration at the derelict condition of what she regards as Spain's artistic heritage soon becomes apparent. After the physical effort involved in "ascender una cuesta bastante agria y de salvar vallas y portillos" (19), Pardo Bazán encounters Quevedo's old country house, now reduced to a pile of stones: "No puedo repetir el verso de la famosa Canción, y exclamar: 'de todo apenas quedan las señales,' pues ni señales quedan" (20). Azorín, too, in España (1909) notes the appalling state of some of the country's historic monuments: "Yo veo en las viejas, venerables catedrales, estos patios que rodea un claustro de columnas. Estos patios [...] están llenos de maleza y de hierbajos bravíos; nadie cuida estas plantas; ni la hoz ni el rastrillo han entrado aquí hace largos años" (Azorín, 1982: 411). Yet, Pardo Bazán's disappointment at the dilapidated condition of Quevedo's old house is compensated to a certain extent by the beautiful vegetation that surrounds it, and she gives a typical colorista description, with a good deal of enumeration and in which the author's pictorial tendencies become evident: El trébol rosa, amarillo y blanco; las salvias melífluas; las orquídeas raras y delicadas; los enhiestos gladiolos; los acianos ó blués, tan de moda hoy, que pasan del azul zafiro al azul turquesa; las remilgadas minutisas; las biznagas, que en el centro de su umbela blanquisima tienen una gota de sangre; las valerianas lujosas; la amarilla cicuta; el cardo arquitectural; las medicinales manzanillas; las margaritas, que en sus pétalos llevan la revelación del destino; las vaporosas gramíneas, el miosotis, lleno de nostalgia.... se agrupan y entremezclan formando un tapiz recamado y aromoso. (22) This suggested relationship between painting and Pardo Bazán's writing is emphasized by García Guerra when he notes: "La prosa de P.B. presenta un marcado carácter pictórico. [...] Si bien es cierto que constituye un tópico dentro del realismo que las novelas son cuadros de costumbres, en el caso de nuestra escritora esta comparación entre la narrativa y la pintura alcanza un significado especial" (García Guerra, 1990: 49). Clémessy, for her part, links Pardo Bazán's temperamento colorista and pictorial tendencies with the emergence of Impressionist painting, by perceptively pointing out that when the Galician writer began her writing career Impressionism was at its apogee. Indeed, between 1874 and 1886 eight exhibitions were held which guaranteed the success of Renoir, Manet, Degas, Sisley, and others. In time, the Goncourt brothers became the best representatives of the new trend whereby painters and writers, united in their love for colour and light, left behind precise designs and contours. In the case of Pardo Bazán, her interest in French Impressionism [and the Goncourts] was first revealed in some landscape descriptions contained in Un viaje de novios (1881) (Clémessy, 1981, II: 821). Another good example of Pardo Bazán's colorismo in Por la España pintoresca is her description of the creatures that inhabit the bottom of the sea, as featured in Santander's marine biology station: "Los rojos de minio, los amarillos de ocre, los azules de cobalto, los verdes esmeralda, los rosas transparentes y los violetas fluidos de esos bichejos raros [...], son una magia contemplados al través de la delicada y diáfana cortina del agua que los hace vivir" (41). Yet Pardo Bazán was not alone in this pictorial approach to travel literature. Indeed, in his Viajes por España Alarcón compares himself to a painter when confronted with the description of a beautiful monument: "Dejemos la pluma y cojamos el pincel" (Alarcón, 1968: 1154). The piece on the Pas valley in Por la España pintoresca is particularly interesting because it reveals the author's attachment to costumbrismo. Indeed, in her Spanish travel collections the Galician writer is often seen looking for local colour, for costumbrista scenes. Evaristo Correa Calderón defines costumbrismo as: Un tipo de literatura menor de breve extensión, que prescinde del desarrollo de la acción, o está muy rudimentaria, limitándose a pintar un pequeño cuadro colorista, en el que se refleja con donaire y soltura el modo de vida de una época, una costumbre popular o un tipo genérico representativo. (Evaristo Correa Calderón, Antología de costumbristas españoles, Madrid, 1964: 1, cited in Whitaker, 1988: 63) For her part, Pardo Bazán saw costumbrismo as heralding, with its popular flavour, the "realismo nacional" to which she was so attracted. Indeed, in La cuestión palpitante she speaks with fondness of Fernán Caballero, Mesonero Romanos, Enrique Flórez, and Larra as the precursors of costumbrismo, suggesting that their works are the repositories of established Spanish traditions, of casticismo, and, in a word, of Spanishness itself (Pardo Bazán, 1973: 641). During summers spent in her country home of Meirás, Pardo Bazán would have witnessed the gradual loss of rural customs and traditions, and certainly her Spanish travel writings show her determination to seek out these manifestations of Spanish culture before they were irretrievably lost. Indeed, in the piece on the Pas valley in Por la España pintoresca the Galician writer admits that the main reason for visiting this particular spot was the quest for local colour: "Esperaba cuadros de mucha fisonomía. No renunciaba por nada del mundo al color local" (27). The mere mention of the Pas valley and its peasants conjures in the author's mind images of colour, fertility, health, vigour, and sheer life: Al oír valle de Pas, diríase que vemos un derroche de formas plásticas, un insolente alarde de robustez, vitalidad y carnes sanas y firmes, y, al par, racimos de chicuelos, un hervidero de bebés mamones que rien, con una perla de densa leche entre los rosados bezos.... Nos deslumbra el rojo fuerte de las sartas de coral; nos ciega el azul de las cuentas de vidrio y el relucir de las arracadas de filigrana pendientes de rollizas orejas; nos recrean los tonos gayos de pecheras y justillos, la majeza de las amplias sayas de ruedo galoneadas y del pañuelo de seda que cubre la trenza dura de la pasiega beldad.... (25) But unfortunately, it transpires that the Pas valley has little to offer in the way of local colour, and Pardo Bazán's expectations turn into disappointment. Not one of the buxom and colourful peasants she had anticipated is to be found there: "Y henos ya [...] en el pueblo de Vega de Pas, sin haber visto, ni para un remedio, pasiego ni pasiega con color local, sino algunas aldeanas idénticas á las que se encuentran en Ontaneda ó Carriedo, sin abarcas, ni justillo, ni albanega, ni filigranas, ni corales, ni veros azules ni colorados, como diría Sancho Panza...." (28). The Pas valley may have no local colour to offer Pardo Bazán, but it does hold a rewarding surprise: Dr Enrique Madrazo's state-of-the-art hospital (29).³ Apparently, the Madrazo hospital, benefiting from the latest surgical equipment and isolated in the mountains, provides a near-aseptic environment thanks to the pure water and air of the surrounding countryside and the extreme hygienic conditions of its installations (30-32). Pardo Bazán admires Madrazo's altruism, faith, and the strength of his convictions, and finds him an inspiring role model in an age of uncertainty which, she claims, forces the individual into a state of perpetual anxiety. For the author, meeting Madrazo has been a morally enriching experience: "Hombres como Madrazo son una fuerza" (33). During her stay in the city of Santander, Pardo Bazán recalls the horrors of the recent explosion of the munitions ship, the Cabo Machichaco: "A Santander no se le ha quitado todavía --ni es milagro que no se le quite-- el temblor producido por la catástrofe que le cubrió de luto. Apenas hablo con persona á quien no le haya sucedido algo atroz" --- ³ Some of the victims of the explosion of the Cabo Machichaco in November 1893 were in fact treated by Madrazo. Her conversation with some of the survivors and witnesses of the explosion brings home to her the tragic and human side of the catastrophe: "Todo lo cual lo habíamos leído en la prensa, y sin embargo, ¡qué diferente nos pareció al escucharlo referido por los testigos y las víctimas!" (35). On a more pleasurable note, Pardo Bazán's literary interests take her to Menéndez y Pelayo's library in Santander, the inner sanctum of the savant, into which she is led by his parents and brother (37-38). By way of contrast, she next describes Galdós's study, also in Santander, and compares Menéndez y Pelayo's tidiness and dedication to a life of erudition and research to Galdós's joie de vivre and cluttered life-style (39). The author's scientific concerns, already present in her conversation with Madrazo, re-emerge during her visit to Santander's Estación Cantábrica de Biología Marina, and because of her limited knowledge of scientific matters ("Libreme Dios de soñar en descripciones científicas" (41)), her description of the work carried out at the station is minimal and basic: "Sólo diré, para inteligencia de los profanos como yo, que la tal estación ó laboratorio tiene por objeto estudiar la fauna y la flora de las grandes profundidades submarinas, muy hondas en este punto de la costa cantábrica" (41). There are, in fact, echoes here of her inadequate reporting on the industrial side of the 1889 Paris Exhibition. Later, in Santillana del Mar, Pardo Bazán visits the abbey, and after exploring the hagiography of Santa Juliana and the hagiographic symbols that adorn her sarcophagus (45- --- 4 Six-hundred dead and one thousand injured was the human cost of the explosion. the author turns her attention to the abbey's cloister. Although she usually laments the sight of neglected historic buildings, this time, it should be noted, she is disappointed because the cloister is not as crumbling and gloomy as she had imagined: Ya no presenta hoy [el claustro] tan fúnebre aspecto como cuando lo describieron Pérez Galdós y Amós Escalante; ya no lo invade tanto el moho polvoriento de los sepulcros, ni la vegetación melancólica de los lugares húmedos y desiertos; ya no ruedan cráneos bajo los pies del visitador.... y casi estoy por decir que es lástima, pues este claustro causaría más impresión cuanto más triste, solo y próximo á desplomarse. (49) These observations indicate an almost Romantic or even morbid quality to the Galician writer's liking for buildings which fill her with melancholy and sadness. Furthermore, here there is a contradiction in Pardo Bazán's attitude to the conservation of historic monuments: although she is adamant that Spain's artistic heritage should be preserved and restored, she tends to prefer the appearance of derelict, desolate, and forlorn buildings which inspire in her a nostalgic and melancholic feeling which she enjoys. Indeed, later in the work, she observes of another cloister: "La restauración del claustro está hecha con suma felicidad y primor; [...] pero la piedra blanca me lastima los ojos y me desilusiona. Por mi fortuna he visto el claustro de San Juan de los Reyes mucho antes de que se intentara restaurarlo: lo he visto con zarzas, con yedra, con ortigas, contemplativo, desolado, con la hermosura de lo ruinoso" (139). After a leisurely walk around Santillana during which Pardo Bazán comments on the lineage and genealogy of the village's nobility and inspects their old ancestral homes -- the so-called "casas blasonadas", whose coats of arms and mottoes she describes and explains in detail (56-57, 59-60, 63) -- the author goes exploring in the library of her host, the Marquess of Robledo. At this point she enters the fascinating and dream-like world of the chivalric romances, which fire her imagination: El marqués posee el codiciado ejemplar único de la edición castellana de Tirante el Blanco, amén de muy raras ediciones de Amadis, Las Sergas de Esplandián y otras narraciones igualmente quijotescas. Aun cuando parezca extraño, yo no puedo aislar la impresión de estos libros fabulosos de los históricos mobiliarios. Me producen el mismo estado de excitación imaginativa, el mismo delicioso transporte á un mundo irreal, habitado por gigantes, encantadores, vestiglos y fadas. (57-58) In fact, Pardo Bazán appears to have enjoyed chivalric romances from an early age. In the "Apuntes autobiográficos" she admits that during her childhood one of her favourite books was Cervantes's Don Quijote (Pardo Bazán, 1973: 704). The author was possibly attracted to chivalric romances because they allowed her to escape from what she regarded as the prosaic reality of the nineteenth century and enter a chimerical world of "high-flown sentiments, improbability, exaggeration, unreality -- in short, elements diametrically opposed to a sober, rational view of life". Indeed, interspersed throughout Por la España pintoresca there are --- 5 Lilian R. Furst, Romanticism, The Critical Idiom, 2, 2nd edn 1976, repr. 1978, Methuen, London, 1978: 12. numerous references to Don Quijote, Sancho Panza, and the chivalric romances in general. Santillana del Mar, the birthplace of another renowned writer, Iñigo López de Mendoza, epitomizes for Pardo Bazán the world of the chivalric romances. She sees this small village, its ancient, aristocratic buildings, and noble families as remaining fixed in the past, resisting the arrival of new, democratic ways: Es verdad.... [la leyenda genealógica de Santillana] vestida de gules y sinople; verdad envuelta en la dorada gasa del símbolo. ¿Qué son la conseja del Caballero del Cisne, qué el Santo Grial, qué las aventuras de Roldán, qué los amoríos de Tristán é Isolda, sino emblemas, signos jeroglíficos que explican algo más hermoso y más verdadero que el seco relato del fiel testigo? Y si carecéis de estas aficiones, de estas convicciones, no vengáis á Santillana, porque no entenderéis lo que dicen [...] estos palacios en que todavía viven y resisten la invasión de los tiempos democráticos los biznietos de los que ganaron estas divisas y estos cuarteles. (58-59) From Santillana, "punto central desde donde se pueden hacer excursiones muy variadas á distintos pueblos de la provincia" (60), Pardo Bazán travelled on foot to Villanueva de la Barca, "en una tarde lluviosa, de celaje algodonáceo y gris, por caminos impregnados de humedad" (64). However, the beauty of the landscape offered some consolation to the visitors: "El robledal y los prados de Villanueva estaban divinos, cuando un rayo de sol vergonzante hacía refulgar los diamantes colgados de cada hoja y cada mata de hierba" (65). While in Villanueva, the author visits the "casa solariega" of yet another celebrated writer, Calderón de la Barca, and after touching briefly on the legend surrounding the origins of his family name (66-67), she proclaims her undying admiration for the author of El mágico prodigioso, who she regards as the most Spanish and Catholic of any of Spain's writers. Indeed, for Pardo Bazán, Calderón symbolizes the "soul" of Spain: Tal vez se necesitó esa serie de progenitores que tenían el espíritu nacional difundido en las venas y que ofrecieron sus vidas en holocausto á la patria y á la religión, para producir el gran poeta más español y más católico de nuestro Parnaso. Calderón era España, ó por lo menos era uno de los aspectos principales del alma española; su aspecto más estético quizás. La misma savia que en el guerrero, el marino, el mártir se transformó en acción, en el poeta produjo el drama teológico, monárquico y patriótico, y el auto sacramental. (67-68) The Galician writer's devotion to this playwright is thus linked to the fact that for her Calderón represents some of the principles which she regards as paramount: Spanishness, casticismo, Catholicism, and patriotism.$^6$ However, Pardo Bazán's admiration is no doubt also associated with her own longing for the past, since Calderón embodies the period of greatest glory and prestige for Spain in literary, artistic, and military terms.$^7$ --- $^6$ In En torno al casticismo (1895), Unamuno, too, sees Calderón as "cifra y compendio de los caracteres diferenciales y exclusivos del casticismo castellano", and as the most emblematic castizo playwright (Unamuno, 1942, I: 53, 55). $^7$ Whereas the 1898 writers looked for the "soul" of Spain in the arid Castilian landscape, Pardo Bazán also seems to be searching for the true values of Spain, but in the great writers of the past and, in particular, of the Golden Age. After returning to Santillana, the author travels on foot along a "bonito camino que, serpeando por entre montes, llanuras, praderías y arboledas, nos conduce á Comillas" (68). The piece on Comillas is particularly interesting because it provides further evidence of Pardo Bazán's attachment to the past and her aversion to the present. Indeed, she is at pains to sever, although temporarily, her emotional links with the past in order to confront the present in the shape of Comillas, a now prosperous, modern town thanks to its commercial activity: Al dirigirnos á Comillas, propúseme echar en olvido la afición á lo viejo, y reconciliarme temporalmente con la vida actual. Fuera fantasmas; atrás linajes caducos y glorias sepultadas entre polvo secular diez veces; lo que ha engrandecido á Comillas es la gran actividad de nuestro siglo, el comercio: los timbres y blasones de Comillas están forjándose á golpe de pico, en el momento presente [...]. Aceptemos la juventud en los pueblos como en el individuo, y resignémonos á que, si todo acaba, todo ha de empezar alguna vez. (69) In Pardo Bazán's opinion, although Comillas is an industrial and mining centre, it lacks the solera of older places. Its history is too recent, it does not go back far enough: "Sería inexactitud decir que Comillas carece absolutamente de recuerdos históricos; pero son de ayer. Aquí los recuerdos, lo mismo que los edificios, necesitan patina... y acaso sea lo único que necesiten" (70). Indeed, for the author the passage of time gives buildings elegance and beauty by toning down the lurid colours of new materials. Thus, speaking of the Comillas family's vault, she observes: "Hoy aún desafinan los colores: cuando el tiempo amortigüe el rebrillar de los bronces y la blancura excesiva del mármol y de la piedra, tendrá el encanto que le falta. Empresa imposible la de adelantarse á los años, y gran artista, superior á todos los artistas, el viejo Kronos que se traga las edades" (76-77). In addition, Pardo Bazán uses the piece on Comillas to underscore and praise the generosity of some Spanish aristocrats who, aware of their privileged position, use their money for the benefit of others: Los marqueses de Comillas procuran gastar en su país, y en beneficio de su pueblo natal, gran parte de sus millones. Ni son ellos el único ejemplo que en España existe, de capitalistas que se consideran depositarios del caudal y dan á los trabajadores y á los pobres el usufructo. Ahí están mis amigos los marqueses de Linares, que han hecho de su palacio de Madrid una nueva casa dorada, [...] y han protegido, al decorarla, á los más insignes artistas contemporáneos. (72) These remarks are interesting in the sense that they involve some name-dropping on the part of the author, who is determined to underline her connections with Spain's old aristocracy, and also because they present certain members of the Spanish nobility as both philanthropists and patrons of the arts. In the last essay of the Santander section, the author visits the recently discovered Altamira caves and their prehistoric paintings. She begins her account by referring --- 8 The Altamira caves were discovered by Marcelino de Sautuola in 1875. to the controversy surrounding the authenticity of the works. However, her impression "como de persona profana en la materia" (78) favours their legitimacy. She notes how the risks involved in the descent, of which she was given fair warning, added excitement to her incursion into the earth's entrails: "Al combinar la excursión parecía que no faltaban en ella riesgos que la hiciesen más atractiva" (79). Indeed, although the first chamber posed little difficulty, the so-called "catedral" of the caves was protected by a "tajado precipicio" (79). Accompanied by a group of local peasants equipped with rudimentary tools, Pardo Bazán and her daughter Blanca enter Altamira. The space available in the first chamber is so restricted that, in order to inspect the paintings, they are forced to lie on a bench carved in the wall. However, the spectacle that then unfolds in front of their eyes in the flickering light of the torches makes them forget any physical discomfort: "Por las infractuosidades de la amarillenta bóveda corre y retoza una gigantesca manada de animales antediluvianos --bisontes, renos, corzos, caballos, jabalíes-- y sus rojizos corpachones, á la dudosa claridad que nos alumbría, parecen animados por una vida fantástica" (81). The perfection of the paintings is such that Pardo Bazán begins to harbour some doubts about their authenticity: "Declaro que las encuentro demasiado bien hechas para la fecha que se les atribuye. [...] Y si aquí no hay trampa, reconoczamos que en las cuevas de Altamira existió el Apeles de las edades prehistóricas" (82). However, she then moves on to tell how the caves were discovered by Marcelino Sautuola some twenty years before, and in so doing she appears to want to convince herself and her readers of the genuineness of the pictures: "Admitida la exactitud de este relato, no cabe ni sospechar engañifa en las pinturas" (83). Pardo Bazán and her companion continue their exploration of Altamira, dismissing the risks, the physical discomfort involved, and the warnings of their guides: Aseguran los guías que para semejante atrevimiento "se requieren pantalones;" pero yo sé que damas tan pulcras como las hermanas de Alfonso XII han realizado la aventura, y no la creo superior á mis fuerzas ni á las de Blanca [...]. Animo pues; agacharse y enjaretarse como se pueda, de lado ó de rodillas, por un pasadizo salpicado de fragmentos de roca que nos conduce á una estancia de mediana altura, de suelo blando, resbaladizo y húmedo. (85-86) Although the passageway to the "catedral", guarded by a precipice, is steep, slippery, and dangerous, the treat that awaits the explorers makes it all worthwhile. Indeed, for Pardo Bazán the sight amounts to a spiritually rewarding experience: "Allá á lo lejos, entre medrosas sombras, ábrese algo que parece abismo, y no es sino la catedral, con su bóveda de diez metros de elevación y su lindo púlpito de estalactitas y estalagmitas.... [...] La inmensa altura de la bóveda, contrastando con lo ahogado de los pasadizos, eleva el alma" (86). And when it is time to leave the caves, the author, although physically exhausted, is reluctant to abandon such an enchanted place: "Y sin prisa, sin deseo alguno de acabar esta peregrina excursión, si bien algo fatigadas, salimos [...] á disfrutar otra vez la claridad del día" (87). The piece on Altamira is particularly interesting because it suggests the adventurous side in Pardo Bazán's make-up as a traveller. Although aged forty-three at the time, she is prepared to forfeit the comforts to which she is normally accustomed as a privileged traveller in order to undertake a difficult and potentially dangerous journey below ground to satisfy her artistic and journalistic curiosity. 4. Castile At Easter 1891, Pardo Bazán travelled from Madrid to Alcalá by train, enjoying the benefits of "un día alegre y delicioso, templado, límpido, de esos días castellanos en que el sol viste de gala y derrama sobre el árido y desnudo terruño los rojos tonos de la maremma sienesa" (89-90). While visiting Alcalá's archives, the author remarks on the poor state of the building and criticizes the Spanish government's passivity for allowing some of the best treasures of the country's historical records to fall apart: En los tres años que llevo de visitar con alguna asiduidad este rico monumento donde viven tantos recuerdos y tantas glorias, nunca veo que adelanten las obras de restauración, en buen hora impulsadas, después de la visita del rey Alfonso XII, por el conde de Toreno. La muerte de este prócer debió de contribuir á paralizarlas, y no hay esperanzas de que las active el actual ministro de Fomento, que, según propia confesión, está dispuesto á dejar arruinarse ¡el claustro de San Juan de los Reyes, nuevamente restaurado! fundándose en que "las naciones pobres, como las personas de mala posición social, no deben poseer joyas ni galas." (91) For Pardo Bazán, a woman who was constantly calling for the cultural, artistic, and social regeneration of Spain, the defeatist attitude of some of its politicians was obviously difficult to comprehend or come to terms with. As in the piece on Comillas, the concept of time as a kind of neutralizing or harmonizing agent, which bestows character and beauty on the new additions to historic buildings, is also present in the episode dedicated to Alcalá's archives: "Los preciosos ventanales, rehechos conforme al modelo antiguo, no dejan que desear, y únicamente los modernos vidrios de colores y la viveza de los oros y pinturas lastiman algo la pupila. El tiempo los amortiguará, y entonces todo el edificio adquirirá la armonía que hoy le falta" (92). Time is therefore presented in Por la España pintoresca as the past's ally in the achievement of the distinction, grace, and solera Pardo Bazán regards as essential requisites in the creation of aesthetically pleasing monuments and artefacts. The author's taste for the macabre and gruesome, already present in previous travel collections, re-emerges during her visit to the crypt of Alcalá's cathedral. Indeed, she relishes the possibility of seeing the relics of two young martyrs and the mummified body of San Diego de Alcalá: El cuerpo --según mi sacristán-- hállase en apariencia de vida, flexible, natural; su carne cede á la presión de los dedos. "Nadie de este mundo lo ve", añade, paseando su cirio por la piedra teñida por la sangre de los mártires y que conserva la señal de sus rodillas, mientras á mí se me hace agua la boca, de ganas de The author and her companions travelled to Guadalajara by train on Maundy Thursday, and there they encountered the city's governor, an old family friend of Pardo Bazán, who facilitated their access to three major monuments in the city (95-96). After describing in detail the palace of the Infantado (96-100), the author visits the chapel of the Urbinas family, where she is saddened to find that this beautiful building is now possibly used as a stable. The family coat of arms lies on the floor buried in dirt and straw. This seems to be a symbol of the decline of the Spanish aristocracy in the nineteenth century, and in any case Pardo Bazán calls upon the local government to buy and restore the chapel before a developer flattens it in order to erect some inelegant construction. As usual, for the Galician writer the nineteenth century is characterized by its lack of taste and aesthetic values: Por el suelo, entre paja, lodo é inmundicias, puede verse todavía el blasón de los Urbinas [...]. Para mayor dolor, la capilla de los Urbinas está en venta, y si la compra alguna persona ajena al arte y la derriba y levanta allí una casa de cinco pisos, al seductor estilo urbano del siglo XIX, nos lucimos como hay Dios. Bien podrían el Municipio ó la Diputación provincial de Guadalajara adquirir este bibelot [...] para restaurarlo convenientemente y devolverlo al culto. (100) Pardo Bazán's visit to the pantheon of the Osunas (also in Guadalajara) provides, as in the case of the Urbinas chapel, a sad reminder of the decline of Spain's nobility (102), and the decay of this social class appears to have concerned her. Indeed, in an article entitled "Sangre azul", published in La Ilustración Artística of 3 August 1903, the author speaks of the decline of Spain's aristocracy, which is now no longer a leading social force nor an integral part of the "patria". In order to regain its prominent role in the life of Spain, the nobility, she suggests, must recover its self-esteem and regenerate itself by adopting a wholesome and exemplary way of life. She also adds that the Spanish aristocracy should emulate the irreproachable conduct of its British counterparts, the role model par excellence (Pardo Bazán, 1972: 167-68). This lack of principles is also addressed by the author in a study published in 1908 on Father Luis Coloma, the author of Pequeñeces (1890), in which she speaks of a Spanish aristocracy "sin norte fijo, con creencias religiosas medio dormidas en el alma, con una devoción de cascarilla y buen tono, pero incapaz de austeridades, abnegaciones y sacrificios" (Pardo Bazán, 1973: 1449). In fact, Coloma's satirical work is mentioned in Por la España pintoresca when, referring of the decline of the nobility, the author observes: "El panteón de Osuna sugiere más ideas amargas sobre la desdicha de nuestra aristocracia, que puede sugerir la famosísima novela del Padre Coloma" (102). Pardo Bazán's apparent desire for the rehabilitation of a badly discredited Spanish aristocracy is understandable considering the ill repute and decline that haunted much of nineteenth-century European nobility, which had seen its former power and influence undermined by the development of trade and the ambitions of the bourgeoisie. Indeed, in his article "Joven aristocracia" [1899], Darío presents the French aristocracy, with its poor standards of morality, as a prime example of the decline of this social class. The French republic has nothing to fear, he claims, from a nobility that is both intellectually and morally exhausted (Darío, 1987: 283). Although the Spanish aristocracy is apparently not as enfeebled as that of France, Darío argues that Spain can expect very little from its nobility. Instead of investing time and money in its lands with the aim of introducing technological advancements or new machinery, it tends to rent its estates out to administrators whose only concern is to enrich themselves (Darío, 1987: 284). Overall, the Nicaraguan writer presents a bleak, pessimistic, and unappealing portrayal of the Spanish nobility as a group of corrupt, cruel, self-centred, and good-for-nothing individuals who waste their lives away in the pursuit of pleasure and self-indulgence (Darío, 1987: 285-89). Given the above, Pardo Bazán's objective of contributing to the rehabilitation of Spain's aristocracy was a challenging one, and Por la España pintoresca constitutes a good example of her endeavours to counteract the increasing ill repute of this social class by foregrounding its humanitarian and altruistic pursuits during her visit to Comillas (72-73) and Alcalá (91), and, while in Guadalajara, by reminding her readers that the local "Asilo de Huérfanos" owes its establishment to the good offices and generosity of the Marquess of Novaliches (99). After fruitless attempts to see the mummified body of Doña María Coronel, supposedly housed in Guadalajara's convent of "las Claras" (yet another indication of the author's penchant for the macabre and gruesome) (102-03), Pardo Bazán and her female companions travelled that night to Sigüenza by train. At the station, they were met by the town's mayor who escorted them to a nearby inn (103), and after a restful night's sleep they woke up "con el afán del que llega á un pueblo desconocido, y ansía la hora de echarle el primer vistazo" (104). Pardo Bazán's first port of call is the cathedral, and in the account of her visit there is again an insistence, as in the episode on the Urbinas chapel (100), on the inherent tastelessness of the nineteenth century: Debajo del túmulo del doncel de Arce, como irrisoria mueca hecha á nuestro antiestético siglo, se vé la sepultura del último marqués de Bedmar. Una verja digna de honrar el balcón de una casa de huéspedes, una lápida que lo mismo podría servir para cubierta de un velador, algunas guirnaldas de horribles siemprevivas y violetas de trapo.... ahí está lo que nuestra edad pone bajo las bóvedas de la catedral de Sigüenza, para hacer juego con los sepulcros de filigrana y las estatuas yacentes de mármol purísimo. [My italics] (106-07) In his Viajes por España Alarcón, too, speaks of the "profanaciones" to which Salamanca's Casa de la Salina has been subjected in an attempt to transform it into a modern building. He calls upon the local government to remove the tasteless new additions in order to restore the building to its former glory, "derribando todo lo moderno y postizo que hay en él, reforzando lo viejo y monumental" (Alarcón, 1968: 1158). While in Sigüenza, Pardo Bazán and her companions go exploring in "las tortuosas calles de la ciudad alta, en los barrios de duendes llamados la Judería y la Morería" (107), which eventually leads them to the city's fortress. In the account that follows, there is again the suggestion, as in the piece on Santillana (58-59), that the modern age and its democratic trappings are a threat to the last vestiges of feudalism and all the attendant privileges, but this time the threat is to the clergy. Indeed, the author claims that in a society where traditional tenets have been undermined, the people of Sigüenza are still aware and respectful of tradition. The bishop is no longer the powerful warrior of the Middle Ages; his former fortress is now empty and forlorn, but the local people are still in awe of him and, in her opinion, quite rightly so (108-09). As a traditionalist, devout Catholic, staunch monarchist, and member of the ruling classes, Pardo Bazán took personally any attacks made by the democratic process of the nineteenth century on the highest echelons of Spanish society: the monarchy, the aristocracy, and even the Church. Hence, the aversion often expressed in her writings to the constitutional monarchy, the parliamentary system, and the anti-clericalism in vogue in Spain at the time. Obviously, for the author the nineteenth century typified a society whose traditions, tenets, principles, and hierarchical organization had been totally subverted by the advances of democratic institutions and values. On Good Friday, Pardo Bazán and her companions attended a service at Sigüenza's cathedral officiated by the bishop, and later they joined him for lunch at his palace (109). Their visit to the town concluded with a leisurely walk through its streets prior to their departure on the four-thirty train bound for "la corte de las Españas" (110). The notion of Por la España pintoresca as an artistic pilgrimage becomes evident during Pardo Bazán's stay in Valladolid, to which she refers as "objecto de peregrinación", for it is the home to a magnificent collection of old wooden sculptures (111). Indeed, her first visit, accompanied by her daughter Blanca, is to the provincial museum, where she reviews and comments in detail on the works of Juan de Juni, Alonso Berruguete, and Gregorio Hernández (112-21). The author's relentless attacks on the inadequacies of modern art, already present in the pieces on Guadalajara (100) and Sigüenza (106-07), continue during her stay in Valladolid. But this time, she also adds that the tastelessness of nineteenth-century Spanish art indicates the country's lack of religious inspiration which, she argues, has been sacrificed to industrial progress (114-15). In effect, art of earlier periods, in this century of spiritual barrenness, seems to have become, as mentioned in Chapter 4 (Pardo Bazán, [1889]: 141), some kind of surrogate "religion" for the author, at least in aesthetic terms. When Alarcón travelled to Valladolid in 1858, the city apparently had a well-established reputation for the production of paper, textiles, porcelain, silverware, haberdashery, and other items (Alarcón, 1968: 1180). However, in Pardo Bazán's piece on the city, entitled "Los Santos de Valladolid", there is no mention of these flourishing industries. In fact, her description focuses exclusively on the museum of old wooden sculptures (111-21), and the omission of reference to the city's commercial activity is rather surprising for someone who was always advocating progress and industrial development. Yet the Valladolid section seems to confirm that in Por la España pintoresca the author is more preoccupied with Spain's past than with what the future may hold for her country. In effect, she is sorry to leave this city which for her epitomizes Spain's artistic heritage, but other commitments as a traveller demand her attention: "Valladolid [...] tiene por blasón su hueste gloriosa de santos viejos. Yo me pasaría un mes sin otra ocupación que registrar esta corte celestial... si no tuviera que ir á Medina de Rioseco, á Tordesillas, á Villalar, á Simancas, donde veré algo que tal vez merezca contarse" (121). It is not clear whether Pardo Bazán visited Toledo before or after she went to Valladolid in 1891. However, on a sunny day in June 1891, unusually fresh for that time of year (138), the author travelled by train from Madrid to Spain's ancient capital in the company of some friends whose names and occupations she provides (134). The reader is punctually informed that the pieces dedicated to Toledo in Por la España pintoresca are entitled "Días toledanos" in honour of Galdós and his work Ángel Guerra (134), a copy of which also accompanies Pardo Bazán in her visit to "la emperatriz de las ciudades" (133). Soon after their arrival, the author and her friends realize that they are ill-equipped to visit the city: "Como no éramos turistas de raza sajona, francamente, íbamos mal pertrechados. Nadie [...] iba provisto de su correspondiente Guía; observé que tampoco ninguna de las señoras se había resuelto á enfundar los piés en el calzado que se llama en los Estados Unidos calzado de sentido común" (136). This lack of preparation is striking in Pardo Bazán, the seasoned traveller who had apparently visited Toledo on previous occasions (133). In search of "guidance", they purchase Viscount Palazuelos's Guía, humorously described by Pardo Bazán as a "rollizo mamotreto de manejo imposible" weighing between two and three kilos (137), and which instead of aiding the exploration of the city hinders their progress. Moreover, one learns later that the author's visit to Toledo was marred by the unsolicited services of a self-appointed guide to the city, a "moscón insufrible" (159), as she terms him, who placed the Galician writer in a position to which she was unaccustomed: that of defenceless tourist: "Todos nuestros gustos toledanos nos los amargó [...] un cicerone de oficio, de esos que aguardan emboscados en la estación la llegada de los trenes, y como pegajosa garrapata se adhieren á sus víctimas" (158). During her visit to San Juan de los Reyes in Toledo, Pardo Bazán's attacks on the apparent inadequacies of nineteenth-century art continue. Furthermore, it seems that the author's displeasure at what she regards as the nineteenth century's aesthetic poverty is intensified when she sees contemporary artists attempting to copy the style of bygone centuries: "San Juan de los Reyes [...] se halla entregado á restauradoras manos, muy inteligentes por cierto: las de Arturo Mélida. Pero ni Mélida pudo, ni en rigor puede nadie evitar la mezquindad que aflige al arte arquitectónico moderno, al intentar una imitación del estilo del XV" (139). In fact, it would appear that for Pardo Bazán late medieval art remains unsurpassed, regardless of any worthwhile endeavours by modern artists to emulate the architectural achievements of that particular period. The author uses the occasion of her visit to Toledo's cathedral to foreground the religious indifference which, in her opinion, characterizes the nineteenth century. She laments that on Sundays Toledo's cathedral is not a place of worship but a place to see and be seen. Men and women alike, dressed in their best clothes and indifferent to the architectural beauty and mysticism of the temple, parade in front of each other as a prelude to a romantic relationship (142-43). Although Pardo Bazán is aware of the lack of social distractions in Toledo, she regards this irreverent use of the cathedral as a kind of profanation: En las poblaciones que tienen Catedral y donde escasean teatros y bailes, la basílica metropolitana es el amadero: en ella se exhiben las niñas bonitas y bullen los amartelados galanes. Yo no declamaría jamás --si fuese moralista-- contra las fiestas profanas. En cambio azotaría con pencas al que en la catedral de Toledo fijase siquiera los ojos en un rostro de mujer. (143) Although she may see herself as no moralist, the punishment Pardo Bazán would have inflicted on the irreverent people of Toledo could well have been inspired by the painting La purificación del templo, by Toledo's greatest artist, El Greco. Elsewhere in this piece, the author recommends that visitors to the city should attend one of its procesiones. But judging by the terms she uses to describe these religious manifestations, they are little more than profane and theatrical spectacles which, although visually attractive, lack religious content: ¡Con qué gusto presencié una procesión en Toledo! Hay quien teme ir á Toledo en días solemnes; y es gran yerro, porque allí cualquier ceremonia reviste soberana magnificencia. ¿Qué vale la fría y pobre mise en scène de los teatros al lado de este lujo secular, de estos ropajes asiáticos y esta ingenua coquetería decorativa? (144) Here, as in Mi romería, it transpires that the Galician writer is particularly attracted to the pomp and ceremony of religious ceremonies, even if their exotic flavour often transforms them into near-pagan displays of devotion. Indeed, another example of this Christian-pagan dichotomy in Pardo Bazán's understanding of the religious experience and of her fascination with the luxurious trappings of Christian festivals, is found in her description of the spectacle in Toledo's cathedral that marks a special celebration: ¡Cuán diferente ver, en aquellas naves inmensas, alumbradas por los esplendentes reflejos de la vidriera, sobre el fondo de las rejas de maravillosa labor, pasar lenta y majestuosa, entre incienso y cánticos, la manga de brocado de oro con figuras y medallones de recamo de seda, la cruz de cincelada plata, y detrás los canónigos con sus mucetas carmesíes, los niños vestidos de ángeles barrocos, con sus diademas y plumajes dignos de un auto sacramental, y el Deán luciendo su oriental vestidura, agobiada la cabeza por el peso del superhumeral constelado de oro, perlas y pedrería! (144-45) In fact, there are striking similarities between the above passage and the author's description of Leo XIII's arrival in St Peter's as presented in Mi romería (Pardo Bazán, 1888: 81-82). While in Toledo, the Galician writer also pays homage to the author of Don Juan Tenorio, one of her favourite Romantic writers. She appears to have liked "El Cisne", as she often called Zorrilla, since her youth. Indeed, in the "Apuntes autobiográficos" she refers to him as "el mago Zorrilla, el rey de la melodía, el Verdi de nuestros poetas" (Pardo Bazán, 1973: 704), and in Por la España pintoresca she reaffirms her affection for the bard thus: Para la poesía toledana [...] nos basta algo de lectura de crónicas, unos cuantos recuerdos.... y Zorrilla. Si vuelvo á Toledo juro no llevarme conmigo ni á Amador de los Ríos, ni á Quadrado, ni á Pedro de Herrera, ni á Ambrosio de Morales, ni menos al señor vizconde de Palazuelos, el del robusto misal. Me llevaré al poeta, al hoy casi olvidado y que ya restauraremos como restauran sus admiradores franceses á Lamartine. (154-55) While thinking of Zorrilla's writing, Pardo Bazán also acknowledges, in rather poetic terms, the mixture of cultures (Christian and Moslem) to be found in Toledo: No siempre es la Toledo cristiana [...] la que inspira al poeta; también es la nostalgia de la Toledo morisca, nostalgia que yo sentí en el Tránsito. ¿Qué sería la Toledo árabe, con sus alfombras, sus alcatifas, sus mujeres encerradas y veladas que Zorrilla describe en versos que tienen la claridad y el vivo color de un paisaje con exceso de luz, genuinamente oriental? (155)⁹ In the Santander section of Por la España pintoresca Pardo Bazán had gone on "pilgrimage" to the roots of Quevedo and Calderón, and her stay in Toledo involves another pilgrimage to the Golden Age of Spanish literature in the shape of "el mesón del Sevillano", where Cervantes set his --- ⁹ Here, as in the Toledo section of Por la Europa católica, the author fails to acknowledge the Jewish influence on the city's cultural make-up. novel La ilustre fregona (156-57). The setting provided by the mesón is in fact ideal for a sentimental trip to the past: there is music playing in the background, the night is calm and mild, and "el lugar propicio á todo juego de la fantasía; uno de esos lugares que tientan á darle gracias al tiempo, el gran destructor, porque nos los ha respetado" (157). Overcome by her romantic attitude to the past and enjoying her imaginary journey back in time, the author is prepared to accept the authenticity of a document supposedly written by Cervantes, and she even sees some physical similarities between one of the mozas of the mesón, and Constancica, the "ilustre fregona" (157-58). Pardo Bazán's final visit is to the church of Santo Tomé and to El Greco's El entierro del conde de Orgaz, which she sees as the perfect communion between heaven and earth, and refers to as "el placer mayor que debí al arte en Toledo" (160). This concluded her literary, historical, and artistic pilgrimage to Toledo and she then took the train back to Madrid (162). 5. Galicia The first essay of the Galician section of La España pintoresca finds Pardo Bazán in the city of Orense. There she meets some old friends who had accompanied her on previous excursions and rejoices at the prospect of exploring new places with them and sharing the excitement of the journey ahead. Moreover, there is an emphasis on the physical activity involved in the journey of exploration that awaits them: "Tres años hacía ya que no peregrinábamos reunidos, alpenstock en puño, máquina fotográfica en cinto, anteojos marinos al costado, vaso de cristal en bolsillo para aprovechar las fuentes" (163). The distance that separates Orense from Puebla de Tribes is travelled by omnibus, under an overcast sky compensated by "la deliciosa temperatura neutra del otoño galiciano" (166). Leaving their vehicle behind and guided by two local youths, the visitors begin their ascent to the temple of San Pedro das Rocas, high up in the Orense mountains (166-67). In this section of Por la España pintoresca, Pardo Bazán reveals better than in any other her skills at landscape descriptions and thereby provides further evidence of her position as one of the most accomplished paisajistas of nineteenth-century Spain. Her fascination with the beauty of Nature and its creations is no doubt responsible for the fine landscape descriptions often found in her novels and travel works, and the fact that she spent much of her childhood and youth surrounded by the luscious vegetation and beautiful scenery of her native Galicia must have contributed to her penchant for the observation and depiction of the natural environment. Indeed, speaking of her summer stays in Galicia in the late 1860s, Pardo Bazán notes in her "Apuntes autobiográficos" that she used to invest her time in: Excursiones encantadoras, que empezaron a convertir mis ojos hacia el mundo exterior, me revelaron el reino de la Naturaleza y me predispusieron a ser la incansable paisajista actual, prendada del gris de las nubes, del olor de los castaños, de los ríos espumantes presos en las hoces, de los prados húmedos y de los caminos hondos de mi tierra. [My italics] (Pardo Bazán, 1973: 707) In effect, in Por la España pintoresca, in the pieces describing the province of Orense, the author simply explores and observes the countryside. In the following description, Nature is presented as if, emulating human endeavours, it had constructed its own fortresses, towns, churches, and villages: Formando anfiteatro majestuoso, perfilábase sobre el horizonte un hemiciclo de montañas, coronadas por fantásticos peñascales, que vistos desde regular distancia, producían completa ilusión de ciudades, castillos y murallas ciclópeas, remedando, hasta un extremo de verosimilitud increíble, fortalezas desmoronadas, torreones agrietados, almenas rotas, parapetos y contraescarpas, baluartes con abiertas brechas, vaporosas agujas de catedral y extraños obeliscos. (167-68) The message the author conveys in this description is that Nature, when it so chooses, can imitate and surpass human creativity provided, of course, that the human eye and mind are complicit. Another aspect of Pardo Bazán's paisajismo is that it often involves various sensory perceptions. As one critic mentions of her approach: "En contacto con una naturaleza agudamente observada, almacena colores, murmullos, olores, paisajes" (Carballo Picazo, 1965: 354). Indeed, in the prologue to La dama joven (1885) the author recalls some sensory experiences of ten years earlier: Todavía engaña mi memoria a los sentidos, y trae al olfato el virgiliano perfume de las colmenas suspendidas sobre el río Avieiro, o el olor de la madura pavía y racimo almibarado, y al paladar el dejo de la miel y de las azucarosas castañas, y al oído el son de la gaita triste, de la dulce flauta y el hinchado bombo, y a los ojos el verdinegro matiz de los pinares. [My italics] (Pardo Bazán, 1973: 667) And in Por la España pintoresca, as in De mi tierra (Pardo Bazán, 1984: 51), the contact with her native Galicia in the last section of the work also stimulates Pardo Bazán's sensory perceptions of Nature. Before setting off on her exploration of the province of Orense, she describes the Galician mountains and the scent of wild flowers that pervades the air. In this particular passage, it is the sense of smell which prevails over all others: Los aromas son puros, intensos, firmes, el aire seco y templado; hay limpias auras, cefirillos que son verdaderas bocanadas de esencia: la menta, la retama, el pino, el brezo, la manzanilla, el helecho, el heno segado, la hierba fresquisima, el aterciopelado liquen, la orquídea salvaje, todo trasciende, todo esparce, á manera de invisible pulverizador, fragancia exquisita [...]. De los cinco sentidos corporales el que más goza durante una excursión montañesa es, sin género de duda, el olfato, y seguramente es el que padece más con el contraste del regreso á la vida urbana. (165-66) Although the subsequent climb to the temple of San Pedro is arduous, the experience is rewarding and exhilarating: "¡Excelsior! El grito de los alpinistas resonaba en nuestro corazón y llenaba nuestros pulmones [...]. No pensamos al pronto sino en el júbilo de encontrarnos dueños ya de la montaña" (169). However, San Pedro has little to offer to the cultured tourists (174) and the rest of the afternoon is spent by the visitors resting in the shade of nearby trees, enjoying a hearty lunch, and chatting. As the sun begins to sink beyond the horizon, they start their descent, but not without turning their heads back and relishing once more the beauty of Orense's mountains (179-80). The last piece of the Galician section finds Pardo Bazán in the north of Galicia, in the small town of Betanzos (La Coruña) in July (191). She arrives on foot, and the sights she encounters along the way indicate that the town is celebrating its country fair (184). During her visit, the author focuses her attention on the empty palace of the Andrades, Betanzos's founding family, which is presented as symbolic of the decline of the rural aristocracy, a feature, of course, of Los pazos de Ulloa (1886) and La madre Naturaleza (1887). She moves on to lament that many of Betanzos's noble families have now left, with only their long-dead ancestors staying behind to "guard" the town. Pardo Bazán, with a touch of vanity on her part, takes this opportunity to associate herself with the illustrious families of Betanzos: ¡Cómo han ido volando lejos las familias ilustres que en otro tiempo residieron en Betanzos! [...] Aquí mantienen fielmente su puesto de honor los que duermen, armados de punta en blanco, bajo las bóvedas de la iglesia de San Francisco; los vivos se han dispersado, nos hemos dispersado, pudiera decir, pues casi todos esos nombres son de parentela más ó menos próxima. (187) In De mi tierra, too, the author had touched on the decline of Galicia's rural aristocracy: "Los goterosos Pazos, que se derrumban y fenecen como la aristocracia campesina á quien sirven de refugio" (Pardo Bazán, 1984: 125), and Clémessy notes that although in the early nineteenth century the Galician pazos were still prosperous and thriving enclaves, in the following fifty years the decay of the old Galician aristocracy became evident. Thus, by the time Pardo Bazán got to know this social class, its decline was complete, as reflected in the abundance of unoccupied and derelict pazos scattered across the Galician landscape (Clémessy, 1981, I: 408). If in the pieces on Comillas (72-73), Alcalá (91), and Guadalajara (99) Pardo Bazán had attempted to counteract the ill repute of a badly discredited Spanish aristocracy by underscoring its altruistic and humanitarian pursuits, it also appears that the author believed that the rehabilitation of Spain's nobility could be aided by persuading its members to play an active part in the restoration of the country's sadly neglected heritage. Indeed, in De mi tierra she argues that the aristocracy should return to their country seats and invest the money obtained from taxing the peasants in the refurbishment of their now derelict ancestral homes (Pardo Bazán, 1984: 249). And in Por la España pintoresca the author invites the Alba family, the current representative of the Andrades, to finance the restoration of the church of San Francisco, the burial place of the Andrades: Si por casualidad los duques de Alba llegasen á tomar en sus manos el número de El Imparcial donde vea la luz este artículo, no olviden que ellos representan hoy la estirpe de Andrade [...]. Sin excesivo dispendio se prolongaría la vida de la iglesia de San Francisco de Betanzos, y se colocaría á su cabeza, en el verdadero lugar que le corresponde, el sepulcro del huésped y grande amigo del rey Enrique el de las Mercedes. (188) Coincidentally, in Viajes por España Alarcón also exhorts the Duke of Alba to safeguard the nation's artistic heritage, this time by meeting the cost of restoring one of Ribera's paintings housed in Salamanca's Iglesia de las Agustinas (Alarcón, 1968: 1157). So, both writers are asking Spain's aristocracy, and not just the government, to accept responsibility for the upkeep and restoration of the nation's artistic monuments and treasures. Noblesse oblige, appears to be the message here. Although in her travels through the Pas valley Pardo Bazán's search for local colour had been unsuccessful, her quest for costumbrismo is finally fulfilled in her native Galicia. Indeed, during her stay in Betanzos she visits its country fair, and the description which ensues constitutes a classic costumbrista and colorista cuadro, full of local colour and local stereotypes: Imaginaos pueblo de tal interés arquitectónico y de tan pintoresca situación, inundado por una muchedumbre vestida como aquí visten, no sólo en día festivo, sino á diario, aldeanos y aldeanas; con un derroche de colorines vistosos y gayos, pañolones amarillos, anaranjados, rosa vivo con flores verdes, fajas moradas y rojas, trajes de percales claros y chillones, en las mozas; camisas y calzones blancos limpísimos en los mozos; figuraos los puestos de mercería, cintas y cordones, el inmenso armatoste del buhonero que expende calendarios americanos; la exposición de cacharros, ollas y cuncas, cuyo vidriado reluce al sol; [...] --y difícil será que así y todo forméis idea de la alegría y vida de estas ferias, hoy decadentes, según afirman los que de antaño las conocieron. (188-89) It is interesting to note that this passage, with its heavy reliance on enumeration,\textsuperscript{10} far from being the standard kind of account, contains a direct invitation to the reader to picture these scenes. The author is in fact eager to have the reader join her in the enjoyment of this typically \textit{colorista} and \textit{costumbrista} scene which presumably embodies for her much of the popular essence of her native Galicia. Pardo Bazán's visit to Betanzos also involves an encounter with her childhood. Indeed, in the village square she comes across "señora Rufina de Souto, rica labradora, que me conoció de pequeñita" (190), and this fortuitous meeting with her Galician roots makes the author feel young and alive again. It is as if tradition had turned back the clock, transporting Pardo Bazán to the days when she was a \textit{rapaciña}. Moreover, she again encourages the reader to join her in this nostalgic trip: "A ti, lector, te sucederá lo propio. Estas cosas de la tradición tienen un perfume divino: huelen á incienso y á cedro; diríase que nos rejuvenecen" (190). Finally, the author leaves Betanzos and her childhood behind as she accompanies some locals on their pilgrimage to the shrine of their patron, Santa Aya (191). 6. Conclusions The tone of \textit{Por la España pintoresca} is much more relaxed than that of Pardo Bazán's chronicles on her Italian trip or of \textsuperscript{10} An indication, perhaps, of the influence of Naturalism on Pardo Bazán. those dealing with the 1889 Universal Exhibition. She is not on guard or on the defensive, ready to rebuff any unwelcome foreign criticism of her beloved Spain, as was the case in the Parisian chronicles. She is on home ground, she feels at ease, and this tranquillity comes through in the narratives, for in this collection the author apparently travels solely for pleasure and recreation. In effect, Por la España pintoresca, together with the travel section of De mi tierra, provides a prime example of "la noción estética" of travelling, as discussed by Pardo Bazán in her essay on Alarcón's travel works (Pardo Bazán, 1973: 1400) and mentioned in Chapter 1. Similarly, in her article "El viaje por España" she observes: "El viaje por España es tal vez el más deleitable que puede realizar una persona dotada de cultura y de conocimientos en arte y en historia" (Pardo Bazán, 1895b: 76). Indeed, although in Por la España pintoresca Pardo Bazán's versatility as a travel writer is evident, in most of the pieces she behaves very much like an ordinary tourist (albeit an erudite and knowledgeable one) and tends to do that which is expected of tourists: visit the sights, attend the local fairs, explore the museums, go on local excursions, and so on. The four-year time-frame of the various journeys described in Por la España pintoresca presumably accounts for Pardo Bazán's different approach in the three sections. While aesthetic, artistic, and cultural considerations are a common feature of the entire collection, in the pieces on Santander the author foregrounds her social contact with the people she encounters on her travels. The section on Castile is more concerned with physical descriptions, and the account of her journeys through her native Galicia contains a significant amount of landscape descriptions. Pardo Bazán's chagrin at the derelict condition of Spain's artistic heritage is possibly stronger in this particular travel collection than in any other. Indeed, there are constant lamentations at the sight of priceless monuments which are now in a deplorable condition because of lack of funding or interest on the part of the Spanish government, but also on the part of the aristocracy, whose members she holds responsible for the upkeep of their artistic heirlooms and heritage. And yet, the author appears to enjoy wallowing in the morbidezza that neglected historic buildings inflict on her. The notion of the nineteenth century as a period of aesthetic poverty is a recurrent theme in many of Pardo Bazán's travel works, and Por la España pintoresca is no exception. In effect, it seems that for the Galician writer any artistic creation of the nineteenth century is no match for what was produced in bygone centuries and, in particular, during the late Middle Ages, an epoch which is frequently recalled in this travel collection through numerous references to medieval monuments, noble lineages, and to one of the literary genres which typified it: the chivalric romances. Pardo Bazán's aversion to the nineteenth century, which she regards, inter alia, as a time of spiritual barrenness and religious indifference, could well stem from the longing for the past that permeates many of her travel collections. Indeed, if in the 1889 Paris Exhibition, in the midst of machinery and technological achievements, the author came across as an anachronism, this is also valid for her general outlook on the nineteenth century, since, as it transpires in her travel writing, her heart, beliefs, principles, and artistic concerns were very much set in the distant past and, in particular, in the late Middle Ages and the days of the Empire. Por la España pintoresca is not the result of diligent research on the part of Pardo Bazán. In fact, although at times she refers to and quotes from various writers' works -- Enrique Flórez's La España sagrada, Rodrigo Amador de los Ríos's España, sus monumentos y artes, Amós Escalante's Costas y montañas, among others -- the information she provides on the monuments or the places visited is not always accurate. On occasions, she is content to go by hearsay or local gossip: a good example of such laxity (or what Muggli terms "nonjournalistic inexactitude" (Muggli, 1992: 190)) being the information she ventures on the palace of Soñanes in the province of Santander, and the way she is not prepared to verify the truthfulness of the legend associated with the building: Se cuenta que tan opulento edificio fué erigido con la plata que remitía desde Lima un virrey. Quiso un día el virrey enterarse de cómo marchaba la obra, y al verla, ordenó indignado que la quemasen inmediatamente, partiendo para no volver nunca. Ignoro si debe creerse el hecho; lo cierto es que, por fortuna, el palacio no ardió, pero quedó sin terminar su monumental y tétrica escalera. [My italics] (24) Generally speaking, then, Pardo Bazán is more preoccupied with the sentimental charm of local legends and popular beliefs than with scientific, and historical evidence: "Para gozar en una excursión como ésta, conviene saber algo más que patrañas, pero vendría bien ignorar algunas insípidas verdades" (153), or: "No, no; á Toledo no hay que venir con demasiadas sabidurías" (154). Adams claims that durable travel works are rather subjective, and that the more subjective they are the more readable and "valuable" they become (Adams, 1983: 280). It is true that in the case of Pardo Bazán one of the more refreshing aspects of her travel writing is the personal approach she tends to adopt, for, as she herself noted in her essay on Alarcón, the written travel account should be regarded as the reflection of the temperament of the viajero and nothing else, because the travel writer imprints her own character on the descriptions of the places visited (Pardo Bazán, 1973: 1400). Indeed, in Por la España pintoresca the Galician writer realizes that the only way of saying something new about those places which have been the subject of countless travel accounts is by looking at them from a purely subjective perspective: De Toledo, Roma y Jerusalén, ¿qué cosa nueva podrá decirse? [...] Lo único posible para no ahogarse en el océano de tantas maravillas, es traducir fielmente una impresión personal, lírica, sentida y gozada con sibaritismo; y en vez de hablar del Toledo monumental y artístico, hablar de nuestro Toledo, del que nos ha tocado en suerte. (133, 134) Similarly, in his Viajes por España Alarcón argues that the first visit to a historic town must be made without a cicerone or a guidebook so that the traveller may forge his own independent and personal impressions (Alarcón, 1968: 1135). Henry James, too, in his Italian Hours (1909) speaks of the difficulty of adding something new to the description of well-known places (Venice, in his case). But he justifies his account on his affection for the Italian city: "It is a great pleasure to write the word; but I am not sure there is not a certain impudence in pretending to add anything to it. [...] I do not pretend to enlighten the reader; I pretend only to give a fillip to his memory; and I hold any writer sufficiently justified who is himself in love with his theme" (James, [1959]: 1). In the case of Pardo Bazán, it could be argued that she, too, was in love with her theme: Spain and its artistic treasures, as depicted in Por la España pintoresca. Because of this subjective approach, Pardo Bazán's travel collections are far removed from the stereotypical guidebook which usually conveys matter-of-fact, neutral, impersonal, and comprehensive data. Thus, in Por la España pintoresca Viscount Palazuelos's Guía to Toledo is presented by the author as a prime example of the average guidebook which eschews aesthetic concerns in order to provide prosaic and run-of-the-mill information that centres on names and dates of interest for the ordinary tourist: "Claro está que no hemos de pedirle á una Guía la impresión estética de Toledo; sólo sí que nos sirva de compañero prosaico, con buena memoria de fechas y nombres, para que saquemos de nuestra excursión el mayor jugo posible" (137). Digressions (it has been pointed out) are a hallmark of Pardo Bazán's travel writing, and Por la España pintoresca is no exception. However, although in this collection, as in the Parisian chronicles, the author often gets sidetracked from the matter at hand, the asides are not so noticeable or disruptive because they tend to fall within the general historical background that accompanies most of the descriptions of the places visited. Indeed, Adams defends the use of digressions in travel writing in the shape of physical descriptions and historical information by arguing that "the more popular break in most récits de voyage comes when, for a time, story becomes guidebook information" (Adams, 1983: 212). Certainly, in Por la España pintoresca digressions tend to add something of interest instead of stealing valuable space away from the subject under discussion, as was the case in Pardo Bazán's French chronicles of 1889. In her travels through Spain Pardo Bazán tends to focus on religious monuments, and Por la España pintoresca confirms this predilection. Indeed, in this collection the author visits many churches, convents, monasteries, and cathedrals. However, she appears to be particularly interested in the chapels dedicated to the memory of Spain's ancestral aristocracy and the pantheons or burial places which house the remains of the country's noble families, those who in bygone centuries contributed to making Spain a great and glorious nation. Pardo Bazán justifies this morbid pursuit by arguing that travels across Spain tend to centre on the dead, because it is on their tombstones and graves that the history of Spain has been carved for posterity: "Los viajes por España son, en su mayor parte, visitas á los muertos. Ellos se llevan lo mejor de nuestras impresiones: nuestra historia está escrita en los sepulcros" (102). Indeed, if when surrounded by machinery and modernity at the 1889 Exhibition Pardo Bazán felt uneasy, in Por la España pintoresca she is very much in her element as she explores, exalts, and delves into Spain's past and that of its noble families. In view of this, Por la España pintoresca is not just an artistic trip to a number of Spain's most outstanding monuments or works of art. Nor is it simply a literary journey to the roots of some of the country's most prestigious writers of past and present; nor is it a mere costumbrista quest for local colour or an immodest display of accomplished paisajismo. Por la España pintoresca is very much a pilgrimage to Spain's historic past and to the resting places of the nation's glorious dead, because for Pardo Bazán, the "amiga de las piedras ennegrecidas por el tiempo" (43) and declared enemy of the nineteenth century, the future prosperity of the country was to be found in the emulation of its past artistic and military achievements. 1. Introduction In the summer of 1900 Pardo Bazán spent several months in Paris reporting on the Universal Exhibition held from 14 April to 12 November of that year. The ensuing chronicles were first serialized in the Madrid newspaper, El Imparcial, from 16 August to 3 December 1900, and then published that same year as Cuarenta días en la Exposición, a collection of thirty-nine pieces. For the author, the event represented the "llave de oro con que cierra Francia el siglo XIX, en medio de la paz, del júbilo, del himno triunfal del progreso y la energía humana" (Pardo Bazán, [1900]: 281). And while Darío saw the Exhibition as "la exaltación del gozo humano, la glorificación de la alegría, en el fin de un siglo que ha traído consigo todas las tristezas, todas las desilusiones y desesperanzas" (Darío, 1950: 381), for César Silió (the editor of El Norte de Castilla) the Paris display was "la cosecha de un siglo de trabajo, de inteligencia y de tenacidad imponderables" (Silió, 1900: 87). In the fourth piece of this collection, Pardo Bazán, as in previous travel chronicles, voices one of her advertencias. --- 1 Similarly, the correspondent of The Times assessed the event as "the greatest effort produced at the end of the past hundred years by the genius of arrangement and good will concentrated on a single point of the globe" ("France", The Times, 14 June 1900, p. 5). She states she has travelled to the French capital with an open mind and without preconceived ideas because she intends to form her own independent opinion of the Exhibition. She is going to take her time and plans to concentrate on the educational side of the event rather than focus on the amenities and the cosmopolitan aspect of the display. Although the author's attitude to progress can at times be ambivalent (as was the case in her French chronicles of 1889), in this instance she claims to have come to Paris guided by her faith in progress, which has been emphasized by Spain's recent misfortunes (23). Subsequently, she also announces that she intends to be selective with the information conveyed to her readers. Leaving aside the technological aspect of the Exhibition (as she did in 1889), she will focus on only those features which are of interest to her (30). This subjective and partial approach is again emphasized near the end of her account, when Pardo Bazán notes that with so much space at the Exhibition dedicated to artistic pursuits she has been forced to be selective with her reporting. Thus, she has concentrated on those artistic aspects which have impressed her the most (259). The end of the first chronicle depicts the author leaving the past behind and heading for the present, for modern times, for scientific and industrial advancement, and because of her emotional attachment to the past she is not looking forward to this change of scenery: ¡Voy en busca de algo que se parece tan poco á estas antiguallas hermosas! Voy hacia la vida moderna, hacia --- 2 A reference to the Spanish-American War of 1898. las últimas revelaciones de la industria, de la ciencia, de la realidad... Y no sin melancolía --porque el pasado vive tenazmente en mí-- veo borrarse del horizonte las finas siluetas de los largos chopos. (10) 2. The Travel Experience From the beginning, the narrative addresses travel. Indeed, train travel and the impression of movement feature strongly but only in the first three sections as Pardo Bazán recounts her itinerary from La Coruña to Paris (with stopovers in León and San Sebastián). In the opening piece, which finds the author in La Coruña ready to board the train for León, the Galician writer refers with humour and irony to some of the hitches of the journey and to the apparently ludicrous timetables that delay passengers in León for fifteen hours before they can catch the next train to the French border (5-6). In the second chronicle, which covers the route from León to San Sebastián, Pardo Bazán recounts another snag in her itinerary. On this occasion, without prior notice, the passengers are asked to change trains. Not even the carriage reserved for the ladies is spared, and this lack of consideration angers the author, who suggests that women in Spain are not treated with the courtesy and decorum their sex deserves. She also takes the opportunity to give her blessing to women travelling on their own unescorted by a chaperon (11-12). Subsequently, Pardo Bazán issues yet another reminder of the problems of train travel, in this case of journeying on the luxury train known as the "Sud", which takes her from San Sebastián to Paris (17). First she resents the absence of a carriage reserved for the exclusive use of women (18); then she complains about the jolting of the "Sud" shortly after Bayonne, which makes her feel queasy (20), and finally she recounts how due to the shaky ride her seat became disconnected from the floor throwing her against the wall of the compartment (20-21). After such an eventful journey, it comes as no surprise when Pardo Bazán claims to have had enough of the unexpected excitement of modern train travel, and with a note of humour concludes: "Los únicos viajes cómodos y seguros son los que se hacen en tierra firme, de la butaca á la cama --siempre que la butaca no tenga ruedas y se desboque" (21). Once in Paris, while reviewing the latest advances in modern transportation, the author launches yet another scathing attack on the inefficiency and discomfort of travel by train. In fact, there are echoes of Mi romería in the following remarks: Ya se ha aplicado la idea del automovilismo al viaje colectivo, y hay trenes automóviles muy acelerados. Acaso venga por aquí la muerte de los ferrocarriles. Cada quisque se organizará libremente su tren, y no tendrá que aguantar vejámenes y chinchorrerías. Irá adonde le parezca y se detendrá donde se le antoje. Nos emanciparemos de las Compañías, la tiranía más insufrible. Será de las formas hermosas y simpáticas de la libertad individual, á la cual atentan los viajes colectivistas, con su férrea disciplina calculada en ventaja de las empresas. (145) Moreover, contrary to what she states in De mi tierra (Pardo Bazán, 1984: 241), in Cuarenta días the author does not regard the train as a tool of progress and civilization which opens up the world to a civilizing influence. Indeed, she presents train journeys as a necessary evil to be endured by those who need to move around. As in other travel chronicles, in Cuarenta días Pardo Bazán is in a privileged position when she travels, and she endeavours to make her readers aware of it. In effect, she enjoys recounting the preferential treatment she often receives in her journeys through Spain and abroad. On occasions, she is vain and pedantic, and this attitude can involve some name-dropping. For instance, the author proudly announces that during her stay in León her cicerone was Gumersindo de Azcárate (7), and that her cousin, who happens to be a count, is also the mayor of San Sebastián. Furthermore, she claims that although the President of the government, Francisco Silvela, arrived on the same train as she, the mayor "abandonó al Presidente para cumplir conmigo los deberes del afecto y de la hospitalidad" (13). In addition, she notes that while in San Sebastián she spent one afternoon as the guest of the politician, Francisco Romero Robledo, in his hotel overlooking the bay (15). Also, Pardo Bazán feels no qualms about proclaiming that she travels on de luxe trains, stays at the best hotels, and enjoys the company and friendship of local dignitaries. Indeed, her readers are promptly informed that the journey from San Sebastián to Paris was made on the luxury train known as the "Sud" (18); that during this leg she was accompanied by the Marquess of Angulo, the military attaché to the Spanish Embassy in Paris (20); that in Irún she was presented with a bouquet of flowers by an admirer (18); that she ranks among those travellers who "adquieren billetes tan caros y se permiten tanto confort" (18); and that in Paris she stayed at the Hôtel du Louvre (24), frequented by "los parroquianos de los hoteles de lujo" (25). Yet in the stopovers between Galicia and Paris, Pardo Bazán behaves very much like a tourist. Indeed, while in León she samples the excellent local chocolate, visits the cathedral, the factory that makes the stained glass windows for the temple, and the city's museum (6-10). During her stay in San Sebastián -- something she presents as an oasis of calm prior to the Exhibition (13) -- the author socializes with the locals and joins in the activities of other visitors: there are walks along the Concha's promenade, lengthy tertulias in the city's fashionable cafés, and a night at the casino (13). Pardo Bazán's physical description of San Sebastián is kept to a minimum because, as she modestly observes, "no [se] me ocurre decir más de San Sebastián, mil veces descrito en crónicas periodísticas" (13). Later, when she arrives in Paris, she makes some fleeting references to the high costs of Parisian hotels and to the efficiency of the city's public transport (24-26), but once settled into the French capital, she concentrates on her journalistic duties. In Cuarenta días the author's life-style is considerably less peripatetic than in the previous travel collection, Por la España pintoresca, where there was a great deal of hopping between places and the use of different means of transportation. Indeed, apart from walking around the Exhibition, the only excursion Pardo Bazán makes during her stay in Paris is to Ville d'Avray, where she attends the celebrations of the fiftieth anniversary of Balzac's death. She travels by train, but there are neither comments on the short journey nor any description of the trip (113-16). In fact, in Cuarenta días the travel experience is presented as an entremés, as a kind of introduction to the author's arrival in Paris and to her reporting on the Exhibition. Thus, the account of her journey from Spain to the French capital is used by Pardo Bazán to ease her readers psychologically into the narrative and to whet their appetite for the main course of her chronicles: her impression of the 1900 Universal Exhibition. And yet, as in the case of the 1889 chronicles, the notion of travel is implicit within the Exhibition itself, to where most countries of the world have "travelled" and made themselves available for visitors to explore. Indeed, for Darío the Exhibition is "una vuelta en el camino que anda, es hacer un viaje a través de un cuento" (Darío, 1950: 383). Furthermore, the attractions featured at the display offer international travel without stepping outside Paris. For instance, in Section 26 Pardo Bazán speaks of the attraction known as "Vuelta al mundo" (a kind of "Around the world in one afternoon"), where visitors can admire the landscapes of many countries (183); she comments on the trans-Siberian train which, although stationary, creates the impression of travelling through the Russian countryside (181);$^3$ and mentions the "Aldea suiza", a piece of Switzerland's rural --- $^3$ The correspondent of The Times referred to this attraction as "the most original and ingenious object which may yet be seen at the Exhibition" ("France", The Times, 14 June 1900, p. 5). life in the middle of Paris (181-82), "où les longues ravines des pâturages alpestres se prolongeaient si adroitement dans la plaine de Grenelle" (Vogué, 1900: 391). All these attractions, the author observes, "reproducen el aspecto de países lejanos y comarcas desconocidas" (182). Moreover, Pardo Bazán subsequently notes how the exhibition of retrospective French art at the Petit Palais allows visitors to admire the achievements of artists whose works have been dispersed all over the world. Without it, she adds, "se necesitaría viajar largo, y por sitios poco atractivos, para admirar á costa de gastos y fatigas lo que aquí se puede ver en tres horas" [my italics] (188). 3. The 1900 Paris Exhibition: An Overview Pardo Bazán's first sight of the Exhibition is its main gate or "Puerta monumental", designed by René Binet, which announces that the Paris event has been conceived in an avant-garde style with Eastern overtones (26-27). It seems that this "Puerta" has replaced the Eiffel Tower in the author's considerations as the epitome of the Exhibition of 1900: Pero la hermosura de la puerta no se ve de día. Hay que admirarla de noche, cuando los enormes cabujones que la tachonan se iluminan interiormente y resplandecen como el manto de una emperatriz bizantina; cuando las dos columnas monumentales que la flanquean se convierten en cetros de amatistas y topacios, y en su cima fulguran los --- 4 Eugène-Melchior de Vogué described this style as "cette innommable mixture de rococo viennois et de cambodgien" (Vogué, 1900: 389). grandes focos eléctricos, dirigiendo movibles rayos á alumbrar la proa del barco de Lutecia, que, con el gallo galo, blasona orgullosamente el frontón. (27-28) A similar description is provided by Dario, who also prefers to admire the Gate at night: "Por la noche es una impresión fantasmagórica la que da la blanca puerta con sus decoraciones de oro y rojo negro y sus miles de luces eléctricas, que brotan de los vidrios de colores. Es la puerta de entrada de un país de misterio y de poesía habitado por magos" (Dario, 1950: 385-86). Interestingly, there are striking similarities between Pardo Bazán's description of this "Puerta" and her depiction of the Eiffel Tower, also at night, in Por Francia y por Alemania: De día, la Torre tiene algo de rudimentario y tosco, algo que es como el boceto de una idea arquitectónica [...]. En cambio, de noche, las líneas se funden, la materia se unifica, y engalanada con orla de diamantes alrededor de cada arco de los que la soportan; ceñida en su primer plataforma con un cinturón de pedrería; coronada por su vaporoso faro tricolor, la Torre es la maga de la Exposición, la reina indiscutible del gran Certamen. (Pardo Bazán, [1890]: 21-22) And in both cases the author personifies the tower and the gate by attributing to them the characteristics of a beautiful queen or empress. Pardo Bazán is also taken aback by the immensity of the Exhibition area, which she claims is ten or twelve times larger than that of 1889, and the prospect of having to cover so much ground fills her with trepidation: "Al considerar que es preciso recorrer tal extensión, los pies hormiguean y duelen las junturas" (30). The author notes that in this Exhibition, contrary to what had been the case in 1889, the artistic element prevails over industrial and scientific developments. Indeed, she speaks of the way art has been vindicated at the end of the nineteenth century, and of how it now occupies a deserving place in the life of the individual (31). This impression is corroborated by Darío, who observes: "Se advierte en ésta [Exposición] la ventaja de lo pintoresco. En la del 89 prevalecía el hierro; [...] en ésta la ingeniería ha estado más unida con el arte" (Darío, 1950: 382). Horticulture, Pardo Bazán adds, also features prominently at the Exhibition in the shape of gardens, nurseries, and so on. It is as if Nature had invaded the ground hitherto reserved for technology and industry (31). Moreover, she argues that the latter part of the nineteenth century has witnessed a rapprochement between the individual and his natural environment, and the consequences of this new outlook are visible at the Paris event (171). Subsequently, Pardo Bazán's description of the fruit, vegetables, and flowers on display at the Palace of --- 5 In fact, the Exhibition covered an area of 549 acres (The Encyclopaedia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, Literature and General Information, Eleventh Edition, New York, 1910-1911, 29 vols, vol. 10: 70). 6 Vogué also remarks how "les question d'art [...] ont été traitées à cette place avec une abondance et une justesse d'aperçus qui ne laissent plus rien à dire" (Vogué, 1900: 388). Horticulture provides a prime example of her pictorial tendencies and her facility as a colorista writer: Las berengenas relucen como jaspe; las coles y coliflores están más rizaditas que el pellico de un San Juan; los tomates, coral puro; hay remolachas del color del granate; hay judías y tirabeques que brillan como raso. [...] En días de concurso, son las rosas el talismán del Palacio. [...] En las novedades de este año veo la Alianza franco-rusa, rosa amarilla; el heroico Comandante Marchand, rosa carmín y anaranjada; la Condesa de Baidi, amarillo canario; la Princesa Troubetzkoi; otra Francia y Rusia, rojo carmín; la dulce reinecita de Holanda (textual), amarillo narciso brillante. (176, 177) On the altogether different subject of machinery and technology, and overcoming her natural aversion to mechanical artefacts, Pardo Bazán acknowledges that modern inventions and discoveries are all for the better, and that they have contributed to making life more pleasant and less arduous (141-42). And although she does admit that when discussing the intricacies of modern inventions she tends to borrow her material from outside sources -- "en tales materias no hablo nunca por cuenta propia" (146) -- she is proud to bear witness to the technological achievements which are bringing such significant changes to mankind's existence (147). This represents a dramatic change in her attitude to technological progress and advancement, which in her visit to the 1889 Paris Exhibition she had regarded with reticence and even hostility. Subsequently, however, it transpires that the author has not yet fully come to terms with machinery and, as in 1889, when progress looms threatening, she still seeks refuge in the bosom of Mother Nature: Mientras las galerías de Exposición de máquinas --lo confieso-- me aburren considerablemente, en este Palacio de la Naturaleza me encuentro como en mi casa. Las montañas y el mar, grandes amigos de mi juventud, me acogen y me revelan los tesoros guardados en su vasto seno. La esencia de los pinos dilata mis pulmones. Estamos en el campo, que da salud y fuerza. (239-40) During her visit to the Rue des Nations, where the national pavilions of the countries attending the event are situated (43-45), Pardo Bazán provides an overview of these pavilions, awarding the top place to Spain, followed closely by Belgium (45). The author also looks at the Trocadéro, the location of "todo aquello que no tenía colocación airosa ni fácil, principalmente lo ultraexótico" (49). She is particularly interested in the pavilion of the Transvaal -- "ese país, desconocido hasta que le echó la zarpa el codicioso leopardo" (51) -- which she admires for its simple lines and utilitarian purposes (51).7 Pardo Bazán's animosity towards Britain, "el perro grande" (53), is reflected in the way she underscores the support expressed by the French people who, incensed by "el abuso de la fuerza" (53), crowd the Transvaal's pavilion.8 Later, the author tours the museum of clothing, where the fashion of the last one hundred years is displayed to the --- 7 The Transvaal pavilion was inaugurated on 10 June 1900 ("The Paris Exhibition", The Times, 9 June 1900, p. 8). 8 The Boer War, which had begun in 1899, did not end until 1902. delight of the female visitors, including Pardo Bazán herself: "Las mujeres acuden á la ropa como moscas á la miel, extasiadas ante los escaparates seductores de los modistas célebres" (94). While reviewing the section that houses high fashion, the author is particularly impressed by the stand dedicated to Lyon's silk industry, a prime example, in her opinion, of the successful combination of art, industry, and Nature (101). She also visits the jewellery pavilion -- "No será cosa que sorprenda si digo que no hay nada tan llamativo en la Exposición para el público, y sobre todo para las mujeres" (209) -- and as during her review of the haute couture collections, Pardo Bazán, the journalist, is superseded by Pardo Bazán, the woman, whose feminine side succumbs to the allure of the Boer diamond and the creations of France's celebrated jewellery houses (210-14). Whereas in Por Francia y por Alemania Edison is indicated as representing the embodiment of technological progress, at the 1900 Exhibition the author focuses her admiration on another savant, the medical genius Louis Pasteur, whom she presents as the most remarkable man of the nineteenth century (253-54). The Hygiene Section of the Exhibition is located in the same building that houses the war pavilion, and realizing this ironic juxtaposition Pardo Bazán compares life with death, and destruction with the preservation of life. In her opinion, none of the military victories of Europe's rulers can equal Pasteur's achievements in the field of peace (254). In fact, the author's occasional belligerence in the 1889 --- 9 Alexandre Millerand, the French minister of commerce, referred to Pasteur in his speech at the opening of the Exhibition as "a pure benefactor of mankind" ("The Opening of the Paris Exhibition", The Times, 16 April 1900, p. 3). chronicles (Pardo Bazán, [1889]: 186) has been replaced eleven years later by her admiration for scientific and medical pursuits leading to the preservation of life, a change of attitude possibly linked to the recent events of 1898, which resulted in many Spanish casualties from both bullets and disease. The symbolism of war is further exploited when the author presents Pasteur as a military leader, as a warrior. Yet in his case the adversary is not a human army but the awesome empire of bacteria and viruses, and the object of the fight is not to kill but to preserve human life. She notes that Pasteur's victory is the more laudable for having defeated an invisible army which occupies the air around. What in principle seemed a Utopian enterprise, has become a sublime reality in the hands of the French savant: potentially lethal micro-organisms are now contained and imprisoned in glass jars as the trophies of war of Pasteur, the greatest warrior of all (254-55). Some pieces in Cuarenta días are dedicated to artistic pursuits, such as, for example, the exhibition of retrospective French art at the Petit Palais (187-93) and the display of French sculpture, where Pardo Bazán reviews, in a knowledgeable way, the creations of France's major artists (195-200). The author also looks at the works of foreign sculptors, showing special interest in the oeuvre of two Russian artists: Prince Troubetzkoi and Mark Antokolsky (202-04). Finally, she turns her attention to Auguste Rodin, the enfant terrible of French sculpture, whom she admires because of his innovative and rebellious spirit and the way he seeks inspiration in the classical sources of Ancient Greece and in the observation of Nature itself (245-47). It is possible that the author is especially attracted to Rodin because she sees him as a kindred spirit in that both of them are not unfamiliar with controversy and criticism because of their boldness in artistic matters. Thus, of Rodin she observes: "En su larga carrera no ha llegado á ponerse de acuerdo con el sentido general del público, y sus obras más recientes son las que han arrancado mayores protestas y armado alboroto que dura, polvareda visible aún entre el inmenso remolino de la Exposición" (246). During her tour of the Exhibition, Pardo Bazán goes to the theatre. Indeed, she attends the Japanese production Kesa, a drama reminiscent, in her opinion, of Othello, Los amantes de Teruel, or Curro Vargas (225). She is particularly impressed by the Japanese actors' use of gestures and their bodies to convey the tragic element of the play (227-28), and praises the way they cover proficiently a wide spectrum of emotions and situations in the short space of one hour (224). The author is mesmerized by Sada Yaco, the heroine of the Japanese production, whose enchanting physique she describes thus: "Su cara oval y sus facciones menudas; sus oblicuos, luengos ojos, y su pelo de raso liso y negrísimo; su elegante y estrecho cuerpo; su aire de bibelot de cristalera, --- 10 This Japanese company performed at the Coronet Theatre in London on its way to Paris. However, the review in The Times was not as enthusiastic as that of Pardo Bazán: "The players [...] all have the appearance to a Western eye of grotesque mechanical toys. None of their movements resemble ours, their faces seem bizarre masks, and their voices have the peculiar metallic timbre of the 'gramophone.' The question whether they are expressing joy or sorrow, fear or exultation, is for the audience often the merest guesswork" ("Japanese Players at the Coronet Theatre", The Times, 24 May 1900, p. 10). de juguete de marfil aristocrático y frágil [...]. No hay damisela de tapiz antiguo más exquisita y más ideal" (226-27). Interestingly, there are certain similarities between this description and the author's depiction of the dancers from Java at the 1889 Exhibition, as quoted in Chapter 5 (Pardo Bazán, [1890]: 162). After all these commentaries, Pardo Bazán begins her summing-up of the Exhibition on a note of vanity, which is not uncharacteristic in her. Indeed, she claims that her chronicles, with a little help from El Imparcial, have contributed in no short measure to the favourable response of the Spanish public to the Paris event (278). She goes on to argue that an exhibition is a failure when the exhibits are poor, vulgar, or uninteresting; when the exhibitors do not contribute vigorously to the brilliancy of the event. In the Paris display, however, Nature, art, industry, and science have paraded their most priceless treasures and their best-kept secrets have been revealed. Indeed, all aspects of human interest have been represented at this Exhibition, even though, she adds, some uncultured and frivolous Spaniards have attempted to denigrate it by focusing exclusively on its entertaining aspects (278-79). As in Al pie de la torre Eiffel, there is a reminder that the Exhibition has been boycotted by some nations. In 1889 the main reason for this rebuff was, according to Pardo Bazán, the tactlessness of the French government in making the display coincide with the centenary of the French Revolution. This, she argued, had deeply upset some monarchies, resulting in their absence from the event (Pardo Bazán, [1889]: 12-13). In Cuarenta días, however, the author robustly (and, in the case of Britain, incorrectly) criticizes those countries which have, she claims, boycotted the Exhibition for political reasons or through sheer envy of France's ability to bring such a stunning end to the century: Fracasa una Exposición cuando, aunque exponga mucho y bueno, el público no se decide á contemplarlo y á admirarlo. De este género de fracaso estuvo amenazada la Exposición. Estados enteros --verbigracia, Inglaterra-- se retrajeron. Apenas se ha oído hablar inglés; apenas se ha visto la silueta humorísticamente exagerada del eterno turista de patillas azafrán, colosales gemelos y terno á cuadros, ni de la secatona miss. El Transvaal les escocía á estos insulares. En otras naciones, la benevolencia hacia la Exposición no se extremó tampoco. Todo empuje, toda victoria, hace amarillear algunos rostros. ¡Francia cerraba el siglo con tal brillantez! Era preciso cobrárselo. (279) But despite the malice of some, and despite some --- 11 In fact, Britain was represented by a "Royal Pavilion", inaugurated on 24 May 1900, and situated between the Hungarian and the Belgian pavilions in the Rue des Nations. The British pavilion, built by Messrs John Aird and Son from the designs of the architect Edwin Lutyens, represented an old English manor house, and was furnished and fitted "with the modern appliances of a country house" ("The Paris Exhibition", The Times, 11 April 1900, p. 6). However, it is true that owing to the Boer War, a large number of old-established British industrial and trading companies declined to participate, for "the attitude apparently taken by the French public against England made them afraid of a competition, the judges in which they suspected, rightly or wrongly, of having their minds prejudiced" ("The Paris Exhibition", The Times, 3 November 1900, p. 6). The absence of British visitors was possibly due to the fact that it proved "impossible for Englishmen to forget the attitude taken up, not in France alone, but in other countries, towards the British Army in South Africa" (The Times, 16 April, 1900, p. 7). organizational hitches, the author believes that the 1900 Exhibition, like that of 1889, has been a roaring success, as demonstrated by the numbers of people that flooded into the Exhibition grounds daily (279-80). The Galician writer's triumphant appraisal is corroborated by Silió, who states: No puede calificarse de fracaso, sinó de éxito colossal, una Exposición [...] en que la arquitectura ha levantado construcciones maravillosas, enriquecidas por el arte con un ejército de esculturas; en que cada país ha procurado descollar sobre los otros, movilizando todas sus energías; en que Francia ha mantenido el cetro del buen gusto y de la esplendidez; en que la agricultura, la industria y el comercio, las artes y las ciencias [...] se manifiestan no en forma de esperanzas halagadoras, sinó en forma de frutos, de substanciosas realidades. (Silió, 1900: 87) Pardo Bazán regards as puerile and groundless the criticism of some Spaniards who accuse the French government of having overspent the taxpayer's money on the embellishment of Paris for the Exhibition. As far as she is concerned, all the money invested in the French capital is amply compensated by "la nombradía y la gloria y la satisfacción de haber cincelado esta llave de oro con que cierra Francia el siglo XIX" (281). --- 12 The Exhibition was visited by an estimated 51 million people (The Encyclopaedia Britannica, vol. 20: 822). 13 The balance-sheet for the Exhibition showed receipts amounting to 114 million francs, and expenditure of 116 million francs ("France", The Times, 17 December 1900, p. 6). 4. Spain at the 1900 Universal Exhibition Understandably, Pardo Bazán is particularly interested in finding out whether her country has responded adequately to the challenge presented by the Exhibition. She regards Spain as a nation both defeated and in disarray following the "Disaster" of 1898. However, she avoids referring to the events of 1898 by their proper name, opting for the euphemisms "aguélllo" and "enfermedad aguda y breve" to describe Spain's defeat by the United States. But in any case, she is optimistic that the Exhibition will herald Spain's regeneration and places her hopes in "las fuerzas nacionales" (33). Pardo Bazán is proud of the Spanish national pavilion,$^{14}$ to which she awards top marks, arguing it is the best in the international area.$^{15}$ However, this is not just a patriotic response: she is especially taken by the simple lines of the building that reflect the architecture of the Renaissance, a period she regards as the most representative of Spain's glory and of its cultural, artistic, and scientific activity. She sees this pavilion as Spain's contribution to the brilliancy of the Exhibition and as a token of gratitude for France's support in recent critical moments for her country (43-46). Yet, Pardo Bazán laments that the Spanish pavilion is the embodiment of Spain's past achievements, a kind of melancholic $^{14}$ Spain's pavilion was formally opened on 8 May 1900, "in the presence of a distinguished company invited by the Spanish Royal Commissioner, the Duke of Sesto" ("France", The Times, 10 May 1900, p. 7). $^{15}$ The President of France, Emile François Loubet, was apparently most impressed by the pavilions of Germany, Britain, and Spain ("The Opening of the Paris Exhibition", The Times, 16 April 1900, p. 3). and nostalgic trip into a glorious past: "¡Sino eterno de España! En el Palacio nuestro, el Palacio del pasado, sólo encuentran atmósfera propia Carlos V y Boabdil..." (48). Indeed, she stresses that Spain should stay abreast of times instead of stagnating in the past (48). This is, of course, a striking response from someone who had shown herself to be such an admirer of the artistic heritage of the past. But possibly the modernity that surrounded her at the Exhibition made her realize the need to focus on the future instead of looking back towards bygone centuries. And yet, in an article published in La Ilustración Artística of 8 June 1908 Pardo Bazán contradicts herself when her longing for Spain's glorious past re-emerges. Remembering the splendid tapestries which adorned the Spanish pavilion at the 1900 Paris Exhibition, she claims that although these tapestries were the only worthwhile exhibits at the Spanish stand, their magnificence and beauty sufficed to give visitors a clear indication of Spain's triumphant days: Dondequiera que se tienden esos radiosos trapos, y cubre las paredes esa serie de figurones majestuosos, de la fábula y la leyenda, adquiere todo un tinte de solemnidad y lujo grave, que seduce al artista. Así estaba nuestro pabellón en París, durante la Exposición de 1900, y aunque desnudo de cualquiera otro atractivo, con sólo los tapices tenía bastante para ostentar regio señorío y magnificencia; para dar cumplida idea de lo que fue nuestro pasado. (Pardo Bazán, 1972: 262) Luis Bonafoux, the Paris correspondent of the Heraldo de Madrid, also praises the architecture of the Spanish pavilion but, like the Galician writer, he regards its content as an exaltation of the past instead of a display of Spain's industrial and commercial potential: Nos causa profundo desconsuelo no ver en el pabellón nada que indique nuestro renacimiento industrial, nada que señale nuestra potencia comercial. En vez de mirar al presente y al porvenir, sólo se ha mirado al pasado, y los organizadores no se han cuidado más que de acumular allí gloriosas ruinas de nuestra historia. (Bonafoux, 1900c: 2)$^{16}$ Similarly, Silió argues that unlike the Italians, who have managed to combine their past achievements with their progress in modern times, the Spanish pavilion: Es un estanque: los tapices, las armaduras, las paredes, hablan de nuestra historia, del pasado, de la leyenda de oro que habíamos convenido en abandonar. [...] El extranjero que en él entre saldrá diciendo cuando más: ¡ah!... ¡qué España ésta del siglo XVI!... ¡qué grande era!... Pero... ¿y la España de hoy?... ¿No hay hoy España? -- ¿No tenemos presente ni porvenir? -- ¿No podemos presentarnos al mundo más que así, como evocación $^{16}$ For Vogué, the content of the Spanish pavilion evoked images of a vanquished knight-errant: "La maigre et noble Espagne nous est apparue tout entière, dans ces salles vides où elle exposait fièrement ses seules richesses, la tunique de Boabdil, les tapisseries des Flandres, les armes de Charles-Quint. Telles nous nous représentons la maison de don Quichotte. On le voyait, ce cher homme, on le comprenait mieux, on était tenté de le relire, dans la locanda démeublée où il n'avait daigné apporter que ses haillons splendides, ses rondaches et ses armets" (Vogué, 1900: 389). del pasado? (Silió, 1900: 28)\textsuperscript{17} In fact, Pardo Bazán's initially favourable impression of Spain's presence at the Exhibition begins to subside as she continues to visit other sections of the event. She is disappointed by the scarcity of foodstuffs on display at the Spanish food pavilion, the perfect reproduction of Granada's Alhambra. She claims there is too much drink on show and not enough food, and this imbalance, in her opinion, presents Spain as a country lacking a wide-ranging variety of foodstuffs (56-59). Indeed, Spanish wines did manage to obtain five out of the seventy-six major prizes given under Class 60 ("Productos alimenticios de origen vitícola: vinos y aguardientes de vino"), a limited success, however, when considering that France, one of Spain's main competitors, received forty-one commendations ("Recompensas de la Exposición", IV, \textit{Heraldo de Madrid}, 23 August 1900, p. 1). Silió, for his part, was pleasantly surprised by the Spanish food offering: "Nuestra sección [...] me pareció realmente espléndida, de lo mejor que allí se ve" (Silió, 1900: 53-4). But, coinciding with Pardo Bazán, he also adds: "Un defecto tiene nuestra sección alimenticia que ya dejó apuntado. El de no ser completa. Lo que exhibimos está bien presentado, hasta con lujo; pero ¿exhibimos todo lo que tenemos?" (Silió, 1900: 55). \textsuperscript{17} And yet, the correspondent of \textit{The Times} had nothing but praise for the Spanish pavilion, for it was "crowded with masterpieces of every sort, with arms, precious samples of old gold and silver ware, fine and artistic costumes, damascene work of the Middle Ages, tapestries in gold thread, and finally all those fantastic products of the period of the Moorish domination which the sumptuous taste of those old Monarchs has left to a Europe still astonished at the spectacle" ("France", \textit{The Times}, 10 May 1900, p. 7). Pardo Bazán moves on to rebuke the Spanish government for the disappointing show of her country's exhibits, claiming that either the government did not fully support the pavilion, or it did not provide sufficient encouragement to the Spanish exhibitors. In her opinion, the scarcity of Spanish foodstuffs has conveyed the opposite message to that which was intended: "Hemos venido aquí á indicar que todavía duran [...] las epopeyas de la tripa vacía cantadas por la literatura picaresca" (61). Similarly, the Heraldo de Madrid also blamed the government's indifference and lack of assistance for the inadequate display of Spanish foodstuffs and manufactured goods at the Exhibition, the perfect showcase for the promotion of Spain's produce abroad: Era hora de que se juzgara en el Extranjero del verdadero estado social de España por su estado intelectual, por el brillo de sus mercaderías, de sus frutos, de sus manufacturas, de sus industrias. [...] A tal fin hubiérase necesitado de una activa propaganda, especialmente por el Estado: que éste hubiera cogido de la mano á los productores españoles, obligándoles por todos los medios á concurrir al certamen internacional. En vez de ello, nuestros expositores sólo han encontrado dificultades y un enemigo en la acción oficial. ("Recompensas de la Exposición", III, Heraldo de Madrid, 22 August 1900, p. 1) Anticipating some criticism for her negative comments when her chronicles reach Spain, Pardo Bazán claims that patriotism in her home country is understood as a self-flattering exercise devoid of any constructive self-criticism. If Spain remains complacent and does not acknowledge the need to promote its image abroad, the rest of the world will not alter the poor opinion it has formed after the "Disaster" of 1898 (68). Again, she uses a euphemism, "recientes desventuras", to refer to the Spanish-American War. These sentiments are also shared by the Madrid newspaper, that regarded the Paris event as the ideal venue for Spain to present itself as a nation which through sheer effort and hard work had overcome its recent misfortunes: "En ninguna ocasión como en ésta, tras el desastre, nos importaba demostrar que los industriales no cedían en energía á los artistas, y habernos presentado cual un pueblo que, por el trabajo, trata de redimirse" ("Recompensas de la Exposición", III, Heraldo de Madrid, 22 August 1900, p. 1). Influenced by her gloomy impressions of the Spanish food section, Pardo Bazán anticipates some kind of disappointment as she makes her way towards her country's stand at the Craft Industries pavilion (77). But despite her fears, and although she believes there is still room for improvement, the author is pleasantly surprised by the variety and quality of Spain's craft industries, especially those of Eibar and Toledo, and the works of certain Spanish artists (Ignacio Zuloaga, Francisco Santos, Antonio Oliva, Federico Masriera, and others) (78-83). Silió's views echo those of Pardo Bazán: "Los trabajos de Eibar y de Toledo [...] y los broncees fundidos por Masriera, con su primor habitual, son lo mejor de la sección española. [...] Pero el conjunto es pobre; indica falta de producción ó encogimiento, ó ambas cosas" (Silió, 1900: 81). In a way, Pardo Bazán's visit to the Craft Industries pavilion helps compensate for her dissatisfaction with the Spanish food section. However, the Galician writer's spirits are dampened as soon as she sets foot in the section that features Spain's textile and clothing industry. Indeed, she claims that the display is not representative of the wide range of products manufactured by Spain's textile sector, adding that the distribution of the Spanish exhibits amongst several buildings disguises the inadequacy of the samples sent to Paris (85-86). The exception here are the handmade shoes displayed by Villarejo, the best in the entire Exhibition, she claims (89). In the chronicle entitled "Clase primera", Pardo Bazán affirms that education is the indicator of the standard of living and prosperity of a country. She also adds that the world's leading nations regard education as being of paramount importance for their progress and advancement (119). This exaltation of education is possibly a veiled criticism of the Spanish government's neglectful attitude towards educational issues, as acknowledged by the Liberal politician, the Count of Romanones, who, in his Notas de una vida: 1860-1912, admitted that the Ministerio de Instrucción Pública was "el menos interesante y llamativo de todos los ministerios, para quienes eran llamados al cargo entre los políticos de la monarquía" (cited in Martínez Cuadrado, 1973: 521). Indeed, education in late nineteenth-century Spain showed all the symptoms of sheer neglect: In 1887, 61.5% of males were illiterate compared to 81.2% of females (71.6% of the total population). In 1900, the figures were 55.8% for men and 71.5% for women (63.8% of the population). In 1910, the levels remained at 52.6% for the males, and 65.8% for the females (59.4% of the population) (Martínez Cuadrado, 1973: 124). The percentage of illiteracy in Spain given by Gabriel Tortella for 1900 is 56%, compared to 19% in Belgium, 17% in France, 3% in Britain, 48% in Italy, and in Russia 81% (Tortella, 1994: 12). By the end of the nineteenth century, only 1.5% of Spain's budget was dedicated to state education, compared to 14% in the United States, 10% in Britain, 12% in Germany, and 8% in France (Scanlon, 1976: 50). The deficiencies of the Spanish education system are also indentified and robustly criticized by Darío in his article "La enseñanza" (8 September 1899), in which he refers to the high number of illiterate people and argues that education in Spain is more neglected than in any other European country. Indeed, he believes that the teaching vocation is non-existent in Spain and that the average teacher joins this profession because he lacks the intellectual ability to pursue other careers. This, he affirms, explains the sorry state of primary education in Spain (Darío, 1987: 230-31). Secondary education, Darío adds, is also inadequate because teachers are ill-prepared to do their job, and although university education is slightly better, the lack of preparation and instruction of the students prevents them from taking full advantage of the tuition on offer (Darío, 1987: 232). In Cuarenta días Pardo Bazán argues that a good standard of education is not dependent on the economic wealth, size, or power of a particular nation. She notes how some Nordic countries (Sweden, Norway, Denmark) much less populated than Spain regard the education of their people as indispensable for prosperity (120). The author was apparently right to emphasize the importance given to instruction by these nations, for as the first paragraph of the section entitled "Education" in Norway's official catalogue for the 1900 Exhibition reads: "It has been clearly seen that in a democratic community like ours, it is to the interest of individuals, as well as of society at large, to improve the education of the people" (Konow, 1900: 266). During her visit to the Exhibition's Education Section and despite her anti-American attitude, Pardo Bazán praises the educational materials and the libraries for children displayed in the pavilion of the United States. It is particularly painful for her to admit that this young nation, which has defeated Spain on the battleground, is also far superior in the field of education (125). The fact that the United States' illiteracy rate in 1900 was only 10.7% compared to 63.8% in Spain (Martínez Cuadrado, 1973: 124, 125), amply justifies the author's pessimism. Darío, who also visited the American pavilion, does not suppress his admiration at the way this country promotes the notion of mens sana in corpore sano: En el palacio de las Artes liberales muestran el estado de su enseñanza, vistas de sus escuelas primarias y secundarias, fotografías de sus Universidades, Exposición de sus interesantes métodos, sus edificios ricos y elegantes, sus jardines y parques, sus instrumentos de cirugía, sus planos y mapas, y sus grupos de estudiantes, en sus ejercicios, nutridos de ciencia y fuertes de sport, helenistas, y remeros, y que van con Aristóteles y Horacio a una partida de football. (Darío, 1950: 429) In contrast, the education materials sent by Spain are apparently so poor that Pardo Bazán prefers to omit all comments: "Nosotros también hemos remitido material escolar. Allí lo diviso, en un escaparate. ¿Les parece á ustedes que hablemos de otra cosa?" (125). The inadequacy of the Spanish exhibits and the failure to obtain any prizes is underlined by the utter pessimism of the chronicle published at the time by the Heraldo de Madrid: Pueblos minúsculos, gentes tenidas por semibárbaras, han obtenido grandes premios en las diversas secciones del grupo de la enseñanza, y nosotros ninguno. [...] En instrucción pública, por falta de instituciones privadas, por decadencia de las oficiales y por incuria del caciquismo burocrático, figuramos en París en una situación depresiva y humillante que el rostro nos enciende de sonrojo. ("Recompensas de la Exposición", Heraldo de Madrid, 18 August 1900, p. 1) For Silió, Spain's representation at the Education Section "es pobre, mezquina, 'insignificante'. Verdaderamente decorosa no recuerdo más que una instalación: la de Escuela de Arte y Oficios de Bilbao, que exhibe un gran mueble, primorosamente tallado, y aún mejor concebido --obra de la 'Escuela',-- y, en él, enormes albums que atestiguan el grado de adelanto de sus alumnos" (Silió, 1900: 48). While visiting the Transport Section of the Exhibition, Pardo Bazán notes with chagrin that some of the vehicles displayed as museum pieces are still very much in use in Spain: "Es triste pensar que bastante de lo aquí expuesto en clase de fósil, es lo que todavía más comunmente encontramos en España, lo que sabe Dios cuándo pasará á los Museos. Al presente, en España los automóviles son todavía una novedad peligrosa y sospechosa. Nos hemos empantanado en la bicicleta" (143-44). Indeed, Miguel Martínez Cuadrado speaks of the hesitant development of Spain's motor industry in the early part of the twentieth century, adding that although by 1911 over one thousand vehicles were being registered annually, the efforts to establish a prosperous automobile industry were undermined by the country's late industrialization. Thus, the company Hispano-Suiza, that in 1904 built a car-manufacturing plant in Barcelona with Swiss capital, failed to evolve beyond the stages of a select cottage industry, and although at its peak it was turning out five hundred cars per annum, it never matched the production of similar firms in the United States, France, Britain, Germany, or Italy (Martínez Cuadrado, 1973: 168, 169). During her visit to the Palace of Belona, the pavilion of the armed forces, Pardo Bazán decides as an afterthought to review the Spanish war exhibits, so limited in size and number that they are housed in a small display cabinet. The author's contrived silence and frugal description are significantly more eloquent and effective to convey her disappointment and anger than any derogatory commentary she might have made: El envío de España es una cristalera como de tres metros de alto, y en sus tres estantes se acomodan tres rosas, doce condecoraciones y quince ó veinte puños de espadas y sables de honor. A derecha é izquierda de la cristalera, dos mapas con los uniformes del ejército español, entre los cuales figuran todavía los que usaban nuestras fuerzas en la isla de Cuba. ---?? Nada más. ¡Ah! Se me olvidaba. Las condecoraciones y puños de espada que exponemos no son de fabricación española. Ni sombra de comentario. (170) Again, the Galician writer's pessimistic observations are echoed by Silió: Nuestra instalación es la nota más soberanamente ridícula que puede hallarse en toda la Exposición. España exhibe en el palacio de la fuerza, un armario raquítico con unas cuantas condecoraciones, dos ó tres teresianas, y varias joyas de Eibar ó de Toledo. [...] En lugar de armas, exhibe España cruces que se hicieron para simbolizar virtudes heróicas y que allí simbolizan nuestro calvario, un calvario sembrado de recompensas, en el cual sólo falta la imagen del país crucificado por gobernantes sin conciencia de su misión. (Silió, 1900: 75, 76) Throughout Cuarenta días there are constant indications of the author's bitterness every time she encounters a reminder of the decline of Spain or of its defeat by the United States. Indeed, as it transpires from Silió's quasi-religious terminology above, Pardo Bazán's tour of the display is implicitly presented as a kind of vía crucis during which each stop produces yet another painful demonstration of a Spain that is no longer great.$^{18}$ For example, while reviewing the Horticultural Section of the Exhibition she observes: Nosotros en esta sección no estamos representados. ¡A no ser que consideremos representación nuestra las naranjas de Valencia... cultivadas y expuestas por los yanquis! Dos columnas altísimas, que revestidas de naranjas parecían dos estelas de oro, me recordaron aquellas de nuestro escudo, las del Plus Ultra... (174-75) In spite of Spain's inadequate show in most of the $^{18}$ In effect, the author remarks before visiting the clothing and textile section: "El mal camino andarlo pronto" (85). sections of the Exhibition so far reviewed, Pardo Bazán expects that her country, enjoying a privileged geographical location and rich in flora and fauna, will be properly represented in the pavilion of Nature. But to her chagrin, the Spanish exhibits are scarcely demonstrative of the generosity Mother Nature has bestowed on her country. Thus, Pardo Bazán's visit ends once again in disappointment: Una vitrina con armas de Eibar y Orbea --en su mayor parte revólveres--; unas fotografías de féretros incorruptibles --como si, á semejanza de los egipcios, sólo la muerte estimulase nuestro genio inventor--; unos aros de cribas; algunas labores de esparto, no de las más delicadas; dos lágrimas de goma virgen; una inmensa rueda del tronco de un olivo; la Torre de Oro en corcho... y ahí tienen ustedes cuanto ha remitido España de lo que la Naturaleza cría en su suelo y en las costas que la cercan y estrechan en doble abrazo. (244) Silió's comments are equally damning: Representa los bosques de nuestra patria un castillo de corcho: --el alcornoque es el único árbol que exhibimos. [...] De pesca, ni vestigios hay en nuestra sección; no hemos querido dejar sin pobladores al mar que ciñe nuestras costas. De instrumentos de pesca, ni una "traña" de esas que hoy meten tanto ruido en las rías gallegas. Y, representación de la fauna terrestre nacional, preside el grupo una hermosa cabeza de toro. (Silió, 1900: 64-65) The next stop in Pardo Bazán's "calvary" is the Hygiene Section, well sponsored by most European nations, and, in her opinion, their presence indicates the importance they attach to maintaining high standards of cleanliness. Regrettably, the name of Spain is absent from the list: Austria, tan próxima á los países de Oriente, que envían los miasmas; Italia, la de las pestilentes maremmas y de las estancadas lagunas; Suiza, á pesar de la pureza de su aire de montaña; Holanda, que expone el microscopio más antiguo del mundo; Inglaterra, la de las viejas tradiciones de pulcritud; hasta Portugal, que en Oporto recibió tan terrible lección el año pasado por este tiempo, tienen sus Exposiciones de Higiene pública. Y Francia, en este caso de honra, echa el resto. (257)¹⁹ In the last section of her chronicle, aptly called "Balance", Pardo Bazán minces no words in her assessment of Spain's representation at the Paris Exhibition: El balance español... ¡Ah! Este, no tengo valor para formalizarlo. Yo esperaba de España un arranque viril ó una abstención cauta y prudente, fundada en nuestro luto. Los que quieran saber á qué atenerse después de mis reiteradas indicaciones, consulten la serie de artículos titulados "Nuestro fracaso" insertos en el periódico el Heraldo de Madrid, si no leen el libro que prepara César Silió sobre igual asunto. En los artículos del Heraldo, allí, con guarismos, datos estadísticos y comprobantes, ¹⁹ In June 1899, there was an outbreak of bubonic or Asiatic plague in Oporto. The disease was believed to have been brought to the city in packages from Bombay landed by the British steamer City of Cork ("The Plague", The Times, 15 August 1899, p. 4). Although the plague was identified as early as 12 July by Dr Jorge, of Oporto's Bacteriological Institute, no official announcement was made by the Portuguese government until 15 August ("The Plague", The Times, 25 August 1899, p. 4). After reaching its peak in October 1899, the epidemic finally ended in February 1900. Overall, there were 310 cases, 114 of which were fatal (The Encyclopaedia Britannica, vol. 21: 701). verán nuestros desastres en la paz. (283) Indeed, the conclusions reached by the correspondent of the Heraldo de Madrid could not have been more damning of the Spanish exhibits and of the negligence of the Spanish government: Nadie nos podrá tachar de pesimistas. Son más tristes los hechos en sí que todos los comentarios que acerca de ellos pudiéramos escribir. El único comentario posible es un grito de indignación contra un Gobierno que se llama regenerador, que había venido á rehabilitarnos ante el mundo y que hace que aparezcamos en la gran feria internacional por bajo de pueblos que tienen tres ó cuatro millones de habitantes. ("Recompensas de la Exposición", IV, Heraldo de Madrid, 23 August 1900, p. 1) Silió, for whom the débâcle of 1898 was also fresh in his mind, returned from Paris: "Tan admirado del hermosísimo, imponderable alarde que la Exposición significa, como entristecido y confuso del papel que allí hacemos. Aunque me duela mucho la confesión, habré de decirlo: no somos Europeos" (Silió, 1900: 16-17). Subsequently, he noted: Nuestra "leyenda de oro" quedó borrada hace dos años con la paz de París. La "leyenda negra", la que nos pinta como un pueblo de toreros y chulos, refractario á la moderna cultura, más africano que europeo, debió haber muerto ahora en París también y no hemos acertado á matarla. (Silió, 1900: 52) Pardo Bazán's chronicles on the Paris Exhibition end on a note of utter pessimism, impotence, and even despair. This time, her ardent patriotism fails to act as a smokescreen or to colour her appraisal of Spain as a country which has been defeated both in war and in peace. But for the author, the responsibility for the "Disaster" of 1898 and the fiasco of 1900 lies not with the Spanish people, whom she regards as inherently good and wholesome, but with those who are supposed to lead the nation and imbue it with the energy and will to fight on. Perhaps, she wonders, God will find it in His heart to provide Spain with the leadership and the zest for life it so badly needs (283). Similarly, Silió blames the Spanish government (and not the people) for the Paris débâcle: "Con un poco de iniciativa y voluntad directoras, España habría logrado presentarse en París como una esperanza; despertar simpatías, cobrar alientos. Mas la pereza ó la ineptitud oficial se extendieron como la mala hierba" (Silió, 1900: 90-91). Five years after the Paris Exhibition, the failure of Spain's participation was still haunting Pardo Bazán as a vivid reminder of the shame of Spain. In an article published in La Ilustración Artística of 24 April 1905 she draws a parallel between the inadequacies of the celebrations in Madrid of the third centenary of Don Quijote and the poor show of the Spanish exhibits in Paris in 1900. For the author, these deficiencies reflect the indifference and apathy that characterize modern Spain, but what she laments most is that both events have contributed nothing to improving Spain's image abroad (Pardo Bazán, 1972: 219). Indeed, for someone like the Galician writer, who had spent many years of her journalistic career defending Spain against gratuitous foreign criticism, her country's disappointing performance must have been particularly painful to deal with. 5. The Colonial Issue and the "Disaster" of 1898 Jover Zamora notes how in the 1880s, when Spaniards were enjoying the cultural enrichment and development of the "Edad de Plata", the problems stemming from the mismanagement of Spain's foreign policy were to culminate in a major material and moral catastrophe unprecedented for Spanish society since the first decades of the nineteenth century. Indeed, the term desastre, used to designate the loss of Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines in 1898, became part of the political vocabulary of that time following the naval defeat of Cavite, widely reported on by the national press of 3 May 1898 under the headline "El desastre de Manila" (Tortella [Jover Zamora], 1981: 384-85). Soon after Cánovas del Castillo's death on 8 August 1897, the Conservatives were succeeded in office by the Liberals led by Sagasta, who replaced in Cuba the radical General Valeriano Weyler with a negotiator, General Ramón Blanco, and granted the island autonomy in a series of decrees published on 25 November 1897. But Madrid's concessions did not appease the Cuban rebels or their ally, the United States, whose demands became tougher. The presence of the American war fleet in Cuban ports was followed by the blowing-up of the warship Maine on 15 February 1898, possibly carried out by the Cubans or the American secret service, and this incident provided President McKinley with a pretext to go to war with Spain (Martínez Cuadrado, 1973: 373). The Spanish-American War did eventually break out in late April 1898, when Spain was left with little choice but to declare war on the United States. Subsequently, part of the Spanish fleet was sunk in the battle of Cavite, in the Philippines, on 1 May 1898, followed by the swift destruction of the Atlantic fleet near the coast of Santiago de Cuba on 3 July 1898, overpowered by the superiority of the American warships. The Spanish army, stranded in the middle of the island and out of communication with the metropolis, could do little to compensate for this defeat (Martínez Cuadrado, 1973: 373). It is estimated that Spain's casualties among soldiers and officers alone during the war in Cuba and the Philippines ranged between 75,000 and 100,000 (Martínez Cuadrado, 1973: 85). The protocol signed in Washington on 12 August 1898 set out the conditions for Spain's withdrawal from Cuba, but Spain's final humiliation came with the signing of the Treaty of Paris on 10 December 1898, from which it emerged stripped of its last New World colonies and of its ranking as a middle-sized European power. As a result, the Cubans and the Filipinos were left under the tutelage of the United States (Martínez Cuadrado, 1973: 373-74). At the beginning of 1901, the Madrid newspaper, El Imparcial, published on its front page a map of Spain's former empire under the brief but poignant headline "Hemos perdido todo" (Bravo-Villasante, 1973: 243). In 1898 Pardo Bazán witnessed the Cuban disaster "con el corazón, despedazado de dolor y henchido de lágrimas ardientes" (Pardo Bazán, [1902b]: 114). Indeed, during the opening of the Cortes in April 1898 the Galician writer listened with horror to the laughter and cheers of the crowd as Spain declared war on the United States. She was mortified by this irresponsible attitude because the crowd was unaware of "el momento más negro de nuestra historia, la agonía de España" (Pardo Bazán, [1902b]: 102). Although many Spanish intellectuals had asked the government to grant Cuba its independence in order to avert a potentially disastrous confrontation with the United States, their plea had gone unheeded. In this regard, in an article published in La Ilustración Artística of 7 August 1899 Pardo Bazán remembers that prior to the outbreak of the Spanish-American War she had repeatedly warned of the catastrophic consequences this armed conflict would have for Spain, and how her sincerity and her refusal to be blinded by a misplaced patriotism had earned her the title of "mala española" (Pardo Bazán, 1972: 75). Valera, like the Galician writer, had also predicted Spain's downfall in the event of war. Indeed, in his article "Los Estados Unidos contra España" (1896) the Andalusian novelist had warned: Una nación aislada, como lo está España, con menos de la cuarta parte de habitantes que tienen los Estados Unidos y con muchísimos menos recursos pecuniarios para comprar o fabricar los costosísimos medios de destrucción que hoy se emplean, incurriría en un heroico delirio y cometería un acto de inaudita temeridad en provocar a dichos Estados. (Valera, 1958, III: 1005) It would be difficult to overestimate the psychological scars the events of 1898 left on Pardo Bazán. It is possible that, as a Galician, her experiences of the Spanish-American War were more vivid than those of most Spaniards. Indeed, Hilton claims that Galicia was one of the Spanish regions worst affected by the hostilities, for it was called upon to supply large numbers of recruits. With their departure, and often their death, Galicia was depleted of a significant percentage of its active male population. Within this region, La Coruña was touched even more directly by the conflict as it witnessed the arrival of hospital ships which landed their morbid cargo of injured and dead. Moreover, for a brief spell it looked as if the war was going to be carried into Galicia. Commodore Watson, in charge of a section of the American fleet, threatened to bombard the fortified towns on the Spanish coast, and as the news reached La Coruña, a significant percentage of its population abandoned the city (Hilton, 1951: 336). In De siglo á siglo Pardo Bazán describes the exodus thus: El bando de los asustados, semejante á un bando de palomas, alza el vuelo y se dispersa. Vénse las carreteras atestadas de carros, carromatos y zorras, con carga de muebles; es el ajuar de las familias que emigran en busca de un asilo, lejos, lo más lejos posible de la costa, donde no llegue ni el estampido ni el proyectil, ni aun las noticias del estrago. (Pardo Bazán, [1902b]: 129-30) Rumour has it that when some friends of Pardo Bazán asked to use her country home in order for them to escape the expected shelling of La Coruña, the reply given by the author was: "Yo voy a la Coruña, donde si se confirma lo que ustedes temen, habrá que hacer frente a la situación y curar a los heridos" (Fernández Almagro, 1951: 6). The account of Pardo Bazán's visit to the Paris display in Cuarenta días is interspersed, as noted earlier, with painful reminders of the events of 1898, to which she refers through the use of various euphemisms such as "horas luctuosas" (168). And one of the more poignant moments is when, during her visit to the painting exhibition, the author speaks of the pain and reflexive tranquillity she felt when confronted by Theobald Chartran's work depicting the signing of the Spanish-American peace protocol: "La sacudida de la realidad la encuentro en otro lienzo de Chartran, de historia y de retratos. Se titula Firma del protocolo de paz entre los Estados Unidos y España. ¡Con qué impresión de dolor y con qué reflexiva y concentrada calma me detuve ante ese cuadro!" (264-65). The loss of Spain's remaining New World colonies shortly before the Exhibition coincided with the imperialist expansion of its main European rivals: France and Britain. Indeed, at the Paris display, as described by Darío, both Britain and France proudly parade their status as colonial masters: "La Exposición puede ser mirada, en un sentido, como un gigantesco anuncio del hecho --que el mundo a veces olvida-- de que Francia es una de las más grandes potencias coloniales" (Darío, 1950: 419). The Nicaraguan poet goes on to say of British imperialism: "En grupo vienen desde la tierra negra de Fidji hasta Gibraltar colonias de todas clases, [...] Australia, el Canadá, Santa Elena, Jamaica, Nueva Guinea, y más, y más, y más tierras. [...] Sale uno de ver todas estas cosas convencido de que la superioridad de los anglosajones es innegable, aunque no sepa a punto fijo en lo que consiste... Rule Britannia!" (Darío, 1950: 421). The absence of Spain from the "Exposición colonial" of --- 20 Vogué proudly remarks: "L'héroïsme de la race se dépense actuellement dans ces nouveaux empires [...]. Il fallait leur faire la part très large dans l'Exposition jubilaire; il fallait renseigner abondamment notre people sur ses acquisitions récentes et trop peu connues" (Vogué, 1900: 388). the Paris Exhibition is noted and lamented by Silió: Destacándose sobre el conjunto abigarrado de construcciones de tan varios estilos, flotaban las banderas de Inglaterra, de Francia, de Alemania, de Holanda, de Portugal, ¡las metrópolis educadoras de esos pueblos, que parecían ampararlos! ¡Tampoco allí ondeaba nuestra bandera! --Después de descubrir un nuevo mundo, y de regar con nuestra sangre y libertar del salvajismo más tierras que ninguna otra nación, estamos sin colonias, reducidos al solar viejo que produjo tantos conquistadores y navegantes. (Silió, 1900: 44) As for Pardo Bazán, her visit to the pavilions of Portugal and France's colonies continues to evoke painful memories of the events of 1898. While foregrounding the way France nurtures its relations with its domains, the author alludes implicitly to what she regards as Spain's neglect of its former possessions, resulting ultimately in their loss (136). A similar sentiment had in fact been expressed by the author in her article "Siempre la guerra" (June 1898), in which in no uncertain terms she had accused Spain of having neglected the Philippines over the years and of having possessed them without sparing a thought for the inhabitants: "No hemos poblado esas comarcas; las hemos recogido y poseído como dueño indiferente de mujer hermosa, que no le dirige una mirada siquiera" (Pardo Bazán, [1902b]: 118). Spain's apparent uncaring attitude towards its former colonies is also underscored by Darío in his article "Madrid" (4 January 1899), in which he argues that Spain's disregard for what the New World has to offer has undermined the cultural relations between the "madre patria" and Latin America. Moreover, Darío accuses Spanish intellectuals of showing no interest in the literary output of Spanish-American authors, adding that this indifference sadly extends to everything produced outside Spain itself. (Darío, 1987: 48-49). 6. Latin America and its Representation at the 1900 Exhibition In the section of Cuarenta días entitled "La América latina", Pardo Bazán voices her opinion on the political situation of some Latin-American countries and reviews the national pavilions of those young republics present at the Exhibition. The author begins by explaining that many Latin-American nations are not represented at the Paris event for internal, political, and economic reasons, or because of disagreements with the organizers (216-17). And although Cuba features as part of the Latin-American contingent, the author refers to this island in derogatory terms, by depicting it as a kind a hybrid: through its veins runs Latin blood, but regardless of the appearances of freedom, Cuba is very much under the political and military yoke of the United States (217). Indeed, it would appear that Cuba has changed one master for another (as was certainly the case economically speaking), and in practical terms its colonial status remains unaltered. Moreover, while commenting on the Cuban pavilion, Pardo Bazán notes how tobacco, Cuba's main product, was the reason for the --- 21 The most conspicuous absentees were Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and some other South and Central American Republics (The Encyclopaedia Britannica, vol. 10: 70). island's annexation by the United States. In her opinion, Cuba is still very much a colony, and as such it features at the Exhibition (220). The author's affection for Spain's former possessions was already apparent in her French chronicles of 1889 (Pardo Bazán, [1889]: 25), and in Cuarenta días she reaffirms her emotional and fraternal links with these young nations. In effect, there is even a touch of sadness as she recognizes that the Latin-American republics, which she would like to continue to regard as the offspring of the mother country, are now entitled to their full identity and independent political status: Como interesan al hermano mayor que se quedó solo, sujeto en la casa paterna, los destinos del hermano aventurero y joven que cruzó el mar en busca de fortuna y gloria, nos interesa á nosotros el progreso de la América latina, en todo caso, y en este certamen. No sé si nos expresábamos con exactitud al llamar hijas nuestras á esas Repúblicas: hoy, en efecto, es hora de dejarse de paternidades é inaugurar la fraternidad. (215) Subsequently, Pardo Bazán identifies two Americas: one imbued with Spanish blood, and the other, a treacherous one, that repaid Spain's assistance during its fight for independence by taking away its last colonies (215-16). In fact, the betrayal and treachery of which the author speaks was foreseen by the Count of Aranda, one of the negotiators of the 1783 Treaty of Paris that established the independence of the United States. In a letter written to his sovereign, Carlos III, Aranda warned that the new republic would forget the help received from France and Spain, which had made its independence possible, and would only occupy itself with its own greatness (Murray, 1864: 379). As in the chronicles of the 1889 Exhibition, Pardo Bazán does not appear to hold any grudges against the Latin-American countries for having fought Spain for their freedom. On the contrary, she admires their tenacity and fighting spirit, and acknowledges their independent status and democratic political systems. Considering the author's numerous attacks on Spain's democracy, which she often presents as a charade, this latter assertion is surprising. She goes on to compare the apathy and lethargy that hinder Spain's progress with the enthusiasm and resolve of these young nations determined to forge a prosperous future for themselves (216). And yet, a few paragraphs later Pardo Bazán proceeds to dismantle this idealized vision of the new republics, by presenting them as being torn by internal conflict, civil unrest, and economic penury: El opulento Brasil, por la difícil consolidación de su nueva forma de Gobierno; la progresiva Argentina, por los ahogos de su Hacienda y los gastos y quebraderos de cabeza que le origina el pleito de sus límites occidentales [...]; el laborioso Chile, el de las sabias instituciones, porque aún no están cicatrizadas las heridas de la lucha civil de 1891, ni restablecida la normalidad monetaria; el fértil Uruguay, por el criterio de ahorro que á sus gobernantes inspira; el heroico Paraguay, el Transvaal de hace seis lustros, por las dificultades financieras que le crea su situación mediterránea; la sufrida Bolivia, por su reciente lucha entre federales y unitarios, que le impide tener capital fijo después de setenta años de independencia; Venezuela y Colombia, por razones de orden público; y Costa Rica y Nicaragua, por la nunca bastante lamentada ruptura de la federación de la América central --faltan en la Exposición, contentándose con recordar los lauros ganados en 1867, 1878 y 1889. (217-18) Murray, too, paints a very bleak picture of these young countries, from Mexico, which "has only exchanged the misgovernment of Spain for a worse evil --that of a chronic, interminable, and hopeless anarchy" (Murray, 1860c: 307), to Peru, plagued by "civil wars, misappropriated finances, [...] and a general state of turbulence and insecurity". Nor does he forget Chile, shaken since its independence in 1810 by "two popular revolutions in four years, and a prolonged civil war", while in all of them prevails "a state of material as well as of moral desolation" (Murray, 1860c: 309). The notion of a fraternal and friendly relationship between Spain and Latin America conveyed by Pardo Bazán in Cuarenta días is also present in an article published in La Ilustración Artística of 1 April 1901, in which the author maintains that the independence of Spain's former colonies has not resulted in hatred or resentment. Moreover, she claims that Spain's affection for its old domains has been reciprocated by signs of encouragement and friendship following the war of 1898. What she does lament is that Spaniards refuse to look to these new nations in search of inspiration for the regeneration of their country, since, in her estimation, Spain has a great deal to learn from its former possessions (Pardo Bazán, 1972: 113). 7. Pardo Bazán's Attitude to France One of the more striking features of Cuarenta días is its pro-French tenor, which should not be overlooked after the overtly Francophobic attitude of Al pie de la torre Eiffel and the ambivalence suggested in Por Francia y por Alemania. Indeed, whereas some passages in the earlier chronicles were vitriolic diatribes against France, Cuarenta días, in contrast, is scattered with positive comments that leave no doubt as to Pardo Bazán's admiration for Spain's most controversial and pugnacious neighbour. Soon after her arrival in Paris, the author attaches a symbolic meaning to the monuments that line both sides of the Esplanade des Invalides, arguing they are an exaltation of the glory of France as both a warring and civilizing nation. She also adds that France's leading role in industry and other non-belligerent activities has made it possible for this country to regain its place as one of Europe's most prominent powers following its defeat by the Prussians (37). Of course, with these comments Pardo Bazán could be implying that had Spain been an industrial power prior to the events of 1898, the consequences of the war would not have been as catastrophic as was the case. Also, the fact that France recovered from its military and moral defeat to become strong again is presumably regarded by the author as a lesson for Spain. Later in Cuarenta días, while touring the pavilion that houses haute couture clothing, Pardo Bazán praises the entrepreneurial spirit and the marketing skills of the French, who have transformed this product into one of their major exports (99-100). Elsewhere, she proclaims her admiration for a country which through instruction and education is rebuilding itself, expanding its territories, and conquering the present "mal sino" which afflicts Latin countries (128). During her visit to the exhibition of French art at the Petit Palais, Pardo Bazán is highly complimentary about eighteenth-century French art which she sees as reflecting the good taste, culture, and elegance of the nation (187). Also, in the piece dedicated to Rodin, she compares the active interest of the French in sculpture and other artistic pursuits with her fellow Spaniards' indifference towards art, something she regards as an indication of their lower cultural level (246-47). Furthermore, in Cuarenta días, as in the chronicles of 1889, Pardo Bazán presents Paris as the centre of the art world, a place where many foreign artists converge in order to learn and improve their technique (261). Indeed, it appears that what most attracted Pardo Bazán to France was its cultural and artistic wealth, especially when contrasted with the cultural isolation and xenophobic attitude of many Spanish intellectuals of her time, bitterly denounced in her 1899 lecture "La España de ayer y la de hoy": Fué bueno y simpático el escritor cuando se hizo apologista de la inmovilidad española contra el movimiento europeo: renegar de la cultura extranjera, alardear de españolismo exclusivista y celoso, era camino para abrir á los libros el hogar, y al escritor los salones y la Academia: y he oído alabar en un novelista [...] el mérito de ignorar los idiomas extranjeros más usuales y de no haber abierto en su vida una novela francesa. No por eso deja de ser España un país donde las novelas francesas se leen bastante, sobre todo cuando meten ruido, y donde se imita, arregla y adapta sin cesar del francés: lo que pasa es que nadie reconoce que ha bebido en las fuentes malditas. (Pardo Bazán, [1899]: 81) Moreover, the influence that French culture had on the author did not go unnoticed by some of her contemporaries. For example, Enrique Gómez Carrillo went so far as to characterize her as "par l'esprit et par la culture, une véritable Parisienne" (Gómez Carrillo, 1906: 457). In Cuarenta días, during her visit to the painting exhibition, Pardo Bazán laments that the Spanish subjects depicted by French painters are limited to flamenco and bullfighting scenes, the sad legacy, she claims, of Mérimée's romantic view of Spain (273-74). However, contrary to her position in the 1889 chronicles, in this instance not a single word of criticism flows from Pardo Bazán's pen concerning the apparent lack of knowledge the French have of Spain, its customs, traditions, and history. This very restricted vision of Spain abroad in the late nineteenth century, focusing largely on its flamenco and bullfighters, is also noted by Darío in an article published on 24 July 1899. But the Nicaraguan poet, unlike Pardo Bazán, sees this unfamiliarity with Spanish culture as a direct result of the decline of the country, and he notes that Spaniards themselves remain oblivious to the sorry state of their nation. In addition, Darío suggests that Spaniards' airs of superiority are unjustified: Doña Emilia Pardo-Bazán no ha vacilado en hacer de Víctor Hugo un émulo de Campoamor. Por lo general, aquí se compara lo propio con lo extranjero, cuando no con aire de superioridad, con un convencido gesto de igualdad. No se dan cuenta de su estado actual. No se dan cuenta de que quitando a Cajal y a algunos dos o tres más en ciencias, y a Castelar en su rareza oratoria, no les conoce el mundo más que por sus toreros y sus bailadoras. Pongo naturalmente a un lado a los pintores. (Darío, 1987: 181) In her summing-up of the Exhibition Pardo Bazán no longer presents France as Spain's traditional foe, as she did in Al pie. Indeed, whereas in the 1889 work she denied any possible fraternal links between the two nations and scorned the notion of "pueblos latinos" (Pardo Bazán, [1889]: 7-8), in Cuarenta días she reverses this opinion and adopts a conciliatory attitude towards France by depicting it as a role model for Spain: "Nuestra gran hermana latina, esa Francia que en nosotros tanto influye, y que más debiera influir en distinto terreno que en el de moda variable, porque Francia no es sólo una tienda de modas literarias ó femeniles" (277). This fraternal notion is underscored by Silió, who also seemed to feel a kind of grudging admiration for the French nation. There is no longer resentment but the fervent wish that Spain might one day emulate France's achievements: "La Exposición es un prodigio, es un portento de grandeza y de arte. [...] Me sentí pequeño, muy pequeño, ante aquel soberano alarde de vitalidad, de arte y de riqueza, y sentí envidia, mucha envidia como español, de ese gran pueblo, nuestro vecino y nuestro hermano, capaz de tales obras. ¡Ah, si nosotros las hicieramos!..." (Silió, 1900: 24). In the closing pages of Cuarenta días Pardo Bazán speaks of the way in which France, through sheer hard work and initiative, has found the means to recover both emotionally and financially from its defeat of 1870. And although she acknowledges that France is beset by significant domestic problems and that its future looks bleak, she argues that France is at least alive, as its internal struggles demonstrate. For the author, this activity is preferable to the indifference, stagnation, and paralysis of Spain, where, she states, selfish and personal interests prevail over the common good of the nation (281-82). On top of all this, Pardo Bazán exalts France for having put aside its domestic problems to offer the world the spectacle of the Exhibition. This unity, she argues, is proof of the magnanimity of the neighbouring nation, which remains untouched by the decadence that affects the countries of Latin Europe, and which continues to occupy its deserving place as an advanced and leading power (282). And contrary to the sentiment expressed in Al pie (Pardo Bazán, [1889]: 7-8), in Cuarenta días France is presented by the author as holding the key to the prosperity of the Latin race. 8. Conclusions In Cuarenta días, unlike the 1889 French chronicles, digressions are kept to a minimum. In effect, excluding the opening three sections, which deal with Pardo Bazán's journey to Paris, Section 17, in which she recounts her day-trip to Ville d'Avray, and Section 22, in which the author discusses the feminist congress held during the Exhibition, all the other pieces of the collection touch on the Paris event or on matters relating to it. Therefore, Cuarenta días does not suffer from the fragmentation or disorder of Pardo Bazán's previous French chronicles, in which she often became sidetracked from the main topic. The author's aversion to machinery and technological advances is as strong in Cuarenta días as in the Paris chronicles of 1889. Indeed, when overwhelmed by the technological feats that surround her at the Exhibition, she seeks solace and refuge in the pavilion of Nature where she feels totally at ease. And although her negative attitude to progress and modern inventions appears to have mellowed with time, the only way Pardo Bazán can come to terms with technological and scientific advancement is by identifying a particularly remarkable figure or savant who embodies it. In 1889 this figure was Edison, the magician of light, and in Cuarenta días the epitome of progress is represented by Pasteur, the medical genius, the conqueror of disease. It is significant how in Cuarenta días, compared to previous chronicles, Pardo Bazán's attitude to France has changed dramatically. In fact, with the passage of time the author appears to have shifted from being a Francophobe in Al pie, to suggesting ambivalence in Por Francia, to finally becoming a Francophile in Cuarenta días. In this last work, France is no longer depicted as Spain's political enemy or predatory foe, for that role is now played by the United States. It is likely that this change of heart was triggered by France's support in critical moments for Spain (46), but, in any case, by the late 1890s Pardo Bazán appeared to feel more at home in Paris than in Madrid, where she had often been the target of intolerance, xenophobic prejudice, and narrowmindedness, especially after her Paris lecture of 1899, "La España de ayer y la de hoy", as she admitted in her 1906 interview with Gómez Carrillo: "Je suis très communicative et c'est en France que j'ai trouvé la Société intellectuelle qui correspond le mieux à mon goût. Après ma conférence de Paris, je fus couverte de fleurs; chaque conférence que j'ai donnée en Espagne ne m'a valu que des déboires: cela n'a pas peu contribué à me rendre française" (Gómez Carrillo, 1906: 460). The colonial issue and the "Disaster" of 1898 feature strongly in Cuarenta días as a kind of motif that runs through most of the collection. Indeed, against the backdrop of Spain's recent débâcle, many of the European countries present at the Exhibition parade their colonial assets as they continue to expand their empires. Pardo Bazán is painfully aware of her country's humiliating new status in the eyes of the world, and her shame and frustration permeate a considerable part of the narrative. In effect, on occasions the tone of Cuarenta días is tense and sarcastic, indicative of repressed anger, impotence, and embarrassment. A clear example is the observation made by the author on the inadequacies of the Spanish food pavilion: "Nótase el vacío de la indiferencia, de la apatía, el profundo agujero donde lo dejamos caer todo para que se lo lleve el diablo" (65). In 1900 Spain was still licking its wounds after the events of 1898. In fact, the author refers to Spain as a country in mourning, and so, it would appear, was the Galician writer, whose sadness, disappointment, and despair at Spain's decline are foregrounded in Cuarenta días. Moreover, there is little doubt that as far as Pardo Bazán is concerned the wounds inflicted by the war of 1898 are still open sores, and the Paris Exhibition, to her dismay, seems to be interspersed with painful reminders of Spain's defeat. There is resentment and bitterness every time the term "yanquis" flows from her pen. It could be argued that Pardo Bazán has not forgiven and has no intention of ever forgetting. Indeed, in an article published in La Ilustración Artística of 7 August 1899 the author welcomes the difficulties encountered by the Americans in their invasion of the Philippines, Spain's former possession. She hopes that, with time, the accumulation of negative factors, coupled with the resistance of the indigenous population, will result in the expulsion of the new colonial masters (Pardo Bazán, 1972: 75). In Cuarenta días the author presents the United States as the agent of Spain's colonial misfortunes and international humiliation. However, in this instance her objectivity is blurred by her patriotism and the pain of the recent defeat. So what the reader hears is not the voice of a detached observer or impartial journalist, but the opinion of a staunch Spanish patriot expressing a great deal of resentment towards a country she perceives as Spain's mortal enemy. Indeed, at one point in Cuarenta días Pardo Bazán refers to the United States as "nuestros enemigos los yanquis" (205). In a way, and in comparison with Al pie, the Americans have replaced the French in the author's heart as Spain's quintessential foe. However, her animosity towards France never reached the same level of hatred revealed towards the United States in Cuarenta días. Pardo Bazán went to Paris in 1900 clutching the fervent hope that Spain would salvage some of its badly tattered honour in the eyes of the world after the events of 1898. Like Silió, she wanted to see Spain ranking among "los pueblos grandes, sabios, trabajadores y fuertes" (Silió, 1900: 16). And although her intuition told her otherwise, she was expecting to bear witness to and to report on the rehabilitation of Spain in the shape of a dignified representation. Indeed, of the thirty-four pieces that deal with the Exhibition, twenty either refer to the Spanish participation or touch on Spain from different perspectives. It could in fact be argued that the author's reporting on the Paris display is dominated by Spain and by her views on her country. Regrettably, the Galician writer's chronicles reflect the despair felt by many Spaniards who like her saw their hopes dashed as Spain's participation in the Universal Exhibition culminated in "otro desastre más", the eloquent title of Silió's chronicles. But however painful, this new fiasco, she argued, had to be aired and brought into the open, regardless of the consequences: "Obligada estoy á decir la verdad, y conozco que al decirla tal vez no logre sino crearme enemigos" (68). By the time Pardo Bazán left the French capital, she was painfully aware of the poignant contrast between the Paris Exhibition as France's "más victoriosa prueba de lo que pueden la idea y el trabajo de los pueblos" (Darío, 1950: 381), and Spain, the ghost of a formerly glorious nation, ready to step into the new century morally, spiritually, financially, and militarily defeated. 1. Introduction In July 1901 Pardo Bazán left Meirás, her Galician country home, for Belgium, where she remained until early 1902. Por la Europa católica is a compendium of the impressions of her journey around Belgium in 1901, of her stay in the south-west of France in 1895, of her visit to Portugal in 1898, and of her travels at various times between 1887 and 1899 through Castile, Aragón, and Catalonia. Her Belgian chronicles were serialized in the Madrid newspaper, El Imparcial, from 12 August to 30 December 1901, while her pieces on France, Portugal, Castile, Aragón, and Catalonia appeared in several newspapers and reviews between 1887 and 1899, before the entire collection was published in book form in 1902. The work is divided into six sections: "Bélgica", "Provincianos franceses", "Notitas portuguesas", "Castilla", "Aragón", and "Cataluña", each one consisting of several essays. In the "Advertencia al que leyere", which introduces this collection, the author points out that her articles are going to have two "plots" or perspectives: a social and an artistic one. For the social angle she will focus on Belgium, an advanced nation which, she argues, practises an active, coherent, and purposeful Catholicism (Pardo Bazán, [1902a]: 5). However, she admits that her fondness for art and artistic pursuits has taken up some of the time and space she intended to dedicate to the social study of the countries visited. Had she had her way, she would have devoted many pages to Belgian and Dutch painting. But since other literary commitments demanded her attention, she kept to herself some of the impressions gathered during her journey (5-6). Pardo Bazán claims that her articles stirred the social conscience of some Spanish organizations which, encouraged by the example of Belgium's social institutions, decided to try new ways, other than military force and incarceration, of maintaining Spain's social fabric. Some worthwhile attempts have been made in this direction, but she argues that a great deal more needs to be done in order to extricate Spain from its social stagnation (6). In fact, the government's concern regarding the situation of the industrial proletariat and the unrest of Spain's working classes in the last quarter of the nineteenth century had resulted in the emergence in 1883 of the Comisión de Reformas Sociales, charged with preparing the necessary legislation to regulate and improve the working conditions of the proletariat (Martínez Cuadrado, 1973: 519). The Ley de Accidentes del Trabajo (30 January 1900) and the establishment of the Instituto de Reformas Sociales in 1903 marked the beginning of the State's intervention in labour relations with the aim of curtailing the abuses perpetrated hitherto by management (Martínez Cuadrado, 1973: 323). Social security was an aspect of labour relations much improved in the early part of the twentieth century with the creation of the Instituto Nacional de Previsión in 1908 and the establishment of the Ministerio de Trabajo on 8 May 1920 (Martinez Cuadrado, 1973: 324-25). In the second essay of the collection, Pardo Bazán announces that during her travels abroad she intends to concentrate on what she terms the religious question, a problem inherited from the nineteenth century and which affects other Latin countries. So, she is going to look at France and Belgium, two prosperous nations much more advanced than Spain. In her opinion, Belgium's example demonstrates that Spain's present ills cannot be blamed on Catholicism but on the way Spaniards practise and understand this religion (20-21). But the author does not want to anticipate any conclusions or allow any preconceived ideas to blur her judgement, and will reserve her final opinion until after her journey of study and learning is concluded: "Pero no adelantemos los sucesos [...] ; no llevemos opinión hecha y preconcebida [...]. A estudiar se ha dicho, y á referir lo que se aprenda" (21). 2. Travel and Spain's Europeanization In Clémessy's opinion, Pardo Bazán's fascination with Europe emerged during her first European tour of 1871: "Ofrecióse Europa llena de múltiples seducciones a los ojos ávidos de la pequeña gallega, dejándole unas impresiones imborrables. A partir de aquel entonces Europa iba a ejercer poderoso atractivo en su espíritu" (Clémessy, 1975: 9). Indeed, in 1889 the Galician author confessed to Galdós: "Tú habrás soñado mucho con el esquinazo europeo: más que yo, es imposible" (Pardo Bazán, 1975: 71). And on her way to Belgium in 1901, she wrote to her friend Blanca de los Ríos: "Deseo salir de esta atmósfera, todos los años, algún tiempo, europeizarme, que dice mi amigo Joaquín Costa" (cited in Bravo-Villasante, Moreover, the fact that Europe became a recurrent theme in Pardo Bazán's journalistic writing is further proof of her determination to persuade her readers to look outside Spain, beyond the Pyrenees, so that they could keep abreast of European progress (Clémessy, 1975: 21). In fact, the idea of travel as a vehicle for the modernization of Spain was already present as early as 1895 in Pardo Bazán's article "El viaje por España", published in La España Moderna of November of that year: "A los españoles nos conviene mucho salir de nuestra casa para rectificar prejuicios, para adquirir tolerancia, amplitud de miras y bien entendido espíritu moderno" (Pardo Bazán, 1895b: 97). Indeed, in the second essay of Por la Europa católica (dedicated to the Count of Romanones, Spain's education minister) the author presents travel as part and parcel of the process of Europeanization, as a cultural duty to be performed at least once a year, especially by those who live in a retrogade or stagnant society, like that of Spain: ¡Europeicémonos! --A pesar de los cambios que ya están mucho más arriba de las nubes, al nivel de las estrellas; á pesar del miedo que nos meten hablando de calores senegalianos, de gente que se cae muerta de insolación fulminante en las calles de París, hemos tenido el arranque de dejar nuestras frescas rías gallegas y asomarnos á ver qué pasa en el mundo, aunque sea por un agujero. Manda la Iglesia confesarse una vez al año, y antes si hay peligro de muerte. Manda la cultura viajar sin aparente necesidad una vez al año, y más si hay estancamiento y tendencia regresiva --manía de andar hacia atrás, que no falta entre nosotros. (17) Carlos Blanco Aguinaga has suggested that "el problema de España" was the struggle between those who favoured the country's Europeanization and those who opposed it. He notes how after a while the members of the so-called Generation of 1898 were also divided by this disparity of opinion (Blanco Aguinaga, 1970: 7).¹ Blanco traces Spain's ideological and historical isolation, from which he claims "el problema de España" stemmed, to the rule of Felipe II (1555-98) (Blanco Aguinaga, 1970: 8), and argues that Spain's determination to adhere to the values that reflected the period of its greatest glory in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries led eventually to its marginalization from the rest of Europe (Blanco Aguinaga, 1970: 17). In this regard, those Spaniards who in the nineteenth century proclaimed the need to "import" European values, while rejecting some traditional Spanish tenets, were deemed unpatriotic (Blanco Aguinaga, 1970: 13).² Pardo Bazán for one endured the criticism of some of her fellow Spaniards who had a faulty concept of the casticismo Unamuno was to examine at the end of the nineteenth century. Moreover, her detractors misinterpreted her European tendencies, claiming they denigrated Spain (Clémessy, 1975: 17). Hilton affirms that the tragedy of 1898 added momentum to the "Europeanization" movement of Spain (Hilton, 1952c: 306). --- ¹ It has been pointed out that the men of 1898 did entertain "un ideal mixto de españolismo y europeización" (Melchor Fernández Almagro, Vida y obra de Ángel Ganivet, p. 135, cited in Lain Entralgo, 1997: 65). ² Pedro Lain Entralgo recalls how the writers of 1898 were accused by Spanish traditionalists of being "europeizantes, extranjerizados, antiespañoles" (Lain Entralgo, 1997: 61). Indeed, in her article "Desde el extranjero" (May 1899) Pardo Bazán herself admits that prior to the events of 1898 the Europeanization of Spain was regarded with suspicion by most Spaniards, but after that date public opinion was almost unanimous on the need to Europeanize the country. She also laments Spaniards' anachronistic attachment to what they regard as "castizo", and their reluctance to embrace foreign customs and values, a sign, she argues, of Spain's backwardness and ignorance (Pardo Bazán, [1902b]: 168-69). Of Spain's xenophobic or anti-European attitude she observes: "La perpetua queja de los castizos contra el extranjerismo, envolvía la afirmación tácita de que no tenemos nada que aprender de nadie. [...] El suponer que abundando en nuestro propio sentido caminábamos derechos, equivalía á abrazarnos al error, con tal que hubiese nacido en casa" (Pardo Bazán, [1902b]: 170). Spain's opening-up to Europe was also advocated by most of the writers of 1898,$^3$ who, like the Galician author, claimed that Spain's cultural isolation should come to an end and that the old glories of a long-gone past should be laid to rest in order for the country to progress. Indeed, Clémessy sees Pardo Bazán as heralding some of the tenets of the men of 1898, even before the "Disaster" (Clémessy, 1971: 140).$^4$ This parallelism is also suggested by Joaquín de Entrambasaguas in his prologue to Cuentos de la Condesa de Pardo Bazán: "No deja --- $^3$ Azorín spoke in 1913 of "la curiosidad mental por el extranjero" of the men of 1898 ("La generación de 1898", in Clásicos y modernos, Madrid, 1919: 254-55, cited in Laín Entralgo, 1997: 57). $^4$ Laín Entralgo also believes that "Clarín y la Pardo Bazán preludian en buena medida el llamado 'espíritu del 98'" (Laín Entralgo, 1997: 77). de ser extraño y curioso que sin pertenecer doña Emilia Pardo Bazán a la generación del noventa y ocho, [...] presente no pocos puntos de contacto con ella en su individualismo, sus anhelos europeizantes y su posición renovadora" [my italics] (Entrambasaguas, 1952: xii). In fact, the author's interest in the writers of 1898 is noted by Azorín himself: "De los maestros, los dos que se acercaron a nosotros [...] fueron don Juan Valera y doña Emilia Pardo Bazán. [...] Doña Emilia estuvo siempre atenta a lo que hacíamos" (Azorín, 1982: 900). Furthermore, it appears that Pardo Bazán's pro-European attitude influenced the outlook of some younger Spanish-speaking writers. For example, Eduardo Marquina wrote in recognition of the Galician author: "Mis primeras lecturas en prosa hacia horizontes abiertos fuera de España las hice en libros de D.ª Emilia Pardo Bazán" (Marquina, 1921: 65), and the Argentine novelist Manuel Gálvez acknowledged Pardo Bazán's internationalism thus: No sólo fué doña Emilia de su tiempo, sino que fué un escritor europeo. [...] Son raros los escritores españoles que concilian lo español y lo universal. Hay en ellos un excesivo apego al terruño, antipático para los extranjeros. Aunque no lo digan, revelan un desprecio a lo extranjero, un orgullo sin fundamento, una suerte de "no conformismo" con la civilización y la modernidad. [...] Los casticistas de la derecha, que creen alabarse llamándose a sí mismos españolísimos y rancios, condenan a doña Emilia por su curiosidad universal, por su espíritu europeizante. [My italics] (Gálvez, 1921: 33, 34) Pardo Bazán argued that travel, as a contributing factor to Spain's Europeanization, had to be a two-way process: not only should Spaniards be encouraged to travel, but foreigners should be enticed to visit the Peninsula. Indeed, in her article "El viaje por España" the author urged the Spanish government to attract foreign visitors to Spain because, by acquiring a direct knowledge of that country, they would also assist in the Europeanization of Spain. Unfortunately, it was pointed out by Pardo Bazán, many foreigners never rid themselves of their false romantic perception of Spain (Pardo Bazán, 1895b: 97, 94-95). In Por la Europa católica the author claims that travelling on the continent is not an essential prerequisite for achieving the longed-for Europeanization. It can also be attained through intellectual pursuits, such as reading and thinking. But whatever the method, the process of Europeanization, she concludes, must be selective, concentrating solely on the worthiest attributes of European culture (18). Indeed, it is true, as Hilton notes, that Pardo Bazán's Europeanizing tendencies were somewhat limited (Hilton, 1952c: 299). For instance, she did not suggest that the world should become a uniform, monochrome, and homogeneous entity, for she argued that below the surface of society there remained irreconcilable differences regarding race, origin, civilization, religion, and ideals, and the combination of all these factors determined, according to Pardo Bazán, a nation's concept of life ("El país de las castañuelas", Pardo Bazán, [1902b]: 50-51). Spain's selective Europeanization was also advocated by the Krausist, Francisco Giner de los Ríos, one of Pardo Bazán's mentors, during his inauguration speech of the Institución Libre de Enseñanza in 1876. In his address, Giner spoke of the necessity to redeem the national spirit. This so-called redemption was to become the cornerstone of the teaching programme of the Institución, and it involved giving Spaniards the confidence to absorb foreign ideas while, at the same time, adjusting them to Spain's needs without undermining the positive qualities of the Spanish character. Adna Rosa Rodríguez notes how Spain's Europeanization becomes a constant theme or motif in much of Pardo Bazán's "obra ensayística", but always with a constructive intention: La autora intentaba hacer que los españoles miraran más allá de sus fronteras y se enteraran de lo que ocurría en el resto de las naciones europeas. Le interesaban el progreso, los adelantos y cambios sociales que ocurrían en Europa. Era evidente que España no estaba entre los países aventajados. Sus escritos los inspiraba siempre un amor profundo por su tierra. Su crítica fue constructiva y jamás deploraba lo nacional por lo extranjero. Su anhelo era que España se igualara en todos los niveles al resto de Europa. (Rodríguez, 1991: 60) Indeed, Pardo Bazán's pro-European views did not at any time compromise her Spanishness. Speaking of the Galician writer's "profundo hispanismo", Clémessy notes: "La novelista era partidaria de una inspiración extranjera moderada y adaptada al genio nacional; la imitación servil que veía practicar a sus compatriotas en detrimento de la originalidad española la ofendía pues, con toda justicia" (Clémessy, 1981, I: 489). The author's uncompromising Spanishness was corroborated by Azorín when he wrote: "Ha sido netamente española Emilia Pardo Bazán, y ha tratado siempre de injerir lo extranjero, como elemento fecundador, en lo nacional" (Azorín, 1963: 1395). It seems that Pardo Bazán saw this process of Europeanization as a cure for Spain's plight. In other words, she suggested that although her country's problems should be resolved by Spaniards themselves, the remedy for Spain's malaise was to be found abroad and not in Spain itself. Indeed, in Por la Europa católica she admits that in her European travels she is constantly searching for a magic cure for Spain's self-inflicted blindness to its current ills: Sintiéndome tan acérrima española, cada vez propendo más á buscar fuera de España remedios y lecciones. ¿Se acuerda alguien de uno de los primeros y muy discutidos dramas de Echegaray, en que el enamorado de una beldad ciega va á conseguir en remotos países el medicamento ó filtro que devuelva luz á las amadas pupilas? España es tan hermosa como la Princesa de la más romántica novela de caballería; pero sus ojos están cubiertos de membrana obscura; la lumbre de este sol radioso no penetra en ellos sino al través de brumas y sombras seculares. Viajemos. ¿Quién sabe si daremos con el filtro mágico? (19) Spain's "blindness" or chauvinistic and introspective attitude was also lamented by the Galician writer in a letter written to Narcís Oller on 12 October 1886: En España creo ser una de las pocas personas que tienen la cabeza para mirar lo que pasa en el extranjero. Aquí, a nuestro modo somos tan petulantes como pueden serlo los franceses, y nos figuramos que más allá del Ateneo y de San Jerónimo no hay pensamiento ni vida estética; ¡error peregrino cuya enormidad nos asusta así que atravesamos el Pirineo!... (Narcís Oller, Memòries literàries, Aedos, Barcelona, 1962: 99, cited in Clémessy, 1981, I: 119) And in Por la Europa católica the author continues to present Spain as an isolated and self-centred country preoccupied exclusively with national minutiae. She regards as patriotic and praiseworthy the work done by the newspaper El Imparcial and some Spanish writers, including herself, in an attempt to bring "soplos de aire exterior" into Spain's rarefied cultural atmosphere (19-20). In effect, Darío described the Galician writer in 1899 as a breath of fresh air in the otherwise culturally stagnant and depleted Spain. She had, he argued, the courage of her convictions and was not afraid to voice her opinions, even if they were deemed scandalous by some. Thus, the Nicaraguan refers to her as "un personaje simpático y gallardo, esta brava amazona que en medio del estancamiento, del helado ambiente en que las ideas se han apenas movido en su país en el tiempo en que le ha tocado luchar, ha hecho ruido, ha hecho color, ha hecho música y músicas" (Darío, 1987: 123). Finally, and dealing with rather more practical concerns, Pardo Bazán ends the second essay of Por la Europa católica on a note of frustration at the long wait that travellers arriving from the north-west have to endure in Venta de Baños before catching the train to the French border. In her opinion, a good, reliable, and fast train service is also part of the process of Europeanization Spain so badly needs (21). --- 5 Here Pardo Bazán could be recalling the recommendations voiced by Unamuno in 1895: "Sólo abriendo las ventanas a vientos europeos, empapándonos en el ambiente continental, [...] europeizándonos para hacer España y chapuzándonos en pueblo, regeneraremos esta estepa moral" (En torno al casticismo, Unamuno, 1942, I: 125). 3. On the Way to Belgium Indeed, in the first essay, touching on a subject already discussed in Cuarenta días, on her way to Belgium by train under "la llamarada del sol de Julio" (19), Pardo Bazán speaks of the hardship and discomfort of train travel in Spain due to a deficient railway network, the poor management of the system, and bad planning. Thus travelling the same distance in Spain as in other European countries takes three or four times longer (9-10). Similarly scathing comments were made by César Silió, the editor of El Norte de Castilla, during his journey to Paris for the 1900 Exhibition: Yo hice el viaje desde Valladolid hasta Burdeos, en el sud-exprés; de Burdeos á París, en un tren rápido. Pues, toma nota de estos datos y compara y deduce: De Valladolid á Hendaya, el tren recorre 392 kilómetros. De Hendaya á Burdeos 233. El sud-exprés emplea en el primer recorrido 10 horas y 31 minutos --37 kilómetros por hora--; en el recorrido francés 2 horas y 52 minutos --82 kilómetros por hora--. (Silió, 1900: 18) The Galician writer continues her diatribe against railway travel in Spain by pointing out that the deficient service is indicative of the backwardness of the nation, which remains untouched by modern times. She adds that train services run much more efficiently in industrialized regions, such as Catalonia and the Basque Country, than in those areas where the benefits of industrial development are not yet felt (10). On a more positive note, Pardo Bazán also speaks of the mysterious attraction that travel holds for man since time immemorial, and which makes him forget its inherent dangers and discomfort. She states that whereas in the distant past travel was a collective enterprise involving entire tribes and populations, nowadays the individual tends to travel on his own. She claims that the lack of communication between the different communities, which only come together through the violence of war, provides another incentive for the individual to travel (10-11). She also affirms that the most enriching and enjoyable aspect of travel is the visual experience, to see for oneself that which one has only read about. But travelling is not only about learning, she claims; it also encompasses the spheres of the spiritual and the emotional, contributing on occasions to the inspiration of the artist (11). In her article "El viaje por España", the author states that Spaniards do not regard travel as a recreational or cultural activity, and, in consequence, they fail to understand the reasons that motivate people like her to travel (Pardo Bazán, 1895b: 83-84). Similar sentiments are repeated in this early part of Por la Europa católica: En España la afición á viajar sin objeto determinado, por el viaje sólo, no se ha difundido todavía. Causa cierto asombro que yo la profese. Quizás no se explican que por ver un edificio viejo, menos aún, el lugar donde ocurrió un hecho memorable, donde surgió un recuerdo ó se escribió una página de historia, ande nadie rodando por trenes y fondas y estaciones, gastando tiempo y dinero, y privado de esas "comodidades de su casa" sin las cuales mucha gente no comprende la vida. (11) Spaniards' alleged disregard for travel is also emphasized by Alarcón in his Viajes por España (1883): "Los españoles tenemos pocos asuntos fuera de casa, y los que tenemos no nos interesan hasta el extremo de hacernos emprender largos viajes. Nuestra filosofía moruna, ascética, o como queráis llamarla, da de sí esta magnánima indiferencia [...]. Viajan, sí, por mero placer, los elegantes y los fantaseadores, los bañistas de afición y los amantes de la naturaleza" (Alarcón, 1968: 1129). The first stopover in Pardo Bazán's journey to Belgium was the village of Sarria, near the border between Galicia and Castile (13). From there she travelled to Venta de Baños (21) and then to Paris on the "expreso" (23). Once in the French capital, she caught the eight o'clock train to Brussels and announced that the rest of her itinerary (Louvain, Malines, Antwerp, Ghent, Bruges, and Ostend) would be covered by her "billete circular" (31). 4. Belgium Pardo Bazán's arrival in Belgium reawakens in her remembrances of the glorious days of the Spanish Empire and of its fight against Protestantism "en tierra de herejes" (32). But what makes Belgium special and eternal for the author is the artistic production of fourteenth- and fifteenth-century Flemish and Dutch painters that she plans to admire in her visit to several museums in Holland and Belgium (32-34). However, what the author defines as her "peregrinación" (37) to Belgium begins, after an eight-hour train journey from Brussels to Dené Maredsus (38), with a close look at that country's social Catholicism. While Bravo-Villasante argues that Pardo Bazán's interest in what she terms "cristianismo social" emerged when she was writing San Francisco de Asís (1882) (Bravo-Villasante, 1973: 75-76), Hilton claims that once the Galician author realized that the revival of the archaic Catholicism advocated by the neo-Catholic movement was unfeasible, she had to look elsewhere for the catalyst that would bring about a religious renaissance. For some years she believed she had found it in what was generally called Christian Socialism (Hilton, 1954: 14). And as soon as Pardo Bazán sets foot in Belgium she heads for the monastery of Dené Maredsus, where she is delighted to experience at first hand the kind of vigorous, coherent, and purposeful Catholicism she had advocated in the "Advertencia" or introduction to Por la Europa católica. Indeed, she stresses the dedication of the monks to the education of middle-class students and to the vocational training, free of charge, of poor children (39). In Cuarenta días she had already argued that religious orders, instead of leading a life of unproductive retirement from the world, had an important social role to play in the field of education. Moreover, she had opposed an inactive, pessimistic, and inquisitorial Catholicism, for she claimed that the Catholic Church should be highly influential in the instruction of the people and in the support of the needy (Pardo Bazán, [1900]: 129, 130). --- 6 It would be an exaggeration to refer to social Catholicism as Christian Socialism, for it repudiated the basic principles of socialism (the abolition of private property, the class struggle), and attempted to provide those workers attracted to anarchism, Utopianism, or Marxist materialism with an alternative ideology (Droz [Guichonnet], 1985: 375). "Catolicismo social" is in fact the term used by Pardo Bazán herself to describe the activities of Belgian Catholics (96). Pardo Bazán's first impression of Liège (to where she travelled by train), as an industrial city covered in coal dust and with little to offer to the artistic pilgrim (45), is far removed from the bucolic scenery of Maredsus. But the object of her visit is to continue to explore Belgium's social Catholicism during her meeting with the Bishop of Liège, who explains how the Church and the Catholics of Belgium, guided by the Encyclical Rerum novarum (1891), are trying to alleviate the problems of the exploited proletariat (46-47). However, he is reluctant to admit that their action is directed at halting the spread of socialism in Belgium, preferring to refer to this ulterior motivation as "un fin indirecto, un resultado natural [...] de nuestra obra" (47). In Spain, too, as Martínez Cuadrado notes, the conciliatory and prudent tenor of this encyclical, issued by Leo XIII, prompted some members of the clergy to achieve a rapprochement with the country's working classes. Their object was to promote social action within Spain's incipient industrial sector. Hence, the emergence in 1892 of the Cajas Rurales, the establishment in 1895 of several associations for the protection of the rights of the working classes, and the clergy's persistent efforts, often criticized by socialist and anarchist trade unions that accused the Church of operating under the influence of management (Martínez Cuadrado, 1973: 361). Pardo Bazán's encounter with the Bishop corroborates what she had learned during her visit to the pavilion of the Catholic Missions at the 1900 Exhibition, that is, the strength of Catholicism as a social force: "Y al cruzar el silencioso jardín, volviéndome una vez más para saludar de lejos á Su Ilustrísima, [...] resonaba dentro de mí la afirmación oída en París: 'El Catolicismo es una fuerza social enorme'" (52). The enthusiastic tenor of the account of her meeting with the Bishop appears to confirm Bravo-Villasante's claim that in Belgium Pardo Bazán found the kind of Catholicism she desired for Spain: "En Bélgica observa un catolicismo más sincero, de activa intención social. [...] Observa atentamente un cristianismo socialista, una acción social católica conforme a la Encíclica de Rerum Novarum" (Bravo-Villasante, 1973: 244-45). Indeed, a few years later, in an article published in La Ilustración Artística of 25 January 1904, Pardo Bazán was to praise the initiative of the Marquess and Marchioness of Casa-Torre, founders of one of Madrid's healthcare centres for infants, because their understanding of Christianity included the duty of good Catholics to aid the underprivileged. As in her observations in Por la Europa católica, there is the notion of Catholics playing an active role in the betterment of society and in the alleviation of human suffering, as indicated by Leo XIII's encyclical: "La noble pareja bilbaína ha realizado un bien y presentado un modelo de acción católica [...] al impulso de las repetidas enseñanzas de León XIII" (Pardo Bazán, 1972: 192). Unusually, in the piece dedicated to her encounter with the Bishop of Liège, Pardo Bazán acts as a mere scribe, recording the opinions of this clergyman. Although she usually welcomes controversy and argument, she does not query any of the Bishop's statements. Perhaps she is being naïve and gullible, or possibly she is in awe of this religious figure whose words and authority she dares not question. But whatever the reason, the author's reverent attitude to "Su Ilustrísima" is reminiscent of her idealized and awe-inspiring perception of Pope Leo XIII in Mi romería. Yet what escapes her, or what she refuses to discuss, is the thorny issue of the true motivations of Belgium's Catholics. It would be legitimate to ask whether the action taken by Belgian Catholics to alleviate the plight of the proletariat is in fact born out of an uneasy Christian conscience, or whether it stems from the need to control the spread of socialism in order to preserve a status quo which benefits the Catholic Church. What she also omits to consider is whether the social action of the Belgian clergy has perhaps been prompted by Belgium's latent anticlericalism. As Murray observed: "In few Roman Catholic countries does the power of the priesthood excite more jealousy or inspire greater precautions against its abuse" (Murray, 1862c: 396). But what is more interesting here is the question of Pardo Bazán's social conscience. Indeed, did she have one or did she regard pauperism, as some of her contemporaries did, as a burdensome but inevitable social phenomenon? García Guerra, for instance, argues that the Galician writer was never particularly sensitive towards the plight of the working class that sought a fairer social order (García Guerra, 1990: 183). He claims that on the few occasions when in her non-fictional writing Pardo Bazán does foreground the appalling living conditions of the working classes, she is not advocating a more egalitarian society for the future. On the contrary, he adds, she is looking back towards the past, towards a longed-for pre-industrial society (García Guerra, 1990: 208-09). In fact, in La revolución y la novela en Rusia (1887) the author does evoke ancient forms of ownership in Castilian society, claiming that the landownership system of Russia's agricultural townships represents an "elocuente lección para los que creen haber enmendado la plana a los siglos pasados" (Pardo Bazán, 1973: 784). García Guerra concludes that Pardo Bazán regarded the poverty of the peasants as part of the medieval society for which she yearned and in which "los individuos deben conformarse resignada y felizmente con el lugar en que les ha colocado la Providencia". He also speaks of Pardo Bazán's opposition to social mobility and of her annoyance at those individuals of the lower classes who attempt to improve their social station (García Guerra, 1990: 249). Certainly, some three years after her return from Belgium, Pardo Bazán's apparent lack of sympathy for the plight of the needy and underprivileged is revealed in an article published in La Ilustración Artística of 17 July 1905. Here, the people who would appear to be the victims of an unjust socio-economic order are presented by the author as little more than a group of parasites that haunt well-to-do madrileños: A un lado, el cesante de cinco años; a otro, la viuda con doce chicos; a la derecha, el artista sin trabajo, que postula en voz cavernosa, como si os amenazase con el saqueo y el incendio; a la izquierda, el ancianito desdentado, que se alaba de ochenta años y de una existencia sin pan; y en todas direcciones, enhebrados por todas partes, los granujillas, los golfos y las golfas, el que tiene más hambre que un oso y el que no se ha desayunado desde hace seis días, el que nunca tuvo padre ni madre y los mil que seguramente no han visto una palangana desde que nacieron... (Pardo Bazán, 1972: 227) The author finds these "undesirables" to be a nuisance and the solution she advocates to keep them at bay is police control and restrictions on the exercise of street charity. Also in this article, and despite her suggestions in Por la Europa católica regarding the duty of good Catholics to alleviate human suffering, Pardo Bazán admits that charity is often prompted not by Christian feelings, but by the need to get rid of the "pedigüeño de turno". What follows can hardly be regarded as an endorsement of social Catholicism: Yo reconozco que el limosneo no se hace por caridad, ni por altruismo, ni por filantropía, ni por ninguno de los sentimientos elevados y puros, llámense como se llamen, sino meramente por librarse de una molestia, de un mosconeo que interrumpe la conversación, no deja comprar en la tienda, no permite mirar en paz un escaparate; por alejar al mamón que berrea, a la borracha que hiede, a la vieja que representa la estampa de la herejía, al obrero que os enseña un muñón del brazo, al lisiado que se lamenta, al ciego que rasguea el guitarrillo... (Pardo Bazán, 1972: 228) Pardo Bazán travelled from Brussels to Louvain by train (81), and here she visits the city's Catholic University, of which she is given a private tour by "Monseñor Mercier, director del Instituto superior de Filosofía" (70). The Galician writer stresses that this university has managed to combine traditional beliefs with modernity and scientific advancement without subverting in any way the teachings of the Mother Church. The Instituto's aims are to end the ostracism of Catholic scientists, to bridge the gap between religious dogma and science, and to promote the development of scientific pursuits, thus demonstrating the respect of the Catholic Church for human reason (71-72). Here Pardo Bazán could be recalling the isolation and criticism endured by Father Feijóo, the eighteenth-century Galician savant greatly admired by her, whose theories and work were regarded with suspicion by his contemporaries simply because they were too revolutionary for his time. In effect, in her essay "Examen crítico de las obras del padre Feijóo" (1876) Pardo Bazán had defended the monk against those who doubted the sincerity of his Catholicism, and in De mi tierra (1888) she was to reiterate the compatibility of Feijóo's research and scientific work with Catholic dogma (Pardo Bazán, 1984: 148). During her visit to Louvain's Catholic Guild where, as in the case of the city's university, Pardo Bazán is taken on a private tour by the secretary of the institution (77), the author speaks enthusiastically of the humanitarian and social work done by Belgium's Catholic guilds. She stresses how both Catholics and socialists, putting aside their ideological differences, fight together for the eradication of alcoholism and other social ills, and adds that Belgium's clergy has undertaken the arduous task of bringing moral standards and a wholesome way of life into the rural communities (78-81). To understand Pardo Bazán's enthusiasm for Belgium's Catholic guilds, one needs to refer to her work La revolución y la novela en Rusia, in which she speaks of her admiration for the "mir", the pre-Revolution Russian rural community not dissimilar from the Belgian guilds. The "mir" is presented by the author as the antithesis of and the remedy for the potential dangers posed by a discontented proletariat hostile to the State and to the ruling classes in other European nations (Pardo Bazán, 1973: 783-84). Earlier in this work, she speaks of her fear of a socialist revolution that would overthrow the bourgeois state so painstakingly established by the middle classes: Agítase en la masa popular, amenazadora y oscura, la idea de reivindicaciones socialistas y hace explosión parcialmente, de tiempo en tiempo, con huelgas y motines; en cambio, la clase media, dueña de la situación en casi todas partes, desea un entreacto largo, muy largo, que le permita disfrutar del nuevo orden social creado por ella y para ella. (Pardo Bazán, 1973: 763) Indeed, fears of a social revolution were still haunting the author in 1908. In an article dedicated to José María Gabriel y Galán, who died in 1905, she paints the following gloomy picture: Con el poeta, lamentemos que se hayan ido para siempre los pastores apacibles, [...] y en su lugar queden, en la majada, sobre el lecho de lentiscos, los pastores que blasfeman, los que maldicen de la fortuna de sus amos, los que gruñen rencoresos como amarrados perros, venteando los placeres y blandiendo los cayados amenazadores. (Pardo Bazán, 1973: 1357) The steady development of socialism in Spain in the second half of the nineteenth century and the early part of the twentieth century would explain Pardo Bazán's preoccupation with a possible social revolution and with the need to curtail the further expansion of this political ideology that threatened the survival of the conservative and Catholic society she epitomized. Blanco Aguinaga traces the emergence of Spain's "proletariado militante" back to 1840 when some workers' organizations were already in existence. He speaks of an important insurrection in Barcelona in December 1842 and of the city's strike of June 1855, adding that from 1854 the government found it increasingly difficult to control Spain's workers' movement, especially after it gathered momentum in the second half of the nineteenth century fuelled by its accession to the First International in 1869 (Blanco Aguinaga, 1970: 24). In La Alpujarra (1874), Alarcón describes the advancement of socialism in Spain in the following negative terms: "Turbas más feroces, más impías, más antiespañolas, más anticristianas que los agarenos, pululan en los desiertos de la incredulidad, sedientas de pillaje y de exterminio, de oro y de sangre, de groseros goces y de salvaje independencia.... La Internacional va apoderándose de España" (Alarcón, 1968: 1645). Indeed, during the debate held in the Cortes in 1871 the legality of the International ("el más grande peligro que hayan corrido las sociedades humanas", according to Cánovas) was put into question. Finally, this legislature declared the International unconstitutional on 10 November 1871 (Blanco Aguinaga, 1970: 31). However, in the wake of the relative "aperturismo" of General Martínez Campos's government (March-December 1879), Pablo Iglesias and other followers of the First International founded secretly in Madrid on 2 May 1879 Spain's first socialist workers' party (Partido Democrático Socialista Obrero Español), which during its founding congress held in Barcelona in August 1888 was to become the Partido Socialista Obrero Español (PSOE) (Martínez Cuadrado, 1973: 358). The legalization by the Liberals in 1881 of the right of association opened the doors to the establishment in Spain of workers' trade unions and associations. Hence the emergence in Barcelona in 1881 of the anarchist trade union Federación de Trabajadores de la Región Española, which by the following year had a membership of 57,934. Moreover, coinciding with the celebration in Barcelona of the Universal Exhibition of 1888, the Unión General de Trabajadores (UGT) was founded in that city in August (Martínez Cuadrado, 1973: 359). The PSOE, for its part, represented by Pablo Iglesias and José Mesa, participated in the creation of the Second International in July 1889 (Droz [Vilar], 1985: 428). During the celebrations of Labour Day in 1890, 30,000 workers marched in Madrid, as many in Barcelona, and 99% of Bilbao's workers went on strike. The so-called "proceso de Montjuich" (1897) was followed by strikes, mutinies, and insurrections,$^7$ leading ultimately to the dramatic events of Barcelona's Tragic Week (26-31 July 1909) (Blanco Aguinaga, 1970: 25). In its expansion throughout Spain, socialism was aided by its opposition to the colonial wars of 1895-98 (Martínez Cuadrado, 1973: 484). In an attempt to control the increasing power of the socialist movement, the governments of the Restoration resorted to the declaration of "estados de excepción y de guerra para contener las reivindicaciones de las clases sociales discrepantes del orden burgués, total o aisladamente" (Martínez Cuadrado, 1973: 514). Thus, the regime established by Cánovas in 1875 was confronted in the last $^7$ This trial of several anarchists resulted in the execution of five of them. The tortures to which the prisoners were subjected and the irregularities of the trial were met by international condemnation. quarter of the nineteenth century by what this politician had termed in 1871 "la grande, la inmensa cuestión del proletariado" (Blanco Aguinaga, 1970: 25). After Louvain, Pardo Bazán travelled to Ghent, a city that for her evoked memories of the glorious days of the Empire. Indeed, she speaks of "un sol de victoria, un sol para Carlos V" (83) as she makes her way to Ghent's "Vooruit" or collectivist co-operative. Contrary to her experiences in Louvain, this time she is not the privileged visitor being taken on a private tour: "Nadie me acompañaba. La casualidad quiso que los socialistas intelectuales para quienes llevé cartas, anduviesen de viaje de vacaciones" (83). The opening lines of this chronicle are interesting because they confirm the assumption that the social action taken by Belgium's Catholic institutions was prompted by the growing popularity of socialism. Perhaps it was not so much a matter of social conscience, as Pardo Bazán suggests, as a question of survival: "No se comprendería lo que llevo dicho de la acción social católica en el país belga, á no recordar las causas que determinaron el movimiento, los estímulos que actuaron sobre la conciencia. En nación alguna brotó con tal vigor el socialismo" (83). The "Vooruit" is presented by the author as the antithesis of Louvain's Catholic Guild. She sees it as being particularly symbolic of socialism because it was Ghent's weavers who formed the country's first general workers' union (84-85). Indeed, Belgium's Socialist Party was born in 1879, following the amalgamation of the socialist groups of Ghent and Brussels (Droz [Rebérioux], 1985: 441). By 1886, Belgium's Workers' Party (POB), founded in 1884, had a membership of 40,000, and its newspaper, Le Peuple, began publication in December 1885 (Droz [Rebérioux], 1985: 442). When the POB participated in its first elections in 1894, it achieved 316,000 votes, one fifth of the total, and in the municipal elections of 1895 the POB consolidated its position in Belgium's industrial centres: Liège, Ghent, and Brussels (Droz [Rebérioux], 1985: 444). On the question of suffrage, in Por la Europa católica Pardo Bazán lends her support to a restricted franchise, whereby only those citizens with a basic standard of education are eligible to vote. This is the case in Belgium, she adds, where socialists work to ensure that people are educated so that they can exercise their voting rights (86). Indeed, Ghent's "Vooruit", founded in 1880, was one of Belgium's "Casas del Pueblo", the temples of socialism that acted as a catalyst in the social and cultural life of Belgium's working classes with an emphasis on the education of the country's proletariat: "En cada Casa del Pueblo hay una biblioteca [...]. El partido desarrolla, en efecto, unos objetivos educativos propios: ante todo se trata de elevar el nivel cultural de un proletariado muy rudo" (Droz [Rebérioux], 1985: 449). A similar educational approach was also adopted by Spain's socialists. In effect, one characteristic of the initial stage of socialism in Spain was what Pierre Vilar terms "el asociacionismo con fines culturales", that is, the emergence of "círculos", "casinos", and "ateneos" for the entertainment and instruction of the working classes. Some of the better known institutions were the Ateneo Catalán de la Clase Obrera, and Madrid's Fomento de las Artes (Droz [Vilar], 1985: 403). In Por la Europa católica Pardo Bazán laments that the citizens of Spain (a country, in her opinion, much less advanced than Belgium) enjoy the benefits of universal male suffrage, whereby any man can vote regardless of his standard of education (86). Some years later, in 1908, in an article dedicated to Campoamor, the author continued to voice her reservations about universal male suffrage in Spain: "Este país donde la cultura general deja tanto que desear, y el abandono y lastimoso estado de la instrucción pública justifican toda desconfianza y recelo acerca de los beneficios del sufragio universal, que no es universal siquiera" (Pardo Bazán, 1973: 1327). But the Galician writer was by no means alone in her opposition to universal suffrage in Spain. Indeed, Cánovas for one saw it as "un peligro de incalculables consecuencias para la supervivencia del sistema social y de la nación como entidad histórica" (Martínez Cuadrado, 1973: 55). In Britain, too, in 1860, some major reservations were held against the implementation of universal male suffrage: "Station, position, mental capacity, and pecuniary circumstances, are all of them elements which must needs be regarded" (Murray, 1860a: 225). Just as in Britain, restrictive suffrage was much more appealing to Spain's oligarchy, concerned less with democracy than with excluding the masses from the running of the nation. Pardo Bazán, like most members of Spain's conservative Establishment, presumably did not believe in the ability of the populace to govern itself, and Alarcón, in his travel work La Alpujarra, observes of the development of democracy in Spain: "Las nobles, justas y sinceras ideas de nuestro siglo, [...] lejos de domesticar, de civilizar, de dignificar más y más cada día a las clases bajas (como nos dignificaron a nosotros), las han hecho retroceder a la primitiva barbarie" (Alarcón, 1968: 1546). In the closing stages of the Belgian section Pardo Bazán is eager to exalt and stress the co-operation between Belgium's Catholics and socialists for the greater good of the nation and for the improvement of the living conditions of the proletariat. Indeed, in this particular case she enthusiastically advocates collaboration instead of confrontation in the political arena (88), and concludes that in Belgium both Catholicism and socialism run a parallel course with a common objective in mind, the betterment of society: Frecuentemente [...] he creído ver el suelo belga rayado por dos surcos, uno rojo, otro azul, que parten de la frontera desde extremos opuestos, y, sinuosos, pareciendo que se desvían, llegan por fin á juntarse. La dirección de ambos surcos converge fatalmente. Son el catolicismo social y el socialismo. Van derechos á la entraña y en el calor de sus pliegues habrán de reunirse. (96) The above appears to confirm Hilton's claim that largely because of her visit to Belgium, Pardo Bazán became a convert to Christian Socialism, although such a party had not yet been formed in Spain. Furthermore, she realized that Catholicism would only survive by embracing socialist principles, indeed, by leading the way to social reform (Hilton, 1954: 15). In the last essay of the Belgian section the author claims to have had enough of social and economic concerns, for it is, she states, an arid and barren scenery that tires the soul and the spirit. It is now time, she adds, to seek solace and refreshment in art, the most sublime of human creations (99). In effect, after having taken care of her duties as a researcher-reporter, Pardo Bazán relaxes and indulges in her duties as a "viajero que se respeta" (100). She visits Ghent's most famous sights, which she briefly enumerates, and saves for last what she regards as the city's jewel in the crown, "lo que en Gante más me preocupaba" (99): the Van Eycks' Cordero místico. The narrative now takes a sudden turn as the author delves into the second theme of her chronicles: art. Her quest for artistic "refreshment" takes her to Ghent cathedral, where she joins a group of ordinary tourists and becomes transfixed by the sight of the Van Eycks' triptych, painted in the fifteenth century. The description of this masterpiece in Por la Europa católica (103-05) is very similar to that offered by Silvio Lago, the protagonist of Pardo Bazán's novel La Quimera (1905). Both Silvio and the Galician writer speak of their almost mystical ecstasy when confronted by the painting (Pardo Bazán, 1943: 910, 912). Like Pardo Bazán, Silvio also kneels down in front of the triptych and studies the central panel. In both cases, there are references to the "primaveral vegetación" recreated by the artist to the last minute detail (Pardo Bazán, 1943: 911). For Silvio and Pardo Bazán, the Cordero místico is representative of the revelation and of redemption, of a triumphant and militant Church (Pardo Bazán, 1943: 911). In both works, Nature is said to be presented in the painting as being in communion with the supernatural and the spiritual (Pardo Bazán, 1943: 912). And also in both texts, Silvio and Pardo Bazán, in their contemplation of the masterpiece, are transported from the mundane to the realms of the spiritual. 5. France Only three essays of Por la Europa católica, a total of just twenty pages, are dedicated to France. In the first essay Pardo Bazán is in Bordeaux, with no indication of how she travelled there. However, she is quick to announce that while in Bordeaux she will be staying at the "Hotel de France, el mejor de la capital, donde se aloja S. A. la duquesa de Montpensier" (110), and attending some of the congresses held during the 1895 Universal Exhibition (112) as the special guest of the Société philomatique (115). The author observes that France has hardly changed since the fall of the Empire. In fact, it appears to be set in its own customs and remains unshaken, untouched by the passage of time (109). And to substantiate her observations concerning France's temporal stasis, Pardo Bazán describes the backwardness of most French inns where electric lighting is often the exception rather than the rule (109-11). Focusing her attack on the hotels of Bordeaux, the author laments the poor quality of the food served in the city's inns and guesthouses (111), and as in previous travel works (Al pie in particular), there is the suggestion of the greed of French hoteliers who cheat tourists by offering little value for their money (111). For the author, France's stagnation or "amaneramiento", as she prefers to call it, is also reflected in the inadequate furniture of hotel rooms, the poor quality of the construction of the houses, the antiquated transport system, and so on (112). A similar sentiment is also expressed in her article "El viaje por España" (1895), in which she observes: "En muchísimas cosas encuentro á Francia estacionaria y hasta opuesta al progreso, y que, por otra parte, Francia ni es, ni ha sido nunca, nación amiga de viajar y entendida en cómo se viaja bien" (Pardo Bazán, 1895b: 86). In Por la Europa católica the author argues that France's unwillingness to solve these deficiencies shows it to be a nation lacking in initiative and with a tendency to transform tradition into bad habits. Tradition, in Pardo Bazán's opinion, should be limited to upholding exclusively that which is good, wholesome, and beautiful in a particular nation or historical period (112). Her ambivalence towards the neighbouring country is seen, though, when she admits that, despite her previous criticism, France is essentially a refined and cultured nation: "Un pueblo refinado y culto, como á pesar de estas observaciones mías no ha de negarse que es el francés" (113). On the subject of the impracticality of a universal language, something discussed during the congress of Romance languages held in Bordeaux to coincide with the 1895 Universal Exhibition, the author's elitist attitude emerges. She claims that the equality advocated by communism is totally unfeasible in intellectual terms, because some individuals are destined to remain ignorant and unlettered all their lives (117). This is a surprising statement coming from someone who frequently stressed the importance of education for the progress of nations and the fulfilment of the individual. While in Bordeaux, the delegates attending the various congresses were invited to take a tour of the region's wine cellars and vineyards, which involved a journey to the Médoc by "ferrocarril vinatero" (121). Upon her arrival in Pavillac, --- 8 See, for example, Section 18, "Clase primera", pp. 119-25, in Cuarenta días en la Exposición. Pardo Bazán produces the following bucolic description of the surrounding landscape: La bodega y el castillo dominan amplia extensión de feraz llanura formada por esas graves pedregosas, en apariencia infecundas, y donde en realidad se produce el mejor vino. El verdor alegre de los viñedos, donde el racimo aún no negrea, contrasta con el tono de acero del caudaloso Gironda, que corre sesgo y apacible al pie de Pavillac. (121) In her account of the banquet offered by Pavillac's mayor to the delegates, the author foregrounds the pride displayed by the French in the promotion of their local riches, wine in this case, and confesses to being envious of this attitude which contributes, in her opinion, to the aggrandizement of the country as a whole. Pardo Bazán regards this show of national pride as a demonstration of patriotism, an attribute Spaniards seem to lack: "Este espíritu local [...] es una fuerza y permite á una región engrandecerse, ayudando á engrandecer la patria. No empleo la ironía para describir aquella fiesta típica y curiosa; si algo sentí fue envidia. De estos banquetes deseo muchos para España" (124). After lunch, Pardo Bazán and the other delegates were taken to several caves to continue with their wine-tasting, and after four hours of travelling around the Médoc and visiting several chateaux, they returned to Bordeaux by riverboat. 6. Portugal When Pardo Bazán arrived in Lisbon in October 1898, she indicated her fondness for the Portuguese capital with the short but warm description of Lisbon's bay at dawn, dusk, and night, and with a picture of the city basking in the autumnal sun (133-34). Costumbrista description, which is normally confined to Pardo Bazán's travel works on Spain where she feels relaxed and at ease, makes an appearance here because for the author Lisbon is a home away from home. Hence, her depiction of the colourful attire of the city's "pescadoras" and "aldeanas": Derechas como troncos de pinos marítimos; descalzo el airoso pie, ó calzado con la curva chinela veneciana y oriental; arrolladas las azules sayas y ceñidas en torno á la cadera con la faja obscura que da á la vestimenta el plegado de un helénico ropaje; gallardamente tocada la cabeza con el bonito sombrero de terciopelo negro, bajo el cual flota el pañuelo y se destacan los enormes aretes de filigrana de oro, estas sardineras, estas ribereñas, son todavía de lo poco pintoresco que queda en el mundo. (135-36) What also transpires in this section is Pardo Bazán's affection for Portugal as a whole, presumably because of its historical and cultural associations with the author's home region, Galicia. Indeed, in De mi tierra she had referred to Portugal and Galicia as "un país mismo" (Pardo Bazán, 1984: 26), and in Por la Europa católica there is the clear indication that, as far as the author is concerned, the Portuguese and the Spanish belong to the same race: "Cuántas veces vengo aquí, otras tantas me llevo la impresión de que nada efectivo y real nos separa á españoles y portugueses; de que somos un pueblo mismo, una misma raza" (129). Supported by the conclusions of the Portuguese writer Oliveira Martins, Pardo Bazán argues that although Spain and Portugal decided to part, their destiny remained the same. It is easy to split a country in geographical and political terms, she claims, but the division of a common soul and tradition is always more problematic. Both Spain and Portugal enjoyed moments of glory, but they also endured a simultaneous decline, a simultaneous death, in Pardo Bazán's pessimistic estimation (130). The fact that these impressions were collected during the trip taken in the fateful year of 1898 no doubt accounts for these gloomy thoughts of death and irretrievable decline. However, as the author notes, Portugal's future is not as bleak as that of Spain, because Portugal is at least aware of its backwardness and strives to become a modern and advanced European nation instead of adhering to a harmful and outmoded casticismo (130). Pardo Bazán also laments the coldness that characterizes Portuguese-Spanish relations, for each country believes that at present there is nothing to gain from its contacts with its neighbour (132). Indeed, in Por Francia y por Alemania the author had argued that Portuguese literature was little known in Spain and that, whilst both Portuguese and Spanish bookshops were full of French works, Portuguese writers were inadequately represented in Spanish bookshops and viceversa (Pardo Bazán, [1890]: 237-38). However, in Por la Europa católica, succumbing to what she terms "flaquezas de literatos", she proudly announces that while in Portugal she met someone who read her chronicles "como el árabe lee el Korán..." (132). Darío, in his article "Libreros y editores" (14 July 1899), also speaks of the poor choice of foreign works on sale in Madrid bookshops. It is, he argues, as if Spaniards were totally uninterested in the works published outside their country: "El que no encarga especialmente sus libros a Francia, Inglaterra, etc., no puede estar al tanto de la vida mental europea. Es un mirlo blanco un libro portugués" (Darío, 1987: 171). During her stay in Portugal, Pardo Bazán attended the Fifth International Press Congress and other events attached to this gathering. Subsequently, she affirms in a way dismissive of Spain that in some respects Portugal already surpasses her own country: "Prestábanse estos espectáculos á observaciones y comparaciones que no omití, y eran inevitables: resumiéndolas diré que en varios respectos, ya nos pone el pie delante hasta Portugal" (137). The use of the preposition "hasta" is obviously derogatory, suggesting the view held by a significant number of Pardo Bazán's contemporaries that Portugal had been Spain's poor relative. Darío, like the Galician writer, also draws a comparison between turn-of-the-century Spain and Portugal to the detriment of the former. In a lecture delivered at the Buenos Aires Ateneo in 1896 on the Portuguese poet Eugenio de Castro, Darío compares Spain's self-imposed cultural and mental isolation with the attraction that Portugal, Spain's energetic neighbour, offers to the rest of the world: Mientras nuestra amada y desgraciada madre patria, España, parece sufrir la hostilidad de una suerte enemiga, encerrada en la muralla de su tradición, aislada por su propio carácter, sin que penetre hasta ella la oleada de la evolución mental de estos últimos tiempos, el vecino reino fraternal manifiesta una súbita energía, el alma portuguesa llama la atención del mundo. (Darío, Certainly in Por la Europa católica Pardo Bazán exalts Portugal's entrepreneurial spirit and its attempts to promote its industry and agricultural produce abroad, and also makes the suggestion that Spain acts as a geographical barrier which hinders Portugal's efforts to join the community of Europe's prosperous and modern nations: Cada muestra de entusiasmo, cada ingeniosa idea, cada gasto y cada esfuerzo, quería significar algo por este estilo: "Somos un pueblo de reducido territorio y exigua población, por tierra arrinconado, y tenemos a España atravesada en el camino de Europa. No obstante, poseemos, no sólo monumentos y recuerdos gloriosos, sino industria y agricultura, y aspiramos á acrecentarlas". (137-38) Furthermore, in an article published in La Ilustración Artística of 3 September 1900 Pardo Bazán speaks of her admiration for Portugal, a small country which in some respects has embraced modern times with greater proficiency than Spain, and which encourages and safeguards the education of its people (Pardo Bazán, 1972: 89). In the last essay of the Portuguese section of Por la Europa católica the delegates attending the press congress are taken by train to Thomar, where a lunch is served in the incomparable setting of its medieval monastery. And yet, Pardo Bazán, who has problems accepting this juxtaposition of the past and present, regards the presence of the journalists as an intrusion in the solitude and tranquillity of the ancient building: "Aquella mole de granito dorado y esmaltado por el tiempo [...] pide suspirando que respeten su soledad" (139). After lunch, the delegates walk around Thomar and are treated to a sight full of local colour provided by the picturesque attire of some local girls: Pañuelo de vivos colorines atado atrás en la cabeza, plegada y repulgada camisa de lienzo, justillo de terciopelo negro, saya roja amapola con múltiples bordados de carácter oriental, escarcela recamada de canutillo, arracadas y patena de filigrana de oro, y cautivo el pie en calada media y en curvo chapín de tafilete que decoran ramos de hilo de plata. (141) The roads are dusty and the heat suffocating, but Pardo Bazán happily endures these discomforts as she is shown some of Thomar's artistic treasures. What she does object to is to being taken away from Thomar's medieval monastery to visit a nearby textile factory. However, forgetting her inherent dislike of machinery, the author concedes that factories and industrial activity are necessary for the advancement and prosperity of nations: "Y yo le digo al artista que se subleva dentro de mi alma: 'Los recuerdos y la belleza pura son patrimonio de pocos... Se necesitan ahora muchas fábricas, mucha actividad, mucho trabajo, mucha vida moderna... A saludar á esas máquinas; tienen razón...'" (142). 7. Castile Nine essays of Por la Europa católica are dedicated to Castile, and in this section of the work Pardo Bazán voices some of her concerns as a seasoned traveller and tourist. Her diatribe now focuses on the deficiencies in the furniture, food, and services of inns in general, and suggests some solutions to correct these inadequacies (143-45). Speaking of what she regards as Spaniards' aversion or reluctance to travel, the author affirms that her compatriots travel for two reasons. First out of necessity, often to take care of some unpleasant business, and second because social etiquette requires travel at certain times of the year. The third option open to travellers, that is, to travel for travel's sake or for recreation, is, she argues, unknown to Spaniards and regarded as eccentric. Reiterating an opinion already voiced in her essay of 1892 on Alarcón's travel works and in her article "El viaje por España" (Pardo Bazán, 1895b: 83), the author notes that generally Spaniards tend to equate travel with hardship, vexation, and expense, and that in some cases they are justified in doing so (145-46). Indeed, Fernando Díaz-Plaja speaks of the discomfort inherent in travel in Spain in the early nineteenth century, which resulted in many Spaniards staying at home. However, as it became fashionable to travel, some Spaniards headed for France, the Mecca of good taste. Furthermore, the Carlist wars and other political upheavals prompted Spaniards to travel, and with time the means of transportation improved significantly (Díaz-Plaja, 1969: 199-200). The Galician writer also stipulates the conditions that, in her opinion, the "perfect" traveller ought to fulfil. He must be well educated in cultural, historical, archeological, and artistic terms. He must be polite, reserved, and respectful. He must assess any potential dangers and act accordingly. Finally, he must be communicative but without meddling in other people's business. She also claims that Spaniards tend to be too gregarious, opening their heart to total strangers and seeking opinions which hold no value or interest for them (146-47). With these comments Pardo Bazán is, of course, presenting herself as a role model to be emulated by the average Spaniard, in the shape of the seasoned, knowledgeable, and cultured traveller who knows how to obtain the maximum benefit out of the travel experience by being assertive and yet polite, reserved and yet inquisitive, and by displaying her savoir-faire, prudence, and polished education. A difficult act to follow, indeed, for the inexperienced Spaniard contemplating his first trip abroad. One of the Castilian cities visited by Pardo Bazán is Segovia, to where she travelled by train, in August, from her native Galicia (155). Yet again she is the privileged traveller fêted by the Count of Cheste, an old friend (149), and the Marquess of Miranda, who acts as her guide (153, 158). In this third essay, which is a reprint of her article "De viaje", published in La Ilustración Artística of 14 September 1896 (Pardo Bazán, 1972: 46-53), the author speaks of the austerity and solitude of Castile in the summer compared to the turmoil of the holiday resorts of northern Spain at that time of year. Castile watches silently as the historic monuments that represent its glorious past fall apart, and the average Castilian, both stoical and indifferent, carries on with his life oblivious to the progress, activity, and speculation that take place in other Spanish regions: [Castilla], envuelta en su capa de paño pardo, silenciosa y altanera, ve cómo se van reduciendo á polvo sus históricos torreones, sus incomparables templos, toda su grandeza fenevida. Indiferente y estoico, el castellano vegeta sin acordarse de que más allá hay movimiento, industria, progreso, especulación y lucro. A él le basta con sus rudas vestimentas, iguales en verano que en invierno, y su sol de oro, que tan regiamente amortaja las viejas piedras, testigos del pasado. (156)$^9$ In the above passage Castile's decline is possibly suggested as symbolic of the backwardness of Spain as a whole, with Pardo Bazán drawing a parallel between the indifference of Castilians and the apparent disregard of Spaniards in general for the industrial activity, progress, and advancement enjoyed by some foreign nations. In fact, during her visit to Louvain's University she had used the simile of the arid Castilian landscape to illustrate the intellectual, cultural, and scientific barrenness of Spain as a whole: "La idea y la imagen de la patria no se apartaban de mí [...]. Tenía sed. Veía por las anchas ventanas flamencas, entreabiertas, la viva verdura del jardín, pero dentro de mi alma se desarrollaba una procesión de eriales, de mesetas amarillentas, calcinadas por el sol, sin riego, sin árboles, sin casas. ¡Sequedad, sequedad infinita!" (75).$^{10}$ Paraphrasing Gaspar Núñez de Arce, as she also does in La España de ayer y la de hoy (Pardo Bazán, [1899]: 68), the author notes that in solitary Castile, in the summer, one can pay homage to Spain's glorious dead who, she claims, are the only ones truly alive in this nation: Venir en esta época del año á Castilla es, pues, --- $^9$ Strikingly similar sentiments are expressed by Antonio Machado in Campos de Castilla (1907-17): "Castilla miserable, ayer dominadora,/ envuelta en sus andrajos desprecia cuanto ignora./ ¿Espera, duerme o sueña?" (Machado, 1955: 107). $^{10}$ In En torno al casticismo (1895), Unamuno also draws a parallel between the "sequía de los campos" and the "sequedades del alma" (Unamuno, 1942, I: 44). como ir á una aldea donde se puedan contemplar soberbios monumentos. Si en las provincias halláis gentío, [...] aquí saludáis á los muertos gloriosos --los únicos que realmente viven en España, según frase feliz de un ilustre poeta.--. (156)\textsuperscript{11} Pardo Bazán justifies her morbid pilgrimage to the resting places of Spain's great men of the past by arguing that, since the country's political leaders can offer no solace or hope for the future, Spaniards, following the Cuban insurrection and the current war in the Philippines, are forced to seek refuge and comfort in the Old Spain epitomized by Castile (157). Some years later, in her lecture "La España de ayer y la de hoy", she was to warn repeatedly of the dangers of subscribing to Spain's "Golden Legend" instead of looking purposely and with determination towards the future: "Esa funesta leyenda que ha desorganizado nuestro cerebro, ha preparado nuestros desastres y nuestras humillaciones" (Pardo Bazán, [1899]: 62). On a lighter note, the author adds a touch of local colour to the narrative by introducing some local folklore. She speaks of the legend whereby in the times of Enrique III some Segovian Jews apparently experienced God's wrath after desecrating the Host (159-60). Pardo Bazán, with an unabashed display of anti-Semitism, claims that Jews all over the world still indulge in similar abominable practices against Christianity, and with these arguments she attempts to justify \textsuperscript{11} Similar associations are made by Alarcón when in his \textit{Viajes por España} he claims that during his visit to Toledo's cathedral he heard the skeletons of Spain's dead heroes turn in their graves, incensed by the country's decline and tarnished prestige (Alarcón, 1968: 1189). the horrific punishment endured by Segovia's Jews in the fifteenth century: "La más reciente de estas historias no se remonta á más allá de los años 1870 ó 1875. Son actuales. Sirva de excusa á nuestros antepasados de 1410, y no se les tache de loco fanatismo ni de credulidad nimia" (161). In this regard, Hilton claims that the Galician writer epitomized the traditional Spanish attitude to the Jews. He adds that although Islam had been the official enemy of Christianity, Pardo Bazán, like many of her contemporaries, could not suppress a feeling of admiration for the Arabs. Conversely, he argues, she could only feel repugnance towards the Jews (Hilton, 1954: 8). Pardo Bazán's indictment of the Jewish race in Por la Europa católica appears to support Hilton's claims. The author ends her visit to Segovia by doing what she enjoys most as a traveller: getting lost in the maze of its history-laden streets and depicting some of the artistic treasures encountered on the way. Indeed, she sketches, "á modo de apunte de dibujante" (161), Don Alvaro de Luna's old house, the Gothic palace of the Marquess of Alpuente, and describes in detail the alabaster statues of the Marquesses of Villena kept in a local church (162-63). During her stay in Toledo, Pardo Bazán, guided by "un respetable canónigo de la Santa Iglesia primada" (182), explores its picturesque and narrow alleys and presents this city as a place to be enjoyed both with the eyes and with the spirit: "Lo mejor de Toledo [...] son sus rincones, sus calles angostísimas, pendientes [...]. A Toledo se viene á perder el rumbo y á encontrarse gratamente sorprendido por mil detalles que no se sospechaban" (180). She also visits some of Toledo's sights, including the church of Santo Tomé, which houses El Greco's El entierro del conde de Orgaz (185-86), and the Zoco or local market, and what results here is a costumbrista scene in which Pardo Bazán's colorismo and pictorial tendencies are given full rein: Inundado de fruta, rebosando fruta, queda Toledo. Nota de color para impresionistas. Los melones, de un verde sombrío y aterciopelado, se desparraman por la acera. A su lado amontónanse los melocotones color de paja y carmín; las acerolas del rosa más fuerte; las azofaifas de aventurina; las almecinas, granitos de oro; las marjoletas, gruesas cuentas de coral, y sobre las uvas transparentes revolotean las avispas, zumbando, ebrias de azúcar, y la bermeja piel de los pimientos reluce como bruñido jaspe. (186-87) While for Alarcón it is Toledo's Puerta del Cambrón that embodies the blend of cultures which typifies the city, because on it "han puesto mano Wamba, los moros y Carlos V" (Alarcón, 1968: 1188), for Pardo Bazán it is the Zoco, together with many of Toledo's secluded streets, that represents the amalgam of the two cultures or religions (Moslem and Christian) which converge and coexist in this city (186). As in Por la España pintoresca, and despite the significant Jewish presence in medieval Toledo, the author only acknowledges the Moslem and Christian influence on the cultural make-up of the city. However, this omission is later partly rectified when in the piece on Zaragoza she admits that Spain is a blend of the three cultures. Moreover, she laments that instead of profiting from this cultural wealth by amalgamating all three races, her country decided to expel the infidels "como el mar arroja el cuerpo muerto" (213). Pardo Bazán's visit to Toledo involves yet another incursion into Spain's past. This time, she goes back to the times of the Reconquista and of Alfonso VI, as she recounts the vicissitudes experienced by Toledo's mozárabes in their attempts to retain after their liberation the ritual of the misa mozárabe or isidoriana, which had been emblematic of their faith during the Arab occupation (165-68). The author leaves the church where she has attended the misa mozárabe yearning longingly for the legendary Toledo of the past, whose citizens had epitomized the valour and determination of the entire Spanish race (169-70). While in Toledo, Pardo Bazán succumbs to the charm of local legends (a predilection also found in Por la España pintoresca), and justifies her outmoded attraction to local folklore thus: "Diréis tal vez que las leyendas no encajan bien en el marco de la vida contemporánea. Es un error. Nuestra vida está hecha [...] de la tela de nuestros sueños" (171). These remarks are used to introduce a further journey into Spain's distant and legendary past with the Visigoths and Don Pelayo (the initiator of the Reconquista), in the shape of the legend surrounding the circumstances of his birth (172-79). In the last essay on Toledo, Pardo Bazán voices her outrage at the recent robbery of the jewels of the Virgen del Sagrario (189). What is interesting about this piece is that it contains the author's hypothesis as to how the burglary took place (190-94). Thus the chronicler is superseded by the fiction writer, who inserts into a hitherto supposedly factual account a piece of speculative writing. And her hypothesis, however feasible and riveting, fits uneasily into what should be a factual travel chronicle. But, on the other hand, Pardo Bazán is possibly attempting to liven up the narrative by introducing into her account, as novelists often do, suspense and a dramatic touch. While in Castile, Pardo Bazán visits the Escorial, which she regards as the ideal place to retire to at Easter in order to express one's devotion (196-97). She praises the way Felipe II managed to capture the austerity of the natural surroundings in the stern architecture of the building, but she also claims that the Escorial inspires melancholy and depression. She sees it as the creation of a poet in despair who, disillusioned with life, the world, and the flesh, sought solitude and retirement from a mundane existence. The author presents the Escorial as a pyramid built for the eternal rest of the austere monarch, a kind of poem turned into stone (198). Alarcón, too, associates the "triste mole" of the Escorial with death in his Viajes por España. Indeed, he sees the building as an epitaph to Spain's glorious past (Alarcón, 1968: 1180). Hilton claims that whereas Unamuno and some other writers of the so-called Generation of 1898 saw the solemnity and severity of the Escorial as the epitome of the noblest expression of the Castilian soul, Pardo Bazán regarded this sobriety as a flaw only relieved by the sunlight that drenched the stones (Hilton, 1951: 333). Indeed, in Por la Europa católica the Galician writer argues that had the Escorial been built in a damp and sunless country, the depression it --- 12 And yet, Unamuno referred to the monastery in 1924 as "el gran artefacto histórico de El Escorial, aquel horrido panteón que parece un almacén de lencería" (Paisajes del alma, p. 98, cited in Lain Entralgo, 1997: 233). inspires would have been overwhelming. However, the sun that caresses the building bestows a warm feeling on the bare stones and the deserted cloisters (199). A similar view had been expressed by the author in De mi tierra, in which she refers to the building as a "sombría mole" that weighs on the soul and causes sadness (Pardo Bazán, 1984: 200-01). And in Por la España pintoresca she had said of Juan de Herrera, the architect of the Escorial: "No soy entusiasta de Herrera, y sólo le reconozco la monótona grandeza" (Pardo Bazán, [1895c]: 130). In Por la Europa católica the author praises the pagan overtones of the courtyard of the Evangelistas, whose cheerfulness, she claims, helps alleviate the austerity, tedium, and sobriety that the Escorial inspires: Y hay un patio, el de los evangelistas, que tiene todo el carácter de paganismo grandioso y poético de los monumentos romanos. [...] Todo es puro Renacimiento italiano, con su arrogante hermosura, que hace irrupción entre la displicencia aburrida del monasterio español, y ofrece al espíritu un lugar risueño donde se puede leer á Platón ó al Tasso. (199, 200) For Hilton, this exaltation of one of the more humanistic aspects of the monastery "involves the repudiation of all that is typically and essentially Castilian in the Escorial". He suggests that for Pardo Bazán the barrenness of Castile, reflected historically in the pompous melancholy of the Habsburgs, was one of the less desirable features of Spain's past and present, even during the much-praised Golden Age (Hilton, 1951: 333). Indeed, although in Por la Europa católica Pardo Bazán shows some interest in the legends and historical episodes of the region, the topic of the "soul" of Castile, as expressed in its landscape, is almost totally ignored by her, apart from the previously mentioned reference to Castilians' stoicism. Moreover, she remains unmoved by what Azorín once termed in his novel La voluntad (1902) "la emoción del paisaje" (Azorín, 1982: 99). While still in El Escorial, Pardo Bazán takes yet another melancholic trip into Spain's past as she heads for the Hall of Battles. In effect, the paintings that adorn the walls reflect the most glorious days of Spain's military history. Speaking of a wound that will never heal, the author is probably alluding to her grief at Spain's relentless decline as a world power: El salón de Batallas en el Escorial es otro tema nostálgico. ¡Qué de gloria sobre aquellas paredes, en aquellas secas y agrias pinturas; cuánto caballo, cuánto arnés, qué de ballestas, arcabuces y mosquetes; qué ordenado caminar de las haces españolas contra el enemigo, y cómo vienen á tierra los moros y los franceses y los salvajes y cuantos se oponen á nuestro arresto y bizarría y al esfuerzo de nuestro vigoroso brazo! Mezcla de involuntario orgullo y de dolor en la nunca cerrada herida se apoderó de mí al cruzar aquella especie de tubo [...] en que dos vallas de hierro defienden las pinturas restauradas, de tan mediano interés para el arte como dignas de respeto á título de ejecutorias de la nobleza nacional. (201) Pardo Bazán ends her piece on the Escorial by exalting Claudio Coello's painting, the Santa Forma, which for her represents the spirit of Spain during the reign of Carlos II (1666-99). Although by that period, she argues, Spain, shrouded in mysticism and fear, had turned its back on the human side of existence and was beginning to decline, it was still capable of displaying an energy that is no longer there (202). Finally, the last essay in the Castilian section involves another journey back to Spain's glorious past. This time to the Golden Age of Spanish literature and Cervantes. Pardo Bazán visits Esquivias, the village where the writer found happiness and tranquillity in the person of his wife, Doña Catalina de Palacios y Salazar (204). Pardo Bazán arrived there in May, "desviándome con placer del camino de hierro, al trote de dos poderosas mulas que arrastraban el coche" (207). She is so eager to make contact with the past that she claims to have found Esquivias just as Cervantes left it in the seventeenth century, and she even relives some of the scenes of La Galatea (207). Pardo Bazán's attraction to local folklore resurfaces in this piece as she announces that legend has it that one of Esquivias's hidalgos inspired Cervantes's most memorable character, Don Quijote. She is adamant that the lack of documentary evidence to corroborate this legend will not spoil her visit, for documents can often be misleading or misinterpreted: "Esta carencia de unos cuantos papelotes apolillados no me aguó el placer de la visita á Esquivias. Si engañan las consejas y las tradiciones, también engañan los documentos, también inducen á confusión, también mienten deliberadamente en ocasiones, también se suelen interpretar de un modo fantástico" (209). It seems that what attracts the author to legends is not their degree of veracity, but the charming and romantic stories they often tell. 8. Aragón During her third visit to Aragón's capital, "sin más objeto que satisfacer el gusto de estar en Zaragoza unos días" (211), Pardo Bazán proudly speaks of the resistance put up by the city during the War of Independence and laments that the ardour and courage which prevented Zaragoza from falling into French hands are no longer attributes of the Spanish character: "La resistencia, allí [...] la hizo la constancia, el tesón inquebrantable de la raza; ese resorte que nosotros perdimos" (211-12). She also affirms that the devotion inspired by the "Pilarica" (Zaragoza's patron) stems from the fact that this effigy represents those virtues and qualities of the Spanish race which in former times contributed to making Spain a great nation. In what follows, the author implies that the dwindling congregations that attend mass in Zaragoza's basilica, El Pilar, are an indication of the ever-diminishing faith of Spaniards in themselves, in their own worth: [El Pilar], último emblema de cualidades y virtudes propias del alma española, que poderosamente contribuyeron al antiguo engrandecimiento de la patria. [...] Y por eso me sorprendió no encontrar la Basílica más concurrida. (216) What the above passage also suggests is that there is a direct correlation between Spain's downfall, Spaniards' lack of confidence in themselves, and the decline of their religiousness. While in Zaragoza, Pardo Bazán, accompanied by Basilio Paraíso (president of Zaragoza's Chamber of Commerce and Assembly), has lunch in a picturesque spot while enjoying "el sol espléndido, el día dorado y tibio, de dulce otoñada" (217). As she looks down on the city, the author concludes that Zaragoza is no longer the heroic enclave of the War of Independence. Indeed, Zaragoza has evolved with time and, in an attempt to emulate Catalonia, is becoming a centre of industrial activity (217). Coinciding with "los últimos días radiantes del verano" (220), Pardo Bazán travelled to the "enchanted" place of the Monasterio de Piedra, in the outskirts of Zaragoza, which she is quick to recommend to any late visitors and to Spaniards in general, whom she accuses of underestimating some of the marvels of their own country (220). The beauty of this feat of Nature takes her by surprise. Indeed, although the monastery is situated in the middle of a "páramo de tierra roja" (221), inside the precinct, the luscious vegetation hides rapids and waterfalls the grandiosity of which, the author claims, can only be matched by those of Niagara (222) (a risky observation, considering that Pardo Bazán never visited North America). Although Valera in his essay "Una expedición al Monasterio de Piedra" (1877) is also in awe of the beauty of the monastery, unlike Pardo Bazán he does not believe that its waterfalls are as magnificent as those of Niagara: "Aunque [las cascadas] no alcancen, ni con mucho, la grandeza y --- 13 Basilio Paraíso Lasús (1849-1930), Spanish industrialist, lawyer, and economist, and one of the initiators of the political-economic movement of 1889 known as Unión Nacional, over which he presided. He was also a prolific writer on economic matters. sublimidad del Niágara [...], distan infinito de ser miniaturas, y su belleza es extraordinaria" (Valera, 1958, III: 1335). The River Piedra is presented by Pardo Bazán as an accomplished craftsman who has carved beautiful shapes in the surrounding rocks and trees through which it flows: "El Piedra [...] no sólo pinta y decora, sino que esculpe; y no hay crestería gótica ni encaje flamenco de más complicados dibujos, de calados más primorosos que los que labra el Piedra petrificando raíces, hojas y ramas" (223). Interestingly, Valera also personifies the River Piedra as he describes its might and the beautiful spots it encounters in its course through the monastery: El río Piedra, [...] harto, sin duda, y hasta enojado, de recorrer campos estériles y de no topar con un solo árbol que le dé sombra y que se mire en el tranquilo espejo de sus aguas, se divide de repente en varios brazos y se precipita como un loco por un barranco abajo. De este arrebato de desesperación, de esta locura del río, resultan las cascadas, la frondosidad, las grutas admirables de estalactitas y todas las bellezas y portentos que en el fondo del barranco y en las laderas que hay a un lado y otro se contienen y se admiran. (Valera, 1958, III: 1335) Acknowledging an observation that she tends to see Nature through the eyes of literature, Pardo Bazán states that the Lago del silencio of the monastery does indeed remind her of the passages of some chivalric romances: Algunas veces me ha dicho un crítico eminente [...] que yo miro la naturaleza al través de la literatura. En el Lago del silencio comprendí que no carece de exactitud la observación. No podía yo abstraer la idea del lago de la de los libros de caballerías, donde hay lagunas subterráneas con palacios de cristal en el fondo, y en los palacios alguna encantada damisela, guardada por un dragón de abiertas fauces... (225) The grotto of the monastery is particularly appealing to Pardo Bazán because it appears inaccessible to the visitor. And as in the episode of the Altamira caves in Por la España pintoresca, the potential danger involved in visiting it adds excitement to the adventure and to the otherwise placid contemplation of Nature: "Esa gruta atrae al viajero porque parece, no sólo peligrosa, sino inaccesible. Importa advertir que si bien en Piedra no se corre el menor riesgo, [...] no falta nunca un picorcillo de miedo agradable que realza las sensaciones generalmente plácidas de la hermosura natural" (227). Overall, the monastery is presented as an enchanted enclave, and Pardo Bazán's descriptions are often reminiscent of those found in fairy-tales: "Cuando vayáis á Piedra, si lográis la suerte de gozar un día despejado, sabréis lo que son los muros del tocador de las hadas, viendo desde la gruta, á eso de las cuatro de la tarde, refractarse un rayo de sol al través del agua que se precipita al abismo" (227). Valera, too, is spellbound by the near-magical quality of the place and describes the monastery's grotto as a bewitching or enchanted location inhabited by gnomes, mermaids, and other imaginary creatures (Valera, 1958, III: 1336). So in the case of both writers, their stay in the monastery transports them from the mundane into the realms of the fantastic. 9. Catalonia Pardo Bazán pulls the reader out of the state of reverie induced by her description of the Monasterio de Piedra with her arrival in Mataró and consideration of more prosaic subjects: Catalonia's textile industry. Martínez Cuadrado notes that the textile industry was the most prosperous sector of Spain's economy during the nineteenth century, and that Catalonia's industrial development had pivoted on this particular manufacture since 1840. Spain's textile industry (cotton, wool, and silk) was in fact located almost exclusively in Catalonia, and its monopoly of this sector was fundamental in the development of other industrial activities. Hence, in the late nineteenth century this region was better prepared and equipped than the rest of Spain when it came to new energy sources, means of communication, processing plants, and so on. As a result, by the turn of the century Barcelona and its hinterland were the most prosperous and developed areas of Spain (Martínez Cuadrado, 1973: 175-78). It was presumably attracted or intrigued by this driving spirit and technological advancement that Pardo Bazán decided to visit Catalonia. Indeed, in an article published in La Ilustración Artística of 1 April 1901 she speaks of the industriousness and energy of the Catalan people and presents Catalonia as the most advanced Spanish region, a kind of miniature Europe within Spain: "Nuestra única Europa" (Pardo Bazán, 1972: 112). Then, in Por la Europa católica the author exalts the entrepreneurial spirit of the Catalans as an example for the rest of Spain to emulate. In her opinion, four qualities characterize Catalonia: initiative, activity, skill, and perseverance, and they all bring prosperity and wealth to the region (235). But the Galician writer was not alone in her admiration for Catalonia. Darío, in his article "En Barcelona" (1 January 1899), also praises the commercial vigour of Catalonia, a region of poets and artists, but also of feverish industrial activity. Catalonia, he observes, set to work soon after the War of Independence, and after the interruption of the Carlist wars in the 1830s it continued the task of modernization and industrialization. It is through sheer hard work, dedication, investment, and the strength of its convictions that Catalonia, Darío concludes, has forged a prosperous future for itself (Darío, 1987: 38). In Por la Europa católica Pardo Bazán readily admits that in her despair at the sorry state of Spain she has sought solace in Catalonia, because Catalonia, she emphasizes, is Spain, regardless of the claims of some separatists (235). Indeed, there is the clear indication that, despite its importance, the author does not wish to discuss in any depth the issue of Catalonia's separatist movement, preferring to gloss over it as she confirms later in the work: "Y no me dejaría en el tintero la Doctrina catalanista... si no valiese más no meneallo" (240). And yet, subsequently, she makes a fleeting reference to the intransigence of Catalan regionalism, which she regards as unpatriotic and anti-Spanish: Parece que Santa Eulalia se ha convertido --de fijo sin pretenderlo-- en patrona del regionalismo intransigente y antiespañol. Por cierto --ya que toco este asunto de pasada, de pasada lo diré también-- que un periódico de Barcelona que á raíz de mi conferencia de París me trató de mala patriota, forma ahora, según dicen, en las filas de esta bandería enemiga de la patria. (247) This view was also shared by Valera, who in his article "Las dos rebeliones" (1896) portrays separatism as an unpatriotic crime, as a retrograde step in the lives of those who support it (Valera, 1958, III: 1034). Darío, for his part, recounts how during his brief stay in Barcelona in January 1899 he experienced at first hand the strong separatist feeling shared by the Catalans who, thinking themselves in a way superior to or at least different from the rest of Spaniards, did not wish to remain part of an amorphous Spain: En todos está el mismo convencimiento, que tratan de sí mismos como en casa y hogar aparte, que en el cuerpo de España constituyen una individualidad que pugna por desasirse del organismo a que pertenecen, por creerse sangre y elemento distinto en ese organismo, [...] se encuentran en el punto en que se va a la proclamación de la unidad, independencia y soberanía de Cataluña, no ya en España sino fuera de España. (Darío, 1987: 36) In her article "Respirando por la herida", published in La Ilustración Artística of 7 August 1899, Pardo Bazán confirms her sympathies for regionalism but also her total opposition to separatism, which she sees as stemming from the disasters and ills that beset the country. She argues that if all Spanish regions were as prosperous, industrious, and hard working as Catalonia, the evil of separatism would have never appeared (Pardo Bazán, 1972: 79-80). Indeed, in Por la Europa católica, and despite her condemnation of Catalan separatism, she sees the autonomous or individualistic tendency of the region as a reflection of its inner strength and selfsufficiency: "Esta raza que tiende á la autonomía porque es fuerte para valerse y no necesita andadores" (241). Although in De mi tierra the author had indicated her abhorrence of factories and machinery (Pardo Bazán, 1984: 277-78), in Por la Europa católica she seems to have overcome this aversion. Indeed, while in Catalonia she tours a textile factory in Mataró, comments extensively on the manufacturing process, and embarks on a detailed and almost affectionate description of the machines that "populate" the factory. And as is customary with her, she even personifies these machines by attributing to them human intelligence and breeding abilities: Las máquinas, que con una inteligencia misteriosa, con una especie de comunicación magnética del alma humana, desempeñan esos complicados oficios, son en su mayor parte variaciones sobre el tema de la humilde y casera máquina de coser. [...] La infatigable costurera de hierro, acero y palo, ha visto acrecentarse su estirpe y nacerle un sinnúmero de hijas y nietas más mañosas, más activas aún que ella misma, que ejecutan mil habilidades y gracias. (231-32) In fact, the Mataró factory represents for the author the perfect communion between man and machine: "En pocas manufacturas se disfrutará mejor el espectáculo de la colaboración de la máquina con la mano. La máquina teje, calceta, cose; la obrera corta, prepara, coloca, remata, dobla, marca y empaqueta" (232). Furthermore, Pardo Bazán, who in previous chronicles had adopted an ambivalent or contradictory attitude to progress, is so taken by the entire spectacle that she ends the first piece on Catalonia with the following hymn to progress: "No tengo pizca de ganas de que volvamos al estado primitivo, y sé reconocer al progreso hasta en una fábrica de géneros de punto" [my italics] (234). While in Barcelona, Pardo Bazán travelled to the outskirts of the city by car, accompanied by Barcelona's governor, who, she notes, encouraged her to visit the region and to become acquainted with its industrial activity (242). During their trip, the author and her companion are entertained by the industrialist Eusebio Güell, in whose country house "descansamos y almorzamos los expedicionarios" (236). Pardo Bazán moves on to praise the entrepreneurial spirit of Juan Güell,$^{14}$ Eusebio's father, the founder of an important textile factory. She argues that in times of crisis for Spain, Güell found the courage to fight and risk his own capital to develop the manufacture of corduroy, a product hitherto unknown in Spain. The author does not hesitate to refer to Güell's behaviour as heroic, in view of the obstacles he had to surmount in his time. After describing some of the functions performed by the machines in Güell's factory, Pardo Bazán enthusiastically informs her readers that Güell's workers live in a colony of chalets built by the Catalan industrialist's son in the neighbourhood of the factory, and that the inherent vices and shortcomings normally associated with the industrial proletariat have been excluded from this colony. In this rural $^{14}$ Juan Güell y Ferrer (1800-1872) was born near Tarragona, and as a young man he emigrated to Cuba where he made his fortune. In 1833 he returned to Europe, and after extensive travels through several industrialized countries he established himself in Barcelona in 1840. As Pardo Bazán observes, Güell was the pioneer of Catalonia's textile industry, and he introduced corduroy into Spain. He was also a prolific writer on economic questions (Hilton, 1951: 342). setting, surrounded by the peace of the countryside, Güell's workers, she claims, prosper and enjoy a healthy and wholesome life-style. Pardo Bazan also proudly announces that in Güell's self-contained colony all physical, spiritual, and intellectual needs of the work-force are catered for, from churches, to schools, to theatres (239-40). It could, of course, be argued that Güell's self-contained colony is an instrument used by capitalism to control the proletariat in physical, ideological, and psychological terms in order to avert the threat of a social confrontation. Hence the location of Güell's colony "en el campo, bastante desviada de la metrópoli" (236), which could indicate the industrialist's desire to isolate his workers from the pernicious influences of Barcelona as one of the enclaves of socialist and anarchist unrest. However, in this chronicle Pardo Bazán also saw capitalism as the instrument of benevolent paternalism, as a father-figure, as a provider who had some moral and social obligations towards the proletariat. Indeed, the author states that the move of Güell's factory from Barcelona to the countryside "obedeció á propósitos altamente humanitarios y moralizadores" [my italics] (237). In her travels, Pardo Bazán is constantly attracted to religious monuments, and her trip to Catalonia is no exception. In effect, during her brief stay in Barcelona she visits three churches, which she refers to as "amistades que no se han extinguido" (244). Also, as in other travel collections, the author speaks of her fondness for the past, which at times resembles an "enfermedad moral", and admits that although her attention should be focused on the turbulent problems of the present, she prefers to dwell in the past, because, unlike the present, this never upset her: "Las antiguallas no nos traen penas, como las trae lo presente. Vivamos entre los muertos" (246). During her stay in Catalonia, Pardo Bazán travelled to Girona, drawn by Galdós's Episodio nacional and play dedicated to this city which during the War of Independence managed to repel the French invaders. As was the case in Aragón, she is travelling back in time as she looks for the courageous, heroic, and brave Spain that no longer is: "Quería recorrer la ciudad generosa que, puesta al ingreso de España, supo detener al enemigo" (253). This time unaccompanied, the author loses herself in Girona's picturesque streets and delves into the city's past, from Roman times to the French invasion (254-56). While visiting Girona's cathedral, which she regards as the spiritual centre of the city's heroism, Pardo Bazán is engulfed by a feeling she fails to identify as religiousness or anguished patriotism for until recently, she argues, both these sentiments were inseparable. She laments that at present there is a tendency to dissociate religion from the concept of the homeland because people fail to see that patriotism is another form of religion or moral energy which contributes to the greatness of a nation (256). This notion of patriotism as a kind of religious feeling was also emphasized by the Galician writer some years later in her lecture "El porvenir de la literatura después de la guerra" (1916), in which she argued that prior to the outbreak of World War I: "Otra reacción estaba iniciada en diversos países, y era la religiosa. Era algo distinto del misticismo decadente; era un sentido religioso enlazado estrechamente con el social y patriótico" (Pardo Bazán, 1973: 1548). The author's quest for the heroic Spain of the past continued during her stay in Figueras, where she arrived at night on the express train that came south from France (258). She is unimpressed by the town, "poblacho sin bellezas ni recuerdos" (257-58), and by the basic accommodation and food offered by the local inn, where "apenas se habla castellano; el que quiera hacerse entender ha de chapurrear catalán" (258). In the morning, Pardo Bazán heads for the Castle of San Fernando and for the focal point of her visit: the prison cell once occupied there by Mariano Alvarez de Castro, a Spanish General who distinguished himself in the defence of Girona against the French (257-58). Using a pseudo-religious language, the author refers to the visitors to the castle as "devotos" and to the cell where the General perished as a "reliquia" (260). In fact, her description of Alvarez de Castro's "calvario" is reminiscent of the Passion of Christ, and in a narration full of patriotic ardour she "canonizes" the figure of the General, transforming him into a kind of martyr for the homeland: Es innegable el trato cruel dado á D. Mariano en su calvario, desde Gerona á Perpiñán y de Perpiñán á Figueras, adonde se le trajo para que muriese lejos de sus amigos, en la sombra y el silencio [...]. Aquí se elevó al cielo su alma diamantina; aquí acabó solo, abandonado, y el suelo en que pongo los pies bebió el sudor de su agonía y sostuvo sus nobles despojos... [My italics] (261) The emotion of the moment transforms Pardo Bazán into an ordinary citizen who in a puerile way decides to carve her name for posterity on the wall of the cell where the "martyr" perished: "Algo que momentáneamente me convertía en pueblo, en persona sencilla, sin crítica ni escepticismo. Con el alfiler del broche empecé á trazar mi nombre de pila sobre el yeso" (262). In effect, during her trip to Figueras, Pardo Bazán, the privileged traveller, is momentarily superseded by the pilgrim who travels to the shrine of Alvarez de Castro, the hero who epitomizes the patriotism and courage of the Spanish people at the time of the French invasion: "Figueras representaba la Meca á donde va el creyente con el sentimiento antes de ir en caravana peregrinando" [my italics] (257). The author's final visit is to Sitges, to where she travelled from Barcelona by train, enjoying "un paisaje digno de las costas de Italia ó de Grecia" and the particularly intense blueness of the Mediterranean sea and sky. (264). She proudly announces how the artist Santiago Rusiñol, the creator of the Cau ferrat, rushed to meet her once he learned of her desire to visit this place that serves as his home, studio, and museum. Indeed, upon her arrival in Sitges Pardo Bazán is ushered into the Cau by Rusiñol himself, and presents this unusual construction as a kind of hybrid, part castle part ship, moored on the Mediterranean coast (266). For the author, Rusiñol's artistic sanctuary resembles a kind of unreal world, a feverish nightmare, and in her description she combines Romantic elements with the ingredients usually found in the Gothic novel (267-68). --- 15 Michel Butor notes how travellers will often leave their mark at the site of their pilgrimage, because: "To leave a trace of our passing is to belong to a spot [...]; therefore, we do it not only to return home with the light of these place-ideograms within us, but also to make our very existence a hopefully indelible 'stroke' on a visited spot" (Butor, 1992: 68). It is a hot August evening, so Pardo Bazán and the other visitors decide to stay awake till dawn to admire, from the tower of the Cau perched over the sea, the sunrise over the Mediterranean. The setting is idyllic: the horizon gradually changes colour, a violin is playing in the background, and the murmur of the sea provides its own accompaniment. When it is time to return to Barcelona, Pardo Bazán is suddenly returned to reality and concedes that the Cau is something unreal, the dream of an August night: "Y aquella música, que en el último instante reemplazó á la conversación, y lo precipitado del regreso, parecido á un brusco despertar, me confirmó en la idea de que el Cau ferrat es algo que no tiene existencia real, el sueño de una noche de Agosto" (269). Here, as in the last piece on Aragón, the author allows her fantasy to transport her from reality into the world of reverie. 10. Conclusions In the preface Pardo Bazán warns about the lack of unity of Por la Europa católica: "Aun reducidos á tan mínimas proporciones, mis apuntes de viaje carecen de unidad" (5). Indeed, excluding the Belgian section, whose cultural, political, religious, and social concerns provide a thematic thread that strings all the essays together, the rest of the collection could be described as a medley of newspaper-length travel pieces, with their own individual shape, and put together as an afterthought. The chronological gap (1887-1901) between the different essays is indeed noticeable, and the absence of a continuous itinerary renders this collection rather fragmented. In Por la Europa católica, as in Mi romería, Pardo Bazán plays yet again the role of pilgrim. Indeed, in the Belgian account she rates herself as part of the "peregrinos españoles de la cultura" (19) and refers to the journey through Belgium as her "peregrinación" (37). But this time her pilgrimage is not religious but journalistic, with a special focus on Belgium's educational institutions, political scene, and social Catholicism. In the rest of the collection, however, she is largely motivated by aesthetic, historical, folkloric, and artistic concerns, displaying the behaviour often associated with a cultured tourist. In this collection the author's journey through a now derelict and decrepit Castile becomes a trip to Spain's glorious past, in which she seeks solace from the present decline of her country. Indeed, she stresses that Castile allows her to numb the pain that stems from Spain's latest misfortunes (157). However, contrary to the men of 1898, Pardo Bazán does not exalt the virtues of Castile as reflected in its landscape, but belittles the region by weak approval (Hilton, 1951: 336). What the author does grant Castile is the role of repository of Spain's past glories. And yet, there is the suggestion that this adherence to the past, as epitomized by Castile, is what is holding Spain back. Catalonia, on the other hand, is presented as the Spain of the future and as the antithesis of Castile, and while the old Castile remains firmly entrenched and stagnant in bygone days of glory, as reflected in its delapidated historic buildings, the energetic Catalonia looks decisively forward, towards Europe, and towards progress. If in Castile and its glorious past Pardo Bazán finds comfort for the ills that beset Spain, in the feverish industrial activity of Catalonia she finds hope, the hope that if Catalonia has forged a prosperous future for itself so can the rest of Spain. Catalonia's commercial vigour appears to be contagious for Pardo Bazán, whose previous aversion to machines and factories experiences a dramatic reversal. This change of heart is certainly significant, considering that in De mi tierra she had observed: Mándenme recorrer cien iglesias viejas, destartaladas, oscuras, ó cien museos y colecciones artísticas poco importantes, [...] y no me metan, por Dios, una hora en una fábrica de hilados y tegidos [sic], con aquel polvillo cotonáceo que se atraviesa en la garganta y debe de producir irritaciones en la laringe; con aquel nauseabundo olor á aceite; con aquel calor intolerable; con aquel ruido que rompe el cráneo. [My italics] (Pardo Bazán, 1984: 277-78) Apart from this exploration of what the future may hold for Spain, Pardo Bazán's travels to Catalonia, particularly to Girona and Figueras, also involve, as in the case of Aragón and Castile, the quest for Spain's former heroism, bravery, and courage against adversity. In effect, in her pilgrimage through all three Spanish regions she is searching for a legendary Spain that no longer is. In a way, the author is emulating the men of 1898 in that she, too, is looking for the "soul" of Spain, for the true values of the country in order to find a cure for its present indifference, decline, and prostration.\textsuperscript{16} In \textit{Por la Europa católica} Pardo Bazán strives to remind herself and her fellow Spaniards of the valour that once was the embodiment of Spain itself, the Spain of the Reconquista, of the Empire, and of the War of Independence. If only Spaniards could be persuaded to recapture and relive the heroism and courage that had characterized their race, there would still be hope for the nation. \textsuperscript{16} For Butor, the term pilgrimage designates "first of all, the journey to the tomb of a saint, next to the spot of a vision, an oracular site; one carries his question there and expects a response, a curing of the body or soul. The sanctified spot [...] is the skylight onto paradise" (Butor, 1992: 61). Murray claims that "we form a clearer idea of the writer of the most unpretending book of travels than we do of her who gives us the most striking work of imagination" (Murray, 1845d: 100). This is certainly true of Pardo Bazán's travel works, which provide a clear indication of the author's ideology and personality. For in her chronicles she voices, with apparent frankness and candour, her preferences, dislikes, concerns, preoccupations, hopes, aspirations, and disillusionments. The image that emerges from these writings is that of an erudite and knowledgeable woman, but also of a highly opinionated one who attempts to impose her views on others and who shows little tolerance of any cultural weaknesses on the part of her readership. Indeed, most of her chronicles belong to what has been termed "el periodismo culto y literario que contribuye á difundir la instrucción y hacer grata [...] la exposición de hechos, de doctrinas ó, en general, de conocimientos útiles" [my italics] (Gómez de Baquero, 1901: 137-38). So what in principle could be mistaken for airs of superiority or arrogance, is, in effect, an attempt to educate and broaden the cultural horizons of a nation (Spain) which, time and time again, she presents as culturally, politically, and socially backward. This is a constant that runs through all the collections, from De mi tierra, in which Pardo Bazán strives to remind Galicians of their intellectual and creative potential in order to make them proud of their cultural heritage, to Por la Europa católica, where she exhorts Spaniards to emulate Belgium and its vigorous, coherent, and purposeful Catholicism, in order to extricate their country from its social stagnation. And yet on occasions she can be conceited and vain, deriding ordinary Spaniards contemplating their first trip abroad, name-dropping to emphasize her position as a privileged traveller, and often attempting to associate herself with Spain's ruling classes and, in particular, with the country's old aristocracy. Indeed, humbleness is not a quality that can be attributed to Pardo Bazán's character. Moreover, as a woman of strong beliefs and firmly held convictions, she sometimes dismisses offhand those views or opinions which she does not share. In fact, on occasions Pardo Bazán's travels acquire the characteristics of a crusade which she pursues with determination and with little room for flexibility or compromise. Also thrown into relief are Pardo Bazán's unshakeable patriotism or Spanishness (which was often questioned back home because of her pro-European tendencies and her resolve to denounce in her writings Spain's many flaws), her heartfelt Catholicism (even if undermined on occasions by the pagan overtones of her religiousness), and her staunch conservative views, which were at odds with her more liberal outlook in some areas (for example, feminism and internationalism). Her "terco y vivaz patriotismo" (Pardo Bazán, [1890]: 81), which only falters during her visit to the 1900 Paris Exhibition (this will be discussed later) and then re-emerges full of ardour during her visit to several Spanish regions in Por la Europa católica, is a common denominator to all her collections. Her political views, on the other hand, appear to have evolved from her unequivocal support of Carlism at a young age, to a more liberal stance in the latter part of her life, once she realized that Carlism was not a viable option for the political future of Spain. However, throughout her chronicles she continues to voice her opposition to the parliamentary system, constitutional monarchy, and universal suffrage, and conveys her outrage at the way the advances of democracy have eroded the powers of the absolute monarchy and the privileges of the aristocracy and the Church. The travel narratives also show Pardo Bazán as a woman torn by ambivalence and conflicting emotions. Probably the most surprising theme, considering Pardo Bazán's credentials as a woman of her time, is her anachronistic longing for the past, particularly the Middle Ages, as well as the glorious days of the Spanish Empire in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, and the heroic Spain of the War of Independence. This explains her interest in Gothic art, chivalric romances, and the Reconquista, her exaltation of the Conquistadors and the writers of the Golden Age, and her recollection of the ardour, valour, and determination of Spaniards in their fight against the Napoleonic invaders. Part and parcel of the author's attachment to the past is her constant criticism and rejection of the nineteenth century, another recurrent theme in her chronicles. Delfín García Guerra argues that "la Condesa se equivocó de siglo" (García Guerra, 1990: 207), and, indeed, this would explain her condemnation of the aesthetic and artistic canons and achievements of the century of her birth -- "siglico de cartón" (Pardo Bazán, 1888: 167) -- which she also saw as lacking in religious and spiritual attributes. In addition, she regarded the democratic and anti-clerical ways of the nineteenth century as a threat to the values, tenets, and principles of the conservative and Catholic Establishment that an important part of her epitomized. A further undesirable by-product of the nineteenth century was, according to the author, separatism and the dangers it posed to the nation's unity, which she deemed sacred and inviolable. Also connected with Pardo Bazán's longing for the past is her defence of tradition, folklore, and local customs. In a way, and this is particularly noticeable in her Spanish travel works, she sets out to capture and treasure in her writings some picturesque local characters, costumbrista scenes, and local legends before they are irretrievably submerged by the changes of modern times. Another significant feature in Pardo Bazán's travel writings is her almost pathological abhorrence of machines and, at the very least, her reservations about technological developments and scientific progress. Indeed, in De mi tierra she does not hide her detestation of machines and factory work, while in her Parisian chronicles of 1889 she is shown to be ill-equipped to report on the industrial side of the Exhibition. Moreover, apart from remaining unmoved by feats of technology (unless they are aesthetically pleasing), she blames technological advancement for the malaise and anxiety of modern man. And yet, in her travel writings she often advocates progress and regeneration, principally in the context of a backward Spain. What the above indicates is that there is a striking and unresolved contradiction in Pardo Bazán's emotional attachment to the past, her aversion to mechanical artefacts, and her abhorrence of the machine age, as opposed to her reluctant acceptance of her country's need to modernize and become an industrialized nation. A further contradiction which is never resolved is that involving the author's repeated exhortations to preserve and restore Spain's artistic heritage, versus her almost Romantic or morbid inclination to wallow in the nostalgia and sadness that decrepit, forlorn, and derelict buildings and monuments inflict on her. Moreover, she tends to be highly critical of those attempts that are made to restore these buildings to their former glory, arguing that new additions or alterations always undermine the original beauty of a structure. But where Pardo Bazán's feelings of ambivalence are possibly strongest is in her love-hate relationship with France, which is a recurrent theme in several of her chronicles. Her conflicting emotions towards this nation centre on her admiration for France's cultural might and her perception of the neighbouring country as Spain's historical foe. However, she did eventually manage to achieve a personal reconciliation with France. Indeed, the overt Francophobia of Al pie, evolves into unequivocal Francophilia in Cuarenta días. So did the passage of time and the events of history contribute to resolving the ambivalence and contradictions displayed by the author, or indeed reveal any progress in her thought and opinions in the areas mentioned above? With regard to Pardo Bazán's anachronistic obsession with the past, the answer is in the negative. For although shortly after the "Disaster" of 1898 she warned about the dangers of dwelling on Spain's past in the shape of its "Golden Legend" instead of moving forward into the future, her attachment to the past is just as strong in Por la Europa católica, in which she travels back in time to the Spain of the Reconquista, the Empire, and the War of Independence, as it is in De mi tierra, where she delves into the Celtic origins of the Galician race. It is only in Cuarenta días that she briefly finds the courage to repudiate the past, but solely because the modernity that surrounds her at the 1900 Exhibition makes her realize how harmful for Spain the adherence to bygone centuries of glory had been. As was mentioned in Chapter 7, it would be difficult to overestimate the emotional and psychological impact that the "Disaster" of 1898 had on Pardo Bazán. And, in effect, judging by her chronicles and by other writings produced during or shortly after the event, this débâcle can be safely identified as a major catalyst for the author's change of stance in several areas. One prime example is France, for whereas her Parisian chronicles of 1889 are full of resentment and distrust towards Spain's age-old enemy and most pugnacious neighbour, during her visit to the 1900 Universal Exhibition she succumbs to France's technological, cultural, and artistic superiority. Moreover, the part of Spain's quintessential foe is now assumed by the United States, which she presents as the agent of her country's international humiliation. Also, she becomes more tolerant of what prior to 1898 she had regarded as some of the less desirable qualities of the French. Indeed, in Cuarenta días there is no mention of the neighbouring nation's alleged immorality, chauvinism, treachery, subversive influence on European politics, or lack of knowledge of Spain's culture, traditions, and history. She even appears to forget the scars left on Spain by the Napoleonic invasion, this being a highly sensitive issue prior to the support received from France during her country's armed conflict with the United States. It is true, however, that in Por la Europa católica she speaks of France's stagnation or "amaneramiento". But the trip during which these comments were made took place in 1895, three years before the "Disaster". Pardo Bazán's patriotism is another issue that experiences a significant change following the fiasco of 1898. Indeed, the unwavering patriotism of earlier chronicles seems to falter in Cuarenta días due to Spain's humiliating contribution to an international exhibition which the author had hoped would herald her country's regeneration. It is in this chronicle that she displays the kind of "amor amargo" for Spain that Laín Entralgo associates with the men of 1898: "Todos aman a una imagen y a un ensueño de España, y todos repudian la España que sus ojos descubren. Aman a España con amor amargo" (Laín Entralgo, 1997: 190). In effect, her later travel works can be considered to come under the category of "literatura de regeneración" (Gómez de Baquero, 1901: 133). What, however, remain unchanged by the 1898 débâcle are Pardo Bazán's romantic concept of the homeland or patria, sacred in its unity, and her overt condemnation of the evils of separatism which, she believed, threatened to fragment Spain. These sentiments are just as strong in De mi tierra as in Por la Europa católica. The author's almost pathological abhorrence of machines and factories also shows a dramatic reversal after the eventful year of 1898. Indeed, although some hostility is still present in the French chronicles of 1900, during her stay in Catalonia in Por la Europa católica she appears to enjoy her visit to several factories and even speaks with uncharacteristic affection of the machines that "inhabit" one of Mataró's textile mills. However, in this collection, as in previous ones, there is the indication that the author continues to feel intimidated when surrounded by machinery. Hence her tendency to personify the machines, as if she could only face these metal monsters after having "humanized" them. Pardo Bazán's final acceptance of the need for Spain to embrace industrialization becomes evident during her visit to the 1900 Exhibition. For it is then that she implies that had Spain been an industrialized nation prior to the conflict of 1898, the consequences of the war would not have been so catastrophic. Indeed, in Aragón, in Por la Europa católica, she praises the efforts made by the region to emulate Catalonia and become industrialized. In addition, she presents Catalonia, despite its separatist inclinations, as emblematic of the Spain of the future, of the Europeanized, prosperous, and industrially powerful Spain Pardo Bazán fervently hoped her country would become. The author's reservations about the advantages of progress, voiced in her French chronicles of 1889, are much subdued during her visit to the Paris Exhibition of 1900. On this occasion, she claims to have come to the French capital guided by her faith in progress, which has been emphasized by Spain's recent war with the United States. Moreover, leaving behind her occasional belligerence in the chronicles of 1889, she voices her admiration for scientific and medical pursuits leading to the preservation of life, a change of attitude possibly linked to the many Spanish casualties of the conflict of 1898. And during her visit to Catalonia in Por la Europa católica she goes as far as to end the first essay on the region with a surprising and unprecedented hymn to progress. So, even allowing some room for coincidence, it seems that the year of 1898 and the events attached to it were crucial in Pardo Bazán's change of attitude in some fundamental areas and also in partly resolving her previous ambivalence regarding certain issues. What, on the other hand, predates the "Disaster" of 1898 and shows little variation after that event is the author's fascination with Europe, which, as mentioned in Chapter 8, can be traced back to her first European tour of 1871. With time, Europe became a recurrent theme in her journalistic writing, and in her foreign travel chronicles Pardo Bazán's interest in Europe and in what Europe had to offer continues to increase until her final outburst in Por la Europa católica, when she presses for Spain's selective Europeanization and presents travel as a vehicle for her country's much-needed modernization. And yet, there are still irreconcilable differences between her calls for a "European" and modern Spain, and her anachronistic attachment to the past. And this was to remain a contradiction that even the effect of the War of 1898 could do little to resolve. But despite such contradictions and inconsistencies, Pardo Bazán's travel chronicles are valuable commentaries on contemporary Spain and fascinating assessments of various aspects of other continental countries at the turn of the century. Following her death in 1921, some contemporary writers paid homage to her oeuvre, her knowledge, and her contribution to the opening-up of Spain's culture to beneficial foreign influences. The eulogy of the Argentine novelist, Manuel Gálvez, is as follows: Muerto Galdós, era la condesa de Pardo Bazán la primera figura literaria de la actual España. Lo era por la vastedad, la solidez y la trascendencia de su obra; por su contribución incesante a la modernización de la prosa castellana; por su gran talento y su inmenso saber; por la influencia que ejerciera sobre los escritores de las generaciones que vinieron después de ella; y aun por su obra de cultura, mediante la cual España trabó conocimiento con los mejores espíritus de las grandes naciones europeas. (Gálvez, 1921: 34) This is a fitting epitaph to a woman who witnessed and subsequently captured in her writings some of the most dramatic moments of nineteenth-century Spanish history. She travelled tirelessly, sometimes for pleasure but more often in search of the Promised Land, the ideal place she fervently hoped Spain would emulate in order to regain its former importance and eminence. And after her "pilgrimages" through several European nations in search of a cure for the ills that beset her country, Pardo Bazán finally set her hopes on France, a Latin, Catholic, advanced, and cultured nation, which through sheer hard work and determination had forged a prosperous future for itself, the kind of future Pardo Bazán desired for Spain. WORKS CONSULTED Adams, Percy G. (1962) Travelers and Travel Liars 1660-1800, University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles --- (1983) Travel Literature and the Evolution of the Novel, University Press of Kentucky, Lexington Alarcón, Pedro Antonio de (1968) Obras completas, ed. Luis Martínez Kleiser, 3rd edn, Ediciones Fax, Madrid Altamira, Rafael (1889) 'Revista literaria. 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La condesa de Pardo Bazán', p. 7, in ABC, Madrid, 13 May Osborne, Robert E. (1950) 'The Aesthetic Ideas of Emilia Pardo Bazán', pp. 98-104, in Modern Language Quarterly, 11, No. 1 --- (1954) 'Emilia Pardo Bazán y la novela rusa', pp. 273-81, in Revista Hispánica Moderna, No. 4, Year 20 --- (1964) Emilia Pardo Bazán: Su vida y sus obras, Colección Studium, 42, Ediciones de Andrea, México, D.F. Palacio Atard, Vicente (1981) La España del siglo XIX: 1808-1898, 'Introduction', pp. 9-16, Espasa Calpe, Madrid Pardo Bazán, Emilia (1888) Mi romería, Imprenta y Fundición de M. 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Federico Carlos Sainz de Robles, Aguilar, Madrid --- (1966) La cuestión palpitante, 'Introduction', pp. 5-24, ed. Carmen Bravo-Villasante, Serie "Textos Españoles", Anaya, Salamanca, Madrid, Barcelona --- (1972) La vida contemporánea (1896-1915), ed. Carmen Bravo-Villasante, Sección Literatura, Serie Literatura Española, Periodismo. Siglos XIX-XX, Editorial Magisterio Español, Madrid --- (1973) Obras completas, Vol. III, ed. Harry L. Kirby, Jr, Aguilar, Madrid --- (1975) Cartas a Benito Pérez Galdós (1889-1890), ed. Carmen Bravo Villasante, Ediciones Turner, Madrid --- (1976) La mujer española y otros artículos feministas, ed. Leda Shiavo, Editora Nacional, Madrid --- (1984) De mi tierra, Edicións Xerais de Galicia, Vigo (f. pub. 1888) Patmore, Coventry (1949) The Poems of Coventry Patmore, ed. Frederick Page, Oxford University Press, London, New York, Toronto Pattison, Walter T. (1971) Emilia Pardo Bazán, Twayne's World Authors Series, No. 134, Twayne, New York. Pérez Galdós, Benito (1963) Obras completas, Vol. III, Episodios Nacionales, 'Cánovas', pp. 1361-63, ed. Federico Carlos Sainz de Robles, 6th edn, Aguilar, Madrid Pérez Gutiérrez, Francisco (1975) El problema religioso en la Generación de 1868, 'Emilia Pardo Bazán', pp. 339-78, Taurus Ediciones, Madrid Prince, Morton (1975) Psychotherapy and Multiple Personality: Selected Essays, 'The Problem of Personality. How Many Selves Have We?', pp. 188-216, ed. Nathan G. Hale, Jr, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA 'Recompensas de la Exposición', p. 1, in Heraldo de Madrid, Madrid, 18 August 1900 'Recompensas de la Exposición' III, p. 1, in Heraldo de Madrid, Madrid, 22 August 1900 'Recompensas de la Exposición' IV, p. 1, in Heraldo de Madrid, Madrid, 23 August 1900 Rodríguez, Adna Rosa (1991) La cuestión feminista en los ensayos de Emilia Pardo Bazán, Ediciós do Castro, Sada, La Coruña Russell, Mary (1994) The Blessings of a Good Thick Skirt: Women Travellers and Their World, Flamingo, HarperCollins, London Sabin, Margery (1982) 'The Spectacle of Reality in Sea and Sardinia', pp. 85-104, in Philip Dodd (ed.) The Art of Travel: Essays on Travel Writing, Cass, London and Totowa, NJ Scanlon, Geraldine M. (1976) La polémica feminista en la España contemporánea (1868-1974), trans. Rafael Mazarrasa, Siglo Veintiuno de España Editores, Madrid Scari, Robert M. (1982) Bibliografía descriptiva de estudios críticos sobre la obra de Emilia Pardo Bazán, Albatros, Valencia/Hispanófila, Chapel Hill Schwarzbach, F. S. (1982) '"Terra Incognita" -- An Image of the City in English Literature, 1820-1855', pp. 61-84, in Philip Dodd (ed.) The Art of Travel: Essays on Travel Writing, Cass, London and Totowa, NJ Shaw, Donald L. (1972) A Literary History of Spain: The Nineteenth Century, Benn, London/Barnes & Nobel, New York Showalter, Elaine (1991) Sexual Anarchy: Gender and Culture at the Fin de Siècle, Bloomsbury, London Silió y Cortés, César (1900) Otro desastre más (España en París), prologue by Angel Guerra (Isidoro Coloma), Imprenta Castellana, Valladolid Sillitoe, Alan (1995) Leading the Blind: A Century of Guidebook Travel 1815-1914, Macmillan, London and Basingstoke Thieme, John (1982) 'Authorial Voice in V.S. Naipaul's The Middle Passage', pp. 139-50, in Philip Dodd (ed.) The Art of Travel: Essays on Travel Writing, Cass, London and Totowa, NJ Tortella Casares, Gabriel, Casimiro Martí, José M.ª Jover Zamora, José Luis García Delgado, David Ruiz (1981) Revolución burguesa, oligarquía y constitucionalismo (1834-1923), ed. Manuel Tuñón de Lara, Serie Historia de España, 8, Editorial Labor, Barcelona --- (1994) El desarrollo de la España contemporánea: Historia económica de los siglos XIX y XX, Alianza Universidad Textos, Alianza, Madrid Trollope, Anthony (1968) North America, ed. Robert Mason, with an introduction by John William Ward, repr. 1992, Penguin Classics, London (f. pub. 1862) Tuñón de Lara, Manuel (1973) Medio siglo de cultura española (1885-1936), 3rd edn, Editorial Tecnos, Madrid 'Una gloria nacional desaparece. Doña Emilia Pardo Bazán ha muerto', p. 1, in Heraldo de Madrid, Madrid, 12 May 1921 Unamuno, Miguel de (1942) Ensayos, 2 vols, prologue by Bernardo G. de Candamo, Aguilar, Madrid Valera, Juan (1958) Obras completas, Vol. III, ed. Luis Araujo Costa, 3rd edn, Aguilar, Madrid Vilar, Pierre (1990) Historia de España, original title Histoire de L'Espagne, trans. Manuel Tuñón de Lara and Jesús Suso Soria, 28th edn, Serie General "La Sociedad", Editorial Crítica, Barcelona Vogüé, Eugène-Melchior de (1900) 'La Défunte Exposition', pp. 380-99, in La Revue des Deux Mondes, 162, Paris, November-December Whitaker, Daniel S. (1988) "La Quimera" de Pardo Bazán y la literatura finesecular, trans. Daniel Iglesias Kennedy, Editorial Pliegos, Madrid Worley, Linda Kraus (1986) 'Through Others' Eyes: Narratives of German Women Travelling in Nineteenth-Century America', pp. 39-50, in Yearbook of German-American Studies, 21 In Search of the Promised Land: The Travels of Emilia Pardo Bazán (PhD Thesis - University College, London) Page 5 Contents page: Chapter 7; section 5: 'Colonial' for 'Colonical' ✓ ✓ 9 9 lines from bottom: 'costumbraba a beber' Read 'acostumbraba'? ✓ ✓ 16 2 lines from top: 'possibilities' for 'possibilites' ✓ ✓ 59 3 lines from bottom: (Azorín quote): 'ha escrito doña Emilia la Naturaleza'. Read 'ha descrito'? (✓) 81 5 lines down: 'predecessors' for 'predecessors' ✓ ✓ 110 5 lines from bottom: 'impartial' for 'imparcial' ✓ ✓ 131 5 lines from top: 'for political reasons' instead of 'because of political reasons' ✓ ✓ 153 about mid-page: Julio Busquets, El militar de carrera en España should read La carrera de militar? (✓) 160 9 lines from top: 'Independence' for 'Indepence' ✓ ✓ 212 footnote, line 4: 'ignore' for 'ignore' ✓ ✓ 236 7 lines from top: 'Estados Unidos' for 'Estado Unidos' ✓ ✓ 251 10 lines from top: 'a good example' for 'good example' ✓ ✓ 260 6 lines from bottom: 'same train as she' for 'same train as her' ✓ ✓ 269 about mid-page: 'juxtaposition' for 'antithesis'? ✓ ✓ 272 9 lines from bottom: 'through sheer envy' instead of 'for sheer envy' ✓ ✓ 286 5 lines from bottom: 'unas fotografías' for 'unas fotografía' ✓ ✓ 291 3 lines from top: 'catastrophe' for 'catastrophy' ✓ ✓ 297 7 lines into new paragraph: 'for...reasons' instead of 'owing to...reasons' ✓ ✓ 307 middle of page: 'indicative of repressed anger' for 'typical of repressed anger' 330 11 lines from bottom: 'Feijóo' for 'Feijoo' ✓ ✓ 335 5 lines from bottom: 'right to vote' or 'voting rights' for 'voting right' ✓ ✓ 337 13 lines from bottom: 'their voting rights' for 'their voting right' ✓ ✓ 346 5 lines from bottom: 'of its medieval monastery' for 'if its medieval monastery' ✓ 349 7 lines from bottom: 'inexperienced' for 'unexperienced' 384 7 lines from bottom: 'fitting' for 'befitting' ✓ 14 February 2000 Dear Abigail and Winston, This is just to inform you that Gloria has resubmitted her thesis. She has modified along the lines that you suggested (but it’s obviously for you to make the final judgement on this) and has asked me to send to you the following: a) An indication of where she has made cuts in the body of the thesis b) The Errata sheet, with a response to two of the suggested corrections/queries (pp. 59, 153). All the best, [Signature] David F. Henn, PhD Senior Lecturer CUTS TO THESIS CHAPTER 2 p. 44 p. 47 p. 53 p. 65 p. 68 CHAPTER 3 p. 75 p. 83 p. 84 p. 90 p. 94 p. 99-100 p. 104 p. 117 CHAPTER 4 p. 133 p. 144 p. 150 p. 152 p. 159 CHAPTER 5 p. 171 p. 174 1 Chapter 1 and the Conclusion chapter are not included because they have been rewritten almost in their entirety. p. 177 p. 181 p. 183 p. 187 p. 190 p. 192 p. 193 CHAPTER 6 p. 224 p. 229 p. 230 p. 234 p. 239 p. 240 p. 247 CHAPTER 7 p. 257 p. 265-6 p. 267 p. 288 CHAPTER 8 p. 318 p. 325 p. 337 p. 348
EXponential Sums and Newton Polyhedra Alan Adolphson and Steven Sperber Let $p$ be a prime number and let $k$ denote the field of $q = p^a$ elements. Fix a nontrivial additive character $\Psi: k \to \mathbb{Q}(s_p)^\times$. Given a variety $V$ of dimension $n$ and a regular function $f$ on $V$, with both $V$ and $f$ defined over $k$, one can define an exponential sum $$S(V, f) = \sum_{x \in V(k)} \Psi(f(x)), \tag{1}$$ where $V(k)$ denotes the $k$-rational points of $V$. It is a classical problem to find conditions on $V$ and $f$ that will imply a good estimate for $\|S(V, f)\|$. By "good estimate" we mean an inequality of the form $$\|S(V, f)\| \leq C\sqrt{q}^n, \tag{2}$$ where $C$ is a constant depending on $V$ and $f$ but not on $q$. Deligne's fundamental theorem [3] reduces the problem of estimating the archimedean size of exponential sums to the problem of computing certain associated $l$-adic cohomology groups. Let $\mathbb{A}^n$ denote affine $n$-space over $k$ and let $(\mathbb{G}_m)^n$ denote the product of $n$ copies of the multiplicative group $\mathbb{G}_m$ over $k$. The purpose of this note is to report on some general criteria, when $V = (\mathbb{G}_m)^n$ or $\mathbb{A}^n$, that allow us to calculate this cohomology and hence obtain sharp archimedean estimates for the corresponding exponential sums. These same criteria allow us to obtain apparently sharp $p$-adic estimates for the exponential sums as well, although space limitations prevent us from describing them here. Connections between the $p$-adic theory and Newton polyhedra already appear in [7 and 8]. A novel feature of our work is the use of Dwork cohomology [4, 5] to compute $l$-adic cohomology. The results of this note have not so far been obtainable by purely $l$-adic methods. Complete proofs and references will appear elsewhere. We are indebted to B. Dwork and N. Katz for many helpful discussions. 1. Statement of results. Let $k_r$ denote the extension of $k$ of degree $r$ and let $\text{Tr}_r: k_r \to k$ be the trace map. Let $\overline{k}$ denote the algebraic closure of $k$. Set $$S_r(V, f) = \sum_{x \in V(k_r)} \Psi(\text{Tr}_r f(x)), \tag{3}$$ Received by the editors November 1, 1986. 1980 Mathematics Subject Classification (1985 Revision). Primary 11L40; Secondary 14F20, 14F30. First author partially supported by NSF Grant No. DMS-8401723; second author partially supported by NSF Grant No. DMS-8301453. ©1987 American Mathematical Society 0273-0979/87 $1.00 + $.25 per page where $V(k_r)$ denotes the $k_r$-rational points of $V$. Define the associated $L$-function $L(V, f; t)$ by \begin{equation} L(V, f; t) = \exp \left( \sum_{r=1}^{\infty} S_r(V, f) t^r / r \right) \in \mathbb{Q}(s_p)[[t]]. \end{equation} It is well known that for every prime number $l \neq p$ there is a lisse, rank-one, $l$-adic étale sheaf $\mathcal{L}_\Psi(f)$ on $V$ whose associated $L$-function is identical to $L(V, f; t)$. By Grothendieck's Lefschetz trace formula and Deligne's fundamental theorem, if \begin{equation} H_c^i(V \otimes_k \overline{k}, \mathcal{L}_\Psi(f)) = 0 \quad \text{for } i \neq n, \end{equation} then one obtains the estimate \begin{equation} \|S_r(V, f)\| \leq (\dim H_c^n(V \otimes_k \overline{k}, \mathcal{L}_\Psi(f))) \sqrt{q}^{rn} \end{equation} (where $H_c^i(V \otimes_k \overline{k}, \mathcal{L}_\Psi(f))$ denotes $l$-adic cohomology with proper supports). When $V = (\mathbb{G}_m)^n$ or $\mathbb{A}^n$, we shall give conditions on $f$ that allow us to deduce (5) and give a simple formula for $\dim H_c^n(V \otimes_k \overline{k}, \mathcal{L}_\Psi(f))$. Consider first the case $V = (\mathbb{G}_m)^n$. The regular functions on $V$ defined over $k$ are the Laurent polynomials with coefficients in $k$, i.e., elements of $k[x_1, x_1^{-1}, \ldots, x_n, x_n^{-1}]$. For $j = (j_1, \ldots, j_n) \in \mathbb{Z}^n$, let $x^j = x_1^{j_1} \cdots x_n^{j_n}$. A Laurent polynomial $f$ over $k$ can be written \begin{equation} f = \sum_{j \in J} a_j x^j, \end{equation} where $J$ is a finite subset of $\mathbb{Z}^n$ and $a_j \in k^\times$. We define the Newton polyhedron $\Delta(f)$ of $f$ to be the convex closure in $\mathbb{R}^n$ of the set $J \cup \{(0, \ldots, 0)\}$. For each face $\sigma$ of $\Delta(f)$, define a Laurent polynomial $f_\sigma$ by \begin{equation} f_\sigma = \sum_{j \in \sigma \cap J} a_j x^j. \end{equation} Call $f$ nondegenerate with respect to $\Delta(f)$ (Kouchnirenko [6]) if for every face $\sigma$ of $\Delta(f)$ that does not contain the origin, $\partial f_\sigma / \partial x_1, \ldots, \partial f_\sigma / \partial x_n$ have no common zero in $(\overline{k}^\times)^n$. The set of all nondegenerate polynomials having a given Newton polyhedron is Zariski open in the set of all polynomials having that Newton polyhedron, except possibly if the characteristic of $k$ lies in a certain finite set which depends on the Newton polyhedron. We define the dimension of $\Delta(f)$ to be the dimension of the smallest subspace of $\mathbb{R}^n$ containing $\Delta(f)$. Let $V(f)$ denote the volume of $\Delta(f)$ with respect to Lebesgue measure on $\mathbb{R}^n$. Theorem 1. Let $\Delta$ be an $n$-dimensional convex polyhedron in $\mathbb{R}^n$ with vertices in $\mathbb{Z}^n$ that contains the origin. There is a finite set of rational primes $S_\Delta$ such that the following holds: If $\text{char}(k) \not\in S_\Delta$, $f \in k[x_1, x_1^{-1}, \ldots, x_n, x_n^{-1}]$ with $\Delta(f) = \Delta$, and $f$ is nondegenerate with respect to $\Delta(f)$, then (i) $H_c^i((\mathbb{G}_m)^n \otimes_k \overline{k}, \mathcal{L}_\Psi(f)) = 0$ if $i \neq n$; (ii) $\dim H_c^n((\mathbb{G}_m)^n \otimes_k \overline{k}, \mathcal{L}_\Psi(f)) = n! V(f)$. If in addition the origin is an interior point of $\Delta$, then (iii) $H^n_c((\mathbb{G}_m)^n \otimes_k \overline{k}, \mathcal{L}_V(f))$ is pure of weight $n$. Corollary. Under the hypotheses of Theorem 1, $$\|S((\mathbb{G}_m)^n, f)\| \leq n! V(f) \sqrt{q}^n.$$ Proof. Using the ideal theory of [6], we are able to develop a cohomology theory along the lines of [4] and [5] to show that $L((\mathbb{G}_m)^n, f; t)^{(-1)^{n-1}}$ is a polynomial of degree $n! V(f)$ and obtain $p$-adic estimates for its roots. The proof then proceeds by induction on $n$. After an invertible change of coordinates, one may regard $f$ as a one-parameter family of Laurent polynomials in $n - 1$ variables, each satisfying the induction hypothesis and containing the origin in the interior of its Newton polyhedron. Applying basic theorems of $l$-adic cohomology shows that $H^n_c = 0$ except possibly in dimensions $n$ and $n + 1$. Corollaire 1.4.4 of [3] and the fact that $L((\mathbb{G}_m)^n, f; t)^{(-1)^{n-1}}$ is a polynomial show that $H^{n+1}_c = 0$. The $p$-adic estimate for the roots, Deligne's fundamental theorem [3], and the product formula for valuations then imply purity. We conjecture that Theorem 1 remains true without restriction on the characteristic of $k$. This can be verified if $n = 2$ and in many other cases (see the examples at the end of this note). We now turn to the case $V = \mathbb{A}^n$, $f \in k[x_1, \ldots, x_n]$. Since an ordinary polynomial may also be regarded as a Laurent polynomial, all our previous definitions concerning the Newton polyhedron make sense in this context. We call $f \in k[x_1, \ldots, x_n]$ commode if for each $i = 1, \ldots, n$, $f$ contains a term $\gamma_i x_i^{d_i}$ with $\gamma_i \in k^\times$, $d_i > 0$. For each subset $A \subseteq \{1, \ldots, n\}$, let $X_A$ be the subspace of $\mathbb{R}^n$ where $x_i = 0$ for all $i \not\in A$. Let $V_A(f)$ be the volume of $\Delta(f) \cap X_A$, computed with respect to Lebesgue measure on $X_A$ normalized so that a fundamental domain for $\mathbb{Z}^n \cap X_A$ has volume 1. Let $\|A\|$ denote the cardinality of $A$. Define the Newton number $\nu(f)$ by the formula $$\nu(f) = \sum_{A \subseteq \{1, \ldots, n\}} (-1)^{n-\|A\|}\|A\|! V_A(f).$$ Let $\mathbb{R}_+$ denote the nonnegative real numbers. Theorem 2. Let $\Delta$ be a convex polyhedron in $(\mathbb{R}_+)^n$ with vertices in $\mathbb{Z}^n$ that has a vertex at the origin and on each of the coordinate axes. There is a finite set of rational primes $S_\Delta$ such that the following holds: If char$(k) \not\in S_\Delta$, $f \in k[x_1, \ldots, x_n]$ with $\Delta(f) = \Delta$, and $f$ is nondegenerate with respect to $\Delta(f)$, then $L(\mathbb{A}^n, f; t)^{(-1)^{n-1}}$ is a polynomial of degree $\nu(f)$, all of whose reciprocal roots are algebraic integers pure of weight $n$. Corollary. Under the hypotheses of Theorem 2, $\|S(\mathbb{A}^n, f)\| \leq \nu(f) \sqrt{q}^n$. Proof. The fact that $L(\mathbb{A}^n, f; t)^{(-1)^{n-1}}$ is a polynomial is a consequence of the $p$-adic theory. Theorem 2 then follows from Theorem 1 by the standard relations between exponential sums over $\mathbb{A}^n$ and $(\mathbb{G}_m)^n$. We conjecture that Theorem 2 remains true without restriction on the characteristic of $k$. This can be verified if $n = 2$ and in many other cases. (see Theorem 3 below). Of course, we believe that there is a cohomological explanation for this result: Conjecture. If $f \in k[x_1, \ldots, x_n]$ is commode and nondegenerate with respect to $\Delta(f)$, then (i) $H^i_c(\mathbb{A}^n \otimes_k \overline{k}, \mathcal{L}_\Psi(f)) = 0$ if $i \neq n$; (ii) $\dim H^n_c(\mathbb{A}^n \otimes_k \overline{k}, \mathcal{L}_\Psi(f)) = \nu(f)$; (iii) $H^n_c(\mathbb{A}^n \otimes_k \overline{k}, \mathcal{L}_\Psi(f))$ is pure of weight $n$. We can prove this conjecture provided $\Delta(f)$ has a somewhat special form. Theorem 3. Suppose $f \in k[x_1, \ldots, x_n]$ is commode and nondegenerate with respect to $\Delta(f)$. Assume in addition that for each codimension-one face $\sigma$ of $\Delta(f)$ that does not contain the origin, all coordinates of the exterior normal vector to $\sigma$ with respect to the standard basis are positive (where the exterior normal vector is the one pointing out of $\Delta(f)$). Then all conclusions of the Conjecture hold. In particular, we have $$\|S(\mathbb{A}^n, f)\| \leq \nu(f)\sqrt{q}^n.$$ Proof. The proof is identical to the proof of Theorem 1, the point being that one can simply specialize one of the variables to regard $f$ as a one-parameter family of polynomials, each satisfying the induction hypothesis. Examples. The Laurent polynomial $$f = \gamma_1 x_1^{d_1} + \cdots + \gamma_n x_n^{d_n} + \frac{\gamma_{n+1}}{x_1^{e_1} \cdots x_n^{e_n}},$$ where the $\gamma_i$ lie in $k^\times$ and the $d_i$ and $e_j$ are positive integers prime to $p$, satisfies the hypotheses of Theorem 1 (one can show in addition that no restriction on char$(k)$ is necessary) and $n!V(f) = (\prod_{i=1}^n d_i)(1 + \sum_{i=1}^n e_i/d_i)$. Thus $$\left\| S\left((\mathbb{G}_m)^n, \gamma_1 x_1^{d_1} + \cdots + \gamma_n x_n^{d_n} + \frac{\gamma_{n+1}}{x_1^{e_1} \cdots x_n^{e_n}}\right) \right\|$$ $$\leq \left( \prod_{i=1}^n d_i \right) \left( 1 + \sum_{i=1}^n \frac{e_i}{d_i} \right) \sqrt{q}^n.$$ See Carpentier [1] for a $p$-adic study of this exponential sum. Consider the polynomial $$f(x_1, \ldots, x_n) = \gamma_1 x_1^{d_1} + \cdots + \gamma_n x_n^{d_n} + g(x_1, \ldots, x_n),$$ where $g$ is chosen subject to the restrictions that $\Delta(f)$ be the simplex with vertices at the origin and at $(d_1, 0, \ldots, 0), \ldots, (0, \ldots, 0, d_n)$ and that $f$ be nondegenerate with respect to $\Delta(f)$. Then $f$ satisfies the hypotheses of Theorem 3 and $\nu(f) = \prod_{i=1}^n (d_i - 1)$, hence $$\|S(\mathbb{A}^n, f)\| \leq \left( \prod_{i=1}^n (d_i - 1) \right) \sqrt{q}^n.$$ It can be shown that this result includes Deligne’s theorem [2, Théorème 8.4] as the special case where $d_1 = \cdots = d_n$. REFERENCES 1. M. Carpentier, p-Adic cohomology of generalized hyperkloosterman sums, Doctoral thesis, University of Minnesota (August, 1985). 2. P. Deligne, La conjecture de Weil. I, Publ Math. I.H.E.S. 43 (1974), 273–307. 3. ——, La conjecture de Weil. II, Publ. Math. I.H.E.S. 52 (1980), 137–252. 4. B. Dwork, On the zeta function of a hypersurface, Publ. Math. I.H.E.S. 12 (1962), 5–68. 5. ——, On the zeta function of a hypersurface. II, Ann. of Math. 80 (1964), 227–299. 6. A. G. Kouchnirenko, Polyèdres de Newton et nombres de Milnor, Invent. Math. 32 (1976), 1–31. 7. S. Sperber and A. Adolphson, Newton polyhedra and the degree of the L-function associated to an exponential sum, Invent. Math. (to appear). 8. ——, p-Adic estimates for exponential sums and the theorem of Chevalley-Warning, Ann. Sci. École Norm. Sup. (to appear). Department of Mathematics, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma 74078 School of Mathematics, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455
American Political Parties Under the First Amendment Robert C. Wington Follow this and additional works at: https://brooklynworks.brooklaw.edu/jlp Recommended Citation Robert C. Wington, American Political Parties Under the First Amendment, 7 J. L. & Pol'y (1999). Available at: https://brooklynworks.brooklaw.edu/jlp/vol7/iss2/2 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Law Journals at BrooklynWorks. It has been accepted for inclusion in Journal of Law and Policy by an authorized editor of BrooklynWorks. AMERICAN POLITICAL PARTIES UNDER THE FIRST AMENDMENT Robert C. Wigton* INTRODUCTION American political parties have always occupied a gray area of constitutional law because of their dual public-private nature.$^1$ At times, political parties undertake activities that make them look very much like parts of the government. At other times they behave more like private organizations. The courts have long recognized the dual nature of political parties in this country but have never provided a coherent framework to distinguish when parties are to be treated as “public” entities and when they are to be deemed “private” ones. When parties are treated as primarily public entities, they are often subjected to the same constitutional standards that the courts have traditionally imposed on the “State.” When parties are seen as undertaking “private” activities, they have often been afforded greater freedom in their actions. As the role of political parties has grown over the years, this question has become increasingly difficult to answer. This Article will attempt to offer a partial resolution of this public-private entity problem in American constitutional law. My framework represents an explicit effort to find a compromise between two sets of competing political values in this area. To * Associate Professor of Political Science, Eckerd College; J.D., Ph.D., State University of New York at Buffalo. The author would like to express his special thanks to William C. Robinson, Class of 2000, Stetson University College of Law, for reading and commenting on the manuscript. $^1$ Not present in the Constitution nor at the founding, political parties were the subject of much early derision and suspicion. See THE FEDERALIST NOS. 10, 47, 48 (James Madison); George Washington’s Farewell Address, reprinted in GEORGE WASHINGTON: A COLLECTION 512-27 (W.B. Allen ed., 1988). date, there has been only limited and periodic discussion of this dilemma in Supreme Court opinions and even less discussion by lower federal courts. Thus, while it is clear that the courts recognize this problem, there has been no serious effort to resolve it through the development of a coherent set of guidelines. This Article fills this void by setting forth a more complete set of review guidelines that build upon past judicial consideration of these issues, while reconciling the opposing political ideals inherent in this area. In proposing this new set of review standards for legislation impacting parties, I am assuming to some degree the desirability of maintaining the present two-party system. Of course, the viability and desirability of American political parties have been hotly debated issues for some time.$^2$ Because the Constitution does not mention political parties, they developed outside the law in the early decades of the Republic.$^3$ Most of the major developments in the history of our political parties took place with little, if any, judicial involvement. Thus, the emergence of our two modern political parties, national nominating conventions, and the establishment of national committees all took place without significant judicial participation. Political parties were unregulated private entities until the states began legislating reforms in the 1860s. The earliest state legislation dealt with such internal party matters as qualifications for membership, notice requirements for meetings, and bans on bribery at party caucuses.$^4$ --- $^2$ See, e.g., John J. Coleman, Party Decline in America: Policy, Politics, and the Fiscal State (1996); William Crotty, American Parties in Decline (2d ed. 1984); Xandra Kayden & Eddie Mahe, Jr., The Party Goes On: The Persistence of the Two-Party System in the United States (1985); L. Sandy Maisel, The Parties Respond (2d ed. 1990); Kelly D. Patterson, Political Parties and the Maintenance of Liberal Democracy (1996); Martin P. Wattenberg, The Decline of American Political Parties 1952-1988 (1990). See also John H. Aldrich, Why Parties? The Origin and Transformation of Political Parties in America 14-17 (1995) (discussing whether the strength of political parties has increased since the 1960s). $^3$ See generally William Nisbet Chambers, Political Parties in a New Nation (1963); Austin Ranney, Curing the Mischiefs of Faction: Party Reform in America 58-100 (1975). $^4$ Charles E. Merriam, Primary Elections 9-17 (1908); Ranney, supra Towards the end of the nineteenth century, as parties became more visible in American politics through the operation of primaries, urban machines, and political advertising, there were greater calls for their regulation. This regulation most often took the form of state legislation aimed at "reforming" party behavior.$^5$ As more states began adopting the Australian ballot at the turn of the century, parties gradually came to be regarded as partly "public" entities. This trend toward state regulation of parties continued as the states began legislating on matters of internal party governance. With the adoption of the direct primary by many states in the early 1900s, state legislative control expanded in both scope and variety. Today most states regulate both the internal mechanisms and electoral behavior of parties operating within their borders.$^6$ The growth of state laws regulating political parties provided many avenues for potential judicial involvement in party affairs. State efforts to control internal party committee composition and structure raised important and difficult questions of First Amendment free association rights. Moreover, state regulation of parties' electoral behavior implicate the fundamental constitutional rights of voting and participation in politics. I. THE COMPETING VALUES While not formally one of the national political institutions, political parties today are nonetheless major players in both national and state politics. They have long provided what may be considered quasi-governmental services, including candidate --- note 3, at 79-81. See also PAUL ALLEN BECK, PARTY POLITICS IN AMERICA 66-72 (8th ed. 1997) (providing the range of modern state regulation of political parties). $^5$ RICHARD HOFSTADTER, THE AGE OF REFORM 3-22 (1955). $^6$ BECK, supra note 4, at 66-72; Timothy Conlan et al., State Parties in the 1980s, 10 INTERGOVERNMENTAL PERSPECTIVE 6 (1984). National legislation regulating political parties did not appear until the enactment of the Federal Election Campaign Act of 1971, Pub. L. No. 92-225, 86 Stat. 3 (1972) (codified as amended at 2 U.S.C. §§ 431-455 (1994)), amended by Federal Election Campaign Act Amendments of 1974, Pub. L. No. 93-443, 88 Stat. 1272 (1974) (codified as amended at 26 U.S.C. §§ 9031-9042 (1994)). recruitment, the operation of political campaigns, and the supervision of the voting process. As with the federal bureaucracy, political parties are important extra-constitutional political institutions that have been essentially grafted onto our separation of powers system.$^7$ The ambiguity surrounding the proper institutional role that parties should conceptually play in American politics has posed vexing problems for the courts in balancing party independence with government supervision. In order to ascertain the role that political parties should play within our political system, it is useful to see them as informal parts of the larger system of separation of powers.$^8$ If parties are seen as part of this larger system, then it follows that they are entitled to a certain amount of judicial protection to ensure their integrity and independence. Under this interpretation, the courts should bear some responsibility for preserving the separateness of political parties in the same way as the judiciary ensures that the powers of the formal branches of the government do not unduly infringe upon one another. If parties are seen as performing some governmental functions, then it follows that they should be entitled to some independence in the conduct of these functions. If parties are to check government power, then some of their activities must lie beyond direct government control. The level of independence granted to parties should vary depending on the type of party activity under consideration. In its more "private" functions, such as selection of party leaders, --- $^7$ Leon D. Epstein, Political Parties in Western Democracies 340-42 (1967). See also Laurence H. Tribe, American Constitutional Law § 13-18, at 1076-80 (2d ed. 1988) (discussing the competing interests of democratic theory in state regulation of parties). $^8$ Theodore J. Lowi, Party, Policy, and the Constitution in America, in The American Party Systems 238-76 (2d ed. 1975). Lowi discusses the contribution of party development in the United States to the revival of the separation of powers from about the time of Andrew Jackson, which gave him and succeeding presidents a power base independent of the Congress. Id. at 246-48. Thus, parties can be seen as a part of the larger separation of powers system, or they can be seen through their activities as contributors to the reinforcement of the formal separation of powers among the national political institutions. Id. at 253-54. In either case, party independence is an important component in the preservation of the separation of powers. parties should retain maximum independence from government regulation, including judicial oversight. When parties perform their more "public" functions, such as the operation of election campaigns and actual governance, they should be subject to much closer judicial scrutiny and held to higher constitutional standards. In this way, the states and courts will be able to foster the democratic ideals of electoral competitiveness and participation while preserving some degree of party independence. The goal is a balance between these two sets of fundamental American political ideals. In conceptualizing parties within our separation of powers system, they can be compared most closely with the independence that we afford to the courts themselves. Judicial independence has long been regarded as one of the strengths of our democratic system by providing an independent force to adjudge the behavior of the more overtly political parts of the government. Similarly, political parties can be seen as checks on the power of government through their independent influence over various phases of the electoral and governing processes. Another way to conceive of the role of parties within our political system is to consider them as an independent, non-governmental force such as the mass media. Like the press, political parties perform a sort of independent analysis and critique of government officials and their policies. It can be argued that, as we cherish an independent and vigorous press, so too should we value independent political parties. A guarantee of party independence ensures that the incumbent regime cannot control fully the nomination and electoral processes. The preservation of vigorous and independent parties also buttresses the likelihood that there will be some organized opposition to any incumbent government. Portions of the foregoing theoretical considerations have occasionally appeared in both Supreme Court opinions and those of lower federal courts. These considerations have provided some theoretical moorings for judges attempting to interpret when and how statutory and constitutional doctrines should apply to parties in this country. Thus, when the courts have been confronted with various state legislative attempts to regulate political parties, they have frequently considered the broader theoretical role(s) that parties play in our political system. Similar considerations have arisen when the courts have considered the application of various constitutional doctrines to parties and their activities. II. A FRAMEWORK FOR RECONCILING PARTY INDEPENDENCE AND DEMOCRATIC IDEALS In the 1960s, two leading students of American political parties conceptualized our parties as being composed of three parts: the "party organization" encompassing the party's active members; the "party-in-the-electorate" composed of the party's rank-and-file membership; and the "party-in-government" made up of the party's elected and appointed officeholders.$^9$ It is possible to organize past federal court opinions dealing with political parties into three classes paralleling this trichotomy. The first includes those decisions which have dealt with what is arguably the most "private" side of party behavior: party decisions as to membership, internal party structure, and selection of party leaders. These are matters which primarily concern party activists and are vital to the preservation of party independence. A second set of federal court opinions has dealt with the conduct of political parties in elections. This set represents the largest number of cases and involves judicial interpretation of a wide range of state laws regulating various aspects of the electoral process. The study of these cases is useful because they provide a glimpse into how much state regulation of parties is permissible in the name of the public interest. Here, as in other areas dealing with political parties, the courts have often been forced to consider the virtues of maintaining independent political parties while simultaneously subjecting them to some degree of public supervision when they perform important governmental functions.$^{10}$ $^9$ V.O. KEY, JR., POLITICS, PARTIES, AND PRESSURE GROUPS 211-12 (5th ed. 1964); FRANK J. SORAUF, PARTY POLITICS IN AMERICA 197 (1968). See also ALDRICH, supra note 2, at 7, 12-14. $^{10}$ In most instances, these cases construe state laws that were ostensibly enacted to further some public policy in the electoral realm. However, since political parties are often major players in the enactment of such legislation, these state regulations are often highly politicized efforts by one or both parties in a state to gain some electoral advantage over each other or over third parties A third set of court opinions deal with political parties while "in-government." Of course, American political parties never match their European counterparts in their ability to move into government and rule, but the winners in most American elections are nonetheless partisans who frequently attempt to execute policies favorable to their own party from their position as public office-holders. The major area of judicial concern here has been with political party patronage, where the victorious party attempts to seize government jobs, contracts, and other benefits for its members. As office-holders and governors, parties are clearly performing "public" functions and should be subject to considerably higher regulatory and constitutional standards of behavior. The advantage of this trichotomy of federal court opinions is that it helps reorganize past court decisions in conjunction with the policy reasons for treating parties differently on the basis of the activity they are undertaking. Thus the greatest governmental regulation, and judicial scrutiny, is reserved for those party functions which are the most "public" in nature. This scheme also provides a clearer boundary delimiting those party activities that are essential to the continued independence of parties. III. EMERGING CONSTITUTIONAL STANDARDS The emerging constitutional standards in this area have grown out of a tension between the two polar positions on the issue of state regulation of political parties.$^{11}$ On the one hand, political parties have traditionally contended that they are "voluntary organizations" entitled to virtually absolute First Amendment protection in the exercise of their rights of free association and free expression. The typical counter-argument of the states seeking to regulate their parties is that they are public entities which must be regulated in the public interest. Some of the typical "public interests" asserted by the states in these cases include a desire to ensure that the parties' internal governance processes are and independent candidates. $^{11}$ See, e.g., San Francisco County Democratic Cent. Comm. v. Eu, 792 F.2d 802, 804-07 (9th Cir. 1986), aff'd, 489 U.S. 214 (1989). democratic, to avoid voter confusion, to ensure party committees are broadly representative, to foster internal party "harmony," and generally to protect the integrity of the electoral process.\textsuperscript{12} Both federal and state courts have struggled to find the best way to apply First Amendment freedoms to these situations. In some cases, it appears that there are two competing sets of free association rights. Party insiders, or "activists," usually claim their right to associate (or not to associate) freely for political purposes with whom they choose. Those persons outside the party, or its governance structure, frequently assert a need to associate with an established political party as one of the few avenues to genuine political participation at the state and local levels. In the period before the enactment of comprehensive state legislative schemes regulating political parties, most judges tended to view internal party disputes as involving "political" as opposed to "legal" rights and usually refused to find jurisdiction.\textsuperscript{13} Throughout the nineteenth century the Supreme Court stayed clear of most electoral disputes through invocation of the political question doctrine.\textsuperscript{14} When the states first began regulating parties in the late nineteenth century with the introduction of the direct primary, the courts were generally reluctant to become involved. At the turn of the century, as the states began to enact regulatory schemes, the courts were more likely to find jurisdiction and consider the merits of these claims.\textsuperscript{15} Many early courts took the traditional position that the parties were indeed like political clubs and beyond state regulation. In its 1935 decision in \textit{Grovey v.} \textsuperscript{12} \textit{Id.} at 814. \textsuperscript{13} \textit{See, e.g.,} People \textit{ex rel.} Eaton v. District Court., 31 P. 339 (Colo. 1892); Stephenson v. Board of Election Comm'rs, 76 N.W. 914 (Mich. 1898); People \textit{ex rel.} Simpson v. Board of Police Comm'rs, 31 N.Y.S. 112 (Sup. Ct. 1894). \textit{See also} RANNEY, \textit{supra} note 3, at 78-82 (discussing the growth of state regulation in this area); Annotation, Determination of Controversies Within Political Party, 20 A.L.R. 1035, 1036-41 (1922). \textsuperscript{14} \textit{See, e.g.,} Kies v. Lowery, 199 U.S. 233, 239 (1905); Forsyth v. Hammond, 166 U.S. 506, 519 (1897); Minor v. Happersett, 88 U.S. (21 Wall.) 162, 175 (1874). \textsuperscript{15} \textit{See, e.g.,} Baker v. Board of Election Comm'rs, 68 N.W. 752 (Mich. 1896); \textit{In re} Woodworth, 16 N.Y.S. 147 (Sup. Ct. 1891); State \textit{ex rel.} Cook v. Houser, 100 N.W. 964 (Wisc. 1904). Townsend,\textsuperscript{16} the Supreme Court upheld the exclusion of blacks from a party primary, despite a state law, finding that political parties were “voluntary political association[s],” which “arise from the exercise of the free will and liberty of the citizens composing them.”\textsuperscript{17} This decision marked a brief high-water mark in the Court’s refusal to apply the First Amendment freedoms to the activities of political parties. Nine years later, the Court struck down the Texas White Primary in the landmark decision \textit{Smith v. Allwright}.\textsuperscript{18} Reform efforts in the states to purify politics and political parties soon spread beyond the direct primary. By the 1920s most states had at least begun the process of enacting complex and detailed statutory guidelines for their political parties. These guidelines included specification of the size, composition, responsibilities, and even the meeting times and places for state and local party committees.\textsuperscript{19} In 1958, the incorporation of freedom of association into the Fourteenth Amendment provided the federal courts with a new tool to adjudicate state laws affecting political parties.\textsuperscript{20} As the volume of cases increased in the 1970s, the Supreme Court held in \textit{Storer v. Brown} that states would be required to show a “compelling interest” before burdening the First Amendment rights of political parties or their members.\textsuperscript{21} In recent years, federal case law has been a confused jumble of ad hoc decisions as the courts struggled with a wide range of circumstances and statutory schemes. There have been many instances where federal courts have upheld various state efforts to regulate political parties.\textsuperscript{22} Similarly, there have been many \begin{itemize} \item \textsuperscript{16} 295 U.S. 45 (1935). \item \textsuperscript{17} \textit{Id.} at 52 (citing Bell v. Hill, 74 S.W.2d 113 (Tex. 1934)). \item \textsuperscript{18} 321 U.S. 649 (1944). \textit{See also} Terry v. Adams, 345 U.S. 461 (1953). \item \textsuperscript{19} Ranney, \textit{supra} note 3, at 18. \item \textsuperscript{20} NAACP v. Alabama, 357 U.S. 449, 460 (1958). \item \textsuperscript{21} 415 U.S. 724, 729-30 (1974). \item \textsuperscript{22} \textit{See, e.g.,} Marchioro v. Chaney, 442 U.S. 191, 199 (1979) (upholding a state law requiring a party’s state committees to have two representatives from each county); \textit{Storer}, 415 U.S. at 735-36 (finding valid as a compelling governmental interest, California’s “sore loser” provision, which required that to run as an independent candidate one must be non-affiliated with a party for one year); Rosario v. Rockefeller, 410 U.S. 752, 761 (1973) (upholding New York’s \end{itemize} instances where the courts have invalidated state efforts to regulate party structure or behavior.\textsuperscript{23} The courts have offered very little unified guidance for reconciling these decisions. In the 1980s, the courts continued to expand First Amendment freedoms while the states increased their regulatory efforts. This situation created something of a collision.\textsuperscript{24} There appears to be no obvious logic by which these cases spanning the last two decades can be reconciled. The variety of statutes involved, and range of possible \textsuperscript{23} Illinois State Bd. of Elections v. Socialist Workers Party, 440 U.S. 173, 187 (1979) (stating that an Illinois law requiring 25,000 signatures for new parties and independents violated the Equal Protection Clause); Cousins v. Wigoda, 419 U.S. 477, 495 (1975) (concluding that a state interest in controlling the seating of state delegates to national party convention was not compelling); Abrams v. Reno, 452 F. Supp. 1166, 1170 (S.D. Fla. 1978) (striking Florida's statutory ban on pre-primary endorsements by party leaders as a substantial burden on First Amendment rights). \textsuperscript{24} See, e.g., Eu v. San Francisco County Democratic Cent. Comm., 489 U.S. 214 (1989) (declaring the California election code's provisions barring endorsement of primary candidates by a party's governing body to be a violation of First and Fourteenth Amendment rights as an infringement on the party's freedom of association); Tashjian v. Republican Party of Conn., 479 U.S. 208 (1986) (holding Connecticut's closed primary statute unconstitutional as violative of a political party's First and Fourteenth Amendment rights by restricting the party's political association with other candidates); Anderson v. Celebrezze, 460 U.S. 780 (1983) (holding an Ohio statute unconstitutional that required independent candidates for the presidency to submit a statement of candidacy and nominating petition in March to qualify for a general election petition ballot in November); Brown v. Socialist Workers '74 Campaign Comm., 459 U.S. 87 (1982) (invalidating on First and Fourteenth Amendment grounds an Ohio statute that required minor political parties to disclose their contributors and each recipient of disbursed funds); Democratic Party of the United States v. Wisconsin \textit{ex rel.} LaFollette, 450 U.S. 107 (1981) (upholding Wisconsin's open primary law because the state had a substantial interest in how elections are conducted and stating that the National Democratic Party delegates are not required under party rules to vote in accordance with the Wisconsin open primary). state interests implicated, has made it highly unlikely that the courts will be able to distill any firm rules of law in this area. The trichotomy described above can help to bring some order to these precedents as well as provide a firmer theoretical basis for treating various state regulatory schemes differently. If state laws can be categorized on the basis of what aspect of party behavior they regulate, then the courts can deliver more uniform, and more theoretically defensible, decisions in the application of First Amendment freedoms to political parties. IV. FIRST AMENDMENT RIGHTS AND "INTERNAL" PARTY ACTIVITIES This Part refines and expands the constitutional standards that courts should apply in cases involving matters "internal" to political parties.\textsuperscript{25} It is in the conduct of their own affairs that political parties are best able to assert their rights of free association and thus claim a broad exemption from government regulation.\textsuperscript{26} The central problem is how to maximize party independence in internal matters without sacrificing other key political ideals, such as broad participation in these vital political organizations. It is quite difficult to identify precisely which party functions are "internal." This dilemma can be solved in part by delimiting the range of "internal" party activities as narrowly and specifically as possible. In this Article, this term refers to the selection and composition of party leadership, decisions relating to party structure and party membership, and national delegate selection. Any party activities relating to the conduct of elections, either primary or general, will not be considered "internal" matters.\textsuperscript{27} Such a \textsuperscript{25} Modern judges have usually used the term "internal" to denote those party functions least susceptible to state regulation. However, some judges have labelled this set of functions "political." \textsuperscript{26} See Virginia E. Sloan, Judicial Intervention in Political Party Disputes, 22 UCLA L. REV. 622 (1975) (providing an overview of the judicial role in this area). \textsuperscript{27} But elections of party executive committee members and other internal party officials will be considered "internal" even if these elections are sometimes definition reduces the possibility of giving any judicial protection to partisan actions aimed at excluding individuals on other than ideological grounds. Government regulation of "internal" party matters has arisen in a limited number of circumstances. The most common scenario has been where a political party has sought to exclude certain persons, or groups of persons, from participating in party governance committees or leadership positions. In other cases, this issue has been presented through challenges to state legislation that attempt to regulate some aspect of internal party structure or operations.\textsuperscript{28} There is also a second set of cases that have dealt with those situations when a \textit{state} regulatory law has conflicted with a \textit{national} party rule.\textsuperscript{29} A third general situation in this area arises when party organs or leaders seek to endorse one candidate in the party primary. Each of these scenarios has produced case law which can form the base or starting point for the development of more complete judicial standards. \textbf{A. Regulation of Parties' Internal Structure and Leadership} Since the early years of this century, the states have resorted to a wide range of statutory schemes to control the structure and behavior of their state party organizations and leaders.\textsuperscript{30} While denoted as "primaries." \textsuperscript{28} See, e.g., Marchioro v. Chaney, 442 U.S. 191 (1979) (holding that a Washington statute requiring each major political party to have a state committee consisting of two persons from each county was not violative of party members' freedom of association). \textsuperscript{29} See, e.g., LaFollette, 450 U.S. at 126 (holding that members of National Democratic Party were not bound by Wisconsin's state primary election results, which were reached in a manner contrary to National Party rules); O'Brien v. Brown, 409 U.S. 1 (1972); Ray v. Blair, 343 U.S. 214 (1952) (concluding that an Alabama statute authorizing the Democratic National Party to choose its nominees for elector in a party primary and to fix candidate qualifications was constitutional). \textsuperscript{30} See, e.g., CAL. ELEC. CODE §§ 5000-8944 (West 1996) (providing rules for the creation and organization of political parties, voting and elections); FLA. STAT. ch. 103 (1998) (providing guidelines for the regulation of presidential electors, political parties, executive committees and members); N.Y. ELEC. LAW varying in the degree of flexibility accorded to their parties, these statutory schemes typically mandate a federated layering of party committees, culminating in a state party committee.\textsuperscript{31} Many states also regulate such party matters as the size of the party committees,\textsuperscript{32} gender representation on party committees,\textsuperscript{33} the \textsuperscript{31} See, e.g., CAL. ELEC. CODE §§ 7150-7882 (West 1996) (providing guidelines for the creation of state and local committees); FLA. STAT. ANN. § 103.091 (West 1998) (providing rules for the creation of state and county executive committees); N.Y. ELEC. LAW §§ 2-102, 2-104 (McKinney 1998) (providing rules for the creation of state committees and guidance for the creation of county committees). \textsuperscript{32} See, e.g., CAL. ELEC. CODE § 7150 (setting forth the membership of the state central committee); CAL. ELEC. CODE § 7200 (providing an election procedure for county committees in counties with fewer than five assembly districts); CAL. ELEC. CODE § 7201 (establishing membership and voter qualifications for Democratic Party, for counties of the fifth class, to include central committee election by assembly districts and by consent of six members from each elected assembly who have status as a county resident); CAL. ELEC. CODE § 7202 (stating that counties containing more than four or less then twenty assembly districts shall elect a county central committee from assembly districts consisting of six members elected from each assembly district); CAL. ELEC. CODE § 7203 (establishing composition of county central committees in counties containing more than twenty assembly districts); CAL. ELEC. CODE § 7204 (providing for twelve members in city and county central committees elected from assembly districts 12 and 13); CAL. ELEC. CODE § 7205 (stating qualifications for district representation including, but not limited to, residency requirements, and reapportionment of central county committee every ten years); CAL. ELEC. CODE §§ 7400, 7401, 7402 (providing rules for counties with less than five assembly districts, for counties with five to nineteen assembly districts, for counties with twenty or more assembly districts); FLA. STAT. ANN. § 103.091(1) (providing that each political party of the state shall be represented by a state executive committee and providing rules for such committee); N.Y. ELEC. LAW § 2-102 (providing rules for the creation of the state committees); N.Y. ELEC. LAW § 2-104 (providing rules for the creation of county committees). \textsuperscript{33} See, e.g., CAL. ELEC. CODE §§ 7156, 7157(b) (providing gender representation requirements for membership in committees); FLA. STAT. ANN. § 103.091(1) (stating that each county executive committee shall consist of at least two members, a man and a woman, from each precinct); N.Y. ELEC. LAW §§ 2-102(4), 2-104(2) (providing that the committee, state or local, may provide frequency of committee elections and meetings, the rules governing party committees, the removal and replacement of committee members, the selection of state party delegates to national conventions, and party finances. Given this panoply of well-established state laws regulating internal party matters, it would appear that state party structure, and much of their internal operations, are firmly under state regulatory control. There was limited federal judicial activity touching internal party matters for the first half of the twentieth century. However, in the mid-1960s courts began to apply the First Amendment freedom of association to political parties and their members. It for equal representation of sexes). 34 See, e.g., CAL. ELEC. CODE § 7160 (providing guidelines for the election of members to the state central committee); N.Y. ELEC. LAW §§ 2-106(2) (McKinney 1998) (requiring that members of state committees be elected biennially). 35 See, e.g., CAL. ELEC. CODE §§ 7198, 7241 (providing parliamentary procedure); FLA. STAT. ANN. § 103.121 (West 1998) (providing powers and duties of executive committees); N.Y. ELEC. LAW §§ 2-112, 2-114 (McKinney 1998) (providing committee rules). 36 See, e.g., CAL. ELEC. CODE §§ 7156-7169 (West 1996) (providing for committee appointments and elections); FLA. STAT. ANN. §§ 103.131, 103.141, 103.151 (West 1998) (providing for removal of committee members); N.Y. ELEC. LAW §§ 2-116, 2-118 (McKinney 1998) (providing for committee member removal and filling of vacancies). 37 See, e.g., CAL. ELEC. CODE §§ 6000-6954 (West 1996); FLA. STAT. ANN. § 103.101 (West 1998) (providing presidential preference primary procedures); N.Y. ELEC. LAW § 2-122 (McKinney 1998) (providing procedure for election of delegates to the national party convention). 38 See, e.g., FLA. STAT. ANN. § 103.121 (West 1998) (providing committee members with the power to raise and expend party funds); N.Y. ELEC. LAW § 2-126 (McKinney 1998) (providing restrictions on expenditures of party funds). 39 Most cases during this period that concerned parties dealt with race discrimination by parties. See, e.g., Smith v. Allwright, 321 U.S. 649 (1944); Grovey v. Townsend, 295 U.S. 45 (1935); Nixon v. Condon, 286 U.S. 73 (1932); Nixon v. Herndon, 273 U.S. 536 (1927). 40 One of the earliest cases to grapple with the public-private entity problem in the area of internal party functions was Bentman v. Seventh Ward Democratic Executive Committee which held, inter alia, that judicial intervention in internal party affairs "must be limited to controversies" that bear a "[d]irect and [s]ubstantial relationship" to the party's "[p]ublic functions." 218 A.2d 261, 266 was at this time that at least some federal judges began to note the distinction between party elections that elected representatives to government positions and those that elected individuals to run the party itself.\textsuperscript{41} This distinction is important in that it implicitly recognized that some party elections are of greater public concern than others. While this distinction has not been elaborated on by the courts, it is important to our efforts to assign varying standards of review to different party functions. By 1968 the Supreme Court had stated unequivocally that the First Amendment freedom of association extended to political parties.\textsuperscript{42} In succeeding years, a few federal decisions showed a heightened willingness to employ free association principles to strike state efforts to regulate the internal functions of political parties. One of the most thorough discussions came from the Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit in the 1974 decision of \textit{Redfearn v. Delaware Republican State Committee}, in which voters challenged a party's electoral scheme for choosing delegates to the state party convention that weighed some districts disproportionally.\textsuperscript{43} While conceding that the party's state convention implicated "state action" under the Fourteenth Amendment, the court refused to strike the party's "internal rules," as this would have been an intrusion on the party's right of free association.\textsuperscript{44} A few other courts at that time also recognized the existence of a zone of private party conduct where state regulations and judicial power should not ordinarily interfere.\textsuperscript{45} \begin{footnotes} \item[(Pa. 1966).] \item[\textsuperscript{41}] See, e.g., Lynch v. Torquato, 343 F.2d 370, 372 (3d Cir. 1965) (recognizing that the Equal Protection Clause protects citizens in their choice of "elected representatives in the conduct of government, not in the internal management of a political party"). \item[\textsuperscript{42}] Williams v. Rhodes, 393 U.S. 23, 30-31 (1968). \item[\textsuperscript{43}] 502 F.2d 1123 (3d Cir. 1974). \item[\textsuperscript{44}] \textit{Id.} at 1127-28. \item[\textsuperscript{45}] McMenamin v. Philadelphia County Democratic Executive Comm., 405 F. Supp. 998, 1001 (E.D. Pa. 1975) (refusing involvement in an internal party dispute over selection of a ward leader absent any racial, geographic or fraudulent aspect); Fahey v. Darigan, 405 F. Supp. 1386, 1394-95 (D. R.I. 1975) (striking a state law seeking to regulate the selection and size of local party ward committees as a violation of First Amendment free association right); Fox v. \end{footnotes} In 1979, the Supreme Court entered this debate with its landmark decision in Marchioro v. Chaney.$^{46}$ This case involved a challenge to a state law requiring each of the state’s major political parties to maintain state committees composed of two persons from each county. The Court found that these restrictions on the parties did not violate the parties’ First Amendment freedom of association because the “purely internal party activities” undertaken by these committees were duties delegated to it by the party’s own state convention rather than mandated by the challenged statute.$^{47}$ However, in reaching this decision, the Supreme Court apparently adopted the appellants’ list of what constituted party activities.$^{48}$ More importantly, the Court recognized that state regulation of party activities that relate to the electoral process is different from and implicates a greater state interest than regulation of party committees in the performance of their internal tasks.$^{49}$ Subsequent decisions have also applied the Storer compelling interest test to a variety of internal functions.$^{50}$ --- $^{46}$ Tucker, 320 A.2d 919 (Pa. Commw. Ct. 1974) (refusing to force party to comply with its own affirmative action plan). $^{47}$ 442 U.S. 191 (1979). $^{48}$ Id. at 197. $^{49}$ Id. at 193, 197-98. Activities that were recognized as relating to the electoral process included: filling of vacancies on the party ticket, providing for the nomination of presidential electors, and the calling of statewide conventions. Party activities deemed “internal” included: party policy-making, directing the party administrative apparatus, raising and distributing funds to party candidates, conducting workshops on campaign procedures and organization, and influencing public policy and public officials. Id. $^{50}$ See, e.g., Heitmanis v. Austin, 899 F.2d 521, 529 (6th Cir. 1990) (holding a Michigan law granting state legislators ex officio delegate status at party’s national convention a violation of the state party’s First Amendment right of free association); Banchy v. Republican Party of Hamilton County, 898 F.2d 1192, 1193 (6th Cir. 1990) (affirming that the refusal of party chair to allow newly-elected precinct leaders to participate in election of ward chairmen did not involve state action); Fahey, 405 F. Supp. at 1396 (D.R.I. 1975) (striking a state law attempting to increase the size of city ward committees as not furthering a compelling state interest); Louisiana Republican Party v. Foster, 674 So. 2d 225, 226 (La. 1996) (holding that a state law providing a method for electing members to party’s state central committee violated free association rights); Gosz A major watershed in this area came in the mid-1980s in extended litigation involving challenges to California's elaborate election code.\textsuperscript{51} The opinions generated by this case provide one of the most thorough discussions of the public-private entity problem of placing American political parties under the First Amendment. The litigation culminated in the Supreme Court's decision in \textit{Eu v. San Francisco County Democratic Central Committee},\textsuperscript{52} in which the Court struck California's election laws as unconstitutional burdens on that state's political parties and their members' First Amendment rights without serving a compelling state interest.\textsuperscript{53} In a strongly-worded opinion, the Court in \textit{Eu} struck California's statutes regulating the organization and composition of the party's governing bodies, limitations on the terms of office for state central committee chairs, and the requirement that these chairs rotate between regions of the state.\textsuperscript{54} Building on its recent decision in \textit{Tashjian v. Republican Party of Connecticut}, which struck a Connecticut law mandating that parties could hold only closed primary elections,\textsuperscript{55} the Court in \textit{Eu} noted that even stronger associational rights were at stake because California had tried to regulate the ability of party members to associate among themselves instead of with nonparty members.\textsuperscript{56} The Court also distinguished \textit{Eu} on the basis that the statute regulated party leaders, and therefore did not directly implicate strong state interests in the electoral process.\textsuperscript{57} The Court found that the state had no compelling interest in regulating the democratic management of the parties' internal affairs. In fact, the Court found that such state regulation could actually \textit{hamper} the parties in the conduct of their external responsibilities to ensure orderly \textsuperscript{v.} Quattrocchi, 448 A.2d 135, 140 (R.I. 1982) (upholding state law modifying the process for filling the state's 100 party committee districts because reapportionment was found to be a compelling interest). \textsuperscript{51} San Francisco County Democratic Cent. Comm. v. Eu, 792 F.2d 802 (9th Cir. 1986), \textit{aff'd}, 489 U.S. 214 (1989). \textsuperscript{52} 489 U.S. 214 (1989). \textsuperscript{53} \textit{Id.} at 233. \textsuperscript{54} \textit{Id.} \textsuperscript{55} 479 U.S. 208, 210-11 (1986). \textsuperscript{56} 489 U.S. at 230-31. \textsuperscript{57} \textit{Id.} at 231-32. and fair elections.\textsuperscript{58} The \textit{Eu} decision did not result in wholesale attacks on existing state laws regulating political parties and most state regulatory schemes remain in effect.\textsuperscript{59} This review of the case law relating to state regulation of internal party matters shows that the federal courts are still developing standards to deal with these situations. The \textit{Eu} decision was a major contribution in the effort to clarify these standards by identifying some specific party functions as sufficiently “internal” to warrant application of the compelling state interest test. This decision comports well with my trichotomous model by moving towards a doctrine whereby specific party operations are recognized as vital to the maintenance of vigorous political parties and are therefore beyond state regulation absent a demonstration of compelling state interest. \textit{B. State Laws versus National Party Rules} A fairly distinct line of cases has considered the problems that arise when state legislation comes into conflict with the national party rules. In some ways, this line of cases is similar to those previously discussed: it involves state efforts to regulate an “internal” operation of the parties. However, in these cases the regulation affects the relationship \textit{between} the state’s parties and their national party organizations.\textsuperscript{60} The issue of state regulations conflicting with national party rules has arisen almost exclusively in the context of delegate selection at the state level for national party conventions. The first major case in this area was the 1972 decision of \textit{O’Brien v. Brown}, where the Supreme Court refused to settle a dispute involving Illinois delegates to the National Democratic Convention.\textsuperscript{61} \textsuperscript{58} \textit{Id.} at 232. \textsuperscript{59} \textit{See Louisiana Republican Party v. Foster}, 674 So. 2d 225, 228-29 (La. 1996) (striking amendments to a state statute that provided a method for electing members to the state’s central committees). \textsuperscript{60} Whether strictly “internal” or not, these cases have for years been regarded as raising First Amendment free association issues. \textit{See Cousins v. Wigoda}, 419 U.S. 477, 488 (1975). \textsuperscript{61} 409 U.S. 1 (1972) (per curiam). Court essentially avoided ruling in this case by pointing to the fact that the Convention would be meeting in only days and that the delegate dispute could be settled there. Five Justices in O'Brien indicated that this was something of a political matter that the courts had traditionally avoided.$^{62}$ The Court squarely faced this issue three years later in Cousins v. Wigoda, in which it decided that national party rules prevail over contrary state laws.$^{63}$ In Cousins, the Court was not convinced that state regulation of the delegate selection process implicated compelling state interests.$^{64}$ Instead, the Justices stressed the importance of free association for political parties.$^{65}$ The Cousins decision appeared to settle this question for some years.$^{66}$ Occasionally, however, a federal judge questioned whether Cousins meant that any national party rules necessarily prevail over state law.$^{67}$ The most recent federal decisions in this area have struck state laws attempting to regulate selection of party delegates to national conventions unless there is a clear conflict with national party rules.$^{68}$ $^{62}$ Id. at 4-5. $^{63}$ 419 U.S. 477 (1975). $^{64}$ Id. at 489-91. $^{65}$ Id. at 478-88. $^{66}$ See, e.g., Democratic Party of United States v. Wisconsin ex rel. LaFollette, 450 U.S. 107, 124-26 (1981) (upholding power of a national party to refuse to seat delegates chosen under the state law of which the party disapproved); Ripon Soc'y v. National Republican Party, 525 F.2d 567 (D.C. Cir. 1975) (en banc), cert. denied, 424 U.S. 922 (1976) (holding that national party’s delegate allocation formula need not conform strictly to Equal Protection requirements); Ferency v. Austin, 493 F. Supp. 683, 691, 697-99 (W.D. Mich. 1980) (holding that a state cannot control the selection of national party delegates because a party primary is not an “election” under state law); Fallon v. State Bd. of Elections of New York, 408 F. Supp. 636 (S.D.N.Y. 1976) (upholding state law regulating ballot preferences of delegates because national party rules deferred to states on that matter); Totten v. State Bd. of Elections, 403 N.E.2d 225, 228-29 (Ill. 1980) (recognizing that parties have certain rights of free association though these may be limited by state law). $^{67}$ See, e.g., Montano v. Lefkowitz, 575 F.2d 378, 384 (2d Cir. 1978); Fallon, 408 F. Supp. at 638 n.3. $^{68}$ Rockefeller v. Powers, 74 F.3d 1367, 1374-75 (2d Cir. 1995); Heitmanis v. Austin, 899 F.2d 521, 529 (6th Cir. 1990). Given the Court's decision in Cousins, this corner of state regulation of political parties appears to be fairly well-settled. While recognizing the existence of some state interests in these situations, the federal courts have come down almost uniformly on the side of the national party rules. Part of the courts' rationale in these cases stems from a deference to the national party organizations or at least a sense that individual states should not hamper the national party organizations. My trichotomous scheme makes no distinction between the "internal" concerns of state parties as opposed to their national brethren. On a theoretical basis, it seems that the desire to preserve the private side of state and local party activity should be sufficient, in itself, to keep state regulation out of the delegate selection process. However, as the previous section showed, the states have regularly been more successful at securing judicial sanction to regulate internal matters of their own state party organizations. C. State Laws Regulating Party Endorsements States have long regulated the ability of their state party committees to give public endorsements to candidates running in the parties' primary elections.$^{69}$ This topic closely touches the internal decision-making process of political parties in what is arguably their most important function: the nomination of candidates for public office. While it could easily be argued that primary endorsements by parties implicate the electoral process, and thus important state interests, this Article will treat the matter as one internal to political parties.$^{70}$ $^{69}$ Party endorsements are either indicated on the primary ballot, most commonly by location of the candidate's name, or are expressed "off-ballot" by party officials. Some states have tried to ban primary endorsements outright while others have sought to limit when and how party committees may render their endorsements. $^{70}$ Most courts seem to agree that this is largely an internal party matter. See, e.g., Abrams v. Reno, 452 F. Supp. 1166, 1170 (S.D. Fla. 1978); Fahey v. Darigan, 405 F. Supp. 1386, 1393 (D.R.I. 1975); Gosz v. Quattrocchi, 448 A.2d 135, 137 (R.I. 1982). These cases usually raise issues of free speech and equal protection as well as free association. The free speech claims arise from situations where a state tries to limit sharply or bar entirely endorsements by party officials or committees. Some courts have construed these as prior restraints and thus usually strike them as unconstitutional.\textsuperscript{71} The Equal Protection issue is less clear. Most courts appear to treat the endorsement process as a private party matter that does not implicate the “state action” required for application of Fourteenth Amendment equal protection.\textsuperscript{72} Only a few cases, beginning in the mid-1960s, have dealt directly with primary endorsements by parties. Most of these cases have upheld the ability of political parties to render such endorsements, often on the basis that this party activity is \textit{not} an integral part of the election scheme.\textsuperscript{73} At least one other court has rejected state efforts to regulate primary endorsements as unconstitutional prior restraints on First Amendment free expression.\textsuperscript{74} In those few instances where such state laws have been upheld, court have usually required a showing of compelling state interest.\textsuperscript{75} The most extended and definitive discussion of this issue came from the Supreme Court in its 1989 landmark decision in \textit{Eu v. San Francisco County Democratic Central Committee}.\textsuperscript{76} The \textit{Eu} Court struck California’s ban on party endorsements as violative of free speech because it inhibited the ability of parties to communicate recommendations to their members as to which candidates best represented the parties’ ideology.\textsuperscript{77} Applying strict scrutiny to the California law, the Court found that the asserted state interests of “party stability” and prevention of “voter confusion” were not \begin{itemize} \item \textsuperscript{71} See, e.g., \textit{Abrams}, 452 F. Supp. at 1170. \item \textsuperscript{72} See, e.g., \textit{Gosz}, 448 A.2d at 137-38; \textit{Gallant v. LaFrance}, 222 A.2d 567, 570 (R.I. 1966). \item \textsuperscript{73} \textit{Fahey}, 405 F. Supp. at 1391; \textit{Gallant}, 222 A.2d at 570. \item \textsuperscript{74} \textit{Abrams}, 452 F. Supp. at 1171-72. \item \textsuperscript{75} See, e.g., \textit{Gosz}, 448 A.2d at 137-38 (holding that the strict scrutiny standard should be applied to the legislative modification of existing district committees, and this legislative intrusion was justified by a compelling state interest—the reapportionment of the General Assembly). \item \textsuperscript{76} 498 U.S. 214, 222-29 (1989). \item \textsuperscript{77} \textit{Id.} at 223. \end{itemize} sufficiently compelling to justify their burden on free association.\textsuperscript{78} In fact, the Court concluded that a party primary was an “ideal forum” for the resolution of intra-party disputes.\textsuperscript{79} As the reviewed case law indicates, the courts have made some progress in establishing general guidelines for the most commonly occurring fact situations in this area. But an explicit linking of these isolated lines of cases to one another under a common rationale is necessary. This can be done by grouping these decisions together under the rubric of their common element, namely the implication of the party’s internal structure or decision-making processes. Under my tripartite model, this area of party life should be accorded the greatest leeway by the states. The courts should bolster and preserve this party independence through application of the most demanding constitutional hurdles. Most case law touching on internal party structure, regulation of party delegate selection, or primary endorsements has favored party independence by upholding its First Amendment rights. This judicial tendency needs to be reiterated more firmly and state regulation of parties steered to other aspects of party behavior. The courts must identify the regulation of internal party matters as a class that raises important First Amendment rights and triggers rigorous constitutional standards such as the compelling interest test. V. ADJUDICATION OF THE ELECTORAL ACTIVITIES OF PARTIES This Part will review and extrapolate from those federal court decisions that have adjudicated party activities relating to the electoral process. State regulatory efforts in this area are distinct from those discussed in the preceding section that attempted to regulate the internal activities of parties. The admixture of state and party interests in this second set of cases is qualitatively different from the first and more complex. The interests of the state in regulating parties’ (public) electoral activities are much greater than in the regulation of their internal (private) operations. The courts \textsuperscript{78} \textit{Id.} at 227-28. \textsuperscript{79} \textit{Id.} at 227 (quoting Storer v. Brown, 415 U.S. 724, 735 (1974)). have recognized important, sometimes even compelling, state interests in regulating election-related functions of their parties. Some of the state interests asserted over the years have included integrity of the electoral process,\textsuperscript{80} maintenance of the two-party system,\textsuperscript{81} avoidance of voter confusion,\textsuperscript{82} prevention of intra-party friction,\textsuperscript{83} maintenance of political stability,\textsuperscript{84} and preservation of the fair ballot access for candidates and political parties.\textsuperscript{85} In the substantial body of case law on this topic, the courts have struggled to balance these state interests in the administration of the electoral process with the First Amendment rights of political parties and their members.\textsuperscript{86} It is now well-established that state regulation of elections can impinge First Amendment rights of free association.\textsuperscript{87} However, the precise extent to which states may regulate parties' electoral activities without violating these rights remains particularly vague. \textsuperscript{80} See, e.g., Kusper v. Pontikes, 414 U.S. 51, 59-60 (1973) (recognizing that a state may have a legitimate interest in curtailing raiding—the "practice whereby voters in sympathy with one party vote in another's primary in order to distort that primary's results"). \textsuperscript{81} See, e.g., Tashjian v. Republican Party of Conn., 479 U.S. 208, 222-25 (1986). \textsuperscript{82} See, e.g., Eu v. San Francisco County Democratic Cent. Comm., 489 U.S. 214, 226 (1989); Tashjian, 479 U.S. at 220-22; Anderson v. Celebrezze, 460 U.S. 780, 796 (1983); Bullock v. Carter, 405 U.S. 134, 145 (1972). \textsuperscript{83} See, e.g., Eu, 489 U.S. at 227-28; Tashjian, 479 U.S. at 224; Democratic Party of the United States v. Wisconsin ex rel. LaFollette, 450 U.S. 107, 124 (1981). \textsuperscript{84} See, e.g., Eu, 489 U.S. at 226; Storer v. Brown, 415 U.S. 724, 736 (1974). \textsuperscript{85} See, e.g., Storer, 415 U.S. at 733; Bullock, 405 U.S. at 145. \textsuperscript{86} Marchioro v. Chaney, 442 U.S. 191 (1979); Kusper v. Pontikes, 414 U.S. 51, 57 (1973) (recognizing that "in exercising their [States] powers of supervision over elections and in setting qualifications for voters, the States may not infringe upon basic constitutional protections"); Bullock, 405 U.S. at 135; Dunn v. Blumstein, 405 U.S. 330, 345 (1972); Kramer v. Union Sch. Dist., 395 U.S. 621 (1969); Carrington v. Rash, 380 U.S. 89 (1965). Of course, the Constitution entrusts most of the administration of the electoral process to the states. U.S. CONST. art. I, § 2, art. II, § 1. See also Kusper, 414 U.S. at 57. \textsuperscript{87} Kusper, 414 U.S. at 57 (citing Williams v. Rhodes, 393 U.S. 23, 30 (1968)). In recent years, courts have struck down a wide range of state laws regulating electoral matters because of the burden they placed on parties' First Amendment rights. Some of the situations where state laws have been struck include statutes requiring that parties hold only closed primaries,$^{88}$ barring voters from participating in a primary if they had voted in another party's primary in the preceding 23 months,$^{89}$ requiring new parties to gather 25,000 signatures to get on the ballot,$^{90}$ and requiring parties to hold and fund primary elections.$^{91}$ However, the courts have upheld many electoral regulations as well, including laws requiring a one-year non-affiliation requirement for candidates intending to run as independents,$^{92}$ specifying ballot access requirements,$^{93}$ and specifying voter qualifications.$^{94}$ The courts have tended to focus narrowly on the facts of each case in this area without much success in creating workable standards for this class of litigation. Given the great variety of circumstances in which election laws can affect the associational rights of parties, it is not surprising that the courts have not been able to develop more satisfying standards. In most cases it is simply a matter of the degree of infringement on First Amendment rights. The Supreme Court has struck those state laws that present a "significant encroachment" on associational rights,$^{95}$ or when the legislation "unnecessarily burden[s] or restrict[s] [a] constitutionally protected liberty."$^{96}$ But there is little more in the way of judicial guidance here. $^{88}$ Tashjian, 479 U.S. at 208. $^{89}$ Kusper, 414 U.S. at 68-69. $^{90}$ Norman v. Reed, 502 U.S. 279, 295-96 (1992). $^{91}$ Republican Party of Ark. v. Faulkner County, 49 F.3d 1289 (8th Cir. 1995). $^{92}$ See, e.g., Colorado Libertarian Party v. Secretary of State, 817 P.2d 998 (Colo. 1991). $^{93}$ McLaughlin v. North Carolina Bd. of Elections, 65 F.3d 1215 (4th Cir. 1995). $^{94}$ See, e.g., Nader v. Schaffer, 417 F. Supp. 837 (D. Conn. 1976). $^{95}$ Kusper v. Pontikes, 414 U.S. 51, 58 (1973) (citing Bates v. Little Rock, 361 U.S. 516, 523 (1960)); NAACP v. Alabama, 357 U.S. at 462 (1958). $^{96}$ Kusper, 414 U.S. at 59; (citing Dunn v. Blumstein, 405 U.S. 330, 343 (1972)). As many states have expanded their regulation of the electoral process, the question of balancing these laws with the First Amendment rights of parties has become more pressing. While party claims to independence and privacy are on weaker foundations, my trichotomous formula calls for some balancing of the public and private interests even here. At a minimum, the courts should establish more precise guidelines to preserve a balance among the competing interests in this area of the law. The remainder of this section draws several distinctions that will help establish a bright line boundary between the interests of the states and the political parties in electoral activities. These refinements should help both courts and state legislatures more easily identify where state interests end and party rights begin. This, in turn, should help preserve the delicate balance in this area. These distinctions grow out of existing case law, but have never been made explicit nor linked to one another in a coherent scheme to balance the competing political interests. The first of these distinctions draws upon the existence of two electoral phases in most American elections: the primary (party) elections and the general election. A second and related recommendation concerns the much-litigated issue of ballot access. Finally, court opinions construing the rights of third or minor political parties will be drawn upon for further lessons. A. General Elections versus Primary Elections One of the most obvious places to draw a relatively clear line in state regulation of party behavior is between the primary election and general election phases. Although both are parts of the larger selection process, the primary phase can certainly be seen as implicating greater party interests of association and free speech than the general election process, since it is essentially an intra-party affair. Under my trichotomous formula set forth above, it would be expected that state regulation of primary elections would have to pass a slightly higher judicial standard than state regulation of general elections. Surprisingly, few federal courts have made much of the distinction between primary and general elections, or given much consideration to developing separate standards for each phase.\textsuperscript{97} One reason for this may be that most electoral disputes involve only one phase or the other, eliminating the need to compare standards between the two stages. Another reason may simply be the early history of federal adjudication of party primaries. Most of these early cases were aimed at striking racially exclusive practices in some party primaries.\textsuperscript{98} These decisions have tended to emphasize the view that primaries were simply part of the larger electoral process and thus subject to state regulation and federal constitutional standards. Substantial case law exists to support the position that the two electoral phases be treated similarly on the belief that both implicate state action.\textsuperscript{99} Most judges have tended to recognize the traditional state interests raised in cases regulating the electoral process without regard to whether a primary or general election was involved.\textsuperscript{100} One of the rare exceptions came in the 1983 Supreme Court decision in \textit{Anderson v. Celebrezze},\textsuperscript{101} where the Court struck down Ohio's early filing deadline as a violation of the voting and associational rights of supporters of an independent presidential candidate. For the majority, Justice Stevens made reference to the existence of a different set of state interests necessary to justify regulation of party primaries as opposed to general elections.\textsuperscript{102} In dissent, Justice Rehnquist charged that the majority was making this distinction simply to avoid certain precedents.\textsuperscript{103} \textsuperscript{97} Originally, the Supreme Court refused to consider the primary phase as a part of the electoral process. \textit{Newberry v. United States}, 256 U.S. 232, 250 (1921). \textsuperscript{98} \textit{See, e.g.,} Terry v. Adams, 345 U.S. 461 (1952); Smith v. Allwright, 321 U.S. 649 (1944). \textsuperscript{99} \textit{See} Moore v. Ogilvie, 394 U.S. 814, 818 (1969); Gray v. Sanders, 372 U.S. 368, 374-75 (1963); United States v. Classic, 313 U.S. 299, 316-19 (1941); Nader, 417 F. Supp. at 842. \textsuperscript{100} \textit{See, e.g.,} American Constitutional Law Found. v. Meyer, 120 F.3d 1092, 1097 (10th Cir. 1997). \textsuperscript{101} 460 U.S. 780 (1983). \textsuperscript{102} \textit{Id.} at 788 n.9, 802 n.29. \textsuperscript{103} \textit{Id.} at 817-18 (Rehnquist, J. dissenting). In particular, Justice Rehnquist referred to the Court's decision in \textit{Storer v. Brown}, which upheld a state law imposing an even earlier filing deadline than at issue in \textit{Anderson}, finding that the motivation, this minor dispute is one of the rare instances in which some members of the Supreme Court recognized a distinction in the constitutional treatment that should be accorded primary and general election stages. However, the sharpest Supreme Court discussion of the possibility that the nomination process should be treated differently arose in the context of the applicability of the Voting Rights Act of 1965\textsuperscript{104} to party nominating conventions. In its 1996 decision in \textit{Morse v. Republican Party of Virginia},\textsuperscript{105} a bare majority ruled that the preclearance provision in section 5 of the 1965 Act\textsuperscript{106} applied to an effort by a state party to charge a “registration fee” for participation in its nominating convention. In three dissenting opinions,\textsuperscript{107} the conservative wing of the Court argued that parties are not “political subdivisions” of the state to which section 5 preclearance applies.\textsuperscript{108} The Court continued by saying that the parties are not “state actors,”\textsuperscript{109} a primary registration fee is not “voting” for section 5 preclearance purposes,\textsuperscript{110} and that a blanket application of section 5 preclearance to nominating processes would force the parties to preclear all of their internal procedures.\textsuperscript{111} In a concurrence by Justice Breyer,\textsuperscript{112} three members of the Court’s majority in \textit{Morse} believed that section 5 preclearance was only applicable to “certain activities of political parties, such as nominating activities.”\textsuperscript{113} Despite the ruling in \textit{Morse}, it \begin{itemize} \item it was supported by a compelling state interest in political “stability.” 415 U.S. 724, 736 (1974). \end{itemize} \textsuperscript{104} Pub. L. No. 89-110, 79 Stat. 437 (1965) (codified as amended at 42 U.S.C. §§ 1973-1975 (1994)). \textsuperscript{105} 517 U.S. 186 (1996). \textsuperscript{106} 42 U.S.C. § 1973c. \textsuperscript{107} 517 U.S. 186, 241-47 (1996) (Scalia, J., dissenting); \textit{id.} at 247-52 (Kennedy, J., dissenting); \textit{id.} at 253-91 (Thomas, J., dissenting). \textsuperscript{108} \textit{Id.} at 252-76 (Thomas, J., dissenting). \textsuperscript{109} \textit{Id.} at 248-51 (Kennedy, J., dissenting). \textsuperscript{110} \textit{Id.} at 276-80 (Thomas, J., dissenting). \textsuperscript{111} \textit{Id.} at 244 (Scalia, J., dissenting). \textsuperscript{112} \textit{Id.} at 235-45 (Breyer, J., concurring). \textsuperscript{113} \textit{Id.} at 238 (Breyer, J., concurring). Justice Breyer lists a number of party activities that appear to lie beyond section 5 preclearance: adoption of party resolutions and platforms; rules governing internal party operations; changes in does appear from the five opinions in that case that at least seven members of the present court continue to have serious reservations regarding the encroachment of federal regulations on party activity in light of the important First Amendment rights involved.\textsuperscript{114} An explicit distinction should be drawn and maintained between the two phases of the election cycle. Such a distinction grows easily from the trichotomous model set forth earlier and would establish a sharper delimitation of both party independence and government regulatory interests. This would help stabilize the First Amendment rights of parties and their members while preserving a major role for government regulation to prevent party abuse of their electoral responsibilities. The distinction between the nomination and general election phases could be strengthened if the Court required a somewhat higher standard than that applied to state laws that regulate the nomination process. Unless racial discrimination was alleged, the burden of proof should fall initially on the government in those cases where it seeks to regulate parties in carrying out their nominating function. State legislation regulating party primaries or conventions would thus have to be supported by a showing of a “substantial state interest.” In contrast, state regulation of the general election phase would be presumed constitutional, with the burden of proof falling on the challengers to show an “arbitrary and capricious” government action. This proposed tightening of the standards would enhance the distinction between these two electoral phases, one essentially an \textit{intra}-party affair, the other a public, \textit{inter}-party dispute. This approach has the advantage of being theoretically justifiable in that it helps balance the competing political values in this area of the law. It would also be workable in practice in that it is based on two relatively identifiable and distinct processes. This would also likely produce more uniform and predictable court decisions in this field. In fact, there is probably no easier place to identify where \textsuperscript{114} The seven are Chief Justices Rehnquist, and Justices O’Connor, Scalia, Kennedy, Souter, Thomas, and Breyer. individual rights of First Amendment association end and government or public interests in a fair and open political system begin. The current state of the case law is simply too uncertain—in large part because of the courts’ unwillingness to clearly separate the two electoral phases from one another. Recent case law seldom makes an explicit distinction between the two stages, inviting continued growth of state regulatory power with no clear stopping point. Given the special problems and history of racial exclusion in partisan affairs, it will probably prove necessary to continue to permit greater government supervision of even the primary phase when racial discrimination is alleged. To this end, the Morse decision extending section 5 preclearance to certain party nominating actions might prove wise. However, in those cases not involving race, a return to the pre-1940s position that primaries and general elections be treated differently would enhance predictability and further a balance between the competing values. B. State Laws Regulating Ballot Access for Third Parties Most states have a statutory scheme that regulates their electoral processes by controlling access to their election ballot. These statutes typically include various requirements that parties or candidates must fulfill in order to secure a place on an election ballot. Some of the most common of these are filing fees,\textsuperscript{115} disaffiliation requirements for independent candidates,\textsuperscript{116} signature requirements,\textsuperscript{117} and minimal prior electoral support.\textsuperscript{118} The enacting state typically justifies such regulations on grounds of protecting the “integrity” of the party system,\textsuperscript{119} fostering the \textsuperscript{115} See, e.g., CAL. ELEC. CODE § 8103 (West 1996); Fla. Stat. Ann. § 99.061 (West Supp. 1998). \textsuperscript{116} See, e.g., CAL. ELEC. CODE § 8301 (West 1996). \textsuperscript{117} See, e.g., CAL. ELEC. CODE § 8400 (West 1996); Fla. Stat. Ann. §§ 99.0955, 99.096 (West Supp. 1998); N.Y. ELEC. LAW §§ 6-136, 6-142 (McKinney 1998). \textsuperscript{118} See, e.g., CAL. ELEC. CODE § 5100 (West 1996); Fla. Stat. Ann. § 99.0955(2) (West Supp. 1998); N.Y. ELEC. LAW § 6-142 (McKinney 1998). \textsuperscript{119} See Storer v. Brown, 415 U.S. 724, 733 (1974) (citing Jenness v. Fortson, 403 U.S. 431, 442 (1971)); American Party of Tex. v. White, 415 U.S. 767, 786 (1974); Thournir v. Meyer, 909 F.2d 408, 411 (10th Cir. 1990). efficient processing of petitions,\textsuperscript{120} preventing “laundry lists” of candidates,\textsuperscript{121} minimizing voter confusion,\textsuperscript{122} discouraging frivolous candidates who are not serious,\textsuperscript{123} and promoting fair, honest and orderly elections.\textsuperscript{124} These state regulatory efforts tend to fall disproportionately on “minor” or third political parties, and on independent candidates.\textsuperscript{125} But these state electoral schemes also affect the major parties indirectly in that they structure the competitiveness of the electoral terrain. Ballot access legislation often determines the number and strength of competing parties and independent candidates in a state’s political life. Constitutional challenges to such state laws have proven somewhat revealing of judicial attitudes on the relative importance of party independence and the need for state regulation of parties. There is a substantial body of federal case law dealing with state efforts to control access to election ballots. Generally, the courts have judged these statutes by assessing whether they impermissibly burden First Amendment rights of free speech or association, or whether they violate the Equal Protection Clause by discriminating against minor parties.\textsuperscript{126} It appears settled that the right of candidates to participate in primaries is not fundamental \textsuperscript{120} See Tarpley v. Salerno, 803 F.2d 57, 60 (2d Cir. 1986). \textsuperscript{121} Variously referred to as causing fragmentation of the ballot or “ballot flooding.” See Thournir v. Meyer, 708 F. Supp. 1183 (D. Colo. 1989), aff’d, 909 F.2d 408 (10th Cir. 1990); Consumer Party v. Davis, 633 F. Supp. 877, 887 (E.D. Pa. 1986). \textsuperscript{122} See Lubin v. Panish, 415 U.S. 709, 712 (1974); Bullock v. Carter, 405 U.S. 134, 144-45 (1972). \textsuperscript{123} See, e.g., Storer, 415 U.S. at 735. \textsuperscript{124} See Libertarian Party of Okla. v. Oklahoma State Election Bd., 593 F. Supp. 118, 121 (D. Okla. 1984). \textsuperscript{125} See Lee Epstein and Charles Hadley, \textit{On the Treatment of Political Parties in the U.S. Supreme Court, 1900-1986}, 52 J. OF POLS. 413-32 (1990); Bradley Smith, \textit{Judicial Protection of Ballot-Access Rights: Third Parties Need Not Apply}, 28 HARV. J. ON LEGIS. 167, 167-217 (1991). Often, the two major parties enjoy a statutorily privileged position on state ballots. In some states, several parties are given a privileged ballot position by statute. See, e.g., CAL. ELEC. CODE §§ 7050-7881 (West 1996). \textsuperscript{126} See, e.g., Consumer Party, 633 F. Supp. at 885. like the right to vote.\textsuperscript{127} An occasional judge has called for the creation of an “exception” for third parties which would make it easier for them to challenge state ballot access laws.\textsuperscript{128} However, the Supreme Court in the landmark \textit{Buckley v. Valeo} decision was unwilling to create a “blanket exemption” for third political parties, although the Court indicated that greater flexibility should be accorded third parties seeking to prove injury from state ballot regulations.\textsuperscript{129} Over the years, the courts have resorted to a variety of review standards for judging state ballot access regulations.\textsuperscript{130} The Supreme Court’s 1983 decision in \textit{Anderson v. Celebrezze} set forth a “balancing test” that runs from strict scrutiny to rational basis analysis.\textsuperscript{131} Under the \textit{Anderson} test, strict scrutiny is applied only if it is first determined that protected rights are “severely burdened;” otherwise the magnitude of the burden on the minor party is balanced against the asserted interests of the state.\textsuperscript{132} Subsequent handling by courts of ballot access disputes have tried to \textsuperscript{127} American Party of Tex. v. White, 415 U.S. 767, 781 (1974); Bullock, 405 U.S. at 142-43; Thournir v. Meyer, 909 F.2d 408, 412 (10th Cir. 1990); City of Akron v. Beil, 660 F.2d 166, 169 (6th Cir. 1981). \textsuperscript{128} See, e.g., Buckley v. Valeo, 519 F.2d 821, 907-12 (D.C. Cir. 1975) (Bazelon, C.J., concurring in part and dissenting in part), aff’d in part, rev’d in part, 424 U.S. 1 (1976). \textsuperscript{129} 424 U.S. 1, 74 (1976). \textsuperscript{130} Compare, e.g., Illinois State Bd. of Elections v. Socialist Workers Party, 440 U.S. 173 (1979) (applying strict scrutiny); Storer v. Brown, 415 U.S. 724 (1974) (same); Williams v. Rhodes, 393 U.S. 23 (1968) (same), with Jenness v. Fortson, 403 U.S. 431 (1971) (favoring rational relationship test), and with American Party of Tex. v. White, 415 U.S. 767 (1974) (applying a mix of strict and minimal scrutiny). See Clements v. Fashing, 457 U.S. 957, 965-66 (1982) (limiting strict scrutiny to ballot access laws based on wealth). See also Consumer Party, 633 F. Supp. at 885 n.9; Colorado Libertarian Party v. Secretary of State, 817 P.2d 998, 1001-02 (Colo. 1991); TRIBE, supra note 7, § 13-20. \textsuperscript{131} 460 U.S. 780, 787-90 (1983). This test is applicable to both First Amendment and Equal Protection challenges to ballot access legislation. \textsuperscript{132} Id. at 789. The Supreme Court has since restated this strict scrutiny test. See, e.g., Burdick v. Takushi, 504 U.S. 428, 433-34 (1992); Tashjian v. Republican Party of Conn., 479 U.S. 208, 213-14 (1986). apply this test and to answer when each part of this test is applicable.\textsuperscript{133} In so doing, federal courts have identified a variety of state laws that “severely burden” First Amendment rights and thus have subjected them to strict scrutiny.\textsuperscript{134} Other state laws have been found to impose only “reasonable, non-discriminatory” burdens on First Amendment rights and thus need only be supported by important regulatory interests of the state.\textsuperscript{135} The two most recent Supreme Court cases on ballot access have restated the two-tier Anderson test for judging state ballot access laws.\textsuperscript{136} State regulation of parties’ electoral behavior generally falls within the middle tier of my three-way division where the interests of the parties and those of the state are both substantial. This situation appears to indicate that some form of balancing test would be most appropriate. However, state ballot access laws are somewhat unusual in that they typically fall most heavily on third \textsuperscript{133} See, e.g., Burdick, 504 U.S. at 432-440; Norman v. Reed, 502 U.S. 279, 288-90 (1992); McLaughlin v. North Carolina Bd. of Elections, 65 F.3d 1215, 1221 (4th Cir. 1995); Fulani v. Krivanek, 973 F.2d 1539, 1542-44 (11th Cir. 1992); Colorado Libertarian Party, 817 P.2d at 1001-02. \textsuperscript{134} See, e.g., Norman, 502 U.S. at 288-90 (finding state law requiring new party to gather 25,000 signatures violative of the First Amendment under a strict scrutiny analysis); Brown v. Socialist Workers ’74 Campaign Comm., 459 U.S. 87, 95-98 (1982) (declaring California statute requiring independent candidates to be politically disaffiliated for one year prior to primary election constitutional because it reflected a compelling state interest protecting the electoral process); Workers World Party v. Vigil-Giron, 693 F. Supp. 989, 994-97 (D.N.M. 1988) (holding state law requiring party membership of all signatories to party ballot access petition violative of First Amendment). \textsuperscript{135} See, e.g., McLaughlin, 65 F.3d at 1221-26 (upholding state law requiring petitions with 2% of voters’ signatures for a party to secure ballot access after balancing state and party interests); Lightfoot v. Eu, 964 F.2d 865, 868-69 (9th Cir. 1992) (upholding state law requiring parties to nominate candidates by direct primary and to show support before appearing on general election ballot applying strict scrutiny); Libertarian Party of Fla. v. Smith, 687 So. 2d 1292, 1295 (Fla. 1996) (upholding a statutory ban on fee rebates for minor parties because it furthered state interests by preventing factionalism and discouraging third parties); Colorado Libertarian Party, 817 P.2d at 1001-05 (holding that state’s 12-month unaffiliation requirement did not violate third party’s rights of free association). \textsuperscript{136} Burdick, 504 U.S. at 433-34; Norman, 502 U.S. at 288-90. political parties. This situation might be solved by applying the balancing portion of the Anderson test to ballot access laws which do not fall disproportionately on third parties, while reserving strict scrutiny analysis for regulations that disadvantage third parties. This would allow the courts to continue to balance state interests and party First Amendment rights, but to hold discriminatory regulations to strict scrutiny under the Equal Protection Clause. Thus, the choice of the proper constitutional test should turn on whether the case involved First Amendment rights or equal protection concerns, rather than on whether the regulation "severely burdened" ballot access as in Anderson and its progeny. This approach would not only produce clearer application of constitutional standards, but would also preserve a more appropriate balance between state and party interests. An additional benefit would be to accord greater protection to third parties in our system. A number of federal courts have recognized the significance that third parties play in our democracy.\textsuperscript{137} Adoption of my standard would further this political ideal. Though the two major parties deserve some protection from excessive electoral regulations, their claim is not nearly as compelling as that of minor political parties. VI. ADJUDICATION OF PARTY ACTIONS IN GOVERNMENT Although American parties are seldom seen as "entering" government in the same sense as their European counterparts, their elected officials usually continue to act as partisans once they are in office. This final Part will review and extrapolate the judicial application of constitutional standards to the actions of political \textsuperscript{137} See, e.g., \textit{Brown}, 459 U.S. at 92-93 (holding that Ohio's disclosure requirements could not constitutionally be applied to the Socialist Workers Party, a minor political party); Illinois State Bd. of Elections v. Socialist Workers Party, 440 U.S. 173, 185-86 (1979) (holding Illinois Election Code requiring new political parties to obtain more than 25,000 signatures in Chicago unconstitutional); Ripon Soc'y v. National Republican Party, 525 F.2d 567, 584 (D.C. Cir. 1975). Cf. Buckley v. Valeo, 519 F.2d 821, 907-12 (D.C. Cir. 1975) (Bazelon, C.J., concurring in part and dissenting in part) (disagreeing with the majority's conclusion that applying disclosure requirements to minor parties does not violate the constitution), \textit{aff'd in part, rev'd in part}, 424 U.S. 1 (1976). parties once they have won public office. The major area of Supreme Court activity here has been in the adjudication of various patronage activities of parties, particularly the efforts by newly-elected officials to replace non-partisans with their fellow partisans in appointed government positions. The other major area of attention has been to those instances where parties, through their elected members, engage in the partisan gerrymandering of electoral districts. In terms of my tripartite model, once a party has moved "into government" it must necessarily surrender much of the private side of its existence. Indeed, once the party—or its partisans—are in power they are the government from which other parties need protection. As part of the governmental apparatus, the incumbent party no longer needs protection from government intervention. Instead, it is other political parties and non-partisans who may need judicial protection from the party in power. Therefore, in contrast to the regulation of party internal organization or party behavior in the electoral arena, party actions in government should receive the least constitutional protection. Put in terms of my trichotomy, the incumbent party officials represent almost none of the private side of parties. Concurrently, the public interest in regulating partisan activity is clearly great given the policy-making power of the incumbent party through its partisans.$^{138}$ A. Partisan Gerrymandering Comparatively few modern federal cases have dealt directly with partisan gerrymandering by the party in power. Most cases involving legislative gerrymandering by state legislatures have been --- $^{138}$ In terms of the constitutional rights, there is also an important distinction between political parties based on whether they are in or out of power. In those cases dealing with parties out of office, the constitutional focus has frequently been on the rights of the party and its members to associate with whom they please and to exclude those with whom they do not wish to associate for political reasons. But, when dealing with parties in government, the courts have often emphasized the individual rights of those government officials who choose not to associate with the reigning party. based on racial motives rather than partisan ones.\textsuperscript{139} The Supreme Court has been increasingly intolerant of racial motivations in this area and has erected stiff constitutional standards to deal with such cases under the Equal Protection Clause.\textsuperscript{140} However, where party politics rather than race is the motivation the courts have often been reluctant to become involved.\textsuperscript{141} For years the Court refused to become directly involved in cases of political or partisan gerrymandering as long as the districts drawn were “equipopulous.”\textsuperscript{142} For some time, the Court treated this as another topic which was too “political” for adjudication. For instance, in its 1973 decision in \textit{Gaffney v. Cummings}, the Court upheld a blatantly partisan gerrymander of Connecticut’s legislative districts, noting that “[p]olitics and political considerations are inseparable from districting and apportionment.”\textsuperscript{143} The major Supreme Court landmark in the area of political gerrymandering since \textit{Gaffney} is the Court’s 1986 decision in \textit{Davis} \textsuperscript{139} Major gerrymandering cases involving race, including those seeking to create majority-minority electoral districts, include: \textit{United States v. Hays}, 515 U.S. 737 (1995); \textit{Shaw v. Reno}, 509 U.S. 630 (1993); \textit{Voinovich v. Quilter}, 507 U.S. 146 (1993); \textit{Thornburg v. Gingles}, 478 U.S. 30 (1986); \textit{City of Mobile v. Bolden}, 446 U.S. 55 (1980); \textit{United Jewish Organizations v. Carey}, 430 U.S. 144 (1977); \textit{White v. Regester}, 412 U.S. 755 (1973); \textit{Whitcomb v. Chavis}, 403 U.S. 124 (1971); \textit{Burns v. Richardson}, 384 U.S. 73 (1966); \textit{Fortson v. Dorsey}, 379 U.S. 433 (1965) and \textit{Gomillion v. Lightfoot}, 364 U.S. 339 (1960). \textsuperscript{140} The most recent cases on the use of race to draw congressional district lines are \textit{Miller v. Johnson}, 515 U.S. 900 (1995) and \textit{Shaw v. Reno}, 509 U.S. 630 (1993). See also Andrew Gelman & Gary King, \textit{Enhancing Democracy Through Legislative Redistricting}, 88 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 541 (1994). \textsuperscript{141} See \textit{Davis v. Bandemer}, 478 U.S. 109, 120-21 (1986) (holding that partisan gerrymandering cases are justiciable under the Equal Protection Clause provided that a prima facie case is made by a strong representation of discriminatory vote dilution). \textsuperscript{142} John P. Ludington, Annotation, \textit{Constitutionality of State Legislative Apportionment—Supreme Court Cases}, 77 L. Ed. 2d 1496, 1514 (1985) (defining “equipopulous gerrymandering” as “districting that satisfies the one person-one vote requirement yet is discriminating toward an identifiable group of voters” (citing Richard L. Engstrom, \textit{The Supreme Court and Equipopulous Gerrymandering: A Remaining Obstacle in the Quest for Fair and Effective Representation}, 1996 ARIZ. ST. L.J. 277, 278)). \textsuperscript{143} 412 U.S. 735, 753 (1973). v. Bandemer.\textsuperscript{144} In this case, the Court split badly and was able to produce only a plurality decision. Nonetheless, six members of the Court agreed that partisan gerrymandering was a justiciable matter and not barred by the political question doctrine.\textsuperscript{145} However, the Court found that in order to succeed on an Equal Protection claim, the plaintiff will have to prove \textit{both} intentional discrimination against an identifiable political group and an actual discriminatory effect on that group.\textsuperscript{146} Furthermore, plaintiffs in such cases are required to show that the alleged partisan gerrymander will consistently degrade their voters' (or group's) electoral strength in the political process as a whole and that they will have no hope of doing better in future elections.\textsuperscript{147} Thus, though justiciable, instances of political gerrymandering carry a very heavy burden of proof. Although the \textit{Bandemer} case was based on an Equal Protection analysis, it does offer some indication that at least three members of the Court were concerned with preserving some degree of independence for the party system in this area. For instance, in Justice O'Connor's concurrence favoring judicial non-intervention in cases of political gerrymandering, she stated: Racial gerrymandering should remain justiciable, for the harms it engenders run counter to the central thrust of the Fourteenth Amendment. But no such justification can be given for judicial intervention on behalf of mainstream political parties, and the risks such intervention poses to our political institutions are unacceptable. 'Political affiliation is a keystone of the political trade. Race, ideally, is not.'\textsuperscript{148} Although in \textit{Bandemer}, the Court did not address First Amendment issues, these arguments have been dealt with by other lower federal courts. The leading case is a 1988 California district \begin{itemize} \item[144] 478 U.S. 109 (1986). \item[145] \textit{Id.} at 118-27. \item[146] \textit{Id.} at 127. \item[147] \textit{Id.} at 139, 141. \item[148] \textit{Id.} at 160-61 (O'Connor, J., concurring) (quoting United Jewish Orgs. v. Carey, 430 U.S. 144, 171 n.1 (1977) (Brennan, J., concurring)). \end{itemize} court opinion, Badham v. Eu.\textsuperscript{149} The Badham court dismissed a political party’s First Amendment challenge to California’s redistricting law, finding that the party was not precluded from fielding candidates under the scheme.\textsuperscript{150} The court unsympathetically noted that “[t]he First Amendment guarantees the right to participate in the political process; it does not guarantee political success.”\textsuperscript{151} To succeed on such a First Amendment claim, a party will have to show \textit{how} the redistricting plan penalized their exercise of First Amendment rights. A handful of other lower federal courts have also dealt with partisan gerrymandering and have followed the \textit{Bandemer} precedent, whether basing their decisions on the First Amendment or on the Equal Protection Clause.\textsuperscript{152} The Supreme Court’s decisions in this area erect substantial litigation barriers for plaintiffs seeking to challenge partisan gerrymandering. These decisions appear to be based on the practical difficulties inherent in proving such discrimination as well as the Court’s history of staying clear of these very political disputes. However, my tripartite model dictates that the party in power should receive little judicial protection on the basis of preserving party integrity or independence. Thus, the burden currently placed on plaintiffs in partisan gerrymandering cases should be eased. \textsuperscript{149} 694 F. Supp. 664 (N.D. Cal. 1988). \textsuperscript{150} \textit{Id.} \textsuperscript{151} \textit{Id.} at 675. \textsuperscript{152} See, e.g., LaPorte County Republican Cent. Comm. v. Board of Comm’rs, 43 F.3d 1126 (7th Cir. 1994) (holding that redistricting challenge did not state a cause of action under the Equal Protection Clause); Republican Party of N.C. v. Hunt, 841 F. Supp. 722, 732 (E.D.N.C. 1994) (dismissing Equal Protection claim); Holloway v. Hechler, 817 F. Supp. 617, 628-29 (S.D. W. Va. 1992) (dismissing First Amendment reapportionment challenge) (citing Republican Party of Va. v. Wilder, 774 F. Supp. 400, 404 (W.D. Va. 1991) (holding that Equal Protection cause of action requires both intentional discrimination and actual discriminatory effect; Badham v. Eu, 694 F. Supp. 664 (N.D. Cal. 1988))). B. Political Patronage The other major incumbent party activity to come under judicial scrutiny has been political patronage, including the hiring, firing, and harassment of governmental employees on the basis of their party affiliation. Political patronage is nearly as old as the party system itself in the United States.\textsuperscript{153} In most cases, it is more clearly a \textit{party} activity than partisan gerrymandering. It may also be more easily justified as a “necessary” party activity than partisan gerrymandering. The Supreme Court did not directly consider the constitutionality of various patronage actions of political parties until \textit{Elrod v. Burns} in 1976.\textsuperscript{154} In that case, the Court found that the partisan discharge of a county employee by a newly-elected local official was an unconstitutional violation of First Amendment free association. Four years later, the Court revisited the constitutionality of various patronage activities in \textit{Branti v. Finkel} and expanded the class of public employees enjoying First Amendment protection.\textsuperscript{155} And in 1990, the Court handed down its latest major patronage decision, \textit{Rutan v. Republican Party of Illinois}, which restricted patronage activities through still further expansion of the First Amendment free association rights of non-party government workers.\textsuperscript{156} Although these cases extended First Amendment protection to public employees, they also acknowledged that there exists a class of high-level public employees who are “policymakers” with duties that make party affiliation and loyalty appropriate \textsuperscript{153} \textit{Elrod v. Burns}, 427 U.S. 347, 353-54 (1976); \textit{Branti v. Finkel}, 445 U.S. 507, 522 n.1 (1980) (Powell, J., dissenting); \textsc{Martin Tolchin & Susan Tolchin}, \textit{To the Victor} 3-26 (1971). \textsuperscript{154} 427 U.S. 347 (1976). \textsuperscript{155} 445 U.S. 507 (1980). \textsuperscript{156} 497 U.S. 62 (1990). \textit{Rutan} extended the \textit{Elrod-Branti} rule to adverse patronage actions short of outright dismissal, including decisions as to promotion, transfer, recall after layoff, and hiring of low-level public employees on party affiliation and support. \textit{Id.} at 69-79. \textit{See} Robert C. Wigton, \textit{The Supreme Court and Political Patronage: The Rutan Decision in Context}, 2 GEO. MASON U. CIV. RTS. L.J. 273 (1992) (providing a full description of the Court’s patronage decisions). employment considerations.\textsuperscript{157} Since this time, lower federal courts have struggled to define which public employees are “policymakers” deserving of less First Amendment protection.\textsuperscript{158} Political patronage, like partisan gerrymandering, falls squarely into the third tier of my tripartite model as an activity undertaken by incumbent parties. Accordingly, the interests and rights of the parties should be at their relative lowest ebb when undertaking such patronage actions. The party in power is in need of little protection from the “State” in order to preserve its independence. Thus, cases presenting First Amendment claims against political patronage actions should give maximum presumption to the First Amendment claimant. In terms of constitutional law, the burden should shift early to the party to demonstrate the reasons for undertaking the challenged patronage actions.\textsuperscript{159} Current judicial doctrine requires that the government show a compelling interest before subjecting “non-policymakers” to partisan decisions.\textsuperscript{160} This position comports well with my model \textsuperscript{157} Rutan, 497 U.S. at 71 n.5; Elrod, 427 U.S. at 367; Branti, 445 U.S. at 517-18. \textsuperscript{158} See, e.g., Kaluczky v. City of White Plains, 57 F.3d 202, 208 (2d Cir. 1995); Vezzetti v. Pellegrini, 22 F.3d 483, 486 (2d Cir. 1994); Peters v. Delaware River Port Auth., 16 F.3d 1346, 1353-59 (3d Cir. 1994); Regan v. Boogertman, 984 F.2d 577, 579-80 (2d Cir. 1993); Zold v. Township of Mantua, 935 F.2d 633, 635 (3d Cir. 1991); Affrunti v. Zwirn, 892 F. Supp. 451, 456-60 (E.D.N.Y. 1995). The determination as to which employees are “policymakers” or “confidential” employees is based on the nature of the functions that employee performs. See Elrod, 427 U.S. at 367-68; Waskovich v. Morgano, 2 F.3d 1292, 1297 (3d Cir. 1993); Zold, 935 F.2d at 635. In particular, the courts have asked whether the individual had meaningful input into decisionmaking over the nature and scope of major government programs. See Brown v. Trench, 787 F.2d 167, 169-70 (3d Cir. 1986); Nekolny v. Painter, 653 F.2d 1164, 1170 (7th Cir. 1981). \textsuperscript{159} In these cases, the courts have typically required that the plaintiff-employee carry the burden of proof that his or her First Amendment rights have been infringed by the government employer on the basis of political affiliation. However, the government body must carry the burden to demonstrate that the employee falls within the “policymaking” exception. See Branti, 445 U.S. at 518; Elrod, 427 U.S. at 368 (requiring the government to show an “overriding interest” to secure the “policymaker” exception); Peters v. Delaware River Port Auth., 16 F.3d 1346, 1353 (3d Cir. 1994). \textsuperscript{160} See, e.g., Elrod, 427 U.S. at 360. which calls for minimal protection for party activities undertaken while they are "in government." However, the effort by the federal judiciary to create an exception to this rule for high-level "policymakers" complicates the matter. The rationale for exempting this class of employees appears to be to ensure loyalty among high-level, policy-making government workers.\textsuperscript{161} This is certainly an important ideal in a democracy and may be sufficient reason to curb this class of employees' protection from partisan actions. However, it is significant that the majority of the Court in \textit{Rutan} expressly rejected various party-preservation reasons asserted by the dissenters.\textsuperscript{162} Thus the majority does not consider the exception to be something required to strengthen or maintain political parties. \section*{Conclusions and Synthesis} It would appear from this survey of major cases that the courts have regularly drawn some distinctions between the private and public sides of American political parties. However, these efforts to delineate the two sides of political parties have usually been piecemeal and divorced from the larger theoretical concerns in this area. In the course of this Article, I have extrapolated from existing case law in order to sharpen the applicable standards, while trying to preserve a balance between the competing political values. I have identified those areas where the interests in maintaining the integrity and independence of political parties is greatest and juxtaposed the more demanding constitutional standards for adjudication of these state regulations. \textsuperscript{161} \textit{Rutan}, 497 U.S. at 74 ("A government's interest in securing employees who will loyally implement its policies can be adequately served by choosing or dismissing high-level employees on the basis of their political views."). \textsuperscript{162} \textit{Id.} at 74-75. Among the benefits of patronage cited by the \textit{Rutan} dissenters were promotion of stability in the political system, broadening the base of political participation at the local level, facilitation of the integration of weak societal groups into the political system, enhancement of party discipline and thus responsive government, limitations on "political fragmentation," preservation of the two-party system, and general strengthening of the parties. \textit{See id.} at 104-08 (Scalia, J., dissenting); \textit{Branti}, 445 U.S. at 527-32 (Powell, J., dissenting); \textit{Elrod}, 427 U.S. at 379, 382-85 (Powell, J., dissenting). My efforts to establish clearer guidelines for application of constitutional standards have been guided by the major fact distinctions that have been made in these cases. In this way, I have been able to compartmentalize certain fact scenarios and assign each an appropriate standard of review based on the relative interests of the regulating state and political party. In Table One on page 453, I have attempted to merge the judicial standards with each of the major activities undertaken by modern American political parties. As this Table indicates, there has been a sliding scale of judicial approaches to the adjudication of party activities. The courts have seldom, if ever, attempted to draw the lines clearly among party functions for purposes of constitutional analysis. However, they have recognized that not all party activities should be treated the same but should be judged by varying standards depending on the nature of the activity itself. In Table One, I have extrapolated from the Court's case law to date in an effort to compose a more complete scheme for the balancing of the competing interests in this area. The sliding review scale set forth in this Table applies most clearly to the two major political parties. When minor or third parties are involved, the courts have often given a different weighting to asserted state interests. The table's top tier includes those party activities most commonly seen as "private" or internal to parties. Those party actions which are the most "private" in nature, and therefore which arguably deserve the greatest protection from government, often require that the state demonstrate a very high ("compelling") interest to have its regulation upheld. This is usually further reinforced by the imposition of the initial burden of proof on the state when it attempts to regulate what we have deemed "internal" party activities. The party functions listed closer to the bottom of Table One include those which are most generally regarded as more "public" in nature. In adjudicating these matters, courts should place the initial burden of proof on the political party so as to ease the plaintiff's burden in challenging such party actions. In these decisions, claims of party independence have usually been insufficient to shield the party from judicial intervention. The electoral activities of parties occupying the middle rung of Table One have been the most vexing for the courts. There is still much that is unsettled in this area aside from those cases involving the disenfranchisement of black voters. There is some case law that supports the disparate treatment of the two phases of the electoral process, giving the parties a bit more leeway in the conduct of party primaries. Thus, I have split the two phases of the electoral process here and offer slightly different tests for each. This review of the case law shows that the Supreme Court has been sensitive to the need to balance public regulation of parties with the desire to preserve some degree of party independence. This sensitivity has been reflected in the decisions of many judges, but has resulted in an incomplete framework for reconciling the competing interests. Nonetheless, the decisions in this area have laid bare the major factors that the courts consider important for balancing public regulation of parties with party independence. It seems certain that additional line-drawing by the courts, particularly with regard to the parties' purely electoral functions, will be necessary to complete the analytical scheme in this area of constitutional law. Table 1: Summary of Judicial Review of Political Party Activities: Resolving the Public-Private Entity Problem \| Political Party Function \| Court's Review Standard and considerations \| Burden of Proof \| \|--------------------------\|--------------------------------------------\|----------------\| \| Internal Party Activities$^{163}$ \| A "compelling government interest" must be shown to justify regulation of these party activities \| State \| \| Electoral Functions Nomination Phase \| National party rules vs. state regulations; conduct of party in campaign; whether discrimination by party is "invidious"$^{164}$; state must show that its regulations are not "invidious" \| Depends on the form of discrimination \| \| General Election Phase \| Courts usually presume State Action for XIV Amendment Equal Protection \| Party \| \| Activities of the Party-in-Government Partisan Gerrymander Political Patronage \| Court's primary concerns in these case are rights of free association and voting \| Party \| $^{163}$ "Internal party activities" refers to matters concerning the structure of state and local party units, the composition of party committees, and internal party financial matters. It also includes party rules regulating the selection of state and local delegates to national conventions, but not those relating to candidate access to the primary ballot. $^{164}$ "Invidious discrimination" for Fourteenth Amendment purposes has been defined by the Court in a number of leading opinions. See, e.g., Skinner v. Oklahoma, 316 U.S. 535, 541 (1942); Yick Wo v. Hopkins, 118 U.S. 356, 369 (1886).
Current-controlled negative differential resistance due to Joule heating in TiO$_2$ A. S. Alexandrov,$^{1,2}$ A. M. Bratkovsky,$^{2,a)}$ B. Bridle,$^1$ S. E. Savel’ev,$^1$ D. B. Strukov,$^3$ and R. Stanley Williams$^2$ $^1$Department of Physics, Loughborough University, Loughborough LE11 3TU, United Kingdom $^2$Hewlett-Packard Laboratories, 1501 Page Mill Road, Palo Alto, California 94304, USA $^3$Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, USA (Received 7 September 2011; accepted 22 October 2011; published online 15 November 2011) We show that Joule heating causes current-controlled negative differential resistance (CC-NDR) in TiO$_2$ by constructing an analytical model of the voltage-current V(I) characteristic based on polaronic transport for Ohm’s Law and Newton’s Law of Cooling and fitting this model to experimental data. This threshold switching is the “soft breakdown” observed during electroforming of TiO$_2$ and other transition-metal-oxide based memristors, as well as a precursor to “ON” or “SET” switching of unipolar memristors from their high to their low resistance states. The shape of the V(I) curve is a sensitive indicator of the nature of the polaronic conduction. © 2011 American Institute of Physics. [doi:10.1063/1.3660229] The effects of Joule heating are very important in the operation of a wide variety of electronic devices, especially as they shrink to nanoscale sizes and the power densities become large. This has become especially apparent for the class of memristors based on resistance switching in transition metal oxides.$^{1–11}$ For these systems, there is often an initial electroforming step that is used to turn an inert capacitor with a fixed resistance $>1\text{ G}\Omega$ into a memristor with a continuum of resistance states $<10\text{ M}\Omega$, see e.g., extensive reviews in Refs.$^{12–14}$. It is thought to be initiated by a purely electrical conduction process, or soft breakdown,$^{15,16}$ followed by the electrochemical reduction of oxide anions to form oxygen gas and oxygen vacancies in the oxide matrix.$^{17}$ The changes in conductivity of the oxide material induced by the movement of these vacancies, under the influence of an electric field, a concentration gradient, or a temperature gradient, are responsible for the memristive switching. There have been previous examinations of this heating, and models for the thermally assisted conduction have been proposed.$^{1,15}$ Here, we present a compact analytical model for the electrical conduction based on feedback between adiabatic polaron transport and Joule heating that allows us to fit the initial stages of experimental electroforming voltage-current V(I) characteristics of a nanoscale memristor. This analysis provides both a thermometer inside the device and insight into the nature of the polaronic transport in TiO$_2$. As-fabricated devices have a metal-oxide-metal structure where the oxide film has variations in thickness and local structure, which provides preferential sites for current to flow. The width of the current channel is usually 100 nm or less,$^{20}$ and there is usually only one such operating channel, even if the physical device is larger than 100 $\mu$m$^2$. When a voltage is first applied, the current is small because the resistance is high. However, a threshold is reached at which the current increases rapidly, even though the voltage decreases. This current-controlled negative differential resistance (CC-NDR) is also known as S-NDR (because of the shape of the I vs. V curve) and threshold switching. In the case of electroforming, the NDR is not reversible since the process yields oxygen vacancies that will then lead to memristive switching.$^{17}$ However, similar CC-NDR V(I) behavior is observed as the precursor to reversible ON or SET switching in unipolar and bipolar memristors$^{21–23}$ and is responsible for heating that then drives or assists the resistive switching. In all these cases, the heating is not only rapid, but leads to very large temperature gradients in the oxide that can dramatically influence vacancy and other defect distributions. The diffusion of vacancies in the crystal field depends exponentially on temperature, so that variations of the local temperature could have a drastic effect on the distributions. Note that there is a fundamental problem with assigning a distinct temperature to each lattice unit cell.$^{24}$ In the absence of a rigorous approach to this fundamental problem, we consider here the effect of homogeneous heating of a memristor-type device on its current-voltage characteristics, applying Ohm’s law $I = V/R(T)$ and Newton’s Law of Cooling as they have been applied to describe the nonlinear I-V characteristics of superconducting mesas$^{25}$ and thermometry of conducting channels in electroformed memristors.$^{2,5}$ The temperature of a thin active layer is thus given by $T = T_0 + \alpha IV$, where $T_0$ is the bath temperature and $\alpha$ is the heat transfer coefficient or thermal resistance. The electronic resistance in oxide films is well described by the thermal activation law for small polaron mobility, $$R(T) = \beta T^n \exp(E_a/k_B T), \quad (1)$$ with the activation energy $E_a$, a constant $\beta$, and $k_B$ the Boltzmann constant. The power $n$ depends on the adiabatic versus nonadiabatic behavior of the polarons, $n = 1$ or $n = 3/2$, respectively, which is ill determined for TiO$_2$. Using Ohm’s law, we can construct V(I) curves by solving the transcendental equation $$i = v/(t + iv)^n \exp[-1/(t + iv)]. \tag{2}$$ Here, $i = I[\alpha\beta/(E_a/k_B)^{1-n}]^{1/2}$ and $v = V[\alpha/\beta(E_a/k_B)^{1+n}]^{1/2}$ are dimensionless current and voltage, respectively, and $t = k_BT_0/E_a$ is the reduced bath temperature. Equation (2) can be written in a parametric form as $$v = [p(t + p)^n]^{1/2} \exp[1/2(t + p)], \tag{3a}$$ $$i = [p(t + p)^{-n}]^{1/2} \exp[-1/2(t + p)], \tag{3b}$$ where $p = iv$. Independent of the model parameters, $\alpha$ and $\beta$, V(I) has a local maximum at sufficiently low reduced bath temperatures $t < 0.25$, i.e. threshold switching. In the case of Fig. 1, we have fit Eq. (3a) to experimental data from Ref. 27 collected during the electroforming of a nanoscale TiO$_2$-based crosspoint memristor at room temperature. In this case, the 1.5 nm Ti adhesion layer, 8 nm Pt bottom electrode, and the 11 nm Pt top electrode were deposited by electron-beam evaporation at room temperature. The 50 nm thick Ti dioxide film was deposited by sputtering from a TiO$_2$ target in 3 mTorr Ar and 550 K substrate temperature. The 50 nm bottom and top electrodes were patterned by ultraviolet-nanoimprint lithography to define the crosspoint junction. The oxide was a blanket layer without patterning. The Ti adhesion layer diffused through the thin Pt bottom electrode during the deposition of the TiO$_2$ layer and partially reduced the oxide film at the bottom interface to form a good electrical contact to the device. 27 We see that the fit shown in Fig. 1 is excellent for currents up to 0.04 mA, a reduced bath temperature $t = 0.11$, and exponent $n = 1$. This corresponds to polaronic conduction in the adiabatic regime, in agreement with the transport observed for bulk TiO$_2$. For larger currents, the data deviate from the fit because of the existence of a second local maximum in V(I), which is the onset of irreversible behavior in the device. The corresponding local temperature at this point is about 600–650 K, cf. Fig. 1. Using the absolute values of the voltage and current at the first local maximum in the V(I) curve in Fig. 1, 2.53 V and I = 6.67 μA, respectively, and converting to the dimensionless values $v = 2.4$, $i = 0.008$ and using $t = 0.11$ for the relative bath temperature, we estimate $E_a = 214$ meV, the thermal coefficient $\alpha = 3.2 \times 10^6$ K/W and the resistance coefficient $\beta = 0.49$ Ohm/K. Our estimate of the polaron activation energy is very close to the value (248 meV) measured in bulk films of TiO$_2$. With our value of $\alpha$, we can estimate the internal temperature of the heated channel for any current, as shown in Fig. 1, with the first local maximum in V(I) occurring at about 350 K. The pre-exponential factor in the conductivity is $\sigma_0 = L/(A\beta)$, where $L$ is the thickness and $A$ the cross-section area of the active part of the device (conducting channel that is forming). In the adiabatic regime [see Ref. 26, Eq. (9)], $$\sigma_0 = \frac{Ne^2a^2v}{k_B}, \tag{4}$$ where $N$ is the polaron density, $a$ the hopping range, and $v$ the optical phonon frequency. Estimating the average hopping range as the mean distance between O$^{2-}$ vacancies, $a \approx (N/2)^{-1/3}$, and assuming $L = 10$ nm, $A = (50 \text{ nm})^2$, and $v = 1.1 \times 10^{13}$ Hz, we obtain $N = 4[k_B\sigma_0/(e^2v)]^3 \approx 3 \times 10^{20}$ cm$^{-3}$. The value of L used here is an order of magnitude estimate that is less than the physical thickness of the deposited film because it represents the narrowest region of the oxide after it has been reduced by the adhesion layer. Since the crosspoint area is small, our approximations should be acceptable. The resulting carrier density $N$ is reasonable for a sputtered oxide film and well in line with previous observations of perovskite oxide films with concentrations of vacancies near high work function electrodes reaching a few atomic percent. 28 The forming step in TiO$_2$ thus starts with a “soft” breakdown, revealed by the CC-NDR, that electronically heats the material, which then leads to an exponentially enhanced drift of oxygen anions that in turn leads to a thermal runaway. In TiO$_2$, the electrochemical reduction of the anions occurred at a bias voltage $\geq 2$ V, and thus an estimated field of $\sim 0.2$ GV/m, which created a large concentration of vacancies and a metallic suboxide conducting channel. 17 This “soft breakdown” preserved the reversible bipolar resistive switching of the devices and should be contrasted with the usual dielectric breakdown in oxide films that leads to an irreversible shorting of a thin film. 29,30 Local temperatures reaching 650 K lead to the crystallization of amorphous TiO$_2$ to form anatase. 9,11 This phase transition may be the origin of the second NDR peak in the experimental V(I) curve in Figure 1, in analogy with the CC-NDR resulting from the insulator-to-metal phase transition described by Pickett et al. 23 FIG. 2. (Color online) Effect of the relative bath temperature $t = k_B T_0 / E_a$ on the V(I) characteristics of polaronic conductors. The solid and dashed curves correspond to $n = 1$ and $n = 3/2$, respectively. For TiO$_2$, $t \approx 0.1$, and thus this system displays CC-NDR in the initial stages of electroforming. We illustrate the importance of the relative bath temperature $t = k_B T_0 / E_a$ in Fig. 2, which is on the order of 0.1 for TiO$_2$ at room temperature. We see that V(I) curves depend strongly on $t$ and $n$. This shows that collecting V(I) curves in the Joule-heating CC-NDR regime of crosspoint devices before irreversible changes occur at a variety of temperatures is a very sensitive means for studying polaronic transport the activation energy and the $n$ parameter. During the past several decades, many materials with a high density of carriers and low mobility on the order or even less than the Ioffe-Regel limit ($\sim 1 \text{cm}^2/\text{V.s}$) have been discovered.\textsuperscript{31} There has been some confusion in the literature, particularly about the use of the terms “large” and “small” polarons the latter assumed completely localized. However, from the work of Holstein\textsuperscript{32} and others it is known that small polarons can propagate via coherent tunneling in a narrow band at temperatures below the Debye temperature, while at higher temperatures, the transport can proceed via thermally activated hopping. 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A STUDY OF THE MICROSTRUCTURE AND WEAR OF HIGH SPEED STEELS ABDEL-MONEM EL-RAKAYBY THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL AND MECHANICAL ENGINEERING UNIVERSITY OF SALFORD FEBRUARY 1986 TO MY COUNTRY; WHO ESTABLISHED THE FIRST CIVILISATION ON THE EARTH 7000 YEARS AGO . . . TO EGYPT, WITH LOVE. # CONTENTS \| Section \| Page \| \|------------------------------------------------------------------------\|------\| \| List of Tables \| i \| \| List of Figures \| ii \| \| Acknowledgements \| ix \| \| Synopsis \| x \| \| 1. INTRODUCTION \| 1 \| \| 2. METALLURGY OF HIGH SPEED STEELS \| 4 \| \| 2.1 Historical Background \| 4 \| \| 2.2 Heat Treatment of High Speed Steels \| 5 \| \| 2.2.1 Annealed high speed steels \| 5 \| \| 2.2.2 Hardening of high speed steels \| 8 \| \| 2.2.3 Tempering of high speed steels \| 10 \| \| 2.3 Techniques Used in Investigating High Speed Steels \| 17 \| \| 2.3.1 Studies of the physical and mechanical properties \| 17 \| \| 2.3.2 Microscopic observations \| 18 \| \| 2.3.3 Crystallography \| 18 \| \| 2.3.4 Chemical analysis \| 20 \| \| 3. WEAR OF HIGH SPEED STEELS \| 21 \| \| 3.1 General \| 21 \| \| 3.2 Classical Models of Wear \| 22 \| \| 3.3 Wear and Material Hardness \| 24 \| 3.4 Metallurgical Aspects of Wear .......................... : 27 3.5 Wear and Precipitated Carbides ......................... : 29 4. EXPERIMENTAL WORK ........................................ : 37 4.1 General .............................................. : 37 4.2 Metallurgical Investigations ......................... : 38 4.2.1 Sample preparation ............................... : 39 4.2.2 Hardness measurements ........................... : 40 4.2.3 Optical observations ............................ : 41 184.108.40.206 Volume fraction and size distribution of the primary carbides : 41 4.2.4 Electron probe microanalysis ..................... : 42 4.2.5 Electron microscopy ............................. : 42 220.127.116.11 Thin foil preparation ....................... : 44 18.104.22.168 Carbon extraction replica ................... : 45 22.214.171.124 Other replicas ............................. : 45 4.2.6 Microanalysis ................................... : 46 4.3 Wear Testing ......................................... : 50 5. RESULTS .................................................. : 52 5.1 Results of Metallurgical Investigations ............. : 52 5.2 Wear Results ......................................... : 58 6. DISCUSSION ............................................... : 60 6.1 Identification of Secondary Hardening Carbides in High Speed Steels : 60 6.2 Shape, Size, Composition and Distribution of Secondary Hardening Carbides: 67 6.3 Sequence of Carbide Precipitation in High Speed Steels: 71 6.4 Primary Carbides in High Speed Steels: 74 6.5 Wear of High Speed Steels: 77 7. CONCLUSIONS: 83 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE WORK: 85 REFERENCES: 87 LIST OF TABLES Table(1): Some reported values for lattice parameters of high speed steel carbides in the pure form and as precipitated in steels, in Angstrom units [Å] Table(2): Percentage of excess carbides existing as $M_6C$ and MC in hardened high speed steels. Table(3): Chemical composition of high speed steels. Table(4): Austenitising temperatures of different high speed steels. Table(5): Chemical composition of workpiece. Table(6): Chemical composition of secondary hardening carbides extracted from different steels tempered to their peak hardness. Table(7): Chemical composition of different carbides precipitated in M42. Table(8): Chemical composition of secondary MC carbides precipitated in the three steels examined. Table(9): Some reported chemical compositions for MC carbide precipitated in different high speed steels. Table(10): Some reported chemical compositions for $M_6C$ carbide precipitated in different high speed steels. LIST OF FIGURES Fig.(1): Volume percent of carbides in some quenched and annealed high speed steels. Fig.(2): Amounts of undissolved carbides against austenitising temperature for M2 high speed steel. Fig.(3): Schematic diagram for tempering high speed steels. Fig.(4): Chart of the hardening cycle of M1 and M15. Fig.(5): Rods extracted from round specimens by electro-erosion technique and discs sliced from the rods. Fig.(6): Signals resulting from the interaction of a high energy electron beam with a crystalline material. Fig.(7): EPMA chart showing constant molybdenum content across the standard Fe-Mo binary alloy specimen. Fig.(8): Characteristic EDX spectrum obtained from the standard Fe-Mo binary alloy. Fig.(9): Optical micrographs of workpiece microstructure. (a) core and hardened surface. (b) non-hardened core. (c) hardened surface. Fig.(10): Chart of Talysurf measurement of wear scar depth. Fig.(11): Variation of hardness with tempering temperature. Fig.(12): Carbon replica micrographs showing heterogeneous precipitation of secondary hardening carbides after tempering: (a), (b) M42 for 2+2 hours at 430°C. (c) M1 for 2+2 hours at 480°C. Fig.(13): Carbon replica micrographs showing secondary hardening carbide precipitation after tempering to peak hardness. (a), (b) M42 and (c) M15. Fig.(14): Thin foil micrographs showing secondary hardening carbide precipitated in M42 tempered to peak hardness. Fig.(15): Carbon replica micrographs showing successful extraction of secondary hardening carbides from M42 tempered to its peak hardness. (a) low magnification. (b) high magnification. (c) area free from carbide precipitation. Fig.(16): Convergent beam single crystal diffraction patterns of secondary hardening carbides extracted from: (a) M42, zone axis [011]. (b) M42, zone axis [¯114]. (c) M15, zone axis [¯233]. Fig.(17): Characteristic EDX spectrum obtained from secondary hardening carbide of M42 using window-less detector. Fig.(18): Variation of chemical composition of secondary hardening carbide with tempering temperature for: (a) M42 and (b) M1. Fig.(19): Electron micrographs showing cementite needles precipitated in M42. (a) carbon replica from specimen tempered at 480°C. (b) carbon replica from specimen tempered to peak hardness. (c) thin foil tempered to peak hardness. Fig.(20): Characteristic EDX spectrum of cementite extracted from M42. Fig.(21): Variation of chemical composition of cementite with temperature. (a) Fe, (b) Cr, (c) Co and (d) Mo. Fig.(22): Electron micrographs showing hexagonal $M_2C$ needles and $M_{23}C_6$ particles precipitated after tempering for 2+2 hours at 700°C. (a) and (b) carbon replica from M42. (c) carbon replica from M15. (d) thin foil from M1. Fig.(23): Carbon replica micrographs showing the precipitation of secondary MC carbide after tempering for 24 hours at 700°C. (a) M42, (b) M1 and (c) M15. Fig.(24): Carbon replica micrographs showing the microstructure of M42 after tempering for 24 hours at 800°C, which is similar to that of other steels examined. (a) low magnification. (b) high magnification. Fig.(25): Single crystal diffraction patterns of carbides present in annealed M42 which are similar to other steels examined. (a) MC, zone axis [111]. (b) $M_6C$, zone axis [011]. (c) $M_{23}C_6$, zone axis [$\bar{1}23$]. Fig.(26): Characteristic EDX spectrum obtained from secondary hardening carbide of M42. Fig.(27): Characteristic EDX spectrum obtained from primary MC carbide extracted from M42. Fig.(28): Characteristic EDX spectrum obtained from primary $M_6C$ carbide precipitated in M42. Fig.(29): Characteristic EDX spectrum obtained from $M_{23}C_6$ carbide precipitated in M42. Fig.(30): EDX spectrum showing the background of a carbon replica. Fig.(31): Window-less EDX spectrum showing the background of an aluminium replica. Fig.(32): Carbides produced in high speed steels after tempering for 2+2 hours at different temperatures. Fig.(33): Variation of chemical composition of primary carbides with tempering temperatures. (a) $M_6C$ carbide precipitated in M42. (b) MC carbide precipitated in M15. Fig.(34): Optical micrographs showing the tempered microstructure of: (a) M42 and (b) M15. Fig.(35): SEM micrographs of M42 microstructure which is typical of that of other steels examined. (a) as quenched. (b) as tempered to peak hardness. (c) as annealed for 24 hours at 800°C. Fig.(36): Thin foil micrographs showing primary carbides. (a) MC carbide in M15. (b) $M_6C$ carbide in M42. Fig.(37): EPMA X-ray scans showing alloying element distributions in tempered M42 specimen. (a) microstructure x2000 (b) Mo (c) V (d) Co and (e) Cr. Fig.(38): EPMA X-ray scans showing alloying element distributions in tempered M15 specimen. (a) microstructure x2000, (b) V, (c) W, (d) Co and (e) Cr. Fig.(39): Optical micrographs showing selective etching of carbides. (a) M42 specimen etched for $M_6C$ carbide. (b) M15 specimen etched for MC carbide. Fig.(40): Variation of volume fraction of carbides with tempering temperature. (a) $M_6C$, (b) MC and (c) $M_6C + MC$. Fig.(41): Variation of average carbide particle size with tempering temperature. (a) MC carbide. (b) $M_6C$ carbide. Fig.(42): Particle size distribution of MC carbide. precipitated in M15. Fig.(43): Particle size distribution of $M_6C$ carbide precipitated in M42. Fig.(44): Relation between average particle size and carbide volume fraction. Fig.(45): Relation between wear volume and sliding distance for samples tempered for 2+2 hours at 530°C. Fig.(46): Variation of wear resistance with tempering temperature. Fig.(47): Effect of tempering temperature on wear resistance and hardness of M42. Fig.(48): Relation between wear resistance and hardness. Fig.(49): SEM micrographs of wear surface of M42 tempered to peak hardness showing primary carbides fixed in their initial places. (a) and (b) etched samples. (c) unetched sample. Fig.(50): SEM micrographs showing the flat surfaces of worn primary carbides in M42 sample tempered to peak hardness, worn surface being etched. Fig.(51): SEM micrographs showing cracks in primary carbides in samples tempered to peak hardness. Fig.(52): SEM micrographs showing worn surface of over-tempered high speed steels. (a) primary carbides torn out the surface. (b) and (c) primary carbide abrading the surface. (d) loose primary carbides and the abraded surface. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author expresses his deepest gratitude to his supervisor Dr. B. Mills, who originated the topic of the present work, for his valuable guidance and encouragement during the present work. Appreciation is also due to the Egyptian Army for their financial support. The author's thanks are also due to Mr. G. France and Mr. H. Pendelbury for their technical and practical advice. The author expresses his deepest gratitude to Dr. G.W. Lorimer, Mr. G. Cliff, Mr. I. Brough and Mr. F. Kneol, of the Department of Metallurgy and Material Science, University of Manchester, the first for giving access to the use of the electron microscope and fruitful discussions and the others for their invaluable technical and practical help. Thanks are also due to Miss. D. Chesco, of the University of Surrey, for help with the window-less X-ray detection technique. The encouragement, warm feelings and continuous moral support of my parents, the bless of my life, were very much appreciated during the course of this work. The help, encouragement, patience and love of my wife, who was always behind any success in my life, are very much appreciable. The present work describes the successful extraction of the secondary hardening carbides of high speed steels, which allowed the identification of these carbides by crystallographic and microanalysis techniques. The secondary hardening carbide of high speed steels was found to be the cubic $M_2C$ carbide and not the $MC$ carbide as previously claimed. The secondary $MC$ carbide was found to precipitate in the over-tempered state well beyond peak hardness. The sequence of secondary carbide precipitation has been determined. The relation between wear resistance and hardness of high speed steels has been found to be non-linear due to microstructural changes at and beyond peak hardness. However, primary carbides of the $MC$ and $M_6C$ types of carbides were found to be stable during tempering of these steels. It has been shown that the primary carbides did not contribute to the wear resistance of steels tempered to peak hardness. However, the primary carbides were found to contribute to the wear rate of over-tempered steels due to their abrasive role. CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION During previous extensive studies of high speed steels, the identification of the secondary hardening carbide, the sequence of secondary carbide precipitation during tempering and the relation between wear resistance and microstructure are not yet satisfactorily clear. The present work describes a study of three high speed steels in the region of secondary hardening. The study included a metallurgical investigation and wear testing. The metallurgical investigation was concerned with the identification of the secondary carbides and their sequence of precipitation. A Philips 400 T electron microscope fitted with an EDAX 9100 microanalysis machine was used in the present work. Both thin foils and carbon and non-carbon replicas were used, however, thin foils were found to be less useful than replicas in identifying carbides. The secondary hardening carbides were successfully extracted for the first time in the present work. Crystallographic, microanalysis data and studies of the kinetics of carbide precipitation proved that cubic $M_2C$ carbide was the secondary hardening carbide in high speed steels and not MC carbide as was previously considered to be the case. The cubic $M_2C$ carbide did not coarsen after peak hardness. It dissolved into the matrix and other carbides precipitated. The identification and the sequence of precipitation of these carbides has been determined in the present work. It was found that the secondary MC carbide precipitated in the over-tempered stage well after peak hardness. The volume fraction, average particle size and particle size distribution of primary carbides were determined over the secondary hardening region using a Quantimet 720. Selective etching techniques were adopted to show each single primary carbide specie at a time. The chemical composition of primary carbides has been determined over the secondary hardening region using electron probe microanalysis (EPMA) and by microanalysing the particles extracted by replicas and from thin foils using an EDAX machine. Primary carbides showed no variation in composition during the tempering of the steels and were quite stable. The secondary hardening of high speed steels could not be attributed to the primary carbides. The wear tests were carried out on a crossed-cylinder wear testing machine. The wear surfaces were studied using scanning electron microscopy. It was found that the secondary hardening of high speed steels was associated with a peak in the wear resistance of the steels. It was also found that the wear resistance of steels tempered after peak hardness was always lower than that for steels tempered up to peak hardness and having the same hardness. This was attributed to the significant changes which occurred in the microstructure of high speed steels when tempered after peak hardness. It was found that in samples tempered to peak hardness, primary carbides had the same wear rate as the matrix and hence made no contribution to the wear resistance of the material. In over-tempered steels, primary carbides were easily torn from the surface and acted as abrasive particles which abraded the high speed steel surface contributing to an increase in the wear rate. The present study suggests that steels free from massive primary carbides should be produced which will display secondary hardening and will have improved wear resistance beyond peak hardness. 2.1 Historical Background The first high speed steel was developed from air hardening alloy steels which were available at the end of the 19th century [1]. In 1907, Taylor [2] reported that the best high speed steel contained 18.91% tungsten, 0.23% vanadium, 5.47% chromium and 0.67% carbon. This led to the development of what was considered to be the standard high speed steel for many years, containing 18% tungsten, 4% chromium and 1% vanadium, or what is now known as T1 high speed steel. Molybdenum was used as a replacement for tungsten, or in addition to tungsten in the early steels, but during the first world war, it was necessary to replace tungsten by molybdenum for strategic reasons. During the 1930's tungsten was replaced by molybdenum which resulted in the development of types M1 and M2 high speed steels. These molybdenum steels together with the classical T1 high speed steel formed the base of other high speed steels in which the vanadium and cobalt content were altered. 2.2 Heat Treatment of High Speed Steels High speed steel is subjected to two basic heat treatments: 1- A hardening (austenitising and quenching) heat treatment which results in a hardened martensitic matrix rich in carbon and other alloying elements, some retained austenite and some residual (undissolved) carbides. 2- A tempering heat treatment, which results in stress relief, transformation of retained austenite with multiple tempering and most importantly, the precipitation of secondary carbides responsible for the secondary hardening of the steel. 2.2.1 Annealed high speed steels The microstructure of annealed high speed steel consists of a ferritic matrix and excess alloy carbides. The $\eta$ carbide ($M_6C$) was the first carbide to be discovered in annealed high speed steel in 1928, having an fcc crystal structure of lattice parameter $11.04 \text{ Å}$ and a chemical composition in the range from $Fe_3W_3C$ to $Fe_4W_2C$ [3]. It is now well established that annealed high speed steels contain the three types of fcc carbides; $M_6C$, $M_{23}C_6$ and $MC$ (or $M_4C_3$) [1,4-7]. Since the steel contains several carbide forming elements, these alloy carbides contain more than one of those elements rather than being pure carbides. So, they are designated as... $M_6C$, $M_{23}C_6$ and $MC$, where "M" stands for the metallic atoms in the carbide. Annealed high speed steel carbides may be classified as follows: 1- $M_6C$, a tungsten or molybdenum rich carbide corresponding to the double $\eta$ carbide. It's composition was firstly reported as $W_{3-2}Fe_{3-4}C$ [3,8]. However, other workers reported the composition of $\eta_2$ double carbide as $Mo_4Fe_2C$ [9,10]. Generally $\eta$ carbide is classified as $\eta_1$ or $\eta_2$ according to its composition; i.e., $$\eta_1 = A_4B_2C - A_3B_3C$$ $$\eta_2 = A_2B_4C$$ where $A$ is an atom of the elements (Ni, Co, Fe, Mn, Cr, V and Ti), and $B$ corresponds to the elements (Mo, W, Nb, Ta and Hf) [9]. The lattice parameter of $\eta_2$ carbide is always larger than that of the $\eta_1$ carbide for the same elements [9,10]. However, it has been reported that the lattice parameter of $M_6C$ carbide varies with composition [11]. 2- $M_{23}C_6$, an fcc carbide corresponds to the pure $Cr_{23}C_6$ carbide of lattice parameter 10.638 Å [12]. The double carbide role of $M_{23}C_6$ is also reported [13]; the following reaction occurs due to the addition of tungsten or molybdenum to iron in solution: $$Cr_{23}C_6 \xrightarrow{(+Mo/W)} (Fe,Cr)_{21}(Mo/W)_2C_6 \xrightarrow{(+Mo/W)} M_6C$$ The transformation of $M_{23}C_6$ to $M_6C$ is also reported to occur in chromium steels containing molybdenum and/or tungsten [14]. 3- $M_4C_3$, this carbide corresponds to the pure cubic vanadium carbide VC, usually reported as $V_4C_3$ because it has not been detected in its stoichiometric form as VC in steels. On surveying the literature [15-20], it is clear that this carbide is a very stable one; it forms directly out of the matrix without the prior formation of any previous metastable phases, and does not transform to any other form of carbides at high temperatures. This carbide dissolves limited quantities of other elements. The lattice parameter of this fcc carbide is reported to be 4.16 Å for $V_4C_3$ carbide [20]. Since the high speed steel carbides are not pure carbides, their composition and lattice parameter will depend on the composition of the steel [11,21]. Some reported values for lattice parameters of $M_{23}C_6$, $M_6C$ and MC carbides are shown in Table (1). Kayser and Cohen [6], reported that all high speed steels contain the same amount of $M_{23}C_6$ in the annealed state (9-11% by volume). The amount of MC and $M_6C$ depended on the chemical composition of the steel, such that the total amount of carbides present in all annealed high speed steels was found to be 26-33% by volume. This value is also confirmed for T1 and M2 high speed steels [22]. Generally the amount of MC carbide increases as the vanadium content increases unless the steel has a very large amount of tungsten which competes effectively to form $M_6C$ carbide as in the case of M1 and T2. high speed steels; M1 contains 1.75% tungsten and 1.25% vanadium and forms more MC carbide than T2 which contains 18% tungsten and 2.02% vanadium [6]. Fig.(1) shows the amount of each carbide in the annealed and quenched states for some high speed steels [6]. However, lower values for the amounts of carbides present in M2 high speed steel have been reported [5,23]. 2.2.2 Hardening of high speed steels In 1920, Scott [24] working on high speed steels, reported that the purpose of heating the steels was to dissolve some carbides which during tempering should precipitate. He also reported that secondary hardening occurred only if austenitising was carried out at high temperatures (>1100 °C). It is also known that the higher the austenitising temperature, the greater the amount of dissolved carbides and the richer in carbon and alloying elements is the austenite [1,5,6,22,23,25]. The amount of retained austenite also increased with an increase in austenitising temperature [1,26]. The retention of austenite affects the hardness of the as quenched steel, however, Payson [1], reported that up to 20-25% by volume of retained austenite was acceptable, if the percentage was greater than 20-25 %, the hardness dropped drastically. The high hardening temperature affects the grain size of other steels, however, high speed steels and tool steels in general are insensitive to grain coarsening [1]. As seen from the previous section, the carbides present in the annealed high speed steels are, $M_6C$, $M_{23}C_6$ and $M_{23}C_6$. On heating up to austenitising temperature, these carbides dissolve either totally or partially into the austenitic matrix. Kayser and Cohen [6], found that all $M_{23}C_6$, 1-3% by volume $MC$ and 7-10% by volume of $M_6C$ dissolved as a result of commercial austenitising, as shown in Fig. (1). The dissolution of $M_{23}C_6$ at high austenitising temperature has recently been confirmed for M2 high speed steel, while the amounts of dissolved $MC$ and $M_6C$ depended on austenitising temperature as shown in Fig. (2) [5,23]. Rapid cooling of austenite rich in carbon and alloying elements results in the formation of highly alloyed martensite and the residual carbides which have not been dissolved during the hardening process in the form of $MC$ and $M_6C$ together with some retained austenite. The amounts of residual carbides present in some as-quenched high speed steels are shown in Table (2),[25]. It is clear from this table and Fig.(1), that the majority of residual carbides was the $M_6C$ carbide except in molybdenum high speed steels containing great amounts of vanadium when $MC$ becomes the predominant carbide [25]. The mechanism of austenite to martensite transformation and the retention of austenite is well explained by Cohen [26] and Payson [1,27]. The drawbacks of retention of some austenite are overcome by multiple tempering as will be shown in the next section. 2.2.3 Tempering of high speed steels The correlation between the change in hardness and the change in microstructure was first pointed out by Bain and Jeffries [28]. As mentioned previously, the precipitation of secondary carbides is the most important process in the tempering of high speed steels and alloy steels in general. Only one of those carbides is responsible for the secondary hardening of high speed steel. Payson [27], simplified the mechanism of tempering of high speed steel in terms of two mechanisms, Fig.(3): 1- softening mechanism, due to the decomposition of martensite. 2- strengthening mechanism, due to the precipitation of fine secondary carbides. The result of tempering such steels is to give more ductility without loss in hardness which is the exact requirement for tempering alloy and high speed steels. Tempering of carbon steels is classified into three stages [18]: 1- decomposition of martensite and precipitation of $\varepsilon$ carbide 2- transformation of retained austenite. 3- precipitation of cementite. In certain alloy steels, a fourth stage of tempering occurs at higher temperatures when alloy carbides precipitate and replace cementite. The precipitation of such alloy carbides is usually associated with a significant increase in hardness. This increase in hardness is known as secondary hardening and the alloy carbide responsible for secondary hardening is known as the secondary hardening carbide. Cohen and Koh [29], working on high speed steels were the first to document the stages of tempering of the hardened martensitic matrix containing carbon and alloying elements in solution. They reported that secondary hardening occurred due to the precipitation of secondary carbides from the retained austenite. Somewhat revised since, the stages of the tempering process have been described by Payson [1]. The role of retained austenite in secondary carbide precipitation is underestimated since the sub-zero treated steel showed the same effect of secondary hardening as in ordinary hardened steel which contained retained austenite [30]. The presence of up to 20% by volume of retained austenite would not affect the hardness of the as-quenched steel, and after double tempering the steel, the retained austenite transformed. This austenite-free steel showed secondary hardening [1], and the effect on the red hardness of alloy martensite caused by the transformation of retained austenite was generally not important [27]. It is the carbide precipitation out of the martensitic matrix which is of the most importance in the secondary hardening and red hardness of high speed steels, and a great deal of work has been carried out on the subject of carbide precipitation in high speed steels and alloy steels as well. Payson [27], directly attributed secondary hardening in ferrous alloys to the coherent precipitation of alloy carbides. This was based on the interpretation of electron diffraction data. He established that the inflection in the hardness-tempering temperature curve for molybdenum steels was associated with the first detection of the $\text{Mo}_2\text{C}$ carbide, and the secondary hardness increased with the simultaneous increase in intensity of the $\text{Mo}_2\text{C}$ pattern and decrease in the intensity of the $\text{Fe}_3\text{C}$ pattern. He also concluded that the onset of secondary hardening was associated with the formation of coherent zones of alloy carbides, this conclusion was supported by broad X-ray lines, indicating lattice strain, noticed prior to peak hardness. In vanadium steels, it is well established that $V_4\text{C}_3$ is the only carbide which replaces $\text{Fe}_3\text{C}$ and causes secondary hardening. Generally it is the only carbide reported to occur in tempered and annealed vanadium steels [18, 19, 27, 31, 34]. In chromium steels, $\text{Cr}_7\text{C}_3$ was the carbide which replaced $\text{Fe}_3\text{C}$. However, in the presence of enough Cr and/or other alloying elements especially molybdenum and tungsten, $Cr_{23}C_6$ formed and replaced $Cr_7C_3$ [18, 19, 27, 31, 35]. It is also reported that $M_6C$ was detected as the final stage of precipitation in some chromium steels [14]. The chromium carbides are of less importance in giving the steel a considerable secondary hardening. They may give the steel a constant hardness up to a certain limit of tempering, then a drastic fall in the hardness occurs. This is probably due to the rapid rate of coarsening of $Cr_7C_3$ as a result of the ease with which chromium diffuses in ferrite. However, additions of other carbide forming elements to the steel or increases in the chromium content to 12% by weight, enhanced the secondary hardening of chromium steels [19]. In molybdenum steels, $Mo_2C$ is reported as the secondary carbide which replaced cementite and caused secondary hardening of the steel [18, 19, 27, 34-36]. But during the early stages of formation, Irani and Honeycombe [37], observed streaks on some spots of the diffraction pattern of the matrix of a foil tempered prior to peak hardness. Those streaks were not observed in the as-quenched steel. They concluded that those streaks were due to the formation of zones rich in molybdenum and carbon, similar to those observed earlier in Al-Cu systems [38]. They also reported the transformation of $Mo_2C$ to $M_6C$ at higher temperatures and introduced the mechanism of phase transformation as follows: Raynor, Whiteman and Honeycombe [39], concluded that the streaks noticed in the diffraction pattern indicated the presence of very thin needle precipitates of $M_2C$, possessing the same morphology and orientation relationship with the matrix as that determined for coarse $M_2C$ in ferrite and no direct evidence of solute zone clustering was found. They concluded that if coherent zones existed, they must co-existed with discrete fine scale precipitation. Such co-existence seems to be in agreement with Payson's conclusions with respect to the detection of expansion occurring with the rise in hardness over secondary hardening and the detection of fine $M_2C$ precipitation prior to peak hardness [27]. Finally the situation was clarified by Ustinovshchikov [40], who discovered the precipitation of cubic $M_2C$ carbide prior to the precipitation of the hexagonal $M_2C$ carbide. The precipitation of cubic $M_2C$ was associated with the secondary hardening of the steel. He found that the diffraction pattern of the cubic $M_2C$ was identical with that of $VC$ precipitated in vanadium steel, and the mechanism of carbide precipitation in molybdenum steels was found to be: $$Fe_3C \rightarrow cubic\ M_2C \rightarrow hex.\ M_2C \rightarrow M_6C$$ In high speed steels, carbide precipitation in as-quenched and as-annealed steels have been intensively studied as reviewed in the previous sections. However, the secondary carbide precipitation in high speed steels has never been satisfactorily clarified by following the precipitated phases in order to determine the exact mechanism of tempering high speed steels. Previous workers who investigated the precipitation of the secondary carbides, were simply interested in identifying the secondary carbide responsible for the secondary hardening of high speed steels. It is clear that the secondary hardening carbide would be either one of the carbides detected in the annealed state, or a metastable phase which transforms to one of those annealed steel carbides. From the extensive review of the literature, three carbides have been reported as responsible for the secondary hardening in high speed steels. Those carbides are described below by referring to the original papers: 1- Kuo [7], used X-ray diffraction of extracted carbides to identify carbides present at different stages of tempering, and identified the secondary hardening carbide to be the hexagonal $M_{6}C$ carbide, which transformed to $M_{6}C$ in the annealed state. He also reported that no X-ray lines were observed at the peak hardness, however after peak hardness he detected hexagonal $M_{2}C$. He explained the disappearance of X-ray lines at peak hardness as a result of the very fine size of the needles of $M_{2}C$. The most interesting observation reported in this paper is that in the X-ray photographs of the extracted carbides, in addition to the close-packed hexagonal structure, there was also some indication of the co-existence of close-packed cubic $W_2C$ (or $Mo_2C$). However he could not prove the presence of the cubic phase since he felt that it might be an example of a stacking disorder. 2- White and Honeycombe [41], using electron microscopy and selected area diffraction, identified the $M_{23}C_6$ as the secondary hardening carbide, which coarsened in the annealed state. However, they detected $M_{23}C_6$ after the peak hardness. 3. Mukherjee [42], using electron microscopy, introduced a single crystal diffraction pattern from the secondary hardening carbide and identified it as MC carbide, which coarsened in the annealed state. However he never introduced the photomicrograph of that precipitate and he did not consider the possibility of obtaining this pattern from a small primary MC carbide. He also ignored completely the fact that cubic $Mo_2C$ has the same crystal structure as that of $VC_43$, both have an fcc crystal structure and their lattice parameters are very close as shown in Table (1). This identification has been regarded by subsequent workers as the last word in the identification of the secondary hardening carbide in high speed steels. The work described in the present thesis showed that the secondary hardening carbide in high speed steels was the cubic $M_2C$ carbide. Kupolova [43], identified the secondary hardening carbide as $MC$ carbide and introduced a simple mechanism of phase transformation in high speed steels. However, it is clear that the results of investigating high speed steels are dependent on the technique used in the investigation. In the present work, the sophisticated electron microscope Philips 400T fitted with an EDAX microanalysis machine was used to study the phase transformation in high speed steel and to identify each phase crystallographically and chemically. 2.3 Techniques Used In Investigating High Speed Steels The metallurgical study of high speed steels is usually based on the following techniques: 2.3.1 Studies of the physical and mechanical properties Phase transformations taking place during the heat treatment of steels are associated with changes in physical and mechanical properties of the steel. Changes in physical properties such as changes in size, magnetisation and electrical resistivity have been used to detect changes in microstructure of steels. A change in the hardness of steel is a well known simple test to follow the changes in steel microstructure. The major disadvantage of such techniques is that they indicate the occurrence of microstructural change without identifying the mechanism of such changes. 2.3.2 Microscopic observations Earlier workers used optical microscopes, the resolution of which just enabled the observation of big primary carbides. The main useful outcome of optical microscopy is the determination of the volume fraction of the undissolved carbides. The volume fraction of each carbide specie in high speed steels is reported by using selective etching techniques [6, 23]. Precipitation of secondary carbides is not observable by optical metallography. Higher magnifications are obtainable by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The secondary carbides can be observed in their later stages of formation, but they are still not observable at the early stages of their formation. Some SEM's are fitted with energy dispersive X-ray analysers, which enable the chemical analysis of matrix and large carbides to be made. 2.3.3 Crystallography The ability of crystals to diffract X-rays was employed in identifying crystals, since the diffracted waves will form a pattern dependent on the way the atoms are arranged within the crystal. However, the X-ray diffraction technique is based on using extracted carbide powder which contains a mixture of different carbides of various particle size. The diffracted lines will be confused; because of the presence of different carbide species. Also the weak intensity lines of the smaller particles become non-identifiable compared with the stronger intensity lines of the larger particles. The principles of X-ray diffraction are explained in the literature, e.g. [44, 45]. In transmission electron microscopes (TEM), electrons are travelling in the form of waves, and crystals have the same effect in diffracting the electron beam. Two main diffraction methods are used in electron microscopy: 1- selected area diffraction (SAD): An aperture is used to limit the beam size and indicate the selected area from which diffraction is required. 2- convergent beam diffraction (CBD): The design of electro-magnetic lenses in new electron microscopes enabled the beam to be focused down to a very small diameter which is then concentrated on the required individual particle to obtain the diffraction pattern. The detail explanation of electron diffraction in TEM is well explained in the literature [45-47]. However, crystallography does not allow differentiation between carbides having similar crystal structure. 2.3.4 Chemical analysis The technique of dissolving the ferritic matrix and extracting the residual carbides is not a reliable technique since it is impossible to separate the carbide species. It allows only a total analysis of all carbides present. The electron probe microanalyser (EPMA) was used to analyse the individual carbide particles. However, in high speed steels, this facility is only suitable to analyse big carbide particles and it is not possible to analyse fine secondary carbides by this method. The most suitable technique for the chemical analysis of the tiny secondary carbides is the microanalysis carried out on a TEM fitted with an energy dispersive microanalysis system. The microanalysis with high spatial resolution is well explained in the literature [47-48]. The microanalysis technique used in the present work is explained in the experimental part of the present thesis (chapter four). 3.1 General The study of the wear of high speed steel cannot be separated from the general study of wear of materials, since wear is essentially a system property which includes tribological and metallurgical parameters [49], and wear occurs by several mechanisms acting at the same time [50]. Previous workers found it a necessity to study each parameter and each mechanism separately in order to determine the role of each on the wear resistance of materials. Earlier workers were interested in studying the wear of surfaces under sliding contact taking into account the tribological parameters and simply the material hardness to represent the whole material parameters. However, it has often been shown that the hardness alone was inadequate for this purpose. In the last two decades, correlating wear resistance to the microstructure of materials has become of great interest. 3.2 Classical Models of Wear Wear means removal of material from surfaces in relative motion by mechanical and/or chemical processes [51]. Thus, wear resistance may in the first instance be classed as a mechanical property [49]. Different mechanisms have been introduced to explain how wear occurs. Jahanmir, [52] reviewed ten different wear mechanisms. However, in practice, individual mechanisms of wear rarely occur alone, and material is often removed by the simultaneous action of more than one mechanism. The wear properties of a certain material, thus, depend on how the different mechanisms occur and their relative significance [50]. Among the different wear mechanisms, adhesion and abrasion arise as the most important mechanisms causing failure of engineering materials [53]. Adhesive wear is the only type that is always observed whenever two solids slide over each other, whereas other forms of wear only arise in special circumstances [54]. It is often described as severe wear and is generally the starting point for a wear process developing between two conforming rubbing metal surfaces. Since engineering surfaces are rough and possess hills and valleys, the contact between two solids occurs only at a few isolated points resulting in a true area of contact which is a fraction of the apparent area. The applied normal stress is therefore very high in the regions of contact and may exceed the yield point of one or both of the solids. The contact area will then weld together forming junctions, these must be broken to initiate and sustain relative motion and the force necessary to disrupt the junction is a measure of friction [55]. It has been shown [56] that the wear rate increases substantially when the applied load produces a compressive stress > 1/3 the hardness, being equivalent to the onset of plastic yield in the bulk material. Abrasive wear is responsible for 50% of wear in industry [57]. It can arise from the penetration and ploughing out of material from a surface by another body. If this body is free abrasive grit between two rubbing surfaces, either from an external source or internally generated abrasive wear particles, the situation is generally called three body abrasion. If the other body is a proud hard phase or a moving grit, the situation is termed two body abrasion. The latter accounts for the majority of industrial situations met in practice. Adhesion and abrasion mechanisms of wear are well explained in the literature [55,58-60]. From this literature, it is clear that both mechanisms could be expressed by the following mathematical expression [52]: \[ W = K \cdot \frac{N \cdot S}{C \cdot H} \] where: \[ W \ldots \text{is the wear volume.} \] \[ K \ldots \text{wear coefficient.} \] \[ N \ldots \text{normal load.} \] \[ S \ldots \text{sliding distance.} \] \[ C \ldots \text{geometrical constant.} \] \[ H \ldots \text{material hardness.} \] The wear coefficient, $ K $, in adhesive wear is the probability of an adhesion event leading to the formation of a wear particle [59], and in the case of abrasion, $ K = \tan \theta $, where $ \theta $ is the angle between the abrasive and material surfaces [55,60]. A linear relation was reported [54] between the logarithm of wear coefficient and the coefficient of friction. 3.3 Wear and Material Hardness As seen from the previous section, wear theories are based on a linear relation between wear rate and material hardness, and the hardness remains the term most commonly used to express the relation between material properties and wear rate, although it has often been shown to be inadequate for this purpose, particularly when dissimilar materials were under consideration [61]. The pioneering work of Kruschov in 1957 [62] introduced a detailed study of the relation between the hardness of the metal and its resistance to sliding abrasion. For commercially pure metals and annealed steels, he found that the abrasion resistance was directly proportional to their bulk hardness. Lines of lower hardness were obtained for hardened and tempered steels. These lines intersected the main curve at the location of the data for the annealed condition of the steel in question. Moore [63], reported that bulk hardness was not a direct measure of the wear resistance of ferritic materials, but was related to the metallurgical structure in a similar way to the wear resistance. So that for materials of similar structure but of different composition, linear relationships existed. However, he suggested that material microstructure had a greater influence on wear resistance than the bulk hardness. Hurricks [49], found that the wear of tool steels followed a similar course to the variation of hardness with increasing tempering temperature. For high speed steels, it is reported that wear rate depended linearly on hardness but with different sensitivity to hardness between one steel and another [25]. However, deviation from a linear correlation between wear rate and hardness is also reported. Saka [64], found that the minimum wear rate occurred prior to the maximum hardness when tempered copper-chromium alloys were tested at different hardness levels. For tempered steels, the linear relation between hardness and wear resistance reported by Kruschov [62] was described as oversimplified and the actual relation was reported to be nonlinear for a simple steel tempered at different hardness levels [65]. Also, when the vanadium content in M2 high speed steel was replaced by niobium, it was found that the performance of the niobium containing steel was better than ordinary vanadium containing steel despite the hardness of vanadium containing steel being higher than that of the niobium containing steel [66]. Gahr [67], has reported cases when wear resistance could increase while hardness decreased. In copper based solid solutions, with Si, Cr and Sn, it was found that an increase in solute content improved hardness linearly and decreased wear rate non-linearly [68]. Borik and Scholtz [69], reported a non-linear relationship between wear resistance and hardness for work-hardened surfaces, moreover they could not find an adequate relation between hardness and wear resistance for non work-hardened surfaces. However, estimating the wear resistance on the basis of hardness alone may be reasonably safe within a certain alloy system but it cannot be applied if a significant change in microconstituents was involved [70]. 3.4 Metallurgical Aspects of Wear The inability of the simple models to explain the results for heat treated steels and the contradictory nature of some of the previous work suggested that metal removal was strongly affected by factors other than hardness [65]. The classical theories of wear have been criticised, since they completely ignored the physics and physical metallurgy of metal deformation, and the linear wear law did not provide any insight into the wear of metals under different sliding conditions [71]. It is becoming increasingly obvious that it is no longer sufficient to specify a reliable wear resistant material in terms of type, composition or mechanical properties alone, but in addition it is necessary to specify the metallographic microstructure [49]. The influence of the metallurgical factors on mechanical properties of metals has become fairly well investigated and established. Thus, with regard to wear, there is every reason to suppose that a relationship exists between wear resistance and metallurgical structure. An estimate of wear performance can usually be made when based on metallographic structure [49]. It is clear from the previous section that all the introduced mechanisms of wear postulated the occurrence of plastic deformation in the wear process. Experimental observations confirmed the association of wear with plastic deformation even in the very hard heat treated high speed steels [72,73]. So, the factors affecting plastic deformation, would also affect the wear of steels. The plastic deformation of crystalline materials is well explained by the dislocation theory [74]. There are three principle ways for strengthening the structure of steels; by alloying, by heat treating and by work-hardening [49]. However work hardening is of no interest in the present work concerned with high speed steels. The role of composition on wear and other mechanical properties has been reported [19, 49, 61, 68, 69, 75, 76], and it has been shown that in steels, there was no convincing evidence that alloying elements other than the interstitial elements (carbon and nitrogen) had an appreciable effect on the mechanical properties of martensite in the quenched state [76]. However, Mills [77], has shown that in low carbon steels the ferrite microhardness increased as total residual elements increased. Heat treating alloy and high speed steels results in what is known as secondary hardening which gives the steel the best possible combination of hardness and toughness. As has been shown in chapter two and also confirmed by the present experimental work, the secondary hardening of high speed steel is a precipitation hardening process during which very fine carbide precipitates give the steel improved mechanical properties. 3.5 Wear and Precipitated Carbides A review of the literature showed two mechanisms in which the carbide phase contributed to the wear resistance of steels; either by a direct contribution to wear resistance by taking actual part in the wear process. Or indirectly by dispersion strengthening the matrix which finally resulted in reducing plastic deformation and reducing the wear rate. With large differences in the abrasive wear resistance of different microconstituents, the overall wear resistance of the material may be low due to selective wear of the less wear resistant components, and the wear resistance could be expressed as the summation of the contribution of different phases. It has been reported that the increase in volume fraction of carbide phases enhanced the wear resistance of steels [61, 69, 78, 79]. However, measurement of the volume fraction was usually carried out by optical methods, which counted only coarse carbide particles. This was applied to the primary carbides in hardened and tempered high speed steels. The importance of carbide volume fraction on wear resistance was based on the assumption that carbides were the hardest phases in steels, so, their wear rate should be much lower than that of the matrix. The hardness of the carbides, thus, would be the important factor in the microstructure in influencing wear resistance [70]. It has been shown that harder carbides gave better wear resistance to steels than softer carbides. The work of Popov and Nagorny [78], has shown that MC carbide gave better wear resistance than $M_7C_3$ and $M_6C$ carbides, all having the same austenitic matrix. Apart from the carbide hardness, they explained that as MC gave the maximum probability of obtaining stable bonding across the boundaries, since MC had the least difference in lattice constant with the matrix. Also, it has been reported that harder cementite gave steel better wear resistance than a softer intermetallic compound Fe$_2$Mo [70]. The increased volume fraction of the primary MC carbide was reported as the decisive factor in increasing the wear resistance of M2 high speed steel despite the associated decrease in the volume fraction of $M_6C$ carbide [80]. It was found that abrasives penetrated $M_3C$ and $M_6C$ fairly easily and these carbides had offered practically no resistance to the destructive effect of the abrasives, while vanadium and niobium carbides (MC type) held up the abrasive grains but underwent considerable damage in the process, in the form of cracks and chips which reduced their ability to withstand the abrasive in the next collision during the following cycle of work. The experimental results proved that the carbide resistance to wear depended on the energy needed to rupture the carbide atomic binding forces which depended on the nature of the carbide [81]. Alloyed carbides have been reported to have better strength than pure carbides; when boron diffused into Ti$_{0.84}$C or V$_{0.84}$C carbides, it improved their strength remarkably [82]. It was found that M2 high speed steel, containing 1% vanadium + 1% niobium had the very best performance and secondary hardness compared with standard M2 high speed steel containing 2% vanadium or with M2 having the vanadium content replaced totally by 2% or 3% niobium [66]. This fact has also been confirmed when molybdenum steels were prepared as pure alloys and with some addition of Ta, Nb and Cr. It was found that the hardness of alloyed steels was higher than that of the pure steels despite the fact that the precipitated carbides were the same in all steels [83], from which it could be concluded that the carbides in alloyed Mo steels were alloyed carbides which gave the better properties to the steel. It has also been reported that binary alloy carbides of TiC and VC had higher strength than any of the carbides alone [82]. The importance of the carbide size has been pointed out by previous workers during the wear testing of two M2 high speed steel samples, both of the same hardness (66.5 Rc) but having different primary carbide sizes. They showed that the steel containing the larger primary carbides had a greater wear rate [70]. Honeycombe [84] reported that one of the objectives of heat treating steels in order to achieve strength and toughness was to minimize the number of coarse particles of the second phase, both within the grains and at the grain boundaries. However, it has been reported that the very big carbide particles had no decisive influence on the wear resistance and a carbide free material was the most wear resistant [50]. Also, it has been reported that carbides below a certain volume fraction did not affect the wear of steels [78], and above a certain maximum limit of carbide content, there was no increase in wear resistance by increasing carbide volume fraction [50]. For alloys having $M_6C$ carbide, such a maximum value was reported as 30% volume fraction of $M_6C$ [78], and for MC carbide in M2 high speed steel, a 12% volume fraction was the maximum carbide content over which no improvement in wear resistance was observed [80]. However, Jahanmir [85] reported an optimum value of 5-7% carbide volume fraction to give his steel the maximum wear resistance, below or above that optimum value of volume fraction, the wear rate increased. In his review, Hurricks [49], reported that highly alloyed materials with large amounts of carbides were not necessarily the most wear resistant. Despite the traditional assumption that primary carbides contribute significantly to wear resistance of high speed steels, the tool life data for both highly alloyed powder metallurgy and commercially produced M1 and M57 high speed steels contradicted that belief [86]. Despite the difference in residual carbide content, the performance of drills made from highly alloyed powder metallurgy high speed steel was found to be the same as that of drills made from conventional M7 high speed steel, and the performance of drills made from M52 was better than both M7 and powder metallurgy produced high speed steel drills [87]. The same results were obtained from M1, M7 and high alloy powder metallurgy produced high speed steels [86], and from M50 (containing 2.6% volume fraction of carbides) and T1 (containing 15.2% volume fraction of carbides), [88]. However, despite the fact that carbides are very hard at room temperature, it has been reported that above 800°C, the hardness of carbides decreased drastically and carbides became soft and ductile [82,89]. The hardness of WC carbide dropped to about 7-10% of its room temperature value when the temperature was increased to 650°C and the hardness of the carbide had the same value as that of pure tungsten both measured at temperatures above 1000°C. Also, the hardness of TiC carbide dropped to about 25% of its room temperature value as the temperature was increased to 600°C [90]. The bulk hot hardness of tool steels at 650°C was found to equal about 70% of its value at room temperature [91]. It can be concluded from such data that both martensite and other carbide phases reach about the same level of hardness at high temperatures. The actual wear process takes place at such high temperatures. (>800-900 °C) [92], and this may explain how both matrix and primary carbides wore at the same rate in high speed steel tempered to its maximum secondary hardness [70]. The failure of high speed steels could be differentiated into two broad categories: a toughness-related (fracture) failure and a wear-related (continuous wear) failure [86]. Both mechanisms are controlled by the yield strength of the steel, therefore they are matrix dependent [86, 87]. Suh [71, 93], established his delamination theory of wear which explained the wear process as a sort of fracture resulting from subsurface crack nucleation and propagation, and he believed that fracture properties were the most significant which was mainly matrix dependent. The work of Henderer [86, 94-96], has shown that the strength of hardened and tempered high speed steels was derived mainly from the precipitation of the very fine secondary alloy carbides, and the contribution from the martensitic strength, and coarse primary carbides did not contribute to strength. The role of the second phase particles in strengthening steels is reported [97] and it could be attributed only to the precipitation of the very fine secondary carbides which caused the martensitic strengthening, secondary hardening and better wear resistance [33]. Although as yet not explicitly proved, the suggestion is that the wear resistance of high speed steel may be attributed primarily to the precipitation of alloy carbides and that resistance to localised plastic deformation, such as that which occurs with many modes of continuous wear, depends on the same strengthening mechanisms as resistance to edge fracture. It is sufficient to alloy only to the point which upon austenitising results in a saturation of the matrix of elements which will precipitate as carbides upon tempering [95]. This was the idea behind the matrix steel, which with heat treatment could reach the strength of high speed steels [98]. However, Henderer [95], reported that he could not find in the literature any experimental data about the size and interparticle spacing of the fine secondary hardening carbides in high speed steels. He found that by assuming the volume fraction of secondary carbides in M1 high speed steel to be 5% with a particle size of $200 \times 50$ Å (needle shape) and an interparticle spacing of 322 Å, reasonable values of the strength of the steels could be calculated [95]. The difficulty of imaging the fine secondary hardening carbides in thin foils by the electron microscope and the unsuccessful extraction of those carbides by replica techniques has recently been reported [4]. However, the fine secondary hardening carbides in high speed steels have been successfully extracted in the present work and the particle size was found to be of the same order of the size assumed by Henderer [95], but of platelet shape rather than the assumed needle shape. The harmful role of the large primary carbides is also reported. More cracks were detected around large second phase particles [72]. Also due to the non-coherency of the large carbides, they facilitated the nucleation and propagation of cracks [67, 71, 72]. Primary carbides may be torn out from their initial positions and these loose carbides can act as abrasives and contribute to the wear process [50]. However, the factors affecting wear resistance could be sequenced according to their importance as follows: - matrix properties. - carbide properties. - carbide quantity. The amount of carbides would affect the wear resistance only in the case of the same matrix and the same carbide nature [78]. Finally, it is still a necessity to establish a more suitable material property term for use in the wear life prediction of a wide range of steels [61]. 4.1 General The aim of the present work was to study the microstructure of high speed steel as it changed with tempering, and to study the wear rate of the steels after tempering at different tempering temperatures in order to correlate the changes in hardness and wear rate to the microstructure of high speed steels. Cylindrical samples were heat treated and tempered at different tempering temperatures. A slice from each sample was pressed in bakelite for metallurgical investigations, and the rest of the cylinder was used for the crossed-cylinder wear test. Metallurgical investigations included: optical microscopy, electron probe microanalysis, electron microscopy and microanalysis. All metallurgical investigations were carried out on the same sample for each tempered steel which gave confidence and consistency of the results. 4.2 Metallurgical Investigations As can be seen from chapter two, the kinetics of the secondary carbide precipitation and the exact identification of the secondary carbide responsible for the secondary hardening in high speed steels are not clear from the literature. None of the previous workers has reported the chemical analysis of the fine secondary carbides, after extracting them out of the matrix and all identification of such carbides has been made using crystallographic techniques which could not differentiate between different carbides having the same or even close lattice parameters. Despite the reported difficulties and the previous unsuccessful extraction of such very fine carbides by replica techniques [4], the extraction of these carbides in order to determine their chemical composition, sizes and the range of stability of each secondary carbide are of considerable interest. The main purpose of the present work was to define different secondary carbide phases, their crystal structure, chemical composition, range of stability and the sequence of carbide precipitation during tempering high speed steels. Special attention was given to the study of the secondary hardening carbides. It was of interest to study changes in quantity, particle size crystallography and chemical composition of the primary carbides during the secondary hardening region. 4.2.1 Sample preparation Commercial M42, M1 and M15 high speed steels were supplied by Aurora Steel Ltd. in the form of bars, of chemical composition as shown in Table (3). Bars were machined down to cylinders 12.5 mm diameter and 25 mm in length to fit in the crossed-cylinder wear test rig. Each sample was marked by stamping a digit and a letter; the digit referred to the steel type and the letter to the tempering temperature. Samples were commercially hardened in a vacuum furnace at Nemo Heat Treatment Company. The typical austenitising temperatures are shown in Table (4). One of the typical hardening cycles is shown in Fig.(5). After hardening, each group of samples having the same letter were tempered at the temperature corresponding to that letter. Tempering temperatures were chosen in the range from 380°C up to 800°C, while the tempering time was kept constant for two plus two hours with air cooling in between tempers in all cases. Tempering temperature increments were chosen to be 10°C in the range of secondary hardening (500-580°C) and gradually increased up to 50°C prior to and beyond that range. Because the secondary MC carbide was not detected on tempering for two plus two hours at temperatures up to 700°C, more samples were double tempered for longer times at 700 and 800°C which allowed the detection of secondary MC carbide and the study of the steel in the annealed state. A slice about 3 mm thick was sliced off each sample and pressed in bakelite. The bakelite moulds were then marked with the same number and letter of their samples. The mounted samples were polished down to 1 μm diamond paste, thoroughly rinsed by methanol and etched. Several etchants have been tried and it was found that the successful replica extraction of the fine secondary carbides was achieved when samples were etched by diluted Vilella's reagent. The Vilella's reagent was diluted to 0.2-0.25 of its standard strength (i.e. 1 gram picric acid + 5 ml hydrochloric acid were dissolved in 400-500 ml methanol instead of 100 ml as in the standard formula). This etchant was found not to attack the fine secondary carbides which made it possible to extract them by both carbon and non-carbon replica methods. However, the etching time was a critical factor in etching the steels and was dependent on the microstructure of the steel. Typical etching times varied from about 30 seconds for annealed steel to about two minutes for steels tempered to their peak hardness. 4.2.2 Hardness measurements The hardness of the polished unetched samples was measured on a Vickers hardness testing machine using a load of 30 kg. The hardness in MN/m² was plotted against the tempering temperatures. 4.2.3 Optical observations Optical microscopy was used to study the primary carbides, however coarsened secondary carbides in the annealed state were also observable. The optical technique was used together with the selective etching method described in the literature to determine the volume fraction and size distribution of the primary carbides over the tempering range automatically by using the Quantimet 720. 126.96.36.199 Volume fraction and size distribution of the primary carbides Polished samples were etched selectively by the method explained by Kayser and Cohen [6]. To detect $M_6C$ carbides, samples were etched in 4% sodium hydroxide in water, concentrated with potassium permanganate. To reveal MC carbides samples were etched electrolytically in a freshly prepared 1% chromic acid solution at a voltage of 5 volts. This etching technique showed carbides dark in a white background. It was found that after etching, rinsing and drying, followed by slight polishing of the specimens on a smooth cloth, the carbide particles were better defined and the halo around them was removed. The volume fraction of the carbide phase was determined by using the Quantimet 720 of UMIST. This facility gave automatically the volume fraction of the carbide phase, its particle size distribution and the average particle size. The Quantimet measured the size in picture points (p.p.) which depended on the magnification used to determine the size in microns. In the present work one picture point (p.p.) equalled 0.28 microns. It was of great importance to well grind and to re-polish the surface in between the two selective etchings. The volume fraction, size distribution and average particle size of $M_6C$ and MC primary carbides were determined over the secondary hardening region. Each measurement was the average of 60 readings in order to overcome the non homogeneity in carbide shape, size and distribution and to achieve a statistically meaningful result. 4.2.4 Electron probe microanalysis Electron probe microanalysis (EPMA) was used to analyse the primary carbides, such analysis was confirmed by the analysis obtained from the EDAX machine. EPMA was used to analyse the standard Fe-Mo binary alloy specimen used to calibrate the L line detection of Mo by the EDAX detector. It was also used to scan the microstructure in order to determine the distribution of each element. The EPMA used in the present work was the Jeol JXA-50A electron probe microanalyser. 4.2.5 Electron microscopy Electron microscopy was found to be the most suitable technique for studying the microstructure of high speed steels. The scanning electron microscope (SEM) and the conventional and analytical electron microscopes (TEM and AEM) were employed in the present work. The SEM was used in observing the precipitation of carbides of large particle size (primary carbides and coarsened secondary carbides), and to study the worn surfaces of high speed steel samples used in wear testing. The Cambridge stereoscan 600 was used in the present work. TEM and AEM were the most successful techniques used in studying the microstructural changes in tempering high speed steels. Morphology, crystallography and chemical composition of precipitates could be determined, even for the very fine secondary carbides in their early stages of precipitation. The analytical electron microscope was used to study each precipitated phase crystallographically and to determine the chemical composition of the metallic part of the carbide. It was possible to detect carbon qualitatively by a window-less detector. In the present work a Philips 400T electron microscope fitted with an EDAX 9100 X-ray detector and computer software SW9100 version 2.2, of UMIST, was used. Carbon was detected qualitatively in secondary hardening carbides by using the Philips 400T electron microscope fitted with a ZL-5 Link window-less detector of the University of Surrey. Carbon was detected after extracting the carbides on a non-carbon replica. (aluminium and silicon). However, it was not possible to detect carbon quantitatively since the software did not contain the carbon K factor and trials made to determine such a factor by using standard carbides prepared to their stoichiometric composition were not successful. A conventional AE1 electron microscope was also used mainly to check the replica extraction, to obtain selected area diffraction patterns (SAD) from larger particles and in photomicrography. The main difficulty in using transmission electron microscopy was the preparation of the special thin samples in the form of thin foils and extraction replicas. 188.8.131.52 Thin foil preparation Rods 3 mm diameter were extracted from the 12.5 mm diameter cylindrical specimens by the electro-erosion technique, Fig.(5). Discs of about 1 mm thickness were sliced off the rods by a small slicer. The discs were held in a special holder and they were ground from both sides on abrasive papers down to 0.2-0.3 mm thickness. The specimens were dish shaped in a "Strues" electrolytic thinner at a voltage of 50 volts in a solution of 10% perchloric acid in sodium acetate. Discs were removed before perforation and finished to perforation in an Edwards ion beam thinner. 184.108.40.206 Carbon extraction replica A carbon single stage replica was used in the present work. Carbon was evaporated in a vacuum of less than $10^{-4}$ torr by a direct spark between two graphite electrodes to precipitate a carbon film on the bakelite pressed etched sample. The carbon film thickness was determined by observing the colour of a porcelain chip fixed on the bakelite mount of the specimen. The carbon film was separated off the sample surface electrolytically in a solution of 10% nital at a voltage of 100 volts. The carbon film was collected on copper grids out of the nital solution, rinsed in methanol, then transferred to a beaker filled with tap water to spread the creased carbon film on top of the surface of the water as a result of surface tension. Segments of the carbon replica were collected on copper grids and were allowed to dry in air on a filter paper. Thin foils and extraction replicas were kept in special boxes with a marked place for each sample. 220.127.116.11 Other replicas In order to detect the carbon in the carbide particles, a carbon film could not be used, since the carbon film would contribute to the level of carbon detected. Therefore, a non-carbon replica was used for this purpose. A silicon replica was prepared by evaporating silicon monoxide in special evaporating baskets. No way was found to judge the film thickness since the silicon monoxide layer was transparent and different thicknesses were obtained by varying evaporating times. However, the silicon monoxide replica showed a high oxygen peak which overlapped the carbon peak. An aluminium replica was therefore used instead of the silicon replica. It was easy to observe the aluminium film layer in the coating unit and it showed a smaller oxygen peak in the spectrum which allowed better detection of carbon. Both silicon and aluminium replicas were separated off the specimen in the same way employed in separating the carbon replica. However, attempts made to determine the carbon content quantitatively were not successful and it was possible to detect carbon in secondary hardening carbides qualitatively as will be discussed in chapter six of the present thesis. 4.2.6 Microanalysis The chemical microanalysis was carried out using an EDAX 9100 detector, with a computer programme SW 9100 version 2.2, a Bryans type plotter and an A4 X-Y recorder. The idea of the analysis was based on detecting the characteristic X-rays emitted from any of the particles of interest as a result of electron-specimen interaction. The interaction of a high energy electron beam with thin specimens results in a variety of signals for analysis as shown schematically in Fig.(6) [99]. The details of the physics of the process are well explained elsewhere [47,48]. However, the most important signal for energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) analysis is the emission of the characteristic X-rays which can be detected and processed to give a quantitative analysis of the specimen composition. The primary (incident) electrons may interact with an electron in the sample, ejecting it from its orbit. If that electron was ejected from an inner atomic shell, the result would be an ion in an exited state. Through a relaxation, or de-exitation, process, this exited ion gives up some energy to return to normal state. The most likely process is that an electron from an outer shell "drops" into the vacancy in an inner shell, each drop results in the loss of a specific amount of energy which equals the difference in energy between the vacant shell and the shell contributing the electron. This energy is given up in the form of electromagnetic radiation (X-rays) in the case of high energy transitions involving inner shells. The energy of the radiation uniquely indicates the element from which it came, hence they are called characteristic emission or characteristic X-rays. The X-ray lines are usually named according to the shell in which the initial vacancy occurs and the shell from which an electron drops to fill that vacancy. For instance if the initial vacancy occurs in the K shell and the vacancy filling electron drops from the L shell, a $K_\alpha$ X-ray is emitted, if the electron drops from the M shell, the emitted X-ray is the $K_{\beta}$ X-ray. Generally, the K, L and M indicate the shell where the vacancy occurred and the Greek letters $\alpha$, $\beta$ and $\gamma$ refer to the shell contributing the electron. Each emitted X-ray produces a charge pulse in a semiconductor detector. This tiny and short-lived current is processed by complicated electronics, controlled by a high level computer programme in order to display the energy dispersed X-ray spectrum as peaks of different heights (or intensities), located at certain energy levels. The energy scale is given in KeV and the intensity is in arbitrary units. Such a spectrum is quite useful in giving a qualitative indication of the chemical composition and could be used to identify different phases as well. A typical time needed to obtain a spectrum is 1-2 minutes. However, such spectrum could be processed by the computer programme to give the quantitative chemical composition either in weight percent or in atomic percent. The idea of quantitation is based on the ratio technique [100] such that, the characteristic X-ray intensity ratio $I_A/I_B$ of two elements A and B measured simultaneously in the analysed volume is directly related to the mass concentration ratio $C_A/C_B$ in the form, $$C_A/C_B = K_{AB} \cdot I_A / I_B$$ where $K_{AB}$ is a factor constant for each pair of elements. Cliff and Lorimer [101], were the first to introduce a series of K factors for elements relative to Si and $K_{AB}$ for elements. A and B relative to each other could be determined such that; \[ K_{AB} = \frac{K_{ASi}}{K_{BSi}} \] The $ K $ factor is often termed the Cliff-Lorimer factor. The values of the $ K $ factor are usually reported for each separate line (K or L) [47]. In the present work all elements were detected from their $ K $ lines except Mo and W because their $ K $ line intensities were small enough not to be statistically satisfactory when distinguished from the background, hence measurements were made using the L lines. It was recommended that the computer program was checked in quantitation when measuring from mixed shells [102]. Therefore a standard Fe-Mo binary alloy was supplied by MBH Analytical Ltd. (London). The standard alloy had a standard reference 13754D and was accompanied by a certificate of its composition containing 10.4% by weight Mo in Fe. The homogeneity of the Mo distribution in Fe was confirmed by analysing the bulk material in the EPMA, which showed a homogeneous solid solution of Mo in Fe, Fig.(7), and the Mo concentration equalled 9.53%. A thin foil was made from the bulk material in the same way used in making thin foils as described earlier. The foil was analysed by the EDAX machine. The analysis was satisfactory, giving the Mo content as 10.2±1%, Fig (8). Such calibration gave confidence in the computer programme which was used to carry out the analysis using different lines. 4.3 Wear Testing The cylindrical specimens were tested on a crossed-cylinder testing configuration described by Mills and Redford [103]. The specimens were rubbed against a surface hardened steel workpiece. The bar was 76 mm diameter, of chemical composition as shown in Table (5) and of surface hardness 705 HV. The microstructure of the workpiece is shown in Fig (9). From the preliminary tests it was found that a speed of 40 m/min. (i.e. 167 r.p.m.) and a normal load of 225 N gave reasonable figures for wear volume measurements. The wear volume was measured at intervals of four minutes (160 meters of sliding distance) by measuring the depth of the wear scar. However, interruption of the test to measure wear volume should not affect the test results [104]. The wear volume was calculated from the equation used by Halling [104]; \[ v = \pi \sqrt{a \cdot b} \cdot d^2 - \frac{\pi}{8} \cdot \frac{a + b}{\sqrt{a \cdot b}} \cdot d^3 \] where, - $ a $ .... radius of specimen - $ b $ .... radius of workpiece - $ d $ .... depth of wear scar - $ v $ .... volume of wear scar The depth of the wear scar was measured using a Talysurf and the specimen was leveled to a horizontal position by a special adjusting screw. The Talysurf was calibrated to measure in the vertical direction (wear scar depth), while it scanned the scar horizontally by manual controls. The Talysurf plotted the wear scar profile, such that, the depth was represented on true scale, while the horizontal direction was not to scale. A typical wear scar profile is shown in Fig. (10). For each specimen, the wear volume was plotted against the sliding distance and a straight line was fitted to the points using the departmental computer programme POLFT1. The slope of the line given by the computer was the wear rate in $m^{-2}$. For each steel, the wear resistance (the inverse of the wear rate in $m^{-2}$) was plotted against the tempering temperature. Worn surfaces of samples have been examined using scanning electron microscope (SEM). It was found that etching the worn surface with the diluted Vilella's reagent showed the worn surface of the primary carbides free from wear debris and other surface contamination, which facilitated the observation of the abrasion tracks on the worn surfaces of the carbides. 5.1 Results of Metallurgical Investigations The variation of hardness with tempering temperature for the three different high speed steels is shown in Fig.(11). It was found that the three steels had achieved their maximum secondary hardness after tempering for two plus two hours at 540°C. It was found that secondary hardening of the three high speed steels examined was associated with the precipitation of the secondary hardening carbide. Before peak hardness, the secondary hardening carbide was found to precipitate heterogeneously as shown in Fig.(12). At peak hardness, colonies of the secondary hardening carbide could be extracted by replica methods as shown in Fig.(13). It is clear from this figure that the secondary hardening carbide particles were of platelet shape and had a maximum dimension of 200-400 Å. Attempts to measure their thickness stereoscopically and by convergent beam diffraction were unsuccessful. However, a reasonable estimate of the thickness could be made as will be discussed in the next chapter. Thin foils made from steels tempered to peak hardness showed the dense precipitation of the secondary hardening carbide, Fig.(14). Thin foil micrographs showed the secondary hardening carbide precipitated in colonies or groups which appeared as clouds of precipitates and it was not possible to determine the exact shape or size of the individual particles. It was not possible to carry out crystallographic and microanalysis investigations of these carbides using thin foils because of the high magnetisation of the foil, the fine size of the particles and the fact that the particles were completely embedded in the matrix. It is clear from thin foil micrographs that among the groups of the secondary hardening carbides, there were areas free from precipitates. This was confirmed by successful extraction of these carbides as shown in Fig.(15), where some areas appeared free from precipitates and they were surrounded by carbide colonies. However, replica extraction of the secondary hardening carbides made it possible to obtain single crystal diffraction patterns as well as their microanalysis. Single crystal diffraction patterns of the secondary hardening carbide, Fig.(16), revealed a face centred cubic crystal structure of lattice parameter equal to 4.17 Å for M42 and M1 and a slightly smaller lattice parameter for the M15 secondary hardening carbide. The microanalysis of these tiny carbides precipitated in M42 and M1 high speed steels showed a carbide rich in molybdenum (about 55 at.%) and containing 20-30 at.% vanadium. The secondary hardening carbides in M15 high speed steel contained higher amounts of vanadium. A typical chemical analysis of these carbides extracted from samples tempered to their peak hardness is shown in Table (6). Carbon was detected qualitatively in the secondary hardening carbide. Fig.(17) shows the EDX spectrum of the secondary hardening carbide detected by a window-less detector, which confirmed the carbide nature of the precipitate. However, there was no way to determine quantitatively the amount of carbon in the carbide in order to determine if the carbide was an MC or M₂C carbide. The variation of chemical composition of the secondary hardening carbides in M42 and M1 high speed steels with tempering temperature, within their entire range of stability, is shown in Fig.(18). It is clear that after peak hardness, vanadium was partially replaced by chromium while the molybdenum content remained constant. Cementite needles were still observable even after tempering the steel to peak hardness and beyond. However, at higher temperatures the cementite needles became smaller Fig.(19). Cementite was always distinguished from other carbides, especially from the hexagonal M₂C which also had a needle shape, as it was the only iron rich carbide, Fig.(20). The typical composition of cementite precipitated in M42 high speed steel is shown in Table (7), and its composition variation with temperature around the peak hardness region is shown in Fig.(21). However, tempering steels for 2+2 hours at 650°C and above showed the disappearance of the secondary hardening carbide in the three steels examined and this was replaced by two other carbides; needle-like hexagonal M₂C carbide rich in molybdenum (tungsten rich in the case of M15 high speed steel) and particles of M₂₃C₆ rich in chromium and iron as shown in Fig.(22). The chemical composition of these carbides is shown in Table (7). After tempering the steels for 24 hours at 700°C, the microstructure of the three steels examined was found to consist of coarse M₂₃C₆, some retained M₂C needles, M₆C particles and a new precipitated phase of tiny particles. This new precipitated phase had the same shape and morphology as the secondary hardening carbides, Fig.(23). The single crystal diffraction patterns obtained from this new phase were found to be identical with those obtained from the secondary hardening carbide. However, its chemical composition was quite different; it was a vanadium rich carbide of composition close to that of the primary MC carbide. The typical chemical composition of this new phase present in all three steels examined is shown in Table (8). In the annealed steels, after 24 hours at 800°C, the microstructure consisted of the three carbides; MC, M₆C and M₂₃C₆ all in the coarse stable condition. Fig.(24). Single crystal patterns of MC, $M_6C$ and $M_{23}C_6$ are shown in Fig.(25). It was difficult to differentiate crystallographically between MC and the secondary hardening carbide or between $M_6C$ and $M_{23}C_6$. However, the EDX spectra of these carbides were quite different and could be differentiated one from the other as shown in Fig.(26) and Fig.(27) for cubic $M_2C$ and MC carbides and in Fig.(28) and Fig.(29) for $M_6C$ and $M_{23}C_6$ carbides respectively. The copper peaks appearing in the EDX spectra were an experimental artifact since the replicas were mounted on copper grids and such peaks occurred in the background of the spectra as shown in Fig.(30) and Fig.(31) for carbon and aluminium replicas respectively. The sequence of carbide precipitation in the three high speed steels examined could be represented schematically as shown in Fig.(32). The chemical composition of the primary carbides (MC and $M_6C$) did not vary with tempering temperature as shown in Fig.(33). They also maintained their crystal structure and no change was observed in their lattice parameters. The primary carbides were observable by optical microscopy and scanning electron microscopy as shown in Fig.(34) and Fig.(35) respectively. However, some small particles of the primary carbides were extracted by replica which enabled single crystal patterns to be obtained and microanalysis of these carbides to be carried out. Primary carbides were observable in thin foils, Fig.(36), but chemical analysis of primary carbides from thin foils showed higher values of iron content than that obtained from analysing carbides extracted by replica, or when large particles were analysed by EPMA. Coarse primary carbide particles analysis made by EPMA was confirmed by the EDX analysis, Table (7). Also, specimens of M42 and M1 were scanned by EPMA for the detection of the distribution of different alloying elements as shown in Fig.(37) and Fig.(38) for M42 and M1 high speed steels respectively. It is clear that both $M_6C$ carbide precipitated in M42 and MC carbide precipitated in M15 high speed steels were deficient in cobalt. However, both carbides contained about the same amount of chromium as the matrix. $M_6C$ carbide was deficient in vanadium, rich in molybdenum and MC carbide was rich in vanadium, deficient in both molybdenum and tungsten. Selective etching of steels showed the carbide of interest which appeared dark against a white background, Fig.(39), which facilitated the measurement of volume fraction, particle size distribution and average particle size of primary carbides by the Quantimet. It was found that the volume fraction of primary carbides did not vary with tempering temperature in the three steels examined, Fig.(40). Also, primary carbides maintained their average particle size, Fig.(41), and the particle size distribution remained unchanged and they maintained the distribution shown in Fig.(42) for MC carbide and in Fig.(43) for $M_6C$ carbide. The relation between the volume fraction and the average particle size of the primary carbides is shown in Fig.(44). It is clear from this figure that the MC type carbide was more sensitive to particle coarsening with the increase of volume fraction than the $M_6C$ type carbide. 5.2 Wear Results The wear volume was calculated as explained in the previous chapter and was plotted against sliding distance; a straight line using a least squares analysis was drawn through the results. Fig.(45) shows an example of the results obtained from samples of high speed steels tempered for 2+2 hours at 530 °C. The slope of each straight line given by the computer fitting programme was the wear rate in m$^2$. The wear resistance (the inverse of the wear rate in m$^{-2}$) was plotted against tempering temperature as shown in Fig.(46). It was found that the wear resistance of specimens over-tempered beyond peak hardness was always lower than that of samples having the same hardness and tempered prior to peak hardness as shown in Fig.(47). Wear resistance was plotted against hardness for the three steels examined and the relation was found to be non-linear as shown in Fig.(48). Examination of the high speed steel wear surface showed that primary carbides in steels tempered to their peak hardness were stable in their original places and were worn down to the same level as the martensitic matrix, Fig.(49). These carbides exhibited flat wear surfaces, Fig.(49) and Fig.(50). However, abrasion tracks, Fig(49) and Fig.(50) and cracks Fig.(51) were observed on the worn surfaces of these carbides. In the case of annealed samples, it was found that carbides were loose and acted as abrasives which ploughed the surface of the high speed steels, Fig.(52). 6.1 Identification of Secondary Hardening Carbides in High Speed Steels It is clear from chapter two that previous to the present work the secondary hardening carbides in high speed steels have been identified only by crystallographic methods. X-Ray diffraction identified hexagonal $M_2C$ carbide [7] to be the secondary hardening carbide. Electron diffraction identified $M_{23}C_6$ [41] and MC [42] to be the carbides responsible for the secondary hardening of high speed steels. The identification of MC carbide as the secondary hardening carbide has been confirmed by more recent work [4, 43, 105]. Apart from the replica extraction and the single crystal pattern introduced by Mukherjee [42], all the recent workers did not report the extraction of these carbides and the unsuccessful extraction of these carbides has been reported [4]. The study of these carbides from thin foils has shown this technique to be inadequate and the useful outcome from the thin foil technique was the ring pattern data [105]. Mukherjee [42], used selected area diffraction (SAD) in his investigation since the convergent beam technique was not developed at that time. He introduced a ring pattern from the secondary hardening carbides extracted from sample tempered to its peak hardness. Then from an over-tempered sample, he introduced a single crystal pattern and claimed that this was from the secondary hardening carbide after it coarsened as he believed. He did not introduce the photomicrograph of the carbide from which he obtained the diffraction patterns, neither at peak hardness nor after coarsening of the over-tempered samples. The present work has shown that the secondary hardening carbides did not coarsen after peak hardness but they dissolved in the matrix and disappeared. Also, it is clear from the present work that the primary MC carbide is always present in the microstructure. Some small particles of the primary MC carbide could be picked up by the replica and diffraction patterns were obtainable. However, Fig.(25) shows a single crystal pattern obtained from a primary MC carbide which is identical to that claimed by Mukherjee to be obtained from the secondary hardening carbide. However, this makes the single crystal pattern reported by Mukherjee questionable. The present work introduced evidence of successful carbon and non-carbon replica extraction of these tiny carbides and for the first time introduced: 1. photomicrographs of the secondary hardening carbides extracted from different high speed steels which enabled imaging and measuring of the size of such carbides, Fig.(13) and Fig.(15). 2. single crystal diffraction patterns obtained from the secondary hardening carbides, by using convergent beam diffraction, Fig.(16). 3. quantitative microanalysis of the metallic part of the secondary hardening carbides by EDX technique, Fig.(26) and Table (6). 4. qualitative detection of carbon present in these carbides which confirmed the carbide nature of the secondary hardening carbides, Fig.(17). 5. the mechanism of carbides precipitation in the tempering of high speed steels, Fig.(32). In the present work, the diffraction patterns of the secondary hardening carbides revealed an fcc structure of lattice parameter 4.17 Å. The chemical composition of carbides extracted from M42 and M1 was rich in molybdenum and contained vanadium. It was concluded that the secondary hardening carbides were either MC carbides dissolving that amount of molybdenum or cubic $M_2C$ carbide containing vanadium. The cubic $M_2C$ carbide was recently discovered in molybdenum steels showing identical diffraction patterns to that of MC carbide and transforming at higher temperatures to hexagonal $M_2C$ carbide [40], in the same way as was observed in the present work. However, following the variation in composition with tempering temperature for these carbides precipitated in M42 and M1 high speed steels, Fig.(18), it was found that secondary hardening carbides maintained constant molybdenum content. The vanadium content was partially replaced by chromium at higher tempering temperatures. Also, tempering steels after peak hardness at 650°C and above, no trace of these carbides could be detected in the three steels examined. The secondary hardening carbides were completely replaced by two other carbides; hexagonal $M_2C$ carbides of needle-like shape and particles of $M_{23}C_6$ carbide. This carbide replacement explains the confusion of the previous workers who identified either hexagonal $M_2C$ [7] or cubic $M_{23}C_6$ [41] as the secondary hardening carbide in high speed steels. This confusion was because those workers were interested in studying over-tempered specimens to allow the secondary hardening carbides to coarsen as they believed. The metastable role of the secondary hardening carbide encouraged the belief that this carbide was the cubic $M_2C$ rather than being the MC carbide which is known as a stable carbide in steels. However, it was a necessity to detect the precipitation of the secondary MC carbide. In samples tempered up to 700°C for 2+2 hours, no trace of secondary MC carbide could be detected. More samples were tempered for longer times at 700°C instead of increasing the tempering temperature for constant times in order not to be close to the austenite transformation temperature. After tempering samples for 24 hours at $700^\circ C$, a new phase was found to precipitate, Fig.(23). This phase was rich in vanadium and its diffraction patterns were identical to those obtained from the secondary hardening carbides. This carbide was quite stable and had been detected in samples tempered for 24 hours at $800^\circ C$. This was the secondary MC carbide and the secondary hardening carbide was the cubic $M_2C$ carbide. Identifying the secondary hardening carbide as cubic $M_2C$ carbide was based on the following: 1. it had the same crystal structure as cubic $M_2C$ carbide. 2. it was rich in molybdenum. 3. it was a metastable phase in the three steels examined. 4. within its entire range of precipitation, it exhibited constant molybdenum content while the vanadium was partially replaced by chromium. 5. the precipitation of the secondary MC carbide was detected at higher tempering temperatures well beyond peak hardness. The secondary hardening carbide in M15 high speed steel contained a higher vanadium content than the secondary hardening carbides in M42 and M1 high speed steels. However, in M15, the secondary MC carbide showed a higher vanadium content than that determined in the secondary hardening carbide. However, further work is required to study the role of different alloying elements on the composition of the cubic $M_2C$ carbide. It is clear that cubic $M_2C$ and MC carbides could be differentiated one from the other by determining the carbon content in the carbide. However, attempts have been made to determine quantitatively the carbon content in the secondary hardening carbide. Secondary hardening carbides were extracted on non-carbon replicas (silicon and aluminium) and it was possible to detect carbon qualitatively using a window-less EDX detector. However, the K factor of carbon to any other element was not available. Attempts were made to determine the K factor of carbon to chromium or molybdenum by using $\text{Cr}_3\text{C}_2$ and $\text{Mo}_2\text{C}$ carbides prepared to their stoichiometric compositions. The K factor would be determined by knowing the carbide chemical composition and comparing the X-ray intensities of carbon and the metal. Unfortunately, in both supplied carbides ($\text{Cr}_3\text{C}_2$ and $\text{Mo}_2\text{C}$), each carbide particle showed different X-ray intensity ratio between carbon and the metal. This showed the deviation of the carbides' composition from stoichiometry and they were no longer useful as standard carbides for the carbon K factor determination. Another method has been reported to determine the carbon K factor by simultaneous analysis of the carbide by the EDX and EELS techniques [106]. However, due to lack of time, this attempt has not been made. Determination of the carbon content in secondary hardening carbides is valuable in the study of the strengthening role of these carbides in high speed steels. It is reported that the carbon content affected the properties of carbides [89, 107]. However, the quantitative analysis of carbon in the present work was not successful. Although high speed steels could mainly be considered as high molybdenum or high tungsten steels containing other alloying elements, it is not clearly understood why all previous workers, using crystallographic data, identified the secondary hardening carbide as MC carbide and completely ignored the cubic $M_2C$ carbide which has the identical crystal structure as MC carbide [40], and has been known for four decades [108]. Also, the observation reported in 1953 by Kuo [7], about the possibility of the precipitation of cubic $M_2C$ carbide in high speed steels, did not receive consideration by other workers. However, studies of the crystallography, the chemical analysis and the kinetics of secondary carbide precipitation in the present work have introduced evidence that the cubic $M_2C$ carbide was the secondary hardening carbide in high speed steels. The microanalysis technique played an important role in identifying carbides whose crystallographic data were similar. The EDX spectrum of a carbide could be considered as its fingerprint which could not be confused with other spectra obtained from other carbides as shown in Fig.(26-29). 6.2 Shape, Size, Composition and Distribution of the Secondary Hardening Carbides Henderer [95], assumed the secondary hardening carbides to be of needle-like shape, 200 Å long and 50 Å across. This estimation was made since the shape and size of these carbides have not been reported in the literature previous to the present work. In the present work, the photomicrographs of thin foils tempered to peak hardness showed the secondary hardening carbides as clouds of precipitates. It was not possible to image the shape or measure the size of the carbide particles using thin foils. This was a result of the tiny size of the particles totally embedded in the strongly magnetic matrix. The difficulty of studying the secondary hardening carbides from thin foils has also been shown recently [4,105]. However, the replica extraction of these carbides has been carried out successfully in the present work. Secondary hardening carbides were of platelet shape, 200-400 Å across. Attempts made to measure the thickness of these platelets stereoscopically and by convergent beam diffraction were unsuccessful due to the small thickness of the plates. However, it has been reported from misfit calculations that VC carbide precipitated in α-iron matrix in a platelet shape having a thickness equaled to one sixteenth of the maximum dimension of the plate [109]. This allows the thickness of the secondary hardening carbides, which have an identical crystal structure to that of VC carbide, to be estimated as 15-30 Å. It is clear from Fig.(13) and Fig.(15) that carbides were different in thickness since they appeared different in darkness. The value of 25-50 Å would be a reasonable estimation of the thickness of these particles. The chemical composition of the carbides could be studied in two ways. The first way would be to determine the metallic content, including all the substitutional atoms, of the carbide and the second way would be the determination of the carbon content and the role of the interstitial atoms. Both the content of the metallic elements and the carbon content in the carbides had a great effect on the properties of the carbide and on its role in strengthening the matrix [82,89,107]. In the present work, attempts to determine the carbon content of the secondary hardening carbides have been unsuccessful. However, studying the chemical composition of the metallic part of the secondary hardening carbide was interesting. The determination of the chemical composition of the secondary hardening carbides provided a strong evidence to prove that these carbides were the cubic $M_2C$ carbide and not the MC carbide as thought before. The composition of the metallic part of the secondary hardening carbides in M42 and M1 high speed steels were close to each other over the entire range of their stability. They also showed a constant molybdenum and tungsten content over their range of stability. The vanadium content decreased in both carbides from about 30 at.% to about 20 at.%. Chromium replaced vanadium and its proportion increased from about 10 at.% to about 20 at.% as shown in Fig.(18). Up to the peak hardness, no vanadium-chromium replacement occurred and the composition was constant. After peak hardness, changes in the vanadium and chromium contents occurred. The vanadium-chromium replacement associated with constant high molybdenum content was more likely to occur in a molybdenum carbide rather than a vanadium carbide. This metal replacement provided additional evidence that these carbides were the cubic molybdenum carbide and not the vanadium carbide. The vanadium-chromium replacement was associated with the dissolution of the secondary hardening carbides. However, more work is needed to show the exact role of chromium on the stability of the cubic $M_2C$ carbide precipitated in high speed steels. Stiller and co-workers [4], using atom-probe field-ion microscopy analysed the composition of the secondary hardening carbides precipitated in ASP60 powder metallurgy prepared high speed steel. They found that its metallic part contained about 30 at.% vanadium which was close to that determined in the present work. However, they identified the carbide as MC carbide and totally ignored the possibility of the carbide being the cubic $M_2C$ carbide. However, they did not study the variation of carbide chemical composition with tempering temperature. It is clear from the micrographs of thin foils, Fig.(14) and the successfully extracted secondary hardening carbides, Fig.(15) that there were some regions which were free from carbide precipitation. This could be explained as a result of a non-homogeneous distribution of alloying elements in the steel. Such non-homogeneity is expected in the fabrication of high speed steel containing large amounts of primary carbides rich in these alloying elements. It has been reported that regions surrounding primary carbides were rich in carbon and alloying elements [110]. Molten high speed steel has the most homogeneous composition. However, as primary carbides precipitate by nucleation and growth, atoms of alloying elements migrate to form these carbides. This contributes to the non-homogeneity of the steel during solidification. Such non-homogeneity would lead to areas deficient in alloying elements where no precipitation could occur. Apart from these areas free from precipitation, the secondary hardening carbides were well distributed in colonies of carbides (groups) all over the matrix. 6.3 Sequence of Carbide Precipitation in High Speed Steels Cementite was detected well before peak hardness. It was also detectable even after peak hardness and up to tempering temperatures of about 600°C. The cementite needles at higher temperatures became smaller as shown in Fig.(19). However, the disappearance of cementite, beyond peak hardness, was associated with a change in its chemical composition, where iron was partially replaced by chromium as shown in Fig.(21). Cementite was always differentiated from other carbides, especially the hexagonal $M_2C$ carbide which showed the same needle shape, as it was the only iron-rich carbide precipitated in high speed steels, Fig.(20). The fine needles appearing in (b) of Fig.(19) were at first thought to be the initial hexagonal $M_2C$ carbide precipitates, however, the EDX spectrum obtained from these needles confirmed their cementite identity. At the beginning of secondary hardening, the hardness started to increase and secondary hardening carbides were found to precipitate heterogeneously, as shown in Fig.(12). At peak hardness, the secondary hardening carbide precipitates became very dense as shown in foils, Fig.(14) and the extraction replica, Fig.(15). However, areas free from precipitation have been observed. After peak hardness, the secondary hardening carbides dissolved into the matrix and did not coarsen as thought before. The dissolved secondary hardening carbides were replaced by the precipitation of two other carbides; hexagonal $M_2C$ carbide rich in Mo/W and cubic $M_{23}C_6$ rich in Cr and Fe. The in-situ transformation of the cubic $M_2C$ to hexagonal $M_2C$ reported earlier [40], was not observed in the present work. After tempering the steel for 24 hours at 700 °C, the precipitated carbides were found to consist of some retained needle-like hexagonal $M_2C$ carbide, $M_{23}C_6$ particles, secondary $M_6C$ carbide and the new precipitated secondary MC carbide. This new phase was richer in vanadium than the secondary hardening carbide and had a chemical composition very close to that of the primary MC carbides, Table (8). After tempering the steels for 24 hours at 800 °C, the detected secondary carbides were of types MC, $M_6C$ and $M_{23}C_6$ carbides, all in the stable coarse state as shown in Fig.(24). These secondary carbides were the carbides dissolved during austenitising of the steels, since the volume fraction, particle size and particle size distribution of the primary MC and $M_6C$ carbides were found unchanged with heat treatment, and all the $M_{23}C_6$ carbide formed during tempering the steels as a secondary carbide, Fig.(32). It is clear that the four main alloying elements in high speed steels; molybdenum/tungsten, vanadium and chromium exhibited their own mechanisms of carbide precipitation in high speed steels as they do in pure ternary steels. The presence of vanadium resulted in the precipitation of MC carbide directly out of the matrix which coarsened at high temperatures. Chromium showed direct precipitation of $M_{23}C_6$ carbide without the precipitation of the metastable $M_7C_3$ carbide in the same way reported earlier for steels rich in Mo/W and Fe. The mechanism of precipitation of molybdenum carbide was of interest. Molybdenum behaved in high speed steels in the same way as it did in pure molybdenum steels. Fig.(32) shows the sequence of carbide precipitation in high speed steels. It is clear that the precipitation of molybdenum carbides in high speed steels occurred in the same sequence as reported recently for molybdenum steels [40]. However, due to the presence of other alloying elements, the high speed steel carbides were alloyed carbides and not pure carbides as in the case of pure ternary alloy steels. It is clear from the present work that molybdenum was the predominant alloying element in molybdenum high speed steels. The secondary hardening was a direct result of the precipitation of a molybdenum carbide ($M_2C$ type). The predominance of molybdenum in steels containing vanadium in solution is contradictory to the early work of Payson [27] who reported that vanadium carbide would precipitate in steels containing vanadium and molybdenum if the vanadium content exceeded 0.9% by weight. 6.4 Primary Carbides in High Speed Steels Primary carbides could be identified as those carbides formed during solidification and secondary carbides as those precipitated on tempering high speed steels. Primary carbides are of the types MC and $M_6C$. The $M_{23}C_6$ carbide was a secondary carbide which precipitated on tempering the steel and completely dissolved during austenitising. Secondary MC and $M_6C$ carbides also precipitated during the tempering of high speed steels. The secondary carbides MC, $M_6C$ and $M_{23}C_6$ are those which dissolve in the matrix during the hardening process and precipitate during tempering the steel. However, they are the final form of the sequence of carbide precipitation in tempered high speed steels, Fig.(32). The present work has shown that the primary MC and $M_6C$ carbides were not affected by heat treatment of high speed steels. These carbides maintained their volume fraction, average particle size, particle size distribution, chemical composition and constant lattice parameter over the whole tempering range, being unchanged from the as quenched state. As the volume fraction of primary carbides increased from one steel to another, the average particle size of the carbide increased. However, the particle size of MC carbide showed a greater sensitivity to volume fraction than $M_6C$, Fig. (44). This underestimated the role of the increased volume fraction of MC carbides in high speed steels, since this would result in an increase in particle size, which is not recommended from a strengthening viewpoint for steels [84]. It is clear that there was no reason to correlate the phenomena of secondary hardening to the presence of primary carbides. In previous work [95], the strength of M1 high speed steel was attributed to the precipitation of the fine secondary hardening carbides (72%) and the martensite strength (28%), while the contribution of primary carbides to the strength of M1 high speed steel was found to be insignificant (0.1%). Also, the intensity of the secondary hardening and the associated increase in wear resistance could not be attributed to the quantity of primary carbides. This is in contradiction to the work of Roberts [80], who correlated the higher intensity of wear resistance of M2 high speed steel to the increased quantity of MC carbide despite the decrease in the amount of $M_6C$ carbide. It has been shown that M42 high speed steel containing 5% MC exhibited a higher hardness and wear resistance than M15 high speed steel containing 10% MC. The 10% volume fraction of MC carbide is close enough to the 12% volume fraction of MC carbide reported earlier as the value above which no increase in wear resistance, by a further increase in volume fraction, occurred [80]. As for the total primary carbide content (MC + M\textsubscript{6}C), it was found that M1 high speed steel containing a higher amount of primary carbides than M15 high speed steel showed a lower hardness and wear resistance than M15 high speed steel. This agreed with the previous work which attributed no role to the primary carbides in contributing to the strength and wear resistance of high speed steels [70, 86, 87, 94-96]. The chemical composition of primary carbides determined in the present work was found to agree with that reported by previous workers as shown in Table (9) and Table (10). It is clear from these tables that primary carbides in high speed steels are alloyed carbides. The composition of the metallic part of the MC carbide formed in different high speed steels contained 58-73 at.% vanadium, 15-29 at.% molybdenum + tungsten, 6-11 at.% chromium, 1-6 at.% iron and very little cobalt even when the steel contained cobalt. The MC carbide formed in M42 high speed steel was found to contain less than 1 at.% cobalt, despite the steel having a cobalt content of 8% by weight. The composition of the metallic part of M\textsubscript{6}C carbides formed in different high speed steels usually contained 34-53 at.% molybdenum + tungsten with the remainder of the elements being iron, cobalt, vanadium and chromium. This confirmed the \eta_1 nature of this double carbide as shown previously in chapter two. It was observed that both MC and $M_6C$ carbides contained about the same chromium content (5-10 at.%). The variation in the chemical composition of the carbides was mainly a result of the variation of the composition of the steels. 6.5 Wear of High Speed Steels The wear of high speed steel tools could be a result of either continuous wear (classical wear process), or a result of edge chipping (a fracture process). In the present work, the continuous wear of high speed steel has been considered. A crossed-cylinder wear test was used for wear testing, in which a stationary cylindrical sample rubbed against a surface hardened steel bar. From the wear data, it is clear that the secondary hardening peak was associated with another peak in the wear resistance. The relation between wear resistance and hardness was found to deviate from the linear relation reported by Roberts [25]. A lower wear resistance was found for the samples tempered above peak hardness than that for samples tempered below peak hardness for samples having the same hardness, Fig.(47). This strongly supports the conclusion that the microstructure of high speed steel affects both hardness and wear resistance, but with different sensitivity to microstructure. It is clear from the metallurgical study in the present work that over the temperature range of the secondary hardening region, many changes took place in the microstructure of high speed steels. Cubic $M_2C$, hexagonal $M_2C$, $M_{23}C_6$, $MC$ and $M_6C$ carbides were replacing cementite in the sequence shown in Fig.(32). At the same time the composition of the matrix was obviously dependent on the type and quantity of the precipitated second phase. The non-linear relation between wear resistance and bulk hardness may be explained as a result of the significant changes occurring in the microstructure of high speed steels. Below peak hardness, the microstructure consisted of a martensitic matrix with a dispersion of secondary hardening carbide precipitates. As the tempering temperature increased up to the peak hardness, the amount of secondary hardening carbide increased to its maximum volume fraction. This was associated with an increase in secondary hardness and wear resistance. Up to peak hardness, the only second phase detected was the secondary hardening carbide as well as some cementite needles. As the tempering temperature increased, the amount of the secondary hardening carbide increased and the amount of cementite decreased. However, after peak hardness, the secondary carbide dissolved. The dissolution of this carbide was associated with a change in its composition which would be expected to affect its properties and its strengthening effect on the matrix. The dissolution of the secondary carbide was followed by the precipitation of different carbide species, Fig.(32). The precipitation of these phases as well as the continuous decomposition of martensite would give the steel a lower wear resistance at the same level of hardness compared with samples tempered before peak hardness. This finding is in agreement with that of Moore [63], who reported different roles of microstructure on wear and hardness. A review of the literature in chapter three showed that primary carbides had no significant role in contributing to the strength and wear resistance of high speed steels. The present work has shown that the wear resistance and hardness could not be correlated to the presence of primary carbides. The volume fraction, particle size, crystal structure and chemical composition of the primary carbides did not change during the secondary hardening of the steels. The previously held view that increased amount of primary carbides result in better wear resistance has not been confirmed in the present work. The matrix of samples tempered to peak hardness was strong enough not to ploughed by the primary carbides. The primary carbides were held in their initial places and wore down to the same level as the matrix. This provided evidence that the wear rate of primary carbides was the same as that of the martensitic matrix, hence they provide no contribution to wear. resistance of the steel. This has also been shown in the previous work of Kasak and Neumeyer [70]. The worn surface of the primary carbides exhibited abrasion tracks. Abrasion tracks, as a result of plastic deformation, were hardly expected to appear on surfaces of hard carbides. However, hard carbides are known to be brittle materials at room temperature, but it has been reported that at high temperatures, the hardness of carbides fell drastically and that they deformed plastically on slip systems analogous to fcc metals as explained by Toth [107]. The exact interfacial temperature between two mating surfaces rubbing against each other is not yet known nor has been determined experimentally in the present work. However, Trent [92], reported that such temperatures might reach 1000°C in the case of cutting tools. Such high temperatures are high enough to cause drastic softening to the carbides allowing them to deform plastically, which may explain the abrasion tracks which appeared on the worn surface of the carbides. Some carbides exhibited cracks and chipping as shown in Fig.(51). This may be explained as a result of the random shape of the carbides. The wear process may result in thin weak sections within the carbide particles which may crack under the effect of the normal load and the friction forces. Also, as explained by previous workers [81], such chipping and cracking would appear in the early cycles of rubbing when the carbide surfaces were at a low temperature and carbides were still in a brittle state. In annealed high speed steels, the matrix was soft enough to be ploughed by the primary carbides. Examination of the wear surface of such steels by SEM showed the harmful role of the primary carbides. Primary carbides appeared loose on the worn high speed steel surface and they acted as abrasives, forming a three body abrasion system, Fig.(52). This harmful role of the primary carbides contributed to the drastic fall in wear resistance of over-tempered high speed steels. Primary carbides did not contribute to the wear resistance of high speed steels at any stage of tempering, however, these carbides contributed to the wear rate of the over-tempered steels. Thus, the presence of the primary carbides in high speed steels did not appear to contribute to improved mechanical or wear resistant properties. This agreed with the previous work which also showed that primary carbides made no contribution to increasing the hardness and wear resistance of high speed steels [70,86,87,94-96]. Despite the clear relation between microstructure and wear resistance, it is still difficult to express this relation mathematically. However, more work should be carried out to continue the work of Roberts and Hamaker [98], to develop matrix steels of improved properties. The idea behind the matrix steel was to produce a primary carbide-free steel. Roberts and Hamaker limited the composition of their steel to be similar to that of the quenched matrix. On austenitising such steel, the grain size coarsened. Consequently, they austenitised the steel at lower temperatures to allow some undissolved carbides to remain in order to restrict grain coarsening. It is clear that the quenched matrix produced by this method was deficient in carbon and alloying elements. Consequently, such matrix steel showed slightly lower secondary hardening than conventional high speed steels [80]. These quantities of undissolved carbides required to stop grain coarsening would be allowed to form by increasing the alloying elements to a level sufficient to form this limited quantity of undissolved carbides. In this case, the steel can be austenitised at the normal high austenitising temperature without excessive grain growth. The quenched matrix will be as rich in carbon and alloying elements as the matrix of the normal high speed steel. This matrix should display a secondary hardness of the same magnitude as that of normal high speed steels. Such steels will contain a limited quantity of primary carbides which should limit their harmful effect in the over-tempered steels. At the same time, such steel would be cheaper owing to the reduced quantities of expensive alloying elements normally present in the form of primary carbides, which are not really required. CHAPTER SEVEN CONCLUSIONS 1. The secondary hardening carbide in high speed steels was found to be the cubic $M_2C$ carbide and not the MC carbide as was previously thought. 2. The secondary hardening carbide did not coarsen beyond peak hardness, but dissolved in the matrix and other carbide species precipitated. 3. The secondary vanadium carbide (MC type) was found to precipitate in the over-tempered state well beyond the peak hardness. 4. High speed steels exhibited the same sequence of carbide precipitation as those reported in simple ternary steel systems. 5. The microanalysis technique was found to be a reliable technique in identifying high speed steel carbides. 6. Primary carbides remained unaffected during the tempering of high speed steels and did not contribute to the secondary hardening of high speed steels. 7. The precipitation of secondary hardening carbides in high speed steels was found to be associated with an increase in hardness and an increase in wear resistance. 8. In samples tempered to peak hardness, primary carbides wore down to the same level as the matrix giving no contribution to wear resistance. In over-tempered steels primary carbides were observed to abrade the matrix of high speed steel, thus contributing to an increase in the wear rate. 9. The wear resistance of over-tempered high speed steels was found to be lower than that of steels of the same hardness tempered below peak hardness. 10. The relation between wear resistance and hardness of high speed steels was found to be non-linear, with different sensitivity to hardness from steel to another. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE WORK 1- In the present work, the cubic $M_2C$ carbide has been discovered to precipitate in high speed steels as the secondary hardening carbide. The data available on this carbide is very limited. The effect of various elements on the stability and mechanical properties of this carbide should be studied. This may then lead to high speed steels of improved composition having more stable secondary hardening carbides of better properties, which would lead to improved mechanical and wear resistance properties of such steels. 2- The presence of the primary carbides has been shown to be of no benefit and to be even harmful to the wear resistance of high speed steels beyond peak hardness. The idea of manufacturing matrix steel free from primary carbides needs to be reconsidered. Matrix steel normally contains a limited quantity of undissolved carbides to restrict grain growth during austenitising of the steel at high temperature. This quantity of carbides should be allowed to form by the addition of the necessary amounts of alloying elements instead of by lowering the austenitising temperature as was done in the early trials on matrix steels. This would allow the steel to be austenitised at the usual high temperatures in order to produce a matrix rich in carbon and alloying elements. 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[107] Toth, L.E.; "Transition Metal Carbides and Nitrides"; 1971; New York; Academic Press. [108] Lander, J.J. and Germer, L.H.; Tr. A.I.M.E.; 175; 1948; p. 648. [109] Lapointe, A.J. and Baker, T.N.; Metal Science; 16; 1982; p. 207-216. [110] Irani, R.S., Wright, C.S. and Wronski, A.S.; Journal of Material Science Letters; 1; 1982; p. 318-320. [111] Powder Diffraction File Index; index numbers 3-980, 5-0721 and 15-457; 1983; USA; International Centre for Diffraction Data. [112] Sevenson L-E., Howell P.R., Andren H-O., Nordon H. and Dunlop G.L.; in "Quantitative Microanalysis With High Spatial Resolution"; The Metal Society; London; 1983; p. 256-261. [113] Brandis H., Haberling E. and Weigand H.H.; in "Processing and Properties of High Speed Tool Steels"; edited by M.G. Wells and L.W. Lherbeir; 1980; Las-Vegas; The Metallurgical Society of A.I.M.E.; p. 1-18. [114] Ghomashchi M.R. and Sellars C.M.; Metal Science; 18; 1984; p. 44-48. [115] Haberling E., Rose A. and Weigand H.H.; Stahl u. Eisen; 93(14); 1973; p.645-651. (in English) [116] Fredreksson H. and Nica M.; Scandinavian Journal of Metallurgy; 8; 1979; p.243-253. \| $M_6C$ \| $M_{23}C_6$ \| $MC$ \| cubic $M_2C$ \| reference \| \|--------\|-------------\|------\|--------------\|-----------\| \| 11.08 \| \| \| \| 3 \| \| 11.04 \| \| \| \| 3 \| \| 11.04 \| 10.64 \| 4.131-4.1655 \| \| 9 \| \| 11.26 \| \| \| \| 10 \| \| 11.095-11.14 \| \| \| \| 11 \| \| 11.04-11.08 \| 10.638-10.51 \| 4.3 \| \| 13 \| \| \| 10.618 \| \| \| 14 \| \| 11.04 \| 10.51-10.638 \| 4.3 \| \| 17 \| \| 11.064-11.2 \| \| \| \| 16 \| \| 11.0823 \| 10.621 \| 4.16 \| \| 20 \| \| 11.05 \| 10.59 \| 4.175 \| \| 23 \| \| 11.08 \| 10.59 \| 4.175 \| \| 23 \| \| 11.08 \| 10.64 \| \| \| 35 \| \| 11.04 \| 10.659 \| \| 4.14 \| 111 \| Table(1): Some reported values for lattice parameters of high speed steel carbides in the pure form and as precipitated in steels, in Angstrom units [Å]. \| steel type \| aust. temp. [°C] \| carbide content % \| \|------------\|-----------------\|------------------\| \| \| \| $M_6C$ \| MC \| \| T1 \| 1288 \| 97 \| 3 \| \| T4 \| 1288 \| 96 \| 4 \| \| T2 \| 1288 \| 92 \| 8 \| \| M1 \| 1204 \| 87 \| 13 \| \| M2 \| 1218 \| 85 \| 15 \| \| M10 \| 1204 \| 61 \| 39 \| \| M4 \| 1280 \| 44 \| 56 \| \| M15 \| 1250 \| 34 \| 66 \| Table (2): Percentage of excess carbides existing as $M_6C$ and MC in hardened high speed steels [25]. \| Elements wt.% \| C \| Mo \| W \| V \| Cr \| Co \| \|---------------\|----\|----\|----\|----\|----\|----\| \| M 42 \| 1.09 \| 9.82 \| 1.66 \| 1.3 \| 3.62 \| 8.09 \| \| M 15 \| 1.56 \| 3.06 \| 6.02 \| 4.82 \| 4.75 \| 4.76 \| \| M 1 \| 0.78 \| 9.00 \| 1.86 \| 1.27 \| 3.87 \| 0.13 \| Table (3): Chemical composition of high speed steels. \| Steels \| M 42 \| M 15 \| M 1 \| \|--------\|------\|------\|-----\| \| Temp. [°C] \| 1180 \| 1225 \| 1225 \| Table (4): Austenitising temperatures of different high speed steels. \| elements \| C \| Mn \| Si \| Ni \| Cr \| Cu \| Mo \| \|----------\|-----\|-----\|-----\|-----\|-----\|-----\|-----\| \| wt. % \| 0.51\| 0.95\| 0.27\| 0.22\| 0.14\| 0.27\| 0.05\| Table (5): Chemical composition of workpiece. \| elements steels [%] \| Mo wt. at. \| V wt. at. \| Cr wt. at. \| Fe wt. at. \| Co wt. at. \| W wt. at. \| \|---------------------\|------------\|-----------\|------------\|------------\|------------\|-----------\| \| M 42 \| 61.8 \| 53 \| 16 \| 25 \| 9.5 \| 15 \| 1.6 \| 2.3 \| 0.1 \| --- \| 10.8 \| 4.7 \| \| M 1 \| 59.4 \| 49 \| 21.2 \| 32.5 \| 7.4 \| 11 \| 2.7 \| 3.7 \| 0.3 \| --- \| 8.8 \| 3.7 \| \| M 15 \| 16.5 \| 15 \| 27.4 \| 47 \| 8.3 \| 14 \| 1.6 \| 2.5 \| 0.3 \| --- \| 45.7 \| 22 \| Table (6): Chemical composition of secondary hardening carbides extracted from different steels tempered to their peak hardness. \| elements carbides [%] \| Mo wt. \| Mo at. \| V wt. \| V at. \| Cr wt. \| Cr at. \| Fe wt. \| Fe at. \| Co wt. \| Co at. \| W wt. \| W at. \| \|-----------------------\|--------\|--------\|-------\|-------\|--------\|--------\|--------\|--------\|--------\|--------\|------\|------\| \| M₃C * \| 12.3 \| 8 \| 1.7 \| 2 \| 11.8 \| 14 \| 62.6 \| 65 \| 5.7 \| 6 \| 5.9 \| 2 \| \| M₂C hex \| 67 \| 59.5 \| 5 \| 8.3 \| 16 \| 26.2 \| 1 \| 1.5 \| 3 \| 4.5 \| 9 \| 4.2 \| \| MC \| 40 \| 27 \| 45 \| 57.8 \| 5.5 \| 6.3 \| 5.5 \| 5.8 \| 1 \| 0.9 \| 5.5 \| 1.8 \| \| M₆C \| 60 \| 52.9 \| 2 \| 3.5 \| 3 \| 5 \| 20 \| 32 \| 3 \| 4.5 \| 9 \| 4.1 \| \| M₂₃C₆ \| 15 \| 9 \| 2.5 \| 2.3 \| 50 \| 55 \| 30 \| 30.8 \| 2 \| 1.9 \| 1.5 \| 1.5 \| Table (7): Chemical composition of different carbides precipitated in M42. * composition after tempering for 2+2 h at 550 °C. \| Steel \| Mo wt% \| Mo at% \| V wt% \| V at% \| Cr wt% \| Cr at% \| Fe wt% \| Fe at% \| Co wt% \| Co at% \| W wt% \| W at% \| \|-------\|--------\|--------\|-------\|-------\|--------\|--------\|--------\|--------\|--------\|--------\|-------\|-------\| \| M42 \| 28.9 \| 20 \| 52.2 \| 66 \| 6.7 \| 8.5 \| 1.7 \| 2 \| .35 \| .4 \| 11.2 \| 4 \| \| M15 \| 27 \| 23 \| 32.5 \| 52.5 \| 4.8 \| 7.5 \| 1.5 \| 1.8 \| .4 \| .4 \| 3.4 \| 15 \| \| M1 \| 37.4 \| 26 \| 47 \| 61 \| 5.5 \| 7 \| 1.7 \| 2 \| -- \| -- \| 8.3 \| 3 \| Table(8); Chemical composition of secondary MC carbide precipitated in the three steels examined. \| Mo [at%] \| V [at%] \| Cr [at%] \| Fe [at%] \| W [at%] \| Co [at%] \| reference \| \|---------\|---------\|----------\|----------\|---------\|----------\|-----------\| \| 19.4 \| 59.9 \| 7.6 \| 4.2 \| 8.8 \| 0.7 \| 4 \| \| 13 \| 69.3 \| 6.6 \| 3 \| 8 \| -- \| 5 \| \| 14.2 \| 73 \| 6.4 \| 1.8 \| 5.8 \| -- \| 23 \| \| 12.9 \| 69.4 \| 6.6 \| 3 \| 8 \| -- \| 23 \| \| 16.3 \| 61 \| 6.5 \| 5.5 \| 8.1 \| 0.5 \| 112 \| \| 9.9 \| 69.4 \| 6 \| 5.6 \| 9 \| -- \| 113 \| \| 9.9 \| 59.6 \| 6.4 \| 1.3 \| 11.8 \| -- \| 114 \| \| 11.4 \| 66.2 \| 6.9 \| 5.6 \| 9.9 \| -- \| 115 \| \| 11.3 \| 64.7 \| 10 \| 4.9 \| 9 \| -- \| 116 \| Table(9): Some reported chemical compositions for MC carbide precipitated in different high speed steels. \| Mo [at%] \| V [at%] \| Cr [at%] \| Fe [at%] \| W [at%] \| Co [at%] \| reference \| \|---------\|----------\|----------\|----------\|----------\|----------\|-----------\| \| 23.1 \| 4.7 \| 5.6 \| 40.7 \| 14 \| 7.5 \| 4 \| \| 20.5 \| 7 \| 6.1 \| 48.7 \| 17.7 \| -- \| 5 \| \| 1.7 \| 6.93 \| 5.66 \| 39.4 \| 46.2 \| -- \| 16 \| \| 20.26 \| 7 \| 6.12 \| 48.8 \| 17.68 \| -- \| 23 \| \| 24.04 \| 5.99 \| 5.5 \| 48.9 \| 15.5 \| -- \| 23 \| \| 23.4 \| 5.8 \| 5.8 \| 39.3 \| 15.9 \| 5.8 \| 112 \| \| 17.9 \| 5 \| 6.5 \| 54.7 \| 16.1 \| -- \| 113 \| \| 18.04 \| 7.2 \| 4.9 \| 52 \| 17.8 \| -- \| 114 \| \| 17 \| 5.58 \| 6.29 \| 54.5 \| 16.5 \| -- \| 115 \| \| 20.2 \| 6.58 \| 7.4 \| 48.9 \| 16.8 \| -- \| 116 \| Table(10): Some reported chemical compositions for $M_6C$ carbide precipitated in different high speed steels. Fig.(1) Volume percent of carbides in some quenched and annealed high speed steels [6]. Fig. (2): Amount of undissolved carbides against austenitising temperature for M2 high speed steel [5, 23]. Fig. (3): Schematic diagram for tempering high speed steels [27]. Fig.(4): Chart of hardening cycle for M1 and M15. Fig.(5): Rods extracted from round specimens by electro-erosion technique and discs sliced from the rods. Fig.(6): Signals resulting from the interaction of a high energy electron beam with a crystalline material [99]. Fig.(7): EPMA chart showing constant molybdenum content across the standard Fe-Mo binary alloy specimen. Fig.(8): Characteristic EDX spectrum obtained from the standard Fe-Mo binary alloy. Fig.(9): Optical micrographs of workpiece microstructure. (a) core and hardened surface. (b) non-hardened core. (c) hardened surface. Fig.(10): Chart of Talysurf measurement of wear scar depth. This particular chart shows wear scar in M1 high speed steel tempered for 2+2 h at 600 °C, after sliding for 800 meters (20 minutes). Fig.(11): Variation of hardness with tempering temperature. Fig.(12): Carbon replica micrographs showing heterogeneous precipitation of secondary hardening carbides after tempering, (a), (b) M42 for 2+2 h at 430°C. (c) M1 for 2+2 h at 480°C. Fig.(13): Carbon replica micrographs showing secondary hardening carbides precipitation after tempering to peak hardness. (a), (b) M42. (c) M15. Fig.(14): Thin foil micrographs showing secondary hardening carbide precipitated in M42 tempered to peak hardness. Fig.(15): Carbon replica micrographs showing successful extraction of secondary hardening carbides from M42 tempered to its peak hardness. (a) low magnification (b) high magnification (c) area free from carbide precipitation. Fig.(16): Convergent beam single crystal diffraction patterns of secondary hardening carbides extracted from: (a) M42, zone axis [011] (b) M42, zone axis [114] (c) M15, zone axis [233] Fig.(17): Characteristic EDX spectrum obtained from secondary hardening carbide of M42 using window-less detector. Fig.(18): Variation of chemical composition of secondary hardening carbide with tempering temperature; (a) M42 (b) M1 Fig.(19) : Electron micrographs showing cementite needles precipitated in M42. (a) carbon replica from specimen tempered at 480°C (b) carbon replica from specimen tempered to peak hardness (c) thin foil tempered to peak hardness. Fig. (20): Characteristic EDX spectrum of cementite extracted from M42. Fig.(21): Variation of chemical composition of cementite with temperature. (a) Fe, (b) Cr, (c) Co and (d) Mo. Fig.(22): Electron micrographs showing hexagonal $M_2C$ needles and $M_{23}C_6$ particles precipitated after tempering for 2+2 h at 700°C. (a), (b) carbon replica from M42 (b) carbon replica from M15. (c) thin foil from M1. Fig.(23): Carbon replica micrographs showing the precipitation of secondary vanadium carbide after tempering for 24 h at 700°C. (a) M42 (b) M1 (c) M15. Fig.(24): Carbon replica micrographs showing the microstructure of M42 after tempering for 24 h at 800°C, which is similar to that of other steels examined. (a) low magnification (b) high magnification. Fig.(25): Single crystal diffraction patterns of carbides present in annealed M42, which are similar to those in other steels examined. (a) MC, zone axis [111] (b) $M_6C$, zone axis [011] (c) $M_{23}C_6$, zone axis [123] Fig.(26): Characteristic EDX spectrum obtained from secondary hardening carbide of M42. Fig.(27) : Characteristic EDX spectrum obtained from primary MC carbide extracted from M42. Fig.(28): Characteristic EDX spectrum obtained from primary $M_6C$ precipitated in M42. Fig.- (29): Characteristic EDX spectrum obtained from M$_{23}$C$_6$ carbide precipitated in M42. Fig.(30): EDX spectrum showing the background of a carbon replica. Fig.(31) : Window-less EDX spectrum showing the background of an aluminium replica. Fig.(32): Carbides produced in high speed steels after tempering for 2+2 h at different temperatures. * ... detected after 24 hours. Fig.(33): Variation of chemical composition of primary carbides with tempering temperatures. (a) $M_6C$ carbide precipitated in M42. (b) MC carbide precipitated in M15. Fig.(34): Optical micrographs of tempered microstructure of: (a) M42. (b) M15. Fig.(35): SEM micrographs of M42 microstructure which is typical of that of other steels examined (a) as quenched (b) as tempered to peak hardness. (c) as annealed. Fig.(36): Thin foil micrographs showing primary carbides, (a) MC carbide in M15. (b) $M_6C$ carbide in M42. Fig.(37): EPMA X-ray scans showing alloying element distributions in tempered M42 specimen. (a) microstructure x2000 (b) Mo (c) V (d) Co (e) Cr Fig.(38): EPMA X-ray scans showing alloying element distributions in tempered M15 specimen. (a) microstructure x2000 (b) V (c) W (d) Co (e) Cr Fig.(39): Optical micrographs showing selective etching of carbides: (a) M42 sample etched for $M_6C$ carbide. (b) M15 sample etched for MC carbide. Fig.(40): Variation of carbides volume fraction with tempering temperature; (a) $M_6C$, (b) MC and (c) $M_6C+MC$. - M42 - M15 - M1 Fig.(41): Variation of average carbide particle size with tempering temperature for different steels. (a) MC carbide, (b) $M_6C$ carbide. - M42 - M15 - M1 Fig.(42): Particle size distribution of MC carbide. * 1p.p. = 0.28 μ Fig.(43): Particle size distribution of $M_6C$ carbide. * 1 p.p. = 0.28 $\mu$ Fig.(44): Relation between average particle size and carbide volume fraction. - MC carbide - M₆C carbide Fig.(45): Relation between wear volume and sliding distance, for samples tempered for 2+2 h at 530°C. Fig.(46): Variation of wear resistance with tempering temperature. Fig.(47): Variation in hardness and wear resistance with tempering temperature for M42. Fig.(48): Relation between wear resistance and hardness. Fig.(49): SEM micrographs of wear surface of M42 tempered to peak hardness showing primary carbides fixed in their initial places. (a), (b) etched samples (c) unetched sample. Fig.(50): SEM micrographs showing flat surface of worn primary carbides in M42 sample tempered to peak hardness, worn surface being etched. Fig.(51): SEM micrographs showing cracks in primary carbides in samples tempered to peak hardness. Fig.(52): SEM micrographs showing worn surface of over-tempered high speed steels. (a) primary carbide torn off the surface. (b),(c) primary carbides abrading the surface. (d) loose primary carbides and the abraded surface.
August 1972 25p studio sound SURVEY: AUDIO MIXERS AES 42 A REPORT FROM LOS ANGELES A SYNCHRONISED TAPE SPEED CONTROL SYSTEM Celestion Loudspeakers for the Perfectionist Proudly present the Fabulous DITTON SERIES DITTON 66 STUDIO MONITOR Represents the ultimate that modern loudspeaker technology has to offer. The New! COUNTY High Quality – Low Price! Employs HF1300 and 8" Bass Unit. Housed in very attractive cabinet. Left to Right: Ditton 10 Mark II, Ditton 120, Ditton 15, Ditton 44, Ditton 25. Write for details of Celestion sound equipment ROLA CELESTION LIMITED DITTON WORKS, FOXHALL ROAD, IPSWICH, SUFFOLK LAST MONTH in this column we referred to the compact cassette as being a joke, a view we still hold. This comment provoked an unexpected reaction from a reader who telephoned his whole-hearted agreement. Not from him, however, the usual stories of wow, dropout, squeaking and jamming. He had purchased a disc album only to find the quality well below the Pop average. Reading the sleeve notes he learned that the recording had been mastered on a cassette 'because it was live'. Live that is, before the cassette took hold of it. Perhaps we are out of touch but we simply didn't believe him. So we bought a copy and, sure enough, found it had been mastered on an Ampex stereo cassette recorder. While accepting that modern equipment can give passable 4.75 cm/s results by domestic not-so-hi-fi standards, what possible excuse can be made for mastering at so low a speed, particularly in combination with the narrow track width of a cassette. Under tightly controlled conditions (carefully chosen and adjusted machine, selected cassette, meticulously cleaned heads, Dolby A), it is possible that a reasonable disc could result. But this is stretching equipment and operators to their limits. Why not take advantage of similar improvements in 38 cm/s performance? These have been less dramatic, admittedly, but only because the medium has been a good one from pre-BTR2 days. The compact cassette was developed as a domestic system. Philips's initial attempts to compete Musicassettes against gramophone records were greeted with amusement from the trade. Today, after seven years, the disc is still a long way from dead. Our fear is that cassette mastering may become more than an isolated gimmick (in the disc in question, it was not presented as anything other than normal practice). If it acquires respectability, and if cassette recorders receive the casual treatment accorded to more conventional equipment, the result will be a long stride back towards the telephonic qualities of the seventy-eight. STUDIO SOUND, AUGUST 1972 FEATURES 21 A NOVEL QUADRANT FADER By M. G. Skeet 31 AES 42—A REPORT FROM LOS ANGELES By Stephen Lamphen 37 DESIGNING A TRANSPORTABLE MIXER By Julian Vereker 41 SURVEY: AUDIO MIXERS 59 SOUND IN THE THEATRE Part Two By Keith Wicks 61 SYNCHRONOUS TAPE RECORDING SYSTEM By Dr. J. A. Archer-Hall COLUMNS 11 PRECIS 12 NEWS 14 PATENTS 19 LETTERS 23 BOOK REVIEWS By Roderick Snell 25 DIARY By Keith Wicks 29 AROUND THE STUDIOS By Adrian Hope COVER One of a series of illustrations from the Gabinetto Armonico by Filippo Bonanni, published in 1723. This engraving represents King David (no relation), to whom the work was dedicated. The Gabinetto Armonico has been reprinted by Dover Publications and provides a useful guide to contemporary instruments. CORRESPONDENCE AND ARTICLES All STUDIO SOUND correspondence should be sent to the address printed on this page. Technical queries should be concise and must include a stamped addressed envelope. Matters relating to more than one department should occupy separate sheets of paper or delay will occur in replying. Articles or suggestions for features on all aspects of communications engineering and music will be received sympathetically. Manuscripts should be typed or clearly handwritten and submitted with rough drawings when appropriate. We are happy to advise potential authors on matters of style. Payment is negotiated on acceptance. SUBSCRIPTION RATES Annual UK subscription rate for STUDIO SOUND is £3 (overseas £3.80, $8 or equivalent). Our associate publication Hi-Fi News costs £3.24 (overseas £3.66, $8.64 or equivalent). Six monthly home subscriptions are £1.50 (STUDIO SOUND) and £1.62 (Hi-Fi News). STUDIO SOUND is published on the 14th of the preceding month unless that date falls on a Sunday, when it appears on the Saturday. PAST ISSUES A small number of certain past issues may still be purchased from Link House, price 31p each including postage. Photostat copies of any STUDIO SOUND article are available at 25p including postage. BINDERS Loose-leaf binders for annual volumes of STUDIO SOUND are available from Modern Bookbinders, Chadwick Street, Blackburn, Lancashire. Price is 85p. Please quote the volume number or date when ordering. spendor Studio Series "A new standard in loudspeaker design" Types BCI and BCII Size 25in. x 11½in. x 12in. L.F. Unit SPENDOR 8in. plastic cone H.F. Units Celestion HF 1300 S.T.C. 4001G Nominal Impedance 8 ohms Frequency Range 45 Hz to 25 kHz (±3 dB, 60 Hz to 14 kHz) Power Rating BCI 40 watts programme BCII 50 watts programme Types BCIA and BCIIA Specification as above but with SPENDOR power amplifier M.20B (20 watts) or M.50B (50 watts) fitted into the back panel. Balanced or unbalanced inputs are available to order. Prices from £72·31 Trolleys £8·50 each John Shuttleworth, 'Studio Sound' September 1970. Spendor Audio Systems Limited Kings Mill · Kings Mill Lane · South Nutfield Redhill · RHI 5NF · Phone Nutfield Ridge 2554 LEVEL CONTROL EQUIPMENT Expand with... AUDIO DESIGN RECORDING F760X the complete answer to NOISE AND COMPRESSOR PROBLEMS Expander: 20 db noise attenuation * Versatile compressor * Fast peak limiter The best in one small simple-to-operate package, write for details now Audio & Design (Recording) Ltd St. Michael's, Shinfield Green, Reading, Berks Telephone: Reading (0734) 84487 WOW and FLUTTER METERS Illustrated is the ME 102B, one of the three types of Wow and Flutter Meters distributed by us exclusively in the U.K. It is widely used by all the leading Broadcasting, TV and Recording Studios, manufacturers of tapedeck-tape recorders, turntables, record-changers—in fact by anyone concerned with the accurate measurement of drift and wow and flutter. Fuller details on application. LENNARD DEVELOPMENTS LTD. LOCKFIELD AVE., BRIMSDOWN, ENFIELD, MIDDX. Tel. 01-804 8425 AMITY TAPE RECORDERS FEATURES - Built-in Dolby (A) noise reduction systems an alternative extra—spacesaving and much less expensive. - Variable capstan speed. - Heavy cast alloy deck plate. - Printed circuit spooling motors. - Electronically controlled braking. - Direction sensing. - Tension sensing (ensuring constant tape tension from end to end of spool). - Plug in tape logic cards. - All deck functions can be remotely controlled. - All electronic functions remotely controlled. - Separate aural and visual monitoring. - Console mounted with teak veneered side panels. - British made and designed throughout. - No import duty. - Our organisation ensures immediate service anywhere. - It is possible to expand the number of tracks and modules from your basic purchase due to the tape recorder’s special method of construction. TAPE WIDTH AND CONFIGURATION \| Mono \| ½" Tape \| \|------\|---------\| \| Mono \| ½" Tape \| \| Stereo \| ½" Tape \| \| 4 Track \| ½" Tape \| \| 8 Track \| 1" Tape \| \| 16 Track \| 1" Tape \| \| 24 Track \| 2" Tape \| \| 32 Track \| 2" Tape \| TAPE SPEED 15 and 30 ips, fixed and variable 38 and 76 cps, fixed and variable WOW AND FLUTTER Less than .05% Peak ELECTRONICS FREQUENCY RESPONSE Better than 30 Hz—16 kHz ± 2dB overall Sync better than 30 Hz—±3 dB overall SIGNAL TO NOISE (Weighted) —62 dB 24 Track —64 dB 16 Track (Input) +4 dB O.V.U. into 10 K ohms. Bridging balanced (Output) +4 dB O.V.U. into 600 ohms. Balanced Clipping Level +24 dB R E.Q. N.A.B. Distortion better than 2% CONSUL SIZE \| 24 Track \| Height 7½" Width 45" Depth 30" \| \|----------\|----------------------------------\| \| 16 Track \| 55½" 31" 30" \| \| 8 Track \| 55½" 31" 30" \| \| 4 Track \| 47½" 31" 30" \| \| 2 Track \| 39½" 31" 30" \| \| Mono \| 39½" 31" 30" \| For further details please write to: AMITY RECORDING DEVELOPMENTS 3/4 New Compton Street, London, WC2H 8DD STUDIO SOUND, AUGUST 1972 SOMETHING NEW! "SIX INPUT 100 STEREO" AMPLIFIER ★ All modular construction 19in rack, 3 unit high ★ Interchangeable plug-in inputs (gold plated contacts) ★ All important pre-set gain (40 dBs variation) accessible from front ★ Pan (stereo width) control on each input ★ High signal level 'op amp' mixer, with separate Bass and Treble controls for music inputs ★ 80 watt R.M.S. modular stereo power amplifier with transistorised short circuit protection ★ Circuits designed and produced to professional standards AREAC Ltd, Summit Gardens, Halesowen, Worcs 021-550 2868 NEW! from Crown International D60 POWER AMPLIFIER DUAL CHANNEL With the introduction of the D-60, Crown International have again produced a power amplifier of a quality and performance unequalled in the field of audio amplifier design! Equally at home in the Studio, Laboratory, or domestic system, the D-60 offers DC-300 type excellence at a lower power level, and at a price which brings it within the range of many more budget-guided users. The Crown 3 year warranty applies of course. Power Response: ±1 dB 5 Hz—30 kHz at 30 watts into 8 ohms Power at clip point: 64 watts RMS into 4 ohms, 41 watts into 8 ohms. Over 100 watts into 8 ohms as mono amp I.M. Distortion: Less than 0.05% 0.01 watt to 30 watts level THD: Below 0.05% through band. Typically 0.005% 30 watts at 1 kHz Damping Factor: Greater than 200 (zero to 1 kHz at 8 ohms) Hum and Noise: 106 dB below 30 watts level Load Impedance: 4 ohms or greater Dimensions: 17" wide. 8½" deep. 1½" thin Weight: 10 lb Price: £97 Sole Agents: MACINNES LABORATORIES LTD. Stonham, Stowmarket, Suffolk TEL. STONHAM 486 IP14 5LB High speed, high quality cassette and reel to reel duplicating AUDIONICS 160 Ewell Rd Surbiton Surrey Tel:01-390 0291 STUDIO INSTALLATIONS T. B. Technical, Audio Systems Consultants, can provide engineers for planning, installation, and maintenance of all professional audio equipment. Also Audio Test Equipment Hire T. B. TECHNICAL LTD. 90 Wardour Street, WIV 3LE 01-437 1892/3 The ubiquitous SM53. The Shure SM53 professional unidirectional microphone is seen with increasing frequency in the best of company because it affords eight distinct performance advantages: (1) a wider front working angle with uniform tonal quality; (2) effective noise rejection through a true cardioid pickup characteristic; (3) a built-in shock mount for effective mechanical noise isolation; (4) extraordinary ruggedness for performance consistency after severe shocks; (5) a superior hum rejection system; (6) an integral breath "pop" filter; (7) a minimized proximity effect for constant tonal quality; and (8) full field serviceability. Interested? Shure Electronics Limited 84 Blackfriars Road London SE1 8HA, England www.americanradiohistory.com TEAC R-340 Series Tape Decks bring you the ultimate in professional performance. Frequency response is as wide as 30 to 20,000Hz at 15 ips with a variation of only 2 dB, and wow and flutter is a surprisingly low 0.03% at the same speed. Signal-to-noise ratio is 60 dB on full-track and 56 dB even on the 4-track version. Variation of tape speeds does not exceed 0.3%. 2,400 ft. tape can be spooled in less than 100 seconds. TEAC R-340 PROFESSIONAL TAPE DECK Tape Deck R-340 Series £450 Amplifier AR-15 £140 For full details of TEAC equipment, write to sole U.K. distributors: ACOUSTICO ENTERPRISES LTD. 6-8 Union Street, Kingston-upon-Thames, Surrey Tel. 01-549 3471/3 (3 lines) Budget Priced Philips type compact cassettes from 24p - Low noise - Library case - Fully guaranteed - Available from stock - Screwed not welded Prices \| Post & Package \| 1 \| 10 \| 100 \| \|----------------\|-----\|-----\|-----\| \| C60 \| 27p \| 26p \| 24p \| \| C90 \| 37p \| 35p \| 33p \| \| C120 \| 50p \| 44p \| 42p \| PLEASE SEND ME (BLOCK CAPS PLEASE) C60 C90 C120 CHEQUE/P.O.for NAME ____________________________________________ ADDRESS _________________________________________ _________________________________________________ _________________________________________________ WHO NEEDS TELEVISION? Chances are that you do Properly handled, closed circuit television can play a vital role in many fields of activity—from industry to education, research to advertising. Today’s CCTV equipment has outgrown the era of grey, fuzzy pictures, so it’s now easier than ever to produce results of professional quality in black and white or colour. The problem remains, however, of which equipment to use, and how to use it. That’s where Action Video comes in. AV can give you unbiased, professional advice on the right equipment for your requirements, and will supply and install it, and give you an after-sales service unrivalled in CCTV. If you realise the advantages of CCTV but don’t have the need for a permanent installation, you can hire from AV on a long or short term basis. AV will also produce videotapes for you, using their comprehensive studio, outside broadcast and production facilities. A complete range of ancillary services is also available. So if you need television, talk to the experts—Action Video—they know all there is to know about TV. ACTION VIDEO LTD 45 Great Marlborough St., London W1. Telephone: 01-734 7465/6/7 PRODUCTIONS • SALES • SERVICE • HIRE Take a QUAD 50E Amplifier (a good start for any installation) plug it into your monitor system and it bridges 600Ω lines to drive your speakers. Take that same amplifier and, without changing it in any way, plug it into another installation to deliver 50 watts into 100 volt line * from a 0.5 volt unbalanced source. This versatility and its attendant easing of stocking and maintenance problems is one reason why large organisations use the Quad 50E. or indeed any other impedance from 5 to 250 ohms. Other advantages appropriate to users of all sizes include: Excellent power and frequency response (-1dB). Low distortion (0.1% at 1kHz at all power levels). Low background (better than 83 dB referred to full output). Pre-set level control adjustable from front panel. Unconditionally stable with any load. Proof against misuse including open or short circuited output. Small size (4½" x 6½" x 12¼")—(120 mm x 159 mm x 324 mm). Low price (£47.0.0 each net; for 1 off to the professional user). QUAD for the closest approach to the original sound Send for details to Dept. SS2 ACOUSTICAL MANUFACTURING CO. LTD., Huntingdon, Hunts. Tel: (0480) 52561 SPEZIALARTIKEL 21 KONSTRUKTION EINES BILLIGEN QUADRANT-ATTENUATORS Von M. G. Skeet 31 AES 42-TAGUNG—EIN BERICHT AUS LOS ANGELES Stephen Lamphien besucht die 42. Tagung der Audio Engineering Society of America. Unter den von ihm behandelten Themen befindet sich ein 40-spuriges Aufnahmegerät, das auf dem 3M Isoloop basiert und 50 mm Band verwendet. 37 KONSTRUKTION EINES TRAGBAREN TONMISCHPULTS Julian Vereker gibt einen Überblick über die Entwicklung des Chilton 10/2 und befasst sich besonders mit dem Problem der niedrigen Signalverstärkung. 41 BERICHT ÜBER AUDIO-STEUERGERÄTE 59 LE SON AU THEATRE—2 Par Keith Wicks 61 EIN SYNCHRONES BANDAUFNAHME-SYSTEM Eine neue Methode der Synchronisierung von Band mit Film, entwickelt und geschildert von J. Archer-Hall. STANDIGE RUBRIKEN 12 NEUIGKEITEN 14 PATENTE 19 GRIEFE 25 TAGEBUCH 29 VON STUDIO ZU STUDIO Von Keith Wicks ARTICLES PRINCIPAUX 21 CONSTRUIRE UN POTENTIOMETRE A QUADRANT A PEU DE FRAIS Par M. G. Skeet 31 CONVENTION AES 42—UN RAPPORT DE LOS ANGELES Stephen Lamphien passe en revue la 42eme Convention d'Audui Engineering Society of America. Parmi les sujets couverts, il y a l'enregistreur à 40 pistes base sur le 3M Isoloop, utilisant une bande de 50mm. 37 ETUDE D'UN PLATEAU PORTATIF DE COMMANDE DU SON Julian Vereker décrit le développement du Chilton 10/2, en portant attention tout spécialement sur les problèmes d'amplification de signal à bas niveau. 41 REVUE DE L'EQUIPEMENT DE COMMANDE AUDIO 59 LE SON AU THEATRE—2 Par Keith Wicks 61 SYSTEME D'ENREGISTREMENT MAGNETIQUE SYNCHRONE Une nouvelle méthode de synchronisation de bande magnétique et film, développée et étudiée en détail par J. A. Archer-Hall. RUBRIQUES REGULIERES 12 INFORMATIONS 14 BREVETS D'INVENTION 19 LETTRES 25 AGENDA 29 A L'ENTOUR DES STUDIOS Par Keith Wicks ARTICOLI SPECIALI 21 COSTRUZIONE DI UN 'FADER' QUADRANTE A BASSO COSTO 31 CONGRESSO AES 42—UN RAPPORTO DA LOS ANGELES Stephen Lamphien descrive il 42mo Congresso della Audion Engineering Society da America. Tra le attrezzature in rassegna, viene citato un registratore a 40 piste sulla base dell' Isoloop 3M usando nastro di 50 mm. 37 DISEGNO DI UNA PANNELLO TRASPORTABILE PER IL CONTROLLO DEL SUONO Julian Vereker espone lo sviluppo del Chilton 10/2 facendo riferimento particolare ai problemi dell' amplificazione del segnale a basso livello. 41 RASSEGNA DELL' ATTREZZATURA DI CONTROLLO AUDIO 59 IL SUONO A TEATRO Di Keith Wicks 61 UN SISTEMA DI REGISTRAZIONE SINCRONA SU NASTRO Un nuovo metodo per sincronizzare un nastro magnetico ad un film: eseguito e presentato da J. Archer-Hall. ARTICOLI REGOLARI 12 NOTIZIARIO 14 BREVETE 19 LETTERE 25 DIARIO 29 IN GIRI PER GLI STUDI Di Keith Wicks ARTICULOS DE SERIE 12 NOTICIAS 14 PATENTES 19 CARTAS 25 DIARIO 29 ALREDEDOR DE LOS ESTUDIOS Por Keith Wicks Metric/Imperial Equivalents \| Tape Speed \| centimetres/second \| inches/second \| \|------------\|--------------------\|---------------\| \| \| 38 \| 15 \| \| \| 19 \| 7.5 \| \| \| 9.5 \| 3.75 \| \| \| 4.75 \| 1.875 \| \| Tape length \| metres \| feet \| \|-------------\|--------\|------\| \| \| 270 \| 900 \| \| \| 360 \| 1,200\| \| \| 540 \| 1,800\| \| \| 720 \| 2,400\| \| \| 1,080 \| 3,600\| \| \| 1,440 \| 4,800\| \| Tape width \| millimetres \| inches \| \|------------\|-------------\|--------\| \| \| 50 \| 2 \| \| \| 25 \| 1 \| \| \| 12.5 \| 0.5 \| \| \| 6.25 \| 0.25 \| Distance 1 metre (m) = 39.370113 inches 1 centimetre (cm) = 0.393701 inches 1 millimetre (mm) = 0.039370 inches 1 kilometre = 0.6214 miles Weight 1 kilogram (kg) = 2 pounds 3.37 ounces 1 gram (g) = 15.432 grains or 0.564383 drams 1 Tonne (metric ton, 1,000 kilogrammes) = 2204.6 pounds Exhibition news THE INTERNATIONAL Broadcasting Convention will be held at the Grosvenor House Hotel, Park Lane, London, from September 4 to 8. There will be about 50 companies at the exhibition and on the five days of the convention the provisional topics under discussion will be management and engineering training, recording, distribution and satellites, transmitters, and educational broadcasting. Sonex 73 will be held at the Excelsior Hotel, West Drayton, March 30 to April 1, 1973. Link Electronics will be showing a mobile television unit at this year's Inter Navex exhibition. This exhibition and conference for audio-visual aids in education will be held at Olympia from July 25 to 28. Splicing matt-back tapes SCOTCH CLAIM that their new 621 splicing tape is 'designed for use with back-coated tape'. It is, however, also suitable for ordinary tape and comes in four sizes. Prices are £1.00 to £1.40 for cassette duplicating tape, £1.75 for 6.25 mm, £1.50 for 12.5 mm, and £2.75 for 25 mm wide tape. Further information from 3M House, Wigmore Street, W1A 1ET. Pc etching ANY READERS keen to make their own pc boards in a big way may find these two items of interest. Perfection Parts are now selling a Swedish pc etching machine made by Transaco of Stockholm. It is modular equipment, meaning that it need be no bigger, or smaller, than you can afford. Perfection Parts live at 59 Union Street, London SE1 1SG, and they have a Northern office at Bradshaw works, Greengate, Middleton Junction, Manchester. GM Technical Services, 127 Woodville Road, New Barnet, Herts, announce a new service for firms 'who want a quick, reliable and reasonably priced source for prototypes or medium production runs of small items'. These small items include nameplates and labels as well as printed circuit cards. Further 21 radio sites announced THE LOCATIONS of ten definite, and a further 11 probable, commercial radio stations were announced in June by the Minister of Posts and Telecommunications, Sir John Eden. The 'definite' group comprise Bradford, Edinburgh, Ipswich, Liverpool, Nottingham, Plymouth, Portsmouth, Sheffield, Swansea and Tyneside. 'Probables', likely to open later, are Belfast, Blackburn, Brighton, Bristol, Cardiff, Coventry, Huddersfield, Leeds, Teesside and Wolverhampton. This brings the total number of proposed stations to 26. Stations for Birmingham Glasgow, London (two) and Manchester were announced in 1971. Applications for broadcasting licences will be invited in September by the International Broadcasting Authority. Radio Medway Festival A SERIES of network programmes and live concerts were held at the Central Hall, Chatham, by BBC Radio Medway during the week beginning May 29. The radio station left only a skeleton engineering staff at their High Street studios and concentrated on doing national broadcasts of the Tony Brandon programme, Woman's Hour, 20 Questions and Emperor Rosko. In the evenings, they gave a week of concerts including jazz and folk music. Equipment used for the recordings, which were supervised by station engineer David Penny, included a modified Chilton mixer, KEF Concord speakers, Revox HS77, Grampian spring reverb and HH power amplifiers. On the stage were six Beyer M160 ribbons and three AKG D202. Two D221 microphones were suspended above the audience as a coincident pair. Also on hand were four Studer A62 tape machines. Neon indicator lights ITT ARE now making a range of neon lamps in three colours of thermoplastic moulding. The lamp heads are square and they are supplied with cable and a self-locking nylon grommet for panel mounting. The lamps take 0.3 mA at either 110 or 240V. Resistors are not supplied. The unit price is 30p and the price for a thousand is 19p each. Further details from JTT Components Group Europe, Electro-mechanical Component Division, West Road, Harlow CM2 26811, Essex. BASF Figures INCREASED PRODUCTION and lower capital expenditure are two of the reasons given by BASF for their improved figures for the first quarter of this year compared with that of last year. Net sales were up by 17 per cent and much of the gain, say BASF, is attributable to BASF AG and affiliates abroad. However, the figures still compare unfavourably with the trading position before the decline in profits. The statement says: 'Whether the current pace can be maintained is still an open question. Personnel costs, in spite of a reduction in the number of employees, advanced.' Transatlantic Neve NEVE TELL us that they delivered a 24 channel, eight track studio console to a Montreal studio less than 120 hours after the order was made. The desk, a standard Neve model, was delivered to 'Le Studio Andre Perry' seven and a half hours before it was to be used for a remote, live band performance and was ready three hours later. The desk is on loan until Neve have built the studio's own 32 in, 16 out console. Fane quality control FANE ACOUSTICS have installed a new frequency response tracing instrument in their quality control laboratory. The firm recently doubled its production space at the Bailey (Yorkshire) factory. Hi-Fi News record OUR ASSOCIATED publication, Hi-Fi News & Record Review has collaborated with the educational record company Discourses in producing a record, called 'What Is Good Recorded Sound?', which demonstrates and compares some of the tricks and techniques used in recording. The same performers are used to demonstrate different ways of recording the same piece of music, enabling the listener to hear for himself just how different those ways are. With the record is a 16-page illustrated booklet written by the Hi-Fi News team and Bob Auger, who engineered the sessions at the Conway Hall. Until October 21 the record is available from Discourses Ltd, 34 High Street, Tunbridge Wells, Kent, at a reduced price of £1.20, thereafter £1.60. See advert on page 20 for further details. New Products QUAD EIGHT Electronics announce three of a new series of printed circuit boards which they first showed at the 42nd AES convention in Los Angeles. The CA127 board has an op amp input, 30 dBm transformer output, and Our claim to fame is being broadcast the world over. Such is the power of Ferrograph tape recorders. Used in major broadcasting stations as well as in the aircraft industry, Police and Fire Services and Government Departments. A Ferrograph tape recorder is a status symbol—and an investment. The buyer knows he is getting a top standard machine which maintains that standard for many years. (We give a 3 year guarantee inclusive of record and replay heads.) You may pay a little more at the outset, but the rewards are many in service and reliability. Series Y Twin Channel Stereo machine (illustrated): Housed in a light alloy casing, this machine is specially adapted for audio frequency instrumentation recording in scientific and industrial applications (purchase-tax-free for these uses). Input and output conditions suitable for matching professional equipment. Available in single or two-channel forms, recording full, $\frac{1}{4}$ or $\frac{1}{2}$ track. 3 tape speeds on each machine. Other details are yours for the asking—just complete the coupon below. If you have a recording problem contact Ferrograph. Special machines can be made up to customers requirements. Series Y tape recorders are available direct from the Ferrograph U.K. company or principal overseas agents (list available on request). FERROGRAPH SOUNDS GOOD Please send me a leaflet on Ferrograph Series Y tape recorders. □ Please arrange for a representative to call. □ NAME ____________________________ ADDRESS _________________________ The Ferrograph Company Limited Autocentre House, 443 Bath Road Cippenham, Slough, Bucks. SL3 8BB gain from unity to 40 dB. The CA227 has transformer input and output and gain from 30 to 56 dB. It may be used, the makers claim, as a mic preamp, line amp or booster amp. CA272 is a board which has dual amplifiers with op amp inputs and single ended outputs at 24 dBm and may be used as utility or mixer amplifiers. The boards have similar specifications: over volts and short circuit protection is claimed to be 150 per cent, thd to be 0.2 per cent, and noise to be better than -110 dBm. Dimensions are about 7 cm by 18. The firm's address is 11810 Vose Street, N. Hollywood, Calif 91605, USA. Orange Musical Industries showed their new graphic amplifier at the Chicago Trade Fair. The amplifier has, Orange claim, a 'unique ringing coil which produces clearer guitar tones'. The Trade Fair was held between June 17 and 21, and the firm's manager, Cliff Cooper, also revealed a new type of speaker enclosure designed and built by his firm. A range of power supplies which has, its makers claim, constant current limiting, adjustable voltage outputs in the ranges 4-6, 6-12, 12-24 and 15-0-15 volts and current ranges from 0.1 to 1A, is now available from Farnell Instruments, Sandbeck Way, Wetherby LS22 4DH, Yorks. The 6V units have over-voltage crowbar protection and all the units are available for immediate despatch, after which they claim that no calibration is necessary. Telefunken address change* AEG TELEFUNKEN have changed their address. From May 1 they have been at 2/4 Clerkenwell Green, London EC1. Telephone number is 01 251 0244. --- Patents Tape and its manufacture Two patents concern themselves with magnetic tape this month. The first (BP 1275031) reveals a new method of tape manufacture. Ampex, who have taken out the patent, say that the usual way of manufacturing tape is to make a slurry of the iron oxide and carbon particles in a solvent and then to mix a solution of the binder resin into this. The result is then ground for many hours to distribute the solid particles evenly. Lecithin is often used to help dispersion. The Ampex approach (and take a deep breath!) rests on an appreciation that by using a triloweryl polypropyleneoxy quaternary ammonium compound in formulating the coating to be applied to the substrate of a tape or other magnetic recording media, 'a well dispersed mixture of magnetic pigment (such as gamma ferric oxide) and carbon particles in the coating composition can be obtained in a much shorter grinding time than has heretofore been possible using lecithin or other dispersing agents'. This means that if you want to reduce grinding time use the (toga) above mentioned. It would seem that the said substance also increases the conductance of the coating, a property which reduces the amount of carbon needed while keeping the coating as anti static as, to borrow a phrase, herebefore. The adhesion between coating and substrate is also improved. The second invention, explained by the Audio Magnetics Corporation in BP 1275872, achieves good dispersion by subjecting the magnetic tape to ultrasonic vibration. The patent describes, with diagrams, every conceivable method of achieving this. --- Video head block assembly In a helical scan video recorder, the tape travels past the head at an angle to the axis of rotation of the recording drum. The angle is usually achieved by putting the feed and take-up spools at different heights. Mr Noboru Sato and Mr Tatsumi Nakano have patented a method of mounting the head so that the spools are on the same plane but the drum and motor are inclined. They claim that the old method 'will inevitably lead to considerable torsional stress being generated in the travelling tape and poor contact between the tape and the magnetic head drum. Thus the ... magnetic recording tape will occasionally be injured.' Their alternative, which is described in detail in patent 1273816, is to use an upper and lower base plate to mount the head so that it is inclined to the chassis of the recorder. The plates are shown in fig. 1. Fig. 2 shows the complete assembly. The inventors claim that this method, unlike other similar means of mounting the block, makes it easy to remove the head for repair and maintenance. --- Reducing wear RCA claim to have a method of improving stability and reducing wear in tape recorders. BP 1275115, in which the invention is described, particularly concerns 'the minimisation of frictional effects' at the point where gap and tape meet. As readers will know, the friction between head and tape causes oxide deposits to form on the head and this in turn causes the tape to screech because of the constant switching of the tape from static to dynamic friction. RCA suggest that this can be avoided by (are you ready?) enclosing the tape transport and heads in a container filled with a gas which will not absorb any moisture. Normally the tape is heated by its friction with the head and this causes it to lose moisture. If this moisture is not replaced the tape will tend to lose oxide. By bathing the tape and... THE TPA 100D IS THE MOST ADVANCED 200W POWER AMPLIFIER MADE IN EUROPE Most professional recording and broadcasting studios in the U.K. use TPA series amplifiers. CLIENTS USING TPA SERIES AMPLIFIERS INCLUDE: BBC Radio & T.V. ■ ATV Network Ltd ■ Thames T.V. Ltd ■ I.T.N. Ltd ■ RCA Ltd ■ De Lane Lea Processes Ltd ■ Electricity Research Council ■ Marconi Broadcasting Co Ltd ■ Ministry of Technology ■ Cavendish Laboratory ■ British Scientific Instrument Research Centre. HH ELECTRONIC MILTON CAMBRIDGE TEL 0223 65945 THE NEW M550 ★ MOVING COIL ★ OMNI-DIRECTIONAL ★ F.R.70-18000 Hz ★ RECOMMENDED RETAIL PRICE £9.85 TO BEYER DYNAMIC (G.B.) LTD. 1 Clair Road, Haywards Heath, Sussex. Tel. Haywards Heath 51003 Please send brochure of Beyer Dynamic Products NAME ........................................... ADDRESS ........................................... BEYER DYNAMIC STUDIO SOUND, AUGUST 1972 head in a gas which does not absorb moisture the effect is reduced. RCA suggest that those who adopt this system use carbon dioxide or sulphur hexafluoride. Improved slow motion helical scan In BP 1273749 Sony describe apparatus to improve slow motion and still frame pictures in helical scan video recorders. In previous machines, the patent states, poor slow motion and still frame pictures were caused by tracking error on recorded tracks and by a slight difference of angle between the recorded tracks and the path taken by the head during replay. Both these faults cause the machine to trace the guard band between adjacent tracks. Sony claim that the tracking error is cancelled in slow motion and still frame pictures by the device shown in fig. 3. During normal reproduction the L-shaped tape guide piece 29 is below the normal guide pin 23 and so the tape rests on the latter. In slow or stop framing the L-shaped piece moves up because of the rotation of the shaft 30 caused by the movement of 44 and 42. The pitch of the bolt 40 and the nut 41 is so designed that when the shaft 30 is rotated about 60 to 90 degrees the L-shaped guide piece 29 rises about 100 microns, or 0.1 mm, and this cancels the tracking error. The patent goes on to describe head arrangements for full field and skip field types of recording and reproduction. Different heads are used for slow operation from those for full speed operation and there are different head arrangements for each field system. The patent also describes the servo and switching systems used to move the members 44 and 42. Helical scan colour video Sony have also patented (BP 1275307) a method for reproducing luminance and chrominance signals on separate but overlapping tracks on a helical scan video recorder. Two heads are used, as shown in fig. 4, one of which has its head gap aligned at 90° to the direction of motion of the head and the other one being inclined obliquely to it, roughly at 90° to the direction of motion of the tape. The first is the chrominance signal and the second is the luminance signal. They are recorded at different frequencies; the head 3 shown in the diagram is modulated at a low frequency and is given a wide gap whereas the head 4 is modulated at high frequency and has a narrow gap. Endless tape cartridge Yet another variation on the cartridge has come from Japan. The invention has been taken out by Tokyo Denki Kagaku Kogyo Kabushiki Kaisha and the number is 1274914. The inventors claim that in previous cartridges the portion of the tape coming out from the centre of the hub on which the tape is wound must pass over the tape already wound on to that hub. This causes a great deal of friction, which is the greater because of the tape near the hub being tightly wound. Fig. 5 shows the hub and the turntable on which it is mounted. It is tapered to allow the tape to leave the hub more easily. There is a gap between the driving hub and the hub on which the tape is wound. Rollers 4c are placed in this gap to transmit torque from 4a to 4b. The turntable 10 allows the tape to spool correctly. One can visualise the tape acquiring a marked bias if stored for long periods with one side of the tape stretched more than the other. The makers claim, however, that an obliquely inclined guide post elsewhere on the cartridge as sufficient to correct this fault. Such optimism is a rare thing in this gloomy age. Improved monochrome video The last of this month's video patents is that taken out by CBS (BP 1275790). It describes a monochrome method of recording colour information. The patent makes particular reference to the rerecording of films. A previous patent (BP 1040664) is also summarised and the more recent patent improves the older one, in which a certain amount of ringing occurred at the beginning of each scan line. Fig. 5 shows two frames of the recording medium. The frames 12 show the luminance information and the frames next to them contain either encoded colour information or a second monochrome programme. The strip is about 8 mm wide. 18 is the sound track, some 1 mm wide on each side of the strip. There are a series of synchronising marks 20 which are precisely fixed so that the top edge of the marks is level with the top edge of the frame and so that the marks intersect the centre line of the strip of film. These marks replace the sprocket holes and are detected by a light pipe or other sensor. The Series 2000 disc-cutting lathe is designed to cut stereo records with outstanding quality. (An identical Series 1000 lathe is also available for cutting records in Mono.) All MSR Series 2000 lathes are fitted with a 16 inch turntable, with a direct driven DC motor, independent of mains frequency and servo controlled for maximum speed stability. ‘Varigroove’ is provided on all MSR Series 2000 lathes. This is controlled from an advanced head on the tape replay machine. The MSR Series 2000 lathe is equipped with stylus heating and swarf collection systems and is built into a high quality floor standing console. MSR Electronics Limited MEETING HOUSE LANE, BALSALL COMMON WARWICKSHIRE, ENGLAND Telephone (0676) 32468 Design Engineers to the Recording Industry NEW D.J. RANGE OF HIGH QUALITY P.A. AMPLIFIERS D.J. 500 50 watts R.M.S. output D.J. 700 70 watts R.M.S. output D.J. 1000 100 watts R.M.S. output Features - Exclusive “Fail Safe” Electronic Protection Circuit - Fault condition warning lamps - Built-in Bass boost below 30Hz - 4 channel Mixer with slider controls - Emitter follower Slave / Master output - Fibre Glass P.C. Boards For full details of this range and all D.J. products, please write to the manufacturers: D. J. ELECTRONICS (HACKNEY) LIMITED, 122 BALLS POND ROAD, LONDON, N.1 Telephone: 01-254 5779 and 4861 The ARP 2500 Dear Sir, Your reviews and discussions of synthesiser applications in studios and for the musician have been most interesting to me. At this point I am anxious to see you get hold of a Moog. However, I am writing hoping to be of help to musicians or studios thinking of buying a synthesiser. Being in a successful group, I am in the fortunate position of having both ARP 2500 and 2600 synthesiser systems. David Kirk's review was astounding to me in that he seemed to unearth all the user problems of the 2500 in what I took to be a very short time. To reinforce what he said, I would not recommend the purchase of a 2500 before a much cheaper 2600. In my own case, I bought a 2500 before the smaller synthesiser was available. The only reasons that count when one is spending up to £7,000 on a synthesiser are what results do I get and how long does it take me to get them? For the first two years of getting to know synthetic sound, one can do everything one wants on a 2600. The 2500 would confuse, does confuse and, although capable of astounding feats of versatility, needs much time and a very clear head to operate. Stand up those studio owners that have customers with spare studio time; stand up those musicians who spend that spare time sober. The ARP 2500 matrix system is a good one but needs two operations to achieve a make between module functions. When one is setting up something really complex, it is easy to get so confused as to want to trace everything back. When one has 'ad a few, this proves to be utterly defeating. The matrix used on EMS equipment is better in this respect. The 2600 is ideal here; it is very cleverly prewired. Just when one thinks one has found an amazing noise with the whole face of the machine covered in patch cords, one notices that the set-up is already prewired, more or less. One can always over-ride a small section of the pre-wiring with only two cords. You can still see what you're doing and, more important, not be afraid of having a couple of beers to aid instrumental confidence and flexibility. Even the 2600 is not as easy and clear to operate as the VCS3, but it is more appealing to the musician, more musical I feel. The tuning is rock solid, and the oscillator tracking uncanny. So why do Tonus make the 2500? Mine plays six notes at once, can have 20 sets of preset control voltages available, six audio signals mixed and instantly usable at various levels, the most incredibly subtle tone colours can be produced using the multimode resonator in conjunction with a normal filter, and the sequencer will provide exhilarating cascades of arpeggios. In fact it is the versatility of the 2500 that makes it eminently more suitable for stage work than the 2600. Once the matrix has been dealt with stone cold sober, one can go away, get plastered and know that all will be well and that all the functions preset will come to life in tune. But what of output amplifiers, voltage processors, inverters, time lags, mic preamps, reverb, envelope follower? All these are featured on the 2600 along with the really good oscillators. The 2600 can be plugged in, played and gives instantly appealing results. The 2500 can be plugged in, watched, and will provide an instantly appealing light show. Yours faithfully, Pete Townshend (The Who), 2 The Embankment, Twickenham TW1 3DU. Warm sound Dear Sir, As UK representatives of Spectra-Sonics (California), we would like to clear a point mentioned in the June issue of STUDIO SOUND. In Mr Dwyer's report on the AES Munich Convention, concerning the equation for power amplifier requirements when used in the bi-amp and tri-amp configuration, Mr Dwyer quite rightly queried the fact that in the equation the total power was added to arrive at the solution. In this case, it would appear that the speaker was not inferring that power requirements were acoustically additive, but in fact were financially additive since fewer watts were required for a given spl. This is a very pertinent point. In one case where a pa system used 1.8 kW of power, the crossover networks were passive and had 3 dB insertion loss. This meant in real terms that, at the average cost of £1 per watt for a professional power amplifier, the owner of that particular installation was very efficiently dissipating £900 worth of heat into the auditorium! Yours faithfully, Stephen Court, Feldon Audio Ltd, 126 Great Portland Street, London W1N 5PH. In favour of the dBV Dear Sir, I was most interested to read the review of H. A. O. Wilms' paper on the 'Ambiguous dBm' in the June issue of STUDIO SOUND. As I understand the situation, and as I teach it to my students, the dBm is not ambiguous in the way indicated by Mr Wilms. If used as a unit of power (i.e. with a reference power of 1 mW) there is no difficulty at all and we need not go any further; but one hardly ever uses the dBm as a unit of power. The most common way to use the dBm is as a unit of voltage and here the trouble is that one must specify the impedance level of the circuit in question or the statement 'x dBm' is meaningless. Mr Wilms's statement 'output level equals +12 dBm into 30 ohms' is thus precise and unambiguous; it means that the output voltage is such that 20 times the logarithm to base 10 of the ratio of that voltage to the rms voltage needed to dissipate a power of 1 mW in 30Ω is equivalent to a voltage of 0.173V rms. Thus, if Vo is the output voltage, the equation becomes: \[ \frac{Vo}{0.173} = 12 + 20 \log_{10} \] and so Vo is 0.689V. The output power is 15.8 mW as one should expect. I do strongly support Mr Wilms's plea to drop the dBm altogether in favour of the dBV, though. For those lucky people who deal exclusively with matched circuits the dBm is useful, but for users of audio equipment which nowadays is designed to have low output impedance and high input impedance, the dBm has become a real nuisance. Perhaps a worked example will show up the sort of problem which students, among others, tend to find difficult. Consider a piece of apparatus with an output impedance of 10 kΩ (a reasonable figure) which is to feed a 600Ω line. We can match the apparatus to the line in many ways, but the two most common would be (1) a transformer, (2) some sort of emitter follower. Let us agree to use a perfect transformer and an emitter follower of voltage gain 'times one' to make life easier. Case (A) If we start with a voltage level of 0 dBm in the apparatus, device (1) will produce a level of 0 dBm in the line whereas device (2) will produce a level of +12.2 dBm. Case (B) If we start with a voltage level of 0 dBV in the apparatus, device (1) will produce a level of −12.2 dBV in the line and device (2) a level of 0 dBV. These statements are equivalent to a reminder of the physical situation: the perfect transformer is a passive device and neither removes nor adds power from or to the signal, while the emitter follower takes power from the dc supply and adds it to the signal. Personally, I would rather work with case (B) and I am fairly sure that most people actively concerned with recording studios would agree with me. Incidentally, I do not understand John Moseley's remark that Mr Wilms's proposal would make the vu meter obsolete—I cannot see how the vu meter comes into the argument at all. The ASA specification for a vu meter says, among other things, that it should read '0' when a level −4 dBm in 600Ω is applied to it. All we have to do is to agree that it should read '0' when a signal of level −1.8 dBV is applied to it (since 0 dBV = −2.2 in 600Ω). I hope that my rather lengthy letter will shed light on what should not be a murky subject, and increase the number of adherents to the cause of the dBV. Yours faithfully, J. M. Bowsher, The University of Surrey, Guildford, Surrey. SPECIAL OFFER! WHAT IS GOOD RECORDED SOUND? ABK9 An entertaining LP that lets laymen eavesdrop on a recording session and allows the professional to see his own activities in a new light. Many tricks and techniques with microphones and acoustics are demonstrated for direct comparison, using the same performers and the same music. Various ensembles are made up by Thea King (clarinet) Thea King (piano) Beth Boyd (soprano) Bryan Corrie (tenor) The Fidelio String Quartet The Royal Tunbridge Wells Choral Society The London Philharmonic Orchestra conducted by Bernard Herrmann. AVAILABLE EXCLUSIVELY to readers of STUDIO SOUND and our associated publication HI-FI NEWS & RECORD REVIEW at a specially reduced price. Only £1·20 inc. p. & p. until October 31st—thereafter £1·60. FREE with every copy of WHAT IS GOOD RECORDED SOUND? is a 16-page illustrated booklet containing specially written articles on aspects of good recording by John Crabbe (Consulting Editor Studio Sound, Editor Hi-Fi News & Record Review); Donald Aldous; Peter Gammond and Bob Auger (Granada Recordings), who made the recording at the Conway Hall. Make sure of your copy of WHAT IS GOOD RECORDED SOUND? at the specially reduced price. Offer closes October 31st. To: Discourses Ltd., 34 High Street, Tunbridge Wells, Kent. Please supply..................copies of What is Good Recorded Sound? at £1·20 each. Cheque/p.o./m.o. enclosed £........................... NAME__________________________________________ ADDRESS_______________________________________ ______________________________________________ BLOCK CAPITALS PLEASE MCI FOR THE FIRST TIME IN BRITAIN 24-TRACK RECORDER MODEL JH-24 We are proud to announce the introduction in the U.K. of M.C.I. sixteen-track model JH-16 and twenty-four track model JH-24... two unique multi-track recording systems that for performance and price are far ahead of everything else. M.C.I. multi-track professional recording systems are already in extensive use all over the U.S. and in several major studios on the continent. JH-16 PRICE £7,480 JH-24 PRICE £10,770 FELDON AUDIO LTD 126 GREAT PORTLAND STREET LONDON, W.1 01-580 4314 A Novel Quadrant Fader By M. J. Skeet The quadrant fader about to be described is successfully in use in a mixer employed for programme presentation purposes. Basically, mixers are put to one of two uses. One is the balancing of numerous microphone circuits to feed a tape recorder to produce a recording of an event or a performance. The other, as in my use for a mixer, is the selection, cross-fading and mixing of various programme sources. The output is fed over a pa system or to a tape recorder for future use. This quadrant fader is much used in the latter application but should be suitable for the former. The basic concept is to use photoresistors in the audio paths; a lamp controls their resistance and 90° of a conventional 330° potentiometer controls the lamp brightness. Attractions of the system are numerous: it is noise free due to the relative sluggishness of the lamp/photoresistor response to any irregular tracking of the potentiometer; stereo channels are easily controlled—that is to say one lamp can control one, two, three, four or more stereo channels; the quadrant control can be some distance from the audio circuit being controlled with advantages to the layout within the mixer; and a channel monitor lamp can be incorporated on the mixer panel—the brightness of the lamp indicating the state of the channel concerned. Fig 1 shows the basic arrangement. A potential divider is formed and a maximum attenuation of over 60 dB from the faded up level is easily possible. This occurs if the resistance ratio is greater than 1,000 to 1. With the 5SP5 cell used in the particular way being described—in a tin, matt black on the inside—its resistance is in excess of five MO. Lit at 3 mm from a 6V 40 mA lamp (PO No. 2) its resistance is around 2.5 kΩ. These are effective resistances as measured in circuit using a sine wave source and vvm. With a brighter lamp a lower resistance is possible but greater heat is created in the closed box. If use over long periods is likely then problems might be caused. If the cell is followed by 2.7 kΩ the resistance ratio is easily greater than 1,000 to 1. Hence the voltage ratio is greater than 1,000 to 1 and $20 \log 1,000 = 20 \times 3 = 60$. Thus, when faded out the attenuation is greater than −60 dB. An insertion loss around 6 dB occurs if used as described. This can be reduced if the cell is followed by a higher resistance—however, as a result of this, the attenuation already mentioned would reduce to below 60 dB and stray pickup could result if this following resistance is taken too high. There are some other considerations as a consequence of using the fader described. The output impedance of the stage preceding the fader must be low. It has to be capable of feeding into some 5 kΩ—the load presented by the fader when faded up. This implies an output impedance under 1 kΩ if losses are not to become significant. Also the coupling capacitor from the preceding stage must be of such a value as to couple to the fader adequately at low frequencies. The best way around the first of these is to use a buffer amplifier on the input to the fader which will present a high impedance to any source connected to the mixer and give the required low impedance to the fader. This has been done in fig 2. The 22 kΩ resistor following the buffer amplifier is to reduce the surges from the electrolytic capacitor preceding it as the 5SP5’s resistance is changed—especially when done quickly. The buffer and mixer amplifiers come from Mullard’s book ‘Transistor Audio and Radio Circuits’. Further details—frequency response, distortion, noise, are available in this fine publication. Using a mixer amplifier to follow the fader avoids the losses that resistive mixing would produce. Microphone channels connected via the Mullard microphone amplifier do not need any buffer stages as the output impedance of this amplifier is sufficiently low. Fig 2 shows the practical set up. A panel monitor lamp is useful so the lamp circuit continued 23 McINTOSH IS HERE! With nearly all products, there is one make that stands head and shoulders above others, revered and coveted by everyone. In hi-fi, the name is McIntosh from America. In these days of production rush and economy, the McIntosh policy of "assured performance" makes it significantly different from the rest. Every McIntosh unit – every one – is tested to be equal to or better than the superb published specification. At McIntosh, more time means more care and protection for you. You will hear music as never before! McIntosh innovations in solid state electronics allow you to hear new beauty and subtle passages that until now have been clouded by lower reproduction standards. McIntosh is very expensive – outstanding performance cannot be bought at a standard price. Listen to McIntosh at your nearest franchise dealer, or write for details and specifications. WILMEX LTD Import Division, 24/26 Ensign Street, London E1 8JD Telephone: 01-949 2545 JUST A MINUTE! In one minute, you can have two duplicates of a master cassette. Infonics' new, low cost Cassette Copier has just three foolproof push buttons. Duplicates both tracks in one pass. High-speed Cassette Copier Write for brochure or phone fpa Fraser-Peacock Associates Limited 94 High Street Wimbledon Village London SW19 01-947 2233 sole UK distributors of Infonics INTRODUCTION TO VIDEO RECORDING by W. Oliver. Published by W. Foulsham & Co Ltd, Yeovil Road, Slough, Buckinghamshire. Price £1.50. GUIDE TO VTR compiled by Timothy Johnson, Sally Hall and Eve-Lynne Rubin. Published by Ovum Ltd, 22 Grays Inn Road, London WC18HT. Price £8. The increasing numbers of educational and industrial television equipment users differ from their audio counterparts in that they usually have no previous video experience. Audio consumers, even if non technical, have at least heard other equipment and professional sound men are informed by personal contact and by the technical press whereas, for a high percentage of closed circuit television users spending between £400 and £10,000, it is their first system. Both of these books are aimed at this information gap. Introduction to Video Recording claims to treat the subject from two angles: 'For the non technical reader it tells in simple terms how video recorders work. And for the user who wants more technical information it gives details of typical equipment.' In my view it fails in both these aims. The 13 chapter headings including 'Choice of Systems', 'EVR', 'Video Disc Systems', 'Portable Video Recorder Systems' and 'Lasers and Holograms in Video Recording', whet an appetite that the book itself singularly fails to satisfy. Here are a few examples of the sort of technical error in which the book abounds. The chapter on cameras describes as a 'typical' cctv camera what is the most atypical camera I have ever come across, with no less than 11 controls (the majority of modern cameras of this class have virtually no controls other than those for the viewfinder if fitted). 'There are dozens of types and makes of vidicon in sizes ranging from very miniature to quite large.' In fact, nearly all vidicon tubes are one of two sizes, 16 mm or 25 mm in diameter, and a small number of spare tubes will cover 95 per cent of cctv cameras in use. Again on cameras, the Philips LDH 0050, a low cost model, is described as 'offering many qualities usually found in more expensive professional cameras' and then goes on to list just those features found in every camera from the cheapest upwards: 'fully transistorised, printed circuit and auto level control'. Video recorders are described (chapter nine) as having a writing speed of up to ten times the linear speed. If this were true, however, could one get a 5 MHz bandwidth from a 19 cm/s tape speed? In truth the ratio varies between about 50 and several hundred to one. Chapter nine again: 'The Philips ¼ inch (12.5 mm) and the Ampex 1 inch (25 mm) models ... typify a rotating head system and a helical scan system respectively'. Factual errors aside, the explanatory sections are worse and my gloomy assessment was confirmed by an interested educationalist to whom I loaned the book for a non-technical appraisal; he found it 'generally confusing'. Why, for example, half way through the chapter on Choice of Systems, does the author launch into two and a half pages of colour television theory? The chapter on EVR does not explain clearly that it is essentially a playback system nor does it give any idea of the procedure and costs of getting programmes 'printed' for the machine. The chapters on videodisc and holographic systems fail to mention that neither is anywhere near production yet. All this could possibly be forgiven if at least some useful information on equipment and facilities were given. There is an interesting and lengthy description (the longest in the book) of an excellent slow and stop motion video disc system but it costs £40,000 and there is no mention of the low cost Japanese vtr that has been around for a year or two, costs just one per cent of the above figure, and gives just these facilities. There are no lists or tables of different models, and no mention of video cassettes. The chapter on costs only mentions two prices: a receiver/monitor (£80) and an unspecified studio (£300 a week to hire). All in all a disappointing effort which loses the novice through lack of order and logical sequence and which frustrates anyone familiar with the subject through downright error and lack of technical weight. The Guide to VTR claims more modestly to be a 'news report on equipment suppliers and applications' and, although written by allegedly non-technical people, is such an excellent piece of technical journalism that it is useful to both engineer and non engineer. The introduction to the three main sections discusses the present state and commercial prospects for helical scan vtrs and gives an interesting table estimating both the numbers in use and the current rate of sale of different models. The equipment section starts with a table of over 40 vtrs and has 14 columns listing cost, resolution, tape speed, weight and facilities. Then an explanation of technical requirements and problems such as bandwidth, noise and compatibility, which really does inform the newcomer and does not embarrass the engineer. The short section on tape is misleading in that it glosses over the problems of compatibility between certain machines and certain tapes: some tapes (not necessarily the most expensive) are better than others on certain machines. Individual makes of machine are then discussed with a candour that could only result from communicating with the actual users (how useful if equipment reviewers did this). Cameras and monitors are then listed and discussed in a similar way. Next, a large section is given to suppliers and services, including several independent consultants. This is very important if only because small distributors do not have the resources or knowledge to cover the whole field. A similar section on users of cctv equipment (a potted video version of this journal's 'Around the Studios') shows how similar users to oneself have handled similar problems. This is an extremely useful report and well worth the investment, particularly if the plan to supply up-dating sheets is carried out. (The Sussex University Bookshop were unable to trace the book so, if in difficulty, one should contact OVUM Ltd direct.) Roderick Snell QUADRANT FADER continued voltage is 12V. 6V 40 mA lamps have been used. The strap across the full potentiometer winding is to improve the attenuation/tracking performance. To get full attenuation when the fader is fully faded down, a microswitch is provided. It might be possible to avoid using the microswitch by insulating the track of the WW pot at the appropriate point. This has not been tried but it is a way of reducing cost. The typical quadrant markings in dBs are shown in fig 4. The spread 0 to −6 dB gives a much appreciated delicate control at this point. Mechanical construction could be tackled in several ways. Fig 3 showing one example. The shoulders either side of the lever are nine mm thick "segments" of an 80 mm diameter wooden cylinder. Alternatively that can be cut from plywood. Components \| Potentiometers \| Colvern 2.5 KΩ \| \|----------------\|----------------\| \| WW \| Electrovalue, 28 St. Judes Road, Englefield Green, Egham, Surrey \| \| Cells \| 55P5 Light sensitive cells. Two in pack \| \|----------------\|------------------------------------------\| \| Switch \| B89 Sub-miniature microswitch and lever \| \| Knob \| Key handle from lever (key) switch \| 'Radiospares' LITTLE HENRY IN Chadacre Wins The Day Microphone Amplifier 4310 from £7.00 Equaliser 4311 from £5.50 Stereo Output Amplifier 4312 from £5.50 Stereo VU Meter Driver Amplifier 4315 from £5.50 Stereo High Impedance Headphone Amplifier 4317 from £4.00 Mixing Amplifier 4316 from £3.75 Audio Frequency Generator 4318 from £9.50 Low Distortion Line-up Out 9501 from £15.00 High Quality Sliders Mono £1.00, Stereo £1.50 Mini-Mixer (see Allen & Heath Advt.) £85.00 Phasing Simulator 4300, Manual Auto-Drive Voltage Controlled from £5.50 I.C. Ring Modulator/Frequency Doubler 6301 from £7.50 Sub-Harmonic Generator 6345 from £26.00 Envelope Shaper 6306 from £13.50 V.C.Osc. 6303 from £8.50 V.C.A. 6309 from £17.00 Filter/Wav/Wa Unit 6317 Manual/Voltage controlled from £6.50 White Sound Generator 6315 from £6.25 Automatic Fader 9521 from £19.50 TAKE A TIP FROM HENRY—SOLVE ALL YOUR PROBLEMS AND INVEST IN A CUSTOM BUILT CHADACRE MIXING CONSOLE—OR BUILD ONE YOURSELF From our vast range of high quality modules supplied built, tested and guaranteed or kit form complete with all capacitors, resistors, transformers, printed circuit boards and illustrated data sheets. For more detailed information on any of our Audio Products send only 25p for our illustrated catalogue. "IT'S MONEY WELL SPENT" EMI 20w Matched loudspeaker set 350 Frequency range: 20 to 20,000Hz. Our price £7.00 plus 50p p. & p. EMI 10w Matched loudspeaker set 450. Our price £3.35 plus 25p p. & p. 13½" x 8½" elliptical loudspeaker and independent high frequency units, with associated crossover network. Frequency range: 55 to 13,000Hz. The cone of the bass unit has a surface treated for high wave driving freedom from distortion when operated at low frequencies. NOW IN STOCK EMI 1MA/770C Bass Speaker £13.50 plus 50p p. & p. Technical brochure available 215 Kit and 315 Kit. Full range of EMI Speaker Cabinets. Send for leaflet s.o.e. PLUGS Pack 107 5-pin Din ... 20p Pack 108 3-pin Din ... 18p Pack 135 1 ... 25p Pack 136 1" Jack Stereo ... 40p Pack 103 Loudspeaker Plug ... 15p Pack 100 Phono Plug ... 6p Pack 232 3-pin Socket ... 25p Pack 236 5-pin Socket ... 30p Pack 234 Loudspeaker Socket ... 30p Ready-made Leads 3-pin to 3-pin Din ... 63p 3-pin to open end ... 53p 5-pin to 5-pin Din ... 65p 5-pin to open end ... 65p 5-pin to 4 phono plugs ... 93p Speaker lead Din to blade 12ft ... 45p External line Din plug to socket 12ft ... 45p All leads approx. 1/4in. in length. Post free by return. GARRARD SP25 Mk III £10.50 plus 50p Guaranteed new and boxed. carriage. Normal Price £15.57 Plinth and Cover for above £4 plus 50p p. & p CASH & CARRY GOODS Save Nearly £8 SINCLAIR project 60 (£23.90) Our £16 plus 50p carr. For building into plinths, etc., with two 230 output stages (20W) and power supply unit. S.a.e. for technical brochure. Sinclair 60S ... £21 Sinclair 2000 ... £22 Sinclair 3000 ... £30 Microsound ST20 ... £24 Telton 206B ... £19.95 Telton F2000 Tun/Amp ... £31.00 Alpha F212 ... £26 Please add 50p carr. per amplifier. Other Amplifiers—Tuners—Tape Recorders, etc. Prices on application SCOOO PURCHASE ZONAL-ILFORD TAPE Manufacturer's entire stock purchased, 40,000 reels must be sold. First class tape at lowest ever prices, DON'T MISS THIS FANTASTIC OPPORTUNITY \| Size \| Usual Price \| Our Price \| \|---------------\|-------------\|-----------\| \| 31" Long Play Polyester \| 300' 600' \| 15p \| \| 5" Plain Boxed \| 600' \| £1.00 \| \| 5" Long Play PVC \| 900' 1200' \| 50p \| \| 5" Long Play Polyester \| 1200' \| 75p \| \| 7" in plain boxes \| 1200' 1800' \| 50p \| \| 7" Long Play Polyester \| 1800' \| £1.50 \| \| 8" Standard PVC \| 1800' 2400' \| £1.00 \| SPECIAL OFFER: Cassette Head Cleaner 30p All tapes are fully guaranteed. Please add 10p per reel for post and packing. Orders over £6 post free. FINDING himself unsympathetic with the new director running Pye Recording Studios, maintenance engineer Ken Atwood resigned in June. The new management team are sorry to lose an engineer of his experience but wish him well in his new appointment at De Lane-Lee Studios. At Nova, Greg Lake has been producing an Emerson, Lake and Palmer album. John Sherry produced Fumble for Sovereign Records, and Mike Copeland produced Renaissance for the same company. The Foggy Duo have been in for York Records, Phil Solomon produced several records for his company, Belgravia Productions, and Neil Reid continued reductions of his second album. Gooseberry Studios are looking for a studio engineer with experience in at least four track work. Peter Houghton wants someone to take his place so he can devote most of his time to promoting business. People with qualifications but no studio experience should not apply. A basic salary plus a percentage of turnover will be paid and there is a good chance that the engineer will eventually become studio manager. Applicants should phone Peter Houghton on 01-437 6255. At IBC, this month's artists have included the Bee Gees, Freddy Davis, John Baldry, Tony Cole, Rolf Harris, Lesley Duncan, Byzantium, Dana and Ireen Sheer. Fans of the mid-50's skiffle craze will remember Chas McDevitt and Shirley Douglas. They have been to Pan Studios to record a budget album for the Joy label. Titles include La Bomba, Rose Garden, She'll Be There, Snow Bird and Freight Train. Lou Praeger has been making big band sounds for an album and the Caribbean continued work on their album of Grimsby-style steel band music. The studio is now starting 'a sort of Jesus Christ Superstar album on Indian instruments aimed at the Christian Asian population here in England'. Sounds like a violent demo! In June's Diary, I mentioned that four people recently left Wessex Sound Studios and I said that one was a studio engineer. The studio's senior partner, Ron Thompson, has pointed out that the studio were at the same time engaging new staff. Also, none of those who left were desk engineers. Although Adrian Ibbetson had done some desk work, he was the studio manager, and not an engineer. I regret any confusion caused by the June article. Brewers Droop continued working on an album at Maximum Studios. Mike Hugg has been in again, Feldmans Music made a budget album and Neil Innes put down several backing tracks. Kenny George produced Selisi Meya for CBS. The work at Intersound has included sound recording for London Weekend Television's A Train Now Standing and Doctor In Charge. The studio has also recorded music for the Rolf Harris show. A cover version of Godspell was completed for Avenue Recordings and Pickwick did another Top of the Pops. Others at Intersound this month included Colin Hare and Terry Lightfoot. Trident's recent customers have included Nilsson, Mama Cass and John Kongos. Tony McCauley, Micky Most and Don McLean have been at Orange this month. Besides carrying out a lot of routine work for music publishers, the engineers have been continuing development work on their range of recorders. Sarm have now issued their Stop Smoking record by hypnotist Edwin Heath on the Sarm 101 label. At the time of going to press, partners Barry Ainsworth and Gary Lyons were on the point of signing the contract to purchase a recording studio. Their current work consists of disc cutting, tape copying and freelance engineering. Recent cutting has included work by Fifth Dimension, Dawn, the Partridge Family and Jackie Charlton. Tape copying has been carried out for Bell Rediffusion, Avenue, Gem, James, Carlin and Sympathy. Engineering work included a Buddy Greco album for Pye, a Johnny Hackett follow-up, and sessions by the Swinging Blue Jeans and Carol Bell. Sarm have also done several mobile recording sessions featuring university and college groups. At Majestic Recording Studios, disc jockey Tommy Vance recorded a take-off of a typical American soul record. This will probably be issued as a single. Avenue have been recording rock and roll albums for the Canadian market and Palmer have made several reggae albums of current chart successes. Terry Watt, who wrote the original music for Suburban Wives, has been in to record music for the follow-up film. The title hasn't been decided yet but I am told that it may possibly be called Commuter Husbands. Atlantic Recording artists Batdorf and Rodney performed at Ultra-Sonic Recording Studios, New York City, to a 50-member studio audience for broadcast over WLIR (FM), Garden City. Steve Goetz engineered this concert, which was one in a series of weekly concerts presented by Ultra-Sonic and WLIR (FM). Other recent work has included various single and album sessions, radio commercials, sound tracks for TV commercials and music for an educational film. Studio Sound freelance, Keith Wicks, has decided that, because of other commitments, he is no longer able to continue writing the Diary column. After 18 months of toil, he has handed over to assistant editor John Dwyer. An official bulletin stated that Keith was making a slow but steady recovery. Studio complaints, threats, etc. should now be sent to John c/o STUDIO SOUND. Finally, many thanks to all those who have been so helpful in supplying information for this column. What you get when you use Very Visible. Ordinary tape makes a very visible join and spoils the appearance of the item. Not ‘Waterproof’. If exposed to moisture ordinary tape tends to crinkle and peel off. Almost Invisible. Magic Transparent Tape is much less obvious. It tones in with the background so the join becomes almost impossible to spot. ‘Waterproof’. Magic Transparent Tape is unaffected by moisture. If it gets dirty you simply wipe it clean again with a damp cloth. You notice the improvements Not the tape. ordinary transparent adhesive tape 'Ghost' effect on copies. Ordinary tape gives a ghost effect on copies and photographs making the subject underneath difficult to read. Shrinks and discolours. Ordinary tape shrinks and yellows with age leaving an unsightly black line round the edges. Scotch Magic Transparent Tape 'Ghost free' copies. You get perfect copies with Magic Transparent Tape. The taped section is just as legible as the rest. It's permanent—so it won't shrink or discolour. Magic Transparent Tape isn't affected by sunlight or temperature change. It stays just the way you stick it down no matter how long you leave it. If you would like a free sample of Scotch Magic Transparent Tape and details of how you can get an attractive tape dispenser absolutely free, fill in this coupon and send it to: Commercial Trades Marketing, 3M United Kingdom Ltd., 3M House, Wigmore Street, London, W1A 1ET. Name Company Position Address 35/8/72 3M2049 3M and Scotch are trademarks STUDIO SOUND, AUGUST 1972 An example of the Midas modular system mixers. Medium scale chassis, with space for sixteen inputs. The input modules shown include, sensitivity control and fader, pan and output group switch, fold back with pre-fade/post-fade switch, bass, treble, presence equalisation and reverb/echo mix. The top level has four output modules with PPM calibrated Vu Meters and compressors. The middle level accommodates the fold back output, talk back and headphone facilities, acoustic compensation filters and triple range crossover network. The lower level also includes a send and return panel. Specifications Inputs 0.2 mV into 200 ohms, 10 mV into 50K ohms. Outputs normally OdbM into 600 ohms. Overload range 60 db, low and high Z, channel outputs 16 db above Odb, Vu indication. Line outputs Max level + 16 dBm Signal to noise Ratio At maximum channel gain 66db, Typically 80db at normal gain settings Distortion Less than 0.1% THD Midas Professional Amplification, 87, North Grove, London, N.15, Telephone 01-800 6341 richardson ANNOUNCE A NEW RANGE OF PRINTED CIRCUIT PLUG-IN MODULES FOR PROFESSIONAL AND INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS This rationalised system allows numerous applications for mixing and amplification—the modules have been developed over the past four years and successfully used in discotheque mixers, studio mixing/recording equipment and custom-built installations. The system now features a universal Mother Board which is designed to accommodate these modules, enabling the manufacture of a wide range of equipment from standardised units. The modules are constructed on fibre glass printed circuit boards with gold plated edge connectors. These have outstanding performance in respect of extremely low distortion, less than 0.01% at rated output, together with high overload capabilities and overall frequency responses of ± 0.5 dB. This range of modules includes switchable microphone/line amplifiers—mono and stereo gramophone amplifiers, R.I.A.A. equalised—impedance convertors/buffer amplifiers—tape replay and record amplifiers with electronically switched equalisation—tape oscillator systems—P.P.M. drive amplifiers. Mixing amplifiers and tone controls are available on either combined or individual modules. Output amplifiers include line amplifiers up to 10V into 600Ω—monitor and power amplifiers up to 200W into 8Ω. In addition, a range of stabilised power supply modules are available. Mains and line matching transformers, faders, meters, etc., are available ex-stock. J. RICHARDSON ELECTRONICS LIMITED 57 JAMESTOWN ROAD, LONDON N.W.1 01-267 0723/4874 Record Plant and their companion company, Tom Hidley's Westlake Audio, are not only in the record making business but in the studio making business as well. This is an essential concept to grasp before talking about what actually goes on at the Record Plant studios in New York and Los Angeles. For the policy is one of maximal independence from outside factors. This has enabled Record Plant to embark on a unique project. Namely, to have exactly matching studios on opposite coasts of the United States. It is thus possible for a tape to be started in New York, worked on in Los Angeles, returned to New York for finishing, and mixed down on either coast. The week before I visited the New York Record Plant, to be shown round by executive director Chris Stone, Quincy Jones had been recording there with Aretha Franklin and had flown off to Los Angeles (where he had other commitments) taking the tapes with him to work on them several thousand miles away before returning to New York to cut more sessions with Aretha. 'By having exactly matching studios both here and in L.A,' explained Chris Stone, 'an MD can record the basic tracks here, fly out to Los Angeles with the tapes to sweeten it up with strings and then fly back here to remix. We have even had the situation where an entirely New York based session was flown out on tape to Los Angeles for a guitar player who lives there to add a track.' Clearly the only way this can work properly is for the two studios to be totally compatible. This is why Record Plant and Westlake build their own installations. 'We know a lot about building studios now,' said Stone. 'Westlake Audio have built studios for independents like producer Jim Guercio. Jim has a dude ranch out in Colorado. He will ask his groups (like Chicago) to come out for a few weeks and swim, hunt bear and, when they get tired of the other things, to record. Albert Grossman has a studio of this kind at Woodstock for people like The Band.' I asked how much it would cost to have a studio built if I had a dude ranch. 'Around $250,000.' I don't have a dude ranch. Record Plant not only made their opposite coast studios compatible; separate studios in the same building are equally compatible. Thus in New York their individual studios are matched in all respects other than size. The architecture, acoustics, design and equipment are all exactly compatible. Thus a tape can be moved from studio to studio in the same building as well as from coast to coast. Stone showed me frequency response curves of the left- and right-hand monitor speakers in the three New York studios. These are checked every 60 days by Tom Hidley, the mind behind virtually all the custom-built equipment used by Record Plant and sold by Westlake. In New York, Record Plant have three studios and a cutting room. In Los Angeles they have two studios and the atmosphere is much more relaxed. Whereas the New York studios are spread out over the ill-distributed available space in four floors of an office block building (among Teamster Union, Draft Board and Meat Marketing Board Offices), in LA they own the whole building and have a sauna bath for 12 people and even a small hydro massage pool for use between sessions. The New York studio is on West 44th Street and so is close enough to the heart of the film and record world to allow its use by session musicians who work on a tight schedule. In New York, no one has a car and people move only short distances. In Los Angeles, everyone has a car and distances are judged simply by the time taken to get there. The recognised New York session times are 10 to 13.00, 14 to continued over 17.00 and 19.00 to open end. Most of the sweetening with studio musicians is done during the day, with rock groups and re-mixing at night, explained Chris Stone. He originally brought Eddie Kramer over from England with a view to 'attracting the English musicians'. 'But he is now doing it at Electric Lady,' Stone went on. Having visited both studios, I was particularly struck by the way both Record Plant and Electric Lady talk about each other with a great deal of mutual respect. Likewise Record Plant work in a curiously schizophrenic way both in cooperation with Wally Heider and in competition with him. Between the two of them, Heider and Record Plant have divided the States up into two areas. In one area, location recording is done by Record Plant with a Wally Heider truck fitted out with Record Plant equipment. In other areas, the work is done by a Wally Heider truck with his own equipment. "So when we cover the live Elvis Presley tour down in the South, we shall record some dates and Wally Heider will record the others," said Stone. "The same will happen if we go out on location to record an orchestra like the Philadelphia. That way, if someone comes along and says 'How much for a dual 16 track in the desert?' we can always work it out one way or the other." The extent to which Record Plant and Wally Heider have now tied up the mobile business here can perhaps best be judged by the fact that the Rolling Stones no longer bother to bring their own mobile to the States. Probably the biggest mobile job handled by Record Plant was the recording of the Bangladesh Concert organised by George Harrison in New York. For this, as usual, they used the Heider truck with Record Plant equipment, three or four of the recording tracks being simply for audience reaction. George Harrison and Phil Spector originally intended having the record out within about ten days and worked virtually night and day for a week at Record Plant in New York to produce a first mix. But, having done this, they weren't happy and felt they needed more time so finished the job out at A & M Studios in Los Angeles. Certainly the results justify the extra time spent because the mixed down quality on this LP must be among the best live recordings of their kind. The Heider van with Record Plant equipment is also compatible with the Plant 'house' studios, as is their cutting room. Although I did not have a chance to see the truck, I am told that its acoustics match the studios and it even looks the same. The studio and control room acoustics are all based on a system whereby the far end of the studio (from the control room) is acoustically dead with characteristics that liven and brighten as one moves up towards the control room window. This effect is so distinct that to walk down the studio from the live to the dead end and to talk at the same time feels rather like walking into treacle. Of course, rhythm section instruments that need a tight sound are put at the dead end of the studio with the strings at the live end, close to the control booth glass. This sound control is achieved by using a carpeted floor and a sawtooth cork and bark roof with teeth pointed towards the studio dead end. The cutting room and control room acoustics are all designed to be dead behind the mixer but bright to his ear. This way there can be no spill from behind the engineer to confuse the mix. Because of the high intensity sound levels inevitably involved (around 110 dB), and the proximity of people like the Department of Agriculture, the soundproofing between studios and from the rest of the building is very extensive. Whereas the sawtooth ceiling works by carrying the sound forward, it does little or nothing to reduce transmission and this is achieved by some other designs by Tom Hidley. Chris Stone is not saying exactly how the soundproofing system works, because it took three years to sort out. But the walls are 960 mm thick with alternating layers of physically light material and air. All the studios have Hidley-designed double doors with airlocks and the floor insulation relies on 203 mm of floating concrete over a cavity and compressed foam. Since they opened four years ago they have rebuilt the main studio twice. One of the first records ever made in this studio was the Hendrix Electric Ladyland recording that rather ironically helped make Hendrix enough money to open his own studio. It was on this session that Eddie Kramer met Hendrix, which started the train of events that ended with Kramer at Electric Lady. The three control rooms all have 16 track machines, convertible to eight, 12 or 24 tracks by replacing a head stack. The console was built by Spectronics to Tom Hidley's specification. Record Plant are very proud of having been one of the first, if not the first, to use 16 track, around four or five years ago. While I was there, engineer Roy Cicala was preparing ready to record David Peel for John and Yoko Lennon and next week had the group Alice Cooper coming in. Studio B was set up for a 13-piece jazz group and groups were rehearsing in the penthouse that Record Plant rent for that purpose at the top of the building. The monitors rely on a two-way system with Lansing components and a patented wooden horn that will produce up to 120 dB spl. The monitors (five per control room) are driven by five Crown DC340s. Although all the studios look the same, they are different in size. Studio A, the largest, has a double vocal booth that can hold up to 30 vocalists at one time. The cutting room uses Neumann equipment and, like all the other rooms in the building, is kept to a closely controlled temperature. While I was there, they were mastering a record made by Syreeta Wright, artist engineered by Malcolm Cecil and Bob Margouleff. Cecil and Margouleff seem to spend all their nights and days in either Ladyland or Record Plant and presumably no longer have time to sleep. The Syreeta Wright backing again used Moog and drums. 'Malcolm went mad and actually used a real guitar as well,' said the cutting engineer with a grin, as he played me a track. Before I left Chris Stone told me that, at one time, Record Plant had thought about opening up in England with a London studio matched acoustically and electrically to their Los Angeles and New York studios. Eventually they dropped the idea as they felt that the problems were too substantial. He also outlined his philosophy on how to run a successful studio. He maintains that the key is there are three factors to consider. Firstly the right engineers, secondly the right equipment, and thirdly the right atmosphere. "If you have all three," Stone insisted, "you can't possibly lose." LOS Angeles is known for Hollywood, smog and freeways. To audio professionals, however, it is also known for the West Coast Convention of the Audio Engineering Society. Every spring, manufacturers, distributors, engineers and others meet to discuss, discover and dissect the newest in audio. Thus, during the first week of May this year, this well-managed conglomeration of professional exhibits and technical sessions again invaded the Los Angeles Hilton Hotel. An estimated fifteen hundred AES members and non-members attended to see the wares of 67 manufacturers and representatives and to listen to some of the 75 technical lectures presented on almost every aspect of the audio field. Through three large exhibit halls and almost a dozen demonstration rooms, millions of dollars worth of audio equipment was demonstrated. Not unexpectedly, there were more recorders and consoles exhibited than all other audio products. However, trends among the 21 recorder exhibits were very evident. In almost every line, price and size have been considerably reduced. 3M introduced the new Series 79 which includes the smallest and lightest 16 channel recorder. The series has provisions for adding noise reduction circuitry directly with the recorder. It features a de servo capstan system with fixed speeds of 19, 38 and 76 cm/s and variable speeds from 12 to 112 cm/s. The Series 79 can also be 'synced' with a video recorder and a large part of the 3M exhibit was devoted to a working model of this feature, the video being produced by an RCA video recorder and the sound from a 3M machine. Ampex, financial troubles notwithstanding, were not far behind. In fact, their MM-1000 recorder was synced with a video recorder at last year's West Coast Convention. But, though the MM-1000 was still evident, Ampex offered a new recorder, the MM-1100, which was almost the same size as the 3M line and also reduced in price compared to its predecessors. There were a great number of 16 and 24 channel recorders offered by other companies including Auto-Tec, MCI, Studer and others but they paled compared to a Stephens 40 channel recorder. That's right: 40 channels! This custom-built recorder used custom-made electronics with a 3M-type transport and 50 mm tape. At the other end of the scale, Nagra showed its stereo version of the standard Nagra portable and also exhibited the new Nagra SN recorder which is definitely the smallest professional recorder commercially available. This miniature marvel is less than 152 mm long, 100 mm wide and a little over 25 mm thick. Speeds are 9.5 and 4.75 cm/s and the frequency response at the top speed is 10-15 kHz within 2 dB. However, for film use, an 80 Hz filter is inserted and a 10 kHz filter can be switched in or out. This mini-recorder uses 3 mm tape (cassette size) wound on to special reels. It also phantom powers a tiny condenser mic which is also available. (The mic is less than 5 cm long itself.) Would you also believe that it also offered film sync, peak reading vu meter and automatic input compression? A newcomer to the convention was a large exhibit by the Tascam Corporation. Though this name may seem unfamiliar, the name Teac may not. This recorder manufacturer, normally associated with home high fidelity equipment, has entered the professional audio field with some very interesting products. Among their offerings was a four-channel 12.5 mm recorder for under $1700, which makes it the cheapest such recorder now available. They also showed a four channel recorder with built-in Dolby A for $6100. But, most interesting in Tascam's display, was the Tascam Model 10 console. In an eight in, four out configuration, with faders, remote transport control, remote overdub, quad panners for each output channel, built-in talk back mic and amp, 10 cm VU meters with light effect diodes (leds) at the end of the scale marking to show instantaneous peaks and many options, this console will sell for under $2000. Many other consoles were shown and among the numerous manufacturers were Zero-Impedance, MCI, Olive, Multi-track, Quad-8, Automated Processes, Neumann, MCA, Langevin, Stevenson, Neve, Spectra Sonics, Vega, Altec, Quantum and Gately. A new company from Northern California, Zero-Impedance, showed a board made for the rock group Santana. MCI had a console and 16 channel recorder running so that interested conventioneers could mix master tapes supplied by various studios. In the Gotham exhibit, distributor for Neumann in the US, a Neumann console was shown which had the ability to gang faders together with a simple plastic insert which fitted where the finger push normally would go. With this system one could gang two, three, four or any number of channels together. This console also had a unique lighting fixture which hung over the faders and, in these days of accent lighting, many console manufacturers may have forgotten that the engineer must see exactly what he is doing and this solution is both simple and economical. Quantum showed a few multi-channel boards including a package system of a quad console, four channel Ampex, two channel Revox amps, headphones and JBL 4310 monitor speakers all for $7900. Harvey Radio of Los Angeles showed the new Stevenson portable console. This console is an eight in, four out affair with switching and equalisation and four 10 cm vu meters. The surprising thing is that it measures only 66 by 83 cm and costs about $1900. Cerwin-Vega, primarily a speaker manufacturer, showed a console designed for rock group sound systems. Though less complex (and cheaper) than its bigger brothers, this console, and others shown like it, seem to indicate that musical groups are heading for better quality equipment. Many console manufacturers will readily admit that a large part of their business is public address systems, which were largely ignored only a few years ago. But, in every console shown at the convention, the human engineering aspects were very evident. Knowing that the human arm can only reach so far and the eye cover so much distance at a glance, many consoles were more compact than ever before. Only a few of the boards were over 3m and even these would have been built twice their length a few years ago. However, this size reduction has led to fitting a tremendous number of controls in a small space and unusual switch positions and knob shapes were evident to give the engineer the ability to 'feel' the correct position without having to look. Lighted push-button switches and light emitting diodes were evident on almost every console. Due, no doubt, to costs, continued 33 STANTON CARTRIDGES: the starting point of fine hi-fi Sound reproduction from a record can only be as good as the cartridge which tracks it: with the Stanton 681EE you ensure the best. The Stanton 681EE meets the most exacting requirements of the professional user and the discriminating enthusiast. The Stanton 681 Calibration Series has an amazingly low-mass moving magnetic system which weighs only 1/5 or 1/10 of ordinary pickups. Its frequency response from 10 to 20,000 Hz is virtually a straight line. Every 681 is guaranteed to meet the specifications within exacting limits and the most meaningful warranty possible – individual calibration test results – comes packed with each unit. Ask for a demonstration of the Stanton 681EE at your local dealer, or write for details and specifications, plus information about the Stanton 500 Broadcast Standard Series. Trade enquiries welcome. WILMEX LTD Stanton Division, 24/26 Ensign Street, London E1 Telephone: 01-949 2545 APOLLO ELECTRONICS We proudly present our complete range of eleven Plug-in Units for Professional Sound Mixing Consoles. A great deal of research has gone into the development of this range, to bring you equipment of the highest quality and flexibility at a very reasonable cost. MA80 Microphone Amplifier PE16 Presence Equaliser CL36 Compressor-Limiter MI12 12in/1 Output Mixer EPF4 Echo/Pan-pot/Foldback LA26 Line-out Amplifier PA10 Monitor Amplifier TB90 Talkback Amplifier MP62 Magnetic P-U Amplifier SG56 Test Oscillator PS24 Stabiliser Power Supply 96 MILL LANE, LONDON N.W.6 Telephone: 01-794 8326 BIAS ELECTRONICS BE 104 and BE 106 MIXERS ★ Frequency Response ±2dB 20Hz to 20KHz ★ Signal to Noise Unweighted better than -120dB ★ Switchable High or Low level balanced Inputs ★ Distortion less than 0.1% at +8dB 1KHz ★ 600Ω Balanced Output ★ Accurate VU meter Illustrated BE104 4 channel mixer £65·00 BIAS ELECTRONICS LTD Unit 8, Coombe Trading Estate 112-120 Coombe Lane London SW20 01-947 3121 Distributor to studios of Keith Monks Audio Microphone stands etc most manufacturers were still using patch panels as opposed to switching networks. However, it was interesting to note that the 'mini-plug' patch panels far outnumbered the conventional 6.25 mm style. Again, space undoubtedly dictated this choice. As consoles and recorders shrank, ancillary equipment grew. The number of noise reduction systems, filters, phasers, limiters, compressors, expanders, equalisers, wcos, electronic delays and other more exotic offerings was tremendous. Of the four companies offering noise reduction systems, Dolby, by sheer market coverage, is far in front of any competition. However, some competition is coming from DBX, Burwen and Audiotech, whose prices, in some cases, are far below those of a Dolby. Allison Research showed their Kepex (fast becoming a necessity in large studios), their Gain Brain, an rms and peak limiter in one module, and their new VCA-1 voltage controlled amplifier. Using the VCA-1, a single fader could control the level in an infinite number of channels since the control voltage is completely isolated from the signal and, for instance, using one pot and a hundred VCAs one could make a one hundred channel ganged fader. Two companies were showing phasing devices which produce phase shift in recordings and its distinctive 'swishing' sound. Perhaps the newest and most interesting of all these devices were what one might call 'rate changers'. This relatively new field encompasses electronic delay devices, frequency shifters and similar equipment. After the introduction of the Delta T-101 digital audio delay line (which can delay an audio signal from 5 to 320 ms through digital processing) no less than three other manufacturers have introduced similar devices. Eventide Clock Works of New York demonstrated both a phase shifter and a digital delay line. However, the digital delays are still somewhat expensive (Eventide's is $3,500). Another delay circuit, the Cooper Time Cube, shown by UREI, is one-third the cost of other digital delay systems due to a different approach. It employs sampling of the analogue audio waveform and an analogue technique called the 'bucket brigade' to provide two channels of delay (14 ms and 16 ms). Moog showed a frequency shifter which, like other devices, could shift the pitch of a note without affecting rhythm. Demonstrating the system, Robert A. Moog turned a drum track into a rather convincing castanette sound. The tape manufacturers were also showing their new products. Scotch, celebrating their twenty-fifth anniversary of tape production, showed their new 208-209 tape. This has the same characteristics as 202-203 but with heavier backing for heavy-duty uses. Agfa showed their line including their new SHD high output, high frequency response cassette. Maxell, a fast-rising Japanese tape manufacturer, showed their line of UD50-10 high-output, high energy mastering tapes in 6.25, 12.5, 25 and 50 mm formats. The author was also shown their new backing process. Unlike Scotch 206-207 and others which have a rough surface applied to the back of the tape for better tracking, the Maxell processed tape, not yet available, employed what was called 'subtractive backing'. In this process, the polyester base is made slightly thicker than necessary and, through chemical processes with special acids, the back is chemically altered leaving a consistently rough surface. This, of course, guarantees a uniform backing without any flaking or peeling. Though their initial production costs have been high, prices will soon be competitive enough to introduce this tape commercially. Microphone manufacturers were also out in force with Neumann, AKG, Beyer, Shure, Sennheiser, Electro-Voice, Sony and others represented. Electro-Voice showed their new cardioid dynamic mic, the DS-33, designed with the use of fare you ready? laser holography! According to E-V, this design allows 6 dB more gain before feedback in public address systems. E-V also showed a new 'cocoon' for stage miking. A mic is placed in one of the cocoons and kept only about 3 mm off the floor to pick up primary reflections of the performers. This idea was introduced by Shure some time ago and employed their spider-like mic suspension. But the E-V cocoon, Model III, also protects the mic from noise if bumped and keeps out dust and dirt. Thus, if you see large grey mice on the stage floor, do not put out traps! The speaker manufacturers were not hard to find; just head for the music resounding throughout the hotel. JBL showed their line of monitor speakers including the 4310, 4320 and new 4350 systems. The 4350 are very large five-speaker four-way systems and produce a very brilliant sound characteristic of other JBL speakers but with a fuller bass from the two 38 cm woofers. Altec introduced its new line of 'Voice-of-the-Theatre' systems, 1202B, 1204B and 1208A. Unfortunately these systems are boxed and grille-clothed like most others and lack the natural appeal of the old 'Voice-of-the-Theatre' systems where one could see all the components and the baffle design. But the exhibit hardest to ignore was the Cerwin-Vega demonstration room. When they turned on their system the whole hotel knew it! Their speaker systems contained four 60 cm woofers with sectoral horns. The level in the room must have been something over 120 dB and many members complained of this excessive level though the rock musicians must have been in seventh heaven. One would think, with the overload lights of their power amplifiers almost continually lit and with speakers at such ear-shattering levels, that Cerwin-Vega must recycle their barefoot salesmen every six months or so. Electro-Voice showed their updated version of the Sentry II system, called, logically enough, the Sentry III. One sad note at the convention was the Crown exhibit where a recorder, burned almost beyond recognition in their devastating fire last November, was displayed. One salesman explained that it was a matter after that of deciding whether they should quit or come back even more competitively. It is good news then that they chose the latter and, even after such a short time, showed many new and interesting products. Among them was a new amplifier, the D-60, which is almost the same as the D-40 except that the distortion is lower and the output transistors are automatically continued 35 MODULAR STUDIO MIXER A new studio performance modular mixer desk introduced by Electrosonic and competitively priced to meet all the normal recording and mixing requirements of the smaller studio. The desk is of extremely compact design and the special requirements of individual users are met by custom-building to incorporate any combination of input and output modules with patching, control and talkback facilities. Please ask us for more details or send us your specification to quote against: our response might be interesting! ELECTROSONIC Electrosonic Limited Electronic Control & Audio Systems 47 Old Woolwich Road London SE10 Phone: 01-858 4784/5/6 Cables: Multiplex London SE10 A SIX WAY MINIATURE STEREO MIXER OFFERING ON EACH CHANNEL Continuously variable input sensitivity Treble, mid and bass equalisation Foldback Monitor output Echo send Stereo panning Slider fader TWIN OUTPUTS, EACH WITH Echo return equalisation Vu metering Slider fader MIXERS CAN BE LINKED TO INCREASE AVAILABLE CHANNELS available ex-stock at £100.00 ALLEN & HEATH LTD PEMBROKE HOUSE CAMPSBOURNE RCAD HORNSEY LONDON N 8 tel:01-340 3291 protected and use no fuses. Another device shown was called the Variable Speech Control which, using a tape recorder, can speed up the rate of speech (or other programme material) without affecting its frequency or tone. This is accomplished by a sampling technique where the sampling rate is inversely proportional to the tape speed. Control can be produced from half to three times normal speed. Those poor engineers with commercials which are too long or too short are sure to grab this piece! Crown also showed an IM Distortion analyser along with most of their line of recorders. They expect their new factory to be completely operational in a few months. However, the real heart of a convention is not the exhibits but the technical sessions where new ideas and new approaches are presented. These sessions occur at the same time as the exhibits and you must be very time-conscious not to miss the lectures you want to hear. The technical sessions were split under 12 headings: tape recording, instrumentation, disc recording, electronic music, sound reinforcement, quadraphonics, radio and tv audio, acoustics, digital audio, signal processing, transducers and a recording workshop. The disc recording session had two papers presented on quadraphonic disc recording. One was on matrix approaches to quad and the other was on the JVC discrete quad disc. These were followed by Jack Rabinow of Rabco with a very humorous, rambling discussion on the merits of straight-line arms for turntables. In the electronic music section, Robert Moog showed the theory behind his new high-accuracy frequency shifter capable of reducing or augmenting existing programme material by as much as 5 kHz with a 70 dB dynamic range. One of the most interesting lectures in the sound reinforcement session was on a system for reproducing train sounds in a model railroad system. Herb Chaudiere of Robin M. Towne Associates used a working model to demonstrate the system. A small amplifier and speaker are carried inside the tender, behind the engine. Audio signals are fed through the tracks, which also power the locomotive. White noise is used for steam noises and the rhythm of the engine is kept in time with the speed of the train by putting a multi-contact switch on one of the wheels of the locomotive to turn the audio on and off. The steam whistle included in the system is also designed with the characteristic change in pitch as the volume increases. In the same session, Allen Eberis of DuKane presented a paper on audio delay lines using the 'bucket brigade' system of delaying analog signals. In the following two sessions, the normally staid and conservative presentation of papers was rocked by controversy. The first session was devoted exclusively to quadraphonics. The first lecture, by Benjamin B. Bauer of CBS Labs, was on the theory and uses of the CBS SQ matrix system. The purpose of the lecture was to show compatibility with mono and stereo reproduction. Next, Howard Durbin of Electro-Voice, showing the algebraic matrices for many of the matrix quad systems, showed that, although many of the systems are similar, one cannot adequately decode a signal produced for another. In some cases, the effects were abnormal and even resulted in lost channels. After this, J. Robert Ashley of the University of Colorado, a prolific writer and speaker at AES gatherings, presented a paper 'Is Four Channel a Fraud?'. He concluded that, from subjective analysis, many concert halls could be approximated by merely delaying the sound to the back two channels. And in some cases, such as a back seat in a concert hall, one could dispense with the back channels altogether. Donald L. Patten of Shure Bros. then presented a most revealing paper with a method of representing quad signals on a scope. The system he described and demonstrated would show level, acoustic position and even out-of-phase signals. Discrete quad produced a pattern of equal intensities in each channel (when the music was so) but all four channels showing the same general format. However, when a matrix system was placed on the scope, a large blank area appeared between the back two channels indicating an out-of-phase condition between the back two speakers. Next day, during the Broadcasting session, James Gabbert and Louis Dorren gave a lecture on the Dorren Quadraphonic Broadcast System. This is the only broadcast system which has passed the experimental stage in which four discrete signals can be transmitted. It follows the logical algebraic example of normal stereo broadcasting but takes into account the four signal in quad. Mr Gabbert, during his introduction of Mr Dorren, stated that all these matrix systems were "a big ripoff" for the consumers who were taken in by the false and misleading advertising of the matrix proponents. Lou Dorren, also speaking of matrix systems, quoted B. B. Bauer as saying that out-of-phase signals produced confused localizations of a sound source and unusual pressures on the ear. Thus, concluded Dorren, all matrix systems are not only bad approximations of true quad but can be uncomfortable since they all use out-of-phase signals in the back two channels. This point, you may recall, had been shown in the quad oscilloscope display the day before. The Dorren system, however, does not use any out-of-phase signals since it is not a matrix system at all. Mr Dorren went on to explain the channel bandwidth used for this system which is greater than that now used for stereo. Mr Gabbert said that FCC (Federal Communications Commission) approval of such a system was necessary and that they had applied for permission some time ago. Having received no reply, they considered that this silence from the FCC was tacit approval by the Federal Communications Commission and would begin broadcasting with the Dorren System on May 10. One lecture later, B. B. Bauer, who had been quoted in the Gabbert-Dorren lecture, arose to give a paper on the CBS SQ disc for broadcasting. He began, however, castigating Gabbert and Dorren for their lecture. He said that such a paper should be presented at a trade fair—not the AES Convention—since they were obviously trying to "sell" their system and deriding other matrix systems in the process. Perhaps Mr. Bauer forgot that he was here to sell the CBS SQ system. Nevertheless, he presented his paper on the SQ system and mentioned, in passing, continued over THE PROFESSIONAL CAPABILITY FACTOR In an area where versatility and performance often tend to be nothing more than a set of written specifications, one tape recorder stands apart from all the rest, Revox. Revox is built to such exacting standards that Julian Hirsch writing in Stereo Review was moved to comment, "We have never seen a recorder that could match the performance of the Revox A77 in all respects, and very few that even come close." But performance is only part of the story. When you've produced a truly professional quality machine you should be prepared to go all the way and provide complete professional capability. That's why Revox is the only machine in its price class (or anywhere near it) that's built to handle NARTB professional 10½" tape reels. A 10½" reel offers twice the recording time of the standard 7" reel found on most tape recorders. And while much has been made of slower playing speeds and double-play tapes, the fact remains that frequency response, signal-to-noise ratio, dynamic range and a number of other important recording characteristics are adversely affected by slower speeds and thinner tapes. Certainly smaller reels, slower speeds and thinner tapes have their place in home tape recording and Revox provides for them, but they have nothing to do with professional performance standards. If you want fully professional performance and capability and you're not prepared to settle for anything less, the answer is Revox. REVOX DELIVERS WHAT THE REST ONLY PROMISE Revox Lamb House, Church Street, London W4 2PB Telephone 01-995 4551 Revox Corporation 155 Michael Drive, Syosset, N.Y. 11791, USA and 3637 Cahuenga Blvd, West Hollywood, California 90068, USA Revox Sales and Service Montreal PQ, Canada humorous lectures was given in the next session on electronic circuitry and signal processing. Derek Tilsey, of Neve, presented a myriad of slides on the evolution and adaptability of console design and manufacture. Virtually every imaginable console was shown from a two in, one out job up to 54 channels in and 24 out! (Not long, one would guess, until they have one built for the Stephenson 40-track recorder.) He ended with a humorous discussion on ash trays. The most popular, he assured his audience, was the long thin one with the knob that went up and down. However, he concluded, one with a centre knob was becoming much more popular, at which time he showed a slide of a quad panner labelled 'ash tray' with the standard lettering L, R, B, F, which, he stated, stood for Lucky Strikes, Raleighs, Benson & Hedges etc etc. Mr Tilsey's lecture was preceded by a lecture on the new miniature EMT reverberation plate which measures only 1m by 2m. The session ended with a lecture on the new Dolby 35/ unit for movie theatres. Thus Dolbyised sound tracks could now be produced. The unit had the ability to switch from a Dolby film to the Academy Curve, which is the standard pre-emphasis for films, and to cut out the unit altogether for flat response. The 35/ can be recognized by its distinctive cover plate band. In the next session, on transducers, Paul Klipsch, a pillar of the AES and audio in general, presented two papers, on time delay distortion and modulation distortion in loudspeakers, in the space of 20 minutes! To be sure we could all see his slides well, he began with a doctor's eyechart—except his contained a single word, written successively, which described, in his words, the content of the previous papers in no uncertain terms. The final session was the recording workshop which was a continuation of last year's workshop. This year they took a master tape, added a track and produced a mix. However, due to the fact that this was open to the public at no charge, the presentation was not aimed at the professional but at the public. Some interesting capabilities were shown, however, with some of the equipment available. For instance, they assumed that a bass track had been accidentally erased from the drum tracks. They simply took a Kepex and fed it with the bass guitar as the control signal. By also feeding a 30 Hz note in, one could 'key' the 30 Hz note with the bass guitar rhythm—that is to say, every time the bass guitarist played a note, a 30 Hz note would be produced in unison. This did indeed sound like a bass drum. Preprints of many (but not all) lectures were available by mail for those who could not attend the convention. However, the cost is prohibitive unless one is a member. And, speaking of membership, the AES is an international organisation with sections in almost every country of the world, including a large section in Great Britain. The international headquarters are 60 East 42nd Street, New York, New York 10017, in the United States. For those seriously interested in audio, whether one be manufacturer, musician, teacher, technician or student, membership of the only professional organisation devoted exclusively to audio should be seriously considered. Mr Moseley was scheduled to present a paper to the convention entitled 'A Scientifically Comparative Study of Different Quadraphonic Matrices'. Under pressure, reported to have come at least partly from Mr Bauer, it was withdrawn and the preprints destroyed. However, one or two copies survived and the paper shows Bauer's SQ system to be the most wanting of the systems tested. Ed. Designing a Transportable Mixer By Julian Vereker (Magnevic Tapes Ltd) When this project was first started, over two years ago, there were very few mixers suitable for use in small studios and mobile recording units. We felt there was an important gap in the market and the M10/2 was conceived to complement the Chilton 100/S and other tape recorders of similar quality. A mixer handles lower signals and provides greater amplification than other parts of the system in which it is used. Unless it performs better than the rest of the chain, it will add appreciably to noise and distortion. This seems an obvious point but it can easily be overlooked. Our object has been to achieve a very high standard of performance without compromising versatility. The equivalent input noise needed to be better than -120 dBm with the 600 ohm balanced microphone input and the overall distortion should not exceed 0.1 per cent, mainly second harmonic, at -10 dBm output. The mixer needed to cope with a wide dynamic range and about 40 dB overload margin seemed to be a good design aim. We wanted to concentrate on basic signal mixing facilities, which is after all what a mixer is for. But different people have different ideas of what their mixer should be. They may want anything from a simple four inputs single group (4:1) to a device with 32 or more channels in and out (32/32). The mixer had to be designed to allow extra units to be added in accordance with individual requirements. We started by considering the simplest form of ten channel mixer, ten input channels with equalisation, a mixing amplifier and one or two output groups, then looked to see how it could be made more versatile. The following arrangement seemed best; four of the ten input channels are grouped as two stereo pairs to accept any stereo signal and the other six are mono channels with pan pots to place their output on to the two output groups. Each of the ten channels has bass and treble equalisation, channel gain and a linear fader to control its output on to the mixer bus. Breakjacks are fitted into the two output groups as well as each input channel to allow further signal processing outside the mixer. I think most would agree that good monitoring facilities make it so much easier to check the signal being recorded that the cost of their inclusion is justified. The mixer has two ppms, two monitor outputs to drive power amplifiers, and two headphone amplifiers, with inputs which may be switched pre or post fade on the output groups. A line-up oscillator is invaluable for setting up recorders, mixer and other associated equipment; we considered five spot frequencies and amplitude control to within 0.5 dB a minimum requirement. The design chosen is a Wien Bridge with an fet first stage. This enables the frequency switching to be accomplished by changing only the resistors in the feedback path. This is because the fet has a high input impedance and, even with low value frequency determining resistors, the loading is not sufficient to prevent the circuit from oscillating. There is one other advantage: the frequency selector switch could be replaced by a 500 kΩ potentiometer and then the audio band 30 Hz to 18 kHz could be used for checking frequency response. The mixer has to be capable of driving a wide variety of recorders without elaborate alignment procedure, so the outputs to the recorder are varied by controls on the front panel, eliminating the need to realign the ppms for different output levels. A group selector switch incorporating a mono/stereo facility is also provided to cater for recorders which do not have input mixing or channel selection. Often in recording sessions the recorder is away from the mixer and the mixer is isolated from the sound source, so a remote tape pause facility for the recorder and two cue light contacts were also considered necessary additions. These are provided on a set of illuminated pushbutton switches. The packaging of the electronics and the styling of the unit was given much detailed thought. The Chilton M10/2 employs a plug-in circuit board system within a non-modular package to reduce costs without sacrificing versatility. This system enables the user to substitute a wide range of input amplifiers without the expense of changing a complete channel—as he has to do in a modular system—or of providing for everything in the module with a consequent increase in complexity and cost. For example, one could insert balanced or unbalanced microphone or line amplifiers with a choice of gains, RIAA equalised low level for magnetic cartridges or at high level for ceramic pickups. The need to cater for specialised requirements seemed to be best served by a 'general purpose' circuit board on to which a variety of amplifiers could be assembled, and for which the user could specify the input parameters. All the resulting boards are pin compatible. We found that some of the circuits had to be designed from scratch if we were to meet our own standards of performance and interchangeability and it was inevitable that there would be detail refinements of the 100/S recorder. The most important amplifier in a mixer is the microphone input. It has to handle very small signals from the microphone without adding much noise and, at the other end of the scale, a singer bellowing into a capacitor... This Philips 'electronic' record deck surpasses the DIN 45 500 Hi-Fi Standard The Philips GA202 Record Deck not only betters the internationally respected DIN Standard for high-quality audio, but sets completely new high standards for record reproduction. Its three speeds (33$\frac{1}{3}$, 45, 78 rpm) can be adjusted precisely, using the stroboscopic disc and fine-speed controls provided, and are accurately maintained by a tacho generator that keeps wow and flutter to less than 0.13%. Switching on and off is done silently through a bi-stable multi-vibrator. And photo-electronic switch-off at the end of a record is silent and vibration-free, exerting no side-thrust on the stylus. Floating suspension of the turntable and pick-up arm gives excellent insulation against shocks and vibration, resulting in very low rumble and very accurate cueing. The tracking error of the virtually frictionless low-resonance pick-up arm is negligible. And side-thrust may be compensated at all playing weights for both conical and elliptical styli. The Philips slide-in carrier accepts virtually any pick-up cartridge with fixing centres to the international standard. A Philips GP400 Super M magneto-dynamic cartridge is supplied. Your Philips Audio Specialist will be pleased to demonstrate this superb record deck. For a free 36-page Audio Guide, write to Philips Electrical Limited, Dept. SP, Century House, Shaftesbury Avenue, London WC2H 8AS. We want you to have the best. microphone must not overload the circuit and cause distortion. Our design shows great similarity to the basic circuit published in the BBC Engineering Monograph No 46, in that both series and shunt negative feedback loops are derived from a chain of four resistors in the emitter of the second transistor but it differs in several ways. First, there is a bootstrap capacitor connected to the first transistor's split collector resistor. From the ac point of view this has the effect of raising the resistor's value and thus increasing the open loop gain. This overcomes the disadvantage of actually having a high value of resistor which would need a large voltage across it in order to obtain the optimum collector current for low noise operation. Other changes are mainly concerned with the use of extremely low noise silicon transistors, which are not of the BC 109 family. The optimum source impedance for silicon transistors is considerably higher than that of their germanium counterparts; for example, the CET 107 in the BBC design showed its minimum noise figure with a source of approximately 800Ω. Compare this with the transistors used, which show a minimum noise figure with a source of about 10 kΩ. This must in essence be a generalisation as the optimum source impedance changes considerably with different collector currents. Since microphones have not changed their impedance to suit, the turns ratio of the input transformer has been increased to keep the collector current low and reduce the rf noise contributed by the first transistor. This of course requires the resistor values in the feedback loops to be altered to redefine the input impedance as otherwise this would be too low, a point which has been overlooked by one of this magazine's contributors. This amplifier has low distortion in the open loop condition due in part to the choice of collector currents, and since there is a high degree of feedback the thd is reduced to about one tenth of the distortion in the original BBC design at the same operating point, i.e. 2 dB below clipping. It is interesting to note that many of the published designs for balanced input microphone amplifiers used in studio mixing desks bear a similar relationship and thus owe a similar debt to the BBC original. After very little thought it seemed that there was no reason why the balanced line input amplifier should not have the same basic circuit arrangement with a lower active gain and a 10 kΩ input impedance. To achieve this the same transformer as is used in the microphone amplifier is turned 'back to front' with suitable changes in the resistor values. This measure means there is no need to stock different printed circuit boards or transformers, with obvious financial advantages. Unfortunately, the same does not apply to the balanced line output amplifier. After making many sketches we made a full size model of the mixer and mounted control knobs on to it. At this early stage it became apparent that it would be a problem to find a series of aesthetically and ergonomically acceptable knobs at a reasonable price. Neither were we satisfied with the knobs supplied with the linear faders, as we felt that they should be dished, not domed, and that they should be marked with a reference line. Our solution was to have a complete set of knobs made. The next stage was to evolve a simple aluminium chassis on to which the main sub-assemblies could be mounted. The assembly of the mixer is greatly simplified by manufacturing each sub-assembly as a completely wired unit: the interconnections would only need to be pushed into the appropriate edge connector. The rear panel of the mixer carries the input, breakjack and output fields. Because of the wide variety of sockets in use this panel can be detached to allow for a choice of connectors. At this stage it should be mentioned that it is very important to have a complete set of drawings and accurate jigs of both metal and wood components; even the wood panels need to be made to close tolerances of the order of 25 mm so that there is no 'fiddling' during assembly to waste time and add to the cost. An integral power supply has many disadvantages. The problem of hum can be overcome but only if a costly toroidal transformer is used and the size of the mixer increased. In any case many users have their own power supply. Bearing in mind considerations of cost, size and performance we believe the best solution to be either an external power supply or a regulator to enable the use of any suitable power supply. But we cannot stress too strongly the necessity of ensuring that the total supply noise and ripple is kept low; a total of about 100 µV at full load is in our opinion the most that can be allowed. The mixer signal path is straightforward; the input signals are received via sockets on the back panel and go straight to the input amplifiers; these are mounted in the upper compartment of the rear panel assembly. The top of this panel forms a removable 'lid' allowing access in order to change the amplifier type. The amplified signal is then routed to the channel gain control, which is situated on the front panel, and then back to the breakjack field at the back of the mixer. The signal can thus go out and be processed further to add reverberation, compression and so on. The signal is then returned to the mixer along the second signal core in the screened cable. On its return the signal passes through the mixer's own equalisation before it goes to the linear faders. In the case of the two stereo channels, the output of the faders is fed through mixing resistors directly on to the appropriate mixing bus. On the mono channels the fader output is taken to a pan pot which then feeds the mixing buses. The output of the buses is taken to the virtual earth mixing amplifiers. The outputs of these go to group breakjacks mounted on the rear panel where the circuit can be broken again and the signal processed further. The advantages of a virtual earth mixing amplifier, as has been mentioned in this magazine on many occasions (Hayward, Robinson, Levesley), is that it ensures the proper mixing of all the signals without any appreciable interaction. The output facilities on the mixer are quite comprehensive. The group select switch is preceded by the oscillator select switch and followed by the linear faders for each output group and the monitor output control. The faders are followed by the group gain controls, which feed into the output amplifiers, by the headphone pre/post fade switch and by the ppm amplifiers. When the prototype mixer emerged, we put it to work in a small studio to record demonstration tapes, and gained much practical experience in this way. We made some alterations to reduce the possibility of rf pickup. The limitations of a simple mixer are the lack of elaborate signal processing and control facilities. However, this need not be a disadvantage in that external 'add on' units such as compressors, equalisers and so on can be plugged in to increase the number of functions that the mixer will perform without having to allow for all the possibilities at the outset. MMII from Pye TVT this exciting new modular mixing system brings your sound to you the way you want it MMII represents the very latest concept in modular audio mixing equipment. Smooth, positive operation, coupled with unsurpassed reliability through the use of rugged mechanical components and all-solid-state electronics mean that MMII is built precisely to your requirements; to do just what you want, with ease and versatility. With almost limitless combinations of modules, MMII offers the broadest range of facilities: for outside broadcasting, radio and TV studios and large theatres, to sophisticated studios for the film and recording industries. Talk to Pye TVT about MMII; there's so much more to tell. Phone, telex or use the coupon. Today. Pye TVT Ltd., Coldhams Lane, Cambridge CB1 3JU Tel: Cambridge (0223) 45115 Telex 81103 To: Howell Jones Pye TVT Limited, Coldhams Lane, Cambridge CB1 3JU. Please tell me all about Philips' MMII modular audio mixing consoles. NAME _______________________________________________________ COMPANY ____________________________________________________ ADDRESS _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ ALICE Stancoil Ltd, 15 Sheet Street, Windsor. Tel: 95 61308 SM range Mixers in semi-modular form with switched input attenuators. Top, mid and bass on each channel. Echo send and pan. Penny & Giles faders. Vu or ppm metering. XLR connectors. Six to 24 input channels. Two to eight output groups. Price: from £502 (six in two out). Trackplan Fully modular mixing system designed for eight or 16 track recording in small studio environments. Full facilities include matrix switching and built-in power amplifiers. Available with integral eight track tape machine. Prices on application to Freehurs' Ltd, 87 Wardour Street, London W1. Modules: BD 6 peak limiter in standard Alice module. Price: £78. BD 7 variable ratio compressor and noise gate. Price £125. CNS Crosstalk and noise suppression module. Price: £93. BD15 Equaliser module. Price: £68. BD 24 power supply module, physically similar to CNS. Mains powered. Price £29. BD 25 As BD 24 but 24 — 0 — 24 volt for integrated circuit applications. Price: £37. ALLEN & HEATH Allen & Heath Ltd, Pembroke House, Campbourne Road, Hornsey, London N8. Tel: 340 3291 A range of consoles and system blocks for all audio mixing applications. Stereo Sub-Miniature 6-Channel Mixer Each channel: gain, treble, mid, bass, echo, foldback and pan. Two outputs with individual line or echo inputs with gain, bass and treble. Overall size 220 x 290 x 2.50 mm. Price: £120. Film/Broadcast/Mono Input AS/1: presence, pre and post-fade listen, —20 dB pad, bass cut, linear fader, 200 ohm input. Output AS/2: monitor, main fader, peak level meter. Complete mixers from £74. Adjacent: Compact 6/2 mixer by Allen & Heath Below: Allotrope desk built for J. P. Jones. Standard Studio Range Input A/1: gain, treble, mid, bass, echo, foldback and pan. Output A/2: main gain, line/echo level with bass and treble. Equaliser A/3: gain, variable hi-pass and lo-pass, variable frequency mid-lift with bandwidth. Limiter A/4/A: in and out gain, attack, release, gain reduction meter. Amplifier A/5: stereophonic 1W headphone, monitor amplifier. A full range of complementary modules for multitrack switching, monitoring, talkback, echo, foldback, metering and quadraphonic circuitry. Complete mixers from £268.00. Reverberation Unit: Twin spring delay system with metering, equalisation and mix facilities, rack mounting. Price from £36.00. ALLOTROPE Allotrope Ltd, 3B Thame Industrial Estate, Thame, Oxfordshire. Tel: 01-437 1892 (sales) Custom built sound mixing desks. Typical installation, supplied to J. P. Jones (Led Zeppelin), comprises wide range input sensitivity (an electric musical instrument may be plugged directly into a channel), comprehensive frequency correction, and four-speaker monitoring, selected and mixed on the channels. The desk has been made as compact as possible for one-man operation and quickly dismantles into three sections for transportation. There are 16 inputs (although wired for 24) and 16 outputs (eight groups), four echo and two foldback send circuits. The echo circuits may be fed back to the monitor mix. Other facilities include in and post fade listen, phase reversal, and switchable insertion of limiters, compressors and other devices. There are two jackfields, the one visible in the photograph providing access for synthsizers and electronic musical instruments. continued 43 MAYFAIR SOUND STUDIOS' recently commissioned control desk is a perfect example of imaginative, well conceived self-assembly. Engineers Hudson and Maynerd, provided with our chassis frame, were able to select from the Rosser range of modules a permutation tailored to their precise and highly individual requirements. The result of their labours is the extremely attractive and completely functional console shown left. Though the mixer includes many advanced and unique features such as light meters and fully comprehensive monitoring and sub-mixing facilities, it was possible, by self assembly, to cut the cost to a fraction of that normally expended on an off-the-shelf model. We've kept pretty quiet about it up to now but for the last five years we've also kept pretty busy—making mixers and other electronic equipment. Disc, T.V., Radio and Electronic Music studios, Theatres, Factories and Universities, we've experienced the most varied specifications and met them. For instance when E.A.T.O. moved its H.Q. from Paris, it could not take its broadcast studios with it. So a new complex was designed for Brussels, nine studios in all. Understandably the competition for supply of sound mixing and line distribution equipment was fierce. So we feel that our pride in having our equipment selected for use throughout the complex in the teeth of opposition from companies, large and small, from the whole of the Western world is justified. To have met these stringent standards of quality and reliability is itself a form of guarantee that seems to satisfy our clients. Also we try to keep them satisfied which is why you may have come across complete T.V. stations which have adopted Rosser equipment as standard. To us a customer who repeats orders is a satisfied customer. Should you have a requirement in view, why not contact us? We could visit you promptly with a portable demonstration mixer for exploratory discussions or you might prefer a day or two on the coast, away from it all, visiting us. Just drop a line or ring us at 0792-53461 FUTURESOUNDS at ROCKFIELD required a 24 Channel, 16 Track quadrophonic control desk but were too busy recording to spare time for self-assembly. Shown right is an artist's impression of the answer they came up with. Maintaining close liaison with Douglas Rosser himself throughout the design of the console they arrived at this mixer, currently under construction, which is completely custom designed and built to meet their very sophisticated needs with limiters, equalisers, instant digital "Tone selected" read out and what may be the most complex though simple to operate monitoring system yet devised. Since Kingsley Ward is already recording on Rosser equipment in his present 8 Track studio, he was able to order with complete confidence in its performance and total reliability. What's more the price came as a very pleasant surprise. ROSSER ELECTRONICS LTD. ELECTRO-ACOUSTIC LABORATORIES, B.B.C. BUILDING, ALEXANDRA ROAD, SWANSEA MIXERS continued APOLLO Apollo Electronics, 96 Mill Lane, West Hampstead, London NW6. Tel: 794 8326 Range of plug-in units housed in rigid moulded castings. Panel dimensions of the units are 190 x 45 mm matching the width of Penny & Giles 1520 faders. Supply voltage (except for the PA10) is 24V dc, preferably stabilised; the ripple may not exceed 1mV rms. Prices on application. Modules: MA 80 microphone amplifier, PE16 presence equaliser, CL36 compressor-limiter, EX60 programme expander, LA26 mixer-line output amplifier, PA10 plug-in monitor amplifier, EPF4 foldback echo send pan pot, TB90 talk-back amplifier, SG56 signal generator, MP62 magnetic phono amplifier, M112 12 input mixer, PS24 power supply. AUDIO DEVELOPMENTS Audio Developments, Hall Lane, Walsall Wood, Staffs. Tel: 054 33 5351 AD-71 series of modular mixers with pc interconnectors, standard vu, ppm or coaxial ppm. Typical price: £3,000 for complete 12/4 desk. AUDIX Audix BB Ltd, Stansted, Essex. Tel: 027-971 3132/3437 MXT-800 Compact modular mixer intended for use in radio stations, theatres and small television and recording studios. Up to 16 input channels can be provided with two or four output groups and a wide selection of ancillary modules such as talkback, monitoring, limiting and echo channels. Rotary or linear faders are available. Modules include microphone channels having facilities for two inputs at two or four group workings, group module incorporating vu metering, group module incorporating ppm monitor module, content monitor, talkback module, limiter, pan module, line equaliser, line-up oscillator, echo channel, line channel, power supply module. MXT-200 Can be supplied either mono or stereo working. Provides studio mixing facilities together with tone corrections both on the input channels and the master units. A plug-in modular system allows the requirements, additions and variations of each client to be satisfied exactly. Controls have been designed so that true stereo working can be achieved on all modules, inclusive of the master combiner. It is no longer necessary to compromise by using two mono channels to achieve stereo working. The mixer is available either as a rack mounting unit or free standing. MXT-200 Combiner Can be supplied either as a mono or stereo unit and incorporates vu metering or ppm as well as overall treble and bass tone controls. Where more than one output is required, additional mono combiners can be used in conjunction with an output routing module, thus enabling any input to be routed to any output. A tape record output socket independent of the master fader is fitted to the rear of this module. MXT-6 Intended for commercial application where a selection of inputs are frequently required to be fed into one power amplifier. A large selection of input modules can be supplied either as a self powered unit or used in conjunction with power amplifiers. Flexibility is maintained by enabling the client to choose any number and type of input module up to a total of 14 units. BIAS Bias Electronics Ltd, 162 Randall Avenue, London NW2. Tel: 452 6825 BE206 and BE208 Six and eight channel mixers designed to meet the requirements of small recording studios. Facilities include slider faders, prelude listen, twin independent line amplifiers, AB switching, ppm or vu metering and group bass and treble equalisation. Talkback and monitoring amplifiers can also be included. Prices from £250.00. continued 45 Top: Audix MXT-800. Centre: Audix MXT-6. Bottom: Cryslon audio system. Audio Engineering for Professionals Four years ago, only a handful of people had heard of the Millbank Electronics Group. Today, our equipment is operating in 25 countries and is specified by most major professional users of audio and communications equipment in the United Kingdom. Why? We think the simple answer is that we give our customers exactly what they want. And we're just as anxious to satisfy the small firm round the corner as we are to help the big company. When Millbank Electronics was formed, but before it started to make anything, we took the trouble to talk to professional sound and recording engineers, and DJ's and listen to their problems. They told us exactly what they wanted; we went away and made it. And that's precisely what we've been doing ever since. Everything we make is carefully engineered to give a specific performance—and meet a definite need. Take, for example, our new Disco III professional sound mixer. It is based on our very successful Disco II model, but incorporates several major new refinements. For instance, it offers stereo reproduction, as well as mono, and has full audio visual monitoring, pre-fade and post-fade, of all inputs and outputs, except microphone. That's something many sound engineers and DJ's have wanted for years. These are some of Disco III's other important new features: ★Switched audio limiters ★Twin peak reading VU meters ★Brand new styling—satin chrome fascia with matt black knobs and fittings ★Automatic or manual music/microphone fade to any selected level ★Compact, rugged printed circuit construction ★Low distortion, high signal-to-noise ratio, wide frequency range and full bass and treble tone correction ★Fully floating outputs, free of earth, to avoid hum loops ★Front panel microphone input mutes rear connected socket ★"Jingle" tape input on front panel mutes rear connected socket. ★DIN standard construction and terminations ★Twin AC switched outlets for turntables, amplifiers, etc. ★Stabilised power supply. Disco III has been designed and manufactured specifically for professional sound engineers—the people we're in business to help. For full technical specification of this new development in sound mixers, please telephone or write to our General Sales Manager, Bernard Skinner. Millbank Electronics Group, Bellbrook Estate, Uckfield, Sussex. Tel: Uckfield 4166 (0825-4166) MIXERS BE104 and BE106 Four and six channel mixers with compact format. Equipped with vu meter, balanced input transformers on all channels, and 600 ohm floating output. Can be rack mounted or free standing. All inputs switchable to microphone or line levels. Prices: £65 and £85 respectively. CADAC Cadac (London) Ltd., Stansted, Essex. Tel: Stansted 3457 and 3132. Complete consoles and studio monitors. Typical system: 24 input, 17 output, with four echo send, eight echo return, 17 monitor/metering channels, four monitor groups, four main foldbacks. CALREC Calder Recordings Ltd., Regent Street, Hebden Bridge, Yorkshire. Tel: 042 284 2159 Modular desks for recording and broadcasting applications. Typical system supplied to BBC: Mic input unit containing eight fully equalised microphone channels, two stereo group routing Master group unit. Four stereo subgroups, each with stereo echo facilities, one stereo group master, one stereo group master and two stereo echo returns, both fully equalised. Small group unit (as for Master but with two stereo subgroups, one stereo group master, one main master and one stereo echo return). Monitoring output unit: this contains Tx and ppl stereo ppms, talkback and all other ancillary functions. A normal operational unit will consist of one or more microphone input units; either a master or small group unit, and the monitor unit, though the system allows for a microphone unit to feed directly to the monitor unit when grouping facilities are not required. In this condition a stereo rotary fader comes into use as a master. CHADACRE Chadacre Electronics Ltd, 43 Chadacre Avenue, Clayhall, Ilford, Essex. Tel: 550 7119 Printed circuit boards, kit or ready built. Mixer modules and consoles. CRYSLON Cryslon Electronics Ltd, The Firs, Rother Street, Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire. Tel: 0789 4797 Range of audio equipment including modules and complete sound mixers. Mixers are manufactured as standard units and to custom requirements. The company also undertake systems for both studio and theatre. A full range of facilities are offered including group switching, pfi, foldback, echo and push-button monitor circuits. Modules available include microphone amplifiers, equalisation units, fader modules incorporating in Preh or Penny & Giles units, star mixers, line amplifiers, and distribution amplifiers. Above: Studio console by Cadac. Below: Electrosonic modular mixer. MP12 Small battery-powered mixer with one gram and four microphone inputs. Linear motion input faders. Price: £26 40. FF1 Small battery-powered mixer with four microphone inputs and master output fader. Price: £20. CTH CTH Electronics, Industrial Estate, Somersham Road, St Ives, Huntingdonshire. Tel: 04806 4388 TM50 series of mixers, upwards from a simple 5/1 unit including pfi and ppm. EAGLE Eagle International, Precision Centre, Heather Park Drive, Wembley HA0 1SU. Tel: 903 0144 ELECTROSONIC Electrosonic Limited, 47 Old Woolwich Road, London SE10 9PW. Tel: 01-858 4784/5/6 ES 1200 Series Designed to operate with ES 1250 power amplifiers, the Series ES 1200 is available either in rack-mounting form or free-standing. A complete range of... Triadex Inc. MUSE music synthesiser. SAIT Electronics S9 range of portable mixers. Sole agent for Pearl microphones. Allotrope Ltd. 5B Thame Industrial Estate, Thame, Oxon. Sales Office: 01-437 1892. FOR FULL DETAILS OF ALL OUR MIXING EQUIPMENT CONTACT PETER LEVERSLEY AT: AUDIO DEVELOPMENTS HALL LANE, WALSALL WOOD, STAFFORDSHIRE. BROWNHILLS 5351-3 MIXERS continued plug-in printed circuit board based preamplifier/input and output modules are provided with gold-plated edge connectors for absolute reliability and ease of maintenance. Modules: ES 1201/213 modular mixer frames: £60 ES1219JM Twin microphone input: £20 ES1219JL Twin line input: £15 ES1221JM Single microphone module with tone controls: £20 ES1221JL Single line module with tone controls: £20 ES1221JD Single disc module with tone controls: £20 ES1221JT Single tape module with tone controls: £20 ES1239 Combining amplifier/output stage and master gain/tone control module: £20 ES1245JP Monitor module with jack socket for 600 ohm headphones: £22 ES1245JV Monitor module with VU meter: £20 Modular Studio Mixer Basic eight-channel two group chassis, wired and including all input/output connectors and 1 x PM2 Power Supply Module: £160 Additional module spaces above 11, wired and including all input/output connectors; Per module space: £10 CM1 Input - SM1 slider module: £38 CM1 Input - SM2 slider module: £45 CM2 Input - SM1: £53 CM2 Input - SM2: £60 GM1 Group - SM1: £42 GM1 Group - SM2: £49 GM2 Group - SM1: £42 GM2 Group - SM2: £49 OM1 Oscillator + BM1 (matching blanking panel for lower section of desk): £26 OM2 Oscillator + BM1 panel: £40 TM1 Talkback + BM1: £53 TM2 Talkback + BM1: £57 EMI EMI Sound & Vision Equipment Division, Hayes, Middlesex. Tel: 01-573 3888 Ext 2011 8100 Series This series comprises the following basic units: Channel module 8020, Group module 8021, Output module 8022, Echo module 8023, Power supply unit 8026. In addition to these all the following units may be used to satisfy particular requirements: Desk (optional), Blank Module Type 8029, Preview Module 93432, Tuchel Patch Panel, Ancillary Control Panel, Compressor 8025, Mid Lift 8026, High Level Amplifier 8032, Power Supply 2221f, Patch Panel 758/2, Patch Panel 758/3. TV Broadcast Sound Desks The following modules can be used to build a tv studio sound mixer: 8020 channel, 8021 group, 8022 Output, 8029 Echo, 93432 Video preview, 8025 Compressor, 8026 Mid Lift, 8032 High Level amplifier, 8028 Power supply. This can be as simple or as complex as required. Four versions of a tv sound mixer are available as standard, having eight, 16, 24 and 36 channels. Note: EMI 16-track studio mixers, not detailed here, are produced for in-house requirements only. EMT Agent: FWO Bauch Ltd, 49 Theobald Street, Boreham Wood, Herts. Tel: 953 0091 EMT 104 Developed for outdoor recordings and location work. Four inputs, each with fader, suitable for dynamic and capacitor microphones or for line inputs. The microphone channels are equipped with switchable bass cuts. Each channel contains a pre-fade listening button which enables each channel to be monitored via the built-in monitor amplifier. If none of the buttons are pressed, the sum signal will be monitored. Up to three mixers can be linked together in which case 12 inputs will be available on one master feeder. The unit is equipped with a compressor/limiter which can be switched in or out of circuit, an oscillator and a monitor loudspeaker with its own volume control. Price: £489 GRUNDIG Grundig (GB) Ltd, London SE26 Tel: 778 2211 420 Small mono mixer with facilities for mixing up to four separate inputs, connection also being provided for a reverberation unit. Price: £24 422 Stereo version of 420. Price: £24 HELIOS Helios Electronics Ltd., 161 High Street, Teddington, Middlesex. TW11 8HT. Tel: 977 7841 and 7877 PS.1 Furnished with between ten and 16 inputs, mounted in two sizes of basic frame. These frames allow for a wide selection of ancillaries supplied initially or added later. Each input channel has a cut off or pre-fade listen key leading to a Penny & Giles slide fader. An 'insert' switch allows instant switching in of a compressor or other device plugged in via the miniature jackfield. A foldback pot is provided before the fader, and an echo send pot switchable before or after fader has its output switched to one or both of two echo systems. The desk has eight full recording outputs all usable simultaneously. The first four are fitted with slide master faders, the others with rotary potentiometers, but all eight can have slide laders if specified. The mixed echo send from the channel's passes through simple equalisation to an overall gain control and sending amplifier. An 'insert' point is provided, and a 'Tape Loop' switch, routing the send signal via jacks into which any tape machine may be plugged for delay effects. A pot marked 'Spin' feeds back a proportion of the tape signal for 'repeat echoes'. continued 19 Top right to bottom left: Units by Bias Electronics, Eagle, EMI, Grundig and H/H Electronics. CREATIVE SUCCESS COMMENCES HERE Console designed for: RCA Rome Studio 'C' RCA Madrid Studio 'A' It is acknowledged by Producers, Artists and Musicians that the operational speed and flexibility of the Music Recording Console in any Recording Studio is a most important contributory factor to its success. The new concept of Cadac Console design is one of no compromise, coupled with advanced thinking. The result is a Console with superb systems engineering and logic, setting a new standard of high performance which leaves you no alternative choice. cadac Cadac (London) Limited STANSTED · ESSEX · ENGLAND · Tel: Stansted 3437 & 3132 In addition to the channel foldback pots, each tape track has a foldback pot fed from sync out of recorder. These lead to a mix and overall level control. A built in microphone and amplifier to line level leads to separate volume controls for studio speaker (5 watt amplifier provided) and phones (i.e. injected into the foldback system). Tape ident signal appears on all eight recording outputs. An 11-frequency oscillator with output volume control is provided. A larger foldback mixing panel may be specified, on which up to four different mixes of tape tracks, plus live mikes, may be made. Alternatively, headphone mixer boxes for studio floor use can be supplied. PS.2 An extension of the above design to allow for 16 track recording. Furnished with 16 input channels and the track monitor panel is expanded to deal with all 16 tape tracks. There are still eight simultaneous main outputs, all with slide faders, and the outputs are paralleled at the jackfield such that, unless patch cords are inserted, track nine will be fed with Group one signal, track ten with Group two, and so on. Metering will normally consist of eight meters switchable to tracks in a similar way. 882 Series Portable unit modules and circuitry identical to those in the studio units, presented in the simplest way for ease of operation on location. Any unit may be specified by the make-up of the type number, thus: Type 1284 has twelve inputs, 8 outputs, 4 built-in compressors (the largest stock model). Type 420 has four inputs, two outputs, no compressors. Letter suffixes refer to monitoring arrangements. HH ELECTRONIC HH Electronic, Industrial Site, Cambridge Road, Milton, Cambridge, CB4 4AZ. Tel: Cambridge 65945 MA100 Combined mixer/power amplifier. Five input channels, each with bass, treble and independent reverbration switches. Master volume, presence, and reverb controls. Price: £119. (MA100S without reverb: £100.) LAMB Agent: C. E. Hammond, Lamb House, Church Street, London W.4. Tel: 995 4551 PML 420 Four channel, two group mixing unit designed to operate in conjunction with transportable stereo tape recorders such as the Revox A77. All input and output levels are controlled through slide faders, the output pair being positioned for independent or simultaneous operation. Each input channel incorporates input sensitivity preselection, separate low, mid and high frequency equalisers, panoramic potentiometers and echo send controls. Limiters may be switched into each output group and adjusted to the desired threshold and release time, either for special effects or to prevent overmodulation. Separate left and right echo return controls and illuminated group vu meters. MIDAS Midas Sound Concessionaires, 128 High Road, East Finchley, London N.2. Tel: 01-444 7707 Modular Mixing System Chassis: Type B (12 channels). Spaces: 16 lower modules and four upper modules: £110. Type C (16 channels). Spaces: 20 lower modules and five upper modules: £140. Type D (20 channels). Spaces: 24 lower modules and six upper modules: £170. Type B12, C12 and D2 have a third level for extra upper modules: £20 extra. Modules Channel module CH/001: Level fader, sensitivity control, mute switch and indicator, pan control, bass, treble and presence filters, echo/reverb control, monitor level (pre-fader): £30. Channel Module CH/002: Level fader, sensitivity control, mute switch and indicator, pan control, output dividing switch (for four output systems), bass treble and presence filters, echo/reverb control, monitor level and fade/post fade switch: £34. Channel Module CH/003: Level Fader, sensitivity control, mute switch and indicator, pan control, output dividing switch, bass, treble and presence filters, monitor level and pre-fade/post fade switch, small ppm: £40. Channel modules incorporating roll-off filters, special equalisation effects, multiple foldback mixing, Incremental pan switches, equalisation and pan over-ride, and output routing and programming switches may be designed to special requirements. Output Module OP/1: Master level control, ppm meter with fast rise and slow decay. Accurate to 5 dB. Variable limiter and output indicator: £60. Auxiliary Module TB/HU: Pushbutton channel selectors for headphones, jack socket and volume control. Talkback mike input and volume control mixed into monitor output). Intercom facilities may be included if required: £25. Send/Return Module SR/1. MCI Agent: Feldon Equipment Ltd, 126 Great Portland Street, London W1. Tel: 580 4314 JH-416 modular consoles. Standard 24 in, 24 out with 16 channel bus selection. 240 jack patch bay. Studer 16 Channel 8 Track Mixer F.W.O. Bauch Limited 01-953 0091 SONIFEX SOUND EQUIPMENT MONOPHONIC STUDIO MIXER TYPE B1000. SIX CHANNELS: Inputs Balanced Line-Microphone, Equalisation HF and LF, Echo Send, Prefade Listen. Master with 10 dB Further Gain, Echo Return. Approved V.U. Metering Cannon XLR Connectors Mains Powered. Desk Top or Inset Mounting. Dimensions: 435 x 370 x 90 mm 93, STANWELL WAY WELLINGBOROUGH NORTHAMPTONSHIRE TELEPHONE : REDWELLS 2142 SOUND BROADCASTING EQUIPMENT & STUDIO SYSTEMS MIXERS continued MILLBANK Millbank Electronics Group, Unit 8, Bellbrook Estate, Uckfield, Sussex. Tel: 0825 4166 MCC Mk 3 Ten input channels arranged into two groups of five, each group having overall bass and treble tone controls and a group fader. Linear motion faders are provided for each channel and group and it is possible to operate the desk as either a five channel stereo or ten channel mono unit. Comprehensive monitoring facilities. Groups A and B may be fed to left and right-hand outputs or to both. Visual monitoring by broadcast type ppm, standard vu, or peak reading vu. Price: £180.55. NEVE Rupert Neve & Co, Cambridge House, Melbourn, Royston, Herts SG8 6AU Tel: 0763 60776 BCM 10/2 Transportable sound mixing console for mono or stereo broadcasting and recording. Ten input channels with equalisation and two output groups each controlled by horizontal faders. Echo, studio foldback and communication, cueing, two-speaker monitoring, equipment control interlock and signalling facilities are included. Modular amplifiers are used throughout. A choice of input amplifiers is available giving a wide choice of filters and frequency response control. S 16/4 16 input channels, each having line and microphone inputs and comprehensive equalisation. Horizontal slider faders. Four output groups—with reduction to three track, stereo and mono modes of operation. Four limiter/compressors, with pairing of control lines for stereo operation. Two reverberation groups, send and return. Pan pots and group selectors on returns. Two foldback or cue groups. Four speaker monitor system with eight track playback to monitor matrix. Four studio playback outputs. Five vu meters. Playback to foldback matrix. Selsync to foldback. Pre-fade listen available on all input channels. Extensive patching facilities; all inputs, outputs and insertion points balanced and earthed. Gain at line input normally -4 dBm). Fully stabilised power supply. Pan pots on all input channels. Line-up Oscillator. Talkback facilities. Reverberation on monitor. All inputs and outputs on Cannon XLR. S.24-8 24 input channels with full equalisation. Eight output groups. Four reverberation groups. Two foldback groups. Talkback communication. Pre-fade listen or cue speaker. 16 track reduction monitoring. Four monitor speaker circuits. 13 meters and integral patch panel. Line up oscillator. Four limiter/compressors. Four high pass/low pass filter units. PACE Pace Electronics, 338 London Road, St. Albans, Hertfordshire. Tel: Bowmans Green 3452 Five input portable mixer with bass/treble eq and notch filter on each channel. Peak reading vu meter. 400 Hz reference tone oscillator. Remote tape start. Battery or 12 to 18V dc powered. Price: £520 Top: Control desk by Neve. Adjacent: Pace five input mixer. PHILIPS Agent: Pye TVT Ltd, PO Box 41, Coldhams Lane, Cambridge CB1 3JU. Tel: 0223 45115 MP4 Portable four channel unit, mains or internal battery powered. The four channel faders are in a row left of the level meter, master fader on the right. A rotary sensitivity switch, push button bus-bar switch, and a key switch for input terminal selection and muting, are mounted above each of the channel faders. The rotary switch above the master fader selects the various monitoring, pre-listening, and cue points. The outer rim of this switch knob controls the level of the monitoring/pre-listening channel. Incoming cues are signalled by a lamp to the right of this switch. The level meter is calibrated in volume units. Vu is standard, ppm optional. The MP4 has two separate bus-bars enabling two different programmes to be handled simultaneously, e.g. the left and right channel of a stereo programme. Bus-bar selection of both input and master channels is by pushbuttons. Two MP4 units must be interconnected when handling a two-channel or stereo programme, to provide the necessary two master channels. A 1 kHz test oscillator is provided. The pre-listening facility allows the operator to monitor the signal before it is fed to one of the channel faders. Dimensions are 140 x 515 x 380 mm. Weight is 14.2 kg. Price: £500. MD-Range Maximum of 24 inputs to minimum of 12 input channels. Up to four independent output channels. Reverberation send and return. Current dependent mixing with resistive networks. Monitoring and pre-listening. Optional equaliser block with four equalisers, switchable to eight input channels. Four models are normally supplied with two line outputs, but any number up to four is possible without delivery delay or high additional cost. Plug-in blocks can be supplied separately for those who wish to make up their own desks. Standard models: MD 8R: with eight line inputs and eight microphone inputs. MD 8RF: similar to MD 8R, but has a block with four equalisers switchable to eight input channels. MD 12R: has 12 line inputs and 12 microphone inputs. MD 12RF: similar to MD 12R but has a block with four equalisers switchable to eight of the input channels. All the above models have: (a) one reverberation channel with return input and send output, (b) two monitor channels with special facilities for monitoring auxiliary equipment; (c) one public distribution output for studio distribution; (d) four talk-back outputs; (e) a signal contact on each sliding fader. SSM 14 Standard stereo mixing desk with 14 to 56 inputs. Incorporated in the desk are, from left to right: 14 microphone channels, four group/output channels, four equalisers, two monitoring/mixing channels, one talkback channel. Price: £3,000 to £4,000. MM11 Audio consoles based on 40 x 95 x 126 mm modules. The operating panel comprises a honeycomb construction of module mounting rails fitted into a frame assembly which is bolted together. The module rails are separated at 9.5 cm intervals for standard modules and at 19 cm for sliding faders. Separation between the rows of modules is by means of rods at every 4 to 8 channels. The number of rails in a console depends on the number of modules in the largest audio channel. The length of sensing rods depends on the grouping of the channels. For the moderate to larger type of consoles, the complete operating panel with all modules in place is hinged to allow lifting into a vertical position. For small, lightweight consoles this is done by hand, but for large and heavy versions a A CTH STUDIO QUALITY MIXER FOR FIELD USE... TYPE TM61 MIXER - All silicon six-way mixer. - +12 dBm output on mains or 12v battery. - Adjustable for 300Ωmic, 200Ωmic or 600Ω lines. - Sensitivity -85 dBm to +20 dBm. - VU meter (PPM available). - Muting switch on each channel. - Bass and treble cut on each channel. - Master gain control. - XLR type input connectors. Send now for complete details. CTH ELECTRONICS Industrial Estate, Somersham Road, St Ives, Huntingdonshire, PE17 4LS Telephone: St Ives 64388 (0480 64388) CALREC MIXER DESKS — THE PROFESSIONAL’S CHOICE 12 CHANNEL, STEREOPHONIC/QUADROPHONIC TRANSPORTABLE MIXER DESK, WITH INTEGRAL “DOLBY A” NOISE REDUCTION SYSTEM. RECENTLY SUPPLIED TO ANGUS MCKENZIE FACILITIES LTD. CALDER RECORDINGS LIMITED, REGENT STREET, HEBDEN BRIDGE HX7 7DG Southern Distributors: Beyer Dynamic (GB) Ltd., 1 Clair Road, Haywards Heath, Sussex Phone 042-284 2159 Phone 51003 MIXERS continued mechanical or push-buttons operated hydraulic device is used. In its vertical position, all wiring is directly accessible after removal of the protecting cover plate which is held in position by quick release fasteners. The metering hood and inclined panel can be tilted forward, over the operating panel, for easy access to all connecting points. Price: £500 per channel, depending on facilities. MD Range The design is based on the use of channel blocks to provide good flexibility, to give more assembly and switching possibilities, and to ensure ease of maintenance and servicing. The number of units making up a desk has been kept to an absolute minimum. Any mixer in the range is built up as a combination of four standard plug-in blocks (one of which is optional) and three amplifiers for secondary circuits, mounted together in a standard frame. Price: £3,000 to £5,000. RADON Radon Industrial Electronics Co Ltd, Brooklands Trading Estate, Orme Road, Worthing, Sussex. Tel: Worthing 34904-6 DL6 CM Six input, single output mixer measuring 355 x 175 x 105 mm. Mains powered. Price: £35. RICHARDSON Richardson Electronics, 57 Jamestown Road, London NW1. Tel: 267 0723 Custom built mixers. All basic facilities available. Range of amplifier cards and modular mixers. Standard input module: £50. ROSSER Rosser Electronics Ltd, Electro-Acoustic Laboratories, BBC Building, Alexandra Road, Swansea. Tel: 0792 53461 Range of modular units built to European standard dimensions. Services also available on a consultancy basis. Advice in the areas of studio installation, disc cutting processing and pressing. Modules: DR70 E1B Microphone amplifier/equaliser. CR3 Console output line amplifier/auxiliary channel amplifier. FM 1/4 Function/facilities module. Tone Generator. 1500 Series Conductive plastics linear motion studio fader. BA 2-15 Mix bus amplifier. R 600-N (Audio & Design Recordings) limiter compressor. SAIT Agent: Allotrope Ltd, 5B Thame Industrial Estate, Thame, Oxfordshire. Tel: 01-437 1892 (sales) 3S Range Comprises a range of standard modules, each module performing a specific task within the mixing desk. The four basic modules are as follows: Mic/line input module 5E36, equaliser module 7A52, Mix modules for multi-track: 5E32, 5E55 and 5E66, Output module 5E37. Other modules include: Pre-fade listen 5E39, talkback 5E41, test tone generator 7924, fader module (Danner), ppm, bu and cu modules. The modules consist of Sait-made cassettes with DIN standard front panel dimensions of 40 x 190 mm. A range of standard desk frames with integral power supplies and connections is available. Special facilities can be designed and built in by Allotrope and each desk is designed in consultation with the customer. SENNHEISER Agent: Hayden Laboratories Ltd, Hayden House, 17 Chesham Road, Amersham, Buckinghamshire. Tel: 02403 5511 M101 Designed for use with the Nagra and similar recorders. The total unit is 347 x 233 x 126 mm and weighs 6 kg. Power supply is from two built-in 9V batteries. Alternatively, the power may be supplied to the mixer from the Nagra tape recorder. The M101 has four balanced microphone inputs each having a sensitivity of 0.1 mV. The outputs of the four microphone channels are fed to one master slide-lader. The junction is brought out to a socket to allow the possibility of connecting a second mixer in parallel to give eight channels. The tone controls in the summing amplifier can, if required, also be switched into the fourth microphone channel. The output voltage is controlled by a peak-reading meter capable of being switched to read battery volts. A built-in oscillator provides line-up tone controlled by the master slide-lader and its level is shown directly on the meter. A switch situated on every microphone channel makes it possible to pre-fade listen, if the mixer is used in conjunction with the ML 101. Price: £450. Monitoring Unit: £234. SHURE Shure Electronics Ltd, 84 Blackfriars Road, London SE1. Tel: 928 6361 M668E stereo microphone mixer. Four microphone inputs. Price £63. M672E Add-on microphone mixer. Four mic inputs, Top: Radon DL6 CM. Centre: Soundex Studio 4. Adjacent: Sennheiser M101. SONIFEX Sonifex Sound Equipment, 93 Stanwell Way, Wellingborough, Northamptonshire. Tel: Redwells 2142 B1000 Six input channels which may be individually selected as 200/50 ohm balanced microphone input, switchable to 600 ohms balanced line input, or optional unbalanced gram input. Equalisation is controlled by two continuously variable controls. Fading is achieved by flat slide-faders. Pre-fade listen. Each channel has a post fade auxiliary or echo send control, continuously variable. Vu meter or ppm as required. continued 53 OUR MIXER DESIGNS USE A THIRD KIND OF FEEDBACK We call it "Engineer Feedback", and in addition to the more usual positive and negative types, we have used an awful lot of it in the design of our two mixer ranges. Associated, as we are, with a major recording studio, we are in constant touch with some of the leading recording engineers in the country. Engineer Feedback is the continual flow of information, comments, likes and dislikes that they pass on to us, and is based on their using just about every type of desk known to man. From this, we have learned just what these engineers require of a desk—whether a particular E.Q. curve is steep enough, whether the monitoring facilities offer enough flexibility, or the routing system is comprehensive enough—the list is endless... After many hours of discussion, designing, prototype building, throwing away and starting again, we have introduced two ranges of mixing consoles, designed to cater for the needs of everyone. Our 'A' Range, the channel module of which is illustrated top left, is a no compromise, extremely comprehensive range of desks, designed for larger studio installations. It features an equalizer section with a choice of sixteen frequencies, four being variable, plus one with a frequency sweep range, so that any channel can be assigned to any group, or panned across any two or more groups; full monitoring facilities with equalization; dual scaled meters which can be switched to either V.U. or P.P.M. operation and automatic selection of machine returns to either monitors or to the appropriate channels for re-mixing. The highest quality components are used throughout, with metal oxide resistors and cermet potentiometers being the rule rather than the exception. Every module has a voltage stabilizer built in, and phase shifts have been kept to a minimum by using as few transformers as possible. An average channel will weigh in at less than .01% distortion, with a signal to noise ratio of -87dBm (Line input to channel output with fader at maximum.) The drop in level when switching up to 30 channels to one group is less than .1dB, and the noise at a group output with ten channels selected to that group is -75dBm. Frequency response from input to output is ±1dB from 20Hz to 20KHz, and at any attenuator setting, a 20dB overload margin is allowed. The console construction is cf metal with cladding to suit individual requirements. The modules are totally enclosed, with all panels easily removable for ease of servicing. Maybe this all sounds fine, but if you're just starting a small studio, and your bank manager isn't an old school friend; or even a friend of any kind, you are more likely to be interested in a somewhat simpler type of mixer—so let's talk about our "B" range. These have been designed to the same standards as the "A" range, and use the same sophisticated circuitry. They offer slightly less in the way of facilities, and the module and console construction has been simplified—that is all. The channel module (top right) contains an equalizer section with three frequencies variable at any one time, high pass filter, echo and foldback sends, input attenuator etc. Monitoring facilities are similar to the "A" range except that no equalizer is included. Routing is also simplified, but is as comprehensive as on many large studio desks. V.U. meters are fitted as standard, although the A type dual meters can be supplied upon request. Full patching facilities are available on a 9X20 G.P.O. jack bay. Interested? Then whatever your requirements, we would be pleased to discuss them with you and give you our quotation. Contact either Malcolm Toft or Barry Porter. TRIADA CREATED FOR ENGINEERS BY ENGINEERS Trident Audio Developments Division Trident House, 17 St Anne's Court, Wardour St., London, W1 01-734 9901/4 MIXERS continued SOUNDEX Soundex Ltd, 18 Blenheim Road, London W4 1ES Tel: 995 1661 Studio 4 and Studio 6 Four and six channel mixers for studio and location recording work. Each channel can be switched to accept five different inputs—one input also providing 48V phantom power for capacitor microphones. Slide faders are incorporated and each input has a 'pan' control, enabling mono and stereo recordings to be undertaken. Tone controls and a ppm are available as optional plug-in units. Pre and post fade listening facilities. Test and line up oscillator. Prices start at £87 (4-channel) and £108 (6-channel). 4S Four input stereo microphone mixer with rotary faders and pan pots. Price: £45. SOUND TECHNIQUES Sound Techniques Ltd., Industrial Estate, Mildenhall, Suffolk. Tel: 0638 713631 System 12 Consoles centred around the System 12 series 2 range to meet the increasing need for an ex-stock desk. There are two standard System 12 formats; both have 18 input channels with full eqisation, foldback, talk back facilities, 16 track monitoring with pan, monitor echo and foldback, 18 direct outputs and full ancillary facilities including talkback, built-in oscillator, vu meters and a self contained modular jack bay. Version 1 with four mixed outputs: £5,377. Version 2 with an extra four mixed outputs: £6,568. Since the whole system is fully modular, System 12 desks can be delivered to customers in more basic forms, allowing them to increase their facilities at their own convenience. Similarly, larger desks than the standard formats can rapidly be built to customers' own requirements. Sound Techniques can also offer systems built for a customer's own special needs. Above and adjacent: Studio and portable desks by Sait. Below: Section of a Calrec console. SPECTRA SONICS Agent: Feldon Equipment Ltd, 126 Great Portland Street, London W1. Tel: 580 4314 1020-8/16 Audio control console. 16 inputs, four group. Illuminated pushbutton routing, 15 illuminated vu meters. SPECTRASOUND Spectrasound, Box 24, S-183 21 Taby 1, Sweden. IC 40 1 Portable unit (350 x 167 x 105/42 mm) mainly intended for the Nagra recorder. Four mic/line inputs, one parallel mixer input; two line outputs (one to Nagra). EQ, phase reversal and level controls on all channels. STUDER Agent: FWO Bauch Ltd., 49 Theobald Street, Boreham Wood, Herts. Tel: 953 0091 continued 57 STUDIO SOUND, AUGUST 1972 The MXT-200 is the latest addition to the range of modular audio mixing units available from Audix for public address, theatre, broadcast and recording studio applications. Designed for either mono or stereo working the MXT-200 incorporates high and low frequency filtering per channel as well as overall treble and bass tone controls. A pre-fade listen miniature toggle switch is fitted to all plug-in channels; the maximum number of inputs being 16. The wide choice of modules including output routing, monitoring facilities, P.P.M. or V.U. metering units can be fitted within rack mounting or free standing cabinets. MANUFACTURERS OF SOUND SYSTEMS AND ELECTRONICS AUDIX BB LIMITED STANSTED · ESSEX TELEPHONE: STANSTED 3132/3437 (STD 027-971) 12 input units with selector and phase switches. Sensitivity can be selected by means of a six 12 dB step switch and a potentiometer. High and low pass filters, presence and pan equalisers. Fader with magnet-catch pre-fade listening button. Two separately controllable reverberation/playback outputs, switchable before or after fader. Isolating jacks for insertion of external filters or compressors. Two sub-master channels for grouping desired inputs and two master buses selectable by pushbutton switches and pan potentiometers. Two master units with fader and pre-fade button. Two auxiliary channels for reverberation, playback. Two ppm's and two vu-meters serve for optical control of the master and auxiliary channels as well as after tape observation. Talk-back circuit with microphone, speaking button and three watt power amplifier. Test oscillator (20 Hz to 20 kHz) selectable at each input unit. Two 20W monitor amplifiers. Signalling and remote absence and equalisers. Fader with magnet-catch pre-fade-listening button. Two separately adjustable reverberation sends. Two reverberation modules each with a master control and variable bass roll-off for the send channel, stereo reverberation return channel with low cut-off filter, top equaliser, presence filter, and remote control for the TMT 140 reverberation plug. Four marking bars and two sub-master buses, selectable by pushbutton switches and pan potentiometers. Four master units with fader and pre-fade listening button and pre-fade isolating jacks. Two cue auxiliary outputs for playback mixing of the input and sync channels and for feeding to headphones. Four ppm's or vu-meters (according to choice) for control of master outputs. Three vu-meters for observation of auxiliary channels. Monitoring circuit with two rows of 11 pushbuttons for source selection, two faders M-S matrix, and according to choice, 20 watt power amplifiers or line amplifiers. Tape replay mixing and adding echo to the four channel masters or replay channels. Remix circuit for simultaneous switching of all input units to the tape replay channels. Pre-listening circuit with built-in three watt amplifier and loudspeaker. Talkback circuit with microphone, amplifier and pushbutton set for selection of studio monitors, cue channels, or slate onto the master channels. Test oscillator 20 Hz to 20 kHz, selectable on each input unit. Right: Triad audio control modules. '189 18 input channels equipped with separate high level input and universal input (adjustable from microphone to line level). Phase switch. Extensive filter facilities with high and low pass filters, presence, STUDIO SOUND, AUGUST 1972 TRIAD Trident Audio Developments Ltd, Trident House, 17 St Anne's Court, Wardour Street, London W1. Tel: 734-9901/4 'A' range consoles Input channel module: incorporates microphone, line and machine re-mix inputs, input level being controlled by rotary attenuator variable from +10 to -60 dBm. Remix selection drops out at -15 and below, and microphone input is automatically returned. A phase-change switch is fitted. Routing module: the standard routing system allows a given channel to be assigned to any group or combination of groups. It consists of two rows of illuminated pushbuttons, each row having the same number of buttons as the console has output groups. Auxiliary module: this module, normally mounted immediately above the channel lader, gives provision for four independently controlled foldback sends, echo send to any of six routes and selection of the channel to monitor only. It also contains a stepped pan control monitor module; four independent foldback sends and six echo routes are provided. Equalisation may be applied to the monitor signal and the gain controlled by a calibrated fader. Four pushbuttons select control room speakers, and the studio plant monitor is controlled on this module. A sync switch is fitted, and also a monitor check button which mutes all other monitor channels. Machine select modules: these automatically select the machine outputs to either the monitor modules or to the input channels for remixing. Meters: dual scale meters which can be switched for either vu or ppm operation. In either mode, the calibration of each meter may be adjusted to suit individual requirements. 'B' range consoles Input channel module: incorporates microphone and line inputs controlled by a rotary attenuator variable from -5 to -60 dBm. The equaliser section consists of a bass control, switchable to either 60 or 120 Hz, a mid control which may be selected to one of five frequencies, and a top control which switches to either 8 or 10 kHz. A 50 Hz high pass filter is also available. The machine foldback controls may be switched to either pre or post fader, and the echo send can be selected to one of four routes. Routing module: contains pushbuttons for routing the channel to any group, and a pan control which can be used to pan the signal between any odd numbered group and any even numbered group. Monitor module: Also containing four independent foldback sends and echo routing to any one of four groups, this module also contains the echo return control, speaker select pushbuttons and monitor gain potentiometer. Various auxiliary modules contain the machine return selection, monitor master control, lining up oscillator etc. Performance of B range consoles is virtually identical to the 'A' range, due to the same circuitry being used. UHER Agent: Bosch Ltd, P.O. Box 166, Watford, WD2 4LB, Hertfordshire. Tel: Watford 44233 A 122 Small five channel battery mixer for mono and stereo operation. Internal level tone generator. Linear motion laders. Every stereo channel can be individually regulated or the controls mechanically ganged with each other. Price: £49.90. VORTEXION Vortexion Ltd, 257/263 The Broadway, Wimbledon, London SW19. Tel: 542 2814 Range of mono and stereo mixing units for mic or gram. Ppms and bass/treble equalisation. Vortexion 50/70 WATT ALL SILICON AMPLIFIER WITH BUILT-IN 5-WAY MIXER USING F.E.T.s THIS is a high fidelity amplifier with bass cut controls on each of the three low impedance balanced line microphone stages and a high impedance (1-5 meg.) gram stage with bass and treble controls, plus the usual line or tape input. All the input stages are protected against overload by back to back low self capacity diodes and all use F.E.T.s for low noise, low intermodulation distortion and freedom from radio breakthrough. A voltage stabilised supply is used for the preamplifiers making it independent of mains supply fluctuations and another stabilised supply for the driver stages is arranged to cut off when the output is overloaded or over temperature. The output is 75% efficient and 100V balanced line or 8-16 ohms output are selected by means of a rear panel switch which has a locking plate indicating the output impedance selected. The mixer section has an additional emitter follower output for driving a slave amplifier, phones or tape recorder, output -3V out on 600 ohms upwards. Price £84-00 50/70 WATT ALL SILICON AMPLIFIER WITH BUILT-IN 4-WAY MIXER (0-3% intermodulation distortion) using the circuit of our 100% reliable 100 Watt Amplifier with its elaborate protection against short and overload, etc. To this is allied our latest development of F.E.T. Mixer Amplifier, again fully protected against overload and completely free from radio breakthrough. The mixer is arranged for 2-30/60Ω balanced line microphones, 1-HiZ gram input and 1-auxiliary input followed by bass and treble controls. 100 volt balanced line output or 5/15Ω and 100 volt line. Price £77-00 100 WATT ALL SILICON AMPLIFIER A high quality amplifier with 8 ohms -15 ohms or 100 volt line output for A.C. Mains. Protection is given for short and open circuit output over driving and over temperature. Input 0-4V on 100K ohms. Price £80-00 THE 100 WATT MIXER AMPLIFIER With specification as above is here combined with a 4 channel F.E.T. mixer, 2-30/60Ω balanced microphone inputs, 1-HiZ gram input and 1-auxiliary input with tone controls and mounted in a standard robust stove enamelled steel case. A stabilised voltage supply feeds the tone controls and pre-amps, compensating for a mains voltage drop of over 25% and the output transistor biasing compensates for a wide range of voltage and temperature. Also available in rackpanel form. Price £115-00 20/30 WATT MIXER AMPLIFIER High fidelity all silicon model with F.E.T. input stages to reduce intermodulation distortion to a fraction of normal transistor input circuits. The response is flat to 20 to 20,000 cps within 2dB and over 30 times damping factor. At 20 watts output there is less than 0-2% intermodulation even over the microphone stage at full gain with the treble and bass controls set level. Standard model 1-low mic. balanced input and HiZ gram. Outputs available 8/15 ohms OR 100 volt line. CP50 AMPLIFIER An all silicon transistor 50 watt amplifier for mains and 12 volt battery operation, charging its own battery and automatically going to battery if mains fail. Protected inputs, and overload and short circuit protected outputs for 8 ohms -15 ohms and 100 volt line. Bass and treble controls fitted. Models available with 1 gram, and 2 low mic. inputs, 1 gram, and 3 low mic. inputs or 4 low mic. inputs. 200 WATT AMPLIFIER Can deliver its full audio power at any frequency in the range of 30 c/s—20 Kc/c±1 dB. Less than 0-2% distortion at 1 Kc/s. Can be used to drive mechanical devices for which power is over 120 watt on continuous sine wave. Input 1 MW 600 ohms. Output 100-120V or 200-240V. Additional matching transformers for other impedances are available. Price £135-00 F.E.T. MIXERS AND PPMs Various types of mixers available. 3, 4, 6 and 8 channel with Peak Programme Meter. 4, 6, 8 and 10 Way Mixers. Twin 3, 4 and 5 channel Stereo, also twin 4 and 5 channel Stereo with 2 PPM's. VORTEXION LIMITED Telephone: 01-542 2814 and 01-542 6242/3/4 257-263 The Broadway, Wimbledon, SW19 1SF Telegrams: "Vortexion, London S.W.19" THEATRESOUND designer Ian Gibson and sound operator/lighting designer John Becket continue their discussion with Keith Wicks. This month they talk about attitudes to the use of sound equipment in the theatre. KW In general theatre sound is bad. Why? IG It is bad because there is no sound equipment designed specially for theatre use. There is a fashionable craze at present to install, both for individual shows and in new theatres, studio type equipment and cinema speakers. What is required is theatre type equipment of studio quality. This equipment can be designed only by someone who has worked with many different directors. The person must have a certain amount of knowledge of electronics, experience in making up show tapes and, above all, a feeling for and an interest in drama. Such a person will know the type of sound and the effects required and will have some idea of the ergonomics of the system. JB There are not many directors who are able to use the potential there is in sound. For example if, in the script, there is some sort of car effect required, don't just say 'car effect': there are so many different types. Audiences have not yet been educated to expect good sound in the theatre. It's strange that they want the highest possible quality at home, yet they don't seem to notice how bad the quality is when they go into a public place of entertainment. On the other hand, good sound surprises and impresses the audience. For example, on Catch My Soul, almost every night members of the audience came to talk to me about the sound and the system I used. And on Journey's End, the majority of the audience were talking about the effect of the sound as they left the theatre. KW What does the sound equipment consist of in a typical theatre? IG In established repertory theatres, the system is usually made up of components bought when funds have been allocated. Generally they use Ferrograph or Revox recorders with home-made mixers and speakers. Thus, the sound is frequently limited by the equipment. Installations in new theatres are usually custom built but using available equipment. All the new systems I have seen in recent months were not very comprehensive and very inflexible. Increasing the system's scope and flexibility does not necessarily imply spending more money. The majority of West End theatres don't have permanent sound installations. The system is brought in for each show. KW That's a ridiculous situation, rather like a group going to a studio and having to take their own mixer and microphones with them. JB Yes. The trouble is there is very little money in theatre budgets for sound equipment. If a building is going up and they find they are running out of money, one of the first things to suffer is the sound budget. IG It is the same with productions. Sound is usually the last thing to be considered and one of the first things to be cut. I understand from colleagues in the US that the situation is exactly the same there. As you know, sound takes a while to get right. If you don't go into a theatre and immediately get the effects and levels right, the director's reaction is to forget it and do without it. JB One of the greatest problems is that the lack of standard equipment for sound in the theatre in the sense that standard equipment exists for lighting. The Ferrograph used to be the favourite tape machine in the theatre. Since the equipment is always being moved around it has to be robust, and the Ferrograph was very good in that respect. Then the Revox moved in and, at the moment, that is the favourite machine in the theatre. Ian uses a TRD. KW Why do you prefer the TRD? IG The mechanically-operated VR series has a super deck and could hardly have been improved upon had it been designed specifically for theatre use. It is the quickest deck I have come across, and it is very sensibly priced. I dislike using solenoid decks. KW Too noisy? IG Well, the Revox solenoid deck is fairly quiet but the TRD solenoid deck is very noisy and the manufacturers claim they can't do much about that particular model. Be that as it may, I don't like solenoid decks anyway, because there's a lack of sensitivity about them. The only way I can describe it is to say that it's like the difference between playing a piano and an organ. With a piano, the dynamics are at your fingertips. The mechanical TRD deck gives you the absolute control that is necessary for sensitive control of the sound where split-second timing is so vital. JB Unlike the Revox, the TRD has a pause control. The way we work, the pause control is an essential feature. The cues are lined up and held with the pause control. When this is released, the cue comes straight in and there is no wow at the beginning of the item. IG With the Revox, you press the button and the cue is in. It is not possible to inch the tape when required. Because of the remote start facility with the Revox, in many of the new installations the tape decks are being situated not only out of reach but also out of the operators line of vision, making it absolutely impossible to line up cues accurately. In a sensitive theatrical situation, this lack of precise control often stands out like a sore thumb. Ideally the sound control position should be in the auditorium but unenclosed. In a situation like this, the solenoid noise of even a Revox is very audible. I recently did a production of Love's Labours Lost in which I had to use the company's own equipment. Because of the nature of the control required, I had to have the equipment in a front-of-house box. Every time the Revox operated, a click was heard all over the auditorium, thus warning the audience that a sound cue was imminent. Exactly the same situation arose in last year's production of Rabelais at the Round House, but this time, every sound cue came in and went out not only with an audible mechanical click but also with an electronic switching transient. Despite the fact that the manufacturers claim that their decks are suppressed, I've never yet come across a solenoid deck on to which I can hang a 100 W amplifier and be absolutely certain that no switching transient will be heard over the loudspeaker. One way to overcome this is to put the gain at zero, switch on the machine, and then bring the gain up, but it is not always possible to do this. There are many occasions when you want to come crashing in with a 100 W cue and the timing has to be spot on. One is likely to get a crescendo at the start if a fader has to be operated as well as the 'on' switch. There may not even be time to operate both controls with one pair of hands in a difficult and complex sequence of cues. JB In the theatre, when a sound cue is put on 'standby', you can sometimes hear a click, and you usually hear the channel come open. (This of course depends on the position of the loudspeaker in relation to the audience, and it also depends on the amount of gain.) An aware theatregoer realises immediately that a sound cue can be expected, so the cue loses all its surprise or shock element. Ian has managed to get over this problem so that, no matter how complex a cue sequence may be or how loud the cue, when the TRD pause control is released the cue comes straight in without any warning from system noise. This problem is very acute when a number of speakers are being used in the auditorium and when they are situated only a few feet from the audience. In Journey's End, some members of the audience actually used the loudspeakers as head rests! Another problem occurs at the end of a cue. With something like bells, the reverberation eventually 'cross fades' with tape and system noise. How do you fade out a cue so that one can convince the audience they haven't been listening to a tape? When you are talking about sound there is a problem with terminology. Everyone calls sound effects 'effects'. It shouldn't be 'effects', it should be 'sound'. We've managed to stop the 69 Company's directors from saying 'sound effects'. IG 'Sound design' is preferable or, to use an expression of the General Manager of the Prospect Theatre Company, 'acoustic environment design'. This is the way I prefer to think now. continued 64 For a long time you've been asking us for a variable ratio compressor. Simple and quick to operate and beautiful to listen to. Here it is— By the way—You may notice the variable suppression noise gate we have added. You can use this compressor where before you would never have dared. Alice (Stancoil Ltd) 15 Sheet Street, Windsor, Berks. Tel. Windsor 61308 THE PACE ELECTRONICS 5 CHANNEL PORTABLE MIXER Features: 1. NOTCH FILTER FOR REJECTION OF UNWANTED SIGNALS 2. ANNOUNCEMENTS VIA BUILT-IN MICROPHONE WITH AUTOMATIC GAIN CONTROL 3. TRANSFORMERLESS OPERATION FOR WIDE FREQUENCY RANGE 4. COMPREHENSIVE EQUALISATION ON EACH CHANNEL 5. MICROPHONE COMPARISON SWITCH 6. REMOTE OPERATION OF RECORDER 7. MONITORING DIRECT OR OFF TAPE 8. EASY ACCESS TO CONNECTORS FROM OPERATING POSITION 9. THREE INDEPENDENTLY CONTROLLED MONITOR OUTPUTS 10. WILL OPERATE WITH INTERNAL RECHARGEABLE BATTERIES OR U2 TYPE DRY CELLS TELEPHONE BOWMANS GREEN 3452 EST. 12 YEARS BRAND NEW—SUITABLE FOR ALL MACHINES RECORDING TAPES & CASSETTES ALL TOP QUALITY 100% TESTED BY SUPERIOR AMERICAN AND BRITISH MANUFACTURERS GENEROUS QUANTITY DISCOUNTS BASE—TENSILISED POLYESTER and PVC EXTRAS—NO CHARGE—FITTED LEADERS EX 3" FREE ROLL OF LEADER WITH ALL TAPE ORDERS 24 HOUR DESPATCH SERVICE \| St'd Play \| Long Play \| Double Play \| Empty Spools \| \|-----------\|-----------\|-------------\|--------------\| \| 3" \| 150' \| 10p \| 210' \| 11p \| 320' \| 20p \| 4p \| \| 4" \| 300' \| 20p \| 420' \| 24p \| 550' \| 30p \| 9p \| \| 5" \| 600' \| 30p \| 900' \| 40p \| 1200' \| 56p \| 10p \| \| 5½" \| 900' \| 37p \| 1200' \| 49p \| 1800' \| 78p \| 11p \| \| 7" \| 1200' \| 44p \| 1800' \| 64p \| 2400' \| 95p \| 12p \| 3" and 4" APPROX LENGTHS CASSETTES MANUFACTURED by EMI MASTERTAPE ALL IN PLASTIC LIBRARY CASES C60 EMI PLAYRITE 34p 3 for £1 10p C90 MASTERTAPE 50p 3 for £1.45 P/P C120 MASTERTAPE 65p 3 for £1.90 on all orders If any goods are found at fault in any way money refunded in full. SPECIAL OFFER—EMI AFONIC LOW NOISE REEL TAPES and PRE-RECORDED CASSETTES AT LESS THAN HALF PRICE CALLERS WELCOME WALKERS 16 WOODTHORPE ROAD, ASHFORD, MIDDLESEX ASHFORD 52136 A Synchronous Tape Recording System By Dr J. A. Archer-Hall Many methods have been used for the recording of sound which is to be reproduced in synchronism with film, but the system described here has the advantages of great simplicity and economy. The system was designed to be used with 16mm cameras driven by synchronous motors for the live recording of sound, which is ultimately to be copied on to film edge track by a machine also driven by a synchronous motor. The system uses ordinary non-perforated tape on a twin track (or stereo) tape recorder, which requires no mechanical modification, but only the provision of an external electrical connection to the transport motor. The recorder must be one in which tape transport is provided by an induction motor, as is the case in nearly all mains operated machines. This type of motor develops a torque, which is proportional to the square of its ac supply voltage, and also depends on its speed of rotation in a manner which is shown in the graphs. Fig. 1 is a general graph plotting $T/V^2$ versus $S$ where $T =$ torque, $V =$ supply voltage and $S =$ speed. It will be seen that the torque falls to zero at a speed $S_0$ which is equal to that at which a synchronous motor with the same number of poles as the induction motor would run. Fig. 2 shows how $T$ varies with $S$ for two different values of $V$. These curves become very nearly straight lines passing through a common point, for values of $S$ approaching $S_0$. Fig. 3 shows the graph of fig. 2 in the stable region of operation simplified as straight lines. These lines are given by the equation: $$T = AV^2s$$ where $s$, the slip, is: $$\begin{bmatrix} s \\ 1 - s \end{bmatrix}$$ Hence when the slip is small the torque is proportional to the product of the slip and the square of the voltage. Behaviour of this form makes an induction motor suitable for tape transport as it tends to run at a very steady speed when it is supplied with an adequate ac voltage, and the mechanical loading is light. Thus if the loading should increase slightly, or the supply voltage decrease slightly, only a very small increase in slip, that is a very small decrease in speed, will take place to provide the extra torque required, and vice versa. Hence an induction motor is inherently stable, but nevertheless its speed can be varied in a simple control system, in which the voltage to the motor is varied, to provide a precisely locked speed of tape replay. Apart from the recorder, the only other apparatus required is a small power amplifier with a suitable output transformer and the means to provide a voltage somewhat less than the mains value. For this an auto-transformer is preferable, but a resistance dropper might prove satisfactory. The tape recorder modification consists of finding the live mains lead to the transport motor, cutting this, and extending the cut ends with short lengths of insulated wire to a socket which is to be mounted at a convenient point on the recorder box or case. The recorder can be used in its original form as a non synchronous machine by inserting a dummy or shorting plug in the socket. During recording the tape transport motor is supplied via the socket described above with a voltage rather less than the full mains value, for example 160 to 180 volts, where the mains voltage is 240 to 250. This is done so that the motor will run at a speed one or two per cent slower than its normal value, so that the speed on replay can, if necessary, take up a value slightly in excess of the recording speed for a short period (i.e. one or two seconds) until locking is achieved. This reduced value of the mains voltage will later be referred to as $V_s$. Recording is carried out in the usual way with the required sound signal being fed to one track of the recorder. While this is being done, a signal of suitably low voltage at mains frequency is fed to the second track of the recorder. It is convenient to obtain this 50 Hz signal from a separate secondary winding on the auto-transformer providing the motor with the reduced voltage. A suitable secondary winding is easily made by threading one or two turns of insulated wire around the 'side leg' of the auto-transformer. The 50 Hz signal should be recorded at a fairly high level. Thus we have: - Track one — required sound recording - Track two — 50 Hz signal from the mains at a fairly high level taken at the same time as required sound. The circuit used for recording is shown in fig. 4 and that for replay in fig. 5. For synchronous replay the output of track one is fed via suitable equipment to loudspeakers, or film copying apparatus. The output of track two is fed to the small power amplifier, and the gain adjusted so that the voltage at the secondary of its output transformer is about 40 volts. This will be referred to as $V_g$. The voltage which is now used to drive the tape transport motor is obtained by putting the secondary of continued 63 FRANCIS OF STREATHAM DECKS WITH PRE-AMPS (Microphone extra) - Akai 8 Tr. Cartridge CR.800 - Akai 40000 - Brenell Mk.6 - Ferrograph 702 4 - National RS803 US 8 Tr. Cart. - Pionier 1000 8 Tr. Cart. - Philips N.4500 3 sp. 4 Tr. - Revox 1102 4 sp. - Sharp 1000 7/2D 4 sp. 4 Tr. - Sony 366D 3 sp. 4 Tr. - Sony 266D 3 sp. 4 Tr. - Tandberg 8000 4 Tr. - Tandberg 3000 X 3 sp. 2/4 Tr. - Tandberg 6000 X 3 sp. 2/4 Tr. - Telefunken 205 3 sp. 4 Tr. - Telefunken 203 Studio MAINS SPOOL RECORDERS - Akai 4000 4 Tr. - Brenell Mk.6 - Grundig 113 - Ferrograph 7214 - Grundig 141 4 Tr. Mono - Grundig TK.121 2 Tr. Mono - Grundig 114 4 Tr. Mono Auto - Philips 4303 2 Tr. Mono - Philips 4305 2 Tr. Mono - Philips 4008 3 sp. 4 Tr. Mono - Philips 4404 2 sp. 4 Tr. - Philips Cassette 2401 Auto. - Philips 4406 3 sp. 4 Tr. - Philips 4407 3 sp. 4 Tr. - Philips 4408 Prof. 3 sp. 3 Tr. - "Rca" 4000 - Sharp 706 3 sp. 4 Tr. Mono - Sharp 708 3 sp. 4 Tr. - Sharp 709 3 sp. 4 Tr. - Sony 630 3 sp. 2/4 Tr. - Sony 540 3 sp. 4 Tr. - Sony 552 3 sp. 4 Tr. - "Tandberg" 152 4 Tr. 3 sp. Mono - "Tandberg" 4000 X 3 sp. 2/4 Tr. - "Telefunken" M207 2 sp. 4 Tr. - Telefunken 203 2 sp. 4 Tr. * All stereo, except where stated MAINS CASSETTE MODELS - Philips RH882 Tun./AM/Cass. - Sony HST392 Tun./AM/Cass. - Sony TC100 Cass./Spool - Sony TC160 - Sony TC165 (+ auto rev.) - National RS256US - "Keller" Dolby - "Rank Wharfedale Dolby - Philips 2400 - Philips 2401 Auto with ski-slope - Sony TC100 Deck and Pre-amp. - Sony C122 Deck PA. - Grundig CN222 Deck /PA - "Alpha" CD200 Deck /A - Sony TC12 Deck PA - Philips 2503 Deck Pre-amp. 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UP TO 18 MONTHS ★ Free Service during Guarantee period ★ Fair Part Exchange Allowance on your old Recorder ★ Reconditioned Recorders available to personal shoppers only AMPEX TAPE OFFERS (P—Polyester; M—Mylar; A—Acetate) \| Tape \| Length (ft) \| Price \| \|------\|-------------\|-------\| \| 7 \| D.P. 1000 ft (P) \| £1.50 \| \| 7 \| L.P. 1800 ft (P) \| £1.05 \| \| 7 \| L.P. 1150 ft (M) \| £0.88 \| \| 5 \| L.P. 1000 ft (A) \| £0.75p \| \| 5 \| Standard 850 ft (A) \| £0.69p \| \| 5 \| D.P. 1200 ft (P) \| £0.88p \| \| 5 \| L.P. 900 ft (P) \| £0.63p \| \| 5 \| Standard 800 ft (P) \| £0.60p \| Postage on orders under £3 add 10p, orders over £3 sent post paid U.K. Splicers, Defluxers, Bulk Erasers, Accessories of all kinds. --- HI-FI DEPT. - AMPLIFIERS - Quad, J. Collins, Philips, Goodman, Nikko, Armstrong, Lask, Tandberg, Teleton, Alpha, Wharfedale, Discound. - TUNERS - Quad, Nikko, Rogers, Leak, Armstrong, Nikko, Goodman, Huldra, Alpha. - LOUDSPEAKERS - Quad, Ditson 15, Sonab, Kef, Wharfedale, Goodman, Janney, Lowther, Lask, Tandberg, Celestion, Keleton. - MOTORS, PICK-UPS - CARTRIDG inc. S.P.25 Mk. III Goldring Macdonald Sonal J.B. Connoisseur Thorens Audiotek Neat Sonotone Acos SME DuB Grado Diadion styli, Microlifts, Pressure Gauges, Cleaning Accessories, Cabinets, etc. --- CHILTON M10 2 Ten Channel Mixer Inputs (interchangeable boards): 30/600 ohm floating balanced mic. 10K line bridging. RIAA gram. - PPM level meters. - Five spot frequency line-up oscillator. - +12 dBm maximum output at 0-05% distortion. - 121 dBm equivalent input noise (20 kHz bandwidth). - 30 Hz to 18 kHz ± 1dB frequency response. - Basic price is only £220. --- MAGNETIC TAPES LTD. Chilton Works, Garden Road, Richmond, Surrey. Telephone 01-876 7957 --- AUDIO CONNECTORS BROADCAST PATTERN JACKFIELDS, JACKCORDS PLUGS & JACKS. QUICK-DISCONNECT MICROPHONE CONNECTORS. AMPHENOL (TUCHEL) MINIATURE CONNECTORS WITH COUPLING NUT. HIRSCHMANN BANANA PLUGS & TEST PROBES. XLR COMPATIBLE IN-LINE ATTENUATORS. LOW COST SLIDER FADERS BY RUF. FUTURE FILM DEVELOPMENTS LTD. 90 Wardour Street WIV 3LE 01-437 1892/3 --- Grampian 'SERIES 7 AMPLIFIERS' for ultimate reliability and coolest running GRAMPIAN REPRODUCERS LIMITED Hanworth Trading Estate, Feltham, Middlesex. Telephone: 01-894 9141. the small amplifier output transformer in series with the lead from the auto-transformer originally used to provide $V_1$. Hence the supply voltage to the motor is now $$V = V_1 + V_2$$ It should be realised at this point that if the tape is replayed at exactly the right speed $V_2$ will be a 50 Hz signal, that is of exactly the same frequency of the mains, hence of $V_1$. To simplify the explanation of replay locking it will be assumed that the frequency of the mains remains exactly constant at all times. If for some reason the tape should begin to go slightly faster, the frequency of $V_2$ will change, but to begin with the change in $V_2$ can be regarded as a phase advance of $V_2$ with respect to $V_1$. Similarly if the tape should tend to go slower on replay than on recording, then $V_2$ will suffer a phase retardation with respect to $V_1$. The voltage $V$ supplying the motor must hence be regarded as a vector sum of $V_1$ and $V_2$, which can be illustrated geometrically in fig. 6. $V$ is the resultant of $V_1$ and $V_2$ where $\phi$ is a phase angle by which $V_2$ is in advance of $V_1$. If $\phi$ is expressed in degrees, then the actual time lag of $V_1$ behind $V_2$ for 50 Hz mains is: $$\frac{\phi}{360} \times \frac{1}{50} \text{ seconds}$$ The magnitude of $V$ is given by: $$V^2 = V_1^2 + V_2^2 + 2V_1V_2 \cos \phi$$ If the magnitudes of $V_1$ and $V_2$ are 160 volts and 40 volts respectively then: $V^2 = 160^2 + 40^2 + 2 \times 160 \times 40 \times \cos \phi$. It may well happen that on replay of the tape the frictional loading is exactly the same as when recording took place, and if this is so then $V$ must be able to take the values of the original motor supply namely $V_1$ of 160 volts. For this to occur it follows that $\phi$ must take up a value given by: $$\cos \phi = -\frac{40^2}{2 \times 160 \times 40} = -0.1250$$ giving $\phi = 97^\circ 11'$ or about $97\frac{1}{2}^\circ$. For this the vector diagram will become an isosceles triangle, fig. 7. It will thus be seen that for $\phi$ less than $97\frac{1}{2}^\circ$ the value of $V$ will exceed 160 volts for $V_1$ and $V_2$ as given, while for $\phi$ greater than $97\frac{1}{2}^\circ$, $V$ will be less than 160 volts. The maximum possible value of $V$, for $\phi = 0$, is $160 + 40 = 200$, with $V_1$ and $V_2$ exactly in step, and the least value of $V$, for $\phi = 180^\circ$, is $160 - 40 = 120$ with $V_1$ and $V_2$ exactly out of step. It is thus possible for locking to occur between the two sine (or cosine) waves which constitute $V_1$ and $V_2$, when the phase angle $\phi$ between them takes up a value between $0^\circ$ and $180^\circ$, which will give a value of $V$ such that the torque is just sufficient to balance the load, for the same value of motor slip $s$ which occurred under recording conditions. In general $V$ decreases as $\phi$ increases for $\phi$ between $0^\circ$ and $180^\circ$ and $V$ increases as $\phi$ decreases for $\phi$ between $180^\circ$ and $360^\circ$. Thus if a value of $\phi$ should exist between $0^\circ$ and $180^\circ$, and a disturbance such as a lowering of frictional load on the tape tends to cause the tape transport motor to speed up slightly $\phi$ thereby tends to increase, and hence a decrease in $V$ will result. The consequent reduction in torque will cause the speed to fall until $\phi$ reaches a new stable equilibrium value. Similarly if the motor loading should increase or if some tape stretch should have occurred between the time of recording and replay the value of $\phi$ will tend to decrease and an automatic stable increase of torque will take place. If a value of $\phi$ should occur on starting up the tape replay, which lies between $180^\circ$ and $360^\circ$, will be unstable, and the motor will either speed up or slow down momentarily so that $\phi$ 'topples' through about $\pm 180^\circ$ until the stable region is reached. It might be, though, that a system such as this would inevitably cause an oscillating speed change of the tape with consequent severe wow of the reproduced sound recording and indeed this can occur if the magnitude of $V_2$ is made too large. However it has been shown both by theory and experiment that suitable values for the magnitudes of $V_1$ and $V_2$ can be found for any induction motor so that stable locking can be obtained which is free from any oscillating speed changes. Checking of correct operation of the system is easily carried out by measuring the value of $V$, the net voltage applied to the induction motor, with a good quality, high resistance ac voltmeter. If the system is functioning properly on replay this voltage $V$ will remain very nearly constant with the recorder running freely, but if an extra load is imposed on the transport system as by lightly putting a finger on the tape supply spool the voltage $V$ will be seen to rise. $V$ will continue to rise as the load is increased until the limit is reached when $V$ becomes its maximum value. Further increase in the load will cause the locking to fail and $V$ will sweep up and down between its extreme possible values. Alternatively the load on the tape motor may be reduced by manual 'on winding' of the take up spool when the voltage $V$ will be seen to decrease. A simple device, which can be fitted to the recorder to show the existence of locking, is a miniature neon lamp with its series ballast resistor, connected across the motor. If locking exists the brightness of this lamp will remain steady, but if locking is lost the lamp brightness will fluctuate. It is interesting to see that when this phase locking synchronisation system is operating correctly it is more difficult to produce wow on play back by fingering the tape spools, than it is when the recorder is playing back under its ordinary direct mains operation. A further important point concerns the power range of the simple servo mechanism and the power output of the amplifier which provides $V_2$. As the motor runs at constant speed the load it presents to the electrical circuit can be treated as a resistance of $R$ ohms say. The power taken by the motor in general is given by: $$W = \frac{V^2}{R} \text{ watts}$$ The maximum power $W_{\text{max}} = \frac{(160 + 40)^2}{R} = \frac{40,000}{R} \text{ watts}$$ continued over and the minimum power $W_{\text{min}} = \frac{(160-40)^2}{R} = 14,400$ watts so the power range ratio $\frac{W_{\text{max}}}{W_{\text{min}}} = \left(\frac{200}{120}\right)^2 = \left(\frac{5}{3}\right)^2 = \frac{25}{9}$ However the contribution made to the maximum power by the amplifier is: $\frac{(V_1 + V_2) \times V_1}{R} - \frac{V_2}{R} = \frac{200 \times 40}{8,000}$ watts which is only one fifth of the maximum power. This means that the amplifier output power needs to be only about one fifth of that normally required to drive the motor, and yet this is capable of controlling the power to the motor over a power range of 25:9 or nearly three times. Lest one should think that power is being obtained for nothing, it should be pointed out that the contribution to the maximum power made by the amplifier is: $\frac{(V_1 + V_2) \times V_1}{R} - \frac{(160+40) \times 160}{R} = \frac{32,000}{R}$ watts and to the minimum power: $\frac{(V_1 - V_2) \times V_1}{R} - \frac{(160-40) \times 160}{R} = \frac{19,200}{R}$ watts Thus although the voltage $V_2$ makes a contribution to increased or reduced power requirement brought about by changing conditions, it works partly by causing more or less power to be supplied from the mains. Thus it has been shown that with the values of $V_1$ and $V_2$ already taken, that a maximum power output from the amplifier of only five watts is all that is needed to control the total power supplied to the tape motor over a range from nine watts to twenty five watts. If, as happens most of the time, the magnitude of $V$ is required to be almost the same as $V_1$, the amplifier is called upon to do very little work. So far only variation in frictional load and tape stretch have been mentioned as factors which could cause the replay time of a given passage to be different from that taken for its recording. In addition to these, there can be a variation of tape creep at the pinch roller, and also a variation in the mains voltage. Hence the value of $V_1$ may not be the same on replay as when recording, nevertheless the servo system described ensures that the recorded 50 Hz signal on one track locks in phase with the mains supply on replay. It has been shown that no audible wow is produced even if a recorded tape is cut and spliced with the removal of a length corresponding to a half cycle of the recorded 50 Hz signal. --- SOUND IN THE THEATRE continued KW Why object to 'effects'. IG It is the general philosophy behind it. People generally think of having an effect here and there. I've seen directors plan their sound. They flick through a script. 'Let's try this here—wouldn't it be nice to have that there'—et cetera. There is so often no relationship between the sounds and the play and, in cases like this, the sounds add nothing to the work. On a 69 Company production, the directors, the lighting designer, sound designer, composer and the set and costume designers usually all meet each other so that the whole production is a team effort and is thought about in total right from the word 'go'. In other words, it's a total conception. This obviously shows in performance. In fact some critics have been surprised at the integration and attention to minutiae in this company's productions. I usually try to have tapes ready for a production two to three weeks before rehearsals finish so that errors can be corrected and the sound can be integrated into the production. JB Sound and vision in particular must be matched—they cannot be separated. IG In some ways the acoustic environment can be more important than the visual environment. Isn't it true that, generally, aural sensations have a more powerful effect on the senses and emotions than visual ones? To my way of thinking, a thing like a sea-gull can somehow summon up a whole atmosphere—something which it might take a hundred lanterns and a lot of scenery to produce. Sound is the only element of theatre which can create for the audience a three-dimensional situation. That is, it is the only way of surrounding them and drawing them into a play. IG We both saw a production of King Lear at Nottingham which provided a glorious example of non-integration in the theatre. The long storm scene in this play was accompanied by kettle drums! I'm told that, by adopting this technique, the director was able to hear the actors. Had all the sounds been symbolic this could have been acceptable, but attempts were made at other times to have realistic 'effects'. The battlement scene in Hamlet can be quite chilling and yet, in one recent production I saw, this scene became quite comical because of the sound track. Sea and/or wind had been synthesised, so obviously, probably on a VCS 3. As this was a rather long sequence, the recordist's patience had run out before the end of the cue, so a tape loop had been made. This gave a very amusing 'thiccough' each time the join went past the playback head. What conclusions must we reach when an audience is expected to accept this level of work in a professional theatre? Other people were also aware of these instances I've described, so I'm sure I can't be accused of just listening to the sound cues. JB When the 69 Company did The Tempest, we had the actors struggling against the storm and 20 tons of sand. I had 27 sound cues in the first 40 seconds and, at one point, it was so difficult for one of the actors to shout above the storm that we had his lines on tape. IG The Professor of Drama at Massachusetts Institute of Technology remarked that the production 'had a soundtrack of a scope and conception one normally associates with film'. John nearly had a nervous breakdown operating on The Tempest. This discussion continues next month and deals with the choice and operation of sound equipment in the theatre. Classified Advertisements Advertisements for this section must be pre-paid. The rate is 6p per word, minimum 60p. Box Nos. 20p extra. Semi-display £3.00 per inch. Copy and remittance for advertisements in SEPTEMBER 1972 issue must reach these offices by 14th JULY 1972 addressed to: The Advertisement Manager, Studio Sound, Link House, Dingwall Avenue, Croydon CR9 2TA. NOTE: Advertisement copy must be clearly printed in block capitals or typewritten. Replies to Box Nos. should be addressed to the Advertisement Manager, Studio Sound, Link House, Dingwall Avenue, Croydon CR9 2TA, and the Box No. quoted on the outside of the envelope. The district after Box No. indicates its locality. APPOINTMENTS VACANT AUDIO MAN For Newly Opened Crucible Theatre, Sheffield Must be fully experienced in recording techniques, in creating sound and in maintenance and operation of the latest equipment. Apply: Production Manager, The Crucible Theatre, Norfolk St., Sheffield, S1 1DA NAGRA The World's Finest Professional Portable Tape Recorder Junior Service Engineer Our steadily increasing business requires the appointment of another young engineer to join our Service Department in the West End of London. The successful applicant will be an enthusiastic and diligent worker with a good understanding of basic tape recorder principles and a standard of workmanship consistent with the quality of the product. Good salary and conditions including four weeks' annual holiday. Interviews to be held in London. Please send full details in writing quoting ref SE3 to: MANAGING DIRECTOR HAYDEN LABORATORIES LTD. Hayden House, 17 Chesham Road, Amersham, Buckinghamshire SITUATIONS WANTED ★ Audio engineer (39) seeks position in radio, T.V. or recording studios (preferably London area). Past experience with B.B.C. radio and commercial T.V. in both operational and maintenance capacities. Box 636. ★ Cassette recording technician (27) seeks further experience. Anything, anywhere considered. Brighton 63373. ★ After 2 years employment in audio electronics I wish to further my career by training as a studio sound engineer. 19 years old, A levels in maths and physics and very keen. Offers please to Box 637. STUDIO FACILITIES YOUR TAPES TO DISC Records made—order—7in from £1.50, 12in from £2.00. 4 day post-pressing. Vinyl pressings, photo sleeves, labels. Tax free for schools, colleges etc. We cut records for many Recording Studios, Record Companies, etc and use the same equipment for you— ★ NEW EQUIPMENT CUTTING LATHES including auto stereo system. Philips and Telefunken professional studio tape machines with Ferrite playback heads. DOLBY A301 system. 200W Radford amplifiers. Lockwood monitor speakers. Teletronics and Ortofon Limiters. Revox domestic TJR. Send SAE for photo leaflet. DEROY STUDIOS Hawk Street, CARNFORTH, Lancs. Tel. 2273 ★ County Recording Service. Stereo and Mono masters, 12" vinyl pressings. ★ Coastal Music Studios Ltd. All tape to disc services. Commercial pressings and masters by quotation. Please send for brochure to: 1 Royal Terrace, Lowesoft. mjb recording and transcription service Vinyl pressings and acetate demasters. Limiting, compression and equalisation facilities; high undistorted cutting levels with feedback cutter heads. Booklet available. MICHAEL'S SHINFIELD ROAD, SHINFIELD GREEN, READING, BERKS. Reading (034) 84487 Member A.P.R.S. ★ County Recording Service. 7" vinyl discs pressed on our own plant. ★ Graham Clark Records. Tape to disc pressings. 124A Station Road, Addlesione, Weybridge, Surrey. Tel. Weybridge 43367. ★ Fanfare Records. Tape-disc pressings, demo's, masters, any quantity. Studio/mobile. Neumann disc cutter. S.A.E. brochure. 1 Broomfield Close, Rydes Hill, Guildford. Telephone 0483 61684. ★ County Recording Service. Stereo and Mono discs from your tape. COMPACT CASSETTES PROFESSIONAL HIGH-SPEED DUPLICATION Dolby B—compression and equalisation available—competitive prices on small runs—full productions undertaken—multi-track language specialists. Contact Chris Sands AUDIO EDUCATION COMPANY 01-723 6835 STUDIO FACILITIES Contd ROGER SQUIRE DJ STUDIOS Our specialist studio is available for recording DJ programmes, audition tapes, sound commercials, and jingles. Can we help you? 01-722 8111 ★ J & B Recordings. Tape to disc—latest high level disc cutting, all speeds. Mastering pressings, studio, mobile. 14 Willows Avenue, Morden, Surrey. MITcham 9952. ★ County Recording Service. Top quality, reasonable price, quick delivery. Tel. Bracknell 4935. London Road, Binfield, Bracknell, Berks RG12 5BS. FOR SALE—TRADE DOLBY 'B' THE NEW KELLAR RANGE NOW AVAILABLE By advantageous arrangement we have stocks of units by this Leader in the Dolby 'B' field to offer at very special prices. All brand new, unopened boxes, and with Full Service and Guarantee. KDB.1 Basic Model ............... £39.00 KDB.1/T. With Telex finish Cabinet ....... 40.75 KDB.2 De Luxe Model for 3 Head Decks £69.00 KDB.3 Budget Model—Simplified layout £39.75 KDA.40 Full Speed, 20-20 Amp incorporating Dolby 'B' ............ £69.00 Calibration tapes for accurate setting up of all Dolby 'B' machines. Reels £1.05 each. Cassettes £1.15 each C.W.O. or call (by appointment only please). D.B. ASSOCIATES 75 MARLOW RD., LONDON S.E.20 ★ If quality matters consult first our 105-page illustrated Hi-fi catalogue with technical specifications (60p). Members enjoy unbiased advisory service, preferential terms. Membership (40p) p.a. Our associates also manufacture records from your own tapes or record the Master at our studios (See our Grads). Bulk terms for choirs, fund-raising, simi-discs. Please specify requirements. Audio Supply Association, 18 Blenheim Road, London, W.4. Tel 01-995 1661. ★ Professional heavy duty slave 100 watt power amplifiers—suitable for all types of public address and discotheque systems—£84.50. Wayne Industries, 23 Ripley Road, Worthing, Sussex. ★ Lancashire. Tandberg Ferrograph Tape Recorders, etc. Plus over 10,000 high fidelity systems. After-sales service. Holdings, Photo-Audio Centre, 39-41 Mircing Lane, Blackburn BBA 2AF. Tel. 59595/6. RAC MIXERS We can design to your exact requirements using our range of printed circuit modules at reasonable prices, e.g. 6 input stereo mixers with tone and pan controls from £100. Please ask for a quote. Or if you wish build it yourself, using our modules—send for details. RUGBY AUTOMATION CONSULTANTS 220 Alwyn Road, Rugby. 0788-810367 FOR SALE—TRADE Contd SOWTER TRANSFORMERS for all purposes in SOUND RECORDING AND REPRODUCING EQUIPMENT We are suppliers to many recording companies, studios and broadcasting authorities and were established in 1941. Early deliveries. Competitive prices. Large or small quantities, write us now SOWTER LTD. Transformer Manufacturers and Designers 7 Dedham Place, Fore Street, Ipswich IP4 1JP Telephone 0473 52794 ★ Tame those dB's . . . Plug in professional quality FET compressor module £15.50. For the 'slick operator' . . . 'Voice over' module £15.50. S.A.E details. Cathedral Sound SS. "Fourways," Morris Lane, Halsall, Lancs. L39 8SX. ★ Complete 805 Outfit including case. Normal price £250. Special offer £180. Semitecniche MD112 Microphone, new and boxed. Normal price £44 special offer £32. AKG D109 Microphone, special offer £9. AKG D19C Microphone, special offer £12. J. J. Francis (Wood Green) Ltd., 123 Alexandra Road, Hornsey, London, N.8. Tel. 01-888 1662. ★ Professional tape only 45p, 1200ft. Agfa on hubs no joins (p. & p. one box 25p, each additional box 10p). We handle 99% of all s.h professional recording equipment. Send for list. Jackson Studios Rickmansworth, Herts. FOR SALE—PRIVATE ★ Shure M63-2E automaster professional preamp. Adjustable filters, VU meter, volume and tone controls. As new. £40 o.n.o. Beattie, Beechcroft, Town Lane, Mobberley, Cheshire. WANTED ★ Lee Electronics. The Tape Recorder and Hi-Fi Specialists wish to purchase good quality Tape and Hi-Fi equipment for cash. 400 Edgware Road, W.2. Phone PAD 5521. ★ Highest possible cash prices for Revox, Ferro- graph, Brenell, Vortexion, Tandberg, Aka, B. & O., Sanyo, Sony, Uher. 9.30-5.00. Tel. 01-242 7401. ★ Complete Recording Studios purchased for cash. Also all types of Professional Recorders and associated equipment. J. J. Francis (Wood Green) Ltd., 123 Alexandra Road, Hornsey, London, N.8. Tel. 01-888 1662. ★ Nagras (all models) and assorted equipment required immediately for cash settlement. Tel. 01-888 1662. MISCELLANEOUS ★ Repairs. Our modern service department equipped with the latest test equipment includ- ing a wow and flutter meter and multiplex stereo signal generator is able to repair hi-fi and tape recording equipment to manufac- turer's standards. Teleconic Ltd., 92 Totten- ham Court Road, London, W.I. Tel. 01-636 8177. ★ Tape and Cassette Recorder Repairs by Specialists. The Tape Recorder Centre, 82 High Holborn, London, W.C.1. MISCELLANEOUS Contd ★ Ladders. 24½ft. £9.80, carr. 80p. Leaflet. Callers welcome (Dept. SOS), Home Sales, Baldwin Road, Stourport, Worcs. Phone 02- 993 2574 5222. Order c.o.d. Ansalone installed 5222. Printers Error ★ F. W. O. Bauch Ltd. wish to point out that the model number featured on their advertise- ment which appeared on page 30 in the July 1972 issue of Studio Sound should have read U47 fet i. and regret any inconvenience caused. INDEX TO ADVERTISERS Acoustical Manufacturing Co. Ltd. . . . 10 Acoustico Enterprises Ltd. . . . 8 Action Video Ltd. . . . 9 Alice (Stancoil) Ltd. . . . 60 Allen & Heath Ltd. . . . 34 Allotrope Ltd. . . . 46 Amity Recording Development . . . 5 Apollo Electronics . . . 32 Areac Ltd. . . . 6 Audionics . . . 6 Audio & Design Recording Ltd. . . . 4 Audio Developments Ltd. . . . 46 Audix B. B. Ltd. . . . 56 Bauch Ltd., F. W. O. . . . 50 Beyer Dynamic (G.B.) Ltd. . . . 15 Bias Electronics Ltd. . . . 32 Cadac (London) Ltd. . . . 48 Calder Recordings Ltd. . . . 52 Cave, F., Ltd. . . . 67 Chadacre Electronics Ltd. . . . 24 C.T.H. Electronics . . . 52 D.E.W. Ltd. . . . 64 Discourses Ltd. . . . 20 D. J. Electronics (Hackney) Ltd. . . . 17 Electrosonic Ltd. . . . 34 Feldon Audio Ltd. . . . 20 Ferrograph Co. Ltd. . . . 13 Francis, J. J. (Wood Green) Ltd. . . . 24 Francis of Streatham . . . 62 Fraser-Peacock Associates Ltd. . . . 8, 22 Future Film Developments Ltd. . . . 62 Grampian Reproducers Ltd. . . . 62 H.H. Electronics . . . 15 Lennard Development Ltd. . . . 4 Macinnes Labs Ltd. . . . 6 Magnevic Tapes Ltd. . . . 62 Midas Professional Amplification . . . 28 Millbank Electronics Group . . . 44 Minnesota Mining & Mfg. Co. Ltd. . . . 26, 27 M.S.R. Electronics Ltd. . . . 17 Neve, Rupert, & Co. Ltd. . . . 68 Pace Electronics . . . 60 Philips Electrical Ltd. . . . 38 Pye TVT Ltd. . . . 40 Radford Audio Ltd. . . . 9 Revox . . . 36 Richardson Electronics Ltd., J. . . . 28 Rola Celestion Ltd. . . . 2 Rosser Electronics Ltd. . . . 42 Shure Electronics Ltd. . . . 7 Sonifex Sound Equipment . . . 50 Spendor Audio Systems Ltd. . . . 4 Starman Tapes . . . 66 T. B. Technical Ltd. . . . 6 Trident Studio . . . 54 Vortexion Ltd. . . . 58 Walker, N. . . . 60 Wilmex Ltd. . . . 22, 32 Studio Sound ANNUAL SUBSCRIPTION RATES Australia 7 Dollars Austria 200 Schillings Belgium 400 Francs Brazil 10 Cruzciro Canada 8 Dollars Denmark 60 Krone France 44 Francs Germany 10 Marks Greece 240 Drachma Holland 28 Guilders Italy 5,000 Lire Japan 2,850 Yen Norway 57 Krone Portugal 230 Escudos South Africa 30 Rand Spain 1,000 Pesetas Sweden 41 Kronor Switzerland 33 Francs United Kingdom £3.00 United States 8 Dollars Ensure regular delivery of your monthly copy through a direct subscription from STUDIO SOUND LINK HOUSE, DINGWALL AVE., CROYDON CR9 2TA, ENGLAND Published by the Proprietors, Link House Publications Limited, 10-12 South Crescent, Store Street, London WC1E 7BG, and Printed by Arthurs Press Limited, Woodchester, Stroud, Glos. GL5 5PH. the critical stage in the birth of great recordings — the stage when highly skilled craftsmen, working under the direction of top project engineers, build sound control equipment under laboratory conditions. Every Neve console is designed to meet the client’s individual requirements and built to meet the most exacting standards. Rupert Neve & Company Ltd., Cambridge House, Melbourn, Royston, Hertfordshire. SG8 6AU, England. Tel: Royston (0763) 6077G Telex: 81381 Rupert Neve of Canada Ltd., 7528 Bath Road, Malton, Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Tel: 416-677 6611 Rupert Neve Incorporated, Berkshire Industrial Park, Bethel, Connecticut 06801, U.S.A. Tel: (203) 744 0230 Telex: 969638
Library Elects New Trustees At the annual meeting of the Cornwall Library Association, on September 17, the members of the association elected two new trustees to the nine-member board. They also re-elected four others who had been appointed by the board to serve out the terms of trustees who resigned during the year. The new trustees are Jessica Fowler and Will Calhoun. Re-elected to new three-year terms were Lisa Lansing Simont and Michael Pollan, while Jill Bryant and Tom Bechtle were elected to complete two-year terms. Ella Clark and Audrey Ferman continue their terms. The Cornwall residents present at the meeting also heard a report on the recent steps taken toward building the new library. A two-acre site has been acquired next to Town Hall, architect Ken MacLean has made substantial progress on preliminary floor plans and, on September 1, an application was submitted to the State Library asking for a $462,000 grant to help finance construction. Action on the application is expected by the end of this year. At a meeting of the Board of Trustees held immediately after the annual meeting, officers were elected to serve for three-year terms. The new officers are: Lisa Lansing Simont, President; David A. Grossman, Vice-President; Tom Bechtle, Treasurer; and Jill Bryant, Secretary. —Hanna K. Grossman New Designs For Cornwall Bridge A recently published Route 7 "Corridor Management Plan" presents three options for redesign of traffic flows at Cornwall Bridge. Sponsored by the State Department of Transportation, the plan was prepared by Lardner/Klein, a firm of landscape architects, working with a number of other engineering and design firms. Their overall plan, paid for by the Federal Highway Administration, examines and proposes improvements for the entire length of Route 7 in the towns of Kent, Cornwall, and Sharon. The plan cites the commercial center at Cornwall Bridge as "a good example of how a few minor improvements can define community character and a sense of place...." The planners start by presenting a graphic analysis of actions they feel should be taken to address the traffic and visual problems of the area on either side of the bridge. Then they present three options to address these problems. Option A is the minimum approach. Mainly, it tries to improve traffic safety by reducing the number of entrances to one per commercial property and introducing an internal roadway within the parking areas in front of the stores along Route 7. Option B goes a bit further, adding "T-shaped" intersections and right-turn lanes at the corners of the existing traffic triangle where Routes 7 and 4 meet. Option C goes much further. It suggests a complete rebuilding of the traffic system around the central green that would essentially convert it into a one-way traffic circle. This approach, the planners say, will "become even more important if traffic volumes increase in the future." But even today, they argue that it would improve the appearance of Cornwall Bridge and increase awareness of it as "a community focus and commercial node." In all three options the architects recommend improved plantings, including a wildflower demonstration area. Asked about the proposed redesign options, several Cornwall Bridge merchants expressed agreement that something needs to be done to improve traffic safety. Dusty Sandmeyer at Northwest Lumber, who was the Board of Selectmen's representative on the state project's advisory committee, said that Option C, the roundabout, struck him as perhaps the best idea. "At least," he said, "it would slow down the cars that now speed south along Route 7 at crazy speeds." But he criticized all three options as unrealistic in the too-limited amounts of space they allow for turning trucks or parking. He also said there wasn't really room for the proposed internal circulation roadway. (continued on page 2) His views on the dangers of speeding traffic were echoed by Richard Bramley at the Cornwall Package Store. Richard was especially troubled by the people heading north across the concrete bridge who failed to obey the stop sign where Route 7 meets Route 4. Kenneth "KC" Baird of Baird's General Store agreed that anything that would slow traffic to more reasonable speeds would be a great improvement. He cited the winter problem when piled-up snow sometimes obscures the stop sign in front of his store and drivers barrel on into Route 7. All three local merchants agreed that there is a real need for improvement in the design of the Cornwall Bridge center. If you're interested in assessing the corridor plan options for yourself (or starting work on your own design), a copy of the state report is available in the Town Office. —David A. Grossman Corvus Corax Have you heard a new sound in the air around Cornwall in recent months, a low hoarse croak? It's not a crow with a cold, but a much larger bird, a raven. When you see one up close, notice the thicker, shaggier throat feathers and the heavier beak shaped like a "Roman nose." Ravens disappeared from the East before 1900 but in recent decades they have been expanding their range again, moving south from the far North into their former habitats. Several years ago, we watched ravens feeding on a deer carcass alongside bald eagles on the frozen pond at Miles Wildlife Sanctuary on West Cornwall Road. It's possible that they liked what they saw around here and decided to settle down. This summer we think a pair of ravens nested in West Cornwall for the first time, suggesting that these highly intelligent birds intend to become permanent year 'round residents. Ravens perform an astonishing display of aerial acrobatics—soaring, wheeling, and tumbling, with spectacular rolls and dives that serve both as mating ritual and play. Ornithologists believe that ravens are testing and extending their physical ability, which may account for why they have adapted so successfully to so many different environments. We are reminded of Princess, our West Cornwall crow who delighted us with her antics before her relocation to the Sharon Audubon Center. Now her cousins have arrived to entertain us as well. —Carla Bigelow Vocational Diversity Maybe it is time to celebrate Cornwall's diversity. When it comes to ways of making a living, our town is truly an amazing place. One thinks first of people whose work involves some kind of public display. Tim Prentice has been commissioned to do kinetic sculpture all over the world. Leslie Elias' Grumbling Gryphons Traveling Children's Theater, featuring costumes and masks made by Ellen Moon, delights family audiences from coast to coast. And Michael Moschen! To call this man a juggler is like calling Itzhak Perlman a fiddler; get his video from the Cornwall Library and enjoy. In Cornwall, it seems, if you look on the far side of the nearest hill, you're likely to find some kind of "odd jobber" who labors along out of the limelight. The following is just a sample: Scoville Soulé, working in his cellar and a Hartford foundry, is perfecting a ceramic process that some say could revolutionize the whole foundry industry. Bob Murphy is a licensed naturopathic physician who practices at the Northwest Holistic Health Center in Torrington. Barbara Gold is vice president of Curriculum Development Associates, Inc., a firm that publishes inter-denominational Sunday School materials nationwide. Paul Baren's firm, Katonah Architectural Hardware, provides custom door hardware for the high end of the market, such as Bill Gates' new Seattle mansion. Skip Hunt and his sister run a family business in Goshen, Ground Support Products, which makes the wheels, tires, and casters used on airport baggage carts. Bill Lyon is vice president for human resources of the W. E. Bassett Co. in Shelton, which makes "world famous Trim manicure implements." Biffy Estabrook designs bird replicas that are manufactured by a company in China and distributed through L. L. Bean and other outlets. Phyllis Wojan—though it's more of a life than a living—continues empirical studies of her mouse colony, and has developed a strain that "cannot be fed into obesity," of great interest to Rockefeller University and others. Harry Colley, a dedicated environmentalist, makes and distributes Cloverdale, an effective biodegradable cleaner sold from Maine to Florida—and now, via the Internet, globally. David Monagan publishes newsletters for doctors covering the most recent developments in cardiology and heart surgery. In addition to his painting, Ira Barkoff has developed a product he calls Deer No No, which discourages deer from eating your flowers and shrubbery. And we mustn't forget our unique agriculturalists: Deb Tyler sells rich, unpasteurized natural milk from her Local Farm dairy. Gordon Ridgway offers organic vegetables from his North Cornwall farm. John and Nancy Calhoun raise and sell llama breeding stock on their Cathedral Pines Farm—and have time to run a bed-and-breakfast on the side. Above, we did say "just a sample." So if we missed your neighbor, pass the word along and we'll try for another story. —Bob Potter Welcome Alyssa Catherine Pequignot to Janice Pepper and Robert Pequignot Mikayla May Oyanadel to Sarah and Maurice Oyanadel Good-bye to a Friend Erich Richter, Jr. Congratulations Joshua Tyson to Catherine Hosterman Peter Bernard to Debbie Lynn Laigle Land Transfers Est. of Edwin S. Shurtleff to Maurice L. and Sarah R. Oyanadel, house and 1 acre at 112 Popple Swamp Road for $135,000. David E. Harmon to Robert S. Rubin, 4.4 acres on Route 63 for $62,500. Sarah M. Paul to Leland L. and Frances Taliaferro, 1 acre on Town Street for $6,000. Harvey Offenhardt, Inc. Employees Retirement Plan to David Margolis, 6.2 acres off Sharon Goshen Tpk. for $50,000. Christine Rappoport to William Peter and Sheila T. Beurkert, house and 8.5 acres at 37 Woodruff Lane for $695,000. Mark D. and Joy P. Marino to Lydia Leeds, house and 3.5 acres at 14 Johnson Road for $220,000. Skunked? When Gene Pascocello of Yelping Hill Road went into the woods to investigate his dog's persistent barking he found himself face to face with a vicious skunk. It was not your ordinary run-of-the-mill timid skunk. It let out a scream and lunged at Gene. Realizing that such behavior might be indicative of rabies, Gene went home for his gun. He likened what followed to stalking wild game in Africa: He advanced and tried to take aim, the skunk lunged, he retreated, and so on several times. Finally Gene landed a shot. He then got out his backhoe and buried the skunk deep enough not to be retrieved by other animals. Rick Stone, Animal Control Officer, reports that the incidence of rabies in our area (one skunk and one raccoon) has been lower than in previous years, and less than in neighboring towns. However, he advises that everyone be on the lookout for suspicious animal behavior and report it to him so he can log it. An animal suspected of rabies does not need to be sent off for examination unless it has had contact with a person or a domestic animal. —Bee Simont Kay Fenn Retires The Cornwall Free Library’s longest-serving trustee retired in August after decades of dedicated service as a member of the Board of Trustees. Kay Fenn, who served as president of the Library Board for 14 years, led the library through long periods of minimal budgets and limited space, but she was always fiercely proud of the quality of its book collections and the vital role it played in serving the community. Mrs. Fenn also served as Cornwall’s Town Clerk for many years. —David A. Grossman Freydberg Resigns Robin Freydberg has resigned as a member of the Board of Education. She was serving as secretary of the board. The Democratic Town Committee will appoint a replacement to fill the seat on the board. In other news from the Board of Education meeting on September 17, Brian Kavanagh circulated a proposed survey to determine interest in town in building a new gym at CCS. The board suggested that comments about the survey be sought from the selectmen and the Board of Finance before it is sent out. —Bee Simont Correction Accidentally omitted from last month’s article about the Cornwall Cub Scouts’ good work effort were the names of Kyle Julian and Matthew Mulberry. Sorry, guys! Events & Announcements Why Animals Are Returning to Cornwall: At the annual meeting of the Cornwall Land Trust, Paul Rego of the DEP will give a talk with slides on the return of fur-bearing animals to our area. Everyone welcome. Town Hall, Sunday, October 4, at 2 p.m. Letters to the Chronicle TOWN SUPPORTS NEW LIBRARY Over the past year the Library Trustees, the Board of Selectmen and other organizations have held many open meetings to discuss an improved new library for Cornwall. Still, there are questions about why the Library did not buy the Monroe-Bodkin building to renovate as a new library space. The short answer is that we tried, but we couldn’t reach an agreement with the building’s owners, either on what would be a fair price or on several restrictive conditions they wanted to set on the Library’s use of the site. After our efforts to reach an agreement failed last January, the Library Trustees voted to look for a new site. Luckily we were able to acquire the best possible place, right next door to the existing Library, at a very reasonable price. Our planning meetings have been open to the public and many Cornwall residents came and gave us their views. On June 27, all Cornwall citizens had a chance to vote on the matter in a formal referendum. The voters spoke, by a three-to-one margin, to approve the Library’s plans to move. We voted on the town’s participation: $250,000 to compensate the Library for its old space which the town will use for office space. All the rest of the funding to build the new library will come from private contributions and from a state grant, for which we have already applied. We know it has been difficult to get to this decision. We are grateful for the support we have received from town residents. The Library Building Committee learned on its trips to look at other libraries that each of them had gone through similar struggles and each of them had found their towns loved the new buildings and used them frequently. The value of a new library means something different to each of us. The one common ground we can find is the gift a new library will be to our children, ours and our neighbors’, in the many future years this new library will serve us. —The Trustees of the Cornwall Library (see story p.1) CORNWALL NEEDS ITS BUGS! Katherine Freygang Flagg must be complimented for alerting the town to the scarcity of gnats this summer in her letter to last month’s Chronicle, but I take issue with her light-hearted approach (“I have lost my excuse for not weeding my garden”) to an extremely alarming situation. And it’s not just the gnats. Mosquitoes too are becoming an endangered species here. Ms. Flagg supposes that the state of affairs is temporary. But what if, as the result, say, of global warming, Cornwall’s summer gnats and mosquitoes are going the way of the timber wolf? Cornwall’s traditions are at stake. And consider the consequences. Will we have to rename the Cornwall Gnats? Will we have to call them the Cornwall Luna Moths? Many people in Cornwall have installed bat houses. What are the bats to eat? I foresee a time when our bat houses will be empty and The New York Times will be publishing heart-rending photographs of starving bats that have fled as refugees to more favored towns. And what about our bragging rights for having the meanest mosquitoes this side of New Jersey? If the word gets out that they’re not a problem any more, all the stockbrokers and public relations people who now infest Kent and Lakeville will buy summer places in Cornwall. And there goes the neighborhood. Something must be done! We must petition the selectmen to put out old tires and other receptacles for stagnant water where insects can breed. Cornwall was once bug paradise. It can and must be paradise again. —Hendon Chubb POET LAUREATE I would like to carry a step further the suggestion of Paul Baren that we adopt an epithet for Cornwall. How about an official Poet Laureate for our town? Robert Pinsky does fine on a national level, but our community of talented creative people really deserves its very own laureate. And what better choice, after hearing his moving reading of Iron Roses, (and his more lighthearted commemorative verses on many other occasions) than Ken Keskinen? Perhaps the Board of Selectmen would be willing to act on this suggestion. —Stephen Senzer ALL IS RIGHT WITH THE WORLD All is right with the world; David Cadwell is back working at Hedgerow’s Market in West Cornwall. He has been missed, so I hope his previous clientele will know where to get friendly service, some chit-chat, a cup of java, sandwiches, etc. Now if only the other restaurants could reopen, maybe West Cornwall would come alive after many dead months, with only the kids playing on Main Street. The only drawing cards have been The Wish House, Pottery Store, The Book Store, Housatonic Outfitters, Shaker Furniture, Little Benefit Shop, and most of all, this time of year, Mary’s giant hibiscus. —Elizabeth Locke School Volunteer Program: The CCS PTA is looking for people to donate some time as CCS volunteers. Volunteers are needed to dedicate one or more hours per week to work with students and staff in a variety of situations. Some volunteers work with individual students or small groups of children, while others assist teachers with special projects. People who have experiences or knowledge to share are welcome. A training/orientation session is provided. Anyone who is interested should call Mary Ann Fox at 672-0192. The Cornwall Association annual meeting will be held Saturday, October 24 at 2 p.m. at Cornubia Hall. Kay Fenn and Scoville Soule will be honored with awards for their service to the Cornwall Library. Officers and new board members will be elected. Refreshments will follow the meeting. All are welcome. UCC Harvest Supper: The United Church of Christ will hold its annual Harvest Supper on Saturday, October 24, at 6 p.m. at the Parish House behind the church. The supper will be potluck, with the church furnishing meat, buns, and beverages. Anyone with questions should call Joyce Hart at 672-0247. The Firefighters’ Ball will be held Saturday, October 3, at 8 p.m. at Mohawk Mountain Lodge. Ram Miles and Advanced Phunk will play for dancing until midnight. Sodas, refreshments, and set-ups will be available, as well as a raffle and door prizes. Tickets are $25 a couple. Proceeds will benefit the Cornwall Volunteer Fire Department. Checks may be mailed to the CVFD, Box 180, West Cornwall, CT 06796. Children’s Librarian Change: The Cornwall Library wishes Virginia Bredenberg a very fond farewell; she and her family are moving to Danbury. Newly appointed to the position of assistant/children’s librarian is Amy Buck. She is a graphic artist who has taught children’s art classes and substituted at CCS. Elderly Health Screening will be on Tuesday, October 13 at CCS. This service is available to Cornwall residents age 60 and over. A wide range of tests is offered, including hearing, vision, urine, height, weight, Pap/pelvic/breast exam, prostate exam, blood tests, blood pressure, stool, electrocardiogram, glaucoma, and health education. The suggested donation is $20 ($25 for Pap test). For an appointment call the Municipal Agent for Elderly, Jill Gibbons at 672-2603. Torrington Area Health District representatives will also be present that day offering influenza and pneumonia vaccines. There is a nominal fee for the vaccines, which will be offered from 10 a.m. to noon, with no appointment necessary. Bulb Sale for Girl Scouts: Girl Scout leaders and parents will be raising funds for the Scouts by selling White Flower Farm bulbs on Saturday, October 10, 10 a.m.-4 p.m. in front of the Housatonic Rug Shop in Cornwall Bridge. There is still time for girls in grades K-12 to join the Girl Scouts. Call Cynthia Hurlburt at 672-6268 for information. Art in Cornwall: At the National Iron Bank, Nancy Van Gessel will be showing prints, oils, and watercolors beginning October 1. At the Library, Skip Hunt’s exhibit continues until October 3. From October 5 to November 7, Joan Edler will show watercolors and pastels. At the Hedgerow’s Upstairs Gallery there will be an opening on October 4 from 5 to 7 p.m. of an exhibit of photographs by Harry Colley, Asher Pavel, Art Gingert, Don Heiny, and Peter Hollander. Any Old Odd Jobs will be welcome to eighth graders who are raising funds for their class trip. Two kids will labor for $10 an hour raking leaves, shoveling snow, stacking wood, or cleaning house. Call 672-2939 and leave a message. Speakers on International Justice: On two Sundays, October 18 and 25, at 11:30 a.m., Dr. Vernon Ferwerda and Dr. Abdo Ballester, specialists in the field of international law, will speak at the UCC Parish House on the relationships between human rights, international law, and national sovereignty. Tai Chi Chuan classes will begin October 14 at 6:30 p.m. at the CCS gym. Tai Chi is an ancient Chinese martial art and the classes are part of the PTA CHOICES afterschool program. The October class is free and will consist of a demonstration and beginner class. For more information call Martha Cheo, (914) 677-0304. The Park & Rec. Hay Ride will be from 2 to 3 p.m. on October 3 (rain date October 4). Peter Russ and Fred Scoville will be on their tractors at CCS ready to take us up Cream Hill. Cider, doughnuts and apples await us, young and old, when we return. The Park & Rec. Halloween Party will be held this year at CCS on Saturday, October 31, from 2 to 3:30 p.m. for children, pre-school through fourth grade (please note time change). There will be a costume parade, a haunted house, games, and a craft table especially for pre-schoolers, with treats for all. Come in costume and join the fun! An Early Bird Special will open the Library Book Sale on October 10. For a contribution of $10 you may have first pick of the books from 9 to 10 a.m. Admission thereafter is free. Meanwhile weed out your books, videos, tapes, CDs and bring them to the Library by October 7. All proceeds benefit the Library. Want to help sort or sell books? Call Celia Senzer, 672-6898. Election News: Applications and absentee ballots for the November 3 election will be available from the Town Clerk’s Office after October 2. The deadline to register to vote is October 20. Voter registration sessions will be held at the Town Office on: October 8, 9 to 11 a.m.; October 17, 10 a.m. to 2 p.m.; October 20, 9 a.m. to 8 p.m. --- CORNWALL CHRONICLE ILLUSTRATIONS Danielle Mailer OCTOBER EDITORS Hanna and David Grossman Bee Simont NOVEMBER EDITORS Bee Simont Charles and Philla Osborne DIRECTORS: Tom Baranski PRESIDENT Spencer Klao VICE PRESIDENT • Barbara Klao PUBLISHER Edward Ferman SECRETARY • Robert Beers TREASURER Hendon Claubb • Cheryl Exams Audrey Ferman • Charles Osborne • Susan Williamson CORNWALL CHRONICLE, INC. 143 CREAM HILL ROAD, WEST CORNWALL, CT 06796 E-MAIL: email@example.com FAX: (860) 672-2643 Bulk Rate Car-Rt Sort U.S. Postage PAID West Cornwall, CT Permit No. 6
The glass balustrade is a feature of the design, allowing the view to be enjoyed from the inside and outside. The glass balustrade is a feature of the design, allowing the view to be enjoyed from the inside and outside. 6.30 AM 7:15 AM 7.30 AM 7:45 AM 8:00 AM 8.30 AM 30 Years of Swiss Typographic Design in the Typoob Dossier L’immagine riflessa come proiezione della realtà che diventa visibile da un diverso punto di vista: il riflesso è un amplificatore dei sensi, un prolungamento virtuale del soggetto, ma soprattutto una nuova visione che evidenzia elementi ed enfatizza dettagli. Abbiamo scelto di dare spazio alla personalità dell’oggetto, attraverso la sua proiezione, per valorizzarne unicità ed essenza. The reflected image is a projection of reality which can be observed from a different point of view: the reflection amplifies the senses, it is a virtual extension of the object, but above all, a new vision that highlights elements and emphasizes details. We have decided to give space to the personality of objects through their projection in order to enhance their essence and uniqueness. Tecnologia e artigianalità: la nostra storia quotidiana Avvicinare mondi lontani, rendere complementari elementi antitetici, fondere approcci diversi alla ricerca dell’equilibrio perfetto: questi sono gli obiettivi ambiziosi che perseguiamo quotidianamente e che vogliamo condividere con i nostri clienti. Parlare d’innovazione tecnologica per noi non è sufficiente, ma è un concetto di cui solo è in grado di descrivere il nostro mondo e la nostra filosofia aziendale. È un mezzo prezioso che utilizziamo con attenzione e costanza per raggiungere i risultati migliori, in cui investiamo risorse ed energie ogni giorno, ma il cui valore è strettamente connesso a una controparte fondamentale: la cura artigianale, appassionata e costante. La combinazione di questi due approcci parecchio distanti e distanti è per noi la base di ogni scelta e di ogni progetto fin dal primo giorno e la nostra storia ne è la dimostrazione. Dal 1975, quando Gino Beccagato ha deciso di fondare la sua impresa specializzata in progettazione e costruzione di macchinari e attrezzature per l’industrializzazione, ogni fase di sviluppo dell’azienda ha portato avanti di pari passo l’aspirazione all’artigianalità e l’attenzione per la ricerca tecnologica. Lungimiranza, professionalità e conoscenza del mercato hanno permesso a LIMA di diventare un’azienda leader nella costruzione di componenti e meccanismi per sedie da ufficio, oltre che punto di riferimento per clienti internazionali alla ricerca di partnership e prodotti all’avanguardia, affidabili e originali. Anche il cambio generazionale ha assunto il ruolo di duplice anima dell’azienda, dando una forte spinta agli investimenti tecnologici, ma facendo tesoro del know-how costruito nel tempo: lo slancio verso il futuro, sempre più ricco in termini di prodotti e servizi, soluzioni, è il compendio di una crescita significativa della proposta, dai componenti di base fino ai sistemi più complessi e sofisticati, e con una sempre maggiore attenzione al design e alla customizzazione. Per migliorare continuamente la nostra offerta e garantire risposte e risposta più rapide ci mettiamo in gioco ogni giorno, con nuovi progetti di sviluppo sempre più innovativi, in cui estetica e funzionalità siano in grado di parlare lo stesso linguaggio. Technology and craftsmanship: this is our daily life Unite distant world’s, mold antithetical elements into complementary ones, combine different approaches in order to achieve the perfect balance: these are the ambitious goals which we pursue every day and wish to share with our customers. It is not enough for us to speak of technological innovation; it is not a concept which alone can describe our world and our business philosophy. Technological innovation is a valuable means that we use with the care and passion which is necessary to achieve the best results, investing much in the way of effort and resources every day, but its value is also closely connected with a fundamental counterpart: dedicated craftsmanship. The combination of these two seemingly distant approaches is for us the basis of every choice and every project, from day one. The history confirms it. Since 1975, when Gino Beccagato decided to found his company specialized in the design and manufacturing of machinery and equipment for industrialization, each stage of development of the company has gone hand in hand with a passion for craftsmanship and a focus on technological research. Foresight, professionalism and knowledge of the market have enabled LIMA to become a leader in manufacturing components and mechanisms for office chairs, as well as a benchmark for international clients seeking partnerships and state-of-the-art, reliable and original products. The new generation has supported the dual soul of the company, giving a strong push towards investment in technology, but also taking advantage of the know-how we have built over time that has led us towards an enricher future in terms of products and solutions. Every day we take up the challenge of continuously improving our offering and providing faster responses, with increasingly innovative development projects where aesthetics and functionality speak the same language. CLEARING INNOCENTI 20 21 Ergonomics and Sustainability: our responsible choice The passion for research and the desire to constantly improve are the basis of our daily activities and give us a strong motivational drive for our work. We are aware that everything we do has consequences both on the environment that hosts us and on the resources from which we draw every day, so we are particularly sensitive to environmental themes. For us respecting the environment means to "listen" to it, support it, and never lose sight of it: our manufacturing processes are constantly adapted to fit this focus, which we consider essential and vital. For us, ergonomics is not only a science, but a real philosophy that guides us in finding the most suitable solutions to ensure people's welfare and respond to their emotional and physical needs. This involves constant monitoring of the production environment starting from production to use, to the recycling of raw materials and finished products: steel and plastic are always recycled, as well as the powder from the coating process, with the aim of optimizing consumption and reducing waste. We have created a special and unique working environment that promotes the health and welfare of our workers: our ceilings are veritable wells of light, thanks to a system that allows glass windows to take advantage of the external light and minimize the use of artificial light. The organization of the working space is also a factor to which we have devoted special attention: we have created spacious work stations to enable our staff to work better and feel more comfortable during their daily activities. Our realistic goals and ambitions are focused on achieving constant improvement, and are reflected in our production and in the development of increasingly advanced ergonomic solutions. Low environmental impact and improving the quality of life are two objectives we have always sought to achieve. 24 25 Ricerca e innovazione: la nostra offerta unica ___ Ogni prodotto LIMA è il frutto di una sinergia tra tecnologia, ricerca e capacità anticipativa: è essenziale per del mercato; è proprio grazie a questo equilibrio costantemente monitorato che la nostra offerta è qualitativamente unica e innovativa. Investiamo molto nella nostra offerta: reparto di fresatrici CNC, impianto di verniciatura, reparto di stampaggio plastica e metallo con macchinari fino a 700 tonnellate e reparto di saldatura attrezzato con robot di ultima generazione. L’utilizzo di software 3D per il calcolo, lo studio, la prototipizzazione e modellazione in collegamento con il nostro reparto di prototipazione rapida, permette di abbattere i tempi necessari per una precisa gestione dei prototipi, garantendo al cliente soluzioni veloci a un costo contenuto. ___ Anche la scelta delle materie prime contribuisce a definire gli elevati standard qualitativi dei prodotti LIMA, in grado di superare test di collaudo nazionali e internazionali e di ottenere la certificazione ISO 9001. ___ Il ruolo della ricerca e sviluppo di nuovi prodotti è fondamentale per la nostra azienda, già membro dell’Istituto di certificazione CATAS, per potenziare una competenza basata sulla capacità di offrire servizi puntuali e risposte veloci alle nuove richieste sempre in evoluzione. ___ Per soddisfare anche i committenti più esigenti abbiamo brevettato nuovi meccanismi con funzionamento mediante tecnologie a leve e a cavi, e una linea di meccanismi saldizzati, in collaborazione con importanti designer: il nostro obiettivo è intraprendere un percorso che avvicinerà sempre più l’ergonomia dei componenti alle sedute di design. La sfida di LIMA è far sparire i meccanismi e i moduli invisibili: quello che sembra un paradosso è in realtà un passo avanti fondamentale in direzione di un prodotto sempre più in linea con elevati canoni estetici, in grado di fondersi con il design di prodotti di alto livello, pur garantendo standard qualitativi sempre migliori. Research and innovation: our unique offer ___ All of LIMA’s products are the result of a synergy between technology, research and the ability to anticipate market needs: it is thanks to this constantly monitored balance that our offer is qualitatively innovative and unique. We invest heavily in our workshop, equipped with CNC milling machines, coating equipment, a plastic and metal molding department with up to 700 tons machines, and a welding department equipped with the latest generation of robots. The use of 3D software for the calculation, study, design and modeling of our products, in conjunction with our rapid prototyping department, can slash the time needed for precise management of prototypes, ensuring fast solutions at reasonable costs for customers. ___ Also, the choice of raw materials helps to define the high-quality standards of LIMA’s products, which are able to pass national and international safety tests and obtain the ISO 9001 certification. ___ Research and development of new products play an essential role in our company, already a member of the CATAS certification Institute, as their expertise comprehensiveness based on the ability to provide timely service and rapid response to new and ever changing requests. ___ To satisfy the most demanding clients we have patented new mechanisms operated by technologies with levers and cables and a line of welded metal mechanisms, in collaboration with leading designers: our goal is to bring together the ergonomics of the components and the design of chairs in perfect synergy. ___ LIMA’s challenge is to integrate the mechanisms so as to make them invisible. It may seem a paradox, but it is actually a major step forward in the direction of a product increasingly in line with the highest aesthetic standards, able to harmonize the design of top-level products while always ensuring top quality standards. I nostri componenti sono l’anima delle migliori sedie: lame, telai, meccanismi, braccioli regolabili, basculanti e accessori sono il frutto di una ricerca mirata al benessere e alla qualità, oltre che all’aspetto e alla versatilità. Our components are the soul of the best chairs: seat uprights, frames, mechanisms, adjustable arms, permanent contacts and accessories are the result of research aimed at promoting well-being and achieving quality, beautiful design and versatility. The rear luggage rack is available in chrome or black and can be ordered separately. The M16A2 rifle is a variant of the M16 rifle, designed to improve upon its predecessor by incorporating several enhancements and modifications. One of the key features of the M16A2 is its improved reliability and accuracy, which are achieved through various design changes. One of the most significant improvements in the M16A2 is the addition of a flash suppressor, which reduces the muzzle flash and noise when the rifle is fired. This feature is particularly important in urban combat scenarios where minimizing the telltale signs of gunfire can be crucial for maintaining surprise and reducing the risk of detection. Another notable change in the M16A2 is the incorporation of a new trigger mechanism that provides a more consistent and predictable trigger pull. This improvement helps to reduce the likelihood of misfires and ensures that the rifle operates reliably under various conditions. In terms of external appearance, the M16A2 is characterized by its sleek and modern design, with a matte black finish that helps to reduce visibility in low-light or night-time environments. The rifle also features a Picatinny rail system on the top of the receiver, allowing for the attachment of various accessories such as sights, lights, and scopes. Overall, the M16A2 represents a significant advancement in the field of military firearms, offering a combination of enhanced performance, reliability, and tactical versatility that has made it a popular choice among soldiers worldwide. The chair is made of stainless steel and has a minimalist design. It is available in different colors, including black, white, and transparent. The chair is stackable and can be used in various settings, such as offices, restaurants, and homes. It is designed to be both functional and aesthetically pleasing. The design of the luggage rack is inspired by the classic design of the BMW R 100/100 S, which was produced from 1976 to 1983. The rack is made of high-quality stainless steel and has a sleek, modern look that complements the vintage aesthetic of the motorcycle. It features a series of horizontal bars that provide ample space for carrying luggage or other items, while also offering a secure and stable platform for the load. The rack is designed to be easily installed on the rear of the motorcycle, with a simple and straightforward mounting system that requires minimal tools. Overall, the luggage rack is a practical and stylish accessory that enhances the functionality and appeal of the BMW R 100/100 S motorcycle. 45 Personalizzazione e velocità per le vostre idee: il nostro progetto più importante La forza di LIMA è racchiusa in tre parole fondamentali, che la rendono unica agli occhi dei clienti: personalizzazione, sinergia, innovazione. Tutti i nostri prodotti contribuiscono a migliorare la qualità di vita delle persone attraverso lo studio di soluzioni ideali per una seduta curata nei dettagli, ma quello che il cliente può trovare in questa azienda va oltre questa importante base di partenza. Forse non siamo in grado di realizzare sogni, ma certamente sappiamo come dare forma ai progetti più ambiziosi attraverso la sinergia tra progettista, fornitore e cliente. Dalle lame ai telai, ogni componente può essere personalizzato, in funzione del design della seduta e delle esigenze del committente. I servizi di prototipazione rapida permettono di trasformare un progetto in prototipo reale in tempi molto rapidi e con costi contenuti. Ottenere in poche ore la produzione di oggetti molto complessi e dettagliati, difficilmente realizzabili con altre strumenti di lavorazione, significa trasformare in realtà le idee dei nostri clienti in tempo reale. Questa tecnologia all'avanguardia ci permette di supportare il cliente nella scelta del processo più adatto prima di andare in produzione, di verificare la fattibilità di un progetto e individuare velocemente eventuali margini di miglioramento. L'efficienza di questo metodo produttivo, che mette al centro le esigenze del cliente, permette a LIMA di mantenere una posizione concorrenziale nel settore e di essere il punto di riferimento per chi, oltre alla customizzazione, cerca rapidità, precisione e attenzione al design in tutte le fasi di sviluppo del prodotto. Customization and speed for your ideas: our most important project LIMA’s strength is enclosed in three key words, which make it unique in the eyes of our customers: customization, synergy, innovation. All our products help to improve people’s quality of life through the study of ideal solutions for chairs created with great attention to detail. What customers find in our company goes beyond this important basic principle, however. We may not be able to make dreams come true, but we certainly know how to give shape to the most ambitious projects, through the synergy between designer, manufacturer and end user. Starting from basic elements to frames, each component can be customized to fit the design of the chair and the requirements of our customers. The rapid prototyping services allow you to turn a project into a real prototype extremely quickly and cost effectively. The ability to manufacture in a few hours very complex and detailed parts that are difficult to manufacture with other machining tools enables us to turn our clients’ ideas into reality in real time. This cutting-edge technology allows us to support our customers in choosing the most appropriate process before going into production, to test the feasibility of a project and to quickly identify any room for improvement. The efficiency of our mode of production, which focuses on customer needs, allows LIMA to maintain a competitive position in the industry and be the benchmark for those who, in addition to customization, look for speed, precision and focus on design in all stages of product development. 48 49 Made in Italy and the global stage: our cosmopolitan soul Since its first participation in international fairs abroad in the 1990s, LIMA has demonstrated a genuine vocation for international markets. LIMA has a 9,400-square meter production unit established and rooted in the Veneto region, which has always sought wider horizons and new market markets: with over 70% of sales abroad, LIMA contributes to the exportation of Made in Italy products and high quality Italian craftsmanship. Corporate culture, the development of resources and specialization in the production of increasingly advanced solutions are the key factors of LIMA’s international success and play an important role in customers’ selection criteria. Guaranteeing quality and service at the highest levels, from the design phase to after-sales services, is an absolute priority for us and has allowed us to produce and sell our products to many countries. We chose to introduce ourselves as complete partners able to provide not merely a product, but a full consulting and problem solving service with the conviction that our professionalism can be built upon all business stages. The collaboration with great designers and the focus on the aesthetics of our products add value to our international offering and facilitate the identification of appropriate responses to the different cultural realities with which we deal every day. 52 53 Progetti e partner internazionali: i nostri risultati condivisi I meccanismi LIMA sono l’anima delle sedie per ufficio prodotte dalle più importanti aziende internazionali, partner ideali con cui condividere progetti e ottenere grandi risultati. Design, ricerca, ergonomia e l’individuazione delle soluzioni migliori in grado di garantire benessere e comodità, oltre che qualità estetica, sono gli elementi che condividiamo con i nostri clienti e che garantiscono il successo delle nostre collaborazioni. Tra i progetti internazionali più importanti della nostra storia aziendale, ci piace ricordare la Concorde Presidenti“ prodotta da Global Furniture Group, che utilizza il nostro meccanismo completo di lama schienale. Questa prestigiosa sedia presidenziale è dotata di un sistema brevettato di controllo a pulsanti che permette di raggiungere il massimo comfort: un prodotto talmente innovativo ed ergonomico da essere utilizzato nello Studio Oval del presidente degli Stati Uniti d’America. 56 57 \| \| Description \| \|---\|--------------------------------------------------\| \| 1 \| Accoglienza/Reception/ \| \| 2 \| Sala riunioni/Meeting room \| \| 3 \| Officina/Workshop \| \| 4 \| Ufficio pianificazione produzione e ufficio acquisiti/Production planning dept. and purchasing dept. \| \| 5 \| Impianto di verniciatura/Powder coating plant \| \| 6 \| Stampaggio a iniezione/Injection moulding \| \| 7 \| Magazzino componenti/Components warehouse \| \| 8 \| Area spedizioni/Shipping zone \| \| 9 \| Saldatura/Welding \| \|10\| Piegatura/Bending \| \|11\| Taglio/Metal cutting \| \|12\| Stampaggio lamiera/Sheet-metal stamping \| \|13\| Controllo qualità/Quality inspection \| \|14,15,16\| Magazzino/Warehouse \| \|17\| Ufficio tecnico/Technical dept. \| \|18\| Ufficio vendite/Sales dept. \| \|19\| Ufficio amministrativo/Administration dept. \| \|20\| Showroom/Showroom \| \|21\| Area assemblaggio/Assembly dept. \| 9.400m² N 45°35'9.69" E 12°2'44.5" Contribuiamo all'esportazione del Made in Italy nel mondo We contribute to the exportation of Made in Italy worldwide 30% Italia/Italy 70% Estero/Abroad Meccanismi Bracciolli Basculanti Lame Telai Accessori Mechanisms Armrests Permanent contacts Backrest uprights Frames Accessories \| Company Name \| Location \| Company Name \| Location \| \|--------------\|----------\|--------------\|----------\| \| Estel Group Srl \| Thiene (VI), Italy \| Global Furniture Group \| Toronto, Canada \| \| Bevco Precision Manufacturing, Inc. \| Waukesha (WI), United States \| Stoll Giroflex AG \| Koblenz, Switzerland \| \| The Senator Group \| Lancashire, United Kingdom \| \| \| Ares Line Spa \| Carré (VI), Italy \| Via Seating Inc \| Sparks (NV), United States \| \| RIM CZ s.r.o. \| Otrokovice, Czech Republic \| \| \| Humanscale Corporation \| New York, United States \| Tergon Bürostuhlhersteller GmbH \| Montet, Switzerland \| \| Famo Lda \| Lousada, Portugal \| Sokoa - SA \| Hendaye, France \| \| Eurosit \| Nevers Cedex, France \| ICF Spa \| Milan, Italy \| 62 63 L.I.M.A. snc Via dell’Industria, 7 35010 Trebaseleghe (PD) Italy PI 03636370284 CF 02637900271 T (+39) 049 9387742 F (+39) 049 9387750 www.limaitaly.it firstname.lastname@example.org Colophon Concept and graphic design Metodo Studio Photo Arcangelo Pial Copy Simona Patat Printing Graficart Arti Grafiche Resana (TV) When technology reflects on lifestyle Company Profile
GUIDELINES OF THE CITY OF PITTSBURG, KANSAS, RELATING TO THE ISSUANCE OF INDUSTRIAL REVENUE BONDS The following guidelines of the City Commission regarding Industrial Revenue Bonds will be applied upon receipt of a request for the issuance of the bonds. 1. PURPOSE OF INDUSTRIAL REVENUE BONDS The primary aim of Industrial Revenue Bond financing is to promote, stimulate, and develop the general economic welfare of the community. Consideration will be given to all applications where it appears that the applicant will create new jobs in the community, stimulate the local economy, or add to the diversification of the community's economy. 2. AUTHORITY TO ISSUE INDUSTRIAL REVENUE BONDS The authority to approve the issuance of Industrial Revenue Bonds is the responsibility of the City Commission. The Commission's decision for approval or disapproval will be based on an analysis made by the City Staff, Bond Counsel, the Bond Underwriter, and a review of all the pertinent data relating to the request for bond issuance. If the Commission issues a Letter of Intent or an Inducement Resolution noting preliminary approval for the issue it shall state in the Letter or Resolution the conditions the issue is subject to, and for how long it is valid. The Letter of Intent or Inducement Resolution may be renewed, subject to the review of the project status, until the bonds are issued. Both may be rescinded by action of the City Commission if the applicant fails to a) pursue the matter; b) provide the required information; c) misrepresents any information required by the application and related papers; or d) for any other reason; in which event the City shall incur no liability or obligation whatsoever to the applicant or any other individual or entity. 3. REVIEW OF AN APPLICATION FOR IRB ISSUANCE No request for IRB's will be considered unless the applicant has completed and signed the Application Form, copies of which are available in the City Manager's Office, and attached the required supporting documentation. Each application shall be filed with the City Manager's Office. Upon receipt of an application for Industrial Revenue Bonds, the City Manager and City Attorney shall review the application with all the supporting documents, including such additional information and material as may be requested by the City Manager or the City Commission (A copy of the Application Form to be used is attached hereto). The review will utilize the criteria as set forth in these Guidelines to assist with the City's analysis. Based on the review, the City Manager will forward his or her comments to the City Commission for consideration. 4. CRITERIA FOR THE ISSUANCE OF IRBS The criteria for considering the feasibility of each application for Industrial Revenue Bonds may be divided into four (4) classifications: a. The Financial Responsibility of the Respective Tenant. b. The Marketing of the Bonds. c. The Type of Tenant. d. The Nature of the Improvements to be Financed. The four (4) classifications are more particularly defined as: a. FINANCIAL RESPONSIBILITY The prospective tenant shall be required to show substantial financial responsibility. The applicant will be asked to furnish as part of the application, an accounting audit of its past three (3) fiscal years operations prepared by a Certified Public Accountant, as well as tax returns for said years. Other items required for the evaluation shall be the number of years the applicant has been in business; financial statements and records; the amount of proposed equity the applicant will have in the project; the pledge of any other established businesses which might insure the financial success of the applicant; financial information relevant to the net worth of the personal guarantors as well as tax returns for the three (3) previous years of said personal guarantors; pro formas and other relevant financial information requested by the City Manager, City Attorney, Bond Counsel or the Bond Underwriter. Applicants must demonstrate financial soundness and in no event will issues be approved in which the applicant does not have a substantial equity interest in the proposed project. Industrial Revenue Bonds will not be used for risk capital. To insure soundness of the project and to guarantee lease payments, the applicant, on the completion of the bond sale, may be required to furnish to the City, commercial insurance guaranteeing lease payments. In those instances where the applicant is a subsidiary of another company, the parent company will provide appropriate financial data and may be required to guarantee the lease payments. In those instances where the applicant is privately held, the City will require the principal owners to personally guarantee the lease payments. b. MARKETING THE BONDS Where IRB's are proposed to be marketed through negotiation with a Bond Underwriter, such underwriter shall be required to submit to the City an analysis of the current market conditions which indicate that the bonds are marketable. The analysis must state that the marketability is based upon the financial soundness of the firm and its ability to meet the debt and obligations incurred by the proposed bond issue, as well as whether or not a market exists for the bonds. If the bonds are to be placed without the services of a reputable underwriter, the applicant must submit substantial evidence that the bonds will be successfully placed as well as a description of the proposed purchaser(s). c. TYPE OF TENANT The nature of the applicant's business shall be such that its new facility or expansion will give measurable growth or diversification to the community's economic base. The issuance of Industrial Revenue Bonds shall be most highly considered for manufacturing, processing, warehousing, and service industries, as defined in the Standard Industrial Classification Manual. d. NATURE OF IMPROVEMENTS TO BE FINANCED IRB's shall generally be issued to finance the purchase of land, land improvements, and buildings. No Industrial Revenue Bonds will be issued where the nature of the project is primarily to refinance existing debt, except when a substantial expansion is planned in the refinancing of the debt. The inclusion of machinery and equipment costs will be approved when such assets have a life span equal to the term of the lease. Legal fees, trustee fees, service fees, and other administrative costs as well as capitalized interest and the cost of obtaining financing, such as underwriting fees, may be included as part of the bond issue if those fees are not excessive and their inclusion is based on sound financial management. 5. ORIGINATION AND ADMINISTRATIVE FEES TO CITY The applicant agrees to pay the City on the date specified in the bond documents an origination fee of $1,000.00 the first year of the issue and an administrative fee of $500.00 per year for the remaining years of the lease period. The origination fee shall be used exclusively for economic development activities and not for payment of administrative costs and the administrative fees, if in excess of actual administrative costs, shall be deemed payments in lieu of taxes and distributed as provided by K.S.A. 12-1742 and amendments thereto. These fees will be in addition to any payment by applicant to reimburse the City for its out-of-pocket expenses associated with processing the application and issuing the bonds, including the fee billed by the City for the costs, expenses, and time of the City's Attorney in reviewing and preparing documents as well as advising the City as a result of the application. 6. DOCUMENTS PREPARED BY AND FEE OF BOND ATTORNEY All appropriate and necessary documents relating to the issuance of bonds will be prepared by the Bond Attorney chosen by the applicant. The applicant will pay all fees and expenses of said Bond Attorney. 7. NOTICE TO COUNTY AND SCHOOL DISTRICT(S) Prior to the adoption of a Letter of Intent or Inducement Resolution which includes a statement of the City's Intent to grant a tax exemption to applicant, the City Clerk shall notify the board of county commissioners, the superintendent of the appropriate school district, and the clerk of any other taxing jurisdiction, excluding the State, which derives or could derive property taxes from the applicant, advising them of the scheduled City Commission meeting and inviting their review and comment. The applicant shall be invited, but not required, to attend said meeting. 8. AD VALOREM TAXES. Unless the applicant meets or exceeds the criteria set forth herein, neither the applicant nor the City shall file an application for exemption. In the event the property purchased or constructed with IRB proceeds shall nevertheless be held to be tax exempt pursuant to Kansas law, the applicant understands that it will be required to make payments in lieu of taxes pursuant to K.S.A. 12-1742, and amendments thereto, in an amount equal to 100% of the ad valorem taxes which would have been payable except for the exemption, including any penalties and interest. FURTHER, should the applicant not meet or exceed the criteria herein after a tax exemption has been granted, said City shall file appropriate papers with Crawford County and/or the State Board of Tax Appeals to revoke the exemption. And, in the event the tax exemption cannot be revoked due to provisions of Kansas Law, the applicant understands that it will then be required to make payments in lieu of taxes in an amount equal to 100% of the ad valorem taxes which would have been payable except for the exemption, including any penalties and interest. The City of Pittsburg will allow a property tax exemption when Industrial Revenue Bonds are used for financing an economic development project if the applicant meets or exceeds the following criteria for creation of new jobs or for capital investment: If the expansion of an existing business or the opening of a new business in the City or its environs will create additional regular full-time jobs or add capital investment then a property tax exemption can be requested. The number of years of tax exemption available will be decided by (1) The number of new jobs created or (2) The amount of capital investment into the project which will expand the city's economic base, WHICHEVER gives the applicant the most years of exemption. Under no circumstances will the City exempt property taxes for more than 10 years. ### SCHEDULE OF TAX EXEMPTION \| LEVELS \| CAPITAL INVESTMENT \| JOBS CREATED \| EXEMPTION \| \|--------\|-----------------------------\|--------------\|-----------\| \| ONE \| $100,000 - $200,000 \| 5 - 20 \| 1 - YEAR \| \| TWO \| 201,000 - 400,000 \| 21 - 40 \| 2 - YEARS \| \| THREE \| 401,000 - 600,000 \| 41 - 60 \| 3 - YEARS \| \| FOUR \| 601,000 - 800,000 \| 61 - 80 \| 4 - YEARS \| \| FIVE \| 801,000 - 1,000,000 \| 81 - 100 \| 5 - YEARS \| \| SIX \| 1,000,001 - 2,000,000 \| 101 - 150 \| 6 - YEARS \| \| SEVEN \| 2,000,001 - 3,000,000 \| 151 - 200 \| 7 - YEARS \| \| EIGHT \| 3,000,001 - 5,000,000 \| 201 - 250 \| 8 - YEARS \| \| NINE \| 5,000,001 - 7,000,000 \| 251 - 300 \| 9 - YEARS \| \| TEN \| 7,000,001 - 9,000,000 \| 301 - 450 \| 10 - YEARS \| #### a. DEFINITION OF REGULAR FULL-TIME EMPLOYEE A regular full-time employee is defined as one whose position has been filled for at least ten consecutive months for 160 hours per month during the applicant's taxable year. Additional employees are those who exceed the base number of employees of the applicant, which base is computed by dividing by three (3) the sum of the number of regular full-time employees of the applicant, as defined above, during the three taxable years immediately preceding the filing of the IRB application. If the applicant is a new business or has not been in operation for the full three (3) year period, then, the base shall be an annualized employment figure to be determined by the following computation: Divide the sum of the total number of employees who have been employed for 160 hours on the last day of each calendar month of operation by the number of full calendar months the business has been in operation immediately preceding the filing of the application. Assuming the business is eligible for a tax exemption and continues to comply with this criteria and other sections hereof, the term of the tax exemption will be for the number of years the term of the tax exemption will be for the number of years provided by either the capital investment or the jobs created column, WHICHEVER IS HIGHER. The applicant shall file a report on the annual anniversary date of the issuance of the Industrial Revenue Bonds certifying the number of regular full-time employees it has retained over the base. The applicant shall provide the City with all documentation necessary to confirm the employment figures. Failure to furnish such documentation may result in the revocation of the tax exemption and/or payments in lieu of taxes in an amount equal to 100% of the ad valorem taxes which would be payable except for the exemption. 9. CITY NOT BOUND BY GUIDELINES This document is intended to be a set of general guidelines only. Any provisions herein may be waived or added to at the discretion of the City Commission. ADOPTED BY THE GOVERNING BODY of the City of Pittsburg, Kansas, on this 14th day of September, 1993. Edward J. Roitz - Mayor Karen K. Garman - City Clerk (SEAL) CITY CLERK CRAWFORD COUNTY, KANSAS
Discretization Error Analysis in the Contrast Source Inversion Algorithm Original Discretization Error Analysis in the Contrast Source Inversion Algorithm / Mariano, Valeria; Tobon Vasquez, Jorge A.; Vipiana, Francesca. - ELETTRONICO. - (2021). ((Intervento presentato al convegno 2021 15th European Conference on Antennas and Propagation (EuCAP) tenutosi a Dusseldorf, Germany nel 22-26 March 2021 [10.23919/EuCAP51087.2021.9411476]. Availability: This version is available at: 11583/2906754 since: 2021-06-15T10:17:04Z Publisher: IEEE Published DOI:10.23919/EuCAP51087.2021.9411476 Terms of use: openAccess This article is made available under terms and conditions as specified in the corresponding bibliographic description in the repository Publisher copyright IEEE postprint/Author's Accepted Manuscript ©2021 IEEE. Personal use of this material is permitted. Permission from IEEE must be obtained for all other uses, in any current or future media, including reprinting/republishing this material for advertising or promotional purposes, creating new collecting works, for resale or lists, or reuse of any copyrighted component of this work in other works. (Article begins on next page) Discretization Error Analysis in the Contrast Source Inversion Algorithm Valeria Mariano, Jorge A. Tobon Vasquez, Francesca Vipiana Dept. of Electronics and Telecommunications, Politecnico di Torino, Torino, Italy, email: {valeria_mariano, jorge.tobon, firstname.lastname@example.org Abstract—This paper describes the use of the contrast source inversion method combined with the finite element method for the numerical solution of 3-D microwave inversion problems. In particular, this work is focused on the discretization of the involved physical vector quantities, analyzing the impact of the chosen discretization on the solution process with the goal of optimizing the implemented algorithm in terms of accuracy, memory requirements and computational cost. Index Terms—microwave imaging, finite element method, contrast source. I. INTRODUCTION The contrast source inversion (CSI) method is widely used in the numerical solution of microwave inversion problems. It belongs to family of non-linear iterative algorithms, and, despite to a possible high computational cost, it allows accurate quantitative reconstructions. The CSI method has different applications’ fields, that have in common the goal to determine location, shape and constitutive properties of a specific target. For instance, it is used to reconstruct the distribution of earth electrical conductivity in cross-well imaging [1], in food industry for detecting spoilage in grain bins using microwave imaging [2], in medical applications such as dosimetry, oncology [3] and brain stroke imaging [4]. One of the first CSI formulation for 2-D problems using integral equations (IE) is described in [5], where a multiplicative regularization is proposed and the results obtained with several 2-D numerical examples are used to discuss the performance of the formulation. However, in some particular case, for example when the background is in-homogeneous or the Green’s function is not available in a closed form, the IE formulation is not efficient. In order to overcome this limitation of CSI-IE, a finite difference (FD) formulation of CSI method is presented in [6]. However, also the CSI-FD method is limited, because it has difficulties in modelling boundaries of arbitrary shape. A CSI formulation that exploits the finite element method (FEM) to discretize the domain is described in [4], where the algorithm is applied to 2-D transverse magnetic (TM) problems. Here, the CSI algorithm is combined with an in-house 3-D FEM solver [7] with the final aim to apply it for brain stroke imaging, thanks to the known dielectric contrast at microwave frequencies between healthy brain tissues and the stroke area [8]–[10]. In particular, this paper proposes different discretizations of the involved physical vector quantities in the considered 3-D domain, analyzing the impact on the solution process in terms of accuracy, memory requirements and computational cost. The paper is organized as follow. Section II contains a brief description of the CSI algorithm, while Sect. III is focused on the proposed discretizations of the physical quantities. Then, the impact of the different discretizations in the solution process is analyzed in Sect. IV and the conclusions are summarized in Sect. V. II. THE CONTRAST SOURCE INVERSION METHOD In this section, a brief description of the contrast source inversion method in a 3-D scattering problem is given. The considered scenario is shown in Fig. 1. The whole 3-D domain is indicated with $\Omega$ and it is filled with a background medium with known complex relative permittivity, $\epsilon_b$. The region of interest, $D$, is inside $\Omega$ and contains the target with unknown complex relative permittivity, $\epsilon_r$. The $T$ antenna probes are located on the surface $S$ at the boundary of $D$. ![Fig. 1. Geometry of the model. The whole domain is $\Omega$, the domain of interest is $D$. The background relative dielectric constant is $\epsilon_b = 22.70 - j6.13$, instead the dielectric constant in the target is $\epsilon_r = 63.06 - j26.48$. The red spot identifies the position of one of the probe.](image) When the $t$-th antenna probe illuminates $\Omega$ without the target, the corresponding radiated electric field is called incident field, $\underline{E}_t^{\text{inc}}(x)$, while, if the target is present, it is called total field, $\underline{E}_t^{\text{tot}}(x)$. Then, the scattered field, $\underline{E}_t^{\text{scat}}(x)$, is equal to $\underline{E}_t^{\text{tot}}(x)$ minus $\underline{E}_t^{\text{inc}}(x)$. The dielectric contrast, $\chi(x)$, between the background medium and the target, is defined as $$\chi(x) \triangleq \frac{\epsilon_r(x) - \epsilon_b(x)}{\epsilon_b(x)}. \quad (1)$$ Moreover, an additional quantity, called contrast source (also called secondary, induced or passive source [11, Ch. 5]), is defined as $$\omega_t(x) \triangleq \chi(x) \underline{E}_t^{\text{tot}}(x), \quad (2)$$ and it links the total field radiated by the $t$-th antenna and the dielectric contrast for each considered point $\underline{r}$. Equation (2) is also known as object equation. For each antenna $t$, $\underline{E}_t^{\text{scct}}$ and $\underline{\omega}_t$ are related together via the wave equation [12]: $$\nabla \times \nabla \times \underline{E}_t^{\text{scct}}(\underline{r}) - k_b^2(\underline{r}) \underline{E}_t^{\text{scct}}(\underline{r}) = k_b^2(\underline{r}) \underline{\omega}_t(\underline{r}),$$ \hspace{1cm} (3) where $k_b^2(\underline{r}) = \omega^2 \mu_0 \epsilon_0 \epsilon_b(\underline{r})$ is the background medium wave number, $\omega$ is the angular frequency, and $\mu_0$ and $\epsilon_0$ are the free space permeability and permittivity, respectively. The solution of the non-linear inverse problem is obtained through the minimization of a cost functional that measures the mismatch between known (measured) data and the corresponding ones, predicted by the numerical model. The CSI cost functional can be expressed as $$F^{\text{CSI}}(\chi_n, \underline{\omega}_{t,n}) = F^S(\underline{\omega}_{t,n}) + F^D(\chi_n, \underline{\omega}_{t,n}),$$ \hspace{1cm} (4) where $F^S$ measures the mismatch at the antenna locations on $S$, while $F^D$ is the mismatch in the region of interest $D$. The minimization of $F^{\text{CSI}}$ is performed through an iterative optimization that, at each iteration $n$, updates alternatively $\underline{\omega}_{t,n}(\underline{r})$ (for $t = 1, \ldots, T$), and $\chi_n(\underline{r})$ [4]. III. DISCRETIZATION OF THE CSI VARIABLES In order to numerically implement the described CSI algorithm, the whole considered 3-D domain $\Omega$ as well as its associated vector and scalar variables have to be properly discretized. In the following, two different discretization approaches are described and, then, numerically validated in Sect. IV. The volume $\Omega$ is discretized via tetrahedra cells. The complex relative permittivity is evaluated at each cell barycenter and considered constant within the cell. The dielectric contrast can be approximated as $$\chi(\underline{r}) \cong \sum_{i=1}^{I} \chi_i p_i(\underline{r}),$$ \hspace{1cm} (5) where $I$ is the total number of tetrahedra in $\Omega$, each coefficient $\chi_i$ is the dielectric contrast in the barycenter of the $i$-th tetrahedron $C_i$, and $$p_i(\underline{r}) = \begin{cases} 1 & \underline{r} \in C_i \\ 0 & \text{elsewhere}. \end{cases}$$ \hspace{1cm} (6) For each antenna $t$, the scattered field $\underline{E}_t^{\text{scct}}$ as well as the total one $\underline{E}_t^{\text{tot}}$ can be approximated as a linear combination of vector basis functions, $\underline{N}_i(\underline{r})$, as $$\underline{E}_t^{\text{scct}}(\underline{r}) \cong \sum_{i=1}^{E} E_{t,i}^{\text{scct}} \underline{N}_i(\underline{r})$$ \hspace{1cm} (7) $$\underline{E}_t^{\text{tot}}(\underline{r}) \cong \sum_{i=1}^{E} E_{t,i}^{\text{tot}} \underline{N}_i(\underline{r})$$ \hspace{1cm} (8) where $E$ is the total number of edges in $\Omega$, and $E_{t,i}^{\text{scct}}$ and $E_{t,i}^{\text{tot}}$ are the coefficients. Each basis function $\underline{N}_i(\underline{r})$ is associated to the $i$-th edge of the mesh and defined on the group of tetrahedra that has the $i$-th edge in common. The selected basis functions are the well-known vectorial and curl-conforming basis functions usually implemented in FEM 3-D problems with tetrahedral discretization. Each $\underline{N}_i(\underline{r})$ has constant tangential component along the $i$-th edge to which it is associated and no tangential component along the remaining five edges of the tetrahedra where the basis function is defined [13]. A. Standard Discretization In the standard discretization of CSI method [12], for each antenna $t$, the corresponding contrast source $\underline{\omega}_t$ is discretized as $$\underline{\omega}_t(\underline{r}) \cong \sum_{i=1}^{I} \underline{\omega}_{t,i} p_i(\underline{r}),$$ \hspace{1cm} (9) where $\underline{\omega}_{t,i}$ are vector coefficients. Each coefficient corresponds to $$\underline{\omega}_{t,i} = \chi(\underline{r}_i) \underline{E}_t^{\text{tot}}(\underline{r}_i),$$ \hspace{1cm} (10) where $\underline{r}_i$ is the barycenter of each tetrehadron for $i = 1, \ldots, I$. Inserting (7) and (9) into (3) and applying the Galerkin weighted residual testing, we obtain the linear system $$([U] - [V]) [\underline{E}_t^{\text{scct}}] = [R] \cdot [\underline{\omega}_t],$$ \hspace{1cm} (11) where $[U]$ and $[V]$ are the usual FEM stiffness and mass matrices with dimension $E \times E$. Each element of $[U]$ is $$[U]_{i,j} = \int_{\Omega} (\nabla \times \underline{N}_i) \cdot (\nabla \times \underline{N}_j) \, d^3\underline{r},$$ \hspace{1cm} (12) and each element of $[V]$ corresponds to $$[V]_{i,j} = \int_{\Omega} k_b^2 \underline{N}_i \cdot \underline{N}_j \, d^3\underline{r}.$$ \hspace{1cm} (13) Thanks to chosen test and basis functions, (12) and (13) are known in closed form [13]. $[\underline{E}_t^{\text{tot}}]$ is an array with length $E$ collecting the scattered field coefficients for the transmitter $t$ (7), while $[R]$ is a $E \times I$ matrix that collects the vector quantities $$[R]_{i,j} = \int_{\Omega} k_b^2 \underline{N}_i(\underline{r}) p_j(\underline{r}) \, d^3\underline{r}.$$ \hspace{1cm} (14) Finally, $[\underline{\omega}_t]$ is an array with length $I$ collecting the vector contrast source coefficients for the transmitter $t$ (11), and “.” denotes the dot product between the elements on the $[R]$ rows and $[\underline{\omega}_t]$, respectively. Using this discretization in the CSI algorithm, the contrast sources coefficients are vectors with three components to be updated at each iteration, and the corresponding discretized operators are dyadic, making the numerical implementation complex. Moreover, during the variables updating at each iteration of the CSI algorithm, the same operations have to be repeated three times to update the three components of the contrast source coefficients with an evident additional computational burden. B. Alternative Discretization In order to simplify and speed up the CSI implementation, we propose an alternative discretization for the contrast source variable. Considering that each basis function $\underline{N}_j$, used to discretize the total radiated field in (8), is defined on a group of $K$ tetrahedra, $C_{j,k}$, with the $j$-th edge in common, we can write $$\underline{N}_j(\underline{r}) = \begin{cases} \tilde{\underline{N}}_{j,k}(\underline{r}) & \underline{r} \in C_{j,k} \\ 0 & \text{elsewhere} \end{cases}$$ \hspace{1cm} (15) with $j = 1, \ldots, E$ and $k = 1, \ldots, K$. Then, observing that each tetrahedron has six edges, we can associate the discretized total field to each tetrahedron instead to each edge as $$E_t^{\text{tot}}(\underline{r}) \cong \sum_{i=1}^{I} \sum_{e=1}^{6} E_{t,(i,e)}^{\text{tot}} \tilde{\underline{N}}_{i,e}(\underline{r}).$$ \hspace{1cm} (16) Now substituting (16) and (5) into (2), we obtain $$\omega_t(\underline{r}) \cong \left[ \sum_{i=1}^{I} \chi_i p_i(\underline{r}) \right] \left[ \sum_{e=1}^{6} E_{t,(i,e)}^{\text{tot}} \tilde{\underline{N}}_{i,e}(\underline{r}) \right]$$ $$= \sum_{i=1}^{I} \sum_{e=1}^{6} \left( \chi_i E_{t,(i,e)}^{\text{tot}} \right) \tilde{\underline{N}}_{i,e}(\underline{r})$$ $$= \sum_{i=1}^{I} \sum_{e=1}^{6} \omega_{t,(i,e)} \tilde{\underline{N}}_{i,e}(\underline{r}),$$ \hspace{1cm} (17) where the pulse functions $p_i(\underline{r})$ are omitted because $\tilde{\underline{N}}_{i,e}(\underline{r})$ are already defined within each cell. Comparing (17) with (9), we can noticed that, with the proposed discretization, the constrast source coefficients are scalars instead of vectors, and their vectorial part is totally contained in the vector basis functions as done in the field discretization with the same kind of basis functions. Now, the right hand side of (11) is rewritten as $$([U] - [V]) [E_t^{\text{sct}}] = [R][\omega_t],$$ \hspace{1cm} (18) where the elements of $[R]$ and $[\omega_t]$ are scalars. In particular, $[\omega_t]$ is an array with length $6I$ that collects the contrast coarse scalar coefficients in (17) and $[R]$ is a $E \times 6I$ matrix with each element equal to $$[R]_{m,n} = \int_{\Omega} k_b^2 \underline{N}_m(\underline{r}) \cdot \tilde{\underline{N}}_n(\underline{r}) d^3\underline{r},$$ \hspace{1cm} (19) where $n$ is equivalent to the double indexing $(i,e)$ exploited in (17). This alternative discretization, in which all the coefficients within the discretized wave equation are scalars, simplifies the CSI algorithm implementation and, as shown in the next section, increases the discretization accuracy. IV. Numerical Analysis In this section, the two discretization approaches are numerically analyzed. The considered 3-D geometry is reported in Fig. 1. The whole domain is $\Omega$ and it is filled with a background medium with a complex relative permittivity of $\epsilon_b = 22.70 - j6.13$; the target is a 1 cm cylinder, within the imaging domain $D$ and with relative permittivity $\epsilon_r = 63.06 - j26.48$. The chosen permittivities represent the average brain tissues and the blood at the frequency of 1.1 GHz [10]. The volume $\Omega$ is discretized with tetrahedral elements with dimension 5 mm that corresponds to $\lambda/12$ in the background medium. The total and incident fields, radiated within $\Omega$ by one probe antenna (located on the surface $S$ at the boundary of $D$, as shown Fig. 1), are evaluated via an in-house 3-D FEM solver applying absorbing boundary condition at $\Omega$ borders. In Fig. 2, the numerically evaluated right hand side (RHS) of (11) and (18) are compared to the corresponding left hand side (LHS). In particular, the graph shows the element-element difference between the left and right hand sides for the two analyzed discretizations of the contrast source variable. To help the graph readability, the results are sorted and in logarithmic scale, and only the elements where the dielectric contrast is different from zero are shown. We can notice that using the standard discretization the error is around four orders of magnitude higher with respect to using the proposed one. Then, to have quantitative indicators, the L2-norm ($\eta$) and the relative L2-norm ($\eta_r$) of the difference between the evaluated right and left hand sides are reported in Table I for both discretizations. \| \| $\eta$ \| $\eta_r$ \| \|----------------\|----------\|----------\| \| Standard \| 0.19 \| 0.52 \| \| Alternative \| $7.42 \cdot 10^{-5}$ \| $2.04 \cdot 10^{-4}$ \| For a further analysis, we compare the scattered field evaluated solving (11) and (18) with respect the scattered field obtained as difference between the total and incident fields, evaluated with the 3-D FEM solver. Table II shows $\eta$ and $\eta_r$ for these quantities. In both Table I and II, the errors values for the proposed discretization are much smaller than the error for the standard one. In the standard discretization, the field in (10) is assumed constant inside each tetrahedron, instead in the alternative discretization the field variation is described with the basis functions. This difference could explain the different behaviour of the error in Table I. \| TABLE II \| $[E^{exc}]$ ERROR \| \|----------\|------------------\| \| \| $\eta$ \| $\eta_r$ \| \| Standard \| 387.01 \| 0.52 \| \| Alternative \| 0.15 \| $2.04 \cdot 10^{-4}$ \| Finally, in order to have an overall vision of discretizations efficiency related to CSI algorithm, the numerical analyses proceeds with the calculation of cost functional (4), considering the exact values of dielectric contrast and contrast sources for the two discretizations (i.e., the cost functional should be ideally zero). As reported in Table III, using the alternative discretization the cost functional is much lower with respect to applying the standard discretization. \| TABLE III \| COST FUNCTIONAL \| \|-----------\|-----------------\| \| \| $F^S$ \| $F^D$ \| \| Standard \| 0.27 \| 0.03 \| \| Alternative \| $4.17 \cdot 10^{-8}$ \| $4.62 \cdot 10^{-9}$ \| V. CONCLUSION AND PERSPECTIVES In this paper, a novel discretization of the contrast source variable is proposed and compared to the standard one. The proposed discretization involve scalar coefficients only, simplifying the CSI implementation. Moreover, a lower discretization error has been verified. Future work deals with the use of this discretization in the implementaion of the 3-D CSI algorithm with a more realistic scenario and with experimental data obtained with the system described in [9]. ACKNOWLEDGMENT This work was supported by the Italian Ministry of University and Research under the PRIN project MiBraScan - Microwave Brain Scanner for Cerebrovascular Diseases Monitoring REFERENCES [1] A. Abubakar and P. M. van den Berg, “Three-dimensional inverse scattering applied to cross-well induction sensors,” IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing, vol. 38, no. 4, pp. 1669–1681, 2000. [2] A. Zakaria, I. Jeffrey, and J. LoVetri, “Full-vectorial parallel finite-element contrast source inversion method,” Progress in Electromagnetics Research-pier, vol. 142, pp. 463–483, 2013. [3] A. Arduino, L. Zilberti, M. Chiampi, and O. Bottauscio, “Csi-epf in presence of rf-shield for mr-coils,” IEEE Transactions on Medical Imaging, vol. 36, no. 7, pp. 1396–1404, 2017. [4] A. Zakaria, C. Gilmore, and J. LoVetri, “Finite-element contrast source inversion method for microwave imaging,” Inverse Problems, vol. 26, pp. 115010–21, 11 2010. [5] P. M. V. D. Berg and A. Abubakar, “Contrast source inversion method: State of art,” in Progress In Electromagnetics Research, vol. 34, pp. 189–218, 2001. [6] A. Abubakar, W. Hu, P. Berg, and T. Habashy, “A finite-difference contrast source inversion method,” Inverse Problems, vol. 24, p. 065004, 09 2008. [7] E. A. Attardo, A. Borsic, G. Vecchi, and P. M. Meaney, “Whole-system electromagnetic modeling for microwave tomography,” IEEE Antennas Wirel. Propag. Lett., vol. 11, pp. 1618–1621, 2012. [8] R. Scapaticci, J. Tobon, G. Bellizzi, F. Vipiana, and L. Crocco, “Design and numerical characterization of a low-complexity microwave device for brain stroke monitoring,” IEEE Transactions on Antennas and Propagation, vol. 66, no. 12, pp. 7328–7338, 2018. [9] J. A. Tobon Vasquez, R. Scapaticci, G. Turvani, G. Bellizzi, D. O. Rodriguez-Duarte, N. Joachimowicz, B. Duchene, E. Tedeschi, M. R. Casu, L. Crocco, and F. Vipiana, “A prototype microwave system for 3D brain stroke imaging,” SENSORS, vol. 20, May 2020. [10] J. A. Tobon Vasquez, R. Scapaticci, G. Turvani, G. Bellizzi, N. Joachimowicz, B. Duchene, E. Tedeschi, M. R. Casu, L. Crocco, and F. Vipiana, “Design and experimental assessment of a 2D microwave imaging system for brain stroke monitoring,” Int. J. Antennas Propag., no. Article ID 8065036, p. 12 pages, 2019. [11] X. Chen, Computational methods for Electromagnetic Inverse Scattering. Wiley-IEEE Press, 1st ed., 2018. [12] A. Zakaria, The finite-element contrast source inversion method for microwave imaging applications. PhD thesis, Univ. of Manitoba, 2012. [13] J. Jin, The Finite Element Method in Electromagnetics. Wiley-IEEE Press, 3rd ed., 2014.
COMPONENTS: 1) Neodymium fluoride; $\text{NdF}_3$; [13709-42-7] 2) Alcohols ORIGINAL MEASUREMENTS: Kirmse, E.M. Wiss. Hefte, Paed. Inst. Koethen 1978, 2, 85-90. VARIABLES: Room temperature PREPARED BY: T. Mioduski and M. Salomon EXPERIMENTAL VALUES: \| solvent \| $\text{CH}_3\text{OH}$; [67-56-1] \| $\text{C}_2\text{H}_5\text{OH}$; [64-17-5] \| \|-----------\|----------------------------------\|----------------------------------\| \| $\text{NdF}_3$ solubility $^a,b$ \| 0.02 mol kg$^{-1}$ \| 0.02 mol kg$^{-1}$ \| $^a$Molalities calculated by the compilers. $^b$Solid phases were dried in a desiccator over $\text{P}_4\text{O}_{10}$ and the Nd:F ratio found to equal almost 1:3. AUXILIARY INFORMATION METHOD/APPARATUS/PROCEDURE: Isothermal method. About 100 mg of $\text{NdF}_3$ was added to 10-20 cm$^3$ of solvent, and the mixture mechanically agitated at room temperature for 100 h. 5-10 g of saturated solution were removed by decanting or by centrifuging. The sln was heated with about 10 cm$^3$ of 10% KOH solution for 3-5 h to obtain solid $\text{Nd(OH)}_3$ and a basic F$^-$ solution. The precipitate was washed, dissolved in aq HCl, and Nd determined several times by complexometric titration with potentiometric end-point detection (1). The fluoride content in the filtrate was determined as described in (2). The reported solubility is a mean of "numerous parallel determinations," or "at least two parallel determinations." SOURCE AND PURITY OF MATERIALS: $\text{Nd}_2\text{O}_3$ (source and purity not specified) was dissolved in HCl and the fluoride precipitated by addition of aq HF. The solid produced was $\text{NdF}_3 \cdot 0.5\text{H}_2\text{O}$ and was dehydrated by washing with acetone followed by drying at 310°C for 120 hours. The solvents were dried and purified by "standard methods." ESTIMATED ERROR: Solv: results with relative errors exceeding 50% were rejected. Temp: unknown. REFERENCES: 1. Schilbach, U.; Kirmse, E.M. Z. Chem. 1974, 14, 484. 2. Schilbach, U.; Hetze, I.; Kirmse, E.M. Chemia Analityczna 1975, 20, 33. ### COMPONENTS: 1. Neodymium fluoride; $\text{NdF}_3$; [13709-42-7] 2. Ethers ### ORIGINAL MEASUREMENTS: Dressler, H. Dissertationschrift. Paed. Inst. Koethen, GDR. 1980. ### VARIABLES: Room temperature ### PREPARED BY: T. Mioduski and M. Salomon ### EXPERIMENTAL VALUES: \| Solvent \| solubility \| \|--------------------------------\|------------\| \| l-methoxydecane; $C_{11}H_{24}O$; [7289-52-3] \| 0.01a \| \| l-(chloromethoxy)butane; $C_5H_{11}ClO$; [2351-69-1] \| 0.02b \| solubility \| mass % \| mol/100 g sln \| \|--------\|---------------\| \| \| \| \| \| \| a Solid phase. Nd:F:ether:$H_2O$ ratio found to be 1:3.03:0.06:0.24. b Solid phase. Nd:F:ether:$H_2O$ ratio found to be 1:2.89:0.51:0.25 ### AUXILIARY INFORMATION #### METHOD/APPARATUS/PROCEDURE: Method analogous to that described in (1). No other information available. #### SOURCE AND PURITY OF MATERIALS: It appears that the fluoride was prepared as in (1). In spite of drying the fluoride by two methods at 573 K, the Nd:F:$H_2O$ ratio was 1:3.01:0.45. No other information available. #### ESTIMATED ERROR: Nothing specified. #### REFERENCES: 1. Kirmse, E.M. Wiss. Hefte, Paed. Inst. Koethen. 1978, 2, 85. COMPONENTS: 1. Neodymium fluoride; $\text{NdF}_3$; [13709-42-7] 2. Tributyl phosphate; $\text{C}_{12}\text{H}_{27}\text{O}_4\text{P}$; [126-73-8] ORIGINAL MEASUREMENTS: Kirmse, E.M. Wiss. Hefte, Paed. Inst. Koethen 1978, 2, 85-90 VARIABLES: Room temperature PREPARED BY: T. Mioduski EXPERIMENTAL VALUES: The solubility of $\text{NdF}_3$ in $[\text{CH}_3(\text{CH}_2)_3]_3\text{P(O)}$ at room temperature was given as 0.04 mass % The corresponding molality calculated by the compiler is $2.0 \times 10^{-3} \text{ mol kg}^{-1}$ The solid phase was dried in a desiccator over $\text{P}_4\text{O}_{10}$ and the Nd:F ratio determined to be almost 1:3. --- AUXILIARY INFORMATION METHOD/APPARATUS/PROCEDURE: Isothermal method. About 100 mg of $\text{NdF}_3$ was added to 10-20 cm$^3$ of solvent, and the mixture mechanically agitated at room temperature for 100 h. 5-10 g of saturated solution were removed by decanting or by centrifuging. The sln was heated with about 10 cm$^3$ of 10% KOH solution for 3-5 h to obtain solid $\text{Na(OH)}_3$ and a basic F$^-$ solution. The precipitate was washed, dissolved in aq HCl, and Nd determined several times by complexometric titration with potentiometric endpoint detection (1). The fluoride content in the filtrate was determined as described in (2). The reported solubility is a mean of "numerous parallel determinations," or "at least two parallel determinations." SOURCE AND PURITY OF MATERIALS: $\text{Nd}_2\text{O}_3$ (source and purity not specified) was dissolved in HCl and the fluoride precipitated by addition of aq HF. The solid produced was $\text{NdF}_3.0.5\text{H}_2\text{O}$ and was dehydrated by washing with acetone followed by drying at 310°C for 120 hours. The solvent was dried and purified by "standard methods." ESTIMATED ERROR: Soln: results with relative errors exceeding 50% were rejected. Temp: unknown. REFERENCES: 1. Schilbach, U.; Kirmse, E.M. Z. Chem. 1974, 14, 484. 2. Schilbach, U.; Hetze, I.; Kirmse, E.M. Chemia Analityczna 1975, 20, 33. Neodymium Fluoride \| COMPONENTS: \| ORIGINAL MEASUREMENTS: \| \|-------------\|------------------------\| \| (1) Neodymium fluoride; NdF₃; [13709-42-7] \| Kirmse, E.M. \| \| (2) Dimethylsulfoxide; C₂H₆OS; [67-68-5] \| Wiss. Hefte, Paed. Inst. Koethen 1978, 2, 85-90. \| \| VARIABLES: \| PREPARED BY: \| \|------------\|--------------\| \| Room temperature \| T. Mioduski \| EXPERIMENTAL VALUES: The solubility of NdF₃ in (CH₃)₂SO at room temperature was given as \[ 0.02 \text{ mass } \% \] The corresponding molality calculated by the compiler is \[ 1.0 \times 10^{-3} \text{ mol kg}^{-1} \] The solid phase was dried in a desiccator over P₄O₁₀ and the Nd:F ratio found to be almost 1:3. --- AUXILIARY INFORMATION METHOD/APPARATUS/PROCEDURE: Isothermal method. About 100 mg NdF₃ and 10–20 cm³ of solvent mechanically agitated at room temperature for 100 hours. Samples of saturated solution for analyses were obtained by decantation or by centrifuging. 5–10 g of saturated solution were heated with about 10 cm³ of 10 % KOH solution for 1–2 hours to obtain quantitative separation of solid Nd(OH)₃ and a basic F⁻ solution. The Nd(OH)₃ was filtered, washed and dissolved with HCl. Nd determined several times by complexometric titration with potentiometric end-point detection (1). The fluoride content of the basic filtrate was determined photometrically using Al-Eriochrome cyanine color lake (2). The reported solubility is a mean of "numerous parallel determinations," or at least two parallel determinations. SOURCE AND PURITY OF MATERIALS: Nd₂O₃ (source and purity not specified) was dissolved in HCl and the fluoride precipitated by addition of aq HF. The solid produced was NdF₃·0.5H₂O and was dehydrated by washing with acetone followed by drying at 310°C for 120 hours. The solvent was dried and purified by "standard methods." ESTIMATED ERROR: Soly: results with relative errors exceeding 50% were rejected. Temp: unknown. REFERENCES: 1. Schilbach, U.; Kirmse, E.M. Z. Chem. 1974, 14, 484. 2. Schilbach, U.; Hetze, I.; Kirmse, E.M. Chemia Analityczna 1975, 20, 33. COMPONENTS: (1) Neodymium fluoride; NdF₃; [13709-42-7] (2) Pyridine; C₆H₅N; [110-86-1] ORIGINAL MEASUREMENTS: Kirmse, E.M. Wiss. Hefte, Paed. Inst. Koethen 1978, 2, 85-90. VARIABLES: Room temperature PREPARED BY: T. Mioduski EXPERIMENTAL VALUES: The solubility of NdF₃ in pyridine at room temperature was reported to be 0.07 mass %. The corresponding molality calculated by the compiler is $3.5 \times 10^{-3} \text{ mol kg}^{-1}$. The solid phase was dried in a desiccator over P₄O₁₀ and the Nd:F ratio found to equal almost 1:3. --- AUXILIARY INFORMATION METHOD/APPARATUS/PROCEDURE: Isothermal method. About 100 mg NdF₃ and 10-20 cm³ of solvent mechanically agitated at room temperature for 100 hours. Samples of saturated solution for analyses were obtained by decantation or by centrifuging. 5-10 g of saturated solution were heated with about 10 cm³ of 10% KOH solution for 1-2 hours to obtain quantitative separation of solid Nd(OH)₃ and a basic F⁻ solution. The Nd(OH)₃ was filtered, washed and dissolved with HCl. Nd determined several times by complexometric titration with potentiometric end-point detection (1). The fluoride content of the basic filtrate was determined photometrically using Al-Eriochrome cyanine color lake (2). The reported solubility is a mean of "numerous parallel determinations," or at least two parallel determinations. SOURCE AND PURITY OF MATERIALS: Nd₂O₃ (source and purity not specified) was dissolved in HCl and the fluoride precipitated by addition of aq HF. The solid produced was NaF₃·0.5H₂O and was dehydrated by washing with acetone followed by drying at 310°C for 120 hours. The solvent was dried and purified by "standard methods." ESTIMATED ERROR: Soly: results with relative errors exceeding 50% were rejected. Temp: unknown. REFERENCES: 1. Schilbach, U.; Kirmse, E.M. Z. Chem. 1974, 14, 484. 2. Schilbach, U.; Hetze, I.; Kirmse, E.M. Chemia Analityczna 1975, 20, 33.
ESET THREAT INTELLIGENCE Extend your security intelligence from local network to global cyberspace The future is here, and it's all about data. What is a Threat Intelligence solution? ESET’s Threat Intelligence service provides global knowledge on targeted attacks, advanced persistent threats (APTs), zero-days and botnet activities. These items are traditionally difficult for security engineers to discover, who can only access information within their local network. Why Threat Intelligence? Threat Intelligence services help sift through the information overload and provide the most relevant information for specific organizations. INFORMATION OVERLOAD Zero-days, advanced persistent threats, targeted attacks and botnets are all concerns for industries across the world. The problem is, due to the amount of different threats, organizations are unable to easily understand which proactive defenses and mitigations are the most important. This ultimately leads to organizations scrambling to try and find meaningful information among limited data sets, such as their own networks, or the extremely large datasets that they find via external sources. Threat Intelligence services help sift through the information overload and provide the most relevant information for specific organizations. Threat Intelligence services allow organizations to quickly and easily prioritize emerging threats, which leaves them more time to proactively implement new defenses against them. PROACTIVE VS. REACTIVE Today’s cybersecurity landscape is constantly evolving with new attack methods and never before seen threats. When an attack or data breach occurs, organizations are typically surprised that their defenses were compromised, or are completely unaware that the attack even happened. After the attack is finally discovered, organizations rush to reactively implement mitigations to stop this attack from being repeated. However, this does not protect them from the next attack that may use another brand new vector. Threat Intelligence services provide insight on future business risks and unknown threats, which allow organizations to improve the effectiveness of their defenses and implement a proactive cybersecurity posture. INCIDENT RESPONSE SUPPORT When a data breach occurs, security teams typically need to figure out how the incident happened, as well as identify which devices were affected. This process is typically a very long and manual process as engineers sift through their network searching for abnormalities which may indicate a compromise occurred. Threat Intelligence services allow incident response teams to fully understand and quickly respond to data breaches. By providing information on the threat actor, malware behaviour, attack vectors and indicators of compromise, security teams can reduce incident response time by understanding the full picture of the attack as well as what to look for. When an attack or data breach occurs, organizations are typically surprised that their defenses were compromised, or are completely unaware that the attack even happened. By providing information on the threat actor, attack vectors and indicators of compromise, security teams can reduce incident response time by understanding the full picture of the attack as well as what to look for. The future is here, and it’s everywhere. The ESET difference HUMAN EXPERTISE BACKED BY MACHINE LEARNING The use of machine learning to automate decisions and evaluate possible threats is a vital part of our approach. But it is only as strong as the people who stand behind the system. Human expertise is paramount in providing the most accurate threat intelligence possible, due to the threat actors being intelligent opponents. REPUTATION SYSTEM ESET Endpoint products contain a cloud reputation system which feeds relevant information about the most recent threats and benign files. Our reputation system, LiveGrid® is made up of 110 million sensors worldwide, and verified by our R&D centers, which gives customers the highest level of confidence when viewing information and reports within their console. WORLDWIDE PRESENCE ESET has been in the security industry for over 30 years, has 22 offices worldwide, 13 R&D facilities and a presence in over 200 countries and territories. This helps to provide our customers with a worldwide perspective on all the most recent trends and threats. Human expertise backed by machine learning. Our reputation system, LiveGrid® is made up of 110 million sensors worldwide, and verified by our R&D centers. Use cases Proactive Threat Prevention Businesses want to prevent infiltrations from being able to communicate in or out of their network. SOLUTION - Threat intelligence proactively notifies security teams of the most recent targeted attacks and command and control (C&C) servers that have occurred around the globe. - Threat intelligence provides data feeds which can be integrated with SIEM tools or UTM devices to stop connectivity to or from malicious actors, thus preventing data leaks or damages. - Businesses input rules and mitigations to prevent the intrusion of ransomware into their organization. RECOMMENDED ADDITIONAL ESET SOLUTIONS - ESET Endpoint Security - ESET Enterprise Inspector Increase efficiency of incident response and investigations Once an infection occurs, businesses need to make sure that they identify and remove all incidence of the infection across their network. SOLUTION - Reduce data gathering and investigation time by uploading and analyzing threats via ESET Threat Intelligence to provide information on how the threat functions. - Search and remediate infections found within organizations using data provided by threat intelligence service. RECOMMENDED ADDITIONAL ESET SOLUTIONS - ESET Endpoint Security - ESET Enterprise Inspector "As we say at the hospital, prevention is better than healing." — Jos Savelkoul, team leader ICT-Department, Zuyderland Hospital, Netherlands. 10.000+ Seats Threat mitigation Most businesses simply remediate threats and do not input mitigations to prevent new infections from infiltrating their organizations. SOLUTION ✔ After a malware infection, a file can be submitted to ESET’s automated sample analysis. ✔ The sample analysis provides actionable data on how the malware behaves. ✔ The organization inputs mitigations to prevent future infections from exploiting the same threat vectors. RECOMMENDED ADDITIONAL ESET SOLUTIONS ✔ ESET Endpoint Security ✔ ESET Mail Security ✔ ESET Enterprise Inspector ✔ ESET Dynamic Threat Defense “ESET security solutions have protected and alerted Primoris IT department on numerous occasions to serious threats and infections, most importantly ransomware.” — Joshua Collins, Data Center Operations Manager, Primoris Services Corporation, USA. 4.000+ Seats The future is here, and it’s all about data. With the rise of big data, machine learning, and artificial intelligence, businesses are increasingly relying on data to make informed decisions. However, with so much data available, it can be challenging to know where to start. That’s where data analytics comes in. Data analytics is the process of collecting, cleaning, transforming, and modeling data to discover useful information, draw conclusions from data, and support decision-making. It involves using statistical and computational techniques to analyze large amounts of data and identify patterns and trends. Data analytics can help businesses gain a competitive advantage by providing insights into customer behavior, market trends, and operational efficiency. By leveraging data analytics, businesses can make more informed decisions, improve their products and services, and ultimately drive growth. However, data analytics is not without its challenges. One of the biggest challenges is ensuring that the data being analyzed is accurate and reliable. This requires a deep understanding of the data sources and the ability to clean and transform the data to remove any errors or inconsistencies. Another challenge is the need for skilled data analysts who can interpret the results of data analysis and communicate them effectively to stakeholders. This requires a combination of technical skills and business acumen. Despite these challenges, the benefits of data analytics are undeniable. By investing in data analytics, businesses can unlock new opportunities, improve their performance, and stay ahead of the competition. So, if you’re looking to take your business to the next level, consider investing in data analytics today. ESET Threat Intelligence technical features REAL-TIME DATA FEEDS ESET Threat Intelligence data feeds utilize widely supported STIX/TAXII format, which makes it easy to integrate with existing SIEM tools. This integration helps to strengthen service providers and deliver the latest information on the threat landscape to predict and prevent threats before they strike. Currently there are three main types of feeds available: Botnet, Malicious file and Domain Feed. All feeds containing new metadata are refreshed every 5 minutes. EARLY WARNING REPORTS Provides reports based on YARA rules matches about programs, activity or related configurations that are being either prepared or already utilized in an attack against a specific organization or its customer. ROBUST API ESET Threat Intelligence features a full API that is available for automation of reports, YARA rules and other functionalities to allow for integration with other systems used within organizations. ANDROID SAMPLE SUBMISSION With ESET Threat Intelligence, it is possible to monitor whether Android malware is targeting a business’s mobile application. This is especially important for banks and other industries that have their own mobile applications. In addition, at any point a business can upload an android application into ESET Threat Intelligence for full analysis of an .apk file. YARA RULES Allows the business to set up custom rules to obtain company-specific information that security engineers are interested in. Once these rules are set up, organizations receive valuable details such as the number of times they have been seen worldwide, URLs containing malicious code, malware behavior on the system, where it was detected, and more. AUTOMATED SAMPLE ANALYSIS Creates a custom report based on the submitted file or hash, which provides valuable information for fact-based decisions and incident investigations. Early warning reports and feeds Reports TARGETED MALWARE REPORT Keeps user informed about a potential attack that is under preparation or an ongoing attack aimed specifically against his organization. This report includes YARA rule strings, reputation information, similar binaries, file details, sandbox output and more. BOTNET ACTIVITY REPORT Delivers regular and quantitative data about identified malware families and variants of botnet malware. The report provides actionable data that includes Command and Control (C&C) servers involved in botnet management, samples of botnet, global weekly statistics, and a list of targets of this malware. FORGED SSL CERTIFICATE REPORT Generated when ESET detects a newly released SSL certificate by a certificate authority which has a very similar asset to the one provided by the customer during initial setup. This may include things like upcoming phishing campaigns that are attempting to leverage this certificate. This report provides key attributes of the certificate, YARA matches and certificate data. TARGETED PHISHING REPORT Shows data about all phishing email activities targeted at the selected organization. The report provides phishing campaign information that includes campaign size, number of clients, URL screenshots, preview of phishing email, location of servers and much more. Feeds BOTNET FEED Features three types of feeds that check over 1000+ targets per day including information on the botnet itself, servers involved and their targets. The data provided directly by these feeds include items such as detection, hash, date of server last seen active, files downloaded, IP addresses, protocols, targets, and much more. DOMAIN FEED Features domains which are considered malicious including domain name, IP address, detection of file downloaded from URL and detection of file which was trying to access the URL. MALICIOUS FILE FEED Features executables which are considered malicious and recognizes and shares information such as SHA1, MD5, SHA256, detection, size, and file format. CUSTOM FEEDS ESET can provide a completely new feed based on specific organization requirements. Moreover, all currently available feeds are adjustable according to the customers needs. Availability of ESET Threat Intelligence reports and feeds vary by country. Please contact local ESET representative for more information. ESET—a global player in information security—has been named as the only Challenger in the 2018 Gartner Magic Quadrant for Endpoint Protection Platforms.* For more than 30 years, ESET® has been developing industry-leading IT security software and services, delivering instant, comprehensive protection against evolving cybersecurity threats for businesses and consumers worldwide. ESET is privately owned. With no debts and no loans, we have the freedom to do what needs to be done for the ultimate protection of all our customers. ESET IN NUMBERS - 110m+ users worldwide - 400k+ business customers - 200+ countries & territories - 13 global R&D centers ESET EMPLOYEES More than a third of all ESET employees work in Research & Development ESET REVENUE in million € --- Gartner does not endorse any vendor, product or service depicted in its research publications. 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SOME OF OUR CUSTOMERS HONDA protected by ESET since 2011 license prolonged 3x, enlarged 2x GREENPEACE protected by ESET since 2008 license prolonged/enlarged 10x Canon protected by ESET since 2016 more than 14,000 endpoints T-Mobile ISP security partner since 2008 2 million customer base SOME OF OUR TOP AWARDS SE Labs AAA OCT-DEC 2018 CRN PARTNER PROGRAM GUIDE WINNER 2017 AV comparatives Approved Business Product 2017 SC MEDIA RECOMMENDED “Given the good features for both anti-malware and manageability, and the global reach of customers and support, ESET should be on the shortlist for consideration in enterprise RFPs for anti-malware solutions.” KuppingerCole Leadership Compass Enterprise Endpoint Security: Anti-Malware Solutions, 2018 eset® ENJOY SAFER TECHNOLOGY™
Miller Promoted To Motown Sr. VP Skip Miller has been promoted to the new position of Senior VP/Director of Operations for Motown. Miller had been VP/Promotion for the label since 1979, and now will supervise marketing, promotion, artist relations, press and publicity. Reporting to him are VP/Sales Miller London, VP/Marketing & Distribution Dick Korman, Exec. Director/Press & Publicity Bob Jones, and newly-appointed Director/Artist Relations Corb Donahue. Motown President Jay Lasker commented, "Skip is the most talented and effective promotion executive I've had the pleasure to work with. He has a very refined yet creative approach to the relationship between artist, promotion, and sales. In his new position, he will be able to orchestrate completely the total promotion of Motown product, based on his vast experience in these most crucial areas." Before becoming VP/Promotion, Miller was National R&B Promotion Director for Motown, earlier working as Regional Sales Manager and West Coast Sales Manager. Opsitnik Bonneville's President/CEO Jim Opsitnik has been appointed President/CEO of the Bonneville Broadcasting System. He succeeds former Chairman/CEO John Patton, who resigned in October last year. Opsitnik's most recent position was as owner/GM of KBVZ/Salem. Commenting on the appointment, Bonneville International Sr. VP Ken Hatch said, "We were looking for a high-quality individual with a good solid broadcast background. He was our first selection, because he's an individual we wanted, and we think he's the kind and quality of broadcast executive that we are looking forward to leading BBS to bigger and better things in the future." Opsitnik told R&R, "I'm very Flores Upped To WJIT Station Manager Frank Flores has been appointed Station Manager at Infinity's WJIT/New York. He moves up from Sales Manager for the Spanish-formatted station, and is the first Hispanic to be named as the station's manager. Flores has been with WJIT for four years. In announcing the promotion, Infinity President Mel Karmazin commented, "I am very pleased to be able to promote someone from within the station to this very important position. Frank's understanding of the Hispanic community and knowledge of radio broadcasting make me confident he can lead WJIT to even greater heights." Upon receiving the promotion, Flores noted, "WJIT has always been very involved in the Hispanic community, and I am looking forward to the station becoming even more involved and to working with the staff of the finest Hispanic broadcasters in the country." First in a series The Radio Rep Alternative HNW&H prides itself on providing radio stations with an innovative alternative in representation. Other reps only sell spot radio. We market stations on a national basis, use an aggressive pricing policy and have a unique accountability system. Enough stations have agreed with our alternative to make us America's fastest growing rep. As the year goes on, we'll be telling you more about how we apply each of the three factors that have fueled our remarkable growth—marketing, aggressive pricing and accountability—and what they can mean to your station's success. Increase your share. Start using our call letters. The radio industry's hottest new call letters! HNWH HILLIER, NEWMARK, WECHSLER & HOWARD New York, Atlanta, Boston, Chicago, Dallas, Detroit, Los Angeles, Philadelphia, St. Louis, San Francisco. 212/832-8900 Weaver Joins Nashville Broadcast Partnership Tom Weaver, recently Exec VP of All-Pro Broadcasting, has joined an already-unnamed Nashville broadcast partnership as President. The partnership, shortly to be incorporated, owns WKOS/Nashville and, technically, WRQK & WPET/Greensboro (whose sale to Robbins Pharmaceutical awaits completion). Weaver's partners are Los Angeles attorney Joe Wolf, Las Angeles manufacturer Maryann Moss and WRQK & WPET President/GM Tom Armshaw, who will be remaining at the stations after the ownership transfer but will also participate in the partnership. Weaver told R&R, "I'm extremely excited about being in business with these gentlemen. We plan on making inroads in the broadcasting business in the top 25 markets, and hopefully will own a full complement. We're going all the way." Weaver said the group's first priority would be a "total revamping and turnaround" of WKOS, including a call letter and format change. WILL REMAIN AT KWSS Van Stone New VP At Western Cities KWSS/San Jose PD Dave Van Stone has been promoted to VP/Programming for present group Western Cities Broadcasting. The position has been vacant since the departure of Don Benson over two years ago. Speaking for Western Cities principals Rick and Bill Phalen, KWSS VP/GM Palmer-Pyle told R&R, "Dave has done a fantastic job for us here at KWSS. He's really put us on the map. We're very proud of his accomplishments, and I wish I could keep him all to myself. This well-deserved promotion will allow him to share his expertise with all of the other programmers." An eight-year veteran of the company, Van Stone has programmed Western Cities outlets KLUC & KMJJ/Las Vegas and KRQQ & KNST/Tucson. He remarked, "Obviously I'm happy. This is a major opportunity to work with all of the programmers in Western Cities. I feel we have some of the best PDs in the country, and I look for a lot of great things to happen in 1984. We're in a real strong position in all of our markets, so all we're going to do is improve on what we've already got." In addition to its outlets in San Jose, Las Vegas and Tucson, Western Cities also owns KZPZ-AM & FM/Phoenix and KZAP-Sacramento. TRANSACTIONS Guy Gannett Purchases WPLP Guy Gannett Broadcasting Services has entered into an agreement to purchase WPLP/Pinellas Park (Tampa) from Dan Johnson, Inc., pending FCC approval. No sale price was announced. WPLP broadcasts a News/Talk format on 570 kHz, with power of 1kw. Guy Gannett said in a statement it "plans to continue the present format and improve the station's facilities in order to better serve this important and growing area." The selling company is owned by Dan and Elwyn Johnson. The station is a wholly-owned subsidiary of Guy Gannett Publishing Co. The group's other stations are WIZN-AM & FM/Miami, KOFM/Oklahoma City, WRKT-AM & FM/Cocoa Beach, KSTT & WXLP/Quad Cities, and three TV stations. Bradley Oversees New KUPL-AM & FM Country Direction Bill Bradley has been named Operations Director for KUPL-AM & FM/Portland, from the PD position at Country-formatted KLZ/Denver. KUPL-AM & FM are expected to change to Country (from Big Band and Beautiful Music, respectively) in the next two weeks. Scripps-Howard Broadcasting Director of Programming Steve Roddy told R&R, "We're very glad and pleased to have Bill join our company. His abilities and professionalism are well respected in the industry, and we know he will be equal to the task of programming KUPL-AM & FM." Bradley commented, "After eight years I have a tremendous amount of love and loyalty for Group One and KLZ. But it is time to move on. KUPL-AM & FM are going to..." Miller Elevated To PD At W101 WIQI (W101)/Tampa MD Chris Miller has been promoted to PD. Miller, who will be taking on the station's day-to-day programming duties, continues to report to VP/Operations Bob DeCarlo. Commenting on the appointment, DeCarlo said, "Chris has put countless hours into the maintenance of the musical sound of the station. Also, his comments about our contesting and the way we handle the things we do on the air have been very..." A Note From The Publisher Direction '84 — Preparation For Programmers As you've seen in the paper over the last couple of weeks, R&R has introduced a new series of seminars. We're calling them the "Shirtsleeve Seminars" for a very good reason: because you're going to roll up your sleeves and get right in there with the professionals we're bringing in to help you prepare for the future. The first in this new series, "Direction '84," has been designed to give the program director a better grip on what's coming and how to deal with it. Whether your personal goal is to be a station manager, group PD or own your own station — or just stay where you are now — there are a lot of very powerful tools here to help you grow into the '80s and beyond. Hands-On Approach I am a great fan of the "hands-on" approach to learning. It gives you the chance to get the feel of a situation, deal with a real problem, and even "blow it" without paying for it in the real world. And that's why we're limiting the participation in this seminar to 400 attendees. We are aiming for an easily-managed group that can work together in a team environment. DIRECTION '84/See Page 48 HUTCHINSON, ALDRICH, MUNDAY MOVE UP Chrysalis Promotes Three To Sr. VP Chrysalis Records has promoted VP/Finance Paul Hutchinson, VP/A&R Jeff Aldrich, and VP/Music Group Ann Munday to St. VP positions in their respective departments for the New York-based label. Chrysalis President Jack Craigo told R&R, "I'm most pleased to announce the promotion of these three key people to the position of Sr. VP. Jeff Aldrich, Paul Hutchinson, and Ann Munday have contributed greatly to the growth of Chrysalis for a number of years. What this really does is delegate more line authority to..." CHRYSAULS/See Page 48 Miller Elevated To PD At W101 WIQI (W101)/Tampa MD Chris Miller has been promoted to PD. Miller, who will be taking on the station's day-to-day programming duties, continues to report to VP/Operations Bob DeCarlo. Commenting on the appointment, DeCarlo said, "Chris has put countless hours into the maintenance of the musical sound of the station. Also, his comments about our contesting and the way we handle the things we do on the air have been very..." New Daytimer Push For Higher Evening Power The Daytime Broadcasters Association (DBA) this week began a new drive at the FCC to get its members greater late afternoon and evening power levels. The new limits granted in December were "disappointingly low," said DBA. Fully 94% of the 2357 daytimers got less than 300 watts and 1000 received 50 watts or less. DBA's argument is that they should have the same post-sunset power as they do from 6am to sunrise, when most operate with 500 watts and get few complaints of interference. DBA's plan would give most daytimers 500 watts from 6am-6:30pm. From 6:30pm until signoff at two hours past sunset, the stations would operate with the lower levels they're now using. Two daytimers that recently complained directly to the FCC, WTYC/Rock Hill, SC said his 83.5 watts extends less than six miles and noted, "It is ironic that during the season when we are most needed by the public, we are either off the air or on drastically reduced power." Manager Joe Urban at farm-oriented WEKZ/Monee, WI, which got 17.5 watts post-sunset, wrote, "We cannot ask our listeners to tune in to such a poor signal, and our pitiful reach eliminates the barns beyond city limits." Dawson Calls For "Omnibus" Content Deregulation By FCC Branding the regulation of broadcasting "obsolete and unworkable," FCC Commissioner Mimi Dawson has called on the FCC to "quickly begin an omnibus content deregulation proceeding -- to include radio as well as television." Dawson told a Washington dinner of the Federal Communications Bar Association last week that the FCC's 1981 deregulation of radio didn't go far enough. Said Dawson, "I'm afraid we've gone unregulated rather than certainty, instability rather than stability, and brought a micro approach to a macro problem." The primary failure was missing "the critical opportunity to completely redefine the public interest obligation of broadcast licensees," Dawson declared. Dawson spelled out seven questions the FCC should ask in any regulation proceeding. Those questions focus on the legal requirements, costs, public interest benefits, and First Amendment implications of the FCC's regulation of radio and television programming. NAB Shifts Summers To Government Relations NAB solved one of its nagging personnel problems last week at its Board of Directors meeting in Maui, Hawaii. Executive VP/GM John Summers was named to fill the association's top lobbying job, vacant since Sr. VP/Government Relations Steve Stockmeyer quit last fall. Summers keeps his Executive VP stripes, but gives up the GM title. Although Summers is still considered the NAB's second-in-command, responsibility for day-to-day operations now rests directly with NAB President Eddie Fritts. Instead of reporting to Summers, the association's Senior VPs will answer to Fritts, consolidating his control. Mutual Defends WCFL Sale Lawyers for Mutual last week filed a vigorous opposition to two petitions to deny its $8 million sale of WCFL/Chicago. Two listeners have questioned Mutual's qualifications to be a licensee in the wake of a guilty plea by Armaday, a partner in firm, to charges of a $100 million fraud in Canada. Mutual responded, "The Armady misconduct was not related in any way to the broadcast activities of MBS or Mutual Radio. The WCFL facilities were not involved in the fraudulent activity. It was never alleged that any individuals in the day-to-day operations of Mutual Radio or MBS participated in or had knowledge of the fraud. "Moreover, the Armady conduct did not violate the Communications Act of 1934 or any FCC rules and regulations, did not involve deception of the broadcast public, and did not include misrepresentations or lack of candor to the Commission." Wirth Drops Quotas, Backs Public Access Time A break in the eight-month broadcast deregulation stalemate seemed possible this week as key players in House negotiations on the issue planned to meet for the first time in over two months. The session comes amid signs that Telecommunications Subcommittee Chairman Tim Wirth (D-CO) is no longer demanding programming quotas for radio in specific categories. Instead, he now favors setting a standard for giving radio time, such as PSAs, to outside groups. Unless this week's session achieves a consensus both sides can live with, Rep. Tom Tauke (R-IA) told the NAB Board in Maui last week he may drop out of the negotiating process and begin looking for a way to bypass the subcommittee. His options include trying to attach deregulation to another bill in the full Commerce Committee or on the House floor. Besides Tauke, participants in this week's session were to include his pro-industry colleague, Billy Tauzin (D-LA), plus Al Swift (D-WA) and Wirth. Wirth set the stage for the crucial meeting last week by circulating a draft bill with a memo claiming he has gone "much further in halfway in attempting to arrive at a fair compromise on the key issues." He called on Tauke and Tauzin to come forward with "significant concessions themselves when we meet shortly, so that a final agreement on the contents of legislation can be communicated." The issue of whether to include radio in any program standards, in return for abolition of the comparative renewal process and other freedoms, is one of the key unresolved points. Tauke and Tauzin oppose any standards for radio, while the latest draft bill shows Wirth moderating his stance significantly. Industry Average Key Here's how the new Wirth plan would work. First, the FCC would study how much time radio stations gave, in the form of PSAs and other types of airtime, to outside groups over a 12-month period. The average amount of time for that period, probably broken down by different classes of stations, would then become a minimum requirement. Wirth's plan would also give the FCC three years to complete a study of whether the public is getting enough informational programming from radio. If not, the Commission would be required to correct the situation. Wirth calls this a "safe harbor." Anyone feeling that radio stations in a "service area" aren't programming to meet a problem or need could file a petition that would trigger an FCC probe. Once again, if a shortfall was discovered, the FCC would order stations to air programs to satisfy the unmet needs. SPRING VOTE PREDICTED Repeal Of 7-7-7 Rule For Radio Wins Broad Industry Support If comments filed last week with FCC are on the mark, broadcasters overwhelmingly favor repealing the 7-7-7 rule, especially as it pertains to radio. Diving back to 1953, the rule limits one owner to no more than seven stations each in the AM, FM and TV categories. FCC Chairman Mark Fowler said last week that a Commission vote on modifying the rule could come in the next two or three months. There seems to be a broad consensus among commenters that the vast number of radio stations -- and the resulting competition -- make a stronger case for lifting the seven-station rule for radio than for the less-crowded television market. Although most of the comments favored total repeal of the rule for radio, some broadcasters came down on the side of keeping limits, but raising them. Here are some: - Susquehanna Broadcasting backs gradually lifting the 14-station radio limit to 36 stations over a six-year period, with no more than 24 in either the AM or FM service. - NRBA favors raising the limit to 18 AMs and 18 FMs. - Sentry backs a 36-station total, regardless of type. - A cap of 43 radio and 23 TV stations, to be phased out entirely by 1990, is supported by Infinity, Group One, Forward Communications, GCC Communications, Guaranty Broadcasting, Lake Huron Broadcasting, Summit Radio, and other groups. One of the few groups opposed to any change was Greater Media, which worries repeal would cause "further concentration of radio voices in our country." Repeal Advocates Cite Diversity, Competition Typical of the majority of comments, supporting outright repeal for radio, was the joint filing of Broad Street Communications, Cox Communications, and Plough Broadcasting. They said, "Today's commercial radio marketplace has changed materially in the three decades since the seven-stations rule was adopted, having expanded and developed to a competitive and diverse structure. There is now a such a large number of radio stations that it is completely unrealistic to expect that a single entity could own a sufficient number to adversely affect either competition or diversity." Gayle Broadcasting and Lee Enterprises cited the existence of 890 commercial radio stations and nearly 20 distinct formats. They concluded, "There are simply too many competing radio stations to permit any group owner to restrain competition or dominate public access to information." Gannett said it is "not aware of any modern media group owner that imposes lock-step thinking on local management and news staffs." Others favoring total repeal of 7-7-7 for radio included Mid America Media, Bahakel Communications, ABC, NBC, CBS, the U.S. Department of Justice, and the National Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA). NAB supports modifying the rule, but said it "takes no position as to whether the rule should be eliminated or merely relaxed." WE’RE THE ONLY REP FIRM THAT PUTS EVERY ONE OF ITS SALES MANAGERS ON THE STREET SELLING EVERY DAY Every one of Masla Radio’s sales managers sells as well as manages. They’re not desk-men. Not order-takers. They’re order-getters. They’re the only sales managers that carry full agency lists. One more reason why Masla means more business. MASLA RADIO We’ll never be too big not to be hungry. Demo Myths Exposed Since the industry is in a constant state of flux, things that you're liable to read in any demo "bible" aren't necessarily so. American Demographics takes five of these demo myths to task in the January issue. Among them: - All singles are young and swinging. 19 million Americans live alone and over half of that number are 55+ years of age. Those 35 or younger only make up a 27% standing. In terms of gender, four million men under 45 years live alone, as compared to only 2.7 million women in the same age bracket. Single women 65+ number six million, significantly overpowering their male counterparts, who are fewer than 1.5 million. In fact, 61% of single-person households are made up of women. 17% of childless married couples (married couples without children living at home) are under 35 years, while 60% are 55+. Americans are moving back to the city. According to findings in the 1980 census, there is no back-to-the-city movement. Also known as gentrification, the movement back to the country's central cities generally stopped in the 1970s. Although a few neighborhoods in these cities experienced net-gain, the young, professional workers who moved into the neighborhoods weren't enough to stem the flow of people moving away from other parts of the city. Adding further to the diminishing central-city population: the gentrifiers' households were usually smaller than the households they replaced. POSTS 2.8% INCREASE IN TEN MARKETS FM Leveling Trend Continues A recent Arbitron radio listening survey confirms the continued slowing of FM popularity. In ten selected markets, the study shows FM share increasing by only 2.8%, from spring 1982 to spring 1983. This FM share leveling trend began in 1981. Among the ten researched markets, Dallas-Ft. Worth led FM listening with a 69.4% share and a gain of two stations, followed by Washington, DC, which dropped from 68.2% to 67.3% and lost three facilities. Pittsburgh jumped from 48.3% to 54.1%, a 12% hike, while New York FM listening rose 5.8%. Though the FM share increased in seven of the ten markets, new FM stations were added in only three. And for the first time, stations not home to the metro were included in the study, with 1982 figures adjusted to account for the change. $4.98 LIST PRICE Capitol Bows Cassette 12-Inch Single Capitol Records has announced plans to manufacture/market a cassette 12-inch single. Two dance single releases will inaugurate the new tape configuration, Tina Turner's "Let's Stay Together" b/w "I Wrote A Letter" and Thomas Dolby's "Hyperactive" b/w "Dolby's Cube (Get Out Of My Mix)." Each cassette 12-inch single will repeat the same tracks on both tape sides. They are priced at $4.98. Pointing to the rapid growth of the 12-inch single record in the pop and rock music arena, VP/Music Marketing, "Although other labels attempted this campaign previously with less than satisfactory results and subsequently aborted, we feel strongly that the climate is propitious for this type of cassette product today and that the timing is now right for Capitol to market it." Sony Receives AM, FM Stereo There's yet another entry in the personal stereo race. Sony has introduced the SRF-A1, which receives both AM stereo and FM stereo. By means of a special integrated circuit, the user can adjust the AM frequency to receive AM stereo decode the Harris, Magnavox, and Motorola systems; moved the other way, the stereo picks up the Kahn/Hazeltine system. There's also an LED in-tune indicator for precise tuning, a distant/focal sensitivity switch for better FM reception, and ultra light headphones. It retails for $79.95. Rent Roulette Relocating because of different radio gigs pays off in at least two ways: visiting new places and meeting new people. But then there's the hassle of finding a place to live, especially one that won't stretch your budget to the outer limits. USA Today reports that apartment dwellers currently fork over an average $341 each month in rent. Five major markets earn the distinction of having the country's highest rental rates: Boston ($475), New York ($446), San Francisco ($435), Los Angeles and Pittsburgh (tied at $433). Columbine Acquires Cox Data Columbine Systems, Inc., a supplier of computerized broadcast information systems, has agreed to acquire Cox Data Services for an undisclosed price. Cox Data Services is a division of Cox Communications, Inc. As a support unit, it provides data processing services to Cox's 18 radio and television stations and its 55 cable TV channels. Columbine handles traffic and information systems for 700 U.S. and foreign broadcasting clients. The TM Companies have been serving Broadcasters for 15 years. So why change a name that has always stood for quality, service and innovation in broadcasting? It’s only logical. The talented resources of TM have entered new areas of service for radio, television, cable and audio-visual. We wanted a name that would reflect the full dimensions of our programming, production and promotion services. Thus…TMC…TM Communications! TMC is a company of today…a time when tomorrow’s technology comes quickly. Creative resources are harder to come by…but TMC does understand your business and can anticipate your needs. You can bank on it. At TMC we’re stepping into tomorrow with a continued commitment of quality, service and innovation for you. TM Communications, Inc. 1349 REGAL ROW DALLAS, TEXAS 75247 214-634-8511 1-800-527-7759 This IS The Right Record. THIS COULD BE THE RIGHT ONE The New Single From APRIL WINE ABC Contemporary Net/Spotlight Special: The Motels (February 19) Rock Net: David Bowie HBO concert (February 12) Rock Net/King Biscuit (DIR): Bryan Adams (February 12) Eddie Money (February 18) Dokken/Girshon (February 26) Rock Net/Continuous History Of Rock & Roll (R. Stone): Rock & roll love songs (February 12) Rolling Stones' greatest poll (February 18) Profiles of Loveless Bryan Adams (February 26) Lee Bailey Productions Radioscope: Mr. T (February 11-12) Clayton Webster Country Calendar: Lacy Dalton (February 8) Jake Fogle (February 7) Kris Kristofferson (February 8) Cal Smith (February 9) Joe Bonamassa (February 10) Bill Anderson (February 11) Moe Bandy (February 12) Rare Trax: The Nice/ELP (February 8) Retro Rock: AC/DC (February 8) London Wavelength BBC Rock Hour: Heart Valentine's special (February 12) Judas Priest (February 18) Howard Jones/Paul Young (February 24) College Rock Concert: UB 40 (February 12) Local talent show (February 19) The Coma Teens (February 26) Rock On London: Rock Of Science (February 12) Fat Lux (February 18) Fiction Factory (February 26) Solid Gold Saturday Night (Dick Bartley): Beatlemania & the British Invasion (February 11) The Lovin' Spoonful (February 18) Rolling Stone Magazine Productions Guest DJ: George Honggord w/John Lee Hooker (February 13) AC/DC's Angus Young & Brian Johnson (February 20) Mutual Broadcasting Lee Arnold On A Country Road: Michael Murphy concert w/Lou Bonnai, Loretta Lynn, Ronnie Milsap, Dottie West, Merle Haggard (February 4-5) Rock U.S.A.: Van Halen/Culture Club/The Romantics/Mick Fleetwood/Dr. Ruth Weisheimer (February 4-5) Narwood Productions Country Closeup: Michael Murphy (Week of February 13) Music Makers: Woody Herman Part I, II (February 13, 20) NBC Source Concert: Heart concert (Week of February 10) "Meet This Singing Again" (Week of February 17) Spirit Productions American Christian Countdown w/Jim Chapin: Harry Browning, Laura Boone, Will McFarlane (February 11-12) RKO Networks Countdown America w/John Leader (IS INC): DeBarge (January 28-28) James Ingram (February 4-5) Westwood One Budweiser Concert Hour: Chaka Khan (February 13-16) Earth News: The Beatles' publicist Fred Martin (Week of February 14) IH Concert: Bryan Adams/Ashram Parker (February 13-19) Off The Record: Pat Benatar, Pat Popper/Ado Nova (February 8-10) Paul Rodgers/ZZ Top/Streets (February 13-17) Off The Record Specials: 38 Special (February 6-12) Blue Oyster Cult (February 13-19) Pop Concerts: Kool & the Gang (February 6-12) Rock Chronicles: The Producers (February 10-12) Special Edition: Ray Parker Jr. (February 6-12) Atlantic Starr (February 13-19) Superstars Rock Concert: The Flux/Kansas (February 17-19) Solid Gold Saturday Night (Dick Bartley): Beatlemania & the British Invasion (February 11) The Lovin' Spoonful (February 18) Rolling Stone Magazine Productions Guest DJ: George Honggord w/John Lee Hooker (February 13) AC/DC's Angus Young & Brian Johnson (February 20) Syndicate It, Inc. Radionomics w/Jayne Kennedy (daily) United Stations Dick Clark's Rock, Roll & Remember: Carl Perkins (February 10-12) Rick Dees: Weekly Top 40: Chet Atkins Cross (February 10-12) The Great Sounds: Mitzi Gaynor (February 10-12) Solid Gold Country: John Conlee (February 10-12) Weekly Country Music Countdown: Steve Warner (February 10-12) Donnelly Media Misty Wine: Honey Survives Mt. (January 30) Harry's Will be Contested (January 31) Gearing up for Valentine's Day (February 1) Groundhog Day (February 2) Using Honey to pay the IRS (February 3) Narwood Productions Minding Your Business: The latest generation computer program generators, Pt. I (January 30) Baer & Co./computer program generators, Pt. II (January 31) Equifax, Inc./softs/Photogenesis, Inc., (February 1) Commodities futures, Pt. I, II (February 2-3) Movie financing (February 3) Westwood One Spaces & Places: The practical side of personal computers (January 30-February 3) Career planning (February 1) Parent-child relationships (February 3) Mutual Live broadcast coverage of '84 Winter Olympics (February 6-19) PEOPLE - Ray Otis joins United Stations as the host of its national radio show "The Great Sounds." Otis, who currently holds down an air shift with WNEW/New York, began his radio career in 1955 and is a veteran air personality and programmer. He starts hosting the program next Friday (2-3). - London Wavelength, distributor of the forthcoming "The Rolling Stones at the Beeb," has projected a mid-1984 release for the program. Originally scheduled for late '83 or early '84 release, the show was postponed due to the death of Alexis Korner, the rock pioneer generally credited with discovering the Stones. - "The First Lady of the American Stage," Helen Hayes, has just completed her 600th broadcast of Mutual of Omaha's "The Best Years." The public affairs commentary to older Americans is produced by Gladney Communications Ltd. in New York and syndicated to over 200 radio stations. WMYK & WZAM/Norfolk Go Urban WMYK & WZAM/Norfolk will change formats from AOR to Urban/Contemporary on Monday (1-30). Robert Benn, President and principal in both stations, called the move to Urban a shift "from rock in the woods to the rhythm of the city." Addressing the reason for the format change, Benns candidly admitted, "I think we can cite disastrous ratings. We've found over the last year or two that rock became a very popular, unpredictable format. We have an Urban station in Chattanooga (WJTT) that we've done well with, so we know the game." Benns will install the format himself and supervise it initially. Bruce Dowdy will serve as Operations Manager, and is expected to assume the programming duties as well. WRKR Appoints Raymond GSM Michael Raymond has joined WRKR/Racine-Milwaukee as GSM from WMKE/Milwaukee, where he was Station Manager. He replaces Al Crouse, who left the station. WRKR President/GM Joel Thrope commented, "We both have a good opportunity to make WRKR a real winner, as Mike's joining us is a good marriage. He is going to bring to this station the big-city professionalism that was needed. Mike was the last spoke in the wheel to complete our efforts to make WRKR a top-flight radio competitor in the greater Milwaukee market." Sexton KKHR GSM KKHR/Los Angeles National Sales/Marketing Manager Miles Sexton has been elevated to GSM for the CBS-owned outlet, replacing Hal Bedsole, who exits the station. VP/GM Bob Nelson told R&R, "Miles has done just about every job in sales for us. He's a real professional in every sense of the word. His thorough experience in radio and at CBS in all phases of sales management make him a natural candidate for the job. He's very well respected in the company and in the advertising community as well." Yasgar Becomes VP At Atlantic Atlantic Records has promoted Larry Yasgar to the newly-created position of VP/Singles Sales & Production. He will also continue in his present position as Director/Dance Music at the label's New York headquarters. As Atlantic Executive VP/GM Dave Glew commented, "In his 14 years with Atlantic, Larry's responsibilities have encompassed an unusually diverse spectrum, including sales, promotion, A&R, and production. He has been instrumental in the development of Atlantic's Dance Music Department since its inception in the mid-1970s, and on behalf of the entire Atlantic family, I would like to congratulate Larry on this richly-deserved promotion." Pro:Motions Girleath Named Elektra VP/Sales Eddie Girleath has been appointed Vice President/Sales for Elektra/Asylum/Nonesuch Records. He is an 18-year veteran of the music industry, most recently serving as VP/Sales of Island Records. Girleath's label background also includes ten years with Warner Bros. Records, where he began as Atlanta Regional Marketing Director and ended as VP/Black Music Sales. WLS-AM & FM Tap Lay Linda Lay has joined WLS-AM & FM/Chicago as Local Sales Manager. She moves crosstown from WLUP, where she was General Sales Manager for two years. Important Fires Up Combat Jamaica, NY-based Important Record Distributors, under the direction of President Barry Kobrin, has established the Combat in-house label. Fully committed to heavy metal, the label plans to issue February releases by Tales, The Rods, Helstar, and Oz. Renaissance Debuts Former Atlantic Records executive Phillip Rauls and management consultant Rick Hawks have created Renaissance Records. The first release is a remake of the single "Mr. Lee" by Reni Grilli, a former vocalist with the Elvin Bishop Group and Roy Orbison. Based in Memphis, Renaissance will be distributed by independent record distributors. Failla Raised At Mike's Artist Lisa Failla has been promoted to Promotion/Marketing Manager at Mike's Artist Management. She was previously Assistant Manager. Van Houten Named GSM At WHYT Russell "Buzz" Van Houten has been named General Sales Manager at WHYT/Detroit, moving from AM sister WJR's National Sales Manager position. He replaces Rocky Sisson at the Capital Cities Communications CHR outlet, while Sisson moves to WJR, where he will be Manager/Sales Development. WHYT Station Manager Maureen Hashaway commented, "Buzz brings several years of contemporary radio management experience with him to WHYT. He is well-known and respected in Detroit, and we're very enthusiastic about having him join our staff." Group W Appoints Aberle James Aberle has been named Director of Training and Development for Group W Radio. Prior to this, he held the VP/Marketing and Development post for the company's radio sales division. Aberle succeeds Charles Heisler, who was appointed VP/Affiliate Relations for MUZAK. Rail New WQPO GM Bob Rail has been tapped as GM of WQPO/Harrisonburg, VA. He joins the station from a similar post at WKKE/Jackson, MS, where he was also part-owner. Weiss & Powell Name Bellin, Lavsa Bob Bellin has been appointed New York Sales Manager at Weiss & Powell Radio Sales. His career includes stints with KRO Radio and Torbet. In other company activity, Kay Lavsa assumes the newly-created post of Director/Agricultural Sales and Services. McGavren Guild Promotes Meyer Deborah Meyer has been elevated from Western Division Manager to VP/Western Division at MG Media in Los Angeles, a McGavren Guild Radio subsidiary. She's been with the firm over three years, starting out as an Account Executive. BMI Hires Cain Singer/songwriter Thomas Cain becomes Associate Director of Performing Rights in BMI's Nashville office. Working as an instrumentalist and/or vocalist, he has recorded with several artists, including Tony Joe White, Barbara Mandrell, Billy Swan, and Mel McDaniel. Hsu Joins E/A J. Richard Hsu comes aboard Elektra/Asylum Records as Creative Director. Before joining the label, he served as art director in charge of special projects for the 13 Bloomingdale's department stores. FairWest Moves The corporate offices at FairWest have relocated to 2007 N. Collins Blvd., Suite 501, Dallas, TX 75080. The phone number remains (214) 243-7800. FairWest also announced the opening of a La Jolla, CA office. That phone number is (619) 436-2319. WEST COAST POWERHOUSE Rare opportunity to join a great radio station known for its personalities and stability. Afternoon drive with great dollars and benefits for key ingredients. Relatable, aggressive, winning instinct, a real performer who enjoys promotion and contact with the community. All inquiries are confidential. Tapes & Resumes to: Radio & Records, 1930 Century Park West, #613, Los Angeles, CA 90067. A major broadcast chain and equal opportunity employer. Hiber, Hart & Patrick Salutes The RAB! Congratulations to Bill Stakelin, Wayne Cornils and the rest of the leadership of the new RAB on the occasion of the fourth annual Managing Sales Conference. Best wishes for a successful gathering. We at H,H&P are pleased to provide perceptual research assistance to the RAB. Researching Your Ad Community As the numbers flow from the depths of the ratings companies' computers, those stations with good books set up healthy sales expectations. Seems like a natural enough reaction. However, many stations will later become frustrated because they will be unable to match their ratings gains with revenue growth. Why? Perceptual research aimed at your local advertisers can often uncover the answer(s). Let's look at how this research aimed specifically at sales payoff might work. Sales Research: When Useful? Before you commit dollars to doing research aimed at garnering the frank perception of your local (or even national) advertisers, it might be best to think about when such an expenditure might be best justified. Here are some situations that cry out for ad community research. The following are actual case studies, with the stations not specified... - Good numbers, poor sales. When your ratings are up the station sales staff gets high on the visions of revenues dancing in their heads. But there is no guarantee that just because your numbers look healthy your revenues will naturally start flowing in at an increased rate. Perhaps buys are not coming your way because the local media mavens represent the fact that your station once ran on-air diary announcements (and assume your numbers are somehow inflated as a result). Or there might be a personality clash between the account exec calling on the biggest agency in town and the media staff there. Ad infinitum. - New sales management. When your station brings in a hotshot from Big City, USA, it would be vital for him/her to get a proper feel for the biases, likes/dislikes, and attitudes harbored by the key advertisers in your market. This avoids the "bull in a china shop" syndrome where Mr./Ms. Know It All whirls into town and immediately offends Molly Mediabuyer. Perceptual research aimed at your local ad community could, if done properly, provide a roadmap to better sales for the new sales honcho. - Buying/evaluating the purchase of a station: If you are looking to buy, or have already committed to buy a station, wouldn't it be helpful to get an objective feel for the station's revenue potential? Are past and current sales levels depressed due to advertisers' feelings about the station's ownership, its format, the poor appearance of its sales team, or are other factors beyond your control causing the sales to not perform at expected levels? Don't make the mistake of buying a station with a format that the advertisers perceive is a dying one — unless you are able to get the property at a bargain price. These are just some of the situations where ad community research can pay for itself manifold. There are others, which I will elaborate on at a later date. Sales Research Techniques Let's say you've decided that getting into the hearts and minds of the buyers would be valuable to your sales effort. Fine. Now what? Can such an effort be done in-house or do you need an outside researcher? How is the research sample selected? How is the advertiser feedback obtained? Allow me to offer answers to these points. - In-house versus outside researcher: Naturally, as an industry researcher I have a small bias for using the outside firm to tackle your ad community study. There are some good reasons for this approach, however: Two great reasons actually — objectivity and confidentiality. It would be awfully hard for me (when I was a sales manager) to have objectively set up and conducted such a study. Inevitably personal biases creep into the research — and that can doom its effectiveness. Also, some salespeople (and advertisers for that matter) might get paranoid if they thought this research was being done or sponsored by your station. When ad community perceptual research is done well, there may be a buzz in the market about "someone doing research among the advertisers," but the sponsor of that research should remain confidential. That's why taking sponsors to lunch or a golf date just doesn't give you the same insights and feedback as an objectively set-up and conducted research probe — face to face they won't give you the same frank input that they'll offer to a researcher. - Sample development: The best way to generate the names of the people the researcher should survey is to have the GM and GSM (the only people at the station who should know the study is going on) develop a list of key accounts they'd like to obtain feedback from. Depending on the market and your competitive situation, this list could total about 50-75 names, from a variety of direct and agency accounts, and from advertisers who have a variety of budgets. This enables the station sales management team to derive information from a cross-section of its account list. Three Major Approaches Once the need has been seen, the researcher hired, and the sample developed, how does the research actually work? Here are the highlights of the three major approaches. - Mailed questionnaires: In this system the researcher develops, in concert with the station leadership, a questionnaire to be mailed to the key advertisers. The advertisers can then fill in the forms at their own convenience and send them to the research firm for evaluation and tabulation. This is probably the least expensive ad community research approach. However, as with any mail research technique, the questionnaire is inflexible and doesn't allow for probing. Still a useful idea, however. - Telephone interviews: This method, while more expensive than the questionnaire, has some additional advantages. Once a topic is being discussed, the interviewer can probe those items that seem to be hot buttons, or turnoffs, for each advertiser. It is important to make sure the interviewers are properly trained and supervised, however. Also, sometimes advertisers don't want to have their day interrupted by such a call. - In-person interviews: This system allows the most probing and often derives additional insights from such signals as body language. Here the researcher sets up interviews, each lasting from one to two hours. Once the nature of the study has been explained ("We've been hired by local broadcasters to see what can be done to better serve the ad community"), the advertisers usually open up with a barrage of input. With the cost of flying a researcher into the market as well as the data tabulation and evaluation efforts, this system—while offering the best chances for delving into the feelings of the advertisers — does cost more than the other approaches. Follow-up Once the research has given you specific feedback from each advertiser, what next? The station can do two things, depending on the nature of the information. If your station is well thought of and might adopt a suggestion or two from the advertisers, it's OK to disclose later who sponsored the research — and state what you'll do to respond to the input. If, however, some negatives crop up, you may just want to use the responses for internal changes — bolstering your sales effort, it's hoped, without the ad community ever realizing that it helped you improve your revenues. Ad community research is a growing, and I think vital, part of a station's marketing effort. With this type of research your revenue growth can be maximized, even if your ratings aren't No. 1. 101 STATIONS CHOOSE MOTOROLA C-QUAM AM STEREO! Now we’re really rolling. Stations from coast to coast have made the decision for Motorola C-Quam® AM Stereo. They range from clear-channel powerhouses to day-timers, with formats from MOR to C&W, throughout the U.S. and Canada. The majority are already on the air, reaping the promotional benefits of being among the first with the beautiful sound of Motorola AM Stereo (and low-distortion mono). The others are scheduled for installation soon. So, if you’re budgeting for new equipment, plan to join these stations soon. For price and installation information, contact Dick Harasek at (312) 576-2879, or Chris Payne at (202) 862-1549. Make the call for your station today, and get a head start on your competition. MOTOROLA AM STEREO. THE WINNING SYSTEM. Motorola ROCK WELL "Everybody's Watching Me" One Of The "Most Added" 87/57 With This Week Adds: WNYS KZZB KHOP WCAU-FM WNOK-FM KRQ B94 KITE WFBG WHTX KSET-FM WZON PRO-FM WRQK KQIZ-FM 94Q WANS-FM WISE B97 WOKI WJAD KHTR WABB-FM WCGQ KEARTH WHHY-FM Q104 XTRA KX104 KNOE-FM WFLY KTFM WPFM WTRY KMGK WGLF WVSR WKDQ KKQV WYCR Z104 Y94 WKEE KJ103 WAZY-FM WLAN-FM KQKQ KGOT 98PXY WRKR KCQD WKRZ-FM WRQN KSLY WBBQ KMGX KIST ROCKWELL on Motown Records RATINGS REPORT Fall '83 Quarterly Results Philadelphia WUSL Takes First As WCAU-FM Slips; WEAZ Segues To Second; KYW, WCAU (Without Phillies) Softer \| Summer '83 \| Fall '83 \| \|------------\|----------\| \| WUSL (Urbn) \| 8.2 \| \| WEAZ (BM) \| 7.1 \| \| WCAU-FM (CHR)\| 8.6 \| \| KYW (News) \| 8.0 \| \| WDAS-FM (Urbn) \| 6.1 \| \| WWR (AOR) \| 5.6 \| \| WWDR (Talk) \| 5.2 \| \| WYSP (AOR) \| 5.3 \| \| WMGK (AC) \| 5.1 \| \| WPEN (BBnd) \| 4.9 \| \| WCAU (News) \| 7.5 \| \| WIP (AC) \| 3.0 \| \| WIOQ (AOR) \| 3.8 \| \| WRSZ (AC) \| 1.6 \| \| WFLN-FM (AOR)\| 2.5 \| \| WSNI (AC) \| 2.6 \| \| WFLN-FM (Clas)\| 2.3 \| \| WWSH (CHR) \| 2.1 \| San Francisco KGO, KCBS Up Shares, Remain 1-2; KSOL Moves To Third; KABL-FM Surges; KFOG Doubles To Lead AORs \| Summer '83 \| Fall '83 \| \|------------\|----------\| \| KGO (N/T) \| 8.6 \| \| KCBS (N/T) \| 4.7 \| \| KSOL (Urbn)\| 3.4 \| \| KSAN (Ctry)\| 4.1 \| \| KABL (BM) \| 2.8 \| \| KBXL (Urbn)\| 4.0 \| \| KIHO (AC) \| 3.1 \| \| KYUU (AC) \| 3.1 \| \| KFRC (CHR) \| 4.3 \| \| KITS (CHR) \| 2.9 \| \| KSFO (AC) \| 3.3 \| \| KNEW (Ctry)\| 1.8 \| \| KQED (AOR) \| 2.2 \| \| KRQR (AOR) \| 3.6 \| \| KNBR (AC) \| 3.0 \| \| KIBE & KDFC (Clas) \| 2.0 \| \| KOIT-FM (Easy) \| 2.7 \| \| KMEL (AOR) \| 4.1 \| \| KYA (Gold) \| 1.4 \| \| KDMO (AOR) \| 2.5 \| \| KOME (AOR) \| 2.0 \| \| KKHI-AM & FM (Clas) \| 2.4 \| \| KWSS (CHR) \| 1.2 \| \| KBAY (BM) \| 1.8 \| \| KSJO (AOR) \| 2.7 \| \| KEED (Ctry)\| 1.2 \| \| KABL (BM) \| 2.4 \| \| KTIM (AC) \| 1.1 \| \| KEZR (AC) \| .7 \| \| KFAX (Rel) \| — \| Detroit WJR Drops After Baseball, Still Reigns; WRIF Edges WLLZ; WNIC-FM Adds Two; WMJC Up Strong; WDRQ Down Two \| Summer '83 \| Fall '83 \| \|------------\|----------\| \| WJR (Misc) \| 13.5 \| \| WRIF (AOR) \| 7.1 \| \| WLLZ (AOR) \| 8.1 \| \| WNIC-FM (AC)\| 4.6 \| \| WDRQ (Urbn)\| 8.1 \| \| WWH (News) \| 4.8 \| \| WJLB (Bik) \| 5.7 \| \| WJOI (BM) \| 4.1 \| \| WMJC (AC) \| 3.0 \| \| WXYZ (Talk)\| 4.9 \| \| WHYT (CHR) \| 4.6 \| \| WWWW (Ctry)\| 2.9 \| \| WCZY (AC) \| 3.5 \| \| WQX (AOR) \| 3.9 \| \| WJZZ (Jazz)\| 2.0 \| \| WMC (AC) \| 3.0 \| \| WCXI-FM (Ctry)\| 2.0 \| \| WCXI (Ctry)\| 1.9 \| \| WHND (Gold)\| 1.2 \| \| WLBS (Urbn)\| 1.1 \| \| WQRS (Clas)\| 1.1 \| \| WQXR (Bik) \| 9 \| \| CKLW (AC) \| 1.7 \| Miami WINZ-FM Adds Two, Grabs Lead; WHYI Slips To Close Second; WQBA Down From Double Digits \| Summer '83 \| Fall '83 \| \|------------\|----------\| \| WINZ-FM (CHR)\| 10.8 \| \| WHYI (CHR) \| 12.8 \| \| WQBA (Span) \| 10.2 \| \| WLYF (BM) \| 5.1 \| \| WINZ (News) \| 3.2 \| \| WSHS (AOR) \| 5.8 \| \| WRHC (Span) \| 2.8 \| \| WWS (News) \| 4.2 \| \| WOBA (BM) \| 2.8 \| \| WAXY (AC) \| 3.4 \| \| WCMQ-FM (Span) \| 3.3 \| \| WWWL (AC) \| 2.9 \| \| WAIA (AC) \| 2.4 \| \| WKQS (Ctry) \| 2.6 \| \| WSUQ (Span) \| 1.6 \| \| WWJF (AC) \| 2.1 \| \| WEDB (BM) \| 1.9 \| \| WQBA-FM (Span) \| 3.3 \| \| WTMI (Class)\| 1.8 \| \| WCKO (AOR) \| 2.6 \| \| WOCN (Span) \| 1.4 \| \| WQAM (Ctry) \| 1.4 \| \| WMBM (Bik) \| .4 \| \| WKAT (BBnd) \| 2.1 \| \| WKEZ (AC) \| 1.7 \| \| WCMQ (Span) \| 1.0 \| Atlanta WZGC Passes WKLS-FM, Cops Crown; WVEE Loses Two; WSB Slips Without Baseball; WRRM Becomes A/C Factor \| Summer '83 \| Fall '83 \| \|------------\|----------\| \| WZGC (CHR) \| 11.6 \| \| WKL-SFM (AOR)\| 12.3 \| \| WXI-FM (Ctry)\| 10.2 \| \| WVEE (Urbn)\| 11.5 \| \| WKHX (Ctry)\| 8.6 \| \| WSB (AC) \| 10.5 \| \| WPCB (BM) \| 5.9 \| \| WTK (Bik) \| 3.7 \| \| WRRM (AC) \| 1.8 \| \| WSB-FM (AC)\| 5.0 \| \| WGST (News)\| 2.7 \| \| WPLO (Ctry)\| 2.4 \| \| WCNN (News)\| .6 \| \| WIGO (Bik) \| 2.4 \| Houston KMJQ Slips From Double Digits, Retains First; KIKK-FM Leads Country Advance, Takes Runner-up; KKBQ-FM Improves To Third \| Summer '83 \| Fall '83 \| \|------------\|----------\| \| KMJQ (Urbn) \| 10.7 \| \| KIKK-FM (Ctry)\| 8.2 \| \| KKBQ-FM (CHR)\| 7.0 \| \| KSRR (AOR) \| 7.4 \| \| KLRY (Urbn) \| 8.8 \| \| KLOL (AOR) \| 5.1 \| \| KILT-FM (Ctry)\| 4.1 \| \| KODA (BM) \| 4.1 \| \| KNT (Talk) \| 3.4 \| \| KRBE-FM (AC)\| 3.3 \| \| KFMK (AC) \| 3.5 \| \| KQUE (AC) \| 5.0 \| \| KPRC (News) \| 3.8 \| \| KKBQ (CHR) \| 2.4 \| \| KLEF (Class)\| 1.3 \| \| KVVL (Span) \| 1.1 \| \| KXQ (Ctry) \| 1.6 \| \| KOHB (Bik) \| 2.0 \| \| KIKK (Ctry) \| 1.7 \| \| KILT (Ctry) \| 1.6 \| \| KFRD (Span) \| — \| \| KGOL (Rel) \| .9 \| VOTED BEST RADIO SPECIAL OF '83 In a nationwide survey of rock program directors and music directors conducted by The Album Network, WESTWOOD ONE's 12-hour "US Festival Concert Special" was overwhelmingly selected Best National Radio Special of 1983. It was a one-of-a-kind concert event that deserved unprecedented coverage. We're proud to have been able to bring it to you. For the biggest events in radio, it's WESTWOOD ONE...and only! WESTWOOD ONE New York • Los Angeles • London ## Fall '83 Quarterly Results ### Baltimore \| Summer '83 \| Fall '83 \| \|------------\|----------\| \| WIYY (AOR) \| 9.7 \| \| WXVV (Urban) \| 8.6 \| \| WBSB (CHR) \| 9.6 \| \| WBAL (AC) \| 7.9 \| \| WPOC (Ctry) \| 5.0 \| \| WLIF (BM) \| 4.8 \| \| WWJF (BM) \| 3.3 \| \| WPAR (BM) \| 2.9 \| \| WFBR (AC) \| 6.8 \| \| WEBB (Bik) \| 2.2 \| \| WWIN (Bik) \| 4.0 \| \| WYST (AC) \| 3.0 \| \| WCBM (N/T) \| 2.6 \| \| WCAO (Ctry) \| 3.5 \| \| WTH (BBnd) \| 2.5 \| \| WQSM (AOR) \| 2.6 \| \| WHUR (Bik) \| 1.5 \| \| WAVA (CHR) \| 1.9 \| \| WRQX (CHR) \| 2.0 \| \| WQSR (AC) \| 1.9 \| \| WRBS (Rel) \| .9 \| \| WTOP (News) \| .9 \| ### Milwaukee \| Summer '83 \| Fall '83 \| \|------------\|----------\| \| WQFM (AOR) \| 9.2 \| \| WTMJ (AC) \| 18.1 \| \| WTKI (CHR) \| 9.1 \| \| WLUM (Urban) \| 4.3 \| \| WMNI (Urban) \| 3.7 \| \| WEZW (BM) \| 6.2 \| \| WQYK (BBnd) \| 3.0 \| \| WBCS (Ctry) \| 4.0 \| \| WZUU (AC) \| 4.4 \| \| WISN (AC) \| 4.0 \| \| WMWYX (AC) \| 5.2 \| \| WHTW (CHR) \| 2.7 \| \| WLZZ (Glb) \| 1.7 \| \| WLPX (CHR) \| 5.1 \| \| WNOW (Bik) \| 3.3 \| \| WFMR (AC) \| 1.7 \| \| WTKM-FM (AC)\| .3 \| \| WGN (Talk) \| .3 \| ### Kansas City \| Summer '83 \| Fall '83 \| \|------------\|----------\| \| WDAF (Ctry) \| 12.7 \| \| KLSH (AC) \| 6.3 \| \| KCMO (CHR) \| 9.6 \| \| KLYV (AOR) \| 6.9 \| \| KCMO (N/T) \| 7.1 \| \| KKCI (AOR) \| 6.4 \| \| KFKF-FM (Ctry) \| 5.9 \| \| KPRS (Bik) \| 8.0 \| \| KJLA (BBnd) \| 3.2 \| \| KMCR-FM (BM) \| 3.0 \| \| KMBR (AC) \| 3.2 \| \| KMBZ (News) \| 4.9 \| \| WHB (AC) \| 3.9 \| \| KCMO-FM (Ctry) \| 3.5 \| \| KZZC (CHR) \| 4.2 \| \| KXTR (Clas) \| 1.3 \| ### Buffalo \| Summer '83 \| Fall '83 \| \|------------\|----------\| \| WBEN (AC) \| 10.4 \| \| WJYE (BM) \| 7.8 \| \| WYRK (Ctry) \| 7.9 \| \| WGRQ (AOR) \| 7.7 \| \| WPHD (CHR) \| 9.0 \| \| WBUF (BM) \| 6.6 \| \| WGR (AC) \| 5.5 \| \| WBUF (AC) \| 3.7 \| \| WNYS (CHR) \| 4.6 \| \| WECK (BBnd)\| 6.8 \| \| WKBW (CHR) \| 4.8 \| \| WZIR (AOR) \| 5.0 \| \| WYSY (CHR) \| 2.7 \| \| WZK (Bik) \| 3.1 \| \| WDCX (Rel) \| 1.8 \| \| WXRL (Ctry)\| .1 \| ### St. Louis \| Summer '83 \| Fall '83 \| \|------------\|----------\| \| KMOX (Talk) \| 24.6 \| \| KHTR (CHR) \| 11.1 \| \| KSHE (AOR) \| 9.4 \| \| KWK-AM & FM \| \| \| (AOR) \| 8.1 \| \| KMOX (Urban) \| 6.4 \| \| WIL-FM (Ctry)\| 6.0 \| \| KEZK (BM) \| 5.3 \| \| KSD-FM (AC) \| 5.3 \| \| WRTH (BBnd) \| 3.1 \| \| KSD (Ctry) \| 3.9 \| \| KYKY (AC) \| 3.0 \| \| KXOK (Talk) \| 1.5 \| \| KATZ (BM) \| 1.9 \| \| WZEN (Bik) \| 1.3 \| \| KATZ (Bik) \| 9 \| \| KLWP (BM) \| 7 \| \| WEW (BBnd) \| .3 \| \| WIL (Ctry) \| 1.2 \| ### New Orleans \| Summer '83 \| Fall '83 \| \|------------\|----------\| \| WEZB (CHR) \| 11.7 \| \| WYLD-FM (Bik) \| 13.0 \| \| WRNO (CHR) \| 8.8 \| \| WBYU (BM) \| 7.2 \| \| WSMB (AC) \| 5.8 \| \| WNOE-FM (Ctry) \| 6.4 \| \| WWL (Talk) \| 3.1 \| \| WZIR (Urban) \| 6.0 \| \| WBOX (Rel) \| 3.7 \| \| WAJY (AC) \| 5.4 \| \| WQUE-FM (AC)\| 3.6 \| \| WTIX (AC) \| 2.4 \| \| WNOE (Ctry) \| 2.1 \| \| WYAT (Gold) \| 1.8 \| \| WQFM (BM) \| 1.3 \| \| WQUE (CHR) \| 2.5 \| \| WYLD (Rel) \| 1.7 \| \| WSHO (BBnd)\| 1.6 \| ### Format Legend - AC—Adult/Contemporary, AOR—Album-Oriented Rock, BBnd—Big Band, Bik—Black, BM/Easy—Beautiful Music/Easy Listening, CHR—Contemporary Hit Radio, Clas—Classical, Ctry—Country, Gold—Oldies, Jazz—Jazz, Misc—Miscellaneous, News—News, N/T—News/Talk, Rel—Religious, Span—Spanish, Talk—Talk, Urbn—Urban Contemporary. For the fifth consecutive year, over 100 broadcasters from MMR markets gathered for an intensive, two-day conference on radio marketing in the 1980's, and for the fifth consecutive year, it was a smashing success! Dr. Kenneth Blanchard captured managers and spouses alike with a talk on the "One Minute Manager" as did Dr. Charles Garfield while stressing the factors leading to peak personal performance. Michael Bader gave an update on the FCC, Delta's Bob Coggin spoke on the airlines, ARTA's Ron Santana summarized the travel business while Susan Bondy brought participants up to date on ways to capitalize on their investments. And there's more! A busy schedule of workshops and seminars on topics ranging from co-op retail sales to group management and the emergence of non-wired networks kept the involvement level high throughout the conference. The Commercials Festival let everyone see how their peers used TV for promotion in 1983. The Annual Fly-In is part of our investment in our clients—our way of expressing the great value we place in that very special relationship. Ask Your Columbia About These Great KENNY LOGGINS “Footloose” CHR BREAKERS KENNY LOGGINS Footloose (Columbia) 75% of our reporters on it. Moves: Up 11, Debuts 39, Same 47, Down 0, Adds 74 including WKBW, PRO-FM, Q107, 94Q, Z93, KAFM, Q105, B96, KZZP, KMJK. Complete airplay in Parallels. One Of The Most Added BLUE OYSTER CULT “Shooting Shark” CHR SIGNIFICANT ACTION NPHD WKDD WFBG WOMP-FM WBNQ K104 WJXQ WIGY KQIZ-FM KYTN WRCK WRKR WERZ WYKS KCDQ WZLD WHOT OK100 WIXV KOZE WNFI KSKD 95XIL KKQV KSLY KZOZ CHERYL LYNN “Encore” CHR SIGNIFICANT ACTION WXKS-FM add Z100 15 WPLJ 17-13 KIQQ add Black Chart: 3 #4 Black Hottest Record EARTH, WIND & FIRE Black BREAKERS “Touch” Promotion Manager Hit Records! PAUL YOUNG “Come Back And Stay” CHR SIGNIFICANT ACTION “Oh yeah, this has been in high rotation at home for the past several months. One of his 3 top five singles in England, I expect this song to be his first American hit. Not since Culture Club have I been this high on an artist . . . and Paul Young is the goods. We’re talking major star material.” Dave Sholin’s Personal Picks Gavin Report, January 20 Second Week Out And Already On: WXKS-FM WNFI 95XIL WPHD WOKI WJBQ 93FM WSFL KISR KIMN WKDD KTDY Q103 WZPL WPFM KIQQ Z104 WAEV WVSR WHOT WIXV K104 KBBK KKQV WYCR KHYT KYTN WTIC-FM KRQ WAZY-FM WKEE WIKZ KTRS WRCK WERZ KGHO WKRZ-FM OK100 KBIM WZLD WKHI KSLY KZOZ MIDNIGHT OIL “Power And The Passion” JUST SHIPPED! On Your Desk This Week! Enjoying Out-Of-The-Box Action At Black And A/C Radio! Black Chart: 29 A/C NEW & ACTIVE ### Ratings Report #### Fall '83 Quarterly Results \| \| Birch Radio \| Birch Radio \| Birch Radio \| \|----------------\|-------------\|-------------\|-------------\| \| Minneapolis \| \| \| \| \| WCCO (AC) \| 20.2 \| 19.7 \| \| \| KSTP-FM (AC) \| 13.9 \| 11.3 \| \| \| KDWB-FM (AOR) \| 10.0 \| 9.0 \| \| \| WLOL (CHR) \| 9.7 \| 8.9 \| \| \| KEEM (Talk) \| 6.8 \| 8.0 \| \| \| WLTE (AC) \| 3.2 \| 5.5 \| \| \| KQRS (AOR) \| 6.6 \| 5.7 \| \| \| WAYL (BM) \| 4.2 \| 5.6 \| \| \| WDGY (Ctry) \| 5.0 \| 4.0 \| \| \| KSTP (Talk) \| 3.5 \| 3.6 \| \| \| KJJO (Gold) \| 1.5 \| 3.1 \| \| \| WWTC (Easy) \| 2.0 \| 1.1 \| \| \| \| Birch Radio \| Birch Radio \| Birch Radio \| \|----------------\|-------------\|-------------\|-------------\| \| Jacksonville \| \| \| \| \| WFYV (AOR) \| 17.9 \| 16.6 \| \| \| WIWY (AC) \| 11.2 \| 9.7 \| \| \| WQHK-FM (Ctry) \| 9.4 \| 9.5 \| \| \| WJAX-FM (Urbn) \| 9.1 \| 8.9 \| \| \| WKTZ-FM (BM) \| 9.8 \| 8.4 \| \| \| WQIK (Ctry) \| 8.5 \| 8.3 \| \| \| WAIV (AC) \| 8.7 \| 7.5 \| \| \| WPDQ (Blik) \| 5.1 \| 4.0 \| \| \| WEIRD (Blik) \| .4 \| 2.9 \| \| \| WSVE (AC) \| .8 \| 2.4 \| \| \| WCGL (Rel) \| 1.6 \| 2.2 \| \| \| WQIK (Ctry) \| 9 \| 1.8 \| \| \| WQKV (AC) \| 1.8 \| 1.4 \| \| \| WNPE (CHR) \| 1.5 \| 1.4 \| \| \| WAPE (BBnd) \| 2.1 \| 1.2 \| \| \| WKTZ (BBnd) \| .5 \| 1.2 \| \| \| WEXI (News) \| 1.0 \| 1.0 \| \| \| \| Birch Radio \| Birch Radio \| Birch Radio \| \|----------------\|-------------\|-------------\|-------------\| \| Indianapolis \| \| \| \| \| WZPL (CHR) \| 18.0 \| 17.0 \| \| \| WIBC (AC) \| 13.6 \| 15.7 \| \| \| WFBQ (AOR) \| 13.4 \| 10.5 \| \| \| WFMS (Ctry) \| 9.9 \| 9.7 \| \| \| WIRE (Ctry) \| 6.2 \| 8.6 \| \| \| WXTZ (BM) \| 7.7 \| 7.6 \| \| \| WENS (AC) \| 6.6 \| 6.7 \| \| \| WQBN (BM) \| 6.1 \| 4.6 \| \| \| WNAP (AC) \| 4.9 \| 8.8 \| \| \| WMLF (BBnd) \| 2.3 \| 2.5 \| \| \| WNDE (AC) \| 1.7 \| 2.5 \| \| \| WXIR (Rel) \| .4 \| 1.4 \| \| \| WGRT (Urbn) \| .4 \| 1.0 \| \| ### Arbitron Radio #### Dayton - WHIO-FM Vaults Back Into First; WTUE Stable, Strong Second; WJAI, WAVI Show Slippage \| \| Spring '83 \| Fall '83 \| \|----------------\|------------\|----------\| \| WHO-FM (BM) \| 10.4 \| 13.9 \| \| WTUE (AOR) \| 12.6 \| 12.4 \| \| WHIO (AC) \| 9.9 \| 9.1 \| \| WONE (Ctry) \| 7.1 \| 7.5 \| \| WDAO (Blik) \| 5.8 \| 5.8 \| \| WING (AC) \| 5.5 \| 5.4 \| \| WWVH (AC) \| 4.4 \| 5.4 \| \| WYMJ (AC) \| 4.8 \| 4.9 \| \| WJAI (BBnd) \| 6.4 \| 4.8 \| \| WSKS (AOR) \| 1.0 \| 2.8 \| \| WBZL (Urbn) \| 4.7 \| 2.7 \| \| WAVI (Talk) \| 6.7 \| 2.5 \| \| WBOE (Ctry) \| 2.1 \| 2.3 \| \| WPFB-FM (AC) \| 2.4 \| 1.8 \| \| WPTW-FM (AC) \| .5 \| 1.1 \| \| WKRQ (CHR) \| .9 \| 1.1 \| \| WLW (AC) \| 2.7 \| 3.0 \| #### Hartford - WTIC-FM, AM Remain Dominant; WHCN Squeezes Into AOR Lead; WRCH Wins Beautiful Music Contest \| \| Summer '83 \| Fall '83 \| \|----------------\|------------\|----------\| \| WTIC-FM (CHR) \| 19.2 \| 19.5 \| \| WTIC (AC) \| 18.7 \| 17.4 \| \| WHCN (AOR) \| 6.1 \| 8.2 \| \| WCCC-FM (AOR) \| 8.3 \| 8.1 \| \| WCRW (CHR) \| 5.9 \| 6.0 \| \| WRCH (BM) \| 5.9 \| 5.9 \| \| WKSS (BM) \| 5.7 \| 4.8 \| \| WFOI (AC) \| 3.1 \| 3.3 \| \| WAQY (AOR) \| 1.3 \| 2.4 \| \| WPOP (News) \| 3.5 \| 2.3 \| \| WWYZ (AC) \| 3.2 \| 1.9 \| \| WREX (AOR) \| 2.7 \| 2.1 \| \| WRQO (BBnd) \| 1.6 \| 1.8 \| \| WDRC (AC) \| 3.8 \| 1.7 \| \| WKCI (AC) \| .5 \| 1.0 \| #### Toledo - WIOT Wins But Loses Two; WRQN Debuts Notably; WKLR Rises To Second \| \| Spring '83 \| Fall '83 \| \|----------------\|------------\|----------\| \| WIOT (AOR) \| 12.2 \| 10.3 \| \| WKLR (Ctry) \| 8.0 \| 9.2 \| \| WLQR (BM) \| 8.3 \| 9.0 \| \| WSPD (AC) \| 9.4 \| 8.8 \| \| WMBE (AC) \| 7.5 \| 7.5 \| \| WQHE (BM) \| 5.0 \| 5.9 \| \| WTOD (Ctry) \| 6.0 \| 5.2 \| \| WWWM (AC) \| 7.8 \| 5.2 \| \| WRQN (AOR) \| — \| 4.4 \| \| WOHO (AC) \| 4.1 \| 4.1 \| \| WVQI (Blik) \| 1.3 \| 3.3 \| \| WCWA (Easy) \| 5.4 \| 3.2 \| \| WQBT (BBnd) \| 1.3 \| 2.3 \| \| CKLW (AC) \| 2.0 \| 1.8 \| \| WLZZ (AOR) \| .6 \| 1.8 \| \| WRIF (AOR) \| 1.4 \| 1.2 \| ### Format Legend - AC—Adult/Contemporary, AOR—Album-Oriented Rock, BBnd—Big Band, Blik—Black, BM/Easy—Beautiful Music/Easy Listening, CHR—Contemporary Hit Radio, Clas—Classical, Ctry—Country, Gold—Oldies, Jazz—Jazz, Misc—Miscellaneous, News—News, NT—News/Talk, Rel—Religious, Span—Spanish, Talk—Talk, Urbn—Urban Contemporary. --- For The Record: KVI/Seattle should be listed as A/C, not News/Talk; WYSL/Buffalo should be CHR, not A/C, as previously printed in R&R. NOW IS THE TIME FOR THOMPSON TWINS! "HOLD ME NOW" AS1-9164 - A gold, top 5 single in the U.K., with over 500,000 records sold. - Introduced to millions of Americans on MTV's live New Year's Eve special. - From their forthcoming LP Into The Gap, shipping platinum in England. - Watch for the "Hold Me Now" video, now on MTV. On your desk today!! MANFRED MANN'S EARTH BAND. PULLING AWAY, WITH "RUNNER"! There's No Holding Back These Unstoppable Hits...On Arista. AOR Stats: R&R/Hot Tracks: 49-29-19-11 Album Network/Power Cuts: 53-30-22 Hard/FMQB/Song Index: 79-40-26 BB LP: 185* -144 * CHR stats: BB: 86-69 Now on these stations: Z93 WCAU-FM WGCL WKDD KAFM ROCK102 WXKS WRKR WHTT WPHD KX104 And 117 more... 93FM Q103 92X WHYT KIMN KIIK Top Record In New & Active Video immediately added in medium rotation on Listening: More Than Just Hearing By Gary Kaplan We're all very good talkers. Especially those of us connected with the radio industry: after all, we're in the communications business. Yet most of us are guilty of not doing just that — communicating. Why? Because few of us are very good listeners. Listening is an important part of communication. According to various research, of the waking hours spent communicating (80%), at least 45% are devoted to listening. Executives spend most of their work time in discussions (meetings, face-to-face conversations, on the phone) — 40-60% of their business day consists of listening. The listening efficiency of working people, however, measures less than 50%. Translated, that means only half of the oral messages delivered during a typical workday are thoroughly understood. Traditional education centers on reading, writing, and speaking, but virtually ignores listening. Unfortunately, this neglect has been carried over into our business and personal lives. As a result, many people perceive hearing and listening as synonymous. They aren't. And that's one of the first steps toward improving listening skills: there's more to it than just hearing. Four-Stage Process Hearing, in fact, is one of four stages comprising the entire listening process. Known also as sensing, it's simply the physical awareness that a message (sound waves) is being received. In other words, your ears are in working condition. The second phase is interpretation, which in turn leads to understanding or misunderstanding. Next up is evaluation. In this step the information is reflected upon, and a judgment is made as to how that information will be used. The final stage, responding, is a combination of the first three listening levels. At this point, the listener provides the speaker with a verbal or visual reaction to acknowledge that the message has, indeed, been received. Being aware that listening constitutes four different stages is a move in the right direction. But don't assume that this knowledge alone will automatically bring about better listening results. Listening is an active, rather than passive, effort. And it's more than just wanting to listen. Consider these facts from an Executive Skills article: - Once a person finishes speaking, the listener remembers only about half of what was said - Within eight hours of learning something, one-third to one-half is forgotten - Two months after listening to a talk or speech, only one-fourth of what was said is remembered. With them in mind, you must make concerted efforts to tune out any external/internal interferences, which could impede effective listening. "Listening comprehensively gives you the satisfaction of really communicating." Blocking Out Distractions External distractions are the easiest to handle. It's simply a matter of shutting a door or window, moving out of the hearing range of other people, or holding telephone calls. Internal interferences are more difficult because they spring from natural human feelings. Foremost in this particular category is a dilemma we're all born with — the ability to think faster than someone can speak. Since the thought process is nearly four times faster than the average speech rate of 125 words per minute, our minds tend to wander and we get lost in our own thoughts rather than following what's being said. We anticipate what's going to be said and jump to conclusions. Internal listening blocks also take other forms: - Prejudgment — The speaker appears nervous and disorganized, riffling through his notes; you don't like the speaker's appearance or mannerisms or the speaker gets off to a slow, vague start. In either situation you assume the speech will also be disorganized and boring; that you won't learn anything from the message being given. - Stereotypes — Closely allied with prejudgments, this distraction relates to the habit of putting people in certain categories rather than seeing the person as an individual; i.e., the manager who dismisses women as being members of a business and professionally ignore what little attention to what his female managers have to say. - Personal Emotions — The speaker begins his talk with an off-color joke or a subordinate says something that offends you. You become angry and figure you don't have to listen to that. But to be an effective manager, you must learn to control your feelings so you can keep listening and make level, accurate evaluations. Other Bad Habits — Sometimes you try too hard at paying attention, concentrating on details, instead of major ideas. Then the intended message is overlooked. Maybe you tune out once the subject matter becomes too complex or it's something you don't want to hear because it doesn't fit in with your point of view. Or you let your mind dwell on office/home problems that are completely unrelated to what's taking place at the moment. Working Toward Improvement A good place to practice and refine your listening skills is during a meeting or speech. Since the major barrier to effective listening is your quick-moving mind, the key to curbing that natural tendency lies in keeping your mind busy and focused on the subject at hand. First on the agenda is evaluating the general organization of the speaker's comments. Bear in mind which part you're listening to (introduction of thesis, supporting evidence, summary) by asking yourself what the speaker is doing throughout the talk. You can also predict what if you can figure out the speaker's next statement or what evidence will be offered. Is the evidence factual and does it support the argument? Instead of tuning out when the information becomes complex, exercise your mind and stretch your capacities. Tackling "difficult" material makes you learn, discover, and broaden your scope. New "Ears" Resolution Listening is an essential function. It's the primary reason for things getting done, from the executive level down. It influences morale, which positively affects productivity. If not practiced, instructions are misunderstood or your key people leave because management didn't listen. Either situation represents a waste of time and money, something no business can afford. The same holds true in personal relationships. Listening comprehensively gives you the satisfaction of really communicating. Start now. It's never too late to make a new "ears" resolution. Constant review and questioning helps you determine whether you're following the talk's logic, as well as what it means to you and/or your company. Plus, as you mentally summarize and analyze what's being said, listen critically for possible elements of propaganda or illogical arguments. Notetaking may also help, as long as you jot down a few words about each principle point that will later jog your memory. Otherwise, trying to write down everything that is said is impossible — most times you'll forget as quickly as someone else talks. Remember, too, that what's not being said is just as important as what's being said. Nonverbal communication surfaces as facial expressions, posture, movement, gestures, pauses, and hesitations. So listeners need to use their eyes to observe and interpret these signals. It could be something as simple as the speaker passing a finger under his nostrils, which sometimes indicates hedging or withholding of information. However, you shouldn't be too strict with your interpretations. What your eyes see is meant to complement what the ears are telling you. Body language is also a two-way street; through your own responses and movement, let the speaker know you are hearing the words and understanding the message being communicated between the lines. MAYBE NOW'S THE TIME TO CALL SURREY Surrey is Radio's full service consulting and research firm. What this means to the ratings scorned executive is a myriad of possible solutions to choose from...and all from one source. Whether it's consulting, focus groups, telephone studies, music tests, market analysis or station evaluations, with Surrey, you get only what you need; more importantly each program is specifically designed for your market and station. Before your next rating period, call Surrey and ask for one of our representatives. We could have you smiling by winter. Call 303-989-9980 today. Goal-Setting — Part II By Norman Goldsmith In our last segment (1-13) about the importance of intermediate and next step goals, we noted that many salespeople resist the accountability that these goals require. We talked about the need to establish a “convenant” between the salesperson and the manager. The obvious question is how to get salespeople to relate positively to this concept, and to motivate themselves to become goal-directed, rather than just goal-oriented. Should you expect every salesperson to do this? Of course not. Let me share with you a pet theory of mine that deals with people in general and salespeople in particular. Let’s take any sales staff and make it a universe of 100. The manager introduces any new idea, program, or system. About 20% of the people, whether they understand it or not, will think it’s the greatest thing since indoor plumbing. Another 20%, whether they understand it or not, will think it’s the worst thing since herpes. The other 60% won’t necessarily understand it any better or like it any more than the others, but they will accept the fact that the manager knows what he or she is doing. They will make the effort, and six months later they will be much better salespeople. They probably won’t credit the manager, they just got smarter. Effective Goals You can’t let the 20% who are negative hold you and the salespeople back. You have to concentrate on the 80% who are influenceable and willing to grow. Whether they realize it or not, effective goals, properly positioned, will stimulate them to become much more productive. We discussed the five-point structure of effective goals last time, and shortly we will outline some specific billing and non-billing goals. But what about the positioning of goals? How can you get salespeople involved in, and committed to, their goals? One of the best ways is to allow them to have significant input. Granted, this is not always possible, particularly in the overall billing goal. As we noted in the previous article about projecting, you may have to forcefeed this one due to station needs. However, there are many other instances where salesperson input is critical to commitment. The key is to channel the input so that it is compatible with management’s philosophy and needs. If you don’t, you run the risk of having the salespeople give you goals that can be either unrealistic or meaningless. Bottom-up Input There has been a great deal of talk recently about bottom-up input. The success of the Japanese quality control circles is one example. The best-selling book “Megatrends” suggests that we are changing from “top-down” to “bottom-up” influence. It seems apparent that people function better when they have input into their goals. However, let’s paraphrase the Megatrends idea, and think about bottom-up input with top-down control. As the manager, you are in the best position to determine the sales needs. Consequently, you set the parameters, and you indicate which areas you want the salespeople to address. Obviously, different salespeople will have varying degrees of responsibility in different areas, but each will be required to set and work towards goals in every area. For example, your newer salespeople will devote more time to new business development, but all salespeople should be accountable for some effort in this area. This concept is similar to the one I discussed in Part I when using the sports analogy. Winning teams have individual and team goals that are flexible, depending on different situations. However, there are always well-defined incremental goals, controlled by the head coach, that are designed to make each player more effective. Benevolent Dictatorship By defining the specific areas you want covered, and then having the salespeople input their own goals within these areas, you have the necessary control of the overall direction. Certainly you may have to make some adjustments to the initial input, particularly when a salesperson brings you some sandbag goals, but rank has its privileges. Keep in mind three things. One, you’re in the management chair, they aren’t. Two, you’re accountable, they should be also. Three, a benevolent dictatorship is better than anarchy. What are the most effective kinds of goals? When you did your projections, you set (or had set for you) the most important goal, the big number. That’s “what you need.” The goal-setting process is meant to focus on “where it will come from.” That’s why the intermediate steps are so important. Consequently, as I indicated earlier, you want the salespeople to break down their overall anticipated billing into separate revenue sources and opportunities for increases. Next time, we’ll look at some areas that should be spotlighted with individual goals for each salesperson. Norman Goldsmith heads the sales and marketing consultancy Radio Marketing Concepts, Inc., which numbers most of the top broadcasting stations in the country among its clients. Before founding RMC in 1977, he was GM of the six-station Curt Gowdy Broadcasting Group, Director of Sales & Marketing for the ABC-owned AM stations, and Sales Manager at KGO/San Francisco. RMC can be reached at (703) 947-3555. Why Another Record Company? Because of Acts like Tiggi Clay MOROCCO™ RECORDS & CASSETTES OUR FIRST ACT THEIR FIRST ALBUM Tiggi Clay 6057 CL THE SOUND OF 15 YEARS OF SAN FRANCISCO PLUS 25 YEARS OF MOTOWN FEATURING THE SMASH SINGLE "FLASHERS" A PRODUCT OF MOTOWN INDUSTRIES 1716 CF ©1984 Motown Record Corporation ABC Talkradio Challenges National Talk Skeptics Nearly two years after the birth of ABC Talkradio, there remain skeptics who still question whether national talk can succeed on a local level. But Talkradio VP/Director Rick Devlin believes ABC has already proven them wrong. Talkradio started up in May 1981 with 12 charter affiliates. Today the station roster stands at 62, including 49 of the top 100 markets. The network supplies 18 hours of programming each weekday from Los Angeles and San Francisco, and this weekend begins sending nine hours a day on Saturdays and Sundays. To the skeptics, Devlin has this to say: "We're growing. We're nowhere near where we hope to be. We've got tremendous expansion plans for 1984 and I think the way things are going, some of the folks who have changed formats will be very surprised when our stations start to click, and you're going to see a lot of that start happen very shortly." Rick Devlin Devlin professed himself basically pleased with the just-released fall 1983 Arbitrums. He says early analysis shows gains among women for many affiliates. "Some hour-by-hour numbers show the Talkradio hosts either gaining or holding their own." Although there was slippage at KABC/Los Angeles (7-4-5.2) and WABC/New York (3-0-2.3), there were a number of success stories — WCBM/Baltimore (2-3-3.8), WGBB/Albany (5-0-5.7), WBRB/Rochester (5-4-5.9), KNBC/Denver (1-8-2.6), and WHBQ/Memphis (2.2-3.2). Among women 18+, some increases were dramatic. For instance, psychologist Dr. Susan Forward's shares in that demo doubled to above 7 on WGBB, gained over two shares to above 5 on WCBM and KNBC, and shot up to above 10 at WTKN/Pittsburgh to nearly the 10 level. Talkradio As "Whipping Boy" Clearly, Devlin was stung by comments in this column last year by several broadcasters who had dropped N/T after disappointing experiences with ABC Talkradio. He responded forcefully, "At times we become the whipping boy if something doesn't work out. Quite honestly, that's not a valid reason. We really look at some of the stations that haven't worked out. It's because of the lack of an impact they've been able to generate in their markets in morning drive." "I think what we're doing right now from a network standpoint is very correct. It takes time to do this, but some of the indications are very positive. I think affiliates are becoming comfortable with it. And, frankly, the success of the network relies tremendously on how well an individual affiliate does in morning and afternoon drivetime and how well they promote the station themselves." Local Vs. National Irrelevant To Listeners Late last year, ABC hired Keleman Associates of New York to conduct focus groups of listeners of Talkradio affiliates in Los Angeles, Denver, St. Louis, Pittsburgh, Charlotte, and New York. One purpose was to learn how listeners feel about national shows, says Devlin, because "some of the individuals in the industry have been saying it's got to be all local, local, local, and that's all that people care about." "The results were absolutely overwhelming in all six markets. Most people had never even thought of where the shows were. What we found out was that people are interested in what the shows deal with. And we found that people like the vast variety of callers from all over the country they want to get input from other people. And they like the freshness of calls. They don't hear the same person getting through, which they would hear many times in a medium sized market." Morning Impact Essential Devlin contends the key to an affiliate's success with Talkradio is careful mixing of network and local programming. Stations are advised "to blend Talkradio with what they're doing, to use the stop sets to promote locally, integrate it into the community, promote it like crazy locally, promote one couple and their own people, put on the best possible morning programming they can get." "No matter what market you're in, 55% of a Talk station's revenue should come out of the morning program and another 20-25% should come out of afternoon drive. So that means you're talking about 75% of a guy's revenue coming out of a period he can now concentrate on." Although reservations about the viability of national talk played a role in the demise of N/T on WFAN/Dallas and WGOU/New Orleans last year, current Talkradio affiliates I spoke with don't share those doubts. They're satisfied with the Talkradio product, don't appear concerned about its non-local nature, and seem patient about waiting some time for Talk to take hold in their markets. Interestingly, while some stations mix in live auditions of local shows and talk, I found that others — more concerned with cutting overhead — appear to be ignoring Talkradio's advice and making only minimal local efforts. WTKN Doubles Audience Chairing the Talkradio Affiliate Board is WTKN & WWSW/Pittsburgh VP/GM Diane Sutter. Since going with Talkradio on WTKN, Sutter says her audience is up "by more than 100%" which is very good for a slow-building format. "We've had very good acceptance in the marketplace." A study for WTKN by the Research Group last year mirrored what ABC later discovered. According to Sutter, the research showed a market "absolutely no difference between local and national talk listener. If it was good or bad, they didn't care where it comes from." Maintaining a sizable staff of news people and producers, along with heavy investment in local programming, keeps WTKN out of the black last year. But Sutter expects a profit in 1984. WTKN sells programs, rather than dayparts, and stresses that Talk radio involves foreground listening. As Sutter puts it, "The commercials are not an intrusion but become part of the program." Because stations give up so much time to the networks, Sutter says the Talkradio Affiliate Board is unusually active. Its efforts have helped bring about weekend programming, an affiliate newsletter, greater amounts of sales and support materials from the network, and two Talk Expansion Seminars slated for February, when affiliate GMs, PDs, and Sales Managers will gather on both coasts to share ideas. Stations Laud Talent, Localization Bob Sinclair, GM at charter affiliate WNYW/NY, says of Talkradio, "I feel it's super. They do a terrific job. We get real good feedback, and there's no way an independent station could afford the same caliber of programming." Sinclair's overhead is way down, and the station is turning a profit and now ranks this 35-40. And he sees Talkradio solving three big format problems — finding good hosts, lining up consistently good guests, and avoiding repetitious callers. WAYS/Charlotte signed up a year ago, and integrates network shows with local talk under the direction of a 20-person news staff. President Sid Kaplan told me, "It's a little early for us to know in terms of numbers. But I don't look for great movement for a couple of years. I just don't think it's going to be there that quickly." "I think the technology, how they put it together is just superb. It's very difficult to know it isn't coming right from your own studio. For the most part the talent is excellent and it sounds very professional. It would be preferable to have the same quality of talent locally, but it's very difficult to find good talent." Although daytime WRNY/Rome, NY adopted the format only in August, GM Jack Moran reports that Birch ratings show steady growth in all demographics. "The response we've had has been overwhelming," says Moran. He, too, is impressed with the customized local inserts in Talkradio personalities that are triggered by satellite to make the shows sound local. In fact, WRNY often gets calls and letters for the hosts, especially Dr. Forward. "At first Moran worried that some of Talkradio's more serious discussions might offend listeners in the Rome-Utica market, but he's been pleasantly surprised that just a single complaint has been lodged so far. A brand new affiliate is WZRA/Chattanooga, which climbed aboard at the end of December. "I'm very excited about the prospects of doing a great deal of business because of it," says VP/GM Steve Tisland. "The response has been most favorable." Tisland became a believer in the effectiveness of Talkradio's localization on the first weekend, when an "inherited" listener with marital problems called WRNY to ask to speak with Dr. Forward. Daytime-only WUK/Milwaukee switched to Talkradio last May after its A/C-comedy format failed to catch on. PD Rick Gundrum sums up, "We're very pleased with it in general. The programming is top-notch. Dr. Susan Forward is really our big audience grabber. We feel we're building a steady presence with audiences, and people are talking about us more on the streets." Top 100 Markets In '84 According to Devlin, Talkradio's growth is slower than it could have been because the network is choosy about who becomes an affiliate. "We haven't gone out and signed a whole bulk of stations just for the sake of signing them up," he explains. Criteria include a strong local audience, willingness to carry all or most of Talkradio's programming, and a solid commitment to the format. "Realistically, our goal right now is to get up over the 100 mark," says Devlin. He forecasts an average of 30 of the top 100 markets by the end of 1984, and all ADI markets by the close of 1985. Market penetration is the key to ABC's sale of the four minutes per hour it takes from affiliates. Devlin predicts the network will break even this year while "1985 should be an excellent year for us." Weekend Programming Debuts A major Talkradio expansion occurs this weekend when the network starts airing live segments on weekends, Saturdays and Sundays, 10am-7pm. Because lifestyles change on weekends, Devlin says segments will be kept to an hour: "The woman who is using Talkradio as an intellectual companion now has adult companionship on the weekend. There'll be different types of information and in a shorter form." Former WNEW/New York personality Bob Fitzsimmons will be the overall host, doing intros and some interviews. The only member of Talkradio's weekday lineup to take on a weekend slot is Dr. Susan Forward, who will discuss health and living. Other regular shows will cover finances and child psychology, and there'll be a series of guest hosts, on topics like auto repair and antiques. Judge us by the companies we keep. Some of the world’s most prestigious and successful broadcast groups recently renewed membership agreements with Associated Press Broadcast Services. Several others have joined as new members of our growing family. Abell Communications. Allbritton Communications Co. Cox Communications Television. Doubleday Broadcasting. Eastern Broadcasting Corp. The Formby Stations. Lesso Inc. Lotus Communications Corp. Metromedia Television. Progressive Publishing Co. The Pulitzer Broadcast Stations. Television Station Partners. Western Cities Broadcasting. Williams Broadcasting Corp. We at the Broadcast Services Division of AP are proud to be Associated with all of them. Associated Press Broadcast Services. Without a doubt. We went to the broadcasters for the questions..... Smaller audiences/TSL? Ad dollars shrinking? Operate profitably/costs? Format similarity? How to increase radio's share (reposition radio)? National-spot sales? Consolidated Reps—unwired? No concern—radio attributes are unique? Satellites—lower overhead? Prepare/Understand listener habits? Fragmentation? Research—changing needs, demos, segments? Product Improvement—talent, new formats? AM Radio—stereo? Fragmentation—duplication of formats? Reposition/Rpackage Radio/Rates? Local accounts important? Consolidated rep firms—unwired? Repeater traffic sales? Ad dollars shrinking? Operate profitably/costs? Format similarity? How to increase radio's share (reposition radio)? National-spot sales? Consolidated Reps—unwired? No concern—radio attributes are unique? Satellites—lower overhead? Prepare/Understand listener habits? Fragmentation? Research—changing needs, demos, segments? Product Improvement—talent, new formats? AM Radio—stereo? Fragmentation—duplication of formats? Reposition/Rpackage Radio/Rates? Local accounts important? Consolidated rep firms—unwired? Repeater traffic sales? Smaller audiences/TSL? Ad dollars shrinking? Operate profitably/costs? Format similarity? How to increase radio's share (reposition radio)? National-spot sales? Consolidated Reps—unwired? No concern—radio attributes are unique? Satellites—lower overhead? Prepare/Understand listener habits? Fragmentation? Research—changing needs, demos, segments? Product Improvement—talent, new formats? AM Radio—stereo? Fragmentation—duplication of formats? Reposition/Rpackage Radio/Rates? Local accounts important? Consolidated rep firms Here are the answers. McGavren Guild Radio A Division of interep announces CRITICAL ISSUES IN BROADCASTING a series of in-depth seminars CONTACT DONNA LAVITOLA 212 599-6500 McGavren Guild Radio RAB TODAY What It Can Do For Radio And Who Can Get It Done For You • THE NEW RAB ADMINISTRATIVE STAFF • EXECUTIVE STAFF • • BOARD OF DIRECTORS • NEW TOOLS & RAB SERVICES • PLUS AN EXCLUSIVE R&R INTERVIEW LARRY KING Larry King is radio's biggest success story thus far in the 1980s. His five-hour Mutual talk show will be broadcast tonight (and each weeknight) on 283 stations, and that total continues to climb steadily, as it has throughout the show's six-year history. Predictably, this has spawned a flock of imitators, most of whom have met with such little ratings impact they, in effect, have served as incontrovertible evidence — for those who needed it — that it is Larry King who is primarily responsible for his show's stunning success. It seemed an appropriate place to begin this exclusive R&R interview with the Brooklyn-born, 47-year-old, unlikely king of late-night American radio. R&R: We're aware that you're the major part of the equation that makes your show work. But if you were to remove yourself from that equation, how would you account for the show's success? King: It's a combination of things. One, it's an excellent format idea — what we've got is really three shows in one. We've got each night's guest interviewed for an hour, then two hours of calls for the guest, and then a total change of the show with "Open Phone America," which is a two-hour potpourri of national thought that can be fun, it can be serious, it can be anything else that flows along. Another advantage is in coming from Washington. We get better guests than the average talk show and also I think that people like calling Washington. I think there's a kind of magic to calling the nation's capital, to calling "Washington." The night we did our show on Kennedy, on the 20th anniversary of the tragedy, I happened to mention that we were broadcasting about a mile and a third from his gravesite. I would think that to a guy in Des Moines or a guy in Phoenix driving along or listening at work, that's kind of significant. R&R: Would you do anything different if your show was broadcast in the daytime? King: Late-night plays to more longer-form programming, so I don't know that one guest for three hours would work. It's much better suited to night. Open Phone America, however, would work any time of day. If the host is good at doing it and the pace is fast enough, you could do it at noon or three in the morning. R&R: Speaking of pace, there seems to be — when your show is at its best — a certain sense of rhythm to it, almost like a musician's. Do you strive for that rhythm? King: Definitely. R&R: Is it a conscious thing? King: No, it's not conscious, but it's natural. I'm very aware of pace. There's an inner drum or something that's always working. Because I was raised in New York, I grew up listening to top professionals, and I'm aware of time and movement. I just know what sounds good and what sounds bad. There's a sixth sense about that. R&R: Doesn't the secret of the show lie in the fact that one second before the audience gets bored, you get bored? King: To a talk show host, that's the highest compliment that can be paid. R&R: Is this ability always a natural thing? Can it be learned? King: No. There's three things you can't teach. You can't teach whatever "charisma" is when you're talking about why a certain personality works or doesn't work on the air. You can't teach pace. You either have pace or you don't. And third, you can't teach curiosity. You cannot teach someone who is not naturally curious to be curious, and there are a lot of talk show hosts who are simply not curious. Frankly, that's been one of the faults of the format. There are too many people in it who are impressed with the sound of their own voice, impressed with their own opinions, who have no idea how to interview someone for more than 20 minutes. Continued on Page 34 We bring you the music that brings in your audience. It's true. BMI, the world's largest performing rights organization, licenses the music audiences prefer. In every one of the last five years, the majority of the music on the charts was licensed by BMI. BMI is a non-profit-making organization, dedicated to meeting the needs of creators, publishers, and all users of music. We've always accepted and encouraged every kind of music. So, for over forty years, we've been making sure that you have the most uncomplicated, hassle-free access to all types of music. Bringing you more of the most popular music. Helping you capture a larger audience. That's BMI. Wherever there's music, there's BMI. R&R: Would you say that talk show hosts in general have too much sympathy for the callers and not enough for the audience? King: Yes. It's a fact that only one percent of the population has ever called a talk show, just as only one percent has ever written a letter to the editor or called a TV station to complain. So 99% of your audience is listening. What I do is become an editor. When the caller comes on, I ask myself: Is the caller interesting? Funny? On the mark? To the point? Asking a question or making a statement as quickly as possible? It's up to me to condense things, to edit, and if someone's getting off the mark the easiest thing I can do is push that button. I don't permit "uuhhs" and "aahs" and that kind of thing. That's not to say I won't let a person stay awhile if that person is really cooking, really contributing super to the show. You just have to go with whatever happens. The president of the network said to me once, "I really trust your instincts," and that's what it is: a broadcast instinct, an instinct of "I have no idea what's going to happen tonight, but I have total control. Therefore nothing that happens is going to surprise me." Yet everything will surprise me. R&R: Is it true you make it a point not to read the books of the many authors you interview? King: True. I like to learn about the book right along with the audience. Oddly enough, those times when I had read the book, I felt weaker. I felt I knew too much. I'm a street interviewer. I didn't go to college and I'm certainly not an intellectual. R&R: Nonetheless, you must be aware that you have developed a very large constituency, one which places you in a position of real power, more power than a lot of elected officials here in Washington, especially since you frequently give your own political opinions out to an enormous national following. King: Well, I never give an opinion when a guest is on. During Open Phone America, I do. At that point it's an exchange of ideas and if the host doesn't have any ideas, it's a dumb show. R&R: Are you approached by lobbyists? King: Oh, yeah. All the time. But I don't feel that the power's in me. I think the power's in having a network program that reaches a tremendous amount of people every night. R&R: Maybe so, but of all the shows attempting to reach this audience, yours is the only one that effectively does. King: I never think about the power when I'm on the air. Obviously, I know the show has some kind of power. What kind of power? I don't think you can measure that. R&R: We're not being judgmental, merely taking more of it. King: Right. It's a given. Now, the show's producers are the ones that hear from the lobbyists more than I would. What I get is usually social, like two nights ago I was at a restaurant and Walter Mondale came over and said, "What are people talking about?" Ted Koppel once said to me, "We give the news but we drive home with you to find out what people think about it." R&R: A lot of talk shows in recent years have been paying more attention to how people feel than to what people think. We're speaking of all the new psychologist talk shows. What's your opinion of them? King: Depends on the host. I've heard some that are pretty good. But to do a good job as a psychologist host is very difficult. For one thing, it's essential to generalize the call, so that I, as a listener, can associate with it. Let's say a teenager calls saying what difficulty he's having coping with high school and drugs. The host has to answer for that teenager but also for me, to keep me tuned. At the same time, while generalizing it, she's got to help the teenager — I say "she" because most of the people doing these shows are female. Another problem with the shows is they tend to be depressing. It's depressing radio. You hear all these sad things, people with problems, and that generally plays out. There's a burnout factor there. I don't know whether I could listen every day. R&R: How do you feel in general about the accuracy of ratings services? King: They tell you things that may or may not be important. They'll tell you, for example, that you have a 30 percent audience share, but as (pollster) George Gallup once said to me, "What if not one of them can remember a commercial?" And what if the guy who comes in second with a 20 percent share has 50 percent of his audience that does remember the commercial? Who's selling more products? I'd like to see more detailed interviews with the subjects. I'll give you an example. FM rock stations are doing very well right now. My daughter is sixteen and whenever I'm in the car with her she controls the radio. To this day, I've never seen her listen to a commercial. Never. She tells me, "I love Q107, they play the best music." But if I were an advertiser, why would I buy Q107 after I've sat in a car with a teenager that's hitting the button every time my message comes on? R&R: If you were programming Q107, how would you defeat that problem? King: Go more toward personality jocks. Jocks who might interrupt a commercial, who might kid with a spot while it's playing, who might do the unexpected. I noticed when my daughter listened to Howard Stern when he worked the market, she didn't punch him much, because he might interrupt a commercial. I used to do that when I was a jock. It keeps an audience tied in. R&R: One of the hallmarks of your show is its clever use of sound effects, its running gags about the boss, things that are pure radio in the truest sense. Why do you suppose so much of the fun and imagination has gone out of modern radio? King: I don't know. People certainly enjoy it. If you believe that all things run in cycles, then it's going to come back. But you've got to have the talent to do it, and talent can go a lot of places these days — to TV, to cable, to New York — so you've got to have the general manager with guts enough to say, "I'm going to let the talent have pretty much his own rein." You've got to have that. In other words, if I had a president who said, "Hey, you can't kid a network," a lot of the show's appeal would be lost. You've got to have a combination of talent and management intelligent enough to perceive that this very freedom is the key ingredient to being successful. R&R: When you travel around the country and listen to other talk shows, what are your impressions? King: You can break them down into categories. First, you've got the shows that are always serious, where they act as if everything that happens every day is of monumental importance. Then there are the guys that can't get off a topic. You know, they've got to have a speech to make about everything. Then you get the guys who compliment themselves, who'll say, "You know, I've never asked this before, but . . ." And best of all are the guys who interview themselves. Count the number of "I" 's in a talk show sometime. I never say "I." Between midnight and three you'll never hear "I." Never. You get one of these "I" guys though, and they say something like, "I was opposed to the Vietnam war and blah blah blah . . ." Who cares? My guest is the authority here. Who gives a damn what I think? During Open Phone America, you'll hear "I", when I've got a guest, you'll never hear the word. R&R: What would you consider to be your shortcomings as a talk show host? King: Well, I like sports a lot and because of that there's a tendency during Open Phone America to give a sports-related caller more airtime. That's a weakness I constantly think about. I realize that maybe only 35% of America are sports fans and therefore it's self-indulgent. So that's one thing. Another is that I can be rude to callers. I won't allow them to control the show, and so I don't quite know how to handle it better than to sometimes be — well, not rude, but overly abrupt. Let's say I've got a doctor on and a 73-year-old lady calls whose husband just died and she's about to give a case history. I won't hang up immediately. I'll say, Can you get right to it?" I try to force them and generally the audience will respond to that. I am not a good hand-holder. I am not a good shoulder to lean on. If you're looking for a shoulder to lean on, you've got the wrong show. Maybe that's a weakness. Sometimes I've hurt somebody, really hurt somebody. I certainly don't want to, but you just can't think about that. R&R: You talk to America every night without any sort of preconceived plan, with absolutely no idea of what you'll be saying to an entire nation's worth of listeners. It seems like that would be a pretty stimulating feeling. King: It's what keeps it going for me. If I had a plan, it would really bore me. I interviewed Johnny Carson once and he said to me, "If the host is bored, the show is boring. If the host doesn't like the show, the audience doesn't like the show." You've got to do what you enjoy, and what I Continued on Page 36 enjoy is not knowing about what I'm going to ask tonight's guest. That makes it more stimulating. Sometimes people will call and say, "The show isn't for you, it's for us." Wrong. The show is for me. Now, through me, I hope you enjoy it, but it's got to be a "through me" experience. If I'm not enjoying myself, you can bet that you, as a listener, won't be either. R&R: Your guests are definitely not what one ordinarily expects to hear on a successful national talk show. You seem to stay away from the usual celebrity fare, the starlets passing through town, that sort of thing. King: That's the producer's decision. They know they've got a host who likes a wide variety of things so they book a wide variety of guests. R&R: To challenge you? King: Yeah. In general, you'll never see three authors on three straight nights, or three political shows in a row. R&R: On nights when the midnight-3am topic is especially serious, do you make a conscious attempt to balance the remaining two hours of the program, to get it especially loose? King: Definitely. The more serious the subject, the more I'll try to make 3-5 funny. But when you get a major event like Grenada or those kind of things you can't always do that. R&R: Your show on the night John Lennon was assassinated was one of the most overwhelming outpourings of emotion we've ever heard. King: It was unbelievable. Tragic, certainly, but a great night of radio. He was murdered at ten to twelve and we just had to go right on. R&R: What's it going to take to convince Madison Avenue of the viability of your audience? It would seem as if by now it should be an automatic buy. Is it still a process of education? King: Yeah. The readings we get from most rating services are only for the first hour. And while we do very well - WOR, for example, is sold out all night - the tough nuts to crack are the United Airlines, the big national buys. What helped us and hurt us both was the failure of late-night television. And interestingly enough, late-night television failed because late-night radio is so strong. The NBC show which went off - which was a wonderful show, an excellent show - why did that program fail? It's because the late-night person at two in the morning, whether he's at work, at home, anywhere - already knows the news. We know certain things by now about late-night people: they vote more, they read more, they tend to be awake more hours. Forget just the insomniac, which is not the largest percentage of the audience. A lot of this audience simply goes to bed at 2am. I'm that kind of person myself. If I worked nine to five, I'd still go to bed at two in the morning. Anyway, they've seen their news at eleven. So while what NBC was doing was fine writing, very cute stuff, they weren't telling us anything new. R&R: More like yesterday's paper than tomorrow morning's. King: Exactly. So we're going to clobber them. If you do a pullout in Washington, we murdered them. Why? Because we'll still be new tonight, you'll still learn something. And if there is news - say, a major bulletin - you're going to hear it here anyway. R&R: So where does this leave all-News radio? King: All-News stations have one terrible problem: What do we do all night? That's why I'm on 80 all-News outlets. I'm on the CBS-owned and operated station in Philadelphia, we just went on the CBS O&O in San Francisco - we perform well for the format. Why? Because nobody listens to news all night. Nobody. It's a wonderful daytime format, but at night they need either talk or music. So radio does much better. As a rule, the later the day gets, the better radio does. Radio will always beat television really late. It's simply a better medium at three o'clock in the morning. R&R: Since you seem to have such a heightened awareness of late-night taste, are there any subjects you consciously avoid? King: Shows on disease. We don't do them anymore. The executive producer made that decision. For example, we haven't done a show on cancer in at least four years. Now, in four years, a lot of dramatic improvements have been made in the field. But it's a scare word, "cancer," especially at two in the morning. It's a total turnoff. R&R: Do you care to speculate on the future of radio? I've got a fairly large question to ask. King: Shoot. R&R: Okay. Let's say it's the year 2000 and you're turning the dial. What are you going to hear? King: (LAUGHS) I think to predict that is nearly impossible. Radio will always have a special place. It does something no other medium does. It goes with you and it's also the more intimate, so it'll be the least affected by all the technological changes coming up. It's always going to be around. It's a staple. You'll always have music. I don't know about AM stereo, still can't get a reading on that. If I have FM in my car and FM at home, why would I buy an AM stereo? R&R: So you believe AM will become totally the province of talk and news? King: Talk and news and information. There'll be more network stuff. Stations will cut back. There'll be more computers, more satellites. Sports will be predominant. On the whole though, by the year 2000, television will have changed far more than radio. KATZ RADIO People Make The Difference To be the #1 Radio Rep you need experienced management, effective salespeople and innovative sales and research tools. Katz Radio has them all. Katz Radio has the most stable management team, the most aggressive sellers and the most productive research operation in the business. Katz Radio is the best because we have the best people—people who are dedicated to the Radio Industry. People who are committed to radio's present and future. Katz Radio. The best. KATZ RADIO / A DIVISION OF KATZ COMMUNICATIONS INC THE NEW RAB Administrative Staff LOREN R. HOLLEMBAEK Director of Member Service Loren Hollembaek, Director of Member Service, joined the Radio Advertising Bureau as Assistant to the President in 1978 and assumed his present post in 1979. He supervises all day-to-day operations of RAB marketing support service which provides members with sales tools, instantly useful marketing information, commercial copy and cassettes, and/or on-line research data. Hollembaek began his media and marketing career at Needham, Harper and Steers. He later joined WBBM/Chicago as Assistant Advertising & Promotion Manager, eventually becoming Manager. Moving to the CBS Radio Network in Chicago, he transferred to New York where he became Director of Media Promotion in 1967. From 1976 to 1978, Hollembaek served as Director of Marketing for the Universal Guardian Corporation, a consumer finance company. WILLIAM H. SHRIFTMAN Senior Vice President for Finance and Administration William "Bill" Shriftman is Senior Vice President for Finance and Administration of the Radio Advertising Bureau, a post he assumed in November 1983 after serving for two years as Vice President for Finance. He is RAB's chief financial officer and supervises all accounting, computer, financial analysis, budgeting, and allied areas. Shriftman joined RAB in 1981 after working as Controller of the Empire Savings Bank in White Plains, New York. A Certified Public Accountant, he has also worked as Budget Director of Kenton Corporation and Senior Accountant at Peat, Marwick and Mitchell & Company, a major national accounting firm. KENNETH J. COSTA Vice President for Marketing Information Kenneth Costa is Vice President for Marketing Information at the Radio Advertising Bureau, a post he assumed in 1979. He directs and supervises RAB's extensive library and on-line databases, directs and administers the Certified Radio Marketing Consultant (CRMC) program, frequently conducts marketing seminars, compiles and edits the indispensable series of "Instant Background" profiles, and serves as RAB's in-house economist, business analyst, and demographer. He is widely considered the preeminent marketing research analyst in radio. During his 20 years with RAB, Costa has previously served as Librarian, Manager of Marketing Information, Manager of Sales Development, and Director of Member Services. Before joining RAB in 1964, Costa established and administered the research library at Hicks & Greist, an advertising agency. WILLIAM L. STAKELIN President and Chief Executive Officer William "B" Stakelin is President and Chief Executive Officer of the Radio Advertising Bureau. He was selected to lead RAB from among 200 leading radio and marketing executives in July 1983 and was given the overall responsibilities of CEO in October 1983. A 27-year veteran broadcaster, Stakelin joined RAB after serving as Executive Vice President of the Bluegrass Broadcasting Company and after completing a term as Chairman of the Board of the National Association of Broadcasters (NAB). At age 39 he was the youngest person ever to hold the highest elected position in American broadcasting. Bill Stakelin began his love affair with radio as a teenager in his hometown of Georgetown, Kentucky. Working under the names of "Billy Bandstand" and "Wild Willy, King of the Kilocycles" he began his career as an air personality at WAXU while still in high school. By the time he finished college he already had gained a broad background in radio. After graduating from Georgetown College in Kentucky, Stakelin joined Bluegrass Broadcasting as Program Manager of WVLK-AM & FM/Lexington, KY. He became VP/GM in 1969, and in 1974 became VP/GM of another Bluegrass property, WHOO-AM & FM/Orlando. Two years later he was promoted to Executive Vice President of the group, making him responsible for overseeing the operations of radio and television stations in Kentucky, Georgia, and Florida. Stakelin has also served as a board member of the Florida Association of Broadcasters, President of the ABC Network Affiliates Board, and on the Broadcast Industry Council to Improve American Productivity. WAYNE CORNILS Executive Vice President Wayne Cornils joined the Radio Advertising Bureau as Executive Vice President in November 1983. He serves as RAB's chief of staff and directly oversees all membership, meetings, and station-oriented operations. Cornils came to RAB from a position as Senior Vice President for Radio at the National Association of Broadcasters (NAB), where during his seven years he earned the nickname "Radio Wayne" for his roles as a radio advocate and advisor to the entire broadcasting industry. Early in his career Cornils worked at WTRW/Two Rivers, WI and KPIG/Cedar Rapids, IA. He held positions including disc jockey, program director, chief engineer, assistant manager, and in 1962 became part-owner and President/GM of KFXD/Boise. During the '70s he served on NAB's Board of Directors, and joined the NAB staff as Director of Membership in 1976. JOYCE REED Vice President of Co-Op and Retail Sales Joyce Reed, Vice President of Co-Op and Retail Sales, has two primary responsibilities at the Radio Advertising Bureau. She is the chief tutor for radio stations on the subject of co-op and retail advertising and is charged with teaching stations how to get access to and maximize retail sales. Equally important is Reed's role in persuading manufacturers, retailers and ad agencies to create, maintain, and use co-op advertising programs geared to radio. A 20-year RAB veteran, Reed initially served as Retail Sales Coordinator in 1962 after working as an advertising executive in Bloomingdales in New York from 1955-62 and as an advertising executive for Sears and Maas Brothers in St. Petersburg, Florida. BEN SCRIMIZZI Senior Vice President for Sales and Marketing Ben Scrimizzi joined the Radio Advertising Bureau as Senior Vice President for Sales and Marketing in October 1983. He is primarily responsible for RAB's business plan and for the direction, supervision, and execution of radio's sales and marketing efforts toward advertising clients and their agencies. Scrimizzi came to the radio industry after achieving significant success in the snack package industry. He joined Emeril Air Freight in 1970, becoming Director of U.S. Marketing and the Emeril Worldwide Corporation in 1975. Scrimizzi shifted to the PurdueLor Courier Corporation as Corporate Vice President for Marketing. By 1982 he had become Senior Vice President for Marketing, Sales, and Customer Service, responsible for national advertising, new products, and all field sales operations. DANIEL STEPHEN FLAMBERG Senior Vice President for Communications Daniel Flamberg was appointed Senior Vice President for Communications of the Radio Advertising Bureau in November 1983. He serves as the industry association's official press spokesman and is directly responsible for the planning, development, supervision, and execution of all communications activities ranging from creative services, design, publication, and audio production to publicity, promotion, and special events. Flamberg joined the RAB after working for 3 years as Director of Public Relations for the Washington-based Mutual Broadcasting System, the nation's largest radio network. Earlier in his career, as Special Assistant to the Chairman of Fred Rosen Associates in New York, he served as international account supervisor and American representative for His Highness the Aga Khan and counseled senior executives at a number of blue chip corporations in the U.S. and abroad. LEWIS C. GREIST Director of Marketing and Research Lew Greist joined the Radio Advertising Bureau in 1980 as Director of Marketing and Research. He directs the planning, execution, and transmission of radio planning, buying and selling research data and information to advertisers, agencies and radio sales staffs. Prior to joining the RAB Greist was the Director of Marketing and Research for RKO Radio Sales in New York from 1978 till 1980. From 1975 to 1978 he served as Director of Marketing and Sales for KYW/Philadelphia. From 1963-75, Greist worked in the Philadelphia market as the General Sales Manager at WBIG and WWSH, and as National Sales Manager at WCAU. Earlier in his career, he spent seven years as an Account Executive at CBS Radio Spot Sales and at the Katz Agency. Greist began his advertising career as a media researcher/timebuyer at Hicks & Freist Advertising in New York. ALBERT "BUD" HECK Vice President and Manager of National Sales, Eastern Region Bud Heck joined the Radio Advertising Bureau's National Sales Division in 1973 as Manager, Food Products Category. He was promoted to the post of Vice President of National Sales in charge of the Eastern Region in 1974. Before joining RAB, Heck was Director of National Sales for the NBC Radio Network. Earlier in his career he worked as Sales Manager for LOOK Magazine, Eastern Advertising Manager for HOUSE BEAUTY-FIT Magazine, Account Executive and Promotion Manager for the Adirondack Park Press, and as a Manager with the Walter Reade Theatre Organization. Heck served as a judge for such prestigious awards as CLIO and the International Broadcasting Awards, and has been involved with the Advertising Club of New York. RAB TODAY RAB Board Of Directors EXECUTIVE STAFF RICHARD W. CHAPIN President Stuart Broadcasting Company 625 Stuart Building Lincoln, NE 68508 (402) 475-4204 Chairman, RAB Board of Directors RICHARD H. HARRIS President Radio Group Group W 888 Seventh Avenue New York, NY 10106 (212) 307-3665 Chairman, RAB Executive Committee JIM ARCARA Executive Vice President Capital Cities Communications, Inc. 24 E. 51st Street New York, NY 10022 (201) 421-9595 Chairman, RAB Finance Committee BEN HOBERMAN President ABC Radio 1370 Avenue Of The Americas New York, NY 10019 (212) 887-7923 Chairman, RAB National Sales Committee MICHAEL O. LAREAU General Manager WOOD Radio College Park Plaza 180 North Division Grand Rapids, MI 49503 (616) 459-1919 Chairman, RAB Research and Sales Tools Committee LESLIE H. SMALL President Broadcast Division Mid America Media 6 Dearborn Square Kankakee, IL 60901 (815) 937-2780 Chairman, RAB By-Laws Committee DEAN SORENSON President Sorensen Broadcasting Corporation Box 309 Pierre, SD 57501 (605) 224-1113 RICHARD P. VERNE Vice President Radio and Radio Common Carrier Lin Broadcasting Corporation 1370 Avenue Of The Americas New York, NY 10019 (212) 765-1902 CARL J. WAGNER Executive Vice President Radio & Cable Taft Broadcasting 1718 Young Street Cincinnati, OH 45210 (513) 721-1414 RAB Board Of Directors STEPHEN P. BELLINGER Praxeland Broadcasters 265 South Park Street Decatur, IL 62523 (217) 423-9744 STEVEN P. BERGER Nationwide Communications, Inc. One Nationwide Plaza Columbus, OH 43216 (614) 227-7676 ROGER G. BERK Group One Broadcasting P.O. Box 1590 Akron, OH 44309 (216) 535-7831 CARL BRAZELL Metromedia Radio One Harmon Plaza Secaucus, NJ 07094 (201) 348-3244 RICHARD BUCKLEY Buckley Broadcasting Corp. 166 West Putnam Avenue Greenwich, CT 06830 (203) 661-4307 GARY L. CAPPS Capps Broadcast Group, Inc. Box 5068 Bend, OR 97701 (503) 382-5611 ARTHUR W. CARLSON Susquehanna Broadcasting Co. 140 East Market Street York, PA 17401 (717) 848-5500 JOSEPH L. DORTON Gannett Broadcasting Group 10155 Corporate Square St. Louis, MO 63132 (314) 997-5594 GARY EDENS Harte-Hanks Radio 840 North Central Avenue Phoenix, AZ 85004 (602) 258-5293 PAUL W. FIDDICK Multimedia Radio, Inc. 140 N. 9th Street Cincinnati, OH 45202 (513) 352-5905 RALPH GUILD McGrawen-Guild 154 East 46th Street New York, NY 10017 (212) 599-6500 ROBERT L. HOSKING CBS Radio 51 West 52nd Street New York, NY 10019 (212) 975-8088 H. WAYNE HUDSON Plough Broadcasting Co. Radio Consultants 112 Union, Memphis, TN 38103 (901) 529-4300 MARTIN RUBENSTEIN Mutual Broadcasting Systems, Inc. 1755 South Jefferson Davis Highway Arlington, VA 22202 (703) 685-2000 JACK SAMPSON Sampson Communications Co. 1120 N. Halstead Hutchinson, KS 67501 (316) 663-2115 GARY H. SIMPSON WTRN Washington Ave. & First Street Tyrone, PA 16686 (814) 884-3200 ROBERT MOUNTY NBC Radio 30 Rockefeller Plaza Room 2752, New York, NY 10020 (212) 664-4501 LESTER M. SMITH Kaye-Smith Enterprises P.O. Box 3010 Bellevue, WA 98009 (206) 455-0923 RICHARD RAKOVAN Outlet Broadcasting 111 Dorrance Street Providence, RI 02903 (401) 751-1110 GARY STEVENS Doubleday Broadcasting Co. 100 Park Avenue New York, NY 10017 (212) 684-7650 GERY SWANSON Swanson Broadcasting 7136 S. 3rd Tulsa, OK 74136 (918) 493-7225 KEN SWTZ Katz Communications, Inc. One Dag Hammarskjold Plaza New York, NY 10017 (212) 572-5500 FRED E. WALKER Broad Street Communications Corp. Box 81 New Haven, CT 06501 (203) 281-9600 JAMES W. WESLEY JR. Cox Broadcasting Group 1601 W. Peachtree Street, NE Atlanta, GA 30309 (404) 897-7000 ALEXANDER J. WILLIAMS Great Trails Broadcasting Corp. 4 S. Main Street Suite 200, Dayton, OH 45402 (513) 223-4822 ROBERT WILLIAMSON RKO General 1440 Broadway New York, NY 10018 (212) 764-7000 FOR ALL YOU WANT A CART TO DO, THIS CART'S FOR YOU! THE AUDIOPAK AA-4 IS FOR YOU The True Blue Cart—From Capitol NEW TOOLS & RAB SERVICES Radio Facts An annual statistical summary of the radio industry intended for use by advertising agencies, press, radio stations, reps, schools, etc. Your Complete Co-op Organizer RAB's practical guide to smooth running co-op sales department. Radio Idea Promotions A publication published irregularly outlining promotion success stories. Entries are often timely, such as seasonal promotions involving holidays or local special events. Radio Co-op Sources This directory lists all known businesses that have organized co-op programs for the radio industry. Listed by product category. Over 3500 companies are presently listed, with updates added twice a month. RAB Newspaper Ad-Readership Indicator A slide-rule to calculate on-the-spot comparisons between newspaper and radio advertising based on reach, time spent with media, and CPM. Instant Background A summary of basic marketing dimensions for virtually every major industry in the United States. Over 140 industries are listed, and statistics include consumer attitudes, buying habits, etc. EAR A retail newsletter outlining major success stories by retail merchants using radio. The newsletter is circulated to all RAB members and a mailing list of retailers and advertising agencies. TV: Need For A Sound Alternative A publication comparing radio with television. Full of radio vs. TV facts and figures presented in a head-on approach, including time spent listening, reach, frequency, etc. The Buy Word Is Radio A sales research tool illustrating how radio comes closest to time-of-purchase, as well as other marketing facts affecting local marketing. AUTHORITY. It's easily recognized. But not easily achieved. Authority must be earned. From judgements that have been proven sound. Strategies that have been proven effective. Blair Radio has achieved that stature. Through penetrating, objective research by the most respected specialists in the industry. Through ceaseless monitoring of the trends and the tremors that keep radio a vibrant medium. And through a proven track record of opening doors that others could not open, to the benefit of Blair's client stations. The industry has recognized Blair Radio as The Authority. Buyers know that our sales people are armed with recommendations justified by objective analysis of station strengths and advertiser needs. Our recommendations make sense. As measured the hard way: in sales. Authority. When we tell you Blair knows how to increase your station's selling power, you can believe us. That's why Blair Radio is the power of radio. BLAIR RADIO. THE POWER OF RADIO. The "New British Invasion" — Is It Already Over? There's a showbiz saying that goes something like "once a trend hits the cover of Time (or other equivalent mass media publications), it's already over." General market publications have on occasion delivered less than stellar analyses of the music business (who could forget the Wall Street Journal's memorable profiles of the Plimsouls and the Bus Boys?), so I picked up Newsweek's January 23 cover story, "Britain Rocks America." Again, with a mixture of interest and trepidation. Well, according to Newsweek, "the British are coming!" "Britain is embracing the new wave with open arms." As I'd already found that 1983 overall was the best year for foreign artists in R&R's history (see 12-16-83 column), I wanted to see if Newsweek was right and the trend was increasing. Newsweek (in typical industry outsider's fashion) (and another chart) cites the week of July 16, 1983 as the peak of the "new British Invasion," with 18 of the top 40 songs being of British origin. Actually the extent of the UK takeover was even greater, reaching the 50% mark (20) on the R&R CHR/40 from July 1 and rising to a high of 21 on July 15. The next week, however, the figure dropped to 18 and commenced a general slide which brought UK representation down to 14 by October 21. The number seesawed in that range for the rest of the year, ending at 16 on December 16, and when the new year began, dropped again to the new low of 13 on January 13 and 20. So if there's a new British invasion, it's already lost almost 40% of its CHR impact in six months. That's not to deny the remarkable achievements of British artists in 1983, or to say that further fluctuations won't follow. But as of now the invasion appears to have encountered substantial resistance. The accompanying graph charts the flow of UK artists on the CHR/40 from June 10, when the expanded chart to its present size, until January 30. Australians, Canadians, and other foreign artists were not counted in the tabulations. Dynamic Duos Speaking of charts, here's a strange statistic: The A/C Top 30 for January 20 included six duos, which appears to be a record. Over on the Country chart, I only considered the natural home of the duet, there were only three out of 50. Incidentally, of the eight A/C chartmaking duos, only one (Daryl Hall & John Oates) records regularly in that category; the rest are special teams, most of the McCartney/Jackson and Warner/Thompson type. And in conclusion, one final R&R record achievement. To the best of anyone's knowledge, Jump 'N The Saddle's "Curly Shuffle" is the first song ever to garner reports in all five main R&R music formats. As they say in radio, "Moe music Moe often." Jackie Wilson — The Consummate Vocalist One of America's most gifted singers died last Friday. Jackie Wilson finally succumbed at age 49, almost nine years after an onstage stroke from which he never recovered. Jackie Wilson came out of Detroit in 1953 to replace Clyde McPhatter as lead singer of the R&B pioneer vocal group Billy Ward & the Dominoes and went solo in 1957. His first hit, "Reet Petite," was the first success for songwriter Berry Gordy Jr., who went on to write Wilson's biggest hit "Lonely Teardrops" and then found Motown Records, inspired by a desire to duplicate Wilson's success. One thing no one could duplicate was Wilson's voice — he was quite possibly Continued on Page 47 HOT--E/P/A--HOT--E/P/A--HOT--E/P/A--HOT DAN FOGELBERG "The Language Of Love" #1 MOST ADDED 90 Stations Out of the Box Including: WCAU-FM Z93 KHTR KIQQ WTRY WQID KKXX WHTX KAFM WLOL-FM KMJK K104 WKDD KBBK 94Q B97 KEARTH KWSS WBBQ KMGK PATTI LABELLE "If Only You Knew" #1 Black Chart 4th Week In A Row!! NOW CROSSING AT: B104 deb 26 Z93 16-10 KAMZ deb 26 WNVZ 39-14 KNOE-FM add KBFM WXKS-FM deb 34 I95 27-22 WRQK add WHOT deb 36 Z102 25-19 KTFM WNYS add 17 Y100 28-24 WANS-FM deb 37 KMQQ deb 36 94Q WGUY WPLJ 15-11 KEARTH add 94TYX deb 38 KHYT deb 34 KXX106 WJAD Z100 13 WKEE add KX104 deb 28 WERZ WZLD WCAU-FM add WBBQ 25-20 WSFL add Q101 deb 36 WNFI ADAM ANT "Strip" CHR SIGNIFICANT ACTION B94 deb 29 WOKI add KJ103 21-16 KGHO add WZPL WKEE add WKDQ add WRKR 15-7 KCBN 31 KSKD KHFI add WGRD add 40 WRQN add KZOZ add WIKZ WNFI add WJXQ add KQMQ add KIST add WERZ KQV add KCDQ add KBFM KYTN JOHN CAFFERTY & The BEAVER BROWN BAND "Tender Years" CHR SIGNIFICANT ACTION WXKS-FM Q105 WRCK WHOT WERZ WPHD KHTR KX104 KHOP 13FEA PRO-FM WLAN-FM WRKR KITY KSKD WZPL WJBY WGU KBIM WIGY KZOZ MATTHEW WILDER's NEW SINGLE: "The Kid's American" ON YOUR DESK WITH NEXT WEEK'S R&R DISTRIBUTED BY CBS RECORDS CAPTURED LIVE! PRESENTS RAINBOW The first of 1984's weekly one hour recorded-live rock concerts. Rainbow... presented in a two part format the weekends of February 3rd and 10th, featuring songs from "Bent Out Of Shape." Produced by Patrick Griffith Productions, Inc. for RKO. Capture your market by calling (212) 764-6702. On The Records Jackie Wilson — Continued from Page 44 the most technically accomplished singer of his time, as anyone who has heard his indescribable transformation of "Danny Boy" or the effortless leaps into falsetto that dot "Lonely Teardrops" can attest. His live performances were reportedly unmatched for sheer excitement and vocal virtuosity. Although his material often failed to match his talents (one exception being his last big pop hit, "Higher & Higher," in 1967), he will live on forever as a textbook example of the consummate vocal artist. Record News Next Styx album is a live double scheduled for March. Don Henley's second solo LP is aiming for April release . . . Bonnie Tyler's latest record is a duet with British star Shakin' Stevens, an update of the 1960 Brook Benton/Dinah Washington hit "A Rockin' Good Time." Mick Jagger is reportedly backing the British Olympic team to the tune of a quarter-million donation. The Clash has replaced Mick Jones with unknowns Vince White and Pete Shepherd . . . Grace Jones will take a starring role in the film "Conan II." Prospective producers/arrangers: Jim Steinman and Billy Squier; Dave Edwards and the Everly Brothers . . . Metal File: Duran Duran's "Seven & The Ragged Tiger" LP went platinum; Elton John's "Too Low For Zero" is gold. TV News "Solid Gold" for the week of Jan. 27 stars Kim Carnes, Julio Iglesias, Kool & the Gang, Little River Band, the Motels, Shelly West, and Matthew Wilder . . . The Rolling Stones are on "America Rocks" Jan. 27 . . . "D" Train and Evelyn "Champagne" King are on "Soul Train" the weekend of Jan. 28 . . . Dio, Eddie Money, and Oingo Boingo star on "Rock Palace" Jan. 28 . . . MTV's "Liner Notes" for Jan. 29 features Mick Jagger, Bette Midler, the Pretenders, and Van Halen's David Lee Roth . . . The Everly Brothers' concert is rerun on HBO Jan. 29 . . . Ed Bruce and Louisa Mandrell host the "Country Country Showdown" talent competition on the Nashville Network Jan. 29, while Bill Anderson hosts Ernest Tubb on "Backstage At The Grand Ole Opry," same date, same network. Charley Pride guests on TNN's "Yesterday's Nashville" Feb. 1, while Lacy J. Dalton and Dionne Warwick guest on "Nashville After Hours" on the same date. NBC's forthcoming "Super Night Of Rock 'N Roll" boasts an out-of-the-ordinary guestlist, with Chuck Berry, James Brown, the Hollies, Jefferson Starship, Darlene Love, Graham Nash, Martha Reeves, Ronnie Spector, the Temptations, and X performing, plus film sequences of the biggest rock stars of the '50s and '60s. JACKSON SWEEPS AMAS: Michael Jackson won seven "American Music Awards" during the recent ABC telecast. Pictured congratulating the big winner (second from left) are (l-r) Kenny Rogers, Diana Ross, Barry Manilow, and Quincy Jones. Datebook MONDAY, JANUARY 30 Marty Balin Born Jefferson Airplane co-founder Marty Balin, known only to be in the 39-42 age range, adds another year today. He made his recording debut in 1962 with two singles, and was leading an acoustic folk group, the Town Criers, in 1965 when he met Paul Kantner and formed the Jefferson Airplane. Balin left the Airplane around 1971 to form the short-lived Bodacious D.F., but returned in 1975 in time to give the revamped Jefferson Starship its first hit with "Miracles." In 1978, Balin left the mothership again to finish the opera "Rock Justice" — about a musician on trial for not producing hits — and then went solo with the charmers "Hearts" and "Atlanta Lady." Other birthdays: Commodore William King 1949, Jody Watley (of Shalamar) 1961, and ex-Humble Pie/Small Faces leader Steve Marriott 1947. TUESDAY, JANUARY 31 KC & Collins Harry Wayne Casey, better known as KC, and Genesis drummer/vocalist Phil Collins were born on the same day in 1951. Collins had been a member of British rock-opera band Flaming Youth before joining Genesis. KC had worked in record retail before joining TK Records and talking the label into giving him and partner Richard Finch a chance to record. Both artists have become successful producers as well, with Collins guiding Frida's solo debut and KC giving Teri DeSario a hit. WEDNESDAY, FEBRUARY 1 Don Every Emerges The elder of the Everly Brothers, Don, was born 47 years ago today. Don and Phil began singing with their father like on local Kentucky radio, and cut their first single in 1956 for Columbia, backed by Cadence Records and a song called "I've Love Bown" brought them instant stardom in 1957. They broke up in 1973, and pursued solo careers until late this year, when they reunited with a London concert (recorded and just released as a double album on Passport). Others born today: Dr. Hook leader Ray Sawyer 1939. THURSDAY, FEBRUARY 2 The Day The Music Died #1 Ex-Sex Pistols Sid Vicious, still awaiting trial for the stabbing death of his girlfriend Nancy Spungen five days a half months previous, died of an accidental overdose of heroin at the New York apartment of his new lover on this day in 1979. After Spungen's death, Vicious tried to kill himself at least once while imprisoned at Riker's Island, then got in trouble for fighting with Patti Smith's brother at a rock club. A year after her hero's death, 1000 punkers commemorate Vicious in a London march. Birthdays: Earth Wind & Fire's Al McKay 1948, Tommy Smothers 1947, Graham Nash 1943. FRIDAY, FEBRUARY 3 The Day The Music Died #2 For John Milner (Paul LeMat's character in "American Graffiti") February 3 is the day when rock & roll started going downhill: Buddy Holly, J.P. Richardson a/k/a the Big Bopper, Ritchie Valens, and the pilot were killed in a plane crash after taking off from Mason City, IA. Today in Lubbock, there are festivities commemorating hometowner Holly scheduled by his appreciation society. And last night, there was a memorial concert scheduled for Clear Lake, IA — the site of the trio's final performance — featuring Buddy Knox, Tommy Roe, and Bobby Vee, the latter of whom got his first break filling in for Holly in Fargo the night before. Others: Dave Davies and Melanie Safka both 1947. Johnny "Guita" Watson 1935. SATURDAY, FEBRUARY 4 Cooper Comes To Life Alice Cooper (real name Vince Furnier) is born today in 1948. Early groups like the Spiders and the Nazz (no relation to Todd Rundgren's early group) led to the identity of Alice, whose gender-scamming jolted audiences as much as the band's spectacular stage antics (from dismembered dolls to guillotines). Alice first hit with rabble-rousers like "'71 18" and "School's Out" ('71 and '72) but became one of America's more unlikely A/C idols with ballads like "Only Women Bleed" and "You & Me" later. SUNDAY, FEBRUARY 5 Rolling Stones Drug Bust Of The Month In 1967, the UK tabloid News Of The World runs a story that describes Mick Jagger as having used LSD, benzidine, and hashish. The reporter has mistaken Brian Jones for Jagger, who sues the paper for libel two days later. A week later, Jagger and Keith Richards, reportedly at the instigation of the paper, are busted at Richards's country home. pleased to have been asked to join the organization and, in terms of the position, I'm looking forward to it. The Easy Listening format has been one of the mainstays of the broadcast industry; one of the real strengths we have is the skills and talents of three very experienced programmers (Marlin Taylor, Dave Verdery, Darrel Peters). I'll be relying on their input and expertise. What I hope to accomplish is a team effort between Bonnville and its member stations because each market is different and each one has particular needs that are unique to that market." Opsitnik has spent 15 years in the Portland, OR broadcasting business, and has served as VP of the Portland Radio Broadcasters. He was VP/GM of KJWJ & KJJB and also handled corporate responsibilities for KEKZ/Seattle. Opsitnik, whose appointment is effective February 1, will report to the offices of Bonnville's Tenafly, NJ corporate offices. He indicated that his partner will be buying out his interest in KBZY. Tod Takes WNYS Programming Post WNYS-AM & FM/Buffalo mid-day personality Bill Tod has been upped to PD, replacing Ray St. James, who resigned from the Associated Communications outlet last week. In addition, WPXY-AM & FM/Rochester PD Tom Mitchell will now serve as consultant to sister station WNYS, with current consultant Bob Harper relinquishing his duties at the end of January. Associated Group GM and WPXY-AM & FM/Rochester VP/ GM Bill Chesson, who's also acting GM at WNYS, told R&R, "We've chosen Bill to step into the programming department, as he's the type of guy who's a good administrator and implementer of ideas. Everyone from the airstaff to the sales department is up and looking forward to working with Bill." Mitchell noted, "While the station is for sale, I've been asked to operate the station in the best interests of Associated Communications. So, we'll be programming a very active station both musically and promotionally." Commenting on his first PD assignment, Tod told R&R, "I've been here from the beginning (8-82), so I'm pretty familiar with the market. We're going to continue with our CHR direction and with Todd's input we should turn things around. With his new duties Tod will move to afternoons, and night personality Kelly McCann will shift to middays. Shannon Continued from Page 1 which I would feel comfortable operating at one time." Shannon indicated the firm already has clients signed up, but declined to name them because of format changes in the works at some of these stations." He added, "I'm going to specialize in consulting morning shows, and in certain cases, stations as a whole. This will not be a high-profile consultancy. Using the talents of Christopher Nicholson and J.R. in their own areas, Panguardia will be able to offer a very specialized service for a limited number of clients." Miller Continued from Page 3 received. We may as well finally give him the title for the job he's done since the day we started." Miller joined W101 as MD 16 months ago after 18 years as MD and air personality/MD at competitor WNGE. He previously served as W101's morning personality when it was Beautiful Music-formatted WJYW, and also worked two years crosstown as Production Director at WFIA. Miller told R&R, "I'm very pleased that W101 has decided to make this move at this time. I appreciate their confidence in me, and really enjoy working with the people here. I know we're going to be even bigger and better in 1984 than we were in '83." Bradley Continued from Page 3 become Country powerhouses, and I am looking forward to working with Steve Roddy. I think that way I wouldn't miss us." Bradley will commute between KLZ and KUPL as he helps find a new PD for KLZ and an airstaff for the Portland stations. Montiel Advanced To WRMM Program Manager Veteran WRMM (WARM 100)/Atlanta air personality George Montiel has been promoted to Program Manager. Montiel reports to Susquehanna Broadcasting National PD Rick McDonald, and replaces former PD/MD Allen Saunders, who becomes Talent Coordinator/Program Analyst for the parent company. At the same time, staffer Steve Wyrostock was named MD. Commenting on Montiel's promotion, McDonald said, "George has been of great help in the transition of the station from Easy Listening to A/C, and he has shown a lot of energy by taking on projects that really are beyond the call of duty. With the evidence of that performance behind us, I can say George certainly is going to make a real contribution." Montiel joined WRMM over six years ago as midday personality, and later moved to afternoons. He previously programmed WAGQ/Athens, GA for 18 months, and also spent two years handling mornings at WRFC/Athens. Montiel told R&R, "I'm absolutely delighted. I've always looked for an opportunity like this for a long time, and with the strides WRMM 100 has made in recent months, I'm very pleased to be part of the new movement." Direction '84 — Preparation For Programmers Continued from Page 3 We're also staging the days a little bit differently, mornings for more formal sessions, then a break, then breakout rooms in the afternoon with only new people, but also the folks you heard in the morning brought back for one-on-one sessions. I think it's not only a more active way to get involved, but it also gives you the chance to ask all the questions you may have had in the early sessions that you didn't get a chance to air. We have all been in that small cluster of people who crowd around the podium immediately after a particularly interesting program and try to get a question in — it's really frustrating, but now it's not a problem. I'm personally delighted that we're getting to talk about things like "Listening," "Intermediaries," "Ego Management," "Creative Minds," and there are topic areas that are very much a part of our communication industry, but never get dealt with. I hope that you'll give very serious consideration to attending "Direction '84." I think that you'll not only find it helpful, but that you'll go back to your radio station with a greater sense of who you are, who the people around you are, what a tremendous responsibility being a PD is, and what you can do to fulfill your goals for the future. More To Come As I said at the opening, we are planning a series of these "Shirtleeve Seminars." I'd like to see us gather together at least once a quarter to explore a new and different facet of our industry. We're talking about "New Ventures", dealing with the new technology, a sales seminar on "Planning For New Business", with a focus on marketing, market planning, and forecasting for the future, and to cap the season, a "Music Marketing" session where we examine the video explosion and new music relations, and take a renewed look at the reason this publication was founded by Bob Wilson, the unique relationship between radio and records — has it changed in the past ten years, and where is it going in the next? I guess if you've gotten my drift, I'm really concerned with where we are all going. After all, where we've all been is history . . . and I'd rather we made history than lived in it. One final thought while I've got you this far — we're really serious about making the attendance 400. So plan on coming with us responding quickly, and I'm also excited about inviting you to bring your spouses; they can share the learning experience by attending all sessions free. See you at the Century Plaza in March! —Dwight Case Lake Continued from Page 3 ferred is one that only comes down the pike once in a great while, and far be it from me to pass on a good thing. The competition in Kansas City is terrific, and I look forward to showing them how competitive ZZ99 can be." Lake, who joined WHFM last May, previously served as Charter Broadcasting National PD. He also programmed WPEZ/Pittsburgh (now WWSS), WJBQ/Portland, and WYRE/Annapolis. In addition, he was formerly Program Director for Warner Bros. Records. No replacement has been named at WHFM for Lake, who joins KZZC on February 3. Chrysalis Continued from Page 3 key people in the company. This is a cohesive force of three executives who really know how to make the company work." Bette Midler Announcing "Beast of Burden" The new single from her latest album, "No Frills" Produced by Chuck Plotkin Don't miss the "Beast of Burden" video. Thrills from the Divine One, with a little help from Mick Jagger. On Atlantic Records and Cassettes CHR Radio War Declared In DC If you've ever walked into a room where the atmosphere was tense, then you'll understand the competitive stance of the CHR stations in the nation's capital. The DC market is a potential powder keg of creativity, contests, and fine programming, as ABC's Q107 prepares to defend its crown against Doubleday's AOR-turned-CHR WAVA and Metromedia's recent A/C-to-CHR convert WASH. Gathered around the big, oval planning table in their respective war rooms' are PDs Alan Burns, Randy Kabrich, and Bill Tanner. All three have a number of similar "weapons" at their disposal: great signals, experienced staffs, liberal budgets, and a knack for survival. What will make the difference is psychological strategy and presentation. I've given each of these talented programmers his own forum to talk about his station's merits and offer comments on the competition. WASH From A/C To CHR I spoke first with WASH PD Bill Tanner, since his station has gone through considerable staff and presentation changes in its A/C to CHR evolution. After programming Y100/Miami into a legendary operation, Bill is looking for lightning to strike twice in his career. We talked about the transition from A/C to CHR and how market observers contend WASH doesn't really rock hard enough to be CHR. "That's silly," he responded, outlining his music policies. "We are playing Yes, which is by no means a soft song, and while we haven't played the Pretenders yet, we probably will. "I'd play any record I consider to be a hit. We are not taking a conservative approach. In fact, we're playing a lot of records early. Specific records meet our immediate needs more than others, and just about every PD operates this way. WASH is a radio station which someone in their 20s and 30s can listen to comfortably, yet it holds appeal well on either side of those ages because our presentation and roots are in Top 40, now CHR. Either way, WASH plays the hits. A hit is a hit, and there are no degrees in between." Playing up to three oldies an hour, Bill will daypart some of the softer songs to mornings and middays because "I think people in those dayparts, who desire music and information, are also desirous of an emotional blend. We don't play any oldies which aren't exclusive to A/C base. If they weren't major hits on CHR, they're reconsidered. I find dayparting to be an effective tool for us, as we're able to tailor WASH for the available audience." A Different Style Bill spoke about what he's trying to accomplish and what he sees as his competitors' weaknesses. "I'm trying to make WASH substantially different-sounding from everyone. I'm not trying to be another version of Q107, only 10% better. I'm trying to inject humanism in WASH and a lot of what I call feeling, emotion, and warmth. Frankly, I think Q107 is a very cold-sounding station. They are boring. "When we began our evolution to CHR last summer, we did so in an orderly manner to prevent any major audience shake- Continued on Page 53 Q107 Defends The Fort Having programmed Q107 for the past four years gives Alan Burns a decided advantage over his two CHR competitors. He knows the market and can concentrate on winning, while Bill and Randy are still capturing the subtle nuances of the area. For about a year and a half Alan has had the entire CHR pie to himself. What does he think of WASH and WAVA? "The competition makes everything better. We've always had competition, but now we've got direct format competition, which definitely makes it more interesting. I've continued to look at WPGC as a competitor, whether CHR or A/C. WASH has been moving more into CHR for the past year and up until recently was more of an AOR. Now that WAVA is CHR, I see it as having four CHR in the market, including WPGC, since many listeners think of them that way." When someone comes right at you, there has to be some internal reaction. Alan told me. "Everyone on my staff has reacted very materially to all the CHR format changes. Sure, in the first couple of days, people looking around and questioning what was going to happen. But within a day or so, it was business as usual with a bit more of an edge added. Everyone on my staff is eager for the challenge." From AOR To CHR After successfully programming WDCG/Raleigh-Durham to the top of the market for the past year and a half, Randy came aboard as WAVA's PD in October. He took the reins from Bob Hattrick, a former, who moved to sister station WMET/Chicago. "By that point we were well into playing Lionel Richie's 'All Night Long' and other CHR hits. My next step was to adjust the rotations to put us into a curve-building mode. We were jingling between every other song, and I wasn't happy with the new package. So we took it off and are now using the old 1972 TM 'Shotgun' jingle and looking for a new package. We've also adjusted our airstaff to sound more CHR, including the addition of super talent Tom Kent." While a lot of other AORs made the move to CHR in the past several months, WAVA has done so without the kind of audience others have temporarily experienced in the same process. "I can't take all the credit for this success, as it was a team effort. Bobby Hattrick consulted us through the change. Because he is AOR-oriented and I was looking to add some black crossovers, I think we ended up with the perfect balance between us. This prevented us from moving too slow or fast in our transition." Hand-To-Hand Combat In evaluating the competition Randy noted, "Q107 is a much better radio station just in the short time I've been here. It shows me they are going to respond to our moves and adjust accordingly. Specifically, they have modified their current rotation. Continued on Page 53 According to Arbitron, WHTZ/Z100 is now New York’s #1 radio station with New York’s #1 morning music show. The Arbitron Fall 1983 radio ratings are out. In the Metro New York area, Z-100 is now Number 1 in total persons 12+ Monday-Sunday, 6 a.m. to 12 Midnight, with a 6.2 share. And our Z-100 Morning Zoo, 6 a.m. to 10 a.m. is also rated Number 1 with a 5.2 share. Z-100 has only been on the air since August 2, 1983 with its special brand of personality-oriented contemporary hit radio. Z-100 has gone from worst to first in its first full Arbitron. TOP 5 STATIONS 1. WHTZ 6.2 2. WOR 5.1 3. WRKS 4.8 4. WINS 4.5 5. WCBS-AM 3.8 TOP 5 MORNING MUSIC PROGRAMS 1. Z-100 Morning Zoo 5.2 2. Imus In The Morning 4.5 3. Spider Web Show 4.2 4. Your Happy Awakening 3.7 5. Jim Kerr Program 3.3 A MALRITE COMMUNICATIONS GROUP STATION Represented Nationally by Eastman Radio Radio & Records Invites You To DIRECTION '84 Management Tools For The Program Director THURSDAY Morning Registration - Listening Skills Dr. Elliott Ross, Director of Organizational Development Sperry Computer Corporation - Age Of The New Patricia Aburdene, Contributor to "Megatrends" and co-author with James Naisbitt of "Age of the New" - What Makes A Champion Dr. Charles Garfield, Psychologist President, Performance Sciences, Inc. Midday All-Morning Speakers Available For One-On-One Sessions - Recruitment — How to interview without the underground connection Gary Kaplan, Managing VP Korn Ferry International - Skills For Success — Time Management Adele Scheele, Author and Career Strategist - Budgeting For Research And Promotion Jhan Hiber, President, Hiber, Hart & Patrick Evening Cocktail Party. Case study team meetings and solution planning. FRIDAY Morning - How To Manage The Creative Ego Ron Saltzburg, Sr. VP Group Creative Director N.W. Ayer Advertising - Relating To The Egos Around You Dr. Sharon Crain, Psychologist - Management Training And Organization Don Payne, VP Employee Relations Mattel Electronics Midday All-Morning Speakers Available For One-On-One Sessions - Identifying Programming Trends John Parikhal, VP Joint Communications - Venture Capital — What, how, and why Art DeVesco, General Partner, Wind Point Partners - Everything You Always Wanted To Know About Buying A Station But Were Afraid To Ask Robert O. Mahlman, President The Robert O. Mahlman Co. Evening Wine & Cheese Party Case study team meetings and solution planning. March 15-17, 1984 Century Plaza Hotel, Los Angeles The time is right to bring a small group of top programmers together for a new kind of information exchange . . . a thought-provoking, intensive seminar. The group will be learning from the highest quality professionals in a range of subjects that affect the everyday business life of a program director. This seminar is designed to help today's PD continue to grow and meet the unique challenges of the future. SATURDAY Morning - Case Study Solution Team Response Dwight Case, President, R&R Companies - Where Is Cable Going In Relation To Radio Paul Bortz, Brown, Bortz, Coddington Wrap-Up Dwight Case, Jonathan Hall If You Prefer You Can Use This Handy Registration Coupon NAME ____________________________________________________________ STATION/COMPANY _______________________________________________ ADDRESS _______________________________________________________ CITY ___________________________ STATE ______ ZIP _____________ Make check payable to: R&R SEMINARS If using a charge card: VISA MASTER/CARD Interbank # ____________________________ EXP. DATE ____________ (Mastercard only) Signature _______________________________________________________ Mail To: R&R SEMINARS 1930 Century Park West, Los Angeles, CA 90067 DIRECTION '84 is priced at $395 per person and includes all sessions and Special R&R Cocktail Party - Participation will be limited to 400. - Spouses admitted free to all sessions. - Group discount given for 2 or more registrants from same broadcast company. You Can Register By Phone Make sure you're included. Call (213) 553-4330 today. Continued from Page 50 ups. The remaining curve continued listening for our features like news and traffic as much as for the music. As a result we not only increased our 12+ share, but we're number two in 25-49 adults in both drives behind market leader (Urban Contemporary) WKYS. While I don't think that's too shabby, I know we can still add more growth to the 12+ category." Dishing The Competition "What has happened is stations like Q107 have made CHR very teen-sounding for this market, and I don't think WAVA is much different. Good music and good programming signed to attract a wide spread of demos, which is what we did at Y100. We are moving more and more toward serving just as wide a demo spread at WASH. "WASH has put personality back in CHR radio. Q107 and WAVA are card-reading, line-oriented stations. Tune in early and hear liner after liner after liner. There lies the first performance difference. Two, we are keyed to an East Coast market with a large black population and a white population which enjoys those black records. Remember, WKYS is the best station in the market. Not only do they have great numbers, but they sound the best as well. "Q107 and WAVA are both oriented to suburban teens," observed Bill. "Since that base is covered very well, why should I take on an army at its strongest point? We've already got 25-49 adults in the top half book. While teens aren't my first point of attack, I'm working from the top down and won't be chasing teens away. If you want to talk teens, Q107 is in trouble, as WAVA has already beat Q107 by half a share. In fact, Q107 has a number of problems. The number one problem is the station is becoming as bored with the programming as is their own staff. I know that because of the number of Q107 staffers who've come to me for jobs." Promotion And Personality The past year has been spent on refining WASH's sound, which included a near-complete airstaff realignment. Now, WASH is ready to fire its first promotional salvo. "Specifically, we've got some exciting promotion plans as the result of working with Owen Leach, who's a marketing and promotion expert. His research is expensive, but those recommendations will serve to guide us in our future promotional efforts both via air and in alternative media. I intend to have all of the guns loaded as soon as we have the powder, and with this research now in hand we're very close. "We've spent literally a year in training. WASH is designed for adults who've grown up on CHR and have no intention of becoming old before their years. WASH will win with the most exciting combination of personality, promotion, news, and information plus the best mix of music in between the strongest moments that hold the bricks together. I've heard the comments about us, but let me tell you, my competition sounds as dry as old matchsticks. They are crusin' for a bruin'!" Continued on Page 50 WPGC, which had vulnerability in the younger demos, and the two AORs, WAVA and DC101, weren't doing a very good job. So we were a more rock-oriented CHR to attack WPGC's young end and cross-cue with the AORs. After a while, they got improved and we evolved into a more traditional CHR." So has Q107 inherited those same weaknesses? "No, not quite. We don't have the clutter WPGC had, and we meet the challenge of competition more aggressively than they did." "I foresee WAVA increasing and, when their newness wears off, then it will be WASH's turn for increase. As they wear themselves out, weaknesses will become apparent. WAVA has a lot of clutter right now with a number of features, but so do we in our morning show. While Elliott & Woodside still dominate the show, we've got an outside weather service, a sports voice (TV-4 sportscaster George Michael), and a news anchor. So there are four or five voices here as well. "Look for Q107 to be out there doing everything we can to attract as much attention to ourselves as possible. We are going to be very aggressive. I'm surprised Bill called us boring, as we've been the most exciting station in town for years. I'll refrain from any comments about Bill and his 'people' since everyone else sounds good, and they are all wonderful people," he joked. "Actually the competition has made us a better radio station, and we appreciate that. I don't plan to let anybody beat me in terms of 12+ shares. If it happens, I won't be surprised, freaked out, or disheartened. We're just going to continue doing what we do best and come back." —Alan Burns Sticks and Stones May Break My Bones . . . Alan is aware of Bill Tanner's thoughts concerning Q107's sound. "I don't think we're boring at all," he countered, "and our jocks aren't card readers since there are no cards on the air. There are promotional fact sheets which direct them to read things verbatim. In fact, when you bring the Beach Boys to town and do as many remotes as we've done, it's hard to hang such a poorly-chosen label as 'boring' on Q107. "Can's (as in soup) Film Festival" Over the holidays KNBQ/Tacoma-Seattle presented movies to their listeners at over 50 local theatres. The admission fee was a can of food. Over 14,000 cans were collected to assist needy families. This was KNBQ's second annual "Cans Film Festival." Bits • $1000 Says They Do It Right! KEVN/FM-Wichita guaranteed their listeners that during each hour of regular programming, 9am-midnight every day, they would play non-stop music sweeps, featuring at least three songs in a row. Listeners who caught the station with its music sweeps down won $1000. • "Cans (as in soup) Film Festival" Over the holidays KNBQ/Tacoma-Seattle presented movies to their listeners at over 50 local theatres. The admission fee was a can of food. Over 14,000 cans were collected to assist needy families. This was KNBQ's second annual "Cans Film Festival." DC Ratings And Demos Just how well are Q107, WAVA, and WASH doing compared to each other? Looking below, you can see in most categories each station is within striking distance of another competitor. The only exception is WASH's teen category, where Bill Tanner admits he needs to fill in a bit in order to increase his 12+ share. \| \| 12+ Men \| 18-34 Men \| 18-34 Women \| \|----------------\|---------\|-----------\|-------------\| \| Q107 \| 7.0-6.4 \| mid 8's \| solid 8 \| \| WAVA \| 3.6-4.3 \| upper 5's \| solid 5 \| \| WASH \| 3.0-3.8 \| mid 3's \| mid 5's \| \| Teens \| 25-49 Men \| 25-49 Women \| \|----------------\|-----------\|-------------\| \| Q107 \| solid 18-share \| mid 5's \| \| WAVA \| mid 18-share \| mid 3's \| \| WASH \| below one share \| solid 6 \| mid 6's \| Continued from Page 50 and drastically reduced their oldies content. The ultimate winner in this has been the radio audience. "The audience, I think, is not only going after us, but with his Urban approach to CHR he's also going after WKYS. I won't sit here with blinders on as so many people do and think I've got no problems with him. Some felt Scott Shannon wouldn't make it because he wasn't local here in New York area. I remember others felt Howard Stern wouldn't make it here when he was at DC101 or be successful at WNBC. No one is going to catch me off guard," he stressed. Spending The Bucks Our conversation turned to WAVA's promotional expenditures. Randy is aware that WASH and Q107 will spend major-dome dollars, and Randy is ready to dig deep into the corporate coffers as well. "From what I hear, Tanner will probably spend more money than Q107 does. I think we've got enough money to do what we need to do this book. A portion has already been invested in TV during this past book, and more's on the way. Our curie is already in place, so there comes a point when spending goes on a ten-day basis. We're in Washington, DC isn't cost-effective if it's only going to grab me another 20,000 cume. Believe me, we'll spend for TV, but the campaign will be strategically placed to grab as many ears for my money as I can get." Not to be outdone in the race for Super Bowl fans, Randy added, "Q107 is sending some folks down there on a Lear Jet, but I've given away a lot more seats than they have. We've sent about 20 people down for the game in our Super Bowl promotion. We intend to hit the streets for other promotions as well once the weather opens up a bit. "So far we've held some Super Bowl parties — in DC, Virginia, and Maryland — which all came off very well. Right now we're giving away $100 bills on the air using some 'quizzing' and 'name' techniques. We've always had a good student impression, and all we are trying to do is lay the groundwork for the future. The one great danger in Q107 doing so many big events is trying to top themselves all the time." Who's Really Hit Radio? WAVA calls itself "All Hit 105 W-A-V-A" or "Hit Radio W-A-V-A" (never WAVA). The All Hit slogan is being shared with Q107. I asked Randy if this presented a problem with the purchase in December (after station KPKE), so we'll see it here. Generally if we do something, about 12 hours later you'll hear it or something like it on Q107. We both have it listed as a diary slogan, but most of our entries are listing either our Q107 or 105, which they are mostly referring to Q107 as the entire entity. Outlining the format a bit, Randy divulged, "We're playing about 14 songs an hour on the average, running about 10 currents, two recurrants, and two oldies an hour. The spot load is a manageable eight minutes/ten minutes per hour. This type of format is really fun-sounding and our jocks have a good time on the air. I let them be a bit insane if they want, but the overall emphasis is on fun. If our presentation is a reason for our high cume (over 400,000), then it will remain high. WAVA is an entertaining product. "I'm not discounting Bill Tanner in this one at all. He could turn out to be the Jesse Jackson of the Democratic primary in this radio war. I don't agree with Bill that Q107 is a boring station, as 'Q' has picked up the pace a bit. But they still pale in comparison to us. We sound like we're having more fun than they are. The battle in Washington is just beginning. I'm just a 'country boy' in the big city looking to take some rating points away from these city-slickers. Guess we'll see what happens pretty soon!" CONVENTION '84 COVERAGE Quality Time With Lee Abrams Last week programmers and managers from some 50 Burkhart/Abrams/Michaels/Douglas-client stations flocked to San Francisco for the annual Superstars Convention. They convened to swap ideas, press the flesh, get the bird's eye lowdown on where the B/A/M/D consultants see the format heading, and wonder why anyone chooses to live anywhere but San Francisco. Hot on their heels, by the strangest of coincidences, followed more promotion people than you can shake an expense voucher at, along with assorted media flunkies and hangers-on. The actual meetings are off-limits to outsiders. I considered listening surreptitiously by taping into my ear next to a strategic air shaft, but realized the press has a bad enough image in this country as is. So it was left to your intrepid reporter to corner Lee Abrams personally in order to provide you with an idea of what goes on behind those closed doors. Our chat follows. R&R: Why are people so quick to herald the death of AOR these days? LA: It's funny. I remember in '76 Top 40 was dead, in '79 A/C was dead, in '80 Beautiful Music was dead. Now it's AOR's turn. A lot of it comes from people who hate AOR cause they never understood it: programmers, managers, writers, rep firm types. It's like the Top 40 guys in the early '70s when AOR was first coming on strong. R&R: You focus 12+ numbers providing a distorted picture? LA: Absolutely. First of all, in a number of markets, all the rock stations are down. The higher number of stations with youth formats means some fragmentation is inevitable. Also, I think AOR is evolving into an 18-34 format. We used to be #1 18-34 men only because we had such a strong presence in 18-24 and a 6 in 25-34. Now, it's a more even mix. For instance, WZXR/Memphis was down 3 points 12+, but 25-34 men were through the roof. (Editor's note: "ZXR registered a 60% jump in 25-34 men, jumping from 3rd to 1st in the market. While their Men 18-24 share was halved, they remained #1 Men 18+, 18-24, 18-34, 18-44, and 25-44.) "I don't think there's much future in serving teens. We ought to put our stock in 18-34 year olds. Years ago, AOR was the thing for young teens; it was the talk of the high school. It's not anymore, and we've got to remember that our natural audience is not what it was five years ago. It's evolved, and we've got to keep with it." R&R: Why is CHR giving AOR such a run for its money these days? LA: CHR has always been AOR's natural competitor. We were lucky from 1972-1981 when CHR completely forgot what it was all about. A lot of them started skewing A/C, some of them never really got out of the high energy "O" format which is old, some of them started playing album cuts. AOR was lucky because we had some bad CHR stations, just as CHR is lucky because there are a lot of out-of-synch AOR stations. "We've got to get back to using imagination again. AORs are so standardized and lacking in style." have to be programmed intelligently, not just one after another until it's untenable. Now, the balance is critical. With 1979-style modal, everything was so up, that didn't matter. Intelligent music mixing is real important now. R&R: The "rock till you puke" modal approach worked well for a number of years. Why is it no longer effective? LA: Modal is a concept, not a sound. Everybody thought it meant heavy metal, when really it meant just super-serving a particular audience. In 1975, it was Ted Nugent's Great Train Trip for the 16-year-old in high school. Now we want to relate ourselves with our natural audience that's grown up while we haven't, and AOR should aim toward the 25-27-year-old who likes Genesis, Police, Fixx, U2, and an old Stones track. One of the themes of this year's meeting is that kind of "quality rock," and quality means returning to imagination to get back to using imagination again. AORs are so standardized and lacking in style. From market to market they all sound the same. If anything, we've got to get back to sounding more like we did in 1972 than 1979. R&R: Some people feel consultants are responsible for the homogenization of AOR. LA: I don't think it's consultants, I think it's inside the radio stations. When you listened to WLUP/Chicago in 1979, they played a men standard list, but you knew it was "Dah Loop." There was an attitude on the air. Consultants provide the blueprints, and the PD is the interior decorator. A lot of these stations are like well-built houses with black walls and white tile. R&R: So you feel there's nothing structurally wrong with AOR? It's not a problem of the audience shifting to CHR. It's simply a matter of the rank-and-file programmers not being sharp enough. LA: Not trying hard enough is more like it. Some of these guys are smart, but are out-of-synch with today and living in the past. R&R: When you talk about stations that are out of synch, you're obviously including a few of your own clients. LA: Oh, I'm including all of them . . . AOR in general. R&R: Is it a problem, as a consultant, motivating PDs . . . giving them the spark? Are they responsive? LA: It's not resistance. I think it's an inferiority complex. They don't think they can be as great as they can. R&R: Were you upset that programmers may have misinterpreted your suggestion last year to play 80% new music? LA: No, really. The biggest problem was people think I was talking about the new music sound when I meant new releases. R&R: Why has modern rock's popularity waned since last year? LA: As far as being fashionable, the whole new wave movement is history. CHR has just destroyed it. In L.A., I heard KIIS playing the same old hits over and over. KROQ sounds like they're playing all B-sides. I think what new music stations should've done is evolve to become CHRs. Continued on Page 56 THE TUBES EXCLUSIVELY IN '84 IN CONCERT In 1983 In Concert brought you the national radio concert debuts of The Fixx, Quiet Riot, Fast Way, Berlin and INXS, plus outstanding performances by Joe Jackson, Men At Work, U2, Billy Idol, Huey Lewis, Stevie Ray Vaughan, Kansas, Judas Priest, Krokus . . . and the beat goes on. And in '84 The Tubes kick off another outstanding year of stellar IN CONCERT performances. IN CONCERT . . . SUPERSTAR CONCERTS . . . THE US FESTIVAL SATELLITE CONCERTS and SIMULCASTS from all over the world . . . when it comes to concerts, it's WESTWOOD ONE . . . and only! Phone: (213) 204-5000 Telex: 4720374 WESTWOOD ONE New York • Los Angeles • London ALCATRAZZ Round-The-Clock Rock Rock and roll that sounds great ANYTIME . . . and sells EVERYTIME you play it! 100,000 ALREADY SOLD! Thanks to great AOR stations like — WBCN KLAQ KZOK WKLS KLPX WTUE KMET WMMR WIQB KLBJ KYYS WHJY KKDJ KRQR KSHE WBAB WLVQ WTPA KZEW KWXL KMOD KRCK WYSP WRKI WQFM ... AND MORE! ALCATRAZZ "No Parole From Rock 'n' Roll" Including the Hot Track "Island In The Sun" "Home Of The Artists" Album XR22016 Cassette XRC22016 Distributed by MCA Distr. Corp. SEGUES KSMB/Lafayette is no longer consulted by Burkhardt/Abrams/Michaelis/Douglas. KBBK/Boise, ID is not going AOR, as previously reported, but remains CHR, with Les Sarnoff coming aboard as Operations Manager. Now that Randi St. John has departed WZEW/Mobile for airwork at WAPP/New York, OM Steve Anthony also wears the PD and MD hats. Rick Busser steps up to MD at WPDH/Poughkeepsie. Don W. Hallett adds MD responsibilities to his duties as midday jock, Promotions Director, and Production Director at WEZ/Scranton. Promoter Steve Leeds has regained his independence and is once again a S.L.L.C. operator. He can be reached at (212) 765-2600. Former WSOC/Chinnacl FD Mike McConnell is doing airwork at WEMM/Miami. Steve Knolls from WYFE/Fort Worth is now on middays at KKC/Kansas City, replacing Jane Logan, who leaves for marital bliss. WRXT/Buffalo adds Tim Rose from WMJ/Rochester to mornings, and Randi Naughton from WBUF/Buffalo to overnights. Add ex-WMJ/Rochester MD Kevin Malvey to the crew that Alan Lawson is assembling at WTRT/Baltimore. Mr. Bill (Wesco) exits mornings at KQRS/Minneapolis. Pierre Robert is upped to middays from overnights at WMMR/Philadelphia. John Amberg moves from evenings to middays at WWCT/Peoria, where Rich Halberg is handling evenings. Cathi Paige exits as Promotions Director at KROR/San Francisco. Dick Upson is the new Promotions Director at WHJV/Providence. Buzzard buzzes: WMMSC/Cleveland ups Rhonda Kiefer from Programming Assistant to Program Coordinator, and hires Gina Iorillo as Programming and Promotion Assistant. Swing shifters: Scott Loftus to WMET/Chicago, and Dan Krulewitch to KTCA/Wor Collins, where Lisa Sidor has been appointed Assistant MD. Quality Time With Lee Abrams Continued from Page 54 R&R: What promotions are worth getting excited about these days? LA: I like the big events, those universal things that everybody goes to: fireworks, chili cook-offs, audio/video fairs. There’s also the great AOR promotions from the mid-’70s that PDs and consultants got tired of, but still work, like the appreciation parties, rock polls, rock awards presentations. R&R: A number of stations that adhere to the callout credo had down showings in the fall sweep. You’ve never been a big believer in passive research. Feel vindicated? LA: Callout is fine, people just take it way too seriously. I think the hack part of R&R is better to pick current than callout is. My big fear is that callout has bred a lot of program directors who don’t have a lot of sensitivity to the music. If you can’t hear quality, you should go work for Hertz. Next week: We’ll begin to take a look at some of the AOR success stories in the fall ’83 book, including stations that vanquished their CHR competitors. UPDATE • WGRQ/Buffalo’s Snortin’ Norton ended his ten-day marathon broadcast when the Police consented to add a Buffalo date to the tour, February 22. Meanwhile, a Police state has been declared in Cincinnati, where WEBN just copped all 16,000 tickets to the band’s area appearance. “EBN got the head of the local police union to make the announcement that the station is selling the seats by mail under Crossroads rival WSKS, rather than letting the concert is running promos saying they’ll be arranging to get listeners some of the best seats in the house. WSKS calls itself ‘the station that didn’t buy all the tickets to the Police show.’ Stay tuned for more fun and games. • WYSP/Philadelphia is calling itself “Rock Hits . . . 94 YSP” on the air. No major changes reported in the music mix. • WMMSC/Cleveland and KROQ-FM/Pasadena shared 1st place honors as the country’s top rock stations in Rolling Stone magazine’s readers’ poll. This is the fifth year in a row the WMMSC Buzzard has perched atop the heap. • KMEL/San Francisco’s morning prankster, Steven Capen, pulled a Capek caper during an extremely remote broadcast of his first-ever skydive. On another occasion, he was heard gleefully jumping from an airplane, followed by static and an ominous silence. Don’t send flowers or your tape and resume, though – the whole thing was a hoax, taped in advance on a small plane with an instructor. GM Rick Lee got involved with the schtick, delivering an on-air tongue-lashing to Capen. The whole number netted newswire coverage, as well as phone calls from listeners concerned about Capen’s life and/or job-security. • Given the fierce competition between broadcast networks, it’s almost heartwarming to learn of a cooperative venture between two rival owned-and-operated properties in San Francisco. CBS O&O KRQR is simulcasting the audio of a weekly music video show that airs on the ABC O&O TV station in town, KGO. Making the situation all the more unique is that KRQR’s evening jock, Steve Garland, who hosts and co-produces the show, presumably draws paychecks from both webs. • WMMR/Philadelphia’s “Flight 90125” sends 83 listeners to an early date on the Yes tour aboard a “DC 933,” tying in the station’s frequency. KLOS/Los Angeles pulled some strings to give away a couple of special guitars recently – an autographed Fender Stratocaster that Jimmy Page played on the AIDS benefit shows, and a limited edition custom Kramer designed for Eddie Van Halen and autographed by all four members of Van Halen. • Huey Lewis & The News were the hosts at a WNEW-FM/New York bowling party to benefit the Special Olympics. WYSP/Philadelphia treated a pair of listeners to “Motley Lunch With Merly & The Cru,” meaning a meal with members of Motley Cru and Pam Merly, who hosts the station’s Metal Shop feature. KRCK/Portland raised over $2000 for United Cerebral Palsy with a benefit show featuring five local bands who donated their time for the cause. WEZK/Scranton auctioned off a Cabbage Patch Doll on the air, raising $500 for a local charity. Congratulations to Marty Schwartz of Carroll, Schwartz, & Groves on his engagement to Sherri Maslen with wedding plans for this April. WJRT/Chicago morning host Terri Hemmer had her ten-year anniversary at the station marked by a surprise “This Is Your Life” segment on her show, Friends, colleagues, and family taped special messages for the occasion. KGGO/Des Moines is now on a 1000-foot tower, thereby doubling its coverage area to 100 miles. Watching The Wheels Of Automation There seemed a time when automation was suitable for background music formats, and not much else. But new technologies have added flexibility and reliability to modern systems, making it accessible to other formats. This week, R&R's Ron Rodrigues looks at three stations successfully meshing automation with A/C. Technology Explained Give credit to the computer for bringing automation into radio's modern age. Instead of following a fixed order of events hour-after-hour, microprocessors can make selections based on need at any time. Many of the computers can be programmed up to a week in advance; they can pinpoint malfunctions, automatically generate program logs, and even be operated via phone line from the PD's home! Other parts such as mechanical relays have been replaced by semiconductors. High-quality cart machines are frequently used today, which allow for full random-access of music, instead of a pre-determined mix that's used on reels. Automation has come such a long way that the stations we spoke with are using the machinery primarily to improve air sound and productivity — not necessarily to save cash. KEZR/San Jose VP/GM John Levitt says such equipment is not cheap. "Our Cetec 7000 system cost us $95,000, and that was several years ago. Considering the way we use automation, it doesn't save us that much money. In fact, our programming budget is as big as anybody else's in town. We use the system for productivity, control, and efficiency. While the music is playing, our people can be doing other work such as production or music research. As a result, we save 80 to 100 man-hours of labor weekly." WOWV/Ft. Pierce, FL PD Bill James says automation is a convenient way to be selective with air talent. "It's common to cut the quality of announcers just to save a few dollars, especially for the non-prime shifts. But with automation, we can hire two or three top individuals, pay them a higher salary, and end up with a good, consistent sound 24 hours a day." In fact, that "consistent sound" is what all the programmers stressed as automation's greatest advantage. KTMM/Medford, OR GM Dave Brower considers it a great way to cut down on five mistakes. "The main advantage from the announcer standpoint is reducing burnout. Our people can do a live-assist show for up to seven hours and not have the fatigue factor they would have on a four-hour live shift. Now that they have the luxury of having more time thinking about what they're going to say on the air, our people are more creative. Burnout is less of an issue. Continued, "It gives me better control as a programmer since all pre-recorded material is run through the computer. I've eliminated the possibility of the announcer playing the wrong record." How It's Done Here's how a typical automated set-up works. KEZR OM Danny Lemos explained, "All shows are pre-recorded except in morning drive, which is live-assist. A computer print-out instructs the jock which songs and commercials to play. One tough thing to predict is a timeclock, so he might actually say, 'It's about 3 o'clock,' or whatever." Lemos contends the most difficult task with automation is to give the show the "feel" of being live. "You have to have good talent to handle pre-recorded segments," he said. "It's a real challenge to sound spontaneous when you're totally on tape. It takes plenty of talent to blend your personality into the format, then to match voice with the flow of the music. They have to know their intros and outros. New air people require several weeks of practice to get into the groove of things." But Do They Like It? What were the personalities' initial attitudes towards the automation? "Not so hot," says Bill James. "There was a lot of negativity about it when I first encountered the staff. A lot of them didn't believe that automation could sound good." But after several years of smooth sailing, Bill says his staff has warmed to the new technology. Danny Lemos points out that his crew feels almost emotional towards automation. "Our jocks like it. If you can get your six-hour shift out of the way in 40 minutes, and keep the energy level constant throughout, you're going to be happy. They miss live radio as anyone probably would, but when they're out of here on Friday afternoon knowing they don't have to return until Monday, I know there's no way they'd give that up." Things To Watch For What are some of the things you will want to be concerned about when acquiring a system? John Levitt cautioned buyers that going on-line would take time. "I suggest that every system be tested, and work the system in parallel with the live format for a month. Hook the automation up to a little speaker in the PD's office and have him listen to the bugs." Bill suggests getting someone to learn your system intimately. "You'll need to hire a person who will spend the time to learn it completely and make it work within the requirements of your format. I know it's a rare commodity, but you need someone who has a command of not just the machinery, but with radio formatics as well. The broadcasters agreed that having a quick way to go live is necessary in emergencies. They advise having playback machines ready if your music is on cart, or have a supply of emergency records with the turntables to play them on. Also make sure your news network is hooked into the emergency board. And above all, they say, have a pool of people ready to go on the air in case you have to go live. Determining The Need Is automation right for everybody? Bill said that outside of a full-service station, it can probably work for any type of A/C outlet. "You can do just about anything you want with automation. You can make it sound as live or as carted as you want it to. Most syndicated music tapes are done unannounced, and may be heard locally. Our people on tape are the same type of personalities that any live station would have. They are promoted here on the air, on television, and they work plenty of street promotions." John Levitt says, "You can't view it as a money-saver, as much as a tool for sounding better. Depending on your format, you can sound live and consistent. There's plenty of control along with a high quality factor. I view it like a computer. It may not save you time, but it will make you smarter and work better." A REVIEW OF ROTATIONS The Hows And Whys Of Playlist Turnover Since R&R Country began its rotation reporting system a few weeks back there has been quite a bit of discussion revolving around rotations. With the talk ranging from presentations of mathematical formulas that would puzzle Copernicus to "what the hell are rotations?" — this seemed like a good time to discuss the basics behind record rotations. Put quite simply, some records deserve to be played more frequently than others, and having records in various rotational patterns can help move toward that end. More philosophically, for your audience there is no reality — only the perception of reality; and that perception is one you are responsible for creating. If you are doing it right, you can play a couple of hundred records and make them sound like a thousand. If your rotations aren't properly set up, you can play a thousand titles but sound like you're playing the same song a hundred. What counts is not what you are doing, but what it sounds like you are doing. Because the needs served by rotations vary from market to market, no one rotational system will work everywhere. Jeff Goodridge, PD of WNYR/Rochester, and Dugg Collins, PD of KMML/Amarillo, are obviously in very different situations. Dugg may not have the research budget Jeff has, but Jeff might not be able to get as "close" to the people of his market as Dugg can. Jeff, being part of Marite, also has the benefit of research garnered by other Country stations in the chain. Both stations have different listening time spent listening, and turnover patterns, all of which contribute to the rotations set up at each station. This week, these two programmers discuss the hows and whys of their rotational systems. Dugg Collins, PD KMML/Amarillo "We have a total playlist of about 57 records. Currently, we have nine records in our power category, which gives us a 4½-hour rotation. Our medium rotation records come up every six to seven hours and our records in light rotation come up every ten hours or so. We have a primary gold category with records from 1980 to the present which rotate every four days and an old gold section which rotates every seven days." Dugg told me that the station is changing its sound a bit in the near future, and to do that he will alter the rotations slightly. "We are in the process of upping the number of records in our power rotation to 15. At the same time, we will increase the number of powers played per hour from two to three. By changing in this way, we will get a more current and up-to-date sound." Obviously, it is not enough to know just which songs to play. You must also know when to move them up in airplay and when to back off a record that is starting to burn. It would really be nice if everybody had a huge budget for all kinds of research to help in those decisions, but such is not always the case. Dugg told me that he does no call-out research, but depends on as much feedback as he can get coupled with his radio experience to make rotational determinations. "I talk to the jocks on a regular basis," he began. "They are my link to the audience through the request lines, and I constantly ask them why they are picking up on the program. We do call record requests on a handle on what is selling. Also, I'm a musician and when in clubs I keep my ears open to hear what people are playing on the jukeboxes. I also try to be sensitive to what is being played on stations that get into my market from other cities. I take all of these factors into consideration and come up with a gut-level decision as to what the station should be in what rotation. Of course, it really helps that I have been here a long time and have been able to develop a real feel for the market." Factors To Consider Other factors one must consider when determining rotations are time spent listening and turnover — variables affected by market size. As Dugg says, "It doesn't take much more than ten minutes to go between any two points on a jingle. We depend on people listening in their home or at work for long periods of time." Because people listen longer — whether because they love the station or have fewer alternatives, Country or not — Dugg has found it necessary to have all categories rotate more slowly than sometimes the short time spent listening spans and high turnover rates. "This is not to say that you play anything other than the hits, even with slower rotations, but that you may dig a bit deeper and have longer lists for both oldies and currents. Feedback is an important factor as you try to determine what you should rotate records. It is a constant fine-tuning process, Dugg told me. "We had a bunch of focus groups where repeatedly we heard the comment from participants that our station played the same songs over and over. To change that perception we lengthened the amount of time between plays for any one particular song by just a bit. You can do that by either increasing the number of titles in a category or by decreasing the number of times per hour the category comes up. Either way you will be slowing down each record in any given category. Jeff Goodridge, PD WNYR/Rochester "We basically have three rotations, with sub-rotations in each category. We have what you might label A1, A2, B1, B2, C1, and C2. The heavy A's come around every four hours and 40 minutes, the medium B's rotate about every five hours, and the light C's come around every seven or so hours. We also have a light category for our A,B, and C designations and these rotate on the average of every five hours. In other words, the A1's come every three hours and forty minutes, and the A2's come around every five hours. Our recurrents are on about a seven and a half to eight-hour rotation and our power golds come up every 30 hours or so. We have two oldie categories: one comes up every three and three-quarter days and the other comes up about every 11 days." Like Dugg, Jeff depends on feedback from a variety of sources to move records among rotations, but he points out one needs to be wary of numbered charts, whether in trade papers or from other stations. "A number one record on the chart is not necessarily in heavy rotation. A record is usually propelled to the top of the charts by being in good rotations along the way and may be to the point of burnout when it shows up number one on your local chart. So, numbers do not necessarily reflect rotations." (Which is precisely why R&R Country has switched to the rotation reporting system — so we can report airplay more accurately. Now, when a record is number one on our chart, it is, without question, the record receiving the most airplay in that week.) Being in a market where people have more radio stations to choose from, as well as a market where Country is not as strong as it might be in Amarillo, the time spent listening is shorter and the turnover rate is higher for Jeff than for Dugg. "That is exactly why we have actually less than four-hour rotation on our top ten records," said Jeff. "We also have relatively fast rotations because we are an AM station with not as good a chance to cop the time spent listening spans many FMs enjoy. AM listening is now less than 30% in this market and we need to make sure the favorites are always coming up. We generally use the extremes of a two-and-a-half-hour rotation CHRs use to attract teens and young adults. That is just too fast for adults and we have found three hours and forty minutes to be suitable for the demographic we are after — providing that we change the songs enough to keep it fresh." Changing Rotations "Another point about rotations is that one shouldn't be locked into doing them on an every-seven-day basis like a numbered chart. I may feel comfortable with the rotations I set on a Monday, but by Thursday, if I have feedback showing the record is burning out, I change the rotation. It would be ridiculous to wait until the next Monday to..." Volunteer Jam Goes International The Charlie Daniels Band's Volunteer Jam X will be the centerpiece of an unprecedented live broadcast over the Voice of America (VOA) February 4. Volunteer Jam X will be available to VOA's 42 language services, thanks to special funding from the Jam's sponsor Skoal. It will be supplemented with live interviews conducted by seven multilingual VOA correspondents. "Every week all around the world," said CDB manager Joe Sullivan, "more than 100 million people listen to the Voice of America. We are thrilled to have the opportunity to share this unique cultural event with an international audience and we're grateful to Skoal and Voice of America for making it possible." In addition, tapings and recordings will replay the Jam throughout the year. For instance, Sound Severity Productions and Dick Clark Productions will produce a taped two-hour syndicated television special. And the event will be recorded for a possible double album set under the supervision of producer John Boylan and engineer Paul Grupp for Epic Records. . . . And there will be tapings for one or more radio specials planned for later in the year. And the concert will again be broadcast live over the Volunteer Jam Radio Network, which includes Nashville stations KX104 and WRVU (91 Rock), WZXR/Memphis, WSKZ/Chattanooga, WIMZ/Knoxville, and WBGY/Tullahoma, TN. Oaks For Opryland Opryland's 1984 advertising campaign will make use of the Oak Ridge Boys' tight harmonies. The Oaks seldom record jingles, but they've just recorded a very upbeat version of the Opryland's January release jingle for 1984 and as the audio on some of its television commercials. Oak Ridge Boys: Blowing up Opryland The jingle was coproduced by Ron Chancey and Billy Atair, and will begin airing in mid-March in anticipation of the park's March 31 opening for the 1984 season. Two of country music's superstars, Barbara Mandrell and T.G. Sheppard, will be together for three hours of music and interviews that chronicle their recording careers. The Mutual Broadcasting System will multicast the special in stereo by satellite on February 4-5, 1984. WHN's midday air personality Lee Arnold will host the show. Lee Greenwood Sings For A Ticket Lee Greenwood recently sang the National Anthem a cappella at the Met Center in Bloomington, MN. Apparently, the night before his engagement at the Carlton Theater, he decided to catch the North Stars vs. Minnesota North Stars game. He arrived at the center initiated a request for him to sing. His performance earned him a ticket for one of the best seats in the house — the box of North Stars' general manager Lou Manne. The following night the North Stars and their management caught Lee's show at the Carlton. Question — What did they do to get their tickets? Bits & Pieces: Tom T. Hall, himself a singer/writer of tales with and without music, will be writing about how other singer/songwriters take lyrics and turn a tale with them. He plans an interview Merle Haggard, Loretta Lynn, Mickey Newbury, and possibly Kris Kristofferson. The article will appear in a future edition of the Saturday Evening Post. Lloyd Maines will be featured playing steel on Joe Ely's next album for MCA. . . . While Gus Hardin was in town taping "Nashville Now" for a story from US magazine, he rendezvoused with her in Nashville, then went on-the-road to Terre Haute, IN for a Gus Hardin/Hank Williams Jr. date. All this in preparation for a feature on Gus to appear in US in March, the same month her new LP "Falling Angel" is scheduled for release. Kenny Rogers recently did a Long Beach, CA concert in conjunction with the Food Bank. Kenny asked everyone attending the concert to bring canned goods, which were collected and distributed to 90 agencies. . . . Noble Vision Records just announced its first artist signing. You may know Jim Glaser. Now the label will also put its energies behind Tony Arata, who penned three of the songs on Glase's "The Man In The Mirror" LP. . . . Just thought you'd like to know! Have You Heard? As mentioned here last week, the Portland Country battle will soon become a free-for-all, as three more stations switch to Country in the coming weeks. Joining KWJJ on AM and KJUB on the free will be KUPL-AM on FM — with new calls to be announced soon — and KKCC. The mass migration of Country air talent headed in the direction of KKCC has already started, with KKCC using KKS/C/Golden Gate's likes of farm club, leaving the openings for KKCC are moving from KUPL (also KKCS MD) and Dave Hewitt and personality Monica Marshall, who will do evenings in Portland. The very latest word on the street has KKCC changing formats to AC, before it even signs on! This is definitely a battle to watch. Filling some of the gaps at KKCS, Dave Hewitt adds 800 watts while retaining his evening airshift and Frank Martinez joins the station for overnights from crosstown KRTS. Get-well wishes to Herb Allen, OM/ID of WFMS/Indianapolis, who suffered a heart attack January 13. Send your "get-well" to Herb care of WFMS, 6121 Krueger Rd., Indianapolis, IN 46250. KQIL/Good Junction welcomes back former staffers, as Bob Gass returns from a two-year absence to do middays and Paula Massa returns as newsperson from a TV station in that city. Steve Golden has left the midday show at KQIL to become Creative Director at KRMG/Tucson. . . . WSOC/Charlotte MD and afternoon personality Edd Robinson is the host of a new TV show which features country videos. The show is called "Music Country" on WBT and airs on WKCS-TV. . . . Dave Tyler Yarkas joins WIWMT/Lima, OH for afternoons. Some changes at WXK-AM & FM/Detroit as Burchart exits. Hank O'Neill, AM driver on FM, moves to PMs on AM while Bill Mack continues in WNO/Pontiac. . . . AMs on 107.1 FM. Got that? WXK-AM, which is CJBX/London, Canada, now has Michael Dee in the morning slot. Former morning man Dave Collins is now Promotion Manager and Community Relations Co-ordinator for the Canadian Country outlet. Brian Bennett, midday jock at KGHL/Billings, is now South Dakota Production Manager. Congrats to new R&R reporter KRKT/Idaho, OR as it celebrates its tenth anniversary this month. PD Phil Hunt is looking for a morning personality at WNOX/Knoxville. He says the station is heavy on personality and station involvement. If you sound good to you, send me your T&R ASAP. Also on the move, KSOS/Dallas is looking for part-time air talent. Contact Ed Leal at (817) 531-3656. . . . And don't forget to keep me posted on whatever it is that you may have heard! Station Roundup Before we get too far into the New Year, I thought it would be a good time to catch up on station activities across the country. I'd also like to thank everyone for their input and support during the past year and encourage you to continue sending in station news (staff and programming changes, promotions, photos). Next column, we'll look at the fall ratings winners. PROMOTING ON THE MAINLAND — Hawaiian entertainer and former "Hawaii Five-0" co-star Al Harrington (c) winged over to the mainland to promote his debut Christmas LP. While in town he dropped by KFPR/Los Angeles, where he was greeted by personality Gary Owens (l) and PD Chuck Scottcutt. Flow Skip Washner has rejoined the KFAC-AM & FM/Los Angeles airstaff, handling the midnight-1am slot six nights a week. KFAC's "man for all music" previously worked at the stations in 1971 and returned again, 1973-79. KPOP/San Diego's Don Howard recently celebrated his 35th year in broadcasting. Fred Hessler, another airwave veteran, has left KMP/C/Los Angeles after nearly 25 years; his spot-fillers there are now hosted by Joe Meyers. Big Band-formatted WCOL and CHR sister WXGT (92-X) of Columbus have signed a consultation agreement with Houston-based Shane Media Services. WMRE/Boston's Norm Nathan is one of the key participants in the "Salute to the Media Gala" scheduled for March 15. Presented by the Publicity Club of Boston, the event will honor the area's broadcast and print celebrities who have contributed to the Boston media scene. WNEW/New York will be awarded Broadcast Pioneers' 1984 Mike Award on the occasion of its 50th anniversary (February 13). The presentation will be made on February 8. WAIT/Chicago won a bronze medal for its "Touch A Memory" television spot at the 93rd International Film and TV Festival of New York. Programming Update WNCN/New York kicked off a new year of exclusive live performances with a 14-episode series recorded from the station's new Performance Studio. The station has also inaugurated "The Met Minute," brief vignettes about the history of the famous opera company. New affiliate signings include WLOR/Toledo and KEFM/Omaha with Schulke Radio Productions; WCSY-AM & FM/South Haven, MI and WGMD/Reno/Beach, DE with Kalahri Music. Promotions In Motion WBBG/Cleveland presented two special performances of "Stompin' at the Staller" on Christmas Day and New Year's Eve. The cast, pictured above, transports the audience back to 1943, complete with authentic music, dancing, and costumes. In addition, WBBG has debuted another musical review show, "Steppin' Out." A $1000 gift certificate took second place in a Cabbage Patch doll in a WJGS/Houghton Lake holiday giveaway. Making the announce the second prize began as a joke, but soon became reality when station officials discovered it was easier to arrange for the certificate than find the doll. KOSI/Denver held a monthlong "Decemberfest," which featured choral groups, bell ringers, folk dancers, carolers, and other performers in separate promotions. WGAY-AM & FM/Washington and WEZO/Rochester offered "Festival of Christmas Music" LPs, the sales of which benefitted local charities. WDAE/Tampa's "Real Music Petition Contest" netted three winners who won prizes totaling $18,600 for submitting the largest number of verified names; second prize went to a group of first through eleventh graders. D-C Study Targets 35-54 Drake-Chenault conducted a survey recently which served a twofold purpose: determining the musical taste of the 35-54 adult demo which, in turn, would assist the fine-tuning process for its "Hitparade" format. According to Sr. VP Danny Adkins, the research "reaffirmed that every song has to be judged on its individual merit today." Six cities were chosen, based on geographical balance — Fresno, CA; Los Angeles; St. Louis; Milwaukee; Philadelphia; and Tampa. The sample base of just over 1200 people selected "Light My Life" by Debbie Boone as the most popular song of the 900 tested. Songs which rated poorly ranged from the oldie "A Rockin' Good Way" by Dinah Washington and Brook Benton to the more current "You Never Done It Like That" by Captain & Tennille. There was also a great deal of fluctuation within an artist's repertoire; i.e., Murphy's "Look Of Love" was considerably higher than the same group's "All Out Of Love." Instrumentals tested well, while country crossovers like John Denver's "Take Me Home Country Roads" and Willie Nelson's "On The Road Again" showed strong top 100 standings. Adkins added that the firm plans to do similar studies for both the Contemporary and Country format offerings. Teaching As A Sideline Radio newspeople who have occasionally mulled over the question, "What else am I qualified to do?" might consider teaching community college courses. Schools offering adult education classes sometimes welcome parttime or one-shot instructors, including those without journalism degrees, if they have extensive on-the-job training and the ability to translate work experience into classroom instruction. Adult Education instructors often get to determine precisely what will be covered in their classes, and create their own course titles such as "Writing for Radio" or "News Writing for Broadcast." Part of the beauty of the sideline is its flexibility. The instructor may even make the determination of class hours and course length. You might structure a class for one or two evenings per week and schedule a total course time ranging from ten to 80 hours. Whatever you want! Adult evening classes are not structured to prepare students for fulltime jobs. The goal is familiarization rather than job training. Radio people who teach non-credit night courses are not motivated exclusively by the extra money, for salaries are almost uniformly minimal, perhaps as little as double the minimum wage. Teaching does add to a newscaster's resume. It can be a method of establishing community contacts and has the potential of yielding students who are interested in becoming unpaid interns at the instructor's radio station. There is a certain amount of prestige associated with teaching, as well as the satisfaction that comes from sharing some of the lessons that have resulted from professional experience. How to get started? Obtain a Course Proposal form from your local college and prepare a course outline suited to your own area of interest. If the college accepts your concept and course outline, your forthcoming class will be advertised along with those in basket-weaving and woodcarving and so on, and if students sign up, you're in business. As in radio, getting the first job is the hard part, and once that hurdle is cleared, the future is pleasantly unlimited. (Quick follow-up report. The Calendar column headlined "As The Earth Turns," last September 9th, noted the then-new NBC-TV network logo depicted Earth revolving backward. Watching "NBC News" during the first week in January, I observed they have reversed their globe's spin and now have it right. Fast work, men!) Largest Comic Book Collection MONDAY, JANUARY 30 — The Library of Congress, which had been burned by the British during the War of 1812, was reestablished on this date in 1815 with some 7000 books from the personal library of former President Thomas Jefferson. It is now the largest library, with 80 million items, including the world's most extensive collection of comic books. "Lone Ranger" radio premiere 1933. Gandhi assassinated in India 1948. Beatles played together last time 1969. Vanessa Redgrave 47. Gene Hackman 53. First American In Space TUESDAY, JANUARY 31 — The first living being to travel in an American spacecraft was Ham the chimpanzee, who took his 6-minute ride 23 years ago today in 1961. Ham was then sent to a zoo where he lived in retirement until his death last year. First U.S. satellite Explorer-1 1958. Tet Offensive Vietnam 1968. Harry Casey (KC) 33. Nolan Ryan 37. Suzanne Pleshette 47. James Franciscus 50. Ernie Banks 53. Jean Simmons 55. Carol Channing 61. Norman Mailer 61. February: Black History Month WEDNESDAY, FEBRUARY 1 — By Presidential proclamation this is Black History Month. Blacks sailed with Columbus in 1492, established Detroit in 1779, reached the North Pole in 1809. Inventions include the lasting machine for shoe-making, evaporator for refining sugar, subway third-rail system. Oxford English dictionary published 1884. First civil rights sit-in at Woolworth's whites-only lunch counter Greensboro, North Carolina, 1960. Ayatollah Khomeinei returned Iran from French exile 1979. Ray Sawyer 45. Don Everly 47. Stansfield Turner 61. Great Cardiff Giant Hoax THURSDAY, FEBRUARY 2 — After the "petrified body of a prehistoric human giant" was unearthed on a farm near Cardiff, New York late in 1869, it became America's most popular exhibit. But on this date in 1870, the 10-foot-tall Cardiff Giant was exposed as a hoax by two sculptors who revealed they had been paid by the exhibit promoter to carve the giant from stone. Mexico sold Texas, New Mexico, Arizona and California to the U.S. for $15 million, 1848. National Baseball League formed 1876. Bottle cap patented 1892. Groundhog Day. Farrah Fawcett 37. Graham Nash 42. Tommy Smothers 47. Jumbo The Elephant FRIDAY, FEBRUARY 3 — In one African language "jamba" is the word for elephant, and that's probably the origin of Jumbo, the name of the huge animal that promoter P.T. Barnum purchased on this date in 1881. After the 12-foot-tall, 6½-ton animal had been on tour a couple of years, the word "jumbo" became part of the American language, meaning huge or gigantic. Income Tax established 1913. FBI revealed Alcatraz 1980. Melanie 37. Bob Griese 39. Fran Tarkenton 44. James Michener 77. Tomorrow (2-4) Alice Cooper 36. Cheryl Miller 41. Sunday (2-5) Craig Morton 41, Roger Staubach 42, Hank Aaron 50. How Crossover Music Affects Black/Urban Ratings Strength In the fall '83 Arbitron, a number of top Black/Urban-formatted stations took it on the chin, specifically from CHR stations. Ironically, CHRs using black music played a significant role in the dethroning of leading Black/Urban stations throughout the country. With all the talk about CHR stations taking the ball, and doing it with our own music, I thought we'd go public about it to find out why and what can be done. J.C. Floyd, Sheridan Broadcasting's Group PD and Program Director of WAMO/Pittsburgh, rapped with us about this situation. Floyd, a 12-year industry veteran, has been programming WAMO for the past three years. Prior to that, he was PD at WIGO/Atlanta, served as MD at WDRQ/Detroit, and worked as a jock at WKBO/Harrisburg and WPEZ/Pittsburgh. J.C. started by giving some history to explain how CHR, AOR, and A/C-formatted stations are using more black music by black artists. "In the '70s, CHR stations didn't really play a lot of R&B music, as they had in the '60s. During the '70s, even AOR stations would play a little Stevie Wonder, but by the mid-'70s, we noticed the same stations did not touch a thing by black artists. We also observed CHR stations being very selective of any R&B talent, or should I say, Urban artists. If you really want to get down on it, CHR turned its back on black music and black artists entirely, with the exception of Earth, Wind, & Fire, Stevie Wonder, and George Benson. Only the superstars of the time got any airplay: other black artists were locked out, helplessly. The professional expression as received last year was, 'It's too black for us.' I'm still trying to understand that statement." Floyd continued, "In the early '80s, everyone wanted to know about the direction of Urban Contemporary radio. At that time, traditional CHR thinking was adhered to: no R&B music considered 'too black' was to be aired. At this point, anything for Urban-formatted stations surfaced. "In late '81, through '83, we saw Black/Urban stations go to the top of the ratings in the top 20 markets. If not ranked first, Urban stations were usually somewhere in the top five. I believe this basically dispelled the old stereotype notion that white folks don't like black music." Explaining that CHR's views about black artists and music have finally begun to open up, J.C. said, "What some in the industry call 'rap records,' with the funky backbeat, used to be associated with James Brown; in fact, it's what he always did. Not long ago, CHR stations wouldn't touch such a record. But when Blondie put one out ('Rapture'), it wasn't too distasteful, was it?" J.C. indicated that another reason CHR stations are embracing R&B is due to the variety of forms R&B takes these days. "Today, R&B records are being made by blacks and whites, and there are many different styles. George Clinton, Luther Vandross, Gloria Gaynor, Prince, today, Spandau Ballet, Musical Youth, and Prince are perfect examples because they all have different approaches. It's all R&B. Invariably, people that say Spandau Ballet and Culture Club are 'New Music.' Listen to the bass line and the melody — it's R&B" "Urban radio's success also helped get rid of narrow-minded thinking that blacks don't like white music by white artists. That kind of reasoning is archaic! Artists such as Michael McDonald, with his current duel with James Ingram, Hall & Oates, Spandau Ballet, Michael Franks, and Kenny G are just a few who've proved this theory invalid. This is the type of music that's 'in the pocket' when discussing crossover music." What Can We Do? Since Black/Urban radio has accepted the challenge and begun to compete with CHR, AOR, and A/C stations, what can Black/Urban stations do to stop the theft of their newly-acquired audience? Floyd's reply: "What I've learned from my research in Pittsburgh is when you're dealing with the white crossover listeners, they don't want to be reminded that they are listening to a black radio station. This is why more Black/Urban stations have begun giving a more general market approach to their presentation and overall sound. These stations are not limiting themselves to the black community or only black issues. I'm not suggesting we've stopped appealing to the black community, but our concept just hasn't been in the forefront." Floyd cautioned Black/Urban programmers, "In addition to Arbitron's lack of concentration of measuring blacks, understand clearly CHR radio has realized that to enjoy any degree of success, it's easier to steal the white folks back from the Urbans as opposed to battling it out with the AORs." J.C. warned, "There isn't a simple way to combat white listener erosion. The keys are presentation, promotions, and particularly music rotations. We must be very cognizant that we can't rotate too many things too quickly. If we do, they'll burn out before they fulfill their use to our format. Through my research, I've started to realize that every one to five months, over and over and dead for me, the CHRs are just starting to pump them in heavy rotation. Familiarity is a very big thing to the CHR listeners' psyche. These people will hear a song today and won't like it, but next month they'll love it. So an area we must tighten up on is rotating the music properly so we don't burn out our best songs too soon!" Our Most Effective Weapon When asked about what role oldies have in the Black/Urban Contemporary format, J.C. responded, "Black oldies are extremely important — probably the most important ingredient along with the current music you select. Once again, the word 'familiarity' must take its rightful place if one is to be successful with the masses. Recurrents always take an important role in the overall musical approach of any station. In fact, there are five other stations here who could be playing the same record at any given time, which means to me, we'd better use the songs we've always had available to us — namely the Black oldies." J.C. concluded, "As I mentioned earlier, for some reason, typical CHR listeners would rather hear a white announcer (or their favorite CHR station) playing a black record they enjoy than having to listen to it on a black station. We don't want to alienate those Caucasians who like our approach to the music and the format, but what we must do all the things necessary to maintain our black base, we have to offer a top-notch presentation that no other station can equal!" SUPER SOUL WEEK! Capitol's Triple BREAK-AWAY Threat: Leading Gainer: TINA TURNER "LET'S STAY TOGETHER" Black Radio BREAKER • Black Radio No. 1 Most Added Across-the-field smash! Watch for Tina Turner on MTV Best Catch: MELBA MOORE "LIVIN' FOR YOUR LOVE" Black Radio BREAKER The second hit single from Never Say Never! Best Special Team Coverage: PEABO BRYSON/ROBERTA FLACK "You're Lookin' Like Love to Me" Black Radio BREAKER • Billboard A/C Chart: #25* More silk-laden soul from the smoothest duo in R&B! Best Pass: GEORGE CLINTON "LAST DANCE" The newest groove-wave from the Nubian Nut! Featured on You Shouldn't-Nuf Bit, Fish. Capitol Current & Classic Airchecks! Current Issue #64 features KFRC-Dave Hall, KIIS/Big Ron O'Brien, KFI/Lohman & Barkley, Mighty 690/Jim Law, KCJF/Gary O'Neil, the KYA-AM to KOIT-AM changeover and the Golden West to King Broadcasting changeover of KSFO, KRLA/Dave Hull, and WMET/Terry Evans. 90-minute cassette, $5.50. Cassette #64. Classic Issue #C-39 features Denver-1974 with KMM/Scott Kenyon, KTLK/Big Ron O'Brien & KLZ-FM/Max Floyd, plus KRRD/Huggy Boy-1966, 10Q/Jack Armstrong-1978, KFDJ/Jay Steenbergen, KIIS/Baby Love-1972, KGB/Michael Sparks, KFI/Lohman & Barkley-1978, and CKLW/Bob Savage-1973. Cassette, $10.50. Special Issue #S-26 features Dallas-Ft. Worth! A/C's KVIL, KMGG & KLVI, Oldies KAAM & KROX, CHR KAFM, AOR's KEGL, KZEW & KTQX, Urban KKDA & KNOK, 90-min cassette, $5.50. VIDEO AIRCHECK #1 is still available. Specify either VHS or BETA, $39.95. Write or call for subscription info. CALIFORNIA AIRCHECKS Box 4408 — San Diego, CA 92104 Gem Enterprises Service For Qualified Radio Personnel (Remit $10.00 for complete information) Deductible 3235 Royal Oaks Drive Visalia, Tulare County, California 93277 Radio Stations (209) 733-4667 MIDWEST Aircheck Morning Maniacs! WFYR-Capin Ken Cooper/WGC-Bob Wall WLUP-Jonathan Brandmeier/B95-Dick Blondi WLS-Larry Lujack/O101-Robert Murphy Send $7.00 for this 90 min. Cassette Midwest Aircheck, Box 221-H, Romeoville, IL 60441 SEXY SOAP OPERA FOR RADIO Daily one-minute drama on tape. A sophisticated daily drama of love and conflict between the sexes. BILLBOARD calls it a one-minute soap opera "fix." PARTY LINE - All the action takes place in daily one-minute episodes. Call for free demo; FULLER (312) 579-9578 ELECTRIC WEENIE RADIOS MOST RESPECTED DJ GAG SHEET SINCE 1970 Dave Schnecker, CHYM . . ."I became a Weenie for two reasons: 1. The money. 2. The PRESSES out of clients you name." FOR FREE SAMPLES WRITE The Electric Weenie, P.O. Box 25-866 Honolulu, Hawaii 96825 (808) 395-9600 MARKETPLACE ADVERTISING Payable in advance. Orders must be typewritten and accompanied by check. One-inch minimum; additional space up to six inches available in increments of one-inch. Rates for R&R Marketplace (per inch): \| Per Insertion \| \|---------------\| \| 1 Time \| $50.00 \| \| 6 Insertions \| $45.00 \| \| 13 Insertions \| $40.00 \| \| 26 Insertions \| $35.00 \| Volume Rates Available Additional $10.00 per week charge for Blind Box ads. Will include logo or other line art on ads of two inches or more if camera-ready art provided. Deadline for Marketplace ads is Friday noon, two weeks in advance of publication date. Marketplace ads are non-commissionable. Submit to: Marketplace RADIO & RECORDS 1930 Century Park West Los Angeles, Calif. 90067 (213) 553-4330 INFO - BITS FOR MODERN RADIO TALENTS, THERE'S NEVER BEEN A SHEET LIKE IT, AT LAST A SERVICE FOR THE 1980'S! FREE SAMPLE: INFO-BITS,%KFMb, SAN DIEGO, CA 92130. GREAT SHOWS EVERYDAY!! Because you're more than a comic ... you need more than a joke sheet ONE TO ONE The Journal Of Creative Broadcasting Trial month (4 weekly issues) $10 (refundable with your first yearly subscription) Send to: CreeRadio Services, P.O. Box 9787, Fresno, CA 93794, (209) 226-0558 "Phantastic Phunnies" Highly Respected! Hilarious! Original! Proven worldwide audience builder! "Quick-quip, Topical Humor!! Introductory month's 500 topical one-liners and BONUS! Just $2.00!! Phantastic Phunnies, 1343-A Stratford Drive, Kent, Ohio 44240 Unprecedented Free Offer! DIAL LOX, Radio's complete show prep service is looking for 100 new subscribers. We feel you will try us you'll love us. That's why we're offering a FREE 3 month subscription to the first 100 personalities who send us proof that they currently subscribe to our show prep service. Send request on station letterhead along with a copy of a cancelled check, money order, credit card receipt or other proof to verify the services) you already buy. We will honor responses to this ad up through January 10, 1984.* Offer valid for new customers only! DIAL LOG HUMOR, CONVERSATION, CALLS, CALENDAR & MORE. 5727 Ireland Dr., Richmond, VA 23228 America's #1 Humor Service for All-Personalities. Terry Marshall's daily insider • Entertainment News For Radio • Call for a free trial subscription (415) 564-5800 Columbia School of Broadcasting FREE PLACEMENT SERVICE Takes the Headache out of Hiring . . . • Qualified pre-screened graduates trained as DJ's, Account Executives, Writers, Engineers • Trained beginners • Experienced Pros • Offers Free Resume Call me, Michele M. Becker, Job Placement Director (213) 469-8321 COLUMBIA SCHOOL OF BROADCASTING (not affiliated with CBS, Inc.) 6290 Sunset Blvd., Hollywood, CA 90078 A computer assisted music rotation and filing system. Hardware included under $1,300! ... and it works! RADIO PERSONNEL NEEDED The locals are out, the holidays are over, and radio stations from all over the United States are placing job orders with NATIONAL. To help fill these positions we need announcers, news people, programmers and sales people. If you are ready for a move, don't delay. NOW is the time. NATIONAL places from coast-to-coast. For complete details including brochure and registration form send us $2.00 postage and handling to: NATIONAL BROADCAST TALENT COORDINATORS Dept. R, P.O. Box 20551, Birmingham, AL 35218 ACT NOW! (205) 822-9144 Opportunities Openings EAST BLURQ seeks T&R for its new fulltime opening. State of the art equipment. Brian Phoenix, 583 Warren Ave., Portland, ME 04103. EOE M/F (1-27) TOP 50 MARKET CHR Seeks enthusiastic, outgoing personality. Humor and creativity within a tight format. Top bucks, a great place to live and work. Send tape and resume to: Radio & Records, 1930 Century Park West, #610, Los Angeles, CA 90067. YOUR GOLDEN OPPORTUNITY Top 10 broadcast company seeking professional/technical talent for top 10 position. Need to match. Company encourages man to use other personalities to communicate one-on-one with masses. Creativity and the ability to work phones a must. Even if you're presently looking, send in your self-tape or a tape and resume in the mail. All replies strictly confidential. Send to: Radio & Records, 1930 Century Park West, #616, Los Angeles, CA 90067. CHR POWERHOUSE Has rare opening for exciting personality. Great pay and benefits. Tape & resume to: Radio & Records, 1930 Century Park West, #611, Los Angeles, CA 90067. SOUTH WCMT/AM 14 Country has immediate opening for PROMO/Drive. Seeking experienced mature adult. Good salary & benefits. T&R Paul Tinkis, Box 318, Martin, TN 38237. EOE M/F (1-27) MIDWEST PD & morning man for adult-oriented WCOL-AM. T&R Shane Media Services, 7703 Windrush Ln., Houston, TX 77063. EOE M/F (1-27) WNOX is looking for a nighttime Country communicator Females encouraged. T&R 4400 Whitepine Springs Rd., Knoxville, TN 37918. EOE M/F (1-27) Madison market full-service A/C AM has an opening for a fulltime Account Executive. Resume: Box 7, Huntsville, AL 35804. No calls. EOE M/F (1-27) Immediate opening for bright, dynamic CHR announcer with good production skills. T&R Chris KDG-FM, Box 7488, Amarillo, TX 79114. EOE M/F (1-27) KLZB — San Antonio's dominant AOR FM station. Program Manager. Send T&R resume and program philosophy to: Gary Burns & Associates, P.O. Box 40013, San Antonio, TX 78229 AGGRESSIVE MEDIUM MARKET A/C STATION In Midwest is looking for morning and afternoons drive. Pay between $250-$400, depending on questions. Send qualifications and resume to: Radio & Records, 1930 Century Park West, #614, Los Angeles, CA 90067. EOE M/F Announcer/production, regional FM 100wth A/C. Females encouraged. T&R Jim Lien, WBWA/B106, Box 207, Weehawn, WI 54891. (715) 373-5161. EOE M/F (1-27) Radio news anchor. News broadcasting/reporting experience. Strong production skills. T&R: WING/WJAI, Box 2346, Kettering, OH. EOE M/F (1-27) Ohio A/C needs morning man. 817x to start: (419) 468-4664. EOE M/F (1-27) AGGRESSIVE MEDIUM MARKET A/C STATION In Midwest is looking for morning and afternoons drive. Pay between $250-$400, depending on questions. Send qualifications and resume to: Radio & Records, 1930 Century Park West, #614, Los Angeles, CA 90067. EOE M/F Announcer/production, regional FM WBWA/B106 100wth A/C. Females encouraged. T&R Jim Lien, Box 207, Weehawn, WI 54891. (715) 373-5161. EOE M/F (1-27) Part-time air personality needed. Contact Rob Shannon, WHBY, (414) 733-6639. Appleton, WI. EOE M/F (1-20) KOFM 104 KOFM, Oklahoma City is looking for top talent. Tapes and resumes accepted now. Send to John Jenkins, P.O. Box 14806, Oklahoma City, OK 73113. MORNING DRIVE Leading Midwest major market Adult Contemporary seeking bright, entertaining morning personality with warmth and reliability. Send tape and resume to: Radio & Records, 1930 Century Park West, #617, Los Angeles, CA 90067. EOE Announcer/production, regional FM 100wth A/C. Females encouraged. T&R Bruce Buchanan, PO. 8401 Date Point, San Antonio, TX 78229. EOE M/F (1-27) WQLT-FM 100wth A/C drive possible promotions. T&R: Jim Lien, Pepper, Box 932, Florence, AL 36563. (315) 784-8121. EOE M/F (1-27) Nashville area, KY 100wth CHR FM. Future openings, all dayparts. No beginners. T&R: Buddy Matthews, WAQK, Box 110, Russellville, KY 42276. No calls. EOE M/F (1-27) Openings CHIEF ENGINEER for major Pittsburgh FM station. Must have knowledge of FM broadcast equipment, state-of-the-art studio, FCC Rules, regulations & valley Class radio telephone license. General Class operating permit. Apply to Steve Kinnaman, WBZZ-FM 1715 Grandview Ave. Pittsburgh, PA 15211 (412) 381-6100 EOE Employer KARN/Little Rock now accepting T&R for future talk show openings. Call Chuck Martin, (501) 661-7850. EOE M/F (1-27) WQXRAI/WLWQ(Covington) has immediate opening for someone who eats, drives, sleeps local news. Ruth & Kris Kelly, Box 200, Jacksontown, NC 28941. EOE M/F (1-27) If you can deliver the issues & have fun, then hit my T&R desk! T&R Jeff Angel, WJLA-TV, Ardmore, OK 73840. (405) 226-5367. EOE M/F (1-27) A/C in NE Texas needs morning man/producer director. T&R Bucky Albright, KIKT, Box 1015, Greenville, TX 75401. EOE M/F (1-20) Seeking T&R's for future openings. Contact Kris O'Keefe, PD, WQJ-EFM, 1440 Canal St., New Orleans, LA 70112. EOE M/F (1-20) Talented, enthusiastic evening professional needed yesterday. Country or A/C background. Good looks. T&R: Joe Benson, KDKZ-FM, Box 4248, Tyler, TX 75701. EOE M/F (1-20) MORNINGS Are available at 100wth FM, Southern Top 100 market. 8-14, CHR station seeks personality, humor, experience, team player and promoter. Growth situation excellent. Salary negotiable with benefits. Talent earnings unlimited. T&R resume to: Radio & Records, 1930 Century Park West, #609, Los Angeles, CA 90067. Openings Production pro needed ASAP. Must be able to shine. T&R Jeff Davis, WFMK, Box 991, E. Lansing, MI 48823. EOE M/F (1-27) Cydone CHR seeks evening personality who can relate to college audience. T&R: Al Wathne, KCCO, Box 728, Ames, IA 50010. EOE M/F (1-27) AM DRIVE For Midwest Missouri County FM. We are looking for a hardworking, warm morning man who has fun on the radio. Humor necessary, comedy no. Growing station, growing chain... growth opportunity. Must walk through walls to win. T&R to: Radio & Records, 1930 Century Park West, #616, Los Angeles, CA 90067. EOE M/F Openings Air talent wanted for new A/C in Salt Lake City! Looking for topical communicators. T&R: Dennis Elliott, KUJT, 5282 S. 320 West, Suite D27, Salt Lake City, UT 84107. EOE M/F (1-27) NEWS DIRECTOR SUNNY CENTRAL CALIFORNIA AM-FM We're part of a growing group in need of a news pro to start from scratch and run the show. Adult news with a personal touch. Super voice, writing, and on-air music. Three years experience minimum. Accept market pay for longer hours, but no weekends. Market is a beautiful place to work, play, and grow. Station is state-of-the-art, dominating 35-49 demo. Send tape, resume, picture, and salary requirements to: Radio & Records, 1930 Century Park West, #615, Los Angeles, CA 90067. EOE Openings Woodward Communications, Inc. seeks experienced sales oriented GM. Oversees AM/FM & mobile communications operation. Bob Woodward, 8th & Bluff, Dubuque, IA 52001. EOE M/F (1-27) Know your oldies & have personality. "Play it again Sam" is looking for you. Minimum 3 yrs. experience. Ken McDonald Jr. (517) 752-8161. (1-27) Western Colorado's No. 1 CHR FM is looking for America's most popular medium market PM drive personality ready to move up. We've got the right bucks, for the right person, NO time and temper. Benefits include health insurance and profit sharing. If you're ready to work in a state-of-the-art facility, with a state-of-the-heart company, rush tape and resume to: Charlie Michaels, 93 FM-GR, Grand Junction, CO 81502. EOE M/F Openings WQYX needs newspaper with automation experience for Manchester station. Great growth potential. T&R: 620 Bericot, Sacramento, CA 95814. (1-27) Openings ANNOUNCER MAJOR MARKET A/C AM Drive Host/Team Well respected AM station has not had an AM Drive opening in over 8 years. Our company is searching for a Host/Team that possesses the energy, talent and humor to create a truly Adult morning show. Outstanding compensation and environment. You will be surrounded by professionals and be treated like one. Send an unedited 1-hour aircheck, resume, and a one-page synopsis on how you feel an AM Drive show should be structured to: Radio & Records, 1930 Century Park West, #608, Los Angeles, CA 90067. National Music Formats Added This Week Century 21 Greg Stephens (214) 934-2121 The Z Format Eurythmics "Here Comes The Rain Again" Pointer Sisters "Automatic" Christine McVie "Got A Hold On Me" Jackson Browne "For A Rocker" Kenny Loggins "Footloose" Re-Flex "The Politics Of Dancing" The A/C Format Peabo Bryson & Roberta Flack "You're Looking Like Love To Me" Earth, Wind & Fire "Touch" Jim Glaser "If I Could Only Dance With You" Christine McVie "Got A Hold On Me" Frank Stallone & Cynthia Rhodes "I'm Never Gonna Give You Up" Anne Murray "That's Not The Way (It's Spossed To Be)" Super-Country Darrel Clanton "Lonesome 7-7203" Rick & Janis Carnes "Does He Ever Mention My Name" Kenny Rogers "You Were A Good Friend" Dan Seals "You Really Go For The Heart" David Wells "Miss Understanding" Media General Broadcast Services Bob Dumas (901) 320-4433 Action Lani Hall "Send In The Clowns" Christine McVie "Got A Hold On Me" Romantics "Talking In Your Sleep" Michael Sembello "Talk" Your Country John Anderson "Let Somebody Else Drive" Kendalls "Thank God For The Radio" Tom Jones "I'll Be Loving You Too" Michael Murphy "Will It Be Love By Morning" Deborah Allen "I've Been Wrong Before" Jim Glaser "If I Could Only Dance With You" Stephanie Winslow "Dancin' With The Devil" Boxcar Willie "The Man I Used To Be" Hit Rock Nena "99 Luftballons" Cyndi Lauper "Girls Just Want To Have Fun" Bette Midler "The Dream (Hold On To Your Dream)" Duran Duran "New Moon On Monday" Christine McVie "Got A Hold On Me" Huey Lewis & The News "I Want A New Drug" Radio Arts John Benedict (818) 841-0225 Country's Best Johnny Rodriguez "Too Late To Go Home" Michael Murphy "Will It Be Love By Morning" Burrito Brothers "Almost Saturday Night" Boxcar Willie "The Man I Used To Be" Soft Contemporary Christine McVie "Got A Hold On Me" Melissa Manchester "I Don't Care What The People Say" Peter Allen "You And Me (We Wanted It All)" Anne Murray "That's Not The Way (It's Spossed To Be)" Gary Portnoy "Theme From Cheers (Where Everybody Knows...)" Sound 10 Christine McVie "Got A Hold On Me" Earth, Wind & Fire "Touch" Peter Allen "You And Me (We Wanted It All)" Melissa Manchester "I Don't Care What The People Say" Commotion "Turn Off The Lights" Anne Murray "That's Not The Way (It's Spossed To Be)" Eurythmics "Here Comes The Rain Again" Rock America George Williams (214) 343-9205 The Starstation Michael Jackson "Thriller" Christine McVie "Got A Hold On Me" Peabo Bryson & Roberta Flack "You're Looking Like Love To Me" Frank Stallone & Cynthia Rhodes "I'm Never Gonna Give You Up" Country Coast-To-Coast Deborah Allen "I've Been Wrong Before" Jim Glaser "If I Could Only Dance With You" Stephanie Winslow "Dancin' With The Devil" Johnny Lee "Say When" Sissy Spacek "If I Can Just Get Through The Night" Rock America Cyndi Lauper "Girls Just Want To Have Fun" Christine McVie "Got A Hold On Me" Kenny Loggins "Footloose" Manfred Mann's Earth Band "Runner" Eurythmics "Here Comes The Rain Again" TM Programming Cal Casey (214) 634-8511 Stereo Rock Christine McVie "Got A Hold On Me" Manfred Mann's Earth Band "Runner" Cyndi Lauper "Girls Just Want To Have Fun" Kenny Loggins "Footloose" Eurythmics "Here Comes The Rain Again" BPI John Iles (800) 426-9082 Adult Contemporary James Ingram w/Michael McDonald "Yah Mo B There" Police "Wrapped Around Your Finger" Country Living Deborah Allen "I've Been Wrong Before" Michael Murphy "Will It Be Love By Morning" Bill Anderson "Till Your Memory's Gone" Kendalls "Thank God For The Radio" Johnny Rodriguez "Too Late To Go Home" Peters Productions, Inc. Debbie Weish (619) 565-8511 Country Lovin' Kenny Rogers "Buried Treasure" Steve Wariner "Lovely Women Make Good Lovers" Johnny Rodriguez "Too Late To Go Home" The Great Ones Michael Sembello "Talk" James Ingram w/Michael McDonald "Yah Mo B There" Anne Murray "That's Not The Way (It's Spossed To Be)" Christine McVie "Got A Hold On Me" Transtar Chick Watkins (303) 578-0700 Lionel Richie "Running With The Night" Bonneville Broadcasting System Dave Verdery (800) 631-1600 Easy Listening Peter Allen "You And Me (We Wanted It All)" Drake-Chenault Bob Laurence (213) 883-7400 XT-40 Christine McVie "Got A Hold On Me" Nena "99 Luftballons" Kenny Loggins "Footloose" Contempo 300 Police "Wrapped Around Your Finger" Christine McVie "Got A Hold On Me" Great American Country Judds "Had A Dream (For The Heart)" Lynn Anderson & Gary Morris "You're Welcome To Tonight" Concept Productions Dick Wagner (916) 782-7754 Adult Rock Christine McVie "Got A Hold On Me" Eurythmics "Here Comes The Rain Again" Tina Turner "Let's Stay Together" Sheena Easton "Almost Over You" KC "Give It Up" Continued from Page 26 WMJQ/Rochester PD Dave Luczak and morning show partner Don Michael Girard will be leaving the station February 3. Although they're not saying where they're headed just yet, we hear the team has been offered a fat contract to move to Milwaukee. As we went to press, WVIC-AM & FM/Lansing PD Jay Stevens accepted the job of PD at WMJQ/Rochester. In taking the Rochester job, Jay returns to his hometown. KIEE/Harrisonville/Kansas City, MO has debuted its new calls, KCFX, and a 100kw signal, pushing a hybrid format described by owner Garry Munson as "a mix of A/C, CHR, and AOR with an adult presentation." The station's Operations Manager is Dan Carney, who's being consulted by Scott Christianson. KCFX calls itself "Stereo 101." WVSR/Charleston, WV has a new OM/PD. It's Chris Bailey, most recently with WKPE/Cape Cod. Chris replaces Doug Yanak. Following a brief stint at KLLS/San Antonio, air personality Magic Christian has departed to join Chuck Knapp's staff at KS95/Minneapolis for afternoon drive. CBS's "Top 30 USA" host and former KHJ/Los Angeles air personality M.G. Kelly is back on the airwaves in L.A., filling C.K. Cooper's vacated afternoon shift at KFI. Jeff Davis, formerly of WTRX/Flint, has been named PD/MD at WFMK/Lansing. Former PD Jay Richards will now handle research for the station. Consultant Fred Jacobs, who unveiled plans for a new 25+ format called "Good Time Rock & Roll" earlier this year, has announced his first client will be WNOR/Norfolk, which switches from a Black format this weekend. WMBD/Peoria has tapped Gary Bruce of WLAM & WKZS/Lewiston-Auburn as its new PD. Gary, who was Operations Manager for the two Maine outlets, is now in the programmer's chair at the Peoria A/C station. KIM/Denver is having its 30th reunion in mid-March. Anyone who's worked at the station should contact Production Director Bob Karson at (303) 234-9500. Former WBBM-FM/Chicago morning man Tomm Rivers is available and ready to get back on the radio. He can be reached at (312) 642-0544. Congratulations to RKO Networks VP & Director of News Dave Cooke and Landy Itzla on their December 23 wedding in Dallas. Stork Stops: Best wishes to KKHR/Los Angeles PD Ed Scarborough and wife Arlan on the birth of Beth Annie. The stork also visited KCBN/Reno PD Jim O'Neal and wife Delores, leaving behind Christopher Michael. Finally, if your 1984 is not getting off to a great start, think of KFMB-AM & FM/San Diego GM Paul Palmer. While Paul was mending a ruptured appendix in the hospital over Christmas, his house was burglarized. The thieves took off with the Christmas presents, jewelry, a video recorder, and several credit cards. We sure hope Paul didn't take the Redskins and give the points! UP YOUR RATINGS DREAMBOY "Don't Go" Produced by Jeffrey Stanton and Virgil Taylor for Volcanic Productions #27 BREAKER JAMES INGRAM (WITH MICHAEL McDONALD) "Yah Mo B There" Produced by Quincy Jones for Q PATTI AUSTIN "It's Gonna Be Special" Produced by Quincy Jones for Q "Significant Action" Marketed by Warner Bros. Records Inc. © 1984 Warner Bros. Records Inc. www.americanradiohistory.com ### National Airplay/50 January 27, 1984 \| Rank \| Artist \| Title \| Label \| Total Reports/Adds \| Heavy \| Medium \| Light \| \|------\|-------------------------------\|--------------------------------\|-------\|--------------------\|-------\|--------\|-------\| \| 1 \| DON WILLIAMS \| Stay Young \| MCA \| 157/1 \| 129 \| 26 \| 2 \| \| 2 \| MERLE HAGGARD \| That's The Way Love Goes \| Epic \| 145/1 \| 122 \| 15 \| 12 \| \| 3 \| RICKY SKAGGS \| Don't Cheat In Our Hometown \| Epic \| 148/0 \| 112 \| 30 \| 7 \| \| 4 \| LEO THOMAS \| Two Car Garage \| Clew Int/Col \| 148/2 \| 102 \| 41 \| 5 \| \| 5 \| ED BRUCE \| After All \| MCA \| 145/3 \| 103 \| 30 \| 12 \| \| 6 \| GARY MORRIS \| Why Lady Why \| WB \| 150/3 \| 103 \| 33 \| 14 \| \| 7 \| LEE GREENWOOD \| Going Going Gone \| MCA \| 151/1 \| 77 \| 67 \| 7 \| \| 8 \| SYLVIA \| Never Quite Got Back (From Loving You) \| RCA \| 155/1 \| 76 \| 65 \| 14 \| \| 9 \| STEVE WARINER \| Lonely Women Make Good Lovers \| RCA \| 152/2 \| 80 \| 59 \| 13 \| \| 10 \| ALABAMA \| Roll On (Eighteen Wheeler) \| RCA \| 153/2 \| 68 \| 68 \| 17 \| \| 11 \| EXILE \| Wake Up In Love \| Epic \| 152/5 \| 62 \| 75 \| 15 \| \| 12 \| RONNIE MILSAP \| Show Her \| RCA \| 139/1 \| 96 \| 28 \| 15 \| \| 13 \| STATLER BROTHERS \| Elizabeth \| Mercury/PG \| 145/8 \| 66 \| 56 \| 23 \| \| 14 \| CHARLY McClAIN \| Sentimental Ol' Y'ou \| Epic \| 131/1 \| 88 \| 30 \| 13 \| \| 15 \| KENNY ROGERS \| Buried Treasure \| RCA \| 145/7 \| 53 \| 76 \| 29 \| \| 16 \| DOLLY PARTON \| Save The Last Dance For Me \| RCA \| 143/5 \| 50 \| 76 \| 17 \| \| 17 \| JACKIE GILLEY \| You've Been Got A Hold On Me \| Epic \| 152/6 \| 38 \| 93 \| 21 \| \| 18 \| EDDIE RABBITT \| Feeling Like Fool In Love \| WB \| 135/0 \| 52 \| 66 \| 17 \| \| 19 \| CONWAY TWITTY \| Three Times A Lady \| WB \| 140/7 \| 29 \| 83 \| 28 \| \| 20 \| GENE WATSON \| Drinkin' My Way Back Home \| MCA \| 131/3 \| 53 \| 54 \| 24 \| \| 21 \| RAY CHARLES & GEORGE JONES \| We Didn't See A Thing \| Columbia \| 134/5 \| 39 \| 65 \| 30 \| \| 22 \| REBA McENTIRE \| There Ain't No Future \| Mercury/PG \| 135/11 \| 36 \| 73 \| 26 \| \| 23 \| WILLIE NELSON \| Without A Song \| Columbia \| 141/8 \| 24 \| 76 \| 41 \| \| 24 \| JANIE FRICKE \| Let's Stop Talkin' About It \| Columbia \| 149/11 \| 26 \| 83 \| 40 \| \| 25 \| MEL DANIELI \| Call It Love \| Capitol \| 134/1 \| 71 \| 45 \| 18 \| \| 26 \| WHITES \| Give Me Back That Old Familiar \| WB/Curb \| 137/9 \| 35 \| 68 \| 34 \| \| 27 \| EARL THOMAS CONLEY \| Don't Make It Easy For Me \| RCA \| 135/3 \| 20 \| 84 \| 31 \| \| 28 \| JUDDS \| Had A Dream (For The Heart) \| RCA/Curb \| 135/7 \| 16 \| 77 \| 42 \| \| 29 \| L. ANDERSON & G. MORRIS \| You're Welcome To Tonight \| Permian \| 129/10 \| 18 \| 80 \| 31 \| \| 30 \| CRYSTAL GAYLE \| The Sound Of Goodbye \| WB \| 111/0 \| 55 \| 36 \| 20 \| \| 31 \| JOHN ANDERSON \| Someday Else Drive \| WB \| 124/8 \| 15 \| 64 \| 45 \| \| 32 \| JOHN CONLEE \| In My Mind \| MCA \| 87/0 \| 34 \| 33 \| 20 \| \| 33 \| KENDALLS \| Thank God For The Radio \| Mercury/PG \| 125/14 \| 13 \| 56 \| 56 \| \| 34 \| MICHAEL MURPHEY \| Will It Be Love By Morning \| Liberty \| 127/36 \| 3 \| 49 \| 75 \| \| 35 \| DEBORAH ALLEN \| I've Been Wrong Before \| RCA \| 122/33 \| 4 \| 42 \| 76 \| \| 36 \| TOM JONES \| I've Been Rained On, Too \| Mercury/PG \| 97/18 \| 17 \| 40 \| 40 \| \| 37 \| BILL MEDLEY \| Till Your Memory's Gone \| RCA \| 100/15 \| 7 \| 56 \| 37 \| \| 38 \| CRAIG DILLINGHAM \| Have You Loved Your Woman Today \| Curb/MCA \| 98/6 \| 9 \| 50 \| 39 \| \| 39 \| RONNIE McDOWELL \| You Made A Wanted Man Of Me \| Epic \| 71/0 \| 23 \| 32 \| 16 \| \| 40 \| GUS HARDIN \| Fallen Angel (Flyin' High Tonight) \| RCA \| 102/8 \| 4 \| 61 \| 37 \| \| 41 \| SHELLY WEST \| Another Motel Memory \| Viva \| 65/0 \| 11 \| 31 \| 23 \| \| DEBUT \| JIM GLASER \| If I Could Only Dance With You \| Noble Vision \| 111/35 \| 4 \| 37 \| 70 \| \| 43 \| T.G. SHEPPARD \| Slow Burn \| WB/Curb \| 59/0 \| 14 \| 23 \| 22 \| \| 44 \| CHARLEY PRIDE \| She'd (My Baby's Love) \| Epic \| 54/0 \| 17 \| 20 \| 17 \| \| DEBUT \| LEON PEREZ \| Could He Had You? \| RCA \| 74/47 \| 3 \| 22 \| 49 \| \| DEBUT \| JOHNNY RODRIGUEZ \| Too Late To Go Home \| Epic \| 80/27 \| 1 \| 21 \| 58 \| \| 47 \| GEORGE STRAIT \| You Look So Good In Love \| MCA \| 40/0 \| 14 \| 15 \| 11 \| \| 48 \| CHARLEY PRIDE \| Ev'ry Heart Should Have One \| RCA \| 48/0 \| 14 \| 16 \| 18 \| \| DEBUT \| STEPHANIE WINSLOW \| Dancin' With The Devil \| Curb/MCA \| 73/8 \| 0 \| 31 \| 42 \| \| DEBUT \| JOHNNY LEE with LANE BRODY \| Yellow Rose (Full Moon/WB) \| \| 66/51 \| 2 \| 16 \| 48 \| --- ### Breakers MICHAEL MURPHEY Will It Be Love By Morning (Liberty) On 80% of reporting stations. Rotations: Heavy 3, Medium 49, Light 75. Total Adds 36 including WYRK, WKYG, CHOW, WCOS, WESC, WMIC, WKIX, WMNI, WIRE, WDWF, WBCS, WXCL, KFRY, KCKC, KSAN, KCUB. A Most Added Record. Moves 49-34 on the Country chart. DEBORAH ALLEN I've Been Wrong Before (RCA) On 77% of reporting stations. Rotations: Heavy 4, Medium 42, Light 76. Total Adds 33 including WYRK, WNYR, KSSN, WSIX, WMNI, KRRK, KWMT, WDGY, WOW, WHBF, KFDI, KGHL, KRAK, SAN. A Most Added Record. Moves 50-35 on the Country chart. JIM GLASER If I Could Only Dance With You (Noble Vision) On 70% of reporting stations. Rotations: Heavy 4, Medium 37, Light 70. Total Adds 35 including WXYT, WAJR, WPOR, WAMZ, WDGY, KDMX, WHBF, WL, WTHI, KIK-FM, KYGO, KCCY, KSOP, KCKC, KSOM. A Most Added Record. Debuts at number 42 on the Country chart. --- ### Most Added JOHNNY LEE with LANE BRODY (51) Yellow Rose (Full Moon/WB) LEON PEREZ I Could He Had You (RCA) MICHAEL MURPHEY (36) Will It Be Love By Morning (Liberty) JIM GLASER (35) If I Could Only Dance With You (Noble Vision) DAVID FRIZZELL & SHELLY WEST (34) Silent Night (Viva) DEBORAH ALLEN (33) I've Been Wrong Before (RCA) GEORGE STRAIT (32) Right Here (WMC) JOHNNY RODRIGUEZ (27) Too Late To Go Home (Epic) ANNE MURRAY (25) That's Not The Way (It's S'posed...) (Capitol) --- ### Hottest ALABAMA (74) Roll On (Eighteen Wheeler) (RCA) RICKY SKAGGS (50) Don't Cheat In Our Hometown (Epic) MERLE HAGGARD (49) That's The Way Love Goes (Epic) CHARLY McClAIN (48) Sentimental Ol' Y'ou (Epic) DON WILLIAMS (44) Stay Young (MCA) B.J. THOMAS (38) Two Car Garage (Cleveland International/Col.) RONNIE MILSAP (35) Show Her (RCA) STATLER BROTHERS (30) Elizabeth (Mercury/PolyGram) GARY MORRIS (29) Why Lady Why (WB) --- ### Most Added & Hottest Most Added list: those songs achieving the most adds nationally and the songs reported as hottest compiled from all our reporters. The number in parentheses immediately following the songs in Most Added & Hottest indicates the total number of Country reporters adding the song this week or noting that the song is among their five hottest. --- ### GUS HARDIN Fallen Angel (Flyin' High Tonight) (RCA) On 65% of reporting stations. Rotations: Heavy 3, Medium 61, Light 37. Total Adds 8. WAJR, WZZK, KLLL, WHOO, WSLR, KRRK, WIL, KYAK. Moves 45-40 on the Country chart. --- ### BILL MEDLEY Till Your Memory's Gone (RCA) On 63% of reporting stations. Rotations: Heavy 7, Medium 56, Light 37. Total Adds 15. WNYR, WMZO, WHOO, WKIX, WCUZ, WFMS, WIFE, WDGY, KGHL, KEIN, KNEW, KFTN, KCCT, KCBQ. Moves 42-37 on the Country chart. --- ### CRAIG DILLINGHAM Have You Loved Your Woman Today (Curb/MCA) On 62% of reporting stations. Rotations: Heavy 9, Medium 50, Light 39. Total Adds 6. KEAN, WAMZ, KXXX, KFTN, KCUB. Moves 41-38 on the Country chart. --- ### TOM JONES I've Been Rained On, Too (Mercury/PolyGram) On 61% of reporting stations. Rotations: Heavy 17, Medium 40, Light 40. Total Adds 18. KASE, WXBO, WNOK, WKZZ, WUSN, WWWW, WGEE, WIRE, WMIL, WDGY, KCJB, WL, KRKT, KIK-FM, KKC5, KFRY, KFTN, KSOP. Moves 46-36 on the Country chart. --- ### Significant Action 40/9 25% --- ### Robin Lee "Angel In Your Arms" Distributed Nationally by NSD Promotion by: BARBARA KELLY, GENE HUGHES, CAROLYN PARKS, BETTY GIBSON, CRAIG MORRIS, RAY COPELAND ## NEW & ACTIVE ### JAN GRAY "Bad Night For Good Girls" (Jamex) 43/11 Rotations: Heavy 0, Medium 11, Light 31; Total Adds 11. WBGW, WSNQ, WIXX, WNYR, WOKK, KRRK, WXCL, KDRT, KRST, KUGN, KGA. Heavy: KSOP. ### DAVID FRIZZELL "Black And White" (Viva) 43/0 Rotations: Heavy 0, Medium 2, Light 40; Total Adds 0. Medium: WVAM, CHOW, WJQS, KEBC, KTFS, WOBO, KRKT, KUZZ, KSOP. KGA. Light: WNYR, WLOM, KNIX, KMPS. ### DAVID FRIZZELL & SHELLY WEBB "Sailor Partners" (Viva) 41/34 Rotations: Heavy 0, Medium 3, Light 37; Total Adds 1. Medium: WJQS, KEBC, KFMO, WOBO, KRKT, KUZZ, KSOP. KGA. Light: WNYR, WLOM, KNIX, KMPS. ### GEORGE STRAIT "Right On The Wing" (MCA) 38/32 Rotations: Heavy 0, Medium 3, Light 34; Total Adds 24. WJQS, KEBC, KFMO, WOBO, KRKT, KUZZ, KSOP. KGA. Light: WNYR, WLOM, KNIX, KMPS. ### JIM STAFFORD "Little Bits And Pieces" (Columbia) 35/10 Rotations: Heavy 0, Medium 3, Light 30; Total Adds 10. WYKO, KRVR, KMDO, WUSQ, KEBC, WOW, WHBF, WTHD, KGDA. Heavy: KIKK, Medium: KVOD, KQIL, KEIR, KFMO, WOBO, KRKT, KUZZ, KSOP. ### MICKEY GILLEY "Then You Can Tell Me Goodbye" (Epic) 34/25 Rotations: Heavy 1, Medium 7, Light 26; Total Adds 25 including WZKC, KIKK, WUSQ, KEIR, KFMO, KUZZ, KGA. Heavy: WHOD, Medium: WSNQ, WLOM, KMPS. ### KAREN TAYLOR-GOOD "Handsome Man" (Mesa) 29/3 Rotations: Heavy 0, Medium 7, Light 22; Total Adds 3. WJQS, WPAAP, KFGO. Medium: WGNA, KEIRY, KRMQ, WXCL, KWJJ, KSOP. ### MIKE CAMPBELL "Sweet And Easy To Love" (Columbia) 28/0 Rotations: Heavy 0, Medium 7, Light 21; Total Adds 0. Medium: WGNA, KMML, WSIX, KYXX, Q92, KMPS. Light: WFNC, WHBF, KLZ, KWJ. ### MAC DAVIS "Most Of All" (Capitol/Blue PolyGram) 27/18 Rotations: Heavy 0, Medium 4, Light 23; Total Adds including WPOC, WQUP, WSCQ, WMC, WHOD, WONE, WWW, KTPK, KWJJ, KSOP. ### JOHNNY LEE "Say Whoo!" (Full Moon/WB) 27/0 Rotations: Heavy 0, Medium 4, Light 18; Total Adds 1. WQUP, WEZL, WGTQ, WXCL, WWJO, KFDI, KIK-FM, KCCY. Medium: WAJR, WKGD, KRGQ, KROQ. ### JAMES & MICHAEL YOUNGER "Shoot First, Ask Questions Later" (MCA) 25/2 Rotations: Heavy 0, Medium 5, Light 15; Total Adds 2. WXKL, KSOP. Medium: KHEY, KIKK, WCNI, WWJO, KRKT, KUUY. ### JOE STAPLEMY "Brown Eyed Girl" (Epix) 23/12 Rotations: Heavy 0, Medium 5, Light 12; Total Adds 12. WSNQ, WSDC, WTYY, WPAP, WRV, KONE, WVOO, KRKT, KFMO, KUZZ, KSOP. KGA. Medium: WUTO, WLWI, KTTS. ### RAY STEVENS "My Dad" (Mercury/PolyGram) 22/7 Rotations: Heavy 0, Medium 5, Light 7; Total Adds 7. WRXY, KHEW, WLWI, WPAAP, KUDV, KFQI. Medium: KMML, Q92, KSOP. ### JIMMY BUFFETT "Brown Eyed Girl" (MCA) 21/7 Rotations: Heavy 0, Medium 5, Light 19; Total Adds 7. WGWG, WQUR, KASE, WUSQ, KIBR, KJLY, KTTS. Heavy: WHOD. Medium: WAJR. ### WICKLINE "Ski Bumpin'" (Cascades Mountain) 18/4 Rotations: Heavy 0, Medium 5, Light 14; Total Adds 4. WQUP, WGTQ, WXCL, WQUP, WMC, KIGO. Medium: WONE, KFDI, KUUY. ### VINCE GILL "Victim Of Life's Circumstances" (RCA) 17/17 Rotations: Heavy 0, Medium 2, Light 15; Total Adds 17 including WPTP, WSNQ, WGTQ, WAMZ, KSO, WCKI, KRST, KNIX, KRSY, KFMO. ### LEFTY FRIZZELL "This Just Ain't No Good Day For Lovin'" (Columbia) 15/2 Rotations: Heavy 0, Medium 5, Light 7; Total Adds 2. KTTS, KRGQ. Medium: CHOW, WOW, KWJJ, KSOP. ### CHANTY "I'm A Boy In A Woman's World" (F&I) 13/1 Rotations: Heavy 0, Medium 5, Light 13; Total Adds 1. WQUN. Light: WEZL, WGTQ, KRMQ, Q92. ### RUSSELL SMITH "Where Did We Go Right" (Capitol) 13/1 Rotations: Heavy 0, Medium 5, Light 13; Total Adds 1. WQJS. Medium: WMC, WLWI, KFQI, KWJJ. ### SAM NEELY "Old Photographs" (MCA) 12/1 Rotations: Heavy 0, Medium 5, Light 8; Total Adds 1. KRVV. Medium: WVAM, WMZO, WWJO. ### KENNY DALE "Two Will Be One" (Republic) 12/3 Rotations: Heavy 0, Medium 5, Light 7; Total Adds 2. KFQI, KRMQ. Medium: KMML, KBRM. ### JOHNNY CASH "Johnny 99" (Columbia) 12/1 Rotations: Heavy 0, Medium 5, Light 7; Total Adds 1. KEBC. Medium: WSNQ, Q92. ### HANK WILLIAMS JR. "Man Of Steel" (RCA) 12/0 Rotations: Heavy 0, Medium 4, Light 8; Total Adds 8. WPCQ, WAMZ, WKZZ, WCKI, KIOV, KNIX. ### STEVE EARLE "Squeeze Me In" ( Epic) 9/2 Rotations: Heavy 0, Medium 2, Light 7; Total Adds 2. KFQI, KWJJ. Light: WYI, WSOQ, KFGO, KRGQ. ### IAN TYSON "Alberta's Child" (Columbia) 8/1 Rotations: Heavy 0, Medium 0, Light 8; Total Adds 1. WSNQ. Light: WSNQ, KRMQ, KTTS, WL, KUUY. --- ## SIGNIFICANT ACTION ### JAN GRAY "Bad Night For Good Girls" (Jamex) 43/11 Rotations: Heavy 1, Medium 11, Light 31; Total Adds 11. WBGW, WSNQ, WIXX, WNYR, WOKK, KRRK, WXCL, KDRT, KRST, KUGN, KGA. Heavy: KSOP. ### DAVID FRIZZELL "Black And White" (Viva) 43/0 Rotations: Heavy 0, Medium 2, Light 40; Total Adds 0. Medium: WVAM, CHOW, WJQS, KEBC, KTFS, WOBO, KRKT, KUZZ, KSOP. KGA. Light: WNYR, WLOM, KNIX, KMPS. ### DAVID FRIZZELL & SHELLY WEBB "Sailor Partners" (Viva) 41/34 Rotations: Heavy 0, Medium 3, Light 37; Total Adds 1. Medium: WJQS, KEBC, KFMO, WOBO, KRKT, KUZZ, KSOP. KGA. Light: WNYR, WLOM, KNIX, KMPS. ### GEORGE STRAIT "Right On The Wing" (MCA) 38/32 Rotations: Heavy 0, Medium 3, Light 34; Total Adds 24. WJQS, KEBC, KFMO, WOBO, KRKT, KUZZ, KSOP. KGA. Light: WNYR, WLOM, KNIX, KMPS. ### JIM STAFFORD "Little Bits And Pieces" (Columbia) 35/10 Rotations: Heavy 0, Medium 3, Light 30; Total Adds 10. WYKO, KRVR, KMDO, WUSQ, KEBC, WOW, WHBF, WTHD, KGDA. Heavy: KIKK, Medium: KVOD, KQIL, KEIR, KFMO, WOBO, KRKT, KUZZ, KSOP. ### MICKEY GILLEY "Then You Can Tell Me Goodbye" (Epic) 34/25 Rotations: Heavy 1, Medium 7, Light 26; Total Adds 25 including WZKC, KIKK, WUSQ, KEIR, KFMO, KUZZ, KGA. Heavy: WHOD, Medium: WSNQ, WLOM, KMPS. ### KAREN TAYLOR-GOOD "Handsome Man" (Mesa) 29/3 Rotations: Heavy 0, Medium 7, Light 22; Total Adds 3. WJQS, WPAAP, KFGO. Medium: WGNA, KEIRY, KRMQ, WXCL, KWJJ, KSOP. --- ## COUNTRY ALBUM TRACKS Cuts are listed in order, with the first cut receiving the heaviest airplay. \| ARTIST/Song Title (Label) \| Album Title \| \|---------------------------\|-------------\| \| GEORGE JONES/Radio Lover (Epic) \| Jones Country \| \| EXILE/Take Me To The River (Epic) \| Exile \| \| RICKY SKAGGS/Uncle Pen (Epic) \| Don't Cheat In Our Hometown \| \| HANK WILLIAMS JR./Loveless Blues (WB/Curb) \| Man Of Steel \| \| ALABAMA/If You're Gonna Play In Texas (RCA) \| Roll On \| \| JIM GLASER/Woman, Woman (Noel Vision) \| The Man In The Mirror \| \| ALABAMA/Food On Your Table (RCA) \| Roll On \| \| OAK RIDGE BOYS/I Ain't No Cure For The Rock... (MCA) \| Deliver \| \| GAIL DAVIES/Boys Like You (WB) \| What Can I Say \| \| ALABAMA/Carolina Mountain Dew (RCA) \| Roll On \| \| OAK RIDGE BOYS/I Guess It Never Hurts To Hurt (MCA) \| Deliver \| \| ALABAMA/The End Of The Lyin' (RCA) \| Roll On \| \| ALABAMA/I'm Not That Way Anymore (RCA) \| Roll On \| \| MICKEY GILLEY/Then You Can Tell Me Goodbye (Epic) \| You've Really Got A Hold On Me \| \| EMMYLUY HARRIS/On The Radio (WB) \| White Shoes \| --- The information shown on the National Airplay 50, Breakers, New & Active and Significant Action, is current. The results shown are based on reports taken from our reporters on Monday, 1/23/84. NEW & ACTIVE Includes songs reported by at least 80% of our Country reporting stations. The two numbers following the artist: title label designation indicate how many Country reporters are on the record this week and, of those, how many added it for the first time this week. Country stations report their playlists by rotations heavy, Medium, and light. The two numbers following each rotational designation indicates how many stations have the record in that particular rotation. ## Regional Adds & Hots ### EAST MOST ADDED - J. Lee with L. Brody (FM/WB) - Leon Everette (RCA) - Michael Murphy (Liberty) HOTTEST - Alabama (RCA) - B.J. Thomas (Clive, Int./Col.) - Don Williams (MCA) ### WEST MOST ADDED - J. Lee with L. Brody (FM/WB) - Leon Everette (RCA) - Marie Haggard (Epic) HOTTEST - Alabama (RCA) - B.J. Thomas (Clive, Int./Col.) - Don Williams (MCA) ## January 27, 1984 ### 176 REPORTERS \| Album/Artist \| Label \| Total Reports \| Heavy Rotation \| Medium Rotation \| Add to All Rotations \| \|--------------\|-------\|---------------\|-----------------\|------------------\|----------------------\| \| VAN HALEN/1984 (WB) \| WB \| 166+ \| 161+ \| 5 \| 1 \| \| PRETENDERS/Learning To Crawl (Sire/WB) \| Sire/WB \| 168 - 147+ \| 20 - \| 4 \| \| GENESIS/Genesis (Atlantic) \| Atlantic \| 168 - 145- \| 23+ \| 2 \| \| YES/90125 (Atco) \| Atco \| 168 - 143- \| 24+ \| 7 \| \| J. LENNON & Y. ONO/Milk And Honey (Polydor/PG) \| Polydor/PG \| 170+ \| 124+ \| 45- \| 16+ \| \| 38 SPECIAL/Tour De Force (A&M) \| A&M \| 157 - 116- \| 40+ \| 2+ \| \| JOHN COUGAR MELLENCAMP/Uh-Huh (Riva/PG) \| Riva/PG \| 148+ \| 105- \| 43+ \| 6+ \| \| ROLLING STONES/Undercover (Rolling Stones/Atco) \| Atco \| 142 - 96- \| 45+ \| 1 \| \| DURAN DURAN/Seven And The Ragged Tiger (Capitol) \| Capitol \| 140 - 87- \| 52- \| 8 \| \| TWO OF A KIND/Soundtrack (MCA) \| MCA \| 129 - 86- \| 43+ \| 0 \| \| HUEY LEWIS & THE NEWS/Sports (Chrysalis) \| Chrysalis \| 124 - 83+ \| 40- \| 3+ \| \| MANFRED MANN'S EARTH../Somewhere In... (Arista) \| Arista \| 148+ \| 43+ \| 102+ \| 12 \| \| OZZY OSBOURNE/Bark At The Moon (CBS Associated) \| CBS Associated \| 130 - 48- \| 81- \| 3+ \| \| BILLY IDOL/Rebel Yell (Chrysalis) \| Chrysalis \| 117 - 56- \| 61- \| 0 \| \| MOTLEY CRUE/Shout At The Devil (Elektra) \| Elektra \| 123+ \| 47+ \| 70- \| 7+ \| \| A NIGHT IN HEAVEN/Soundtrack (A&M) \| A&M \| 118+ \| 47+ \| 68+ \| 16 \| \| NIGHT RANGER/Midnight Madness (Camel/MCA) \| Camel/MCA \| 103 - 38+ \| 65- \| 4= \| \| JUDAS PRIEST/Defenders Of The Faith (Columbia) \| Columbia \| 119+ \| 15+ \| 99+ \| 10 \| \| REAL LIFE/Heartland (Curb/MCA) \| Curb/MCA \| 111 - 37+ \| 71- \| 8 \| \| EURYTHMICS/Touch (RCA) \| RCA \| 106+ \| 39+ \| 62+ \| 16 \| \| MOTELS/Little Robbers (Capitol) \| Capitol \| 94 - 42- \| 51+ \| 4 \| \| ROMANTICS/In Heat (Nemperor/CBS) \| Nemperor/CBS \| 81 - 40- \| 41+ \| 5+ \| \| FOOTLOOSE/Soundtrack (Columbia) \| Columbia \| 102+ \| 19+ \| 72+ \| 36 \| \| BLUE OYSTER CULT/The Revolution By Night (Columbia) \| Columbia \| 88 - 27- \| 61- \| 0 \| \| RE-FLEX/The Politics Of Dancing (Capitol) \| Capitol \| 86 - 22- \| 63- \| 2 \| \| UTOPIA/Oblivion (Passport) \| Passport \| 94+ \| 11+ \| 76+ \| 16 \| \| DWIGHT TWILLEY/Jungle (EMI America) \| EMI America \| 100+ \| 2+ \| 59+ \| 99+ \| \| HEADPINS/Line Of Fire (Solid Gold/MCA) \| Solid Gold/MCA \| 79 - 9- \| 70- \| 2 \| \| ABC/Beauty Stab (Mercury/PolyGram) \| Mercury/PolyGram \| 75 - 10- \| 65- \| 1 \| \| ACCEPT/Balls To The Wall (Portrait/CBS) \| Portrait/CBS \| 81+ \| 4+ \| 61+ \| 26 \| \| BON JOVI/Bon Jovi (Mercury/PolyGram) \| Mercury/PolyGram \| 80+ \| 2+ \| 58+ \| 43+ \| \| STEVIE NICKS/The Wild Heart (Modern/Atco) \| Modern/Atco \| 65 - 25- \| 39- \| 2 \| \| TED NUGENT/Penetrator (Atlantic) \| Atlantic \| 82+ \| 2+ \| 47+ \| 80+ \| \| U2/Under A Blood Red Sky (Island/Atco) \| Island/Atco \| 64 - 13- \| 51- \| 1 \| \| FIIXX/Reach The Beach (MCA) \| MCA \| 60 - 17- \| 43- \| 2 \| \| POLICE/Synchronicity (A&M) \| A&M \| 51 - 26- \| 24- \| 2 \| \| CYNDI LAUPER/She's So Unusual (Portrait/CBS) \| Portrait/CBS \| 60+ \| 18+ \| 38+ \| 14+ \| \| ALAN PARSONS PROJECT/Best Of The Alan... (Arista) \| Arista \| 50 - 24- \| 26- \| 0 \| \| HYTS/Hyts (Gold Mountain/A&M) \| Gold Mountain/A&M \| 64+ \| 6+ \| 53+ \| 9 \| \| VANDENBERG/Heading For A Storm (Atco) \| Atco \| 60 - 6- \| 54- \| 1 \| ### CHART EXTRAS BOB DYLAN Infidels (Columbia) QUIET RIOT Metal Health (Pasha/CBS) HEAVEN Where Angels Fear To Tread (Columbia) STREETS Streets (Atlantic) DON FELDER Airborne (Elektra) ### BREAKERS JOHN LENNON & YOKO ONO Milk And Honey (Polydor/PolyGram) 97% of our reporters on it. 170/16, including adds at WINEW-FM, KTXQ, KYYS, KBCO, KUPD, KINK, KGB, CFOX, WAFL, CITF-FM, KWXL. Debuts at #5 on the Albums chart. FOOTLOOSE Soundtrack (Columbia) 58% of our reporters on it. 102/38, including adds at KLOL, WSHE, WYNF, WSKS, WRIF, KWK, KCAL, WZZO, WHCN, WEZX, WLRS, WQMF, WDIZ, WTUE, WWCK. Debuts at #23 on the Albums chart. DWIGHT TWILLEY Jungle (EMI America) 57% of our reporters on it. 100/99, including adds at WGRO, WDVE, WHJY, KTXQ, KZEW, WSHE, WYNF, WMMS, WGFM, KUPD, KCAL, KGB, KROR, KOME, WHCN, WPDH, WCMF, WKZL, KZEL. Debuts at #27 on the Albums chart. UTOPIA Oblivion (Passport) 53% of our reporters on it. 94/16, including adds at WRIF, KOLA, WYMX, WRXL, WWCK, WXKE, KIDQ. Moves 33-26 on the Albums chart. EPA ROCK HEATS UP WINTER ACCEPT "Balls To The Wall" Immediate Sales Impact--Over 100,000 R&R 1/27 LP 30 Hot Track 36 DAN FOGELBERG "The Language Of Love" From the LP "Windows And Walls" ON YOUR DESK NOW! R&R 1/27--#1 New & Active Hot Track CYNDI LAUPER "She's So Unusual" Featuring "Girls Just Want To Have Fun"—A Top Ten Request Song—Bill Hard Chart 200,000 ALREADY SOLD! R&R 1/27 LP 37 Hot Track 53 Coming In March... R&R's 1984 Ratings Reports will include results for the TOP 100 markets. By popular request, R&R's 1984 Ratings Reports will include results for the TOP 100 markets. Volume I, featuring the Fall '83 results, is coming in March. AOR ALBUMS — Compiles album airplay data from all reporting stations. Includes four-week trend of chart movement, plus cuts listed numerically by airplay. Current singles are BOLDED. Also listed is present week's number of reports in hot and medium rotations, and total adds. Symbols represent more (+), less (-), or equal (=) number of reports in each rotation compared to last week's figures. Records showing significant upward momentum are bulleted. CHART EXTRAS — Records that have fallen off the chart but continue to receive substantial airplay. AOR BREAKERS — Records that are in a reported rotation on at least 50% of reporting stations. Total reports/total adds information listed; for example, 100/50 means 100 total station reports and, of those, 50 added it this week. NEW & ACTIVE — Records building in airplay and coming closest to charting for the first time. Numbers indicate total reports/adds; for instance, 40/20 means 40 stations reported a record, and of those, 20 added it that week. Figures in parentheses are last week's data. \| Artist \| Title \| Label \| Chart Position \| \|--------\|-------\|-------\|----------------\| \| Howard Jones \| New Song (Elektra) \| N/A \| 86/24 38% \| \| Cyndi Lauper \| Girls Just Want... (Portrait/CBS) \| N/A \| 180/32 86% \| \| KC \| Give It Up (Meca) \| LP: KC Ten \| 107/7 47% \| \| John Lennon \| Nobody... (Polydor/PolyGram) \| LP: Milk And Honey \| 218/6 90% \| \| Kool & The Gang \| Joanne (De-Lite/PolyGram) \| LP: Kool & The Gang \| 193/3 85% \| \| Madonna \| Holiday (Sire/WB) \| LP: Madonna \| 164/2 72% \| \| Paul McCartney \| So Bad (Columbia) \| LP: Pipes Of Peace \| 182/1 85% \| \| Manfred Mann's Earth Band \| Runner (Arista) \| LP: Somewhere In Africa \| 134/39 58% \| \| Kenny Loggins \| Footloose (Columbia) \| LP: Soundtrack Footloose \| 171/74 76% \| \| John C. Mellencamp \| Blue Horses (Riva/PolyGram) \| LP: John Mellencamp \| 263/0 88% \| \| Nena \| 99 Luftballons (Epic) \| LP: Nena \| 194/18 85% \| \| Stevie Nicks \| Nightbird (Modern/Atco) \| LP: The Wild Heart \| 184/2 81% \| \| Motels \| Remember The Night (Capitol) \| LP: Little Flowers \| 148/1 66% \| \| Christine McVie \| Got A Hold On Me (WB) \| LP: Christine McVie \| 187/44 87% \| \| Night Ranger \| You Can Still Rock In America (Cami/MCA) \| LP: Night Ranger \| 52/1 23% \| (Continued on Next Column) \| Artist \| Title \| Label \| Chart Position \| Previous Week \| Peak Position \| \|--------\|-------\|-------\|----------------\|---------------\|---------------\| \| RAY PARKER JR. \| I Still Can't Get Over... \| (Arista) \| 1901/1 \| 54% \| 10 \| \| PRINCE \| Let's Pretend We're Married (WB) \| LP: 1999 \| 58/3 \| 26% \| National \| \| RE-FLEX \| The Politics... \| (Capitol) \| 104/4 \| 46% \| National \| \| KENNY ROGERS \| I'm A Woman (RCA) \| LP: Even Though It's The Dark \| 156/15 \| 69% \| National \| \| TINA TURNER \| Let's Stay Together (Capitol) \| 94/27 \| 41% \| National \| \| DOLLY PARTON \| Saved The Last Dance... \| (RCA) \| 98/2 \| 39% \| National \| \| QUIET RIOT \| Bang Your Head... \| (Peasha/CBS) \| 183/13 \| 67% \| National \| \| LIONEL RICHIE \| Running With... \| (Motown) \| 209/6 \| 82% \| National \| \| SHANNON \| Let The Music... \| (Mirage/Atco) \| 173/11 \| 76% \| National \| \| UB40 \| Red Red Wine \| (Virgin/A&M) \| 64/22 \| 28% \| National \| \| VAN HALEN \| Jump \| (WB) \| LP: 1984 \| 216/4 \| 96% \| National \| \| POLICE \| Wrapped Around... \| (A&M) \| LP: SPINOUT/SPINOUT \| 2163 \| 96% \| National \| \| PRETENDERS \| Middle Of The Road \| (Sire/WB) \| LP: Learning To Crawl \| 183/2 \| 16 \| National \| \| ROCKWELL \| Somebody's... \| (Motown) \| LP: Somebody's Watching Me \| 87/67 \| 38% \| National \| \| 38 SPECIAL \| Back Where You Belong \| (A&M) \| LP: Tour De Force \| 80/76 \| 36% \| National \| (Continued on Next Column) (Parallels, continued on Page 92) ## Significant Action ### Songs with Less than 50 Station Reports \| Artist \| Title \| Label \| LP: \| \|-------------------------------\|--------------------------------------------\|------------------------\|----------------------------------------\| \| ABC \| That Was Then... (Mercury/PG) \| LP: Beauty Stab \| \| \| Blue Oyster Cult \| Shooting Shark (Columbia) \| LP: Revolution By Night\| \| \| Patti LaBelle \| If Only You... (Phil. Inter./CBS) \| LP: I'm In Love Again \| \| \| Ozzy Osbourne \| Bark At The... (CBS Associated) \| LP: Bark At The Moon \| \| \| B.E. Taylor Group \| Vitamin L (Sweet City/MCA) \| LP: Love On The Fight \| \| \| John Cafferty & Beaver Brown Band \| Tanked Bears (Scott Bros./CBS) \| LP: Eddie & The Clashes \| \| \| Bette Midler \| Beast Of Burden (Atlantic) \| LP: No Frills \| \| \| Rolling Stones \| She's Hot (Rolling Stones/Atco) \| LP: Undercover \| \| \| Mink Deville \| Each Word's A Beat... (Atlantic) \| LP: Where Angels Fear To Tread \| \| \| Headpins \| Just One... (Solid Gold/MCA) \| LP: Line Of Fire \| \| \| Motley Crue \| Shout At The Devil (Elektra) \| LP: Shout At The Devil \| \| \| Billy Idol \| Rebel Yell (Chrysalis) \| LP: Rebel Yell \| \| \| Shalamar \| You Can Count... (Solar/Elektra) \| LP: The Look \| \| \| Wang Chung \| Don't Let Go (Geffen) \| LP: Points On The Curve\| \| \| Toni Basil \| Over My Head (Chrysalis) \| LP: Toni Basil \| \| \| Stray Cats \| Look At That... (EMI America) \| LP: Rant N' Rave \| \| \| Journey \| Ask The Lonely (MCA) \| LP: Soundtrack Two Of A Kind \| \| \| Musical Youth \| She's Trouble (MCA) \| LP: Different Style \| \| \| Donna Summer \| Love Has... (Mercury/PolyGram) \| LP: She Works Hard For The Money \| \| \| Paul Young \| Come Back And Stay (Columbia) \| LP: No Parole \| \| ### Stations Reporting \| Artist \| East \| South \| Midwest \| West \| \|-------------------------------\|-------------------------------------------\|-------------------------------------------\|--------------------------------------------\|-------------------------------------------\| \| ABC \| K104 A \| WQXN on \| WQXN on \| WQXN on \| \| Blue Oyster Cult \| K104 A \| WQXN on \| WQXN on \| WQXN on \| \| Patti LaBelle \| K104 A \| WQXN on \| WQXN on \| WQXN on \| \| Ozzy Osbourne \| K104 A \| WQXN on \| WQXN on \| WQXN on \| \| B.E. Taylor Group \| K104 A \| WQXN on \| WQXN on \| WQXN on \| \| John Cafferty & Beaver Brown Band \| K104 A \| WQXN on \| WQXN on \| WQXN on \| \| Bette Midler \| K104 A \| WQXN on \| WQXN on \| WQXN on \| \| Rolling Stones \| K104 A \| WQXN on \| WQXN on \| WQXN on \| \| Mink Deville \| K104 A \| WQXN on \| WQXN on \| WQXN on \| \| Headpins \| K104 A \| WQXN on \| WQXN on \| WQXN on \| \| Motley Crue \| K104 A \| WQXN on \| WQXN on \| WQXN on \| \| Billy Idol \| K104 A \| WQXN on \| WQXN on \| WQXN on \| \| Shalamar \| K104 A \| WQXN on \| WQXN on \| WQXN on \| \| Wang Chung \| K104 A \| WQXN on \| WQXN on \| WQXN on \| \| Toni Basil \| K104 A \| WQXN on \| WQXN on \| WQXN on \| \| Stray Cats \| K104 A \| WQXN on \| WQXN on \| WQXN on \| \| Journey \| K104 A \| WQXN on \| WQXN on \| WQXN on \| \| Musical Youth \| K104 A \| WQXN on \| WQXN on \| WQXN on \| \| Donna Summer \| K104 A \| WQXN on \| WQXN on \| WQXN on \| \| Paul Young \| K104 A \| WQXN on \| WQXN on \| WQXN on \| "IT ALL STARTS WITH LISTENING" Active Industry Research • P.O. BOX 1136 • COLUMBIA, MARYLAND 21044 • 301-964-5544 ACTIVES IN RADIO AIR causes me to seriously evaluate a record early. When I listen to an AIR sampled record, I listen for two things; how it will sound on my station and what it will do in the industry. AIR makes it fun to be on top of new product. Garry Wall, PD WTIC-FM/Hartford NORTHEAST KEITH ABRAMS WHIX DEAN ALEXANDER WQW LICK ANDERSON WQX DALE ANDREWS WFIR JIM BARTLEY WATV JOHN BARAB WATV JIM BELL WATV MACIE BONACCI WQHS ROGER BRUCE WABH COLLEEN CASSIDY WQHS ROGER CHRISTIAN WREN RICH COHEN WQX DAVE DEAN WHUX ANGELA FERRAILO KXO JIM FISHER WQX JEFF FREEMAN WQX JIM GILLES WQX WILL KAUFFMAN WQCR STEVE LESTER WZAZ STEVE LESTON WZAZ DAVID LEE WQX CHUCK LAKEFIELD WZFM DAN LEE WQX BARRY LIEBERMAN RNO JIM LINDSAY WQX JIM MATHEN WQX BILL MURRAY WQX TOM MURPHY WQX TOM MITCHELL WQX MARK MOORE WQX JOE MOSS WZLZ MICHAEL O'HARA WZLZ JIM O'NEILL WQX GARY PALL WQX JIM PARSON WQX BRIAN PHENIX WJBO JIM PHILLIPS WQX JIM SEITZ WQX JIM SHERWOOD WQX SCOTT SPENCER WQX DAN STEELE WQX DON TAMBLER WHTF SOUTHEAST LEE ADAMS WXZO CHRIS ANDREWS WZTF SEAN BISHOP WQX RALPH CARROLL WQSD JIM CANNON WQSD JIM CARR WQX LEO DAVIS WQEN JIM DAVIS WQEN WILLIAM DAVIS WQEN SNIP ELDER WQX STEVE FINEGAN WQX DAVE FOSTER WQX JIM FLEMING WQX ROGER GAITHER WQX JIM GILBERT WQX J.J. HEMINGWAY WQX J.P. HUNTER WQX JIM JONES WQX KELLEN K. JEFFE WQX WILLIAM KINNEY WQX WES KUHNIG WQX BRIAN KENNEDY WQX JIMMY LEE WQX TILL MARTIN WQX JIM McCLURE WQX KEVIN McCARTY WQX CHRIS MILLER WQX JIM MURRAY WQX SCOTT MITCHELL WQX JIM MORRIS WQX J.D. NORTH WQX JOHN PATRICK WQX RAY ST. JAMES WQX SCOTT SHANNON WQX BRIAN SMITH WQX JEAN SMITH WQX JEAN ST. JAMES WQX DAVE SCOTT WQX EDWARD SEEGER WQX MARK SHANDS WQX SOUTH GARY ARNOLD WQX FRANK BOBBY AIRLINE WQX VICKI BROWN WQX JIM BUTLER WQX KERRY CAMP WQX SHIRL BRYANT WQX WILLIAM BRYANT WQX JEFF EDWARDS WQX THOMAS FERGUSON WQX TOM FLETCHER WQX PAUL FLETCHER WQX DENNIS D. COLLIER WQX JEFF DORSEY WQX J.N. DEARING WQX J.J. DUNLOP WQX TONY EUBANK WQX BILL FELT WQX TIM FOX WQX BARRY FORD WQX PETER GJERDESGEN WQX BRIAN A. GOYKISH WQX LARRY GRAY WQX BOB HAMMOND WQX JIM HANSEN WQX JACK HICKS WQX MATT HOLLAND WQX JOHN HUTCHISON WQX BICK HUTCHISON WQX TRACY JOHNSON WQX GUSTAV JOHNSON WQX TIM KELLY WQX JIM KELLY WQX DAN KIEFER WQX JIM KYLE WQX DOUG KOENEN WQX CHRISTOPHER KOLAR WQX GEORGE KUNK WQX GERALD LAMBERT WQX PAT MCKAY WQX CRAIG MCGREGOR WQX DON NORDWIG WQX STUART O'CONNOR WQX JON SHOEMAKER WQX PETER SMITH WQX SCOTT TAYLOR WQX SCOTT THOMPSON WQX CHRIS TAYLOR WQX DONALD THOMPSON WQX FE T. THOMPSON WQX KIP T. THOMPSON WQX DREDD SWERLING WQX MONTY TAYLOR WQX JAY TAYLOR WQX DIANE TRACY WQX KATIE VANFELT WQX MIDWEST MICHAEL AINGER CWNS SCOTT ALEXANDER CWNS SLAWA ALEXANDER CWNS CINDY BARTON KBUZ JAN BARTY KZZC JAN BARTY KZZC DOUG BURTON WJLS PAUL BYSTAD MSNG DENNIS D. COLLIER MSNG JEFF DORSEY MSNG J.N. DEARING WQX J.J. DUNLOP WQX TONY EUBANK WQX BILL FELT WQX TIM FOX WQX BARRY FORD WQX PETER GJERDESGEN WQX BRIAN A. GOYKISH WQX LARRY GRAY WQX BOB HAMMOND WQX JIM HANSEN WQX JACK HICKS WQX MATT HOLLAND WQX JOHN HUTCHISON WQX BICK HUTCHISON WQX TRACY JOHNSON WQX GUSTAV JOHNSON WQX TIM KELLY WQX JIM KELLY WQX DAN KIEFER WQX JIM KYLE WQX DOUG KOENEN WQX CHRISTOPHER KOLAR WQX GEORGE KUNK WQX GERALD LAMBERT WQX PAT MCKAY WQX CRAIG MCGREGOR WQX DON NORDWIG WQX STUART O'CONNOR WQX JON SHOEMAKER WQX PETER SMITH WQX SCOTT TAYLOR WQX SCOTT THOMPSON WQX CHRIS TAYLOR WQX DONALD THOMPSON WQX FE T. THOMPSON WQX KIP T. THOMPSON WQX DREDD SWERLING WQX MONTY TAYLOR WQX JAY TAYLOR WQX DIANE TRACY WQX KATIE VANFELT WQX WEST TONY WAITEUS KHMN STEVE WARRIOR KZTA LORI WESTBY KELD PAUL WESTBY KELD GLORIA AVILA-PEREZ KHMN PILL BRADY KZTG TOBY BRAGMAN KZRU SHERMAN COHEN KMTT SHERMAN COHEN KMTT GARY CUMMINGS KXPL JERRY DAVIS KZTG DOUG DEEDO KXUX JIM DEEDO KXUX TERRY DODSON KZTG DOUG ERICSON KHMN ERIC ERICSON KZTG STEVE GODDARD KZPF STEVEN GODDARD KZPF SWII GROSSMAN KXTH GARY HANSEN KQPA DEBHA HARRISON KQPA TOM HARRISON KQPA JEFF HUTTER KXIS TOM HUTTER KXIS ELVINA JAMA KQNE KIMI KATOHASHI KQHU KIMI KATOHASHI KQHU MIRACLE A. LARKINS KQHI CAROL LEACH KQPA PRESTON LEPHAUT KATI SCOTT LINDSAY KQPA SCOTT LINDSAY KQPA JAMES O'NEAL KQHN STEVE PAOLE KQNE DON PETERS KZTG MIKE PRESTON KXQU JIM RICHARDS KXQU BILLY RICHARDS KXQU RICK RICHARDS KXQU RDR SHERWOOD KQHU MICHAEL SHISHIDO KJAC BRIAN THOMAS KQAH PAUL THOMAS KQPA DAVE VAN STONE KQHS JOHN VAN STOKER KQHU GREG WILLIAMS KQSU OAT ZAPPELIN KQUG Listening Is Discovering delivers the ears that help you deliver the hits. Call Alan Smith at (301) 964-5544. Find out how AIR can work for you! WEEK 7 AIR Response Records Listen to the selections listed below. Decide if each has the potential to be Top 25 in the R&R National Airplay Chart. Then, call in your response to AIR at (301) 964-5544. All responses must be in the AIR offices by 6PM, Wednesday, February 1, 1984. \| # \| TITLE \| ARTIST \| LABEL \| \|-----\|---------------------\|-------------------------\|-----------\| \| 2129\| DON'T LET GO \| WANG CHUNG \| GEFFEN \| \| 2130\| HOLD ME NOW \| THOMPSON TWINS \| ARISTA \| \| 2131\| SHE'S TROUBLE \| MUSICAL YOUTH \| MCA \| \| 2132\| FIRE IN THE WIRE \| THE BREAKS \| RCA \| \| 2133\| ONE MILLION KISSES \| RUFUS & CHAKA KHAN \| WARNER BROS. \| Chart reprinted by permission. AIR is not affiliated with R&R. "BACK WHERE YOU BELONG" BELONGS ON THE RADIO WPHD WZYP G100 WGRD WRKR KYNO-FM WFBG WERZ 95XIL WCAU-FM WQUT KBFM WZPL WRQN KLUC WZON WZYQ WJBQ CFTR WOKI KX104 WJXQ WHOT KO93 WIGY WOCM WOMP-FM CHUM WFMI KROK KJ103 KBBK KSKD WIKZ OK100 WSQV 94Q Z93 KQIZ-FM KHTR KMJK WISE WFLY WJAD WVSR WCGQ K104 KISR WYCR Q104 WKEE WYKS WLAN-FM KTDY WHFM Q101 WGFM WPFM WKFM WXLK WRCK WIXV WKRZ-FM WHSL WBQQ KYTN WSSX WAZY-FM WSKZ WSPT WNOK-FM KFMW WZLD KGOT WDQQ KCDQ WANS-FM KGHO KOZE KDZA "BACK WHERE YOU BELONG" – THE SECOND SMASH FROM 38 SPECIAL'S TOUR DE FORCE BILLBOARD ALBUM CHART 22 SEE 38 SPECIAL ON THEIR "TOUR DE FORCE" TOUR WITH SPECIAL GUESTS HUEY LEWIS AND THE NEWS. 1/25 Birmingham, ALA 2/5 Annapolis, MD 2/17 Pittsburgh, PA 1/27 Asheville, NC 2/7 Glens Falls, NY 2/18 Roanoke, VA 1/28 Fayetteville, NC 2/8 Binghamton, NY 2/20 Williamsport, PA 1/29 Columbia, SC 2/10 Toronto, Ontario 2/21 Columbus, OH 2/1 Norfolk, VA 2/12 Portland, ME 2/23 Louisville, KY 2/2 Baltimore, MD 2/14 Worcester MA 2/24 Charleston, W. VA 2/4 New Haven, CT 2/16 Hershey, PA 2/25 Philadelphia, PA MANAGEMENT: THE MARK SPECTOR COMPANY PRODUCED AND ENGINEERED BY RODNEY MILLS CO-PRODUCED BY DON BARNES AND JEFF CARLISI ON A&M RECORDS AND CASSETTES © 1984 A&M RECORDS, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. ## Contemporary Hit Radio \| Rank \| Artist \| Title \| Label \| \|------\|-------------------------------\|--------------------------------\|----------------\| \| 1 \| CULTURE CLUB \| Karma Chameleon \| Virgin/Epic \| \| 2 \| GENESIS \| That's All \| Atlantic \| \| 3 \| YES \| Owner Of A Lonely Heart \| Atco \| \| 4 \| LIONEL RICHIE \| Running With The Night \| Motown \| \| 5 \| ROMANTICS \| Talking In Your Sleep \| Nemporor/CBS \| \| 6 \| CHRISTOPHER CROSS \| Think/Of Laura \| WB \| \| 7 \| KOOL & THE GANG \| Joanna \| De-Lite/PG \| \| 8 \| MICHAEL JACKSON \| Thriller \| Epic \| \| 9 \| JOHN COUGAR MELLENCAMP \| Pink Houses \| Riva/PG \| \| 10 \| RAY PARKER JR. \| I Still Can't Get Over Loving You \| Arista \| \| 11 \| VAN HALEN \| Jump \| WB \| \| 12 \| BILLY JOEL \| An Innocent Man \| Columbia \| \| 13 \| ELTON JOHN \| I Guess That's Why They Call It The Blues \| Geffen \| \| 14 \| POLICE \| Wrapped Around Your Finger \| A&M \| \| 15 \| MATTHEW WILDER \| Break My Stride \| Private I/CBS \| \| 16 \| PRETENDERS \| Middle Of The Road \| Sire/WB \| \| 17 \| MADONNA \| Holiday \| Sire/WB \| \| 18 \| NENA \| 99 Luftballons \| 99 Red Balloons \| Epic \| \| 19 \| SHANNON \| Let The Music Play \| Mirage/Atco \| \| 20 \| PAUL McCARTNEY \| So Bad \| Columbia \| \| 21 \| J. INGRAM \| Yah Mo B There \| Qwest/WB \| \| 22 \| STEVIE NICKS \| With S. STEWART \| Modern/Atco \| \| 23 \| JOHN LENNON \| Nobody Told Me \| Polydor/PG \| \| 24 \| OLIVIA NEWTON-JOHN \| Twist Of Fate \| MCA \| \| 25 \| CYNDI LAUPER \| Girls Just Want To Have Fun \| Portrait/CBS \| \| 26 \| REAL LIFE \| Send Me An Angel \| Curb/MCA \| \| 27 \| P. McCARTNEY and M. JACKSON \| Say Say Say \| Columbia \| \| 28 \| DURAN DURAN \| New Moon On Monday \| Capitol \| \| 29 \| DEBORAH ALLEN \| Baby I Lied \| RCA \| \| 30 \| DURAN DURAN \| Union Of The Snake \| Capitol \| \| 31 \| HUEY LEWIS & THE NEWS \| Want A New Drug \| Chrysalis \| \| 32 \| BARRY MANILOW \| Read 'Em And Weep \| Arista \| \| 33 \| MOTELS \| Remember The Nights \| Capitol \| \| 34 \| IRENE CARA \| The Dream (Hold On To Your...) \| Network/Geffen \| \| 35 \| QUIET RIOT \| Bang Your Head \| Metal Health \| \| 36 \| DeBARGE \| Time Will Reveal \| Gordy/Motown \| \| 37 \| JEFFREY OSBORNE \| Stay With Me Tonight \| A&M \| \| 38 \| 38 SPECIAL \| If I'd Been The One \| A&M \| \| 39 \| KENNY ROGERS \| This Woman \| RCA \| \| 40 \| CHRISTINE McVIE \| Got A Hold On Me \| WB \| ## Black/Urban \| Rank \| Artist \| Title \| Label \| \|------\|-------------------------------\|--------------------------------\|----------------\| \| 1 \| PATTI LABELLE \| If Only You Knew \| Phil. Int./CBS \| \| 2 \| J. INGRAM w/M. McDONALD \| Yah Mo B... \| Qwest/WB \| \| 3 \| CHERYL LYNN \| Encore \| Columbia \| \| 4 \| "D" TRAIN \| Something's On Your Mind \| Prelude \| \| 5 \| LIONEL RICHIE \| Running With The Night \| Motown \| \| 6 \| SHANNON \| Let The Music Play \| Mirage/Atco \| \| 7 \| EVELYN "CHAMPAGNE" KING \| Action \| RCA \| \| 8 \| LUTHER VANDROSS \| I'll Let You Slide \| Epic \| \| 9 \| DAZZ BAND \| Joystick \| Motown \| \| 10 \| DEELE \| Body Talk \| Solar/Elektra \| \| 11 \| J. BLACKFOOT \| Taxi \| Sound Town/Allegiance \| \| 12 \| KOOL & THE GANG \| Joanna \| De-Lite/PG \| \| 13 \| PIECES OF A DREAM \| Fo-Fi-Fi \| Elektra \| \| 14 \| JEFFREY OSBORNE \| Plane Love \| A&M \| \| 15 \| ANGELA BOFILL \| I'm On Your Side \| Arista \| \| 16 \| DREAMBOY \| Don't Go \| Qwest/WB \| \| 17 \| JENNIFER HOLLIDAY \| Just Let Me Wait \| Geffen \| \| 18 \| R. JAMES & S. ROBINSON \| Ebony Eyes \| Gordy/Motown \| \| 19 \| ANITA BAKER \| You're The Best Thing Yet \| Beverly Glen \| \| 20 \| RUN D.M.C. \| Hard Times \| Profile \| \| 21 \| MUSICAL YOUTH \| She's Trouble \| MCA \| \| 22 \| HERBIE HANCOCK \| Autodrive \| Columbia \| \| 23 \| HOWARD JOHNSTON \| Let's Take Time Out \| A&M \| \| 24 \| RON BANKS \| Make It Easy On Yourself \| CBS \| \| 25 \| PHILIPPY WYNNE \| Wait Until Tomorrow \| Fantasy \| \| 26 \| TWILIGHT \| 22 \| Electric Kingdom \| Vanguard \| \| 27 \| MELBA MOORE \| Livin' For Your Love \| Capitol \| \| 28 \| RAY PARKER JR. \| I Still Can't Get Over Loving... \| Arista \| \| 29 \| EARTH, WIND & FIRE \| Touch \| Columbia \| \| 30 \| DONNA SUMMER \| Love Has A Mind... \| Polydor/PG \| \| 31 \| JENNY BURTON \| Remember What You Like \| Atlantic \| \| 32 \| JUNIOR/Unison \| \| Casablanca/PG \| \| 33 \| ROCKWELL \| Somebody's Watching Me \| Motown \| \| 34 \| P. BRYSON/R. FLACK \| You're Looking... \| Capitol \| \| 35 \| PHILIP BAILEY \| Trapped \| Columbia \| \| 36 \| TEENA MARIE \| Midnight Magnet \| Epic \| \| 37 \| GRANDMIXER D.ST. \| Crazy Cuts \| Island/Atco \| \| 38 \| STEVE ARRINGTON'S HALL \| Hump To The... \| Atlantic \| \| 39 \| TINA TURNER \| Let's Stay Together \| Capitol \| \| 40 \| DIANA ROSS \| Let's Go Up \| RCA \|
ELECTRONIC TECHNICIAN / DEALER WORLD'S LARGEST TV-RADIO SERVICE & SALES CIRCULATION JANUARY 1970 A HARDCOURT BRACE & WORLD PUBLICATION TEKLAB REPORT ON ZENITH ROTATOR MAINTENANCE TWO WAY RADIO ON THE GO The absolute end of an old fear. The new B&K Sweep/Marker Generator does for TV sets what no other instrument or instruments can do. It makes alignment of color, as well as black & white TV, simpler and easier than ever. Remember all your old fears about TV alignment (especially color)? Well, now you can forget them! In the past, a marker generator and a separate sweep generator were used with a marker adder and a bias supply. All four of these now are combined in one easy-to-use instrument. (We've made benchwork so much simpler by doing away with the need for hooking together a lot of cables and costly instruments.) The Sweep/Marker Generator is both an instrument and a guide. As a guide, the bandpass and chroma bandpass curves are visually reproduced and the individual markers are clearly indicated by lights—right on the front panel—for quick, easy reference. As an instrument, the Sweep/Marker Generator not only generates the marker frequencies (all crystal controlled), but also sweeps the chroma bandpass, TV-IF, and FM-IF frequencies. See it soon at your B&K distributor or write us for advance information on the product that makes TV alignment procedures of old a fearless operation: simple, fast, accurate. The new Sweep/Marker Generator, Model 415, Net: $399.95 New B&K Sweep/Marker Generator. ...for more details circle 102 on Reader Service Card ## Schematic No. \| Manufacturer \| Model \| Chassis \| Description \| \|--------------\|-------\|---------\|-------------\| \| ADMIRAL \| 1273 \| NA1-1A \| TV Chassis \| \| OLYMPIC \| 1275 \| 9P44/9P45/9P46/9PS4 \| TV Models \| \| AIRLINE \| 1274 \| GEN-111 60A \| TV Model \| \| RCA VICTOR \| 1270 \| KCS178 Series \| TV Chassis \| \| MAGNAVOX \| 1271 \| T939 \| Color TV Chassis \| ## Symbol Description \| Symbol \| Description \| Part No. \| \|--------\|-------------\|----------\| \| C101A \| 4 section, electrolytic, 250µF, 200V \| 129099 \| \| C101B \| 10µF, 175v \| 129098 \| \| C101C \| 50µF, 175v \| 129099 \| \| C101D \| 10µF, 150v \| 129098 \| \| C226 \| 100µF, 250v, 500V, NPO cer \| 108235 \| \| C281 \| 88µF, 20v, 500V, NPO cer \| 108232 \| \| L101 \| 10µH \| 10415 \| \| L202 \| AGC \| 124315 \| \| L203 \| 470µH \| 124271 \| \| L204 \| 20µH \| 124268 \| \| L207 \| stabilizer \| 114486 \| \| L310 \| 1µH \| 124272 \| \| R112 \| 39Ω, 5%, 10w WW \| 124272 \| \| R228 \| control, contrast, vert/horiz \| 121222 \| \| R257 \| control, vert size \| 121223 \| \| R260 \| 10kΩ \| 121224 \| \| R271 \| 82k Ω, 1/2w film \| 123094 \| \| R8181 \| therm fuse, 0.38Ω, 1.1A \| 124283 \| \| T108 \| 1N4001 \| 124284 \| \| T103 \| vert output \| 127812 \| \| T201 \| audio output \| 124276 \| \| T202 \| sound, IF \| 118411 \| \| T203 \| IF \| 118410 \| \| T204 \| 47.25MHz trsp \| 113087 \| \| T205 \| video IF \| 113087 \| \| mercury — lamp config \| 113085 \| \| VHF tuner, KRK 148A \| 124256 \| \| UHF tuner, KRK 152A \| 124256 \| ## Notes - All resistance values are in ohms. - All capacitance values less than 10 µF are in µF, except as indicated. - All resistors are 1/4 watt, except as indicated. - Inductors 5Ω. MAGNAVOX Color TV Chassis T939 COMPLETE MANUFACTURERS' CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS AND TECHNICAL INFORMATION FOR 6 NEW SETS JANUARY • 1970 TEKFAX ELECTRONIC TECHNICIAN / DEALER 1271 COPYRIGHT 1970 BY ELECTRONIC TECHNICIAN/DEALER • HARBRACE BUILDING, DULUTH, MINNESOTA 55802 MAGNAVOX Color TV Chassis T939 VHF TUNER LAYOUT NOTES: 1. RESISTOR VALUES ARE WITHIN 5%. 2. OFF BOARD. 3. USE WITH 4000 SERIES TUBES ONLY. 4. USE WITH 4000 SERIES TUBES ONLY. 5. USE WITH 4000 SERIES TUBES ONLY. 6. USE WITH 4000 SERIES TUBES ONLY. 7. USE WITH 4000 SERIES TUBES ONLY. 8. USE WITH 4000 SERIES TUBES ONLY. 9. USE WITH 4000 SERIES TUBES ONLY. 10. USE WITH 4000 SERIES TUBES ONLY. 11. USE WITH 4000 SERIES TUBES ONLY. 12. USE WITH 4000 SERIES TUBES ONLY. 13. USE WITH 4000 SERIES TUBES ONLY. 14. USE WITH 4000 SERIES TUBES ONLY. 15. USE WITH 4000 SERIES TUBES ONLY. 16. USE WITH 4000 SERIES TUBES ONLY. 17. USE WITH 4000 SERIES TUBES ONLY. 18. USE WITH 4000 SERIES TUBES ONLY. 19. USE WITH 4000 SERIES TUBES ONLY. 20. USE WITH 4000 SERIES TUBES ONLY. 21. USE WITH 4000 SERIES TUBES ONLY. 22. USE WITH 4000 SERIES TUBES ONLY. 23. USE WITH 4000 SERIES TUBES ONLY. 24. USE WITH 4000 SERIES TUBES ONLY. 25. USE WITH 4000 SERIES TUBES ONLY. 26. USE WITH 4000 SERIES TUBES ONLY. 27. USE WITH 4000 SERIES TUBES ONLY. 28. USE WITH 4000 SERIES TUBES ONLY. 29. USE WITH 4000 SERIES TUBES ONLY. 30. USE WITH 4000 SERIES TUBES ONLY. 31. USE WITH 4000 SERIES TUBES ONLY. 32. USE WITH 4000 SERIES TUBES ONLY. 33. USE WITH 4000 SERIES TUBES ONLY. 34. USE WITH 4000 SERIES TUBES ONLY. 35. USE WITH 4000 SERIES TUBES ONLY. 36. USE WITH 4000 SERIES TUBES ONLY. 37. USE WITH 4000 SERIES TUBES ONLY. 38. USE WITH 4000 SERIES TUBES ONLY. 39. USE WITH 4000 SERIES TUBES ONLY. 40. USE WITH 4000 SERIES TUBES ONLY. 41. USE WITH 4000 SERIES TUBES ONLY. 42. USE WITH 4000 SERIES TUBES ONLY. 43. USE WITH 4000 SERIES TUBES ONLY. 44. USE WITH 4000 SERIES TUBES ONLY. 45. USE WITH 4000 SERIES TUBES ONLY. 46. USE WITH 4000 SERIES TUBES ONLY. 47. USE WITH 4000 SERIES TUBES ONLY. 48. USE WITH 4000 SERIES TUBES ONLY. 49. USE WITH 4000 SERIES TUBES ONLY. 50. USE WITH 4000 SERIES TUBES ONLY. 51. USE WITH 4000 SERIES TUBES ONLY. COPYRIGHT 1970 BY ELECTRONIC TECHNICIAN/DEALER • HARBRACE BUILDING, DULUTH, MINNESOTA 55802 ## COMPLETE MANUFACTURERS' CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS AND TECHNICAL INFORMATION FOR 6 NEW SETS ### JANUARY • 1970 #### UHF TUNER 2094E2-2 EXTERNAL VHF ANT. INPUT MONOPOLE VHF ANTENNA VHF TUNER 2094E1-2 --- ### SIGNAL PRECISION WIRED SYSTEM \| SYMBOL \| DESCRIPTION \| ADMIRAL PART NO. \| \|--------\|-------------\|------------------\| \| R220 \| 100K bright control \| 2075886-76 \| \| R321 \| 500K contrast control \| 2075889-77 \| \| R41 \| 50K volume control W/SW01,802 \| 2075886-78 \| \| R422 \| 10K, 1% 5% 1/4w \| 60828-8 \| \| R424 \| 8.8K, 1%, 1/4w \| 60828-8 \| \| R608 \| 5K vert hold control \| 2075889-74 \| \| R609 \| 5K horiz hold control \| 2075889-75 \| \| R610 \| 5K vert lin control \| 2075889-75 \| \| R615 \| 5K bias control \| 2075889-75 \| \| R704 \| 5K horiz \| 2075889-71 \| \| R710 \| 5K horiz hold control \| 2075889-72 \| \| R805 \| 5K B plus control \| 2075886-70 \| \| R806 \| 1000G1 B plus control \| 2075886-70 \| \| R809 \| 4.7K, 10%, 1/4w \| 60828-11 \| \| T1041 \| Transistor \| 2061845-39 \| \| T1042 \| Transistor \| 2061845-10 \| \| C016 \| 100uF 10v elect \| 2087864-69 \| \| C009 \| 500uF 10v elect \| 2087864-80 \| \| C010 \| 100uF 10v elect \| 2087864-83 \| \| C722 \| C723 - 500uF, 7.5kv \| 2068812-154 \| \| L281 \| 47.25MHz trap coil \| 2073872-89 \| \| L282 \| 100.25MHz trap coil \| 2073872-87 \| \| L288 \| 100MHz trap coil \| 2073872-75 \| \| L308 \| 100MHz trap coil \| 2073872-88 \| \| L311 \| 300uH peak coil \| 2073872-72 \| \| L312 \| 470uH peak coil \| 2073872-73 \| \| L313 \| 300uH peak coil \| 2073872-77 \| \| L701 \| horiz stability coil \| 2073872-76 \| \| T601 \| vert osc xformer \| 207942-3 \| \| T701 \| horiz osc xformer \| 209443-2 \| \| T702 \| horiz drive xformer \| 207842-2 \| \| T703 \| horiz drive xformer \| 207842-4 \| \| T801 \| power xformer \| 2080C1-9 \| \| D1 \| video det diode \| 208311-1 \| \| D4 \| noise gate diode \| 83B41-2 \| \| D5 \| noise gate diode \| 83B41-2 \| \| D6 \| noise gate diode \| 83B38-1 \| \| D12 \| osc protector \| 93B38-1 \| \| D13 \| boost rectifier \| 2083841-32 \| \| F801 \| 75A fuse \| 2084A1-2 \| \| F802 \| 10A fuse \| 2084A1-1 \| \| UHF tuner \| VHF tuner \| 2094E2-2 \| --- ### POWER PRECISION WIRED SYSTEM \| SYMBOL \| DESCRIPTION \| ADMIRAL PART NO. \| \|--------\|-------------\|------------------\| \| 2SC466 \| VHF MIXER \| 2SC466 \| \| 2SC466 \| VHF OSC \| 2SC466 \| \| 2SC682 \| 1ST IF \| 2SC682 \| \| 2SC682 \| END IF \| 2SC682 \| \| 2SC464 \| 1ST VIDEO \| 2SC464 \| \| 2SA351 \| END VIDEO \| 2SA351 \| \| 2SB37 \| SERIES REGULATOR \| 2SB37 \| \| 2SC281 \| VERT. OSCI \| 2SC281 \| \| 2SC281 \| VERT. DRIVE \| 2SC281 \| \| 2SC281 \| VERT. OUTPUT \| 2SC281 \| \| 2SA12 \| HORIZ. OSCI \| 2SA12 \| \| 2SB468 \| HORIZ. DRIVE \| 2SB468 \| \| 2SB155 \| HORIZ. A.F.C. \| 2SB155 \| --- ### SCHEMATIC NOTES - CHARGING BOND - RESISTOR VALUES 9% 10% CAPACITOR VALUES IN uF UNLESS OTHERWISE INDICATED. - DC VOLTAGE & WAVEFORMS ARE MEASURED AT 120V AC LINE WITH RESPECT TO CHASSIS GROUND WITH STRONG CHANNEL INPUT. --- COPYRIGHT 1970 BY ELECTRONIC TECHNICIAN/DEALER • HARBRACE BUILDING, DULUTH, MINNESOTA 55802 $9.75 TUNER SERVICE CORPORATION PROVIDES YOU WITH A COMPLETE SERVICE FOR ALL YOUR TELEVISION TUNER REQUIREMENTS AT ONE PRICE. TUNER REPAIR VHF Or UHF Any Type $9.75. In this price all parts are included. Tubes are charged at cost. 24 hour service at our conveniently located service centers. 1 year guarantee backed up by the largest tuner manufacturer in the U.S.—SARKES TARZIAN INC. All tuners are cleaned inside and out, repaired, realigned and air tested. TUNER REPLACEMENT Replacement Tuner $9.75. This price buys you a complete new tuner built specifically by SARKES TARZIAN INC. for this purpose. The price is the same for every type of universal replacement tuner. Specify heater type Parallel 6.3V Series 450 mA Series 600 mA All shafts have the same length of 12”. Characteristics are: Memory Fine Tuning UHF Plug In Universal Mounting Hi-Gain Lo-Noise If you prefer we’ll customize this tuner for you. The price will be $18.25. Send in original tuner for comparison purposes to our office in INDIANAPOLIS, INDIANA. TUNER SERVICE CORPORATION FACTORY-SUPERVISED TUNER SERVICE MIDWEST . . . . 817 N. PENNSYLVANIA ST., Indianapolis, Indiana . . . . TEL: 317-632-3493 (East Office) EAST . . . . 547-49 TONNELE AVE., Jersey City, New Jersey . . . . TEL: 201-792-3730 SOUTH-EAST . . . . 938 GORDON ST., S. W., Atlanta, Georgia . . . . TEL: 404-758-2232 WEST . . . . SARKES TARZIAN, Inc. TUNER SERVICE DIVISION 10654 MAGNOLIA BLVD., North Hollywood, California . . . . TEL: 213-769-2720 ... for more details circle 136 on Reader Service Card The Benchtop Organizer. Mallobin™. The smartest way to buy components... in this sturdy, stackable plastic case with partitioned drawers that keep parts where they belong. Indexed for instant access. Instant inventory. The Mallobin you see here contains a popular assortment of our quality MTA capacitors. But that's just the beginning. We have others. There's one containing an assortment of 2-watt MOL resistors with ranges from 33 ohms to 56K ohms. Another contains MTV molded aluminum electrolytic capacitors with values from 750 mfd at 6 WVDC to 100 mfd at 50 WVDC. And there are many other cases which contain either GP, PVC, TT or TC capacitors. There are Mallobins for carbon and wirewound controls, too. Each with a wide range of popular values. The choice is yours. But whichever you choose, you will find your Mallobin has a popular assortment of values that should satisfy all your component needs. Remember the name Mallobin next time you're thinking of buying components. They're available from your local Mallory dealer. MALLORY DISTRIBUTOR PRODUCTS COMPANY a division of P. R. MALLORY & CO., INC. Box 1058, Indianapolis, Indiana 46206; Telephone: 317-636-5363 Batteries Capacitors Controls • Resistors • Semiconductors • Switches • Sonalert® • Timers • Vibrators • ICs • Cassette Tapes ...for more details circle 123 on Reader Service Card TEKLAB REPORT This month's study will cover the new Zenith color TV chassis 12A12C52, complete with circuit description and diagrams. ROTATOR MAINTENANCE Part two concludes this informative series with a practical breakdown of individual rotator systems and procedures for field adjustments. TEST INSTRUMENT REVIEW Part three and the conclusion of this timely, informative feature starts with FET testers and ends with a complete listing of test instrument manufacturers. TWO-WAY RADIO ON THE GO By Leo Sands. Part three of this series describes up-to-date servicing techniques for the modular and IC type circuits. Most of the information is devoted to practical testing and troubleshooting of special importance to communication technicians. TESTLAB REPORT ON LECTROTECH'S MODEL TO-50 Our lab technicians evaluate Lectrotech's Model TO-50 solid state Oscilloscope/Vectorscope and the Weston Model 166 Instrument Calibrator. \| Page \| Content \| \|------\|---------\| \| 22 \| EDITOR'S MEMO \| \| 26 \| NEW PRODUCTS \| \| 30 \| LETTERS TO THE EDITOR \| \| 40 \| TECHNICAL DIGEST \| \| 44 \| COLORFAX \| \| 83 \| DEALER SHOWCASE \| \| 85 \| CATALOGS AND BULLETINS \| \| 88 \| AD INDEX \| COVER This month's exciting cover shows a silicon ingot which is sliced to microscopic proportions and processed to form integrated (IC) circuits. The photo was furnished by Ed Rittershaus and Bill Preiss of Motorola, Semiconductor Products Division. TEKFAX • 16 PAGES OF THE LATEST SCHEMATICS • Group 209 ADMIRAL: TV Chassis NA1-1A AIRLINE: TV Model GEN-11160A MAGNAVOX: Color TV Chassis T939 OLYMPIC: TV Models 9P44/9P45/9P46/9P54 RCA VICTOR: TV Chassis KCS178 Series ZENITH: Color TV Chassis 12A10C15 HARBRACE PUBLICATIONS, INC. ELECTRONIC TECHNICIAN/DEALER is published monthly by Electronics Technician, Inc., a subsidiary of Harbrace Publications, Inc. Corporate Offices: 757 Third Avenue, New York, New York 10017. Advertising Offices: 43 East Ohio Street, Chicago, Illinois 60611 and 757 Third Avenue, New York, New York 10017. Editorial, Accounting and Circulation Offices: Harbrace Building, Duluth, Minnesota 55802. Subscription rates: One year $5, two years $8, three years $10, in the United States and Canada. Other countries: one year $9, two years $14, three years $18. Single copies 75¢ in the U.S. and Canada; all other countries: $2. Second class postage paid at Dansville, New York 14437 and at additional mailing offices. Copyright 1970 by Electronics Technician, Inc. POSTMASTER: Send form 3579 to ELECTRONIC TECHNICIAN/DEALER, Harbrace Building, Duluth, Minnesota 55802. Experience: the invisible ingredient. With all the fancy names and gimmick claims, it's tough to weed through brand after brand of aerosol products today and really know which one is best. One very important guideline is experience. GC has been supplying chemical products for about forty years — aerosols, tubes, bottles, drums — a size and formula for every need. And we are manufacturers and fillers — not just selling agencies. Experience may be an invisible ingredient, but it's sure worth looking for. GC CHEMICALS THE ONLY AEROSOL CHEMICAL LINE THAT GIVES YOU EVERYTHING Look for our new Extra Dry Super Freeze Mist. Cools circuits three times faster than standard coolers. Leaves no liquid residue — absolutely non-toxic and odor-free — specifically designed to locate problem capacitors, transistors and oxidized joints by instantly cooling components. Cat No. 10-702 . . . 15-oz. Aerosol Can. NUVI-TRAN TUNER CLEANER For Critical Nuvistor and Transistor Circuitry. The non-toxic, non-drip, non-oxidizing cleaner, specifically formulated for sensitive nuvistor and transistor tuners. Cat. No. 5555 . . . 8-oz. Aerosol Can. ACTION The Silicone-Based Tuner Cleaner at a new low price. Fast-acting, easily applied, completely safe for plastics; silicone base provides long-lasting protection against dirt and corrosion. Cat. No. 99-06 . . . 8-oz. Aerosol Can. SPRA-LUBE Cleaner-Lubricant for Color TV Tuners. The non-drip cleaner and lubricant, for color TV tuners. Safely cleans away dirt, dust and oxidation. Uses NASA approved solvent. Cat. No. 8888 . . . 8-oz. Aerosol Can. Send for your free catalog. Write to . . . GC ELECTRONICS 400 SO. WYMAN ST., ROCKFORD, ILL. 61101 A DIVISION OF HYDROMETALS, INC . . . for more details circle 117 on Reader Service Card Rising Wages As one well known comedian puts it, "And away we go!" Off on another year of things that will be generally rising—skirts, maybe, taxes probably and wages certainly—along with the cost of just plain "being." A recent press release from the U.S. Department of Labor indicates that hour wage scales in the union building trades averaged $5.67 on the first of October 1969. The Bureau of Labor Statistics survey of seven major building trades in 100 cities across the country also showed upward scale adjustments in one-fifth of the 700 bargaining units which were studied in the third quarter of 1969. These revisions, from negotiations or earlier agreements, averaged 35 cents an hour and ranged from less than 10 cents to more than $1 an hour. Plumbers had the highest hourly scale at $6.38 an hour. Other journeyman trades averaged from $5.51 per hour for painters to $6.26 per hour for electricians. The rest of the average rate levels as of October 1, 1969 look like this: Bricklayers, $6.17. Carpenters, $5.92. Plasterers, $5.85. I guess we could all generally agree that these averages do not exactly reflect what a radio-TV service technician earns in a typical shop. In a comparison chart I received from a reader, shop-owner and member of a trade association, the average pay scales for technicians went like this: Black and white, and color technicians earned an average of $4.50 in the field and $5 for bench work in 1968. We haven't any available figures on the current averages, but from what we've been able to find out in talking to various service dealers, the average hasn't gone up much, if any. If anyone has any later figures or statistics, I'm sure our readers would be happy to hear of them. One thing is for sure—we can't all be plumbers. YOU AND ME, GEORGE! REGULAR TV HEROES, WITH THIS NEW BELDEN COAX! IT'S LIKE WE DISCOVERED THE MISSING LINK! Jacket Black all-weather PVC .030 nominal wall with a .242" nominal O.D. Dielectric Low loss cellular polyethylene, .180" nominal O.D. Conductor 18 AWG solid, annealed, bare copper. 8228 BELDEN DUOFOIL Drain Wires 4—28 AWG solid tinned copperweld conductors applied spirally and positioned uniformly around the circumference of the shield. Shield Belden DUOFOIL 100% shield is a polyester film with aluminum lamination on both outside surfaces. THE MISSING LINK TO PERFECT VHF AND UHF COLOR AND B/W RECEPTION BELDEN 8228 DUOFOIL® 75 OHM COAXIAL CABLE • 100% SHIELDED • 100% SWEEP TESTED LOW, LOW ATTENUATION \| mc \| db \| \|----\|----\| \| 50 \| 1.5 \| \| 100 \| 2.1 \| \| 200 \| 3.1 \| \| 300 \| 3.8 \| \| 400 \| 4.5 \| \| 500 \| 5.0 \| \| 600 \| 5.5 \| \| 700 \| 6.0 \| \| 800 \| 6.5 \| \| 900 \| 6.9 \| For MATV distribution systems, DUOFOIL is the finest coax yet. Its low loss, 100% shielding keeps B/W and color VHF and UHF signals pure. Apartment dwellers, hotel and motel tenants, etc.—even in congested areas—get sharp, clear reception. Its small diameter provides extra space savings in conduit installations. Is CATV coming into your area? DUOFOIL is the perfect underground drop cable. Its exceptional flexibility and moisture resistance assures extra-long service life, and preserves the impedance values of the cable design. Available in 100, 500 and 1000 ft. spools. See your local Belden Distributor for full details or to order. For a copy of the reprint article, "Electronic Cable," write: Belden Corporation, P.O. Box 5070-A, Chicago, Illinois 60680. Don't forget to ask them what else needs fixing? BELDEN ... for more details circle 104 on Reader Service Card Perfect fit: Econoline Van custom-designed to your job. CUSTOM-DESIGN YOUR VAN Your job may call for a one-of-its-kind van. You can get it in an Econoline, and all from one place—from your Ford Dealer. Sound impossible? Not for the man with better ideas. Your Ford Dealer can custom-design the Econoline’s interior into your kind of efficient working space, and it comes to you ready for work. WIDE CHOICE OF MODULAR UNITS Econoline modular units (like those shown above) are the answer. Components include: racks, adjustable shelf units, drawer units, cabinets, bins (both padded and plain), padded trays, tote trays, hanging baskets, book compartments, storage boxes, partitions, padded siderails, padded floor, equipment holders, ladder racks, and many more. These are not just parts and pieces, but a system of Econoline-engineered units designed to fit and work together. Constructed of heavy gauge steel with gray enamel finish, they bolt to floor and/or body pillars to become permanent yet movable parts of the van. Traveling showcase or workshop—you name it and it’s yours with the Ford Econoline. BETTER IDEAS EASE YOUR WORK However you design your van, you have all of Econoline’s basic better ideas going for you. Convenient outside front service center for quick-checking engine and related parts. Driver “walk-through” for easy access to the load compartment. More clear floorspace by 23% than any other van. Wide 5½-ft. stance for stability, yet a sharp 40-ft. turning diameter for maneuverability. And, of course, exclusive Twin-I-Beam independent front suspension for great durability, easy handling, low maintenance, long tire life. Because it is the one-of-its-kind van, you see more and more Econolines on all kinds of jobs. See how much more an Econoline Van can do for you—see your Ford Dealer. FORD ECONOLINE VANS ...for more details circle 116 on Reader Service Card ELECTRONIC TECHNICIAN/DEALER Engineered for outstanding reception—Zenith outdoor antennas for Color TV! The best color TV deserves the best antenna. And you can recommend and install Zenith antennas with confidence. For every Zenith antenna is electronically engineered for optimum reception in any signal area. For outstanding performance, Zenith-engineered antennas include: - Capacitor coupled cap-electronic VHF dipoles. - Tapered UHF grid driver. - Staggered square UHF directors. - Low-impedance, triple boom construction. - Gold-color alodized coating (to help antennas look better and last longer, with greater corrosion resistance and electrical conductivity). Your Zenith Distributor has the complete line of Zenith quality-engineered TV antennas and antenna accessories. His staff has the technical experience and knowledge of your area to recommend the best antenna for any installation. EXCITING SURPRISES FOR YOU—and Your Family! Get the details at your Zenith Distributor’s Parts Department. Why not sell the best ZENITH The quality goes in before the name goes on VOLTAGE REGULATOR 700 Provides steady voltage despite momentary line voltage variations A television voltage regulator designed to eliminate variations in color TV picture quality is introduced. Called the Colorvolt, the device will reportedly provide steady voltage to the TV set despite momentary voltage fluctuations. In addition, the unit will add life to the television set, because it will prevent damage to components caused by such fluctuations. The user merely plugs the unit into an electrical outlet, then plugs the television power cord into the Colorvolt. Voltage control is automatic and constant; picture values are not distorted; voltage is controlled before it reaches the set's circuitry. Suggested retail price is about $60. Sola. FOR MORE NEW PRODUCTS SEE PAGES 83 & 84 VHF RADIO 701 Automatically scans eight VHF channels Automatic monitoring on any combination of eight VHF channels is the feature of the newly introduced Monitoradio/Scanner. Push-button program control enables the operator to monitor his choice of crystal-controlled channels in the 148-174MHz band. Readout lights for each frequency show the process of the receiver's search for a transmitted signal. Upon finding an active signal, the radio locks on and receives the message. At end of transmission, the search for a return, or other signal, resumes immediately and automatically. Programming is accomplished by activating push buttons for any combination of the eight channels. This feature enables an operator to hear both sides of duplex or simulcast base/mobile networks. It also enables insertion of the 162.55MHz continuous carrier weather frequency crystal in the spectrum. The scanning device allows the monitor to hear a multitude of police, fire, civil defense, radio telephone and marine signals that would normally be missed on manually operated, crystal-controlled or tunable receivers. Plug-in crystals for any frequency within the band are readily available and easily installed. The radio is designed for 1/2μv sensitivity; 50dB at 15kHz selectivity and produces 5w of audio output at 1kHz. Rate of scan is measured at .06sec per channel. Designated Model TMR 8, the transistor receiver is delivered complete with built-in speaker and universal power supply cords for both 12vdc and 117vac operation. A removable telescope antenna and mobile mounting bracket are standard equipment. Standard auto antenna jack and external speaker terminals are located on the rear panel and the front panel contains a push button for automatic or manual operation as well as a push button for each of the eight channels. The entire package measures 2 1/4 x 5 1/2 x 7 1/2in. List price is $139. Regency. More than 5 million two-way transmitters have skyrocketed the demand for service men and field, system, and R & D engineers. Topnotch licensed experts can earn $12,000 a year or more. You can be your own boss, build your own company. And you don't need a college education to break in. How would you like to earn $5 to $7 an hour ... $200 to $300 a week ... $10,000 to $15,000 a year? One of your best chances today, especially if you don't have a college education, is in the field of two-way radio. Two-way radio is booming. Today there are more than five million two-way transmitters for police cars, fire trucks, taxis, planes, etc. and Citizen's Band uses—and the number is growing at the rate of 80,000 per month. This wildfire boom presents a solid gold opportunity for trained two-way radio service experts. Most of them are earning between $5,000 and $10,000 a year more than the average radio-TV repair man. Why You'll Earn Top Pay The reason is that the U.S. doesn't permit anyone to service two-way radio systems unless he is licensed by the FCC (Federal Communications Commission). And there aren't enough licensed experts to go around. This means that the available licensed expert can "write his own ticket" when it comes to earnings. Some work by the hour and usually charge at least $5.00 per hour, $7.50 on evenings and Sundays, plus travel expenses. Others charge each customer a monthly retainer fee, such as $20 a month for a base station and $7.50 for each mobile station. A survey showed that one man can easily maintain at least 15 base stations and 85 mobiles. This would add up to at least $12,000 a year. How to Get Started How do you break into the ranks of the big-money earners in two-way radio? This is probably the best way: 1. Without quitting your present job, learn enough about electronics fundamentals to pass the Government FCC License. Then get a job in a two-way radio service shop and "learn the ropes" of the business. 2. As soon as you've earned a reputation as an expert, there are several ways you can go. You can move out, and start signing up your own customers. You might become a franchised service representative of a big manufacturer and then start getting into two-way radio sales, where one sales contract might net you $5,000. Or you may be invited to move up into a high-prestige salaried job with one of the same manufacturers. The first step—mastering the fundamentals of Electronics in your spare time and getting your FCC License—can be easier than you think. Cleveland Institute of Electronics has been successfully teaching Electronics by mail for over thirty years. Right at home, in your spare time, you learn Electronics step by step. Our AUTO-PROGRAMMED® lessons and coaching by expert instructors make everything clear and easy, even for men who thought they were "poor learners." Your FCC License... or Your Money Back! By the time you've finished your CIE course, you'll be able to pass the FCC License Exam with ease. Better than nine out of ten CIE graduates are able to pass the FCC Exam, even though two out of three non-CIE men fail. This startling record of achievement makes possible our famous FCC License Warranty: you'll pass the FCC Exam upon completion of your course or your tuition will be refunded in full. Find out more. Mail the bound-in post-paid card for two FREE books, "How To Succeed In Electronics" and "How To Get A Commercial FCC License." If card has been detached, use coupon below. ENROLL UNDER NEW G.I. BILL All CIE courses are available under the new G.I. Bill. If you served on active duty since January 31, 1955, or are in service now, check box on card for G.I. Bill information. CIE Cleveland Institute of Electronics 1776 East 17th Street, Cleveland, Ohio 44114 Please send me without cost or obligation: 1. Your 44-page book "How To Succeed In Electronics" describing the job opportunities in Electronics today, and how your courses can prepare me for them. 2. Your book on "How To Get A Commercial FCC License." Name ___________________________ Age ________ (PLEASE PRINT) Address _______________________________________ City __________________ State ______ Zip ______ Accredited Member National Home Study Council ET-55 How to get into one of today's hottest money-making fields—servicing 2-way radios! He's flying high. Before he got his CIE training and FCC License, Ed Dulaney's only professional skill was as a commercial pilot engaged in crop dusting. Today he has his own two-way radio company, with seven full-time employees. "I am much better off financially, and really enjoy my work," he says. "I found my electronics lessons thorough and easy to understand. The CIE course was the best investment I ever made." Business is booming. August Gibbemeyer was in radio-TV repair work before studying with CIE. Now, he says, "we are in the marine and two-way radio business. Our trade has grown by leaps and bounds." A Friend in Need I'd like to thank Standard TV Company of St. Louis and Mr. W. E. Holtkamp, Sr., of Beaumont, Texas for information on the Candle TV Model MT-510. A friend of mine needs information on a Philco Electronic Circuit Master VTVM Model 7001. I'm passing on to him a subscription blank from ELECTRONIC TECHNICIAN/DEALER, also. His address is: Frank E. Comstock, 4922 Crawford St., Oxon Hill, Md. 20021. Thanks again for all your help and all the fine people who take the time and trouble to pass along information. E.J. CORS 170 Hylton Ave. Woodbridge, Va. 22191 Readers' Aid I have picked up a Meissmen Analyst and I would like to know if one of your readers has a monaural and operating instructions for it. I would be glad to pay a reasonable price for them. C.T. LANG 826 Hillcrest Ave. Council Bluffs, Iowa 51501 I have recently subscribed to your magazine and find it to be quite rewarding. Having exhausted all other sources of information without any luck, I thought that one of your readers could help me with my problem. I need a schematic for a Paco-Push-Pull Oscilloscope, Model S-50. I've been told that the company has been out of business for quite a while and no local suppliers carry their schematics. Any assistance with this will be greatly appreciated. I will be glad to defray the cost of any reader who can loan or sell me the schematic. DENNIS CHOLEZ 965-A San Pedro Avenue Morgan Hill, Calif. 95037 I need operational instructions and schematics for the following Superior Instruments Company test equipment: A multi-meter (volt-ohm-amp-capacitor), Model 670-A and a CRT tube tester, Model TV40. I will gladly defray the associated cost if one of your readers can supply me with the above information. DORSEY D. CROSS Route 3, Box 114D Denison, Texas 75020 Could an ELECTRONIC TECHNICIAN/DEALER reader help me on the following unit? I have a portable tape recorder made in Japan and sold by Martel here in L.A. I wrote the company for a schematic but, no luck. The serial number has been wiped off. The chassis number is E-610. DOYLE JONES 20105 Runnymede Canoga Park, Calif. 91306 I would appreciate it if one of your readers could supply me the schematics for the Supro Thunderbird bass guitar amplifier, Model No. S-6420, or the address of the manufacturer. I have the name Valco Guitars, Inc., Do you choose capacitors the same way Fran French and Lew Russell do? Then you’re sure to pick Sprague Twist-Lok® Capacitors when you need twist-prong electrolytics. Fran French and Lew Russell keep everything humming smoothly at Delaware Valley TV Service, Philadelphia, Pa. Fran, as Gen. Mgr., and Lew, as Shop Mgr., have had a lot to do with building this 13-man organization’s reputation as specialists in color TV. With 20 years’ TV servicing experience apiece, Fran and Lew agree about many things. One is twist-prong electrolytics. Both prefer Sprague Twist-Lok Capacitors for reliability and availability. Ask your Sprague distributor for a copy of Sprague’s Electrolytic Capacitor Replacement Manual K-109 or write to: Sprague Products Company, 65 Marshall St., North Adams, Mass. 01247. P.S. You can increase your business 7½% by participating in EIA’s “What else needs fixing?” program. Ask your distributor or write to us for details. but need the rest of the address. Any help will be appreciated. EARLE ARNOLD 16 Narragansett Ave. Jamestown, R.I. 02835 We have a citizen band transceiver manufactured by Alltone. It's a model SS-1 Space Spanner. We cannot locate the manufacturer or distributor to obtain a schematic. We would appreciate it if you could put this in your Letters to the Editor column. If there is any cost involved we would gladly defray it. Your fine magazine is a great help to us and we look forward to it every month. R. FETZER 22 Monaco Ave. Elmont, L.I., N.Y. 11003 About six months ago I bought a Simpson tube tester, Model 555 and wrote to Simpson for a new roll chart assembly and new chart. I received a reply that Simpson no longer stocks parts for this tester. Perhaps one of your readers would know where I can get one. Your magazine is one of the best electronics publications for the technician. BRUCE RITTENHOUSE 5469 Casper Detroit, Mich. 48210 I would like to buy a schematic and Instruction Manual for an electronic voltmeter-ohmmeter made by Electronic Designs, Model 100. OLAN R. FELIPE 2008 N. Humboldt Chicago, Ill. 60647 Finney Promotes Better Service Techs Your excellent editorial in reference to the extreme importance of increasing active membership in NATESA and NEA has been brought to my attention. May I congratulate you on the excellent material that you presented. And I am sure that your effort will be of material assistance. Castle, the pioneer of television tuner overhauling, offers the following services to solve ALL your television tuner problems. - OVERHAUL SERVICE — All makes and models. (1960, or later) - VHF or UHF tuner $9.95 - UHF-VHF combination (one piece chassis) $9.95 - TRANSISTOR tuner $9.95 - COLOR tuner $9.95 (Guaranteed color alignment... no additional charge) Overhaul includes parts, except tubes and transistors. Simply send us the defective tuner complete; include tubes, shield cover and any damaged parts with model number and complaint. Your tuner will be expertly overhauled and returned promptly, performance restored, aligned to original standards and warranted for 90 days. UV combination tuner must be single chassis type; dismantle tandem UHF and VHF tuners and send in the defective unit only. And remember—for over a decade Castle has been the leader in this specialized field... your assurance of the best in TV tuner overhauling. Remove ALL accessories, or dismantling charge will apply. - CUSTOM REPLACEMENTS Exact replacements are available for tuners that our inspection reveals are unfit for overhaul. As low as $12.95 exchange. (Replacements are new or rebuilt.) - UNIVERSAL REPLACEMENTS Prefer to do it yourself? Castle universal replacement tuners are available with the following specifications. \| STOCK No. \| HEATERS \| SHAFT Min.* \| Max.* \| I.F. Snd. \| Pic. \| PRICE \| \|-----------\|-------------\|-------------\|-------\|-----------\|------\|-------\| \| CR6P \| Parallel 6.3v \| 1¾" \| 3" \| 41.25 \| 45.75\| 8.95 \| \| CR7S \| Series 600mA \| 1¾" \| 3" \| 41.25 \| 45.75\| 9.50 \| \| CR9S \| Series 450mA \| 1¾" \| 3" \| 41.25 \| 45.75\| 9.50 \| \| CR6XL \| Parallel 6.3v \| 2½" \| 12" \| 41.25 \| 45.75\| 10.45 \| \| CR7XL \| Series 600mA \| 2½" \| 12" \| 41.25 \| 45.75\| 11.00 \| \| CR9XL \| Series 450mA \| 2½" \| 12" \| 41.25 \| 45.75\| 11.00 \| Selector shaft length measured from tuner front apron to extreme tip of shaft. These Castle replacement tuners are all equipped with memory fine tuning, UHF position with plug input for UHF tuner, rear shaft extension and switch for remote control motor drive... they come complete with hardware and component kit to adapt for use in thousands of popular TV receivers. Order universal replacements out of Main Plant (Chicago) only. CASTLE TV TUNER SERVICE, INC.* MAIN PLANT: 5713 N. Western Ave., Chicago, Illinois 60645 EAST: 41-92 Vernon Blvd., Long Island City, N.Y. 11101 ...for more details circle 107 on Reader Service Card in this important project. Possibly you do or do not know that our company (FINCO Antennas) has given both NATESA and NEA a strong, friendly challenge and objective this year. We have offered beautiful award-winning plaques for the most successful district, local chapter and individual in each of these outstanding organizations for the most successful accomplishment in obtaining new membership. We have supported this "plaque award" with an offer to each organization of a check for one thousand dollars ($1000) to be contributed to their treasury, if they obtain during this current year ending with their National Convention next year...one thousand (1000) new members. The offer, of course, is completely individual and by that we mean the offer of the plaques plus the $1000 award applies to either or both applies to either or both associations. It is our sincere hope that both NATESA and NEA will qualify for their award. We are hopeful that other liberal and interested national manufacturers will join us in this project by possibly adding funds to the "Accomplishment Award." In any event, The Finney Company is dedicated to the success, welfare and security of both NATESA and NEA (individually and collectively). We feel that the service industry is of vital importance to the manufacturers in the electronics industry and to the wholesale distributors in the electronics industry. We feel that it is through the efficient-aggressive execution of technical service in the field, that electronic products and their producers can be assured of product service and product reputation in the hands of the ultimate user. Thus, I extend to you the hand of friendship and congratulations on helping the service technician. MORRIS L. FINNEBURGH, E.H.F. Chairman of the Board The Finney Company Bedford, Ohio Likes CAT Game I want to comment on the CAT game which appeared in the October 1969 issue of ELECTRONIC TECHNICIAN/DEALER. This was really a good quiz. I was pleased with the article and certainly wish you would prepare more like it in the near future. BRIENO LAROCHE BOOK REVIEWS CB RADIO OPERATOR'S GUIDE by Bob Brown & Paul Lawrence, published by TAB Books, Inc., 224 pages. Hardbound, $6.95; softbound, $3.95. This book does a very acceptable job of letting the CB radio user in on the facts of citizens band two-way communications. It gives everything the reader wants to know and should know to get and keep his license. It also provides advice on what equipment to purchase and how to get the best out of it along with some pointers on antenna systems. There are 10 chapters in the book covering such subjects as installation, optimizing your station, troubleshooting, CB and public service and providing emergency assistance. The appendix includes the FCC rules, Canadian rules, a listing of the Class D channels and frequencies as well as those available for Part 15 walkie talkie operation. The RCA rotator has many features your customers won’t understand. It has one that everyone recognizes: the name, RCA. RCA engineers have produced the best in rotators. Beautiful, easy to operate control cabinets. Rugged, durable drive units. And they’re tested. Continuous operation life-tested, under conditions no rotator would ever encounter in normal use. The “extra feature” in every RCA rotator is the name . . . RCA. It’s the feature your customers recognize, rely upon. It’s taken over fifty years to build this kind of acceptance . . . acceptance that means more sales for you. V-block serrated clamping system locks mast securely. Reinforced shaft has nested "U" bolt. Center-position alignment markers speed installation. Stainless steel bearings are permanently lubricated. No external thrust bearings required. High-tensile aluminum housing is rugged, lightweight for less inertial loading on mast. High-temperature insulation on motor allows continuous operation. Main drive gear is cast integral to main shaft; can’t loosen. Positive disc brake on motor prevents "overshoot." Positive worm drive prevents windmilling. Overtravel clutch permits motor to run before load is engaged—for pre-turning momentum. High-efficiency motor consumes less power; less voltage drop over long cable runs. Model 10W707 The RCA fully automatic Rotator has solid state circuitry for positive synchronization. Positive directional indicator lights. Silent operation. Model 10W505 The RCA positive push-button fingertip control Rotator with 360° indicator dial. Unique design assures precise control with few moving parts. RCA performance and quality at a modest price! RCA \| Parts and Accessories \| Deptford, NJ Rotators \| Antennas \| Reception Aids \| Installation Hardware. ... for more details circle 129 on Reader Service Card This is 30,000 solid state replacement parts. So is this. It used to be if you wanted to satisfy everyone, you had to stock over 30,000 different solid state replacement parts. Well, everyone realized that was ridiculous. So some enterprising people came up with a bunch of universal replacements. Then you only had to stock about eleven or twelve hundred. That was a lot better, but we still thought it was a little ridiculous. So two years ago (when we went into this business), we figured out how to replace all 30,000 with only 60. Now all you have to do is stock 60 of our diodes, transistors, integrated circuits, etc., and you can replace any of the 30,000 parts now in use. Including all JEDEC types, manufacturers' part numbers, and foreign designs. That means you invest less money. You don't tie up valuable space. You do away with complicated inventory control. And you operate more efficiently. To make life even easier, we've got a new book that gives you all the cross references you need to figure out which part replaces which. It's available from your Sylvania distributor. If the whole thing sounds rather incredible, you're right. But why not give your distributor a call and let him narrow the incredibility gap. SYLVANIA GENERAL TELEPHONE & ELECTRONICS The only complete SWEEP & MARKER GENERATOR $395.00 (Lowest price going on a complete crystal controlled generator and marker combination) SENCORE SM152 SWEEP & MARKER ALL SOLID STATE-INSTANT ON FREE WITH YOUR SWEEP AND MARKER: 80 full color reproductions direct from Sencore technical training film clearly depicts alignment from beginning to end using SM152. Pictures are numbered so you can review a section at any time if you are in trouble. A 45 minute LP record direct from film clearly leads you all the way. Also packed with each SM152. Numbers are announced for each picture so you can review a section when necessary. SENCORE NO. 1 MANUFACTURER OF ELECTRONIC MAINTENANCE EQUIPMENT 426 SOUTH WESTGATE DRIVE, ADDISON, ILLINOIS 60101 FASTEST, EASIEST GENERATOR TO USE. ONLY THREE CONNECTIONS FOR ANY TEST. ONLY GENERATOR THAT GIVES YOU A COMPLETE IF, CHROMA, ALL CHANNEL VHF, UHF AND FM ALIGNMENT SIGNALS IN ONE UNIT complete IF SWEEP AND CRYSTAL CONTROLLED MARKERS View the complete IF response curve with full 15 MHz sweep width (competition has only 12 MHz, restricting view on RF and some solid state receivers that have extra traps). Press one or all of the crystal controlled marker push buttons without upsetting response curve. Post injection is used all the way to prevent overloading the TV receiver. Crystal markers are provided for all critical check points as shown on the response curve. Also sweeps 20 MHz IFs as found on older sets and new import color sets. Major competition does not cover these frequencies. Special spot align position converts the sweep generator to a regular signal generator for spot alignment or dipping odd traps. Only Sencore goes all the way. Note that Sencore has a base line giving you a reference to zero. Competitive models do not. complete CHROMA SWEEP AND CRYSTAL CONTROLLED CHROMA MARKERS You can inject the chroma signal directly into the chroma amplifiers as shown here or through the IF amplifiers for a flat response. You are equipped to follow manufacturer's recommendation either way. Injection directly into the chroma amplifiers is a must for fast trouble shooting of color circuits. complete ALIGNMENT SIGNALS FOR VHF TUNER OR OVERALL ALIGNMENT The SM152 sweeps all of the VHF channels for complete tuner check from channel 2 through 13. Competitive models sweep only two VHF channels. Push button markers are provided for channels 4, 5, 10 and 13 for both the video carrier and the sound carrier. The second low and high channels are available in case you have a station operating on the same channel... which will cause the patterns to be upset. You want to align on an unused channel and check it on the channel in operation for best results. Only Sencore goes all the way. complete UHF SWEEP FROM CHANNEL 14 THROUGH 82 After completely aligning a TV set, you'll want a complete check on the UHF tuner to be sure that it is operating on all channels. Markers aren't necessary as you just view the RF or over-all curve to see that the curve looks the same as the VHF and output remains reasonably constant. Only Sencore has UHF output; all new tuners are required to cover all UHF channels and you will come up short if you own any other alignment generator than the SM152. A UHF sweep generally costs hundreds of dollars more. complete FM SWEEP AND CRYSTAL CONTROLLED MARKERS You won't be stopped with just TV alignment. You can align the IF amplifiers of the FM receivers with the 10.7 MHz crystal for maximum as indicated in service manuals. Then, throw on the scope and sweep the amplifiers and view the "S" curve if you have stereo. Two markers, 100 KHz above and below the 10.7 MHz mark the limits of the curve for good stereo. You can align the front end of the receiver too. Competitive units cover only the IFs and you find the job only half done. There are other features too numerous to mention that makes the Sencore SM152 the most complete sweep and marker generator on the market. Ultra linear sweep from 10 MHz to 920 MHz, exclusive calibrated sweep width that is constant on all channels and RF calibrated output for circuit trouble shooting are only a few of the things that places the SM152 in a class by itself. Dare compare and you'll see your distributor today for a good look at the SM152. ...for more details circle 133 on Reader Service Card RCA VICTOR Color TV Chassis CTC38/CTC40—Gain Control of Transistor Stages RCA solid-state television chassis employ variable gain stages to regulate the amplitude of particular signals in the automatic chroma control circuit and the 1st and 2nd IF stages. A gain change is effected by varying the operating point (bias) of the transistor to be controlled. The transistors used in variable gain stages are especially chosen for a characteristic whereby the gain is a function of the collector-emitter current. The transistor characteristic curve shown illustrates that a stage using this type transistor will exhibit maximum gain at one particular value of collector current (Ic). On both sides of this maximum point, the gain diminishes, resulting in two modes of gain control—forward bias and reverse bias. Both of these systems of gain control are commonly used; the final choice is dependent upon other design considerations. The basic difference between a forward bias and a reverse bias gain control system is that the collector current of the amplifier stage in the forward bias mode is made to increase for a reduction of gain, and collector current is made to decrease in a reverse bias system. To understand the forward bias system it is first necessary to examine the transistor amplifier stage when it is at maximum gain. Under these conditions, the stage is designed to furnish a good impedance match to the transistor at its input and output terminals (R in and R out), and the operating current (Ic) is chosen to yield the highest gain. If the base bias of the transistor is increased, the collector current will increase, to a new level I2. The dotted line represents the new value of collector current (I2), and is accompanied by a substantial gain reduction. The cause of gain reduction is twofold: First, the internal gain of the transistor is lowered, and secondly, the input and output impedances (R in and R out) have been reduced thereby introducing mismatch of insertion loss. The forward bias control system is often used because the forward bias gain characteristic is more linear than the reverse current section of the curve. This does not mean however, that the reverse characteristics are undesirable. In fact many times it is advantageous to use the reverse bias system. When the nonlinearity of gain vs collector current is overcome by proper design, an advantage can be realized, in that gain reduction may be accomplished with a substantially smaller collector current change. This often results in simpler circuitry. ZENITH TV Chassis 22AB55—Horizontal Output Circuit Description The base of the horizontal output transistor is connected to the top of the secondary winding of the horizontal driver transformer. The bottom of the winding is returned to ground through resistor R240. Bypassing is provided by capacitor C217. The emitter of Q203 is returned directly to ground. The ferrite bead (L204) over the base and emitter leads, suppresses "spooks" generated by the rapid switching of the base-emitter junction. The collector is connected to the primary of the sweep transformer T205, the deflection yoke and the damper diode CR203. The lower winding (primary) of T205 is returned to 130v through R243. The primary winding of T205 and the deflection yoke are... BSR AUTOMATIC TURNTABLES A beautiful model promotionally priced for every purpose. All precision crafted in Great Britain by the world's largest maker of automatic turntables. BSR 5500T Another BSR winner for compact systems. Beautifully styled, quality made. Includes cartridge and base. $39.95* BSR Minichanger A total turntable ready to plug in and play. Bookshelf width. Ideal for compact equipment. Includes cartridge, base and dust cover. $39.95* BSR McDonald 300T An audiophile turntable yet volume priced. Includes Shure Hi-Track M75 type magnetic cartridge and base. $44.50* BSR 4700 Designed for promotion priced systems or replacement. Includes cartridge (less base). $29.95* * Suggested retail prices. Only Admiral gives you the color picture tube with built-in customer satisfaction. The exclusive Admiral 3-year warranty. Now Admiral offers all new Super-Brite color picture tubes with the exclusive Admiral 3-year warranty. This industry exclusive provides your customers with maximum satisfaction. Every Admiral Super-Brite color picture tube has Admiral-engineered thermal compensation for unexcelled color purity and the newest phosphors that give your customers clear, bright, sharp color pictures. Here's another Admiral exclusive: In model 25SP22 (25AP22), our engineers have developed a vacuum deposited thin-metallic film on the inside of the envelope to assure trouble-free operation and longer life. Admiral Super-Brite service color picture tubes aren't rebuilts. They're 100% brand new. From Admiral, producers of more rectangular color picture tube sizes than anybody in the world—the only one with the 3-year protection you asked for. Admiral Mueller Electric Co. 1575Y East 31st Street • Cleveland, Ohio 44114 ... for more details circle 125 on Reader Service Card ly negative. The undershoot appearing at the beginning of the negative portion of the square wave insures complete cut-off of the output transistor. As the transistor cuts off, the current previously developed collapses completely, resulting in a high collector voltage increase (1000v P-P). This high increase in voltage decays rapidly (end of retrace interval) and would tend to swing negative. However, at the beginning of the negative swing, the damper diode conducts, discharging the previously developed positive voltage appearing across the yoke and capacitor C220. The rapid voltage discharge results in a high increase of "negative" current through the yoke (beginning of scan at left edge). As the current decays back to zero, the beam is deflected to the center of the raster, where the output transistor takes over again, completing the cycle. Capacitor C222, in series with the yoke, maintains horizontal linearity. The positive pulses developed at the output transistor are stepped up by the tertiary winding of T205. The pulses are rectified by diode CR205 to provide the required 20kv second anode voltage for the picture tube. The bottom of the tertiary winding is returned to the junction of resistors R813 and R236 in the horizontal driver base circuit. In the event of picture tube arc-over, a negative pulse would appear at the base of the driver, cutting it and the output transistor off during the time duration of the arc. This circuit protects the output transistor from transient pulses coupled through the sweep transformer during the arc. The horizontal output transformer also contains windings to deliver negative going pulses to the AGC and horizontal AFC circuits. The winding terminating at the brown wire delivers 6.3v to the picture tube filament. Horizontal retrace blanking for the picture tube is achieved by coupling a negative going sweep pulse (the same one used by the AFC circuit) through R233 and a neon bulb (PL201) to the grid of the CRT. Diode CR204 (at the collector of Q203) rectifies the horizontal output collector pulses to provide the required dc voltages for the screen and focus elements of the picture tube. Filtering, after rectification, is provided by capacitor C218. When you charge your customer $137.00* for a replacement color picture tube, you'll want to be certain it was his tube that was defective... not your tester! You can be sure, if you use RCA's really reliable, all solid-state WT-509A to test for emission quality, interelectrode leakage, shorted elements... (WT-509A even includes an "activate" function to boost the performance of some low-emission tubes.) Along with the WT-509A, you get five test sockets, one of them a "universal" test adaptor — unique from RCA — that can be used with any type of tube or socket arrangement. Useful extra's: big, readable meter and a sturdy luggage-type carrying case with a handy storage compartment. Add this fact: the suggested retail price is only $118.00** See WT-509A at your Authorized RCA Test Equipment Distributor, or write RCA Commercial Engineering, Department 25X/A-205, 415 South Fifth Street, Harrison, New Jersey 07029. Optional List Price for RCA H-25XP22 Optional Distributor Resale Price Comments from our readers are always welcome. Address your letter to: The Editors Electronic Technician Harbrace Building Duluth, Minn. 55802 ...for more details circle 131 on Reader Service Card The material used in this section is selected from information supplied through the cooperation of the respective manufacturers' or their agencies. GENERAL ELECTRIC* Color TV Chassis H-1—Intermittent Hum Bar An intermittent hum bar in the 10 in. H-1 Color chassis receivers may be caused by a poor connection at the black ground lead from the vertical output transformer. On some sets, this lead is grounded at the same terminal board as the AC line choke. Poor contact with chassis ground because of a loose or stripped screw can cause AC to modulate the vertical sweep, producing intermittent hum in the picture. Move and solder this black ground lead to the lance located on the top right side of the high voltage transformer cage. The black lead from the convergence assembly is also connected to this point. Check the terminal board screw for tightness. If stripped, replace with a larger diameter screw or solder the lug and screw to the high voltage cage. Be careful not to change the lead dress or damage any wire insulation in this area while soldering. Etched Surface On Picture Tube Face-Plates Some television picture tubes, both color and monochrome, have etched face-plates to minimize glare and reflections. The etching process produces random microscopic depressions in the face-plate surface. If any foreign adhesive material becomes embedded in the depressions of the etched surface, it is virtually impossible to remove. This will cause light refractions which will be noticed principally on color programs. It is very important, therefore, that the following cautions be observed. Caution: Never stick tags, banners or labels to an etched face-plate with tape, glue or other means. In addition, never write or mark on the etched surface with any writing devices. These include wax crayons, felt-tipped marking pens and the common graphite pencils. Returning Tuners for Repairs We wish to stress the importance of proper handling of VHF tuners (and UHF Tuners) which you return for repairs. Improper or careless handling and packing of tuners means additional work for the repair service plus the possible introduction of extra defects, including intermittents. Therefore, in the interest of improving the quality and prompt return of tuners from the repair service, the following points should always be observed: (1) Clip all wires at feed-through capacitors. (Unsoldering frequently damages the feed-through capacitor.) (2) Do not clip IF line cables. Unsolder carefully to preserve the cable length and prevent damage to tuner feed-through. (Unsolder at tuner end.) Color TV Chassis KE—Obscure Problems Problem: 1. Grayish hum bar floating vertically at low brightness. Cure: Replace C201 and/or C202 (either may be open). 2. No video, vertical retrace lines, no audio (short surge of normal audio immediately after set is turned off). Cure: Replace C202 (shorted) 3. Horizontal bending or pulling, black floating hum bar. Cure: Replace C152 ("B" section open). continued on page 77 You're making money in electronics now. RCA offers 4 ways to make more. Study at home... set your own pace. RCA Institutes has an easy approach to bring you bigger earnings. COLOR TV During this course you'll perform over 50 experiments—and receive all parts and instructions to build your own color TV. The cost of the Color TV Kit is included in the tuition—in both the beginner's program and the advanced course in color TV servicing. Course is based on the latest receiver circuitry and equipment. TRANSISTORS Transistor circuitry is what the TV repairman must cope with in most receivers today. This course gives you the necessary background. You'll discover an easy way to an effective understanding of semiconductor technology, including characteristics of tunnel diodes, rectifiers and other solid state devices. Transistorized TV Receiver Kits also available. FCC LICENSE TRAINING Get your license—or your money back! We're that sure you'll succeed with RCA Institutes Home Study Training. Course is all new—both in content and in the up-to-date method of study. Choose the course for the FCC License you want: third, second or first phone. If you need basic training first, apply for the complete License Training Program. CATV TRAINING Technicians are in short supply in CATV (Community Antenna Television Systems). That's because CATV is expanding, as people seek better reception and more than local stations. You'll receive two comprehensive lessons, covering the practical phases of CATV systems in either the Television Servicing or Communications courses. WHEN YOU STUDY THROUGH RCA INSTITUTES HOME TRAINING, YOU CAN PAY FOR LESSONS AS YOU ORDER THEM, OR TAKE ADVANTAGE OF EASY MONTHLY PAYMENT PLAN. LICENSED BY NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT. APPROVED FOR VETERANS. ACCREDITED MEMBER NATIONAL HOME STUDY COUNCIL. "Mail the coupon now for complete information" RCA INSTITUTES, Inc., Dept. 225-001-0 320 West 31st Street, N.Y. 10001 Please rush me FREE illustrated catalog. I understand that I am under no obligation, and that no salesman will call. Name________________________________________Age________ (please print) Address__________________________________________ City_____________________________________________ State____________________ZIP_____________________ for more details circle 128 on Reader Service Card WINEGARD ANNOUNCES THE EASIEST TO INSTALL HOME TV OUTLET SYSTEM EVER! AND THE EASIEST TO SELL! It’s the easy to install part that helps make our Home TV Outlet System easy to sell. If you have your own installation men, it’s easy for them to install. And it’s almost as easy to install for do-it-yourselfers. You see, when we say we thought of everything, we mean everything—including a fully illustrated installation booklet that shows, step-by-step, how to install a Winegard Home TV Outlet System—easily! We’ve even thought of packaging that makes our System easier to sell. Great-looking, colorful, easy-to-carry-home packaging that contains everything! There’s another reason why our System is easy to sell. The price. Under $100. Which is way under any other system around. And the other everything. Like four TV/FM ivory wall outlets or surface mounted with the four low profile ivory happen to supply . . . two 35-foot and two 25-foot with connectors already attached . . . 12 adhesive cable clips . . . four outlet to TV set cords with VHF-UHF band separators . . . our finest quality 82-channel, solid state booster-coupler with both 75 and 300 ohm inputs . . . and the illustrated installation booklet. Easy to $100, easy to buy. No wonder everybody with two or more TV sets will want a Winegard System when they find out what it does. And to make sure they find out, our System, the HSO-782, will be nationally advertised. Any more questions? Call your Winegard distributor, or write for Fact-Finder #289. ©Copyright 1970, Winegard Co. Zenith’s 12A12C52 Color TV Chassis Although the IC color demodulator module is new, the interconnection system and legend simplify the servicing of the most critical circuit in the color set. Each year as the new television sets appear, they reveal a number of solid-state circuit advancements. Many are going from the hybrid toward all solid-state chassis with additional transistors and integrated circuits. Integrated circuits are creating a color picture and perform the most critical and complex job in the entire set. We also find tuning of the set simplified, the picture tube having more brightness and contrast than previous tubes. Recently we received the Zenith Model A6533-2 employing the 12A12C52 chassis, which in many respects, is similar to the previous year, with a number of improved circuits which we will review. Starting at the front control panel, the Ultramatic tuning system lets the viewers automatically select as many as 18 pretuned (12 VHF and six UHF) channels with just the touch of a finger at the set or on a remote hand control. You may ask why the two color controls—the color commander and chroma level—without a contrast control. The color commander control permits color level tracking with contrast in a single control simplifying adjustment. Normally, if it is desired to lower the contrast for a particular program transmission, the color level must also be lowered for proper “tracking” between the B/W and color information. The “color commander” is essentially a contrast control and is ganged with a color level control on this chassis. Both contrast and color level are adjusted simultaneously. On monochrome transmissions the control is used for Fig. 1—Wiring diagram of the 2nd color amplifier and demodulator module assembly. The small Dura-Module contains the circuitry of the 2nd color amplifier and integrated circuit demodulator. The module is plugged into the circuitry of the chassis. contrast settings. A separate color level control is in series with the color commander control and permits adjustment for optimum tracking between contrast and color level when using the color commander control. Another feature found on the front of the set is the location of the convergence panel. The speaker is pulled forward by removing two screws, exposing the convergence panel which can be adjusted from the front of the set. The basic physical chassis arrangement is similar to the previous chassis with the exception of an integral brace through the center of the chassis increasing its ability to withstand rough handling. Another addition is a positive temperature coefficient thermistor employed in the automatic degaussing circuit. DURA-MODULE An interesting new plug-in module was noted on the top of the chassis. The module measures 2.4 x 3.5in. with parallel rows of conductive segments and spaced holes extending through these segments. The module circuitry is shown within the heavy dark lines in Fig. 1. Points of connection to the module such as U6, T5, A5 correspond to the letters and numbers used in the schematic of the chassis. This identification process enables quick locations from the schematic to the physical contact point on the module. If it is desired to locate terminal point A5 for a measurement of the color signal at the base of Q701. Viewing Fig. 1, it will be noted that this point is at the intersection of the vertical row "A" and horizontal row number "B" (5th horizontal row across). This identification process enables quick locations from the schematic to the physical contact point on the module and vice versa. The conductor pattern legend is a bright contrasting color on the top or component side of the module. Plug-in hardware was specifically designed to connect the module into the circuitry of the TV chassis, and the staggered contact positions on the module prevent it from being plugged in backward. This module contains the circuitry of the 2nd color amplifier and Integrated Circuit (IC) Demodulator. RGB SYSTEM An interesting feature of this chassis is contained in the circuitry involving color and Y signal matrixing. The monochrome video (Y) signal is matrixed with the (R-Y), (G-Y) and (B-Y) color difference signals prior to coupling to the CRT. The signal voltage coupled to the picture tube, which presents R, G and B color, eliminates matrixing in the picture tube. This circuit design is called the RGB system. In the RGB system, the R, G and B signal voltages are coupled to the R, G and B cathodes of the picture tube respectively. The control grids of the picture tube are at fixed dc potentials. The (Y) signal is matrixed with the color difference signals of (R-Y), (G-Y) in the color amplifier stages. In the color difference system the Y signal voltage is coupled to the three cathodes of the picture tube and (R-Y), (G-Y) and (B-Y) signal voltages are coupled to the Red, Green and Blue control grids respectively. The (Y) signal is matrixed with the color difference signals of (R-Y), (G-Y) and (B-Y) in the picture tube. The matrixing principle of both systems is shown in Fig. 2. A notably sharper color picture with better color fidelity than in the previous chassis was produced, employing the RGB color signal circuitry. From the service standpoint, lower color drive to the CRT, fewer components and the use of transistors should make the chassis more dependable and simplify servicing. VIDEO OUTPUT AMPLIFIERS The video output amplifiers employed in this chassis consist of three transistors, Q205, Q206 and Q207 which perform the function of amplifying both the monochrome video (Y) signal and color signals, as well as matrixing as shown in the diagram Fig. 3. Three demodulator output signals consisting of -(R-Y), -(B-Y) and -(G-Y) are coupled respectively to the base of Q205, Q206 and Q207. Since the monochrome signal is also coupled to all three amplifiers, matrixing is accomplished in these stages producing R (red), G (green) and B (blue) signal voltages in the amplifiers outputs. The design and function of all three amplifiers are identical. NOISE GATING-SYNC The circuitry for noise gating and sync separation has been slightly modified. The relative efficiency of the noise gating circuitry is somewhat dependent upon the amplitude of the noise pulses on video and tolerances in the circuit employed. In previous chassis, sufficient amplitude for effective noise gating was accomplished by employing the cathode follower stage in the video (Y) amplifier system as an amplifier. A slight amplification of the video signal (and any associated noise pulses) could be obtained at the plate of the cathode follower and was therefore utilized for this purpose. In this chassis, the 1st video stage is transistorized (emitter follower) performing a function comparable to the previously used cathode follower and its "amplification" is insufficient to be employed in a similar manner. Thus, the circuitry in the sync coupling networks has been modified as shown in Fig. 4. A low amplitude negative-going composite signal is coupled from the base input of the 1st video stage to the control grid of the sync-AGC tube. Any noise pulses associated with this signal will be sufficient for adequate noise gating affecting AGC action, but will be insufficient for noise gating of the sync separator. Therefore, the composite signal used for sync separation must be free from noise pulses prior to coupling to the grid (pin 7) of the sync separator tube. This is accomplished in the following manner. As shown in Fig. 4, the positive-going, composite signal appearing at test point A1 is coupled through a 6.8K resistor to capacitor C237. The capacitor charges to the most positive portion of the signal (sync tips) through diode CR201. The result is a "clamped" signal with sync tips clamped at zero potential. A "load" is presented to the capacitor by the 1M resistor, and R247 (VDR) bypassed by capacitor C244. A "load" is necessary to prevent C237 from charging to the tips of noise pulses which are higher in amplitude than the sync tips. Noise pulses, of course, will occur at random and may be present during the sync or video interval. Should C237 be charged to the tips of noise pulses, this "excess" charge will quickly dissipate through the load and the desired clamping level will be maintained. The VDR presents a variable load for the circuit. Should noise pulse amplitude increase causing a larger charge on C237, the VDR resistance will decrease (larger load) presenting a shorter time constant for the discharge of C237. The composite signal, essentially free from noise pulses in excess of sync tip level, is then coupled through an 180pf capacitor to the grid (pin 7) of the sync separator tube. It should be stated that a dc coupled oscilloscope would be advantageous in servicing this circuit. Proper circuit action could be checked by observing the waveform at the high side of CR201 (junction of 1M and 10K resistors) and noting if sync tips are at or very near the baseline (zero potential) on the oscilloscope. If not, the diode may be open. If syncs are badly crushed or if video is not present, the diode may be shorted or the .01µf capacitor may be shorted. An open .01µf capacitor (C244) may cause sync jitter under noisy signal conditions. CHROMACOLOR PICTURE TUBE A new patented color television picture tube is featured in 33 different cabinet models in the company's 1970 line of 46 basic color models. According to the manufacturer, the picture tube has a new patented "Iris" aperture mask, a light-absorbing black framing 1,350,000 picture producing phosphor dots, a brighter rare-earth red phosphor and high transmission glass. The 450,000 small holes in the mask are engineered to be smaller during screen processing and larger in the completed tube. The smaller openings in the mask are used to put both a contrast area for the jet-black, light-absorbing material and the phosphor dots on the screen. For color TV operation, the apertures are opened to allow electron beams larger than the phosphor dots to totally excite all of the screen's phosphors. The area between the smaller, screened phosphor dots of the new tube is filled with black-surroundings which absorb room light to improve picture contrast and permit use of a higher transmission glass in the CRT face. The picture viewed on the set for this report has improved brightness and shows a very considerable amount of increase in contrast and sharper detail. Rotator Maintenance Part Two Part one of this series (ETD-November 1969) introduced rotator systems, installation and operation. This article concludes the series and describes individual circuits with practical troubleshooting and field maintenance procedures. ALLIANCE MODEL C-225 - The Alliance service manual indicates two procedures which should be followed before a system is installed. These are the power-off and power-on checks. The power-off checks are as follows: 1. Be sure the file conductor cable is connected to the proper terminals. Refer to the schematic diagram, Fig. 1. 2. The hollow shaft assembly must have "play." Refer to item 27, Fig. 2. 3. As viewed from the rear, switch contacts S1-1 and S1-4 of the switch assembly should be closed. Refer to item 116 in Fig. 3. Primary input contacts S1-2 and S1-3 of the switch assembly should be open and have approximately 1/16in. clearance. The power-on checks are as follows: 1. Check for proper line voltage (approximately 117vac). 2. Turn the knob (item 137 in Fig. 3) to the extreme clockwise stop. The rotator must turn to the extreme CW stop and the indicator light must go out when the rotator reaches the stop. 3. Turn the knob to the extreme counter-clockwise stop. The rotator must turn to the extreme CCW stop and the indicator light must go out when the rotator reaches the stop. 4. Switch assembly contacts S1-2 and S1-3 should make contact. S1-1 and S1-4 should be open while the knob is being turned. Note: If the light comes on bright but the rotator does not turn when the knob is released or if the unit is intermittent, check the friction spring. See Fig. 4. Tighten one notch at a time. Early models had one spring while later models have two. Check these springs in case of difficulty. One way to check a defective rotator system from the ground is by taking appropriate resistance measurements. The following measurements on the C-225 should be obtained using a VTVM. Readings will vary depending on the control cable lead length and accuracy of the meter. However, the readings should indicate if the problem is in the rotor or cable even though they are not 100 percent accurate. The readings are taken with the control cable disconnected. Lead #1 to lead #2 — 2.5Ω plus lead resistance Lead #1 to lead #3 — 2.5Ω plus lead resistance Lead #1 to lead #4 — infinity Lead #1 to lead #5 — infinity Lead #2 to lead #3 — 5Ω plus lead resistance Lead #2 to lead #4 — infinity Lead #2 to lead #5 — infinity Lead #3 to lead #4 — infinity Lead #3 to lead #5 — infinity Lead #4 to lead #5 — 2 to 511Ω plus lead resistance depending on the position of the contact on the potentiometer, meter accuracy and lead length. Note: The resistance of each lead of a #20 five conductor cable is approximately 1Ω per 100ft. Example: When checking a rotor installed with 75ft. of #20 wire, you should obtain the following readings: Lead #1 to Lead #2 — Ap- ### Symptom \| Symptom \| Cause \| \|------------------------------------------------------------------------\|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Rotator fails to operate when knob is turned to desired direction \| If indicator bulb does not light: Check 117v source. Tighten friction spring. (See note under "Power-on Checks") Unit may be overheated causing the thermostat to open. Wait 10 to 15 minutes for unit to cool and the thermostat to close. If indicator light is dim: Check gear train for improper meshing or slippage. Replace motor capacitor (Item No. 131) Check hookup of five conductor cable. Check five conductor cable with an ohmmeter for shorted or open leads. If indicator light is bright: Check low voltage contacts. (Adjust and tighten friction spring. Fig. 4) Check for open white or red lead to switch assembly. Check five conductor lead and hookup. Replace circuit board. If indicator light is very bright or burns out: Check black lead to board. Check 24v winding of transformer (Item No. 121). Replace if defective. Check switch. Tighten friction spring (See Fig. 4). Check bulb. Replace with #47 if defective. Check for open blue lead from transformer. Check hookup of five conductor cable. Check for shorted or "open" #4 and #5 lead in five conductor cable. Check for open or dirty potentiometer (Item No. 40) in rotator. Check for open or dirty potentiometer (Item No. 107) in rotator. Replace circuit board. Check size and length of five conductor cable. (See Fig. 5) Change capacitor (Item No. 131). Clean potentiometer. Replace if necessary. Check for shorted contacts on switch assembly (Item No. 116). Replace circuit board. \| Fig. 3—An exploded view of the C-225 control console. Fig. 4—Friction spring adjustment on Alliance Model C-225. Fig. 5—Wire chart for various cable runs. Approximately 2.5Ω plus 1.5Ω (2 leads @ .75Ω each) 4Ω Lead #1 to Lead #3—Approximately 2.5Ω plus 1.5Ω (2 leads @ .75Ω each) 4Ω Lead #2 to Lead #3—Approximately 5Ω plus 1.5Ω (2 leads @ .75Ω each) 6.5Ω. Note: Alliance recommends that circuit board assembly service should not be attempted. Defective boards should be disconnected at pin connectors and replaced as assemblies. CHANNEL MASTER ROTATORS The schematic diagram of Fig. 6 shows the circuit for the Channel Master automatic units. These systems are normally synchronized when shipped. However, if field synchronization is necessary, it can be accomplished as follows: On the Model 9502, 9512 and 9516A, rotate the knob on the control console clockwise to “N.” When the disc stops, rotate the knob counter-clockwise to “N.” When the disc stops, the units are synchronized. The procedure for synchronizing Model 9505 and 9513 is the same except that the control button must be depressed and held until the disc stops rotating. If you have to service the Channel Master Model 9512 control unit, the control knob must be removed to gain access to components. The diagrams in Fig. 7 and 8 show the proper procedure for removing this knob. There are times when a customer might want to combine two manual control units with one manual control drive system. The diagrams in Fig. 9 show the wiring for such a system. Any combination of the Channel Master Models 9503, 9520 and 9522 will work as a pair if connected as shown. The same diagrams will work for the 220vac units, but a 220vac system cannot be paired with a 117vac system. If the service technician finds himself with a customer who wants Fig. 6—Schematic diagram of Channel Master automatic units. Fig. 7—Place control on non-slip surface. Turn knob until any snap leg is in position shown. Leg of snap shows as a dark, clear spot in the brown part of upper knob. There are 3 legs. Arrow points to one. Push hard against side of knob toward arrow, place flat screwdriver under edge close to leg and lift up about 1/2 in. Release hand pressure, move hand around, placing thumb under knob to hold knob up, remove screwdriver. Fig. 8—With thumb, push knob toward another snap leg, slip screwdriver under knob close to leg and pry up lightly. With two snap legs loose, knob will easily come off. Fig. 9—Wiring diagram for connecting two CM units to one manual drive system using either a rotary or toggle switch arrangement. For connecting two manual control units models 9503, 9520 or 9522 with one manual rotator drive unit. FOLLOW THIS WIRING DIAGRAM TO CONNECT CONTROLS FOR DUAL OPERATION 4 CIRCUIT 2 POSITION ROTARY SWITCH SUGGESTED MALLORY 32-42J OR EQUAL FOLLOW THIS WIRING DIAGRAM TO CONNECT CONTROLS FOR DUAL OPERATION 4 CIRCUIT 2 POSITION TOGGLE SWITCH SUGGESTED CUTLER HAMMER 7664K5 OR EQUAL to convert an existing manual rotator system to automatic, the diagram in Fig. 10 shows how, using the CM9526. The procedure first requires identification of the existing system. Then locate the #1 terminal on the existing control unit and trace it to the proper terminal on the CM9526. Disconnect the wire from the #1 terminal and reconnect it to the proper terminal on the CM9526. Follow the same procedure for the rest of the leads. As you can see, the numbers will not always correspond between units. Also, the automatic control only uses three leads so you may have unused wires. Any unused wires should be cut off and taped. Once all the connections are made, the control unit can be plugged into 117vac—not before! To synchronize the system, rotate the knob with the red pointer clockwise. When the followup pointer stops, rotate the knob counter-clockwise. When the followup pointer stops, the drive is synchronized. Fig. 10—Conversion of one rpm manual systems to automatic systems using the CM9526 control unit. Fig. 11—Schematic diagram of the Cornell-Dubilier Model AR33 automatic rotator. TROUBLESHOOTING A. General: 1. Check for loose, shorted or broken wires. 2. Check for proper cable connection sequence. B. Inoperative Drive—Operative Control: 1. Open secondary winding in transformer. 2. Defective cable. 3. Jammed or broken gear train in drive. 4. Defective motor in drive. C. Inoperative Control—Operative Drive: 1. Open secondary winding in transformer. 2. Jammed or broken gear train in control. 3. Defective motor in control. D. Inoperative Control—Inoperative Drive: 1. Open or shorted wire in line cord. 2. Check switch for broken clips or blades and for misalignment. 3. Defective capacitor. 4. Open primary or both secondary windings in transformer. E. Control and Drive Run in One Direction Only: 1. Check switch for broken clips or blades and for misalignment. F. Drive and Control Motors Do Not Stop at Same Time: 1. Dirt or oil on surfaces of brake washer in motor. 2. Motor shaft in either motor is not free to raise and lower properly. Shaft should move at least 1/16in. when moved by hand. CDR ROTATORS The CDR AR33 rotator shown in the schematic diagram of Fig. 11 provides an end of rotation adjustment plus a sensitivity and adjustment. In this unit, when the compass dial is set to the end of rotation in a clockwise direction, the "rotor" light should go out. If not, slowly rotate the end of rotation control until the light does go out. Refer to Fig. 12. The sensitivity adjustment should be re-set if the antenna oscillates. To do this, slowly turn the sensitivity pot clockwise until the "rotor" light stops blinking. The AR33 control console also has five push buttons which can be preset for reception on selected channels. The push buttons are adjusted by first removing the escutcheon plate above the switch button. Press one end of the escutcheon plate toward the center and lift it out. See Fig. 13. An adjustment pot is located behind each switch as shown. Depress the first button and turn the TV set to receive the desired channel. Then slowly rotate the potentiometer until a peak picture is obtained. Turning the pot clockwise moves the rotator clockwise. Repeat the procedure for the other four buttons. The escutcheon plate should be marked to indicate the channel for each button. Replace the escutcheon plate. The CDR AR22 requires synchronization if the indicator lights stay on after pulsing has stopped. To synchronize this unit, turn the knob on the control unit to the extreme counter-clockwise position. If the lights stay on after pulsing has stopped, trip the synchronization lever on the bottom of the chassis until they go out. See Fig. 14. Now turn the knob to the extreme clockwise position. Again, if the lights stay on, trip the synchronization lever until they go out. Service problems in the AR33 will usually fall into two types: rotation in one direction only (either CW or CCW), and no rotation with or without the indicator light. The probable causes for clockwise rotation only are: (1) frayed, (shorting) leads between terminals one and two on the control console and (2) defective relay K-102 (Fig. 11). Counter-clockwise rotation only can be caused by (1) frayed (shorting) leads between terminals two and three, (2) open potentiometer R109 (see Fig. 11) in rotator or open R106 in control unit, (3) broken lead on terminal one or two, and (4) defective relay, K-101. No rotation and no indicator light can be caused by a defective transformer, T-101. Note: T-101 has a thermo switch. Allow 10 minutes for the unit to cool off and then re-check it. No rotation and a normal rotator light may be traced to (1) defective capacitor C-109, (2) broken leads on terminals 3, 4 or 5, (3) defective motor or gears in rotator. The AR33 rotor can also be checked from the ground by taking resistance readings. Be sure the control cable is first disconnected from the control box. The following readings should be obtained: Terminal #1 to #2 — 0 to 1000Ω (depending on rotator position) Terminal #3 to #4 — 2.5Ω plus cable resistance Terminal #3 to #5 — 2.5Ω plus cable resistance Terminal #4 to #5 — 5.0Ω plus cable resistance. RCA ROTATORS The antenna drive unit and the control console are set by the manufacturer to be in sync when the system is shipped. Synchronization means that the rotator indicator or lights coincide with the antenna direction. In other words, if the rotator is fully CCW, the light or pointer should show this position and any position between the end stops. In the case of the RCA Model 10W707 shown schematically in Fig. 15, synchronization is a matter of first turning the control knob to North and checking to see that the drive shaft on the drive unit is aligned with the "North" arrow on the drive unit housing. Once this mechanical alignment is made, the control unit can be checked. Turn the control knob \| Control Unit \| Symbol \| Stock No. \| Description \| \|--------------\|--------\|-----------\|-------------\| \| CR2 \| \| \| Not Used \| \| K1 \| \| 245364 \| Relay — Power Hold Coil resistance changed from 530 ohms to 325 ohms. \| \| R6 \| \| \| Not Used \| \| R9 \| \| \| Not Used \| \| R10 \| \| \| Not Used \| \| R11 \| \| \| Not Used \| \| R12 \| \| 502156 \| Resistor, 560 ohms, ±10%, ½ w. \| \| R13 \| \| 502112 \| Resistor, 120 ohms, ±10%, ½ w. \| \| T1 \| \| 245368 \| Transformer — Power Center tap added to transformer secondary winding (holding relay circuit). \| Fig. 15—Schematic diagram of the RCA Model 10W707 rotator system. Fig. 16—Location of the end stop adjustments. fully CW. The right-hand lamp should go out when the drive shaft reaches the end of its clockwise travel. The same holds true for the left-hand light when the rotator drive shaft reaches the full CCW position. If either light does not go completely out, the end stop control potentiometers can be adjusted. This is done by holding the spring-loaded control knob against the stop end and slowly turning the appropriate potentiometer until the two (left and right) lights blink alternately. See Fig. 16. Releasing the control knob should cause the light to go out. Rotate the control knob to the opposite stop end and check to see if that light goes out as required. If not, hold the control knob against the stop end and... adjust this potentiometer as before. Now rotate the control knob back to the "North" position. The rotator drive shaft should stop within 20 degrees of "North." If it doesn't, readjust the two end stop potentiometers. If the end stop controls do not provide satisfactory operation, it may be necessary to replace the potentiometer in the drive unit. If it is necessary to service the RCA 10W707 control unit, the cover can be removed by pulling the control knob off the shaft and removing the three screws in the bottom of the unit. The printed circuit board can then be removed by taking out the seven mounting screws. There is one screw in each corner and a fourth just below the control knob shaft. The other three screws are located at the three inside corners of the transformer. These screws also hold the transformer. It is not necessary to remove the fourth transformer screw on the outside corner. When replacing the circuit board, be sure to dress the power cord between the circuit board and the base as shown in Fig. 17. CONTROL KNOB TORQUE ADJUSTMENT The control knob will not operate correctly unless the proper amount of friction is maintained between the control knob shaft and the switch (S1) arm. This friction is controlled by the tension of the switch arm spring. Proper adjustment should allow the control knob to continue turning with moderately applied torque after firm switch contact has been made. See Fig. 18. Proper operation of the control switch, S1, requires a clearance between adjacent contacts of between .030 and .035in. This spacing is adjusted by carefully bending the contact brackets with a pair of long-nose pliers. Be sure to disconnect ac power before making this adjustment. Troubleshooting the 10W707 can be accomplished by referring to the schematic diagram and the following chart. \| Symptom \| Cause \| \|----------------------------------------------\|----------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Drive unit will not rotate \| 1. Power cord disconnected \| \| \| 2. Rotator cable connected incorrectly \| \| \| 3. Line 1,4 or 5 of cable open \| \| \| 4. Motor capacitor C1 open or shorted \| \| \| 5. Relay contacts on K2 (motor circuit contacts) open \| \| \| 6. Transformer T1 secondary (in motor circuit) open or shorted \| \| \| 7. Motor winding open or shorted \| \| \| 8. Contacts of control switch S1 do not close properly \| \| \| 9. Control knob friction insufficient to activate S1 \| \| Drive unit will not rotate clockwise \| 1. Line #3 of rotor cable open \| \| \| 2. Diode CR1 or CR2 open \| \| \| 3. Capacitor C2 or C3 shorted \| \| \| 4. Resistor R5, R7 or R9 open \| \| \| 5. Bridge potentiometer R1,R2, R3 or R4 variable tap open \| \| \| 6. Bridge circuit between variable taps of R1 and R3 or between R2 \| \| \| and R4 open \| \| \| 7. Transistor Q1 or Q2 open \| \| \| 8. Diode CR3 shorted \| \| \| 9. Relay coil K2 open \| \| \| 10. Leads of right indicator lamp DS1 shorted \| \| Drive unit will not rotate counterclockwise \| 1. Line #2 of rotator cable open \| \| \| 2. Bridge circuit between variable taps of R3 and R4 or between R1 \| \| \| and R2 open \| \| \| 3. Transistor Q1 or Q2 shorted \| \| \| 4. Leads of left indicator lamp DS2 shorted \| \| Drive unit stops rotating when control knob \| 1. Relay coil K1 open \| \| is released (CW or CCW) \| 2. Relay contacts (K2 bridge rectifier circuit) defective \| \| \| 3. Defective contacts on K1 \| \| \| 4. Resistors R10 and R11 open \| \| \| 1. Capacitor C2 or C3 open \| \| \| 1. Bridge rectifier CR4 open or shorted \| \| \| 1. Bridge rectifier CR4 open or shorted \| \| \| 2. Transformer T1 secondary winding (bridge circuit) open or shorted \| \| Excessive relay chatter \| 1. End stop trimmer pot R2 requires adjustment (Accessible through \| \| No clockwise rotation \| hole number two in bottom of control unit) \| \| Rotates counter-clockwise only if control \| 1. End stop trimmer pot R3 requires adjustment (Accessible through \| \| knob is held CCW \| hole number one) \| \| Right indicator lamp remains lit when \| 1. Control switch S1 or holding relay contacts (relay K1) shorted \| \| drive unit is rotated fully CW against stop \| \| \| Left indicator remains lit as above \| \| \| Indicator lamps blink alternately when \| \| \| control knob is released \| \| TEST INSTRUMENT REVIEW PART III We wrap up part three and the conclusion of this series with a handy reference listing of test instrument manufacturers. ## TUBE TESTERS \| Mfg. \| Model \| Type \| Test Functions \| Available Sockets \| \|------\|---------\|-----------------------------\|-----------------------------------------------------\|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Accurate \| 257 \| Tube & CRT Emission \| Shorts, leakage, cathode emission \| Novars, nuvistors, 10pins, magnovals, compactrons, decals \| \| Allied \| KG-600C \| Tube & CRT Emission \| Shorts, opens, emission and gas \| 2,4,5,6 & 7 pin tubes; octals; loctals; 7,9 & 10 pin miniatures; 9 pin magnovals; 9 pin ncvar; 10 pin decals; compactron and pilot lamps \| \| B&K \| 707 \| Dynamic Mutual Conductance \| Shorts, leakage, Gm measurements, gas, grid emission \| All standard types plus 10 pin; compactrons and nuvistors tubes \| \| B&K \| 465 \| CRT Tester \| Shorts, leakage, cathode emission opens. Rejuvenation function. \| Television picture tube test cables \| \| Conar \| 223UK \| Tube emission \| Open element, filament continuity, special tubes, leakage, shorts, emission \| Standard base types plus octal, loctal, nuvistors, novars, compactrons \| \| EICO \| 635 \| Tube emission \| Shorts, grid leakage, gas and cathode emission \| Standard base types plus novars, compactrons, nuvistors, battery types, auto radio hybrids, decals and magnovals \| \| EICO \| 633 \| CRT Tester \| Tests and rejuvenates most picture tubes including color \| Television picture tube test cables \| \| Heath \| TT-1A \| Mutual Conductance \| Indicates Gm to 24,000 mhos, grid current, leakage, life \| All standard base types plus octal, novar, loctal, 9 pin, 10 pin miniatures, nuvistors, compactrons \| \| Type of Chart \| Additional Features \| Price \| \|-------------------------------\|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|---------\| \| \| Will test black and white picture tubes as well as color tubes for emission, leakage and shorts using special cable included with unit. \| $47.50 \| \| Illuminated built-in roll chart, with thumb wheel drive. \| Has filament voltage settings from 0.63 to 117v. Also line, load voltage adjustments and individual tube settings. \| $44.95 (Kit) \| \| Separate tube chart \| Will test over 2200 tube types including regulators, hybrids, thyatron and European types. Also features "Jet-Check" section for rapid tests and provision for new socket if necessary for newer tube types. \| $199.95 \| \| Separate setup chart \| Will test and rejuvenate old and new tubes including the "Low G2" tubes requiring 50v or less of GZ potential and tubes operating at low emission currents. \| $99.95 \| \| Built-in roll chart \| Has transformer isolated test currents for safety, 12-lever element selector-distributing system and independent filament terminal selection to prevent obsolescence due to tube changes. \| $49.95 (Kit) \| \| Separate tube chart \| Has burn-out protected meter circuit and comes in scuff-proof luggage type case. \| $44.95 (Kit) \| \| Separate tube chart \| Employs high dc voltage for rejuvenation welding and short-clearing process. Variable filament over 12 ranges from 1 to 12v. \| $69.95 (Kit) \| \| Illuminated built-in roll chart \| Features constant current heater supplies plus a special discount switch to remove all voltage from selector switches as protection against damage during setup. \| $160 (kit) \| continued ## TUBE TESTERS continued \| Mfg. \| Model \| Type \| Test Functions \| Available Sockets \| \|------\|---------\|-----------------------------\|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|--------------------------------------------------------\| \| Lectro-tech \| CRT-100 \| CRT Analyzer \| Grid-cathode leakage, heater-cathode leakage, emission of B/W and color, shorts, life test and rejuvenation \| Cables for B/W and color picture tubes \| \| Mercury \| 2000 \| Mutual Conductance \| Dynamic mutual conductance (Gm), gas, grid emission, shorts and leakage \| All standard tube types plus new decals, novars, compactrons, magnovals, also color and B/W with optional cables \| \| Mercury \| 880 \| CRT Analyzer \| Beam current, tracking, shorts and leakage of B/W and color picture tubes plus rejuvenation \| B/W and color picture tube test cables \| \| RCA \| WT-509A \| CRT Tester \| Tests color and B/W for emission, leakage and shorts \| B/W and color CRT test cables \| \| SECO \| HC-8 \| Horiz. Output Tester \| Checks cathode current of horiz. output tubes using adapter cables \| Adapter cables for most horiz. tube types \| \| SECO \| 88A \| Emission Tube & CRT \| Makes up to 11 simultaneous tests for leakage, shorts, grid emission, tube merit and filament continuity \| All standard base types plus novars, compactrons, decals and magnovals \| \| Sencore \| MU150 \| Dynamic Mutual Conductance \| Gm tester using 5000Hz square wave, grid leakage, intermittents, cathode emission \| Tests over 3000 domestic and foreign types \| \| Sencore \| CR143 \| CRT Tester \| Checks color tracking, plus standard shorts test, emission and life. Also provides rejuvenation \| B/W and color CRT test cables \| \| Type of Chart \| Additional Features \| Price \| \|---------------\|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|--------\| \| \| Features high energy rejuvenation circuit which applies momentary high energy between grid and cathode. Removes shorts by high potential burning of particles. \| $89.50 \| \| Separate chart\| Features 13-section, 3-position master lever distribution system to prevent obsolescence from new base pin arrangements. \| $129.95\| \| Separate chart\| Features adjustable G1 bias and G2 dc voltages plus direct reading filament voltage. Tests each gun of color CRT. \| $79.95 \| \| Enclosed in case cover \| Tests over 1000 tubes and includes five plug-in test sockets. Also has input jack for high voltage measurements to 50,000v. \| $118 \| \| Built-in labels \| Features in-circuit testing of horizontal tube current which is monitored on large meter for accurate adjustment. Especially useful during color TV setup. \| $34.50 \| \| Built-in flip chart \| Features low test voltages to reduce shock hazard and live setup controls for speed. New setup information free periodically to equipment owners. \| $74.50 \| \| Built-in flip chart \| Flip chart in cover is plastic coated for durability. Controls are designed for speed of operation. \| $229.50\| \| Built-in flip chart \| Has rejuvenation circuit and provides automatic comparison of CRT color guns. \| $119.50\| continued ## MISCELLANEOUS INSTRUMENTS \| Mfg. \| Model \| Function \| Specifications \| Price \| \|------\|---------\|-----------------------------------------------\|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|-----------\| \| Conar 92. \| 311 \| Tests: resistors, capacitors; including mica, cer, paper, oil-filled & electrolytic \| Resistance Ranges: 500Ω, 100-50K, 10K-5M, 1.8-150M. Capacity Ranges: 0.1-50mfd, .001-.5mfd, .0001-.005mfd, 18-150mfd. Has "floating" chassis and provides actual rated dc working voltages to capacitors. Operates from 110-120vac, 60Hz. Optional test leads. \| $29.95 (Kit) \| \| EICO 93. \| HVP-5 \| High Voltage Test Probe \| Gain: approximately 3000 at 1kHz; usable bandwidth: 50Hz to 200MHz (extended to 200MHz with demodulator tip supplied); Input impedance: 3500Ω using probe only, 35000Ω using 20dB attenuator probe tip, 350,000Ω using 40dB attenuator tip. Output is 0.3v P-P. Power supply is one "AA" battery. 0-30 dc kilovolt meter built-in. \| $19.95 (Kit) \| \| Heath 94. \| IB-28 \| Impedance Bridge \| Four separate bridge circuits measure resistance, capacitance, low and high Q inductance. Meter reads 100-0-100μa. DC measurements: built-in power supply. AC measurements: built-in 1000Hz generator with terminals on front panel for external generator at other frequencies. Reads capacitance from 100pf to 100μf; inductance from 0.1mH to 100H. Operates on 105-120vac or 210-250vac, 50/60Hz. \| $89 \| \| Heath 95. \| IM-58 \| Distortion Meter \| Frequency: 20 to 20,000Hz in three ranges; reads distortion: 1,3,10,30 at 100% full scale; voltmeter: 1,3,10,30v full scale. Input resistance: 300K. Minimum input voltage for distortion measurements: 0.3v. Operates on 105-125vac or 210-250vac 50/60Hz \| $65 \| \| Leader 96. \| LPC-924B \| TV Field Level Meter \| Frequency range: VHF 12 channels and UHF. Input signal level in VHF: 20 to 120dB. Input signal level UHF: 30 to 100dB. Input impedance is 75Ω VHF and 300Ω UHF. Attenuation: 80dB total (2) 10dB and (3) 20dB steps. Operates from eight 1.5v batteries. Comes with earphone, 300 to 75Ω matching pad and carrying case. \| $219.50 \| \| Sencore 97. \| FS134 \| Field Strength Meter \| Tuning range: TV channels 2 to 13, UHF channels 14 to 83 plus FM band 53 to 109MHz. Sensitivity: ±3dB from 53 to 109MHz and 173 to 218MHz; ±6dB from 465 to 895MHz. Input Impedance 75 and 300Ω. Attenuators: 0dB, 20dB and 40dB. Eight "C" are required for the 12v supply and one "C" cell for bias. Optional accessory is a rechargeable battery supply. \| $229.95 \| \| Weston 98. \| 166 \| Instrument Calibrator \| Calibrates VOMs, portable instruments and panel meters for all meter parameters including ac and dc current and resistance. Output levels: voltages — 1mV to 1111.110v, 1uV to 1111.110mV; Currents—1μa to 11.111110a; resistance 1Ω to 11.111110M. Output frequencies: 50,60,400 and 1000Hz ±1% plus any external frequency between 50 and 1000Hz. Unit performs fully within all rated specifications from +5C to +35C. Input power: 115 or 230vac, 50/60Hz, 350w. \| $41.95 \| TEST EQUIPMENT ROUNDUP ADDRESSES Accurate Instr 2435 White Plains Rd. Bronx, N.Y. 10467 Allied Radio Corp. 100 N. Western Ave. Chicago, Ill. 60680 B & K DIV Dynascan Corp. 1801 W. Belle Plaine Chicago, Ill. Blonder-Tongue Laboratories, Inc. 9 Alling St. Newark, N.J. 07102 Commander Corp. 133 N. Jefferson Chicago, Ill. 60606 Components Spec., Inc. 101 Buffalo Ave. Freeport, N.Y. 11520 Conar Div. of Nat'l Radio Institute 3939 Wisconsin Ave. Washington, D.C. 20016 Cornell-Dubilier Electronics 50 Paris St. Newark, N.J. Dynasciences Corp. 9601 Canoga Blvd. Chatsworth, Calif. 91311 EICO 283 Malta St Brooklyn, N.Y. 11207 Electronic Measurements 625 Broadway New York, N.Y. 10012 General Instruments 65 Gouverneur St. Newark, N.J. 07104 Gerber Scientific Instr. Co. PO Box 305 Hartford, Conn. 06101 Heath Co Benton Harbor, Mich. 49022 Hickok Electrical Inst. 10514 Dupont Ave. Cleveland, Ohio 44108 Ideal Precision Meter Co. 214 Franklin St. Brooklyn, N.Y. Instruments Div. Solitron Devices, Inc. 256 Oaktree Rd. Tappan, N.Y. 10983 J-B-T Instruments, Inc. 424 Chapel St. PO Box 1818 New Haven, Conn. 06508 Jerrold Electronics Corp. 401 Walnut St. Philadelphia, Pa. 19105 Karg Laboratories, Inc. 162 Ely Ave. South Norwalk, Conn. 06854 Lampkin Laboratories, Inc. Bradenton, Fla. 33505 Leader Instr. Corp. 24-20 Jackson Ave. Long Island City, N.Y. 11101 Lectrotech, Inc. 1221 W. Devon Ave. Chicago, Ill. 60626 Mercury Electronics 3155 Roslyn Rd Mineola, N.Y. 11501 Phillips Elec. Instr. 750 S. Fulton Ave. Mount Vernon, N.Y. 10550 Precise Electronics & Development 76 E. 2nd St. Mineola, N.Y. RCA/Electronic Components Harrison, N.J. 07029 Sanwa Corp. of America 2500 Woodbridge Ave. Edison, N.J. 08817 Sencore, Inc. 426 So. Westgate Dr. Addison, Ill. 60101 Simpson Electric Co. 5200 W. Kinzie St. Chicago, Ill. 60644 Sprague Products Co. North Adams, Mass. 01247 Sylvania Batavia, N.Y. Systomation, Inc. 140 Erie Blvd Schenectady, N.Y. 12305 Tektronic, Inc. PO Box 500 Beaverton, Ore. 97005 Triplette Bluffington, Ohio 45817 Video Instr. Corp. 116 Toledo St. Bloomingdale, N.Y. 11735 Waterman Instrument Corp. 400 S. Warminster Rd. Hatboro, Pa. 19040 Western Instr. Div. of Western Instr., Inc. 17 Hartwell Ave. Lexington, Mass. 02173 Weston Electrical Instr. Co. 614 Frelinghuysen Ave. Newark, N.J. Workman Electronic Products, Inc. Box 3828 Sarasota, Fla. 33578 ADDITIONAL TEST INSTRUMENTS 99. Lectrotech Model V5 Vectorscope indicator is designed to operate with any standard color bar generator for troubleshooting and alignment of color receivers. It provides an accurate measurement of color demodulation for checking R-Y, B-Y and color bars for color phase angles and amplitude. The instrument can also be used for color amplifier gain tests, to adjust color sync and for proper hue control centering. The unit weighs 5 lb and comes complete with all leads and servicing guide. $79.50. 100. The Lectrotech Model V6-B is an all solid state, ac operated generator. It provides a crystal-controlled keyed rainbow color display, crosshatch, dots, vertical lines only, horizontal lines only, gun killers, an adjustable horizontal line width voltage regulated timing circuits and rapid calibration. The unit also features an adjustable dot size, RF output of more than 10,000mV, operation on channels 3,4 or 5, and color level control for color sync servicing. All cables are permanently attached and housed in the test lead compartment of this caddy size unit. Price $99.50. 101. The Triplett Model 310 FET Volt-Ohm-Milliammeter features single selector switch operation, 20,000Ω per volt dc sensitivity, shirt pocket size, provision for ac clamp-on ammeter, shielding for operation in magnetic fields and unbreakable meter window. Specifications: dc and ac volts at 0 to 3, 12, 60, 300 and 1200 (20,000 ohms per volt on dc and 5000 ohms per volt on ac). Ohms ranges: 0-20K, 200K, 2M and 20M. Current ranges: dc; 0 to 600µA at 250mV, 0 to 6,600mA at 250mV. The unit comes complete with leads, battery and manual. $37.50. Two-Way Radio on the Go Don't be reluctant to service transistorized two-way equipment. Part three of this series provides some practical hints to make the transition easier. The two-way radio service technician will not become obsolete just because of the trend toward modular construction of equipment. It will still be necessary to know which module to replace, whether it is a plug-in type or soldered into the assembly. And someone will have to know how to repair the modules even if they can be sent back to the factory for replacement or repair because of the time factor. Some technicians, however, have become obsolete because of their lack of knowledge of transistor circuitry. Most have mastered tube circuits but some are reluctant to tackle solid-state equipment, at least with confidence. TRANSISTOR TESTING Actually, transistor circuits are no more complex than tube circuits. Often they are simpler. And, there are no high voltage problems. Since most transistors are soldered in place, they cannot be readily removed like tubes for testing. Therefore, they usually have to be checked without removal from the equipment. And that's not too difficult as you will see. Perhaps the easiest way is to use an in-circuit transistor tester with the equipment turned off. Simply connect the tester's leads to the transistor leads and adjust the tester. But, there's another way. Almost every transistor has a resistor connected in series with its emitter. When emitter-collector current flows through the transistor there is a voltage drop across the resistor. Simply turn the equipment on and measure the voltage with a VOM, preferably one with a high input impedance. Then use a clip lead to short the transistor base to its collector and watch the meter. If the transistor is operating normally, the meter reading should "drop" since forward bias has been reduced to zero. (See Fig. 1.) Fig. 1--Connect a high impedance VOM across emitter resistor and short base to collector. Meter reading will decrease on normal transistor. Fig. 2--Connect VOM between emitter and collector if circuit has no emitter resistor. Meter will indicate voltage unless transistor is shorted or biased to saturation. TUBE TESTING You can do the same thing with tubes. Measure the voltage drop across the cathode resistor (if there is one) and short the control grid to the cathode momentarily with a test lead. The meter should "rise" since cathode current is higher because the reverse bias has been removed. (Fig. 3.) Or, measure the dc voltage Fig. 3--An in-circuit test of tube operation is made similar to transistor test by measuring across cathode resistor and momentarily shorting grid to cathode. between plate and cathode and again short the control grid to the cathode momentarily. The voltage should "drop" since plate current should have increased. (Fig. 4.) ![Diagram](image) Fig. 4--An optional test of tube performance is made by measuring the voltage drop between cathode and plate while momentarily shorting grid to cathode. Of course, it is easier to test or substitute the tube. But, the above test is also a check of the circuit. While we're talking about tubes, here's another tip. Don't fully rely on your tube tester, even if it is of the transconductance type, and much less if it is of the emission type. Even the best of tube testers will often fail to reveal an ailment known as "grid emission." Some general purpose tube testers check for this malady. Otherwise, you should use a special grid circuit tester. A tube can check normal but can cause subtle, hard-to-detect troubles. If its control grid is contaminated, it may act like a cathode after it gets hot because of its proximity to the cathode. Then, if its grid circuit resistance is high, grid current will flow because the grid emits electrons. This can affect voltages in other stages as well as its own. So back to our old stand-by, if you're not sure, substitute. ![Diagram](image) Fig. 5--Gated beam FM discriminator/limiter is adjusted by tuning coil (L) for maximum audio while receiving a signal. DISCRIMINATORS AND ALIGNMENT Essentially all early FM mobile receivers employed the familiar Foster-Seeley discriminator which every technician should know how to adjust. Then came the Bradley detector which worked well, but to adjust it an FM signal generator and scope were required. Much later, the gated beam detector (6BN6, etc.) was introduced and many technicians condemned it not knowing that it is easy to adjust and probably one of the best FM detectors (Fig. 5). No instruments are required. Just tune the quadrature coil (L) for maximum audio recovery when receiving a signal. Another tip on tube circuits--don't replace a tube unless it is necessary. If a receiver still has 1µV or better sensitivity, don't replace used tubes with unknown new tubes. Chances are that the used tubes will last longer than an unaged new one. It has been reported that new tube failures occur during the first 200 hours of operation. If they last 200 hours, they are apt to last much longer. Surprisingly, many technicians, particularly those new to the game, think an expensive VHF/FM signal generator is required for aligning FM receivers. It's not necessarily so. A low cost AM signal generator can be used even if it doesn't tune into the VHF band. It does put out harmonics which you can use. To align the front end, you don't even have to connect the signal generator output to the receiver input. Plug a dummy load into the antenna connector (a #47 pilot lamp soldered to a PL-259 plug will do). Then bring the signal generator output cable near the dummy load. With the squelch open so you can hear background noise, and with the signal generator modulation turned off, slowly tune the signal generator until a harmonic quiets receiver noise. Now, set the receiver test meter to indicate limiter voltage or connect a DC VTVM to the limiter test point. Retune the signal generator for maximum limiter voltage. Then reduce the coupling to the signal generator or turn down its output level, or both, until you still get a useful meter reading and hear some background noise. Now, align the front end for maximum limiter voltage. If you have any doubt about the harmonic being at the channel frequency, compare it with a signal from a transmitter operating on the same channel. You can also use an AM signal generator for second mixer and IF alignment. Still monitoring the limiter voltage, align the IF stages by loosely coupling the signal generator output continued on page 86 Lectrotech Model TO-50 Triggered Sweep Oscilloscope Many color circuit problems can be quickly diagnosed with one easily read waveform using the vectorscope technique. The oscilloscope/vectorscope combination has become a popular instrument in color TV service shops and with the bandwidth offered in this instrument it can be used in various applications in industrial electronics. The vectorscope technique is not new. An article by Robert Middeton describing its use appeared in ELECTRONIC TECHNICIAN in August 1957. The article explained how the oscilloscope can be set up to produce vectorscope patterns. A tremendous amount of color circuit information can be obtained in a vectorscope waveform for professional repair of color TV sets. Most of the controls and input connectors on the front panel of the oscilloscope are similar to those found on other triggered sweep scopes to simplify setup operations. Input jacks and switches for vectorscope operation and the vertical and horizontal vectorscope display positioning controls are placed on the back panel. The red jack is marked R-Y and is connected to the red grid of the color CRT. The blue jack marked B-Y is connected to the blue grid of the CRT and a third jack connects the TV receiver chassis to ground. A book by Wayne Lemons is supplied with the instrument explaining applications, methods of use and detailed alignment instructions. The oscilloscope chassis employs three circuit boards, the vertical amplifier, horizontal amplifier and the high voltage stages. The vertical amplifier system is all solid-state in design with the exception of the input stage, which is a vacuum tube (12AT7). A tube is used to provide protection against damage to the oscilloscope when subjected to large overvoltage. Input signals to the vertical amplifier may be either ac or dc coupled, depending upon the setting of the AC-DC-GND switch. In the ground position the input to the vertical amplifier is disconnected from the input connector and connected to chassis ground. The vertical amplifier has a basic sensitivity of .02v per division. To display longer input signals, they must be attenuated to provide a display within the limits of the calibrated graticule and this is the function of the input attenuator. The Schmitt trigger circuit provides a constant amplitude output square wave which is used to drive the following stage. This output signal is always a square wave and of constant amplitude regardless of the amplitude or shape of the input signal. This enables the trigger circuit to work with a uniform signal regardless of the nature of the triggering signal fed to the input of the triggering circuits. One of the most useful features of this scope is the automatic sync function. To place the instrument into the AUTO SYNC mode pull the TRIGGER LEVEL knob out from the panel. This mode permits triggering automatically at the average of the input signal. In the automatic mode the TRIGGER LEVEL control is inoperative. When the oscilloscope is placed the auto mode of sync, the time base circuit is triggered at a 45Hz note. Since the sweep circuits are operating under this condition, a trace will appear and override the dc unblanking. This is convenient when positioning of the trace is desirable to establish a dc reference level. The automatic mode will provide a horizontal sweep for this purpose. The most difficult signal for an oscilloscope to trigger on is a composite video signal consisting of vertical and horizontal sync pulses plus video information. To provide positive triggering on this type of signal, an additional switch is employed in the triggered circuits of this scope. This is the TV sync switch which has three positions. In the normal position, this switch and its associated circuitry is inactive and the trigger circuits work in their normal manner. When the switch is in the H or horizontal position, the signal is sharply differentiated and the trigger amplifier acts as a sync separator. Under these conditions positive synchronizing is achieved for viewing of signals at the TV horizontal scanning rate. When the switch is in the V or vertical position, the sync signal is integrated and again the trigger amplifier acts as a sync separator. Under these conditions positive triggering is achieved for viewing signals at a vertical sync rate. As a convenience in using this oscilloscope for television waveforms, three points on the TIME/DIV. switch are not only marked in time, but are also identified as to the switch position which would be used to view signals at the vertical rate, the horizontal rate and the color rate. Vertical information would normally be viewed at the 2ms position. Next to this marking you will find a red V meaning vertical. At the 10μs position where horizontal information would be viewed is a red H for horizontal TV rate. Color information would be viewed in the last TIME/DIV. switch position, 1μs/DIV. This has a red C for color. External horizontal amplifier operation is also offered on this scope. This function is used when it is desirable to plot one function against another as in an X-Y display. It is also used in sweep generator alignment setups where an external sweep must be applied to the horizontal deflection plates of the CRT. The external horizontal amplifier comes into operation when the TIME/DIV. switch is rotated fully clockwise to the EXT position. The increased use of transistors will make it mandatory that the technician be able to use the oscilloscope. The oscilloscope allows the technician to view the electronic circuits at work. Guesswork and the swapping of parts can prove to be rather unsuccessful and slow, so get in the habit of using an oscilloscope and other service aids to make servicing more profitable. SPECIFICATIONS: 1. Vertical Amplifier. (a) 3db bandwidth: dc to 10MHz. (b) Risetime: 35ns. (c) Sensitivity: 0.02v/div to 50v/div in 2-5 sequence with continuously variable gain control. (d) Input impedance: 1M, in parallel with 30pf. (e) Maximum input: 600v, dc and P-P. 2. Horizontal Sweep Generator. (a) Type: Miller integrator. (b) Sweep Speeds: 0.02 sec/div to 1μs/div in 1-2 steps sequence. Continuously variable control between ranges. With 5X magnifier sweep speed increases to 0.2μs/div. 3. Triggering. (a) Source: Internal, External and Power Line. (b) Type: Automatic or amplitude selection (with Trigger Level control) with preset Stability. (c) Slope ..+ or -, switch selected. (d) TV Sync Vertical, Horizontal and Normal positions. Sync separation plus vertical integrator provide positive sync of composite video signals. 4. External Horizontal Amplifier. (a) Bandwidth: dc to 0.5MHz. (b) Sensitivity: 0.5v/div. (c) Input impedance: 100K in parallel with 30pf. (d) Internal Line Sweep: variable in phase over 150deg. Compatible with all sweep generators. 5. Test Signals. (a) Calibrate Gain: 1v P-P square wave at line frequency. (b) Probe Test: Fast rise 20v square wave at time base frequency for probe adjustment. 6. Cathode Ray Tube: (a) Display Area: 8 x 10cm. (b) Blanking: dc unblanking. (c) Tube Size: 5in. round. 7. Power Requirements: (a) Voltage: 105-125v. (b) Frequency: 50-60Hz. (c) Power: 65w. 8. Mechanical: (a) Size: 14 1/8 x 10 1/4 x 16 1/2in. (b) Weight: 23 lb. (c) Cooling: Convection, no fan required. Weston Model 166 Instrument Calibrator Not every shop can justify the cost of a test instrument's test instrument. But in case you are 'just looking,' here's a unit that will calibrate a wide range of moving-coil and electronic instruments. The Weston Model 166 Instrument Calibrator provides current and voltage functions for both ac and dc. It also has calibrated resistance decade facilities for calibrating ohmmeters and multimeters. However, before we get into explaining the whys and wherefores of this instrument, you might be interested in knowing that this particular model sells for $4195. Obviously, not every shop can justify the cost of such an instrument. But we feel our Testlab readers should know about these test instruments since units of this type are needed and used by many technicians in our industry. Actually, test instruments are becoming more complex because their functions demand it. And in many cases calibration and maintenance are also more critical. So more shops are providing instrument calibrating services. There are also many shops involved in two-way radio service which are required to have periodic calibration checks made on their test instruments. Whatever your service business, you do use and need calibrated test instruments. Multimeters such as VOM's are gaining in popularity. They are used in production, engineering and by service technicians with all degrees of skill. Multimeters are also exposed to a wide and uncontrolled range of current, voltage, shock and vibration such as it would get in the back of the technician's service truck. The result is that because a VOM is more exposed to abuse, it requires more frequent calibration checks. A typical VOM has approximately 6 ac and 8 dc voltage ranges, 5 dc current ranges and at least 5 resistance ranges for a total of 24 ranges. The recommended VOM calibration procedure calls for checking at least two of the ac scales at least five points on each to be certain that rectifier aging has not damaged the ac accuracy. Actually, the total number of tests for a single VOM is about 40. Going through a large number of accurate tests on a VOM can be time consuming and expensive, thus the reason for units like the Weston Model 166. Here's what the 166 will do. It has several features designed to reduce the number of steps required for calibration, reduce operator calculation, reduce danger from high voltage and to reduce operator error. The 166 features that make this possible are as follows: 1. It provides a complete range of voltage, current and resistance parameters. This includes voltages up to 1100v and currents to 11a. DC can be either (+) or (−) ground. AC frequencies of 50, 60, 400 and 1000Hz and resistance values up to 11M are also available. 2. All outputs of the 166 used for multimeter calibration are brought out to a single set of binding posts. Thus, connecting changes are not necessary during calibration. 3. Operation is provided by one switch for selecting volts, milliamperes, etc., and a second switch to select ac, + dc or −dc. 4. Seven decade dials allow the operator to simply set up the value to correspond with the field scale value of the meter being tested. Fixed decimal points are located between the 4th and 5th dials. One of the advantages of this digital scheme is that full accuracy is obtained in any decade setting. Earlier calibrators used precision meters as standards and the highest accuracy could only be obtained when the full-scale value of the calibrating instrument was the same as the meter being tested. An... LETTER FROM THE PUBLISHER The staff of ELECTRONIC TECHNICIAN/DEALER wishes to thank its readers and manufacturers for their excellent support during 1969. It was an exciting year for all of us in electronics, a year marked with many new features and theories, and we are happy to have been of service by bringing the reports of these happenings to you. To the many manufacturers, who for years have backed our efforts by their continued vote of confidence and advertising programs, our sincere thanks. Their efforts have helped us achieve our goal of being the number one publication in the servicing market. Without their support and assistance, our task would have been difficult. To our thousands of readers throughout the U.S., Canada and overseas, we express our deep appreciation for your continued support. And to make 1970 an even better year, we pledge our unending efforts to provide up-to-date, timely servicing information to help you become the most efficient and well-advised readers in the industry. Along with our continuous coverage of radio, TV and audio equipments, we will expand our exposure in areas of CCTV, two-way radio, antennas and test instruments. To meet the needs of our readers and fulfill the additional requirements we have set for ourselves, we continue to add knowledgeable and capable personnel to our staff. As a publication dedicated to providing a service, the editorial staff and marketing managers welcome the opportunity to be of assistance. If there is anything we can do to help you or if you have any suggestions which may help us to do a better job, please let us know. Hugh "Scotty" Wallace HUGH "SCOTTY" WALLACE MAGNAVOX Color TV Chassis T924/T939—No HV In Chassis Used With 22in. or Larger CRT A "No High Voltage Condition," in a chassis using a pincushion correction circuit, could possibly be caused by a faulty pincushion transformer, T106. To check this, unplug the deflection yoke and check for partial restoration of high voltage, approximately 12kv. If high voltage is partially restored with the yoke unplugged, transformer T106 is one possible cause of the problem. Color TV Chassis T936—3rd IF Transformer L8 Reports from the field indicate some confusion regarding proper adjustment of the 3rd IF transformer L8. L8 differs from past IF transformer design to the extent that provision is made for adjusting both the inductance of the coils and the coupling between the coils. The inductance is adjusted in the conventional manner by positioning slugs within the coil form. The top of the L8 coil form consists of a plastic cap with a hex adjustment opening in the center. The plastic cap can be rotated to vary the coupling between the primary and secondary windings by physically varying the distance between them. Varying the coupling between the primary and secondary windings varies the bandwidth of the circuit. Adjustment instructions for this transformer are given in the Service Manual 7314. AT LAST.... solid state triggered sweep, wide-band at a price you can afford! LECTROTECH MODEL TO-50 5" oscilloscope/vectorscope Triggered Sweep: Easy to use. Positive sync results in absolute stability of patterns. Solid State: For reliability and performance. Wide Band: 10 MHz—for increased use in all servicing, industrial and educational applications. D.C. Amplifiers: Eliminates pattern bounce. Permits viewing A.C. signals and D.C. level simultaneously. Use as a sensitive D.C. voltmeter. plus... Calibrated vertical attenuator. • Calibrated horizontal time base. • Automatic sync mode. • TV sync selector. • Vectorscope input for color TV servicing. • External horizontal amplifier. • 60 cycle horizontal sweep (sine wave) with phasing control. Compatible with all sweep generators. • Edge lit calibrated scale. • All solid state (tube protected input). ONE YEAR WARRANTY TO-50—oscilloscope/vectorscope . . . . . Net 329.50 See your distributor or write Dept. ET-1 LECTROTECH, INC. 4529 North Kedzie Avenue • Chicago, Illinois 60625 JANUARY 1970 RCA Color TV Service Manual A brand-new full size manual, covering 23 RCA Color chassis. Includes complete schematic diagrams for 12 chassis, from the CTC-12 to the CTC40 all-transistor model. Here in one compact, handy manual is everything you need to quickly and competently repair any RCA color set—from the CTC12 to the 1969 all-transistor CTC40. Encompasses both general and specific troubleshooting data applicable to all RCA chassis. The text delves into each section (Video, chroma, vertical, horizontal, etc.), and points out specific problems as well as general servicing procedures. Troubleshooting tips on each chassis, including circuit changes and factory specifications, are included. While this material is related directly to RCA sets, much of it is applicable to other sets patterned after RCA designs. 176 pps., 8½ x 11, plus 36-page schematic foldout section. Over 175 illus. List Price $7.95 Order No. 496 TV Servicing Guidebook: Problems & Solutions A benchman's handbook detailing shop-proven service procedures which will pinpoint ALL TV circuit troubles—monochrome and color! Calling upon his many years of on-the-job experience, the author describes 30 separate troubleshooting approaches, each predicated on specific symptoms, to help you nail down any TV problem quickly... eliminate waste time—and troubleshooting time to the max. The author has categorized all TV troubles—both color and B & W—into 62 classic symptoms. He then describes the servicing procedures proved most successful in his shops. The text gets to the point quickly, excluding unnecessary theory and unnecessary facts and figures. In all, there isn't a TV trouble you won't be able to cure with the information presented in this book. 176 pps., over 100 illustrations, including numerous waveform photos, 9 chapters. List Price $6.95 Order No. 484 TV Troubleshooter's Handbook —New 2nd Edition A completely updated, quick-reference source for scores of tried-and-tested solutions to "tough-dog" TV troubles. This detailed compilation of practical help fulfills almost to the need for a well-organized file of proven troubles and cures, field factory changes, new and unusual circuits and descriptions of how they work, etc. This brand-new edition represents the only known up-to-date digest of specific TV troubles and cures, for both color and monochrome sets, up to and including 1969 models. Every major brand is included. 3 pages of charts list Zenith and some "off-brand" brands as Gamble Skogmo, Packard Bell, and Montgomery Ward. All troubles are categorized by make and model. Included in the color TV section are hints for troubleshooting chroma circuits, making adjustments, etc. 288 pps., over 150 illus. List Price $7.95 Order No. 521 How to Use Signal Generators . . . in Radio, Color TV, Hi-Fi Servicing GIANT "2-Volumes-in-One" coverage—ALL the know-how required to use any type of signal generator in your troubleshooting work. Covers the use of RF, audio sweep, marker, stereo FM, keyed rainbow, NTSC, and video generators of all types, and is devoted entirely to signal generators used in service shops; written specifically to provide guidance in the use of such equipment for troubleshooting and aligning all types of home-entertainment receivers. A variety of test procedures using specified generators as the basic tool, are clearly detailed in step-by-step form. Shows how the various instruments work, and how to test and calibrate your own instruments. 240 pps., 182 illus. 16 chapters. List Price $8.95 Order No. 274 Modern Electronic Troubleshooting A down-to-earth handbook that deals with today's electronic servicing problems on a practical level, using modern test instruments and advanced troubleshooting procedures to cope with the special problems created by printed boards and solid-state circuitry. It is hard to conceive of a book that encompasses monochrome and color TV, multiband radio receivers, hi-fi equipment, tape recorders, two-way communications equipment, and test instruments for servicing all this equipment. Yet here it is! By getting right to the subject of how to serve the equipment without the usual wordy theoretical discussions of how the circuits work. An all-inclusive servicing guidebook service technicians have been asking for. 256 pps., over 100 illus. 8 big sections, 24 chapters. List Price $7.95 Order No. 474 FET Applications Handbook Contains current practical material prepared by some of the most capable engineers in the field, comprising a wealth of data on the FET and its various applications in practical circuit design. Early chapters delve into current-voltage relationships, application areas, DC and AC amplification, voltage controlled attenuators and limiter and chopper circuits. Additional chapters deal with linear applications, chopper and switching circuits, integrated circuits, and photo-FETs. Considerable space is also given to FET oscillators, describing various types and the necessary biasing arrangements. Entire Sections of the book, rounding out essential design data, include starting conditions, power output, frequency stability, and efficiency. Valuable for new ideas and unusual circuit applications, including many basic circuit descriptions. 288 pps., 226 illus. 22 Chapters. List Price $12.95 Order No. 240 The Oscilloscope An all-new revised third edition of the classic work on understanding and using oscilloscopes. Completely expanded and updated to include trigger sweep, dual-trace scopes, electronic switches for multiwaveform displays, DC-to-DC supplies, DC-to-AC inverters, and DC-to-DC converters, this brand-new book is right up-to-date on the current state of oscillography. All the useful data of the previous edition has been revised to include the latest information on keeping with technology. It is a virtual handbook on the subject, explaining scope operation from the simplest to the most intricate uses. Beginning where the scope manual stops, the author covers basic waveforms (sine, square, triangle, trapezoid, and saw) clearly detailing their generic characteristics and how they are interpreted in oscillography. 256 pps., over 179 illus., 8 chapters. List Price $7.95 Order No. 498 Popular Tube & Transistor Substitution Guide NOW—the most-needed substitution data for both tubes and transistors all in one handy volume! No longer do you have to refer to one substitution manual for tubes and another for transistors—everything is here in one quick-reference guide. Lists 99% of the tubes and 95% of those you'll ever need to replace. Moreover, only readily available and comparably-priced substitutes are listed. Contains 8 sections: four devoted to tubes and four to transistors. Popular Receiving Set, Industrial and Commercial Tubes, American Substitutes for Foreign Tubes, Tube Circuit and Base Diagrams, Popular Transistors, American Substitutes for Foreign Transistors, General Purpose Transistor Substitutes, Transistor Base Diagrams and Manufacturers' Abbreviations. 160 pps. List Price $4.95 Order No. 491 Logical Electronic Troubleshooting Designed to provide the electronic technician with the knowledge necessary to deal with almost any troubleshooting situation. It differs from the ordinary text in that the pages are "scrambled"; a unit of information is given, followed by a question and three alternative answers. The reader chooses what he believes is the correct answer. When the right answer is chosen, the page selected presents a new unit of information and a new question. If the reader chooses an incorrect answer, the text is referred to explains why it is incorrect and directs him to return to the original unit for another answer. Numerous example problems are analyzed and followed through to conclusive solutions, emphasizing procedures which can be applied to any system. 320 pps., 72 illus. 5 Chapters, 7½" x 4½". Comb-bound. List Price $5.95 Order No. 426 An Extraordinary Offer to introduce you to the benefits of Membership in ELECTRONICS BOOK CLUB for a limited time only you can obtain ANY 3 OF THESE UNIQUE BOOKS (Combined List Price $29.85) ... yours for only 99¢ each May we send you your choice of any three books on the facing page as part of an unusual offer of a Trial Membership in Electronics Book Club? Here are quality hardbound volumes, each especially designed to help you increase your know-how, earning power, and enjoyment of electronics. These handsome, hardbound books are indicative of the many other fine offerings made to Members... important books to read and keep... volumes with your specialized interests in mind. Whatever your interest in electronics—radio and TV servicing, audio and hi-fi, industrial electronics, communications, engineering—you will find that Electronics Book Club will help you. With the Club providing you with top quality books, you may broaden your knowledge and skills to build your income and increase your understanding of electronics, too. How You Profit From Club Membership This special offer is just a sample of the help and generous savings the Club offers you. For here is a Club devoted exclusively to seeking out only those titles of direct interest to you. Membership in the Club offers you several advantages. 1. Charter Bonus: Take any three of the books shown (combined values up to $29.85) for only 99¢ each with your Trial Membership. 2. Guaranteed Savings: The Club guarantees to save you 15% to 75% on all books offered. 3. Continuing Bonus: If you continue after this trial Membership, you will earn a Dividend Certificate for every book you purchase. Three Certificates, plus payment of the nominal sum of $1.99, will entitle you to a valuable Book Dividend which you may choose from a special list provided members. 4. Wide Selection: Members are annually offered over 50 authoritative books on all phases of electronics. 5. Prevents You From Missing New Books: The Club's FREE monthly News gives you advance notice of important new books... books vital to your continued advancement. This extraordinary offer is intended to prove to you, through your own experience, that these very real advantages can be yours...that it is possible to keep up with the literature published in your areas of interest...and to save substantially while so doing. How the Club Works Forthcoming selections are described in the FREE monthly Club News. Thus, you are among the first to know about, and to own if you desire, significant new books. You choose only the main or alternate selection you want (or advise if you wish no book at all) by means of a handy form and return envelope enclosed with the News. As part of your Trial Membership you need purchase as few as four books during the coming 12 months. You would probably buy at least this many anyway without the substantial savings offered through Club Membership. Limited Time Offer! Here, then, is an interesting opportunity to enroll on a trial basis...to prove to yourself, in a short time, the advantages of belonging to Electronics Book Club. We urge you, if this unique offer is appealing, to act promptly, for we've reserved only a limited number of books for new Members. To start your Membership on these attractive terms, simply fill out and mail the postage-paid airmail card today. You will receive the three books of your choice for 10-day inspection. SEND NO MONEY! If you are not delighted, return them within 10 days and your Trial Membership will be cancelled without cost or obligation. Electronics Book Club, Blue Ridge Summit, Pa. 17214. Typical Savings Offered Club Members on Recent Selections \| Title \| List Price \| Club Price \| \|--------------------------------------------\|-----------\|------------\| \| Zenith Color TV Service Manual \| $7.95 \| $4.95 \| \| Servicing Your Color TV \| $7.95 \| $4.95 \| \| Electronics Reference Data Book \| $7.95 \| $4.95 \| \| Digital Computer Theory \| $10.95 \| $7.95 \| \| How To Test Almost Everything Electronic \| $6.65 \| $3.95 \| \| How To Use Your VOM/DCM/AC Scope \| $6.95 \| $4.95 \| \| Radio Operator's Q & A Manual \| $8.95 \| $7.50 \| \| Motorola Color Service Manual \| $7.95 \| $4.95 \| \| Installing & Servicing Home Audio Systems \| $7.95 \| $4.95 \| \| Tape Recorder For Fun & Profit \| $7.95 \| $4.95 \| \| Electric Motor Test & Repair \| $6.95 \| $2.95 \| \| Elementary Computer Theory \| $7.95 \| $3.95 \| \| Industrial Electronics Made Easy \| $8.95 \| $5.95 \| \| Audio System Handbook \| $7.95 \| $4.95 \| \| Electronic Test & Measurement Handbook \| $7.95 \| $4.95 \| \| Installing Hi-Fi Systems \| $7.95 \| $4.95 \| \| Handbook of Semiconductor Circuits \| $6.95 \| $4.95 \| \| Pinpoint TV Troubles in 10 Minutes \| $6.95 \| $4.95 \| \| Easy Ways to Service Radios \| $6.95 \| $3.95 \| \| Practical Color TV Servicing Techniques \| $8.95 \| $5.95 \| \| On the Color TV Service Bench \| $6.95 \| $4.95 \| \| Transistor Test & Troubleshooting \| $7.95 \| $4.95 \| \| Mathematics for Electronics \| $10.95 \| $7.95 \| \| Transistor Projects \| $5.95 \| $2.95 \| \| Electronic Musical Instruments \| $10.00 \| $7.95 \| SEND NO MONEY! Simply fill in and mail postage-paid Airmail card today! ... for more details circle 105 on Reader Service Card RCA CALLS IT ICTJ. YOU’LL CALL IT THE GREATEST SERVICE AID EVER TO COME ALONG. ICTJ® is more than a test jig. It’s a complete system designed by RCA to help you service Color Television faster and more precisely. With the updated ICTJ system you’ll be able to service more than 90% of all Color TV consoles on the market—that’s over 1,500 different models from more than 17 different manufacturers. Here’s what it includes: First, the test jig itself, in bench or portable models. Second, an assortment of adapters engineered to match almost any Color console chassis to the test jig. Third, a complete reference book to take the guesswork out of which adapter to use with each chassis—and RCA keeps it up to date through a subscription service. And there’s also a new optional high voltage meter kit to give you safe, accurate and continuous monitoring. ICTJ lets you pull a chassis with the complete assurance that the picture in your shop will be the same as the customer sees in his home. See your RCA Parts and Accessories Distributor today; chances are you’ll find a less important use for that old jury rig. Industry Compatible Test Jig Deptford, New Jersey RCA Parts and Accessories for more details circle 130 on Reader Service Card ELECTRONIC TECHNICIAN/DEALER BATTERY DISPLAY 702 Product visible from all directions A general purpose counter merchandiser containing a product assortment of batteries for radio, photo, and lighting is introduced. Designed to meet the needs of mass merchandising at counter level, the display is an impulse purchase stimulator that provides a full view of the product assortment from all directions. Pilfer-proof, it is bright red with a Plexiglass front and 3/4 sides. Dimensions: 19in. wide, 14 1/4in. deep, 26 3/4in. high, wt. 25 lb. Mallory. TAPE DECK 703 Winding speed of 110sec for a 1100ft tape Introduced is the Model T-600 solid-state tape deck. The tape deck records and plays back four-track two-channel stereo or four-track one-channel mono in either direction, automatically or by touch-button control. A center capstan is used for automatic reverse or automatic repetition playbacks in conjunction with a sensing tape. Any tape can be played repeatedly between any two positions by attaching a sensing tape. The unit has two 4-track 2-channel heads for recording and playback and two 4-track 2-channel heads for erasing. It is equipped with a built-in, solid-state pre-amp employing 18 transistors and 8 diodes with a reported frequency response of 30-13,000Hz at 3 3/4ips or 30-20,000Hz at 7 1/2ips and a signal-to-noise ratio of 50db. Wow and flutter are reportedly less than 0.12 percent at 7 1/2ips and less than 0.20 percent at 3 3/4ips. There are two easy-to-read volume-unit operating indicators (VU meters) which operate in both record and playback modes. Other features include mike and line inputs for recording purposes and two outputs for playback; one has a fixed level while the other is variable to make it compatible with any other system for recording purposes. It also has a headphone jack with adjustable output level. Price $299.95. Pioneer. Introducing the world's only $339 triggered scope. Before you say you don't need a triggered scope, look what's happening to TV servicing: tubes are out, transistors and IC's are in. With tubes you could play hit-or-miss, knowing the tube would take the overload. Try the same thing now, and good-bye transistors. For new-era circuitry, Leader introduces a new-era troubleshooter. A triggered scope, just like the ones the TV designers use. Now the wave shape is locked in and continuously displayed. Now you can look at a waveform containing high and low frequency components. Now you can determine voltage directly and instantly. Before you say $339 is a lot of bread, look what it buys: Leader's LBO-501 5-inch triggered scope, with a bandwidth of DC to 10MHz and a solid state package. Going like hotcakes at your Leader distributor. Seeing is believing. LEADER INSTRUMENTS 37-27 27th Street, Long Island City, N.Y. 11101, (212) 729-7411 ...for more details circle 121 on Reader Service Card TRY THE ONE-TWO PUNCH FOR TUNERS! MAKES OLD TUNERS PLAY LIKE NEW! CHEMTRONICS 1260 RALPH AVE. BROOKLYN, N.Y. 11236 FOR EXPORT: ROBURN AGENCIES INC., NEW YORK, NEW YORK IN CANADA: PERFECT MANUFACTURING LTD., MONTREAL 9, CANADA ...for more details circle 109 on Reader Service Card All New from GC-Walsco! A Complete line of Phono Drives, Belts & Accessories New — Expanded Listing — includes replacement parts for Cassettes, foreign models, and many new domestic recorders and changers. All Walsco numbers cross referenced in new, helpful 24-page cross-reference guide. See your distributor today. GC ELECTRONICS Division of Hydrometals, Inc. Los Angeles, Calif. Hicksville, L.I., N.Y. Main Plant: Rockford, Illinois ET/D NEW PRODUCTS For additional information on products described in this section, circle the numbers on Reader Service Card. Requests will be handled promptly. Color Generator 704 Fits into a tube caddy Announced is a miniature color generator small enough to fit into a tube caddy. The model CG19 generator, appropriately named the Caddy Bar, is smaller than a box of panatella cigars and weighs two pounds. Standard RCA licensed color bars, crosshatch, white dots, vertical lines and horizontal lines are generated. The circuitry is designed for low current drain, allowing full voltage regulation on all circuits rather than just the timer circuits. Timer range on the generator has been doubled over the company's earlier models and the timer controls have been made into screwdriver adjustments rather than operator controls as were present on earlier models. The generator sells for $84.50. Sencore. Tube Tester Kit 705 Fits tube caddy and weighs 4 1/2 lb A miniature-sized Tube Tester Kit is announced which provides a full cathode conductance test on all tubes and comes complete complement of latest sockets. An open-circuit meter switch selector makes this unit obsolescence-proof. Tube set-up data is abreast of latest tube releases and is permanently kept up-to-date. The unit is compact enough to fit into a tube caddy. It is American made, comes with a full one year warranty and is packaged in a high impact molded instrument case. The unit measures 6 1/2 x 3 1/2in. and weighs 4 1/2 lb. Wiring instructions are inCB Antenna 706 Switches from vertical to horizontal polarity Introduced is the Model PDL-27A with signal directivity combined with the ability to transmit or receive on either horizontal or vertical polarity. Mobile contacts can be made on the vertical mode or switched instantly to horizontal polarity for communications with other bases. The unit has a reported power gain of 11db. A stacking kit is also available for coupling two units together for approximately 150w of "talk power." The patent provides that the antenna operates as a five element beam with the increased aperture of the quad type design and the stacked antennas operate as stacked five element beams. Avanti. TOOL SET 707 Miniature tools for subassembly work For the hobbyist, sportsman, and do-it-yourself radio, TV, or Hi Fi enthusiast, the new Master Kit is offered. The kit (MMK-6) features six precision tool sets—screw driver/awl set, tap set, tap drill set, phillips driver and allen type wrench set, non-magnetic pocket wrench set, offset open end wrench set. Each set contains five interchangeable precision tools housed in a domed dust-free package, and comes in a leatherette carrying case, measuring 8 1/8 x 3 1/2 x 1 1/2in. Moody. THE BEST PERFORMING UHF/VHF 2-WAY AND 4-WAY HYBRID SPLITTERS #HS-20U 2-Way #HS-40U 4-Way RMS engineered for Master Antenna Systems and Multiple Set Home Installations. Standard all terminals: 75 ohms unbalanced. Fittings: F type with Ferrule for RG59/U cable. Capacitive AC/DC isolation. Each unit includes F type RG59/U cable connectors and two wood screws for indoor surface mount. TOP PERFORMING UHF/VHF TAP-OFFS Single 300 ohm output from 75 ohm feed-thru line. Push-on fittings for RG59/U cables. Wood screws for indoor surface mount provided. For Unbelievable—yet true ratings and Profit details—Write— RMS ELECTRONICS, INC. 50 Antin Place, Bronx, N.Y. 10462 Tel. (212) 892-6700 ...for more details circle 132 on Reader Service Card ET/D CATALOGS & BULLETINS Antennas 400 A 20-page CB catalog is available. Printed in three colors, it includes more than 80 models with details for complete coverage of every antenna requirement ranging from 25in. center loaded short antennas to power gain base station arrays, monitor antennas, and accessories. New-Tronics. Data Set 401 A brochure describing the "100 Series Data Set" is available. Data sets with either of two methods of receiver coupling, magnetic (for 500 type telephone sets), and acoustic (for AE type 80 telephone sets), are available. Each type is available configured for originate only, and originate and answer. Electronic Voice. A NEW AND IMPORTANT DEVELOPMENT FOR TV SERVICING 12 MODELS SANS-A-FUSE® FITS IN SAME SOCKET AS CHEW CAL OR AMP FUSE COLOR CODED CIRCUIT BREAKER REPLACEMENT FOR CHEMICAL OR AMP FUSE SAVES TIME AND FUSES WHEN LOCATING SHORTS IN TELEVISION CIRCUITS DEVELOPED AND MANUFACTURED BY WORKMAN Electronic PRODUCTS, INC. BOX 3628 SARASOTA, FLA. 33578 TELEPHONE Area Code 913 955 - 4242 ...for more details circle 138 on Reader Service Card PUNCH #1 TUN-O-WASH IS LIKE AN ULTRASONIC BATH FOR TUNERS MELTS AWAY DUST, DIRT, GREASE & CORROSION....FAST! CHEMTRONICS 1260 RALPH AVE. BROOKLYN, N.Y. 11236 FOR EXPORT: ROBURM AGENCIES INC., NEW YORK, NEW YORK IN CANADA: PERFECT MANUFACTURING LTD., MONTREAL 9, CANADA ...for more details circle 110 on Reader Service Card FM-2400CH (New) • Tests Predetermined Frequencies 25 to 1000 MHz • New Extended Range Covers 950 MHz Band • Pin Diode Attenuator FM-2400C • Tests Predetermined Frequencies 25 to 500 MHz The new FM-2400CH and the FM-2400C provide an accurate frequency standard for testing and adjustment of mobile transmitters and receivers at predetermined frequencies. The FM-2400CH with its extended range covers 25 to 1000 MHz. The Model FM-2400C covers 25 to 500 MHz. The frequencies can be those of the radio frequency channels of operation and/or of the intermediate frequencies of the receiver between 5 MHz and 40 MHz. Frequency Stability: ± .0005% from +50° to +104°F Frequency Stability: with built-in thermometer and temperature corrected charts. ±.00025% from +25° to +125° (.000125% special 450 MHz crystals available) Both the FM-2400CH and the FM-2400C are self contained in small portable cases. Complete solid state circuitry. Rechargeable batteries. FM-2400CH (meter only) $595.00 RF crystals (with temperature correction) 24.00 ea. RF crystals (less temperature correction) 18.00 ea. IF crystals catalog price FM-2400C (meter only) $445.00 RF crystals (with temperature correction) 24.00 ea. RF crystals (less temperature correction) 18.00 ea. IF crystals catalog price Write for catalog INTERNATIONAL CRYSTAL MFG. CO., INC. 10 NO. LEE • OKLA CITY, OKLA 73102 ... for more details circle 120 on Reader Service Card meter to the 12vdc scale first. Then we connected the test leads to the high-row sense output terminals on the calibrator. Of course, we had previously turned the 166 on to warmup and set the coarse voltage output control to zero as indicated in the instructions. According to the instructions, we then set the ERROR METER SENSITIVITY switch to the 5% position (recommended setting for multimeters). Then we set the decade dials to read 0012.00 vdc—the full value of the meter scale we were testing. We set the OUTPUT SELECTOR switch to the FULL DECADE SETTING, and the MODE switches to +dc and "V." We turned the coarse voltage output control clockwise to give us a full-scale reading on the 641. We set the meter for exactly full scale using the FINE output adjustment. Now we simply read the percent of error from the panel meter. In our case, it read +.75% error. This means that the 641 reads .9vdc high on the 12vdc scale. We also checked the unit on the 60vdc scale and it read +1.5% high or 9v high. We wanted to check individual points on the scales as recommended, so we moved the OUTPUT SELECTOR to the FRACTION OF DECADE SETTING position. Leave the decade dials in the same position as they were; in this case, 60vdc. The first position on the fractional decade switch is .9 (full CW) and at this position, the percent of error meter reading went up to 2.46 percent. The multimeter reading dropped to 54.8v. Using the COARSE and FINE output voltage adjustments, we set the multimeter reading to exactly 54vdc (.9 of 60vdc). Now the percent of error has dropped to 1.25%. We continued checking the multimeter at the various points. At .5 or half of full scale, the error had dropped to .6%. The procedure for checking the ohmmeter portion of the multimeter varies slightly. In this case, the MODE switch is moved to K-ohms and all decade dials are set to zero. The COARSE control is also set to zero. --- FIX IT FAST WITH MICROFLAME* Perfect Gift. Ideal for workshop or lab. Perfect for electrical, electronic repair and wiring. The do-it-yourselfer's dream! A must for every home workshop. Microflame is designed to handle most light-weight welding jobs. It's a proven, professional miniature welding torch. Completely self-contained, this patented torch produces 5000° F pin-point accurate flame. Operates on miniature oxygen and LP Gas cylinders. No wires or connections needed. Make your workshop complete! Microflame is the ideal gift for birthdays, Xmas, every special occasion. Only $19.95 (with oxygen and LP Gas) Deluxe Kit $29.95 (with oxygen, LP Gas and accessories). FREE BROCHURE MICROFLAME, INC. 7800 Computer Avenue, Dept. ETD Minneapolis, Minnesota 55424 Area 612 927-5681 --- PUNCH #2 TUN-O-FOAM KEEPS CLEANING & LUBRICATING CONTACTS EACH TIME THE CHANNEL IS CHANGED IT REALLY WORKS! 6 MONTH NO CALLBACK GUARANTEE! CHEMTRONICS 1260 RALPH AVE. BROOKLYN, N.Y. 11236 FOR EXPORT: ROBIN AGENCIES INC., NEW YORK, NEW YORK IN CANADA: PERFECT MANUFACTURING LTD., MONTREAL, Q, CANADA ...for more details circle 124 on Reader Service Card TUN-O-FOAM IS SO GOOD—IT'S GUARANTEED AGAINST CALLBACKS! TUN-O-FOAM SIX MONTH NO CALLBACK GUARANTEE! TUN-O-FOAM is unconditionally guaranteed not to cause callbacks due to tuner troubles. If any tuner you clean and lubricate with TUN-O-FOAM causes a callback within six months, you can return the empty TUN-O-FOAM can for a full refund. CHEMTRONICS, INC. Some tuner sprays cause detuning. Some provide very little lubrication. The "thick stuff" cakes up when it has been in the tuner a month or two. The result: ordinary tuner sprays cause a fairly high percentage of callbacks. TUN-O-FOAM is different. It foams away dirt and corrosion. Since it can withstand intense heat, it never dries out. Its space age lubricant cleans and polishes contacts each time the channel is changed. And TUN-O-FOAM doesn't cause detuning. Hundreds of thousands of tuners have already been treated with TUN-O-FOAM. To date we have not received a single report of a callback due to tuner troubles. That's why we can afford to offer this unique six month no-callback guarantee. Now, you can increase your revenue per service call by spraying the tuner of every chassis you service with TUN-O-FOAM. Technicians across the country report that they charge $2 to $4 extra for this service. Best of all, with TUN-O-FOAM, you can guarantee the tuner for 90 days. Try TUN-O-FOAM today. You'll never settle for another tuner spray again. *callbacks due to tuner troubles only FOR EXPORT: ROBURN AGENCIES INC. NEW YORK, NEW YORK 1260 RALPH AVENUE • BROOKLYN, NEW YORK 11236 CHEMTRONICS IN CANADA PERFECT MANUFACTURING LTD., MONTREAL 9, CANADA for more details circle 112 on Reader Service Card TELL ME MORE This page is provided for your convenience. To obtain additional information on new products, trade literature and advertised products in this issue, simply circle the corresponding number on the perforated card below, fill in your name, business address and mail the card. No postage is required. FOR MORE INFORMATION FILL OUT AND MAIL TODAY! ADVERTISED PRODUCTS 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 TEST INSTRUMENTS 900 901 NEW PRODUCTS 700 701 702 703 704 705 706 707 CATALOGS & BULLETINS 400 401 402 403 404 405 406 407 408 Please send more information on items circled. (Please type or print) 1/70 Name ........................................................ Position ...................................................... Company ..................................................... Street .......................................................... City ........................................................... State ....................................................... Zip Code ............ Please describe your type of business ........................ Note: Inquiries serviced until March 25, 1970. Use this convenient card if you wish to receive further information on products and services advertised or described in this issue. BUSINESS REPLY MAIL NO POSTAGE STAMP NECESSARY IF MAILED IN THE UNITED STATES postage will be paid by ELECTRONIC TECHNICIAN / DEALER HARBRACE BUILDING DULUTH, MINNESOTA 55802 FIRST CLASS Permit No. 665 DULUTH MINNESOTA "These capacitors practically sell themselves, like in a supermarket!" Says Alexander Wellington, owner of Sylvan-Wellington, Inc., New York City, in speaking about The Re-Place, Cornell-Dubilier's new capacitor replacement center. "I am amazed at the increase in turnover, and the ease of selling." A pioneer in electronic servicing, Mr. Wellington was also one of the first of those alert distributors who have installed The Re-Place in their stores. The Re-Place is both a showcase and a self-service store within a store, all in a compact 5' x 2' area. It organizes capacitor inventory and makes it easy for customers to select and to buy from a complete stock of twist-prong aluminum electrolytics, tubular electrolytics, miniature electrolytics, ceramic discs and mica capacitors. You can provide instant service to your customers with The Re-Place—and profitably increase your turnover, too. Call your CDE Representative today. Or write for full information about The Re-Place." Why do you protect your service reputation each time you install an RCA color picture tube? Whether it’s in the customer’s living room, or at the bench in the shop, it helps to be able to replace a color picture tube with confidence. If it’s an RCA tube that’s being installed, the tube itself can contribute to that confidence. Here is a product made with know-how…from the most experienced manufacturer in the business. A tube unstintingly manufactured to the highest quality standards…RCA standards. A color picture tube whose built-in technology helps protect your time and talent. Why not specify RCA picture tubes for your requirements? They’ll help protect your service reputation. Just as they’re designed to protect the biggest reputation in the COLOR TV industry. RCA Electronic Components, Harrison, N.J.
RESEARCH ARTICLE Vocal control by the common marmoset in the presence of interfering noise Sabyasachi Roy\textsuperscript{1}, Cory T. Miller\textsuperscript{2}, Dane Gottsch\textsuperscript{1} and Xiaoqin Wang\textsuperscript{1,} \textsuperscript{1}Laboratory of Auditory Neurophysiology, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA and \textsuperscript{2}Department of Psychology, University of California, San Diego, CA 92093, USA Accepted 10 August 2011 Author for correspondence (firstname.lastname@example.org) SUMMARY The natural environment is inherently noisy with acoustic interferences. It is, therefore, beneficial for a species to modify its vocal production to effectively communicate in the presence of interfering noises. Non-human primates have been traditionally considered to possess limited voluntary vocal control, but little is known about their ability to modify vocal behavior when encountering interfering noises. Here we tested the ability of the common marmoset (\textit{Callithrix jacchus}) to control the initiation of vocalizations and maintain vocal interactions between pairs in an acoustic environment in which the length and predictability (periodic or random aperiodic occurrences) of interfering noise bursts were varied. Despite the presence of interfering noise, the marmosets continued to engage in antiphonal calling behavior. Results showed that the overwhelming majority of calls were initiated during silence gaps even when the length of the silence gap following each noise burst was unpredictable. During the periodic noise conditions, as the length of the silence gap decreased, the latency between the end of noise burst and call onset decreased significantly. In contrast, when presented with aperiodic noise bursts, the marmosets chose to call predominantly during long (4 and 8 s) over short (2 s) silence gaps. In the 8 s periodic noise conditions, a marmoset pair either initiated both calls of an antiphonal exchange within the same silence gap or exchanged calls in two consecutive silence gaps. Our findings provide compelling evidence that common marmosets are capable of modifying their vocal production according to the dynamics of their acoustic environment during vocal communication. Supplementary material available online at http://jeb.biologists.org/cgi/content/full/214/21/3619/DC1 Key words: antiphonal call, auditory feedback, marmoset, phee call, vocal control, vocal onset, vocalization, white noise. INTRODUCTION The natural acoustic environment is cluttered with numerous biotic and abiotic sounds. Many taxa use vocal communication to maintain social contact, navigate, select mates and advertise threats. The ability to communicate with conspecifics in a noisy environment is an important social behavior in many animal species. Successful communication, however, is ultimately dependent upon a balance between an individual’s impetus to communicate and the variety of constraints that limit its occurrence. The external environment, for example, may impede both the timing and structure of a signal (Marten et al., 1977; Waser and Brown, 1986; Egnor et al., 2007) whereas the animal itself may be restricted by limitations on its ability to control signal production (Cynx, 1990; Miller et al., 2003; Miller et al., 2009a). In vocal communication systems, a key limitation is the acoustic environment itself. Both biotic and abiotic sounds can interfere with the efficacy of the signal’s structure (Waser and Brown, 1986). Effective communication, therefore, requires that animals modify their vocal behavior in order to maximize the integrity of vocal interactions. The exact nature of vocal modification likely varies across the taxonomic groups depending on its specific internal and external constraints (Cody and Brown, 1969; Littlejohn and Martin, 1969; Ficken et al., 1974; Wasserman, 1977; Wells, 1977; Gochfeld, 1978; Cade and Otte, 1982; Zelick and Narins, 1983; Grafe, 1996). For non-human primates, a crucial constraint may be the extent of their voluntary vocal control, a component of vocal behavior frequently considered to be impoverished across this taxonomic group (Egnor and Hauser, 2004). Different species have evolved an array of mechanisms to counter acoustic noise (Brumm and Slabbekoorn, 2005). Some of the mechanisms that have evolved to compensate for environmental noise are: timing the calls to avoid noise, increasing call amplitude (Lombard effect), increasing call length, increasing the repetition rate of calling and changing the call’s acoustic frequency. The strategy of waiting for noise to end and timing the calls in the silence intervals has been well characterized in insects (Cade and Otte, 1982), frogs (Zelick and Narins, 1983; Zelick and Narins, 1985) and, to some extent, birds (Brumm, 2006). In non-human primates it has been reported in cotton-top tamarins, \textit{Saguinus oedipus} (Egnor et al., 2007), but this study was limited to a single silence gap length and recordings from one animal at a time. Other types of vocal modifications have also been studied. For example, if the silent intervals in the acoustic background are short, or if the noise is continuous, animals might increase the call amplitude to counter the masking by noise (Lombard effect); this has been reported in birds (Cynx et al., 1998) as well as in New World primates (Brumm et al., 2004; Egnor and Hauser, 2006). Additionally, animals can increase the redundancy of their calls by increasing the call repetition rate or producing longer calls (Miller et al., 2000; Brumm et al., 2004). In terms of call duration, for instance, the New World primates have been shown to be more flexible than birds (Brumm et al., 2009). Finally, bats have been reported to be able to adjust their echolocating call frequency in order to avoid interference with neighboring conspecifics (Ulanovsky et al., 2004). Mechanisms for modifying communicative behaviors occur along several time scales. For stable long-term effects, such as a species’ acoustic habitat (Waser and Brown, 1986), selective forces may act on the structure of a signal to avoid acoustic interference. In forest-dwelling primates, for example, many species have evolved long-distance calls with characteristics that reduce the effects of degradation inherent to the habitat, such as low fundamental frequency and a redundant multi-pulsed structure (Waser, 1977; Waser and Brown, 1986). For unpredictable environmental perturbations, a different suite of controls is necessary, one that provides animals with sufficient plasticity to adjust their vocal behaviors in response to these events. Consider the following example. A group of monkeys traveling through the canopy comes into contact with a large group of highly vocal birds. Because the monkeys need to continue their vocal interactions to maintain group cohesion, they must develop a strategy for communicating effectively with each other in the current context. One strategy might be to only produce their own vocalizations during the intermittent periods of silence between the birds’ calls. This would require an ability to monitor their environment and control parameters of their vocal production, such as the timing of call onset relative to feedback about events in the external environment. Voluntary vocal control in non-human primates is widely believed to be limited, but this dogma may not be entirely accurate (Egnor and Hauser, 2004). Much of the evidence citing the lack of control over vocal production comes from ontogenetic vocal learning of signal structure, an area in which primates are not particularly adept (Egnor and Hauser, 2004). Control over the behaviors surrounding vocal production, however, appears to be far more sophisticated (Miller et al., 2009b). A few studies have suggested that non-human primates can modify certain elements of vocal behavior in response to change in social context or environmental perturbation (Mitani and Gros-Louis, 1998; Miller et al., 2003; Brumm et al., 2004; Egnor and Hauser, 2006; Egnor et al., 2007). However, the dynamics and limitations of the particular vocal parameter require further analysis via additional experiments. The aim of the present study was to test whether a highly vocal non-human primate species – the common marmoset, Callithrix jacchus (Linnaeus 1758) – could modify its vocal behavior in acoustic environments with different temporal patterns of noise interference. Common marmosets have been shown to exhibit a rich vocal repertoire in both captivity (Epple, 1968, Pistorio et al., 2006) and their natural habitats (Bezerra and Souto, 2008). By systematically varying the predictability and periodicity of the noise patterns, we tested the marmosets’ own ability to control vocal production. Simultaneously recording from pairs of marmosets also enabled us to study their vocal behavior modifications with respect to the antiphonal calling latency. This would provide further insight into their ability to cooperatively deal with a dynamic acoustic interference. Previous studies have focused on single subjects vocalizing in isolation whereas in this study two marmosets communicated using phee calls in the presence of interfering noise. Phee calls are single or multi-phrase contact calls. These are long and tonal calls with a single-phrase duration ranging from 0.5 to 2 s and a fundamental frequency varying between 6 and 10 kHz. Effectively navigating these experimental scenarios requires that marmosets balance their own intrinsic impetus to communicate with the constraints of the environment. Accomplishing this task would ultimately rest on their ability to ascertain the specific pattern of the interference signal and adjust the timing of their calls accordingly. The resultant vocal behaviors, therefore, provide crucial insight into the parametric range of the vocal control and sensory feedback mechanisms of a non-human primate. MATERIALS AND METHODS Subjects The subjects used in this study included eight adult common marmosets (four male–female pairs from four different social groups) housed in a captive colony at the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine. All subjects were housed in social groups with their pair-bonded mates and up to two generations of offspring. The subjects were maintained on a diet consisting of a combination of monkey chow, fruit and yogurt, and had ad libitum access to water. Experiments were conducted over a period of two months between the hours of 08:00 and 18:00 h. All experimental procedures were approved by the Johns Hopkins University Animal Care and Use Committee and were in compliance with the guidelines of the National Institutes of Health. General experiment setup Two subjects were used in each experiment. Each subject was transported from the colony to the recording room in an opaque transport cage and placed in an experiment cage. The experimental (wire mesh) cages measured $60 \times 30 \times 30$ cm. The experimental cages were separated by 3 m with opaque curtains positioned equidistance between them. The acoustic recordings were made within a sound-attenuating recording room. One loudspeaker (Cambridge Soundworks, M80, North Andover, MA, USA) was placed 0.5 m behind each cage and one directional microphone (Sennheiser, ME66, Old Lyme, CT, USA) was placed 0.5 m in front of each cage. A more detailed description of the experimental setup is provided in a previous publication (Miller and Wang, 2006). To control for variance in antiphonal calling due to the social relationship of the callers (Miller and Wang, 2006), the same two subjects comprising each pair were used for each experimental condition throughout the study. Specifically, we tested the pair-bonded cagemates (one male/one female) housed in the same colony cage in each experiment condition. Each experiment session lasted 30 min during which white noise pulse trains were played at 75 dB SPL (measured 1 m from each speaker). The same white noise pulses were played to the two subjects from two loudspeakers. Noise levels were measure using a Brüel & Kjær (Type 2250, Nærum, Denmark) sound level meter with a $\frac{1}{2}$ inch prepolarized free field microphone (Type 4189). The levels were measured using the LA$_{eq}$ setting (equivalent continuous level). Experimental procedure We examined the individual vocalizations of the marmosets under two different controlled noise environments: periodic and aperiodic. The two experimental environments differed in the extent of the predictability of the noise–silence sequence. Prior to the subject’s participation in the controlled noise environments, two 30 min baseline sessions were recorded with no noise broadcast. In each of the controlled noise environments, we presented subjects with a combination of white noise bursts and silent gaps of different duration: 2, 4 or 8 s. The durations were selected based on previous studies of marmoset communication and vocal behavior (Miller and Wang, 2006; Miller et al., 2009b; Miller et al., 2010). The periodic noises consisted of a periodic sequence of white noise bursts. Each noise burst was followed by a silence gap of the same duration (Fig. 1A). Three noise durations were tested: 2, 4 and 8 s. When visually isolated from conspecifics, the predominant vocalization produced by marmosets is their species-typical contact call known as a phee (Miller and Wang, 2006). The typical phee call consists of two pulses with a mean duration of 3.4 s (Miller et al., 2010). The 2 s silence gap is shorter than the mean phee call length (combined multi-phrase length), making it difficult to produce this call type within this time window. Although a normal phee could be produced during a 4 s silence gap, an antiphonal call (reply to an initiator’s call) interaction between a pair of marmosets would not be possible. Antiphonal calling is a natural vocal behavior involving the reciprocal exchange of long-distance contact calls between conspecifics (Miller and Wang, 2006). Marmosets perceive phee calls produced within 1–9 s of their own phees to be antiphonal calls (Miller and Wang, 2006). Therefore, in order to complete an antiphonal call sequence in the 4 s of silence, the prospective antiphonal caller would have to produce that call in the silence gap immediately after the 4 s noise subsequent to the initiating call. Overlapping calls in an antiphonal sequence are extremely rare (Miller and Wang, 2006) and were not observed in the baseline sessions of this study. The 8 s silent gap presents an interesting problem for the marmosets, as an antiphonal call sequence could be accomplished using one of two strategies: either the two callers complete the sequence within the 8 s silent gap, or the antiphonal call would have to be produced immediately after the 8 s noise. The aperiodic noises consisted of two test conditions: predictable and unpredictable. The predictable noises consisted of a random sequence of noise bursts with duration of 2, 4 or 8 s, such that each noise burst was followed by a silence gap of the same duration (Fig. 1B). In other words, the duration of the noise burst predicted the duration of the subsequent silence gap. The unpredictable noises consisted of a random sequence of noise bursts with duration of 2, 4 or 8 s, but the silent gap was never equal to the preceding noise pulse length (Fig. 1C). For instance, an 8 s noise pulse could be followed by a 2 or 4 s silent gap but not an 8 s silent gap. Additionally, in the aperiodic unpredictable case, the total duration of silence and noise was fixed in all the sessions to 778 s and 1012 s, respectively. In contrast to the predictable condition, the duration of the noise did not predict the duration of the subsequent silence gap. Each pair of subjects was tested with two sessions of each of the noise conditions (periodic 2, 4 and 8 s, aperiodic predictable and unpredictable). The order of the sessions and test conditions was randomized and counterbalanced across the pairs. A custom MATLAB program (MathWorks, Natick, MA, USA) controlled the broadcast of the noise pulse trains and simultaneously recorded the vocalizations produced by the pair of subjects. The program continuously recorded the audio data using a PC-based sound card sampling each of the two channels at 44,100 Hz. This MATLAB program also enabled online monitoring of the vocalizations. The recorded vocalizations were analyzed offline using a combination of custom MATLAB programs, Adobe Audition 3.0 (Adobe Systems, San Jose, CA, USA) and Raven 1.3 software (Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Ithaca, NY, USA). The audio recordings from the individual experiment sessions were de-noised using the ‘noise-reduction’ tool of Adobe Audition 3.0. In order to aide in de-noising, the frozen white noise pulses were recorded before the start of every recording session. First, the frequency profile of the noise pulses was created and that profile was used to de-noise the entire recorded session. We used a noise reduction factor of 60 dB and a 4096 point fast Fourier transform (FFT). In order to test the accuracy of the de-noising method, we performed a test wherein the experimental setup was replicated with 75 dB SPL white noise broadcasted using a speaker and overlapping baseline calls were played using another speaker. We ensured that the relative spacing of the two speakers and the call playback amplitude matched those of the experiment. After de-noising we were able to detect 99.07% of the phee call phrases (535/540). Only ~2.4% of the phee call phrases had an onset or call offset error of more than 200 ms. Fig. 1D shows the amplitude and spectrogram of a soft phee call (mean power of 30 dB) before and after de-noising using Adobe Audition’s noise reduction process. The three-phrase phee call is clearly detectable after de-noising the noise-overlapped waveform. Supplementary material Fig. S1A–C shows the spectrogram of six phee calls covering the observed average power range and the accuracy of the de-noising method. The vast majority (~92%) of the calls produced by eight marmosets during baseline sessions had average power greater than 30 dB SPL (supplementary material Fig. S1D). For the purpose of this experiment we focused on the onset, offset time and durations of the marmoset vocalizations. The individual phee calls were first detected using a band-limited energy detector (Raven 1.3). This process detected most calls within the recording session. The recording session was then manually scanned for missed calls and existing detections were corrected if errors in the selections were noticed. Spectrograms were viewed with a 1024 point FFT, 10 ms Hann window with 50% overlap and a frequency range of 22,050 Hz. Statistical analysis Statistical analysis of latencies and percentage of calls initiated under different noise conditions were initially conducted with repeated-measures ANOVA (IBM SPSS Statistics 19, Armonk, NY, USA). Repeated-measures ANOVA were reported only if the data met the conditions of normality (Shapiro–Wilk test), equal variance (Levene’s test) and sphericity (Maulchy’s test). If the assumptions of normality and equal variance were not met, then non-parametric methods (Wilcoxon rank sum) were used. If the ANOVA showed significant differences in means, then the particular experimental parameters were further tested either with a paired t-test or repeated-measures ANOVA between all possible combinations of condition pairs. The significance level ($\alpha$) is stated for each t-test and ANOVA. In the case of multiple comparisons, we used the Bonferroni correction where each individual paired comparison was tested with a Bonferroni-adjusted significance threshold of $(\alpha/n)$, where $n$ is the number of comparisons. RESULTS Marmosets initiated most calls during silence gaps between interfering noise bursts We recorded 3880 marmoset phee calls from eight marmosets under the baseline and different experimental conditions. One of the main observations was that the marmosets showed a tendency to vocalize during silent gaps between noise bursts when they engaged in the antiphonal calling behavior. This indicated an ability to control the timing of vocal initiation. Table 1 shows the percentage of calls initiated during silence gaps between noise bursts for both periodic and aperiodic noise conditions. Overall, approximately 90% (mean ± s.d.=91.7±6.3%) of the phee calls were initiated during silence gaps between noise bursts. Repeated-measures ANOVA showed significant differences in the percentage of calls initiated in silence across the different noise conditions ($F_{4,28}=20.993$, $P<0.001$; Mauchly’s $W=0.091$, $P=0.182$). Under the periodic conditions, the percentage of calls initiated during silence gaps increased from 79% for the 2 s noise condition to 90% for the 4 s noise condition and finally to 97% for the 8 s noise condition (Table 1). This difference of percent calls initiated in silence was statistically significant between the 2 s vs 8 s and 4 s vs 8 s cases as shown in Table 2. Under the aperiodic conditions, the marmosets initiated approximately 95% (predictable) and 96% (unpredictable) of their calls in silence, which is significantly higher than the 79% initiated during the periodic 2 s case (2 s vs predictable: $t_7=5.126$, $P<0.001$; 2 s vs unpredictable: $t_7=5.429$, $P<0.001$; Table 2). The higher percentage of calls initiated in silence during aperiodic compared with the periodic 2 s conditions could be because, in the aperiodic case, the marmosets could avoid the 2 s silent gaps and chose to vocalize in the longer silence gaps instead. However, in the periodic 2 s case this approach would not succeed. In the subsequent analysis, we compared the percentage of calls initiated within a 2, 4 or 8 s silent gap across the periodic, predictable and unpredictable conditions. Fig. 2A shows that in the periodic case the marmosets were equally likely to call within any of the three silent gaps. Comparison of the percentage of calls made across the different periodic test conditions showed no significant difference between the 2, 4 and 8 s cases ($F_{2,14}=2.347$, $P=0.132$; Mauchly’s $W=0.52$, $P=0.141$). However, this was not the case in the aperiodic noise conditions. Repeated-measures ANOVA of the mean \| Noise condition \| Percent of calls initiated in silence (mean ± s.d.) \| \|--------------------------\|-----------------------------------------------------\| \| Periodic: 2 s \| 79.16±13.68 \| \| Periodic: 4 s \| 90.46±6.15 \| \| Periodic: 8 s \| 97.22±3.37 \| \| Aperiodic: predictable \| 95.38±3.67 \| \| Aperiodic: unpredictable \| 96.34±4.57 \| Table 2. $t$-test statistics comparing the percentage of calls initiated in silence during the different noise conditions ($\alpha=0.05$) \| Condition \| $P$ \| $t_f$ \| \|----------------------------\|-------\|-------\| \| 2s – 4s \| 0.005 \| 3.982 \| \| 2s – 8s \| 0.000 \| 6.632\| \| 2s – predictable \| 0.001 \| 5.126\| \| 2s – unpredictable \| 0.001 \| 5.429\| \| 4s – 8s \| 0.000 \| 6.509\| \| 4s – predictable \| 0.027 \| 2.796 \| \| 4s – unpredictable \| 0.027 \| 2.783 \| \| 8s – predictable \| 0.321 \| 1.068 \| \| 8s – unpredictable \| 0.704 \| 0.396 \| \| Predictable – unpredictable\| 0.305 \| 1.107 \| Shapiro–Wilk normality test \| Condition \| $W$ \| d.f. \| $P$ \| \|---------------\|-------\|------\|-------\| \| Periodic \| \| \| \| \| 2s \| 0.938 \| 8 \| 0.593 \| \| 4s \| 0.952 \| 8 \| 0.730 \| \| 8s \| 0.917 \| 8 \| 0.408 \| \| Predictable \| \| \| \| \| 2s \| 0.870 \| 8 \| 0.149 \| \| 4s \| 0.884 \| 8 \| 0.205 \| \| 8s \| 0.880 \| 8 \| 0.190 \| \| Unpredictable \| \| \| \| \| 2s \| 0.926 \| 8 \| 0.477 \| \| 4s \| 0.954 \| 8 \| 0.752 \| \| 8s \| 0.930 \| 8 \| 0.512 \| Levene’s test for equality of variance \| Condition \| $F$ \| d.f. 1 \| d.f. 2 \| $P$ \| \|---------------\|-------\|--------\|--------\|-------\| \| Periodic \| 0.9202\| 2 \| 21 \| 0.4139\| \| Predictable \| 0.5059\| 2 \| 21 \| 0.6101\| \| Unpredictable \| 0.5275\| 2 \| 21 \| 0.5977\| Data were tested for normality (Shapiro–Wilk test) and equal variance (Levene’s test). $P<0.05$. percentage of calls per session showed a significant difference between the 2, 4, and 8 s silent gaps (predictable: $F_{2,14}=55.501$, $P<0.001$; Mauchly’s $W=0.948$, $P=0.851$; unpredictable: $F_{2,14}=12.935$, $P=0.001$; Mauchly’s $W=0.873$, $P=0.666$) for the predictable and unpredictable cases as shown in Fig. 2B,C, respectively. Approximately 75% of the calls initiated in the aperiodic conditions across all subjects were initiated in either an 8 s or a 4 s silent gap. Furthermore, in the predictable condition the marmosets vocalized in the 8 s silent gap significantly more than in the unpredictable condition ($t_f=3.176$, $P<0.05$). Hence, in a dynamic environment like the aperiodic case, they avoided the 2 s silent gap and used the 4 and 8 s silent gaps more frequently to initiate their calls. Furthermore, the marmosets used the longest silence gap (8 s) when the pattern of noise–silence was predictable. For this analysis we only considered the first call within any given silence gap. Latency between noise offset and call onset varies depending on noise conditions We analyzed the latency between the noise offset and the call onset (hereafter referred to as latency; see Fig. 1B for an illustration) for the phee calls made during the different noise conditions. This was a crucial parameter to gain insight into potential vocal behavior modifications that the marmosets used to avoid noise bursts when vocalizing. Fig. 3A shows the latency data from the five different noise conditions. The repeated-measures ANOVA showed significant differences in the latencies during the different noise conditions ($F_{4,28}=39.44$, $P<0.001$; Mauchly’s $W=0.133$, $P=0.303$). In the periodic conditions, the marmosets initiated their calls significantly sooner when noise gaps were shorter. The mean latencies for the periodic 2, 4 and 8 s conditions were 1.54, 2.6 and 4.78 s, respectively. The mean latencies in the two aperiodic conditions (predictable: 3.4 s; unpredictable: 3.18 s), however, were... Fig. 3. Latency between noise offset and call onset for the different noise conditions. Data shown are means ± s.e.m. (N=8 subjects). Statistically significant differences with Bonferroni correction are indicated by an asterisk (P<0.05). (A) Comparison of the latency for the different noise conditions. Data shown are for the periodic 2 s, 4 s and 8 s, aperiodic predictable (pred.) and aperiodic unpredictable (unpred.) conditions. The latency between all pairs of condition was significantly different except for predictable vs unpredictable and periodic 4 s vs unpredictable. (B) Comparison of the coefficient of variation of the latency for the different noise conditions. (C) Comparison of the latency following a 2, 4 and 8 s noise pulse in the aperiodic predictable conditions. These data were regrouped from aperiodic sequences, i.e. all calls initiated in 2 s silent intervals were grouped together, etc. Repeated-measures ANOVA showed a significant difference in mean following a 2, 4 and 8 s noise pulse ($F_{2,14}=14.806$, $P<0.001$; Mauchly’s $W=0.715$, $P=0.365$). Paired t-test results: 2 s vs 4 s ($t=-7.35$, $P<0.001$), 2 s vs 8 s ($t=-13.76$, $P<0.001$), 4 s vs 8 s ($t=-6.44$, $P<0.001$). Shapiro–Wilk normality test results: 2 s ($W=0.959$, $P=0.804$), 4 s ($W=0.977$, $P=0.946$), 8 s ($W=0.923$, $P=0.456$). Levene’s test ($F=3.2493$, $P=0.06$) indicates equal variance. (D) Latency for calls made in the aperiodic unpredictable session plotted against the preceding noise pulse length. Repeated-measures ANOVA showed significant differences between call latencies ($F_{2,14}=13.623$, $P<0.001$; Mauchly’s $W=0.417$, $P=0.072$). The mean latency did not significantly vary for 2 and 4 s noise pulses (latency=4 s) but was significantly lower following an 8 s noise pulse (latency=2.3 s). Paired t-test results: 2 s vs 4 s ($t=0.0112$, $P=0.914$), 2 s vs 8 s ($t=-6.25$, $P<0.001$), 4 s vs 8 s ($t=-5.31$, $P<0.001$). Shapiro–Wilk normality test results: 2 s ($W=0.823$, $P=0.051$), 4 s ($W=0.904$, $P=0.31$), 8 s ($W=0.921$, $P=0.44$). Levene’s test ($F=1.6503$, $P=0.2159$) indicates equal variance. longer than the periodic 2 s condition, but shorter than the periodic 8 s condition (Fig. 3A). Interestingly, the mean latency in the aperiodic predictable case was between that of the periodic 4 s and periodic 8 s cases. Table 3 shows the results of an individual paired t-test between the latencies for the different noise conditions. In addition, we quantified the variation of the latency under the different noise conditions by computing the coefficient of variation [CV=(s.d. of latency)/(mean latency)] as shown in Fig. 3B. We tested the CV between different noise conditions using a paired t-test (Table 4). There were two basic trends in the data. First, the mean CV increased from 0.27 to 0.31 to 0.43 in the periodic 2, 4 and 8 s cases, respectively. Second, there was no significant difference in the CV between the periodic 8 s, predictable and unpredictable conditions. Fig. 3C,D presents further analysis of the latency data within the aperiodic predictable and aperiodic unpredictable conditions, respectively. Latency progressively increased in the aperiodic predictable conditions when the silent gap (same as preceding noise length) increased from 2 to 8 s (2 s: 1.34 s, 4 s: 2.57 s, 8 s: 3.98 s; Fig. 3C). The aperiodic unpredictable case presented the marmosets with the most challenging noise environment. To test whether the marmosets were in any way using the noise pulse length to determine the call onset we looked at the latencies with respect to the previous noise pulse length and found significant differences between them ($F_{2,14}=13.623$, $P<0.001$; Mauchly’s $W=0.417$, $P=0.072$). As shown in Fig. 3D, the mean latency did not significantly vary for calls initiated after a 2 s and 4 s long noise pulse (mean latency=4 s) but was significantly lower following an 8 s noise pulse (mean latency=2.3 s). These observations suggest that during the aperiodic noise conditions, the marmosets were trying to predict the duration of the Table 3. t-test statistics for latency between noise offset and call onset for the different noise conditions ($\alpha=0.05$) \| Condition \| $P$ \| $t_7$ \| \|----------------------------\|-------\|-------\| \| 2s – 4s \| 0.000 \| 9.401\| \| 2s – 8s \| 0.000 \| 10.144\| \| 2s – predictable \| 0.000 \| 11.378\| \| 2s – unpredictable \| 0.000 \| 6.390 \| \| 4s – 8s \| 0.000 \| 6.237* \| \| 4s – predictable \| 0.002 \| 4.940* \| \| 4s – unpredictable \| 0.029 \| 2.727 \| \| 8s – predictable \| 0.003 \| 4.425* \| \| 8s – unpredictable \| 0.004 \| 4.154* \| \| Predictable – unpredictable\| 0.435 \| 0.827 \| Shapiro–Wilk normality test \| Condition \| $W$ \| d.f. \| $P$ \| \|----------------------------\|-------\|------\|-------\| \| Periodic 2s \| 0.898 \| 8 \| 0.279 \| \| Periodic 4s \| 0.962 \| 8 \| 0.831 \| \| Periodic 8s \| 0.965 \| 8 \| 0.853 \| \| Predictable \| 0.930 \| 8 \| 0.517 \| \| Unpredictable \| 0.862 \| 8 \| 0.126 \| P<0.05. Levene’s test ($F=1.7355$, $P=0.1643$) indicates equal variance. Table 4. Coefficient of variation of latency between noise offset and call onset for the different noise conditions ($\alpha=0.05$) \| Condition \| $P$ \| $t_7$ \| \|----------------------------\|-------\|-------\| \| 2s – 4s \| 0.066 \| 2.173 \| \| 2s – 8s \| 0.000 \| 6.886\| \| 2s – predictable \| 0.000 \| 17.803\| \| 2s – unpredictable \| 0.000 \| 7.062\| \| 4s – 8s \| 0.000 \| 10.289\| \| 4s – predictable \| 0.000 \| 6.153\| \| 4s – unpredictable \| 0.001 \| 5.254\| \| 8s – predictable \| 0.319 \| 1.072 \| \| 8s – unpredictable \| 0.223 \| 1.337 \| \| Predictable – unpredictable\| 0.476 \| 0.752 \| Shapiro–Wilk normality test \| Condition \| $W$ \| d.f. \| $P$ \| \|----------------------------\|-------\|------\|-------\| \| Periodic 2s \| 0.893 \| 8 \| 0.250 \| \| Periodic 4s \| 0.933 \| 8 \| 0.545 \| \| Periodic 8s \| 0.912 \| 8 \| 0.370 \| \| Predictable \| 0.967 \| 8 \| 0.873 \| \| Unpredictable \| 0.835 \| 8 \| 0.067 \| P<0.05. Levene’s test ($F=1.1012$, $P=0.3714$) indicates equal variance. silent gap from the duration of the preceding noise pulse. Recall that in the aperiodic unpredictable case the marmosets initiated over 96% (Table 1) of their calls in the silent gaps. This percentage of calls initiated in silence is much higher than would be expected if the calls were to occur in silence by chance (43.2% given that total silent period is 778 s within an 1800 s session). As plotted in Fig. 3D, inhibiting vocal production for approximately 4 s before initiating a call gives the subjects a lower probability of being interrupted by a noise pulse immediately following a 2 s and a 4 s noise. However, the latency reduced to 2.3 s following an 8 s noise, which was never followed by an 8 s silent gap. Effects of interfering noises on antiphonal calling latency We analyzed the effect of the noise conditions on the antiphonal calling interactions, focusing our analyses on the antiphonal call latency, i.e. the time delay from the end of caller 1 and beginning of caller 2, of the four marmoset pairs. Fig. 4A shows antiphonal interactions between caller 1 and caller 2 within the same 8 s silence whereas Fig. 4B shows interactions between consecutive silent gaps. The former case (Fig. 4A) required greater accuracy in call timing in order for the marmosets to initiate antiphonal calls within the same silent gap and avoid the noise at the same time. In Fig. 4C we plot the antiphonal call delays for all eight subjects during the periodic 8 s and the baseline conditions divided into non-overlapping 2 s bins. The periodic 8 s condition significantly altered the antiphonal call delay distribution. There was a significant increase in the percentage of antiphonal call exchange with delays less than 2 s and a reduction in the percentage of calls with delays in the range of 4–8 s (Table 5). Additionally, there was also a significant increase in the percent calls with delays in the range of 10–14 s. This implied that in the presence of noise the marmosets are either shortening the antiphonal delay to fit their calls within the same silent interval or exchanging calls with one noise pulse in between, effectively extending the latency period beyond what is considered to be typical for the species (Miller et al., 2009b; Miller and Wang, 2006). Fig. 5 shows additional antiphonal calling group data from all eight marmosets. The mean ± s.e.m. of the antiphonal call delays in the noise conditions and baseline are plotted in Fig. 5A. In general, the antiphonal call delays were longer in the noise conditions than in the baseline condition. This increase was statistically significant in the periodic 4 s and 8 s, aperiodic predictable and unpredictable cases ($F_{5,35}=12.923$, $P<0.001$; Mauchly’s $W=0.059$, $P=0.469$). We also observed that the calling rate of the marmosets was significantly higher ($F_{5,35}=38.79$, $P<0.001$; Mauchly’s $W=0.013$, $P=0.107$) in the periodic 2 s, periodic 4 s, periodic 8 s and predictable conditions (>2.5 calls min$^{-1}$) compared with the baseline condition (1.3 calls min$^{-1}$; Fig. 5B). This suggested that, although the white noise broadcast is an acoustic interference, it did not result in an overall drop in the calling rate of the marmosets. Another consequence of the noise on the antiphonal delay was that approximately 10% of interactive calls by caller 1 and caller 2 overlapped in time ($t_7=3$, $P<0.05$; Fig. 5C). It is important to note that overlapping calls were not observed in the baseline conditions in this study and were rarely observed in a previous study of antiphonal calling by marmosets (Miller and Wang, 2006). Fig. 5C also shows the percentage of antiphonal calls with latencies less than 10 s as well as the percentage of call exchanges with latencies greater than 10 s in the noise and baseline. It is important to note that the overall percent of antiphonal calls with latencies less than 10 s decreased in the noise condition compared with the baseline ($t_7=4.86$, $P<0.05$), as one would expect given the lengths of noise pulses. Finally, a higher percentage of overlapped calls were primarily seen in the periodic 4 s and aperiodic noise conditions (Fig. 5D). Together, these effects suggest that introducing patterns of noise caused the animals to significantly alter their species-typical vocal behavior. Table 6 shows the normality and equal variance test results for data plotted in Fig. 5A–C. DISCUSSION Many animal species have been known to change their call acoustics in the presence of noise. Alternatively, they could change their vocal behavior to minimize the interruption by acoustic interference. Individuals able to modify elements of their vocal behavior in order to maintain the efficacy of communication would be at a significant advantage. Studies in frogs and birds have shown the ability of these animals to avoid overlapping their calls and song, respectively, with environmental sounds. Zelick and Narins (Zelick and Narins, 1985) showed that treefrogs Eleutherodactylus coqui were able to adjust the inter-call interval of advertisement calls relative to the playback periodic tone bursts as well as the pseudorandom tone sequence. Similarly, work in nightingales Luscinia megarhynchos (Brumm, 2006) demonstrated their ability to modify the song onset time, for example to avoid overlap with songs from other bird species. Previous work in non-human primates showed that single cotton-top tamarins avoided initiating vocalizations in the presence of noise (Egnor et al., 2007). Building on this earlier study, in the present study we systematically varied the periodicity and predictability of the noise interference patterns while a pair of marmosets engaged in active bouts of antiphonal calling. As shown in earlier work (Egnor et al., 2007), the marmosets in our study avoided initiating a vocalization while noise was being broadcast. Furthermore, we observed that they significantly shortened the latency of call onset as the silent gap shortened from 8 to 2 s in the periodic sessions. There are, however, some interesting differences between the latencies observed in our study and those reported in the treefrog (Zelick and Narins, 1985) and the nightingale (Brumm, 2006). The chorusing treefrogs E. coqui produced their advertisement calls within 750 ms of silent gaps and the nightingales initiated their song approximately 880 ms after the end of heterospecific song. There are several possible reasons for this difference in the observed latency in the treefrog and nightingale as compared with the marmoset. First, the experimental settings in which the calls were recorded were vastly different, from the field recordings of the treefrogs (Zelick and Narins, 1985) to the heterospecific song playback in the nightingale (Brumm, 2006) to the antiphonal call. Table 5. Results of a Wilcoxon rank-sum test comparing the antiphonal call delays between periodic 8 s and baseline conditions using 2 s bins ($\alpha=0.05$) \| Antiphonal call delay window (s) \| Rank \| $P$ \| \|---------------------------------\|------\|-------\| \| 0–2 \| 88 \| 0.0357* \| \| 2–4 \| 36 \| 0.0002* \| \| 4–6 \| 36 \| 0.0002* \| \| 6–8 \| 42 \| 0.0044* \| \| 8–10 \| 90 \| 0.0189* \| \| 10–12 \| 92 \| 0.0099* \| \| 12–14 \| 86 \| 0.0612 \| \| 14–16 \| 74 \| 0.5594 \| * $P<0.05$. exchange between two marmosets within a controlled acoustic environment (present study). As noted by Zelick and Narins (Zelick and Narins, 1985), they could not have accounted for the influence of the neighboring animals on the studied individual calling behavior. In the case of Brumm (Brumm, 2006), the calling behavior of nightingales (one at a time) was analyzed in response to song playback of other bird species. Second, the advertisement call of the treefrog and bird song are both closely linked to mate selection and establishing dominance within a group. The successful communication of these calls has a direct implication on the fitness of the individual. For instance, in the presence of hundreds of chorusing treefrogs it would be advantageous to initiate the advertisement call as soon as silence is detected. In contrast, pairs of marmosets exchange contact calls (phee’s) that are used to maintain group cohesion within a controlled acoustic environment. Third, the latency in our case is probably influenced by the particular strategy that the marmosets employed to deal with the ongoing noise patterns. In general, if the marmosets waited 2 s before initiating a call, then the chance of overlap with the noise would be significantly reduced. Fourth, the latency may reflect the time required to plan a phee call structure, which, unlike the stereotypic advertisement call and bird song, can be single- or multi-phrased with variable-length phrases (Miller et al., 2009b). Zelick and Narins (Zelick and Narins, 1985) also hypothesize that the treefrog calling behavior is driven by an internal call oscillator with typical inter-call intervals of 2 to 3 s whereas the marmoset phee calls inter-call intervals are variable and not periodic in nature. The higher latency in the marmoset phee call initiation could suggest a more elaborate neural control mechanism of vocal production to account for the greater variability in their call structure. More complex behaviors were evident in the marmosets as well, particularly when the degree of predictability about the acoustic environment became more challenging. At least two general approaches for communicating in the presence of interfering noise conditions were observed. During the periodic conditions, subjects were able to ascertain the reliability of the noise and silence gaps. Hence, marmosets decreased the latency of call onset as the silent gap reduced from 8 s to 4 s to 2 s. For the less reliable aperiodic conditions, such an approach would be difficult. Here the marmosets essentially avoided the 2 s intervals, calling almost exclusively during the 4 s and 8 s silent intervals. Not surprisingly, this preference for the 8 s silent interval was notably higher in the aperiodic predictable case than the unpredictable case. The aperiodic: unpredictable case also presented the most challenging noise environment, where an 8 s noise pulse (N) is followed by either a 2 s or 4 s silent gap (S) but not an 8 s silent gap and so on (example sequence – 2s,4s,4s,8s,8s,2s,2s,8s,8s,4s). The data shown in Fig. 3D suggest that the marmosets employed a clever strategy to deal with the pseudorandom sequence of noise and silence. Calling with a significantly shorted latency following an 8 s noise pulse (2.3±0.15 s) when compared with a 4 s or 2 s noise pulse gave the marmosets a high probability of avoiding overlap with the succeeding noise pulse. In contrast, a 4 s noise pulse is followed by either a 2 s or 8 s silent gap. In this case, the latency (3.9±0.4 s) ensured that they avoided... Table 6. Results of tests for normality (Shapiro–Wilk test) and homoscedasticity (Levene’s test) for data shown in Fig. 5A–C \| Condition \| $W$ \| d.f. \| $P$ \| \|--------------------\|-------\|------\|---------\| \| Fig. 5A<sup>a</sup> \| \| \| \| \| 2 s \| 0.923 \| 8 \| 0.453 \| \| 4 s \| 0.914 \| 8 \| 0.385 \| \| 8 s \| 0.920 \| 8 \| 0.430 \| \| Predictable \| 0.952 \| 8 \| 0.733 \| \| Unpredictable \| 0.949 \| 8 \| 0.702 \| \| Baseline \| 0.863 \| 8 \| 0.129 \| \| Fig. 5B<sup>b</sup> \| \| \| \| \| 2 s \| 0.961 \| 8 \| 0.824 \| \| 4 s \| 0.832 \| 8 \| 0.062 \| \| 8 s \| 0.917 \| 8 \| 0.408 \| \| Predictable \| 0.912 \| 8 \| 0.368 \| \| Unpredictable \| 0.943 \| 8 \| 0.642 \| \| Baseline \| 0.935 \| 8 \| 0.560 \| \| Fig. 5C<sup>c</sup> \| \| \| \| \| Noise_anthp \| 0.831 \| 8 \| 0.060 \| \| Noise_long \| 0.963 \| 8 \| 0.837 \| \| Baseline_anthp \| 0.874 \| 8 \| 0.166 \| \| Baseline_long \| 0.874 \| 8 \| 0.166 \| <sup>a</sup>Levene’s test ($F=0.2722$, $P=0.958$) indicates equal variance. <sup>b</sup>Levene’s test ($F=2.35$, $P=0.0573$) indicates equal variance. <sup>c</sup>Levene’s test ($F=1.04$, $P=0.325$) indicates equal variance. the short 2 s gaps and called in the longer 8 s gaps. Finally, a 2 s noise is followed by either a 4 s or an 8 s silent gap and the latency (4±0.25 s) ensured avoidance of noise overlap at the call onset. There wasn’t a significant difference between latencies following a 2 s and 4 s noise pulse (Fig. 3D). This could result from the fact that in both of these cases, waiting for 4 s before initiating a call would ensure no overlap with the noise. The result from the unpredictable condition supports an interpretation that marmosets in this study appeared to predict the silent gap length from preceding noise pulse. Their predictions were less reliable in the unpredictable condition. Nevertheless, their call latency data show that they did not call randomly even in the ‘partially’ unpredictable condition. Perhaps the most significant observation in these experiments, however, is that the marmoset pairs maintained communication despite the noise. Interestingly, we found that the overall rates of calling increased during the noise conditions relative to baseline. This effect could result from either a general arousal increase due to the presence of an interfering stimulus, or because the animals judged a decrease in the efficacy of signal transmission and increased their effort to compensate. If the former were true, we would expect to see a decrease in volubility towards baseline levels as subjects gained more experience with the noise. As there was no evidence of such a trend, the more likely explanation is that subjects’ natural impetus to communicate was disrupted by the presence of noise and compensated by increasing their frequency of vocal production. Antiphonal calling is a naturally occurring vocal behavior in marmosets that is characterized by the reciprocal exchange of their phee calls when visually occluded from conspecifics (Miller and Wang, 2006). In order to maintain antiphonal calling exchanges, subjects needed to adapt the dynamics of this vocal behavior to the constraints of the environment. A clear example was demonstrated during the periodic 8 s condition. Here subjects either completed an antiphonal call exchange within a single silent gap or across a noise presentation. In both cases, an antiphonal call exchange occurs and continues the conspecific communication. We found that there was a significantly higher percentage of antiphonal call exchange with short latency (0–2 s) in the periodic 8 s case. This implies that the marmosets cooperated in order to complete an antiphonal exchange within the same silent interval. Additionally, the percentage of antiphonal exchanges with latencies of 2–10 s was lower than baseline and that found previously (Miller and Wang, 2006). We also found evidence that the experimental noise conditions impeded normal antiphonal calling behavior. Although overlapping calls were never observed during the baseline, and are rare overall (Miller and Wang, 2006), they were evident in all of the noise conditions, the most prevalent being during the aperiodic experiments (Fig. 5D). The question of vocal control in non-human primates has been controversial. Although the extent and range of control over signal structure appears limited (Egnor and Hauser, 2006; Egnor et al., 2006; Egnor et al., 2007), flexibility in vocal behavior may be more extensive. It would be a misrepresentation to classify members of this taxonomic group as entirely lacking voluntary control over vocal production. Each of the behavioral modifications employed here, for example, require mechanisms for control over elements of communication, such as timing, occurrence and frequency of vocal production, rather than over the structure of the signal itself. Moreover, these abilities are utilized in concurrence between the conspecifics, such that two individuals combine efforts of control in order to maintain communicative integrity during antiphonal calling. As evidenced by an increased length of antiphonal calling bouts between cagemates relative to non-cagemates, and as measured by the number of consecutive antiphonal calls (Miller and Wang, 2006), this natural vocal behavior appears highly cooperative. In order to vocalize during the 8 s periodic condition to produce antiphonal exchanges within a single silent gap, for example, callers not only controlled the timing of their calls but also cooperated to do so. This study indicates that common marmosets possess a level of sophistication in control over vocal production that has not been previously reported in non-human primates. These highly vocal non-human primates were clearly able to adjust their vocal output in order to avoid acoustic interference and cooperatively maintain effective communication. This suggests that common marmosets are an excellent model for continued study of the behavioral and neural mechanisms underlying vocal control and auditory feedback. Future behavioral and neurophysiologic experiments will build on these results to elucidate the underpinnings of this complex aspect of primate vocal control and communication. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We wish to thank Jennifer Papac for assistance in running the experiments and Jenny Estes for help with animal care. FUNDING This research is supported by the National Institutes of Health [grant numbers DC005808 and DC008578 to X.W. and DC009007 to C.T.M.]. Deposited in PMC for release after 12 months. REFERENCES Bezerra, B. M. and Souto, A. (2008). Structure and usage of the vocal repertoire of Callithrix jacchus. Int. J. Primatol. 29, 671-701. Brumm, H. 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Enron and the Dark Side of Shareholder Value William W. Bratton Georgetown University Law Center, firstname.lastname@example.org Originally published in 76 Tul. L. Rev. 1275-1361 (2002). Reprinted with the permission of the Tulane Law Review Association, which holds the copyright. This paper can be downloaded free of charge from: https://scholarship.law.georgetown.edu/facpub/505 76 Tul. L. Rev. 1275-1361 (2002) This open-access article is brought to you by the Georgetown Law Library. Posted with permission of the author. Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarship.law.georgetown.edu/facpub Part of the Business Organizations Law Commons Enron and the Dark Side of Shareholder Value William W. Bratton* This Article addresses the implications that the Enron collapse holds out for the self-regulatory system of corporate governance. The case shows that the incentive structure that motivates actors in the system generates much less powerful checks against abuse than many observers have believed. Even as academics have proclaimed rising governance standards, some standards have declined, particularly those addressed to the numerology of shareholder value. The Article's inquiry begins with Enron's business plan. The Article asserts that there may be more to Enron's "virtual firm" strategy than meets the eye beholding a firm in collapse. The Article restates the strategy as an application of the incomplete contracts theory of the firm that prevails in microeconomics today and asserts that Enron failed because its pursuit of immediate shareholder value caused it to misapply the economics, mistaking its own inflated stock market capitalization for fundamental value. The Article proceeds to Enron's collapse, telling four causation stories. This ex ante description draws on information available to the actors who forced Enron into bankruptcy in December 2001. The discussion accounts for the behavior of Enron's principals by reference to the shareholder value norm and Enron's corporate culture. Finally, the Article takes up the self-regulatory system of corporate governance, asserting that the case justifies no fundamental reform. The costs of any significant new regulation can outweigh the compliance yield, particularly in a system committed to open a wide field for entrepreneurial risk taking. If we seek high returns, we must discount for the risk that rationality and reputation will sometimes prove inadequate as constraints. At the same time, we should hold critical gatekeepers, particularly auditors, to high professional standards. The Article argues that present reform discussions respecting the audit function do not adequately confront the problem of capture demonstrated in this case. I. INTRODUCTION ................................................................. 1276 II. ENRON AND THE CONTRACTARIAN IDEAL .......................... 1288 A. The Virtual Corporation .............................................. 1288 B. Enron's Virtual Corporation and the Theory of the Firm ....... 1294 III. ACCOUNTING FOR ENRON'S COLLAPSE—FOUR STORIES .......... 1299 A. Enron as Conventional Market Reversal .......................... 1299 B. Enron as Derivative Speculation Gone Wrong .................... 1302 C. Enron as a Den of Thieves .......................................... 1305 * Samuel Tyler Research Professor of Law, The George Washington University Law School; Visiting Professor of Law, Georgetown University Law Center (Spring 2002). My thanks to Matt Barrett, Margaret Blair, Jill Fisch, Miriam Galston, Mitu Gulati, Shi Ling Hsu, Lyman Johnson, Kim Krawiec, Don Langevoort, David Millon, Larry Mitchell, Ron Pearlman, Richard Pierce, Warren Schwartz, Bill Vukowich, Andrew White, and participants of workshops at the Georgetown, George Washington, and North Carolina Law Schools for assisting in this project with comments and materials. This Article speaks as of April 11, 2002. I. INTRODUCTION Each economic expansion brings forth an investment so good that people treat it as having broken the iron law of risk and return—the economic teaching that those who want big returns have to take big risks. In the 1920s, the investment was common stocks bought on margin. In the 1960s, it was Nifty Fifty growth stocks. In the 1970s, it was commodities whose prices were going to rise forever. In the 1980s, it was the junk bond, a miracle of financial science that offered a super-normal return without a greater risk of default. In the late 1990s, it was new-economy stocks that levitated on heroic productivity stories and predictions of a 36,000 Dow. And then came Enron. Enron flew high. When its stock price peaked at close to ninety dollars in August 2000, it was America’s seventh largest firm by market capitalization.$^1$ In one category it even had the number one slot—Fortune Magazine hailed it as America’s most innovative firm for five years running.$^2$ Enron also came in number one when it fell. It went into Chapter 11 on December 2, 2001, as the largest bankruptcy reorganization in American history.$^3$ Meanwhile, its stock --- 1. The price/earnings ratio was sixty, however. 2. Pratap Chatterjee, Enron: Pulling the Plug on the Global Power Broker, CORPWATCH, at 6, available at http://www.corpwatch.org/issues/PRT.jsp?articleid=1016 (Dec. 13, 2001). 3. Wendy Zellner et al., The Fall of Enron, Bus. Wk., Dec. 17, 2001, at 30, 33. had fallen to around sixty cents a share, victim to two more Enron superlatives—history's biggest financial fraud and its biggest audit failure. At first the nation's financial system took the crack up in stride, adjusting the share prices of Enron's biggest lenders a notch downwards. Growing worries about other firms' financial reports finally caused a major market correction two months later. The residuum of insecurity will continue to raise risk premiums and depress stock prices. But the most visible victims are Enron's stockholders and employees, especially the employees who were shareholders. Even as 4000 were laid off around the time of the bankruptcy filing, all faced the grim realization that in the company's final weeks management had locked down their 401(k) plan, which had been sixty-percent invested in Enron stock. Corporate failures as big and fast as this one tend to be held out as examples for future business regulation. Enron's failure is no exception, implicating a long list of regulatory topics well before completion of formal investigations into the company's management and the collapse's cause. On its face Enron raises issues for the future of energy deregulation, the mandatory disclosure system under the securities laws, the regulation of the accounting profession, and --- 4. Peter Coy et al., Enron: Running on Empty, Bus. Wk., Dec. 10, 2001, at 80, 80. 5. Gretchen Morgenson, Worries of More Enrons to Come Give Stock Prices a Pounding, N.Y. Times, Jan. 30, 2002, at C1. 6. Steve Liesman, The Outlook: Enron Fallout May Cut Stock Prices in General, Wall St. J., Jan. 21, 2002, at A1. The insecurity also has caused a marked contraction of the commercial paper market, which, in turn, will cause borrowing costs to rise significantly at corporations losing access to this inexpensive source of credit. Gregory Zuckerman, Cash Drought: A Dwindling Supply of Short-Term Credit Plagues Corporations, Wall St. J., Mar. 28, 2002, at A1. 7. 401(k) plans are not subject to ERISA's constraints on investments by defined benefit pension plans, which are subject to a ten percent cap on investment in the employer firm's stock. Enron is by no means the only company whose employees' 401(k) plans are heavily invested in their own stock. Each of the plans of Coca-Cola, Anheuser-Busch, Dell Computer, Abbott Laboratories, and Proctor & Gamble was invested with more than eighty percent in company stock as of December 2001. Ellen E. Schultz, Employers Fight Limits on Firm's Stock in 401(k)s, Wall St. J., Dec. 21, 2001, at C1. For an excellent discussion of the implications of the 401(k) diversification question, see David Millon, Enron and the Dark Side of Worker Ownership (working paper) (on file with author). 8. The fact that Enron made special disclosures about investments in Special Purpose Entities (SPE) to investors in the entities has created a stir on the ground that SPE investors should not have more information than other investors in the marketplace. See Diana B. Henriques & Kurt Eichenwald, A Fog Over Enron, and the Legal Landscape, N.Y. Times, Jan. 27, 2002, at MB1. Why this should be is a puzzle, at least apart from the recently promulgated Regulation FD. Under the materiality convention of Generally Accepted internal corporate governance systems.\textsuperscript{9} For employee pensions, the wheels of action started to turn even before the end of 2001 as bills were introduced in the House and Senate to limit the amount of company securities in 401(k) retirement plans to ten or twenty percent.\textsuperscript{10} Legislation has since been presented covering a range of subjects.\textsuperscript{11} The claims of regulatory failure have a sharp edge due to Enron's profile as one of corporate America's most aggressive political players. Deregulatory politics lay at the core of the company's business plan. Its primary business, energy trading, only came into existence in the wake of deregulation of electricity and natural gas production and supply. Led by its founding chief executive officer (CEO), Kenneth L. Lay, Enron went from state to state to prod local regulators to mandate the unbundling of vertically integrated utilities.\textsuperscript{12} It succeeded in twenty-four states,\textsuperscript{13} clearing a field for the creation of new markets it could exploit. These political successes earned Enron admiration in \textsuperscript{9} Accounting Principles (GAAP), see \textit{David R. Herwitz & Matthew J. Barrett, Accounting For Lawyers} 71 (3d ed. 2001), financial statements do not report all details respecting a business for fear of incoherent results. Meanwhile, to induce a private investor to join in a particular project is to provide detailed information about that project, subject to a confidentiality agreement. Such an inequality of information is a necessary result when reporting companies do project finance, joint ventures, and private placements. \textsuperscript{10} Even the repeal of the Glass-Steagall Act has come in for questioning on the ground that the losses of Citibank and the Morgan Bank might have been lower had they not been providing Enron with investment banking services. Jeanne Cummings et al., \textit{Enron Lessons: Firms Need to Have Assets, and Auditors Oversight}, \textit{Wall St. J.}, Jan. 15, 2002, at A1. \textsuperscript{11} See, e.g., S. 2003, 107th Cong. (2002) (providing for a variety of reforms respecting financial accounting); Auditor Independence Act of 2002, S. 1896, 107th Cong. (2002) (prohibiting auditors from providing management services); Independent Investment Advisers Act of 2002, S. 1895, 107th Cong. (2002) (requiring investment advisors to disclose ties with companies being analyzed by them); Fully Informed Investor Act of 2002, S. 1897, 107th Cong. (2002) (requiring disclosure of the sale of securities by an officer to be made available quickly to the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC)). In addition, SEC Chairman Harvey Pitt, responding to an immediate need to restore confidence in the audit process, has proposed a new internal disciplinary structure for the accounting profession. See, e.g., Michael Schroeder, \textit{SEC Proposes Accounting Disciplinary Body}, \textit{Wall St. J.}, Jan. 17, 2002, at C1. \textsuperscript{12} Holman W. Jenkins, Jr., Editorial, \textit{Enron = Deregulation?}, \textit{Wall St. J.}, Dec. 19, 2001, at A19. Enron started out as a natural gas pipeline at a time when oil was lower-priced. Its natural gas business began to flourish after the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) changed its rules in 1985 to permit utilities to shop for gas and pipelines and to search for customers. Wendy Zellner et al., \textit{Enron's Power Play}, \textit{Bus. Wk. Online}, at http://www.businessweek.com/2001/01_07/b3719001.htm (Feb. 12, 2001). \textsuperscript{13} Leslie Wayne, \textit{Enron, Preaching Deregulation, Worked the Statehouse Circuit}, \textit{N.Y. Times}, Feb. 9, 2002, at B1. business circles as a center of innovation and entrepreneurship.\textsuperscript{14} Jeffrey Skilling, who succeeded Lay as Enron’s CEO in February 2001 (to resign the following August as storm clouds gathered), described a firm with a mission against entrenched monopoly and its paid protectors in government. Enron was “on the side of the angels”: In every business we’ve been in, we’re the good guys. That’s why they don’t like us. Customers love us, but the incumbents don’t like us. We’re bringing the benefits of choice and free markets to the world. You have no idea how frustrating it was in the early days of gas. They had built all the rules to protect their monopolies.\textsuperscript{15} But even as Enron fought and won battles against protected energy monopolies, it succeeded to and surpassed their influence activities.\textsuperscript{16} Enron spent copiously on politics. For example, the $2.4 million of political contributions it paid in 2000 exceeded by 100% those of the next-most-generous energy company.\textsuperscript{17} In 2000, Enron also paid $2.1 million to a dozen or so Washington lobbying firms.\textsuperscript{18} Enron obtained good results from such investments, notably in connection with the passage in 2000 of the Commodity Futures Modernization \begin{itemize} \item \textsuperscript{14} Zellner et al., \textit{supra} note 3, at 30. \item \textsuperscript{15} \textit{OnLine Extra: Q & A with Enron’s Skilling}, Bus. Wk. OnLine, at http://www.businessweek.com/2001/01_07/b3719010.htm (Feb. 12, 2001). \item \textsuperscript{16} Enron’s state-level political activities were not in a strict sense ever directed to securing deregulation of energy production and distribution. For Enron, deregulation meant special legislative protection for its own business model. It encouraged the states to \textit{mandate} their utilities’ unbundling along lines suited to Enron’s lines of business, leaving open no playing field for the operation of competing business models. \textit{See} Jenkins, \textit{supra} note 12, at A19. \item \textsuperscript{17} Enron at first joined the Harvard Electricity Policy Group, a forum organized by academics in 1991. In 1994, it withdrew its support from the group due to disagreements about the shape restructurings should take. Letter from Professor Richard Pierce (Feb. 12, 2002) (on file with author). It also is noted that Enron’s operations abroad have earned the opprobrium of human rights activists, in particular with respect to its $3 billion joint venture with the state utility of Maharashtra in India. Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International have documented human rights abuses on the part of local police officers acting as a private security force for Enron. They accuse Enron’s cops of beating local opponents of the power plant and of dragging citizens out of their homes and then beating them for refusing to cooperate with the firm. Chatterjee, \textit{supra} note 2, ¶ 33. \item \textsuperscript{18} Robert Kuttner, Editorial, \textit{The Lesson of Enron: Regulation Isn’t A Dirty Word}, Bus. Wk., Dec. 24, 2001, at 24. One of these representatives was Marc Racicot, now the Republicans’ national chairman. \end{itemize} Act.\textsuperscript{19} Senator Phil Gramm, spouse of Wendy Gramm, one of Enron’s outside directors and a member of its audit committee,\textsuperscript{20} assured that the legislation included the “Enron Point,” a complete exclusion for energy trading companies from financial or disclosure requirements respecting portfolios of over-the-counter derivative securities. Enron thereby achieved something available to no other leading dealer in derivative contracts—complete exemption of its activities from federal supervision and oversight.\textsuperscript{21} Yet none of Enron’s political friends came forward when it approached the Treasury for a bailout in late 2001. Washington Republicans kept the firm at a conspicuous distance.\textsuperscript{22} Even so, Enron associations now soil politicians on a per se basis.\textsuperscript{23} Any sign of past proximity to the firm drives the press into a frenzy. The same goes for the business community, where scrutiny extends to the conduct of its largest lenders, J.P. Morgan Chase & Co. and Citigroup, Inc.\textsuperscript{24} Remarkable extremes have been reached by a press eager for scandal: \begin{itemize} \item[19.] Commodity Futures Modernization Act of 2000, Pub. L. No. 106-554, 114 Stat. 2763 (2000). \item[20.] She is alleged to have received between $915,000 and $1.85 million in compensation from Enron between 1993 and 2001. Bob Herbert, Editorial, \textit{Enron and the Gramms}, N.Y. \textit{Times}, Jan. 17, 2002, at A29. How much of the deferred portion of this she now gets to collect remains in question. \item[21.] Makers of comparable products are either banks, broker-dealers, commodities dealers, or exchanges or their members, and thereby subject to regulation under one or another federal regime. \item[22.] See, e.g., Cummings et al., \textit{supra} note 9, at A1; Michael Schroeder, \textit{Enron Debacle Will Test Leadership of SEC’s New Chief}, \textit{Wall St. J.}, Dec. 31, 2001, at A10 (discussing comments of President George W. Bush on Enron). \item[23.] For an analysis along these lines, see Albert R. Hunt, Editorial, \textit{A Scandal Centrepiece: Enron’s Political Connections}, \textit{Wall St. J.}, Jan. 17, 2002, at A15. Vice President Cheney takes the worst of this by virtue of his energy policy portfolio. Unfortunately for Cheney, his contacts were not limited to policy discussion. At Lay’s request, he met with Indian officials in June 2001 to pressure them for concessions in respect of an ongoing political battle between Enron and the Maharashtra state utility. Richard A. Oppel, Jr., \textit{Despite Warning, Enron Chief Urged Buying of Shares}, N.Y. \textit{Times}, Jan. 19, 2002, at A1. \item[24.] The SEC is investigating Morgan for delaying full disclosure of its Enron losses. These first were said to be $900 million, a figure later raised to $2.6 billion because guarantors of Morgan’s position have refused to pay. The matter is in litigation. Jathon Sapsford & Anita Raghavan, \textit{Trading Charges: Lawsuit Spotlights J.P. Morgan’s Ties to the Enron Debacle}, \textit{Wall St. J.}, Jan. 25, 2002, at A1; Anita Raghavan et al., \textit{SEC Examines Ties Between Banks and Enron}, \textit{Wall St. J.}, Jan. 15, 2002, at C1. Citigroup seems to have engineered a preference for itself—a $250 million bootstrap from unsecured to secured status for itself in respect of the last rounds of prebankruptcy lending. Jathon Sapsford & Mitchell Pacelle, \textit{Citigroup’s Enron Financing Stirs Controversy}, \textit{Wall St. J.}, Jan. 16, 2002, at C1. \end{itemize} You get your name in the paper simply by virtue of being a purchaser of a private placement note of an Enron equity affiliate.\textsuperscript{25} As with the political community, Enron failed to find significant sources of support in the business community as it struggled to stay solvent. Many saw it as an arrogant, uncooperative player.\textsuperscript{26} It had insisted on, and succeeded in, getting its own way with business counterparties as well as government regulators.\textsuperscript{27} Its famously opaque financial statements showed that Enron found it neither necessary nor desirable to share a clear picture of its operations and finances with either its own shareholders or the wider financial community. This was a firm whose CEO, Skilling, publicly castigated as an “asshole” an analyst who had the temerity to ask a critical question about Enron’s financial reports.\textsuperscript{28} When financial journalist, Bethany McLean, asked early questions about the company, in \textit{Is Enron Overpriced?},\textsuperscript{29} Skilling accused her of being unethical for publishing an underresearched piece.\textsuperscript{30} Two schools of thought show up prominently in discussions of the meaning of Enron’s collapse. On one side stand supporters of deregulation, many of whom once touted Enron and now find it more than a little embarrassing. Its collapse, they tell us, should be taken as an exemplar of free market success.\textsuperscript{31} If Enron was a house of cards, it was free market actors who blew it down, with a free market administration keeping its hands off. Any violations of law will be brought to light through investigations by the Congress, the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), and the Justice Department, along with fact finding connected with a raft of pending lawsuits. \begin{itemize} \item[25.] Gretchen Morgenson, \textit{Many May Be Surprised to Be Enron Investors}, N.Y. Times, Jan. 25, 2002, at C1. \item[26.] See Zellner et al., \textit{supra} note 3, at 34. \item[27.] Enron used its clout as a source of fees to bully actors in the financial community to participate in increasingly dubious off-balance sheet financings. Wendy Zellner et al., \textit{The Man Behind the Deal Machine}, Bus. Wk., Feb. 4, 2002, at 40, 40-41. \item[28.] \textit{Special Report—Enron: The Amazing Disintegrating Firm}, Economist, Dec. 8, 2001, at 61 [hereinafter \textit{Special Report}]. The incident occurred in April 2001. Heather Timmons, \textit{When Execs Protest Too Much}, Bus. Wk., Jan. 14, 2002, at 8, 8. \item[29.] Bethany McLean, \textit{Is Enron Overpriced?}, Fortune, Mar. 5, 2001, at 123 \item[30.] Felicity Barringer, \textit{10 Months Ago, Questions on Enron Came and Went with Little Notice}, N.Y. Times, Jan. 28, 2002, at A11. \item[31.] For a bizarre example of this thinking, see John Rossant, Editorial, \textit{Why a Few Enrons Would Do Europe Good}, Bus. Wk., Dec. 31, 2001, at 58, 58 (asserting that Enron shows that government support for industry is a bad thing). \end{itemize} Meanwhile, the histories of rogues and outliers like Enron never provide a sound basis for new regulatory initiatives.\textsuperscript{32} On the opposite side stand those, including this Article’s author, predisposed to draw regulatory inferences from business disasters. Enron, with its reputation as America’s corporate shock troop for radical reliance on market discipline and concomitant dismantling of the New Deal regulatory legacy,\textsuperscript{33} provides an especially attractive basis for argument. These assertions encompass power supply, the deregulation of which, according to one recent commentator, “guaranteed that sharks such as Enron would emerge to cream profits by manipulating supply.”\textsuperscript{34} They encompass campaign finance reform, in the eyes of many a necessary prerequisite to any other law reform triggered by Enron.\textsuperscript{35} And they encompass business law, in particular corporate and securities law’s system of self-regulatory corporate governance. This Article addresses the self-regulatory regime of corporate governance, to which Enron comes as a considerable shock. In the 1990s, corporate self-regulation had been widely thought to have reached a high plateau of evolutionary success due to proliferating good practices and sophisticated institutional monitoring. Yet the failure in this case stemmed not from business reversal, which often cannot be avoided, but from legerdemain, which usually can be controlled. The breaking stories defied explanation—$30 million of self-dealing by the chief financial officer, $700 million of net earnings going up in smoke, $1.2 billion of shareholders’ equity disappearing as if by erasure of a blackboard, more than $4 billion in hidden liabilities—and all in a company theretofore viewed as an exemplar. How could this happen in a corporate governance and disclosure system held out as the envy of the world? Either deeply concealed skullduggery or some hidden regulatory defect requiring legislative correction must have been at work. As the scandal deepens and the criminal justice system comes to bear, the concealed skullduggery characterization becomes more \textsuperscript{32} For this point of view, see Editorial, \textit{Investigating Enron}, WALL ST. J., Nov. 30, 2001, at A14; Jenkins, \textit{supra} note 12. \textsuperscript{33} Paul Krugman, Editorial, \textit{Laissez Not Fair}, N.Y. TIMES, Dec. 11, 2001, at A27. \textsuperscript{34} Kuttner, \textit{supra} note 18, at 24. Many accuse Enron of manipulation and profiteering in connection with California’s power shortage of 2000 and 2001. See, e.g., Richard A. Oppel, Jr., \textit{Signs Enron Bet on Price Increase Before California Power Shortage}, N.Y. TIMES, Apr. 11, 2002, at C1. \textsuperscript{35} See Stephen Labaton, \textit{Auditing Firms Exercise Power in Washington}, N.Y. TIMES, Jan. 19, 2002, at A1 (quoting Professor James Cox). prominent. The principals emerge as rogues, to be roughly expelled by the respectable business community. There lies much truth in the characterization. But the rogue characterization serves a double function—it deflects attention from the respectable community’s own business practices. This Article aspires to counterbalance with a picture of Enron’s collapse that deemphasizes the rogue to focus on the regular. It reviews the particulars of the case, emphasizing the points of continuity between Enron and respectable firms. It asserts that Enron in collapse was wrought into the fabric of our corporate governance system every bit as much as Jack Welch’s General Electric (GE) was in success. Like GE under Jack Welch, Enron under Ken Lay and Jeff Skilling pursued maximum shareholder value. Like GE’s managers, Enron’s pursued a plausible and innovative business plan. The firm collapsed for the most mundane of reasons—its managers suffered the behavioral biases of successful entrepreneurs. They overemphasized the upside and lacked patience. They pursued heroic short-term growth numbers that their business plan could not deliver. That pursuit of immediate shareholder value caused them to become risk-prone, engaging in levered speculation, earnings manipulation, and concealment of critical information. They were rogues to be sure, but the self-regulatory system nevertheless is deeply implicated in their company’s failure. Enron’s collapse reminds us that our corporate governance system takes some significant risks in the name of encouraging innovation and entrepreneurship and economizing on enforcement costs. Enron’s principals abused the system in plain view, taking advantage of the considerable slack it extends to successful actors. Although they did not disclose everything, they disclosed more than enough to put the system’s layers of monitors on notice that their earnings numbers were soft and their liabilities understated. Similarly aggressive accounting and soft numbers are commonplace in business today. They have become wrought into the practice of shareholder value maximization. The theory of shareholder value maximization tells a different story, of course. Academics define shareholder value by reference to management practices that enhance productivity—corporate unbundling and concentration on core competencies, the return of free cash flow to shareholders, compensation schemes that align incentives, and prompt restructuring of dysfunctional operations. But in the transfer from theory to practice, the set of economic instructions diffuses into a norm. The norm is informed by the demands of shareholders themselves in addition to the official economics. As the norm becomes more capacious it takes on a dark side, a negative aspect quite apart from the pain it inflicts on millions of employees for whom the cost-cutting entailed in restructuring means termination. For equity investors in recent years, the practice of shareholder value maximization has not meant patient investment. Instead, it has meant obsession with short-term performance numbers. For managers, the shareholder value norm accordingly has come to mean more than astute investment and disinvestment. It also means aggressive management of reported figures responsive to the investment community’s demands for immediate value. Enron stated its adherence to the norm in its Annual Report for 2000—it was a company “laser-focused on earnings per share.” Enron forces us to confront a discomfiting fact: even as academics have proclaimed rising governance standards, some standards have declined, particularly those addressed to the numerology of shareholder value. The decline has not been limited to companies subject to enforcement actions, like Cendant\textsuperscript{37} and Sunbeam.\textsuperscript{38} Investigations and criticisms touch reputable names like Xerox,\textsuperscript{39} Lucent,\textsuperscript{40} Qualcom,\textsuperscript{41} American International,\textsuperscript{42} Coca-Cola,\textsuperscript{43} IBM\textsuperscript{44} and GE itself.\textsuperscript{45} The number of accounting restatements, cases in which companies lower previously reported earnings, averaged 49 \begin{itemize} \item[36.] \textit{ENRON}, 2000 ANNUAL REPORT 2 (2001). \item[37.] \textit{See In re Cendant Corp. Sec. Litig.}, 109 F. Supp. 2d 235 (D.N.J. 2000), \textit{aff'd}, 264 F.3d 201 (3d Cir. 2001). \item[38.] Chad Terhune & Joann S. Lublin, \textit{Unlike Others, Dollar General Issues a Mea Culpa}, \textsc{Wall St. J.}, Jan. 17, 2002, at B1 (noting Dollar General’s public apology for its accounting irregularities in the same week that “Chainsaw” Al Dunlop paid a $15 million settlement stemming from Sunbeam’s fraudulent financials). \item[39.] Claudia H. Deutsch & Reed Abelson, \textit{Xerox Facing New Pressures Over Auditing}, \textsc{N.Y. Times}, Feb. 9, 2001, at C1. \item[40.] Simon Romero, \textit{Lucent's Books Said to Draw the Attention of the S.E.C.}, \textsc{N.Y. Times}, Feb. 10, 2001, at C1. \item[41.] John A. Byrne & Ben Elgin, \textit{Cisco: Behind the Hype}, \textsc{Bus. Wk.}, Jan. 21, 2002, at 54. \item[42.] Christopher Oster & Ken Brown, \textit{AIG: A Complex Industry, A Very Complex Company}, \textsc{Wall St. J.}, Jan. 23, 2002, at C16. \item[43.] Betsy McKay, \textit{Coca-Cola: Real Thing Can Be Hard to Measure}, \textsc{Wall St. J.}, Jan. 23, 2002, at C16. \item[44.] William M. Bulkeley, \textit{IBM: ‘Other Income’ Can Mean Other Opinion}, \textsc{Wall St. J.}, Jan. 23, 2002, at C1; Steve Liesman, \textit{Deciphering the Black Box}, \textsc{Wall St. J.}, Jan. 23, 2002, at C1. The \textit{Journal} holds these companies out as exemplars of what is called “black box” accounting. It’s a black box when you can’t figure it out. \item[45.] Jeremy Kahn, \textit{Accounting in Wonderland: Jeremy Kahn Goes Down the Rabbit Hole with GE’s Books}, \textsc{Fortune}, Mar. 19, 2001, at 134; Rachel Emma Silverman & Ken Brown, \textit{GE: Some Seek More Light of the Finances}, \textsc{Wall St. J.}, Jan. 23, 2002, at C1. \end{itemize} per year from 1990 to 1997. By 2000, the annual number was up to 156.\textsuperscript{46} Clearly, the line between appropriate and inappropriate behavior has dissolved for many under real-world pressure to produce shareholder value. Exploitation and expansion of the gray area has become routine. The resulting loss of perspective facilitated Enron's step across the line to fraud. Special regulatory attention accordingly devolves on its auditor, the actor in the self-regulatory system whose primary function is to deter fraud. This Article's inquiry into Enron's implications for corporate self-regulation (and the legal theory that supports it) begins, in Part II, with Enron's business plan. When Enron rode high, it aspired to embody and realize the ideal of a contractual firm rooted in the touchstone economics of Michael Jensen and the late William H. Meckling.\textsuperscript{47} Enron would transform itself into a "virtual" corporation, a center for market making and hedging by high-tech experts, rather than an asset-heavy energy producer. Thus viewing itself as a real time nexus of contracts, Enron looked out at the field of traditional large, vertically integrated, asset-based companies and saw a great arbitrage opportunity. Those lumbering behemoths with low returns on assets were just waiting to be dismantled, their coordinative functions to be replaced by Enron's proprietary trading markets. The strategy was lionized in the business press in early 2001 as Skilling ascended Enron's throne. By the year's end it was derided. Paul Krugman has called it "death by guru"—little more than a "perfect PowerPoint presentation."\textsuperscript{48} It was so trendy that "few analysts were willing to fly in the face of fashion by questioning Enron's numbers."\textsuperscript{49} Certainly, few asked any questions.\textsuperscript{50} But there may be more to Enron's strategy than meets the eye beholding a firm in collapse. Part II argues that the strategy may be restated as an application of the \textsuperscript{46} Liesman, \textit{supra} note 44, at C1. \textsuperscript{47} Michael C. Jensen & William H. Meckling, \textit{Theory of the Firm: Managerial Behavior, Agency Costs and Ownership Structure}, 3 J. Fin. ECON. 305 (1976). It is noted that Jensen has taken the occasion of Enron's collapse publicly to castigate managers who seek to maximize stock prices through legerdemain rather than enhancement of fundamental value. Joseph Fuller & Michael C. Jensen, Editorial, \textit{Dare to Keep Your Stock Price Low}, WALL ST. J., Dec. 31, 2001, at A8. The authors have expanded their op-ed piece into a short paper. See Joseph Fuller & Michael C. Jensen, \textit{Just Say No to Wall Street}, available at http://www.papers.ssrn.com/abstract=297156 (Feb. 17, 2001). \textsuperscript{48} Paul Krugman, Editorial, \textit{Death By Guru}, N.Y. TIMES, Dec. 18, 2001, at A23. \textsuperscript{49} \textit{Id.} \textsuperscript{50} One that did was Veba, a German firm which walked away from a proposed merger with Enron in 1999 after Price Waterhouse took a close look at Enron's books. Edmund L. Andrews et al., '99 Deal Failed After Scrutiny of Enron Books, N.Y. TIMES, Jan. 27, 2002, at 1. incomplete contracts theory of the firm that prevails in microeconomics today. Enron failed because its pursuit of immediate shareholder value caused it to misapply the economics. It asked for too much from the strategy in terms of immediate increases in earnings per share, mistaking its own inflated stock market capitalization for fundamental value. Meanwhile, the arbitrage play it proposed remains to be made against the prevailing pattern of vertical industrial organization, only by a more level-headed management team. The virtual corporation and the regulatory and social challenges it presents remain on table. Part III moves on to Enron’s collapse, telling four causation stories. This ex ante account draws on information available to the actors who forced Enron into bankruptcy in December 2001, avoiding inquiry into the culpability of Enron’s principals. The first story looks at Enron at the beginning of 2001 to show a company with some profound but very conventional problems in need of solution. This account provides a backdrop for the stories that follow. The second story depicts Enron as Long-Term Capital Management—a derivative play gone bad. The problem with this very good story is that even as the allegations pile up there remains little evidence to support it. The third story depicts Enron as a den of thieves. Here we encounter the famous $30 million fee collected by Enron’s chief financial officer, Andrew Fastow, along with shenanigans with Special Purpose Entities. The discussion asserts that there was no prima facie breach of fiduciary duty bound up in the Fastow deal at the time the Enron board approved it. At the same time, to look at Fastow and the SPE transactions is finally to encounter fraud, as Enron does shady deals with its CFO’s limited partnership to conceal losses and generate earnings. Public disclosure of these activities triggers a reputational crisis for Enron but no negative financial results large enough to bring it down. We get those with the fourth story—the revelation of $4 billion of hidden contingent liabilities. This triggers a credit rating downgrade, a liquidity crisis, and a ticket to Chapter 11. Part III accounts for these actors’ behavior by reference to the shareholder value norm and Enron’s corporate culture. More particularly, the two stories, Part II’s story of Enron in success and Part III’s story of Enron in collapse, combine to imply that the principals saw themselves as players in a tournament. Their job was not just to make money, but to make the most money—to be the superstar firm. For a superstar firm, success did not mean merely doing better than the next firm. It meant destroying the next firm and much of industrial organization along with it and always delivering good numbers. This single-minded pursuit of first-place competitive victory caused Enron's managers to destroy their firm.\textsuperscript{51} Part IV turns to corporate self-regulation for a conventional, but sobering account of responsibility. To help maintain focus, attention is limited to Enron's officers, directors, auditors, and shareholders.\textsuperscript{52} Enron's top executives and board of directors bear the primary blame. Yet the directors went though the motions dictated by the book of good corporate practice. Negative implications accordingly arise for the monitoring model of the board of directors. But, despite the author's disposition to draw regulatory inferences from business disaster, there follows no plausible reform prescription. Secondary blame attaches to Enron's auditors, who manifestly should have refused to give a favorable opinion on Enron's financials. Here arise the case's strong regulatory implications. It is clear that Enron had captured its auditor, denuding the relationship of its necessary adversary aspect. Similar situations of capture are ubiquitous in America's corporate landscape. Secondary blame also attaches to members of the community of institutional investors. Our self-regulatory system assumes that these actors make a governance contribution when they monitor large companies like Enron. Here they failed to do so even though Enron's financials provided enough information about shady deals to give them cause to demand explanations. If actors with billions of other people's money invested do not require managers and boards to make a coherent informational account of themselves before disaster strikes, despite clear signs of trouble, then we must put a heavy qualification on our reliance on the monitoring system. In contrast, the legal system will work as intended in this case so far as concerns ex post enforcement, given multiple prima facie violations of the securities \textsuperscript{51} As they did so they shed the behavior pattern of the rational actor to display the behavioral infirmities described in learning on securities fraud. \textit{See} Kimberly D. Krawiec, \textit{Accounting for Greed: Unraveling the Rogue Trader Mystery}, 79 ORE. L. REV. 301 (2000); Donald C. Langevoort, \textit{Organized Illusions: A Behavioral Theory of Why Corporations Mislead Stock Market Investors (and Cause Other Social Harms)}, 146 U. PA. L. REV. 101 (1997) [hereinafter Langevoort, \textit{Organized Illusions}]; Donald C. Langevoort, \textit{Selling Hope, Selling Risk: Some Lessons for Law from Behavioral Economics About Stockbrokers and Sophisticated Customers}, 84 CAL. L. REV. 627 (1996) [hereinafter Langevoort, \textit{Selling Hope}]. \textsuperscript{52} This leaves out a secondary list of participants, including Enron's counsel, Vinson & Elkins, its creditors, particularly its lead lenders, and the investment institutions participating in its off-balance sheet vehicles. They will receive attention enough elsewhere. laws and an emerging picture of widespread culpability.\textsuperscript{53} The disturbing thing is that the system’s standing army of civil and criminal enforcers had no deterrent effect. Enron shows that the incentive structure that motivates actors in our self-regulatory governance system generates much less powerful checks against abuse than many observers have believed. This point does not by itself validate any particular regulatory corrective. The costs of any regulation can outweigh the compliance yield, particularly in a system committed to open a wide field for entrepreneurial risk taking. Such a system can no more break the iron law of risk and return than could Michael Milken and his junk bonds. If we seek high returns, we must discount for the risk that rationality and reputation will sometimes prove inadequate as constraints. II. ENRON AND THE CONTRACTARIAN IDEAL A. \textit{The Virtual Corporation} In early 2001, Enron was in a process of transformation, determined to leave behind its original business, an asset-laden producer and transporter of natural gas, to become a pure financial intermediary. Its intermediary business had two aspects. First, there was a proprietary marketplace in which Enron matched up energy producers, carriers, and users.\textsuperscript{54} Enron was expanding this business to cover anything which could be traded—pulp and paper, metals, even broadband services. There was reason for optimism—Enron had just started up an exemplary online operation which made access to its market cheap and user friendly.\textsuperscript{55} Enron acknowledged few limits to its marketplace. Only “unique” products—“knickknacks”—could not be brought within its trading model.\textsuperscript{56} Second, Enron sold risk management products. These over-the-counter derivative contracts covered its customers’ exposure to price risks, making participation in Enron’s market more attractive. \textsuperscript{53} See William C. Powers, Jr. et al., Report of Investigation by the Special Investigative Committee of the Board of Directors of Enron Corp. (2002), available at 2002 WL 198018 [hereinafter Powers Report]. \textsuperscript{54} A back-office scheduled pipeline and transmission capacity to effect actual deliveries of gas and electricity. Zellner et al., supra note 12, ¶ 13. \textsuperscript{55} The site is said to have handled 550,000 transactions with a notional value of $345 billion in its first year. A Survey of Energy: A Brighter Future?, ECONOMIST, Feb. 10, 2001, at 57, available at 2001 WL 7317640 [hereinafter Survey: Energy]. \textsuperscript{56} OnLine Extra: Q & A with Enron’s Skilling, supra note 15. To get a better look at Enron’s intermediary operation, let us hypothesize Enron’s entry as a trader into a new market, say pulp and paper. To effect entry as a seller, Enron first had to assure itself of sources of supply, whether through contracting or through direct ownership of the sources of the product, here timber tracts. Once it established itself as a seller, Enron would start bringing other sellers together with timber buyers. As Enron saw it, such a new market could grow spectacularly if many timber users had captive sources of supply. In this scenario, the vertically integrated forest products companies notice the Enron market and see that it has sufficient volume to supply their needs. They begin to draw on it for marginal supplies. It becomes clear that Enron’s market offers timber at lower prices than do their captive timber sources. Ultimately, these companies unbundle themselves, selling off their forest tracts, pocketing the gain, and relying on Enron’s market for future supplies. Enron claimed to provide a level of intelligence higher than that of a marketplace, traditionally conceived. As claimed in Enron’s 2000 Annual report: “[We] provide high-value products and services other wholesale service providers cannot. We can take the physical components and repackage them to suit the specific needs of customers. We treat term, price and delivery as variables that are blended into a single, comprehensive solution.” One key to this addition of value was diversification. Enron’s network of contacts respecting supply of a given product caused a reduction of risk for buyers of the product, a risk reduction effect unachievable by isolated producer-sellers in an industry. Skilling explained: [T]he fundamental advantage of a virtually integrated system vs. a physically integrated system is you need less capital to provide the same reliability. . . . Nondelivery is a nonsystematic risk. If a pipeline blows up or a compressor goes down or a wire breaks, the bigger your portfolio, the greater your ability to wire around that. So, if for example, I’m just starting in the gas merchant business and I’m selling gas from central Kansas to Kansas City, if the pipeline [between those places] blows up, I’m out of business. For Enron, if that pipeline blows up, I’ll back haul out of New York, or I’ll bring Canadian gas in and spin it through some storage facilities. If you can diversify your infrastructure, you can reduce nonsystematic risk, which says 57. ENRON, supra note 36, at 2. there’s a . . . very strong tangible network effect. . . . But you’ve got to get big, you’ve got to get that initial market share, or you’re toast.\textsuperscript{58} One obstacle to this market creation scenario concerned price risk to buyers. Product users who procure captive sources of supply seek insulation from price fluctuations, particularly upward price fluctuations in times of high demand. To divest one’s source of supply and rely on a trading market, particularly another firm’s proprietary trading market, is to expose oneself to this risk. The solution to the problem, for both Enron and the product user, lay in derivative contracts entered into with a market intermediary. These can provide protection against price increases at reasonable cost, at least for the short and intermediate durations. Thus did Enron supplement its activities as a market maker by entering into these contracts with its customers. As Enron stated in its 2000 Annual Report: In Volatile Markets, Everything Changes But Us. When customers do business with Enron, they get our commitment to reliably deliver their product at a predictable price, regardless of the market condition. This commitment is possible because of Enron’s unrivaled access to markets and liquidity. . . . . . . We offer a multitude of predictable pricing options. Market access and information allow Enron to deliver comprehensive logistical solutions that work in volatile markets or markets undergoing fundamental changes, such as energy and broadband.\textsuperscript{59} Enron, in short, aspired to be \textit{better} than a market. It was reducing the costs of finding, contracting with, and communicating with outside suppliers and customers—costs that formerly meant bringing disparate operations under a single corporate roof. From this there followed a staggering claim: Enron would apply enough raw intelligence and superior information to the provision of products and risk services to cause a change in the prevailing mode of industrial organization. Said Skilling: There’s only been a couple of times in history when these costs of interaction have radically changed. . . . One was the railroads, and then the telephone and the telegraph. . . . [W]e’re going through another right now. The costs of interaction are collapsing because of the Internet, and as those costs collapse, I think the economics of \textsuperscript{58} OnLine Extra: \textit{Q&A with Enron’s Skilling}, supra note 15 (alterations in original). \textsuperscript{59} ENRON, supra note 36, at 6. temporarily assembled organizations will beat the economics of the old vertically integrated organization.\textsuperscript{60} Skilling continued, in a different setting: The old way they reduced the risk is they’d vertically integrate. If you were Exxon in the old days, you integrated across the whole chain.... If you were afraid crude-oil prices would go down, you’d own the refinery, too, because you liked it if crude prices went down.... That made a lot of sense... because it was very expensive to make sure you could get reliable supplies of crude oil to go into a refinery if you didn’t own the crude oil. Well, now you go on your computer and get it instantaneously.... If you have somebody [like Enron] who comes along and says hey, look, I’m going to virtually vertically integrate because it’s a whole lot cheaper, you’re not going to be cost-competitive.\textsuperscript{61} In Skilling’s projection, virtual integration force would force Big Oil, Big Coal, or Big Anything to split up into multitudinous micro-firms, each working a niche. Enron would put the whole back together through its trading operation, all the while securing lower prices for all.\textsuperscript{62} The “nexus of contracts” firm hypothesized by Jensen and Meckling in 1976 would be realized in fact. Jensen and Meckling took the large firm and explained it as a byproduct of equilibrium contracting by rational economic actors. Given the complexity of relations among actors in the complex, agency cost reduction emerged as the problem for solution in the economics of firm organization.\textsuperscript{63} Enron was going to use real-world market contracting to unwind Jensen and Meckling’s contractual complexes into simpler, more transparent units. With each unit directly disciplined by the market for its own product, agency costs inevitably would be less of a problem. Skilling saw one further implication: assets were a bad thing to have. This followed from the shareholder value maximization norm. Skilling liked the numbers on return on equity capital yielded by \begin{itemize} \item \textsuperscript{60} Jerry Useem, \textit{And Then, Just When You Thought the “New Economy” Was Dead}, Bus. 2.0, Aug. 2001, at 7. \item \textsuperscript{61} \textit{OnLine Extra: Q&A with Enron’s Skilling}, supra note 15 (first four alterations in original). \item \textsuperscript{62} \textit{Survey: Energy}, supra note 55. For the path-breaking discussion of the virtual firm in the legal literature, see Claire Moore Dickerson, \textit{Spinning Out of Control: The Virtual Organization and Conflicting Governance Vectors}, 59 U. Pitt. L. Rev. 759, 759-804 (1998). \item \textsuperscript{63} Jensen & Meckling, supra note 47, at 310. For an explication of the theory, see William W. Bratton, Jr., \textit{The New Economic Theory of the Firm: Critical Perspectives from History}, 41 Stan. L. Rev. 1471, 1478-80 (1989). \end{itemize} financial institutions, insurance companies, and pension funds better than the returns capital yielded in the energy industry: “[I]t’s very hard to earn a compensatory rate of return on a traditional asset investment.... In today’s world, you have to bring intellectual content to the product, or you will not earn a fair rate of return.”\textsuperscript{64} Under this line of thinking, Enron could justify owning a bricks and mortar operation or other hard asset only to the extent necessary to support a trading operation—as with the timber tracts in the foregoing example or Enron’s building of a national broadband network as the start point for a broadband trading market. Meanwhile, Enron would divest its extensive collection of pipelines and other properties. Wall Street applauded—here was a firm that “doesn’t linger over troubled assets,” dumping them in order to “help fund its vast ambitions.”\textsuperscript{65} It should be noted that Enron’s plan to become the real-world embodiment of the contractarian ideal has profound implications for industrial organization. Of course, there is nothing new about restructuring, downsizing, and unbundling. These became everyday events in corporate America as the shareholder value maximization norm came to drive management decisions in the 1990s. But even as many corporations regrouped around “core competencies” they remained big, asset-rich entities, vertically integrating the production, supply, and distribution functions feeding in and out of their cores. Enron’s vision held out a much more radical degree of divestiture, leading to smaller entities under tighter market constraints and deprived of institutional stability. For a glimpse of the world Skilling envisioned for everybody else, we need only look within Enron’s glass box in Houston to see the way he treated his own employees. Questions about executive decisions were not tolerated. Nor were fairness complaints. Employees labored under tremendous pressure to take significant risks and bring in favorable results in the short term.\textsuperscript{66} And the end justified the means. In 2000, Skilling publicly praised the employee who started Enron’s online trading operation even though she had been explicitly forbidden to do so.\textsuperscript{67} Said an officer present at that meeting: \begin{itemize} \item \textsuperscript{64} OnLine Extra: Q & A with Enron’s Skilling, supra note 15 (alteration in original). \item \textsuperscript{65} Zellner et al., supra note 12. \item \textsuperscript{66} John Schwartz, As Enron Purged Its Ranks, Dissent Was Swept Away, N.Y. TIMES, Feb. 4, 2002, at C1. \item \textsuperscript{67} John Schwartz, Darth Vader. Machiavelli. Skilling Set Intense Pace., N.Y. TIMES, Feb. 7, 2002, at C1. \end{itemize} "The moral of the story is, 'You can break the rules, you can cheat, you can lie, but as long as you make money, it's all right.'"\textsuperscript{68} Enron's whiz kid recruits entered a perpetual tournament, termed the "rank or yank" system.\textsuperscript{69} Each got to pick ten other employees to rank his or her performance.\textsuperscript{70} But the system also allowed coworkers to make unsolicited evaluations into an online database.\textsuperscript{71} At year's end, Skilling threw everybody's results onto a bell curve, and those on the wrong end of the curve were terminated.\textsuperscript{72} Those who remained scratched and clawed to get or stay in the winners' circle.\textsuperscript{73} Winners got million dollar bonuses and were privileged to accompany Skilling for glacier hiking in Patagonia or Land Cruiser racing in Australia.\textsuperscript{74} Differences between winners and losers within Enron became starker as 2001 unfolded. All of the employees became losers as their 401(k)s gave up a billion dollars in value.\textsuperscript{75} Management froze the plan accounts in October 2001, the same month Enron revealed a third quarter loss of $638 million.\textsuperscript{76} Meanwhile, top executives holding Enron stock, purchased through the stock option plan, were not similarly restricted and continued the heavy selling in which they had been engaged for some months. Sales of personal Enron stock yielded Kenneth Lay proceeds of $23 million in 2001.\textsuperscript{77} Redemptions of Lay's stock by Enron itself during the year netted him an additional $70.1 million.\textsuperscript{78} Skilling sold $15.6 million worth before he resigned and $15 million thereafter.\textsuperscript{79} Amalgamated Bank, the plaintiff in a lawsuit against Enron's officers and directors, alleged gross sales of $1 billion of Enron stock by its officer and director defendants over a three-year period.\textsuperscript{80} \begin{itemize} \item[68.] \textit{Id.} \item[69.] Alexei Barriouuevo, \textit{Jobless in a Flash, Enron's Ex-Employees Are Stunned, Bitter, Ashamed}, \textit{WALL ST. J.}, Dec. 11, 2001, at B1. \item[70.] \textit{Id.} \item[71.] \textit{Id.} \item[72.] \textit{Id.} \item[73.] \textit{Id.} \item[74.] \textit{See id.} \item[75.] Millon, \textit{supra} note 7, at 8. \item[76.] \textit{Id.} at 9. \item[77.] Rachel McTague, \textit{Andersen Charges Enron with Withholding Key Information Affecting Balance Sheet}, 33 \textit{Sec. Reg. & L. Rept. (BNA)} 1770 (2001). \item[78.] Joann S. Lublin, \textit{As Their Companies Crumbled, Some CEOs Got Big-Money Payouts}, \textit{WALL ST. J.}, Feb. 26, 2002, at B1. \item[79.] Richard A. Oppel, Jr., \textit{Former Head of Enron Denies Wrongdoing}, \textit{N.Y. TIMES}, Dec. 22, 2001, at C1. \item[80.] Reed Abelson, \textit{Enron Board Comes Under a Storm of Criticism}, \textit{N.Y. TIMES}, Dec. 16, 2001, at MB4. \end{itemize} We will see that Enron planted the seeds of its own destruction with its implementation of Skilling’s “asset light” strategy. This, although a logical extension of the strategy-in-chief, was not necessary for its implementation. For the core of Enron’s virtual firm strategy, then, the question remains: Has the strategy gone down with Enron, as Paul Krugman has asserted, or does a valuable arbitrage play remain on the table to be picked up by a successor? B. Enron’s Virtual Corporation and the Theory of the Firm The theory of the firm suggests that value may indeed lie in the unbundling of vertically combined firms. The point follows directly from Ronald Coase’s touchstone paper of 1937. Transacting on the market, said Coase, entails costs of learning and bargaining, costs that loom large in respect of long-term arrangements. Internalizing a production function economizes on these costs by interposing directions from a governance structure. But internalization carries its own costs stemming from increased rigidity and error. The boundary between the firm and the market lies at the point where transaction cost savings equal the incremental costs of rigidity and error.$^{81}$ Viewed through the Coasian lens, Jeff Skilling’s claims look almost modest. Enron, utilizing contemporary information technology, had put together a set of components—an information network, a derivative product line, and online access—which drastically reduced the cost of contracting for a range of products. Such a risk reduction causes the firm’s boundary line to shrink and the zone of cost-effective arm’s length contracting to expand. The shrinkage does indeed imply the unbundling of vertically integrated firms. Coase’s insight is further articulated in the contemporary property rights theory of the firm. This theory, like Coase’s, suggests that beneath Enron’s hyperbole there may indeed lie untapped sources of value. Property rights theory asserts that long-term contractual relationships inevitably are incomplete; it never will be cost effective for parties to specify up front all future uses of productive assets.$^{82}$ --- $^{81}$ R.H. Coase, The Nature of the Firm, 4 ECONOMICA 386, 390-95 (1937). $^{82}$ The theory puts human assets to one side, on the ground that they cannot be bought and sold and accordingly are not among the subject matter of firm contracts. The firm thus is conceived in terms of its nonhuman assets—fixed assets, client lists, intellectual property, and contract rights. Id; Oliver Hart, An Economist’s Perspective on the Theory of the Firm, 89 COLUM. L. REV. 1757, 1766-73 (1989). There is no necessary conflict between this perspective and Enron’s vision of a proprietary market generated by human intelligence, unburdened by significant fixed assets. Enron was posing the profile of a contemporary problem follows. Absent an exhaustive set of terms, a party to a contractual relationship may be subject to a holdup—an action by the counterparty directed to the division of the relationship’s ex post surplus. To the extent the relationship’s structure invests a counterparty with bargaining power, the holdup diverts the surplus to that counterparty. The theory accordingly directs its attention to the ex post allocation of control over assets (hence the name “property rights”). The insight is that ex post bargaining power goes to the owner of the assets, and that the allocation of asset ownership therefore powerfully impacts productive incentives ex ante. For an example of the theory’s operation, consider the relationship between a Shipper $(S)$ and a Trucker $(T)$ hypothesized by the economists George Baker and Thomas Hubbard.$^{83}$ $S$ contracts with $T$ for a point-to-point haul from A to B. An additional contract will be made for the back haul, from B to A or anywhere else, only to the extent $S$ needs that service at the time it makes the contract. Even if no back haul contract is entered into ex ante it remains possible that $S$ will need a back haul and will want such a contract after $T$ starts performing the point A to point B contract. If $T$ starts performing the contract without a back haul contract, $T$ will spend resources, including time, on a search for a back haul contract during performance of its contract with $S$. In addition, if $T$ finds a back haul contract and it turns out that $S$ needs a back haul when $T$ arrives at B, $T$ will be in position to use the back haul contract to bargain with $S$ for a greater share of the gains on the back haul. Meanwhile, $T$ is the party who maintains the truck. The question is whether $T$ should own the truck or $S$ should own the truck in a vertically integrated firm. The answer depends on the facts. If $T$ owns the truck, $T$ bears all of the value consequences of decisions respecting maintenance; $T$ accordingly has a high-powered incentive to keep the truck well maintained and perform hauls so as to reduce wear and tear. If $S$ owns the truck, it may be rational for $T$ to slack off on maintenance because financial institution against that of an old economy industrial. Financial institutions are built on assets just like industrials, it is just that contract rights and intangibles loom larger than physical things. Control of these rights leads to effective, if not direct, control over the human assets that make the business run. For a contrasting view of the theory of the firm, centered on human assets, see Benjamin Klein, Vertical Integration as Organizational Ownership: The Fisher Body-General Motors Relationship Revisited, 4 J.L. ECON. & ORG. 199 (1988). $^{83}$ The discussion draws on Oliver Hart, Norms and the Theory of the Firm, 149 U. PA. L. REV. 1701, 1708-12 (2001), which draws in turn on GEORGE P. BAKER & THOMAS N. HUBBARD, NAT’L BUREAU OF ECON. RESEARCH, CONTRACTIBILITY AND ASSET OWNERSHIP: ON-BOARD COMPUTERS AND GOVERNANCE IN U.S. TRUCKING, Working Paper No. W7634 (2000). $T$ does not bear all of the value consequences. On the other hand, if $T$ owns the truck, $T$ will engage in back haul search activity, which is costly to $S$ even as $T$ keeps the truck well maintained. The vertical integration question comes down to a trade-off—the deadweight cost to $S$ of rent seeking by $T$ respecting the back haul versus the maintenance disincentives following from ownership by $S$. Assume that rent seeking respecting back haul is very costly to $S$. $S$ accordingly internalizes the trucking function, and along with it the management problem of incentivizing its drivers to minimize wear and tear on the trucks. Now assume that Enron enters the trucking market, creating a cheap and accessible marketplace in which carriers and shippers buy and sell truck haul capacity. So long as maintenance remains a problem and the Enron market offers $S$ adequate capacity, the Enron market easily could prove substantially cheaper than the internally owned trucks. Divestiture therefore will make sense for $S$. The Enron market lowers the cost of search for $T$ and reduces $S$'s dependence on $T$ in the event a back haul becomes desirable to $S$, with the clear result that $T$ should own the truck. More generally, property rights theory teaches that where two assets are sufficiently complementary and contracts respecting their deployment are sufficiently incomplete, common control dominates over separate ownership. Extreme complementarity obtains when, as between assets separately owned by two actors, neither actor can profit from increased output of either asset unless she has access to both; that is, absent the other asset, each is useless.\footnote{84}{Hart, \textit{supra} note 82, at 1770. Separate ownership only creates opportunities for holdups. \textit{Id.}} In that case, integration is the only way to produce. Contrariwise, where complementarity is not extreme, a given asset by definition can be used for different purposes. Vertically to integrate a firm owning such an asset with another firm requiring only a subset of the possible uses, is potentially to sacrifice value. Since the owner-manager of the acquired firm loses ownership rights, there is a diminished incentive to invest in the asset on the part of those responsible for deploying the asset.\footnote{85}{\textit{Id.} at 1767-68.} Generalizing, as a firm's operations grow away from a core of complementary assets, there arise increasingly severe incentive problems respecting the peripheral assets. Productivity decisions at the periphery will tend to be directed in the interest of the core, a species of holdup. At this point the theory yields a presumption against integration. Because integration in a large organization increases the number of potential holdups, absent significant gains from complementarity, nonintegration tends to be more productive than integration.\textsuperscript{86} Enron’s business plan built on this latter point. The sudden appearance of a cheap and reliable trading market where none existed previously reduces complementarities among assets across the economy. But universal unbundling does not necessarily follow. It all depends on particulars respecting costs in the case. As an example, consider a result yielded by Baker and Hubbard’s trucking study. Their survey of the industry shows that $Ts$ in need of back hauls resort to a thin spot market managed by brokers, and that rent seeking by $Ts$ respecting back hauls is very costly to $S$s. Meanwhile, the introduction of computer trip monitoring technology made it possible for $S$s to draft incentive contracts with drivers that substantially ameliorate incentive problems respecting maintenance of $S$-owned trucks. In the market described by Baker and Hubbard, then, technological innovation caused the cost balance to tip toward internalization.\textsuperscript{87} This, of course, still leaves open the possibility that the introduction of a more efficient market for trucking capacity could shift the balance back. In addition, it should be noted that complementarities among assets expand as investment in assets becomes relationship specific. Here consider the famous example of General Motors (GM), which manufactured cars, and Fisher Body, which manufactured car bodies, a principal component.\textsuperscript{88} The two firms became integrated after a period of relational contracting, in which Fisher proved unresponsive to GM demands for stepped-up production. Could Enron have solved their problems with an online market for car bodies? That would depend on numerous technical and cost factors. GM and Fisher became involved in a problematic relational contract because GM needed bodies manufactured according to its own specifications, which manufacture required a considerable start-up investment on the part of its supplier.\textsuperscript{89} \begin{itemize} \item \textsuperscript{86} \textit{Id.} at 1770. \item \textsuperscript{87} See Baker & Hubbard, \textit{supra} note 83. \item \textsuperscript{88} See Benjamin Klein et al., \textit{Vertical Integration, Appropriable Rents, and the Competitive Contracting Process}, 21 J.L. \& ECON. 297 (1978). \item \textsuperscript{89} In order to be induced to make the investment in the production facility, Fisher required a long-term purchase commitment from GM. The contract needed a price term that prevented GM from squeezing Fisher down to its variable costs after the costs were sunk. Fisher accordingly got a ten-year requirements contract, which priced the bodies on a cost-plus percentage basis, protecting GM from price gauging by Fisher. But then Fisher turned the tables on GM. A run-up in demand made it rational for GM to want Fisher to invest in a new plant. A new plant would mean a lower cost per unit. But that investment made no sense to Fisher, which would make more money producing with its old equipment at higher cost. \end{itemize} Once the supplier makes the investment, there results a significant complementarity. Nothing about a cheap, online business-to-business market guarantees the existence of products meeting particular specifications or of incentives to make buyer-specific investments. Additional, intrinsic limitations on the Enron model should be mentioned. Enron's promise to provide the product over time at a predictable price can be fulfilled only to the extent that derivative hedges cost-effectively can insulate against price fluctuations. Such insulation comes cheapest on a short-term basis. Transaction costs go up as the duration extends to an intermediate term. Derivative protection on a long-term basis comes at a much more substantial cost. Such innovative, long-term contracts did figure into Enron's business.\textsuperscript{90} But as yet we have no performance track record for them, so their viability as a substitute for ownership remains to be proven.\textsuperscript{91} The upshot is that the Enron trading market was not yet a perfect substitute for vertical ownership. To the extent that a long-term price commitment is material, vertical integration still could dominate. Finally, consider Oliver Hart's point that the greater the quantum of trust in the environment, the more actors can be expected to use the \textsuperscript{90} See \textit{The Fall of Enron: How Cold It Have Happened?}: \textit{Hearings Before the United States Senate Comm. on Governmental Affairs}, 107th Cong. (2002), at http://www.senate.gov/~gov_affairs/012402partnoy.htm (last visited Mar. 13, 2002) [hereinafter \textit{Enron Hearings}] (providing testimony of Frank Partnoy, Professor of Law, University of San Diego School of Law). \textsuperscript{91} Long-term derivative contracts implicate substantial problems of valuation. There also can be liquidity problems. Consider in this regard the story of Metallgesellschaft (MG), a large German company, that went to the brink of bankruptcy in 1994 following a misconceived hedge. The firm had sold a series of nonderivative, long-term, fixed-price delivery contracts for oil. These contracts resulted in a long-term exposure to a rise in the price of oil. MG only partially hedged this risk with long-term derivative purchase contracts, which trade in a thin market and tend to be illiquid. It made up the gap by buying short-term oil futures contracts and rolling them over every three months. The strategy behind this "false hedge" was as follows. For some years, short-term oil prices had been higher than long-term prices, and the two had moved up and down together. On this price pattern, a rise in prices would result in profits in the short-term futures market that covered MG's losses on its long-term forward contracts. But it did not work out that way. The price pattern broke abruptly when OPEC failed to agree on production cutbacks in the fall of 1993. Short-term prices fell sharply, causing MG losses on the short-term positions. MG attempted to unwind the short-term positions and shift to long-term hedges. But traders in the thin long-term market awaited it and the long-term price rose slightly. What had been modest profits on the hedge became a series of large losses, said to amount to $1.2 billion. See Richard C. Breeden, \textit{Directors, Control Your Derivatives}, \textit{WALL ST. J.}, Mar. 7, 1994, at A14; \textit{Metallgesellschaft: Not So Clever}, \textit{ECONOMIST}, Jan. 15, 1994, at 83, 83. market and stay separate.\textsuperscript{92} The credibility of Enron’s projections of a disintegrated future depended on a strong assumption about the trustworthiness of the substitute marketplace. It therefore appears that Enron’s collapse does bear importantly on the credibility of predictions of future vertical disintegration. Enron’s market was not a free public space in which buyers and sellers came together to transact directly with one another. It was instead an intermediary space owned and controlled by a single corporate entity. Such a market’s viability as an alternative to ownership entirely depends on the corporate proprietor’s financial health, validated by an investment-grade credit rating. Any buyer or seller materially relying on the existence of an Enron product market got a rude shock when Enron lost its credit rating due to concealed ill-health and tumbled into Chapter 11 two weeks later. The foregoing analysis introduces some significant qualifications to the notion of the virtual firm. It thereby deflates Enron’s pumped-up vision of microcompanies tied together by a single giant corporate intellect. But it does not at all rebut the suggestion that we could see significant disintegration beyond the 1990s practice of corporate unbundling. III. ACCOUNTING FOR ENRON’S COLLAPSE—FOUR STORIES A. \textit{Enron as Conventional Market Reversal} Enron’s results for 1998, 1999, and 2000 suggest some interesting comparisons. The firm’s revenues increased by $10 billion from 1998 to 1999, and by $60 billion (to $100 billion) from 1999 to 2000. During the period, revenues contributed by Enron’s old economy asset businesses—its pipelines and water companies—stayed stable. The revenue growth\textsuperscript{93} came from Enron’s new economy trading business. Meanwhile, net after-tax income rose much more slowly, as the chart below shows. Pre-tax profits (not depicted on the chart) increased by $1 billion in 1998, and then by only $500 million in each of 1999 and 2000. These simple horizontal analyses suggest declining returns in \textsuperscript{92} Hart, \textit{supra} note 83, at 1710. It is noted that Hart shows that the point is not an absolute; on some scenarios trust favors a large organization. \textit{Id.} at 1711-13. \textsuperscript{93} Even with this simple point—the statement of revenues—there is a little bit of smoke and mirrors in the financials. Enron’s spectacular revenue growth stemmed from the fact that when it effected a transaction, it followed the energy industry practice of booking the entire contract sale price as a revenue, instead of booking only its commission—accounting like a retailer rather than a broker-dealer. The cost to Enron of commodities traded are booked as expenses. The growth of expenses, termed “costs of gas, electricity, metal and other products,” accordingly was just as spectacular as the growth of revenues—from $34.7 million in 1999 to $94.5 million in 2000. See ENRON, \textit{supra} note 36, at 31. the trading business.\textsuperscript{94} More particularly, even as Enron had opened more and more new trading territory, entrance barriers were low. As time went on, Enron had to deal with dozens of competitors who hired away its employees to compete in what had become its bread-and-butter business, undercutting its profit margins. According to one analyst, Enron’s trading margins collapsed from 5.3% in early 1998, to 1.7% in the third quarter of 2001.\textsuperscript{95} Investor attention to the problem was deferred for a time because the California energy crisis and the attendant period of sky-high electricity prices led to extraordinary returns to all traders in that market. As California’s prices dropped back to normal, Enron’s shrinking trading returns became more apparent.\textsuperscript{96} \begin{center} \textbf{ENRON STOCK PRICE/REVENUES/EARNINGS} \\ (Source: Enron Annual Report 2000) \end{center} \| \| 1996 \| 1997 \| 1998 \| 1999 \| 2000 \| \|----------------\|------\|------\|------\|------\|------\| \| HIGH \| 23 \| 22.5 \| 29 \| 44 \| 90 \| \| LOW \| 17 \| 17.5 \| 19 \| 28 \| 41 \| \| 12/31 CLOSE \| 22 \| 21 \| 29 \| 44 \| 83 \| \| REVENUE ($MILLIONS) \| 13.2 \| 20.2 \| 31.2 \| 40.1 \| 100.7 \| \| NET INCOME ($MILLIONS) \| 493 \| 515 \| 698 \| 957 \| 1,266 \| Enron’s managers saw that rapid maturation of its new markets presented a problem for its growth numbers. Their strategy for dealing with it was to step up the process of market creation, moving into new commodities like pulp and paper, steel, and, most daringly, bandwidth. In addition, in 1999 they successfully launched EnronOnLine, an Internet-based commodity trading platform. But these initiatives did not make up for the shrinking returns in Enron’s bigger volume energy trading business. And there was another problem. Good as they were at opening markets, Enron’s managers were less adept at the old economy discipline of cost control.\textsuperscript{97} Indeed, extravagant spending was an everyday incident of life at the firm.\textsuperscript{98} \begin{footnotesize} \begin{enumerate} \item \textit{Special Report}, supra note 28, at 61-62. \item \textit{Id}. \item Jenkins, \textit{supra} note 12. \item Bill Keller, Editorial, \textit{Enron for Dummies}, N.Y. TIMES, Jan. 26, 2002, at A15. \item Neela Banerjee et al., \textit{At Enron, Lavish Excess Often Came Before Success}, N.Y. TIMES, Feb. 26, 2002, at C1. \end{enumerate} \end{footnotesize} Bandwidth emerged as a special problem. Enron had invested $1.2 billion to build and operate a fiber optic network. In 2001, it found itself with an operation with 1700 employees that devoured $700 million a year with no sign of profitability. These numbers emerged just as severe overcapacity and financial distress hit the broadband business as a whole. The negative implications for Enron’s stock price far outstripped the drain on cash flow. According to some outside analysts, when Enron’s stock peaked in August 2000, priced at ninety with a price earnings ratio of sixty, a third of the price stemmed from expected growth in the broadband-trading operation.\textsuperscript{99} Old economy-related factors also contributed to Enron’s problems. A number of big-ticket investments abroad—most prominently, the $3 billion power plant in Dabhol, India, a $1.3 billion purchase of the main power distributor to Sao Paulo, Brazil, and the $2.4 billion purchase of the Wessex Water Works in Britain—all were performing badly. These global mistakes were adding up in public view.\textsuperscript{100} Finally, Enron’s managers, “laser-focused” on earnings as they were, had to keep an eye on its portfolio of “merchant investments.” This contained many large block holdings of stock in technology and energy companies. Many of these positions were illiquid; hedges were either expensive or unavailable.\textsuperscript{101} Enron accounted for these investments as trading securities. Under this treatment, unrealized increases in the stocks’ prices had flowed through to its income statement as gains.\textsuperscript{102} Thus had the rising stock market benefited Enron’s numbers. A falling market would have the opposite effect, however. The combination of the foregoing conditions and the stock market’s general decline caused Enron’s stock to fall precipitously even before resignations and scandals beset the company. The stock lost \textsuperscript{99} Zellner et al., \textit{supra} note 3, at 34-35. \textsuperscript{100} \textit{Id.} at 32. In mid-2000, Enron came close to dumping the lot in a sale to a group of wealthy Middle Eastern investors for a tidy $7 billion. Unfortunately, the deal aborted. David Barboza, \textit{Enron Sought to Raise Cash Two Years Ago}, N.Y. \textsc{Times}, Mar. 9, 2002, at C1. A contract to sell Enron’s interest in Wessex Water has been entered into the Chapter 11 proceeding, netting $777 million in cash. Suzanne Kapner, \textit{Enron Selling Wessex Water for $777 Million}, N.Y. \textsc{Times}, Mar. 26, 2002, at C13. After Enron’s bankruptcy filing, it was alleged that Enron officers, seeking to protect its net earnings totals, point blank refused to write-off expenses booked as assets in overseas projects that had manifestly failed. Kathryn Kranhold, \textit{Enron Disputes Investors’ Charge of Manipulated Cost Accounting}, \textsc{Wall St. J.}, Apr. 9, 2002, at B7. \textsuperscript{101} See Powers Report, \textit{supra} note 53, at 77-92. \textsuperscript{102} Herwitz & Barrett, \textit{supra} note 8. thirty-nine percent of its value in the first six months of 2001.\textsuperscript{103} Had Enron gone into Chapter 11 at this point in the story due to these factors (taken together with a recession), the story would be unremarkable. The distress would stem from garden variety risks and problems faced by all firms. Such failures bespeak erroneous business judgment and bad luck on the part of managers, but present no policy problem for business regulation. Enron captures our interest because these causes were necessary but not sufficient for its collapse, at least on the present state of the record.\textsuperscript{104} \textit{B. Enron as Derivative Speculation Gone Wrong} As we have seen, risk management through derivative contracting was a central component of Enron’s trading business. These risk management services imply risks to the service provider. Enron nicely described these in its 2000 Annual Report: Wholesale Services manages its portfolio of contracts and assets in order to maximize value, minimize the associated risks and provide overall liquidity. In doing so, Wholesale Services uses portfolio and risk management disciplines, including offsetting or hedging transactions, to manage exposures to market price movements (commodities, interest rates, foreign currencies and equities). Additionally, Wholesale Services manages its liquidity and exposure to third-party credit risk through monetization of its contract portfolio or third-party insurance contracts. Wholesale Services also sells interests in certain investments and other assets to improve liquidity and overall return, the timing of which is dependent on market conditions and management’s expectations of the investments’ value.\ldots The use of financial instruments by Enron’s businesses may expose Enron to market and credit risks resulting from adverse changes in commodity and equity prices, interest rates and foreign exchange rates.\textsuperscript{105} The last sentence just quoted makes a critical point respecting the risk profile of firms that deal in derivatives. The degree of risk \begin{itemize} \item \textsuperscript{103} Zellner et al., \textit{supra} note 3, at 33. \item \textsuperscript{104} The assertion in the text assumes that Enron’s balance sheet and income statement figures respecting its trading and energy production operations were fundamentally sound. The assumption could turn out to be heroic. Analysts are already starting to ask questions. One, for example has been comparing numbers reported in regulatory filings with numbers Enron claimed to be generated by Enron OnLine, noting a huge discrepancy. Gretchen Morgenson, \textit{How 287 Turned Into 7: Lessons in Fuzzy Math}, N.Y. \textsc{Times}, Jan. 20, 2002, at MB1. \item \textsuperscript{105} ENRON, \textit{supra} note 36, at 23, 28 (Management’s Discussion and Analysis). \end{itemize} exposure depends on whether the “rocket scientists” in the firm’s derivatives department fully or partially hedge their positions. Anything other than full hedging can mean a loss (or windfall gain) in the event of price volatility. Management’s Discussion and Analysis (MD&A) in Enron’s 2000 Annual Report makes a state-of-the-art governance assurance: Enron manages market risk on a portfolio basis, subject to parameters established by its Board of Directors. Market risks are monitored by an independent risk control group operating separately from the units that create or actively manage these risk exposures to ensure compliance with Enron’s stated risk management policies.$^{106}$ What Enron’s “stated risk management policies” actually said was not disclosed. Some observers of Enron’s fall suspect that, whatever the “stated policy,” the practice might have been imprudent. More particularly, they hypothesize that Enron’s derivatives traders had been pumping up its earnings with bets that energy prices would rise. Such bets would have meant significant profits in 1999 and 2000.$^{107}$ In 2001, however, such betting would have meant significant losses as energy prices fell.$^{108}$ On this scenario, Enron’s fall mimics the 1998 case of Long-Term Capital Management, with two differences. Here the high-tech bets were on energy prices rather than on interest rates, as there, and here there was no bailout engineered by the Federal Reserve, as there. Others press a different, but concomitant, derivative story. They allege that Enron’s trading floor was a nest of corruption. The traders, it is said, routinely overstated their own trading profits, impelled no doubt by the tournament system’s demand for good numbers. The traders also abused the fair value accounting that now applies to their operation. Under this, some derivative positions are “marked to market” (MTM) each reporting period. Under MTM accounting, even though the position remains open and gain or loss has not yet been realized, the firm’s income statement reflects the gain or loss implied by the contract’s current value. For over-the-counter derivatives, no trading market sets this figure. The contract’s value must be derived $^{106}$ Id. at 27 (Management’s Discussion and Analysis). $^{107}$ Professor Partnoy offers an analysis of Enron’s income statement showing that all of its profits for its last three years came from derivatives. Enron Hearings, supra note 90, Part III.C. $^{108}$ Enron’s Fall: Upended, ECONOMIST, Dec. 1, 2001, at 65; Michael Schroeder & Greg Ip, Out of Reach: The Enron Debacle Spotlights Huge Void in Financial Regulation, WALL ST. J., Dec. 13, 2001, at A1. from an economic model. Unfortunately, generally accepted approaches to valuation did not yet exist for many items in Enron's vast stock of innovative derivative products, particularly those with longer terms. An opportunity for income statement legerdemain resulted, and it is alleged that Enron's traders took liberal advantage.\textsuperscript{109} Similar accounting treatment,\textsuperscript{110} along with similar problems of speculative valuation, applied to Enron's long-term energy trading contracts. Here Enron aggressively exploited a special rule procured by the energy industry. Under this, the firm books estimated gains for the lives of long-term supply contracts on a present basis, rather than spreading the recognition of revenues over the lives of such contracts as would be done under conventional accounting. Indeed, it now appears that Enron marketed these and similar transactions to potential counterparties, selling accounting and tax treatments along with energy and financial products, with the treatments importing more substance than the transactions themselves.\textsuperscript{111} If some or all of the foregoing allegations turn out to be true—and many have turned out to be true already—then derivatives trading very well may have brought Enron down in 2002 or thereafter. But in 2001, when Enron filed for bankruptcy, none of the foregoing was known to the financiers and related actors who determined Enron's fate. Strictly speaking, then, a malfunctioning derivatives operation did not bring Enron down.\textsuperscript{112} Whether the lion's share of these allegations prove out remains to be seen.\textsuperscript{113} A cautionary, counterfactual note enters the story nonetheless: Even if Enron's derivative positions were appropriately managed, many observers were ready to believe the company to be a candidate for derivative distress in light of the direction of energy prices in 2001. Given that distress stemming from other quarters would make it difficult for Enron to maintain its credit rating and liquidity, and thus \begin{itemize} \item \textsuperscript{109} \textit{Enron Hearings}, supra note 90, Part III.C. \item \textsuperscript{110} See Emerging Issue Task Force (EITF) Issue 98-10: Accounting for Contracts Involved in Energy Trading and Risk Management Activities. \item \textsuperscript{111} See David Barboza, \textit{Enron Offered Management Aid to Companies}, N.Y. Times, Apr. 10, 2002, at C1. \item \textsuperscript{112} Cf. Michael Schroeder, \textit{As Enron's Derivatives Trading Comes Into Focus, Gap in Oversight Is Spotlighted}, Wall St. J., Jan. 28, 2002, at C1 (noting Professor Partnoy's testimony and noting the absence of oversight, but citing no corroboration of the allegations). \item \textsuperscript{113} It bears noting that in January 2002, UBS Warburg purchased Enron's energy trading operation from the Chapter 11 debtor in possession, implying a judgment of soundness. On the other hand, that deal involved a contingent consideration. Daniel Altman, \textit{New Economy: Many Think that Enron's Business Model for Virtual Trading Remains Sound Despite the Company's Problems}, N.Y. Times, Jan. 28, 2002, at C4. \end{itemize} its relationships with contract and derivative counterparties, suspicions respecting derivatives exposure could not have helped matters. Enron’s famously opaque financials only fueled suspicions. If Enron’s derivative operation turns out to have been corrupt, there arise two powerful regulatory implications. First, the Commodity Futures Modernization Act should not have exempted Enron and similarly situated firms from oversight.$^{114}$ Second, the achievement of transparency respecting derivative positions for all financial intermediaries should take first place on the federal regulatory agenda. C. Enron as a Den of Thieves Disclosures of self-dealing transactions in the fall of 2001 seriously destabilized Enron. The disclosures concerned a complex of side deals involving two limited partnerships of which Enron’s CFO, Andrew Fastow, was the manager of the general partner. These arrangements put $30 million into Fastow’s pocket, and resulted in an overstatement of Enron’s earnings over four years of at least $591 million.$^{115}$ This Part starts with some accounting, laying out basic rules governing parents, subsidiaries, affiliates, and other entities and showing how those rules created problems for Enron’s middle managers as they worked to realize Skilling’s vision. The Part goes on to the Fastow arrangement and the $30 million and finally turns to earnings manipulation. 1. Accounting Rules and Chewco’s Phantom Equity Investor Enron listed more than 3000 affiliated entities in its 10-K, variously accounting for them as consolidated subsidiaries, equity affiliates, and Special Purpose Entities (SPEs). When one firm owns a majority of the stock of another firm, the accountants require the two firms’ financial statements to be consolidated. The two firms’ income numbers are combined and a common balance sheet shows all assets and liabilities. Transactions between the two firms drop out and do not generate revenues for either firm’s income statement. Enron had many such subsidiaries. But subsidiaries did not figure prominently in Skilling’s “asset light” $^{114}$ The Act should be amended to remove the “Enron Point” in any event. $^{115}$ The number comes from an Enron SEC filing. Bigger numbers now circulate. The Powers Committee would later suggest that $1.1 billion is a more accurate figure for the overstatement respecting the Fastow partnerships. POWERS REPORT, supra note 53, at 127-28. restructuring program. Enron had to minimize the amount of debt appearing on its balance sheet in order to preserve its credit rating. The viability of its trading and derivatives operation depended on an investment grade endorsement. Accordingly, when Enron sought to enhance returns on an equity investment through heavy leverage, it made sure it owned less than a majority of the investee company. It had such fifty percent (and under) investments in an array of hard-asset companies, which it termed “equity affiliates.” Accounting for these stock holdings proceeded under the “equity method.” Under this, the investee’s financials are not consolidated; the investee’s debt accordingly does not appear on the stockholder’s balance sheet. On the other hand, intercompany transactions drop out and cannot generate revenues for either firm’s income statement. Finally, the stockholder company shows a pro rata share of the investee’s earnings on its income statement.\textsuperscript{116} A third accounting category permits a corporation to set up an unconsolidated affiliate and transact with it so that the profits from the transactions do flow through its income statement—the qualified Special Purpose Entity. SPEs tend to be high-leverage shells. The party in Enron’s position (the “transferor” or “originator”) transfers a financial asset to the SPE in exchange for consideration other than equity in the SPE. The SPE can raise the consideration for the asset transferred in any number of ways. If the asset has a rock-solid payment stream, it can borrow the consideration from a third party or in the public markets. It also can raise substantial outside equity capital. If the asset’s creditworthiness is dubious, outside borrowing is precluded. But the SPE still can return its own debt paper to the originator. Multitudinous Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP) rules apply, mainly focused on the nature of the sales transaction between the originator and the SPE.\textsuperscript{117} There is also a critical SEC rule—three percent of the SPE’s total capital must come from an outside equity investor,\textsuperscript{118} who must in addition have the power \textsuperscript{116}. See Herwitz & Barrett, supra note 8, at 524-27. \textsuperscript{117}. A statement of the current accounting rules are set out in Statement of Financial Accounting Standards (SFAS) No. 140, Accounting for Transfers and Servicing of Financial Assets and Extinguishment of Liabilities (Mar. 2001). The previous rules are set out in SFAS No. 125, Accounting for Transfers and Servicing of Financial Assets and Extinguishment of Liabilities (June 1996). \textsuperscript{118}. The three percent test is an SEC accounting rule. It originated in a 1991 letter of the Chief Accountant of the SEC issued in respect of a leasing transaction. The GAAP authorities are EITF Topic D-14: Transactions Involving Special Purpose Entities; EITF 90-15: Impact of Nonsubstantive Lessors, Residual Value Guarantees, and Other Provisions in Leasing Transactions; EITF Issue 96-21: Implementation Issues in Accounting for Leasing to control the disposition of the asset in the SPE.\textsuperscript{119} This means that the outside equity holder must hold at least a majority of the SPE’s equity.\textsuperscript{120} In addition, the outside equity holder’s capital must be “at risk”—the originator cannot guarantee the investment’s results.\textsuperscript{121} Finally, a legal determination as to the “bankruptcy remote” status of the SPE from the transferor also must be made.\textsuperscript{122} This all may sound a little sinister, but respectable firms use SPEs every day as vehicles for off-balance sheet securitization of financial assets such as accounts receivable and loan portfolios. In the case of accounts receivable, the transferor firm lowers its borrowing costs.\textsuperscript{123} In the case of a loan portfolio, the transferor firm gains liquidity and an opportunity to diversify its investments. Enron used Fastow’s limited partnerships as means to stay in compliance with the SPE rules. Fastow’s entities served as the outside equity investor—the source of the qualifying three percent—for SPEs, which served no economic purpose other than to pump-up Enron’s accounting earnings. As to entities such as these, arm’s length outside equity investors understandably can be hard to find. The famous Chewco SPE, which preceded the Fastow limited partnerships in time and later figured independently in the Enron accounting scandal, illustrates the problem. \textsuperscript{119} Edmund L. Jenkins, Chairman, FASB, \textit{Testimony Before the Subcomm. on Commerce, Trade and Consumer Prot. of the Comm. on Energy and Commerce} 9-10 (Feb. 14, 2002), available at http://www.fasb.org/news/testimony.pdf (last visited Aug. 22, 2002) [hereinafter Jenkins’ Testimony]. \textsuperscript{120} \textit{Id.} If the equity participation is minimal—at the three percent level—then it must own 100% of the equity. \textsuperscript{121} \textit{Id.} \textsuperscript{122} \textsc{Ernst & Young}, \textsc{Financial Reporting Developments: Accounting for Transfers and Servicing of Financial Assets and Extinguishments of Liabilities—FASB Statement 140}, at 135-37 (2001). \textsuperscript{123} See Steven L. Schwarcz, \textit{Structured Finance: The New Way to Securitize Assets}, 11 \textsc{Cardozo L. Rev.} 607, 607-13 (1990). There is a policy debate respecting these transactions. The originator lowers its borrowing costs only so long as the SPE is “bankruptcy remote.” Some argue that this imports an inappropriate priority to the SPE lenders to the detriment of preexisting contract creditors and all tort creditors of the originator. \textit{See, e.g.,} David Gray Carlson, \textit{The Rotten Foundations of Securitization}, 39 \textsc{Wm. & Mary L. Rev.} 1055, 1055-1120 (1998) (discussing securitization and bankruptcy law); Claire A. Hill, \textit{Securitization: A Low-Cost Sweetener for Lemons}, 74 \textsc{Wash. U. L.Q.} 1061, 1077-1111 (1996) (same). Back in 1993, Enron set up a joint venture in energy investments with Calpers, the California state pension fund. It was called Joint Energy Development Investments (JEDI). In 1997, Skilling wanted Calpers to enter into an unrelated investment arrangement with Enron. Calpers was willing, but only if it first was cashed out of JEDI. A direct purchase by Enron of Calpers’ fifty percent equity stake in JEDI was not an option. That would have meant turning JEDI into a wholly owned subsidiary of Enron whose debt would have to be consolidated on Enron’s balance sheet. JEDI was heavily levered—its debt amounted to $1.6 billion by 1999.\textsuperscript{124} To avoid that result, Enron formed an SPE, Chewco, and used Chewco to buy out Calpers. Chewco borrowed the money and Enron guaranteed the loan.\textsuperscript{125} Between 1997 and 2001, the Chewco arrangement permitted Enron to recognize $405 million of revenues and gains respecting transactions with JEDI and Chewco.\textsuperscript{126} Everything would have been fine except for one little compliance problem. Enron had never gotten around to finding the three percent outside equity investor needed to qualify Chewco as an SPE. The Powers Report tells a sordid story here. Skilling wanted the Calpers takeout closed so quickly that Enron’s middle managers had to fund Chewco’s “equity” with a secret loan from Enron. A continued search for an equity investor after the Calpers closing proved fruitless. In the end, a sham transaction was constructed and concealed both from Enron’s board and its auditor, Arthur Andersen. The transaction took a bank loan through some entities run by an Enron officer, Michael Kopper, and disguised the loan as an $11 million equity investment in Chewco.\textsuperscript{127} The arrangement came to light within Enron in fall 2001, disqualifying its previous accounting treatment of Chewco and JEDI. Disqualification in fall 2001 meant consolidation of JEDI and Chewco. \textsuperscript{124} Some of the purchase price paid by Chewco also may have come from a loan by JEDI itself. John R. Emshwiller, \textit{Enron Transaction Raises New Questions}, WALL ST. J., Nov. 5, 2001, at A3. \textsuperscript{125} \textit{Id.} \textsuperscript{126} POWERS REPORT, supra note 53, at 42; see also John Emshwiller, \textit{Andersen CEO Apparently Testified Inaccurately}, WALL ST. J., Jan. 11, 2002, at A4. \textsuperscript{127} See POWERS REPORT, supra note 53, at 41-47. Chewco became a limited partnership with Michael Kopper as the general partner and Big River Funding LLC as the limited partner. The sole member of Big River was Little River LLC, of which Kopper’s domestic partner was the sole member. \textit{Id.} at 47. How this was supposed to get control of Chewco away from Enron is anybody’s guess. The $11.4 million loan was from Barclay’s Bank. Although called a “funding agreement” yielding a “certificate,” the substance was clearly that of a credit arrangement. \textit{Id.} at 50; see also John R. Emshwiller & Rebecca Smith, \textit{Joint Venture: A 1997 Enron Meeting Belies Officers’ Claims They Were in the Dark}, WALL ST. J., Feb. 1, 2002, at A1. with the result that Enron’s earnings for 1997 through mid-2001 were retroactively reduced by $405 million.\textsuperscript{128} Meanwhile, consolidation increased its total indebtedness by $628 million. This was not the only such disqualification to occur in fall 2001.\textsuperscript{129} Another JEDI transaction which came to light later should be mentioned. JEDI owned twelve million Enron shares, which it accounted for as trading securities. Unrealized gains on the stock thus flowed through to JEDI’s income statement. Enron, accounting under the equity method with the approval of Andersen, then flowed fifty percent of that unrealized appreciation on its own stock over to its own income statement. In the first quarter of 2000, Enron bootstrapped its way to $126 million of revenue this way. But in 2001, when Enron’s stock fell, no corresponding deductions flowed through!\textsuperscript{130} This was not the only way Enron used its own stock as a means to generate paper earnings. 2. Fastow’s $30 Million In 1999, Andrew Fastow organized two limited partnerships, LJM Cayman, L.P. (LJM1) and LJM2 Co-Investment L.P. (LJM2). The entities were formed to participate as the outside equity investor in SPEs set up by Enron. Fastow controlled LJM1 and LJM2, serving as the managing member of their respective general partners.\textsuperscript{131} The arrangement involved an obvious conflict of interest. Enron would be doing transactions with entities controlled by its own CFO. But there was a justification. LJM1 and LJM2 promised to solve the compliance problem that had led to the under-the-table dealings respecting Chewco.\textsuperscript{132} At the same time, with Fastow in charge, transactions could be set up and executed smoothly and quickly. LJM1 and LJM2 were funded with outside equity—a long list of financial institutions contributed around $390 million in exchange for limited partnership interests and a representation that these entities’ privileged status meant the best Enron deals. The investors included J.P. Morgan, Chase, Citigroup, Credit Suisse, First Boston, and Wachovia; \textsuperscript{128.} POWERS REPORT, supra note 53, at 42. \textsuperscript{129.} Enron Form 8-K, filed Nov. 8, 2001, § 2.B. \textsuperscript{130.} POWERS REPORT, supra note 53, at 58-59. \textsuperscript{131.} With LJM2 there were two tiers of general partners between Fastow and the limited partnership. \textit{Id.} at 73-74. \textsuperscript{132.} The Powers Report questions whether an adequate separation of control ever really was achieved. \textit{Id.} at 75-76. employees of Merrill Lynch (which had marketed the interests) also kicked in $22 million.\textsuperscript{133} A scandal resulted when the terms of the transactions between Enron and the SPEs in which LJM1 and LJM2 made the three percent equity investments were fully disclosed to the public in October 2001. An analytically distinct problem arose for Enron with the disclosure that Fastow had raked in $30 million from compensation arrangements respecting his management of the limited partnerships. The SEC launched an investigation on October 22. Fastow got the sack two days later. He has since retained David Boies.\textsuperscript{134} The vociferous reaction to Fastow’s self-dealing suggests a tentative explanation of Enron’s failure centered on a loss of confidence. An old economy, hard-assets firm can weather this sort of disclosure by causing heads to roll and bringing in heavyweights from outside to clean up. Enron, however, had ceased to be a hard-assets company. Its survival depended on its trading operations, the success of which required trust and confidence among Enron’s counterparties. The scandal in the wake of the self-dealing disclosure amounted to an external shock to the structure of confidence Enron had erected over many years. The firm went down with the structure, much like Drexel Burnham Lambert’s\textsuperscript{135} collapse of a decade ago in the wake of the proceedings against Michael Milken. This neat story gives rise to a number of questions. First, LJM1 and LJM2 and Fastow’s role in them were not exactly news in the fall of 2001. They had been disclosed in footnote 16 of Enron’s 2000 financials. Now, this disclosure was not a model of clarity. Fastow is not mentioned by name and the paragraphs offer only a scattershot and cursory description of the dealings back and forth. But the types of transactions between Enron and the LJM-related SPEs are clearly stated, along with the magnitude of the numbers involved.\textsuperscript{136} Footnote 16 reports: (a) that Enron had transferred to the LJM-related SPEs more than $1.2 billion in assets, including millions of shares of Enron common \textsuperscript{133}. John R. Emshwiller et al., \textit{How Wall Street Greased Enron’s Money Engine}, WALL ST. J., Jan. 14, 2002, at C1. \textsuperscript{134}. Enron’s board went into the time-honored crisis mode and appointed a special committee of outside directors. This was led by William Powers, the Dean of the University of Texas School of Law, appointed to the board for the occasion. The committee thereinafter retained Wilmer, Cutler & Pickering and Deloitte & Touche for legal and accounting advice. Enron Form 8-K, \textit{supra} note 129, § 4. \textsuperscript{135}. Also an Arthur Andersen client. \textsuperscript{136}. ENRON, \textit{supra} note 36, at 48; see also ENRON, 1999 ANNUAL REPORT 59 (2000). stock and long-term rights to purchase millions more shares, plus $150 million of Enron notes payable; (b) that the SPEs had paid for all of this with their own debt instruments with a face amount of $1.5 billion; and (c) that the SPEs had entered into derivative contracts with Enron with a notional amount of $2.1 billion.\textsuperscript{137} One has to turn to Enron’s 2000 proxy statement to see Fastow identified. The proxy statement discloses that Fastow will be remunerated by a “percentage of the profits . . . in excess of the general partner’s proportion of the total capital contributed to [the partnership] depending on the performance of the investments made.”\textsuperscript{138} No actual numbers are given, but we are told (a) that “management believes that the terms . . . were reasonable and no less favorable than the terms of similar arrangements with unrelated third parties,” and (b) that actors other than Fastow negotiated the transactions for Enron.\textsuperscript{139} Enron’s November 2001 Form 8-K adds that Enron’s board had reviewed the matter of Fastow’s affiliation and determined it not to be injurious to Enron’s interests. Continuing controls were imposed—each LJM transaction had to be approved by the Chairman and two additional top officers, and the Audit Committee was to conduct an annual review.\textsuperscript{140} The Powers Committee report on LJM1 and LJM2, released in February 2002, later would establish beyond peradventure that the transactions between Enron, the SPEs, LJM1, and LJM2 involved breaches of fiduciary duties owed by Fastow and others to Enron.\textsuperscript{141} Terms of many sales contracts were skewed to favor LJM (and thus \begin{itemize} \item \textsuperscript{137} ENRON, supra note 36, at 48. \item \textsuperscript{138} Enron Schedule 14A, filed Mar. 21, 2000, at 26. \item \textsuperscript{139} Id. at 25-26. \item \textsuperscript{140} Enron Form 8-K, supra note 129, § 5.A. \item \textsuperscript{141} The most outrageous occurred in connection with the termination of LJM1. Fastow caused the “termination interests” to be directed to a partnership called Southampton Place. As a partner, Fastow made $4.5 million over two months based on a negligible investment. Two other Enron officers made $1 million each. POWERS REPORT, supra note 53, at 16. Those involved in the Southampton caper and still with the company on November 8, 2001 were fired that day. Enron Form 8-K, supra note 129, § 7. Fastow had sold his interests in LJM1 and LJM2 in July 2001 to Michael Kopper. Unlike Fastow, Kopper resigned from Enron in connection with his purchase of the interests. Enron Form 8-K, supra note 129, § 5.A; see also Joann S. Lublin & John R. Emshwiller, Enron Board’s Actions Raise Liability Questions, WALL ST. J., Jan. 17, 2002, at C1. \end{itemize} Fastow’s equity interest). As a result of this, returns to LJM’s outside equity investors were quite fantastic.\textsuperscript{142} But no one knew any of this on October 17, 2001, when the only news was the fact that returns to Fastow amounted to $30 million. Given that previous disclosures held out the possibility of a significant upside possibility for Fastow, why all the brouhaha? As a matter of corporate law, deals like this do not breach fiduciary duties on a \textit{per se} basis.\textsuperscript{143} If we follow the Delaware cases, the disinterested directors’ approval means that a plaintiff seeking to make out a breach of the duty of loyalty has to bear the burden of showing that the transactions were unfair.\textsuperscript{144} Unfairness obtains only if Fastow’s $30 million was out of line with the returns of managers of comparable limited partnerships, or if plaintiff could show that the terms of the transactions between Enron and LJM unduly favored LJM. In October 2001, neither situation obtained on the face of the public record.\textsuperscript{145} Given the large numbers involved in the Enron-LJM SPE transactions and a practice of large rewards for promoters of private equity schemes, a finding of fiduciary breach respecting the $30 million taken by Fastow would have seemed unlikely, absent Enron’s other problems. We can draw several lessons from the fact that, despite all of this, disclosure of the $30 million taken alone caused a scandal. First, contrary to the efficient market hypothesis,\textsuperscript{146} actors in the financial \begin{itemize} \item \textsuperscript{142} See, e.g., Powers Report, supra note 53, at 103-04 (discussing returns on LJM2). \item \textsuperscript{143} However, many, including the author, think they should. For a discussion of the Delaware law implications of Enron, see Leo E. Strine, Jr., Derivative Impact, Some Early Reflections on the Corporate Law Implications of the Enron Debacle (2002) (working paper, on file with author). \item \textsuperscript{144} See Cooke v. Oolie, No. 11,134, (Del. Ch. June 23, 1997), 23 Del. J. Corp. L. 775 (1998). Enron is an Oregon corporation. Cooke is referenced because it interprets a statute worded very similarly to Or. Rev. Stat. § 60.361 (1999), which governs self-dealing transactions. \item \textsuperscript{145} Much is made of the fact that LJM2’s marketing materials asserted that, because of the insider tie, LJM2 would get the best Enron SPE transactions. See Henriques & Eichenwald, supra note 8, at MB1. \item \textsuperscript{146} The strong form of the efficient market hypothesis asserts that all information is incorporated into the stock price; the semi-strong form asserts that the price reflects all publicly disclosed information. Victor Brudney & William W. Bratton, Corporate Finance: Cases and Materials 128-30 (4th ed. 1993). Even in descriptions of market pricing that acknowledge considerable departures from efficiency, it is generally thought that stock prices are particularly likely to be accurate given a thick trading stock and a large market capitalization, both of which obtained with Enron. See Ronald J. Gilson & Reinier H. Kraakman, The Mechanisms of Market Efficiency, 70 Va. L. Rev. 549, 622–26 (1984). Of \end{itemize} markets are selective so far as concerns assimilation of facts rendered in fine print sections of financials and other SEC documents. Second, the strength of the norm against self-dealing brought to bear in the financial community varies with corporate results. On the upside, no one pays much attention. The operative norm is that of the corporate law duty—self-dealing transactions are acceptable so long as the consideration stays in the same ballpark as that of comparable transactions. Since everyone is making money, magnanimity makes sense. Disturbing the side deal could destabilize a productive employment arrangement.\textsuperscript{147} On the downside, everything is different. The same officer touted as an entrepreneurial genius on the upside starts to look like a thief and his or her self-dealing transaction causes a scandal even though it already was disclosed. This could be called scapegoating. It is defensible nonetheless. The officer who succumbs to temptation on the upside assumes the downside risk of reputational ruin. The financial community and the law only tolerate self-dealing transactions as a matter of expediency. Beneath that tolerance runs a strong norm of aversion which can rear its head viciously in bad times. Neither Andy Fastow nor any other self-dealing corporate actor plausibly can express surprise when a spate of red ink triggers his or her denunciation as a miscreant. Legal liability easily could follow: The transaction that did not breach the duty of loyalty when entered into in good times can breach the duty by virtue of the fact that unrelated subsequent events make it look unfair to an ex post decision maker.\textsuperscript{148} \textsuperscript{147} See Cookies Food Prods., Inc. v. Lakes Warehouse Distrib., Inc., 430 N.W.2d 447, 455-56 (Iowa 1988) (concluding that self-dealing contracts costing more than comparable contracts were not unfair because they incentivized a successful entrepreneur). \textsuperscript{148} There is also a lesson here for the corporate law academics who have debated back and forth the question whether fiduciary constraint of self-dealing transactions should continue to be mandatory or should be downgraded to contractual status as a liability regime into which corporations opt in their charters. Compare Frank H. Easterbrook & Daniel R. Fischel, \textit{The Corporate Contract}, 89 COLUM. L. REV. 1416, 1434-48 (1989) (arguing for opting out with process controls), with Jeffrey N. Gordon, \textit{The Mandatory Structure of Corporate Law}, 89 COLUM. L. REV. 1549, 1593-97 (1989) (arguing that contract failure is probable with broad brush opting out of fiduciary duties). Unfortunately, Enron’s case will not end the argument. It instead raises two conflicting inferences. On the one hand, the vehemence of the financial community’s imposition of the norm against Fastow suggests that contractual treatment may suffice. Such a deeply and widely held aversion to self-dealing arguably needs no support from a mandatory legal regime. The reputational ruin awaiting those who traverse the norm should more than suffice as a deterrent. On the other hand, Enron’s demonstration of the norm’s power supports the mandatory regime. If there were no widely held norm against self-dealing, mandatory fiduciary liability would be of dubious To sum up on Fastow and his $30 million, this previously disclosed self-dealing transaction, taken alone, makes an implausible candidate for a leading role in an account of Enron’s collapse. For that we must look to the broader terrain of Enron’s dealings with its SPEs and affiliated companies. 3. SPEs and Overstated Numbers The confidence-based account of Enron’s collapse becomes more compelling with a closer look at transactions between Enron and the SPEs related to LJM1 and LJM2.$^{149}$ a. The Watered Stock Recall that Enron funded the LJM-related SPEs with $1.2 billion of its own common stock, along with other assets, exchanged for debt instruments of the SPEs. A century ago, corporate law barred such transactions, prohibiting the use of debt or other promissory consideration in connection with the issue of new common stock.$^{150}$ The risk that insiders would take the stock and enjoy an upside play without ever delivering on their promises was deemed great enough to support a per se prohibition. Today corporate law has a more relaxed attitude, remitting the decision as to the adequacy of the consideration legitimacy. Indeed, given charter competition’s historical role in assuring that legislatures remove outmoded mandates from corporate codes, the self-dealing mandate already would have disappeared from the law if it lacked normative support. Meanwhile, the norm makes it implausible to contend that the ancillary costs of fiduciary litigation carry no compensating benefit—vindication of the norm is a benefit. Finally, just as the norm imports substantive support for the mandate, so does the mandate support the norm, serving as a backstop enforcement mechanism. No more than a backstop appears to be needed—empirical studies of corporate law litigation show that only a very small number of shareholder derivative actions are brought in respect of self-dealing transactions. See Roberta Romano, The Shareholder Suit: Litigation Without Foundation?, 7 J.L. ECON. & ORG. 55, 58-60, 84 (1991) (showing small numbers of derivative actions). Of course it can be argued that these small numbers merely show the norm’s independent prohibitive force. But that point just as easily can be modified so that the small numbers are seen to stem from the combination of the norm’s power and the certainty of enforcement against violators. $^{149}$ Only with the Powers Report, supra note 53, did the public get a complete record of these transactions. The description in Enron’s 2000 Annual Report was unhelpful. The details that led to a scandal and contributed to Enron’s bankruptcy were set out in Enron’s corrective filings with the SEC in November 2001. The famous letter to Lay written by Enron vice president Sherron Watkins also discussed these transactions. Text of Letter to Enron’s Chairman After Departure of Chief Executive, N.Y. TIMES, Jan. 16, 2002, at C6 [hereinafter Watkins Letter]. $^{150}$ See BAYLESS MANNING, A CONCISE TEXTBOOK ON LEGAL CAPITAL 41-42 (2d ed. 1981). to the discretion of the board of directors.\textsuperscript{151} Accountants retain a healthy suspicion: Notes received in exchange for a company’s own common stock must be booked as deductions from shareholders’ equity.\textsuperscript{152} The newly issued stock is credited to the capital stock account at the purchase price, but the capital stock accounts elsewhere are debited (reduced) in the amount of the note. The result is a wash at the time the note is issued. As the note is paid, the reduction gradually is reduced, with a corresponding net increase to the shareholders’ equity account.\textsuperscript{153} Such niceties, however, did not fall within the purview of Enron’s aggressive accounting practices. When it capitalized the LJM-related Raptor I-IV SPEs, Enron booked the notes issued by the SPEs as assets on its balance sheet and increased its shareholders’ equity in a like amount, as one would do when selling newly issued common stock for cash in a public offering. Enron and Andersen later thought better of the treatment. Unwinding it meant the sudden and highly embarrassing disappearance of $1.2 billion from Enron’s net shareholders’ equity.\textsuperscript{154} Significantly, the matter at least had been mentioned in the footnotes to Enron’s 2000 financials. We see the stock going into the SPEs, and then some sentences later we read of “a special distribution from the Entities in the form of $1.2 billion in notes receivable.”\textsuperscript{155} \textsuperscript{151.} See, e.g., MODEL BUS. CORP. ACT § 6.21 (b)-(c) & cmt. 1 (discussing board of directors’ determination of adequacy of consideration for shares). \textsuperscript{152.} EITF Issue No. 85-1: Classifying Notes Received for Capital; SEC Staff Accounting Bulletin No. 40, Topic 4-E: Receivables from Sale of Stock; 17 C.F.R. Part 211B (2002); \textit{see also} Jenkins Testimony, \textit{supra} note 119, at 22. \textsuperscript{153.} Say stock is issued in exchange for a $1000 note payable. At issue the following entries are made in the shareholders’ equity section: \begin{align} \text{Note Receivable from Issue of Shares} & \quad \$1000 \\ \text{Capital Stock} & \quad \$1000 \end{align} When the Note is paid, two entries follow: \begin{align} \text{Cash} & \quad \$1000 \\ \text{Note Receivable from Issue of Shares} & \quad \$1000 \end{align} The net result is an increase in cash and an increase in equity, but it is permitted only after the Note is paid. GAAP extends this skepticism to accounting for all speculative debt paper, under the installment and cash recovery methods. \textit{See} Herwitz & Barrett, \textit{supra} note 8, at 494-97. \textsuperscript{154.} Enron Form 8-K, \textit{supra} note 129, § 3. See also Powers Report, \textit{supra} note 53, at 125-26, which notes that Andersen was ready to deem the mistake immaterial. \textsuperscript{155.} ENRON, \textit{supra} note 36, at 48. b. The Equity Swaps that Weren’t Enron used the LJM-related SPEs—Talon and the Raptors I-IV—as counterparties in equity swaps.\textsuperscript{156} The swaps hedged Enron’s exposure to downside risk on large block positions of publicly traded equity it held in its “merchant” portfolio. Enron needed hedges of these exposures to protect its income statement. Because the stocks were accounted for as trading securities, any unrealized decreases in their market values were deducted from Enron’s net earnings. So far so good: It is normal for holders of large, undiversified equity stakes, such as executives holding sizable positions in their own companies’ stock, to enter into such contracts. Ordinarily this is done with a financial institution for a short or intermediate term. To describe a very simple transaction, if the stock subject to the swap goes up during the period of the swap, the executive pays the bank the amount of the price increase. Because the executive’s own block of stock has gone up as well, the transaction is a wash so far as the executive is concerned.\textsuperscript{157} If the stock goes down, the bank pays the amount of the decrease to the executive. The bank in turn hedges its downside risk on the stock by selling the stock short or purchasing a put option on the stock.\textsuperscript{158} The LJM-related SPEs acted in the position of the financial institution. But they did not make hedging contracts to cover their exposure in the event the stock subject to the swap lost value. Such contracts would have been expensive if available at all. Instead, the Enron common stock (issued in exchange for the SPE notes) used to fund the SPEs was to cover any SPE loss on the swap. The Enron portfolio stocks under the swap did lose value. Enron set up the swaps just as the subject stock prices hit peaks. According to the Powers Report, the value of the portfolio under the swaps fell by $1.1 billion across five fiscal quarters, so that the SPEs owed Enron $1.1 billion under the contracts. Enron, using the new “fair value” accounting, marked the value of its rights under the swap contracts to \textsuperscript{156} The account in the text draws on Enron Form 8-K, \textit{supra} note 129, § 5.A, Sherron Watkins’ Letter to Lay, \textit{Watkins Letter}, \textit{supra} note 149, and the Powers Report, \textit{supra} note 53. \textsuperscript{157} In the real world, the executive may swap for the return on some other investment, for example the return on a market portfolio such as the S & P 500 or a portfolio of bonds. \textsuperscript{158} Shorting the underlying stock means borrowing shares to cover the position. In order to borrow the shares, the short party must provide collateral, which will be cash. The party lending the shares and holding the cash collateral pays interest on the cash, at rate slightly under LIBOR. The bank pays this interest over to its swap customer, but at an even lower rate, pocketing a spread (around thirty basis points, depending on the customer). This in effect is the bank’s fee. market for income statement purposes. Enron’s reported numbers are lower than the later Powers figures: Enron’s Annual Report for 2000 showed a $500 million gain on the swap contracts, which exactly offset its loss on the stock portfolio. This $500 million made up about one third of Enron’s earnings for 2000 (prior to restatement in 2001). Problems arose. The Enron common stock used to fund the SPEs with capital to support the swaps also started falling. Where its value fell below the SPE’s exposure on the swap, the SPE was technically insolvent. There resulted a series of improvised restructurings of the transactions, carried out by Enron’s middle managers and concealed from its board of directors.\textsuperscript{159} Worse, the whole transaction structure followed from a very faulty premise. The stock protected by the swaps was not going to go back up. The SPEs had not hedged, so that, under the deal, their losses on the stock would have to be covered by the stock issued by Enron. Collapsing everything into one transaction, Enron was issuing its own common stock to itself to cover its own income statement loss, thereby increasing its own net earnings over the life of the swaps by a total figure in excess of $500 million ($1.1 billion according to the Powers Report). This one may not do under the most basic rules of accounting, indeed, under the most basic rules of capitalism. One issues stock to raise capital. One then uses the capital to do business and generate income. One cannot skip this step and enter the capital stock directly into income. The value of a firm stems from its ability to take the capital and earn money over time; its stock market capitalization reflects projections of its ability so to do. Here Enron perverts the system, using its market capitalization—the value of its common stock—to support the value of its common stock. At Ken Lay’s direction, Enron folded the SPEs and the swaps in the third quarter of 2001, restating past earnings downward by almost $600 million. It had at least noted the arrangement in the footnotes to its 2000 Annual Report. The Report tells us of the hedges, and we see that Enron owes the SPEs “premiums” totaling $36 million. Further, “Enron \textsuperscript{159} POWERS REPORT, \textit{supra} note 53, at 98. In one particularly egregious arrangement, Enron’s middle management had no Enron stock available to fund the SPE. Instead of going to the board to get more authorized, they funded the SPE with a block of the same stock being hedged by the swap. Needless to say, the SPE became insolvent rather quickly when the stock went south. \textit{Id.} at 114-15. The stock in the SPE was that of The New Power Company, an Enron startup slated to market power directly to consumers. The enterprise flopped rather badly. See Rebecca Smith, \textit{Short Circuit: How Enron’s Plan to Market Electricity Nationwide Fizzled}, WALL ST. J., Mar. 25, 2002, at A1. recognized revenues of approximately $500 million related to the subsequent change in the market value of these derivatives, which offset market value changes of certain . . . investments.\textsuperscript{160} However, we are not told how the SPE will be covering its $500 million loss exposure. Nor are we told why “premiums” were due and owing. It took the Powers Report to clear that up. Fastow negotiated a deal for LJM that guaranteed a windfall profit out of each SPE even before a single swap was put in place. The SPE would write a put on its Enron common stock and sell the put to Enron. Enron would pay a premium on the put at the market rate for such a contract. The SPE transferred the premium to LJM as an immediate return on capital. For example, with LJM1 and the Talon SPE, this was a $41 million payment, making for a 193% annualized return on the LJM investment.\textsuperscript{161} \begin{center} \textbf{ENRON--THE COURSE OF EVENTS, 2001}\textsuperscript{162} \end{center} \| DATE 2001 \| STOCK PRICE \| Event \| \|-----------\|-------------\|-------\| \| January 1 \| 83.12 \| \| \| February 12 \| 79.80 \| Skilling named CEO \| \| March 26 \| \| LJM transactions restructured; Chewco closed out \| \| April 17 \| 60 \| First quarter profits of $536 million announced \| \| May 5 \| 59.78 \| \| \| August 14 \| 43 \| Skilling resigns \| \| August 15 \| 40.25 \| Sherron Watkins delivers letter to Lay \| \| October 15 \| 33.17 \| \| \| October 16 \| 33.84 \| Third quarter loss of $618 million announced \| \textsuperscript{160} ENRON, \textit{supra} note 36, at 48. \textsuperscript{161} POWERS REPORT, \textit{supra} note 53, at 103-04. The Powers Report also shows numerous additional earnings manipulations carried out through LJM-related SPE transactions. Enron transferred financial assets to the SPE at prices favorable to Enron right before the expiration of a fiscal quarter. In many of these cases, the SPE would later transfer the asset back to Enron at an assured profit. \textit{Id.} at 128-44. A family resemblance to the real estate flips of Charles Keating and the Lincoln Savings & Loan is noted. \textit{See} Lincoln Sav. & Loan Ass’n v. Wall, 743 F. Supp. 901, 905-19 (D.D.C. 1990). \textsuperscript{162} Robert L. Bartley, Editorial, \textit{Enron: First, Apply the Law}, WALL ST. J., Feb. 11, 2002, at A23; Kurt Eichenwald & Diana B. Henriques, \textit{Web of Details Did Enron In as Warnings Went Unheeded}, N.Y. TIMES, Feb. 10, 2002, at 1; Emshwiller, \textit{supra} note 124, at A3. \| DATE 2001 \| STOCK PRICE \| Event \| \|-----------\|-------------\|-------\| \| October 17 \| 32.20 \| Rumors of $1.2 billion equity write-off circulate on Wall Street \| \| October 17 \| 32.20 \| 401(k) plans frozen \| \| October 17 \| 32.20 \| Wall Street Journal reports Fastow rake of $30 million$^{163}$ \| \| October 18 \| 29.00 \| Wall Street Journal reports the $1.2 billion write off \| \| October 22 \| \| SEC launches investigation of Enron accounting \| \| October 24 \| 16.41 \| Fastow terminated \| \| October 25 \| 16.35 \| Merger discussions with Dynegy commence \| \| October 31 \| 13.90 \| \| \| November 8 \| 8.41 \| Form 8-K filed; reveals LJM and Chewco earnings write-offs \| \| November 9 \| 8.63 \| Dynegy merger agreement executed and delivered \| \| November 19 \| 9.06 \| Form 10-Q filed; reveals hidden guarantees, cash flow crisis \| \| November 28 \| 0.61 \| S&P downgrades Enron to junk status \| \| November 28 \| 0.61 \| Dynegy cancels merger \| \| November 30 \| 0.26 \| \| \| December 2 \| 0.40 \| Chapter 11 filing \| c. Summary At around the same time Enron revealed the aforementioned downward restatements of its previously reported results, Enron announced a 2001 third quarter loss of $618 million (compared with around $300 million profits a year earlier). Just looking at the numbers for the year 2000, the downward adjustment due to LJM-related entries was $519.9 million, a significant number in view of the fact that Enron’s restated net earnings for 2000 amounted to only $847 million.$^{164}$ The problem went beyond the numbers, which were not --- $^{163}$ John Emswhiller & Rebecca Smith, Enron Jolt: Investments, Assets Generate Big Loss, Wall St. J., Oct. 17, 2001, at C1. $^{164}$ Enron Form 8-K, supra note 129, § 2. large enough to bring down Enron, taken alone. The terms of the transactions showed that Enron had been pumping up its earnings by abusing the SPE device. Whenever economics had gotten in the way of a result it wanted, it had used its own high-flying common stock to surmount the sticking point. On the upside this might pass; with the stock falling through the floor this meant trouble. Even worse, Enron no longer had any credibility—no one can believe anything asserted by a firm that covers up losses by entering into sham derivative contracts with itself.\textsuperscript{165} It is possible that the credibility deficit in time could have brought down the firm.\textsuperscript{166} As to that we can only speculate, for independent reasons brought about Enron’s collapse before the implications of its SPE accounting could be assimilated fully. \textit{D. Enron as a Bank Run} As a part of Skilling’s “asset light” strategy, Enron had moved hard assets worth billions into affiliated entities. Many were majority owned by Enron and consolidated into its financials, some of these even having their own credit ratings. Many more were unconsolidated affiliates accounted for under the equity method. We have seen that with its SPEs Enron could divest itself of financial asset, even as it needed to sell only a relatively small stake to outside equity investors. With Enron’s unconsolidated affiliates, bigger outside equity stakes were required. But why would smart money from the financial community commit significant money as Enron divested junk assets? Leverage appears to provide a good working explanation. Enron wanted to realize as much cash as possible from its asset divestments. So in \textsuperscript{165} Enron’s securities plaintiffs will be putting this earnings management together with stock sales by Enron’s officers and directors to depict a classic “pump and dump” operation. \textsuperscript{166} More SPE shenanigans have come to light since the Chapter 11 filing. “Braveheart” is the most notorious. Enron transferred its interest in a joint venture with Blockbuster (to use Enron’s broadband to sell movies directly to consumer subscribers), which never got off the ground, to an SPE called Braveheart. The SPE bought the right to receive the first ten years of project revenues. A Canadian bank loaned the $115 million purchase price to the SPE, with Enron guaranteeing the revenue stream. With Enron bankrupt, the Canadian bank is now left holding the bag. Enron booked a $110 million profit on the sale, netting the negative assumed value of the guarantee against the purchase money. The transaction arguably conforms to GAAP. Keller, \textit{supra} note 97, at A15; Floyd Norris & Kurt Eichenwald, \textit{Fuzzy Rules Of Accounting and Enron}, N.Y. \textit{Times}, Jan. 30, 2002, at C1; John R. Emshwiller & Rebecca Smith, \textit{Murky Waters: A Primer on Enron Partnerships}, \textit{Wall St. J.}, Jan. 21, 2002, at C1. many cases Enron and its outside equity turned to outside lenders to provide debt capital for the equity affiliate. Had the affiliates borrowed nonrecourse to Enron, these deals would not have threatened Enron’s stability. But it seems that in many cases outside lenders were unwilling to lend on the credit of the junk assets Enron was dumping into its equity affiliates. They insisted that Enron itself be liable on a contingent basis. As an example, the debt of Marlin Water Trust, an affiliate through which another affiliate, Atlantic Water Trust (in which Enron had a one-third equity interest) invested in a company called Azurix Corp., a joint venture that owned a water works in Britain. Marlin was capitalized with $125 million in equity and $915 million in debt. “Trigger events” in its debt contracts provided that Enron would become liable on its debt if either Enron lost its investment grade credit rating or its common stock price fell below $59.78. If either trigger went off, Enron had ninety days to register and sell sufficient common stock to pay down the debt. To the extent Enron did not raise the cash to pay the debt with a stock offering, Enron was obligated to make up the difference in cash.$^{167}$ Similarly, Enron had backed $2.4 billion of debt of another equity affiliate, Osprey, with a contingent promise to issue Enron equity, and ultimately to assume the debt, should the value of the stock prove inadequate.$^{168}$ The Marlin and Osprey debt obligations show us why Enron’s house of cards finally collapsed. As Enron transferred hard assets from its balance sheet into the affiliates, it sought cash consideration for the assets rather than dodgy debt paper issued by the affiliate. Some cash would come in from outside equity participants, but not much. The affiliates had to be levered in order to attract private equity, which would accordingly be putting up only a small fraction of the value of the assets purchased. Significant cash consideration for the assets therefore meant outside lenders. To swing deals in the private placement debt market, Enron gambled on the price of its own high-flying stock. If the stock remained buoyant, the obligation to pay the debt came due only on the debt’s maturity. At that time, the still-buoyant stock would provide a painless vehicle for paying off the debt $^{167}$ Enron Form 10-Q, filed Nov. 19, 2001, Part I, Item 1. $^{168}$ The Marlin/Osprey arrangements were pioneered by Enron together with investment bankers from Citigroup, Credit Suisse, First Boston, and Deutsche Bank. Some then sold similar arrangements to other energy companies, such as El Paso Corporation and the Williams Companies, which also wished to divest junk assets. See Patrick McGeehan, Enron’s Deals Were Marketed to Companies by Wall Street, N.Y. TIMES, Feb. 14, 2002, at C1. should the value of the affiliate’s assets fall short. If Enron’s stock fell gradually and caused the trigger to go off, Enron could get out from under the debt by minting more stock. It would have a problem on only one scenario. If the triggering stock decline was a free fall, Enron would be unable to bail itself out with a new stock offering and the debt would be accelerated directly against it. It was the last scenario that actually occurred. Here was high-leverage financing in a mode that the promoters of the leveraged buyouts of the 1980s never would have dared to imagine. The 1980s deals were old economy deals, in which lenders looked to the earning power of hard assets and took mortgages and security interests in the assets.\textsuperscript{169} New economy company that it was, Enron borrowed on a virtual basis: It took on contingent obligations secured in the first instance by its own market capitalization and incurred for the purpose of divesting itself of its own assets. In the 1980s, a highly leveraged deal presupposed a projection that the company would generate earnings before interest and taxes sufficient to cover the debt. At Enron in the virtual 1990s, the value to back the deal came not from such an inside projection of what the firm could earn, but from the market stock price. Stock prices also result from future earnings projections—projections made by outside traders with limited information about the company. Sometimes, in runaway stock markets, the projections are dispensed with entirely as the traders chase trends. Unfortunately, Enron took this gamble on its own stock price in such a bubble stock market. And so the gamble failed. As we have seen, Enron’s stock declined for independent reasons as 2001 unfolded. This, together with the crisis in confidence triggered by the SPE disclosures, caused further price declines. Contract contingencies began to trigger obligations on billions of off-balance sheet debt. And, in a conjuring trick unimaginable to the principals of Drexel Burnham Lambert in their most creative moments, Enron had incurred these contingent liabilities without bothering fully to disclose them in its financial statements, whether on the balance sheet or in the footnotes. Indeed, it delayed public disclosure until the last possible point—mid-November 2001. \textsuperscript{169} There is, however, one notable point of commonality. In the more risky 1980s deals, the lenders looked less to the hard assets of the borrower than to spreadsheets showing upward growth projections for the borrower’s cash flows. Enron, when borrowing against its own common stock, was borrowing on the assumption that financial reality lay behind the heroic growth projections implied by a price earnings ratio of sixty. The sudden appearance of $4 billion of additional obligations struck Enron with more devastating effect than would have been the case with an old-fashioned, hard assets company.\textsuperscript{170} Enron already was frantically trying to prop itself up with new borrowing,\textsuperscript{171} including a $1.5 billion infusion from its partner in a bailout merger, Dynegy.\textsuperscript{172} Dynegy, on hearing of the $4 billion, immediately insisted that the $9 billion merger price be reduced to $4.17 billion. At the same time, analysts reckoned that Enron needed $4 billion of immediate cash from somewhere to sustain its trading operation. But no cash was forthcoming. Enron’s trading business melted away; in the last weeks almost all of its volume stemmed from unwind orders from parties going elsewhere. Dynegy waited a week after learning of the $4 billion, and then called off the deal. This happened just after Standard & Poors, having concluded that there would be no rescue, downgraded Enron to junk status.\textsuperscript{173} Enron had nowhere to go but the Chapter, where it ended up in a few days’ time. It was, as erstwhile CEO Jeff Skilling later observed, a “classic run on the bank.”\textsuperscript{174} No wonder he had bailed out in August.\textsuperscript{175} Skilling’s description is apt. Enron had come to look more and more like a financial intermediary, whether a bank or a broker-dealer. Such businesses depend on customer confidence. As we have seen, Enron already was looking less than confidence-inspiring by October 2001. But a financial intermediary’s customers do not necessarily care \textsuperscript{170} The list of hidden obligations kept growing. The components of the $4 billion are broken down in Enron’s Form 10-Q, \textit{supra} note 167, Part I, Item 2. When Standard & Poor’s downgraded Enron’s debt to BBB- on November 12, the downgrade by itself triggered $1.6 billion of contingent equity affiliate liabilities to due and owing status (including, on a belt-and-suspenders basis, some already triggered, like the Marlin borrowings). Standard & Poors, focusing on Enron’s unsuccessful foreign investments, had put Enron on notice of its concerns about the credit rating in June. Enron talked it out of a downgrade. Zellner et al., \textit{supra} note 3, at 32. The collapse of Enron’s stock price triggered an additional $3.1 billion of obligations, $700 million of these in connection with a derivative contract. In addition, one of Enron’s principal credit facilities contained a “material adverse change” clause that also was triggered by the downgrade. Oppel, \textit{supra} note 79, at C3. Jeff Skilling argues that such a clause is unusual in such a contract. \textit{Id}. In a form similar to that of a merger upset condition, he may be right. But conditions with similar cut-off effects are standard in debt contracts. What is hard to imagine is how a bank could sign a contract that required it to continue lending in the face of a sudden fifty percent increase in the borrower’s long-term debt. \textsuperscript{171} It had to exit the commercial paper market in November. Enron Form 10-Q, \textit{supra} note 167, Part I, Item 2. \textsuperscript{172} \textit{Id}. \textsuperscript{173} John R. Emshwiller & Rebecca Smith, \textit{Corporate Veil: Behind Enron’s Fall, A Culture of Operating Outside Public’s View}, WALL ST. J., Dec. 5, 2001, at A1. \textsuperscript{174} Oppel, \textit{supra} note 79, at C1. \textsuperscript{175} See Coy et al., \textit{supra} note 4, for a quote from an unnamed senior Enron employee to the effect that Skilling understood the mess he had created and resigned for that reason. about earnings management and executive self-dealing transactions so long as their own contracts are performed to the letter. Here "confidence" in the first instance means creditworthiness signified by an investment grade rating, particularly when the intermediary does business in derivative transactions. (That is why banks do this business through special purpose subsidiaries with independent credit ratings.) To lose the rating is to lose the derivatives business, as counterparties take their business risks to a shop able to enter into derivative contracts entailing no significant default risk. As with the watered stock and the equity swaps that weren't, a good part of the story of the hidden liabilities was there to be gleaned in Enron's 2000 Annual Report. Although many affiliates and SPEs were unconsolidated, the magnitude of Enron's asset transfer program was apparent. Of the $23.4 billion of "Investments and other Assets" reported on its balance sheet, $5.3 billion (22.6 percent) represented investments in "unconsolidated equity affiliates."176 Footnote 9 shows that these entities' liabilities exceeded that of Enron—they had a total of $4.7 billion current liabilities, $9.7 billion long-term debt, and $6.148 billion of "other noncurrent liabilities."177 We also see clearly on Enron's income statement that its percentage share of affiliate earnings (accounted for under the equity method) could impact its bottom line significantly. In 1999, this figure was $309 million, 34.6% of Enron's net earnings of $893 million. The figure fell to $87 million in 2000, 8.8% of that year's reported $979 million of operating net income.178 Enron's cash flow statement also presents interesting numbers.179 Proceeds from sales of "merchant assets," which in Enron's accounting scheme generate operating earnings, in 2000 generated $1.8 billion of cash and $1.3 billion of "unrealized" noncash gains. Again there is a --- 176. ENRON, supra note 36, at 32. 177. Id. at 42. 178. Id. at 31. Disclosures respecting the contributions to Enron net earnings of the proceeds of transfers of financial assets to SPEs are murkier. Enron reports $541 million of extraordinary gain on asset dispositions in 1999 (60.6% of net income of $893 million) and $146 million of such gain in 2000 (14.9% of net income of $979 million). Id. But Enron does not tell us how much of those figures represent sales to SPEs. It does give us reason to suspect that they do represent such sales when both of these figures are backed out of the operating cash flow section of Enron's cash flow statement, signaling a sale of assets for a paper consideration. In 2000, the trading and derivative operation generated $1.63 billion of income before interest and taxes, while "sale of asset" activities generated $889 million of such income. Id. at 23. In the light of hindsight, both numbers, and particularly the latter, would be more meaningful if transactions with SPEs had been broken out separately. 179. Id. at 34. signal of a sale for paper rather than money. Enron’s statement of investment cash flows also makes interesting reading. Of $4.3 billion invested, $933 million is “equity investments.” Two paragraphs above all in Enron’s 2000 MD&A stand out in light of hindsight. They disclosed the contingent affiliate liabilities and triggers: Enron is a party to certain financial contracts which contain provisions for early settlement in the event of a significant market price decline in which Enron’s common stock falls below certain levels (prices ranging from $28.20 to $55.00 per share) or if the credit ratings for Enron’s unsecured, senior long-term debt obligations fall below investment grade. The impact of this early settlement could include the issuance of additional shares of Enron common stock. ... Enron’s continued investment grade status is critical to the success of its wholesale businesses as well as its ability to maintain adequate liquidity. Enron’s management believes it will be able to maintain its credit rating.$^{180}$ The paragraphs omit at least two material facts—that the “financial contracts” are affiliate debt contracts and derivative contracts unconsolidated on Enron’s balance sheet and that Enron’s contingent liabilities under the “provisions” amount to $4 billion, a figure which looms large in comparison to the $1.7 billion of short-term debt and $8.55 billion of long-term debt booked on Enron’s 2000 balance sheet.$^{181}$ Belated disclosure of the $4 billion total in November 2001 was by itself sufficient to bring down the firm.$^{182}$ $^{180}$ Id. at 27. $^{181}$ Id. at 33. A highly diligent reader of the financials might have flipped twenty-five pages further on in the financials to find a half-way disclosure: A $213 million entry for “guarantees” added to total debt. A further check of a footnote states an assumption of ten percent probability of liability, implying a total of $21.3 million of obligations. Id. at 52. But this $20 million appears to be a separate category relating to letters of credit, discussed in footnote 15. Id. at 48. $^{182}$ When Enron, as Chapter 11 debtor in possession, first met with its creditors it reported a balance sheet debt of $22 billion as of November 16 (and total debt of $39.71 billion). Mitchell Pacelle et al., Enron Has One-Year Restructuring Target, Wall St. J., Dec. 13, 2001, at A3. Some of this additional debt appears to have been with respect to a swap that involved payment up front to Enron by the bank counterparty of the notional amount; Enron was to repay that sum over five years. Enron received $3.9 billion of such hidden loans from 1992 to 2001. Off-balance sheet accounting apparently accorded with GAAP. Daniel Altman, Enron Had More Than One Way to Disguise Rapid Rise in Debt, N.Y. Times, Feb. 17, 2002, at 1. Other hidden debt stems from transfers of natural gas purchase contracts among Enron, an offshore subsidiary, and J.P. Morgan Chase. Sale and purchase contracts would be matched, with Enron getting a prepayment for natural gas under the sale contract but not making a prepayment in connection with the matching purchase contract. When it was netted out, Enron had an intermediate term loan from the bank, which was accounted for E. Summary and Analysis All four of the preceding stories figure into the final account of Enron’s collapse. Had Enron suffered no reverses in its basic business and no crisis of confidence, the contingencies respecting the $4 billion of obligations that pushed Enron into Chapter 11 might never have occurred. At the same time, had $4 billion of additional obligations not come out of the woodwork after Enron entered into a merger agreement with Dynegy, the merger might have been consummated. We can pare down the account by coupling the crisis of confidence and the hidden $4 billion of obligations as primary causes. The coupling works well—both stories involve equity affiliate and SPE transactions incident to Skilling’s “asset light” strategy and aggressive earnings management. Both stories also involve heavy use of Enron’s common stock as a back-up currency importing stability to an otherwise shaky deal structure. Viewed with the benefit of hindsight, the equity affiliate and SPE transactions appear foolish, reckless, or fraudulent. There arises a question as to just what the top officers of Enron thought they were doing. Clearly, they pursued much more than the realization of Skilling’s promise of higher return on invested capital through divestment of hard assets. Short-term stakes loomed larger. Viewed in the short-term, Enron’s asset sales to SPEs generated revenues and gains that helped Enron’s net earnings meet market expectations during the interval prior to the realization of earnings from Enron’s new investments.$^{183}$ Had the financial assets sold to the SPEs been sold for cash to third parties at arm’s length, they still would have been a source of funds. But one suspects that the net earnings impact of arm’s length sales would have been much less favorable. It accordingly made perfect sense to put Fastow on both sides of the SPE transfers. His divided loyalty assured a purchase price pitched to Enron’s bottom line, even as his limited partnership solved the Chewco problem and stood ready to serve as three percent outside investor. At the same $^{183}$ Studies show that when growth stocks report even small earnings shortfalls, the resulting stock price declines are disproportionately large. For a summary of the literature, see Patricia M. Dechow & Douglas J. Skinner, Earnings Management: Reconciling the Views of Accounting Academics, Practitioners, and Regulators, 14 ACCTNG. HORIZONS 235, 245-46 (2000). time, Enron used its equity affiliates as a source of debt capital. This borrowing helped the affiliates yield attractive returns for their outside equity investors (and presumably to provide a source of funds for new investments in the push to expand trading markets). Deflecting high-leverage equity investment to the affiliates made perfect sense for Enron because it had to limit direct borrowing in order to maintain the investment-grade credit rating on which its trading business depended. The equity affiliate strategy hit a snag only with the terms imposed by the outside lenders. They wanted security beyond that afforded by the affiliates’ assets. Enron’s managers responded with a gamble and borrowed against their own stock price. This reflects a belief in their own business plan. They must have figured that the stock price eventually would become bulletproof once the firm was awash in earnings from broadband and other new initiatives. The same projection figured centrally in the LJM-related SPE derivative strategy. In the interim period before the new investments paid off, the sham equity swaps supported earnings per share. Had its stock price stayed buoyant, Enron might have covered the SPE’s losses on the derivative contracts with all eyes remaining averted from the economic substance of the transactions. The decision to stay silent about the magnitude of contingent obligations similarly figured into the gamble. Had the stock price stayed up, the only downside on the borrowing was an incidental dilution of the common stock interest. And had the stock stayed up, the strategy might have worked. Unfortunately, with the stock price falling and Skilling pulling out of the company with no explanation, investors and reporters started to ask questions.\footnote{Watkins Letter, supra note 149 (referring to Raptor deals); see also Krawiec, supra note 51, at 321-22 (describing Robert Citron of Orange County and the voters’ acceptance of his risky investment strategies).} So, what now seems foolish, reckless, or fraudulent, does so only because the gamble failed. Of course, gambling is what high-risk high-return businesses are all about. Rarely, however, do we see managers of large firms stake so much (the whole company and their own liberty) on so little (concealment of off-balance sheet obligations and earnings manipulation). Thus did Enron’s managers cross the line from risk-averse to risk-prone behavior. Did they do so rationally? We have seen that they had their reasons. We should add compensation to the list. Like most managers today, Enron’s managers received significant compensation in the form of stock options. Option holding dulls the actor’s sensitivity to degrees of distress on the downside, and at the same time giving the actor an incentive to generate chances for upside gains of high magnitude. Thus directed, a group of managers certainly would be more disposed to high-risk strategies. It should be noted, however, that stock-option-based incentives tend to operate in the long term. To effect a tie between compensation and Enron’s managers’ obsession with short-term numbers, we need to look to Enron’s performance-based bonus scheme. These awards grew as Enron’s stock price performed better relative to the market as a whole and as managers met performance criteria in respect of factors like funds flow, return on equity, and earnings per share.\textsuperscript{185} Amounts paid in 2001 based on 2000’s numbers were substantial: $9.6 million for Lay; $7.52 million for Skilling, $3.925 million for Jeffrey MacMahon; $3.036 million for Fastow; and $2.3 million for Kopper.\textsuperscript{186} But option holding and bonus taking do not, taken alone, provide a plausible explanation for the Enron disaster. For one thing, option holding now is ubiquitous among American managers. If option holding explains the behavior of Enron’s managers, we accordingly should be seeing their behavior pattern everywhere instead of the present handful of companies beset by scandal. As yet, however, these firms remain outliers. For another thing, the Enron officers gambled with more than other people’s money. As they crossed the line to fraud, they staked their personal liberty. One senses such actions to lie outside the box of option pricing. For an alternative rational expectations explanation of the behavior of Enron’s managers, we can turn to the “end period problem.”\textsuperscript{187} In this scenario, a ordinarily risk-averse rational actor finds her firm in distress due to business reverses. Bankruptcy being the most negative outcome possible, the actor rationally becomes risk-prone, gambling everything in one last play to avoid destruction. Concealment comes with the territory. This explanation would make sense for Enron if either the foregoing story of conventional business reverses turns out to be much more severe than presently known or the \textsuperscript{185} Enron Schedule 14A, \textit{supra} note 138, at 15-16. \textsuperscript{186} Kurt Eichenwald, \textit{Enron Paid Huge Bonuses in ’01; Experts See a Motive for Cheating}, N.Y. \textit{Times}, Mar. 1, 2002, at A1. \textsuperscript{187} \textit{See} Jennifer H. Arlen & William J. Carney, \textit{Vicarious Liability for Fraud on Securities Markets: Theory and Evidence}, 1992 U. ILL. L. REV. 691. Professor Rose-Ackerman offers an interesting variation on the theme in Susan Rose-Ackerman, \textit{Risk-Taking and Ruin: Bankruptcy and Investment Choice}, 20 J. LEG. STUD. 277, 304-09 (1991). She shows how otherwise rational managers of 1980s savings and loans faced federal receivership if they continued conservative investment policies due to the fact that they had to pay market rates to their savers. Accordingly, they gambled all on risky investments. allegations of a derivatives-based disaster turn out to be true. On either scenario, Enron’s principals stumbled into distress and rationally started manufacturing income and concealing obligations as a way of buying time to turn things around and avert disaster. If, on the other hand, Enron’s business was sound but troubled, we need to tell a longer story. This was a firm where concealment became a way of life long before the start of the end period.\textsuperscript{188} Enron’s principals did not just wake up to find themselves in trouble. They created much of the trouble themselves, voluntarily and unnecessarily driving the firm into an end period. They did so in pursuit of projects and returns that their business plan could not support. Arguably, rational, risk-averse actors would have moderated the pace of expansion, reporting negative numbers to the extent necessary to portray the firm’s financial condition accurately. To tell a compelling causation story on this scenario, we must look to Enron’s organizational culture as well as its principals’ economic incentives.\textsuperscript{189} Enron fell because it pursued winning to excess. At Enron, winning was everything and everything became a tournament. Its business plan took unbundling to its logical conclusion, projecting a competitive victory over not only other firms but vertical industrial organization itself. Enron’s top managers wanted to be surrounded exclusively by winners. So they made their workplace a tournament without end. They created a space that, unlike the outside world of regulation protecting losers, valued above all winning and the risk taking which necessarily precedes it. Winning also meant stunning earnings numbers: Where the tournament is ongoing, what counts is the most recent score. So important was winning at Enron that it became conflated with value maximization. Labor economics holds out a formal model of a “superstar” actor.\textsuperscript{190} Inspired by the distribution of returns in show business, this describes situations where the size of personal rewards grows in lockstep with the size of the market and both market size and reward are skewed to the most talented people in the activity.\textsuperscript{191} Applying the \textsuperscript{188} The most famous example is the Potemkin Village trading floor Skilling ordered set up in 1998 in order to hoodwink visiting analysts. Jason Leopold, \textit{Questioning the Books: Enron Executives Helped to Create Fake Trading Room}, \textit{Wall St. J.}, Feb. 20, 2002, at A4. \textsuperscript{189} See Langevoort, \textit{Organized Illusions}, supra note 51, at 114-15, 130. \textsuperscript{190} For a popular application of this economic theory, see ROBERT H. FRANK & PHILIP J. COOK, \textit{THE WINNER-TAKE-ALL SOCIETY} (1995). \textsuperscript{191} Sherwin Rosen, \textit{The Economics of Superstars}, 71 \textit{Am. Econ. Rev.} 845 (1981). For example, where consumers of music prefer to hear the most able artist perform, the producer gets an equilibrium unit price that is proportional to her talent. Because neither the description by analogy to firms in a market, for a "superstar firm," small advantages in capability vis-à-vis the firm's competitors result in the firm disproportionately dominating its market. No doubt Enron saw itself in this light—as the Tiger Woods of energy trading. Its problem was that, given ease of entry into energy trading and shrinking margins caused by successful competitors, its superstar status was in serious jeopardy. Energy trading turned out to be structurally unsuited to the continued dominance by a superstar first entrant: In a superstar market, there is imperfect substitution amongst competing producers; in energy trading, one proprietary trading floor turned out to look like another so far as concerned the customers. To realize Skilling's vision of being the biggest and best in energy, therefore, Enron had to keep going boldly where no one had gone before and open new markets. This resulted in heroic demands for new capital and problems with earnings figures. To keep their victory lap going, Enron's managers invented winning value numbers, crossing the line to fraud. Enron's managers, with a belief system biased toward winning, lost touch with both hard economic constraints and the rules of the game. Ironically, that disconnection followed readily from their tournament workplace environment. Of course, such a reward system can be accounted for as an incentive and monitoring scheme. But as price nor cost of other inputs in the market depends on talent, more able sellers produce more output units. The payoff to the top producer is an increasing and convex function of talent. The price of talent thus is an increasing function of talent, causing the distribution of income to be skewed relative to the distribution of ability. Id. at 845-47; see also Glenn M. MacDonald, The Economics of Rising Stars, 78 Am. Econ. Rev. 155 (1988) (extending the model to show a superstar market can allow for the development of young talent). 192. Rosen, supra note 191, at 846. In addition, (1) property rights are assigned to the seller so there are no free-rider problems due to nonexclusion and (2) joint consumption of the product by a mass audience creates a scale economy allowing a small number of producers to service the whole market. Id. at 847. 193. Professor Krawiec's description of the make-up of the rogue trader and the tournament structure of the trading floor provide a useful analogy. Krawiec, supra note 51, at 310-14; see also Langevoort, Selling Hope, supra note 51, at 658-66 (noting that the required performance levels necessary to maintain the professional image can increase over time and push an actor to risk-prone behavior). 194. The text uses the term "tournament structure" loosely. The usage should be distinguished from that of the formal economics of tournaments, which address certain workplace practices. More particularly, the worker exchanges compensation for a promotion opportunity; the employer undertakes to promote a set percentage of the employees based on their rank ordering in the tournament. The tournament results in economies respecting monitoring costs—the employer need only observe the workers' relative performance—even as it incentivizes the employees. See Edward P. Lazear, Personal Economics 25-37 (1995). This economic theory has been applied to large law firms. See Marc Galanter & Thomas Palay, Tournament of Lawyers: The Transformation of the Big Law Firm corporate cultures develop, tournament schemes can do more than encourage strenuous efforts and filter out losers. They tend to produce winners of a certain type.\textsuperscript{195} To be sure, such executives are ambitious, persistent, optimistic, and hard working. But persistence does not always guarantee success. Enron's managers pursued their business plan so persistently that they lost their flexibility.\textsuperscript{196} They continued to open new markets on an accelerated schedule, even though their need to maintain an investment grade credit rating made it impossible to do this and at the same time tell the truth about themselves to the capital markets. Nor is the relentless optimism of the tournament winner always a productive force. The optimistic entrepreneur labors under a cognitive bias, which underweights downside risk and overweights both the probability of upside gain and the entrepreneur's own abilities and contributions.\textsuperscript{197} That cognitive bias is inseparable from shareholder value maximization, for the big scores in the stock market come from firms run by entrepreneurs rather than by conventional managers. On the downside, however, it can lead to errant decision making. Tournament winners get where they are because they see the world around them in ways that serve their purposes, sacrificing a measure of realism. This limitation on their perception is not necessarily undesirable—it contributes to their success, keeping them focused, flexible, and able to get the job done.\textsuperscript{198} But there can be significant costs when material information fails to register. At Enron, just as dissent was not tolerated, so was bad news systematically filtered out. It comes as no surprise that the most outrageous self-dealing described in the \textit{Powers Report} occurred when Enron was dismantling a transaction structure and wiping the transactional debris from its table.\textsuperscript{199} Eyes at Enron tended to be averted from such clean- \begin{footnotesize} (1991). The application is controversial. See David B. Wilkins & G. Mitu Gulati, \textit{Reconceiving the Tournament of Lawyers: Tracking, Seeding, and Information Control in the Internal Labor Markets of Elite Firms}, 84 VA. L. REV. 1581 (1998) (showing that the law firm tournament differs from the tournament described in the economics in significant ways, while asserting that a tournament metaphor remains useful in understanding law firm practices). \textsuperscript{195} Donald C. Langevoort, \textit{Enron and the Organizational Psychology of Hypercompetition: An Essay for Larry Mitchell}, 70 GEO. WASH L. REV. (forthcoming 2002). \textsuperscript{196} \textit{Id.} at 142-43. \textsuperscript{197} See Langevoort, \textit{Organized Illusions}, supra note 51, at 139-40; Langevoort, \textit{Selling Hope}, supra note 51, at 645. \textsuperscript{198} Langevoort, \textit{supra} note 195, at 4. \textsuperscript{199} The Southampton grab of Fastow, Kopper and others occurred in connection with the windup up the LJMI SPE. When Enron repurchased Chewco's interest in JEDI, Kopper \end{footnotesize} up exercises. Actors at Enron also underestimated external threats, particularly regulatory threats. At Enron, success always had depended on averting or destroying regulatory opponents. Skilling, as we have seen, saw nothing wrong with averting his eyes from insubordination within Enron’s own ranks—so long as the result had been profitable. Unsurprisingly, tournament winners score highly on the Machiavellian psychological measure. As Enron’s leaders stepped across the line to fraud, their belief system trumped reality. So as to avoid confronting their own failures, they averted their eyes from the manifest implications of their own actions. They acted out the role of the tournament winner right up to the end. IV. ENRON AND CORPORATE SELF-REGULATION The preceding story supports a highly confident prediction that the federal securities laws’ regime of ex post liability will come to bear on Enron’s managers with considerable force. It only remains to complete the picture of who knew what and when. Enron’s former top managers have shown manifest awareness of this. Skilling professes ignorance: “We’re all trying to figure out what happened. . . . This was a tragedy. I had no idea the company was in anything but excellent shape.” Moreover, “I didn’t do anything wrong. . . . I think we made the right decisions.” The Fastow partnerships? These were set up to save Enron money; information about the $30 million “stunned” him. Billions of off-balance sheet debt obligations? “I did not know about that.” As for Fastow, his lawyer, David Boies, has added two points. First, Enron’s chief accounting officer did not report to Fastow. Second, although Fastow was aware of the operations of the SPEs, which his own firm managed, he was not aware of the activities of the 200. This is “cognitive conservatism.” Langevoort, Organized Illusions, supra note 51, at 135-37. 201. Langevoort, supra note 195, at 3; see also Samuel Bowles et al., The Determinants of Earnings: A Behavioral Approach, 39 J. ECON LIT. 1137, 1161-62 (2001) (collecting studies showing high covariance of “high mach” scores with income and occupational attainment, particularly in loosely structured sales organizations). 202. See Langevoort, Organized Illusions, supra note 51, at 144-45. 203. Oppel, supra note 79, at C3. 204. Id. 205. Id. 206. Id. other SPEs.\textsuperscript{207} Finally, Ken Lay has disavowed any knowledge of the numbers and side deals—they always were, he said, “way over [his] head.”\textsuperscript{208} Thus does the defense strategy emerge: Cite the complexity of the contractual arrangements in question, plead ignorance, and point the finger downward in the chain of command. A. \textit{Enron and the Monitoring Model of Corporate Governance} The Powers Report rightly faults Enron’s board for defective ongoing monitoring of the LJM transactions. But like all such reprimands, this one has the benefit of hindsight. And even as it finds fault, the report also shows us that Enron’s board went by the book when it approved the LJM transaction structure. Favorable reports lay on the table at the board meeting in question.\textsuperscript{209} Andersen and Enron’s outside counsel, Vinson & Elkins, had been involved every step of the way. Because of the transactions’ self-dealing aspect, the Board required ongoing monitoring by managers representing Enron’s interest. In addition, the Audit Committee was to review the transactions annually. There also was active concealment of negative information by middle management. This occurred both with the sham transaction concocted to lend Chewco the appearance of an outside equity investor\textsuperscript{210} and with a series of patch-up arrangements concluded after the swaps went sour.\textsuperscript{211} At only one point does the Powers Report account hold out hope for a plaintiff contemplating a duty of care lawsuit against Enron’s outside directors. The three committee reviews of the ongoing LJM-related transactions were conducted quickly, lasting no more than 10 or 15 minutes, without probing questions being asked.\textsuperscript{212} Between \textit{Smith v. Van Gorkom}\textsuperscript{213} and the duty of care cases respecting financial institutions,\textsuperscript{214} these facts \begin{itemize} \item \textsuperscript{207} Floyd Norris, \textit{S.E.C. Wants to Question Former Officer}, N.Y. Times, Dec. 13, 2001, at C6. \item \textsuperscript{208} Alex Berenson, \textit{Chief’s Words Paint Hands-Off Image, but Actions Offer Different View}, N.Y. Times, Jan. 23, 2002, at C7. \item \textsuperscript{209} POWERS REPORT, \textit{supra} note 53, at 157. \item \textsuperscript{210} \textit{Id.} at 46. \item \textsuperscript{211} \textit{Id.} at 98, 115–18. \item \textsuperscript{212} \textit{Id.} at 162. \item \textsuperscript{213} Smith v. Van Gorkom, 488 A.2d 858 (Del. 1985). Enron is an Oregon corporation. Delaware law is referenced as a source of persuasive points respecting the fiduciary duties of officers and directors of publicly traded corporations. Enron appears to have had more than enough in the way of internal compliance controls to excuse the board under the supine standard of \textit{In re Caremark International, Inc. Derivative Litigation}, 698 A.2d 959 (Del. Ch. 1996). \item \textsuperscript{214} See, e.g., Francis v. United Jersey Bank, 432 A.2d 814, 846-47 (N.J. 1981) (finding breach of duty when directors failed to act to prevent other directors from \end{itemize} give a plaintiff a basis for argument. But a strong defense can be anticipated—each of Andersen, Vinson & Elkins, and Enron’s managers had reviewed the transactions and continued to endorse them. The audit committee met with the Andersen partners with Enron’s managers out of the room to ask if there was anything about which to worry. Andersen kept silent.\textsuperscript{215} Thus do the facts of the case send a strong but disturbing signal: Enron stumbled into its end period while following the book of good governance practice, at least nominally. A question arises: Why did our system of corporate governance, with its monitors and gatekeepers, fail to interpose frictions on the formulation and execution of the strategy so as to cause prudent modifications? Vigilant monitoring might have contained the recklessness, saving the company. As a matter of policy, the finger points not to lower officers, as Skilling and Fastow would have it, but to Enron’s outside directors and with them the monitoring model of corporate governance. The monitoring model holds out an objective, process-based system. It importunes companies to put a majority of highly qualified outside directors on the board and to integrate the board into its decision-making structure as an active participant. At the level of mandate, however, it only requires that boards go through the motions of making considered business judgments respecting corporate transactions. It does not and cannot make the further subjective inquiry into the degree of attention and quality of judgment actually brought to bear. Corporate counsel are well-schooled in packaging documentation so that compliance is well evidenced. The system responds to breakdowns such as Enron’s by adding layers of new processes, each a ritualized enactment of the substance of the good governance. To see how little this can mean in terms of sustained and searching confrontation with problematic topics, consider the audit committee of the board of directors and its central place in the system. This was the venue within Enron for outside monitoring of accounting policies respecting SPE compliance and the place where questions should have been asked about compliance with GAAP respecting SPE transactions and the 2000 MD&A’s failure to provide complete information about Enron’s contingent obligations. Audit committee practice became a focal point of corporate governance reform efforts \textsuperscript{215} misappropriated trust funds); Litwin v. Allen, 25 N.Y.S.2d 667, 678 (Sup. Ct. 1940) (noting that directors must “exercise some degree of skill and prudence and diligence”). \textsuperscript{215} POWERS REPORT, supra note 53, at 161. in the late 1990s, after headline audit failures at Cendant and Sunbeam. SEC Chairman Arthur Levitt complained publicly about audit committee independence and composition. The New York Stock Exchange and the National Association of Securities dealers (NASD) responded by tightening their listing standards.\textsuperscript{216} Under the new rules, audit committees had to have the right to hire and fire the auditor; they had to have at least three members, each of whom should be independent and financially literate, with at least one member having accounting or financial expertise.\textsuperscript{217} At around the same time, the SEC’s revised proxy disclosure rules respecting audit committees. Starting in 2001, there had to be disclosures about member independence, the report had to state whether the committee recommended that the Board file the audited financials in the firm’s 10-K report, and the committee’s charter had to be attached as an exhibit.\textsuperscript{218} For a pristine example of compliance with all the foregoing rules, open Enron’s 2001 proxy statement.\textsuperscript{219} Its audit committee of five met five times during 2000 with its outside auditors and its inside managers responsible for accounting and internal controls. The committee was chaired by a professor emeritus in accounting from Stanford University. And yet despite the review and the committee’s formal recommendation of the audited financials, the audit had failed and with it the committee process. Two alternative reform palliatives suggest themselves as the next step in the regulation of audits and audit committees. The first originated with Arthur Levitt and follows the example of Delaware special negotiating committees, which hire their own legal and business advisors.\textsuperscript{220} By extension, audit committees should hire their independent auditor to lead and assist them in evaluating internal compliance systems and the accounting treatments applied by the company’s managers and auditors.\textsuperscript{221} Such a contrarian voice might have raised difficult questions about Enron’s accounting policies \begin{itemize} \item Jeffrey Goldfarb, \textit{New Panel to Devise Stricter Oversight Proposals for Independent Auditors}, 30 Sec. Reg. & L. Rep. (BNA) 1455, 1455 (Oct. 2, 1998). \item Herwitz & Barrett, \textit{supra} note 8, at 178. \item Audit Committee Disclosure, 17 C.F.R. §§ 228.306, 229.306 (2000). \item Enron Schedule 14A, \textit{supra} note 138, at 12-13, 42-44. \item See, e.g., Weinberger v. UOP, Inc., 457 A.2d 701, 709 (Del. 1983) (suggesting in a cash-out merger an independent negotiating committee with own counsel and investment banker). \item For a suggestion of this, see Arthur Levitt, \textit{The “Numbers Game,”} Remarks at N.Y.U. Center for Law and Business (Sept. 28, 1998), available at http://www.sec.gov/news/speech/speecharchive/198/spch220.txt (last visited Mar. 13, 2002). \end{itemize} respecting SPEs and affiliates. Whether the process of questioning would have led to a different accounting result and full disclosure of SPE arrangements is another question. For one thing, audit committee members do not differ from other board members in their cooperative dispositions. For another thing, given a limited universe of what are now four big accounting firms, each under pressure to approve the same types of deals, one wonders how much lawyerly adversity can be imported into the system. The second measure comes from present SEC Chairman Harvey Pitt in his first public response to the Enron collapse. Under this measure, companies and auditors are to make a “[c]onscientious identification and assessment . . . [of] the three, four, or five most critical accounting principles” to the company’s reporting—the principles involving “the most complex, subjective or ambiguous decisions or assessments.”222 They should then make a clear presentation to investors of the problems underlying the decision and report the “range of possible effects in differing applications.”223 Here the insight is that the monitoring process can lose its way under stacks of technical reports. Accordingly, the process mandate needs to confront moments at which the managers and directors make critical judgments and force them to disclose not only the result and its justification but the competing variables and counterfactuals. By implication, had Enron been forced to this higher level of disclosure it would have followed less aggressive accounting policies. Or, alternatively, much of the accounting would have stayed the same, but Enron would have been forced to make additional pro forma disclosures, which would have revealed all the debt or showed how earnings might have been lower if all of the SPEs were consolidated. What are the chances that Pitt’s reform would have led to disclosure of Enron’s contingent liabilities? One suspects that many more than five problematic accounting treatments had material effects on this set of financials. Nothing but hindsight appears to assure that either that consolidation policy, the treatment of the swaps, or contingent liabilities be included on a mandated special disclosure list. In addition, like all other variations on the theme of process guarantee, this one easily could deteriorate into an empty governance ritual having little impact either on the quality of attention and discussion at board and committee meetings or on the understanding of investors in 222. Harvey L. Pitt, Editorial, How to Prevent Future Enrons, WALL ST. J., Dec. 11, 2001, at A18. 223. Id. the stock market. So long as ex post review for compliance relies on objective evidence in the form of a thick minute book, a process rule grounded in subjective "conscientiousness" merely importunes. Significantly, in a follow-up announcement, the SEC has promised to require each firm's MD&A to disclose critical accounting policies—those "most important to the portrayal of a company's financial condition ... and require management's most difficult, subjective or complex judgments"—without a limiting number. Perhaps an objective mandate will yet emerge here. But a new disclosure mandate will not restore confidence in the system. Enron's managers concealed the information from their published financials for a reason, after all. What is needed is a third party with the authority to impose the rules. Meanwhile, if reliable boardroom "conscientiousness" is what is needed, the solution is an independently nominated outside director—an outside super monitor. This suggestion figured prominently in policy discussions a decade ago, when it was thought that newly emerging activist investment institutions could find it convenient to pool resources and nominate candidates to the boards of poorly performing, large capitalization firms. Unfortunately, no super monitors have appeared because the collective action problems, which prevent shareholders from coordinating on and investing in their own board candidates persist despite concentration of holdings in institutional hands. We will not see super monitors absent massive federal intervention to change the structure of board election and proxy solicitation. Enron, then, reminds us that the monitoring model assures us of little. It gives only a circumstantial guarantee of good governance because it only requires evidence of a "conscientious," well-informed 224. See Press Release, Securities and Exchange Commission, SEC to Propose New Corporate Disclosure Rules (Feb. 13, 2002) [hereinafter SEC Press Release, Feb. 13, 2002], available at http://www.sec.gov/news/press/2002-22.txt (last visited Mar. 13, 2002). 225. See Ronald J. Gilson & Reinier Kraakman, Reinventing the Outside Director: An Agenda for Institutional Investors, 43 STAN. L. REV. 863, 883-88 (1991); Jeffrey N. Gordon, Institutions as Relational Investors: A New Look at Cumulative Voting, 94 COLUM. L. REV. 124, 133-42 (1994). 226. Perhaps the bottom line message of Enron for corporate governance lies on the contrarian side, with those who suggest that excessive reliance has been placed on the monitoring model. In this view, a majority of outside directors is not the sine qua non of good governance, and enhanced presence of top managers would improve boardroom processes. See Donald C. Langevoort, The Human Nature of Corporate Boards: Law, Norms, and the Unintended Consequences of Independence and Accountability, 89 GEO. L.J. 797, 805-15 (2001). Would a few additional top managers on the board have improved governance at Enron? There is no way to tell. But they hardly could have made things worse. business judgment. The conscientiousness itself is ill-suited to ex post verification. In the alternative, the substance of the business judgment could be reviewed. But we have avoided such strict scrutiny on the sound theory that ex post review of risk taking would have perverse deterrent effects. In the chasm separating the circumstantial guarantee from such an actual guarantee lie untold billions of lost investment dollars, and not only in respect of Enron. It is a cost of capitalism.\textsuperscript{227} With that vision of billions in lost capital we finally encounter the self-regulatory corporate law scheme’s last line of defense, the investors themselves.\textsuperscript{228} When we look at Enron’s shareholders, in particular the institutional shareholders (and the market actors analysts who sell them services), we witness a failure as marked as the failure in Enron’s boardroom. Institutional actors with significant capital stakes, whether debt or equity, have access to top executives. It is their job to ask questions when company disclosures fail to tell a coherent story. We have seen that in Enron’s case a long list of questions needed to be asked. We also have seen that Enron’s public disclosures, although presenting an inadequate picture of the company, provided a basis for asking every question that needed to be asked. Two stand out even without the benefit of hindsight: (1) Just how much contingent liability will be triggered if your stock falls? (2) What percentage of net income would disappear if your SPEs had to be consolidated? The questions\textsuperscript{2} formulation did not require an advanced business degree. \textsuperscript{227}. For a more detailed discussion of the law reform agenda, see Jeffrey N. Gordon, \textit{What Enron Means for the Management and Control of the Modern Business Corporation: Some Initial Reflections}, 69 U. Chi. L. Rev. 1233 (2002). \textsuperscript{228}. The same questions can be asked in respect of Enron’s debtholders: How could they put $8 billion into the company without asking for an explanation about the contingent liabilities alluded to in the MD&A? So as concerns Enron’s largest banks, an agency explanation resonates well: The middle-level bankers in charge of new loans were not about to disrupt relations with a big client. Patrick McGeehan, \textit{2 Early Enron Lenders Didn’t See the End Coming}, N.Y. Times, Jan. 22, 2002, at C1 (quoting Professor Henry Hu). Questions also are arising about conflicts of interest—Enron’s lead banks had an incentive to be accommodating in order to keep up the flow of investment banking business from Enron. There results a revival of discussion about the desirability of the Glass Steagall Act. The foregoing question applies with greater force to the rating agencies, who downgraded Enron only as the house of cards was tumbling. Contingent guarantees are not rocket science. In the wake of the scandal, two agencies have announced plans to speed up their ratings review process. Riva D. Atlas, \textit{Enron Spurs Debt Agencies to Consider Some Changes}, N.Y. Times, Jan. 22, 2002, at C6. For a persuasive argument that the informational quality of ratings has declined in recent years, see Frank Partnoy, \textit{The Siskel and Ebert of Financial Markets?: Two Thumbs Down for the Credit Rating Agencies}, 77 Wash. U. L.Q. 619 (1999). diligent Accounting for Lawyers student who studied Enron’s financials with care ought to be up to the task.\textsuperscript{229} But the questions were not asked. Now, the usual villain at this point is the Wall Street analyst. These actors today are dismissed as mouthpieces for their own firms’ investment bankers—because negative reports destabilize investment banking relationships, negative reports are more and more rarely given.\textsuperscript{230} Certainly, the analysts provided no early warnings in Enron’s case; indeed, many stayed positive even as the collapse went into its late stages.\textsuperscript{231} But the analysts’ reputational stock fell to the floor even before Enron’s common stock. No experienced institutional investor was relying on them.\textsuperscript{232} One might have expected holders of significant blocks of stock to speak up. Enron had such stockholders. Janus Capital Corp. owned five percent of Enron’s outstanding shares in early 2001. In the words of one Janus analyst, Enron epitomized “the opportunistic thinking of the new economy.” Janus managers met repeatedly with Enron’s management and included the SPEs in their questioning. Apparently, they did not also insist on coherent answers. Although Janus sold off its Enron during the period from March to October 2001, it still netted $200 million of losses. “We’ll spend a lot of time internally on our experience with Enron,” said a Janus manager whose fund still had four percent its assets in Enron in April.\textsuperscript{233} Alliance Premier Growth Fund, in contrast, still had 4.1 percent of its assets in Enron at the end of the third quarter of 2001. One of its managers later called Enron a “faith stock”—one of many firms with a large market capitalization and so many moving parts that “nobody knows how they put it together.” \textsuperscript{229} A caveat should be noted. As we have seen, Enron’s disclosures were carefully written so as to communicate that everything was all right, assuming that Enron had integrity. Even so, the questions should occur to an investor with a significant stake and an everyday dose of skepticism. \textsuperscript{230} Enron did investment banking business only with firms whose analysts rated their stock a strong buy. John Schwartz, \textit{Man Who Doubted Enron Enjoys New Recognition}, N.Y. Times, Jan. 21, 2002, at C8. \textsuperscript{231} McTague, \textit{supra} note 77, at 1771. \textsuperscript{232} A small number of independent firms do research companies, for a fee. As Richard Grant put it at the time, congressional committees were examining analysts in connection with the Enron collapse, the real problem is that investors do not care enough about getting independent and unbiased research to pay the price. Alex Berenson, \textit{Washington Wants Wall St. Changes. But How?}, N.Y. Times, Feb. 28, 2002, at C6. \textsuperscript{233} Aaron Lucchetti, \textit{When Bad Stocks Happen to Good Mutual Funds: Enron Could Spark New Attention to Accounting}, Wall St. J., Dec. 13, 2001, at C1. “Shame on me,” says the manager, “for not doing something” about the opaque financials.\textsuperscript{234} Such stories imply that these investment institutions, despite their significant stakes, acted out the archetype of the noise trader, investing on market hyperbole rather than fundamental value.\textsuperscript{235} Such investment behavior is driven by cognitive bias rather than expert monitoring. These investors chase the trend as they build up their stakes. Then, holding significant blocks in a firm with a price earnings ratio of sixty, they appear to have followed what Kahneman and Tversky called the representative heuristic, making predictions by taking a short history or a small set of facts (Enron’s success with electricity trading) and expanding it into a broader picture.\textsuperscript{236} On the downside, some seem to have held on even as the handwriting was on the wall, subjectively assessing the situation by reference to their own sunk costs.\textsuperscript{237} The point is neither that agents of investment institutions always invest foolishly nor that such agents never intervene constructively on the financial side. Rather, the point is that there are surprisingly tight constraints on their utility as a governance check. It seems that even substantial institutional block holding, at least at the five percent level, provides no basis for assuming that the tough questions have been asked and addressed. To find a shareholder who takes on the properties of a super monitor, we presumably need a holder of a bigger block—a twenty-five or thirty percent owner with an inside position or inside agents. One hopes that such an actor, very common in the capital structures of firms on the continent of Europe, would have prevented the fatal excesses of Enron’s managers. But, then, if Enron teaches us anything, it is to question the reasonableness of reliance on any corporate monitor. \textit{B. Enron, Generally Accepted Accounting Principles, and Auditor Independence} In addition to being the largest bankruptcy reorganization in American history (as of December 2, 2001), Enron undoubtedly also \begin{itemize} \item \textsuperscript{234} \textit{Id.} \item \textsuperscript{235} See Andrei Shleifer & Lawrence H. Summers, \textit{The Noise Trader Approach to Finance}, J. ECON. PERSPEC., Spring 1990, at 19, 19-26. \item \textsuperscript{236} Daniel Kahneman & Amos Tversky, \textit{On the Psychology of Prediction}, 80 PSYCHOL. REV. 237 (1973). \item \textsuperscript{237} See Daniel Kahneman & Mark W. Riepe, \textit{Aspects of Investor Psychology}, J. PORTFOLIO MGT., Summer 1998, at 52. \end{itemize} was the biggest audit failure. But, as of this writing, it looks as if the liability provisions of federal securities law may never get the chance to work as contemplated in the case. The auditor, Arthur Andersen, was delivered over to federal prosecutors who avoid attempts to prove criminal violations of complex securities law provisions, preferring wire fraud theories communicable in monosyllabic words. Andersen accordingly was pursued not for its audit performance but for the overtime use of paper shredders at its Houston office in October 2001 as Enron’s condition became critical. Its punishment already has exceeded all expectations as of the time of Enron’s bankruptcy filing. The indictment and conviction of the firm as a whole,\textsuperscript{238} rather than only its Houston office, pushed it toward the edge of collapse as foreign affiliates and audit clients alike promptly deserted it.\textsuperscript{239} Even Enron’s securities plaintiffs have distanced themselves from Andersen. Andersen met the plaintiff class at the settlement table in short order. Apparently, it had determined that no significant protection would be forthcoming from either the pleading barrier erected to private accountant’s liability under the Private Securities Litigation Reform Act of 1995 or from a line of cases holding that, absent a direct financial interest in the client, an auditor’s interest in a reputation for honesty and care makes an allegation of scienter implausible.\textsuperscript{240} Between the egregious nature of the audit breakdown, the documented awareness of questionable accounting at Andersen’s headquarters,\textsuperscript{241} the ex post shredding of Enron-related documents, and subsequent termination of the partner in charge,\textsuperscript{242} the plaintiffs had the smoking gun they needed. But to make it work, Andersen had to survive to fund a settlement. The plaintiffs, watching their deep pocket \textsuperscript{238}. See Kurt Eichenwald, \textit{Andersen Charged with Obstruction in Enron Inquiry}, N.Y. Times, Mar. 15, 2002, at A1. \textsuperscript{239}. They have been welcomed by Andersen’s delighted competitors. See Henny Sender, \textit{Andersen’s Audit-Client Defections Come at Perfect Time for Its Overstaffed Rivals}, Wall St. J., Apr. 4, 2002, at C1. Andersen has been forced to lay off thousands of employees. See Cassell Bryan-Low, \textit{Andersen to Cut 27% of U.S. Staff}, Wall St. J., Apr. 9, 2002, at C24. \textsuperscript{240}. See Section 21(D)(b)(2) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 § 21(D)(b)(2), ch. 404, 48 Stat. 881, 900 (1934). For representative cases, see Melder v. Morris, 27 F.3d 1097, 1103 (5th Cir. 1994); DiLeo v. Ernst & Young, 901 F.2d 624, 629 (7th Cir. 1990); Retsky Family Ltd. P’ship v. Price Waterhouse LLP, No. 97-C-7694, 1998 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 17459 (N.D. Ill. Oct. 21, 1998). \textsuperscript{241}. Jonathan Weil, \textit{Enron’s Auditors Debated Partnership Losses}, Wall St. J., Apr. 3, 2002, at C1. \textsuperscript{242}. Thaddeus Herrick & Alaxi Barrionuevo, \textit{Were Enron, Andersen Too Tightly Knit?}, Wall St. J., Jan. 21, 2002, at C1. shrink with startling rapidity as 2002 unfolded, expanded their list of defendants, reaching out to secondary actors among Enron's banks, underwriters, and contract counterparties. Meanwhile, Andersen's partners staked its survival on a restructuring proposed by Paul Volcker, hastily brought aboard so the firm could avail itself of his reputation for business rectitude. Volcker tried to restore probity to Andersen by having it divest itself of all consulting, going forward as the only large accounting firm performing only the audit function. The palliative turned out to be too little, too late. For present purposes, the more interesting question about Andersen is why, despite the assumption of the securities cases, a firm like Andersen, for which a reputation for probity and care was as necessary as an investment grade credit rating was for Enron, compromise itself in this way? If this reputational interest cannot be relied upon to cause big accounting firms (then five in number, soon to be four) to impose the rules on reporting companies, then significant law reform is required. 1. The Violations Enron's collapse implicates (at least) three important accounting topics: (a) the off-balance sheet treatment of SPEs and equity affiliates, (b) the treatment of contingent obligations, and (c) fair value accounting for derivatives and energy sales contracts. a. SPEs and Equity Affiliates Recall that at the time of its Chapter 11 filing, Enron already had admitted that its financial statements had overstated its earnings due to failure to follow the rules for qualifying SPEs and indefensible, even fraudulent, treatments of SPE transactions. Some of these violations were technical—the failure to meet the three percent requirement with either Chewco or Talon, the LJM1-related SPE. The more serious violations concerned the sham substance of the LJM-related swap transactions. 243. See, e.g., Robert Frank et al., Andersen Cuts Enron Settlement Offer by Half, WALL ST. J., Mar. 20, 2002, at C1. 244. Complaint, In re Enron Corp. Securities Litigation, C.A. No. H-01-3624 (S.D. Tex. Apr. 8, 2002). 245. See, e.g., Devon Spurgeon & Cassell Bryan-Low, Can Andersen Partners Keep Their Firm Alive?, WALL ST. J., Mar. 29, 2002, at C1. 246. POWERS REPORT, supra note 53, at 15-16. Note that the identification of these violations does not by itself state a policy issue for GAAP. The problem could lie only with the audit. To see the difficulty of the substantive question respecting SPEs, consider the fact that Enron had thousands of additional SPEs and equity affiliates. As to these no violations have been identified. Here is the question: Would the consolidation of Chewco, JEDI, and the LJM-related SPEs have resulted in meaningful financials, or did many more affiliated entity financials need to be consolidated for a meaningful picture of Enron to emerge? Let us take the SPEs first. Under SFAS No. 140, issued in 2000, transfers of financial assets to SPEs are treated as sales by the transferor firm so long as, among other things, equity interests in the SPE are not returned as consideration for the assets transferred and the SPE gets control of the assets with the right to pledge or exchange them.\textsuperscript{247} All you have to do is have the SPE vehicle meet the outside equity requirement, and for all that appears at this time, Enron did so with respect to the vast majority of its SPEs. Now let us take up the equity affiliates. These relationships are dealt with under GAAP rules applicable to all parent-subsidiary relationships. These rules are formal; they do not inquire into the substance of control arrangements. Consolidation follows from greater than fifty percent ownership. At fifty percent equity ownership down to twenty percent, accounting is by the equity method, the mode of accounting employed by Enron for its unconsolidated equity affiliates. Under it, there is no consolidation of the investee company. Instead a portion of the income or loss of the investee flows through to the investor’s balance sheet.\textsuperscript{248} (We have seen that Enron’s income statement showed significant added income under this treatment.\textsuperscript{249}) Significantly, vocal dissatisfaction with these rules’ form over substance approach has been expressed within the accounting profession. For twenty years, the Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) has kept open a project inquiring into an alternative approach based on a substantive definition of control. Reporting companies and the big accounting firms, notably including Andersen and Enron,\textsuperscript{250} have vigorously opposed the project, criticizing the \textsuperscript{247} FASB, Summary of JFAS No. 140: Accounting for Transfers and Servicing of Financial Assets and Extinguishments of Liabilities (Sept. 2000). \textsuperscript{248} Michael Diamond et al., \textit{Financial Accounting: Reporting and Analysis} 535-540 (5th ed. 2000). \textsuperscript{249} See supra note 115 and accompanying text. \textsuperscript{250} Glenn R. Simpson, \textit{Power Play: Deals that Took Enron Under Had Many Supporters}, Wall St. J., Apr. 10, 2002, at A1. FASB’s draft rules as unworkable.\textsuperscript{251} The opposition has succeeded and nothing has been done. But, in the wake of Enron, the FASB finally has taken the initiative to push for a revision. The revision will address “strawman” situations where, as with the LJM-related SPEs, a second entity is indirectly controlled by a first entity acting through its agents and a disguised transaction structure. The revision also will visit the question of what constitutes economic substance sufficient to justify treatment as an independent entity.\textsuperscript{252} A minimum ten percent outside equity requirement has been mooted.\textsuperscript{253} Finally, the revision will address equity affiliate situations where party owning fifty percent or less of another entity’s stock as a practical matter exercises control.\textsuperscript{254} Action by FASB is predicted for the second quarter of 2002.\textsuperscript{255} It should be noted that the LJM-related SPEs suffered from an additional infirmity under GAAP. Under SFAS No. 57, contracts between Enron and the LJM-related SPEs were “related party transactions.” These include transactions with a counterparty whose policies are sufficiently influenced by the first party so as to prevent one of the parties from fully pursuing its own interests. Given such a tie, special footnote descriptions of the transactions are required, including dollar amount impacts on reported earnings.\textsuperscript{256} From this it follows that Enron should have disclosed the impact on its earnings of transactions with LJM-related SPEs. A reform suggestion arises from the related party analysis. The financial and regulatory communities have been focusing exclusively on the rules concerning the consolidation of SPE financials. This inquiry is indeed pertinent: Had the SPEs been consolidated, intercompany transactions would have dropped off of both the balance sheet and income statement, with the result that Enron would not have been able to pump up its net earnings with revenues and gains from transactions with SPEs. At the same time, the substantive equivalent of that result could have been achieved through footnote disclosure of \begin{itemize} \item \textsuperscript{251} Steve Burkholder, \textit{Outlook 2002}, 34 Sec. Reg. & L. Rptr. (BNA) 214, 215 (Feb. 4, 2002). \item \textsuperscript{252} Jenkins Testimony, \textit{supra} note 119, at 14-15. \item \textsuperscript{253} Floyd Norris & Joseph Kahn, \textit{Rule Makers Take On Loopholes That Enron Used in Hiding Debt}, N.Y. \textit{Times}, Feb. 14, 2002, at A1. \item \textsuperscript{254} Jenkins Testimony, \textit{supra} note 119, at 14. \item \textsuperscript{255} Burkholder, \textit{supra} note 251, at 216. \item \textsuperscript{256} SFAS No. 57, Related Party Disclosures, ¶¶ 2, 24(f) (Mar. 1982); see also Jenkins Testimony, \textit{supra} note 119, at 16-17. \end{itemize} the earnings impact of SPE transactions.\textsuperscript{257} Arguably, such disclosure should be required whether or not the SPE is dealing with a related party and without regard to the level of outside equity capitalization. Even with a ten percent test, questions will continue to be asked about the independence of SPEs. Finally, so long as the SPE’s debt is nonrecourse to the transferor, a consolidated liabilities statement is not absolutely essential to the fair presentation of the transferor’s financial condition. b. Contingent Obligations In our accounting inquiry up to this point, Enron has violated GAAP only so far as concerns accounting matters restated in its disclosures of October and November 2001—the Phantom Equity Investor, the Watered Stock, the Equity Swaps that Weren’t, and some related transactions. These are significant violations, to be sure. But as we have seen, they did not necessarily implicate the company’s collapse. Part III’s account of Enron’s collapse also suggests a significant accounting problem respecting the $4 billion of equity affiliate guarantees that came out of the woodwork in November. As to these GAAP has a definite rule. To guarantee your equity affiliate’s obligations is to take the disclosure treatment out of the parent-subsidiary or parent-investee context for treatment under the rules on contingent losses. Here the case for disclosure by Enron is clear-cut. Under SFAS No. 5, loss contingencies are divided into three classes: probable, reasonably possible, and remote. Probable losses should be accrued; reasonably possible losses should be disclosed in footnotes with information as to nature and magnitude; remote losses need not be disclosed. There is a separate rule for financial guarantees. Here even if the possibility of loss is remote, there should be footnote disclosure as to nature and amount.\textsuperscript{258} It follows that Enron’s financials \textsuperscript{257} The SEC is suggesting that such disclosures be made in the MD&A. Harvey L. Pitt, \textit{Written Testimony Concerning Accounting and Investor Protection Issues Raised by Enron and Other Public Companies: Before Senate Committee on Banking, Housing and Urban Affairs} 10, available at http://www.sec.gov/news/testimony/032102tshlp.htm (Mar. 21, 2002) [hereinafter Pitt Testimony]. The Dodd-Corzine Bill would mandate stepped-up disclosure respecting transactions with SPEs in SEC filings and require the SEC to make formal recommendations to the FASB respecting consolidation rules. S. 2004, 107th Cong. §§ 301, 303 (2002). \textsuperscript{258} See SFAS No. 5, Accounting for Contingencies ¶ 5 (Mar. 1975): “The Board concludes that disclosure of [guarantees of indebtedness of others and others that in substance have the same characteristic] shall be continued. The disclosure shall include the nature and amount of the guarantee.” \textit{Id.}; see also FASB Interpretation No. 34, Disclosure of Indirect were in violation of GAAP for understating its obligations as guarantor.\textsuperscript{259} A surprisingly strong counterargument may be anticipated. If a loss contingency under a guarantee involved a small number—say $100 million or under respecting Enron’s case in 2000—an auditor would have room to waive disclosure under GAAP’s materiality principle even if disclosure is otherwise required under SFAS No. 5. Accountants take a bright-line approach to materiality. An item impacting pre-tax income less than five percent is clearly immaterial; an item is clearly material only with an impact of ten percent.\textsuperscript{260} Of course $4 billion does not on its face pass the five percent test, even for Enron at its zenith. But suppose we take the $4 billion contingency at a time when Enron’s stock was selling at almost ninety and ask on a prospective basis what the probability is that the guarantees’ triggers will go off. If we were to take a highly confident view of Enron’s future and assert that there was only a one percent chance of triggers keyed to stock prices below fifty going off, then the $4 billion contingency can be discounted by its one percent chance of occurrence to $40 million. That figure is sufficiently small to fly in under the five percent radar so long as pre-tax income exceeds $1.2 billion. Alternatively, with a ten percent discount rate (as was employed in Enron’s financials with respect to an unrelated $2 billion of letters of credit and related obligations\textsuperscript{261}), we get $400 million. Given $100 billion of revenues there remains a basis for argument, if not a particularly strong one. An additional materiality argument can be made. The guarantees did not lie under the same contractual umbrella. They extended across a series of unrelated transactions. Aggressive accountants apply the \textsuperscript{259} Guarantees of Indebtedness of Others (Mar. 1981); Herwitz & Barrett, \textit{supra} note 8, at 617-20. Note that under SFAS No. 140, a separate recourse obligation against the transferor of an asset to an SPE with respect to reimbursement for losses on the underlying portfolio (as opposed to a derivative arrangement) continues to be treated under SFAS No. 5. That is the transferor makes an ongoing assessment of the amount of the loss in its financials rather than adjusting the obligation to fair value and reporting it in income. Ernst & Young, \textit{supra} note 122, at 29. \textsuperscript{260} And therefore were per se misleading for securities law purposes. See Administrative Policy on Financial Statements, Accounting Series Rel. No. 4, 11 Fed. Reg. 10,913 (Sept. 27, 1946), codified in Codification of Financial Reporting Policies § 101, reprinted in 7 Fed. Sec. L. Rep. (CCH) ¶ 72,921 (May 18, 1988). \textsuperscript{261} See \textit{supra} note 181 and accompanying text. materiality principle noncumulatively.\textsuperscript{262} That is, they will take a $500 million contingent obligation in isolation and make a separate materiality determination. Given separate transactions with sufficiently small numbers per transaction, materiality could be deployed as a magic wand to make $4 billion of contingent obligations go away. The materiality defense should not carry the day for several reasons. First, even though the transactions were separate, the trigger terms shared common properties. Thus the separate treatment appears inappropriate; even though the transactions were separate, the triggers gave them a cumulative material effect. Of course, once we cumulate the transactions we still have to discount the probability of occurrence. Assuming ten percent probability we get $400 million, and $400 million is not an insignificant figure compared to Enron’s stated $1.2 billion of earnings for 2000. Second, even without the benefit of hindsight, some of the guarantees’ trigger events were more than ten percent probable. Enron’s stock price rode up to ninety in a bubble stock market in significant part on broadband projections. By the time the 2000 financials were released, broadband was in trouble and the bubble had burst. Third, the inference arises that the guarantees were concealed for the very reason that they had a material bearing on the credit rating on which Enron’s business depended. Finally, the SEC has strongly objected to aggressive applications of the materiality principle by auditors. Among other things, the SEC staff has reminded auditors and registrants that omissions and misstatements should be inspected both individually and in the aggregate to determine whether the financials materially misstate the position and results of the company.\textsuperscript{263} c. Derivatives Accusations respecting Enron’s trading and derivatives operation made after the Chapter 11 filing suggest more extensive problems concerning Enron’s reported earnings. Even if some of these accusations prove to be true, blame will not necessarily devolve on Enron’s auditor, Arthur Andersen. The new rules respecting fair value \textsuperscript{262} The auditor’s work papers should show all immaterial adjustments on one sheet and should include a cumulation. What happens after that is between the partner in charge and the reporting company. \textsuperscript{263} Staff Accounting Bulletin No. 99, 64 Fed. Reg. at 45,150; see also Kenneth C. Fang & Brad Jacobs, \textit{Clarifying and Protecting Materiality Standards in Financial Statements: A Review of SEC Staff Accounting Bulletin 99}, 55 Bus. Law. 1039 (2000). accounting for derivative transactions\textsuperscript{264} and for Enron’s long-term power supply contracts are quite liberal. For example, they permitted Enron to book a present profit based on a projection of power prices ten years in the future.\textsuperscript{265} Soft though the figures may have been, any fault could turn out to lie with the new rules.\textsuperscript{266} Moreover, if Enron’s traders were overstating their profits, it is not automatically the auditor’s fault. Audits entail spot checks, not exhaustive reconstructions of all transactions. The atmosphere of suspicion suggests that the new system of fair value accounting for derivatives and energy contracts may be having perverse effects. The 1990s move to fair value accounting has been viewed as a breakthrough yielding more meaningful financial statements. Mark-to-market treatment came into the system to prevent financial institutions from using off-balance sheet accounting to hide losses in derivatives trading. Now the crisis of confidence triggered by Enron’s collapse reveals a dark side. Absent a trading market, fair value estimates are manipulable. And in a world obsessed with this quarter’s earnings figures, they are very likely to be manipulated upward. Thus does fair value accounting sacrifice objectivity and verifiability, once the bedrocks of GAAP. d. Summary As to the first class of Enron accounting violation, concerning SPE consolidation, welcome improvements to the rules can be expected. But it nonetheless should be noted that the central problem here lay not with the rules themselves but Enron’s failure to follow them. As to the second Enron accounting problem, nondisclosure of contingent liability on SPE and equity affiliate obligations, GAAP does not seem to be in need of repair. Guarantees are supposed to be disclosed fully in footnotes. As to the third problem, movement to fair value accounting needs to be reconsidered. 2. Incentive Incompatibility at Arthur Andersen We already have a case of audit failure here, only its extent remains to ascertained. The question is not whether GAAP was violated, but how a firm with substantial reputational capital staked on \textsuperscript{264}. SFAS No. 133, Accounting for Derivative Instruments and Hedging Activities (June 1998). \textsuperscript{265}. \textit{See} EITF Issue 98-10. \textsuperscript{266}. Norris & Eichenwald, \textit{supra} note 166, at C1. avoiding significant audit failures could have rendered a favorable opinion on the subject financials. Why did Andersen’s audit team not pick up the sham in the swaps that weren’t? Why did they let the watered stock pass? Was there no review of the guaranty contracts? We must await the results of the many investigations for the detailed factual account. A broad brush explanation can be offered presently, however. We turn to Enron’s 2001 proxy statement, which reports $25 million of auditor fees and $27 million of other consulting fees to Andersen.\textsuperscript{267} The sham in the equity swaps might have seemed like less of sham in light of $5.7 million of Andersen consulting billings for advice respecting Chewco and LJM-related transactions.\textsuperscript{268} Enron, in fact, was Andersen’s second biggest client, nationwide. In addition, the top Enron officers in charge of accounting matters were former Andersen accountants. Enron hired away Andersen employees on a routine basis. Meanwhile, numerous Andersen auditors and consultants were permanently posted in offices at Enron. In 1993, Andersen experts had designed Enron’s internal compliance system.\textsuperscript{269} The inference of capture is overwhelming. To protect the flow of consulting fees and the value of their long-term relationship with Enron, Andersen’s auditors permitted actors at Enron to bully them into signing off on dubious financials. Indeed, so cooperative was the Andersen-Enron relationship that no bullying may have been needed. Andersen’s auditors simply mimicked the actions of Enron’s managers. As residents of the Enron tower, they no doubt began to internalize the firm culture, becoming risk-prone. Such assimilation of a risk-prone firm culture is absolutely unacceptable in an auditor. As a primary gatekeeper, the auditor’s job is not to collaborate but to bring an objective check to the managers’ reports. That check should be not only objective but normatively counterbalancing, introducing a conservatism that reins in the risk-prone tendencies of firm culture. The check should also correct results distorted by cognitive bias.\textsuperscript{270} With that accomplished, the information goes to the investment community so that it, rather than the firm’s managers, can make the best possible risk assessment. \textsuperscript{267} Enron Schedule 14A, \textit{supra} note 138, at 13. \textsuperscript{268} Powers Report, \textit{supra} note 53, at 161. \textsuperscript{269} Herrick & Barrionuevo, \textit{supra} note 242, at C1. \textsuperscript{270} Cognitive limitations can impair audit quality even if the auditor has not been captured. See Robert A. Prentice, \textit{The Case of the Irrational Auditor: A Behavioral Insight into Securities Fraud Litigation}, 95 Nw. U. L. Rev. 133, 143-63 (2000). Professor Coffee offers a model of an effective financial gatekeeper that highlights three requisite elements: The gatekeeper must (1) be needed for a legally mandated certification, the accuracy of which is observable by the protected class; (2) be a repeat player with a significant reputational capital staked on proper performance; and (3) be expecting only a nominal fee from any one client.\textsuperscript{271} As the factors weaken, points of flexibility in the statement and application of the rules make it more and more plausible for an auditor to pass on a questionable treatment.\textsuperscript{272} In theory, the auditor’s reputational interest plus a backstop threat of legal liability should import the requisite adverseness to the auditor-client relationship. Until recently, such was the case. In the 1990s, two factors changed. First, as noted above, the liability system was adjusted to make accounting firms less susceptible to liability to private plaintiffs.\textsuperscript{273} Second, Big Five revenues for nonaudit or “management advisory” services grew to fifty percent of total revenues in 2000, where twenty years earlier they had constituted only thirteen percent of total revenues.\textsuperscript{274} The result for Andersen’s relationship with Enron is the third factor in Coffee’s model above ceased to obtain. To get a sense of the degree to which Enron dominated its auditor, step into the shoes of the partners in Andersen’s Houston office on January 1, 2001. The maintenance of good will with Enron’s managers must have held a permanent top spot on their list of priorities. How likely, then, was it that an auditor would dare get in the way of the plans of giants like Lay, Skilling, and Fastow? Indeed, given millions in Andersen billings respecting the SPE set-ups, for an auditor to question the sham would have been to undercut the positions of Andersen superiors. So close was the relationship between Andersen and Enron that the Coffee model’s second factor became compromised—Enron, and not Andersen as a whole, became the primary reputational concern.\textsuperscript{275} Just as Skilling gambled with Enron’s \textsuperscript{271} John C. Coffee, Jr., \textit{The Acquiescent Gatekeeper: Reputational Intermediaries, Auditor Independence, and the Governance of Accounting} 9-10 (2001) (Columbia Law School Center for Law and Economic Studies Working Paper No. 191). \textsuperscript{272} \textit{Id.} \textsuperscript{273} The Big Five firms also lobbied intensively at the state level to assure the passage of statutes recognizing the limited liability partnership. I am indebted to Matthew Barrett for this point. \textsuperscript{274} Coffee, \textit{supra} note 271, at 27. \textsuperscript{275} The term for this phenomenon is “sub goal pursuit.” The leaders of subunits tend toward excess zeal for their units interests at the expense of the larger firm’s interests. John C. Coffee, Jr., \textit{Beyond the Shut-Eyed Sentry: Toward a Theoretical View of Corporate} future in order to make his numbers, Andersen’s Houston office gambled with the reputation of the partnership as a whole in order to maintain the revenue flow from their profit center.\textsuperscript{276} But it also must be noted that Andersen’s central office in Chicago was not a passive participant. Enron’s most aggressive treatments, including LJM-related transactions and MTM practices, were discussed in a meeting between Andersen’s Chicago and Houston offices on February 5, 2001. The participants acknowledged problems. But they ratified the status quo, noting that Enron fees could reach $100 million a year.\textsuperscript{277} 3. Reform The dangers posed to audit quality by the conflict of interest bound up in ancillary consulting arrangements have been widely discussed. The Big Five firms marketed their advisory services very aggressively. They sold tax products having a record of going over the line of legality.\textsuperscript{278} They also marketed SPE arrangements. Significantly, the more aggressive the accounting implicated in the products, the more important it has been that the seller firm also be the auditor. The sales relationship imports a favorable audit. Alternatively, aggressive transactional “products” have been sold by investment bankers complete with opinion letters from Big Five firms opining conformity to GAAP. The letter serves to constrain later objections from an auditor.\textsuperscript{279} Former SEC chair Arthur Levitt made audit quality and auditor independence a primary agenda item in an accounting regulation initiative launched in the late 1990s. He did not achieve what he requested—a per se ban on consulting by auditors.\textsuperscript{280} Influence activity in Washington by the Big Five firms, led by Andersen, prevented that. Instead, amendments to the SEC accounting rules which became \textit{Misconduct and An Effective Legal Response}, 63 VA. L. REV. 1099, 1135 (1977). For an application respecting audits, see Prentice, \textit{supra} note 270, at 184-86. \textsuperscript{276} For a discussion addressed to Andersen as a whole, see Ken Brown & Jonathan Weil, \textit{Questioning the Books: How Andersen’s Embrace of Consulting Altered the Culture of the Auditing Firm}, WALL ST. J., Mar. 12, 2002, at C1. \textsuperscript{277} Internal Arthur Andersen Memorandum, from Michael D. Jones to David B. Duncan (Feb. 6, 2001) (on file with author). \textsuperscript{278} Janet Novack & Laura Saunders, \textit{The Hustling of X Rated Shelters}, FORBES, Dec. 14, 1998, at 198. \textsuperscript{279} “Robert K. Herdman, the SEC’s chief account [has] called for a ban on such letters.” Floyd Norris, \textit{Can Investors Believe Cash Flow Numbers?}, N.Y. TIMES, Feb. 15, 2002, at C1. \textsuperscript{280} Arthur Levitt, Editorial, \textit{Who Audits the Auditors?}, N.Y. TIMES, Jan. 17, 2002, at A29. effective in 2001 prohibited subcategories of nonaudit services—specifically, information systems design and internal audit services. Additional proxy statement disclosures also were required.\textsuperscript{281} A glance at Enron’s 2001 proxy statement shows Enron and Andersen to have been in compliance.\textsuperscript{282} a. Blaming the Rules The Big Five’s first response to Enron was business as usual. Even with his firm’s reputation on the line, Joe Berardino, the managing partner of Arthur Andersen, joined Enron’s officers in pointing fingers elsewhere. The real failure, he said, lay in the accounting rules themselves, which after all permit off-balance sheet financing through SPEs. If something went wrong with Enron’s financials, then the problem lay with the rules, which ought to be rethought, not with Andersen’s audit. Worse, the whole accounting system needs overhauling. Standards get set too slowly. The system’s reliance on historical cost rather than fair value is antiquated in a world needing continuous disclosure for “today’s 24/7 capital markets.”\textsuperscript{283} All of this turned Enron into a mess: Enron disclosed reams of information, including an eight-page Management’s Discussion & Analysis and 16 pages of footnotes in its 2000 annual report. Some analysts studied these, sold short and made profits. But other sophisticated analysts and fund managers have said that, although they were confused, they bought and lost money. We need to fix this problem. We can’t long maintain trust in our capital markets with a financial reporting system that delivers volumes of complex information about what happened in the past, but leaves some investors with limited understanding of what’s happening at the present and what is likely to occur in the future.\textsuperscript{284} Writing about Enron a few days later, SEC Chairman Harvey Pitt made substantially similar observations: We need, he said, to find “solutions instead of scapegoats.” We need current, as opposed to periodic disclosures including trend information; we need evaluative data in addition to historical cost information; and we need faster standard setting within the accounting profession. The SEC, for its \textsuperscript{281} Herwitz & Barrett, \textit{supra} note 8, at 196-98. The new subcategories joined an existing list of prohibited services. \textsuperscript{282} Enron Schedule 14A, \textit{supra} note 138, at 13. \textsuperscript{283} Joe Berardino, Editorial, \textit{Enron: A Wake-Up Call}, WALL ST. J., Dec. 4, 2001, at A18. \textsuperscript{284} \textit{Id}. part, wants to foster a more cooperative environment, in which an auditor could look to the agency as a "hospitable sounding board."\textsuperscript{285} Andersen and the other big accounting firms immediately took up Pitt's offer, sending the agency a joint letter amounting to a challenge. To restore confidence, the SEC should supply "immediate guidance" to public companies respecting disclosure of off-balance sheet transactions, over-the-counter derivative contracts, and related party transactions in time to impact MD&A in 2001 reports. In particular, the SEC should require issuers to provide more details respecting off-balance sheet guarantees, commitments, lease, and debt arrangements which could impact on credit ratings, earnings, cash flow, or stock price.\textsuperscript{286} These reactions from the actors most responsible for the proper operation of the accounting system must be viewed as surprising, at least by anyone who took the time to read Enron's 2000 Annual Report in light of the events of October and November 2001. Few can question that more current value information in financial reports usefully could supplement historical cost figures. But this issue, which has been a focal point of discussion between the accounting profession and business community for some time, only bears on the Enron disaster as a possible exacerbating factor. Enron used fair value accounting to a significant extent. Analysts confused by Enron's MD&A could have been disabused of inaccurate notions about the firm's financial condition with accurate reports of \textit{past} transactions. It is true that openness in the framework of GAAP makes it harder for accounting firms to say no to big clients. But how open is GAAP's framework? Significantly, in the wake of Enron-related stock market reverses of early 2002, commentators began voicing the opposite complaint. The problem with GAAP, they said, is that it presents an exhaustive check-the-box system of rules. The auditors apply the rules mechanically, ignoring the substance of the clients' transactions.\textsuperscript{287} Even Harvey Pitt, distancing himself from his former clients, has chimed in: Present-day accounting standards are cumbersome and offer far too detailed prescriptive requirements for companies and their accountants \begin{itemize} \item Pitt, \textit{supra} note 222, at A18. \item Judith Burns & Michael Schroeder, \textit{Accounting Firms Ask SEC for Post-Enron Guide}, \textit{WALL ST. J.}, Jan. 7, 2002, at A16. \item Steve Liesman, \textit{SEC Accounting Cop's Warning: Playing By Rules May Not Ward Off Fraud Issues}, \textit{WALL ST. J.}, Feb. 12, 2002, at C1; \textit{Leaders: The Lessons from Enron}, \textit{ECONOMIST}, Feb. 9, 2002, at 9. \end{itemize} to follow... We seek to move toward a principles-based set of accounting standards, where mere compliance with technical prescriptions is neither sufficient nor the objective.\textsuperscript{288} From all of this there arises a question: Wherein lies the problem with GAAP—too many rules, as these commentators assert, or too many standards, as the Big Five asserted? The answer is that the problem lies in neither place. There can never be a 100% directive rulebook in accounting anymore than there is in any other regulatory context. Nor can slavish rule application ever be trusted to yield perfect results. There is always a moment of judgment. Accordingly, GAAP, of necessity, mixes rules and standards and always will do so. Meanwhile, if we return to the application of GAAP to the facts of this case in this Article’s previous Part, we see that the rules, applied in good faith, were more than adequate to pick up every material event in the story of Enron’s collapse. Contrary to the Big Five’s assertions, Enron’s auditor did not proceed at the mercy of vague or incoherent rules. Contrary to Mr. Pitt’s assertions, a move to standards solves nothing. Standards only work when the actor authorized to apply them is ready to take responsibility for a judgment call. Why, given a world where neither a commendation of rules nor of standards ever solves a regulatory problem, has the Enron audit failure triggered this bizarre rules versus standards debate? The most plausible answers are denial and avoidance. If GAAP is not fundamentally flawed, then the solution to the Enron problem lies on the enforcement side, where we encounter some highly problematic institutional arrangements. b. Deepening Crisis and Manifest Inadequacy The foregoing back-and-forth between the Big Five and Harvey Pitt occurred before the revelation of document shredding in Andersen’s Houston office and the spectacle of a stock market going south due to a lack of confidence in financial reports. These developments revealed the manifest inadequacy of a strategy of cozy cooperation between the SEC and the Big Five. Something had to be done.\textsuperscript{289} \textsuperscript{288} Pitt Testimony, \textit{supra} note 257, at 5. \textsuperscript{289} The SEC has announced that it will be introducing a series of Enron-related amendments to existing disclosure rules. \textit{See} SEC Press Release, Feb. 13, 2002, \textit{supra} note 224. All are welcome. None address the core problem respecting the audit function. Pitt made the first move, addressing the accounting profession's toothless internal disciplinary structure.\textsuperscript{290} He proposed an independent regulatory body, governed by an independent board, to be effectuated only with the cooperation of the Big Five.\textsuperscript{291} Critics pounced immediately, arguing that too many CPAs would be present in the proposed enforcement structure.\textsuperscript{292} And, indeed, Pitt's proposal did not come close to restoring confidence in the wake of Enron. Given a serious capture problem, there is no assurance that a disciplinary structure with bite will suffice to realign misaligned incentives. After all, the reputational stakes remain very substantial in the absence of a strict regime of professional self-regulation. Yet they did not prevent the Enron audit failure. And so have actors in government and the Big Five been forced to return to Arthur Levitt's agenda. Congress has taken the lead, nothing further of significance having been heard from Mr. Pitt.\textsuperscript{293} Separation between the audit function and consulting can be effected two ways.\textsuperscript{294} The first is a half-way measure under which the auditing firm may not do any consulting for the audit client. Legislation to this effect has been introduced.\textsuperscript{295} In addition, companies are announcing \textsuperscript{290} Coffee, \textit{supra} note 271, at 51. \textsuperscript{291} Schroeder, \textit{supra} note 11, at C1. The suggestion originated with Professor Coffee, although in a much more robust formulation. Coffee, \textit{supra} note 271, at 52. \textsuperscript{292} Diana B. Henriques, \textit{Policing the Accountants With a Watchdog From the Accounting Business}, N.Y. \textit{Times}, Jan. 21, 2002, at A12. The critics claim that the defendants could stall the process until the completion of overlapping litigation and that the absence of subpoena power will disable the enforcers from gathering necessary evidence. To import such power, a statute is needed. \textit{See} Mike McNamee, \textit{Pitt's Accounting Fix Leaves a Lot Broke}, \textit{Bus. Wk.}, Feb. 4, 2002, at 38, 38-39. For a more plausible regulation scheme for the accounting profession, see Dodd-Corzine, S. 2002, 107th Cong. §§ 101-104 (2002). \textsuperscript{293} At one point Pitt said that no issue should be off the table in Enron's wake, implying no opposition to significant regulation of the accounting profession. David Leonhardt, \textit{How Will Washington Read the Signs? The Race Is on For Tougher Regulation of Business}, N.Y. \textit{Times}, Feb. 10, 2002, at MB1. Later he returned to advocacy of the status quo. Pitt Testimony, \textit{supra} note 257, at 25-27. \textsuperscript{294} Lesser governance reforms also have been mooted widely. Under one of these the audit committee would take entire responsibility for auditor selection. This regulation would be welcome. But it would not solve the problem of implied pressure stemming from consulting income: If management dislikes the audit result, it simply channels its consulting business elsewhere. Mandatory rotation of the audit firm would ameliorate this pressure. But the cure would still be partial. In a world with only four large audit firms, all selling the same advice, rotation would not insulate the auditor from pressure to sanction aggressive treatments. \textsuperscript{295} \textit{See} S. 2004, 107th Cong. § 201 (2002) (prohibiting accounting firms from providing management consulting services); Auditor Independence Act of 2002, S. 1896, 107th Cong. (2002) (prohibiting accounting firms from providing management consulting services); H.R. 3693, 107th Cong. (2002) (directing the SEC by rule to prohibit an accountant also providing noncredit services from being treated as independent); new policies of auditor independence.\textsuperscript{296} Either way, there remains a problem. In a limited world of four firms, all selling the same aggressive products, one can still imagine pressure on the auditors to be cooperative. For a return to adversity, a Glass Steagall regime of separation may be necessary. Under this, the big firms would be unbundled and auditing firms would perform only one function. Sensing movement toward the more drastic solution, each of the big firms announced early in 2002 that it had divested itself or would be divesting itself of consulting operations.\textsuperscript{297} At the same time, the firms announced that they will no longer perform internal audit work for their audit clients.\textsuperscript{298} Additional details were conspicuously lacking, however. Did “divestiture” mean 100% separation between the auditing firm and the consulting firm? Or, were the firms’ announcements designed to deflect attention from legislated separation, importing no commitment to permanent (or even present) separation? The latter quickly proved the case. When Andersen, under the ministrations of Paul Volcker, announced that it really was going to turn itself into an audit-only firm, the other four firms promptly separated themselves. Still acting in concert, they announced that they had no similar intentions.\textsuperscript{299} Meanwhile, further significant movement to fair value accounting should be deferred. If the audit system cannot be relied upon to apply cost-basis accounting under a rule of conservatism, it presumptively is unready to apply the more complex and subjective measures implicated by a fair value system. Conservatism and hard numbers are not the disease here. They are the cure. Further movement to fair value measures can await the restoration of confidence in the audit system. It was, after all, fair value treatment that enabled Enron to cover $1.1 billion of losses with swaps that weren’t. \textsuperscript{296} Accountability for Accountants Act of 2002 H.R. 3617, 107th Cong. (2002) (withdrawing benefits of PSLRA from auditors who perform nonaudit functions). \textsuperscript{297} Companies Mull Separation of Auditing, Consulting, WALL ST. J., Feb. 4, 2002, at A6. \textsuperscript{298} Rachel Emma Silverman, Questioning the Books: Deloitte to Separate Consulting Services From Audit Business, WALL ST. J., Feb. 6, 2002, at A8. \textsuperscript{299} Michael Schroeder & Greg Hitt, Questioning the Books: Big Accounting Firms Break Ties With Andersen to Resist Changes, WALL ST. J., Mar. 4, 2002, at A10. 4. Audits and Shareholder Value Maximization Had Arthur Levitt still been the chair of the SEC, we would have heard a very different set of observations in respect of Enron’s collapse than those of Harvey Pitt, described above.$^{300}$ Levitt’s warnings respecting the institutional framework and operations of the accounting system covered most of the salient points in the Enron disclosure disaster—the compromise of auditor independence, the tendency of issuers to manage their net earnings so as to meet analyst’s growth expectations, and material nondisclosures justified under the percentage-based materiality principle. Most of all, Levitt warned that the entire financial community followed perverse short-term incentives: I’m challenging corporate management and Wall Street to re-examine our current environment. I believe we need to embrace nothing less than a cultural change. For corporate managers, remember, the integrity of the numbers in the financial reporting system is directly related to the long-term interests of a corporation. While the temptations are great, and the pressures strong, illusions in numbers are only that—ephemeral, and ultimately self-destructive.$^{301}$ The cultural pathology to which Levitt referred is the culture of shareholder value maximization, aggressively pursued. That culture has changed the nature of the auditor-client relationship. In a free market context it is the managers and not auditors who do the value-creating. The auditors, like the SEC, regulate the free market, and the present environment of value maximization does not easily concede authority to market regulators. In theory, the auditor-client relationship should have a significant adversarial aspect. Management chooses the accounting policies and practices and the auditor conducts a critical review. If management’s choices fall outside the accounting profession’s substantive parameters, the auditor imposes compliance with GAAP, wielding the threat of an unfavorable opinion. In today’s practice context, the threat has become idle. The accounting profession has drifted into the role of friendly service provider, lured by management bribes characterized as $^{300}$ See supra notes 223 and 285 and accompanying text. Ironically, even as Enron was running out of time, Pitt made a peace offer to the accounting profession, taking the occasion to acknowledge with pride his prior representation in private practice of each of the Big Five firms. The terms of this offer went on to inform the incongruous remarks he later made about Enron’s collapse. Harvey L. Pitt, Remarks Before the AICPA Governing Council, available at http://www.sec.gov/news/speech/spch516.htm (Oct. 22, 2001). $^{301}$ Levitt, supra note 221. consultancy fees. When Enron caused everybody to wake up and ask for an enforcer, the accountants at first asked us to hand the regulatory club to someone else. The only entity equipped to pick it up was the government, acting in the guise of exhaustive rulemaker. Thus did the Big Five entreat the SEC to take over the articulation of GAAP, ready to abandon their own profession's historic assumption of responsibility respecting rulemaking. And they requested more than a transfer of the legislative function. They asked for legislation in the form of rules. This is because imposition of a standard implies voluntary analysis and judgment in which imposition of a rule may be ascribed to the rulemaker's will. The request signifies a profession in wretched decline. Harvey Pitt convened our post-Enron odyssey by announcing a search for "solutions" not "scapegoats." But he offered no solutions. The criminal justice system took over and made Andersen the scapegoat. No doubt the remaining Big Four breathed easier at that point, hoping that the storm will pass them by and that the new legislation will leave their consultive gravy trains on the tracks. Their hopes may be rewarded. But only complete separation of auditing from consultancy can restore them to health as a profession. V. CONCLUSION—ENRON AND THE WAY WE LIVE NOW Arthur Levitt's reference to the prevailing culture helps us grasp Enron's meaning for the disclosure system, the regulation of the accounting system, and corporate legal theory. There is nothing new about fraudulent financials, even from repeat players with no immediate plans to skip the jurisdiction. The operative motivations are well-known, and Enron conforms to the pattern: The firm becomes risk-prone, whether it stumbles into an end period or drives itself there in a cultural context in which it loses touch with objective controls. Concealment occurs as it buys time until an external cure relieves its distress. Despite this, there is an aspect of the Enron story shaped by its time and place. Enron and associated actors reenacted these old pathologies on a stage set by the contemporary shareholder value maximization norm. The norm first made the transition from business commentary to business practice in the 1980s. At the time it still had a sharp edge of critique. In those days, managers did not pursue shareholder value maximization. Instead they behaved in risk-averse ways, seeking to make the company bigger and safer whether or not that meant more for the shareholders. Actors in the capital markets imposed the shareholder value norm on unwilling managers through the harsh medicine of the leveraged restructuring and the hostile takeover. Things changed in the 1990s. Managers internalized the norm, building resumes as shareholder value maximizers. Stock options better aligned their incentives with those of the shareholders. They emerged in the risk-neutral posture counseled by financial economics. They unbundled conglomerates and concentrated on core competencies. They laid off excess workers. They took care to divert free cash flow to their shareholders through open market stock repurchases. They took on the challenge of global markets. And they emerged as winners as they did so. The high leverage thought by observers in the 1980s to be the key that unlocked the shareholder value treasure turned out to be unnecessary. Its disappearance seemed to remove a threat that pursuit of shareholder value could have perverse effects. Many observers in the 1980s warned that high leverage meant underinvestment in long-term projects. In the 1990s, with the leverage strategy abandoned, shareholder value maximizing management went forward with its only apparent costs falling on the firm’s disempowered constituents, the employees let go due to relentless cost cutting. But such losers did not matter. Proponents of America’s system of corporate governance took a victory lap on the world stage. As the 1990s progressed, darker colors appeared in the picture. Some began to question whether the fabulous wealth generated through the combination of liberal stock option plans and rising stock prices had its own perverse effects. At the same time, real-world shareholder value maximization came to be acted out in a bubble stock market. The bubble expanded on projections, which, however wild, were built on the same components that imported content to the maximization norm. The norm became a big tent that encompassed both short-term gains in stock prices stemming from the antics of noise traders and the more sober fundamental value maximization precepts of economists, management scientists, and fundamental value investors. Managers came under pressure to satisfy both shareholder value constituencies. But the greater pressure, of course, came from the short-term maximization voice of the marketplace. As managers struggled to make their numbers, they were assisted by the Big Five accounting firms, who aggressively peddled tax shelter and earnings management ruses, termed “products.” Those who saw through the smoke and mirrors and suggested regulation, whether in the self-regulatory system, like the FASB, or in government, like Arthur Levitt, were shouted down and subjected to threats by attack-dog congressmen. It all came to a head with Enron, where pressure to maximize and a culture of winning combined to draw a huge firm into risk-prone decision making. But the story is exceptional in only two respects. First, comes the magnitude of the numbers. Second, comes the giant step Enron's managers took across the line that separates aggressive accounting from securities fraud. Every other critical detail,\textsuperscript{302} including aggressive treatments, auditor capture, and the cognitive biases that facilitated the fatal step to fraud, implicates a well-known business pathology and a concomitant and well-worn regulatory discussion. Meanwhile, three strong lessons emerge from the wreckage. First, Enron collapsed the same way banks routinely collapsed in the days before deposit insurance. It did so because it had largely succeeded in realizing Skilling's vision of becoming a financial institution. Huge financial institutions present special regulatory problems and are subject to special requirements. Enron remained free of such regulation, partly because of the speed of its transition and partly due to its own successful influence activities. Its collapse shows its exemption to have been unjustified. Emerging financial institutions should be brought into the system in the ordinary course. Second, even as additional regulatory implications devolve largely on the auditor, avoiding the rest of the self-regulatory system, this case controverts the often asserted claim that existing regulatory mandates fail the cost-benefit test. Those who make that claim rely on market forces and the self-interest of inside actors who face market discipline to assure providers of outside capital against the existence of shabby shops. That the firm with the seventh largest market capitalization and also the firm that preached market discipline the most loudly turned out to be the shabbiest of shops with the cooperation of outside directors, outside auditors, and institutional investors, highlights the limits on what self-regulation and market incentives can achieve. Sovereign mandate and punishment remain capitalism's bedrock. Third, a century and a half ago, conservatives steeped in the classical economic model of Adam Smith voiced suspicions about the \textsuperscript{302}. To the extent of present public knowledge. accumulation of significant assets within corporate organizations. Only when human beings owned property, they said, could individual interest and moral responsibility work together to keep the use of the property consonant with the interests of society as whole. Corporate ownership subverted market control of private economic power and diluted responsibility amongst the members of a group.\textsuperscript{303} We still hear many voices advocating market control. But we hear it in a fundamentally different context in which corporations, rather than individuals, own the producing assets. For that reason, market controls taken alone cannot possibly assure responsible use of economic power. For the same reason, we should treat with utmost skepticism actors who preach market discipline from positions of safety behind the shields of corporate entities. \textsuperscript{303} James Willard Hurst, The Legitimacy of the Business Corporation in the Law of the United States 1780-1970, at 43, 45, 48 55-57 (1970). ***
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GLOVES - NEW CABRETTA LEATHER GLOVE FEATURES • Cabretta leather for ideal fit and feel • Powerful grip and durability • Lycra insert across knuckles for added flex and comfort • Men’s and Ladies RH & LH • Ladies options: S/M/ML/L WHITE (TBC) See order pad for all codes NEW ALL WEATHER MICROFIBER GLOVE FEATURES • Synthetic leather upper with Lycra inserts • Cabretta leather patch on palm and thumb • Powerful grip and durability • Men’s and Ladies RH & LH • Microfiber • Ladies options: S/M/ML/L WHITE (S0096837) See order pad for all codes LADIES SRIXON BALLMARKER ALL WEATHER GLOVE FEATURES • Synthetic leather upper with Lycra inserts • Cabretta leather patch on palm and thumb • Powerful grip and durability • Black or white, Ladies white/beige • Right and Left-handed • Microfiber • Ladies options: S/M/L WHITE (S010207) BLACK (S0102729) See order pad for all codes MEN LADIES SOFT GOODS - GLOVES - RAIN GLOVES FEATURES • Essential in wet and cold conditions • Tour-proven Microfiber suede palm provides added grip • Quick Dry knit material assures optimum breathability and flexibility BLACK (S0081710) See order pad for all codes HI-BRID GLOVE WHITE S0077676 See order pad for all codes SRIXON JUNIOR BALLMARKER ALL WEATHER FEATURES • Synthetic leather upper with Lycra inserts • Cabretta leather patch on palm and thumb • Powerful grip and durability • White • Left-handed only • Microfiber • S/M/L only RH player WHITE (S0102620) See order pad for all codes ## SOFT GOODS ### TRAVEL GEAR #### SRIXON TRAVEL COVER FEATURES - 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Multi-instrument observations and tracking of a coronal mass ejection front from low to middle corona Oleg Stepanyuk* and Kamen Kozarev Institute of Astronomy and National Astronomical Observatory, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Sofia, Bulgaria Received 15 February 2023 / Accepted 22 December 2023 Abstract—The shape and dynamics of coronal mass ejections (CMEs) vary significantly based on the instrument and wavelength used. This has led to significant debate about the proper definitions of CME/shock fronts, pile-up/compression regions, and core observations in projection in optically thin vs. optically thick emission. Here we present an observational analysis of the evolving shape and kinematics of a large-scale CME that occurred on May 7, 2021 on the eastern limb of the Sun as seen from 1 AU. The eruption was observed continuously, consecutively by the Atmospheric Imaging Assembly (AIA) telescope suite on the Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO), the ground-based COronal Solar Magnetism Observatory (COSMO) K-coronagraph (K-Cor) on Mauna Loa, and the C2 and C3 telescopes of the Large Angle Solar Coronagraph (LASCO) on the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SoHO). We apply the updated multi-instrument version of the recently developed Wavetrack Python suite for automated detection and tracking of coronal eruptive features to evaluate and compare the evolving shape of the CME front as it propagated from the solar surface out to 20 solar radii. Our tool allows tracking features beyond just the leading edge and is an important step towards semi-automatic manufacturing of training sets for training data-driven image segmentation models for solar imaging. Our findings confirm the expected strong connection between EUV waves and CMEs. Our novel, detailed analysis sheds observational light on the details of EUV wave-shock-CME relations that lacking for the gap region between the low and middle corona. Keywords: Coronal mass ejection / Coronal bright front / Feature tracking / Solar eruption 1 Introduction Coronal mass ejections (CMEs) are complex eruptive phenomena in the solar corona, most often comprising of a magnetic flux rope core, wrapped in helical magnetic field lines, piled-up coronal plasma, and one or more shock waves (when the CME propagates faster than the local magnetosonic speed) (Vourlidas et al., 2013). Coronal shocks may also form as blast waves, as a result of the impulsive energy release in flares (Uchida, 1974; Vrsnak et al., 1995). Coronal and interplanetary shocks cause type II radio emission in different wavelength ranges (Wild & McCready, 1950; Uchida, 1968; Cane et al., 1981; Reiner et al., 1999). The first studies of globally propagating waves in the solar atmosphere date back to 1960s when Moreton & Ramsey (1960) and Moreton (1960) observed the phenomena for the first time at the Lockheed Solar Observatory in Burbank and The Sacramento Peak Observatory using time-lapse photography of the solar chromosphere. Uchida (1968) hypothesized that Moreton–Ramsey waves could be the result of a globally propagating shock wave in the solar corona, but available instruments limited the possibility to investigate further for decades. After the launch of the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO) spacecraft, the EUV Imaging Telescope (Delaboussière et al., 1995, EIT) allowed monitoring of the full solar disk in four extreme UV (EUV) channels with a cadence of ~12 min. Using the Running Difference (RD) technique, Thompson et al. (1998) observed for the first time a large-scale wave in the low corona with a bright front with a velocity of ~250 km/s, immediately followed by extended dimmings propagating out from the flaring site. This was the first of many studies of EIT/EUV waves (Veronig et al., 2010; Kozarev et al., 2011; Long et al., 2014). RD images are used routinely to study motions in the outer corona. Their main effect is to remove the bright background intensity and enhance the subtle changes of intensity caused by outward (or inward) proper motions of... The technique involves taking two consecutive images and subtracting the earlier image from the later one. This results in an image that highlights the changes that occurred between the time when the two original images were taken. In solar imaging, this technique is particularly useful for highlighting transient and fast-moving features. A statistical study on the EIT wave velocity had been performed by Klassen et al. (2000). The results show that the velocity varies from 138 to 465 km/s, with an average of 271 km/s. Higher cadence studies (2.5 min) with the Extreme Ultraviolet Imager (EUVI) on board the STEREO spacecraft have shown that the EIT wave velocity can be even smaller than the sound speed in the solar corona. Using the Large Angle Spectroscopic Coronagraph (Brueckner et al., 1995, LASCO) on SOHO, the relationship between EIT (or EUV) waves and CMEs observed in white light was also studied (Tripathi & Raouafi, 2007). In the multiple follow-up studies, these coronal EIT waves appear in EUV as bright fronts propagating across a significant part of the solar disk (Gallagher & Long, 2010; Long et al., 2017). Originally seen as a coronal counterpart of the chromospheric Moreton-Ramsey waves, attempts were made to explain EUV waves within fast-mode linear wave theory. Discrepancies between the observed and theoretical behavior of the phenomena have led to the development of a series of alternative interpretations for global EUV waves. Discussed mechanisms included stretching of magnetic field lines during a solar eruption (Chen et al., 2002), continuous small-scale magnetic reconnection (Attrill et al., 2007), slow-mode magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) waves (Wang et al., 2009). Based on the statistical studies, Biesecker et al. (2002) concluded that EIT waves are more likely to be related to CMEs than to flares. Chen (2006) showed that regardless of the flare magnitude, EIT waves can be observed only if a CME is present. However, there still exists a dispute on the spatial relation between EIT waves and CMEs. The observational gap between the FOVs of EUV imagers and white-light coronagraphs, in particular, has proven a source of confusion and various interpretations. Chen (2009) and Dai et al. (2010) found that the EIT wavefront is co-spatial with the CME frontal loop, whereas Patsourakos et al. (2009) and Veronig et al. (2010) argued that the EIT wavefront is further away from the CME frontal loop. Limited white-light observations below 3 solar radii and projection effects were an obstacle to understanding early CME dynamics. Several techniques have been developed to address the projection effect issue (Mierla et al., 2008; Thernisien et al., 2009; Joshi & Srivastava, 2011; Hutton & Morgan, 2017), but the implementation of such methods for the inner corona (1.0–1.5 solar radii) has been limited. A three-phase CME kinematic profile takes place due to three separate driving forces – Lorentz force, the gravitational force, and the viscous drag force, with the latter arising due to interaction with the ambient solar wind (Webb and Howard, 2012). Thus, CME kinematics shows three phases – an initial rising phase (weakly accelerated motion (Cheng et al., 2020), an impulsive phase, and a residual propagation phase (constant or decreasing speed – (Gopalswamy et al., 2000). The impulsive phase is characterized by rapid acceleration over a short period of time which gives CMEs high velocities (Cheng et al., 2020; Patel et al., 2021). Capturing the acceleration phase occurring at the lower coronal heights presents additional challenges, for numerous reasons: unsuitability of white-light coronagraph observations due to its location (Temmer et al., 2008; Majumdar et al., 2021) and projection effects in measurements in the plane of the sky (Zhang & Dere, 2006; Balmaceda et al., 2018). The launch of the Solar Dynamics Observatory (Pesnell et al., 2012, SDO), and the high-resolution, high-cadence EUV telescope Atmospheric Imaging Assembly (Lemen et al., 2012, AIA), enabled even more detailed studies of the phenomenon (Kozarev et al., 2015) in the lower corona, as well as extensions to modeling conditions for coronal acceleration of solar energetic particles in compressive fronts (Kozarev & Schwadron, 2016; Kozarev et al., 2017, 2019). Higher up, the ground-based COronal Solar Magnetism Observatory’s (Tomczyk et al., 2022, COSMO) K-coronagraph (K-Cor) on Mauna Loa was specifically designed to study the formation and dynamics of coronal mass ejections and the evolution of the density structure of the low corona. It has been used for regular observations of the corona and its activity. Its FOV spans well the EUV-white light observational gap, its main shortcoming being the lower signal-to-noise ratio due to the atmosphere. Nevertheless, this instrument holds much potential for characterizing eruptive features and has even been proposed as a near-real time CME monitoring tool, to be used for forecasting SEPs (St. Cyr et al., 2017). In recent years Machine Learning (ML) methods have become more frequently applied in solar physics. For instance, Szenicer et al. (2019) used a Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) to produce EUV irradiance maps from AIA images. Li & Zhu (2013) proposed a multi-layer model to predict the solar flare based on sequential sunspot data; and (Kim et al., 2019) applied generative adversarial networks (GAN) to generate the magnetic flux distribution of the Sun from SDO/AIA image. Nevertheless, the usage of data-driven approaches for tracking of CME-related phenomena is currently limited due to the insufficiency of training sets. Recently, we proposed a method for smart characterization and tracking of solar eruptive features (Stepanyuk et al., 2022), and have shown its performance on a small set of CME-related phenomena observed with the AIA telescope. One of the purposes of that work was to create a tool that would make preparing CNN training sets a more easy task. Here we extend this concept and present an updated version of the software with multi-instrument observational analysis of the evolving shape and kinematics of a large-scale CME that occurred on May 7, 2021, on the eastern limb of the Sun as seen from 1 AU. The eruption was observed continuously, consecutively by AIA, K-Cor, and the LASCO C2 and C3 telescopes. Most of the existing CME analysis tools focus just on leading edges and fronts ignoring the dynamics of the interior of the CME. Our method addresses this problem, separately allowing us to highlight both the internal development and the leading edges of the features. The paper is structured as follows: We describe the method briefly in Section 2. In Section 3 we describe the various observations. In Section 4 we present an analysis and discussion of the evolution of the eruption based on the multi-wavelength, multi-instrument observations. We provide conclusions in Section 5. 2 Method 2.1 Feature recognition Data from the 193 Å channel of the AIA instrument was used to study the early propagation of the eruption and of the associated EUV front in the lower corona. It was downloaded and processed to level 1.5 using the standard AIA processing pipeline in the Python aiapy library (Barnes et al., 2020). The K-Cor coronagraph records the polarization brightness (pB) formed by Thomson scattering of photospheric light by coronal free electrons. Its field of view spans from 1.05 to 3 solar radii. The nominal recorded images have a size of $1024 \times 1024$ pixels, with 5.6 arcsec/pixel resolution and 15-second cadence. The K-Cor observations used in this work were 2-minute normalizing-radial-graded-filter (Morgan et al., 2006, NRGF) images, which have been processed with the K-Cor standard pipeline, and downloaded from the Mauna Loa Solar Observatory’s web page$^1$. LASCO C2 and C3 level-1 data, calibrated and processed for instrumental response, were obtained using the Sunpy Python library (The SunPy Community et al., 2020). We applied an updated, multi-instrument version of the recently developed Wavetrack code for automated detection and tracking of coronal eruptive features (Stepanyuk et al., 2022) to evaluate and compare the evolving shape of the CME front as it propagated from the solar surface out to 20 solar radii. Initially, the framework performs wavelet decomposition of observational data and applies one or a few filtering techniques to each of the wavelet decomposition levels, with further recomposition and segmentation of the resulting image. The framework follows a modular approach and is built as a set of classes where each class represents one or a few image processing techniques, so that these classes act as building blocks allowing various decomposition and processing configurations and setups, depending on the input image characteristics. The scheme in Figure 2 by Stepanyuk et al. (2022) gives a general overview of the image processing stages with the Wavetrack software. The specific Wavetrack processing for this event goes as follows. Base difference images were obtained by subtracting a base image from each timestep of the image data. Using them allows to enhance the change in intensity, caused by the eruptive front, omit static details, and reduce noise. Base images are created as an average of several (3–5) consecutive timesteps 2–5 min prior to the beginning of the event in each instrument. These were determined by visual inspection. For the AIA instrument only, absolute values of the threshold interval ($-50, 150$) are selected for the purpose of narrowing the image dynamic range. For AIA and LASCO C2/C3 instruments, base difference images were reduced to 8-bit depth, and 16 bits were used for K-Cor instrument. At the next step, base difference images were decomposed with the à trous wavelet technique into a series of scales, with third and fourth wavelet scales chosen for image recomposition for the AIA instrument. To each of the wavelet coefficients, a relative thresholding is applied once more depending on the statistical distribution of the pixel intensities for each of the decomposition levels. Finally, after segmentation of the object masks at each time step they are multiplied by the original data to reveal the intensity of different parts of the object (Stepanyuk et al., 2022) and provide data for the velocity field estimation. More detailed parameters of processing, decomposition, and filtering techniques are given in the examples section of the Wavetrack package$^2$ for the LASCO, K-Cor, and AIA instruments. 2.2 Solar Eruptive Feature Velocity Estimation Velocity maps provide a spatially-resolved depiction of velocities across a feature or region in the plane of the sky, allowing for a clear visualization of how velocities vary from one part of the feature to another. There are a number of velocity field estimation approaches, each with its own precision and sensitivity, and thus expected to perform differently depending on the instrument data characteristics and quality. For this reason, in the new version of the Wavetrack software we implemented Fourier Local Correlation Tracking (FLCT) (Welsch et al., 2004), Horn-Schunk (Horn & Schunck, 1981) and Lukas-Kanade (Lucas & Kanade, 1981) method. In solar physics, the FLCT method has emerged as a popular technique for determining plane-of-sky flows on the Sun’s surface, particularly in active regions (McKenzie, 2013; Su et al., 2013; Lötjen et al., 2016). By tracking the movement of magnetic features in successive solar images, FLCT provides a detailed map of solar surface velocities. This has proven crucial for studying phenomena like the emergence and evolution of sunspots, magnetic reconnection processes, and the dynamics of solar flares. It has also been used for large-scale feature tracking (Telloni et al., 2022) The FLCT method utilizes local correlation tracking combined with a Fourier technique to enhance accuracy and reduce noise. Optical flow is a fundamental concept in computer vision and image processing. It refers to the apparent motion of brightness patterns in the image. A few optical flow methods were added to the Wavetrack package, aiming to provide choice while analyzing data coming from different instruments with varying cadences. The Lucas-Kanade method (Lucas & Kanade, 1981) is a widely used differential method for optical flow estimation developed by Bruce D. Lucas and Takeo Kanade. It assumes the flow is essentially constant in a local neighborhood of the pixel under consideration, and uses the local image gradients and temporal gradients to solve for the optical flow parameters. The method works well for small motions and is more accurate in estimating finer details. The Horn-Schunck Method (Horn & Schunck, 1981) is global in nature, meaning it uses equations based on brightness constancy over the entire image. It introduces a smoothness constraint that penalizes non-smooth flow fields, aiming to capture more global motion. The regularization term (smoothness constraint) makes it robust to noise but can sometimes oversmooth the result, missing finer motion details. Still, there is space for ambiguity when it comes to the discussion on how the velocity of a solar eruptive feature is supposed to be defined. Features like EUV waves, active regions, and to a lesser extent filaments generally change shape as they evolve, while different parts of an object can move with different velocities themselves and pixel intensity values of corresponding regions can vary between cadence steps. $^1$ https://doi.org/10.5065/d69g5jv8 $^2$ https://gitlab.com/iahelio/mosaics/wavetrack That makes it logical to also operate with some general integral quantity, such as the center of an object mass (for more details, see Sect. 4.3). 3 Observations The event on May 07, 2021, began at 18:43 UT with an M3.9-class flare located at [N17,E78] on the solar disk, as reported by the Heliospheric Event Knowledgebase (Hurlburt et al., 2012, HEK). The flare originated in AR 12822, which was turning around the eastern limb as observed from the Earth, and was also the source of the EUV wave. AIA first observed it at 18:55 UT. The EUV front developed into a dome-like shape, similar to many previously reported large-scale EUV waves. Being relatively close to the solar equator, its nose quickly reached the edge of the AIA field of view. The off-limb southern flank of the front was more pronounced and brighter, as was the on-disk signature. The left panel halves in Figure 1 show the EUV wave evolution in base difference images for six epochs, spanning ~8 min. The front was first seen in white light in the K-Cor coronagraph at 18:56 UT, propagating in the east-northeast direction, into a streamer region. It exhibited the same dome-like shape as the EUV feature, but with an uninterrupted front, increasing in thickness with time. Behind the front a dimming region developed, and a small but bright core was visible, possibly the driver. The left panel halves in Figure 2 show the eruptive front in base difference images for six epochs between 19:02 UT and 19:23 UT, when it reached the edge of the K-Cor FOV. In LASCO C2 the eruption was first observed at 19:24 UT off the eastern limb. The CME reached the edge of the C2 FOV at 20:28 UT. Figure 3, left half-panels, shows the integral images at four times, from 19:24 UT to 20:28 UT. The eruption retained its dome-like shape for the first two observations and became distorted already by 19:48 UT, possibly from drag exerted on it by the faster solar wind as it exited the streamer region off the northeastern limb (clearly seen in the integral image at 19:24 UT). In LASCO C3 the CME front first appeared at 19:54 UT. By 20:34 UT a single leading front is no longer visible, similar to the 20:28 UT C2 observation. Over time, the CME divides into a southern and northern feature. This is visible in Figure 4, left half-panels. We follow it until 22:30 UT; by then the sky-projected front of the CME is at nearly half the distance to the edge of the FOV, or approximately 16 solar radii. 4 Analysis 4.1 Wavetrack results We performed separate Wavetrack processing for the AIA, K-Cor, LASCO C2, and LASCO C3 images. The algorithm captures well the large-scale shapes of the observed features. The right sides of the panels in Figures 1–4 showcase the results: fully segmented features colored in yellow and magenta for selected observation epochs, overlaid on the original data in greyscale (with regular or inverted color maps for better contrast). The figures allow direct comparison with the corresponding base difference and integral images for each instrument. The colored feature pixels are the result of pixel-wise multiplying of the final binary masks of Wavetrack with the original integral data of the observations. Thus, they contain the intensity variation of the features. Figure 1 (right half-panels) shows that the feature starts as a typical EUV wave in the AIA low corona FOV: a global dome developing gradually, propagating in all directions from the flare/AR source. In this, it propagated radially outward and to the south, starting from the AR. The front is thinnest in the radial propagation direction, which may be driven. It is better-defined off-limb to the south of the nose, with a significant and long-lasting brightening behind it. This is the predominant non-radial propagation direction. On the solar disk, the EUV wave signature is easily seen propagating away from the flaring AR and matches the off-limb feature position in the south. Unlike the EUV feature, in white light the front retains its early dome-like shape, as it develops in the FOV of K-Cor (Fig. 2, right half-panels). The northern flank is mostly stationary, rooted in the flaring AR. Eventually, the southern flank overtakes and separates from the rest of the feature, as the front opens at the nose. The Wavetrack processing has also captured the driver in the radial direction, shown as a separate small blob in the center of the CME. Further away from the Sun, the LASCO C2 white-light feature is well detected and tracked by Wavetrack (Fig. 3, right half-panels). The dome-like front retains its shape near the nose only until 19:36 UT. After that, only the flanks remain easily discernible. The eruption reaches the edge of the C2 FOV around 20:28 UT. Finally, the eruptive feature is also tracked by Wavetrack in LASCO C3 observations (Fig. 4, right half-panels). The CME is quite different from the initial AIA-observed feature, likely affected by the rapidly changing coronal plasma density and magnetic field, and deformed by the interaction with large-scale coronal structures and the nascent solar wind. The observed feature does not change significantly in shape over the 2.5 h of tracking in the C3 FOV. 4.2 Wavetrack features comparison A significant advantage of the Wavetrack tracking method is its ability to extract the features at different times or between different observing sources, and to compare them directly. We show in Figure 5 the evolution in multi-instrument observations of the May 07, 2021 eruptive front in six panels, which include Wavetrack features from AIA, K-Cor, and LASCO C2, between 18:57 UT and 19:24 UT. The front is not visible in the LASCO C3 observations. The first two epochs (top two panels) only show the AIA features (in green) early on, overlaid on the corresponding integral 193-channel images with an inverted greyscale color map at the same time. The middle panels show K-Cor features (in yellow) added to the AIA features, again overlaid on integral AIA images. The bottom two panels also show the C2 features, while AIA on-disk signatures are included to demonstrate the connection to the off-limb front. By overlaying the features obtained in our method, we can follow closely the CME morphology over time, taking advantage of the availability of K-Cor data that bridges the low corona Figure 4. Same as Figure 1, but for the LASCO C3 coronagraph observations. observational gap. This also allows us to relate directly to the EUV wave and white-light CME. In the standard observational paradigm, the AIA feature should be a compressive MHD wave, while the white-light features from K-Cor and LASCO C2 are expected to show the CME flux rope and core. We find here that while the AIA feature is a classic EUV wave, there is an excellent match between the observed eruptive front in EUV and white-light observations, as seen in Figure 5. Either the EUV feature is related to expanding magnetic loops, or the white-light features are related to a compressive front. We claim the latter occurred in this event, supported by two observational findings. 1) The white-light front in K-Cor is well-defined, and it becomes thicker in time. 2) The flanks of the K-Cor feature, which match well with the LASCO C2 feature flanks, also match very well with the expanding on-disk AIA feature, i.e. the on-disk EUV wave. We thus propose the observed feature in K-Cor is actually a well-defined pile-up compression region behind a compressive or shock wave in the low corona, which has not yet detached. This rare observation thus lends further support to the wave nature of coronal bright EUV fronts. 4.3 Velocity calculation results In addition to the morphology of the May 07, 2021 eruption, we studied its kinematics, projected onto the plane-of-sky. To study the kinematics of the coronal front features in detail, initially we employed the Fourier Local Correlation Tracking (FLCT) method (Welsch et al., 2004; Fisher & Welsch, 2008). When applied to the object mask output of Wavetrack, it produces detailed maps of the instantaneous Figure 5. A comparison of the feature morphologies from the different instruments. Green is AIA, yellow – K-Cor, Purple – LASCO C2. velocity of the object of interest. In this application, initially, we use a freely available Python implementation of the method as a Sunpy-affiliated package.$^3$ The software produces instantaneous plane-of-sky velocities to each data pixel in consecutive images. Specifically, it provides $X$- and $Y$-velocity components, allowing us to show the magnitude and direction of the evolving features in detail – including expansion. In this study, we applied it to the Wavetrack features obtained for each instrument’s observations. More details and various aspects of using FLCT with Wavetrack are described in Stepanyuk et al. (2022). We discuss below the individual results and how they compare among the instruments. Figure 6 shows the FLCT velocities for the AIA feature, for the same six times as Figure 1. Each panel is split in two – on the left, red arrows denote the direction of evolution of the EUV wave. The direction is shown only for a subset of the pixels, in order not to crowd the figure. On the right, the plane-of-sky speeds for each feature pixel are shown in color coding. As expected, the most dynamic parts of the EUV wave have the highest speeds – the northern and southern flanks that expand above the eastern solar limb reach instantaneous speeds of over 500 km/s. The on-disk part of the transient also reaches similar high speeds as it propagates away from the flaring AR. The central and northern on-disk parts of the feature shows lower speeds of up to 400 km/s. The directions of motion within the feature (left half-panels) confirm the extensive southward expansion. $^3$ https://github.com/sunpy/pyflct/ Figure 6. For the same times as in Figure 1, the corresponding FLCT speeds (right half-panels) and the velocity vectors (left half-panels). In Figure 7, we show the FLCT speeds and directions of motion for the K-Cor white-light eruptive feature. As seen in the figure, initially the entire front is expanding with speeds up to 400 km/s, but eventually, the plane of sky speeds of the northern part of the feature is reduced to lower than 200 km/s, and only the southern flank of the feature continues moving with higher speeds. The small driver feature behind it is also moving fast throughout the period of observation. This behavior is consistent with the plane-of-sky velocities in the AIA field of view, though somewhat lower. Figure 8 shows the LASCO C2 speeds as determined by the FLCT method. Initially, the speeds were between 150 and 200 km/s along most of the fronts, but later in the event declined to 100 km/s or less, in this estimation. The tangential expansion was also only evident early in the event, judging by the velocity vectors (left half-panels). We note there is a significant gap between the third and fourth LASCO C2 observation due to a switch in the observing regime. Low-velocity values obtained with the FLCT method can be explained by the effect of sampling cadence. When presented with a relatively low sampling of the data, it is generally found that the simplest differentiation techniques are not applicable (Byrne et al., 2013). In this particular case, additional complexity came from the input data with two consecutive timesteps missing (variable cadence). Control calculations with Wavetrack FLCT showed similar results. To improve the estimation of the velocity field for the LASCO C2 instrument, we applied two other methods for plane-of-sky velocity estimation: the Lukas-Kanade (LK) and Horn-Schunk (HS) algorithms. The LK method provides sufficient detail, however, it also gives similarly low speeds as FLCT, and may suffer from the same issues for the LASCO C2 data. The HS method application is shown in Figure 9. It provides less detail and a more large-scale picture, which in the case of the global C2 observations is acceptable. The application shows that pixels of the most dynamic parts of the features show speeds of 470–850 km/s. Initially, the expansion close to the Sun is the fastest (left panel). Then the leading front near the nose has the highest speeds (shown in the middle panel), but later on (third panel) the southeastern flank is fastest, consistent with significant overexpansion in that direction. The different performance of the velocity methods required additional investigation. We found that the HS results are consistent with records in the CACTus\textsuperscript{4} and CDAW\textsuperscript{5} CME catalogs, which for this CME provide speed estimates of 754 km/s and 625 km/s, respectively, based on the front motion alone. Additionally, we estimated the object velocity by calculating the speed of the center of mass of the C2 Wavetrack features for at least two consecutive time steps. The center of mass is calculated based on pixel coordinates with pixel intensities taken as weights. The feature center of the mass reaches speeds of 900–1100 km/s in the eastern direction for LASCO C2 Instrument data. Thus, we are more confident in the application of the HS algorithm to the C2 features in this event than in the results from the FLCT and LK methods. Finally, Figure 10 shows the LASCO C3 speeds as determined by the FLCT method. We note that the CME speeds have increased farther from the Sun, although the front shape is not visible anymore. Speeds higher than 250 km/s are common in all panels, especially towards the nose and northern/southern expanding “tongues”. This may be due to the solar wind picking... up speed and accelerating the CME, which is apparent in the rapid change of its morphology. There is hardly any lateral expansion of the front of the feature. We also compared the FLCT-estimated speeds over time in AIA and K-Cor instruments. Figure 11 shows distributions over all image pixels of the FLCT-estimated speeds over the eruption duration. Separate panels are shown for each of the two instruments. We calculated normalized pixel distributions for the feature speed values, and show the logarithm of the histogram. In order to compare the histograms calculated for the different total number of pixels in the AIA and K-Cor images, we computed and showed histogram densities rather than total pixel numbers. The color table represents the value of the logarithm of histogram density. Vertical dotted lines denote the observation times. We find overall agreement in the temporal behavior of the speed distributions between AIA and K-Cor. In particular, in both histograms a gradual increase and then a decrease in the histogram density for higher-speed pixels (>200 km/s) is observed ($-5 < \log(\text{density}) < -4$ or green-yellow colors in Fig. 11). LASCO C2 speeds estimated with FLCT are significantly lower, due to issues of the algorithm when presented with a small number of images and a variable cadence, and therefore LASCO data is not included in Figure 11. 5 Conclusions In this work we present a rare continuous observation of the early evolution of a coronal eruptive feature that occurred on May 07, 2021, focusing on its appearance in different wavelengths and instruments. We performed automated detection, tracking, and analysis of an EUV wave and related white light CME front using the SDO/AIA, COSMO K-Cor, LASCO C2, Figure 10. Same as Figure 6, but for the LASCO C3 coronagraph observations. Figure 11. Spectrogram plots showing the plane-of-sky speed distributions for the Wavetrack features estimated with the FLCT method in the four instruments. Time is on the X-axis, speed is the Y-axis, and the color coding represents the logarithm of the histogram density values. and LASCO C3 instruments. The updated Wavetrack method tracks in detail the major dynamic features, allowing to extract the front morphology over time. We find a significant overlap of the front geometry first between the AIA and K-Cor dynamic features, and then between the K-Cor and LASCO C2 features, as tracked by Wavetrack. The angular extent of the features over time is similar between the four instruments throughout the event. Fourier Local Correlation Tracking analysis provided 2D-resolved estimates of the coronal eruption velocities over time and showed an overall consistency between the plane-of-sky speeds of the features in the four instruments – especially between the AIA and K-Cor observations. The estimated feature speeds vary as a function of position along the eruptive front. In regions of strong expansion and propagation early on, speeds reached over 500 km/s. Later in the middle corona, the CME speeds exceed 700 km/s, consistent with CME catalogs. Our findings confirm the expected strong connection between EUV waves and CMEs. Our novel, detailed analysis sheds observational light on the details of EUV wave-shock-CME relations that are lacking for the gap region between the low and middle corona. The significant overlap between the EUV and white-light features signifies that a leading shock wave may not have formed, or yet de-coupled from the CME, this early in the event. We conclude that the white-light front observed in K-Cor and LASCO C2 is the CME’s pile-up compression region. Acknowledgements. This work is supported by the Bulgarian National Science Fund, VIHREN program, under contract KP-06-DV-8/18.12.2019 (MOSAICS project). SDO/AIA data is courtesy of NASA/SDO and the AIA, EVE, and HMI science teams. K-Cor data is courtesy of the Mauna Loa Solar Observatory, operated by the High Altitude Observatory, as part of the National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR). NCAR is supported by the National Science Foundation. The SOHO/LASCO data used here are produced by a consortium of the Naval Research Laboratory (USA), Max-Planck-Institut fuer Aeronomie (Germany), Laboratoire d’Astronomie (France), and the University of Birmingham (UK). 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Theoretical Model to Explain Excess of Quasiparticles in Superconductors Bespalov, Anton; Houzet, Manuel; Meyer, Julia S.; Nazarov, Yuli V. DOI 10.1103/PhysRevLett.117.117002 Publication date 2016 Document Version Final published version Published in Physical Review Letters Citation (APA) Bespalov, A., Houzet, M., Meyer, J. S., & Nazarov, Y. V. (2016). Theoretical Model to Explain Excess of Quasiparticles in Superconductors. Physical Review Letters, 117(11), 1-5. [117002]. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.117.117002 Important note To cite this publication, please use the final published version (if applicable). Please check the document version above. Copyright Other than for strictly personal use, it is not permitted to download, forward or distribute the text or part of it, without the consent of the author(s) and/or copyright holder(s), unless the work is under an open content license such as Creative Commons. Takedown policy Please contact us and provide details if you believe this document breaches copyrights. We will remove access to the work immediately and investigate your claim. This work is downloaded from Delft University of Technology. For technical reasons the number of authors shown on this cover page is limited to a maximum of 10. Theoretical Model to Explain Excess of Quasiparticles in Superconductors Anton Bespalov, Manuel Houzet, and Julia S. Meyer Univ. Grenoble Alpes, INAC-PHELIQS, F-38000 Grenoble, France and CEA, INAC-PHELIQS, F-38000 Grenoble, France Yuli V. Nazarov Kavli Institute of NanoScience, Delft University of Technology, Lorentzweg 1, NL-2628 CJ, Delft, The Netherlands (Received 14 March 2016; published 9 September 2016) Experimentally, the concentration of quasiparticles in gapped superconductors always largely exceeds the equilibrium one at low temperatures. Since these quasiparticles are detrimental for many applications, it is important to understand theoretically the origin of the excess. We demonstrate in detail that the dynamics of quasiparticles localized at spatial fluctuations of the gap edge becomes exponentially slow. This gives rise to the observed excess in the presence of a vanishingly weak nonequilibrium agent. DOI: 10.1103/PhysRevLett.117.117002 Naively, the superconducting gap $\Delta$ should ensure an exponentially small quasiparticle concentration at low temperatures. However, various experiments indicate that a long-lived, nonequilibrium quasiparticle population persists in the superconductor [1–7]. The so-called quasiparticle poisoning [8], whereby an unwanted quasiparticle is trapped in a bound state, is an important factor harming the ideal operation of superconducting devices [9]. Unwanted quasiparticles also forbid tempting perspectives to use Majorana states in superconductors for topologically protected quantum computing [10–12]. The poisoning rates have been quantified [13–17], and much experimental work is directed on protection from poisoning, with important advances in this direction [18–22]. The nonequilibrium quasiparticles are produced by some nonequilibrium agent, which is most likely related to the absorption of electromagnetic irradiation from the high-temperature environment [23] and/or electromagnetic fields applied to the setup in the course of its measurement and operation. Surprisingly, the efforts to reduce the intensity of this nonequilibrium agent are not entirely satisfying: the experiments give a substantial residual quasiparticle concentration, even if all efforts are performed [24,25]. In this Letter, we make a step toward the solution of this long-standing puzzle that impedes the successful implementation of superconducting quantum information processors. We investigate the peculiar dynamics of the annihilation of quasiparticles localized at the spatial fluctuations of the gap edge. Such fluctuations exist in all superconductors owing to inevitable disorder. Importantly, we find that the average distance between the quasiparticles depends only logarithmically on the intensity of the nonequilibrium agent, which is a consequence of the exponential dependence of the annihilation rate on the distance between two quasiparticles. It results in the quasiparticle concentration $$c = \frac{C_p}{(4\pi/3)r^3} \quad \text{with} \quad \frac{r}{r_c} \approx \ln\left(\frac{\bar{\Gamma}}{Ar_c^6}\right),$$ (1) valid at small $A \ll \bar{\Gamma}/r_c^6$ [A more accurate estimate for $r$ is given by Eq. (9)]. Here, $r_c$ is the relevant radius of the localized quasiparticle state to be estimated in detail below: for practical circumstances, it exceeds the superconducting coherence length $\xi_0$ by not more than an order of magnitude. Furthermore, $A$ is the rate of nonequilibrium generation of quasiparticles per unit volume, and $\bar{\Gamma}$ is a material constant characterizing the inelastic quasiparticle relaxation due to electron-phonon interaction. The packing coefficient $C_p \approx 0.605 \pm 0.008$ can be derived from a simple bursting bubbles model outlined below. Equation (1) predicts a substantial concentration of quasiparticles, as well as the inefficiency of efforts to reduce it by shielding the device, consistent with the experimental observations. More work is needed to quantitatively describe the data. Let us outline the derivation of the above relations. The relevant quasiparticles have energies close to the gap edge, and they annihilate by emitting a phonon with energy $\sim 2\Delta$. Assuming the “dirty” limit $\ell' \ll v_F/\Delta$, where $v_F$ is the Fermi velocity, and the phonon wavelength not exceeding the mean free path $\ell'$, we derive a remarkably simple relation for the annihilation rate of two quasiparticles [26] $$\Gamma_{12} = \bar{\Gamma} \int d\mathbf{r} p_1(\mathbf{r})p_2(\mathbf{r}).$$ (2) Here, $p_{1,2}(\mathbf{r})$ are the normalized probability densities to find the quasiparticles 1,2 at position $\mathbf{r}$. Furthermore, we find [26] $\bar{\Gamma} = 24\gamma(\Delta)/(\nu_0\Delta)$, where $\nu_0$ is the normal-metal density of states and $\gamma(\Delta)$ is the normal-metal electron-phonon relaxation rate at energy $\Delta$. For aluminum, this yields $\bar{\Gamma} \simeq 40 \text{ s}^{-1} \mu\text{m}^3$. Equation (2) is valid for localized as well as for delocalized states. For large enough quasiparticle concentrations (in particular, for delocalized states), one can neglect the correlations in their positions. In that case, a simple mean-field calculation [30] shows that the balance between generation of nonequilibrium quasiparticles and their annihilation $A = \tilde{\Gamma} c^2$ results in the nonequilibrium concentration $c = (A/\tilde{\Gamma})^{1/2}$. In this regime, a generation rate $A \approx 4 \times 10^3 \text{ s}^{-1} \mu\text{m}^{-3}$ would thus result in $c \approx 10 \mu\text{m}^{-3}$. However, the annihilation itself reduces the probability for quasiparticles to be close to each other. Therefore, it boosts the nonequilibrium concentration. This effect is most pronounced if the quasiparticles are in localized states and do not move. The description of the quasiparticle bound states is provided in Ref. [31] and has been recently revisited [32] in the context of strongly disordered superconductors. The main results can be summarized as follows. The short-range fluctuations of the pairing potential shift the gap edge $E_g = \Delta - \varepsilon_g$, by $\varepsilon_g \ll \Delta$, and smooth the density of delocalized states on the same scale $\varepsilon_g$. The long-range fluctuations of the pairing potential generate a tail of localized states at energies $E < E_g$. As the typical extent of these localized states is much larger than the correlation length of the pairing potential fluctuations, the latter can be regarded as point correlated, with the two-point correlation function $\langle (\Delta(\mathbf{r})\Delta(\mathbf{r}')) \rangle = (\delta \Delta)^2 \delta(\mathbf{r} - \mathbf{r}')$. The intensity of the fluctuations is conveniently characterized by a dimensionless parameter $F = a_1 (\delta \Delta)^2 / (\Delta^2 \xi_0^3)$, where $a_1 \simeq 0.045$ [33], $\xi_0 = \sqrt{\hbar D / \Delta}$ is the diffusive coherence length, and $D$ is the diffusion constant in the normal metal. For a typical localized state with energy $E < E_g$, the energy distance from the edge $\varepsilon = E_g - E$ is of the order of the typical fluctuation $\delta \Delta / L^{3/2}(\varepsilon)$, on the length scale $L(\varepsilon)$ of this state. The length scale itself depends on energy, $L(\varepsilon) = \xi_0 [2\Delta / (3\varepsilon)]^{1/4}$. From this, one derives the energy scale $\varepsilon_T = F^{4/5} \Delta$ of the exponential tail and the corresponding length scale $L_T = L(\varepsilon_T) \approx 0.90 \xi_0 / F^{1/5}$. Strong disorder would result in $\varepsilon_T, \varepsilon_g \sim \Delta$. However, it is typically not the case in standard superconductors for which $\varepsilon_T \ll \varepsilon_g \ll \Delta$. At $\varepsilon_T \ll \varepsilon \ll \varepsilon_g$, the density of states reaches an exponential asymptotics $$\nu(\varepsilon) = \nu_T (\varepsilon / \varepsilon_T)^{9/8} \exp[-(\varepsilon / \varepsilon_T)^{5/4}],$$ where $\nu_T = a_2 \nu_0 \sqrt{\varepsilon_T \Delta / \varepsilon_g^2}$ and $a_2 \simeq 0.79$ [33], and the most probable shape of the localized state is given by $$p_{LO}(\mathbf{r}) = \frac{f(r/L(\varepsilon))}{2\pi L^3(\varepsilon)} \quad \text{with} \quad f(x) \equiv \frac{\sinh x}{x \cosh^3 x}.$$ Let us consider a quasiparticle generated by a nonequilibrium agent. Typically, its energy is much larger than $\Delta$. However, it loses its energy quickly due to low-energy electron-phonon interactions before annihilating with another quasiparticle. At some stage, the quasiparticle reaches the gap edge and becomes localized at $\varepsilon \simeq \varepsilon_T$. It is important for us to understand that its relaxation does not stop here. One can estimate the number of localized states that overlap with a given state and have a lower energy as $$N(\varepsilon) \equiv L^3(\varepsilon) \int_\varepsilon^\infty d\varepsilon' \nu(\varepsilon') \simeq N_T (\varepsilon / \varepsilon_T)^{1/8} \exp[-(\varepsilon / \varepsilon_T)^{5/4}],$$ with $N_T = (4/5) \nu_T \varepsilon_T L_T^3$. This number is likely to be big at $\varepsilon \simeq \varepsilon_T$, where $N(\varepsilon_T) \sim N_T \sim g \sqrt{\varepsilon_T^3 \Delta / \varepsilon_g} \gg 1$ [34]. Here, $g = \pi \nu_0 \Delta \xi_0^3$ is the number of Cooper pairs in a cube of size $\xi_0$. Thus, the quasiparticle will relax further from these states, and the relaxation stops only at a rather definite energy $\varepsilon_c$ [36] defined by $N(\varepsilon_c) \simeq 1$, $\varepsilon_c \approx \varepsilon_T (\ln N_T)^{4/5}$. Therefore, we come to a rather unexpected conclusion: the quasiparticles end up their random relaxation process at a rather definite radius $r_c \equiv L(\varepsilon_c)/2$, that is, $$r_c \simeq 0.45 \xi_0 (\varepsilon_T / \Delta)^{-1/4} (\ln N_T)^{-1/5},$$ as illustrated in Fig. 1. Taking standard parameters for Al [37], we expect that scale to be only slightly larger than half the coherence length $\xi_0 \approx 100 \text{ nm}$. For instance, taking $\varepsilon_T / \Delta = 10^{-2}$ and $\varepsilon_T / \Delta = 10^{-4}$, we find $r_c \approx \xi_0$ and $3\xi_0$, respectively. Using these results, we can formulate a model of stochastic quasiparticle dynamics [38]. The quasiparticles appear in random points with the rate $A$, keep their positions, and annihilate pairwise with a rate $\Gamma(\mathbf{R})$ that is a function of their mutual distance $\mathbf{R}$. The rate is obtained from Eqs. (2) and (4). Namely, $$\Gamma(\mathbf{R}) = \tilde{\Gamma} \int d\mathbf{r} p_{LO}(\mathbf{r}) p_{LO}(\mathbf{r} + \mathbf{R}) \equiv \tilde{\Gamma} r_c^{-3} g(R/r_c),$$ where ![FIG. 1. The density of states and single quasiparticle relaxation in a superconductor. (a) The density of states is BCS like, except near the gap edge. (b) Near the gap edge, the singularity is rounded at an energy scale $\varepsilon_g$, and a tail of localized states within the gap develops at an energy scale $\varepsilon_T$. (c) The relaxation of a single quasiparticle stops at an energy scale $\varepsilon_c > \varepsilon_T$, where the localized states with lower energy no longer overlap.](image-url) \[ g(2x) = (16\pi \sinh^4 x)^{-1} (3 + 2\sinh^2 x - 3 \cosh x \sinh x / x). \] In particular, $ g(x) \simeq 1/(60\pi) $ at $ x \ll 1 $ and $ g(x) \simeq 1/(2\pi) \exp[-x] $ at $ x \gg 1 $. The behavior of the model is governed by a single dimensionless parameter $ Ar_c^\delta/\bar{\Gamma} $. At large values of this parameter, the typical distance between quasiparticles $ r $ is much smaller than $ r_c $, and correlations are negligible as $ \Gamma(r) \sim \bar{\Gamma} r_c^{-3} $ is constant on that length scale. In this limit, we recover the mean-field result given above $ c = (A/\bar{\Gamma})^{1/2} $, which is independent of $ r_c $ and does not rely on tail states. At small values of the parameter $ Ar_c^\delta/\bar{\Gamma} $, $ r $ is much larger than $ r_c $. In this limit, it can be estimated from the competition of the annihilation rate $ \sim \bar{\Gamma} r_c^{-3} \exp[-r/r_c] $ and the generation rate within the typical volume of a quasiparticle $ \sim Ar^3 $. Thus, $ r \simeq r_c \ln[\bar{\Gamma}/(Ar_c^\delta)] $. Because of the exponential dependence of the annihilation rate on the typical distance, one of the rates prevails over the other completely if the distance is changed by $ \delta r \sim r_c \ll r $. This allows one to introduce a simplified model of bursting bubbles, see Fig. 2. Regardless the details of $ \Gamma(\mathbf{R}) $, we can consider the quasiparticles as spherical bubbles of radius $ r/2 $. If two bubbles overlap, the particles annihilate. This model is easily simulated: we add bubbles to the system at random points. If the added bubble does not overlap with the existing ones, the number of quasiparticles is increased by 1. If there is an overlap, two bubbles burst, decreasing the number by 1. Equilibrium is achieved when these two outcomes happen with equal probabilities. This is the case when the volume covered by spheres of radius $ r $ centered around the quasiparticles equals half of the whole volume. If we rather naively assume that the spheres do not overlap, the volume covered is $ 4\pi r^3/3 $ per quasiparticle and the concentration is $ c = C_p (4\pi r^3/3)^{-1} $ with $ C_p = 0.5 $. In reality, some spheres overlap, so the simulation yields a slightly bigger packing coefficient, see Eq. (1). To improve upon the logarithmic estimation of $ r $, we performed simulations of the full model taking into account the details of $ \Gamma(\mathbf{R}) $ [26]. The stationary concentrations are shown in Fig. 3. In the limit $ \tilde{r} \equiv r/r_c \gg 1 $, the dynamics of the quasiparticle concentration is given by an evolution equation $ \dot{c}(t) = A - \Gamma_{\text{fit}} c(t) $, with the effective asymptotic relaxation rate $ \Gamma_{\text{fit}}(r) = 4\pi/(3C_p)b\bar{\Gamma}r_c^{-3}\tilde{r}^\beta e^{-\tilde{r}} $. Expressing $ c(t) = C_p/[4\pi(\tilde{r}r_c)^3/3] $ and introducing dimensionless time in units of $ 9C_pr_c^3/(4\pi\bar{\Gamma}) $, this equation simplifies to \[ \dot{\tilde{r}} = (Ar_c^\delta/\bar{\Gamma})\tilde{r}^4 - b\tilde{r}^{\beta+1}e^{-\tilde{r}}. \] The parameters $ b $ and $ \beta $ can be obtained by fitting the simulation at small values of $ Ar_c^\delta/\bar{\Gamma} $ with the stationary solution of Eq. (8) determined from \[ Ar_c^\delta/\bar{\Gamma} = b\tilde{r}^{\beta-3}e^{-\tilde{r}} \] that improves the accuracy of Eq. (1). We find $ \beta = 0.41 $ and $ b = 0.008 $ [26]. At larger values of $ Ar_c^\delta/\bar{\Gamma} $, corresponding to $ \tilde{r} \lesssim 3.0 $, the dependence of the concentration crosses over to the square-root law discussed above. ![FIG. 2. Illustration of the bursting bubbles model. Each particle is represented by a bubble with diameter $ r $ (dark gray circles). If a new particle appears centered in the gray area with diameter $ 2r $ (case a, central panel), it immediately annihilates with another particle (left panel). If the particle appears in the white area (case b), it is simply added to the system (right panel).](image) ![FIG. 3. Concentration $ c $ as a function of the generation rate $ A $ for quasiparticles annihilating pairwise with the rate given by Eq. (7) with $ \bar{\Gamma} = 40\text{s}^{-1}/\mu\text{m}^3 $ and several values of the quasiparticle localization radius $ r_c $. The straight line shows the mean-field estimate $ c = \sqrt{A/\bar{\Gamma}} $ for comparison.](image) If the nonequilibrium agent ceases to work $A = 0$, the quasiparticle concentration relaxes very slowly. In particular, Eq. (8) yields the estimate $\tilde{r}(t) \propto \ln(\Gamma t / r_c^2)$. Beyond the logarithmic approximation, the results of the simulation [26] are consistent with those obtained from the stationary solution. Using realistic values for the generation rate, we thus can give accurate estimates of the quasiparticle concentration. In particular, cosmic radiation at the sea level is dominated by muons with energy in the GeV range and a flux of $\sim 1$ min$^{-1}$ cm$^{-2}$ [39]. The stopping power of GeV muons in aluminum is $\sim 1$ MeV cm$^{-1}$ [39]. Assuming an efficient conversion of the deposited energy into quasiparticles [40], we thus find a generation rate $A \sim 10^{-4}$ s$^{-1}$ $\mu$m$^{-3}$ ($\sim 10$ day$^{-1}$ $\mu$m$^{-3}$). At $r_c \sim 0.1$ $\mu$m, it yields a quasiparticle concentration $c \sim 0.01$ $\mu$m$^{-3}$, which is close to the one measured in two recent experiments [6,24], where best efforts were performed in screening electromagnetic radiation. In the above considerations, we have assumed that the annihilation rate does not depend on the spin state of two quasiparticles. This is valid in two cases: (i) the localization radius $r_c$ exceeds the spin-orbit relaxation length, which may be relevant for heavy-atom metals, and (ii) the spin coherence time of an isolated quasiparticle is shorter than the (exponentially long) time scale $\Gamma_{fit}$ for annihilation. In the opposite regimes, the quasiparticles could only annihilate if in a spin-singlet state. To account for the spin structure is a challenging task owing to complex quantum entanglement of the spins of the overlapping quasiparticles that survive the annihilation. As a simplifying description, we considered an extension of the bursting bubbles model in which each bubble is assigned a classical spin Pauli degree of freedom. Whenever two bubbles with opposite spins overlap, they burst. The result of our simulation [26] is an enhanced $C_p \approx 2.19 \pm 0.05$. When spin-flip processes are added, the concentration decreases down to $C_p \approx 0.61$ upon increasing the spin-flip rate, in agreement with the above considerations for the spinless case. The validity of our estimation is limited by a variety of complex factors that can influence the nonequilibrium quasiparticle dynamics in superconductors. In particular, we ignored the possible formation of deep quasiparticle traps at the surface of the superconductor and quasiparticle accumulation in these traps. We also assumed immobile quasiparticles, which is valid in the limit of a vanishing temperature. At finite temperature, the quasiparticles could diffuse owing to inelastic transitions, even if they reside in localized states. This would favor their annihilation, as they would come closer to each other. As a result, the estimate for the concentration given in this Letter is rather an upper bound at a given generation rate. The evaluation of the diffusion of localized quasiparticles, as well as its complex temperature dependence, would be a subject of interesting research that is needed to understand the details of their dynamics. In conclusion, our work provides a crucial element in the understanding of the excess quasiparticles in superconducting devices. The quasiparticles trapped at fluctuations of the gap edge certainly contribute to low-frequency absorption in the bulk. 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Tic-Tac-Toe on a Finite Plane MAUREEN T. CARROLL STEVEN T. DOUGHERTY University of Scranton Scranton, PA 18510 firstname.lastname@example.org email@example.com Everyone knows how to play tic-tac-toe. On an $n \times n$ board, if a player places $n$ of her marks either horizontally, vertically, or diagonally before her opponent can do the same, then she wins the game. What if we keep the rules of the game the same but increase the number of ways to win? For simplicity, any configuration of $n$ marks that produces a win, regardless of whether or not it appears straight, will be called a winning line. For example, we will add the four winning lines shown in Figure 1 when playing on the $3 \times 3$ board. \[ \begin{array}{c\|c} X & X \\ \hline X & \end{array} \quad \begin{array}{c\|c} X & X \\ \hline X & \end{array} \quad \begin{array}{c\|c} X & X \\ \hline X & \end{array} \quad \begin{array}{c\|c} X & X \\ \hline X & \end{array} \] Figure 1 New winning lines for $3 \times 3$ tic-tac-toe This brings the total number of winning lines on this board to twelve. Why did we decide to add these particular lines? If you know the rudiments of finite geometry, you can see that the winning lines are prescribed by the geometry of a finite affine plane. Otherwise, for now you should just notice that every new line contains exactly one mark in each row and each column. You should also notice that these new lines make it more difficult to identify a win here than in the standard game. As you will see, the reason for this complexity is that lines in an affine plane need not appear straight. With this new twist, the game that grew tiresome for us as children is transformed into an interesting, geometrically motivated game. The geometric intuition required to understand finite planes often proves elusive, as our Euclidean-trained minds have preconceived notions of lines and points. The new version of tic-tac-toe helps to develop this intuition. Moreover, this game relates geometric concepts to game-theoretic concepts as the natural question of winning strategies arises. Since more winning lines mean more possible ways to win, one might think that it would be easier to force a win in this new game. Not only is the answer to this question nonintuitive, but the difficulty encountered in providing an answer for the $4 \times 4$ board is surprising. First, we review Latin squares and affine planes, as well as the relationship between them, in order to find the new winning lines. Once you can identify the winning lines, you are ready to play tic-tac-toe on the affine plane. Since projective planes are a natural extension of affine planes, you will also learn to play tic-tac-toe on these planes. You may recall that in the $3 \times 3$ version of tic-tac-toe we played as children, one quickly learns that there is no advantage to being the first player since the game between two skilled players always ends in a draw. While this is the case on many finite planes, we will show that there are planes where the first player holds the advantage. In the event that you are the second player on a plane where a forced draw is possible, we provide a computational method that guarantees a draw. We will also show simple configurations of points that produce a draw with very few points. Squares and planes Consider the 36 officer problem: There are 36 officers, each with one of six rank designations and one of six regiment designations. Can the 36 officers be arranged into six rows and six columns so that each rank and regiment is represented in each row and each column? Leonhard Euler showed this could be done for 9 and 25 officers (try it!), but conjectured correctly that it could not be done for 36 officers. In an attempt to solve this problem he introduced Latin squares [10]. A Latin square of order $n$ is an $n \times n$ matrix with entries from $\mathbb{Z}_n = \{0, 1, 2, \ldots, n-1\}$, where each number occurs exactly once in each row and each column. Examples of Latin squares of orders 2, 3, and 4 are given in Figure 2. \[ \begin{bmatrix} 0 & 1 \\ 1 & 0 \end{bmatrix}, \quad \begin{bmatrix} 0 & 1 & 2 \\ 2 & 0 & 1 \\ 1 & 2 & 0 \end{bmatrix}, \quad \begin{bmatrix} 0 & 1 & 2 \\ 1 & 2 & 0 \\ 2 & 0 & 1 \end{bmatrix} \] \[ \begin{bmatrix} 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 \\ 1 & 0 & 3 & 2 \\ 2 & 3 & 0 & 1 \\ 3 & 2 & 1 & 0 \end{bmatrix}, \quad \begin{bmatrix} 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 \\ 2 & 3 & 0 & 1 \\ 3 & 2 & 1 & 0 \\ 1 & 0 & 3 & 2 \end{bmatrix}, \quad \begin{bmatrix} 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 \\ 3 & 2 & 1 & 0 \\ 1 & 0 & 3 & 2 \\ 2 & 3 & 0 & 1 \end{bmatrix} \] Figure 2 Latin squares of orders 2, 3, and 4 Since it is natural to explain the game of tic-tac-toe on a finite plane by the connection between planes and these squares, we begin with an explanation of Latin squares, affine planes, and the relationship between them. The material presented in this section can be found in any text on affine and projective planes [3, 17]. Readers familiar with these concepts may wish to proceed to the next section. Latin squares $A = [a_{ij}]$ and $B = [b_{ij}]$ are orthogonal if and only if $C = [c_{ij}]$, whose entries are the ordered pairs $c_{ij} = (a_{ij}, b_{ij})$, contains all $n^2$ possible ordered pairs of $\mathbb{Z}_n \times \mathbb{Z}_n$. A collection of Latin squares is mutually orthogonal (MOLS) if and only if each pair is orthogonal. (The Maple command MOLS(p,m,n) produces $n$ MOLS of order $p^m$ when $p$ is prime and $n < p^m$.) In the examples above, the two Latin squares of order 3 are orthogonal, and the three of order 4 are MOLS. Euler’s 36 officer problem asks if it is possible to find a pair of orthogonal Latin squares of order 6, one representing the ranks of the 36 officers and the other representing the regiments. As illustrated by the first Latin square of order 3 in Figure 2, you can easily produce one Latin square of order 6 by continually shifting the elements of your first row to the right by one position and wrapping the leftover elements to the beginning. The proof of the 36 officer problem shows that you cannot produce a second Latin square orthogonal to the first. (Try it!) Exhaustive solutions [19] to this problem, as well as more sophisticated ones [8, 18], can be found in the literature. (Laywine and Mullen [14] offer many interesting questions concerning Latin squares.) The Euclidean plane is an example of an affine plane, and the axioms of affine planes are merely a subset of those from Euclidean geometry. Specifically, an affine plane is a nonempty set of points, $P$, and a nonempty collection of subsets of $P$ (called lines), $L$, that satisfy the following three axioms: 1. through any two distinct points there exists a unique line; 2. if $p$ is a point, $\ell$ is a line, and $p$ is not on line $\ell$, then there exists a unique line, $m$, that passes through $p$ and is parallel to $\ell$, that is, $p \in m$ and $\ell \cap m = \emptyset$; 3. there are at least two points on each line, and there are at least two lines. When $p$ is a point on line $\ell$, we say that $p$ is incident with $\ell$. The Cartesian plane, with points and lines defined as usual, is the example we typically envision when reading this definition. It is an example of an infinite affine plane. Finite affine planes are those with a finite set of points. There is no finite affine plane where $P$ contains exactly one, two, or three points. (Why not? What axiom(s) of affine planes would such situations violate?) The smallest finite affine plane can be given as $P = \{p, q, r, s\}$ and $L = \{\{p, q\}, \{p, r\}, \{p, s\}, \{q, r\}, \{q, s\}, \{r, s\}\}$, which is represented by either of the graphs in Figure 3. Notice that an intersection of line segments does not necessarily indicate the existence of a point in $P$. ![Figure 3](image) Figure 3 Two graphical representations of the affine plane of order 2 Using the given axioms, we invite the reader to reproduce the following elementary results: On a finite affine plane, each line must contain the same number of points and each point is incident with the same number of lines. The number of points on each line is called the order of the plane. This is why the diagrams in Figure 3 are described as the affine plane of order 2. In general, an affine plane of order $n$ has $n$ points on every line, and each point is incident with $n + 1$ lines. For any such plane, $\|P\| = n^2$ and $\|L\| = n^2 + n$. Two lines are parallel if and only if they have no common points, and parallelism is an equivalence relation on the set of lines. A parallel class consists of a line and all the lines parallel to it. An affine plane of order $n$ has $n + 1$ parallel classes, each containing $n$ lines. As another example, Figure 4 shows the affine plane of order 3, where $P = \{a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i\}$ and $L = \{\{a, b, c\}, \{d, e, f\}, \{g, h, i\}, \{a, d, g\}, \{b, e, h\}, \{c, f, i\}, \{a, e, i\}, \{c, e, g\}, \{a, h, f\}, \{g, b, f\}, \{i, b, d\}, \{c, h, d\}\}$. You can see that each line has three points, each point is incident with four lines, $\|P\| = 9$, and $\|L\| = 12$. The lines $\{c, e, g\}$, $\{a, h, f\}$, and $\{i, b, d\}$ are parallel and, therefore, form one of the four parallel classes. ![Figure 4](image) Figure 4 Affine plane of order 3 Although we have seen affine planes of orders 2 and 3, for some orders there is no such plane. In fact, determining which orders of affine planes exist is exceptionally difficult, and remains a largely open problem. It is well known that there are affine planes of order $p^k$ where $p$ is prime and $k \in \mathbb{Z}^+$. (You can read about these in Mellinger’s article in this issue of the MAGAZINE.) This tells us, for example, that there are affine planes of orders 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, and 9. How about 6 and 10? We can answer one of these using the following connection between affine planes and Latin squares: Bose [7] showed that an affine plane of order $n$ exists if and only if there exist $n - 1$ MOLS of order $n$. Using this result, we see that there can be no affine plane of order 6 since the solution to the 36 officer problem shows that there is no pair of orthogonal Latin squares of order 6. The proof of the nonexistence of the plane of order 10 is much more difficult, requiring a great deal of mathematics and an enormous computation to finish the proof. (Lam [13] gives an historical account.) It is not known whether an affine plane of order 12 exists. In fact, it is unknown whether there are any affine planes that do not have prime-power order. Planes of some composite orders, however, are known not to exist (see the Bruck-Ryser Theorem [3]). This connection between affine planes of order $n$ and the $n - 1$ MOLS of order $n$ can be used to find the lines of the plane quite easily. After arranging the $n^2$ points of a finite affine plane in an $n \times n$ grid, we will first identify its $n + 1$ parallel classes, which in turn reveals all of the lines. The $n$ horizontal lines form one parallel class, and the $n$ vertical lines form another. Each of the remaining $n - 1$ parallel classes corresponds to one of the $n - 1$ MOLS as follows: the $i$th line in any parallel class is formed by the positions of symbol $i$ in the corresponding Latin square. (Here, $i = 0, 1, \ldots, n - 1$.) For example, using Figure 4 and the two orthogonal $3 \times 3$ Latin squares in Figure 2, we see that the four parallel classes for the affine plane of order 3 are (i) the horizontal lines $\{ \{a, b, c\}, \{d, e, f\}, \{g, h, i\} \}$, (ii) the vertical lines $\{ \{a, d, g\}, \{b, e, h\}, \{c, f, i\} \}$, (iii) the lines indicated by the first Latin square $\{ \{c, e, g\}, \{a, h, f\}, \{i, b, d\} \}$, and (iv) the lines indicated by the second Latin square $\{ \{g, b, f\}, \{c, h, d\}, \{a, e, i\} \}$. At this point you might notice that the four lines that do not appear to be straight correspond precisely to the winning lines we added to the $3 \times 3$ tic-tac-toe board, as shown in Figure 1. There is one other type of plane on which we will play tic-tac-toe, namely, a finite projective plane. A projective plane is easily constructed from an affine plane of order $n$ by adding $n + 1$ points (the points at infinity) and one line (the line at infinity). The points are added in this way: Each point at infinity must be incident with the $n$ lines of a unique parallel class. (Now you see that $n + 1$ points must be added since there are $n + 1$ parallel classes on the affine plane of order $n$.) The line at infinity, $\ell_\infty$, simply consists of the $n + 1$ points at infinity. For example, the projective plane of order 2 can be constructed from the affine plane of order 2 given in Figure 3 by adding $\ell_\infty = \{a, b, c\}$, as shown in both of the graphs in Figure 5. Here we see point $a$ is added to the parallel lines $\{r, p\}$ and $\{s, q\}$, $b$ is added to the parallel lines $\{r, s\}$ and $\{p, q\}$, and $c$ is added to the parallel lines $\{q, r\}$ and $\{p, s\}$. Figure 5 Two graphical representations of the projective plane of order 2 Of course, we could have discussed projective planes before affine planes. By definition, a projective plane is a nonempty set of points, $P$, and a nonempty set of lines, $L$, that satisfy the following three axioms: (1) any two distinct lines meet in a unique point; (2) any two distinct points have a unique line through them; (3) there are at least three points on each line and there are at least two lines. We invite the reader to reproduce the following elementary results: On a finite projective plane, each line must contain the same number of points. In particular, a projective plane of order $n$ has $n + 1$ points on each line. For any such plane, $\|P\| = \|L\| = n^2 + n + 1$. For example, in Figure 5 we can identify the seven lines of the plane of order 2 as $\{r, p, a\}$, $\{s, q, a\}$, $\{r, s, b\}$, $\{p, q, b\}$, $\{q, r, c\}$, $\{p, s, c\}$, and $\{a, b, c\}$. Since the number of points is not a perfect square, you should notice that we will not be playing tic-tac-toe on an $n \times n$ grid for these planes. Lastly, just as we were able to construct a projective plane from an affine plane, we can do the opposite. Starting with a projective plane of order $n$, removing any line and all of the points with which it is incident forms an affine plane of order $n$. Throughout this work the word plane will refer to either an affine or projective plane. Affine planes of order $n$ will be represented as $\pi_n$, and projective planes as $\Pi_n$. All statements about uniqueness are always understood to mean up to isomorphism. The game A zero-sum game is a game where one player’s loss is a gain for the other player(s). The standard game of tic-tac-toe is a two-player, zero-sum game on a $3 \times 3$ board where players alternately mark one open cell with an $X$ or an $O$. For simplicity, we will refer to player $X$ as Xeno, player $O$ as Ophelia, and assume that Xeno always makes the first move. A player wins by being the first to place three matching marks on a line. If a game is complete and no player has won, the game is a draw. Tic-tac-toe is an example of a game of perfect information since each choice made by each player is known by the other player. Poker is not such a game since players do not reveal their cards. A strategy is an algorithm that directs the next move for a player based on the current state of the board. A winning strategy for Xeno, for example, is a strategy that is guaranteed to produce a win for him. Although there is a best way to play standard tic-tac-toe, there is no winning strategy since each player can guarantee that the other cannot win. In this case, we say that both players have a drawing strategy, that is, an algorithm that leads to a draw. The assumption that both players are knowledgeable and play correctly is a standard game-theoretic assumption called the principle of rationality, that is, at each move, each player will make a choice leading to a state with the greatest utility for that player. We give the following definition for tic-tac-toe on a plane of order $n$. Xeno and Ophelia alternately place their marks on any point of the plane that has not already been labelled. The first player to claim all of the points on a line wins the game. The game is a draw if all points are claimed and neither player has completed a line. In order to show the order of play, we will denote Xeno’s first move as $X_1$, his second move as $X_2$, and so on. Ophelia’s moves are likewise designated. We shall refer to a game as an ordered pair $[(X_1, \ldots, X_s), (O_1, \ldots, O_r)]$ where $r = s - 1$ or $r = s$. A complete game is one that has resulted in a win or a draw. As suggested in the previous section, when playing on $\pi_n$ we will arrange the $n^2$ points in an $n \times n$ grid. In this way, the cells of the standard $n \times n$ tic-tac-toe grid have become the points of $\pi_n$. When Xeno marks an open cell in the grid with his $X$, he is essentially claiming a point on the affine plane. The $n^2 + n$ lines of $\pi_n$ are found in this way: $n$ lines are horizontal, $n$ lines are vertical, and the remaining $n^2 - n$ lines are identified by consulting the $n - 1$ MOLS of order $n$. Remember, each of the MOLS of order $n$ defines $n$ lines (displayed as identical symbols). Since there are $n - 1$ MOLS, each defining $n$ lines, we have our remaining $n(n - 1)$ lines. For example, the game shown on the left in Figure 6 is a win for Xeno on the affine plane of order 3 since $\{X_2, X_3, X_4\}$ forms a line, as can be verified by viewing Figure 4 or consulting the second Latin square of order 3 given in Figure 2. The game on the right is a win for Ophelia on the affine plane of order 4 since $\{O_1, O_3, O_6, O_7\}$ forms a line, as can be verified by consulting the second Latin square of order 4 in Figure 2. \| $X_1$ \| $X_4$ \| \|-------\|-------\| \| $X_3$ \| $O_2$ \| $O_1$ \| \| $O_3$ \| \| $X_2$ \| \| $X_1$ \| $X_2$ \| $O_3$ \| $X_3$ \| \|-------\|-------\|-------\|-------\| \| $O_1$ \| $X_6$ \| $X_4$ \| \| \| $X_7$ \| $O_6$ \| $O_2$ \| $O_5$ \| \| $O_4$ \| $X_5$ \| \| $O_7$ \| Figure 6 Win for Xeno on $\pi_3$ and win for Ophelia on $\pi_4$ Of the many interesting graph-theoretic, game-theoretic, and combinatorial questions this game generates, we will first consider two fundamental questions. Question 1: For which planes are there winning strategies? Question 2: For which planes can play end in a draw? The first question is essentially a game-theoretic question, whereas the second question is fundamentally a geometric question. As regards the first question, in game theory it is known that in a finite two-player game of perfect information, either one player has a winning strategy or both players can force a draw [16]. A “strategy-stealing” argument [4, 5] proved by Hales and Jewett [11] shows that in our case it is Xeno who has a winning strategy when such a strategy exists. To show this, assume that Ophelia has the winning strategy. Let Xeno make a random first move and thereafter follow the winning strategy of Ophelia. Specifically, Xeno plays as if he were Ophelia by pretending that his first move has not been made. If at any stage of the game he has already made the required move, then a random move can be made. Any necessary random moves, including the first, cannot harm him since he is merely claiming another point. This leads Xeno to a win, contradicting the assumption that Ophelia has the winning strategy. (Notice that this argument does not apply to Nim, for example, since a random move may cause the first player to lose.) Hence, in tic-tac-toe either Xeno has a winning strategy or both players have drawing strategies, in which case we say Ophelia can force a draw. If no draws exist, then Xeno is guaranteed to have a winning strategy. However, the existence of draws is not enough to guarantee that Ophelia can force a draw. We discuss the existence of winning strategies for all finite planes in the two sections that follow. Regarding the second question, a draw is possible when there exists a set $T$ of $\lceil \|P\|/2 \rceil$ points such that every line in the plane has points in $T$ and points not in $T$, that is, no line has its points disjoint from $T$ nor contained in $T$. We will determine the planes in which play can end in a draw in the following two sections. Of course, knowing that a draw exists does not explain how Ophelia can force the draw. To this end, we give a computational method guaranteed to produce a draw in the section on weight functions, and we describe simple configurations of draws in the last section of the paper. Planes of small order There is a unique affine plane of order 2; in it each line has two points, as represented in Figure 3. Xeno has a trivial winning strategy when playing tic-tac-toe on this plane. Namely, if $X_1$ and $O_1$ are chosen arbitrarily, then $X_2$ produces a win for Xeno with the line containing $X_1$ and $X_2$, regardless of its placement. Hence, Xeno wins merely by being the first player, and a draw is not possible since any two points form a line. There is a unique projective plane of order 2; as represented in Figure 5, each line has three points. Xeno has a winning strategy when playing on this plane as well. Namely, if $X_1$ and $O_1$ are chosen arbitrarily, then he chooses $X_2$ to be any point not on the line containing $X_1$ and $O_1$. Since there is a line between any two points, $O_2$ must be placed on the line containing $X_1$ and $X_2$ (otherwise Xeno wins on his next move). He chooses $X_3$ to be the point on the line containing $O_1$ and $O_2$. Then Ophelia must block either the line containing $X_1$ and $X_3$ or the line containing $X_2$ and $X_3$ (it is a simple matter to see that Ophelia does not already have these lines blocked). Xeno wins on his next move when he completes the line that $O_3$ did not block. Even if the principle of rationality is violated and Xeno purposely chooses a point unwisely, a draw is not possible on $\Pi_2$. Any four points on $\Pi_2$, no three of which are collinear, form an object called a hyperoval, and the complement of this hyperoval is a line. Hence, there does not exist a set $T \subset P$ with $\|T\| = 4$ such that $T$ and its complement intersect each line. There is a unique affine plane of order 3. As shown in Figure 4, each line has three points. The winning strategy for Xeno on this plane is identical to the winning strategy on $\Pi_2$. (It is interesting to note that playing on this plane is the same as playing on a torus version of tic-tac-toe [20].) If the principle of rationality is violated then the game could end in a win for Ophelia, but a draw is impossible since there are no draws on $\pi_3$. To show this, assume that a draw is possible and let $T$ be a set of five points that meets each line in $L$ without containing any line completely. Let $\ell_1$, $\ell_2$, and $\ell_3$ be the three lines of one of the parallel classes of $\pi_3$. Without loss of generality, assume $T$ meets both $\ell_1$ and $\ell_3$ at two points and $\ell_2$ at one point. Let $T$ meet $\ell_1$ at points $x$ and $y$, and $\ell_2$ at point $z$. The line between $x$ and $z$ intersects $\ell_3$, say at $p$. The line between $y$ and $z$ also intersects $\ell_3$, say at $q$. Notice that both of these lines go through $z$, and $\ell_3$ is not parallel to either of these lines. Therefore, we have $p \neq q$ since no two lines intersect in more than one point. Since $T$ intersects $\ell_3$ in two points, if $p$ is not in $T$ then $q$ must be in $T$. So, either line $\{x, z, p\}$ or $\{y, z, q\}$ is in $T$, which contradicts our assumption of the existence of a draw. The following theorem summarizes our discussion of the analysis of play on the planes of small order. Theorem. Xeno has a winning strategy on $\pi_2$, $\pi_3$, and $\Pi_2$, and no draw is possible on these planes. Weight functions and planes of larger order When we venture beyond the planes of small order the complexity of the game increases dramatically. The additional points and lines generate a far greater number of possible moves for each player. This prevents an easy move-by-move analysis as we did in the previous section. This is where Erdős comes to our rescue. The two theorems that follow are special cases of a result of Erdős and Selfridge [9] that specifies conditions under which the second player can force a draw in many positional games. Our proofs are a modification of the proof of the Erdős and Selfridge theorem given by Lu [15]. To analyze the game on any plane of order $n$, we need a way to evaluate the state of the game at any point during play. It would be helpful to assign a number that in some way measures the utility of the state of the game for one of the players. To do this, we define functions that assign values to the state of the game when Ophelia is about to make her $i$th move. In order to choose the position for $O_i$ from the unclaimed points remaining, she may first wish to consider which line has the best available point. Keep in mind that Ophelia forces a draw if she places one of her marks on every line, thereby blocking every possible winning line for Xeno. So, any line that Ophelia has already blocked can be removed from consideration. Of the unblocked lines remaining, it is most important for Ophelia to block lines with the largest number of Xeno’s marks. If we define the value, or weight, of an unblocked line to be $2^{-u}$, where $u$ is the number of available points on that line, then the lines of greater weight are precisely those with more of Xeno’s marks, and are therefore urgent for Ophelia to block. As Ophelia is about to make her $i$th move, the weight of the game is defined as the sum of the weights of the unblocked lines. The weight of an available point is the sum of the weights of any unblocked lines incident with the point. Lastly, the weight of a pair of available points on an unblocked line is the weight of the line through these points. To give formulas to match these descriptions, we need some notation. Assume that the current state of play is $[(X_1, \ldots, X_i), (O_1, \ldots, O_{i-1})]$ and that $L$ represents the set of lines. Let $L_i$ be the collection of all lines not blocked by Ophelia at the $i$th move for Ophelia, with all of the points previously marked by Xeno deleted, that is, $L_i = \{\ell - \{X_1, \ldots, X_i\} \mid \ell \in L, \ell \cap \{O_1, \ldots, O_{i-1}\} = \emptyset\}$. So, $L_i$ contains lines or subsets of lines that have not been blocked by Ophelia. We will let $L_\infty$ denote the collection when no more moves can be made, that is, the game has ended in a win or a draw. We use $\infty$ rather than a particular number as the number of these collections depends on both the order of the plane and the progress of play. Let $P_i = P - \{X_1, \ldots, X_i, O_1, \ldots, O_{i-1}\}$, the set of points available to Ophelia at move $O_i$. With this notation, the weight of the game is $$w(L_i) = \sum_{s \in L_i} 2^{-\|s\|}.$$ For $p, q \in P_i$, the weight of an available point $q$ and the weight of an available pair $\{p, q\}$ are $$w(q \mid L_i) = \sum_{s \in L_i, q \in s} 2^{-\|s\|} \quad \text{and} \quad w(p, q \mid L_i) = 2^{-\|s\|}, \quad \text{where} \quad \{p, q\} \subseteq s \in L_i.$$ Let’s compute examples of these various weights, using the game played on $\pi_3$ as shown on the left in Figure 6. Here, $L_1$ consists of eight lines of cardinality 3 and four partial lines of cardinality 2 (since $X_1$ has been removed), giving $w(L_1) = 4 \cdot 2^{-2} + 8 \cdot 2^{-3}$. For $L_2$ the state of the game is $[(X_1, X_2), (O_1)]$, and we eliminate the four lines through $O_1$ from consideration. Thus, $L_2$ consists of three lines of cardinality 3, four partial lines of cardinality 2, and one of cardinality 1, giving $w(L_2) = 2^{-1} + 4 \cdot 2^{-2} + 3 \cdot 2^{-3}$. Since there are four lines through any point on $\pi_3$, we see that $w(O_1 \mid L_1) = w(X_2 \mid L_1) = 2^{-2} + 3 \cdot 2^{-3}$. Also, $w(X_2, O_1 \mid L_1) = 2^{-3}$. Continuing this example, for $L_3$ the state of the game is $[(X_1, X_2, X_3), (O_1, O_2)]$, and we eliminate the seven lines through $O_1$ or $O_2$ from consideration. We have $w(L_3) = 2 \cdot 2^{-1} + 3 \cdot 2^{-2}$, $w(O_2 \mid L_2) = 2^{-1} + 2 \cdot 2^{-3}$, $w(X_3 \mid L_2) = 2 \cdot 2^{-2} + 2^{-3}$, and $w(X_3, O_2 \mid L_2) = 0$. Consider the difference in weights between two successive states of the game, $w(L_i) - w(L_{i+1})$. The only change between $L_i$ and $L_{i+1}$ is that Ophelia’s $i$th move and Xeno’s $(i+1)$st move have been made. So, the weights of any lines that do not contain $O_i$ and $X_{i+1}$ do not change and will therefore cancel each other out. With only the lines through these two points remaining, the weights of the lines through $X_{i+1}$ must be subtracted from the weights of the lines through $O_i$ in order to find $w(L_i) - w(L_{i+1})$. Since this eliminates the weight of the line that passes through both points, the weight of this line must be added back. Thus, it can be seen that $$w(L_i) - w(L_{i+1}) = w(O_i \mid L_i) - w(X_{i+1} \mid L_i) + w(X_{i+1}, O_i \mid L_i). \quad (1)$$ The examples given above can be used to demonstrate (1) when $i = 1$ and $i = 2$. These weight functions enable us to check if we have a draw at any stage of play. First notice that if $\emptyset \in L_i$, then $w(L_i) \geq 2^{-0} = 1$, Xeno has completed a line and thus, has won. On the other hand, if $w(L_i) < 1$ then $\emptyset \notin L_i$, and Xeno has not completed a line. Also, notice that if $w(L_\infty) < 1$ then $\emptyset \notin L_\infty$ and there is a draw. Moreover, these weight functions provide strategies for Xeno and Ophelia that will help us determine the outcome of play on all planes of higher order. Namely, Xeno should minimize $w(L_i) - w(L_{i+1})$ in an attempt to keep the weight of $L_j$, at any stage $j$ of the game, above 1, whereas Ophelia should maximize this difference in order to drag the overall weight below 1. Hence, by equation (1), Ophelia chooses $O_i$ by maximizing $w(O_i \mid L_i)$, and Xeno chooses $X_{i+1}$ by maximizing $w(X_{i+1} \mid L_i) - w(X_{i+1}, O_i \mid L_i)$. The power and utility of these weight functions is demonstrated in the proof of the following theorem, where the drawing strategy for Ophelia is specified for infinitely many projective planes. Draw Theorem for $\Pi_n$. Ophelia can force a draw on every projective plane of order $n$ with $n \geq 3$. Proof. To prove that Ophelia can force a draw, we must produce an algorithm that prescribes Ophelia’s move at any point in the game, and then show that this strategy leads to a draw. As noted above, if $w(L_\infty) < 1$ then Ophelia has forced a draw. This is equivalent to showing two conditions: (i) There exists $N$, where $1 \leq N < \infty$, such that $w(L_N) < 1$ and (ii) $w(L_{i+1}) \leq w(L_i)$ for all $i \geq N$. Suppose that the current state of play is $[(X_1, \ldots, X_i), (O_1, \ldots, O_{i-1})]$, and Ophelia must make her $i$th move. Since the weight functions assign more weight to lines on which Xeno is closer to winning, Ophelia should choose a point of maximal weight. So, choose $O_i \in P_i$ such that $w(O_i \mid L_i) = \max\{w(q \mid L_i) : q \in P_i\}$. By the choice of $O_i$ and (1), we see that the second condition is always satisfied since $w(O_i \mid L_i) \geq w(X_{i+1} \mid L_i)$. For a projective plane of order $n$, $L_1$ consists of $n + 1$ partial lines of cardinality $n$ (once $X_1$ is removed) and $(n^2 + n + 1) - (n + 1)$ lines of cardinality $n + 1$. So, we have $$w(L_1) = \sum_{i=1}^{n+1} 2^{-n} + \sum_{i=1}^{n^2} 2^{-(n+1)} = \frac{n^2 + 2n + 2}{2^{n+1}}.$$ We see that $w(L_1) < 1$ when $n \geq 4$. Thus, Ophelia forces a draw on the projective planes of order $n \geq 4$ by choosing a point of maximum weight at every stage of the game. For the projective plane of order 3, recall that there are 13 lines with 4 points on each line, and 4 lines through each point. We calculate $w(L_3)$ after providing the strategy for Ophelia’s first two moves. Suppose $X_1$ and $O_1$ are placed arbitrarily. Xeno places $X_2$ anywhere. If $O_1$ is already on the line containing $X_1$ and $X_2$, then $O_2$ should not be placed on this line. If $O_1$ is not on the line containing $X_1$ and $X_2$, then $O_2$ should be placed on this line. In either case, the configuration before move $X_3$ is represented by Figure 7. ![Figure 7](image) Figure 7 Configuration of $[(X_1, X_2), (O_1, O_2)]$ on $\Pi_3$ Xeno can place $X_3$ anywhere, leaving only four possible configurations of points, as represented in Figure 8. As long as $w(L_3) < 1$ in each case, then Ophelia has forced a draw. ![Figure 8](image) Figure 8 Possible configurations for $[(X_1, X_2, X_3), (O_1, O_2)]$ on $\Pi_3$ To calculate $w(L_3)$, in all four cases we start by eliminating the four lines containing $O_1$ and the remaining three lines containing $O_2$. Once these seven lines are eliminated from consideration, there are only six lines remaining to be included in the weight function. Case (a): There are two partial lines through $X_1$ of cardinality 3. There is one partial line of cardinality 3 through $X_2$, and one partial line through $X_2$ and $X_3$ of cardinality 2. Through $X_3$ there is one remaining line of cardinality 3. Since only 12 out of 13 lines have been considered, there is one line of cardinality 4 remaining. This gives $w(L_3) = 2^{-2} + 4 \cdot 2^{-3} + 2^{-4} = 13/16$. Case (b): There is one partial line through $X_1$ of cardinality 3, and one partial line through $X_1$ and $X_3$ of cardinality 2. The same holds for $X_2$. All lines through $X_3$ have been considered. Since only 11 of the 13 lines have been considered, there are two lines of cardinality 4 remaining. This gives $w(L_3) = 2 \cdot 2^{-2} + 2 \cdot 2^{-3} + 2 \cdot 2^{-4} = 14/16$. Case (c): Using similar reasoning, we can show $w(L_3) = 6 \cdot 2^{-3} = 6/8$. Case (d): Likewise, we have $w(L_3) = 2 \cdot 2^{-2} + 3 \cdot 2^{-3} + 2^{-4} = 15/16$. In all possible cases we have $w(L_3) < 1$. Thus, Ophelia can force a draw on $\Pi_3$. Draws on affine planes Using the same technique, we can give the drawing strategy for Ophelia on infinitely many affine planes. For an affine plane of order $n$, $L_1$ consists of $n + 1$ partial lines of cardinality $n - 1$ (once $X_1$ is removed) and $(n^2 + n) - (n + 1)$ lines of cardinality $n$. So, we have \[ w(L_1) = \sum_{i=1}^{n+1} 2^{-(n-1)} + \sum_{i=1}^{n^2-1} 2^{-n} = \frac{n^2 + 2n + 1}{2^n}. \] We see that $ w(L_1) < 1 $ when $ n \geq 6 $. Following the same argument as given in the previous proof, we see that Ophelia can force a draw on the affine planes of order $ n \geq 7 $ (since there is no such plane of order 6). The only affine planes remaining are $ \pi_4 $ and $ \pi_5 $. It is interesting to note that we found greater difficulty determining the outcome of play on $ \Pi_3 $, $ \pi_4 $, and $ \pi_5 $ than on planes of higher order. While we were able to determine the outcome of play on $ \Pi_3 $ by performing calculations for all possible outcomes by hand, the unsuspected complexity of play on $ \pi_4 $ and $ \pi_5 $ lent itself to analysis by computer. Ophelia’s drawing strategy for $ \pi_5 $ is the same as that given for $ \Pi_3 $. The initial configurations are identical to the cases shown in Figure 8, and the weight functions for each case can be calculated as demonstrated in the previous proof. However, in $ \pi_5 $ some of these cases produced too many subcases to be calculated by hand, and a computer was used to verify that $ w(L_i) $ was eventually less than 1. The following theorem summarizes these results. Draw Theorem for $ \pi_n $: Ophelia can force a draw on every affine plane of order $ n $ with $ n \geq 5 $. There is only one plane left to consider. What happens on the affine plane of order 4? The following game shows that draws exist on $ \pi_4 $. \[ \begin{array}{c\|c\|c\|c} X & O & X & X \\ \hline O & X & O & O \\ \hline X & O & X & X \\ \hline O & X & O & O \\ \end{array} \] Since we had no examples of a plane for which a winning strategy and draws coexisted, it was natural to expect that Ophelia could force a draw. To our surprise, three independent computer algorithms show that Xeno has a winning strategy on this plane. The first two programs, written by students J. Yazinski and A. Insogna (University of Scranton), use a tree searching algorithm. The third program, written by I. Wanless (Oxford University), checks all possible games up to isomorphism. Thus, the affine plane of order 4 is the only plane for which Xeno has a winning strategy, and yet, draws exist. Finally, we have answered the two questions that we posed after initially introducing the game. Answer 1: Xeno has a winning strategy on $ \pi_2 $, $ \Pi_2 $, $ \pi_3 $ and $ \pi_4 $. Answer 2: Draws exist on $ \pi_n $ where $ n \geq 4 $, and on $ \Pi_n $ where $ n \geq 3 $. Blocking configurations Suppose you are playing as Ophelia on one of the infinitely many planes for which there is a drawing strategy. The algorithm given in the previous section may guarantee a draw, but it requires computations of Eulerian proportion in order to pick a point of maximum weight at each move. Since any opponent would surely cry foul were you to consult a computer, it could take hours to finish a game using this algorithm! The geometry of these planes suggests a more practical solution. We will relate Ophelia’s strategy to this geometry in order to demonstrate some configurations (which Ophelia would like to construct) that can produce a draw with very few points. The desired set of points is called a blocking set, since every line intersects the set, but no line is contained in the set. More information on similar configurations can be found in recent survey articles [6, 12] and the references therein. First, let us consider the projective plane of order 3. Since it is easier to understand $\Pi_3$ by describing $P$ and $L$ rather than giving its graph, take the elements of the following array on the left as the point set of this plane, and the right array as a possible game. \[ \begin{pmatrix} 1 \\ 2 & 3 & 4 \\ 5 & 6 & 7 & 8 & 9 \\ 10 & 11 & 12 \\ 13 \end{pmatrix} \quad \begin{pmatrix} X \\ X & X & X \\ O & O & X & O & O \\ X & O & X \\ O \end{pmatrix} \] We have simply taken the standard form of $\pi_3$ and added 1, 5, 9, and 13 as the points at infinity. The lines are given by \[ \{2, 3, 4, 13\}, \{6, 7, 8, 13\}, \{10, 11, 12, 13\}, \{2, 6, 10, 1\}, \{3, 7, 11, 1\}, \] \[ \{4, 8, 12, 1\}, \{2, 7, 12, 9\}, \{3, 8, 10, 9\}, \{4, 6, 11, 9\}, \{4, 7, 10, 5\}, \] \[ \{3, 6, 12, 5\}, \{2, 8, 11, 5\}, \quad \text{and} \quad \{1, 5, 9, 13\}. \] It is easily checked that the game shown on the right above is a draw. The set of points marked with $X$, \{1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 10, 12\}, and those marked with an $O$, \{5, 6, 8, 9, 11, 13\}, are both blocking sets. Further inspection shows that these sets have a specific configuration in common. We will focus on Ophelia’s blocking set. The line $\ell = \{1, 5, 9, 13\}$ has all but one point labelled with an $O$. Through at least one of the points on $\ell$ marked with an $O$, say 5, there is a line $m = \{2, 5, 8, 11\}$ that also has all but one point marked with an $O$. We also see that lines $\ell$ and $m$ contain five of the six points that compose Ophelia’s blocking set. The sixth point lies on the line through points 1 and 2, the two points marked with an $X$ on lines $\ell$ and $m$. We can find the same configuration in Xeno’s blocking set by taking $\ell' = \{2, 3, 4, 13\}$ and $m' = \{2, 7, 12, 9\}$, which makes 5 the sixth point since it lies on the line through points 9 and 13. Of course, 10 is an extraneous point of the set for Xeno, included for the sake of presenting a complete game. ![Figure 9](image) Figure 9 Configuration of a draw on $\Pi_3$ Interestingly, every draw on $\Pi_3$ displays such a configuration, as depicted in Figure 9. To show this, assume Ophelia has produced a draw on $\Pi_3$ with the points in the set $A = \{O_1, \ldots, O_6\}$. If no three points of $A$ are on a line, then through $O_1$ there is a line containing each $O_i$, $2 \leq i \leq 6$, and these five lines are distinct. However, this is impossible since there cannot be five lines through $O_1$ on $\Pi_3$. (Note also that no four points of $A$ are on a line because then $A$ would contain a line.) Hence, some three points of $A$ are on a line. Without loss of generality, assume that we now have line $\ell$ as shown in Figure 9. $X_1$ has three lines through it other than $\ell$. Each of these lines must have a point claimed by Ophelia since the set $A$ has a point on every line. Hence, each of the remaining three points of $A$ must be incident with exactly one of these lines, and a simple check shows that we have the configuration given above. This blocking configuration is not unique to $\Pi_3$. It can be generalized to projective planes of higher order as shown by the following theorem. Blocking Sets on $\Pi_n$ Theorem. On any projective plane of order $n$ with $n \geq 3$, there exists a blocking set of $2n$ points. Proof. This purely geometric result is shown within the game structure by constructing the blocking set. Let $\ell$ be a line in a projective plane of order $n \geq 3$, with points $q_1, \ldots, q_{n+1}$. Suppose Ophelia has accumulated $O_i = q_i$ for $i = 1, \ldots, n$. On $\Pi_n$, each of these points is incident with $n + 1$ lines. Hence $n^2 + 1$ lines now have an $O$ on them. Assume Xeno claims $q_{n+1}$, otherwise Ophelia wins. There are $n$ lines through $q_{n+1}$ other than $\ell$. Label these lines $\ell_1, \ldots, \ell_n$, as in Figure 10. Choose a line $m \neq \ell$ through $q_1$ and let $O_{n+i}$ be the intersection of $m$ and $\ell_i$ for $i = 1, \ldots, n - 1$. Let $O_{2n}$ be any point on $\ell_n$ other than the intersection of $m$ and $\ell_n$, otherwise Ophelia wins. Since $n > 2$, we are guaranteed that such a point exists. Finally, we have $\{O_1, O_2, \ldots, O_{2n}\}$ as the required set of $2n$ points since each of the $n^2 + n + 1$ lines are incident with a point in this set, and no line is contained in this set. ![Figure 10](image) Figure 10 Configuration of blocking set on $\Pi_n$ The blocking set constructed in the proof translates to a drawing strategy for Ophelia that is free from computation. On a projective plane, Ophelia may attempt to acquire points that display such a configuration. At first consideration, the reader might find this strategy counterintuitive. If Ophelia’s goal is to block every line, then how could it make sense to continue to place her marks on lines that are already blocked ($\ell$ and $m$)? The answer lies in the geometry of these planes. Since each point is incident with $n + 1$ lines, $O_1$ blocks $n + 1$ lines. Since there exists a line between $O_1$ and any other point, $O_2$ will block $n$ lines regardless of its placement. $O_3$ will block $n$ lines if it is placed on $\ell$, but only $n - 1$ lines if not placed on $\ell$. By continuing to place her marks on $\ell$, Ophelia is maximizing the number of lines blocked by each $O_i$. The points $q_1, q_2, \ldots, q_n$ claimed by Ophelia, as shown in Figure 10, block $n^2 + 1$ of the $n^2 + n + 1$ lines on $\Pi_n$. This is the largest number of lines she can block with $n$ points. The blocking set on an affine plane of order greater than 4 displays a similar configuration, consisting of $2n - 1$ points. To show this, let $\ell_1, \ldots, \ell_n$ be the lines of a parallel class and suppose $\ell_1 = \{q_1, q_2, \ldots, q_n\}$, as in Figure 11. Let $O_i = q_i$ for $1, \ldots, n - 1$, and assume Xeno claims $q_n$. Let $\ell_1, m_1, \ldots, m_n$ be the lines through $q_n$, and let $O_{n-1+j}$ be the point of intersection of $m_j$ and $\ell_{j+1}$ for $j = 1, \ldots, n - 1$. Let $O_{2n-1}$ be any point on $m_n$ that is not collinear with $O_n, \ldots, O_{2n-2}$. This can be done because $n > 4$, that is, there are more than four points on a line. ![Figure 11](image) Figure 11 Configuration of blocking set on $\pi_n$ Notice that $O_n, O_{n+1}, \ldots, O_{2n-1}$ do not lie on a line since this line would have to intersect $\ell_1$, which it does not. However it may be possible that $n - 1$ of them lie on a line with $O_i$ for $i \leq n - 1$. This can be avoided by simply changing the order of lines $\{m_i\}$, which is possible when $n > 4$. Thus, we have $\{O_1, O_2, \ldots, O_{2n-1}\}$ as the required set of $2n - 1$ points. This work establishes the following result. Blocking Sets on $\pi_n$ Theorem. On any affine plane of order $n$ with $n \geq 5$, there exists a blocking set of $2n - 1$ points. As we can see from these proofs, if Ophelia can place $2n$ or $2n - 1$ marks (depending on the type of plane) in the required manner then the game will be a draw. While this offers the second player an easy algorithm to follow, it is not a drawing strategy since it is not guaranteed to produce a draw. If Xeno’s best move happens to be a point on the line which was to be part of Ophelia’s blocking configuration, then she must begin acquiring points on a different line. Competitive play At the University of Scranton we hold an annual single-elimination “Tic-tac-toe on $\pi_4$” tournament where students compete for the top spot (and prizes!). It is not uncommon to see the serious competitors practicing for weeks before the contest. We encourage the reader to play too, as we have found that these students gain not only an understanding of affine planes, but also develop an intuition for finite geometries that reveals properties and symmetries not easily seen by reading definitions in a geometry text. For practice on $\pi_4$, try playing against a computer at the author’s website: academic.uofs.edu/faculty/carrollml/tictactoe/tictactoea4.html. We also welcome a proof of the existence of a winning strategy for Xeno on $\pi_4$ that does not rely on a computer. For further reading, surveys of other tic-tac-toe games can be found in Beck [2] and Berlekamp, Conway, and Guy [4]. Acknowledgments. We thank Jonathan Yazinski, Al Insogna, and Ian Wanless for their enthusiasm in determining the outcome of play on $\pi_4$. REFERENCES 1. E. F. Assmus Jr. and J. D. Key, Designs and their Codes, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 1992. 2. J. Beck, Achievement Games and the Probabilistic Method, Combinatorics, Paul Erdős is Eighty, Vol. 1, Bolyai Soc. Math. Stud., János Bolyai Math. Soc., Budapest, 1993, 51–78. 3. M. K. Bennett, Affine and Projective Geometry, Wiley, New York, 1995. 4. E. R. Berlekamp, J. H. Conway, and R. K. Guy, Winning Ways for Your Mathematical Plays, Vol. 2, Academic Press Inc., London-New York, 1982. 5. K. Binmore, Fun and Games: A Text on Game Theory, D. C. Heath and Co., Lexington, MA, 1992. 6. A. Blokhuis, Blocking sets in Desarguesian planes, Combinatorics, Paul Erdős is Eighty, Vol. 2, Bolyai Soc. Math. Stud., 2, János Bolyai Math. Soc., Budapest, 1996, 133–155. 7. R. C. Bose, On the application of the properties of Galois fields to the problem of construction of hyper-Graeco-Latin squares, Sankhya 3 (1938), 323–338. 8. S. T. Dougherty, A coding theoretic solution to the 36 officer problem, Des. Codes Cryptogr. 4 (1994), 123–128. 9. P. Erdős and J. L. Selfridge, On a combinatorial game, J. Combin. Theory 14 (1973), 298–301. 10. L. Euler, Recherches Sur une nouvelle espace de quarees magiques, Verh. Zeeuwsch Genootsch. Wetensch. Vlssingen 9 (1782), 85–239. Reprinted in L. Euler, Opera Omnia, ser. 1, vol. 7, Tuebner, Berlin-Leipzig, 1923, 291–392. 11. A. W. Hales and R. I. Jewett, Regularity and positional games, Trans. Amer. Math. Soc. 106 (1963), 222–229. 12. J. W. P. Hirschfeld and L. Storme, The packing problem in statistics, coding theory, and finite projective spaces, R. C. Bose Memorial Conference (Fort Collins, CO, 1995), J. Statist. Plann. Inference 72:1–2 (1998), 355–380. 13. C. Lam, The search for a finite projective plane of order 10, Amer. Math. Monthly 98 (1991), 305–318. 14. C. F. Laywine and G. L. Mullen, Discrete Mathematics Using Latin Squares, J. Wiley and Sons, New York, 1998. 15. X. Lu, A characterization on $n$-critical economical generalized tic-tac-toe games, Discrete Math. 110 (1992), 197–203. 16. A. Rapoport, Two-Person Game Theory: The Essential Ideas, University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, 1966. 17. F. W. Stevenson, Projective Planes, W. H. Freeman and Co., San Francisco, 1972. 18. D. R. Stinson, A short proof of the nonexistence of a pair of orthogonal Latin squares of order six, J. Combin. Theory Ser. A 36 (1984), 373–376. 19. G. Tarry, Le problème des 36 officers, Compte Rendu Ass. Franc. Pour l'avancement des Sciences 2 (1901), 170–203. 20. J. Weeks, Torus and Klein Bottle Games: Tic-Tac-Toe, available at http://www.geometrygames.org/TorusGames/html/TicTacToe.html. Cover image: Where did you say that camera was?, by Don MacCubbin Jim Henle’s article in this issue tells us how to compute the location from which a given photograph was taken. This is a potentially confusing problem, but the mathematician shown on the cover will solve it quickly after reading Henle’s article. Don MacCubbin is an artist, a photographer, and the Mechanical Engineering Lab Manager at Santa Clara University, where he just received his bachelors’ degree in Studio Art. When he isn’t busy with undergrads in the lab, Don ponders triangulation as it applies to errant golf balls and missed pool shots.

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