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Modern history: the study of the Modern Times, the era after the Middle Ages.

Tanfust tᾰynayᾰt Teɣᾰre n-azzamanan wi əšraynen, ɗarᾰt awatay wq-n maraw əd əkkoẓ.

Palaeography: study of ancient texts.

Akayad ən harat aruwᾰn: Šund ən isalan -ikətban wi arunen

Psychohistory: study of the psychological motivations of historical events.

Ijji fᾰl tanfust : Asəməɗni fᾰl tanfust əd haratᾰn wi fall-as ᾰtwajjanen.

Women's history: the history of female human beings.

Tanfust fᾰl ɗeɗen : Tanfust təjjᾰt fal ᾰddinᾰt ( tiɗeɗen )

Centuries and decades are commonly used periods and the time they represent depends on the dating system used.

Timaɗ ən elan əd təmerwen nasᾰn , amooᾰan azzamanᾰn wi-d--atiwaɗkalnen ,ᾰlwᾰq dav wa saknanᾰt , ilkam y-əmmək wq-s mad ətwəj .

To do this, historians often turn to geography.

A wen dᾰɣ a fᾰl kᾰl tenfusen ,siɣulᾰn ᾰnniwᾰt nasᾰn s-ibret ən awa –d-eqqalᾰn tumast ən kᾰl akqll əd a-sal-a-wen.

For example, to explain why the ancient Egyptians developed a successful civilization, studying the geography of Egypt is essential.

Almital fᾰl awa asəbabᾰn tanoflayt ye kᾰl addawlᾰt ta taruwᾰt ən kᾰl Misr, ilzam ummᾰɣ ən isᾰlan fᾰl-as .

History of the Americas is the collective history of North and South America, including Central America and the Caribbean.

Tanfust ta-n kᾰl Amerique ,t-amoos a-t-ohar Amerique tan--afalla əd ta-n-ajjus əd Amerique ta-n-ammas əd Caraibe .

History of the Caribbean begins with the oldest evidence where 7,000-year-old remains have been found.

Tanfust ta-n Caraibe ,tenta əs timtᾰr əknanen tarut ɣor ahanay ən awa-d-aqqimᾰn dᾰɣ haratᾰn əɣšadnen ,əllanen ᾰɗəkoɗ ən 7000 n-awatay .

History of Eurasia is the collective history of several distinct peripheral coastal regions: the Middle East, South Asia, East Asia, Southeast Asia, and Europe, linked by the interior mass of the Eurasian steppe of Central Asia and Eastern Europe.

Tanfust ta-n Eurasie ,t-amoos tanfust oharᾰn-ikallᾰn ᾰjjootnen wi mᾰqqornen ᾰmoosnen ; Moyent-Orient , Asie ta-n-ajjus ta-n-Alqqiblᾰt , ta-n jer ᾰjjus d-Alqqiblᾰt ed əddewəlᾰn wi-n Europe əd Asie ta-n-ammas əd Europe ta-n-Alqqiblᾰt .

History of East Asia is the study of the past passed down from generation to generation in East Asia.

Tanfust ən Asie ta-n Alqqiblᾰt t-amoos tamsədawt ən isᾰlan tamsədawt ən isᾰlan ᾰtwᾰjjanen dᾰɣ ᾰzzamanᾰn əs ᾰzzamananfal-as .

History of Southeast Asia has been characterized as interaction between regional players and foreign powers.

Tanfust ən Asie ta-n jer qjjus əd Alqqiblᾰt ,t-amoos harat ᾰtwašaɣalᾰn jer kᾰl ᾰkkal əd inaftaɣᾰn wi ta-n ojjarnen tᾰddabit.

"The ""old"" social history before the 1960s was a hodgepodge of topics without a central theme, and it often included political movements, like Populism, that were ""social"" in the sense of being outside the elite system."

Tanfust ta tᾰruwᾰt fal timəttawen dat awatay wa-n 1960, t-amoos a wᾰr-en-illa eɣaf , əhhantᾰt iməjridan ən kᾰl folitik šund as kala t-eqqal harᾰt ohqrᾰn –s-əmmək iyyᾰn wᾰr-enamoos wa olaɣᾰn .

It examines the records and narrative descriptions of past knowledge, customs, and arts of a group of people.

Təkkayᾰd alkəttabᾰn əd əmmək əᵑ tanfo ən timusnawen , assanɣᾰten , əd ašaɣalᾰn hin okaynen -ᾰlzhamaɣᾰt -iyyᾰt ən addinᾰt .

This type of political history is the study of the conduct of international relations between states or across state boundaries over time.

Esawe ən tanfust ten ,ən kᾰl folitik , t-amoos akayad ən əmmək wa-s –t-əggla tassaɣt jer addəwəlᾰn meɣ a okkayᾰn isəɣlay nasᾰn dᾰɣ azzamanan .

It gained popularity in the United States, Japan and other countries after the 1980s with the realization that students need a broader exposure to the world as globalization proceeds.

Təjraw tamette t-ajjet ɣor əddəwəlᾰn wi artaynen-s-itawanna Etats-Unies, Japon, əd əddəwəlᾰn -iyyaɗ ajjootnen ɗarᾰt awatay wa-n 1980 əs əfhamᾰn as kᾰl teɣᾰre ta mᾰqqarᾰt , addorhanen asəkən ənnes y-asuk ən ᾰddunya əs dat .

Despite being a relatively new field, gender history has had a significant effect on the general study of history.

Kud amoos esawe olaɣᾰn dᾰɣ ,tanfust fᾰl awṣəf ,təsifhᾰm ajjen fᾰl isᾰlan wi-d-aqqalnen tanfust .

At Oxford and Cambridge, scholarship was downplayed.

Ɣor Oxford əd Cambridge,fᾰl awa-d-eqqalᾰn tiwaɗt ən tᾰmusne ,amoos ɣor sᾰn ay-iknan fənnəẓ hullan .

The tutors dominated the debate until after the Second World War.

Imanahaɗᾰn ennes , əntaneɗ a ojjarnen majrad fᾰl-as har ɗarᾰt Akkənnas wq-s əssin ᾰtwajjan aw- illan elan jer əddəwəlᾰn .

In the United States after World War I, a strong movement emerged at the university level to teach courses in Western Civilization, so as to give students a common heritage with Europe.

Ɣor əddəwəlᾰn wi-s-itawanna Etats-Unis ,ɗarᾰt akkənnas w-azzarᾰn ijjan jer əddəwəlᾰn imᾰl-t ᾰmmatekway maqqarᾰn ən kᾰl teɣᾰre ta mᾰqqarᾰt ɣor dihad ɣarᾰn y-ihuk nasᾰn ye timusnawen y-ad əjrawᾰn wi ɣaranen əmmək ən takasit oharᾰn əddəwelan wi-n Europe.

Many view the field from both perspectives.

Ajjə awa addorhanᾰn ᾰlkum y-a-wen .

In the United States, textbooks published by the same company often differ in content from state to state.

Dᾰɣ əddəwəlᾰn , wi ᾰrtaynen-s-itawanna Etats-Unis , əlkəttabᾰn wi t-ᾰzzəzjᾰr jer ᾰlzhamaɣᾰt-en , ᾰlwᾰq- iyyan təmmalᾰn idᾰggan wᾰr-en oleh jer əddəwəlᾰn .

Academic historians have often fought against the politicization of the textbooks, sometimes with success.

Kᾰl tənfusen wi əknanen teɣᾰre fᾰl-awen ,tabalanᾰn ᾰlwᾰq iyyan fᾰl y-ad wᾰr tətwəjin iməjridᾰn ən folitik fall-asnᾰt .

A civilization (or civilisation) is a complex society that is characterized by urban development, social stratification, a form of government, and symbolic systems of communication (such as writing).

Timəttawen ti annuflaynen ,aṣṣohᾰtnᾰt hullᾰn fᾰl-as a-wen , isᾰknenᾰt tiwwᾰɗt nasnᾰt , əllanᾰt idᾰggan fᾰl ᾰnimanᾰknᾰt ,əmmək ən ᾰlxəkum əd esawe wa-s-t-imsəslin (šund ᾰkatab) .

In this broad sense, a civilization contrasts with non-centralized tribal societies, including the cultures of nomadic pastoralists, Neolithic societies or hunter-gatherers; however, sometimes it also contrasts with the cultures found within civilizations themselves.

Dᾰɣ a wen , timəttawen ti ᾰnnuflaynen wᾰr-ᾰnmannaknᾰt əd tewsaten t-iyyaɗ wᾰr-en ertey dᾰɣ edagg iyyan šund idoman, iməgəla, timəttawen iman nᾰsnᾰt .

The fundamental treatise is Norbert Elias's The Civilizing Process (1939), which traces social mores from medieval courtly society to the Early Modern period.

Tərəɗawt , awa fᾰl tatwaja , tanmənnᾰk t-amoosᾰt The Civilizing process (1939) ən Norbert Eliaks, isᾰknen awa –t-illan fᾰl təməttawen ti-n aru har ti-n-ašᾰl-i;

"Related words like ""civility"" developed in the mid-16th century."

“Tifer šund ti-n semɣar əd “”musnᾰt”” ən tᾰmudre ,ᾰwwiɗnᾰt ɣor temeɗe n-awatay ta-s marawᾰt əd saɗisᾰt (16).”

"In the late 1700s and early 1800s, during the French Revolution, ""civilization"" was used in the singular, never in the plural, and meant the progress of humanity as a whole."

“Ɣor samdo n-awatay wa-n 1700 əd ɣor santo n-awatay wa-n 1800 azzaman wq-d ənkarᾰn ikufar (faransetᾰn), awa “”oharnᾰt timəttawen”” ti ᾰsnaflᾰynen, eqqal əmmək ən iba-n-tənmənnak jer awadəm iyyan əd iyyan waden jer ᾰddinᾰt əd ᾰddinᾰt.”

"Only in this generalized sense does it become possible to speak of a ""medieval civilization"", which in Elias's sense would have been an oxymoron."

“Harᾰt šund wa dᾰɣ ay-isaknen əs təlle tᾰdabit ən majrad fᾰl-awa –d-eqqalᾰn “tamette tᾰnnuflayᾰt ən azzaman iyyan” , dᾰɣ isalᾰn ən a-wen, Elias, ijja esawe ən asəmənnək ən a-wᾰr-en oher harᾰt.”

"Here, civilization, being more rational and socially driven, is not fully in accord with human nature, and ""human wholeness is achievable only through the recovery of or approximation to an original discursive or prerational natural unity"" (see noble savage)."

Diha, timəttawen ti annuflᾰynen oharnen ajjen ,amoosnat ay-isaknen esawe wa olaɣᾰn is ənta a annihᾰjjᾰn mašan wᾰr fᾰl-as tᾰtwaja tənmənnak, wen harᾰt ¬wᾰr ti kənnu edawᾰnni əs iba-ən təreɗᾰwt s-awa animahalᾰn.

Civilizations have been distinguished by their means of subsistence, types of livelihood, settlement patterns, forms of government, social stratification, economic systems, literacy and other cultural traits.

Timəttawen ti annuflᾰynen, asəknanᾰt iman nasnᾰt əs tadabit ən awa tattanᾰt əd uɗəf ənnes olaɣᾰn, tulaten n-imənsiwᾰn nasnᾰt ,esawe n-ᾰlxəkumᾰt nasnᾰt, tərše n-idᾰggan-iman nasnᾰt, əmmək ən awa hasnᾰt iha ᾰlfayda, tiɣər əd a-sᾰl-a-wen.

All civilizations have depended on agriculture for subsistence, with the possible exception of some early civilizations in Peru which may have depended upon maritime resources.

TimEttawen ti ᾰnnuflᾰynen ɣərəd, tamudre nasnᾰt a fᾰl tasihatᾰl isəjyᾰk as waden harat daɣ t-iyyaɗ arunen ən akall wa-n Perou əddarnen əs awa d-izzajarᾰn aman.

Grain surpluses have been especially important because grain can be stored for a long time.

Awa-s-assakayan attaɣamᾰn, ikraš ᾰlfaydᾰt maqqarᾰt fᾰl-as addoben ad əknəntahajit dᾰɣ attawᾰr.

However, in some places hunter-gatherers have had access to food surpluses, such as among some of the indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest and perhaps during the Mesolithic Natufian culture.

Mašan dᾰɣ idᾰggan iyyaɗ ,iməhuya əd wi-d-əd takasnen tanfo iyyat dᾰɣ ihəkšan,assakayᾰn dᾰɣ ajaraw šund tamətte ta-d-əd tazzarᾰt daɣ ᾰddawlᾰt ən jer kᾰl jer kᾰl-afalla əd ataram ən Pacifique ed ammukᾰn as ədhalᾰn tanᾰt timusnawen t-iyyaɗ .

"The word ""civilization"" is sometimes simply defined as ""'living in cities'""."

Tifer ti-s-itawanna Timəttawen ti annuflᾰynen , itawᾰnnen ye tᾰmudre dᾰɣ aɣrəm .

State societies are more stratified than other societies; there is a greater difference among the social classes.

Timəttawen ti-n-addawlᾰt ,ojᾰrnat t-iyyaɗnen dᾰɣ təlla n-idᾰggan ; ille a ajjen tanᾰt ᾰssinᾰbɗᾰn.

Civilizations, with complex social hierarchies and organized, institutional governments.

Timəttawen ti ᾰnnuflayneᵑ ,əllanᾰt əmmək ən imizzarᾰn əs ᾰsṣahᾰt esawe nasᾰn əd kᾰl Alxəkumᾰt tasimasadawᾰt y-asəwəj ən awa ᾰtwasabdadᾰn.

Some people also acquire landed property, or private ownership of the land.

Addinᾰt iyyaɗ jarawᾰn idaggan meɣ edagg ən iman nasᾰn .

By the early Iron Age, contemporary civilizations developed money as a medium of exchange for increasingly complex transactions.

Ɣor santo n-awatayd wᾰr hasᾰn igdeh wa-s-itawanna wa-n taẓoli ,timettawen ti ᾰnnuflᾰynen ən azzaman iyyan , ᾰssəbdᾰdnᾰt aẓrəf šund əmmək en amaskᾰl fᾰl isalan ən mamala ( essuk ) esawe nes daɣ , tiwwaɗt ay-ikkan .

These people may not be personally acquainted with one another and their needs may not occur all at the same time.

Addinᾰt en, addooben ad wᾰr ᾰnmazayᾰn , derhan nasᾰn daɣ, addoobᾰt ad wᾰr hasᾰn igdeh iket nasᾰns .

The transition from simpler to more complex economies does not necessarily mean an improvement in the living standards of the populace.

Ajaraw əs ikkuy ən ᾰlfayda raqqisᾰn əs-iyyan aṣṣohen , a-dᾰr-d-addila astamudre n-addinat tᾰwwiɗ .

The average stature of a population is a good measurement of the adequacy of its access to necessities, especially food.

Esawe wa hin išamᾰn we təmətte ,ad təjrəw əs ᾰttaɣamᾰn,y-imənsiwᾰn ənnes .

Like money, the writing was necessitated by the size of the population of a city and the complexity of its commerce among people who are not all personally acquainted with each other.

Šund amᾰskᾰl ,akatab kala amoos harᾰt əs annimahᾰl ad –t-illa fᾰl awa dᾰr t-ogdah təmətte n-ᾰɣrəm əd qṣṣuhu n-assuk ənnes jer addinᾰt wᾰr-en ᾰnmᾰzay iket nasᾰn.

These include organized religion, development in the arts, and countless new advances in science and technology.

Isᾰlan əjjanen fᾰl ᾰddin ᾰmisadawᾰnanto s-iyyaɗ , tiwaɗt ən awa ᾰtiwašavalᾰn əd tiwaɗt tᾰjjet ən timusnawen .

"These cultures are called by some ""primitive"", a term that is regarded by others as pejorative. """

Isəjyak-en , ᾰssihasken tᾰn ɣor santo s-iyyᾰɗ dᾰɣ sᾰn kul , ᾰmoosᾰn ᾰtiwarhᾰn.

"Anthropologists today use the term ""non-literate"" to describe these peoples."

“Kᾰl inumᾰɣᾰn ən tᾰmusne fᾰl-Ag-addəm əd ᾰlzhamaɣᾰt ən ᾰddinᾰt , a-wen ᾰɗkalᾰn-t –šund ere wᾰr-en issen teɣᾰre d-akatab.”

But civilization is also spread by the technical, material and social dominance that civilization engenders.

Mašan timəttawen ti ᾰnnuflᾰynen , tiɗaɗt a tajjanᾰt əs asəssikəy ən tamusne, ilallᾰn əd awa-d-əd tirəw .

Civilizations tend to develop intricate cultures, including a state-based decision making apparatus, a literature, professional art, architecture, organized religion and complex customs of education, coercion and control associated with maintaining the elite.

Timəttawen ti annuflᾰynen ,olᾰhnᾰt əd aw-immaɣᾰn əmmək ən asiwəɗ ən isədduma wi aṣṣohᾰtnen amoosᾰn a-t-assibdad ᾰddawlᾰt teɣᾰre , ᾰšaɣalᾰn əknanen , timəkrusen ,Addin ᾰmisadawᾰn əd ᾰssᾰnɣaten aṣṣohᾰtnen fᾰl teɣᾰre,əmmək ən azəlzam ed tamaɗint ənnes .

The civilization in which someone lives is that person's broadest cultural identity.

Timəttawen ti ᾰnnuflᾰynen dᾰɣ izzaɣ awadəm, amoosnᾰt tumast ennes ta tojjarᾰt .

The aim is to preserve the cultural heritage of humanity and also the cultural identity, especially in the case of war and armed conflict.

Awa ᾰtiwamaɣᾰn, tagaẓt ən awa-t-illan y-ᾰddinᾰt əd tagaẓt harwa ən tumast ən awa eqqalᾰn imešlan nasᾰn hullan as əjjᾰn ikənnasᾰn əd iba-n-tənmənnak.

"Early twentieth-century philosopher Oswald Spengler,Spengler, Oswald, Decline of the West: Perspectives of World History (1919) uses the German word Kultur, ""culture"", for what many call a ""civilization""."

U Tᾰmusne wa-s-itawanna Oswald Spengler , Oswald Spengler ɣor temeɗe ən awatay ta-s sanatᾰt təmərwen ,inna fᾰl Of The West ; awa ᾰtiwᾰrɗᾰn fᾰl əjjanen (1919) ᾰddinᾰt ajjootnen Timəttawen ti ᾰnnuflaynen .

"Spengler states civilization is the beginning of the decline of a culture as ""the most external and artificial states of which a species of developed humanity is capable""."

Spengler ᾰsdatᾰt as timəttawen ti ᾰnnuflᾰynen , amoos a-wen santo ən tiɗut –en awa-d-eqqalᾰn ašᾰkšo šund ɣor əddəwəlᾰn wi-n- ijᾰmatᾰn əs esawe nasnᾰt eqqal ᾰwwiɗᾰn, illa tadabit .

"Civilizations generally declined and fell, according to Toynbee, because of the failure of a ""creative minority"", through moral or religious decline, to meet some important challenge, rather than mere economic or environmental causes."

Timəttawen ti annuflᾰynen , oɗanᾰt , a wen dᾰɣ ay- inna Toynbee fᾰl isalan ən iba-n tadabit əs ᾰmmukən wᾰr-en faror –s-assəken –s-awa-s ᾰtwᾰfnᾰẓ ,tebadde mᾰqqarᾰt fᾰl takmo uhun fᾰl ᾰssəbabᾰn ən bᾰnnanən tanfo məɣ ihənzuzaɣ nanᾰɣ

For example, trade networks were, until the nineteenth century, much larger than either cultural spheres or political spheres.

Sund, taberaten tin səməskilan aqalnat, har ɣor XIXe elan, ajen iknan tihusay fal tibəlaɣen ən tiwsaten meɣ tibəlaɣen tin fulatik.

During the Uruk period, Guillermo Algaze has argued that trade relations connected Egypt, Mesopotamia, Iran and Afghanistan.

Ɣor alwaq wan Uruk, Guillermo Algaze alil as tinməzayen ən səməskilan assertaynat Égyɗte,Mésoɗotamie, Iran ad Afghanistan.

Different civilizations and societies all over the globe are economically, politically, and even culturally interdependent in many ways.

Tajute ən timusnawen ad tirtayen ən adunya kul aqalnat tidawt, fulatik ad deɣ tiwsaten jartanoflayt daɣ semɣaran.

Central Civilization later expanded to include the entire Middle East and Europe, and then expanded to a global scale with European colonization, integrating the Americas, Australia, China and Japan by the nineteenth century.

Timusne tan amass tətwəsamɣar darat awen daɣ ajit ən Moyen-Orient ad Euroɗe,izar tətwəsamɣar ɣor təšəjrit ən adunya ad imudakən win kal Euroɗe, igašnen ameriəaten, Australiya, Chine ad Jaɗon ɣor 19 elan.

This encouraged a secondary products revolution in which people used domesticated animals not just for meat, but also for milk, wool, manure and pulling ploughs and carts – a development that spread through the Eurasian Oecumene.

Awen ikfa assahat ye ašanzi ən haratan wis assin daɣ dakalan adinat imudarən atwajaynen fal edet issan ɣas,mašan deɣ fal aɣ,amzadən,iɣarajan ad ye arakab ən tigayaknen ad torkaten–tajute tazunat daɣ Oecumène wan Eurasie.

"This area has been identified as having ""inspired some of the most important developments in human history including the invention of the wheel, the planting of the first cereal crops and the development of the cursive script""."

" Akal wen atiwəzay sund ijrawən"" tirwa ən isjat iyad wiknanen tahuskət ən tənfust ən taməte,tənna ən iji ən tamajiyak,adamu ən məjyakan ən nalawən wi azarnen ad asjət ən akatab itrəban"".

This climate change shifted the cost-benefit ratio of endemic violence between communities, which saw the abandonment of unwalled village communities and the appearance of walled cities, associated with the first civilizations.

Aəhanzi wan azaman ašəkaš mertay iji-bunafis ən taləbast ən torhəna jar kalan,inhayan atwəy ən kalan naroj wer ila iɣalan ad azojor ən iɣərman assohatnen, artaynen ad timusnawen ti azarnen.

The civilized urban revolution in turn was dependent upon the development of sedentism, the domestication of grains and animals, the permanence of settlements and development of lifestyles that facilitated economies of scale and accumulation of surplus production by certain social sectors.

Amlili naɣrəm iknan ekaləd daɣ anəlkəm ən asjət ən taɣimit, ad atwijəz ən ataɣamən ad mudaran, ad asjit ən timoɣnawen ad asjit ən alməɣnatan ən tamudre sarɣasnen tisdawen ən təšəjrit ad asdəw ən səsukay ən iji fal tizunawen tiyad ən tərtayen.

Some focus on historical examples, and others on general theory.

Iyad omaran fal segbaran arunen,iyad fal tamusne tajet.

"For Gibbon, ""The decline of Rome was the natural and inevitable effect of immoderate greatness."

"Ye Gibbon, ""samdo wan Rome eqal iri iknan ad amuqassan daɣ təmɣare waren təfnez"".

"Theodor Mommsen in his History of Rome suggested Rome collapsed with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 CE and he also tended towards a biological analogy of ""genesis"", ""growth"", ""senescence"", ""collapse"" and ""decay""."

Theodor Mommsen, daɣ tanfust iness tan Rome, assikna as Rome toɗa ad egaɗel wan təmənya tan romain nagaɗal ən tafuk ɣor 476 ən azaman wananəɣ izar orak deɣ ibret ən assəməgdah ən tamudre tan"" iji ən anyat"",""tadəwla"",""tušart"",""egaɗel"", ad "alkum ən élan".""

Arnold J. Toynbee in his A Study of History suggested that there had been a much larger number of civilizations, including a small number of arrested civilizations, and that all civilizations tended to go through the cycle identified by Mommsen.

Arnold J. Toynbee, daɣ alkad iness A Study of History, assikna as ijraw meɗan ajen iknan amukən ən timusnawen, iha meɗan əndaran ən timusnawen ibdadnen, izar timusnawen kul ilanat aniyat ən ikuy as takən tətiwasanat as Mommsen.

During the intermediate phase, the increasing population growth leads to the decrease of per capita production and consumption levels, it becomes more and more difficult to collect taxes, and state revenues stop growing, whereas the state expenditures grow due to the growth of the population controlled by the state.

Ɣor sənto ən jar anmijar, tadəwla nadinat taweɗat haku afənazat ən dagan ən ajaraw ad tətate ən amuzaɣ, eqalid as assahat asuhu ən amsədu ən təmzalen, izar ijarawan win alɣakum asmədan tadəwla,mašan išəša ən alɣakum tiwaɗan as fal tajute ən muzaɣan atiwakyadnen as alɣakum.

Secular Cycles and Millennial Trends.

Taqan ən timaɗ ən elan ad išrutən ən efdan ən wityan.

The fact that Rome needed to generate ever greater revenues to equip and re-equip armies that were for the first time repeatedly defeated in the field, led to the dismemberment of the Empire.

Iji was Rome tarha tirwa ən jarawən iknanen harkuk ye assəls ad ilus ən assəls ən kal karšayan wi aqalnen daɣ tizarat atwəɣanen daɣ imsuɣulan ajitnen fal eɣərɣər, ilway as ukəss ən məssawəs ən tanaya.

He argues that the collapse of the Maya has lessons for civilization today.

Alil as egaɗəl ən Mayatan eqal asohen ye ihuk ən tamusne ən tamusne tan išray.

The energy expended to energy yield ratio is central to limiting the survival of civilizations.

Ajaraw jar assahat izjaran ad assuɣəl ən assahat eqal ahusken ye asəbdad ən tamudre ən timusnawen.

Koneczny claimed that civilizations cannot be mixed into hybrids, an inferior civilization when given equal rights within a highly developed civilization will overcome it.

Koneəzny inna as timusnawen war adobatnat adəqəlnat ertayan ye iji ən haratan azlaynen, tamusne madriat, as tinaəfa taberaten ogdahnen daɣ amass ən tamusne təknat tajute, atətəwar.

Cultural Historian Morris Berman suggests in Dark Ages America: the End of Empire that in the corporate consumerist United States, the very factors that once propelled it to greatness―extreme individualism, territorial and economic expansion, and the pursuit of material wealth―have pushed the United States across a critical threshold where collapse is inevitable.

Aw tənfust ən təwset tan Morris Berman inna daɣ Dark Ages Ameriəa: the End of Emɗire as daɣ États-Unis ən maškan, inəmušal imaness witən əbhalnen ibret ən təmɣare ən atwidəm assisakayan,ajit ən akal ad tidawt,ad alakamat ən təlat ən harat nətaj assəmbaj ye États-Unis samdo labassan dihad egaɗəl ajen.

The corrosion of these pillars, Jacobs argues, is linked to societal ills such as environmental crisis, racism and the growing gulf between rich and poor.

Asəqarawi ən təjətewen, ɣor Jaəobs,ertay ad takmoten ən adinat sund aɣašad ən akal, azalayat nadinat ad annu maqaran jar kal ahare ad məlaqaw.

This need for civilizations to import ever more resources, he argues, stems from their over-exploitation and diminution of their own local resources.

Tahašilt ən təmusnawen ye agay harkuk ajit ən tisəwad, aləɣat, izjarəd fal adakal ad afanaz ən təsiwad ən adaj.

"In the graphic, Ma means ""million years ago"".)"

Daɣ akatab, inaw adartidila"" ilanti milliontan ən wətyan"".

Much of the Earth was molten because of frequent collisions with other bodies which led to extreme volcanism.

Tašrut maqarat ən akal taqal daɣ tartit daɣ adətu ən ajət ən amoqəs ad iman iyad, awad diwayan amliliy nakal.

Recognizable humans emerged at most 2 million years ago, a vanishingly small period on the geological scale.

Adinat atiwazaynen izjarənid ilant daɣ ikuy 2 milliontan ən wətyan,taqən təknat təgəzle ɣor təzəjrət ən harat.

It is estimated that 99 percent of all species that ever lived on Earth, over five billion, have gone extinct.

Nəkat as 99%ən mudaran kul wi ədarnen fal akal, meɣ awojərən səmos milliartan, eqalan amiken.

The Earth's crust has constantly changed since its formation, as has life since its first appearance.

Teɣermit ən akal war ašəzat ɣor iji iness,kul sund tamudre ɣor azajar iness wazaran.

The Moon is formed around this time probably due to a protoplanet's collision into Earth.

Ayor ikaras ɣor azaman, adatu daɣ alkum ən amoqəs ən sənto ən etar ad akal.

The atmosphere is composed of volcanic and greenhouse gases.

Jənəj akal ertay ad adu ən amiləliy nakal ad adu akussan.

Bacteria begin producing oxygen, shaping the third and current of Earth's atmospheres.

Imudaran assəntan iji ən adu, itajan jənəj akal was karad ad wan amaradəɣ.

The early continents of Columbia, Rodinia and Pannotia, in that order, may have existed in this eon.

Ikalan wi azarnen ən columbia, Rodinia ad Pannotia, daɣ anəlkəm, iməlant ɣor azam.

"Gradually, life expands to land and familiar forms of plants, animals and fungi begin appearing, including annelids, insects and reptiles, hence the eon's name, which means ""visible life""."

"Daɣ ikuy, tamudre təla ɣor akal ad iritan olahnen ən hə škan, imudaran izar tadalaten assətanat azagor, atkul ən təwəkawen,imugadan ad izlulam,dihen as issəm azaman, dar tidila "tamudre titwənhiyat"."

It was composed of hydrogen and helium created shortly after the Big Bang 13.8 Ga (billion years ago) and heavier elements ejected by supernovae.

Eqal amertay dadu ad hélium ijan solan darat Big Bang,ila awen 13,8 Ga (milliartan ən iwətyan),et haratən azaynen atiwəzjarnen as tiwat ən efew.

As the cloud began to accelerate, its angular momentum, gravity, and inertia flattened it into a protoplanetary disk perpendicular to its axis of rotation.

Agud wad tejarək təssəta azal,anaka š ən tədnəq iness,terga še ad amass iness asfaltaɣən tat as lefe sənto etran janen tassaret toɣadat daɣ amass ən aɣalay.

After more contraction, a T Tauri star ignited and evolved into the Sun.

Darat azamam aynayan,etar T Tauri erɣa izar okay ibret ən tafuk.

Earth formed in this manner about 4.54 billion years ago (with an uncertainty of 1%) and was largely completed within 10–20 million years.

Akal ikrass daɣ alməɣnat wendaɣ ila awen 4,54 milliartan ən wətyan (ad iban təkətawt ən 1%) eqal daɣ təmɣare ən a šrut imdan daɣ 10 as 20 milliontan ən wətyan.

The proto-Earth grew by accretion until its interior was hot enough to melt the heavy, siderophile metals.

Sənto nakal idwal as assəməsədəw har as ɣor amass iness eqal ayknan takusse ye iji ən assəlyam ən tazoliyen azaynen ad mertay ən tazoli.

From crater counts on other celestial bodies, it is inferred that a period of intense meteorite impacts, called the Late Heavy Bombardment, began about 4.1 Ga, and concluded around 3.8 Ga, at the end of the Hadean.

Darat tajute ən amer fal haratan iyad ən šənawən, nənna as alwaq ən amoqəs məgədlan maqornen,sitawəna tewete tazayat, assənta ibret 4,1 Ga izar aməda ibret 3,8 Ga ɣor samdo ən Hadéen.

By the beginning of the Archean, the Earth had cooled significantly.

Ɣor sənto ən Arəhéen, akal eqal atiwəjan assəsmad.

New evidence suggests the Moon formed even later, 4.48 ± 0.02 Ga, or 70–110 million years after the start of the Solar System.

Issəkna aynaynen assimamənən as ayor ija harwa dəɣ ajilal, 4,48 +_ 0,02 Ga, meɣ 70 as 110 milliontan ən wətyan darat sənto ən akaras ən tafuk

The collision released about 100 million times more energy than the more recent Chicxulub impact that is believed to have caused the extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs.

Tamoɣest toya aywadən 100 milliontan agud iyan assahat ajen as amoqəs aynayan wan Əhiəxulub,ad dorawən amyəqi ən mudaran waren itəfurit.

The giant impact hypothesis predicts that the Moon was depleted of metallic material, explaining its abnormal composition.

Tadabit tamoqest maqarat ən akal ad ayor adartidila as ayor war tihen haratan ən tazoli,awa italaɣen mertay iness waren ikna.

The initial crust, formed when the Earth's surface first solidified, totally disappeared from a combination of this fast Hadean plate tectonics and the intense impacts of the Late Heavy Bombardment.

Teɣermit tazarat, təjat ɣor assəssuhu wazaran ən fal akal, ikna amləwi daw iji adewən ən təmoɣət ən ɗlakaten ən Hadéen itrabən ad amoɣəs maqaran ən tewete tazayat todad.

These pieces of late Hadean and early Archean crust form the cores around which today's continents grew.

Ikərumatən ən teɣərmit ən Hadéen todad izar ən Archéen waren imda tajan amassən edess ənwi ɣor ajətən kalan winamara.

Cratons consist primarily of two alternating types of terranes.

Ikerədan aqalan amertayan ad assin iritan ən terranes anilkamən.

For this reason, greenstones are sometimes seen as evidence for subduction during the Archean.

Ye tidit ten, tihun dalatnen aqalnat agud iyan sund issəkna ən alaku ɣor Archéen.

Now it is considered likely that many of the volatiles were delivered during accretion by a process known as impact degassing in which incoming bodies vaporize on impact.

War eha ach-ak amarad as madatun kim-iyat ajjotnen zajaran alwaq wan taxam s immik itiwassanan s asar n azajor n gaz dagh jasad tan wi tajjach nen fal asar

Planetesimals at a distance of 1 astronomical unit (AU), the distance of the Earth from the Sun, probably did not contribute any water to the Earth because the solar nebula was too hot for ice to form and the hydration of rocks by water vapor would have taken too long.

Etran wi ujəjnen ilanen ɣər təzəjrət ən akal as tafuk,war dəweyan aman ye akal, falas takawalt ən tafuk takal ayknan takusse ye iji ən tahunt naman ad assəsmad ən təhun as aho naman itkal hulen taqal.